The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia Aachen Aachen or Aix-la-Chapelle, city (1986 pop. 238,600), North Rhine-Westphalia, W West Germany. It is an industrial center producing textiles, machinery, and other manufactures. Its mineral baths have been famous since Roman times. CHARLEMAGNE made it his northern capital, building a palace and cathedral there, and the city was (936-1531) the coronation place of German kings. Later it was taken by France (1801) and then by Prussia (1815). After WORLD WAR I Aachen was occupied by the Allies, and two thirds of it was destroyed during WORLD WAR II. Aakjaer, Jeppe Aakjaer, Jeppe, 1866-1930, Danish poet. His lyric gift is apparent in Songs of the Rye (1906) and Heimdal's Wanderings (1924). He also wrote novels, mostly about his native Jutland, e.g., The Peasant's Son (1899). Aalto, Alvar Aalto, Alvar, 1896-1976, Finnish architect. He adapted Finnish building traditions to modern technology. Among his buildings are the Maison Carre in Paris and Baker House in Cambridge, Mass. (1947-48). He was also famous for his designs for laminated-wood furniture. aardvark aardvark, nocturnal MAMMAL (genus Orycteropus) found in Africa. About 6 ft (180 cm) long, it has a long snout, large, erect ears, a body almost devoid of hair, and a long tail. It claws open ant and termite nests with its forefeet and uses its long, sticky tongue to capture insects. Aaron Aaron, in the BIBLE, the first high priest, the brother of MOSES, and his spokesman. Through him Jehovah performed miracles, although Aaron had made the GOLDEN CALF and allowed its worship. His descendants became temple priests. Aaron, Hank Aaron, Hank (Henry Louis Aaron), 1934-, American baseball player; b. Mobile, Ala. A right-handed batter, he played with the Braves (1954-74) in Milwaukee and Atlanta and with the Milwaukee Brewers (1975-76). In 1974 he broke Babe RUTH'S career record for home runs, finishing with 755. He set records for runs batted in, extra-base hits, and total bases. abacus abacus, an ancient computing device using movable beads strung on a number of parallel wires within a frame. Each wire represents a decimal place: ones, tens, hundreds, and so on. The beads are grouped to form numbers and shifted in specified patterns to add, subtract, multiply, or divide. Abadan Abadan, city (1976 pop. 294,068), Khuzestan prov., SW Iran, on Abadan Island, in the SHATT AL ARAB delta, at the head of the PERSIAN GULF. After oil was discovered (1908) nearby, Abadan became the terminus of oil pipelines and an oil-refining and shipping center. Iraqi forces damaged its major oil refinery in their invasion of Khuzestan in 1980. abalone abalone, marine GASTROPOD mollusk (genus Haliotis), covered by a single ear-shaped shell perforated with respiratory holes on one side. The abalone is hunted for its large, edible muscular foot and the iridescent MOTHER-OF-PEARL lining of its shell, used for buttons. It feeds by scraping the substrate with its rasping tongue (radula). abandonment abandonment, in U.S. law, voluntary, intentional, and absolute relinquishment of rights or property without conveying them to any other person. Abandonment also means willfully leaving one's spouse or children, intending not to return. In many states the abandonment of a child is a criminal offense. Abbas I Abbas I (Abbas the Great), 1557-1629, shah of PERSIA (1587-1628), of the Safavid dynasty. He broke the power of the tribal chiefs, ended the Uzbek threat, and extended his domain at the expense of the Turks and Portuguese. Abbasid Abbasid or Abbaside, Arabic family descended from Abbas, d.653, the uncle of MUHAMMAD. They rose to power by massacring the ruling Umayyad family and held the CALIPHATE from 749 to 1258. Prominent Abbasid caliphs include al-MANSUR and HARUN AR-RASHID, under whom the caliphate reached its greatest power. The long Abbasid decline ended with their overthrow (13th cent.) by the Seljuk Turks. Abbey Theatre Abbey Theatre: see THEATER. Abbott, George Abbott, George, 1889-, American theatrical director and playwright; b. Forestville, N.Y. He was a master of FARCE and MUSICALS. His hits include Three Men on a Horse (1935), Damn Yankees (1955), and Fiorello! (1960; Pulitzer). Abbott and Costello Abbott and Costello, American comedy team. Its members were William "Bud" Abbott, 1898-1974, and Lou (Cristillo) Costello 1908-59. They performed (1931-57) routines ("Who's on First") on the stage, radio, and television and in a series of successful films, including Buck Privates (1941). abbreviation abbreviation, in writing, arbitrary shortening of a word, usually by cutting off letters from the end, as in U.S. and Gen. (General). Contraction serves the same purpose but is understood strictly to be the shortening of a word by cutting out letters in the middle, the omission sometimes being indicated by an apostrophe, as in the word don't. Most abbreviations are followed by a period. Usage, however, differs widely, and recently omission of periods has become common, as in NATO and UN. A period is never used when apostrophes appear. A list of abbreviations used in this encyclopedia may be found at the front of the book. Abd al-Hamid Abd al-Hamid, sultans of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE (Turkey). Abd al-Hamid I, 1725-89 (r.1774-89), witnessed the decline of Turkey and the rise of Russia as the foremost power in the area. Abd al-Hamid II, 1842-1918 (r.1876-1909), suspended (1876) the constitution and ruled as an absolute monarch. The last RUSSO-TURKISH WAR was a disaster, resulting in a great loss of Turkish lands. He was eventually deposed by the Young Turks. Abd ar-Rahman Abd ar-Rahman, Muslim rulers of Spain. Abd ar-Rahman, d. 732, governor of Spain (721-32), fought the Franks and was defeated by CHARLES MARTEL. Abd ar-Rahman I, d.788, first Umayyad emir of Cordoba (756-88), escaped to Spain after his family's massacre by the Abbasid. There he defeated (756) the emir of Cordoba and established himself in power. Abd ar-Rahman III (891-961), Umayyad emir and first caliph (929-61) of Cordoba, regained lands lost by his predecessors, maintained a powerful military force, and made Cordoba one of the greatest cities in the West. Abdias Abdias: see OBADIAH. abdomen abdomen, in vertebrates, portion of the trunk between the diaphragm and lower pelvis. In humans the abdominal cavity is lined with a thin membrane, the peritoneum, which encloses the STOMACH, intestines, LIVER, and GALL BLADDER. The PANCREAS, KIDNEYS, urinary bladder, and, in the female, reproductive organs are also located within the abdominal cavity. In insects and some other invertebrates the term abdomen refers to the rear portion of the body. Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem, 1947-, American basketball player; b. N.Y.C. as Ferdinand Lewis ("Lew") Alcindor. He led the Univ. of California, Los Angeles, to three national titles (1967-69) and played center for the Milwaukee Bucks (1969-75) and Los Angeles Lakers (1975-88). The 7 ft 2 in. (218 cm) Abdul-Jabbar won most-valuable-player honors six times and scored a total of 37,639 points (breaking the all-time record). Abdullah Abdullah, 1882-1951, emir of Transjordan (1921-46) and king of JORDAN (1946-51). In the first ARAB-ISRAELI WAR he commanded the Arab Legion and annexed those portions of Palestine not assigned to Israel. a Becket, Thomas a Becket, Thomas: see THOMAS A BECKET, SAINT. Abe Kobo Abe Kobo, 1924-, Japanese novelist and dramatist. Often compared to KAFKA, he treats the contemporary human predicament in a realistic yet symbolic style. His minute descriptions of surrealistic situations often lend his works a nightmarish quality. Among Abe's novels are Woman in the Dunes (tr. and film 1964) and Secret Rendezvous (tr. 1979). His plays include Friends (tr. 1969). Abel Abel, in the BIBLE, son of ADAM and EVE. A shepherd, he was killed by his brother CAIN. Gen. 4.1-8. Abel, I(orwith) W(ilbur) Abel, I(orwith) W(ilbur), 1908-87, American labor leader; b. Magnolia, Ohio. He worked in a Canton rolling mill at 17 and was appointed (1937) staff representative of the organization that became the United Steelworkers of America. He was an Ohio district director of the union (1942-52), became (1953) secretary-treasurer, and served (1965-77) as president. Abel, Niels Henrik Abel, Niels Henrik, 1802-29, Norwegian mathematician. One of the greatest mathematicians of the 19th cent., he pioneered in the theory of elliptic functions, investigated generalizations of the binomial theorem, and proved the impossibility of representing a solution of a general equation of fifth degree or higher by a radical expression. Abelard, Peter Abelard, Peter, 1079-1142, French philosopher. Because his fame as a dialectician drew so many students, he is regarded as the founder of the Univ. of Paris. His secret marriage to a pupil, Heloise, ended when her uncle, Canon Fulbert of Notre Dame, hired ruffians to emasculate him. Becoming a monk, he built a hermitage and monastery, the Paraclete, which he later presented to Heloise, who had become an abbess. Abelard's first theological work had been burned (1121) as heretical; in 1140 the mystic St. BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX secured his condemnation by the council of Sens, and he retired in submission to Cluny. Following PLATO in theology, Abelard espoused the method of ARISTOTLE'S dialectic, holding that the system of LOGIC could be applied to the truths of faith. His view of universals anticipated the conceptualism of St. THOMAS AQUINAS. His most influential and controversial work, Sic et non, collected contradictory writings of the Church fathers. Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th earl of Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th earl of, 1784-1860, British statesman. He served in the cabinets of WELLINGTON and PEEL as foreign secretary (1828-30; 1841-46). In 1842 he settled the Northeast Boundary Dispute with the U.S. by the WEBSTER-ASHBURTON TREATY. As prime minister (1852-55) he was quite successful in home affairs, but he resigned after failing to prevent British involvement in the unpopular CRIMEAN WAR. Aberhart, William Aberhart, William, 1878-1943, premier of ALBERTA (1935-43). He helped to organize (c.1932) the SOCIAL CREDIT movement to make direct payments to all citizens and headed the first Social Credit government. Abernathy, Ralph Abernathy, Ralph, 1926-, American civil rights leader; b. Linden, Ala. A Baptist minister, he helped organize the Montgomery bus boycott (1955). He was treasurer, vice president, and, after the assassination of Martin Luther KING, Jr., president of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. An advocate of nonviolence as the only acceptable means to social change, he led the Poor People's Campaign on Washington, D.C., after King's death. He resigned (1977) from the SCLC and has worked with CIVIL RIGHTS and peace groups. aberration aberration, in optics, condition that causes a blurring and loss of clearness in the images produced by lenses or mirrors. Spherical aberration is the failure of a LENS or MIRROR of spherical section to bring parallel rays of light to a single focus; it can be prevented by using a more complex parabolic section. Chromatic aberration, the blurred coloring at the edge of an image, arises because some colors of light are bent, or refracted, more than others after passing through a lens; it can be cured by using a corrective lens. aberration of starlight aberration of starlight, angular displacement, caused by the earth's orbital motion, of the apparent path of light from a star, resulting in a displacement of its apparent position from its true position. Abidjan Abidjan, city (1982 est. pop. 951,216), former capital of Ivory Coast, on the Gulf of Guinea. It is the largest city and administrative center of Ivory Coast. Its port is on an island connected with the rest of the city by two bridges. Coffee, cocoa, timber, pineapples, and plantains are the chief exports. Processed food, textiles, automobiles, and chemicals are among the manufactures. One of Africa's most modern cities, it has an international airport nearby and growing tourism. Abidjan became (1934) the capital of France's Ivory Coast colony, but the capital was moved to Yamousoukro in the 1980s. Abilene Abilene, city (1986 est. pop. 112,430), seat of Taylor co., W central Texas; inc. 1882. First settled (1881) by buffalo hunters, it grew as a cattle-shipping point. It is a center of industry (e.g., petroleum, aircraft, electronics) and agriculture (e.g., cattle, cotton, sorghum) and serves as headquarters for regional oil interests. It is the site of Abilene Christian Univ., Hardin-Simmons Univ., and McMurry College. ablative ablative: see CASE. ablaut ablaut [Ger.,=off-sound], in INFLECTION, vowel variation (as in English sing, sang, sung, song) caused by former differences in syllabic accent. In a prehistoric period the corresponding forms of the language (known through scientific reconstruction) had differences in accent, not differences in vowel. ABM ABM (antiballistic missile): see MISSILE, GUIDED. abolitionists abolitionists, in U.S. history, especially from 1830 to 1860, advocates of the compulsory emancipation of black slaves. Abolitionists are to be distinguished from free-soilers, who opposed the extension of SLAVERY. The active campaign had its mainspring in the revival (1820s) in the North of evangelical religion, with its moral urgency to end sinful practices. It reached crusading stage in the 1830s, led by Theodore D. Weld, the brothers Arthur and Lewis Tappan, and William Lloyd GARRISON. The American Anti-Slavery Society, established in 1833, flooded the slave states with abolitionist literature and lobbied in Washington, D.C. Writers like J.G. WHITTIER and orators such as Wendell PHILLIPS lent strength to the cause. Despite unanimity on their goal, abolitionists were divided over the method of achieving it, Garrison advocating moral suasion, others direct political action. Uncle Tom's Cabin, by Harriet B. STOWE, became an effective piece of abolitionist propaganda, and the KANSAS question aroused both North and South. The culminating act of abolitionism was John BROWN'S raid on Harpers Ferry. Abolitionist demands for immediate freeing of the slaves after the outbreak of the CIVIL WAR resulted in Pres. Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation. The abolitionist movement was one of high moral purpose and courage; its uncompromising temper hastened the demise of slavery in the U.S. abominable snowman abominable snowman or yeti,manlike creature associated with the Himalayas. Known through tracks ascribed to it and alleged encounters, it is supposedly 6 to 7 ft (1.8 to 2.1 m) tall and covered with long hair. While many scholars dismiss it as a myth, others claim it may be a kind of ape. abortion abortion, expulsion of the embryo or fetus before it is viable outside the uterus, i.e., before the 28th week after conception, in humans (see REPRODUCTION). Spontaneous abortion, or miscarriage, may be caused by death of the fetus due to abnormality or disease or by trauma to the expectant mother. Abortion may also be induced, the fetus removed from the uterus by such procedures as vacuum suction, dilation and curettage, intrauterine saline injection, and hysterotomy (surgical incision of the uterus). Abortion was long practiced as a form of BIRTH CONTROL until pressure from the Roman Catholic Church and changing opinion led in the 19th cent. to the passage of strict antiabortion laws. Attitudes toward abortion have become more liberal in the 20th cent. By the 1970s, abortion had been legalized in most European countries, the USSR, and Japan; in the U.S., according to a 1973 Supreme Court ruling (see ROE V. WADE), abortions are permitted during the first six months of pregnancy. Abortion remains a controversial issue in the U.S., however, and in 1977 Congress barred the use of Medicaid funds for abortion except for therapeutic reasons and in certain other specified instances. Abraham Abraham or Abram,progenitor of the Hebrews. He is an example of the man devoted to God, as in his willingness to sacrifice his son ISAAC. Revered by several religions, he is principally important as the founder of JUDAISM. He received the promise of CANAAN for his people, who are descended from Isaac. Gen. 11-25. Through another son, ISHMAEL, he is considered by Muslims an ancestor of the Arabs. Abram Abram: see ABRAHAM. Abrams, Creighton Williams Abrams, Creighton Williams, 1914-74, U.S. military officer; b. Springfield, Mass. He served with distinction in World War II, in Korea (1953-54), and in West Germany (1960-62). In 1964 he was promoted to general. After serving as deputy commander of the U.S. forces in the VIETNAM WAR under Gen. William C. WESTMORELAND, he was commanding general (1968-72). He was also U.S. army chief of staff (1972-74). abrasive abrasive, material used to grind, smooth, cut, or polish another substance. Natural abrasives include SAND, PUMICE, CORUNDUM, and ground QUARTZ. Carborundum (SILICON CARBIDE) and ALUMINA (aluminum oxide) are major synthetic abrasives. The hardest abrasives are natural or synthetic DIAMONDS, used in the form of dust or minuscule stones. Abravanel Abravanel or Abarbanel, Judah,c.1460-c.1523, Jewish philosopher, also known as Leone Ebreo; b. Lisbon. He was influenced by the scholars of the Platonic Academy of Florence and by MAIMONIDES and IBN GABIROL. His Philosophy of Love (pub. posthumously, 1535), a classic exposition of platonic love, had a profound effect on philosophers of the 16th and 17th cent., notably BRUNO and SPINOZA. Absalom Absalom, beloved son of DAVID. He murdered his brother AMNON and fled. After being forgiven by David, Absalom stirred up a rebellion, in which he died. 2 Sam. 13-19. Abscam Abscam, U.S. scandal resulting from an investigation begun in 1978 by the Federal Bureau of Investigation. The FBI created a front (Abdul Enterprises, Ltd., hence, Abscam) for its agents, who, posing as associates of an Arab sheik, offered selected public officials money or other considerations in exchange for special favors. The videotaped meetings resulted in the indictments (1980) and convictions of one senator and four congressmen on charges including bribery and conspiracy; another congressman was convicted on lesser charges. The FBI's tactics raised questions about entrapment, and the conviction of Florida Congressmen Richard Kelly was overturned (1982). abscess abscess, accumulation of pus in tissues as a result of infection. Characterized by inflammation and painful swelling, it may occur in various parts of the body, e.g., skin, gum, eyelid, and middle ear. Many abscesses respond to treatment with ANTIBIOTICS; others require surgical drainage. absentee ownership absentee ownership, system under which a person (or a corporation) controls and owns capital, such as land or factories, in a region where that person does not reside and employs others to supervise and work it. Revolution and reform have abolished or greatly reduced the amount of absentee control throughout the world. In the U.S. the term has been applied to the concentration of economic power through various corporate devices. absolute value absolute value, magnitude of a mathematical expression, disregarding its sign; thus the absolute value is always positive. In symbols, if |a| denotes the absolute value of a number a, then |a|=a for a>0 and |a|=-a for a<0. absolute zero absolute zero, the zero point of the ideal gas temperature scale, denoted by 0 degrees on the KELVIN and Rankine temperature scales (-273.15 deg C.; -459.67 deg F). At this point, the volume of an ideal gas would be zero and, theoretically, all molecular motion would cease. In actuality, all gases condense well above this point. See also TEMPERATURE. absorption absorption, taking of molecules of one substance directly into another substance. Absorption may be either a physical or a chemical process. Physical absorption depends on the solubility of the substance absorbed, and chemical absorption involves chemical reactions between the absorbed substance and the absorbing medium. See also ADSORPTION. abstract expressionism abstract expressionism, movement in painting that emerged in New York City in the mid-1940s and attained prominence in American art in the following decade; also called action painting and the New York School. Given impetus by the work of Arshile GORKY, abstract expressionism is marked by an attention to surface qualities, i.e., brushstroke and texture; the use of huge canvases; the harnessing of accidents that occur while painting; and the glorification of the act of painting itself. The first important school in American painting to declare independence from European styles and to influence art abroad, abstract expressionism enormously affected the kinds of art that followed it, especially in the use of color and material. Major artists in the movement include Jackson POLLOCK, Willem DE KOONING, Hans HOFMANN, Robert MOTHERWELL, Franz KLINE and Mark ROTHKO. Abu al-Ala al-Maari Abu al-Ala al-Maari, 973-1057, Arabic poet. He was blind from childhood. Brilliantly original, he discarded classicism for intellectual urbanity. Later he favored ascetic purity and wrote more stereotypical poetry. Abu al-Faraj Ali of Esfahan Abu al-Faraj Ali of Esfahan, 897-967, Arabic scholar. He is mainly known for his poetic anthology Kitab al-Aghani [book of songs], an important source for information on medieval Islamic society. Abu Bakr Abu Bakr, 573-634, 1st caliph, father-in-law and successor of MUHAMMAD. He was probably the Prophet's first convert. During his critical two-year caliphate (632-34), ISLAM began the phenomenal growth that was to make it a world religion. Abu Dhabi Abu Dhabi, city (1980 pop. 265,702), capital of the UNITED ARAB EMIRATES. Abu Hanifa Abu Hanifa, c.699-767, Muslim theologian. A wealthy merchant from Kufa, Iraq, he founded Hanifi, the first of Islam's four orthodox schools of law. His thinking reflects a concern for the solidarity of the Muslim community. Accorded official status in many countries formerly under Ottoman administration, Hanifi is the most widespread of Islamic legal systems. Abuja Abuja, designated federal capital of Nigeria. Plans to move the capital from LAGOS were approved in 1976, and a 3,000-sq mi (7,770-sq km) capital territory was created near the old town of Abuja (now renamed Sulaija). The site, near the center of the country, has a good climate and is sparsely populated. The move is to be completed about 1990. Abu Nuwas Abu Nuwas, d. c.810, Arabic poet. A favorite of the caliphs HARUN AR-RASHID and Amin, he spent much time in Baghdad. His exquisite poetry echoes the extravagance of court life. Abu Said ibn Abi al-Khair Abu Said ibn Abi al-Khair, 967-1049, Persian poet, a Sufi and a DERVISH. He was the first to write rubaiyat (quatrains) in the Sufistic strain that OMAR KHAYYAM made famous. Abu Simbel Abu Simbel or Ipsambul,village, S Egypt, on the NILE R. Its two temples, hewn (c.1250 BC) out of rock cliffs in the reign of RAMSES II, were dismantled and raised over 200 ft (61 m) to avoid waters rising behind the ASWAN HIGH DAM. The project was completed (1966) with UNESCO aid. Abu Tammam Habib ibn Aus Abu Tammam Habib ibn Aus, c.805-c.845, Arabic poet, compiler of the HAMASA. Often describing historical events, his poems of valor are important as source material. Abyssinian cat Abyssinian cat: see under CAT. Ac Ac, chemical symbol of the element ACTINIUM. AC AC: see ELECTRICITY; GENERATOR; MOTOR, ELECTRIC. acacia acacia, plant (genus Acacia) of the PULSE family, mostly tropical and subtropical thorny shrubs and trees. Some have a feathery foliage composed of leaflets; others have no leaves but have flattened leaflike stems containing chlorophyll. Various species yield lac (for shellac), catechu (a dye), gum arabic, essential oils, tannins, and hardwood timber. academic freedom academic freedom, right of scholars to study, inquire, teach, and publish without control or restraint from the institutions that employ them. The concept is based on the notion that truth is best discovered through open investigation of all data. Its less clearly developed corollary is the obligation to pursue open and thorough inquiry regardless of personal considerations. Initiated during the ENLIGHTENMENT by scholars outside the university, academic freedom gained general acceptance only after university education was secularized. Acadia Acadia, region and former French colony, centered on NOVA SCOTIA, but including also PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND and much of the mainland coast from Quebec to Maine. In 1605 the French founded Port Royal (now ANNAPOLIS ROYAL), the first and chief town. During the FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS, the Peace of Utrecht (1713) gave Britain possession of the Nova Scotian peninsula, and, by the Treaty of PARIS (1763), all of Acadia fell to Britain. Doubting the loyalty of the French inhabitants (called Acadians), the British expelled many of them in 1755 and 1758. Most were scattered among the British colonies to the south, many of them later returning to the area. Other exiles found havens elsewhere, notably the Cajuns of S Louisiana, who still preserve a separate folk culture. The sufferings of the expulsion are depicted in LONGFELLOW'S poem Evangeline. Acadia National Park Acadia National Park: see NATIONAL PARKS. acanthus acanthus, common name for the Acanthaceae, a family of chiefly perennial herbs and shrubs, mostly tropical. Many members have decorative spiny leaves and are cultivated as ornamentals, e.g., bear's breech, whose ornate leaves provided a motif often used in Greek and Roman art and architecture. In Christian art, the acanthus symbolizes heaven. Acapulco Acapulco, city (1980 pop. 409,335), winter resort on the tropical Pacific coast of S Mexico, known for its fine beaches, luxury hotels and villas, and deep-sea fishing. Founded (1550) on a natural harbor, it was a base for Spanish explorers and was important in trade with the Philippines. It became a favored haunt of wealthy vacationers in the 1920s. acceleration acceleration: see MOTION. accelerator accelerator: see PARTICLE ACCELERATOR. accounting accounting, classification, analysis, and interpretation of the financial, or bookkeeping, records of an enterprise, used to evaluate the progress or failures of a business and to recognize the factors that determine its true condition. In the U.S. accountants who pass a required examination are granted the title Certified Public Accountant (CPA). A branch of accounting is auditing, the examination of accounts by persons who have had no part in their preparation. Annual audits are required for all publicly held businesses. Accra Accra, city (1984 pop. 964,879), capital of Ghana, on the Gulf of Guinea. The nation's largest city and its administrative and economic center, Accra is linked by road and rail with KUMASI, in the interior, and with the seaport of Tema. Manufactures include processed food, timber, and textiles. The city became (1876) the capital of the British Gold Coast colony and grew economically after completion (1923) of a railroad to the interior. Riots in the city (1948) accelerated the movement for Ghana's independence. Today Accra is a sprawling, modern city with wide avenues; points of interest include a 17th-cent. Danish castle. acculturation acculturation, the more or less continuous interaction between social groups brought about by accommodation and resulting in the intermixture of shared, learned behavior patterns. It may result in almost complete absorption of the CULTURE of one of the groups or a relatively equal merging of traits and patterns from both cultures. Not infrequently, acculturative processes result in social disturbance and individual psychological maladjustment. accusative accusative: see CASE. acetaminophen acetaminophen, an ANALGESIC and fever-reducing medicine similar in effect to ASPIRIN. Gentler to the stomach than aspirin, it lacks aspirin's anti-inflammatory effect. acetone, dimethyl ketone acetone, dimethyl ketone, or 2-propanone(CH3COCH3), colorless, flammable liquid. Acetone is widely used in industry as a solvent for many organic substances and is a component of most paint and varnish removers. It is used in making synthetic RESINS and fillers, smokeless powders, and many other organic compounds. acetylcholine acetylcholine, organic compound containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, essential for the conduction of nerve impulses in animals. It is found in highest concentrations on neuron surfaces and is liberated at nerve cell endings. There is strong evidence that acetylcholine is the transmitter substance that conducts impulses from one cell to another in the parasympathetic nervous system, and from nerve cells to smooth muscle, skeletal muscle, and exocrine glands. acetylene acetylene or ethyne(HC=CH), a colorless gas and the simplest alkyne (see HYDROCARBON). Explosive on contact with air, it is stored dissolved under pressure in ACETONE. It is used to make neoprene RUBBER, PLASTICS, and RESINS. The oxyacetylene torch mixes and burns oxygen and acetylene to produce a very hot flame-as high as 6300 degF (3480 degC)-that can cut steel and weld iron and other metals. Achaea Achaea, region of ancient GREECE, in the N Peloponnesus on the Gulf of Corinth, home of the Achaeans, the ruling class in the PELOPONNESUS from c.1250 BC Before the 5th cent. BC the Achaean cities joined in the First Achaean League, which was dissolved after it opposed (338 BC) PHILIP II of Macedon. The Second Achaean League, formed in 280 BC, almost drove MACEDON from Achaea but was stopped by SPARTA. In 198 BC, with Roman aid, the league won power. Later, suspecting pro-Macedonian sympathies, Rome deported many Achaeans (168 BC) to Italy. In 146 BC Achaea waged a suicidal war against Rome, which easily won, dissolved the league, and ended Greek liberty. Achaemenids Achaemenids, dynasty of ancient PERSIA. The Achaemenid rulers (c.550-330 BC) included CYRUS THE GREAT, Cambyses, DARIUS I, Xerxes I, and ARTAXERXES I. The dynasty ended with DARIUS III. Achebe, Chinua Achebe, Chinua, 1930-, Nigerian novelist. His novels, written in English, depict Ibo society and the impact of colonialism, e.g., Things Fall Apart (1958) and A Man of the People (1966). A former broadcaster and diplomat for Biafra, he has also published poetry, e.g., Christmas in Biafra (1973). Acheson, Dean Gooderham Acheson, Dean Gooderham, 1893-1971, U.S. secretary of state (1949-53); b. Middletown, Conn. Serving Pres. TRUMAN, he established the policy of containment of Communist expansion. He also helped to establish the NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION. Achilles Achilles, in Greek mythology, foremost hero of the TROJAN WAR; son of Peleus and Thetis. Thetis attempted to make him immortal by bathing him in the river STYX, but the heel she held remained vulnerable. Knowing Achilles was fated to die at Troy, Thetis disguised him as a girl and hid him at Skyros. He was found by ODYSSEUS, who persuaded him to go to war. At Troy he quarreled with AGAMEMNON and sulked in his tent until his friend Patroclus was killed by HECTOR. Filled with grief and rage, Achilles slew Hector and dragged his body to the Greek camp. He was later killed by PARIS, who wounded his heel. acidophilus milk acidophilus milk: see FERMENTED MILK. acid rain acid rain, form of precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, or hail) containing high levels of sulfuric or nitric acids (pH below 5.5-5.6). Produced when sulfur dioxide and various nitrogen oxides combine with atmospheric moisture, acid rain can contaminate drinking water, damage vegetation and aquatic life, and erode buildings and monuments. It has been an increasingly serious problem since the 1950s, particularly in the NE U.S., Canada, and W Europe, especially Scandinavia. Automobile exhausts and the burning of high-sulfur industrial fuels are thought to be the main causes, but natural sources, e.g., volcanic gases and forest fires, may also be significant. See also ECOLOGY; POLLUTION; WASTE DISPOSAL. acid rock acid rock: see ROCK MUSIC. acids and bases acids and bases, two related classes of chemicals; the members of each class have a number of common properties when dissolved in a solvent, usually water. Acids in water solutions exhibit the following common properties: they taste sour; turn LITMUS paper red; and react with certain metals, such as zinc, to yield hydrogen gas. Bases in water solutions exhibit these common properties: they taste bitter; turn litmus paper blue; and feel slippery. When a water solution of acid is mixed with a water solution of base, a SALT and water are formed; this process, called neutralization, is complete only if the resulting solution has neither acidic nor basic properties. When an acid or base dissolves in water, a certain percentage of the acid or base particles will break up, or dissociate, into oppositely charged ions. The Arrhenius theory of acids and bases defines an acid as a compound that can dissociate in water to yield hydrogen ions (H+) and a base as a compound that can dissociate in water to yield hydroxyl ions (OH-). The Bronsted-Lowry theory defines an acid as a proton donor and a base as a proton acceptor. The Lewis theory defines an acid as a compound that can accept a pair of electrons and a base as a compound that can donate a pair of electrons. Each of the three theories has its own advantages and disadvantages; each is useful under certain conditions. Strong acids, such as HYDROCHLORIC ACID, and strong bases, such as potassium hydroxide, have a great tendency to dissociate in water and are completely ionized in solution. Weak acids, such as acetic acid, and weak bases, such as AMMONIA, are reluctant to dissociate in water and are only partially ionized in solution. Strong acids and strong bases make very good ELECTROLYTES (see ELECTROLYSIS), i.e., their solutions readily conduct electricity. Weak acids and weak bases make poor electrolytes. See also AMPHOTERISM; BUFFER; CATALYST; INDICATORS, ACID-BASE; TITRATION; article on pH. ACLU ACLU: see AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION. Acmeists Acmeists, school of Russian poets that arose in 1912 in reaction to the SYMBOLISTS; it emphasized concreteness of imagery and clarity of expression. The leading Acmeists were Nikolai Gumilev, Anna AKHMATOVA, and Osip MANDELSTAM. acne acne, inflammatory disease of the sebaceous glands, characterized by blackheads, cysts, and pimples. The lesions appear on the face, neck, chest, back, and arms, and may be mild to severe. Most prevalent during adolescence, acne may appear in adulthood. Its cause is unknown, but contributing factors include genetic predisposition and hormonal changes during puberty. Treatment includes use of cleansers, ANTIBIOTICS, surgical drainage of lesions, and, for severe cases, retinoic acid derivatives. Acoma Acoma or Acoma,pueblo in W central New Mexico, situated atop a steep-sided 357-ft (109-m) MESA. Founded c.1100-1250, it is considered the oldest continuously inhabited community in the U.S. The resident PUEBLO INDIANS retain aspects of their 700-year-old culture; the men are weavers, the women highly skilled and renowned potters. Aconcagua Aconcagua, mountain 22,835 ft (6,960 m) high, in the ANDES of Argentina. It is the highest peak in the Americas. acorn acorn: see OAK. acoustics acoustics, the science of SOUND, including its production, propagation, and effects. An important practical application of acoustics is in the designing of auditoriums, which requires a knowledge of the characteristics of sound WAVES. Reflection of sound can cause an ECHO, and repeated reflections in an enclosed space can cause reverberation, the persistence of sound. Some reverberation in auditoriums is desirable to avoid deadening the sound of music. Reflection can be reduced through the proper configuration and texture of walls, and by the use of sound-absorbent materials. Another acoustical problem is INTERFERENCE, which can create "dead spots" in auditoriums for certain frequencies. acquired characteristics acquired characteristics, modifications produced in an individual plant or animal as a result of mutilation, disease, use and disuse, or any distinctly environmental influence. Belief in the inheritability of acquired characteristics was accepted by LAMARCK but ultimately rejected by modern geneticists, who have affirmed that inheritance is determined solely by reproductive cells and unaffected by somatic (body) cells. acquired immune deficiency syndrome acquired immune deficiency syndrome: see AIDS. acropolis acropolis, elevated, fortified section of ancient Greek cities. The Acropolis of Athens was adorned in the 5th cent. BC with some of the world's greatest architectural monuments. The remains of the PARTHENON, ERECHTHEUM, and Propylaea still stand. acrylic acrylic, more common name for polyacrylonitrile. Acrylic is a polymer composed of the acrylonitrile monomer CH2:CHCN. It is used as a fiber in SYNTHETIC TEXTILE FIBERS such as Arilan and Orlon. Actaeon Actaeon, in Greek mythology, a hunter. Because he saw ARTEMIS bathing naked, she changed him into a stag, and he was killed by his own dogs. actinide series actinide series, the radioactive metals, with atomic numbers 89 through 103, in group IIIb of the PERIODIC TABLE. They are ACTINIUM, THORIUM, PROTACTINIUM, URANIUM, NEPTUNIUM, PLUTONIUM, AMERICIUM, CURIUM , BERKELIUM, CALIFORNIUM, EINSTEINIUM, FERMIUM, MENDELEVIUM , NOBELIUM, and LAWRENCIUM. All members of the series have chemical properties similar to actinium. Those elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 are called TRANSURANIUM ELEMENTS. actinium actinium (Ac), radioactive element; discovered in 1899 by Andre Debierne in uranium residues from pitchblende. Actinium, a silver-white metal, is the first member of the ACTINIDE SERIES. The most stable isotope has a action painting action painting: see ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM. activation energy activation energy: see CATALYST. active active: see VOICE. Acts of the Apostles Acts of the Apostles, fifth book of the NEW TESTAMENT, between the GOSPELS and the EPISTLES. The only contemporary historical account of CHRISTIANITY'S early expansion, it was written between AD 60 and 80 as a sequel to the Gospel of St. LUKE, who is its traditional author. The Acts chiefly deal with the work of St. PETER (1-12) and St. PAUL (13-21). acupuncture acupuncture, technique of medical treatment, based on traditional Chinese medicine, in which a number of very fine metal needles are inserted into the skin at any of some 800 specially designated points. In China it has long been used for pain relief and treatment of such ailments as ARTHRITIS, HYPERTENSION, and ULCERS. More recently it has been used as an ANESTHESIA for childbirth and some surgery. (Unlike conventional anesthesia, it does not lower blood pressure or depress breathing.) It has been suggested that acupuncture works by stimulating the production of ENDORPHINS. U.S. research on acupuncture has focused on its use in pain relief and anesthesia. ADA ADA: see PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE. Adam Adam [Heb.,=man], in the BIBLE, the first man. His story, from his creation to his expulsion (with EVE, his wife) from the Garden of EDEN, is told in Gen. 1.26-5.5. To St. PAUL, Adam represented the earthy side of man, as in 1 Cor. 15.20-22, 42-58. Adam, Adolphe Charles Adam, Adolphe Charles, 1803-56, French composer. His more than 50 stage works include the ballet Giselle (1841). He also wrote the popular song Cantique de Noel. Adam, Robert Adam, Robert, 1728-92, and James Adam, 1730-94, Scottish architects, brothers. Robert possessed the great creative talents. They designed public and private buildings in England and Scotland, and numerous interiors, pieces of furniture, and decorative objects. Robert's light, elegant style was a personal reconstitution of Palladian, Renaissance, and antique elements. The Adam manner grew vastly popular and has never disappeared. Interesting examples of Adam planning and decoration are at Osterly Park (1761-80) and Syon House (1762-69), both near London. Adams Adams, family of distinguished Americans from Massachusetts. John Adams was president of the U.S. (see separate article). He and his wife, Abigail (Smith) Adams, were the parents of John Quincy Adams, who was also president of the U.S. (see separate article). His son, Charles Francis Adams, 1807-86, b. Boston, was U.S. minister to Great Britain (1861-68). He maintained the Northern cause with a wisdom and dignity that won British respect, and he is credited with preventing British recognition of the CONFEDERACY. Later he represented the U.S. in the settlement of the ALABAMA CLAIMS. His son Charles Francis Adams, 1835-1915, b. Boston, was an economist and historian. An expert on railroad financing, he was president of the Union Pacific RR (1884-90). His works include Three Episodes of Massachusetts History (1892). His brother Brooks Adams, 1848-1927, b. Quincy, Mass., was a historian. His belief that civilizations rose and fell according to the growth and decline of commerce was first developed in The Law of Civilization and Decay (1895). Among his other important works are America's Economic Supremacy (1900) and Theory of Social Revolutions (1913). His ideas influenced another brother, Henry Adams, 1838-1918, b. Boston, who was also a writer and historian. In developing a philosophy of history he found a unifying principle in force, or energy, and applied it in two books, Mont-Saint-Michel and Chartres (1913) and The Education of Henry Adams (1918). He also wrote History of the United States of America (9 vol., 1889-91). Adams, Ansel Adams, Ansel, 1902-84, American photographer; b. San Francisco. Working against the aesthetic of the 1930s, he produced superb regional landscapes, notably of the American Southwest. He also wrote technical manuals and helped to found the first museum and college photography departments. Adams, James Truslow Adams, James Truslow, 1878-1949, American historian; b. Brooklyn, N.Y. His works include The Founding of New England (1921; Pulitzer), The Adams Family (1930), and The Epic of America (1931). He was editor of the Dictionary of American History (6 vol., 1940). Adams, John Adams, John, 1735-1826, 2d president of the U.S. (1797-1801); b. Quincy (then in Braintree), Mass.; father of John Quincy ADAMS. He graduated from Harvard Univ. in 1755 and became a lawyer. As a moderate but forceful leader of the group who opposed British measures leading to the AMERICAN REVOLUTION, he later served in both CONTINENTAL CONGRESSES and argued eloquently for the DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, which he signed. Adams served the new nation as a diplomat, negotiating the Treaty of PARIS (1783) to end the Revolution and serving (1785-88) as envoy to Great Britain. He became Pres. WASHINGTON'S vice president (1789-97) and in 1797 succeeded him as president. Adams's administration as president revealed his honest and stubborn integrity. Although allied with Alexander HAMILTON and the conservative, property-respecting Federalists, he was not dominated by them in their struggle with the Jeffersonians (see JEFFERSON, THOMAS). By conciliation he prevented war with France (see XYZ AFFAIR). He did not wholly support the ALIEN AND SEDITION ACTS. After 1801 he lived in retirement in Quincy. His wife, Abigail (Smith) Adams, 1744-1818, b. Weymouth, Mass., was the chief figure in the social life of her husband's administration. Lively and intelligent, she was one of the most distinguished and influential of American first ladies. Adams, John Couch Adams, John Couch, 1819-92, English astronomer. By mathematical calculation based on irregularities in the motion of the planet Uranus, he and U.J.J. LEVERRIER independently and accurately predicted (1845-46) the position of the then unknown planet NEPTUNE. Adams also made valuable studies of the moon's motions, of the great meteor shower of 1866, and of terrestrial magnetism. Adams, John Quincy Adams, John Quincy, 1767-1848, 6th president of the U.S. (1825-29); b. Quincy (then in Braintree), Mass; son of John and Abigail ADAMS; father of Charles Francis Adams (see ADAMS, family). As U.S. senator from Massachusetts (1803-8), he angered his fellow Federalists by supporting Jeffersonian policies (see JEFFERSON, THOMAS). He gained fame as secretary of state (1817-25) for Pres. James MONROE, his greatest achievement being the MONROE DOCTRINE. Elected president (1825) in the House of Representatives through the support of Henry CLAY, Adams had an unhappy, ineffective administration, despite his attempts to institute a program of internal improvements. He won new respect as a U.S. representative from Massachusetts (1831-48), eloquently attacking all measures that would extend SLAVERY. Adams, Samuel Adams, Samuel, 1722-1803, American Revolutionary patriot; b. Boston. His speeches and writings helped to spark the AMERICAN REVOLUTION. He signed the DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, was a member (1774-81) of the CONTINENTAL CONGRESS, and was governor (1794-97) of Massachusetts. Adana Adana, city (1985 pop. 776,000), capital of Adana prov., S Turkey, on the Seyhan R. Turkey's fourth largest city, it is the commercial center of a farming region where cotton, grains, and other crops are grown. The city's manufactures include processed food and textiles. An ancient city probably founded by the HITTITES, it prospered from 66 BC as a Roman colony. It later declined but was revived (AD c.782) by HARUN AR-RASHID. In the 16th cent. it passed to the Ottoman Turks. Near Adana is a Hittite archaeological site. adaptation adaptation, in biology, the adjustment of living matter to environmental conditions, including other living things. Animals and plants are adapted for securing food and surviving even in conditions of drought, great heat, or extreme cold. Adaptations are believed to arise when genetic variations that increase an organism's chances of survival are passed on to succeeding generations. See also ECOLOGY; EVOLUTION; GENETICS. adaptive radiation adaptive radiation, in biology, the evolution of an ancestral species adapted to a particular way of life into several species, each adapted to a different habitat. Illustrating the principle are the 14 species of DARWIN'S finches, small land birds of the Galapagos Islands: 3 are ground-dwelling seedeaters, 3 live on cactus plants and are seedeaters, 1 is a tree-dwelling seedeater, 7 are tree-dwelling insect eaters, but all derive from a single species of ground-dwelling, seedeating finch that probably emigrated from the South American mainland. Addams, Charles Samuel Addams, Charles Samuel, 1912-88, American cartoonist; b. Westfield, N.J. His work, best known from The New Yorker magazine, is famed for its wit, fantasy, and sense of the macabre. Addams, Jane Addams, Jane, 1860-1935, American social worker; b. Cedar ville, Ill. In 1889 she and Ellen Gates Starr founded Hull House, a Chicago settlement house that served the neighborhood poor and became a center for social reform activities. A leader of the WOMAN SUFFRAGE and pacifist movements, Addams shared the 1931 Nobel Peace Prize. She wrote several books on social issues and two autobiographical volumes. addax addax: see ANTELOPE. adder adder: see VIPER. addiction addiction: see DRUG ADDICTION AND DRUG ABUSE. Addis Ababa Addis Ababa, city (1984 est. pop. 1,412,575), capital of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa is Ethiopia's largest city, its administrative and communications center, and the main trade center for coffee (Ethiopia's chief export), tobacco, grains, and hides; much of its commerce is shipped by rail to the port of DJIBOUTI. Addis Ababa became (1889) Ethiopia's capital and was captured (1936) by the Italians and made the capital of ITALIAN EAST AFRICA. It was retaken by the Allies in 1941 and returned to Ethiopian rule. A modern city, it has been the site of many international conferences and organizations, including the ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN UNITY. Notable buildings include Coptic and Roman Catholic cathedrals. Addison, Joseph Addison, Joseph, 1672-1719, English essayist, poet, and statesman. His Remarks on Italy (1705) recorded early travels. The prominence he attained with the epic Campaign (1704) on MARLBOROUGH'S victory at Blenheim led to political appointments, and he served in Parliament (1708-19). Addison contributed to his friend Richard STEELE'S periodical the Tatler after 1710. There, and in the SPECTATOR and Guardian, he raised the English essay to an unequaled height. In prose marked by simplicity, order, and precision, Addison advocated reason and moderation in life. Addison's disease Addison's disease, progressive disease brought about by atrophy of the outer layer (cortex) of the adrenal gland; also called chronic adrenocortical insufficiency. The deterioration of this tissue causes a decrease in the secretion of vital steroid hormones, producing such symptoms as ANEMIA, weakness, abnormal skin pigmentation, and weight loss. The cause of the disease is unknown. Once thought inevitably fatal, the disease is treated with adrenocortical hormones that enable its victims to lead a nearly normal life. Adelaide Adelaide, city (1986 est. pop. 993,100), capital and chief port of South Australia, at the mouth of the Torrens R., on Gulf St. Vincent. It has automotive, textile, and other industries, and exports grains, wool, dairy products, and fruit. Founded in 1836, it was named for William IV's consort. The biennial Adelaide Festival of the Arts, begun in 1960, is held in the Adelaide Festival Centre (opened 1977). It is also known for its parks. Aden Aden, city (1984 est. pop. 318,000), capital and chief port of Southern Yemen (People's Democratic Republic of Yemen), on the Gulf of Aden near the southern entrance to the Red Sea. The city is built on two peninsulas, each with a high volcanic headland. Most of the population lives on Aden peninsula; Little Aden peninsula has an oil refinery and other industries. Aden has been the chief trade center of S ARABIA since ancient times. It declined with the discovery (15th cent.) of an all-water route around Africa to India, but revived when the SUEZ CANAL opened in 1869. The region was held by Muslim Arabs (7th-16th cent.) and by the Ottoman Turks (from 1538). The British captured Aden in 1839 and made it a crown colony in 1935. In 1967 Southern Yemen became independent; Aden has been its capital since 1970. Aden, Gulf of Aden, Gulf of, western arm of the Arabian Sea, 550 mi (885 km) long, between E Africa and SW Asia. It is connected with the RED SEA by the BAB EL MANDEB and is an important link in the MEDITERRANEAN SEA-SUEZ CANAL-INDIAN OCEAN sea lane. Adenauer, Konrad Adenauer, Konrad, 1876-1967, West German chancellor (1949-63). He was a member of the Catholic Center party until 1933, when he was imprisoned by the NAZIS. After World War II he was a founder and president of the Christian Democratic Union. As chancellor, he presided over the spectacular rebirth of West GERMANY'S economy, and guided that nation's reentry into the European community and recovery in 1955 of its full sovereignty. adenoids adenoids: see TONSILS. adenosine triphosphate adenosine triphosphate (ATP), compound composed of adenine (a PURINE), ribose, and three phosphate units; one of the most important low-molecular-weight molecules in living matter. It is a rich source of the chemical energy necessary for the success of a vast number of chemical reactions in the cell. ATP also plays a role in kidney function, transmission of nerve impulses, muscle contraction, active transport of materials through cell membranes, and synthesis of NUCLEIC ACIDS and other large molecules. adhesion and cohesion adhesion and cohesion, attractive forces between material bodies. Adhesive forces act between different substances, whereas cohesive forces act within a single substance, holding its atoms, ions, or molecules together. Without these forces, solids and liquids would act as gases. SURFACE TENSION in liquids results from cohesion, and CAPILLARITY results from a combination of adhesion and cohesion. FRICTION between two solid bodies depends in part on adhesion. Adirondack Mountains Adirondack Mountains, forested mountain wilderness area, NE New York, with many scenic gorges, waterfalls, and lakes. The Adirondacks rise to a high point of 5,344 ft (1,629 m) at Mt. Marcy and are geologically a southern extension of the CANADIAN SHIELD. Lake Placid and Lake George are important area resorts. adjective adjective: see PART OF SPEECH. Adler, Alfred Adler, Alfred, 1870-1937, Austrian psychiatrist, early associate of Sigmund FREUD and founder of the school of individual psychology. Rejecting Freud's emphasis on sex, Adler maintained that personality difficulties are rooted in a feeling of inferiority (see COMPLEX) deriving from restrictions on the individual's need for self-assertion. His best-known work is The Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology (1923). Adler, Cyrus Adler, Cyrus, 1863-1940, American Jewish educator; b. Van Buren, Ark. Founder of the American Jewish Historical Society, American Jewish Committee, and Jewish Welfare Board, he was president of Dropsie College (1908-40) and the Jewish Theological Seminary (1924-40). He was an editor of the Jewish Encyclopedia, and wrote articles and books. Adler, Felix Adler, Felix, 1851-1933, American educator and leader in social welfare; b. Germany. Founder of the ETHICAL CULTURE MOVEMENT (1876) and Society, he also organized the Workingmen's Lyceum, the Workingmen's School, and the Manhattan Trade School for Girls. He was for many years chairman of the National Child Labor Committee, and wrote Creed and Deed (1877) and An Ethical Philosophy of Life (1918), among other books. Adler, Larry Adler, Larry, 1914-, American harmonica player; b. Baltimore. He played with the world's major symphony orchestras and is generally credited with elevating the harmonica to concert status in the classical music world. adolescence adolescence, time of life from onset of puberty to full adulthood. Falling approximately between the ages of 12 and 21, adolescence is characterized by physical changes leading to sexual maturity, problems of sex-role identification and achievement, and movement toward personal independence. Psychologists regard adolescence as a period of social pressure specifically related to the society, not as a unique biological period. Adonis Adonis, in Greek mythology, beautiful youth loved by APHRODITE and PERSEPHONE. When he was killed by a boar, both goddesses claimed him. ZEUS decreed that he spend half the year above the ground with Aphrodite, the other half in the underworld with Persephone. His death and resurrection, symbolic of the seasonal cycle, were celebrated at the festival Adonia. adoption adoption, act creating the legal relation of parent and child. It was known in antiquity but was not part of the English COMMON LAW. In the U.S. it is governed by statute. Adoption's historical roots include the need to continue a family line where there is no natural heir. Today the usual focus is the child's welfare. A hearing before a judge is generally required, as is consent of the natural parent or guardian and that of the child if he or she is above a certain age. The natural parents generally lose their rights and duties toward the child; the adoptive parents assume them. Many states now permit adoption by unmarried adults. Adoption by relatives is most common; in adoption by unrelated adults, the courts attempt to ease adjustment to the adoptive family by maintaining secrecy regarding the child's origin. In recent years, however, a growing number of adopted children have attempted to identify their natural parents. FOSTER CARE is an arrangement in which a family or institution provides a home for a child whose parents cannot care for him (or her); unlike adoption, foster care is temporary. Adorno, Theodor Wiesengrund Adorno, Theodor Wiesengrund, 1903-69, German philosopher, sociologist, and music critic. From 1928, he was closely associated with the Frankfurt Institute for Social Research. When the Nazis came to power, he emigrated to Britain (1934) and then the U.S. (1938), where with Max Horkheimer he wrote the Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947) and collaborated on The Authoritarian Personality (1950), a study of fascism. He returned to Frankfurt (1949) and was director (1958-69) of the institute. adrenal glands adrenal glands, pair of small endocrine glands (see ENDOCRINE SYSTEM) situated atop the kidneys. The outer yellowish layer (cortex) secretes about 30 steroid hormones, most importantly aldosterone, which regulates water and salt balance in the body, and cortisol, which controls carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism. The inner reddish portion (medulla) of the adrenals secretes the emergency-response hormones EPINEPHRINE (adrenaline) and norepinephrine. adrenaline adrenaline: see EPINEPHRINE. Adrian I Adrian I, d. 795, pope (772-95). A Roman, he successfully urged CHARLEMAGNE to defeat the LOMBARDS and acquired from him additional lands for the PAPAL STATES. He supported the Byzantine empress Irene in her struggle against ICONOCLASM. Adrian IV Adrian IV, d. 1159, pope (1154-59). The only Englishman to become pope, he was originally named Nicholas Breakspear. In 1155 he defeated the opposition of Arnold of Brescia and crowned Holy Roman Emperor FREDERICK I. He later quarreled with Frederick and William I of Sicily. His donation of Ireland as a fief to Henry II of England is disputed. Adrian Adrian, Roman emperor: see HADRIAN. Adrian, Gilbert Adrian, Gilbert: see FASHION. Adriatic Sea Adriatic Sea, arm of the MEDITERRANEAN SEA, c.500 mi (800 km) long, between Italy (W) and Yugoslavia and Albania (E). It is 58-140 mi (93-225 km) wide, with a maximum depth of c.4,100 ft (1,250 m). VENICE is the chief port. adsorption adsorption, the adhesion of molecules to the surfaces of solids, as opposed to ABSORPTION, in which the molecules actually enter the absorbing medium. Charcoal, for example, which has a great surface area because of its porous nature, can adsorb large volumes of gases, including most of the poisonous ones, and thus is used in gas masks and filters. adult education adult education or continuing education,organized instruction provided to men and women beyond the age of general public education. The range of emphasis in adult education has come to include everything from the job-oriented (see VOCATIONAL EDUCATION) to the purely academic. Modern adult education probably began with European political groups and vocational classes. In the U.S., some forms date from colonial times; Benjamin FRANKLIN was among those who established debating and discussion groups. In the 19th cent. the LYCEUM and the CHAUTAUQUA MOVEMENT contributed to the growth of adult education. Public lectures were popular, and the establishment of LAND-GRANT COLLEGES stimulated the demand for education in the developing heartland. By the end of the century other forms, among them labor colleges, correspondence schools, and factory and other vocational classes, had come into being. The GREAT DEPRESSION brought an increased demand for practical training, and after World War II the G.I. Bill of Rights enabled thousands to attend schools and colleges. Adult education today faces an increasing demand created by expanding leisure time, a highly competitive labor market, and greater population growth, especially among young adults and those past traditional retirement age. The field now embraces such diverse areas as high-school equivalency; physical and emotional development; practical arts; applied science; recreation; and academic, business, and professional subjects; the courses are provided in schools, colleges, libraries, work places, and other facilities. Advent Advent, Christian penitential season, lasting in the West from the Sunday nearest Nov. 30 until Christmas. It is the first season of the church calendar. Advent Christian Church Advent Christian Church: see ADVENTISTS. Adventists Adventists, members of a group of religious denominations whose distinctive doctrine centers in their belief concerning the imminent second coming of Christ. Adventism is specifically applied to the teachings of William Miller. The largest group, the Seventh-Day Adventists, were formally organized in 1863 and are fundamentally evangelical. Other Adventist groups are the Church of God, the Advent Christian Church, and the Primitive Advent Christian Church. adverb adverb: see PART OF SPEECH. advertising advertising, in general, any openly sponsored offering of goods, services, or ideas through any medium of public communication. The main advertising media include newspapers, magazines, television, radio, and direct mail. The advertising agency, working on a commission basis, has been largely responsible for the development of modern advertising. Defenders of advertising say that it is meant to sell products, not create values, and that it furthers product improvement through competition, while critics contend that it creates false values and impels people to buy things they neither need nor want. The U.S. is the world leader in advertising expenditures, and the term "Madison Avenue" (the street in N.Y.C. where many advertising agencies have had headquarters) has come to symbolize the industry. A.E. A.E.: see RUSSELL, GEORGE WILLIAM. Aegean civilization Aegean civilization, cultures of pre-Hellenic GREECE. MINOAN CIVILIZATION flourished on Crete and MYCENAEAN CIVILIZATION on the Greek mainland. Sites of other cultures have been found at TROY and in the Cyclades. Aegean Sea Aegean Sea, arm of the MEDITERRANEAN SEA, off SE Europe, between Greece and Turkey, center of the classical Greek world. The island-studded sea is c.400 mi (640 km) long, 200 mi (320 km) wide, and more than 6,600 ft (2,010 m) deep off N CRETE at its southern limit. Major islands include EVVOIA, the Sporades, the CYCLADES, SAMOS, KHIOS, LESBOS, Thasos, and th DODECANESE. Sardines and sponges are taken from the sea, and some natural gas has been found off NE Greece. Aegisthus Aegisthus, in Greek mythology, son of Thyestes. Aegisthus revenged his brothers' murder by killing his uncle ATREUS. He was later CLYTEMNESTRA'S lover, helped her to slay AGAMEMNON, and was himself killed by ORESTES. Aeken, Jerom van Aeken, Jerom van: see BOSCH, HIERONYMUS. Aemilian Way Aemilian Way: see ROMAN ROADS. Aeneas Aeneas, in classical legend, a Trojan; son of Anchises and VENUS. After Troy's fall he escaped, tarried with DIDO at CARTHAGE, then went to Italy, where his descendants founded Rome. His deeds are celebrated in VERGIL'S Aeneid. Aeolians Aeolians: see GREECE. aerial aerial: see ANTENNA. aerobics aerobics [from Gr. meaning=with oxygen], endurance exercises in which the volume of breathing is increased and the heart is forced to beat faster than usual for a prolonged period of time, thereby pumping an increased amount of oxygen-rich blood to the muscles being used. Such aerobic activities as running, swimming, and cycling can strengthen the cardiovascular system, improving the body's use of oxygen and allowing the heart to work less strenuously. aerodynamics aerodynamics, study of gases in motion. Because the principal application of aerodynamics is the design of AIRPLANES, air is the principal gas with which this science is concerned. Bernoulli's principle, which states that the pressure of a moving gas decreases as its velocity increases, has been used to explain the lift produced by a wing having a curved upper surface and a flat lower surface (see AIRFOIL). Because the flow is faster across the curved surface than across the plane one, a greater pressure is exerted in the upward direction. Aerodynamics is also concerned with the drag caused by air friction, which is reduced by making the surface area of the craft as small as possible. At speeds close to the speed of sound, or Mach 1 (see MACH NUMBER), there is also a large, sudden increase of drag, which has been called the sonic, or sound, barrier. Aerodynamics is also used in designing automobile bodies and trains for minimum drag and in computing wind stresses on bridges, buildings, and the like. The WIND TUNNEL is one of the basic experimental tools of the aerodynamicist. See SHOCK WAVE; SONIC BOOM. aeronautics aeronautics: see AERODYNAMICS; AIRPLANE; AVIATION. aerosol aerosol, a COLLOID in which small solid or liquid particles are suspended in a gas. Natural aerosols such as fog or smoke occur throughout the ATMOSPHERE, which is itself an aerosol. The term is also used to describe a container of paint, insecticide, or other substance held under pressure by a propellant, which releases the substance in the form of a fine spray or foam. The fluorocarbon FREON was until recently the most common aerosol propellant, but its use has diminished because it is thought to contribute to the destruction of the OZONE layer of the stratosphere. Aeschines Aeschines, c.390-314? BC, Athenian orator. He became politically powerful through his oratorical gifts. Opposing resistance to PHILIP II of Macedon, he was the bitter rival of DEMOSTHENES. Aeschylus Aeschylus, 525-456 BC, Athenian tragic poet. First of the three great Greek tragedians, he preceded SOPHOCLES and EURIPIDES. He wrote perhaps 90 plays, of which seven survive intact. Often credited with inventing TRAGEDY, he added an actor to what had been a dialogue, thus increasing its possibilities. His choral lyrics rank with those of PINDAR. Among his best-known plays are The Seven against Thebes and Prometheus Bound. His only extant trilogy, the Oresteia, a history of the house of ATREUS, is considered by many the greatest Attic tragedy. Aesop Aesop, semilegendary ancient Greek fabulist, supposedly a slave. The FABLES called Aesop's were preserved by various writers and include "The Fox and the Grapes" and "The Tortoise and the Hare." aesthetics aesthetics, branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art and the criteria of artistic judgment. The conception of art as imitation of nature was formulated by PLATO and developed by ARISTOTLE, both of whom held that beauty inheres in the object itself and may be judged objectively. KANT held that the subject may have universal validity, while other thinkers, e.g., HUME, identified beauty with that which pleases the observer. Modern philosophers especially concerned with aesthetic questions have included CROCE, CASSIRER, John DEWEY, and SANTAYANA. AEthelbert AEthelbert, d. 616, king of Kent (560?-616). Although he was defeated (568) by the West Saxons, he later became the strongest ruler in S England. In 597 he was converted to Christianity by St. AUGUSTINE OF CANTERBURY and became the first Christian king of Anglo-Saxon England. AEthelbert AEthelbert, d. 865, king of WESSEX (860-65), son of AETHELWULF. After his father's death in 858, he ruled KENT, Surrey, SUSSEX, and ESSEX, reuniting them with Wessex when in 860 he succeeded his brother AEthelbald in that kingdom. AEthelflad AEthelflad or Ethelfleda , d. 918, daughter of ALFRED and wife of AEthelred, ealdorman of MERCIA. After her husband's death in 911, she ruled the semi-independent Mercia alone and was known as the Lady of the Mercians. AEthelred AEthelred, 965-1016, king of England (978-1016), called AEthelred the Unready [Old Eng., without counsel]. He was the son of EDGAR, and the half brother and successor of Edward the Martyr. A weak king, he reigned at the height of Danish power. Although he began paying tribute through the DANEGELD to the Danes in 991, they returned in 997 to plunder his realm, staying until 1000. In 1002 AEthelred married Emma, sister of the duke of Normandy, possibly hoping to gain an ally. Although by 1009 a navy existed, the treason of its commanders rendered it useless. In 1013 the Danish king Sweyn returned to conquer; he was well received in the DANELAW and London capitulated. AEthelred fled to Normandy but was restored in 1014 on Sweyn's death. In 1016 AEthelred's son EDMUND IRONSIDE succeeded him, made a treaty with CANUTE, son of Sweyn, and died. Canute succeeded him and married AEthelred's widow. AEthelstan AEthelstan: see ATHELSTAN. AEthelwulf AEthelwulf, d. 858, king of WESSEX (839-56), son of EGBERT and father of AETHELBERT and ALFRED. With his son AEthelbald, he won a notable victory over the Danes at Aclea (851). He married Judith of France in 856. A man of great piety, he learned while on a pilgrimage in Rome that AEthelbald would resist his return. He left his son as king in Wessex and ruled in Kent and its dependencies. aether aether: see ETHER, in physics. Aetna Aetna: see ETNA. Aetolia Aetolia, region of ancient GREECE, N of the gulfs of Corinth and Calydon, E of the Achelous R. It was the center of the Aetolian League, formed in the 4th cent. BC to oppose the Achaean League (see under ACHAEA) and the Macedonians. With Rome it defeated PHILIP V of Macedon (197 BC), but then it allied itself against Rome with ANTIOCHUS III of Syria. His defeat (189 BC) marked the end of the league's power. affirmative action affirmative action, U.S. program to overcome the effects of past discrimination by giving some form of preferential treatment to ethnic minorities and women. The term is usually applied to those plans that set forth goals and time tables, required since the early 1970s of government contractors and universities receiving public funds. The Equal Employment Opportunities Act (1972) set up a commission to enforce such plans. The establishment of racial quotas in the name of affirmative action brought charges of so-called reverse discrimination in the late 1970s. The U.S. Supreme Court accepted such an argument in 1978 in the UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA REGENTS V. BAKKE, but in 1979 the Court approved the use of quotas in a case involving voluntary affirmative-action programs in unions and private businesses. In the 1980s, under the Reagan administration, the federal government's role in affirmative action was considerably diluted. affluent society affluent society, a term coined by John Kenneth GALBRAITH in The Affluent Society (1958) to describe the U.S. economy after World War II. Such a society is rich in private resources but poor in public services because of a misplaced priority on increasing production in the private sector. This derives from the conventional economic theory that resources are always scarce. The term has lost its original ironic meaning and is now used simply to indicate widespread prosperity. Afghan hound Afghan hound, tall, swift HOUND; shoulder height, 24-28 in. (61-71.1 cm); weight, 50-60 lb (22.7-27.2 kg). Its long, silky coat may be any color. The breed originated in Egypt c.5,000 years ago, was perfected in Afghanistan, and was brought to England after World War I. Afghanistan Afghanistan, officially the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, republic (1982 est. pop. 15,163,000), 249,999 sq mi (647,497 sq km), S central Asia, bordered by Iran (W), Pakistan (E and S), the USSR (N), and China (NE). Principal cities include KABUL (the capital), KANDAHAR, and HERAT. Most of Afghanistan is mountainous, and the towering ranges of the HINDU KUSH reach a height of more than 24,000 ft (7,315 m); fertile valleys and plains, home of most of the population, nestle in the mountains. The land is mainly dry, and the rivers (unnavigable for the most part) are used for irrigation. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy, although less than 10% of the land is cultivated; corn, barley, rice, and fruit are grown, and sheep are raised for skins, wool, and meat. Industry and development of minerals are still in the beginning stages. Imports (mostly manufactured goods) greatly exceed exports (wool, hides, fruit). The population is diverse, including Afghans, Pathans, Hazararas, Tadzhiks, Uzbeks, and nomadic Turkmen; almost all are Muslims. Afghan and Iranian are the principal languages. History Afghanistan, astride the land route to India (through the famed KHYBER PASS), has fallen to many conquerors through the ages, e.g., DARIUS I (c.500 BC); ALEXANDER THE GREAT (329-327 BC); and numerous Arab invaders (from the 7th cent. AD), who established Islam as the dominant culture. Mahmud of Ghazni, who conquered (11th cent.) an empire stretching from Iran to India, was the greatest of Afghanistan's rulers. The country was later conquered by JENGHIZ KHAN (c.1220) and TAMERLANE (14th cent.). Afghanistan became a united state (1747) under Ahmad Shah, who founded the Durani dynasty. During the 19th cent. Britain, to protect its Indian empire from Russia, tried to establish authority in neighboring Afghanistan; the result was two British-Afghan Wars (1838-42, 1878-80). An agreement (1907) gave Britain control over Afghanistan's foreign affairs, but the emir Amanullah engaged Britain in a third Afghan War (1919), which gave Afghanistan full independence. Amanullah embarked on a modernization program, and in 1926 proclaimed a monarchy to replace the emirate. The last king, Muhammad Zahir Shah, was overthrown in 1973 in a military coup led by Lt. Gen. Muhammad Daoud Khan, who proclaimed a republic. Daoud was killed in a coup in 1978 and a pro-Soviet regime installed. In 1979 a Soviet-backed coup, supported by an invasion of Soviet troops, killed then-president Hafizulla Amin and replaced him with Babrak Karmal, leader of a rival faction. Over 2 million Afghans fled to Iran and Pakistan, but strong resistance from rebel forces within the country continued. Despite international pressure, Soviet troops remained in Afghanistan until early 1989. AFL-CIO AFL-CIO: see AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR AND CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATIONS. Africa Africa, second largest continent, c.11,677,240 sq mi (30,244,050 sq km) including Madagascar and smaller offshore islands. It is connected to Asia by the narrow Isthmus of Suez. Mt. Kibo (19,340 ft/5,895 m), a peak of KILIMANJARO, in Tanzania, is the highest point; the lowest point, 436 ft (133 m) below sea level, is the Qattarah Depression, in Egypt. E Africa's lake-filled GREAT RIFT VALLEY is the continent's most spectacular feature. Mountain ranges include the ATLAS MTS. (N), the Ethiopian Highlands and Ruwenzori Mts. (E), and the Drakensberg Mts. (S). Chief rivers are the NILE, CONGO (Zaire), NIGER, and ZAMBEZI. Climatic conditions range from hot and rainy all year near the equator, through tropical savanna with alternating wet and dry seasons immediately north and south of the equatorial region, to hot and dry in the great SAHARA desert, in the north, and the smaller KALAHARI desert, in the south. At its north and south extremities the continent has a Mediterranean-type climate. The countries of Africa are Algeria, Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Cape Verde, the Central African Republic, Chad, The Comoros, the Congo Republic, Djibouti, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mauritius, Morocco, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, the Seychelles, Sierra Leone, the Somali Republic, the Republic of South Africa, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Togo, Tunisia, Uganda, Zaire, Zambia, and Zimbabwe; other political units are Namibia and Western Sahara (see separate articles). African peoples, who make up about 10% of the world's population, are divided into more than 50 nations and are further fragmented into numerous ethnic and linguistic groups (see AFRICAN LANGUAGES). See map of Africa in separate section. African art African art, traditional art created by peoples S of the Sahara. The predominant art forms are MASKS and figures, which were generally used in religious ceremonies. The decorative arts, especially in TEXTILES and in the ornamentation of everyday tools, were a vital art in nearly all African cultures. Established forms evolved long before the arrival (15th cent.) of the Portuguese in Africa, but most works older than 150 years have perished. Their creators valued them for ritual use rather than aesthetic accomplishment. Wood-often embellished with clay, shells, beads, ivory, metal, feathers, and shredded raffia-was the dominant material. In the Sudan and on the Guinea coast the wood-carving style was highly abstract. Distortion often emphasized features of cultic significance. The Bambara of W Mali are famous for their striking wooden headdresses in the form of antelope heads. In NW Guinea the Baga made snake carvings, drums supported by small standing figures, and spectacular masks. The southern groups of Senufu of the Ivory Coast made masks representing human features with geometric projections and legs jutting out of each side of the face. During the 18th and 19th cent. the ASHANTI kingdom of Ghana used a system of brass weights to weigh gold dust; these weights were small figures cast in CIRE PERDUE. From N Nigeria, the remarkable Nok terra-cotta heads are the earliest African sculpture yet found (c.500-200 BC). The art of the Yoruba of S Nigeria is often brilliantly polychromed. On the banks of the Middle Cross R. are about 300 monolithic carvings, supposedly Ekoi ancestor figures from between 1600 and 1900. The small tribes of the Cameroon did woodcarvings and sculptures that include large house posts and ritual objects. Among the Fang tribes of Gabon, decorative motifs on stringed musical instruments emphasized the human figure. The Bapende of the W Congo made ivory pendants portraying human faces, while the Baluba of the SE Congo produced bowls and stools supported by slender figures. The dynamic and expressive free-standing figures of the Badjokwe of S Congo and Angola are particularly outstanding. African art came to European notice c.1905, and such artists as PICASSO and MODIGLIANI were influenced by it. The Museum of Primitive Art (N.Y.C.) and the Field Museum of Natural History (Chicago) have fine collections of African art. African languages African languages, geographic rather than linguistic classification of languages spoken on the African continent. These languages do not belong to a single family but are divided among several distinct linguistic stocks having no common origin. The principal linguistic families of Africa are now generally said to be Hamito-Semitic; Niger-Kordofanian (including Niger-Congo); Nilo-Saharan; and Khoisan, or Click. Two other stocks, Indo-European and Malayo-Polynesian, are also represented. ÖÚÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÚÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ· MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk indicates a dead language) ÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ Hamito-Semitic or Afroasiatic Languages (for Hamito-Semitic languages that were or are spoken in W Asia, see the Hamito-Semitic classification in the table "Major Languages of Europe, Asia and Some Islands of the Pacific and Indian Oceans" accompanying the LANGUAGE article) SEMITIC (spoken in North Africa and Ethiopia) Arabic Egyptian Arabic, Western Arabic Ethiopic Amharic (or Abyssinian), Geez MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk indicates a dead language) ÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ Ethiopic Amharic (or Abyssinian), Geez (Classical Ethiopic),* Tigre, Tigrinya HAMITIC Egyptian (was spoken in Egypt) Ancient Egyptian,* Coptic* Berber (spoken throughout North Kabyle, Modern Berber, Rif, Siwi, Africa except Egypt) Tamachek, Tuareg, Zanaga Cushitic (spoken in Ethiopia and Agau, Beja, Burji, Galla, Geleba, adjoining regions) Gimira, Janjaro, Kaffa, Konso, Maji, Saho-Afar, Sidamo, Somali CHAD (spoken near Lake Chad, central Angas, Bolewa, Gwandara, Hausa, Hiji, Africa, and in W Africa) Kuseri, Mandara, Ngala, Ron, Shirawa, Sokoro MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk indicates a dead language) ÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ  Sokoro Indo-European Languages (for a full presentation of the Indo-European language family, see table accompanying the LANGUAGE article) GERMANIC West Germanic Low German Afrikaans (spoken in the Republic of South Africa), English (spoken in the Republic of South Africa, Zimbabwe, and a number of other African countries) ITALIC MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk indicates a dead language) ÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ ITALIC Romance (spoken in a number of French, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish African countries) Khoisan or Click Languages (spoken in S and E Africa) Hatsa (or Hadzapi) Sandawe SOUTH AFRICAN KHOISAN Bushman, Hottentot Malayo-Polynesian Languages (spoken in Madagascar; for a full presentation of the Malayo-Polynesian language family, see table accompanying the LANGUAGE article) MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk indicates a dead language) ÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ article) WESTERN Malagasy Niger-Kordofanian Languages NIGER-CONGO (spoken in S and central Africa and in W Africa below the Sahara) West Atlantic Dyola, Fulani, Gola, Kissi, Temne, Wolof Mande Dyula, Malinke, Mende Gur (or Voltaic) Dagomba, Mamprusi, Mossi Kwa Akan, Ashanti, Bini, Ewe, Ibo, Ijo, MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk indicates a dead language) ÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ Kwa Akan, Ashanti, Bini, Ewe, Ibo, Ijo, Nupe, Yoruba Benue-Congo Bantu Bemba, Ganda, Kikuyu, Kongo, Lingala, Luba, Makua, Mbundu, Ruanda, Rundi, Shona, Sotho, Swahili, Thonga, Xhosa, Zulu Non-Bantu Efik, Jukun, Tiv Adamawa-Eastern Banda, Sango, Zande KORDOFANIAN (spoken in Sudan) Katla Katla MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk indicates a dead language) ÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ  Koalib Koalib Talodi Talodi Tegali Tegali Tumtum Tumtum Nilo-Saharan Languages SONGHAI (spoken in Mali) Songhai SAHARAN (spoken near Lake Chad and Daza, Kanuri, Teda, Zaghawa in the central Sahara) MABAN (spoken east of Lake Chad) Maba MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk indicates a dead language) ÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ  FURIAN (spoken in Sudan) Fur KOMAN (spoken in Ethiopia and Sudan) Ganza, Gule, Gumuz, Koma, Mao, Uduk CHARI-NILE (spoken in Sudan, Zaire, Uganda, Cameroon, Chad, Central African Republic, mainland Tanzania, and Ethiopia) Eastern Sudanic Nubian Birked, Midobi Nilotic Dinka, Masai, Nandi, Nuer, Shilluk, Suk, Turkana Central Sudanic Bongo-Bagirmi, Efe, Mangbetu MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk indicates a dead language) ÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ Central Sudanic Bongo-Bagirmi, Efe, Mangbetu Berta, Kunama African Methodist Episcopal Church African Methodist Episcopal Church, a leading black American denomination of METHODISM, founded (1816) by Richard Allen. In 1988 the church reported a membership of 2,210,000. African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, one of the largest African Methodist bodies, founded (1796) by black American Methodists. The church reported a U.S. membership of 1,195,173 in 1988. African music African music. Sub-Saharan African music, ranging from highly functional tribal music to stylized entertainment, is distinguished by striking polyrhythmic counterpoint, realized by handclaps, xylophones, and drums, and by pitch polyphony, performed by voice and on wind and string instruments. Diatonic scales are generally used. To what extent this music influenced JAZZ and the black American SPIRITUAL is debated. African National Congress African National Congress, the oldest non-White political organization in South Africa. It was founded in 1912 and was dedicated to reform through political action. After the violence at Sharpeville in 1960, the party was banned. In 1964, its leader, Nelson MANDELA, was sentenced to life in prison and the active leadership has lived in exile. During the late 1970s, with the South African government's continued exclusion of black Africans from political participation, and with the renewal of youth-led militant protest, the party, though outlawed, became the popularly acknowledged vehicle of mass resistance. See also APARTHEID. African Negro literature African Negro literature. Although ancient African Muslim books in Swahili and Arabic exist, African literature before the 19th cent. is almost entirely an oral tradition. The continent's seemingly inexhaustible supply of myths, tales, legends, riddles, and proverbs continues to enrich African writing, which appears in native, especially Bantu, languages, and in French, English, and Portuguese. The African writer best known before the 1930s was the South African Thomas Mofolo, whose novels (in Sesotho) included Chaka (tr. 1931). French-African writers in Paris in the 1930s, led by the poet-statesman Leopold Sedar SENGHOR, espoused negritude, a rejection of French assimilationist policy. After World War II, writers focused on decaying colonialism and on the "new" Africa. National literatures began to appear, notably in Nigeria with the work of Chinua ACHEBE, Wole SOYINKA, Amos TUTUOLA, and others, and in Senegal and Cameroon. Major African writers in English include Ezekiel Mphahlele and Oswald Mtshali (South Africa), Bessie Head (Botswana), Ayi Kwei Armah (Ghana), and Ngugiwa Thiong'o and Okot p'Bitek (Kenya). Among leading writers in French are Mongo Beti (Cameroon); Camara Laye (Guinea); Birago Diop, Sembene Ousmane, and Mariama Ba (Senegal); David Diop (born in France), and Tchicaya U Tamsi (Congo). One of the best-known writers in Portuguese was Agostinho Neto (1922-79), president of Angola (1975-79). African violet African violet, common name for plants (mostly hybrids of Saintpaulia ionantha) of the GESNERIA family, grown chiefly as houseplants for their colorful flowers and fuzzy foliage. Afrikaans Afrikaans, one of the official languages of South Africa. It is a Germanic language of the Indo-European family. See AFRICAN LANGUAGES. Afro-Americans Afro-Americans: see BLACK AMERICANS. Ag Ag, chemical symbol of the element SILVER. Aga Khan III Aga Khan III, 1877-1957, Muslim leader. As hereditary ruler of the Muslim Ismaili sect he was born to great power and wealth. He supported the British in India, founded (1906) the All-India Muslim League, and represented India in various international bodies. Agamemnon Agamemnon, in Greek mythology, leader of the Greeks in the TROJAN WAR; brother of MENELAUS; son of ATREUS. His children by CLYTEMNESTRA were IPHIGENIA, ELECTRA, and ORESTES. To obtain favorable winds for the fleet against Troy, he sacrificed Iphigenia to ARTEMIS, incurring Clytemnestra's hatred. At Troy he quarreled with ACHILLES; that dispute forms a main theme of HOMER'S Iliad. He withdrew from the war and returned to Mycenae, where he was murdered by Clytemnestra and her lover, AEGISTHUS. To avenge his death, Orestes and Electra killed Aegisthus and their mother. Aga Muhammad Khan Aga Muhammad Khan or Agha Muhammad Khan,1742-97, shah of PERSIA (1796-97), founder of the Kajar, or Qajar, dynasty. In 1794 he killed the last ruler of the Zand dynasty and climaxed his campaign for the throne with a wholesale massacre. Hated by his subjects for his brutality, he was assassinated. agar agar, product consisting of the sugar galactose, obtained from some red ALGAE species (see SEAWEED). Dissolved in boiling water and cooled, agar becomes gelatinous; it is used as a culture medium (especially for BACTERIA), a laxative, and a food thickener. Agassiz, Louis Agassiz, Louis(Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz) , 1807-73, Swiss-American zoologist and geologist. In 1832 he became professor of natural history at the Univ. of Neuchatel, which he made a center for scientific study. He also examined glacial movements and deposits before coming to the U.S. in 1846, where he taught at Harvard (from 1848) and strongly influenced a generation of scientists. His writings include Research on Fossil Fish (5 vol., 1833-44) and Contributions to the Natural History of the United States (4 vol., 1857-62). agate agate, extremely fine-grained variety of CHALCEDONY, banded in two or more colors. The banding occurs because agates are formed by the slow deposition of silica from solution into cavities of older rocks. Agates are found primarily in Brazil, Uruguay, India, Mexico, and the U.S. They are valued as semiprecious GEMS and are used in the manufacture of grinding equipment. agave agave: see AMARYLLIS. Agee, James Agee, James, 1909-55, American writer; b. Knoxville, Tenn. His works include Let Us Now Praise Famous Men (1941), a telling commentary on Depression-era tenant farmers, and A Death in the Family (1957; Pulitzer), a poetic novel. His movie criticism and scripts are collected in Agee on Film (2 vol., 1958-60). Agency for International Development Agency for International Development (AID), federal agency in the Dept. of State, created by Congress (1961) to consolidate U.S. nonmilitary foreign-aid programs to developing countries. AID offers technical, capital, and commodity assistance, giving priority to programs in agriculture, health, population planning, and education. Among its specific concerns are a long-term development plan for the Sahelian region of W Africa and the coordination of international disaster assistance. All of AID's programs stress maximum involvement by the people of developing nations. Agent Orange Agent Orange: see HERBICIDE. Aggeus Aggeus, Vulgate form of HAGGAI. agglutination agglutination, in linguistics: see INFLECTION. aggression aggression, a form of behavior characterized by verbal or physical attack. It may be either appropriate and self-protective or destructive. When aggression in adults is not a response to a clear threat, it is often considered a symptom of mental disorder. It may be directed outward, against others, as in explosive personality disorders, or inward, against oneself, leading to self-damaging acts. Some investigators of human behavior, such as Sigmund FREUD and Konrad LORENZ, have argued that aggressive behavior is innate, while others have proposed that it is learned. Agincourt Agincourt, village, N France, where in 1415 Henry V of England defeated an army of French knights in the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. The victory of Henry's longbow men made obsolete the warfare methods of the age of chivalry and enabled England to conquer much of France. aging aging: see GERONTOLOGY. Agnew, Spiro Theodore Agnew, Spiro Theodore, 1918-, 39th vice president of the U.S.; b. Baltimore, Md. Governor of Maryland (1967-69), he was vice president (1969-73) in the administration of Pres. Richard M. NIXON. A critic of liberals and VIETNAM WAR protestors, he resigned (Oct. 10, 1973) after evidence revealed political corruption during his years in Maryland politics. He pleaded no contest to the charge of evading income tax, was sentenced to probation, and fined. In 1981 a state court ordered Agnew to repay Maryland over $248,000, for bribes he took while in state office. Agnon, S(hmuel) Y(osef) Agnon, S(hmuel) Y(osef), 1888-1970, Israeli writer; b. Poland as Samuel Josef Czaczkes. Regarded as the greatest modern writer of fiction in Hebrew, he shared the 1966 Nobel Prize in literature. His novels and stories explore Jewish life; they include the novels The Bridal Canopy (1919) and The Day Before Yesterday (1945). agnosticism agnosticism, form of skepticism that holds that the existence of God cannot be logically proved or disproved. Agnosticism is not to be confused with ATHEISM, which denies the existence of God. KANT and Herbert SPENCER considered themselves agnostics. Agra Agra, former province, N central India. The presidency, or province, of Agra was created in 1833 by the British. In 1902 it became part of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. The city of Agra (1981 pop. 723,676), Uttar Pradesh state, is on the Jumna R. A district administrative headquarters, it produces shoes, glassware, carpets, and other goods. AKBAR founded Agra, and it was a MOGUL capital until 1658. The British annexed it in 1836. It is noted for its architecture, especially the TAJ MAHAL. agrarian laws agrarian laws, in ancient Rome, the laws regulating the disposition of public lands. Wealthy patricians tended to gain and hold large areas of public land, nominally as state tenants. The poorer classes' desire to gain public land gave rise to laws, beginning in the 5th cent. BC, that included the Licinian Rogations (367 BC; see LICINIUS, fl. 375 BC), and the Sempronian Law (133 BC; revived 123 BC). They were often violated or ignored. The reform movement ended with DOMITIAN'S edict (AD c.82) assigning title to public land in Italy to those who held it. This confirmed the long trend toward the dependency of the poor upon the powerful. agriculture agriculture, science of producing crops and livestock; it aims to increase production and protect the land from deterioration. Branches include AGRONOMY, HORTICULTURE, ENTOMOLOGY, animal husbandry, and DAIRYING. Historically, agriculture has been linked with social, economic, and political organization. Its development among early peoples encouraged stable settlements, and it later became associated with landholding, SLAVERY, and FEUDALISM. During the agricultural revolution (16th and 17th cent.), horticultural knowledge expanded, and crops and farming methods were exchanged internationally. The invention of machines such as McCormick's reaper (1831) and the general-purpose tractor (c.1924) led to mechanized, large-scale farming. Modern Western agriculture also depends on breeding programs; FERTILIZERS and PESTICIDES; food processing techniques, e.g., REFRIGERATION; efficient marketing; agricultural colleges and research centers; and, in many nations, government subsidies. See also GREEN REVOLUTION; ORGANIC FARMING. Agriculture, United States Department of Agriculture, United States Department of, federal executive department established (1862) to administer all federal programs related to food production and rural life. It assists farmers through its research, planning, and service agencies, and aids consumers by inspecting and grading many products; it also administers the Food Stamp Program and issues a wide range of publications on farming and horticulture. The Forest Service and the Soil Conservation Service are part of the department. agronomy agronomy, branch of AGRICULTURE concerned with soil management and with the breeding, physiology, and production of major field crops. It deals mainly with large-scale crops (e.g., cotton, soybeans, and wheat), while HORTICULTURE concerns fruits, vegetables, and ornamentals. Aguinaldo, Emilio Aguinaldo, Emilio, 1869-1964, Philippine leader. After leading (1896) a rebellion against Spanish rule, he cooperated with U.S. forces in the SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. He later rebelled (1899-1901) against U.S. rule. Ahab Ahab, d. c.853 BC, king of Israel (c.874-c.853 BC), son and successor of Omri. One of the greatest kings of the northern kingdom, he was killed in a war against Damascus. The biblical account of Ahab's reign (1 Kings 16.28-22.40) is mostly concerned with its religious aspects, especially his marriage to Jezebel, a willful woman of Tyre who was attached to foreign cults and behavior. To the devout she represented evil, and she met her match in ELIJAH. Ahad Ha-Am Ahad Ha-Am [Heb.,=one of the people], 1856-1927, pseud. of Asher Ginsberg, Jewish thinker and Zionist leader; b. Russia. A critic of those who sought immediate settlement in Palestine, he saw Palestine as a "spiritual center" giving strength and direction to Jews in the Diaspora. Some of his essays appear in Selected Essays of Ahad Ha-Am (tr. 1912). Ahasuerus Ahasuerus: see ESTHER. Ahaz Ahaz, d. c.727 BC, king of Judah (c.731-727 BC). His reign marked the end of the real independence of Judah. In the BIBLE he is opposed by ISAIAH for his alliance with Assyria against Israel and Syria, and denounced for having heathen abominations and for using the Temple gold to pay tribute to Assyria. 2 Kings 16; 2 Chron. 28; Isa. 7. Ahmed Ahmed, sultans of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE (Turkey). Ahmed I, 1589-1617 (r.1603-17), made peace (1606) with Austria, agreeing to Transylvania's independence and recognizing other European rulers as his equals for the first time. Ahmed II, 1642-95 (r.1691-95), saw the beginning of the Turks' forced retreat from Hungary. Ahmed III, 1673-1736 (r.1703-30), seized (1715) the Peloponnesus and the Ionian Isles (except Corfu) from Venice, but he lost important Balkan territories to Austria. He was overthrown by the JANISSARIES and died in prison. Ahmedabad Ahmedabad or Ahmadabad,city (1981 pop. 2,515,000), capital of Gujarat state, NW India, on the Sabarmati R. It is an industrial center noted for its cotton mills. Founded in 1412 by the Sultan Ahmad Shah, it fell to AKBAR in 1573 and prospered under the MOGULS, who controlled the city until 1758 when it came under the MAHRATTAS. It has many mosques, tombs, and temples. It came under British control in 1818. Ahvenanmaa Islands Ahvenanmaa Islands or Aland Islands,Finland, strategically important group of c.7,000 islands (less than 100 inhabited) at the entrance to the Gulf of Bothnia in the Baltic Sea. Originally colonized as part of Sweden, the islands were ceded (1809) to Russia, demilitarized (1856) by international agreement, and confirmed (1921) as part of Finland by the League of Nations. Finland renounced the League's guarantee of autonomy in 1951, but accorded rights of self-government to the islanders, who are largely Swedish. AIDS AIDS, or acquired immune deficiency syndrome,a fatal disease caused by a virus, known as HIV or human immunodeficiency virus that attacks blood cells. The disease suppresses the body's immune system, allowing other diseases, including cancer and pneumonia, to infect the patient. Spread through the exchange of body fluids, it has primarily affected male homosexuals, drug users, prostitutes, and hemophiliacs. See also AZT. Aiken, Conrad Aiken, Conrad, 1889-1973, American writer; b. Savannah, Ga. Often concerned with the quest for self-knowledge, he is best known for his richly musical verse, e.g., Selected Poems (1929, Pulitzer), A Letter from Li Po (1955). His other works include the novels Blue Voyage (1927) and Great Circle (1933), short stories, critical essays, and an autobiography (1952). ailanthus ailanthus, tree (genus Ailanthus) of the family Simarubaceae. Ailanthus is native to warm regions of Asia and Australia. Its wood is used in cabinetmaking and for charcoal manufacture. The bark and leaves are used medicinally, and the leaves provide food for silkworms. Females of a species called tree of heaven are cultivated for their attractive foliage and their resistance to smoke and soot; the flowers of the male plant, however, have a disagreeable odor. Ailey, Alvin Ailey, Alvin, 1931-, American modern dancer and choreographer; b. Rogers, Tex. He studied with Lester Horton. In the late 1950s, he formed his own company, Alvin Ailey's American Dance Theater, which is noted for its use of African motifs. His best-known works include Creation of the World (1954) and Revelations (1960). Ainu Ainu, aborigines of Japan, possibly of Caucasoid descent, having both European and Asian physical traits. Oriental invaders forced the Ainu to the N Japanese island of HOKKAIDO and to Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands, in the USSR. Their animistic religion centers on a bear cult. They live by hunting, fishing, farming, and selling crafts to tourists. air, law of the air, law of the, law connected with the use of the air (including radio and telegraph communication); more commonly, body of laws governing civil aviation. Spurred by the growth of air transport, the victorious nations of World War I, meeting in Paris in 1919, drew up the International Convention for Air Navigation, commonly called the Paris Convention; this agreement recognized national claims to air space and established rules for aircraft registration and operating safety. U.S. air laws are modeled on the Convention, and are administered by the FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION. There are also many general conventions and bilateral agreements between nations. In 1944 a conference of 52 nations (not including the USSR) established the International Civil Aviation Organization (see UNITED NATIONS), to ensure the orderly growth of international aviation. air conditioning air conditioning, mechanical process for controlling the temperature, humidity, cleanliness, and circulation of air in buildings and rooms. Most air conditioners operate by ducting air across the colder, heat-absorbing side of a REFRIGERATION apparatus, and directing the cooled air back into the air-conditioned space. Small window conditioners vent heat outdoors. Larger systems use circulating water to remove heat. Air conditioning provides the heat, humidity, and contamination controls essential in the manufacture of such products as chemicals and pharmaceuticals. aircraft carrier aircraft carrier, ship designed to carry aircraft and to permit takeoff and landing of planes. Its distinctive features are a flat upper deck (flight deck) that functions as a takeoff and landing field, and a main deck (hangar deck) beneath the flight deck for storing and servicing the aircraft. The aircraft carrier remained an experimental and untested war vessel until WORLD WAR II, when the Japanese wreaked havoc on the British, Dutch, and U.S. navies with carrier-borne aircraft. By 1942 the aircraft carrier had replaced the battleship as the major unit in a modern fleet, and during the war it was indispensable in naval operations against a sea- or shore-based enemy, with two major battles (Coral Sea and Midway, 1942) being fought entirely by aircraft, and the opposing fleets never coming within gunshot range of each other. U.S. carriers of the Essex class spearheaded the island-hopping campaign in the Pacific. A new era in carrier design opened when the U.S. launched (1960) the nuclear-powered Enterprise, a vessel capable of lengthy voyages without refueling. A nuclear-powered successor, the Nimitz, was the largest ship afloat when launched in 1975. air-cushion vehicle air-cushion vehicle (ACV), ground-effect machine,or Hovercraft, vehicle designed to travel at a short distance above ground or water, moving on a cushion of air that is held in a chamber beneath the vehicle. ACVs offer the potential for very high speeds. The maximum size of ACVs is now over 100 tons; some of them travel at over 100 mph (160 km/hr). airedale terrier airedale terrier, largest of the TERRIER group; shoulder height, c.23 in. (58.4 cm); weight, 40-50 lb (18.1-22.7 kg). Its dense, wiry, close-lying coat is a mixture of tan, black, and grizzle. The breed was probably produced from crosses of the extinct black-and-tan terrier and the otterhound. airfoil airfoil, surface designed to develop a desired force by reaction with a fluid, especially air, that is flowing across the surface. Examples of airfoils are the fixed wings of AIRPLANES, which produce lift (see AERODYNAMICS), and control surfaces, such as ailerons, elevators, rudders, and flaps, that are manipulated to produce variable forces. Other airfoils include spoilers, propeller blades, and the blades utilized in turbojet engines. air force air force, national military organization for air warfare. Although balloons were used by French forces in Italy in 1859 and by the Union in the U.S. Civil War, air forces in the modern sense date from WORLD WAR I, when the offensive capabilities of the AIRPLANE were first demonstrated. Airplanes were first controlled by national armies and used for reconnaissance and support of ground forces, but as their effectiveness as tactical weapons increased, independent air forces were called for. Arguing that future wars would be won by strategic bombing of an enemy's industrial centers, military leaders, including Italian Gen. Giulio Douhet, U.S. Gen. William MITCHELL, and British Air Chief Marshal Sir Hugh Trenchard urged intensive development of air power. By WORLD WAR II, control of the air over both land and sea proved crucial in most major engagements, and the air force became a separate branch of the armed services in many countries. The first great air battle in history was the Battle of Britain (1940), in which the British Royal Air Force stood off the German Luftwaffe over England. The effect of air power in revolutionizing naval warfare was demonstrated in the 1941 surprise attack by Japanese aircraft, launched from AIRCRAFT CARRIERS, on PEARL HARBOR. Air forces on both sides engaged in strategic and tactical bombing, attacks on naval and merchant ships, transportation of personnel and cargo, mining of harbors and shipping lanes, antisubmarine patrols, and photo reconnaissance, as well as support of ground, naval, and amphibious operations. After World War II, the airplane was superseded by the missile as a strategic weapon, but with helicopters joining the traditional fighter planes, bombers, and cargo planes of the modern air force, air power continued to be of primary importance in tactical operations, particularly in "limited" wars such as those in Southeast Asia and the Middle East. It is also argued that air forces function as deterrents to a major war by maintaining ready second-strike retaliatory capabilities. air navigation air navigation, science and technology of determining the position of an aircraft with respect to the surface of the earth and accurately maintaining a desired course (see navigation). The two most common methods are governed by visual flight regulations (VFR) and instrument flight regulations (IFR). Small airborne computer systems can now give the pilot the plane's position and can carry out dead reckoning by monitoring all course and speed changes. The automatic pilot also interprets data on direction, speed, and altitude to maintain an aircraft in straight, level flight. For landing, the pilot is often guided by radio communication from a controller observing the plane via ground-based radar. Some systems actually land the plane automatically, although the pilot always has the option of overriding manually. airplane, aeroplane airplane, aeroplane, or aircraft,heavier-than-air vehicle, mechanically driven and fitted with fixed wings that support it in flight through the dynamic action of the air. On Dec. 17, 1903, Americans Orville and Wilbur WRIGHT flew the first airplane near Kitty Hawk, N.C. The machine was a biplane with two propellers chain-driven by a gasoline motor. Modern airplanes are monoplanes (airplanes with one set of wings). Airplanes may further be classified as driven by propeller, JET PROPULSION, or ROCKET. The airplane has six main parts: fuselage, wings, stabilizer (or tail plane), rudder, one or more engines, and landing gear. The fuselage is the main body, usually streamlined in form. The wings are the main supporting surfaces. The airplane's lift, or force supporting it in flight, is basically the result of the direct action of air against the surfaces of the wings (see AERODYNAMICS). With the use of jet engines and the resulting higher speeds, airplanes have become less dependent on large values of lift from the wings. Consequently wings have been shortened and swept back so as to produce less drag, especially at supersonic speeds. At the trailing edge of the wings are attached movable surfaces, called ailerons (see AIRFOIL) that are used to gain lateral control and to turn the plane. Directional stability is provided by the tail fin, a fixed vertical airfoil at the rear of the airplane. The stabilizer is a fixed horizontal airfoil at the rear of the airplane used to suppress undesired pitching motion. The elevators, which are movable auxiliary surfaces attached to the stabilizers, are used to produce controlled pitching. The rudder, generally at the rear of the tail fin, is a movable auxiliary airfoil that gives the craft a yawing movement in normal flight. The landing gear is the understructure that supports the weight of the craft when on the ground or on the water and that reduces the shock on landing. See AVIATION; SEAPLANE; SHORT TAKEOFF AND LANDING AIRCRAFT; VERTICAL TAKEOFF AND LANDING AIRCRAFT. air plant air plant: see EPIPHYTE. air pollution air pollution: see POLLUTION. airship airship or dirigible,aircraft consisting of a cigar-shaped balloon that carries a propulsion system (propellers), a steering mechanism, and accomodations for passengers, crew, and cargo. The balloon section is filled with a lighter-than-air gas-either helium, which is nonflammable, or hydrogen-to give the airship its lift. The balloon maintains its form by the internal gas pressure in the nonrigid (blimp) and semirigid types of airships; the latter in addition has a rigid keel. The rigid type maintains its form by having a metal framework that holds its shape regardless of the internal gas pressure; inside the hull are a number of small gas-filled balloons. The first successful power-driven airship was built by the French inventor Henri Giffard in 1852. Count Ferdinand von ZEPPELIN of Germany invented the first rigid airship, which was completed in 1900. The German airship Hindenburg burned at its mooring mast at Lakehurst, N.J., in 1937. No rigid airship survived World War II. Aix-la-Chapelle Aix-la-Chapelle: see AACHEN, West Germany. Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of: see AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE. Ajax Ajax, in Greek mythology.1The Telamonian Ajax, hero of the TROJAN WAR. In the Iliad he is a huge man, slow of thought and speech, but very courageous. He and ODYSSEUS rescued the corpse of ACHILLES. When Odysseus was awarded Achilles' armor the disappointed Ajax went mad and committed suicide.2The Locrian Ajax, who violated CASSANDRA in the sack of Troy. Shipwrecked by ATHENA, he was saved by POSEIDON, but struck dead by lightning for his defiance. Akbar Akbar, 1542-1605, Mogul emperor of INDIA (1556-1605). An outstanding general, Akbar added AFGHANISTAN, Baluchistan, and N India to his domains. This reign was marked by administrative reform, religious toleration, and the flowering of art and literature. Akhenaton Akhenaton: see IKHNATON. Akhmatova, Anna Akhmatova, Anna, pseud. of Anna Andreyevna Gorenko, 1889-1966, Russian poet of the ACMEIST school. Her brief, highly emotional lyrics are simply and musically written. Among her most important volumes are The Rosary (1914) and The Course of Time (1966). Akiba ben Joseph Akiba ben Joseph, AD c.50-c.135, Palestinian rabbi. He compiled a collection of Hebrew Oral Law, Mishna of Rabbi Akiba (see MISHNA). After siding with BAR KOKBA in his revolt against Rome, Akiba was imprisoned and, it is said, tortured to death by the Romans. Akihito Akihito, 1933-, Japanese emperor designate, son of HIROHITO. Following Hirohito's death (1989), he assumed the duties of emperor. He will officially assume his father's title in Nov., 1990. He was the first member of the royal family to marry (1959) a commoner, Michiko Shodar. Akkad Akkad, northern part of later BABYLONIA, in Mesopotamia; the southern part was SUMER. In the 4th millennium BC a Semitic city-state appeared, and under Sargon (c.2340 BC) Akkad became an imperial power. Akkad and Sumer were united as Babylonia by HAMMURABI. The name Akkad also appears as Accad. Akkadian Akkadian, language belonging to the Semitic subfamily of the Hamito-Semitic family of languages. Also called Assyro-Babylonian, Akkadian was current in ancient MESOPOTAMIA (now IRAQ) from about 3000 BC until the time of Christ. See LANGUAGE. Akron Akron, city (1986 est. pop. 222,060), seat of Summit co., NE Ohio, on the Little Cuyahoga R. and the Ohio and Erie Canal; settled 1825; inc. as a city 1865. It is a port of entry and an important industrial and transportation center. From the opening of the first plant in 1870, Akron became the rubber capital of the U.S.; corporate and research headquarters of the major producers are located there. Metalworking, aerospace industries, and polymer research are important. Akron's Art Institute is well known. Akte Akte: see ATHOS. Akutagawa Ryunosuke Akutagawa Ryunosuke, 1892-1927, Japanese author. One of Japan's finest short-story writers, he derived many of his tales from historical Japanese sources, but told them with psychological insights in an individualistic style. "Rashomon" (1915) and "In a Grove" (1921) were made into the classic 1950 film Rashomon, directed by KUROSAWA AKIRA. al- al-. For Arabic names beginning thus, see the second part of the name, e.g., SADAT, ANWAR AL-. Al Al, chemical symbol of the element ALUMINUM. Alabama Alabama, state in the SE U.S.; bordered by Tennessee (N), Georgia (E), Florida and the Gulf of Mexico (S), and Mississippi (W). Area, 51,609 sq mi (133,677 sq km). Pop. (1986 est.) 4,052,000, a 4.1% increase over 1980 pop. Capital, Montgomery. Statehood, Dec. 14, 1819 (22d state). Highest pt., Cheaha Mt., 2,407 ft (734 m); lowest pt., sea level. Nickname, Heart of Dixie. Motto, We Dare Defend Our Rights. State bird, yellowhammer. State flower, camellia. State tree, Southern (longleaf) pine. Abbr., Ala.; AL. Land and People Except for the southern edge of the APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS, in the northeast, Alabama consists mostly of rolling plains drained by the Alabama and Tombigbee rivers. The fertile Black Belt is located in central Alabama. The climate is subtropical and humid. More than 60% of the population lives in metropolitan areas, principally in BIRMINGHAM, a steel center; MOBILE, a major U.S. port; MONTGOMERY, the capital; and HUNTSVILLE, an aerospace center. Economy Although cotton is still grown, it has been supplanted in revenue earned by cattle and poultry, soybeans, and peanuts. Dams on the TENNESSEE R., in the north, provide power for the state's industries, whose leading products are iron and steel, paper and wood products, chemicals, and processed foods. Oil is produced in the south, and fishing is important along the coast. Lumbering is a major industry throughout Alabama. The population (1984) was 73% white and 27% black and other groups. Government According to the constitution of 1901, the government is headed by a governor elected to a four-year term. The legislature is composed of a 35-member senate and 105-member house of representatives elected to four-year terms. Alabama sends seven representatives and two senators to the U.S. Congress and has nine electoral votes. History When Spanish explorers, including Hernando DE SOTO, visited the region during the 16th cent., they found the CREEK, CHEROKEE, CHOCTAW, and CHICKASAW tribes. In 1702 the French established the first white settlement. Andrew JACKSON defeated (1814) the Creek Confederacy at Horseshoe Bend, ushering in a period of rapid settlement. Subsequently, huge plantations utilizing slave labor were established to cultivate cotton. Alabama seceded from the Union in 1861. Following the CIVIL WAR the defeated state was placed under military rule; it was readmitted to the Union in 1868. Alabama slowly recovered from the war and the corruption of RECONSTRUCTION, a process made easier by the beginning of industrialization. Agricultural diversification began after the boll weevil infested the cotton fields during the early 20th cent. The 1954 Supreme Court decision outlawing school segregation ushered in a painful period of INTEGRATION and the growth of the CIVIL RIGHTS movement. Despite opposition by Gov. George WALLACE and a few acts of racial violence in the state, most public schools in Alabama had been successfully desegregated by the early 1970s. In the late 1970s and early 1980s public attention shifted to assuring the state's economic growth by encouraging further diversification of manufacturing industries. Alabama claims Alabama claims, claims by the U.S. against Great Britain after the U.S. CIVIL WAR for damage to merchant ships caused by British-built Confederate cruisers. A tribunal (1871-72) at Geneva awarded the U.S. $15.5 million for damage caused by the Confederate ships Alabama, Florida, and Shenandoah. alabaster alabaster, fine-grained, translucent variety of the mineral GYPSUM, pure white or streaked with reddish brown. Its softness makes it easily carved but also easily broken, soiled, and weathered. Quarried in England and Italy, it is used to make statuary and other decorative objects. The Oriental alabaster of ancient Egyptian and Roman tombs is actually MARBLE, a calcium carbonate, whereas gypsum is a calcium sulfate. Alain-Fournier Alain-Fournier, 1886-1914, French novelist; b. Henri Alban Fournier. His single full-length work, The Wanderer (1913), about a youthful search for the ideal, is a delicate blend of symbolism and realism. Alamein, El Alamein, El,or Al Alamayn, town, N Egypt, on the Mediterranean Sea. During WORLD WAR II it was the site of a decisive British victory (1942) against the Germans. The victory saved Egypt for the Allies and led to the defeat (1943) of the Axis powers in North Africa. Alamo, the Alamo, the [Span.,=cottonwood], chapel-fort in San Antonio, Tex., built c.1744. It was held by Davy CROCKETT, Jim Bowie, W. TRAVIS, and about 180 other Texans against a siege by an army of several thousand Mexicans under Gen. SANTA ANNA (Feb. 24-Mar. 6, 1836) during the Texas Revolution. While the defenders died, their resistance rallied others who defeated the Mexicans six weeks later, crying "Remember the Alamo!" Aland Islands Aland Islands: see AHVENANMAA ISLANDS. Alarcon, Pedro Antonio de Alarcon, Pedro Antonio de, 1833-91, Spanish writer and diplomat. His novels, witty and often realistic, include The Three-Cornered Hat (1874), on which FALLA based a ballet, and Captain Venom (1881). Alarcon y Mendoza, Juan Ruiz de Alarcon y Mendoza, Juan Ruiz de, 1581?-1639, Spanish dramatic poet; b. Mexico. His brilliant and lively comedies (2 vol., 1628-34) make him a major literary figure of Spain's GOLDEN AGE. The most famous, The Suspicious Truth, was the model for The Liar by CORNEILLE. Alaric I Alaric I, c.370-410, Visigothic king. After the death of Roman Emperor THEODOSIUS I he ravaged the Balkans until stopped by STILICHO, invaded Italy, and sacked Rome (410). Alas, Leopoldo Alas, Leopoldo, pseud. Clarin, 1852-1901, Spanish writer. He was a professor of law at the Univ. of Oviedo. His masterpiece is the naturalistic novel The Regent's Wife (1885), a detailed analysis of provincial life. Alaska Alaska, least populous but largest state in area of the U.S., occupying the northwest extremity of the North American continent, separated from the coterminous U.S. by NW Canada. It is bordered by British Columbia and Yukon Territory (E), the Pacific Ocean (S), the Bering Sea (W), and the Arctic Ocean (N). Area, 586,412 sq mi (1,518,800 sq km). Pop. (1986 est.) 534,000, a 32.8% increase over 1980 pop. Capital, Juneau. Statehood, Jan. 3, 1959 (49th state). Highest pt., Mt. McKinley, 20,320 ft (6,198 m); lowest pt., sea level. Motto, North to the Future. State bird, willow ptarmigan. State flower, forget-me-not. State tree, Sitka spruce. Abbr., AK. Land and People Along the heavily indented coast are two peninsulas, the Seward Peninsula to the west, and, farther south, the Alaska Peninsula, from which the ALEUTIAN ISLANDS extend. The interior is dominated by rugged mountains, including the Alaska Range, where Denali, or Mount MCKINLEY (20,320 ft/6,198 m), the highest point in North America, is located. Many tourists are attracted by the state's dramatic scenery, some of the most spectacular located in its eight NATIONAL PARKS. Winters in the interiors are very cold; summers are brief but hot. The COAST RANGES dominate the more temperate panhandle region, in the southeast, where the Inside Passage traverses the Alexander Archipelago, located just offshore. Principal lowlands are in the central region-drained by the YUKON R.-and, in the far north, the North Slope, along the Arctic coast. The largest city is ANCHORAGE, followed by FAIRBANKS and JUNEAU; about 45% of the population lives in metropolitan areas. In 1984 the population, the fastest growing in the U.S., was 79% white, 21% other races, mostly ESKIMO and ALEUTS and some blacks. Economy The economy has been transformed since the discovery (1968) of North Slope oil and natural gas deposits, and their exploitation dominates the economy. The Alaska pipeline (built 1974-77) carries oil from PRUDHOE BAY to the port of Valdez, in the south. Coal, platinum, copper, gold, and uranium are among other minerals mined. Alaska has the largest fishing industry in the U.S.; the small manufacturing sector is dominated by the processing of fish and lumber. Fur export is important. Because of the harsh climate and terrain there is little agriculture. Government The constitution (adopted 1956) provides for a governor elected to a four-year term. The state legislature is composed of a senate whose 20 members serve four-year terms and a house whose 40 members serve two-year terms. Alaska sends two senators and one representative to the U.S. Congress and has three electoral votes. History The first white settlers were Russians who crossed the BERING STRAIT in search of furs and established (1784) the first permanent settlement on Kodiak Island. In 1867 Russia sold Alaska to the U.S. for $7.2 million. The first influx of Americans came in the gold rush of the 1890s and the 1900s. During WORLD WAR II the Japanese occupied (1942) Attu and Kiska, in the Aleutian Islands, but were driven out (1943) by U.S. forces. The war contributed to Alaska's economic development through construction of the Alaska highway and of defense installations. The state's greatest economic boom occurred after the extensive oil discoveries of 1968, and huge off-shore deposits found in 1980 promised future development. Against strong opposition by state residents favoring private control of resources, the U.S. Congress approved (1980) the Alaska lands bill, which designated more than 104 million acres (42 million hectares) of national parks, wildlife refuges, and wilderness areas. In 1989 an oil tanker bringing oil from PRUDHOE BAY spilled 10-million gallons of oil near the port of Valdez causing severe economic and environmental damage. Alaskan malamute Alaskan malamute, strong, compact WORKING DOG; shoulder height, c.23 in. (58.2 cm); weight, 70-85 lb (31.75-38.5 kg). Its coarse coat, composed of oily, woolly underhairs and a thick cover coat, may be any shade of gray or black, with white markings. The malamute has been raised for centuries as a sled dog. Alba Albaor Alva, Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, duque de , 1507?-82, Spanish governor general and regent of the NETHERLANDS (1567-73). A ruthless absolutist, he crushed the rebellious provinces, executing some 18,000 Netherlanders, and defeated (1572) the invading army of WILLIAM THE SILENT. Recalled to Spain, he completed the conquest (1580) of PORTUGAL by capturing Lisbon. albacore albacore: see TUNA. Albania Albania, Albanian Shqipnija or Shqiperia, officially People's Socialist Republic of Albania, republic (1982 pop. 2,786,000), 11,101 sq mi (28,752 sq km), SE Europe, on the Adriatic coast of the Balkan Peninsula; bordered by Yugoslavia (N and E) and Greece (S). TIRANE is the capital. Except for the fertile ADRIATIC coast, Albania is mountainous, rising to 9,066 ft (2,763 m) at Mt. Korab. Albania is rich in mineral resources, notably chromium, coal, copper, oil, and nickel, and mining is the largest source of income. Only one tenth of the land is cultivated, and half of that is in vineyards and olive groves; grains, cotton, tobacco, and livestock are also important. The leading industries include food processing, textiles, and the manufacture of petroleum products, footwear, and building materials. Industry, mines, and agriculture are nationalized. About 97% of the population is ethnic Albanian. Albania is officially an atheist country, but the population is predominantly Muslim, with Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox minorities. History Albania was settled in ancient times by Illyrians and Thracians; the area then comprised parts of ILLYRIA and EPIRUS. The Greeks colonized the coast, and the entire region came under Roman and Byzantine rule. SCANDERBEG (d. 1468), Albania's national hero, delayed but did not stop the OTTOMAN EMPIRE'S conquest of the area, which was complete by 1478. More than four centuries of Turkish Islamic rule followed, and national aspirations were suppressed until, during the First BALKAN WAR, Albania proclaimed independence (1912). In 1913 an international commission assigned large areas claimed by Albania to MONTENEGRO, SERBIA, and GREECE. The scene of political chaos and a battleground for contending European and Balkan forces after WORLD WAR I, the country came (1925) under the rule of Ahmed Zogu, who proclaimed himself (1928) King ZOG. Italy invaded Albania in 1939, setting up a puppet government that fought with the Axis powers in WORLD WAR II. After 1944, power passed to antifascist guerrilla leader Enver HOXHA, a Communist, who proclaimed a republic in 1946. Opposed to de-Stalinization, Albania broke with the USSR in 1961. It became a close ally of China, but that friendship ended in 1978. Hoxhe died in 1985 and was succeeded by Ramiz Alia. Albany, Alexander Stuart Albany, Alexander Stuart or Stewart, duke of:see STUART, ALEXANDER, DUKE OF ALBANY. Albany Albany, city (1986 est. pop. 97,020), state capital and seat of Albany co., E N.Y., on the Hudson R.; settled 1624, inc. 1686. A deepwater port and trading center for a farm and resort area, it has diversified manufactures, including textiles, paper, chemicals, and automotive parts. The Dutch built (1613) a fur trading post there; the English took control and named the city in 1664. State capital from 1797, it grew with the opening of the Erie and Champlain canals (1820s). The state capitol (1867-98) and many old houses and new state office buildings are prominent in the city, which was redeveloped in the 1960s. Albany Congress Albany Congress, 1754, a meeting of British colonial representatives in Albany, N.Y. Because of the impending war with France, a treaty was made between seven British colonies and the Iroquois Indians. Benjamin FRANKLIN'S Plan of Union for the colonies was also approved, but was later rejected by the colonial legislatures and by the crown. Albany Regency Albany Regency, informal group of Democratic party leaders in New York state after 1820. Developed by Martin VAN BUREN, the Regency was among the first effective political machines. It used the SPOILS SYSTEM and maintained strict party discipline. After 1842 it split into factions (BARNBURNERS and HUNKERS) over internal improvements and slavery. albatross albatross, sea BIRD (family Diomedeidae) with tapered wings that enable it to excel at gliding and flying. Most are found in the South Pacific, although a few, e.g., the black-footed albatross (Diomedea nigripes), frequent the north Pacific. The wandering albatross (D. exulans), with a wingspan of 10 to 12 ft (305 to 366 cm), was made famous by COLERIDGE'S Rime of the Ancient Mariner. Albee, Edward Albee, Edward, 1928-, American playwright; b. Washington, D.C. His clever, often satiric plays include the one-act The Zoo Story (1959), and the full-length Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (1962), widely regarded as his finest work; A Delicate Balance (1967; Pulitzer); and Seascape (1975; Pulitzer). Albemarle, George Monck Albemarle, George Monck or Monk,1st duke of:see MONCK, George. Albeniz, Isaac Albeniz, Isaac, 1860-1909, Spanish pianist and composer. Influenced by LISZT and DEBUSSY, he is best remembered for his later piano works, especially Iberia (1906-9), which combine Spanish folk material with brilliant pianistic idiom. Alberdi, Juan Bautista Alberdi, Juan Bautista, 1810-84, Argentine political philosopher and diplomat. Suggestions in his Bases and Starting Points for the Political Organization of the Argentine Republic (1852) were incorporated into the constitution of 1853. He served on several diplomatic missions. Albers, Josef Albers, Josef, 1888-1976, German-American artist, designer, and teacher; b. Germany. After working at the BAUHAUS (1920-23), he came to the U.S. As director of the Yale School of Art (1950-58), he was a major figure in American art education. He is best-known for a series of paintings, Homage to the Square, which portrays colors in quasi-concentric squares. Albert I Albert I, 1875-1934, king of the Belgians (1909-34), nephew and successor of LEOPOLD II. During WORLD WAR I he led his country in resisting the German invasion (1914). He also improved social conditions in Belgium and the Belgian CONGO. His son, LEOPOLD III, succeeded him. Albert Albert, 1819-61, prince consort of VICTORIA of Great Britain; son of Ernest I, duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. His initial unpopularity as an alien prince was modified by his devotion to the queen and his concern with public affairs, particularly diplomacy. His insistence on a moderate approach to the TRENT AFFAIR may have avoided war with the U.S. Alberta Alberta, province (1986 pop. 2,365,825), 255,284 sq mi (661,185 sq km), W Canada, bordered by Saskatchewan (E), the Northwest Territories (N), British Columbia (W), and Montana (S). Alberta is a high plateau, rising in the west to the ROCKY MOUNTAINS and the CONTINENTAL DIVIDE. Although it is one of the Prairie Provinces, only about 25% of Alberta's area, chiefly in the south, is treeless. Central Alberta is partly wooded, and the north is principally timberland. The province is drained by the Athabasca, the Saskatchewan, the Red Deer, and other rivers. The population is centered in S and central Alberta, and the principal cities are EDMONTON, the capital, and CALGARY. Until recently, agriculture was Alberta's basic industry. Grain, especially wheat, is the dominant crop, and livestock raising, dairying, lumbering, and manufacturing are also important. Since the early 1960s, however, mineral exploitation has been the major industry. Alberta is believed to have some of the richest oil deposits in the world-notably the tar beds of the Athabasca River-and has abundant natural gas. Its coal beds contain about one half of Canada's known reserves. Tourists are attracted to the province's outstanding national parks-Jasper, Banff, Waterton Lakes, and Wood Buffalo. History Alberta was part of the territory granted (1670) to the HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY and was dominated by the fur trade. In 1870 the company sold the area to the newly created confederation of Canada and in 1872 the mounted police established Fort Macleod in S Alberta. In 1882 the region became an administrative division, and the Canadian Pacific Railway opened the area to settlement. Alberta became a province in 1905. Oil was discovered in 1914, but only when a find was made near Edmonton in 1947 did Alberta's economy begin to change. Politically, Albertans turned to William ABERHART and the SOCIAL CREDIT party in 1935. In 1971 the Progressive Conservatives gained control of the Provincial Assembly. Alberta sends 6 senators (appointed) and 21 representatives (elected) to the national parliament. Alberti, Leone Battista Alberti, Leone Battista, 1404-72, Italian architect, musician, painter, and humanist. His treatise De re aedificatoria (c.1450), though dependent on the Roman architect Vitruvius, was the first modern work on architecture, and influenced the development of RENAISSANCE architectural style. Among the notable buildings erected from his designs is the Palazzo Rucellai, Florence. Alberti's treatises on painting (1436) and sculpture (c.1464) were also influential. Albertus Magnus, Saint Albertus Magnus, Saint, or Saint Albert the Great,b. 1193 or 1206, d. 1280, scholastic philosopher, Doctor of the Church, called the Universal Doctor. A DOMINICAN, he attempted in his Summa theologiae to reconcile Aristotelianism with Christian thought. St. THOMAS AQUINAS was his pupil. Albertus was also deeply interested in natural science and was the first to produce arsenic in a free form. Feast: Nov. 15. See also ARISTOTLE; SCHOLASTICISM. Albigenses Albigenses, religious sect of S France (12th-13th cent.), whose beliefs were similar in many ways to MANICHAEISM. They were Christian heretics who believed in the coexistence of good and evil. They held that matter was evil and that Jesus only seemed to have a body. Ascetic and enthusiastic, they persisted despite papal opposition. The murder of a papal legate led INNOCENT III to declare (1208) the Albigensian Crusade, which was soon redirected toward political ends. In 1233 the INQUISITION was formed to halt Albigensianism, and slowly over 100 years the movement died. albino albino, animal or plant lacking normal pigmentation. The albino body covering (skin, hair, and feathers) and eyes lack pigment. In humans and other animals albinism is inherited as a recessive trait. Breeding has established albino races in some domestic animals. Albinus Albinus: see ALCUIN. albumin albumin, member of a class of water-soluble, heat-coagulating PROTEINS. Albumins are widely distributed in plant and animal tissues, e.g., ovalbumin of egg, lactalbumin of milk, and leucosin of wheat. Some contain carbohydrates. Normally constituting about 55% of the plasma proteins, albumins adhere chemically to various substances in the blood, e.g., AMINO ACIDS, and thus play a role in their transport. Albumins and other blood proteins aid in regulating the distribution of water in the body. Albumins are also used in textile printing, the fixation of dyes, sugar refining, and other important processes. Albuquerque, Afonso de Albuquerque, Afonso de, 1453-1515, Portuguese admiral, founder of the Portuguese empire in the East. He captured Goa (1510), Malacca (1511), and Hormuz (1513), built a series of forts in INDIA, and established shipbuilding and other industries. Control of the spice trade and of trade routes were nearly accomplished during his tenure. Albuquerque Albuquerque, city (1986 est. pop. 366,750), seat of Bernalillo co., W central N. Mex., on the upper Rio Grande; inc. 1890. It is the largest city in the state, and the industrial and commercial center of a timber and farm area. Its diverse industries include electronics, and nuclear research and weapons development conducted by federal agencies. The city's downtown was the site of a 1980s urban renewal project. Albuquerque is also noted as a health resort and medical center. The city was founded by the Spanish in 1706 and grew with the arrival (1880) of the railroad. Alcaeus Alcaeus, d. c.580 BC, Greek poet, early personal lyric writer. Traditionally an associate of SAPPHO, he wrote both light and political verse. The Alcaic strophe was admired and adapted by HORACE. Alcala Zamora, Niceto Alcala Zamora, Niceto, 1877-1949, president of Spain (1931-36). He helped to lead the republican revolution of 1931 and became the first president of the second Spanish republic. He was deposed (1936) by the CORTES on a Socialist motion and went into exile. alcalde alcalde, Spanish title designating a town mayor who also acts as justice of the peace. It originated in the 11th cent. to designate a judge with administrative functions. In the Spanish colonies it was used for a provincial administrator who presided over the Cabildo or municipal council. Alcatraz Alcatraz, island in San Francisco Bay, W Calif. Discovered (1769) and fortified by the Spanish, it was (1859-1933) the site of a U.S. military prison and then (1933-63) federal maximum security prison, called "The Rock." It became part of the Golden Gate National Recreational Area in 1972. Alcestis Alcestis, in Greek mythology, the devoted wife of a Thessalian king, Admetus. She willingly died in his place, to ensure his immortality. In some myths HERCULES rescued her from the dead; in others PERSEPHONE reunited husband and wife. EURIPIDES dramatized the legend in his Alcestis. alchemy alchemy, ancient art or pseudoscience that sought to turn base metals into gold or silver through the agency of a secret substance known by various names (philosopher's stone, elixir, grand magistry). Emerging in China and Egypt by the 3d cent. BC, alchemy was cloaked in mysticism and allegory, and in time degenerated into superstition. Revived (8th cent.) in Alexandria by the Arabs, it reached W Europe by the Middle Ages. In the 15th-17th cent. experimentation again fell into disrepute, but the base had been laid for modern CHEMISTRY, which has in fact accomplished the transmutation of elements. Alcibiades Alcibiades, c.450-404 BC, Athenian statesman and general. A leader against SPARTA in the PELOPONNESIAN WAR, he was defeated at Mantinea (418 BC). He promoted the Sicilian campaign (415) but was accused (probably falsely) of sacrilege. Called home for trial, he fled to Sparta, where he aided Agis I, and then to Persia (413). Recalled to ATHENS, he won a brilliant naval victory (410) and recovered Byzantium (408). Blamed unjustly for the defeat of the Athenian fleet at Notium (c.406), he was sent into exile, and LYSANDER had him murdered. Alcindor, Lew Alcindor, Lew: see ABDUL-JABBAR, KAREEM. alcohol alcohol, any of a class of organic compounds with the general formula R-OH, where R is an alkyl group made up of carbon and hydrogen and -OH is one or more hydroxyl groups, each made up of one atom of oxygen and one of hydrogen. Although the term alcohol ordinarily refers to ETHANOL, the alcohol in alcoholic beverages, the class of alcohols also includes METHANOL and the amyl, butyl, and propyl alcohols, all with one hydroxyl group; the glycols, with two hydroxyl groups; and glycerol, with three. Many of the characteristic properties and reactions of alcohols are due to the polarity, or unequal distribution, of electric charges in the C-O-H portion of the molecule. Alcoholics Anonymous Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), worldwide organization dedicated to the curing of alcoholics; est. 1935 by two former alcoholics. The organization, which functions through local groups, is based on a philosophy of life that has enabled countless numbers of people to recover from alcoholism. In 1988 there were 1 million members worldwide. Al-Anon, for spouses, relatives, and friends of alcoholics, and Al-Ateen, for their adolescent children, function similarly. alcoholism alcoholism, chronic illness characterized by the habitual consumption of alcohol to a degree that interferes with physical or mental health, or with normal social or occupational behavior. A widespread health problem, it produces both physical and psychological addiction (see DRUG ADDICTION AND DRUG ABUSE). Alcohol is a central nervous system DEPRESSANT that reduces anxiety, inhibition, and feelings of guilt; lowers alertness; impairs perception, judgment, and muscular coordination; and, in high doses, can cause unconsciousness and even death. Long-term alcoholism damages the brain, liver (see CIRRHOSIS), heart, and other organs. Symptoms of alcohol withdrawal can range from a simple hangover to severe delirium tremens (a condition characterized by deliriousness, violent trembling, hallucinations, and seizures). Treatment includes use of disulfiram (Antabuse), a drug that produces discomfort if alcohol is consumed; anti-anxiety drugs to suppress withdrawal symptoms; psychological counseling; and support from groups such as ALCOHOLICS ANONYMOUS. Alcott, (Amos) Bronson Alcott, (Amos) Bronson, 1799-1888, American educational and social reformer; b. near Wolcott, Conn. Despite his meager formal education, he became a teacher and founded Temple School in Boston. A leading exponent of TRANSCENDENTALISM, he was (1843) one of the founders of a cooperative vegetarian community, "Fruitlands," and then, as superintendent, reformed the Concord public schools. The poverty that plagued his life was eventually alleviated by the writings of his daughter Louisa May ALCOTT. Alcott, Louisa May Alcott, Louisa May, 1832-88, American writer; b. Germantown, Pa.; daughter of Bronson ALCOTT. Educated by her father, she was also influenced by her friends EMERSON and THOREAU. Alcott received notice for Hospital Sketches (1863), a collection of letters written while she was a Civil War nurse. She achieved fame with Little Women (1868-69), a largely autobiographical novel for young people that portrays Victorian American family life. Its sequels are Little Men (1871) and Jo's Boys (1886). Alcuin Alcuin or Albinus,735?-804, English churchman and educator. Invited (781?) to CHARLEMAGNE'S court at Aachen, he was the moving spirit of the CAROLINGIAN renaissance. Alcuin established the study of the seven liberal arts, which became the curriculum for medieval Europe, and encouraged the preservation of ancient texts. His letters are extant. Aldanov, Mark Aldanov, Mark, pseud. of Mark Aleksandrovich Landau, 1886-1957, Russian novelist. Aldanov emigrated to France in 1919 and to the U.S. in 1941. His works include The Thinker (1923-27), about the era from 1793 to 1821 in France; The Tenth Symphony (1931), set in the Vienna of BEETHOVEN'S time; and The Fifth Seal (1939), which portrays the decay of revolutionary idealism during the SPANISH CIVIL WAR. alder alder, deciduous tree or shrub (genus Alnus) of the BIRCH family, widely distributed, especially in mountainous, moist areas of the north temperate zone and in the Andes. The bark of the black alder (A. glutinosa), once used medicinally, is still used for dyes and tanning. Red alder (A. rubra) is the most important hardwood on the Pacific coast of North America. Aldington, Richard Aldington, Richard, 1892-1962, English poet and novelist. A leading IMAGIST, he was married to Hilda DOOLITTLE. His poetry, e.g., Images (1915), is remarkable for verbal precision; his novels, e.g., Death of a Hero (1929) are bitter satires. Aldrich, Thomas Bailey Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, 1836-1907, American author; b. Portsmouth, N.H. He is most widely known for his autobiographical The Story of a Bad Boy (1870). A skillful writer of light verse, he also served (1881-90) as editor of the Atlantic Monthly. Aldrin, Buzz Aldrin, Buzz (Edwin Eugene Aldrin, Jr.), 1930-, American astronaut; b. Montclair, N.J. During the Apollo 11 lunar-landing mission (July 16-24, 1969), Neil ARMSTRONG (the commander) and Aldrin (the lunar-module pilot) became the first and second persons, respectively, to walk on the moon (see SPACE EXPLORATION,). Aldrin was pilot of Gemini 12 (Nov. 11-15, 1966) and, after retiring from NASA, served (1971-72) as commandant of the Aerospace Research Pilots' School at Edwards Air Force Base, Calif. Aldus Manutius Aldus Manutius or Aldo Manuzio,1450-1515, Venetian printer. A humanist scholar, he printed Greek and Roman classics in editions noted for accuracy, e.g., a five-volume set of the works of ARISTOTLE (completed 1498). To produce small, low-cost books for scholars, he designed the first complete font of the Greek alphabet and the first italic TYPE (1501). Books produced by him are called Aldine and bear his mark, a dolphin and an anchor. ale ale: see BEER. Aleichem, Sholom Aleichem, Sholom: see SHOLOM ALEICHEM. Aleixandre, Vicente Aleixandre, Vicente, 1898-1984, Spanish poet. His verse includes the surrealist Destruction of Love (1935) and A Longing for the Light (tr. 1979). He was awarded the 1977 Nobel Prize in literature. Aleman, Mateo Aleman, Mateo, 1547-1614?, Spanish novelist. He led a turbulent life and was twice jailed for debt; at 60 he settled in Mexico. His fame rests on the picaresque novel Guzman de Alfarache (1599-1604). Aleman Valdes, Miguel Aleman Valdes, Miguel, 1902-, president of MEXICO (1946-52). The first civilian president after MADERO, he initiated a vigorous program of modernization. Alembert, Jean le Rond d' Alembert, Jean le Rond d', 1717-83, French mathematician and philosopher, a leading figure of the ENLIGHTENMENT. His treatise on DYNAMICS (1743) enunciated d'Alembert's principle, which permitted the reduction of a problem in dynamics to one in STATICS. He did important work on the mechanics of rigid bodies, the motions of fluids and vibrating strings, and the three-body problem in CELESTIAL MECHANICS. Diderot made him coeditor of the ENCYCLOPEDIE, for which he wrote the "preliminary discourse" (1751) and mathematical, philosophical, and literary articles. Alepoudelis, Odysseus Alepoudelis, Odysseus: see ELYTIS, ODYSSEUS. Aleppo Aleppo or Alep,city (1981 pop. 976,727), NW Syria. Located in a semidesert region where grains, cotton, and fruit are grown, the city produces silk, dried fruits, and other goods. It was settled perhaps as early as the 6th millennium BC and passed to the Assyrians, Persians, and Seleucids. By the 4th cent. AD it was a center of Christianity in the Byzantine Empire. The Arabs, Seljuk Turks, and others later held it. Aleppo prospered under the Ottoman Turks (from 1517) and the French (from 1918), and as part of independent Syria (from 1941). Historic structures include the Great Mosque (715) and the Byzantine citadel (12th cent.). Aleutian Islands Aleutian Islands, strategically important chain of rugged, volcanic islands, W Alaska, curving westward c.1,200 mi (1,900 km) between the Bering Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Unalaska, the most populous island, is part of the easternmost group, the Fox Islands. Extending west to a point near the USSR are the Andreanof, Rat, Near, and Semichi island groups. The Aleutians were discovered in 1741 by Vitus BERING and bought by the U.S. from Russia in 1867 as part of the Alaska purchase. Three western islands-Attu, Agattu, and Kiska-were occupied (1942-43) by Japan. Aleuts Aleuts, native inhabitants of the ALEUTIAN ISLANDS and W Alaska. They speak an Eskimo-Aleut language (see AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES) and, like the ESKIMO, resemble Siberian peoples. Their skill in hunting sea mammals was exploited by Russian fur traders, and wars with mainland tribes helped to reduce their numbers from the 20,000-25,000 estimated by Vitus BERING to around 1,800 today. Alexander III Alexander III, d. 1181, pope (1159-81), a Sienese born Orlando Bandinelli. His rule was contested by antipopes until 1178. He backed the LOMBARD LEAGUE in opposing Holy Roman Emperor FREDERICK I, who exiled him to France until 1176. A learned canon lawyer, he issued many rules for governing the church. In 1179 he convened the Third Lateran Council. Alexander VI Alexander VI, 1431?-1503, pope (1492-1503), a Spaniard named Rodrigo de Borja (Ital., Borgia). Notorious in later centuries as a corrupt and worldly pope, he showered his illegitimate children, Cesare and Lucretia BORGIA, with money and favors. Girolamo SAVONAROLA was his outspoken critic. Alexander opposed CHARLES VIII of France and proclaimed (1494) the line of demarcation between Spanish and Portuguese colonial possessions. Alexander Alexander, czars of Russia. Alexander I, 1777-1825 (r.1801-25), was the son of PAUL I. He began his reign by relaxing political repression to a degree. In 1805 he joined the coalition against NAPOLEON I, but after Russian defeats he made a tenuous alliance with France by signing the Treaty of Tilsit (1807). After the French invasion of Russia (1812) was repulsed he created the HOLY ALLIANCE, joining with METTERNICH to suppress national and liberal movements. His reactionary domestic policies led to opposition, and when his brother NICHOLAS I succeeded him in 1825 a revolt took place (see DECEMBRISTS). Alexander II, 1818-81 (r.1855-81), son of Nicholas I, negotiated an end to the CRIMEAN WAR (1853-56; see PARIS, TREATY OF) and adopted important reforms, principally the emancipation of the serfs (1861; see EMANCIPATION, EDICT OF) and the introduction of limited local self-government. His foreign policy included the suppression of the Polish uprising of 1863; the annexation of Central Asia (1865-76); and the RUSSO-TURKISH WARS (1877-78). His domestic reforms were seen as insufficient by the intelligentsia, some of whom formed populist groups. Increasing repression led to terrorism, and in 1881 Alexander was assassinated. Alexander III, 1845-94 (r.1881-94), was the son of Alexander II. Surrounded by reactionary advisors, he increased police power and censorship; weakened the zemstvos; imposed controls on the peasantry; forced Russification on national minorities; and persecuted the Jews. His foreign policy culminated in the TRIPLE ALLIANCE AND TRIPLE ENTENTE. His son NICHOLAS II succeeded him. Alexander Alexander, 1893-1920, king (1917-20) of the Hellenes (Greece). He became Greek king when his father, CONSTANTINE I, was forced by the Allies to abdicate because of his pro-German sympathies. After Alexander's death, his father was restored to the throne. Alexander III Alexander III, king of Macedon: see ALEXANDER THE GREAT. Alexander Alexander, kings of Scotland. Alexander I, 1078?-1124 (r. 1107-24), was the son of MALCOLM III. He opposed English efforts to rule the church in Scotland and established abbeys at Inchcolm and Scone. Alexander II, 1198-1249 (r.1214-49), joined the English barons in their revolt against King JOHN but made a tenuous peace with HENRY III. Alexander III, 1241-86 (r.1249-86), acquired for Scotland the HEBRIDES and also the Isle of MAN, already claimed from Norway by his father. Alexander Alexander, rulers of SERBIA and YUGOSLAVIA. Alexander (Alexander Karadjordjevic), 1806-85, prince of Serbia (1842-58), was the son of KARAGEORGE. An ineffectual ruler, he was deposed in favor of MILOs Obrenovic. Alexander (Alexander Obrenovic), 1876-1903, king of Serbia (1889-1903), instituted a conservative regime but, after accepting a somewhat liberal constitution, was assassinated by a clique of army officers. Alexander, 1888-1934, king of Yugoslavia (1921-34), the son and successor of PETER I, became (1918) regent of the kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, which he renamed (1929) Yugoslavia. He was assassinated by a Yugoslav terrorist. Alexander, Harold Rupert Leofric George, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis Alexander, Harold Rupert Leofric George, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis, 1891-1969, British field marshal. In WORLD WAR II, he commanded the retreats at Dunkirk (1940) and Burma (1942) and the triumphs in N Africa and Sicily (1943). Later he was governor general of Canada (1946-52) and minister of defense (1952-54) in Winston CHURCHILL'S cabinet. Alexander Nevsky Alexander Nevsky, 1220-63, Russian hero. As prince of Novgorod (1236-52) he earned his surname by his victory (1240) over the Swedes on the Neva R. He later defeated the Livonian Knights, invading from Germany (1242), and the Lithuanians (1245). When the TATARS occupied Russia he was made grand duke of Vladimir-Suzdal (1252). Alexander the Great Alexander the Great or Alexander III,356-323 BC, king of MACEDON. The son of PHILIP II, he was tutored by ARISTOTLE. Upon succeeding to the throne in 336 BC he won ascendancy over all of GREECE by putting down uprisings in THRACE and ILLYRIA, and by sacking THEBES. As head of an allied Greek army, viewing himself as the champion of pan-HELLENISM, he started east (334) on what was to be the greatest conquest of ancient times. He defeated the Persians at the battles of Granicus (334) and Issus (333). Tyre and Gaza fell after a year's struggle, and he entered Egypt (332), where he founded ALEXANDRIA. Moving to Mesopotamia, he overthrew the Persian Empire of DARIUS III at the battle of Gaugamela (331). Pushing on through eastern PERSIA (330-327), he invaded northern INDIA (326), but there his men would go no further. The fleet was sent back to the head of the Persian Gulf, and Alexander himself led his men through the desert, reaching Susa in 324 BC He died of a fever a year later, at age 33. He was incontestably one of the greatest generals of all time and one of the most powerful personalities of antiquity. Alexandra Alexandra, 1844-1925, queen consort of EDWARD VII of Great Britain, whom she married in 1863. She was the daughter of CHRISTIAN IX of Denmark. Alexandra Feodorovna Alexandra Feodorovna, 1872-1918, czarina of Russia, consort of NICHOLAS II. A granddaughter of Queen VICTORIA and princess of Hesse, she encouraged the czar's reactionary policies under the influence of RASPUTIN. With her family she was shot by the Bolsheviks (see BOLSHEVISM). Alexandria Alexandria, city (1985 pop. 2,821,000), N Egypt, on the Mediterranean Sea, W of the Nile R. delta. The city is Egypt's leading port, a commercial and transportation center, and the heart of a major industrial area with such manufactures as refined petroleum, textiles, and automobiles. Founded in 332 BC by ALEXANDER THE GREAT, Alexandria was (304 BC-30 BC) the capital of the PTOLEMIES. The city was the greatest center of Hellenistic and Jewish culture. It had a great university and two celebrated royal libraries, but their valuable collections have not survived. Alexandria became part of the empire of ROME in 30 BC and later of the BYZANTINE EMPIRE. The Muslim Arabs took the city in 642 AD After Cairo became (969) Egypt's capital, Alexandria declined. It fell to NAPOLEON I in 1798 and to the British in 1801. During WORLD WAR II the city was the chief Allied naval base in the E Mediterranean. At a 1944 meeting in Alexandria, plans for the ARAB LEAGUE were drawn up. A few of Alexandria's ancient monuments are still visible. The Greco-Roman Museum houses a vast collection of Coptic, Roman, and Greek art. Alexandria Alexandria, city (1986 est. pop. 107,800), N Va., on the Potomac R.; inc. 1779. A residential suburb of WASHINGTON, D.C., it also has railroad yards, varied industries, government buildings, and research firms. It was part of the DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA from 1789 to 1847. Nearby is MOUNT VERNON; in the city are many sites associated with George Washington. alexandrine alexandrine, in VERSIFICATION, a line of 12 syllables (or 13 if the last is unstressed), probably named after medieval poems in this meter about ALEXANDER THE GREAT. In French, rhymed alexandrine couplets are the classic poetic form. English iambic hexameter is often called alexandrine. Alexander POPE'S "Essay on Criticism" contains what is probably the most quoted alexandrine in literature:A needless alexandrine ends the song That like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along. Alexius Alexius, Byzantine emperors. Alexius I (Comnenus), 1048-1118 (r.1081-1118), nephew of ISAAC I, obtained the crown by overthrowing Nicephorus III. He withstood the Normans under ROBERT GUISCARD and BOHEMOND I, and defeated the Pechenegs (1091) and CUMANS (1095). During the First CRUSADE he persuaded the leaders to pledge to him their Byzantine conquests. In 1108 he forced Bohemond, who had seized Antioch, to acknowledge his suzerainty. In his last years his daughter, Anna Comnena, intrigued against his son, JOHN II. Alexius restored Byzantine power but drained the empire's resources. Alexius II (Comnenus), 1168-83 (r.1180-83), son of MANUEL I, ruled under the regency of his mother, Mary of Antioch. His cousin procured the deaths of Mary and Alexius and became Andronicus I. Alexius III (Angelus), d. after 1210 (r.1195-1203), deposed his brother ISAAC II, but the act served as pretext for the leaders of the Fourth Crusade to attack (1203) Constantinople and to restore Isaac, with his son Alexius IV, d. 1204, as co-emperor. Alexius V (Ducas Mourtzouphlos), d. 1204, son-in-law of Alexius III, overthrew Isaac and Alexius IV but was killed soon afterward by the Crusaders, who set up the Latin empire of Constantinople. alfalfa alfalfa or lucern,perennial plant (Medicago sativa) of the PULSE family, probably native to Persia and now widely cultivated. It is an important pasture and hay plant. Alfalfa is valued for its high yield of protein, its effectiveness in weed control, its role in crop rotation and nitrogen fixation, and as a source of chlorophyll and carotene. Al Fatah Al Fatah: see ARAFAT, YASIR; PALESTINE LIBERATION ORGANIZATION. Alfieri, Vittorio, Conte Alfieri, Vittorio, Conte, 1749-1803, Italian tragic poet. A Piedmontese, he traveled widely and returned to Italy with a desire to revive national spirit. He wrote 19 tragedies, among them Philip the Second, Saul, and Antigone, all in the French classical tradition; comedies; satire; and an autobiography. His collected works, published (1805-15) by his friend the countess of Albany, contributed greatly to the rise of Italian nationalism. Alfonso Alfonso, kings of ARAGON. Alfonso I, d. 1134, king of Aragon and Navarre (1104-34), captured many towns from the Moors. Alfonso II, 1152-96, king of Aragon (1162-96), inherited Provence and conquered (1171) Teruel. Alfonso V (the Magnanimous), 1396-1458, king of Aragon and Sicily (1416-58), conquered NAPLES and was recognized by the pope as its king (1443-58). He maintained a splendid court there and tried to introduce Spanish institutions. Alfonso Alfonso, kings of Portugal. Alfonso I, 1109?-85, the first king (r.1139-85), extended his territories by defeating (1139) the MOORS and, with the help of allies, captured (1147) Lisbon. His grandson, Alfonso II (the Fat), 1185-1223 (r.1211-23), tried to confiscate Roman Catholic Church holdings and was excommunicated (1219). His army won major victories (1212, 1217) over the Moors. His son, Alfonso III, 1210-79 (r.1248-79), completed (1249) the reconquest of Portugal from the Moors, instituted many reforms, and encouraged commerce and the development of towns. Alfonso IV, 1291-1357 (r.1325-57), warred fruitlessly against CASTILE before both kingdoms combined forces to defeat (1340) the Moors. He countenanced the murder of Ines de CASTRO. Alfonso V, 1432-81 (r.1438-81), put down a civil war (1449), invaded Morocco to capture Tangier (1471), and lost a war (1476-79) with Castile. Alfonso VI, 1643-83 (r.1656-83), ousted (1662) his mother as regent and appointed as her successor the count of Castelho Melhor, who won the war (1663-65) that secured Spain's recognition (1668) of Portugal's independence. Alfonso Alfonso, Spanish kings. Alfonso I (the Catholic), 693?-757, Spanish king of ASTURIAS (739-57), extended its territory with the help of the BERBERS' revolt (740-41) against the MOORS. His grandson, Alfonso II (the Chaste), 759-842, king of Asturias (791-842), established his capital at Oviedo and continued the struggle against the Moors. Alfonso III (the Great), 838?-911?, king of Asturias (866-911?) recovered LEON from the Moors, but after his forced abdication it was divided among his sons. Alfonso V (the Noble), 994?-1027, king of Leon (999-1027), chartered (1020) the city of Leon, but he was killed in the siege of Viseu. Alfonso VI, 1030-1109, king of Leon (1065-1109) and CASTILE (1072-1109), took Galicia (1073) and became the most powerful Christian ruler in Spain. He conquered (1085) Toledo and other cities, but was defeated twice (1086, 1108) by Muslim armies. Alfonso VII (the Emperor), 1104-57, king of Castile and Leon (1126-57), gained supremacy over other Christian states and had himself crowned emperor (1135). But his conquests of CORDOBA (1146) and Almeria (1147) from the Moors were soon lost. Alfonso VIII (the Noble), 1155-1214, king of Castile (1158-1214), restored order in his kingdom and won a great victory (1212) over the Moors. Alfonso X (the Wise), 1221-84, king of Castile and Leon (1252-84), took CADIZ from the Moors (1262). His subjection of the nobles led to a revolt, and a civil war broke out over the succession during his last years. He was a great patron of science and the arts. The Alfonsine Tables of astronomical data were published under his aegis. Alfonso XI, 1311-50, king of Castile and Leon (1312-50), lost Gibraltar to the Moors (1333) but won the great victory of Tarifa (1340) and conquered Algeciras (1344). Alfonso XII, 1857-85, king of Spain (1874-85), was a popular monarch who consolidated the monarchy, suppressed republican agitation, and restored order. Alfonso XIII, 1886-1941, king of Spain (1886-1931), supported the military dictatorship (1923-30) of Miguel PRIMO DE RIVERA, but social unrest and a republican election victory led to his deposition and exile (1931). Alfred Alfred, 849-99, king of WESSEX (871-99), sometimes called Alfred the Great. The son of AETHELWULF, he shared his father's piety. When his brother AETHELRED took the Wessex throne (865), Alfred aided him in battles against the Danes, who threatened to overrun England. Unable to establish a clear victory, Alfred rid Wessex of the Danes by paying the DANEGELD when he became king in 871. In 878, however, the Danes returned, and Alfred's flight to Somerset at that time is the basis for the legend about the king and a peasant woman's burned cakes. In May 878, Alfred triumphed over the Danes at Edington. This victory produced relative security, and Alfred began to institute reforms, including a code of laws combining Christian doctrine with a strong, centralized monarchy. His greatest achievements were the creation of a navy, the revival of learning among the clergy, the education of youths and nobles at court, the establishment of Old English literary prose, his own English translation of Latin works, and his influence on the extant form of the ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE. algae algae, primitive plants that contain CHLOROPHYLL and carry on PHOTOSYNTHESIS but lack true roots, stems, and leaves. They are the chief aquatic plant life both in the sea and freshwater; nearly all SEAWEEDS are marine algae. Algae occur as microscopic single cells (e.g., DIATOMS) and more complex forms of many cells grouped in spherical colonies (e.g., Volvox), in ribbonlike filaments (e.g., Spirogyra), and in giant forms (e.g., the marine kelps). The cells of colonies are generally similar, but some are specialized for reproduction and other functions. The blue-green and green algae include most of the freshwater forms, such as pond scum, a green slime found in stagnant water. Brown and red algae are more complex-chiefly marine forms whose green chlorophyll is masked by the presence of other pigments. Algae are primary food producers in the food chain and also provide oxygen for aquatic life. algebra algebra, branch of MATHEMATICS concerned with operations on sets of numbers or other elements that are often represented by symbols. In elementary algebra, letters are used to stand for numbers, e.g., in the POLYNOMIAL equation ax2+bx+c=0, the letters a, b, and c are called the coefficients of the EQUATION and stand for fixed numbers, or constants. The letter x stands for an unknown number, or variable, whose value depends on the values of a, b, and c and may be determined by solving the equation. Much of classical algebra is concerned with finding solutions to equations or systems of equations, i.e., finding the ROOTS, or values of the unknowns, that upon substitution into the original equation will make it a numerical identity. Algebra is a generalization of ARITHMETIC and gains much of its power from dealing symbolically with elements and operations (chiefly addition and multiplication) and relationships (such as equality) connecting the elements. Thus a+a=2a and a+b=b+a no matter what numbers a and b represent. Alger, Horatio Alger, Horatio, 1834-99, American writer of boys' stories; b. Revere, Mass. The heroes of his over 100 books, e.g., Ragged Dick (1867), gain success by leading exemplary lives and struggling valiantly against poverty and adversity. Algeria Algeria, Arab. Al Djazair, Fr. Algerie, officially Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria, republic (1986 est. pop. 22,600,000), 919,590 sq mi (2,381,741 sq km), NW Africa, bordered by Mauritania, Morocco, and Western Sahara (W), the Mediterranean Sea (N), Tunisia and Libya (E), and Niger and Mali (S). The principal cities are ALGIERS (the capital) and ORAN. The ATLAS MTS. divide northern Algeria into a coastal lowland strip (the Tell) and a semiarid plateau. In the south is the much larger, but arid and sparsely populated, Saharan region; Algeria's highest point, Mt. Tahat (9,541 ft/2,908 m), in the Ahaggar Mts., is located here. About half of Algeria's work force are farmers, producing cereals, wine, and citrus fruits, but mining and manufacturing, developed since the 1960s, contribute the bulk of the national income. Petroleum is the leading export, and much natural gas is produced, with proven reserves that are among the world's largest. The state plays a leading role in planning the economy and owns many important industrial concerns. The great majority of the population are Sunni Muslim Berbers and Arabs; Europeans, who before independence accounted for 10% of the total, now are only 1% of the population. Arabic is the official language, but French is widely spoken, and a sizable minority (15%) speaks a Berber language. History The earliest known inhabitants of the region that is now Algeria were Berber-speaking nomads who were settled there by the 2d millennium BC As NUMIDIA, it became (9th cent. BC) a province of Carthage and then (106 BC) of Rome; during the Christian era, St. AUGUSTINE (354-430) was bishop at Hippo (now Annaba). With Rome's decline in the 5th cent. AD, Algeria was conquered by the Vandals (430-31), the Byzantine Empire (6th cent.), and finally, in the late 7th and early 8th cent., by the Arabs, whose introduction of Islam profoundly altered the character of the area. Spain captured the coastal cities in the 15th cent. but was expelled (mid-16th cent.) with the help of the Ottoman Turks, who assumed control. During this period the Algerian coast was a stronghold of pirates and a center of the slave trade. France invaded Algeria in 1830 and declared it a colony in 1848. Europeans began to arrive in large numbers, dominating the government and the economy, and leaving the native Muslim population with scant political or economic power. A nationalist movement began to develop after World War I, and a war for independence, led by the National Liberation Front (FLN), broke out in 1954. After more than seven years of bitter fighting, in which at least 100,000 Muslim and 10,000 French soldiers were killed, Algeria became independent on July 3, 1962. Since independence, Algeria has been a prominent nonaligned state and a champion of the movements against white minority rule in Africa. It supported the protracted struggle of the Polisario Front for the independence of WESTERN SAHARA (formerly Spanish Sahara) from Morocco, and in 1981 it acted as intermediary between the U.S. and Iran in negotiations for the release of American hostages seized in 1979. Algiers Algiers, city (1983 pop. 1,721,607), capital of Algeria, N Algeria, on the Bay of Algiers of the Mediterranean Sea. It is a major North African port, a winter resort, and a commercial center. Industries include metallurgy, oil refining, and automotive construction. Founded by the Phoenicians, the city disappeared after the fall of the Roman Empire and was reestablished in the late 10th cent. by the Muslims. The French captured the port in 1830. During WORLD WAR II Algiers was Allied headquarters in North Africa. The city played an important role in the Algerian independence struggle (1954-62). Algiers is divided into the newer, French-built sector and the original Muslim quarter, with its 16th-cent. casbah fortress. ALGOL ALGOL: see PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE. Algonquian Algonquian, branch of the Algonquian-Wakashan linguistic family of North America. See AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES. Alhazen Alhazen: see IBN AL-HAYTHAM. Ali, Muhammad Ali, Muhammad, 1942-, American boxer; b. Louisville, Ky., as Cassius Marcellus Clay, Jr. He changed (1964) his name when he became a BLACK MUSLIM. After winning (1960) an Olympic gold medal, he defeated (1964) Sonny Liston for the heavyweight crown, but was stripped of the title in 1967 when he refused induction into the U.S. armed forces on religious grounds. In 1971 the U.S. Supreme Court upheld his draft appeal. Ali regained the title in 1974 by defeating George Foreman, lost it to Leon Spinks in 1978, but won it a third time (from Spinks) later that year. Ali lost to Larry Holmes in 1980. Alice Springs Alice Springs, town (1986 pop. 22,759), Northern Territory, central Australia. It is the center of an area with cattle ranches and aborigine reservations. Gold, copper, wolfram, and mica are mined nearby. The town was called Stuart until 1933. alien alien, in law, a resident of a state who is not a national or citizen of that state. A country may exclude individuals or groups it deems undesirable; most, for example, bar criminals, paupers, and the diseased. With some exceptions, e.g., diplomats, aliens are subject to the laws of the country in which they reside. Permanent residents may be liable to taxation and military conscription. In the U.S., aliens are required to register each year; an alien may acquire citizenship by a legal procedure known as NATURALIZATION. Alien and Sedition Acts Alien and Sedition Acts, 1798, four laws passed by the Federalist-controlled U.S. Congress in response to the threat of war with France (see XYZ AFFAIR). Designed to destroy the Jeffersonian Republicans who expressed sympathy for France, the laws lengthened the residency requirement for citizenship, empowered the president to expel "dangerous" aliens, and proscribed spoken or written criticism of the government. The Acts provoked the KENTUCKY AND VIRGINIA RESOLUTIONS. aliens, illegal aliens, illegal, citizens of foreign countries who lack legal status in the country in which they are living. In the U.S., most illegal ALIENS came from Latin America. A 1986 law to stop the flow and end the underground lives of these aliens made it illegal for employers to hire them and granted legal status to those who could prove continuous residence in the U.S. since before Jan. 1, 1982. Special allowances were made for seasonal farm workers. Although an estimated 3.9 million aliens were eligible, only about half applied before the May 1988 deadline. Ali ibn Abu Talib Ali ibn Abu Talib, d. 661, cousin and son-in-law of MUHAMMAD, fourth caliph of the Islamic community, and martyred hero and first imam of the SHIITE movement in Islam. As a child, he became one of Muhammad's first converts. He married Muhammad's youngest daughter, Fatima, and twice commanded the Prophet's armies. During the civil war that broke out (656) between various factions of the early Muslim community, he was elevated to the caliphate. His murder at Kufa, Iraq, inspired the Shiite movement (shi'ah="party," i.e., of Ali), which regards Ali as Muhammad's chosen successor. alimony alimony: see DIVORCE. Ali Pasha Ali Pasha, 1744?-1822, Turkish governor of Yannina (1787-1820), a Greek province of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE. He ruled as a quasi-independent despot over most of Albania and Epirus. He resisted (1820) Turkish military efforts to depose him, tying up troops needed against the rebels in the Greek War of Independence. He was assassinated. alkali alkali, HYDROXIDE of an ALKALI METAL. Alkalies are soluble in water and form strongly basic solutions. They neutralize acids, forming salts and water. Strong alkalies (e.g., those of sodium or potassium) are called caustic alkalies. The term alkali is sometimes applied to sodium or potassium carbonate or to the hydroxide of an ALKALINE-EARTH METAL. alkali metals alkali metals, elements in group Ia of the PERIODIC TABLE. In order of increasing atomic number, they are LITHIUM, SODIUM, POTASSIUM, RUBIDIUM, CESIUM, and FRANCIUM. They are softer than other metals, and have lower melting points and densities. All react violently with water, releasing hydrogen and forming hydroxides. They tarnish rapidly, even in dry air. They never occur uncombined in nature. alkaline-earth metals alkaline-earth metals, elements in group IIa of the PERIODIC TABLE. In order of increasing atomic number, they are BERYLLIUM, MAGNESIUM, CALCIUM, STRONTIUM, BARIUM, and RADIUM. They are softer than most other metals and react readily with water. Their properties are exceeded by the corresponding ALKALI METAL. alkaline earths alkaline earths, oxides of the ALKALINE-EARTH METALS. They are not readily soluble in water and form solutions less basic than those of ALKALIES. alkaloid alkaloid, any of a class of organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and usually oxygen, that are often derived from plants. The name means alkalilike, but some alkaloids do not exhibit alkaline properties. Many alkaloids, though poisons, have physiological effects that render them valuable as medicines. For example, curarine, found in the deadly extract CURARE, is a powerful muscle relaxant; atropine is used to dilate the pupils of the eye; and physostigmine is a specific for certain muscular diseases. Narcotic alkaloids used in medicine include MORPHINE and CODEINE for pain relief and COCAINE as a local anesthetic. Other common alkaloids include CAFFEINE, LSD, QUININE, SEROTONIN, STRYCHNINE, and nicotine. alkane, alkene alkane, alkene, and alkyne:see HYDROCARBON. Allah Allah: see ISLAM. allegory allegory, in literature, symbolic story that serves as a disguised representation for meanings other than those indicated on the surface. Its characters are often mere embodiments of moral qualities. Allegory is closely related to PARABLE and FABLE. EVERYMAN, John BUNYAN'S Pilgrim's Progress, and Edmund SPENSER'S Faerie Queen are notable allegories. Allen, Ethan Allen, Ethan, 1738-89, American Revolutionary hero; b. Litchfield (?), Conn. In 1775 he led the GREEN MOUNTAIN BOYS at the capture of Fort TICONDEROGA and was captured by the British in an expedition against Canada. Exchanged in 1778, he promoted independence and statehood for Vermont. His brother, Ira Allen, 1751-1814, was a political leader in Vermont. Allen, Gracie Allen, Gracie: see BURNS, GEORGE. Allen, Woody Allen, Woody, 1935-, American film director, writer, and actor; b. Brooklyn, N.Y., as Allen Stewart Konigsberg. His film comedies, which often depict neurotic urban characters preoccupied with sex, death, and psychiatry, include Sleeper (1973), Annie Hall (1977; Academy Award), Broadway Danny Rose (1984), and Hannah and Her Sisters (1987). Allende Gossens, Salvador Allende Gossens, Salvador, 1908-73, president of CHILE (1970-73). A founder of the Chilean Socialist party (1933), he was elected president of Chile by a narrow plurality (1970)-the first freely elected Marxist leader in the Americas. His socialist program disrupted the economy and led to inflation and widespread strikes. During the army coup that overthrew (1973) his regime, he either was murdered or committed suicide. Allentown Allentown, city (1986 est. pop. 104,360), seat of Lehigh co., E Pa., on the Lehigh R.; founded 1762, inc. as a city 1867. It is a commercial and industrial center in the agricultural Lehigh Valley. Trucks, chemicals, and machinery are manufactured; food products include potatoes, feed grains, and beer. The city was settled by members of various German religious groups. Muhlenberg is one of several colleges located there. allergy allergy, adverse physical reaction of some people to substances that are not toxic per se and are innocuous to other people. Allergens, or allergy-producing substances, cause the release of histamine, an organic compound responsible for allergic symptoms. There are various types of allergens: airborne (e.g., pollen), which may cause sneezing, as with hayfever, or asthma; contactants (e.g., poison ivy and dyes), which often cause rashes; food (e.g., chocolate or fish), which may cause a rash, such as eczema or hives, or a respiratory reaction; or drugs (e.g., sulfa drugs), which in the allergic person can cause a violent reaction. Treatment includes desensitization (injections), antihistamine drugs, and avoidance of allergens. Alleyn, Edward Alleyn, Edward, 1566-1626, English actor. The only rival of Richard BURBAGE, he played the title roles in Christopher MARLOWE'S Tamburlaine, Jew of Malta, and Faustus. Alliance for Progress Alliance for Progress: see ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES. alligator alligator, aquatic REPTILE (genus Alligator) in the same order as the CROCODILE. The American alligator (A. mississipiensis) is found in swamps and streams from North Carolina to Florida and along the Gulf Coast. The young are brown or black with yellow bands; adults are solid black. Males commonly reach a length of 9 ft (2.7 m) and a weight of 250 lb (110 kg). The alligator is protected by law. Alliluyeva, Svetlana Alliluyeva, Svetlana, 1926-, only daughter of Soviet leader Joseph STALIN. In 1966 she defected to the West, becoming a U.S. citizen. She has written Twenty Letters to a Friend (1967) and Only One Year (1969). allotropy allotropy, the occurrence of certain chemical elements in two or more forms; the forms are called allotropes. Allotropes generally differ in physical properties, such as color and hardness; they may also differ in molecular structure or in chemical activity but are usually alike in most chemical properties. DIAMOND and GRAPHITE are two allotropes of the element CARBON. alloy alloy, substance with metallic properties consisting of a METAL fused with one or more metals or nonmetals. An alloy may be a homogeneous solid solution, a heterogeneous mixture of tiny crystals, a true chemical compound, or a mixture of these. Alloys generally have properties different from those of their constituent elements and are used more extensively than pure metals. Alloys of IRON and CARBON are among the most widely used and include CAST IRON and STEEL. Brass and BRONZE are important alloys of COPPER. Because pure GOLD and SILVER are too soft for many uses, they are often alloyed, either with each other or with other metals, e.g., copper or PLATINUM. Amalgams are alloys that contain MERCURY. Other alloys include BRITANNIA METAL, DURALUMIN, and SOLDER. All Saints' Day All Saints' Day, Nov. 1, feast of the Roman Catholic and Anglican churches, the day God is glorified for all his saints, known and unknown. Roman Catholics are obliged to hear Mass on this day. In medieval England it was called All Hallows; hence the name Halloween (Hallows' eve) for the preceding day (Oct. 31). allspice allspice: see PIMENTO. Allston, Washington Allston, Washington, 1779-1843, American painter; b. Georgetown co., S.C. Allston traveled to London, where he studied with Benjamin WEST. Many of his greatest works, marked by a controlled romanticism, were done in England (1810-18). Allston's finest paintings are lyrical landscapes, e.g., Moonlit Landscape (1819; Mus. Fine Arts, Boston). Almagest Almagest: see PTOLEMY (Claudius Ptolemaeus). Almagro, Diego de Almagro, Diego de, c.1475-1538, Spanish CONQUISTADOR, partner of Francisco PIZARRO in the exploration and conquest (after 1532) of the INCA civilization in Peru. He was later executed for rebellion by order of Hernando Pizarro. Al Manamah Al Manamah, city (1987 est. pop. 121,986), capital of Bahrain, on the PERSIAN GULF. It has oil refineries and light industries and is a free port. Almeida, Francisco de Almeida, Francisco de, c.1450-1510, Portuguese admiral, first viceroy of Portuguese India (1505-9). He developed Portugal's trade with India by making alliances with Indian rulers and other tactics. He thwarted Egypt's commercial challenge by winning a great sea battle. Almohads Almohads, Berber Muslim dynasty that ruled Morocco and Spain in the 12th and 13th cent. It had its origins in the puritanical sect founded c.1120 by ibn Tumart. By 1174 the Almohads had completely displaced the ruling ALMORAVIDS. The Almohads, in turn, were defeated in Spain by the Spanish and Portuguese in 1212, and in Morocco by the Merenid dynasty in 1269. almond almond, name for a small tree (Prunus amygdalus) of the ROSE family and for the nutlike edible seed of its drupe fruit. Almonds are now cultivated mainly in the Orient, Italy, Spain, and California. Almond fruit is fleshless; otherwise, the tree closely resembles the peach tree. Almond oil, pressed from the nut, is used for flavoring and in soaps and cosmetics. Almoravids Almoravids, Berber Muslim dynasty that ruled Morocco and Muslim Spain in the 11th and 12th cent. They founded MARRAKESH as the capital of their powerful empire. Called on for help by the Moors in Spain, they defeated (1086) ALFONSO VI of Castile and displaced the local Moorish rulers. Never entirely stable, the dynasty was overthrown by the ALMOHADS in 1174. Almquist, Carl Jonas Love Almquist, Carl Jonas Love, 1793-1866, Swedish author. The Book of the Thorn Rose (14 vol., 1832-51) contains most of his novels, stories, plays, and poems, which range from a bizarre romanticism to realism. A clergyman, teacher, and socialist, he was accused of forgery and suspected of murder. He fled to the U.S. and after 1865 lived in Germany under an assumed name. aloe aloe, succulent perennials (genus Aloe) of the LILY family, native chiefly to Africa, but cultivated elsewhere. The leaves contain aloin, a purgative. Various drug-yielding species are used medicinally, as well as for X-ray-burn treatment, insect repellent, and transparent pigment. Biblical aloes is unrelated. American and false aloe are agaves of the AMARYLLIS family. Alonso, Alicia Alonso, Alicia (ale'sya alon'so), 1921-, Cuban ballerina and choreographer. She danced on Broadway before soloing with several companies. She had a huge repertoire that ranged from classical to MODERN DANCE. Her own works, e.g., La Tinaja (1942), were created for her Cuban company, founded in 1948, which is now the National Ballet. Alorese Alorese, inhabitants of the mountainous forest interiors of Alor and Panta, two Indonesian-controlled islands in the Lesser Sunda chain. They cultivate maize, rice, and root crops and maintain their traditional ways, which include polygamy and an animalistic religion. Their population is about 100,000. alpaca alpaca, partially domesticated South American hoofed MAMMAL. The highland tribes of Bolivia, Chile, and Peru breed the alpaca for its wool, which is shaded from black through brown to white and has been exported since 1836. Alpacas feed on grasses and require a pure water supply. Like the LLAMA, the alpaca belongs to the CAMEL family. Alp Arslan Alp Arslan, 1029-72, Seljuk sultan of PERSIA (1063-72). He won great victories over the Byzantine Christians, especially at Manzikert (1071), and conquered Syria. He was murdered by one of his prisoners of war. alphabet alphabet, system of WRITING, theoretically having a one-for-one relation between character (or letter) and phoneme (see PHONETICS AND PHONEMICS). Few alphabets have achieved an ideal exactness. A system of writing is called a syllabary when one character represents a syllable rather than a phoneme, e.g., the kana used in Japanese. The precursors of the alphabet were the iconographic and ideographic writing of ancient man, such as CUNEIFORM and the HIEROGLYPHIC writing of the Egyptians. The alphabet of modern Western Europe is the Roman alphabet. Russian, Serbian, Bulgarian, and many languages of the USSR are written in the Cyrillic alphabet, an augmented Greek alphabet. Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic all have their own alphabets. The most important writing of India is the Devanagari, an alphabet with syllabic features. The Roman alphabet is derived from the Greeks, who had imitated the Phoenician alphabet. The exact steps are unknown, but the Phoenician, Hebrew, Arabic, and Devanagari systems are based ultimately on signs of Egyptian hieroglyphic writing. Two European alphabets of the late Roman era were the RUNES and the ogham. An exotic modern system is the Cherokee syllabary of SEQUOYAH. alphanumeric alphanumeric or alphameric,the alphabetic, numeric, and special characters-such as mathematical symbols and punctuation marks-used in COMPUTER input and output. alpha particle alpha particle, a particle emitted in one of the three forms of natural RADIOACTIVITY. Alps Alps, great mountain system of S central Europe, c.500 mi (800 km) long and c.100 mi (160 km) wide, curving in a great arc through parts of France, Italy, Switzerland, Germany, and Austria. The mountains are known for their towering, snowcapped peaks, deep U-shaped glacial valleys, modern glaciers, and many fine lakes such as Geneva, Lucerne, Como, Garda, and Maggiore. Famous winter sports centers in the Alps include Chamonix, SAINT MORITZ, Kitzbuhel, Cortina d'Ampezzo, and INNSBRUCK. The principal peaks include MONT BLANC (15,771 ft/4,807 m), the highest; Gran Paradiso; MATTERHORN; Jungfrau; and Grossglockner. The Alps are crossed by three of the world's longest tunnels-the Simplon, St. Gotthard, and Mont Cenis-and by many routes such as the BRENNER PASS and the Great and Little St. Bernard passes. Alsace-Lorraine Alsace-Lorraine, region of NE France, bounded by Belgium, Luxembourg, and West Germany (N and E). Alsace lies to the east of Lorraine. Hops are grown, and vineyards are numerous. Potassium, iron, and coal deposits are exploited, and Lorraine leads France in steel output. STRASBOURG is Alsace's leading industrial center. Most of the population speaks French, but German is also spoken, especially around Metz. Both Alsace and Lorraine were included in the HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE. Lorraine emerged as a duchy, and Alsace was divided into many fiefs and free cities by the 13th cent. France gradually acquired both regions in the 17th and 18th cent. As a result of the FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR (1870-71) much of the area was annexed to Germany and formed the "imperial land" of Alsace-Lorraine. After WORLD WAR I Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France, but it was again annexed (1940-45) to Germany during WORLD WAR II. Altaic Altaic, subfamily of the URALIC AND ALTAIC family of languages. See LANGUAGE. Altamira Altamira: see PALEOLITHIC ART. Altdorfer, Albrecht Altdorfer, Albrecht, 1480-1538, German painter and engraver. His romantic allegorical and biblical works, e.g., Susannah at the Bath (1526; Alte Pinakothek, Munich), vibrate with intense movement. He was perhaps the first German to paint pure landscape. alternating current alternating current: see ELECTRICITY; GENERATOR; MOTOR, ELECTRIC. alternator alternator: see GENERATOR. Altgeld, John Peter Altgeld, John Peter, 1847-1902, American politician, governor (1892-96) of Illinois; b. Germany. A Democrat and a staunch defender of human rights, he pardoned three men convicted for the HAYMARKET SQUARE RIOT of 1886, and protested the sending of federal troops to end the Pullman strike (1894). His liberal actions lost him reelection (1896). Althing Althing, parliament of ICELAND. The oldest assembly in Europe, first convened in 930, it voted Iceland's independence from Denmark in 1944. It comprises a lower house (two thirds of members) and an upper house (one third). Members are elected by a system of proportional representation. altimeter altimeter, device for measuring altitude. The most common type, used in airplanes and balloons and by mountain climbers, consists of an aneroid BAROMETER, calibrated so that the drop in atmospheric pressure indicates the linear elevation. The radio altimeter indicates the actual altitude over the earth's surface by measuring the time it takes for a radio signal to travel to earth and back. altiplano altiplano, densely populated upland plateau (alt. c.12,000 ft/3,660 m) in the ANDES of Bolivia and Peru. It has a cool climate and bleak aspect. Potatoes and hardy grains are the chief crops; mining is the principal industry. LA PAZ and Oruro, in Bolivia, are the largest cities. altitude, in astronomy altitude, in astronomy: see ASTRONOMICAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS. alto alto: see VOICE. alumina alumina or aluminum oxide, chemical compound (Al2O3) that is widely distributed in nature and occurs combined with silica and other minerals in clays, feldspars, and micas, and in almost pure form in CORUNDUM. It is the major component of BAUXITE and is used in the production of ALUMINUM metal. Alumina is also used as an ABRASIVE, in ceramics, in pigments, and in the manufacture of chemicals. aluminum aluminum (Al), metallic element, used in antiquity but first isolated by Friedrich WOHLER in 1827; also called aluminium. The silver-white metal is ductile and malleable, and conducts heat and electricity. Although very reactive chemically, aluminum resists corrosion by forming a protective oxide (alumina) coating. The most abundant metal in the earth's crust (about 8% by weight), it occurs combined with other elements in such minerals as alum, BAUXITE, CORUNDUM, CRYOLITE, FELDSPAR, and MICA. Aluminum and its compounds are used in paints, foil, jewelry, and welding. Aluminum wire, cheaper and lighter than copper wire, is used in high-tension power transmission. The strong, hard alloy DURALUMIN is used in aircraft. See ELEMENT; PERIODIC TABLE. aluminum oxide aluminum oxide: see ALUMINA. Alvarado, Pedro de Alvarado, Pedro de, 1486-1541, Spanish CONQUISTADOR. A chief lieutenant of Hernan CORTES during the conquest of MEXICO, Alvarado conquered GUATEMALA in 1523 and served as governor until his death. Exercising absolute control, he founded many cities and developed the colony while searching for the fabled Seven Cities of Cibola. He was killed quelling an Indian rebellion in W Mexico. Alvarez, Luis Walter Alvarez, Luis Walter, 1911-88, American physicist; b. San Francisco. He was awarded the 1968 Nobel Prize in physics for the development of the liquid-hydrogen bubble chamber (see PARTICLE DETECTOR). He also helped develop the ground-control approach system for aircraft in the 1940s and played an important part in the MANHATTAN PROJECT. alyssum alyssum, chiefly annual and perennial herb (genus Alyssum) of the MUSTARD family, native to the Mediterranean. Some species, with masses of yellow or white flowers, are cultivated as rock-garden and border ornamentals. The annual sweet alyssum has fragrant white or lilac blossoms. Once called madwort or healbite, alyssum was thought to cure rabies. Alzheimer's disease Alzheimer's disease, degenerative disease of the brain cells producing loss of memory and general intellectual impairment. It usually affects people in their forties, fifties, and sixties. As the disease progresses, a variety of symptoms may become apparent, including confusion, irritability, and restlessness, as well as disorientation and impaired judgment and concentration. The cause is unknown, and there is no known treatment, although tranquilizers are sometimes used to reduce agitation and unpredictable behavior. Am Am, chemical symbol of the element AMERICIUM. AM AM: see MODULATION. Amadeus VIII Amadeus VIII, 1383-1451, duke (from 1416) of Savoy and antipope (1439-49) with the name Felix V. The last of the antipopes, he was elected at the Council of BASEL, but had few supporters. He yielded his claim when Nicholas V became pope. Amado, Jorge Amado, Jorge, 1912-, Brazilian novelist. His vibrant novels of the lives of ordinary Brazilians include The Violent Land (1942), Gabriela, Clove and Cinnamon (1958), the ebullient Dona Flor and Her Two Husbands (1966), and Pen, Sword, Camisole (1985). Amalekites Amalekites, aboriginal people of CANAAN and the Sinai peninsula. They waged war against the Hebrews, until dispersed by SAUL and DAVID. Ex. 17.8-16; 1 Sam. 30.1-20. amalgam amalgam: see ALLOY. Amalric Amalric or Amaury,Latin kings of Jerusalem. Amalric I, c.1137-1174 (r.1162-74), lost the suzerainty of Egypt to the Turkish sultan Nur ad-Din and eventually to SALADIN. Amalric II, c.1155-1205 (r.1197-1205), married the daughter of Amalric I. He was also king of Cyprus (1194-1205). Amalthea Amalthea, in astronomy, natural satellite of JUPITER. amaranth amaranth, common name for the family Amaranthaceae (also called the pigweed family), herbs, trees, and vines found mainly in warm regions of the Americas and Africa. The genus Amaranthus includes several species called amaranth, characterized by a lasting red pigment in the stems and leaves; common weeds, e.g., the green amaranth (A. retroflexus); and various plants known as TUMBLEWEED and pigweed. Some species have long been used as potherbs and cereals in the Old and New World. The globe amaranth, or BACHELOR'S BUTTON (genus Gomphrenia), and the cockscomb (genus Celosia) are tropical annuals that are dried and used in everlasting bouquets. Amarillo Amarillo, city (1986 est. pop. 165,850), seat of Potter co., N Tex.; inc. 1899. A plains city, it is the commercial and industrial center of the Texas Panhandle. Oil, gas, helium, and zinc are produced, along with various manufactures. The city handles grains and livestock raised in the area. It grew with the coming (1887) of the railroad and became an industrial city after the discovery of gas (1918) and oil (1921). amaryllis amaryllis, common name for some members of the Amaryllidaceae, a family of mostly perennial plants with flat, narrow leaves and lilylike flowers borne on separate, leafless stalks. Widely distributed, they are found especially in tropical and subtropical lowlands. Ornamentals of the family are mistaken for plants of the LILY family, which differ in the position of the ovary (see FLOWER). The family includes the showy-blossomed true amaryllis, or belladonna lily (Amaryllis belladonna); NARCISSUS; and the snowdrops (genus Galanthus), whose small, early-blooming flowers are symbolic of consolation and promise. The genus Agave, the tropical American counterpart of the African genus ALOE, contains the most economically important plants in the family. Different agaves provide soap, food, beverages, and fiber (see SISAL HEMP). Amaury Amaury. For persons thus named, see AMALRIC. Amazon Amazon, world's second longest river, flowing c.3,900 mi (6,280 km) west across N South America to enter the Atlantic Ocean through a wide delta in N Brazil. It is formed by the junction in N Peru of the Ucayili and Maranon rivers. It has more than 500 tributaries, drains c.40% of the continent, and carries more water than any other river in the world. The Amazon traverses a sparsely populated and largely undeveloped region that contains the world's largest rain forest (selva). There are no waterfalls or other obstructions along its course, and ships of 14-ft (4-m) draft can travel very nearly its full length (to Iquitos, Peru). Belem and Manaus in Brazil are other ports. Amazon Amazon, in Greek mythology, one of a tribe of warlike women from Asia Minor. The Amazons had a matriarchal society, in which women governed and fought while men performed the household tasks. Several Greek heroes proved their mettle against Amazons, e.g., HERCULES and THESEUS. amber amber, yellow to brown fossil RESIN exuded by coniferous trees now extinct; the best amber is transparent. Highly polished amber is used to make small decorative objects, e.g., beads and amulets. When rubbed with a cloth, amber becomes charged with static electricity. Bubbles of air, leaves, bits of wood, or insects, sometimes of extinct species, are often found trapped in amber. The chief source of the world's amber is the Baltic coast of Germany. ambergris ambergris, a waxlike substance that is formed in the intestine of the sperm whale. It is found floating on tropical seas or cast up on the shore in yellow, gray, black, or variegated masses. Greatly valued from earliest times, ambergris is now used as a fixative in perfumes. Ambler, Eric Ambler, Eric, 1909-, English novelist. He is the author of popular suspense stories, usually involving international intrigue, e.g., A Coffin for Dimitrios (1939), To Catch a Spy (1964), and The Care of Time (1981). Amboise, Jacques d' Amboise, Jacques d': see D'AMBOISE, JACQUES. Ambrose, Saint Ambrose, Saint, 340?-397, bishop of MILAN, Doctor of the Church. A popular governor in Milan, Ambrose was made (374) bishop by popular demand. He opposed ARIANISM and was an adviser to Emperor Gratian, whom he persuaded to outlaw (379) heresy in the West. His preaching helped to convert St. AUGUSTINE. Ambrose wrote many theological works and is associated with the type of PLAINSONG called Ambrosian chant. Feast: Dec. 7. Ambrosian Library Ambrosian Library: see LIBRARY. ameba ameba: see AMOEBA. Ameling, Elly Ameling, Elly, 1938-, Dutch soprano. Although she has sung opera, she is noted for her sensitive interpretations of French and German art songs, particularly the LIEDER of Schubert. She made her U.S. debut in New York City in 1968. Amen Amen: see AMON. Amenemhet I Amenemhet I, d. 1970 BC, king of EGYPT founder of the XII dynasty that initiated the Middle Kingdom. He centralized the government in a virtually feudal form. The dynasty enabled the arts and science to flourish. Amenhotep I Amenhotep I or Amenophis I, fl. 1570 BC, king of EGYPT of the XVIII dynasty. A great military leader, he extended Egypt's power E to the Euphrates and S to the second cataract of the NILE. THUTMOSE I succeeded him. Americana Americana, term for material printed in or about the Americas, or written by Americans; usually restricted to the formative period in the history of the two continents. Thus the COLUMBUS letter (1493) announcing the discovery of the Indies is the earliest item. Early American books are also important Americana. The New York Public Library (see LIBRARY,) has one of several major collections. American Association for the Advancement of Science American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), est. 1848 to foster scientific freedom, improve the effective application of science for human needs, and increase public understanding of science. Headquartered in Washington, D.C., it has over 133,000 members in all fields and 300 affiliated groups. Among its publications is the weekly newsmagazine and journal Science. American Ballet Theatre American Ballet Theatre (ABT), a foremost international dance company of the 20th cent. It was founded as the Mordkin Ballet (1937-40) and was known (1940-56) as the Ballet Theater. It presents newly staged classics and dances with American themes. Choreographers have included George BALANCHINE, Agnes DE MILLE, Jerome ROBBINS, and Antony TUDOR; dancers have included Alicia ALONSO, Erik BRUHN, Maria Tallchief, and Igor YOUSKEVITCH. American Bar Association American Bar Association (ABA), organization of lawyers admitted to any state bar; est. 1878. It promotes professional activities as well as uniformity of U.S. laws, high professional standards, and improved judicial administration. ABA committees address such topics as legal education, professional ethics, and legal aid for the poor. In 1981 the organization had more than 270,000 members. American Civil Liberties Union American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), nonpartisan organization devoted to protecting basic rights set forth in the U.S. CONSTITUTION; est. 1920 by Jane ADDAMS, Roger BALDWIN, Norman THOMAS, and others. Its special concerns are expression of opinion, equality before the law, and due process. The ACLU has argued or supported nearly every major U.S. civil liberties case since its founding. In 1982 the ACLU had 200,000 members. American Colonization Society American Colonization Society, organized (Dec. 1816-Jan. 1817) to transport free blacks from the U.S. and settle them in Africa. Land purchases (1821) in Africa by the society led to the foundation of LIBERIA, and more than 11,000 blacks were sent there before 1860. The colonization movement was attacked by ABOLITIONISTS and was unpopular with many blacks; it declined after 1840. American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO), a federation of autonomous trade unions in the U.S., Canada, Mexico, Panama, and U.S. territories. It was formed in 1955 by the merger of the AFL and the CIO. Although it does not participate directly in COLLECTIVE BARGAINING, the AFL-CIO serves as the leading voice of American trade unionism, actively lobbying on the national and state levels and supporting political candidates. From its founding in 1886, the AFL emphasized organization of skilled workers on a craft rather than an industrial basis. Under the successive leadership of Samuel GOMPERS, William GREEN, and George MEANY, the AFL secured higher wages, shorter hours, workmen's compensation, child labor laws, and exemption of labor from antitrust legislation. In the early 1930s a strong minority faction within the AFL advocated the organization of workers in basic industries (such as steel, autos, and rubber) on an industry-wide basis. John L. LEWIS led this militant group in forming a Committee for Industrial Organization, which, after expulsion from the parent body in 1938, changed its name to the Congress of Industrial Organizations. The CIO, under the presidency of Lewis and later of Philip MURRAY, enjoyed considerable success. In 1955, however, at a time of growing labor concern over the perceived anti-union policies of the Eisenhower administration, the two organizations merged, with Meany as president, and adopted the present name. Ultimate authority in the AFL-CIO is vested in a biennial convention; the executive council governs between conventions. In 1988 the federation had 105 national affiliates, 51 state-level federations (including Puerto Rico), and 741 city central bodies and direct affiliates. Membership totaled about 14,100,000. See also UNION, LABOR. American foxhound American foxhound: see FOXHOUND. American Fur Company American Fur Company, chartered (1808) by John Jacob ASTOR to rival Canadian fur companies. The company gained a virtual monopoly of the Great Lakes trade and expanded W into the Missouri valley and Rocky Mountain areas. American Indian languages American Indian languages, languages of the native peoples of the Western Hemisphere and their descendants. The classification "American Indian languages" is geographical rather than linguistic, since these languages do not belong to a single linguistic family, or stock, such as the Indo-European language family. The American Indian languages cannot be differentiated as a linguistic unit from other languages of the world, but are grouped into a number of separate linguistic stocks having significantly different phonetics, vocabulary, and grammars. There is no part of the world with as many distinctly different native languages as the Western Hemisphere. American Indian Movement American Indian Movement (AIM), activist organization of the American Indian civil rights movement, est. 1968. After briefly occupying (Nov. 1972) the Bureau of INDIAN AFFAIRS to protest programs controlling Indian development, in 1973 AIM members led 200 SIOUX in a 71-day takeover of WOUNDED KNEE, S.Dak., to demand a review of 300 treaties with the U.S. government. AIM also sponsored talks resulting in the 1977 International Treaty Conference with the UN in Geneva, Switzerland. American Indians American Indians: see MIDDLE AMERICAN INDIANS; NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS; SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS; and individual tribes. See also AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES; AMERICAN INDIANS, PREHISTORY OF. American Indians, prehistory of American Indians, prehistory of. It is generally agreed that the first humans to inhabit the Americas crossed the BERING STRAIT from NE Asia in migration waves beginning before 30,000 BC By 8000 BC, Indians had spread throughout the Americas. Major Paleolithic cultures were created c.20,000 BC by seminomadic big-game hunters of the Great Plains of North America. Earliest evidence of human occupation in Middle and South America dates from 30,000 BC Between 5000 BC and 1000 BC, agriculture, pottery, and complex social systems throughout the Americas marked the end of the STONE AGE and the rise of the high Indian civilizations. See MIDDLE AMERICAN INDIANS; NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS; SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS; and articles on individual tribes. American Museum of Natural History American Museum of Natural History, New York City, inc. 1869; est. to promote the study of natural science and related subjects. Buildings on its present site were opened in 1877. The Hayden Planetarium was added in 1935 and the Roosevelt Memorial building in 1936. The museum's explorations and research programs have provided it with specimens and data of great value; it maintains exhibitions in all branches of natural history. American Negro spiritual American Negro spiritual: see SPIRITUAL. American party American party: see KNOW-NOTHING MOVEMENT. American Revolution American Revolution, 1775-83, struggle by which the THIRTEEN COLONIES that were to become the United States won independence from Britain. By the middle of the 18th cent., differences in life, thought, and economic interests had formed between the colonies and the mother country. The British government, favoring a policy of MERCANTILISM, tried to regulate colonial commerce in the British interest, and provoked colonial opposition. The STAMP ACT passed by Parliament in 1765 roused a violent colonial outcry as an act of taxation without representation. The TOWNSHEND ACTS (1767) led to such acts of violence as the BOSTON MASSACRE (1770), the burning of the H.M.S. Gaspee (1772), and the BOSTON TEA PARTY (1773). In 1774 Britain responded with the coercive INTOLERABLE ACTS. The colonists convened the CONTINENTAL CONGRESS and petitioned the king for redress of their grievances. Fighting erupted on Apr. 19, 1775, at LEXINGTON AND CONCORD, and was followed by the capture of Fort Ticonderoga from the British, the battle of BUNKER HILL, and the unsuccessful colonial assault on Quebec (1775-76). The Continental Congress appointed (1775) George WASHINGTON to command the Continental army and, on July 4, 1776, adopted the DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. Many colonists, however, remained pro-British Loyalists. The colonial victory in the SARATOGA CAMPAIGN (1777) helped forge a French-American alliance (1778), bringing vital aid to the colonists. Following the terrible ordeal of Washingon's army at VALLEY FORGE and the indecisive battle of MONMOUTH (1778), the war shifted to the South during the Carolina close of the YORKTOWN CAMPAIGN ended the fighting, and the Treaty of Paris (1783) recognized the U.S. as a nation. American Samoa American Samoa, unincorporated territory of the U.S. (1987 est. pop. 38,400), 76 sq mi (197 sq km), comprising the eastern half of the Samoa island chain in the South Pacific. The major islands are Tutuila, the Manu'a group, Rose and Sand, and Swains. Pago Pago, the capital, is on Tutuila. The islands are mountainous and wooded; agriculture, fish canning, and some light industry are conducted. The Polynesian natives, considered U.S. nationals, elect a governor and legislature, and send a nonvoting delegate to Congress. American Samoa, defined by treaty in 1899, was administered by the U.S. Dept. of the Navy until 1951, when it passed to Dept. of the Interior jurisdiction. American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), founded (1866) in the U.S. to shelter homeless animals, assist in livestock care, and help to enforce game laws. It is modeled on England's Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (founded 1824). americium americium (Am), synthetic radioactive element, discovered by Glenn SEABORG and colleagues in 1944 by neutron bombardment of plutonium. The silver-white metal is in the ACTINIDE SERIES. Half-lives of the many isotopes range from 1.3 hr to over 7,000 years. See ELEMENT; PERIODIC TABLE. amethyst amethyst, most highly valued variety of QUARTZ, violet to purple in color, used as a GEM. Amethyst is found in Brazil, Uruguay, Sri Lanka, Siberia, and North America. It has superstitious associations, being regarded as a love charm, a sleeping aid, and a guard against thieves and drunkenness. Amharic Amharic, language of ETHIOPIA. It belongs to the Ethiopic group of Hamito-Semitic languages. See AFRICAN LANGUAGES. Amherst, Jeffrey Amherst, Baron Amherst, Jeffrey Amherst, Baron, 1717-97, British army officer. During the last of the FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS, he commanded British forces at the capture of Louisbourg, N.S. (1758), TICONDEROGA (1759), and Montreal (1760). Amherst, Mass., and Amherst College are named for him. Amiens Amiens, city (1982 pop. 136,358), capital of Somme dept., N France. A textile and farm-market center, it has been occupied by many invaders; after being devastated in both world wars the city was rebuilt. Its Cathedral of Notre Dame (begun c.1220) is France's largest Gothic cathedral. Amiens, Treaty of Amiens, Treaty of: see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS. Amin, Idi Amin, Idi, c.1925-, president of UGANDA (1971-79). Seizing control of the government from Milton OBOTE in 1971, he instituted a harsh and brutal regime and expelled Uganda's Asian population. He was driven into exile in 1979. amino acid amino acid, any of a class of organic compounds having a carboxyl group (COOH) and an amino group (NH2). Some 22 amino acids are commonly found in animals and more than 100 less common forms are found in nature, chiefly in plants. When the carboxyl carbon atom of one amino acid binds to the nitrogen of another with the release of a water molecule, a linkage called a peptide bond is formed. Chains of amino acids, joined head-to-tail in this manner, are synthesized by living systems and are called polypeptides (up to about 50 amino acids) and PROTEINS (over 50 aminoacids). The process of digestion (see DIGESTIVE SYSTEM) releases individual amino acids from food protein by cleaving the peptide bonds. Amis, Kingsley Amis, Kingsley, 1922-, English novelist. He is best known for Lucky Jim (1953), a brilliant satire on academic life. Later novels include That Certain Feeling (1955), Jake's Thing (1979), and Stanley and the Women (1985). Amis also writes espionage novels, poetry, and nonfiction. Amman Amman, city (1984 est. pop. 777,500), capital of Jordan, N central Jordan, on the Jabbok R. Jordan's largest city and industrial and commercial heart, Amman is a transportation hub, especially for pilgrims en route to MECCA. It is noted for its colored marble; textiles, cement, and other manufactures are produced. Amman is the biblical Rabbah, the Ammonite capital. It fell to King David, Assyria, Rome, and other conquerors. After the Arab conquest (635) it declined, reviving as the capital of Trans-Jordan after 1921. Palestinian refugees swelled the population after the Arab-Israel Wars of 1948 and 1967. The city's historic structures include a Roman amphitheater. ammeter ammeter, instrument used to measure, in AMPERES, the magnitude of an electric current. An ammeter is usually combined with a VOLTMETER and an OHMMETER in a multipurpose instrument. Although most ammeters are based on the d'Arsonval GALVANOMETER and are of the analog type, digital ammeters are becoming increasingly common. Ammon Ammon: see AMON. ammonia ammonia, chemical compound (NH3), colorless gas with a characteristic pungent, penetrating odor. It is extremely soluble in water. Ammonia solutions are used to clean, bleach, and deodorize; to etch aluminum; to saponify oils and fats; and in chemical manufacture. Ammonia and ammonia vapors are irritating-prolonged exposure and inhalation cause serious injury and may be fatal. Water-free ammonia is used in REFRIGERATION. The major use of ammonia and its compounds is as FERTILIZERS. Ammonia is usually produced by direct combination of nitrogen with hydrogen at high temperature and pressure in the presence of a catalyst. amnesia amnesia, condition characterized by loss of memory for long or short intervals. It may be caused by physical injury, SHOCK, senility, or severe illness. In other cases, a painful experience and everything remindful of it, including the individual's identity, is unconsciously repressed (see DEFENSE MECHANISM). Attempts to cure this type of amnesia include efforts to establish associations with the past through suggestion and HYPNOSIS. amnesty amnesty, in law, exemption from prosecution for some criminal action. It is distinguished from a pardon (see SENTENCE), which is an act of forgiveness following conviction. Amnesties are usually extended to groups of persons involved in disorders or insurrections; after the Civil War the U.S. granted a qualified amnesty to the Confederate forces. Amnesty International Amnesty International (AI), organization (est. 1961) that campaigns against the detention of political prisoners and against other human rights violations throughout the world. It was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1977 after effecting the release of more than 10,000 prisoners. In 1988 the organization had 300,000 members. amniocentesis amniocentesis, diagnostic procedure in which a sample of the amniotic fluid surrounding the fetus is removed from the uterus with a fine needle inserted through the abdomen of the pregnant woman (see PREGNANCY). Fetal cells in the fluid can be grown in the laboratory and studied to detect the presence of certain genetic disorders (e.g., DOWN'S SYNDROME, TAY-SACHS DISEASE) or physical abnormalities. Generally recommended when there is a family history of genetic disorders or when the woman is over age 35, the procedure is usually carried out around the 14th or 15th week of pregnancy, when there is sufficient amniotic fluid and ABORTION is still an option. See also BIRTH DEFECTS. Amnon Amnon, DAVID'S eldest son. He raped his half sister Tamar and was killed for it by her brother ABSALOM. 2 Sam. 13. amoeba amoeba or ameba,one-celled organism (class Sarcodina) in the phylum PROTOZOA. Amoebas constantly change their body shape as they form temporary extensions called pseudopods, or false feet, used for feeding and locomotion. Most amoebas range from 5 to 20 microns in diameter. They engulf their prey (diatoms, algae, bacteria) with their pseudopods, forming vacuoles in which food is digested by ENZYMES. Reproduction is usually by binary fission (splitting) to produce two daughter amoebas, the nucleus dividing by MITOSIS; some also reproduce sexually. Amoebas live in fresh and marine waters and the upper layers of soil. Many are PARASITES of aquatic and terrestrial animals, and some cause disease, e.g., amoebic dysentery. Amon Amon, Ammon , or Amen , ancient Egyptian deity. Originally the chief god of Thebes, Amon grew increasingly important in Egypt, and eventually, as Amon Ra, he was identified with RA as the supreme deity. He was also identified with the Greek ZEUS (the Roman JUPITER). Amos Amos, book of the OLD TESTAMENT, 30th in order in the Authorized Version, third of the Minor PROPHETS. The shepherd-prophet preached in the northern kingdom of Israel under Jeroboam II (r. c.793-753 BC). The book falls into three parts: God's judgment on Gentile nations, finally on Israel; three sermons on the doom of Israel; five visions of destruction, the last promising redemption. Amoy Amoy: see XIAMEN. Ampere, Andre Marie Ampere, Andre Marie, 1775-1836, French physicist, mathematician, and natural philosopher. He extended the work of Hans OERSTED on the relationship of electricity and magnetism, formulated Ampere's law describing the contribution of a current element to magnetic induction, and invented the astatic needle. The basic unit of electric current, the AMPERE, is named for him. ampere ampere (amp or A), basic unit of electric current and the fundamental electrical unit used with the mks system of units of the METRIC SYSTEM. The ampere is officially defined as the current in a pair of equally long, parallel, straight wires 1 meter apart that produces a force of 0.0000002 newton between the wires for each meter of their length. amphetamine amphetamine, any of a class of powerful drugs that act as stimulants (see DRUGS) on the central nervous system. Popularly known as "bennies," "speed," or "uppers," amphetamines enhance mental alertness and the ability to concentrate; cause wakefulness, talkativeness, and euphoria; and temporarily reverse the effects of fatigue. They have been used to treat obesity, narcolepsy and minimal brain dysfunction. Amphetamines can produce insomnia, hyperactivity, and irritability, as well as such severe systemic disorders as cardiac irregularities, elevated blood pressure, and gastric disturbances. The drugs are addictive and easily abused; addiction can result in psychosis or death from overexhaustion or cardiac arrest (see DRUG ADDICTION AND DRUG ABUSE). amphibian amphibian, cold-blooded animal of the class Amphibia, the most primitive of terrestrial VERTEBRATES. Unlike REPTILES, the amphibians, which include FROGS and TOADS, SALAMANDERS and newts, and the limbless CAECILIANS, have moist skins without scales or with small, hidden scales. Most amphibians deposit their eggs in water or a moist, protected place. The young undergo METAMORPHOSIS from aquatic, water-breathing, limbless TADPOLES to terrestrial or partly terrestrial, air-breathing, four-legged adults. amphibious warfare amphibious warfare, use of combined land and sea forces to take a military objective, typically through an air-supported assault on an enemy coastline. Although the strategy is ancient, e.g., the Athenian attack on Sicily in 415 BC, the term came into widespread use during WORLD WAR II. Early in the war, coordinated land, sea, and air attacks by the Japanese in the SW Pacific met little opposition. By contrast, Allied attacks on Europe and the Pacific islands were mounted against heavily defended coasts, requiring construction of special vessels (called landing craft) that were seaworthy and yet capable of allowing TANKS and fully equipped INFANTRY to disembark in shallow water. Such landings were preceded and accompanied by continuous air and naval bombardment of coastal defenses. By this method the Allies were able to invade such Pacific strongholds as Saipan (1944), Iwo Jima (1945), and Okinawa (1945), and to launch the most spectacular amphibious invasion in history, on the coast of Normandy, France, on June 6, 1944. Amphibious landings later occurred in the KOREAN WAR and VIETNAM WAR and in the British attack (1982) on the FALKLAND ISLANDS. amphitheater amphitheater, open structure for the exhibition of gladiatorial contests and spectacles, built in cities throughout the Roman Empire, e.g., at Rome (see COLOSSEUM), Arles (France), and Cirencester (England). The typical amphitheater was elliptical, with seats rising around a central arena; quarters for the gladiators and animals were under the arena. The word is now used for various quite unrelated structures. amphoterism amphoterism, in chemistry, the property of certain compounds of acting either as acids or as bases (see ACIDS AND BASES), depending on the reaction in which they are involved. Many hydroxide compounds and organic molecules that contain both acidic (e.g., carboxyl) and basic (e.g., amino) FUNCTIONAL GROUPS are usually amphoteric. amplifier amplifier, device in which a varying input signal controls a flow of energy to produce an output signal that varies in the same way but has a larger amplitude; the input signal may be a current, a voltage, a mechanical motion, or any other signal, and the output signal is usually of the same nature. The ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage is called the voltage gain. The most common types of amplifiers are electronic and have TRANSISTORS as their principal components. In most cases today, transistors are incorporated into INTEGRATED-CIRCUIT chips. Most amplifiers include more than one transistor. Transistor amplifiers are used in RADIO and TELEVISION transmitters and receivers, stereophonic RECORD PLAYERS, and intercoms. amplitude modulation amplitude modulation: see MODULATION. Amru al-Kais Amru al-Kais, fl. 6th cent., Arabic poet, long esteemed by Arabs as the model for erotic poetry. Like much pre-Islamic poetry, his verse is subjective and stylistically perfect. Amsterdam Amsterdam, constitutional capital and largest city (1987 pop. 682,702) of the Netherlands, on the Ij and Amstel rivers. It is a major port joined with the North Sea and the Rhine by canals. One of Europe's great commercial, intellectual, and artistic capitals, it has a major stock exchange and is a diamond-cutting center. It is built on piles and is cut by some 40 canals crossed by about 400 bridges. Chartered c.1300, it joined the HANSEATIC LEAGUE in 1369 and the anti-Spanish Netherland provinces in 1578. An influx of refugees contributed to its growth, and the city reached its apex in the 17th cent. After French rule (1795-1814) it became the Dutch capital. Amsterdam suffered greatly under German occupation (1940-45) during WORLD WAR II. Points of interest include the city hall (16th cent.); the university (est. 1632); the Rijks Museum, with its Rembrandts and other Dutch master paintings; and the municipal museum, with its Van Gogh collection. Amu Darya Amu Darya, river, central Asian USSR, known to the ancient Greeks and Persians as the Oxus. It is c.1,600 mi (2,580 km) long and flows generally northwest from sources in the snow-capped Pamirs through the Kara-Kum desert to a large delta on the ARAL SEA. In the early 1980s the Soviet government announced a plan to increase the flow of the river, which irrigates parts of Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, by diverting to it some of the waters of the IRTYSH R. Amundsen, Roald Amundsen, Roald, 1872-1928, Norwegian explorer. He commanded the first single ship to sail through the NORTHWEST PASSAGE (1903-6) and was the first man to reach the South Pole (1911). In 1926, with the aviator Umberto Nobile and the financier Lincoln ELLSWORTH, Amundsen took part in the first airplane flight over the North Pole. When Nobile crashed in the Arctic in 1928, Amundsen was killed in the rescue attempt. His works, which include The South Pole (1913), have added much to knowledge of the polar regions. Amur Amur, river, c.1,800 mi (2,900 km) long, NE Asia. It flows generally southeast, forming for more than 1,000 mi (1,610 km) the border between the Soviet Union and China, then northeast through the Far Eastern USSR, entering the Tartar Strait opposite SAKHALIN Island. Its chief tributaries are the USSURI and SUNGARI. The river is navigable by small craft for its entire length during the ice-free season (May-Nov.) Amurath Amurath. For Ottoman sultans thus named, see MURAD. Anabaptists Anabaptists, name applied, originally in scorn, to certain Christian sects holding that infant baptism is not authorized in Scripture, but that baptism should be administered only to believers. Prominent in Europe during the 16th cent., they were persecuted everywhere. Their chief leaders were Thomas MUNZER and JOHN OF LEIDEN. MENNONITES and Hutterites are descended from them. Anabasis Anabasis: see XENOPHON. anaconda anaconda: see BOA. Anacreon Anacreon, fl. c.521 BC, Greek LYRIC poet, celebrator of love and wine. The Anacreontics, in his style, were written from Hellenistic to late Byzantine times. anae- anae-. For words beginning thus, see ane-. Anaheim Anaheim, city (1986 est. pop. 240,730), Orange co., S Calif., SE of LOS ANGELES; founded 1857, inc. 1876. A major tourist center, Anaheim contains the amusement complex Disneyland (opened 1955); Anaheim Stadium, home of the California Angels baseball team; and the Anaheim Convention Center. It is also the site of a large electronic equipment industry. analgesic analgesic, a drug used to relieve pain. Analgesics include nonnarcotics, such as ASPIRIN and other salicylates, which also reduce fever and inflammation; NARCOTICS, such as MORPHINE and CODEINE; and synthetic narcotics with morphinelike action, such as propoxyphene (Darvon) and meperidine (Demerol). Acetaminophen (Tylenol) is often given to individuals sensitive or allergic to salicylates. analog circuit analog circuit, ELECTRIC CIRCUIT in which the output voltage and current values are considered significant over a continuum. Analog circuits may be used for such purposes as amplifying signals corresponding to sound waves. See also DIGITAL CIRCUITS. analog computer analog computer: see COMPUTER. analog-to-digital conversion analog-to-digital conversion, the process of changing continuously varying data into digital quantities that represent the magnitude of the data at the moment the conversion is made. The most common use is to change analog signals into a form that can be manipulated by digital COMPUTER, as in data communications. See also DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION. analysis analysis, branch of MATHEMATICS that uses the concepts and methods of the CALCULUS. It includes basic calculus; advanced calculus, in which such underlying concepts as that of a LIMIT are subjected to rigorous examination; differential and integral equations, in which the unknowns are FUNCTIONS rather than numbers; VECTOR and tensor analysis; differential geometry; and many other fields. analytical chemistry analytical chemistry: see CHEMISTRY. analytic geometry analytic geometry, branch of GEOMETRY in which points are represented with respect to a coordinate system, such as CARTESIAN COORDINATES. Analytic geometry was introduced by Rene DESCARTES in 1637 and was of fundamental importance in the development of the CALCULUS by Sir Isaac NEWTON and G.W. LEIBNIZ in the late 17th cent. Its most common application-the representation of EQUATIONS involving two or three variables as curves in two or three DIMENSIONS or surfaces in three dimensions-allows problems in ALGEBRA to be treated geometrically and geometric problems to be treated algebraically. The methods of analytic geometry have been generalized to four or more dimensions and have been combined with other branches of geometry. anarchism anarchism, political philosophy and movement that seeks the abolition of government, arguing that people, although naturally good, are corrupted by artificial institutions. Anarchism dates from the ancient Greeks, but its modern form was outlined (18th and 19th cent.) by William GODWIN, P.J. PROUDHON, and others. In Russia, given a violent and collectivist tone by Mikhail BAKUNIN, it was outlawed by the Bolsheviks after the RUSSIAN REVOLUTION. Only in the Latin countries of Europe, where it was linked to SYNDICALISM, did it gain a mass following by the end of the 19th cent. After the HAYMARKET SQUARE RIOT (1886) and the assassination of Pres. MCKINLEY, fear of anarchism caused the U.S. in 1901 to forbid anarchists from entering the country. Today anarchism remains important as a philosophical and political theory, not as an active political movement. Anatolia Anatolia, Asian part of Turkey, usually synonymous with ASIA MINOR. Anatolian languages Anatolian languages, subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See LANGUAGE. anatomy anatomy, branch of biology concerned with the study of the body structure of plants and animals. Comparative anatomy considers structural similarities and differences of various organisms, forming the basis of CLASSIFICATION. Human anatomy emphasizes individual systems composed of groups of TISSUES and organs. See also PHYSIOLOGY. Anaxagoras Anaxagoras, c.500-428 BC, Greek philosopher, thought to have been the teacher of SOCRATES. He held that an all-pervading nous (world-mind) ordered the physical world by combining particles from the undifferentiated mass of the universe. Anaximander Anaximander, c.611-c.547 BC, pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. His notions of the infinite or indefinite (apeiron) and its processes prefigured the later concept of the indestructibility of matter, while other views anticipated the theory of evolution and certain laws of astronomy. ancestor worship ancestor worship, ritualized propitiation and invocation of dead kin, based on the belief that spirits influence the fate of the living. A widespread ancient practice, it reached its most elaborate forms in W Africa and China. It also exists in the Japanese SHINTO cult and among peoples of Melanesia. Anchises Anchises, in Greek mythology, Trojan shepherd; father of AENEAS by APHRODITE. Anchorage Anchorage, city (1986 est. pop. 235,000), Anchorage Borough, S central Alaska, at the head of Cook Inlet; inc. 1920. Founded (1915) as a railroad town, it has grown into the state's largest city as well as the administrative and commercial heart of S central and W Alaska. It is one of the nation's major defense centers and a transportation hub. Tourism is important, and there is a busy international airport. The city's rapid growth is due largely to its position as the focus of Alaska's expanding coal, oil, and gas industries. anchovy anchovy: see HERRING. Ancren Riwle Ancren Riwle or Ancrene Wisse [Mid. Eng.,=anchoresses' rule], anonymous English tract, c.1200, instructing young ladies about to become religious recluses. Realistic and humorous, it reveals much about the manners of the time. Andalusia Andalusia, region (33,675 sq mi/87,218 sq km), on the Mediterranean Sea, the Strait of Gibraltar, and the Atlantic Ocean. Spain's largest and most populous region, it occupies all of S Spain. Grapes, olives, citrus, and other crops are grown in its subtropical climate. Mineral resources include copper, iron, and zinc. It was settled (11th cent. BC) by the Phoenicians and later ruled by Carthage (6th cent. BC), Rome (3d cent. BC), and the Visigoths (5th cent. AD). In 711 the MOORS conquered Andalusia. Christian Spain ended the long reconquest of the region when GRANADA fell in 1492. In 1713 Spain ceded GIBRALTAR to Britain. Andersen, Hans Christian Andersen, Hans Christian, 1805-75, Danish writer of fairy tales. Poverty-ridden and a failure as an actor, Andersen won the generous patronage of King Frederick VI with his poetry. Though noted for a time as a novelist, e.g., The Improvisatore (1835), it was his later fairy tales that established him as Denmark's greatest author and a storyteller without peer. His sense of fantasy, power of description, and acute sensitivity contributed to his mastery of the genre. Among his many widely beloved tales are "The Little Match Girl," "The Ugly Duckling," "The Snow Queen," and "The Red Shoes." Andersen Nexoo, Martin Andersen Nexoo, Martin, 1869-1954, Danish novelist. His famous proletarian novels Pelle the Conqueror (1906-10) and Ditte, Daughter of Mankind (1917-21) focus attention on conditions of poverty in Denmark. Anderson, Carl David Anderson, Carl David, 1905-, American physicist; b. N.Y.C. For his discovery of the positron in 1932, he shared the 1936 Nobel Prize in Physics with V.F. Hess. He is also credited as one of the discoverers of the muon (see ELEMENTARY PARTICLES) in 1936. Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett, 1836-1917, English physician. After obtaining a private medical education under accredited physicians and in London hospitals and becoming licensed (1865) in Scotland, she opened (1866) a dispensary, later a small hospital, for women and children in London, the first in England to be staffed by women physicians. Largely through her efforts, British examining boards opened their examinations to women. Anderson, Marian Anderson, Marian, 1902-, black American contralto; b. Philadelphia. She was the first black to be named (1955) a permanent member of the METROPOLITAN OPERA COMPANY, and was also the first black to perform in the White House. In 1958 she was an alternate delegate to the UN. Anderson, Maxwell Anderson, Maxwell, 1888-1959, American dramatist; b. Atlantic, Pa. His plays, many written in verse, usually concern social and moral problems. His dramas include What Price Glory? (1924), Elizabeth the Queen (1930), Winterset (1935), Anne of the Thousand Days (1948), and The Bad Seed (1954). Anderson, Sherwood Anderson, Sherwood, 1876-1941, American writer; b. Camden, Ohio. He was a strongly American writer, experimental and poetic, whose greatest novel, Winesburg, Ohio (1919), explores the loneliness and frustration of small-town lives. His other novels include Poor White (1920) and Dark Laughter (1925). Some of his finest work is in his compassionate and penetrating short stories, e.g., the collections The Triumph of the Egg (1921) and Death in the Woods (1933). Andersonville Andersonville, village (1980 pop. 267), SW Georgia, inc. 1881. It was the site of a notorious Confederate prison, now a national historic site, where dreadful conditions led to the death of over 12,000 Union soldiers. Andersonville National Cemetery, with over 13,000 soldiers' graves, is nearby. Andersson, Dan Andersson, Dan, 1888-1920, Swedish poet and novelist, one of the country's foremost writers. His works, treating religious and metaphysical themes, include the tales in The Charcoal-Burner's Tales (1914) and the novel Three Homeless Ones (1918). Andes Andes, great mountain system, extending c.4,500 mi (7,200 km) north to south in South America, generally parallel to the Pacific coast. The mountains reach a high point of 22,835 ft (6,960 m) in ACONCAGUA (highest point in the Western Hemisphere) and include many other snow-capped peaks over 22,000 ft (6,700 m). The system widens in Bolivia and Peru to form multiple ranges and a high, densely populated plateau (ALTIPLANO), where the great civilization of the INCAS had its home. Copper, silver, and tin are mined, and oil has been found in the northern foothills. The Andes are geologically young and still rising. Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes are common. Ando Hiroshige Ando Hiroshige: see HIROSHIGE. Andorra Andorra, Fr. Andorre, autonomous principality (1984 pop. 42,712), 191 sq mi (495 sq km), SW Europe, between France and Spain, comprising several high valleys in the E Pyrenees. The capital is Andorra la Vella. Sheep-raising, minerals (iron, lead, marble), timber, and a growing tourist trade are the principal sources of income for the Catalan-speaking, Roman Catholic population. In 1278 Andorra was put under the joint suzerainty of a French count, whose rights passed to the president of France, and the bishop of Urgel (Spain). In fact it is independent, governed by an elected council and syndic. Andrassy, Julius, Count Andrassy, Julius, Count, 1823-90, Hungarian politician. A leading figure in the unsuccessful Hungarian revolution of 1848-49, he lived in exile until 1858. He later took part (1867) in the creation of the AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY. As premier of Hungary (1867-71) Andrassy established Magyar supremacy over the Slavs in Hungary. He was foreign minister of the Dual Monarchy (1871-79) and signed (1879) the Dual Alliance with Germany. His son Julius, Count Andrassy, 1860-1929, also foreign minister, tried (1918) to obtain a separate peace for Austria-Hungary in WORLD WAR I. Andre, Carl Andre, Carl, 1935-, American sculptor; b. Quincy, Mass. His classic, elemental sculptures reflect the philosophy of MINIMAL ART. Andre is well known for his floor pieces, e.g., 144 Pieces of Lead (Mus. of Modern Art, N.Y.C.). Andre, John Andre, John, 1751-80, British spy in the AMERICAN REVOLUTION. He was captured and hanged after negotiating with Benedict ARNOLD for the surrender of WEST POINT to the British. Andrea del Sarto Andrea del Sarto: see SARTO, ANDREA DEL. Andrew, Saint Andrew, Saint, one of the Twelve Disciples, brother of Simon PETER. He is patron saint of Russia and Scotland. Andrew II Andrew II, d. 1235, king of HUNGARY (1205-35). He was forced to issue (1222) the Golden Bull, the "Magna Carta" of Hungary, which extended privileges to the lesser nobles. He took part (1217) in the Fifth CRUSADE. Andreyev, Leonid Nikolayevich Andreyev, Leonid Nikolayevich, 1871-1919, Russian writer. His early stories, realistic studies of everyday life, were praised by GORKY, but when the Bolsheviks took power in 1917 he broke with Gorky politically and emigrated to Finland. His popularity declined when he turned to mysticism and allegory. His fiction includes The Red Laugh (1905) and The Seven That Were Hanged (1908). His best-known play is the expressionistic He Who Gets Slapped (1916). Andric, Ivo Andric, Ivo, 1892-1975, Yugoslav writer. His work includes poetry, essays, short stories, and novels, the best known being his Bosnian historical trilogy (1945) The Bridge on the Drina, Bosnian Story, and Young Miss. In 1961 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in literature. Andromache Andromache, in Greek myth, wife of HECTOR of Troy; mother of Astyanax. After the TROJAN WAR, ACHILLES' son Neoptolemus abducted her; EURIPIDES and RACINE dramatized her captivity. Later she married Hector's brother Helenus. Andromeda Andromeda, in Greek myth, princess of Ethiopia; daughter of Cepheus and Cassiopeia. POSEIDON, angered by her mother's claim that her beauty outshone that of the nereids, sent a sea monster that could be appeased only by her sacrifice. She was rescued by PERSEUS, who slew the monster and married her. Andromeda and her parents became constellations. Andromeda Galaxy Andromeda Galaxy, closest spiral GALAXY (2 million LIGHT-YEARS distant) to our MILKY WAY galaxy. They are similar in shape and composition. The Andromeda galaxy, visible to the naked eye as a faint patch in the constellation Andromeda, is about 120,000 light-years in diameter and contains at least 200 billion stars. Andropov, Yuri Vladimirovich Andropov, Yuri Vladimirovich, 1914-84, Soviet public official, general secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1982-). He was head of the K.G.B. (1967-82), became (1973) a member of the Politburo, and succeeded to the USSR's most powerful office on the death of Leonid BREZHNEV. He was an ideological conservative and potential bureaucratic reformer. Andros, Sir Edmund Andros, Sir Edmund, 1637-1714, British colonial governor in America. He was bitterly criticized for his high-handedness as governor (1674-81) of New York. Named (1686) governor of the Dominion of New England, Andros was deposed (1689) by Boston colonists. He was later governor (1692-97) of VIRGINIA. anemia anemia, condition resulting from a reduction in HEMOGLOBIN content or in number of red blood cells (erythrocytes). Although the causes of anemia vary, because of the blood's reduced capacity to carry oxygen all types exhibit similar symptoms-pallor, weakness, dizziness, fatigue, and, in severe cases, breathing difficulties and heart abnormalities. Therapy includes identifying and treating the underlying cause. See SICKLE-CELL ANEMIA. anemone anemone or windflower,wild or cultivated perennial herb (genus Anemone) of the BUTTERCUP family. Anemones, which contain a poisonous compound (anemonin), were once used to treat fevers, bruises, and freckles; they are often associated with evil and death. The purple- or white-blossomed wood anemone A. quinquefolia is also called windflower. anesthesia anesthesia, loss of sensation, especially that of pain, induced by drugs. General anesthesia, first used in surgical procedures in the 1840s, induces unconsciousness; halothane and sodium pentothal are two widely used general anesthetics. Localized or regional anesthesia is used to desensitize the area around the site of application without loss of consciousness. Regional anesthetics include spinal anesthetics, primarily for lower body surgery; epidural anesthetics for childbirth; and local anesthetics (e.g., novocaine and lidocaine) for dental procedures. Various anesthetics are often used in combination. See also ACUPUNCTURE. angel angel, bodiless, immortal spirit, limited in knowledge and power, accepted in the traditional belief of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The three choirs of angels appear early in the Christian era; the classes are, from the highest: seraphim, cherubim, thrones; dominations, virtues, powers; principalities, archangels, angels. Angels appear in the Bible, often in critical roles, e.g., visiting Abraham and Lot (Gen. 18; 19) and announcing the Incarnation to Mary (Luke 1). The cult of guardian angels who protect individuals or nations is especially strong in the West. The angels of HELL, or devils, led by SATAN, are viewed as initiators of evil temptations. Angel Falls Angel Falls, waterfall, 3,212 ft (979 m) high, on the Churun R., in the Guiana Highlands, SE Venezuela. It has the world's highest uninterrupted fall (2,648 ft/807 m). Angelico, Fra Angelico, Fra, c.1400-1455, Florentine painter; b. Guido, or Guidolino, di Pietro; also known as Giovanni da Fiesole. First influenced by GENTILE DA FABRIANO and then MASACCIO, Fra Angelico developed a style remarkable for its purity of line and color. He treated none but religious subjects. His works, including the frescoes Annunciation and Noli mi Tangere (both: St. Mark's Convent, Florence), show spatial depth and sculptural clarity of form-the artistic innovations of his time. Among his paintings in the U.S. are the Crucifixion and Nativity (both: Metropolitan Mus.). Angel Island Angel Island, largest island in San Francisco Bay, Calif. It was (1863-1946) a U.S. army base and became a missile and radar site in 1952. From 1910 to 1940 it was the entry point for Asian immigrants to the U.S. Angell, Sir Norman Angell, Sir Norman, 1872?-1967, British internationalist and economist, b. Ralph Norman Angell Lane. He gained fame with The Great Illusion (1910), in which he proposed that the common economic interests of nations make war futile. After World War I he worked for a international cooperation and peace. Knighted in 1931, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1933. Angelou, Maya Angelou, Maya, 1928-, black American author; b. St. Louis as Marguerite Johnson. Although a playwright, poet, and short-story writer, she is best known for her four-part autobiography (1970-81). Angelus Angelus, family name and dynasty of Byzantine emperors (1185-1204) Isaac II, ALEXIUS III, and ALEXIUS IV. angina pectoris angina pectoris: see under CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE. angiosperm angiosperm, plant in which the ovules, or young seeds, are enclosed within an ovary (that part of a FLOWER specialized for seed production), in contrast to the GYMNOSPERMS. Also known as the flowering plants, angiosperms have LEAVES, ROOTS, and STEMS, and vascular, or conducting tissue. Constituting the plant division Magnoliophyta, they are divided into dicotyledons (class Magnoliopsida), which have two seed leaves (cotyledons) and CAMBIUM tissue in the stems, and monocotyledons (class Liliatae), which have one seed leaf and generally lack cambium tissue. The most important plant group economically, angiosperms include all agricultural crops and cereal GRAINS, all garden flowers, and almost all broad-leaved trees and shrubs. Angkor Angkor, site of several capitals of the KHMER EMPIRE, N of Tonle Sap, NW CAMBODIA. The ruins extend over 40 sq mi (104 sq km). The first capital was established by Yasovarman I (889-900). A new temple complex, Angkor Wat, was built under Suryavarman II (1113-50). This impressive temple, surrounded by a vast moat, is approached by a causeway. Its extensive sculptural ornament exhibits impeccable craftsmanship. In 1177 Angkor was sacked by the Chams and fell into ruins. Jayavarman VII (1181-c.1218) established a new capital, Angkor Thom, which was abandoned in 1434. The ruins, overgrown by jungle, were discovered by the French in 1861. angle angle, in mathematics, figure formed by two straight lines meeting at a point; the point is known as the vertex of the angle, and the lines are its sides. Angles are commonly measured in degrees ( deg) or in radians. If the two sides form a single straight line but do not coincide, the angle is a straight angle, measuring 180 deg or c radians (see PI). If the sides are perpendicular, i.e., if they form half of a straight angle, the angle is a right angle, measuring 90 deg or c/2 radians. An acute angle is greater than 0 deg but less than 90 deg; an obtuse angle is greater than 90 deg but less than 180 deg; and a reflex angle is greater than 180 deg. See also TRIGONOMETRY. Angles Angles: see ANGLO-SAXONS. Anglican Communion Anglican Communion, the worldwide body of churches that are in communion with the Church of England (see ENGLAND, CHURCH OF). Composed of regional churches, provinces, and separate dioceses, the Communion is bound together by mutual loyalty as expressed in the Lambeth Conference of 1930. Member churches include the Protestant Episcopal Church in America (see EPISCOPAL CHURCH, PROTESTANT), the Scottish Episcopal Church, the Church in Wales, and the Church of England in Australia and Tasmania. Doctrinally all member churches are similar, having a ministry of three orders: deacons, priests, and bishops. Worship, though varied in form, is liturgical and sacramental, and regulated by the BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, collective name for English monastic chronicles in Anglo-Saxon, stemming from a compilation (c.891) of earlier sources inspired by King ALFRED. The account, from the beginning of the Christian era through 1154, draws on BEDE and adds much original material. Mostly prose, it includes such poems as The Battle of Brunanburh. Anglo-Saxon literature Anglo-Saxon literature, writings in Old English, c.650-1150. Old English poetry is heroic, drawing on Germanic myth and custom, or Christian. Nearly all of it survives in only four manuscripts, and it is the literature closest to Germanic oral sources. Widsith (7th cent.) is an early example. The epic Beowulf, based on oral sagas, survives in an 8th-cent. Christian version. The elegiac undercurrent in Beowulf is central to such poems as Deor, The Wanderer, and The Seafarer, which contrast a happy past with a desolate present. Heroic battles are the theme of The Battle of Maldon and The Battle of Brunanburh. Of the Christian poets, CAEDMON and CYNEWULF are known by reputation. The Dream of the Rood is the earliest dream vision poem in English. Old English verse is alliterative and unrhymed. Prose was written in Latin before King ALFRED, who had many works translated. The ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE, begun in his time, continued for three centuries. Two preeminent prose writers were AElfric and Wulfstan, authors of homiletic sermons. Anglo-Saxons Anglo-Saxons, name given to the Germanic-speaking peoples who settled in England at the decline of Roman rule there. The Angles probably came from Schleswig late in the 5th cent. and formed foundations for the later kingdoms of EAST ANGLIA, MERCIA, and NORTHUMBRIA. The Saxons, a Germanic tribe, settled in England at the same time; the kingdoms of SUSSEX, WESSEX, and ESSEX were outgrowths of their settlements. The Jutes, a tribe probably from the area at the mouth of the Rhine, settled in Kent and on the Isle of Wight. The term "Anglo-Saxons," denoting non-Celtic settlers of England, dates from the 16th cent. It is now used more loosely to denote any people (or their descendants) of the British Isles. Angola Angola, officially People's Republic of Angola, republic (1986 est. pop. 8,960,000), 481,351 sq mi (1,246,700 sq km), SW Africa, formerly also Portuguese West Africa, bordered by the Atlantic Ocean (W), Zaire (N), Zambia (E), and Namibia, South West Africa (S). It includes the province of CABINDA, on the Atlantic coast, from which it is separated by a strip of land belonging to Zaire. Major cities include LUANDA (the capital) and LOBITO. Nearly all of the land is desert or savanna, except for the densely forested valleys of the northeast and a narrow coastal strip in the west. The most prominent physical feature is the Bie Plateau (average altitude, 6,000 ft/1,830 m), which rises abruptly from the coastal lowland and slopes eastward to the CONGO and ZAMBEZI river basins. Formerly dependent on agriculture, Angola today receives over two thirds of its export earnings from oil production, chiefly from reserves offshore of Cabinda. Diamonds and iron ore are also important. Principal crops include coffee (the second largest export), sugarcane, corn, and wheat. Among the leading industries are food processing (notably cereals, fish, palm oil, and meat) and the manufacture of jute, cotton textiles, and paper. The population is overwhelmingly black African, and most of the people speak a Bantu language; the Mbundu are the largest ethnic group. (The great majority of the estimated 500,000 European residents left Angola after independence was achieved.) Traditional religious beliefs prevail, but there is a large minority of Roman Catholics and other Christians. History The first Portuguese colony in Angola was established in Luanda in 1575, and, except for a short Dutch occupation (1641-48), Angola remained under Portuguese control until its independence in 1975. (The Mbundu kingdom in central Angola was not subjugated by the Portuguese until 1902). For the Portuguese, Angola was a source of slaves for their colony in Brazil. Modern industrial development began after World War II, and Angola was upgraded from its colonial status to an overseas province in 1951. Repression of the African population continued, and in 1961 a revolt began. When this failed, guerrilla warfare was undertaken from neighboring countries, intensifying in the early 1970s, when more than 50,000 Portuguese troops were engaged against the rebels. In 1972 Angola was made an "autonomous state," and in 1973 elections were held for a legislative assembly. Independence was proclaimed in Nov. 1975, touching off a power struggle among rival nationalist groups. Civil war ensued, and by early 1976 the Popular Liberation Movement of Angola (MPLA), supported by the USSR and aided by Cuban troops, defeated the U.S.-supported factions and proclaimed a people's republic. Openly sympathetic to black nationalist movements, since 1979 Angola has been the object of military raids by South African troops in NAMIBIA (South West Africa), ostensibly striking at bases of a guerrilla organization seeking Namibian independence. In 1988 Cuba, S. Africa, and Angola agreed in principle to the removal of Cuban troops from Angola and S. African troops from Namibia. Angstrom, Anders Jons Angstrom, Anders Jons, 1814-74, Swedish physicist. Noted for his study of light, especially SPECTRUM analysis, he mapped the sun's spectrum, discovered hydrogen in the solar atmosphere, and was the first to examine the spectrum of the AURORA borealis. The length unit ANGSTROM is named for him. angstrom angstrom, unit of length equal to 10-10 m. It is used to measure the wavelengths of light and of other forms of electromagnetic radiation. Scientists now prefer to use the nanometer (nm); 1 nm=10 A. Anguilla Anguilla, island (1984 est. pop. 7,000), 35 sq mi (91 sq km), West Indies, one of the Leeward Islands. Fishing, stock-raising, and salt production are the principal activities. Formerly part of the associated state of St. Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla, the island seceded in 1967 and returned to British rule in 1971. animal animal, any member of the animal kingdom (Animalia) as distinguished from the plant kingdom (Plantae). The major difference between animals and plants is their method of obtaining nourishment-animals must secure food as already organized organic substances, while plants manufacture their own food from inorganic sources (usually by PHOTOSYNTHESIS). Most animals have nervous systems, sense organs, and specialized modes of locomotion, and are adapted for securing, ingesting, and digesting food. Animals and plants are interdependent: green plants use carbon dioxide and provide oxygen (a by-product of photosynthesis) and food; animals (and plants) provide carbon dioxide (through respiration and the decomposition of their dead bodies). The scientific study of animals is called ZOOLOGY. animism animism, belief that a spirit or force residing in every animate and inanimate object, every dream and idea, gives individuality to each. The related Polynesian concept of mana holds that the spirit in all things is responsible for the good and evil in the universe. See FETISH; SHAMAN; TOTEM. anion anion: see ION. anise anise, annual plant (Pimpinella anisum) of the CARROT family, native to the Mediterranean but widely cultivated for its aromatic and medicinal qualities. The seedlike fruits (aniseed) are used as flavoring and provide anise oil, which is used in medicinals, perfumes, beverages, and dentifrices. Biblical anise is DILL. Anjou Anjou, region and former province, W France. Angers, the historic capital, and Saumur are the chief towns in this fertile lowland traversed by several rivers. Its vineyards produce renowned wines. Occupied by the Andecavi, a Gallic people, Anjou was conquered by the Romans and later (5th cent.) by the FRANKS. By the 10th cent. it was held by the counts of the first Angevin dynasty; it came under English rule when its ruler became (1154) king of England as HENRY II. PHILIP II of France seized (1204) Anjou from the English, and in 1246 LOUIS IX of France gave it to his brother, later CHARLES I of Naples. In 1360 Anjou became a duchy and in 1487 it was definitively annexed to France. Ankara Ankara, city (1985 pop. 2,251,533), capital of Turkey, W central Turkey. The second largest city in Turkey, it is an administrative, commercial, and cultural center. Manufactures include processed food and farm equipment. Grains, vegetables, and fruits are grown nearby. A Hittite trade center (18th cent. BC), it became (1st cent. AD) the capital of a Roman province; in the ruins of a temple in Ankara have been found tablets valuable as a record of AUGUSTUS' reign. The city fell to the Ottoman Turks in the 14th cent. It declined in the 19th and 20th cent., until Kemal ATATURK made it the capital of Turkey in 1923. Ataturk's massive limestone tomb can be seen from most of the city. Anna Anna, 1693-1740, czarina of Russia (1730-40); daughter of Ivan V and niece of PETER I. She succeeded her cousin Peter II. Allied with Holy Roman Emperor CHARLES VI, she intervened in the War of the POLISH SUCCESSION (1733-35) and attacked Turkey (1736). Her grandnephew, Ivan VI, succeeded her. Annam Annam, historic region (c.58,000 sq mi/150,200 sq km) and former state, central Vietnam. The region extended nearly 800 mi (1,290 km) along the South China Sea between Tonkin (N) and Cochin China (S). The capital was HUE. After more than 2,000 years of contact with the Chinese the peoples of the Red R. valley came under Chinese rule in 111 BC The Annamese drove out the Chinese in AD 939 and maintained their independence until the French conquest in the 19th cent. Conflict between ruling dynasties dominated this long period, ending with the establishment (1802) of the empire of VIETNAM by Nguyen-Anh, who had procured French military aid by ceding the port of DA NANG and the Con Son islands. His authority as emperor was recognized by the Chinese in 1803. Mistreatment of French nationals and Vietnamese Christians by his successor provided an excuse for French military operations, which began in 1858 and resulted in the establishment of the French colony of COCHIN CHINA and the protectorates of TONKIN and Annam. The three territories were occupied by the Japanese during WORLD WAR II. After an independence struggle against the French, most of Annam became part of South Vietnam in 1954; the rest went to North Vietnam. Annam was incorporated into united Vietnam after the VIETNAM WAR. Annapolis Annapolis, city (1986 est. pop. 33,360), state capital and seat of Anne Arundel co., central Md., on the Severn R. It is a port of entry and a farm-produce shipping center with seafood and boat-building industries. Settled in 1649, it has a rich history, including a period (1783-84) as the capital of the U.S.; it has been Maryland's capital since 1694. The city has many 18th-cent. buildings and is the site of the U.S. Naval Academy and St. John's College. Annapolis Convention Annapolis Convention, 1786, interstate convention to discuss U.S. commerce, held at Annapolis, Md. Its call for a meeting to discuss changes in the Articles of CONFEDERATION brought about the FEDERAL CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION. Annapolis Royal Annapolis Royal, town (1986 pop. 631), W Nova Scotia, E Canada, on the Annapolis R. One of Canada's oldest settlements, it was founded as Port Royal by the French in 1605, destroyed (1613) by the British, and rebuilt to become the chief town of French ACADIA. Often fought over in the 1600s by the English and the French, it was finally taken (1710) by colonists from New England and renamed in honor of Queen Anne. The ruins of its fort are in Fort Anne Historic National Park. Ann Arbor Ann Arbor, city (1986 est. pop. 107,810), seat of Washtenaw co., S Mich., on the Huron R.; settled 1824, inc. 1851. It is a research and educational center, with government and industrial research firms and the huge Univ. of Michigan. Products include lasers, computers, and precision machinery. The city is also a medical center with several hospitals. Anne Anne, 1665-1714, queen of England, Scotland, and Ireland (1702-7), later queen of Great Britain and Ireland (1707-14); daughter of JAMES II; successor to WILLIAM III. The last STUART ruler and a devout Protestant, in 1683 she married Prince George of Denmark. Her reign was one of transition to parliamentary government, but intrigue and the queen's favor could still make and unmake cabinets. The dominant event was the War of the SPANISH SUCCESSION (1702-13). Despite victories won by the duke of MARLBOROUGH (whose wife was long a favorite of the queen), the war's high cost caused political friction. None of Anne's children survived her, and by the Act of SETTLEMENT (1701) GEORGE I succeeded her. Despite her personal mediocrity, Anne's reign was marked by intellectual awakening, the popularization of Palladian architecture, and the growth of parliamentary government. Anne Anne, 1950-, British princess; daughter of ELIZABETH II. In 1973 she married a British army officer, Mark Phillips. They have two children. annealing annealing, process in which glass, metals, and other materials are treated to render them less brittle and more workable. The material is heated and then cooled very slowly and uniformly, with the time and temperature set according to the properties desired. Annealing increases ductility and relieves internal strains that lead to failures in service. Anne Boleyn, queen of England Anne Boleyn, queen of England: see BOLEYN, ANNE. annelid worm annelid worm, member of the phylum Annelida, which includes the EARTHWORMS, LEECHES, and marine worms. Also called segmented worms; they are soft-bodied, bilaterally symmetrical, and segmented. Distributed worldwide, they live in protected habitats, often in tubes manufactured by their own secretions. Reproduction is sexual or asexual; some species are HERMAPHRODITES. They range from 1/32 in. (0.5 mm) to 10 ft (3 m) in length. Anne of Austria Anne of Austria, 1601-66, queen consort of France. The daughter of PHILIP III of Spain, she married (1615) the French king LOUIS XIII and gained the enmity of Cardinal RICHELIEU, Louis's chief minister. As regent (1643-51) for her son LOUIS XIV, she entrusted the government to Cardinal MAZARIN. Anne of Brittany Anne of Brittany, 1477-1514, queen of France, consort of CHARLES VIII (1491-98) and LOUIS XII (1499-1514). As duchess of Brittany from 1488, she tried to preserve independence from France by marrying by proxy (1490) Maximilian of Austria (later Holy Roman Emperor MAXIMILIAN I). Besieged (1491) by the French, she was forced to annul her marriage and to wed Charles VIII. Widowed in 1498, she then married Louis XII, and Brittany was eventually incorporated (1532) by France. Anne of Cleves Anne of Cleves, 1515-57, fourth queen consort of HENRY VIII of England. She was the daughter of a powerful German Protestant prince, and Henry married her in 1540 for political reasons. Finding her dull and unattractive, he divorced her that same year. Anne of Denmark Anne of Denmark, 1574-1619, queen consort of JAMES I of England. annexation annexation, in international law, formal act by which a state asserts its sovereignty over a territory previously outside its jurisdiction. It also describes the process by which municipalities in the U.S. extend their legal control over surrounding areas. Under the UN charter, self-determination by inhabitants of a territory is the only basis for transfer of sovereignty. annual annual, plant that propagates itself by seed and undergoes its entire life cycle within one growing season, as distinguished from a BIENNIAL or PERENNIAL. Some cultivated annuals will blossom during a season only if started under glass and set out as young plants; others bloom where sown. annual rings annual rings, growth layers of WOOD produced yearly in the stems and roots of trees and shrubs. When well-marked alteration of seasons occurs (e.g., either cold and warm or wet and dry), a sharp contrast exists between the early- and late-season growth-the wood cells are larger earlier when growing conditions are better. In uniform climates, there is little visible difference between annual rings. The number of annual rings reflects the age of a tree; the thickness of each ring reflects environmental and climatic conditions. Annunzio, Gabriele D' Annunzio, Gabriele D': see D'ANNUNZIO, GABRIELE. anode anode: see ELECTRODE. anointing of the sick anointing of the sick, SACRAMENT of the ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH and the ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH; formerly known as extreme unction. In it a person who is in danger of death is anointed on the eyes, ears, nostrils, lips, hands, and feet by a priest while he recites absolutions for sins. In the Eastern churches it is normally given by three priests and maybe administered to the healthy to prevent sickness. anomie anomie, a social condition characterized by instability, the breakdown of social norms, institutional disorganization, and a divorce between socially valid goals and available means for achieving them. Introduced into sociology by Emile DURKHEIM in his study Suicide (1897), anomie also refers to the psychological condition-of rootlessness, futility, anxiety, and amorality-afflicting individuals who live under such conditions. The importance of anomie as a cause of deviant behavior received further elaboration by Robert K. MERTON. anorexia nervosa anorexia nervosa: see EATING DISORDERS. Anouilh, Jean Anouilh, Jean, 1910-87, French dramatist. His works contrast romantic dreams with harsh reality. Among his dramas are Antigone (1944), The Waltz of the Toreadors (1952), and Becket (1959). Anselm, Saint Anselm, Saint, 1033?-1109, Italian prelate, archbishop of Canterbury, Doctor of the Church. He succeeded (1093) his friend LANFRANC as archbishop of Canterbury. In England, he quarreled with WILLIAM II and HENRY I over lay INVESTITURE and was exiled twice. An influential theologian, he was a founder of SCHOLASTICISM. His famous ontological proof deduces God's existence from man's notion of a perfect being in whom nothing is lacking. Feast: Apr. 21. Anshan Anshan, city (1986 est. pop. 1,280,000) central Liaoning prov., NE China, on the South Manchurian RR. Its huge integrated iron and steel complex is one of the largest in China. Other manufactures include machinery, chemicals, and construction materials. Ansky, Shloime Ansky, Shloime, pseud. of Solomon Seinwil Rapoport, 1863-1920, Russian Yiddish author. He incorporated folk elements into his stories of peasants and HASIDIM, e.g., The Dybbuk (1916), a tale of demonic possession. ant ant, INSECT (family Formicidae) belonging to the same order as the BEE and WASP. Ants have a narrow stalk joining the abdomen and thorax, and biting mouthparts (sometimes used for defense). Some ants have stings, and some can spray poison from the end of the abdomen. All ants show some degree of social organization; many nest in a system of tunnels in the soil, in constructed mounds, or in wood. Ant colonies usually include three castes: winged, fertile females; wingless, infertile females, or workers; and winged males. In some species workers may become soldiers or other specialized types. Army ants travel in columns, overrunning and devouring any animals in their path; fire ants are stinging ants that are serious pests in parts of the S U.S. Antakya Antakya: see ANTIOCH. Antananarivo Antananarivo or Tananarive,city (1985 est. pop. 662,585), capital of Madagascar. The country's largest city and economic and communications center, it is a productive agricultural region whose main crop is rice. A railroad connects the city with Tamatave, the chief port. Manufactures include meat products and cigarettes. Founded c.1625, it became (1797) the residence of the Merina rulers. It was taken by the French in 1895. Today it is a modern city, built on a ridge; at its top stands the old royal residence. Antarctica Antarctica, 5th largest continent, c.5,500,000 sq mi (14,245,000 sq km), asymmetrically centered on the SOUTH POLE and located almost entirely S of the ANTARCTIC CIRCLE (66 deg 30'S). It consists of two major regions: W Antarctica, including the mountainous Antarctic Peninsula, which is structurally related to the ANDES of South America and connected to them by way of the Scotia Arc (South Georgia, South Orkney, and South Sandwich islands); and E Antarctica, a continental shield area (see PLATE TECTONICS) with a rock surface near sea level. These two regions are joined into a single continental mass by an ice cap up to 13,000 ft (4,000 m) thick that covers more than 95% of Antarctica. Vinson Massif (16,066 ft/4,897 m) is the continent's highest peak. Great ice shelves up to 4,000 ft (1,220 m) thick block the ROSS and WEDDELL seas, and a belt of nearly continuous pack ice surrounds the rest of the continent. Summer temperatures (Jan.) are unlikely to be warmer than 0 degF (-18 degC); winter mean temperatures are -70 degF (-57 degC). Roald AMUNDSEN was the first explorer to reach the South Pole on Dec. 14, 1911, followed by R.F. SCOTT on Jan. 18, 1912. The first to fly over the pole was Richard E. BYRD, on Nov. 29, 1929. The success of international scientific cooperation in Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957-58 led to the signing (1959) of the Antarctic Treaty, which prohibits military operations, nuclear explosions, and the disposal of radioactive wastes south of latitude 60 degS, exclusive of the high seas. See map in separate section. In 1985, 32 nations signed an agreement limiting human access to research zones in Antarctica. Antarctic Circle Antarctic Circle, imaginary circle on the earth's surface at 66 deg 30'S lat., marking the southernmost point at which the sun can be seen at the summer SOLSTICE (about June 22) and the northernmost point of the southern polar regions at which the midnight sun is visible. Antarctic peninsula Antarctic peninsula, glaciated mountain region of W ANTARCTICA, extending c.1,200 mi (1,930 km) north toward South America. It was originally named Palmer Land for Nathaniel Palmer, a U.S. captain who explored the region in 1820. The British claimed the peninsula in 1832 and it was later claimed by Argentina (1940) and by Chile (1942). In 1964, by international agreement it was named the Antarctic Peninsula. anteater anteater, toothless MAMMAL of three genera of the order Edentata found in tropical Central and South America. It feeds on ants, termites, and other insects. The great anteater, or ant bear (Myrmecophaga), has an elongated snout, a coarse-haired body about 4 ft (1.2 m) long, and a long, broad tail; the arboreal collared, or lesser, anteater (Tamandua) is less than half the size of the great anteater; and the arboreal two-toed anteater (Cyclopes) is about the size of a squirrel. antelope antelope, any of various hoofed ruminant MAMMALS of the CATTLE family. True antelopes are found only in Africa and Asia. Antelopes usually stand 3-4 ft (90-120 cm) at the shoulder, but range from the 12-in. (30-cm) pygmy antelope to the 6-ft (180-cm) giant eland. Antelope horns, unlike DEER horns, are unbranched and are not shed. Species of antelope include the bushbuck, with its spiral horns and oxlike body; the addax, a large desert antelope of N Africa; the horselike oryx, found in Africa and Arabia; the GNU and its close relative the hartebeest, a swift, horselike animal with U-shaped horns; and the GAZELLE. antenna antenna or aerial,system of wires or other conductors used to transmit or receive radio or other electromagnetic waves (see RADIO; TELEVISION). In a transmitting antenna, the signal from an ELECTRIC CIRCUIT causes electrons in the antenna to oscillate; these moving electric charges generate ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION, which is then transmitted through space. The distribution pattern of the transmitted wave depends on the design of the antenna; radio broadcast-station antennas are frequently designed to emit waves in all directions, whereas those used for RADAR and for certain communication systems focus the waves in a single direction. In a receiving antenna, electromagnetic waves cause the electrons in the antenna to oscillate, inducing a signal that can be detected by an electric circuit. In general, a longer antenna is used to transmit or receive signals of longer wavelengths. Theoretically, the same antenna can be used both for sending and for receiving signals, but in practice, transmitting antennas are constructed to handle higher power loads than receiving antennas. Antheil, George Antheil, George, 1900-1959, American composer; b. Trenton, N.J. His early work reveals the influence of JAZZ. In 1927 a performance of his Ballet mecanique, scored for player piano, car horns, airplane propellers, etc., caused a furor in New York City. Other works include the opera Transatlantic (1930), symphonies, and film scores. anthem anthem, short nonliturgical choral composition used in Protestant services, usually accompanied and with an English text. Early anthems, which arose in the Anglican Church, included those by Thomas Tallis and William BYRD. In the 17th cent. Henry PURCELL and John Blow wrote anthems including solo parts (verse anthems); G.F. HANDEL composed full anthems, for voice only. The term anthem also means "national anthem," e.g., The STAR-SPANGLED BANNER. Anthony, Saint Anthony, Saint, 251?-c.350, Egyptian hermit. Living in seclusion, he resisted the many temptations of the devil. A colony of hermits grew up about him, and he ruled them as a community before going away to the desert. He was the father of Christian MONASTICISM. Feast: Jan. 17. Anthony, Marc Anthony, Marc: see ANTONY. Anthony, Susan B(rownell) Anthony, Susan B(rownell), 1820-1906, American leader of the WOMAN SUFFRAGE movement; b. Adams, Mass. She organized the first women's temperance association, the Daughters of Temperance, and with Elizabeth Cady STANTON secured the first laws in New York guaranteeing women rights over their children and control of property and wages. In 1863 she was coorganizer of the Women's Loyal League to support Lincoln's government, but after the Civil War she opposed granting suffrage to freedmen without also giving it to women. She was president (1892-1900) of the National American Woman Suffrage Association and helped compile vols. 1-3 of The History of Woman Suffrage (1881-86). anthrax anthrax, infectious disease of animals that can be transmitted from animals to humans through contact or the inhalation of spores. Primarily affecting sheep, horses, hogs, cattle, and goats, anthrax is usually restricted to people who handle hides of animals (e.g., farmers, butchers, and veterinarians) or sort wool. The disease, usually fatal to animals but not humans, is caused by Bacillus anthracis, discovered by Robert KOCH in 1876. Louis PASTEUR developed a method of vaccinating sheep and cattle against anthrax, and the disease is now relatively rare in the U.S. anthropological linguistics anthropological linguistics, study of the relationship between language and CULTURE, often focusing on cultures with no written language, e.g., American Indians. The precise relationship of language to culture is, however, a subject of controversy. See also ANTHROPOLOGY; LINGUISTICS. anthropology anthropology, study of the origin, development, and varieties of human beings and their societies. Emerging as an independent science in the late 18th cent., it developed two divisions: physical anthropology, which focuses on human EVOLUTION and variation (see RACE), using methods of PHYSIOLOGY, anthropometry, GENETICS, and ECOLOGY; and cultural anthropology (see CULTURE), which includes ARCHAEOLOGY, ethnology, social anthropology, and LINGUISTICS. antianxiety drug antianxiety drug, drug administered for the relief of ANXIETY; in larger doses, antianxiety drugs produce sleep, sedation, and anesthesia. Those frequently prescribed in the U.S. include diazepam (Valium), chlordiazepoxide (Librium), and meprobamate (Miltown). Side effects include drowsiness and, with prolonged use, possible dependence. antibiotic antibiotic, any of a variety of substances, usually obtained from microorganisms, that inhibit the growth of or destroy certain other microorganisms. The foundation for the development and understanding of antibiotics was laid during the 19th cent. when Louis PASTEUR proved that one species of microorganism can kill another and Paul EHRLICH developed the idea of selective toxicity: that a specific substance can be toxic to some organisms, e.g., infectious bacteria, but harmless to others, e.g., human hosts. Further pioneering work in the 20th cent. by Alexander FLEMING, Rene DUBOS, and Selman WAKSMAN led to the discovery of PENICILLIN (1939) and streptomycin (1944). Mass production of antibiotic drugs began during World War II with streptomycin and penicillin. Today antibiotics are produced by various methods, including staged fermentation in huge tanks of nutrient media, synthesis in the laboratory, and chemical modification of natural substances. Antibiotics can be classified according to chemical structure, microbial origin, mode of action, or effective range. The tetracyclines are broad-spectrum drugs, effective against a wide range of bacteria (both gram-positive and gram-negative; see GRAM'S STAIN), rickettsias, and the psittacosis VIRUS. The antibiotics bacitracin, penicillin, the erythromycins, and the cephalosporins work primarily against Gram-positive organisms. Polymyxins and other narrow-range antibiotics are effective against only a few species. Antibiotic drugs may be injected, given orally, or applied to the skin. Some, like penicillin, are allergenic and can cause rashes or shock. Others, like the tetracylines, can alter the intestinal environment, encouraging superinfection by fungi or other microorganisms. Many antibiotics are less effective than formerly because resistant strains of microorganisms have evolved. Antibiotics have been used to enhance the growth of animals used as food, but some authorities question the practice because it encourages the development of resistant strains of bacteria infecting animals, and because continuous low exposure to antibiotics can sensitize human beings, making them unable to take such drugs later to treat infection. antibody antibody: see IMMUNITY. Antichrist Antichrist, in Christian belief, a person who will lead the forces of evil on earth against the forces of Christ. He will be destroyed by Christ at the Second Coming (1 John 2.18-22; 4.3; 2 John 7; and Rev. 13). anticline anticline: see FOLD. anticoagulant anticoagulant, substance, such as heparin or derivatives of coumarin, that inhibits blood clotting. Anticoagulants are used to treat blood clots in leg and pelvic veins, in order to reduce the risk of the clots traveling and obstructing blood flow to vital organs (e.g., the heart and lungs) and causing THROMBOSIS or STROKE. Anti-Corn-Law League Anti-Corn-Law League, organization formed in 1839 to work for repeal of the English CORN LAWS. Its leading figures were Richard COBDEN and John BRIGHT. The laws were repealed in 1846. antidepressant antidepressant, drug used to treat psychic depression. Antidepressants, such as imipramine, are given to elevate mood, counter suicidal thoughts, and increase the effectiveness of psychotherapy, although the exact mechanisms of their action are unknown. Side effects include dry mouth, dizziness, and fatigue. See also LITHIUM. Antietam campaign Antietam campaign, Sept. 1862, in the U.S. CIVIL WAR. Attempting to invade Maryland and Pennsylvania, R.E. LEE sent Stonewall JACKSON to capture Harpers Ferry, which fell on Sept. 15. Lee's own advance was halted by MCCLELLAN, who attacked him at Antietam Creek, Md., on Sept. 17, the bloodiest day of the war. It was a Union victory only in that Lee's advance was stopped. Anti-Federalists Anti-Federalists, in U.S. history, the opponents to the adoption of the Federal CONSTITUTION. Leading Anti-Federalists included George Mason, Elbridge Gerry, Patrick Henry, and George Clinton, and later, supporters of states' rights. Under Pres. Washington, many opposed the policies of the FEDERALIST PARTY and Alexander Hamilton. Under Thomas Jefferson's leadership, they formed the core of the opposition party, known as the Democratic-Republican Party, subsequently the DEMOCRATIC PARTY. antifreeze antifreeze, substance added to a solvent to lower its freezing point. Antifreeze is typically added to water in the cooling system of internal combustion engines so that it may be cooled below the freezing point of pure water (32 deg F or 0 deg C) without freezing. Automotive antifreezes include ethylene glycol (the most widely used), methanol, ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, and propylene glycol. antigen antigen: see IMMUNITY. Antigone Antigone, in Greek legend, daughter of OEDIPUS. When her brothers Eteocles and Polynices killed each other, Creon, king of THEBES, forbade the rebel Polynices' burial. Antigone disobeyed him, performed the rites, and was condemned to death. SOPHOCLES tells her story in Antigone. Antigua Antigua or Antigua Guatemala,town (1983 est. pop. 26,631), S central Guatemala. Now a trading center in a coffee-growing area, it was once the capital of Spanish Guatemala and, in the 16th cent., one of the richest cities in the New World. Antigua was founded in 1542, after a flood and earthquake destroyed the earlier capital, Ciudad Vieja, but was itself leveled by earthquakes in 1773. The capital was then moved to GUATEMALA City. Today Antigua is a major tourist center with fine Spanish buildings. Antigua and Barbuda Antigua and Barbuda, island nation (1986 est. pop. 81,500), 171 sq mi (442 sq km), West Indies, in the Leeward Islands. It consists of Antigua (108 sq mi/280 sq km) and two smaller islands, sparsely populated Barbuda and uninhabited Redonda. The capital is St. John's. Antigua is a hilly island with farms that grow mainly sugarcane and cotton. The population is predominantly of black African origin. The island was discovered by Christopher COLUMBUS in 1493. Following brief periods under the Spanish and French, it was successfully settled in 1632 by the British, who introduced sugar planting; the industry declined with the abolition of slavery in 1834. Antigua, with Barbuda and Redonda as dependencies, became an associated state of the Commonwealth in 1967 and achieved full independence in 1981. The U.S. maintains two military bases there. antihistamine antihistamine: see ALLERGY; HISTAMINE. Antilles Antilles: see WEST INDIES. Anti-Masonic party Anti-Masonic party, American political party founded to counter the supposed political influence of FREEMASONRY. It arose in W New York state after the disappearance (1826) of William Morgan, a former Mason who had written a book purporting to reveal Masonic secrets. Freemasons were said, without proof, to have murdered him. At Baltimore, in 1831, Anti-Masons held the first national nominating convention of any party, and issued the first written party platform. In 1834 they helped form the WHIG PARTY. antimatter antimatter, material composed of antiparticles, which correspond to ordinary protons, electrons, and neutrons but have the opposite electrical charge and magnetic moment. When matter and antimatter collide, both may be annihilated, and other ELEMENTARY PARTICLES, such as photons and pions, are produced. In 1932 Carl D. Anderson, while studying cosmic rays, discovered the positron, or antielectron, the first known antiparticle. Any antimatter in our part of the universe is necessarily very short-lived because of the overwhelming preponderance of ordinary matter, by which the antimatter is quickly annihilated. antimony antimony (Sb), semimetallic element, first described by Nicolas Lemery in 1707. Silvery blue-white, brittle, and easily powdered, it conducts heat and electricity poorly. Chief uses are as alloys and compounds in storage batteries, cable sheathing, and paint pigments. See ELEMENT; PERIODIC TABLE. antinuclear movement antinuclear movement, coalition of those opposed to the production of nuclear weapons and, to a lesser extent, nuclear power plants. With origins in the Ban the Bomb campaign of the late 1950s and the environmental movement of the late 1960s, the current movement emerged after the THREE MILE ISLAND Nuclear Station accident (1979) and U.S. planned deployment of new medium-range missiles in Western Europe (1981). Major demonstrations occurred in Europe and the U.S. An antinuclear peace rally (N.Y.C.; 1982) drew nearly 1 million people. In 1985, the International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Related organizations include SANE: A Citizens' Organization for a Sane World, Physicians for Social Responsibility, and the Union of Concerned Scientists. See also DISARMAMENT, NUCLEAR. Antioch Antioch or Antakya,city (1980 pop. 94,942), S Turkey, on the Orontes R., near the Mediterranean Sea. It is a trade center for a farm area where grains, cotton, and vegetables are grown. Founded (c.300 BC) by SELEUCUS I, king of ancient Syria, it was a military, commercial, and cultural center under Rome and an early center of Christianity. It fell (AD 637) to the Arabs but was retaken (1098) by the Crusaders and became a powerful principality under BOHEMOND I. It later became (1516) part of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE, was incorporated into the French mandate of Syria after World War I, and was restored to Turkey in 1939. Many important archaeological finds have been made in or near the city. Antiochus I Antiochus I, 324-261 BC, Seleucid emperor. The son of ALEXANDER'S general SELEUCUS, he acceded to the throne in 281. He made peace with Macedonia, but lost territories in Asia Minor to Egypt in wars (274-71; 263-61). He led (273) a successful campaign against Gallic invaders in Asia Minor. Antiochus III Antiochus III, c.242-187 BC, Seleucid emperor, known as Antiochus the Great. Succeeding (223) his father, Seleucus II, he conquered Parthia, Bactria, Syria, and Palestine, entered into an alliance with PHILIP V of Macedonia, and invaded Thrace. He also gave refuge to HANNIBAL and aroused the enmity of Rome, which checked his western expansion in battles at Thermopylae and Magnesia. Antiochus IV Antiochus IV, c.215-163 BC, known as Antiochus Epiphanes. Son of Antiochus II, he became king in 175. He is remembered for his infamous attempt to impose Hellenic culture on Judea, which instigated the Maccabean (see MACCABEES) Revolt (167). His preemptive war against Ptolemaic Egypt in 169-68 was lost by the intervention of Rome. antiparticle antiparticle: see ANTIMATTER. Antipas Antipas, in the Bible: see HEROD. Antipater Antipater, d. 319 BC, Macedonian general under ALEXANDER THE GREAT; regent of MACEDON (334-323 BC). After Alexander's death he defeated Perdiccas in a struggle for the regency (321). He held the kingdom together; his death was followed by the wars of the DIADOCHI. Antipater Antipater, in the Bible: see HEROD. antipope antipope, person elected pope whose election was later declared uncanonical and in opposition to a canonically chosen legitimate pontiff (see PAPACY). antique antique, term formerly applied only to objects of preclassical and classical cultures of the ancient world, but now applied in common usage to artifacts of historic, aesthetic, and monetary value that are more than 100 years old. Antique collecting began with the preservation of religious objects in antiquity, but today includes a vast range of decorative objects and memorabilia. Anti-Saloon League Anti-Saloon League, U.S. organization working for the prohibition of the sale of alcoholic beverages. Founded in 1893, it helped to secure the 18th amendment to the CONSTITUTION, establishing PROHIBITION (1919-33). In 1950 it merged with the National Temperance League. anti-Semitism anti-Semitism, prejudice against JEWS. Before the 19th cent. anti-Semitism was largely religious, based on the belief that Jews were responsible for Christ's crucifixion. It was expressed in the later Middle Ages by sporadic persecutions and expulsions (e.g., the expulsion of Jews from Spain in 1492), economic restrictions (e.g., the restriction of Jews to unpopular or taboo occupations), and personal restrictions (see GHETTO). After the Jews' emancipation during the ENLIGHTENMENT, religious and economic anti-Semitism was slowly replaced in the 19th cent. by racial prejudice, stemming from the idea of Jews as a distinct race. The cultural isolation of Orthodox Jews, rising NATIONALISM, pseudoscientific theories of Aryan racial superiority, and spurious charges of Jewish domination encouraged anti-Semitism (see POGROM). These beliefs, incorporated into Adolf Hitler's NATIONAL SOCIALISM, contributed to the extermination of 6 million Jews in the HOLOCAUST of World War II. Anti-Semitism still exists in the USSR, the Middle East, and elsewhere. antislavery movement antislavery movement: see ABOLITIONISTS; SLAVERY. antitoxin antitoxin: see TOXIN. antitrust laws antitrust laws, legislation under which the U.S. government has acted to break up any large business combination alleged to be acting monopolistically to suppress competition (see TRUST, corporate; MONOPOLY). The first of these laws, which were based on the constitutional power of Congress to regulate interstate commerce, was the Sherman Antitrust Act (1890). It declared illegal every contract, combination, or conspiracy in restraint of interstate and foreign trade. It was supplemented (1914) by the Clayton Antitrust Act, which prohibited exclusive sales contracts, intercorporate stock holdings, and unfair price cutting to freeze out competitors. The last provision was strengthened under the terms of the Robinson-Patman Act of 1936. Corporate trusts grew rapidly in the U.S. from 1880 to 1905, by which time Pres. Theodore ROOSEVELT had launched his famous "trust-busting" campaigns. An early federal success came with the Supreme Court decision of 1911 that forced the giant Standard Oil Co. to split up into independent entities. Antitrust action declined in the 1920s, but was vigorously resumed in the 1930s under Pres. F.D. ROOSEVELT. In recent years enforcement of antitrust legislation has been complicated by the growth of huge CONGLOMERATES that control many companies in various, sometimes interrelated, industries. Antoine, Andre Antoine, Andre, 1858-1943, French theater director, manager, and critic. In 1887 he founded the Theatre Libre (see THEATER,) to present works of NATURALISM. His work became a model for experimental theaters. Antonello da Messina Antonello da Messina, c.1430 1479, Italian painter. His handling of oils shows strong Flemish influence. Messina's works include Ecce Homo (Metropolitan Mus.) and Pieta (Venice). He was also an excellent portraitist. Antonescu, Ion Antonescu, Ion, 1882-1946, Rumanian marshal and dictator. King CAROL II named him premier in 1940, and he promptly forced the king's abdication in favor of Carol's son, MICHAEL. In WORLD WAR II Antonescu led the nation into the AXIS camp and gave HITLER virtual control of the country. He was executed at the end of the war. Antonioni, Michelangelo Antonioni, Michelangelo, 1912-, Italian film director. In such films as L'Avventura (1959), Red Desert (1964), Blow-Up (1966), and The Passenger (1975) he depicted modern alienation, subordinating dialogue to visual images. Antony Antony or Marc Antony,Lat. Marcus Antonius, c.83 BC-30 BC, Roman politician and soldier. He was of a distinguished family related to Julius CAESAR, who made him a protege. In 49 BC Antony became tribune. He and Quintus Cassius Longinus (see CASSIUS, family), another tribune, vetoed the bill to deprive Caesar of his army. Caesar then crossed the Rubicon, and the civil war began. After Caesar's assassination (44 BC), Antony, then consul, aroused the mob against the conspirators. Octavian (later AUGUSTUS) joined forces with him, but they soon fell out. However, Octavian arranged the Second Triumvirate with Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (see LEPIDUS, family). At Philippi, in 42 BC, Antony and Octavian crushed the republicans, and the triumvirate ruled the empire for five years. Antony met CLEOPATRA in 42 BC, and their love affair began. When Antony's wife, Fulvia, died (40 BC), he married Octavian's sister, OCTAVIA. In 37 BC, Antony settled in Alexandria as the acknowledged lover of Cleopatra. In 32 BC the senate deprived Antony of his powers, thus making civil war inevitable. In the following year Octavian's forces defeated Antony and Cleopatra in the naval battle at Actium, and Antony returned to Egypt. When Octavian came there (30 BC), Antony committed suicide, and Cleopatra killed herself soon afterward. Of the many dramas on the tragedy, the best known by far is SHAKESPEARE'S Antony and Cleopatra. Antwerp Antwerp, city (1987 pop. 479,748, including Berchem, Borgerhout, Deurne, Hoboken, Merksem, and Wilrijk), Flemish N Belgium, on the Scheldt R. It is one of the busiest European ports and a major center of finance, industry, and the diamond trade. Europe's chief commercial city by the mid-16th cent., it declined after its sacking (1576) by the Spanish and the closing (1648) of the Scheldt to navigation. Its modern expansion dates from 1863. In the 20th cent. it was twice occupied and heavily damaged by the Germans. Antwerp has many notable buildings, e.g., its Gothic cathedral (14th-16th cent.), and houses many important paintings, e.g., by RUBENS, MASSYS, VAN DYCK. anxiety anxiety, anticipatory tension or vague dread persisting in the absence of a specific threat. It is characterized by increased pulse rate and blood pressure, quickened breathing, perspiration, and dryness of the mouth. It has been defined as the tension resulting from a sense of failure in interpersonal relations or as a reaction to unresolved conflicts that threaten the personality. Anza, Juan Bautista de Anza, Juan Bautista de, 1735-88, Spanish explorer; b. Mexico. Accompanied by a small expedition, he blazed (1774) a route from Sonora to California. In 1776 he founded SAN FRANCISCO. He later served (1777-88) as governor of New Mexico. Apache Indians Apache Indians, NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS of the Southwest, six culturally related groups; most spoke dialects of the ATHABASCAN branch of the Nadene linguistic stock (see AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES). Their ancestors entered the area c.1100. The NAVAHO INDIANS were once joined to the Apaches. Historically the Apaches subsisted on wild game, seed and fruit gathering, livestock, and some horticulture. Men lived with and worked for their wives' families. The Apaches, known as fierce fighters, resisted the Spanish advance but increasingly fought the COMANCHES and other tribes with captured Spanish horses and arms. After the mid-19th cent. COCHISE, GERONIMO, MANGAS COLORADAS, and others led them in strong but futile efforts to stop white expansion westward. Today they live on reservations totaling over 3 million acres in Arizona and New Mexico and retain many tribal customs. Cattle, timber, tourism, and the development of mineral resources provide income. In 1982 the Apaches won a major Supreme Court test of their right to tax resources extracted from their lands. apartheid apartheid [Afrik.,=apartness], system of racial segregation and white supremacy peculiar to the Republic of SOUTH AFRICA. First formalized in the 1948 Afrikaner Nationalist party platform, apartheid separates whites from nonwhites, non whites-Coloureds (mulattoes), Asiatics (mainly of Indian ancestry), and Africans (called Bantu)-from each other, and one group of Bantu from another. Under Prime Min. Hendrik VERWOERD a policy of "separate development" established nine BANTUSTANS, or homelands, totaling about 14% of the country's land, most of it too poor in quality to support the designated population (roughly 70% of all South Africans). On the reservations Bantu can exercise certain rights; elsewhere their activities are strictly curtailed. They cannot vote, own land, travel, or work without permits, and spouses are often forbidden to accompany workers to urban areas. The policy, which is destructive of African family life, has generated international and domestic protest. In 1961 South Africa withdrew from the British Commonwealth in dispute over apartheid. Economic and political pressure has since led to some improvements for Africans, but many feel that apartheid will end only by force-from within or without. apatite apatite, phosphate mineral (Ca,Pb)5(PO4)3(F,Cl,OH), transparent to opaque in shades of green, brown, yellow, white, red, and purple. Apatite, a minor constituent of many types of rock, is mined in Florida, Tennessee, Montana, N Africa, Europe, and the USSR. Large deposits are mined for use in making phosphatic fertilizers, and two varieties are used to a limited extent in jewelry. ape ape, PRIMATE of the family Pongidae, or Simiidae, closely related to human beings. The small apes, the GIBBON and siamang, and the smallest of the great apes, the ORANGUTAN, are found in SE Asia; the other great apes, the GORILLA and the CHIMPANZEE, are found in Africa. They vary in size from the 3-ft (1.8-m), 15-lb (6.8-kg) gibbon to the 6-ft (1.8-m), 500-lb (227-kg) gorilla. All are forest dwellers and spend at least some time in trees; unlike MONKEYS, they can swing hand-over-hand. Their brains, similar in structure to the human brain, are capable of fairly advanced reasoning. Apelles Apelles, fl. 330 BC, Greek painter, the most famous in antiquity, now known only through descriptions. Perhaps his most famous work was a painting of Aphrodite rising from the sea. BOTTICELLI painted Apelles' Calumny (Uffizi) from ALBERTI'S description. Apennines Apennines, mountain system c.840 mi (1,350 km) long and up to c.80 mi (130 km) wide, extending the entire length of the Italian Peninsula and continuing into Sicily. The earth-quake-prone mountains, long since denuded of their original forest cover, reach a high point of 9,560 ft (2,914 m) in Mt. Corno. aphasia aphasia, language disturbance caused by a lesion of the brain, causing partial or total impairment in the individual's ability to speak, write, or comprehend the meaning of spoken or written words. Treatment consists of reeducation; the methods used include those employed in education of the deaf. aphelion aphelion: see APSIS. aphid aphid or plant louse,tiny, usually green, pear-shaped INSECT injurious to vegetation. Aphids feed by sucking plant juices through their beaks. Most species live in large colonies; some species live symbiotically with ants. Many inhabit swellings of plant tissues (galls) that they form with their secretions. Aphrodite Aphrodite, in Greek mythology, goddess of love, beauty, and fertility. She was either the daughter of ZEUS and Dione, or she emerged from the sea foam. Married to HEPHAESTUS, she loved and had children by other gods and mortals, e.g., Harmonia was fathered by ARES, and AENEAS was the son of Anchises. Aphrodite was awarded the apple of discord by PARIS, leading to the TROJAN WAR. Probably of Eastern origin, she was similar in attributes to the goddesses ASTARTE and ISHTAR. The Romans identified her with VENUS. Apia Apia, city (1981 est. pop. 33,170), capital and chief port of WESTERN SAMOA. APL APL: see PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE. Apocrypha Apocrypha, appendix to the Authorized (King James) Version of the Old Testament, containing the following books or parts of books: First and Second ESDRAS; TOBIT; JUDITH; ESTHER 10.4-16.24; WISDOM; ECCLESIASTICUS ; BARUCH; DANIEL3.24-90, 13, 14; Prayer of Manasses (see under MANASSEH); and First and Second MACCABEES. All except the Prayer of Manasses and First and Second Esdras are included in the Western canon. Protestants follow the Jewish tradition in treating these books as uncanonical. Jewish and Christian works resembling biblical books but not in the Western or Hebrew canon are called pseudepigrapha. apogee apogee: see APSIS. Apollinaire, Guillaume Apollinaire, Guillaume, 1880-1918, French poet and critic; b. Wilhelm Apollinaris de Kostrowitzky. He was an influential innovator, whose lyric poems, e.g., Alcools (1913) and Calligrammes (1918), blend modern and traditional verse techniques. He is credited with introducing CUBISM to literature. The Breasts of Tiresias (1918), a play, is an early example of SURREALISM. Apollo Apollo, in Greek mythology, one of the most important OLYMPIAN gods; son of ZEUS and Leto, twin brother of ARTEMIS. He was concerned with prophecy, medicine (he was the father of ASCLEPIUS), music and poetry (he was also the father of ORPHEUS and the patron of the MUSES), and the pastoral arts. A moral god of high civilization, he was associated with law, philosophy, and the arts. He was widely known as a god of light, Phoebus Apollo; after the 5th cent. BC he was often identified with the sun god HELIOS. Apollo's oracles had great authority; his chief shrine was at DELPHI, where he was primarily a god of purification. In art he was portrayed as the perfection of youth and beauty. The most celebrated statue of him is the Apollo Belvedere, a marble copy of the original Greek bronze, now in the Vatican in Rome. Apollo, Project Apollo, Project: see SPACE EXPLORATION. Apollo asteroid Apollo asteroid: see ASTEROID. Apollonius Rhodius Apollonius Rhodius, fl. 3d cent. BC, epic poet of ALEXANDRIA and RHODES; librarian at Alexandria. His Argonautica is a four-book Homeric imitation on the Argonaut theme (see GOLDEN FLEECE; JASON). Apollo-Soyuz Test Project Apollo-Soyuz Test Project: see SPACE EXPLORATION. apostle apostle [Gr.,=envoy], one of the prime missionaries of Christianity. The disciples of JESUS who were chosen to be his Twelve Apostles were PETER, ANDREW, JAMES (the Greater), JOHN, THOMAS, JAMES (the Less), JUDE  (or Thaddaeus), PHILIP, BARTHOLOMEW, MATTHEW, SIMON, and JUDAS ISCARIOT , who was later replaced by MATTHIAS. St. PAUL and sometimes a few others, e.g., St. BARNABAS, are also classed as apostles. apostrophe apostrophe: see PUNCTUATION. apothecaries' weights apothecaries' weights: see ENGLISH UNITS OF MEASUREMENT; WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Appalachian Mountains Appalachian Mountains, major North American mountain system extending c.1,600 mi (2,570 km) SW from Canada's Quebec prov. to Alabama, with Mt. Mitchell (6,684 ft/2,037 m), in North Carolina, the highest point. Their rugged hills and valleys, the much-eroded remnants of a very old mountain mass, posed a major barrier to westward expansion in the early years of APPALACHIAN TRAIL; BLUE RIDGE; Shenandoah and Great Smoky mountains under NATIONAL PARKS,. Appalachian Trail Appalachian Trail, world's longest continuous hiking trail, in the Appalachian Mts., extending 2,050 mi (3,299 km) from Mt. Katahdin (Me.) to Springer Mt. (Ga.) and passing through 14 states. It was completed in 1937. appeal appeal, legal procedure by which a superior court reviews and, if it thinks fit, alters, a lower court decision. Ordinarily, only errors in applying legal rules, not factual findings, maybe reviewed. The reviewing court may affirm, modify, or reverse the lower court's decision, or may dismiss the case. If an error is found, a retrial may ensue. appendix appendix, small, worm-shaped blind tube projecting from the large intestine into the lower right abdominal cavity. It has no function and is considered a remnant of a previous digestive organ. Appendicitis can occur if accumulated and hardened waste matter becomes infected; rupture of such an appendix can spread infection to the peritoneum (abdominal membrane), causing peritonitis. Appia, Adolphe Appia, Adolphe, 1862-1928, Swiss theorist of stage lighting and decor. His employment of light and shade when staging WAGNER'S operas revolutionized modern scene design and stage lighting. Appian Way Appian Way, most famous of the ROMAN ROADS, built (312 BC) under Appius Claudius Caecus (see CLAUDIUS, Roman gens). It connected Rome with Capua and was later extended to Brundisium (Brindisi). It was the chief highway to Greece and the East. Appius Claudius Appius Claudius: see CLAUDIUS, Roman gens. apple apple, any tree (and its fruit) of the genus Malus of the ROSE family. The common apple (M. sylvestris) is the best-known and commercially most important temperate fruit. It is native to W Asia, but has been widely cultivated from prehistoric times. Thousands of varieties exist, e.g., Golden Delicious, Winesap, Jonathan, and McIntosh. The fruit is consumed fresh or cooked, or is used for juice. Partial fermentation of apple juice (sweet cider) produces hard cider (from which applejack liquor is made); fully fermented juice yields vinegar. The hardwood is used in cabinetmaking and as fuel. The fruit of crab apple trees (which are cultivated as ornamentals) is used for preserves and jellies. Appleseed, Johnny Appleseed, Johnny: see CHAPMAN, JOHN. Appomattox Appomattox, town (1980 pop. 1,345), seat of Appomattox co., central Va.; inc. 1925. Confederate Gen. Robert E. LEE surrendered to Union Gen. U.S. GRANT at nearby Appomattox Courthouse on April 9, 1865, virtually ending the CIVIL WAR. The surrender site has been made a national historical park. apprenticeship apprenticeship, system of learning a craft or trade from a practitioner and paying for the instruction by working a given number of years. The practice was known in ancient Babylon, Egypt, Greece, and Rome, modern Europe and, to some extent, the U.S. In medieval Europe, the GUILDS supervised the relation of master and apprentice. Although the INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION put an end to most guilds, apprenticeship continues in highly skilled trades, at times competing with technical schools. The terms of apprenticeship are regulated by trade unions and by law. apricot apricot, tree (Prunus armeniaca) of the ROSE family and its fruit, native to Asia. In the U.S., it is cultivated chiefly in California. The fruit is used raw, canned, preserved, and dried, and in making a cordial and a brandy. April April: see MONTH. apse apse, the termination at the sanctuary end of a church, generally semicircular, sometimes square or polygonal. In Roman TEMPLES and BASILICAS, it was a recess holding the statue of the deity. Early Christian churches placed the altar in the apse, at the eastern end. Because of its function, the apse became the architectural climax of the interior, and was often highly decorated. Chapels sometimes radiated from it. apsis apsis, point in the ORBIT of a smaller body where it is at its greatest or least distance from a larger body to which it is attracted. In an elliptical orbit these points are called the apocenter and pericenter; corresponding terms for elliptical orbits around the sun, the earth, and a star are, respectively, aphelion and perihelion, apogee and perigee, and apastron and periastron. The line of apsides, an imaginary straightline connecting the two apsides of an elliptical orbit, may shift because of gravitational influences of other bodies or relativistic effects (see RELATIVITY). Apuleius, Lucius Apuleius, Lucius, fl. 2d cent., Latin writer. His romance The Golden Ass or Metamorphoses is the only entire Latin novel surviving. The story of a man transformed into an ass, it influenced the development of the NOVEL. Aqaba, Gulf of Aqaba, Gulf of, northern arm of the RED SEA, 118 mi (190 km) long and c.10 mi (16 km) wide, between ARABIA and Egypt's SINAI peninsula. The gulf, which gives Israel direct access to the INDIAN OCEAN, is entered through the Straits of Tiran. It was declared an international waterway by the UN in 1958 after Arab states opposed to Israel blockaded it (1949-56). It was blockaded again in the ARAB-ISRAELI WAR of 1967. aquamarine aquamarine, transparent blue to bluish-green variety of the mineral BERYL, used as a GEM. Sources include Brazil, the USSR, Madagascar, and parts of the U.S. Oriental aquamarine is a transparent bluish variety of CORUNDUM. aqua regia aqua regia [Lat.,=royal water], corrosive, fuming yellow liquid prepared by mixing one volume of concentrated NITRIC ACID with three to four volumes of concentrated HYDROCHLORIC ACID. It was so named by the alchemists because it dissolves gold and platinum, the "royal" metals, which do not dissolve in nitric and hydrochloric acid alone. aquarium aquarium, name for any supervised exhibit of living aquatic animals and plants. Aquariums are known to have been built in ancient Rome, Egypt, and the Orient. Large, modern public aquariums were made possible by the development of glass exhibit tanks capable of holding over 100,000 gal (378,500 liters) of water. Aquarium maintenance requires careful regulation of temperature, light, food, oxygen, and water flow; removal of injurious waste and debris; and attention to the special requirements of the individual species. Freshwater and saltwater aquariums are often maintained for research and breeding purposes by universities, marine stations, and wildlife commissions. aquatint aquatint, ETCHING technique. A metal plate is coated with resin through which acid bites an evenly pocked surface. When printed, it produces tonal effects that resemble wash drawings. Said to have been invented in the 1760s by J.B. Le Prince, aquatint is often combined with other types of etchings, as in GOYA'S series of mixed aquatint etchings. aqueduct aqueduct, conduit for conveying water, built chiefly to bring fresh drinking water into cities. Aqueduct types include tunnels cut through rock, pipelines, and the conduits that top the arched, bridgelike structures that stand in many parts of Europe and are legacies of the ancient Roman water supply system. Modern aqueducts utilize gravity, pumps, and the propulsive force of very high pressures in underground tunnels to move water over great distances. aquifer aquifer: see ARTESIAN WELL. Aquino, Corazon Aquino, Corazon, 1933-, Philippine politician. Her husband, Benigno Aquino, was an outspoken opponent of Pres. Ferdinand MARCOS, whose agents assassinated (1983) Aquino. When the accused agents were acquitted, Corazon Aquino declared her candidacy for the presidency. After the election (1986), both sides claimed victory. When Marcos refused to step down, Aquino organized strikes and boycotts. With the nation on the brink of civil war, Marcos accepted asylum in the U.S. and Aquino assumed the presidency. Aquitaine Aquitaine, former duchy and kingdom in SW France. Conquered (56 BC) by the Romans, it fell to the VISIGOTHS in the 5th cent. In 507 Aquitaine was added to the Frankish kingdom by CLOVIS I, but later regained some independence. CHARLEMAGNE made (781) Aquitaine into a kingdom that was ruled by his son Louis (later Emperor LOUIS I). Late in the 9th cent. it became a duchy enfeoffed to the French crown. ELEANOR OF AQUITAINE'S marriage (1152) to the future HENRY II of England gave Henry and his heirs control of the duchy as vassals of the French crown. France completed the recapture of Aquitaine from the English during the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. Ar Ar, chemical symbol of the element ARGON. Arabia Arabia, peninsula, c.1,000,000 sq mi (2,590,000 sq km), SW Asia, containing the world's largest known reserves of oil and natural gas. It is politically divided between SAUDI ARABIA (the largest and most populous nation), YEMEN, Southern Yemen (see YEMEN, SOUTHERN), OMAN, the UNITED ARAB EMIRATES, QATAR, BAHRAIN, KUWAIT, and several neutral zones. JORDAN and IRAQ are to the north, the RED SEA to the west, and the PERSIAN GULF to the east. Rugged mountains rising to c.12,000 ft (3,700 m) in the southwest catch what little moisture is available, making the basin-shaped interior of the peninsula one of the world's driest deserts, with less than 4 in. (10 cm) of precipitation annually. Arabian art and architecture Arabian art and architecture: see ISLAMIC ART AND ARCHITECTURE. Arabian music Arabian music, the music of the Islamic peoples in Arabia, N Africa, and Persia. The chief characteristics are modal homophony, florid ornamentation, and modal RHYTHM, based primarily on the vocal meters of poetry. The principal form is the nauba, a "suite" of vocal pieces with instrumental preludes. The principal instrument was the lute. A specifically Arabian musical culture, first influenced by Persian and Syrian elements, developed from the 7th cent. but declined from the 11th cent. under Turkistan influence. With the destruction of Baghdad in 1258 it came to an end. Arabian Nights Arabian Nights: see THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS. Arabian Sea Arabian Sea, ancient Mare Erythraeum, northwestern marginal sea of the INDIAN OCEAN, between Arabia and India. Its principal arms include the Gulf of ADEN, extended by the RED SEA, and the Gulf of Oman, extended by the PERSIAN GULF. ADEN, KARACHI, and BOMBAY are the chief ports. Arabic languages Arabic languages, members of the Semitic subdivision of the Hamito-Semitic family of languages. See AFRICAN LANGUAGES. Arabic literature Arabic literature, literature written in Arabic by Egyptians, Turks, Persians, Syrians, Africans, and Jews, as well as Arabs. The first significant Arabic literature was the lyric poetry of the 4th to 7th cent., strongly personal qasida (odes) that treat tribal life and the themes of love, combat, and the chase. The Prophet MUHAMMAD was not interested in poetry, so with the rise of ISLAM, Arabic poetry declined, replaced by the study of the KORAN. Literature again flourished in the Arabic-Persian culture of BAGHDAD in the 8th and 9th cent. A group of young poets, including ABU NUWAS, established a new, sophisticated court poetry; typical is the precise, formal, yet exaggerated work of Mutanabbi (d. 965). In the work of later poets, such as HARIRI (11th cent.), the style approached preciosity, and eventually the prose romance became the principal literary form. The THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS is the greatest example of this genre. During the Middle Ages Masudi and IBN KHALDUN produced great works on history and geography, Al Ghazali on theology and philosophy, and AVICENNA on medicine. The Arabic culture of Spain also produced fine poets and scholars, but they were dwarfed by the great philosophers AVERROES and Ibn Tufayl. After 1300 Arabic literature again declined. In the late 1800s growing Western influences stimulated a nationalistic vernacular literature in Syria and Egypt. Since then, the novel and drama have been adopted and developed, in spite of a reaction against Western models in modern Arabic literature. Notable 20th-cent. writers include the novelist Nagib MAHFUZ, the playwrights Ahmad Shawqi and Tawfiq al-Hakim, and the poets Hafiz Ibrahim and Nazik al-Malaikah. Arabic numeral Arabic numeral: see NUMERAL. Arab-Israeli Wars Arab-Israeli Wars, conflicts in 1948-49, 1956, 1967, 1973-74, and 1982 between Israel and the Arabs.1The 1948-49 war reflected the opposition of the Arab states to the formation of a Jewish state in what they considered Arab territories. Newly created Israel was invaded by forces from Egypt, Syria, Transjordan (later Jordan), Lebanon, and Iraq. A UN-sponsored truce was arranged, but fighting has broken out periodically since then over the basic issue of the existence of Israel.2In 1956 Israel, joined by France and Great Britain, attacked Egypt after that country had nationalized the Suez Canal. Intervention by the UN, supported by the United States and the Soviet Union, forced a cease-fire.3In 1967, in the Six-Day War, Israel responded to Egyptian provocation with air attacks and ground victories. The result was a humiliating defeat for Egypt. 4 In the Yom Kippur War of 1973-74, Egypt, Syria, and Iraq attacked Israel on the Jewish holy Day of Atonement, catching the Israelis off guard. Israel recouped quickly and forced the Arab troops back from their initial gains, but at great cost to both sides. Again, a cease-fire stopped the fighting. 5 In 1978 Palestinian guerrillas, from their base in LEBANON, launched an air raid on Israel; in retaliation, Israel sent troops into S Lebanon to occupy a 16-mi (10-km) strip and thus protect Israel's border. Eventually a UN peace-keeping force was set up there, but occasional fighting continued. In 1982 Israel launched a massive attack to destroy all military bases of the PALESTINE LIBERATION ORGANIZATION in S Lebanon and, after a 10-week siege of the Muslim sector of West BEIRUT, a PLO stronghold, forced the Palestinians to accept a U.S.-sponsored plan whereby the PLO guerrillas would evacuate Beirut and go to several Arab countries that had agreed to accept them. Arab League Arab League, association of states formed (1945) to give common expression to the political interests of Arab nations. Its members include nearly all of the Arab states, and the PALESTINE LIBERATION ORGANIZATION. Opposed to the formation of a Jewish state in Palestine, league members jointly attacked Israel in 1948 (see ARAB-ISRAELI WARS). In 1979 Egypt was suspended after its peace agreement with Israel. Attempts to coordinate Arab economic life are among the league's chief activities; the Arab Common Market was set up in 1965. Arabs Arabs, name originally applied to the Semitic peoples of the Arabian peninsula (see SEMITE); now used also for populations of countries whose primary language is Arabic, e.g., Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Syria, and Yemen. Socially, Arabs are divided into the settled fellahin (villagers) and the nomadic BEDOUIN. The invasions of Muslims from Arabia in the 6th and 7th cent. diffused the Arabic language and ISLAM, the Arabic religion. At its peak the Arab empire extended from the Atlantic Ocean across North Africa and the Middle East to central Asia. A great Arab civilization emerged in which education, literature, philosophy, medicine, mathematics, and science were highly developed. In Europe the Arab conquests were particularly important in Sicily, from the 9th to late 11th cent., and in Spain, in the civilization of the MOORS. In the 20th cent., Arab leaders have attempted to unite the Arab-speaking world into an Arab nation. Since 1945 most Arab countries have joined the ARAB LEAGUE. In 1982 member nations had a total population estimated at 43 million. Several of these countries control two thirds of the world's oil reserves and are members of OPEC (see ORGANIZATION OF PETROLEUM EXPORTING COUNTRIES). Since 1948 disputes with the state of ISRAEL have resulted in ARAB-ISRAELI WARS. arachnid arachnid, mainly terrestrial ARTHROPOD of the class Arachnida, including the SPIDER, SCORPION, MITE, tick, and DADDY LONGLEGS. The arachnid's body is divided into a cephalothorax with six pairs of appendages and an abdomen. Most are carnivorous, and some use the first two pairs of appendages to crush and kill prey; the others are for walking. Arachnids have simple eyes and sensory bristles; they have no antennae. Respiration is through air tubes or primitive structures called book lungs. Arafat, Yasir Arafat, Yasir, 1929-, Palestine commando leader; b. Jerusalem. Head of the guerrilla group Al Fatah, he became (1969) leader of the PALESTINE LIBERATION ORGANIZATION. (PLO). The PLO was weakened when Arafat and his guerrillas were forced to leave their stronghold in West BEIRUT, Lebanon, after the 1982 Israeli siege (see ARAB-ISRAELI WARS). In recent years, Arafat has been more conciliatory toward the West and has made tentative peace overtures to the Israelis. Aragon, Louis Aragon, Louis, 1897-1982, French writer. A founder of SURREALISM, he later turned to realistic social and political fiction after becoming a Communist. His works include the surrealist novel Nightwalker (1926), the war poems in Heartbreak (1941), and the series of love poems (1953, 1959, 1963) to his wife, the novelist Elsa Triolet. Aragon Aragon, region (18,382 sq mi/47,609 sq km) and former kingdom, NE Spain, bordered in the north by France. Much of Aragon is sparsely populated and desertlike. Grains, sugar beets, and other crops are grown in oases and irrigated areas. Sugar refining is the only important industry. The kingdom was founded (1035) on land won from the MOORS, and in the 12th cent. ZARAGOZA became its capital. Aragon annexed NAVARRE in 1076 and was united with CATALONIA in 1137. Its rulers (see ARAGON, HOUSE OF) pursued (13th-15th cent.) an expansionist policy in the Mediterranean. The marriage (1479) of Ferdinand of Aragon (later Spanish King FERDINAND V) to ISABELLA I of Castile led to the union of Aragon and Castile. Aragon, house of Aragon, house of, ruling family of ARAGON and other territories in the Middle Ages. Founded (1035) by Ramiro I, the house during the 12th cent. conquered much territory from the MOORS in Spain and also in S France. In the 13th to 15th cent. it acquired SICILY, SARDINIA, and the kingdom of NAPLES. These possessions were usually held by various branches of the house and were seldom united under one ruler as they were under ALFONSO V in 1443-58. The union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile took place in 1479, after the Spanish king FERDINAND V married ISABELLA I of Castile. Arakcheev, Aleksey Andreiyvich Arakcheev, Aleksey Andreiyvich, 1769-1834, Russian soldier and statesman. He reorganized the army in the 1790s, and as minister of war (1808-10) under ALEXANDER I was responsible for the attack that led to the annexation of Finland from Sweden (1809). He later came to dominate Russia's internal affairs. Aral Sea Aral Sea, inland sea, the world's fourth largest lake, c.26,000 sq mi (67,300 sq km), in the central Asian USSR. The sea, which is fed by the AMU DARYA and SYR DARYA rivers, is generally less than 220 ft (70 m) deep and is only slightly saline. It was known to medieval Arab geographers as the Khorezm or Khwarazm Sea and to early Russian explorers, who reached it in the 17th cent., as the Sine (Blue) Sea. Aramaic Aramaic, Hamito-Semitic language that flourished in SYRIA and the FERTILE CRESCENT around the time of Christ. See LANGUAGE. Aramburu, Pedro Eugenio Aramburu, Pedro Eugenio, 1903-70, president of Argentina (1955-58). An army general, he participated in the overthrow of Juan PERON. As president, he ruled by decree, removed Peronists from important posts, and returned the country to constitutional democracy. He was kidnapped and murdered by Peronist guerrillas in 1970. Arapaho Indians Arapaho Indians, NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS of the Plains, who speak an Algonquian-Wakashan language (see AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES). Sometimes called "dog eaters" by other tribes, they are divided into the Northern Arapaho (considered the parent group), the Southern Arapaho, and the GROS VENTRE INDIANS. They stressed age-graded societies, the SUN DANCE, and later the GHOST DANCE. Today the Arapaho lead an agricultural life, and obtain income from leasing land for oil and gas development. Ararat Ararat, mountain, E Turkey, with two peaks, Little Ararat (12,877 ft/3,925 m) and Great Ararat (16,945 ft/5,165 m). According to tradition, it was the landing place of Noah's ark. The kingdom of Ararat (fl. c.9th-7th cent. BC), called in Assyrian Urartu, was located near Lake Van in present-day E Turkey. Araucanian Indians Araucanian Indians, many tribes of South American agricultural people (see SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS) occupying most of S central Chile before the Spanish conquest (1540) and speaking languages of the Araucanian group (see AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES). The INCA invaded them (c.1448-82) but were never a strong influence. The Araucanians stoutly resisted the Spanish, rebelling periodically until 1881. Some Araucanians, especially in the 18th cent., had fled to Argentina, where with captured wild horses they became plains wanderers. The Araucanians in Chile today number over 200,000; they are divided between assimilated urban dwellers and those who retain many of their traditional ways. arbitration, industrial arbitration, industrial: see under COLLECTIVE BARGAINING. Arblay, Madame d' Arblay, Madame d': see BURNEY, FANNY. arboretum arboretum: see BOTANICAL GARDEN. arborvitae arborvitae, aromatic evergreen tree (genus Thuja) of the CYPRESS family, native to Asia and North America. Arborvitaes have tiny cones and flattened branchlets with scalelike leaves. The white cedar (T. occidentalis), popular for hedges, and the red cedar (T. plicata), important for lumber, both have decay-resistant wood. Arbuthnot, John Arbuthnot, John, 1667-1735, Scottish author, scientist, and physician. He is best remembered for his five "John Bull" pamphlets (1712), satires on Whig policy that introduced the character John Bull, the typical Englishman. A member of the SCRIBLERUS CLUB, he also wrote medical works. arbutus, trailing arbutus, trailing: see TRAILING ARBUTUS. arc arc, in mathematics, any part of a CURVE that does not intersect itself; in particular, a portion of the circumference of a CIRCLE. Arcadia Arcadia, region of ancient GREECE, in the central PELOPONNESUS. Its inhabitants, the Arcadians, lived a pastoral life. The largest city was Megalopolis. Arcadius Arcadius, c.377-408, Roman emperor of the East (395-408); son of THEODOSIUS I. His brother HONORIUS inherited the West, which began the division of the empire. During Arcadius's weak reign ALARIC I invaded Greece (395-97). Arcagnolo Arcagnolo: see ORCAGNA. Arcaro, Eddie Arcaro, Eddie, 1916-, American jockey; b. Cincinnati. During his career (1931-62) he won 4,779 races (third-best record in the U.S.), and his mounts won $30,039,543 in purses. He rode five Kentucky Derby winners between 1938 and 1952. Arc de Triomphe de l'Etoile Arc de Triomphe de l'Etoile, triumphal arch in Paris, in the center of the Place de l'Etoile, which is formed by the intersection of 12 avenues, one of them the Champs Elysees. It was built (1806-36) to commemorate NAPOLEON I'S victories, from designs of J.F. Chalgrin. In 1920 the body of an unknown French soldier was buried there. arch arch, the spanning of a wall opening by means of separate units (e.g., bricks or blocks) assembled into an upward curve that maintains stability through the mutual pressure of a load and the separate pieces. The weight of the load is converted into downward pressures (thrusts) received by the piers (abutments) flanking the opening. The blocks forming the arch are usually wedge-shaped. The arch was used by the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Greeks, chiefly for drains, and by the Assyrians in vaulted and domed chambers. The oldest known arch in Europe is a Roman drain, the Cloaca Maxima (c.578 BC). The Roman semicircular arch, drawn from Etruscan structures, was continued in early Christian, Byzantine, and Romanesque architecture. The pointed arch (used by the Assyrians) came into general use in the 13th cent. Possibly rediscovered independently in Europe, it became essential to the Gothic system of design. The round arch regained dominance in the RENAISSANCE. The 19th-cent. invention of steel beams for wide spans relegated the arch to a decorative function. archaeology archaeology, scientific study of material remains of human cultures to derive knowledge about prehistoric times and to supplement documentary evidence of historic times. Research into the life and culture of the past began in 15th-cent. Italy with the excavation of ancient Greek sculpture. It was advanced in the 18th cent. by excavations at HERCULANEUM and POMPEII. In the 19th cent. public interest was stimulated by the acquisition of the ELGIN MARBLES and by the excavations of Heinrich SCHLIEMANN at Troy and in Greece and those of Arthur EVANS at Crete; Egyptology was born with the recovery of the ROSETTA stone. Stratigraphic excavation of such sites as BARROWS, mounds, and kitchen middens unearthed levels of material culture of the past. Scientific analysis of these material remains led Danish archaeologist Christian Thomsen to classify cultures according to the principal materials used for weapons and tools: STONE AGE, BRONZE AGE, IRON AGE. Realizing that an exact equation of technical tradition with cultural development was too rigid, later interpreters emphasized ECOLOGY and food production. Improved field techniques, new DATING methods, and the study of existing aboriginal groups have enhanced the knowledge of prehistory. Important archaeological work is currently being done in Africa (see LEAKEY family), China, and the Americas. See also MAN, PREHISTORIC; BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. archery archery, sport of shooting with bow and arrow. The four main types are target, field, flight, and crossbow shooting. In target shooting, the object is to score the most points with arrows aimed at the "bull's-eye"-the innermost of five to ten concentric circles. Once an important military and hunting skill, archery was revived as a sport in Europe in the 17th cent. and became popular in the U.S. in the late 1800s. Arches National Park Arches National Park: see NATIONAL PARKS. Archimedes Archimedes, c.287 BC-212 BC, Greek mathematician, physicist, and inventor. His reputation in antiquity was based on several mechanical contrivances, e.g., ARCHIMEDES' SCREW; which he is alleged to have invented. One legend states that during the Second PUNIC WAR he protected his native Syracuse from the besieging armies of Marcus Claudius MARCELLUS for three years by inventing machines of war, e.g., various ballistic instruments and mirrors that set Roman ships on fire by focusing the sun's rays on them. In modern times, however, he is best known for his work in mathematics, mechanics, and hydrostatics. In mathematics, he calculated that the value of c (see PI) is between 310/71 and 31/7; devised a mathematical exponential system to express extremely large numbers; proved that the volume of a sphere is two thirds the volume of a circumscribed cylinder; and, in calculating the areas and volumes of various geometrical figures, carried the method of exhaustion invented by EUDOXUS OF CNIDUS far enough in some cases to anticipate the invention (17th cent.) of the CALCULUS. One of the first to apply geometry to mechanics and hydrostatics, he proved the law of the lever entirely by geometry and established ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE. In another legendary story, the ruler Hiero II requested him to find a method for determining whether a crown was pure gold or alloyed with silver. Archimedes realized, as he stepped into a bath, that a given weight of gold would displace less water than an equal weight of silver (which is less dense than gold); and he is said, in his excitement at his discovery, to have run home naked, shouting "Eureka! Eureka!" ("I have found it! I have found it!"). He was killed by a Roman soldier, supposedly while absorbed in mathematics. Archimedes' principle Archimedes' principle, principle that states that a body immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid. The principle applies to both floating and submerged bodies, and to all fluids. It explains not only the buoyancy of ships but also the rise of a helium-filled balloon and the apparent loss of weight of objects underwater. Archimedes' screw Archimedes' screw, a simple mechanical device used to lift water and such light materials as grain or sand, and believed to have been invented by ARCHIMEDES in the 3d cent. BC It consists of a large continuous screw inside a cylindrical chamber. To lift water-for example, from a river to its bank-the lower end is placed in the river, and water rises up the spiral threads of the screw as it is revolved. Archipenko, Alexander Archipenko, Alexander, 1887-1964, Ukrainian-American sculptor. He recognized the aesthetic value of negative form (the void), as in the hollowed-out masses of his marble Madonna (Mus. Mod. Art, N.Y.C.). He taught cubist sculpture (see CUBISM) in Paris, Berlin, and New York City. Arctic, the Arctic, the, northernmost area of the earth, centered on the NORTH POLE. It can be defined as embracing all lands located N of the ARCTIC CIRCLE (lat. 66 deg31'N) or all lands located N of the 50 degF (10 degC) July isotherm, which is roughly equivalent to the tree line. It therefore generally includes the ARCTIC OCEAN; the northern reaches of Canada, Alaska, the USSR, and Norway; and most of Greenland, Iceland, and Svalbard. Ice sheets and permanent snow cover regions where average monthly temperatures remain below 32 degF (0 degC) all year; TUNDRA, which flourishes during the short summer season, covers areas where temperatures are between 32 degF and 50 degF (0 deg-10 degC) for at least one month. The Arctic is of great strategic value as the shortest route between the U.S. and USSR. Its rich oil and natural gas deposits have been discovered since the International Geophysical Year (1957-58) on Alaska's North Slope (see PRUDHOE BAY), Canada's Ellesmere Island (1972), and the northern areas of Siberia, in the USSR. Traditionally, Robert E. PEARY was credited with being the first explorer to reach (1909) the North Pole, but recent evidence suggests he may have missed by 20 miles. Arctic Circle Arctic Circle, imaginary circle on the earth's surface at 66 deg33'N lat., marking the northernmost point at which the sun can be seen at the winter SOLSTICE (about Dec. 22) and the southernmost point of the northern polar regions at which the midnight sun is visible. Arctic Ocean Arctic Ocean, the world's smallest ocean, c.5,400,000 sq mi (13,986,000 sq km), centering on the NORTH POLE and connecting with the Pacific through the Bering Strait and with the Atlantic through the Greenland Sea. It is covered with ice up to 14 ft (4 m) thick all year, except in fringe areas. Ardashir I Ardashir I, d. 240, king of PERSIA (226?-240), founder of the Sassanid dynasty. He reunited Persia and established ZOROASTRIANISM as the state religion. His costly victory (232) over Roman Emperor Alexander Severus consolidated Persian power. Ardennes Ardennes, wooded plateau, from 1,600 to 2,300 ft (488 to 701 m) high, in SE Belgium, N Luxembourg, and N France. A traditional battleground, the Ardennes saw heavy fighting in both world wars, especially in the Battle of the Bulge (1944-45). Arecibo Ionospheric Observatory Arecibo Ionospheric Observatory, radio-astronomy facility (completed 1963) located at Arecibo, Puerto Rico; it is operated by Cornell Univ. under contract with the U.S. National Science Foundation. Its fixed antenna of spherical section, 1,000 ft (305 m) in diameter, is the largest radio-telescope antenna in the world. Arendt, Hannah Arendt, Hannah, 1906-75, German-American political theorist; b. Germany. Fleeing the Nazis in 1941, she came to the U.S. and taught at leading universities. In The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951), which established her as a major political thinker, Arendt traced Nazism and Communism to 19th cent. IMPERIALISM and ANTI-SEMITISM. Other works include The Human Condition (1958), Eichmann in Jerusalem (1963), and The Life of the Mind (1977). Arensky, Anton Stepanovich Arensky, Anton Stepanovich, 1861-1906, Russian composer. A pupil of RIMSKY-KORSAKOV, he taught at the Moscow Conservatory and became (1895) conductor of the Imperial Chapel Choir. He wrote operas, symphonic music, songs, and piano works. Arequipa Arequipa, city (1981 pop. 447,431), capital of Arequipa dept., S Peru. The commercial center of S Peru and N Bolivia, it produces leather goods, alpaca wool, textiles, and foodstuffs. Founded in 1540 on an INCA site, it was largely destroyed by an earthquake in 1868 but has been restored. It is called "the white city" because of the light-colored stone, sillar, used as a building material. Ares Ares, in Greek mythology, OLYMPIAN god of war; son of ZEUS and HERA. The Romans identified him with MARS. Argentina Argentina, officially Argentine Republic, republic (1986 est. pop. 31,060,000), 1,072,157 sq mi (2,776,889 sq km), S South America, bordered by Chile (W); Bolivia (N); Paraguay, Brazil, and Uruguay (NE); and the Atlantic Ocean (SE). The second largest nation of South America, it stretches c.2,300 mi (3,700 km) from the subtropics south to TIERRA DEL FUEGO. Major cities include BUENOS AIRES (the capital), CORDOBA, and ROSARIO. Argentina consists of six geographical regions: (1) the Parana Plateau in the northeast, a wet, forested area; (2) the GRAN CHACO, a flat alluvial plain; (3) the Pampa (see under PAMPAS), a vast grassland between the Atlantic and the Andean foothills; (4) the Monte, an arid region dotted with oases; (5) PATAGONIA, in the south, a bleak plateau that is the chief oil-producing region; and (6) the ANDES Mts., extending the length of the western border and including ACONCAGUA (22,835 ft/6,960 m), the highest point of South America. Most important of these is the Pampa, the chief agricultural and industrial area and site of most of the main cities. Argentina's economy is a mix of agriculture and industry. Grains and livestock are the basis of the nation's wealth; wheat corn, flax, oats, beef, mutton, hides, and wool are the major exports. Domestic oil and gas production makes the nation self-sufficient in energy. The industrial base is highly developed, providing nearly all of its consumer goods. Food processing (meat packing, flour milling, canning) is the principal industry; leather goods and textiles are also important. The population is overwhelmingly of European descent (especially Spanish and Italian), and about 90% are Roman Catholic. Spanish is the official language. History The first European explorers, notably Juan Diaz de Solis, Ferdinand MAGELLAN, and Sebastian Cabot (see under CABOT, JOHN), arrived in the early 16th cent. Buenos Aires was founded in 1536, abandoned after Indian attacks, and refounded in 1580. The city was made the capital of a Spanish viceroyalty in 1776. The successful struggle for independence (1810-16) was led by generals Manuel BELGRANO, J.M. de Pueyrredon, and Jose de SAN MARTIN. A protracted period of civil war ensued, lasting until the dictatorship of J.M. de ROSAS (1829-52). A new constitution was adopted in 1853 and, with major amendments, remained in effect until 1949, but Argentina continued to suffer political instability and military coups. It belatedly entered (1945) WORLD WAR II on the Allied side after four years of pro-Axis "neutrality." Juan PERON, an army colonel who, with a group of colonels, seized power in 1944, won the elections of 1946 and established a popular dictatorship with the support of the army, nationalists, and the Roman Catholic Church. His second wife, the popular Eva Duarte de Peron (see under PERON, JUAN) won the backing of trade unions; her popularity among the industrial working class was the major pillar of support for the Peron regime. Her death in 1952, followed by an economic downturn, led to Peron's ouster (1955) by the military. Government during the next 18 years had to contend with the continuing popularity of the Peronist movement. In 1973, Peron returned from exile and won election as president. His third wife, Isabel Martinez de Peron, was elected vice president; she succeeded him upon his death in 1974. During her presidency terrorism by the left and right grew, and inflation worsened; in 1976 she was overthrown in a military coup that established a repressive military junta. In 1982, with Gen. Leopoldo GALTIERI as president, Argentina occupied the FALKLAND ISLANDS, which it had long disputed with Britain. The Argentine defeat in the ensuing war with Britain led to Galtieri's resignation and to strong public criticism of the military government. In the late 1980s, the government was unable to curb an annual inflation rate of more than 1000%, and in 1989, a Peronist, Carlos Raul Menem, was elected president. argon argon (Ar), gaseous element, discovered in 1894 by Sir William RAMSAY and Lord RAYLEIGH. An odorless, tasteless, and colorless INERT GAS, it makes up 0.93% of the atmosphere by volume. Argon is used in light bulbs and neon signs, in refining reactive elements, and for protection in arc welding. See ELEMENT; PERIODIC TABLE. Argonauts Argonauts: see GOLDEN FLEECE; JASON. Argus Argus or Argos,in Greek mythology.1Many-eyed monster who guarded IO after she was changed into a heifer.2Builder of the ship on which JASON and the Argonauts sailed in quest of the GOLDEN FLEECE. Arhus Arhus, city (1987 pop. 255,932), central Denmark, on Arhus Bay. Founded by the 10th cent., it is a prosperous cultural center and a commercial and shipping center, manufacturing beer, textiles, and machinery. Among its landmarks are its theater and the 12th-cent. Cathedral of St. Clemens. aria aria, elaborate and often lengthy solo SONG with instrumental accompaniment, especially in an OPERA, ORATORIO, or CANTATA. The three-part aria da capo was developed in the 17th and 18th cent. by A. SCARLATTI, J.S. BACH, and others. The arias of W.A. MOZART often combined dramatic and lyrical elements. Later composers fused aria and RECITATIVE. Ariadne Ariadne, in Greek mythology, Cretan princess; daughter of MINOS and Pasiphae. With her help THESEUS killed the MINOTAUR and escaped from the Labyrinth. He left with her but deserted her at Naxos. There she married DIONYSUS, who is said to have set her bridal crown among the stars. Arianism Arianism, Christian heresy arising from the teaching of the Alexandrian priest Arius, c.256-336. To Arius, Jesus was a supernatural being, not quite human, not quite divine, who was created by God. Arianism spread and was condemned by the First Council of NICAEA (325). The conflict went on, however, and several bishops and emperors sided with Arius. The Catholic tenets of Rome and ATHANASIUS finally triumphed, and the First Council of CONSTANTINOPLE (381) upheld the decrees of Nicaea. Arias de Avila, Pedro Arias de Avila, Pedro, known as Pedrarias c.1440-1531, Spanish colonial administrator. He succeeded (1514) BALBOA as governor of Darien (now in PANAMA), quarreled with him, and ordered (1517) his execution. He founded (1519) Panama City and extended Spanish dominions. Arias Sanchez, Oscar Arias Sanchez, Oscar, 1941-, Costa Rican politician. He was financial adviser to the president (1970-72), minister of national planning (1972-77), a congressman (1978-82), and president (1986-). Because of his concern for regional peace, he refused to allow U.S.-backed Nicaraguan contras to operate from Costa Rica and negotiated an accord (1987) with other Latin American leaders calling for a cease-fire and government talks with opposition groups. In 1987 he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Ariel Ariel, in astronomy, natural satellite of URANUS. Arion Arion, Greek poet, fl. 7th cent.? BC, inventor of the DITHYRAMB. His rescue from drowning by a dolphin charmed by his music is told by HERODOTUS. Ariosto, Ludovico Ariosto, Ludovico, 1474-1533, Italian epic and lyric poet, in the service of the Duke of Ferrara. His Orlando Furioso (1532), an epic treatment of the ROLAND story intended to glorify the ESTE family, greatly influenced SHAKESPEARE, MILTON, and BYRON. Aristarchus of Samos Aristarchus of Samos, fl.c.310-c.230 BC, Greek astronomer. He is said to have been the first to propose a heliocentric theory of the universe, anticipating Copernicus by 18 centuries (see COPERNICAN SYSTEM). His only surviving work, On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and Moon, is celebrated for its geometric argument, even though crude observation data led to faulty estimates. Aristogiton Aristogiton: see HARMODIUS AND ARISTOGITON. Aristophanes Aristophanes , b. c.448 BC, d. after 388 BC, Athenian comic poet, the greatest ancient writer of COMEDY. His plays mix political, social, and literary SATIRE. Invective, burlesque, and direct attack on persons made them suitable for the festival of DIONYSUS. Typically, his characters act naturally in preposterous circumstances; his language is economical and beautiful. Eleven surviving plays include The Clouds, The Wasps, Lysistrata, and The Frogs. Aristotle Aristotle, 384-322 BC, Greek philosopher. He studied (367-347 BC) under PLATO and later (342-339 BC) tutored ALEXANDER THE GREAT at the Macedonian court. In 335 BC he opened a school in the Athenian Lyceum. During the anti-Macedonian agitation after Alexander's death Aristotle fled (323 BC) to Chalcis, where he died. His extant writings, largely in the form of lecture notes made by his students, include the Organum (treatises on logic); Physics; Metaphysics; De Anima [on the soul]; Nicomachean Ethics and Eudemian Ethics; Politics; De Poetica; Rhetoric; and works on biology and physics. Aristotle held philosophy to be the discerning, through the use of systematic LOGIC as expressed in SYLLOGISMS, of the self-evident, changeless first principles that form the basis of all knowledge. He taught that knowledge of a thing requires an inquiry into causality and that the "final cause"-the purpose or function of the thing-is primary. The highest good for the individual is the complete exercise of the specifically human function of rationality. In contrast to the Platonic belief that a concrete reality partakes of a form but does not embody it, the Aristotelian system holds that, with the exception of the Prime Mover (God), form has no separate existence but is immanent in matter. Aristotle's work was lost following the decline of Rome but was reintroduced to the West through the work of Arab and Jewish scholars, becoming the basis of medieval SCHOLASTICISM. arithmetic arithmetic, branch of mathematics (and the part of ALGEBRA) concerned with the fundamental operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of numbers. Conventionally, the term arithmetic covers simple numerical skills used for practical purposes, e.g., computation of areas or costs. The study of arithmetic also deals abstractly with the laws and properties (e.g., the ASSOCIATIVE LAW, the COMMUTATIVE LAW, and the DISTRIBUTIVE LAW) governing the various operations. arithmetic progression arithmetic progression: see PROGRESSION. Arizona Arizona, state in the SW U.S.; bordered by Utah (N), New Mexico (E), Mexico (S), and, across the Colorado R., Nevada and California (W). Area, 113,909 sq mi (295,024 sq km). Pop. (1986 est.) 3,317,000, a 22.1% increase over 1980 pop. Capital, Phoenix. Statehood, Feb. 14, 1912 (48th state). Highest pt., Humphreys Peak, 12,633 ft (3,853 m); lowest pt., Colorado R., 70 ft (21 m). Nickname, Grand Canyon State. Motto, Ditat Deus God Enriches. State bird, cactus wren. State flower, blossom of the saguaro cactus. State tree, paloverde. Abbr., Ariz.; AZ. Land and People Most of northern and eastern Arizona lies within the arid COLORADO PLATEAU region, and most of the south and west in the flat desert basins (many now irrigated) and jagged mountain ranges of the Basin and Range region. Major rivers are the COLORADO, Gila, and Salt. A total of 20,036,000 acres (8,108,000 hectares), or 38% of all U.S. Indian tribal lands, are in Arizona; the largest are the NAVAHO, HOPI, Fort APACHE, and PAPAGO Indian reservations. PHOENIX, TUCSON, and TEMPE are the principal cities. In 1984 Arizona was 91% white, 9% native American and others. Economy Manufacturing is the leading economic activity, with machinery, electronic and aeronautical products, and electrical and transportation equipment the major manufactures. Cotton is the chief irrigated crop, and some lettuce, hay, oranges, and grapefruit are also grown in the subtropical south. Large cattle and sheep ranges produce livestock and dairy products. Arizona is a leading U.S. producer of copper (at Morenci and Bisbee), and there is a small lumber industry near Flagstaff. The state is also known for its Indian handicrafts. The hot, dry climate, spectacular scenic attractions such as the GRAND CANYON and the Petrified Forest (see NATIONAL PARKS,), and many Indian reservations attract large numbers of tourists. Government The constitution provides for a governor and for a state legislature of 30 senators and 60 representatives elected for two-year terms. Arizona elects two senators and five representatives to the U.S. Congress and has seven electoral votes. History Early Spanish explorers included CABEZA DE VACA (1536), Marcos de Niza (1539), and Francisco Vasquez de CORONADO (1540), and several Spanish missions were founded in the late 17th cent. The region came under Mexican control after 1821, and lands north of the Gila R. passed to the U.S. territory of New Mexico at the end of the MEXICAN WAR (1846-48). Lands between the Gila R. and today's southern boundary were added through the GADSDEN PURCHASE (1853). Arizona became a separate territory in 1863, and settlement accelerated after the surrender (1866) of GERONIMO ended 25 years of Apache Indian wars. Rapid development of irrigated agriculture, spurred by construction of the Roosevelt dam (1911), and industrial and urban expansion beginning during World War II strained limited water resources. A 1963 U.S. Supreme Court decision to increase Arizona's allocation of water from the Colorado R. was followed in 1968 by congressional authorization of the huge Central Arizona project, to divert water from the Colorado at Parker Dam and carry it across Arizona for use in the Phoenix-Tucson area. ark ark, in the BIBLE. 1 Boat built by NOAH at God's command to save his family and certain animals from the Flood. Gen. 6-9. 2 Ark of the Covenant, the sacred, gold-covered, wooden chest, identified by the Hebrews with God. Touching it meant death. It was carried into battle, as its presence implied victory, and was once captured by the Philistines. Restored many years later, it was placed in SOLOMON'S temple. Ex. 25.10-21; 1 Sam. 4-7; 1 Chron. 13; 15; 16; 2 Chron. 5. Arkansas Arkansas, state in the S central U.S.; bordered by Tennessee and Mississippi, across the Mississippi R. (E), Louisiana (S), Texas and Oklahoma (W), and Missouri (N). Area, 53,104 sq mi (137,539 sq km). Pop. (1986 est.) 2,372,000, an 3.8% increase over 1980 pop. Capital, Little Rock. Statehood, June 15, 1836 (25th state). Highest pt., Magazine Mt., 2,753 ft (840 m); lowest pt., Ouachita R., 55 ft (17 m). Nickname, Land of Opportunity. Motto, Regnat Populus The People Rule. State bird, mockingbird. State flower, apple blossom. State tree, pine. Abbr., Ark.; AR. Land and People The higher terrain of the Ozark Plateau (see OZARKS) and Ouachita Mts., in the west, give way to lowlands in the east, drained mostly by the ARKANSAS and Ouachita rivers. There are many lakes, and the mineral waters of Hot Springs are preserved in the NATIONAL PARK there, contributing to the state's well-developed tourist industry. Arkansas has long, hot summers and mild winters. About 38% of the population lives in metropolitan areas. LITTLE ROCK is the leading city; other important cities are FORT SMITH and PINE BLUFF. In 1984 the population was 82% white, 18% black and other. Economy Manufacturing, the leading contributor to the state's income, includes processed foods (especially beef and poultry), electronic equipment, and paper and wood products utilizing state-grown lumber. Leading agricultural commodities are soybeans, rice, cotton, poultry, and cattle. Although it boasts the country's only active diamond mine, Arkansas's most valuable mineral resources are oil, bromine, natural gas, and bauxite. Government According to the constitution of 1874, the government is headed by a governor elected to a two-year term. The legislature consists of 35 senators serving four-year terms and 100 representatives elected to two-year terms. Arkansas sends two senators and four representatives to the U.S. Congress and has six electoral votes. History The Quapaw, OSAGE, and Caddo Indians inhabited the region when it was visited by Spanish explorers, including Hernando DE SOTO (1541-42). The French explorer Robert Cavelier, sieur de LA SALLE, founded (1682) the first permanent white settlement, Arkansas Post. In 1803 the area passed from France to the U.S. through the LOUISIANA PURCHASE, and many new settlers established cotton plantations. Arkansas soon became a separate territory (1819) and a state (1836). The state seceded from the Union in 1861 and joined the CONFEDERACY. It was readmitted to the Union in 1868 and experienced a turbulent RECONSTRUCTION era. Around the turn of the century its population grew substantially. The discovery of oil in 1921 resulted in new prosperity for Arkansas, but farmers were severely affected by the GREAT DEPRESSION of the 1930s. In 1957 Gov. Orval Faubus became the focus of world attention when he resisted the federal desegregation of Little Rock's public schools. The enrollment of black students was subsequently enforced by the federal government. In 1981 Arkansas passed a controversial law mandating the equal teaching of CREATIONISM and EVOLUTION in the public schools. The law was overturned in federal court the following year. Arkansas Arkansas, river, flowing SE c.1,450 mi (2,330 km) from the Rocky Mts. of Colorado to the Mississippi R. in SE Arkansas. Controlled by more than 25 dams, it is navigable to Tulsa, Okla. Arkhangelsk Arkhangelsk or Archangel, city (1987 est. pop. 416,000), NW European USSR, on the Northern Dvina near its mouth on the White Sea. It is a leading port; though icebound much of the year, it can be made usable by icebreakers. Major exports are timber and wood products; other industries are fishing and shipbuilding. Founded as Novo-Kholmogory (1584), it was renamed (1613) for the monastery of the Archangel Michael. An Allied supply port in World Wars I and II, it was occupied (1918-20) by Allied and anti-Bolshevik forces. Arkwright, Sir Richard Arkwright, Sir Richard, 1732-92, English inventor. His construction (1769) of a SPINNING machine, the water frame, was an early step in the INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION. Arkwright's spinning machine led to the establishment of huge cotton mills and to the beginnings of the factory system. Arles, kingdom of Arles, kingdom of, was formed in 933, when Rudolf II united his kingdom of Transjurane BURGUNDY with Provence or Cisjurane Burgundy. Holy Roman Emperor CONRAD II annexed the kingdom to the empire in 1034, but its component parts gradually broke away. In 1378 Holy Roman Emperor CHARLES IV ceded the realm to the French dauphin (later CHARLES VI), and the kingdom for all practical purposes ceased to exist. Arlington Arlington, county (1986 est. pop. 158,700), N Va., across the POTOMAC R. from WASHINGTON, D.C. A residential suburb of Washington, the county is governed as a single unit without subdivisions. Within its boundaries are Arlington National Cemetery, the PENTAGON, Marymount Univ., and Washington National Airport. Arlington was part of the DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA from 1790 to 1847. Arlington Arlington, city (1986 est. pop. 249,770), Tarrant co., N Tex., midway between DALLAS and FORT WORTH; inc. 1884. Located in a rapidly growing industrial area, it produces automobile parts, containers, rubber products, and other manufactures. Arlington is the home of Six Flags over Texas, a huge historical amusement park, and the Texas Rangers baseball team. The city has a branch of the Univ. of Texas. Armada, Spanish Armada, Spanish, 1588, fleet launched by PHILIP II of Spain for the invasion of England. Commanded by the duque de Medina Sidonia and consisting of 130 ships and about 30,000 men, the Armada was delayed by storms and finally set sail from Lisbon in May. The English fleet, under Charles Howard, sailed from Plymouth and inflicted long-range damage on the Armada but did not break its formation. Anchoring off Calais, Medina Sidonia intended to pick up Alessandro FARNESE'S army in Flanders and convey it to England. But on Aug. 7 the English sent fire ships into the anchorage to scatter the Armada and then attacked the fleeing ships at close range off Gravelines. The battered Armada escaped northward, sailed around Scotland and Ireland while buffeted by storms, and returned to Spain after losing about half its ships. armadillo armadillo, armored MAMMAL (order Edentata) found in the S U.S. and Latin America. The head and body are almost entirely covered by an armor of bony, horny plates. Armadillos are usually nocturnal and, although omnivorous, eat mostly insects. The largest species, the giant armadillo (Priodontes giganteus), is about 4 ft (120 cm) long; the smallest, the fairy armadillo (Chlamyphorus truncatus), about 6 in. (15 cm) long. The only U.S. species is the nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus), about 30 in. (76 cm) long and weighing about 15 lb (6.4 kg). armature armature: see GENERATOR; MOTOR, ELECTRIC. Armenia Armenia, region and former kingdom of Asia Minor. It includes NE TURKEY, the ARMENIAN SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLIC, and parts of Iranian Azerbaijan. Under Persian rule from the 6th to the 4th cent. BC, it was conquered in 330 by ALEXANDER THE GREAT but after his death fell to Syria. Armenia was independent from 189 BC to 67 BC, when it became tributary to Rome. Christianity was adopted in the 3d cent. AD; under Persian rule later in that century many Christians were martyred. Persia and Rome partitioned the kingdom in 387; it achieved autonomy in 886 but was invaded in the mid-11th cent. by the Byzantines, Seljuk Turks, and Mongols. Pushed westward, one group founded Little Armenia, in CILICIA. In 1386-94 the Mongols, under TAMERLANE, seized Greater Armenia and massacred much of the population. The Ottoman Turks invaded in 1405 and by the 16th cent. held all of Armenia. Though most Armenians experienced religious persecution, Armenian merchants played an important role in the economy of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE. Eastern Armenia was long disputed by Turkey and Persia; in 1828 Persia ceded to Russia the present Armenian SSR. From 1894 on, a plan for Armenian extermination was pursued under Sultan ABD AL-HAMID II, culminating in the massacre of 1915. In 1918 Russian Armenia became independent under German auspices (see BREST-LITOVSK, TREATY OF), but in 1920 an autonomous Greater Armenia was created from the Turkish and Soviet Russian areas. In that year, however, Russian Armenia fell to the Communists and was made a Soviet republic; the 1921 Russo-Turkish Treaty established the present boundaries, ending Armenian independence. Armenian language Armenian language, member of the Thraco-Phrygian sub-family of the Indo-European family of languages. See LANGUAGE. Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic, constituent republic (1987 est. pop. 3,400,000), 11,500 sq mi (29,785 sq km), SE European USSR, in the S Caucasus. The smallest Soviet republic, it is a mountainous region bounded by Turkey (W); the Azerbaijan Republic (E); Iran (S); and the Georgian Republic (N). YEREVAN is the capital. Major bodies of water are Lake SEVAN and the Araks and Razdan rivers. Industries include fishing, mining, and wine-making. Grapes, cotton, and tobacco are important agricultural products. In addition to the Armenian majority there are Azerbaijani, Russian, and Kurdish minorities. For history, see ARMENIA. In 1988 Armenian discontent with the Azerbaijan Republic's policies with respect to the Armenian minority in the Nagorno-Karabakh region intensified. Later that year a devastating earthquake killed almost 35,000 people. armor armor, protective covering for persons, steeds, or vehicles. Early body armor of leather, shells, wood, or basketwork was replaced by metal in the ancient Middle East; by the Middle Ages the metal helmet, cuirass, and greaves of the Greeks and Romans had evolved into full body armor of chain mail or plate. Heavy and cumbersome, it disappeared after warfare became more mobile and firearms more effective. Steel helmets and protective clothing (e.g., bullet-proof vests) were reintroduced in the 20th cent., and armor is still used extensively on ships, TANKS, and aircraft. Armory Show Armory Show, art exhibition held in 1913 at the 69th-regiment armory in New York City. Including works of the European avant-garde, e.g., DUCHAMP'S Nude Descending a Staircase, it was a sensational introduction of modern art into the U.S. One of the most important art shows ever held in the country, it helped to change the direction of American painting. arms, coats of arms, coats of: see BLAZONRY; HERALDRY. Armstrong, (Daniel) Louis "Satchmo" Armstrong, (Daniel) Louis "Satchmo", 1900-1971, black American JAZZ trumpeter, singer, and bandleader; b. New Orleans. He became known for improvisational genius and strongly influenced the melodic development of jazz. Armstrong was in large part responsible for the rise of the soloist in jazz. Armstrong, Neil Alden Armstrong, Neil Alden, 1930-, American astronaut; b. Wapakoneta, Ohio. He was the command pilot for Gemini 8 (Mar. 16, 1966) and deputy associate administrator for aeronautics (1970-71) at NASA. During the Apollo 11 mission (July 16-24, 1969), which he commanded, he and Buzz ALDRIN (the lunar-module pilot) became the first and second persons, respectively, to walk on the moon (see SPACE EXPLORATION,). He taught aeronautical engineering (1971-79) at the Univ. of Cincinnati and was appointed (1985) to the National Commission on Space by Pres. Reagan (1985). Armstrong, Samuel Chapman Armstrong, Samuel Chapman, 1839-93, American educator and philanthropist; b. Hawaiian Islands. Appointed an agent of the Freedmen's Bureau after the Civil War, he realized the need for vocational training of emancipated slaves and helped found (1868) the Hampton Inst., which he headed until 1893, to advance that purpose. army army, armed land force under regular military organization, as distinguished from the horde, or armed mass of all ablebodied men in a tribe. The earliest known professional army was that of Egypt, followed by those of Assyria and Persia. Military service became obligatory for citizens of Greece. The Roman army evolved from a citizen soldiery into a professional standing army increasingly composed of barbarian mercenaries. In the Middle Ages, the armed KNIGHT and YEOMAN owed a set number of days of military service each year to a great lord; but with the decline of FEUDALISM and the advent of firearms, this system also gave way to the service of mercenaries. In the 17th cent. Louis XIV of France organized a national standing army that set the pattern for all of Europe: a highly disciplined, professional body set apart from civilian life. The concept reached a harsh perfection under Frederick II of Prussia. It was the introduction of CONSCRIPTION during the French Revolutionary Wars that set in motion the development of modern mass armies built around a professional nucleus and organized into specialized units for combat and support. Although conscription was used in the U.S. CIVIL WAR and WORLD WAR I, the U.S., until 1940, traditionally relied in emergencies on its citizen militia, the NATIONAL GUARD, and on voluntary enlistment in the armed forces; the peacetime draft was again lifted in 1973. The term army generally applies to all armed land forces of a nation (e.g., the French army); it can also designate a self-contained fighting force in a given area (e.g., the Army of the Potomac in the U.S. Civil War) or a unit of c.100,000 men composed of two or more corps. A corps in turn is composed of two or more divisions (usually about 15,000 men). Traditionally, an army was made up of major INFANTRY, CAVALRY, and ARTILLERY commands, but these gave way to more complex forms of organization. Today, each division typically includes infantry, airborne, mechanized, and other specialized battalions or brigades. See also MILITARY SCIENCE. Arnim, Achim Arnim, Achimor Joachim von, 1781-1831, German writer of the romantic school. He is best remembered for his work with his brother-in-law, Clemens BRENTANO, on the folk-song collection The Boy's Magic Horn (1806-8) and for his historical novels, notably Isabella of Egypt (1812). His wife, Bettina von Arnim, 1785-1859, b. Elisabeth Brentano, was also a writer. She corresponded with BEETHOVEN and GOETHE; her publication of Goethe's Correspondence with a Child (1835) reflects her own poetic imagination. Arnold, Benedict Arnold, Benedict, 1741-1801, American Revolutionary general and traitor; b. Norwich, Conn. After excellent service in the colonial assault on Quebec (1775-76) and the SARATOGA CAMPAIGN, he felt slighted regarding promotion. His plot with John ANDRE to betray (1780) the American post at WEST POINT was discovered, but Arnold escaped and later fought for the British. Arnold, Matthew Arnold, Matthew, 1822-88, English poet and critic; son of Thomas Arnold. He was an inspector of schools (1851-86) and professor of poetry at Oxford (1857-67). Arnold wrote superb poetry, usually dealing with the themes of loneliness and pessimism. Among his best-known verses are "Isolation: To Marguerite" (1852), "The Scholar Gypsy" (1853), and "Dover Beach" (1867). His books of literary criticism include On Translating Homer (1861) and Essays in Criticism (1865; Ser. 2, 1888). Culture and Anarchy (1869) is a volume of social criticism. Arnold stressed the necessity for objectivity and advocated a culture based on the best that has been thought and said in the world. aromatic compound aromatic compound, any of a large class of organic compounds including BENZENE and compounds that resemble benzene in chemical properties. Aromatic compounds contain unusually stable ring structures, often made up of six carbon atoms arranged hexagonally. Some of the compounds, however, have rings with more or fewer atoms, not necessarily all carbon. Furan, for example, has a ring with four atoms of carbon and one of oxygen. Also, two or more rings can be fused, as in naphthalene. The characteristic properties of the class, notably the stability of the compounds, derive from the fact that aromatic rings permit the sharing of some electrons by all the atoms of the ring, which increases the strength of the bonds. Aroostook War Aroostook War, brief conflict, 1838-39, between the U.S. and Canada concerning the Maine-New Brunswick border. An agreement (March 1839) averted full-scale war. The boundary was settled (1842) by the WEBSTER-ASHBURTON TREATY. Arp, Jean Arp, Jean or Hans,1887-1966, French sculptor and painter. A member of avant-garde groups in Europe, Arp created abstract, organic, witty works in various media. A monumental wood relief (1950) is at Harvard Univ. Arrhenius, Svante August Arrhenius, Svante August, 1859-1927, Swedish chemist. For his theory of electrolytic dissociation, or ionization (see ACIDS AND BASES), he won the 1903 Nobel Prize in chemistry. He also investigated osmosis and toxins and antitoxins. He became (1905) director of the Nobel Institute for Physical Chemistry, Stockholm. arrowroot arrowroot, plant (genus Maranta) of the family Marantaceae, found mainly in warm, swampy forests of the Americas. The term arrowroot also applies to the easily digested starch obtained from the true, or West Indian, arrowroot (M. arundinacea). Plants from other families produce similar starches, e.g., East Indian arrowroot (GINGER family); Queensland arrowroot (Canna family); Brazilian arrowroot, or tapioca (SPURGE family); and Florida arrowroot, or sago. arrowworm arrowworm, common name for Chaetognatha, a phylum of slender-bodied, transparent marine invertebrate animals widely distributed, but preferring warm, shallow seas. Most are less than 1 in. (2.5 cm) long. The head is well-developed, with eyes and other sensory organs, grasping spines, teeth, and a protective hood. Arrowworms reproduce sexually. Arsaces Arsaces, fl. 250 BC, founder of the Parthian dynasty of the Arsacids, which ruled Persia from c.250 BC to AD 226. arsenic arsenic (As), semimetallic element, first described by ALBERTUS MAGNUS in the 13th cent. Arsenic has several allotropic forms (see ALLOTROPY); the most stable is a silver-gray, brittle, crystalline solid that tarnishes in air. Arsenic ores include realgar and arsenopyrite. Combined with other elements, arsenic forms strong poisons; organic compounds of arsenic were widely used medically to treat syphilis and yaws. The metal is used in the manufacture of lead shot and transistorized circuits. See ELEMENT; PERIODIC TABLE. Artaxerxes Artaxerxes, name of several ancient Persian kings. Artaxerxes I, d. 425 BC (r.464-425 BC), was a member of the ACHAEMENID dynasty. Artaxerxes is the Greek form of the name Ardashir the Persian. He succeeded his father, Xerxes I, in whose assassination he had no part. The later weakness of the Persian empire is commonly traced to his reign. Artaxerxes II, d. 358 BC (r.404-358 BC), was the son and successor of DARIUS II. CYRUS THE YOUNGER attempted to assassinate him but was crushed (401 BC). During his reign the provinces of the empire became restless. His son, Artaxerxes III, d. 338 BC (r.358-338 BC), gained the throne by a general massacre of his brother's family. Throughout his reign he continued a policy of terror, and he was finally poisoned by one of his ministers. art deco art deco, design style popular during the 1920s and 30s, characterized by slender forms, straight lines, and a sleekness expressive of "modern" technology. The style regained popularity in the 1970s and 80s. Artemis Artemis, in Greek mythology, goddess of the hunt. She was the daughter of ZEUS and Leto and the twin sister of APOLLO. Artemis is associated with chastity, marriage, children, wildlife, and, as a complement to the sun god Apollo, with the moon. The Romans identified her with DIANA. arteriosclerosis arteriosclerosis, general term for a condition characterized by thickening, hardening, and loss of elasticity of the walls of the arteries. In its most common form, atherosclerosis, fatty deposits, e.g., CHOLESTEROL, build up on the inner artery walls; in some cases calcium deposits also form. The blood vessels narrow, and blood flow decreases; THROMBOSIS, HEART DISEASE, and STROKE may result. Surgical treatment is sometimes effective, but there is no specific cure. A low-cholesterol diet and control of predisposing factors, such as HYPERTENSION, smoking, DIABETES, and obesity, are usually recommended. artesian well artesian well, deep well drilled into an inclined aquifer (layer of water-bearing porous rock or sediment), where water is trapped under pressure between impervious rock layers. When a well is drilled into the aquifer through the overlying impervious rock, pressure forces water to rise in the well. Artesian water is usually desirable for drinking. In North America, artesian systems supply water to the Great Plains and many East Coast cities. The largest artesian system is in Australia. Artevelde, Jacob van Artevelde, Jacob van, c.1290-1345, Flemish statesman. A conflict between the count of Flanders and EDWARD III of England cut off English wool imports, ruining the Flemish weavers and merchants. Ghent rebelled, and Artevelde, as head of its government, signed a commercial treaty with England (1338). In 1340 he had the Flemish towns recognize Edward as king of France and thus suzerain of Flanders. He was killed in a riot. His son, Philip van Artevelde, 1340-82, led a weavers' revolt against the count of Flanders (1381), taking Bruges and most of Flanders before being killed by the French. art history art history, the study of works of art and architecture. It was raised to an academic discipline in the mid-19th cent. by Jacob BURCKHARDT, who related art to its cultural environment, and by idealists such as Heinrich Wolfflin, who explored art in terms of formal analysis. Both approaches remain important in contemporary art history. Major 20th-cent. art historians include Bernard BERENSON, Henri Focillon, Ernst Gombrich, Emile Male, and Erwin PANOFSKY. arthritis arthritis, inflammation of one or more joints of the body, usually producing pain, redness, and stiffness. It disables more people than any other chronic disorder. A common form is osteoarthritis, a degenerative disease of the joints that commonly occurs with aging. Rheumatoid arthritis, an AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE of unknown cause, is a progressive, crippling joint disorder most common in women between 25 and 50. Initial treatment for arthritis includes use of heat, physical therapy, and ASPIRIN; in more severe cases, gold salts and CORTISONE are given, but they often have undesirable side effects. See also GOUT. arthropod arthropod, invertebrate animal, having a segmented body covered by a jointed exoskeleton with paired jointed appendages; member of the phylum Arthropoda, the largest and most diverse invertebrate phylum. The exoskeleton is periodically shed (molted) to permit growth and METAMORPHOSIS. Arthropods make up more than 80% (800,000) of all known animal species; they include TRILOBITES, HORSESHOE CRABS, ARACHNIDS, SEA SPIDERS, CRUSTACEANS, INSECTS, CENTIPEDES, and MILLIPEDES. Arthur Arthur, king of Britain: see ARTHURIAN LEGEND. Arthur Arthur, dukes of Brittany. Arthur I, 1187-1203?, duke 1196-1203?, was the son of Geoffrey, fourth son of HENRY II of England. After the death of RICHARD I of England, Arthur's claim to the English crown was passed over in favor of his uncle JOHN. Arthur allied himself with PHILIP II of France, who invested Arthur with Richard's fiefs in France. Fighting ensued, and Arthur was captured (1202) by John, who is suspected of murdering him. Arthur's story is told in Shakespeare's King John. Arthur III, 1394-1458, duke 1457-58, was known as comte de Richemont before his accession. As constable of France in the HUNDRED YEARS WAR, he captured (1436) Paris from the English and helped to regain Normandy for France. Arthur, Chester Alan Arthur, Chester Alan, 1830?-86, 21st president of the U.S. (1881-85); b. Fairfield, Vt. A lawyer, he was appointed (1871) collector of the port of New York. His removal (1878) by Pres. HAYES angered Sen. Roscoe CONKLING and other New York Republicans, but they were placated in 1880 by Arthur's nomination as vice president on the Republican ticket with James A. GARFIELD. Succeeding to the presidency after Garfield's assassination, Arthur had an honest, efficient, and dignified administration. He supported the civil service reform act of 1883 and vetoed a Chinese exclusion bill that violated a treaty with China. Arthurian legend Arthurian legend, mass of stories, popular in medieval lore, concerning King Arthur of Britain and his knights. The earliest reference to Arthur is in the Welsh poem Gododdin (c.600), although later sources place him at the Battle of Mt. Badon, mentioned by Gildas c.540. In Nennius (c.800) he appears as a Celtic victor over Saxon invaders. The legend was greatly elaborated by GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH in his Historia (c.1135), which represents Arthur as the conqueror of Western Europe. Wace's Roman de Brut (c.1155) infuses the story with the spirit of chivalric romance, and the Brut of LAYAMON (c.1200) pictures Arthur as national hero. The 12th-cent. French poet CHRETIEN DE TROYES introduced in Perceval the theme of the quest for the Holy Grail. GOTTFRIED VON STRASSBURG, a medieval German poet, wrote the first great treatment of the TRISTRAM AND ISOLDE story. The Middle English Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (c.1370) embodied the ideal of chivalric knighthood. Sir Thomas MALORY'S Morte d'Arthur (1485) was the last important medieval treatment. Since Malory, the legend has appeared in the work of TENNYSON, SWINBURNE, William MORRIS, T.H. WHITE, and others. It is generally accepted that the Arthurian legend developed out of Celtic mythology, as collected in the Welsh MABINOGION. The stories may have coalesced around Irish hero tales and were probably carried to the Continent by Breton minstrels before 1000. Despite innumerable variations, the basic story has remained the same. Arthur, the illegitimate son of Uther Pendragon, king of Britain, wins recognition after his father's death by removing a sword from a stone. Merlin, the court magician, then reveals his parentage. Reigning at CAMELOT, Arthur proves a mighty and noble king. He possesses the great sword Excalibur, given him by the mysterious Lady of the Lake. His enemies include his sorceress sister, Morgan le Fay, and Sir Mordred, usually his nephew, who fatally wounds him. The dying king is borne away to Avalon, whence he will someday return. Among the knights in Arthur's court are Sir Launcelot and Sir Tristram, both involved in illicit and tragic unions, Launcelot with Arthur's wife, Guinevere, and Tristram with Isolde, the wife of his uncle, King Mark. Other figures include Sir Pelleas and Sir Gawain; Sir Galahad, Launcelot's son; Sir Percivale (or Parsifal); and other knights of the Round Table. artichoke artichoke, name for two plants of the COMPOSITE family, both having edible parts. The French, or globe, artichoke (Cynara scolymus), of S Europe, is a thistlelike plant whose immature, globular flower heads are used as vegetables; only the lower parts of the fleshy bracts ("leaves") and the center ("heart") are eaten. The other artichoke plant is the JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE. artificial insemination artificial insemination, technique of artificially injecting sperm-containing semen from a male into a female to cause pregnancy. The technique is widely used in the propagation of cattle, especially to produce many offspring from one prize bull. Artificial insemination is also used in humans when normal fertilization cannot be achieved, as with STERILITY or IMPOTENCE in the male or anatomical disorders in the female (see IN VITRO FERTILIZATION). artificial intelligence artificial intelligence (AI), the use of COMPUTERS to model the behavioral aspects of human reasoning and learning. Research in AI is concentrated in some half-dozen areas. In problem solving, one must proceed from a beginning (the initial state) to the end (the goal state) via a limited number of steps; AI here involves an attempt to model the reasoning process in solving a problem, such as the proof of a theorem in EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY. In game theory (see GAMES, THEORY OF), the computer must choose among a number of possible "next" moves to select the one that optimizes its probability of winning; this type of choice is analogous to that of a chess player selecting the next move in response to an opponent's move. In pattern recognition, shapes, forms, or configurations of data must be identified and isolated from a larger group; the process here is similar to that used by a doctor in classifying medical problems on the basis of symptoms. Natural language processing is an analysis of current or colloquial language usage without the sometimes misleading effect of formal grammars; it is an attempt to model the learning process of a translator faced with the phrase "throw mama from the train a kiss." CYBERNETICS is the analysis of the communication and control processes of biological organisms and their relationship to mechanical and electrical systems; this study could ultimately lead to the development of "thinking" robots (see ROBOTICS). Machine learning occurs when a computer improves its performance of a task on the basis of its programmed application of AI principles to its past performance of that task. artificial kidney artificial kidney: see DIALYSIS. artificial life support artificial life support, systems that use medical technology to aid, support, or replace a vital function of the body that has been seriously damaged. Such techniques include artificial pacemakers, dialysis machines, and oxygenators. The use of these systems to prolong the life of a patient who has suffered apparently irreversible damage to a vital organ system may raise such ethical issues as the quality of life, EUTHANASIA, and the right to die. artificial respiration artificial respiration, any measure that causes air to flow in and out of a person's lungs when natural breathing is inadequate or ceases. Respiration can be taken over by mechanical devices, e.g., the artificial lung; in emergency situations, mouth-to-mouth (or, for a small child, mouth-to-nose) procedures are often used. The victim's mouth is cleared of foreign material, and the head is tilted back. Holding the nostrils tightly shut, the person administering artificial respiration places his (or her) mouth over that of the victim and blows air into the lungs, allowing for exhalation after each breath. Twelve vigorous breaths are administered per minute for an adult, twenty shallow breaths per minute for a child. Artigas, Jose Gervasio Artigas, Jose Gervasio, 1764-1850, Uruguayan independence leader. He joined (1811) the revolution against Spanish rule and became leader in the Banda Orientale (now URUGUAY). Artigas agitated against the territory's annexation (1820) by Brazil and went into exile. artillery artillery, a term now applied to heavy firearms, as distinguished from SMALL ARMS. It came into use in the mid-14th cent. with the introduction in Europe of GUNPOWDER, which had been discovered many centuries earlier in China. First employed mainly against fortifications, artillery was increasingly used in the field from the early 17th cent. It was characteristically smooth-bore and muzzle-loaded, firing solid, round shot, until the late 19th cent., when breech-loaded, rifled, and shell-firing artillery became standard. Modern artillery includes a variety of long-range guns that fire their shells with rapid muzzle-velocity in a low arc; howitzers, which fire on a high trajectory at relatively nearby targets; antiaircraft guns, which fire rapidly and at high angles; armor-piercing antitank guns; and many field-artillery pieces used in support of infantry and other ground operations. Mobility has become a key factor in the usefulness of heavy firearms, most of which now either are self-propelled or can be towed. art nouveau art nouveau, decorative art movement begun in Western Europe that lasted from the 1880s to World War I. It was characterized by a richly ornamental, asymmetrical style of whiplash linearity, reminiscent of twining plant tendrils, and was most successful in furniture, jewelry, and book design and illustration. Its themes were symbolic and often erotic. Chief exponents included the illustrators Aubrey BEARDSLEY and Walter Crane in England; the architects Henry van de Velde and Victor HORTA in Belgium; the architect Hector Guimard and the jewelry designer Rene Lalique in France; the painter Gustav KLIMT in Austria; the architect Antonio GAUDI in Spain; the illustrator Otto Eckmann and the architect Peter BEHRENS in Germany; and the glassware designer Louis C. TIFFANY and the architect Louis SULLIVAN in the U.S. arts and crafts arts and crafts, term for the field of the designing and hand fabrication of functional and decorative objects. The term was invented in late-19th-cent. England to refer to a movement, begun by William MORRIS and others, to revive the hand techniques almost obliterated by industrialization. Aruba Aruba, island (1985 est. pop. 61,000) 69 sq mi (179 sq km) in the NETHERLANDS ANTILLES. Tourism and the refining of oil from nearby Venezuela are the major sources of revenue. Oranjestad is the capital. arum arum, common name for the Araceae, a family of chiefly tropical and subtropical herbaceous herbs. The characteristic inflorescence consists of a single fleshy spike (spadix), which bears small flowers, and a typically showy flowerlike bract or modified leaf (spathe) surrounding the spadix. The largest plant inflorescence known belongs to the Sumatran krubi (Amorphophallus titanum) of this family; its spadix reaches a height of 15 ft (4.6 m). Among other members of the family are the decorative arum lily, or calla (genus Zantedeschia); the smaller, showy water arum, or wild calla (Calla palustris); the climbing shrub philodendron (genus Philodendron), a popular houseplant; and the decorative Anthurium and Caladium. Some species in this family have large, starchy edible rootstocks (corms). A major food source in the Pacific and Far East, the corms of elephant's ear (Colocasia esculenta), or taro, are the main ingredient of poi. Corms of the arum Indian bread were eaten by natives of E North America. Aryans Aryans, speakers of Indo-European or Indo-Iranian languages. In the 2d millennium BC, waves of warlike nomadic Aryan tribes spread from S Russia and Turkistan through Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. They invaded India c.1500 BC, colonizing the PUNJAB. The subsequent Indo-European period was characterized by a pastoral-agricultural economy and the use of bronze objects and horse-drawn chariots. In the 20th cent., NAZI racist propaganda idealized the Aryan conquest and claimed German descent from the Aryans. As As, chemical symbol of the element ARSENIC. asbestos asbestos, common name for any of a group of fibrous silicate minerals resistant to acid and fire. Asbestos usually occurs as veins in rocks and seems to be a product of METAMORPHISM. Chrysotile asbestos (H4Mg3Si2O9), a form of SERPENTINE, is the main commercial asbestos. Asbestos is produced chiefly in Canada; asbestos products include yarn and rope, pipe covering, brake linings, fire-fighting equipment, and insulating materials. Studies have shown that asbestos particles in the air can cause lung cancer and the lung disease asbestosis. Ascension Ascension, volcanic, largely barren island (1980 est. pop. 1,013), 34 sq mi (88 sq km), in the S Atlantic, part of the British colony of SAINT HELENA. It is the site of a U.S. air base, and a missile- and satellite-tracking station. Ascension Ascension, name given to the departure of JESUS from earth. Ascension Thursday, a major feast for most Christians, commemorates the event and occurs on the 40th day after Easter. Asch, Sholem Asch, Sholem, 1880-1957, American Yiddish novelist and playwright; b. Poland. His writings often depict Jewish life in Europe and the U.S., as in Three Cities (1933) and East River (1946). Later works, e.g., Mary (1949), reflect the common spiritual heritage of Jews and Christians. Ascham, Roger Ascham, Roger, 1515-68, English humanist. A leading intellectual figure of the Tudor period, he tutored Princess Elizabeth (ELIZABETH I) in the classics and later served as her secretary; he was also Latin secretary to MARY I. He wrote Toxophilus (1557), an essay on archery, and The Scholemaster (1570), a treatise on the teaching of Latin. Asclepius Asclepius, legendary Greek physician and god of medicine; son of APOLLO and Coronis. The sick were treated in his temples; the serpent and cock were sacred to him. ascorbic acid ascorbic acid: see VITAMIN. ASEAN ASEAN: see ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS. Asgard Asgard, in Norse mythology, home of the gods. Also called Aesir, it consisted of luxurious palaces and halls. One of the most beautiful was Valhalla, the hall of dead heroes. Asgeirsson, Asgeir Asgeirsson, Asgeir, 1894-1972, president of ICELAND (1952-68). He was a member of parliament (1923-52), held various cabinet posts, and served (1946-52) as governor of the International Monetary Fund. ash ash, tree or shrub (genus Fraxinus) of the OLIVE family, mainly of north temperate regions. The ashes have small clusters of greenish flowers and long-winged, wind-dispersed fruits. The white ash (F. americana) is a source of durable hardwood timber used for sporting goods, furniture, and tool handles; the blue ash (F. quadrangulata) provides a blue dye. The mountain ash and prickly ash are not true ashes. Ashanti Ashanti, or Asante,historic and present-day region in central GHANA, inhabited by the Ashanti, one of Ghana's major ethnic groups. In the 17th cent. the Ashanti confederation was forged, with its capital at KUMASI and with the chieftain of the Oyoko clan as king. Ashanti came into conflict with the British colonies along the coast, and the Anglo-Ashanti wars (19th cent.) resulted in the dissolution of the confederation in 1896. In 1901 Ashanti became part of the British colony of the Gold Coast. The people are noted for their goldwork and colorful Kente cloth. (See also GHANA, ancient empire.) Ashbery, John Ashbery, John, 1927-, American poet and art critic; b. Rochester, N.Y. His poems are experimental, narrative, and strongly visual. His collections include Some Trees (1956), Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror (1975; Pulitzer), Shadow Train (1981), and A Wave (1984). ashcan school ashcan school: see EIGHT, THE. Ashe, Arthur (Robert) Ashe, Arthur (Robert), 1943-, American tennis player; b. Richmond. He was (1968) the first black to win the U.S. Open. He also took the Australian (1970) and Wimbledon (1975) titles. Asher Asher: see ISRAEL, TRIBES OF. Ashton, Sir Frederick Ashton, Sir Frederick, 1906-1988, British choreographer and dancer; b. Ecuador. He studied in England with Leonid MASSINE and Maria Rambert. He joined (1935) the Sadler's Wells Ballet (now the Royal Ballet) as choreographer and later became director (1963-70). His precise, lyrical works include Cinderella, Ondine, and A Month in the Country. Ashurbanipal Ashurbanipal: see ASSURBANIPAL. Ashurnasirpal II Ashurnasirpal II, d. 860? BC, king of ancient ASSYRIA (884-860? BC). He conquered considerable territory and helped to create a centralized state. Ash Wednesday Ash Wednesday: see LENT. Asia Asia, the world's largest continent, c.17,139,000 sq mi (44,390,000 sq km), joined in the west with Europe (which may be considered a peninsula of Asia) to form the great Eurasian land mass. It ranges in elevation from 29,028 ft (8,848 m) at Mt. EVEREST, the world's highest mountain, to 1,292 ft (394 m) below sea level at the DEAD SEA, the world's lowest point. It is traversed from east to west by a massive central highland region containing the Tibetan Plateau, the HIMALAYAS, the HINDU KUSH, and other great mountain systems. The continent has every type of climate, from tropical to polar and from desert to rainy. The countries of Asia are Afghanistan, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burma, Cambodia (Kampuchea), China, Cyprus, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Japan, Jordan, North Korea, South Korea, Kuwait, Laos, Lebanon, Malaysia, the Maldives, the Mongolian People's Republic, Nepal, Oman, Pakistan, the Republic of the Philippines, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Syria, Taiwan (the Republic of China), Thailand, Asian Turkey, the Asian USSR, the United Arab Emirates, Vietnam, Yemen, and Southern Yemen; other political units are Brunei, Hong Kong, and Macao (see separate articles). Asia was the site of some of the world's earliest civilizations and today contains nearly 60% of the world's population. Some of the world's greatest population densities are found in S and E Asia, particularly in the great alluvial river valleys of the GANGES, in India, and the YANGTZE and HUANG HE, in China. See map of Asia in separate section. Asia Minor Asia Minor, peninsula, W Asia, forming the Asian part of Turkey. Most of the peninsula is occupied by the Anatolian plateau, which is crossed by numerous mountains interspersed with lakes. The first civilization established there (c.1800 BC) was that of the HITTITES. The site of TROY and other ancient cities, Asia Minor was subjugated by many invaders, including the Persians, Macedonians, Romans, and Crusaders. Conquered by the Turks between the 13th and 15th cent. AD, it was part of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE until the establishment of modern Turkey after WORLD WAR I. Asimov, Isaac Asimov, Isaac, 1920-, American biochemist and author; b. USSR. He taught biochemistry at Boston Univ., but he is best known as a prolific author of science fiction, e.g., The Foundation Trilogy (1951-83). Asmara Asmara, city (1984 est. pop. 275,385), capital of Eritrea prov., N Ethiopia. A commercial and industrial center, it is connected by rail with the Red Sea port of Massawa. Manufactures include textiles and beer. The city was occupied (1889) by the Italians, became (1900) the capital of their colony of Eritrea, and was a base for the Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935-36). It was taken by the British in 1941. In the late 1970s Asmara was briefly besieged by Eritrean guerrillas fighting to secede from Ethiopia. Asmoneans Asmoneans: see MACCABEES. Asoka Asoka, d. c.232 BC, Indian emperor (c.273-c.232 BC) of the MAURYA dynasty. One of the greatest of the ancient rulers, he brought nearly all of INDIA together. However, he sickened of war, turned (c.257 BC) to BUDDHISM, and thereafter professed nonviolence. He sent Buddhist missionaries as far afield as Greece and Egypt, and was largely responsible for transforming Buddhism into a world religion. asp asp, popular name for several species of VIPER, one of which, the European asp (Vipera aspis), is native to S Europe. It is also a name for the Egyptian COBRA. asparagus asparagus, perennial garden vegetable (Asparagus officinalis) of the LILY family, native to the E Mediterranean area, cultivated from antiquity and now grown in much of the world. Its green stems function as leaves, and the true leaves are reduced to scales. Its edible shoots are cut in the spring. Related species, the asparagus fern (A. plumosus) and smilax (A. asparagoides), are used for decoration. Aspen Aspen, city (1986 est. pop. 3,320), alt. 7,850 ft (2,390 m), seat of Pitkin co., S central Colo., on the Roaring Fork R.; inc. 1881. Once a booming silver-mining town, it has been transformed into a modern, cosmopolitan ski resort. The Aspen Inst. for Humanistic Studies and Aspen Music School (which has held an annual music festival since 1949) are located there. aspen aspen: see WILLOW. Aspen Music Festival Aspen Music Festival: see MUSIC FESTIVAL. asphalt asphalt, brownish-black substance used in road making, roofing, and waterproofing. A naturally occurring mixture of HYDROCARBONS, it is commercially obtained as a residue in the DISTILLATION or refining of PETROLEUM. Asphalt varies in consistency from a solid to a semisolid, melts when heated, and has great tenacity. Used in paints and varnishes, it imparts an intense black color. Crushed asphalt rock, a natural mixture of asphalt, sand, and limestone, is used as road-building material. asphodel asphodel, hardy, stemless herbs (genera Asphodelus and Asphodeline) of the LILY family, native to India and the Mediterranean. Both have showy flower spikes. Other asphodels include the false asphodel (genus Tofieldia) and the mountain asphodel, or turkeybeard (Xerophyllum asphodeliodes). aspirin aspirin, acetyl derivative of salicylic acid, commonly used to lower fever; relieve headache, muscle, and joint pain; and reduce inflammation, particularly that caused by rheumatic fever and arthritis. Known side effects are nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and gastrointestinal bleeding. Acetaminophen (Tylenol) is often substituted for aspirin. See also ANALGESIC. Asquith, Herbert Henry Asquith, Herbert Henry: see OXFORD AND ASQUITH, HERBERT HENRY ASQUITH, 1ST EARL OF. ass ass, hoofed, herbivorous MAMMAL (genus Equus), related to, but smaller than, the HORSE. Unlike the horse, the ass has a large head, long ears, and small hooves. The two living species are the sandy-colored wild Asian ass (E. hemonius), now endangered, and the larger, gray African ass (E. asinus), from which domestic donkeys are descended. Assad, Hafez al- Assad, Hafez al-, 1928-, president of SYRIA. He was defense minister before leading the 1965 military coup that made him president. A strong anti-Zionist, he is a major supporter of the PALESTINE LIBERATION ORGANIZATION. In 1976 he committed Syrian troops as part of a peace-keeping force in LEBANON, but they were soon supporting the PLO guerrillas. Assamese Assamese, language belonging to the Indic group of the Indo-Iranian subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See LANGUAGE. assault assault, in law, intentional attempt to use violence to do bodily harm to another. The victim must reasonably believe the perpetrator capable of such violence. See BATTERY. assemblage assemblage: see COLLAGE. Assemblies of God Assemblies of God: see PENTECOSTALISM. Assis, Joaquim Maria Machado de Assis, Joaquim Maria Machado de: see MACHADO DE ASSIS, JOAQUIM MARIA. Associated Press Associated Press: see NEWS AGENCY. Association of Southeast Asian Nations Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), organization established by the Bangkok Declaration (1967), linking the nations of Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. It seeks to promote socioeconomic progress and regional stability through cooperation in banking, trade, technology, agriculture, industry, and tourism. Its headquarters are in Djakarta. associative law associative law, in mathematics, law holding that for a given operation combining three quantities, two at a time, the initial pairing is arbitrary. Addition and multiplication are associative; thus (a+b)+c=a+(b+c) and (a*b)*c=a*(b*c) for any three members a, b, c. Subtraction and division, however, are not associative. assonance assonance: see RHYME. Assurbanipal Assurbanipalor Ashurbanipal, d. 626? BC, king of ancient ASSYRIA (669-633 BC), son and successor of Esar-Haddon. He was the last of the great kings of Assyria. Under him Assyria reached the height of sumptuous living, and art and learning flourished. A few years after his reign ended, Assyria succumbed to the Medes and the Persians. His great expenditures in wars to preserve the state contributed somewhat to its collapse. Assyria Assyria, ancient empire of W Asia, originating around the city of Ashur, on the upper Tigris R., S of its later capital, NINEVEH. At first a small Semitic city-state, Assyria flourished briefly under Tiglathpileser I (d. c.1074 BC). Its real importance, however, began in the 9th cent. with the conquests of ASHURNASIRPAL II, who set up an imperial administration. Later kings such as Shalmaneser III, Tiglathpileser III, and Sargon gained hegemony in the Middle East. SENNACHERIB consolidated their holdings, and Esar-Haddon (r.681-668 BC) defeated the Chaldaeans and conquered Egypt. Under his successor, ASSURBANIPAL (r.669-633 BC), Assyria reached its height of learning, art, and splendor. But Egypt broke away, and Assyria's decline was rapid. Soon after Assurbanipal's death Nineveh was sacked (612 BC) and Assyria was absorbed, first by Babylonia and then by the Persian empire. Assyrian art Assyrian art. An Assyrian artistic style, distinct from that of BABYLONIA, began to emerge c.1500 BC and lasted until the fall of NINEVEH in 612 BC It took the form of precisely delineated, polychrome carved stone reliefs. These concerned royal affairs, chiefly hunting and war making. Predominance was given to animal forms, particularly horses and lions, which are represented in great detail. Human figures are comparatively rigid and static, but also minutely detailed. Among the best-known Assyrian reliefs are the lion-hunt alabaster carvings showing ASHURNASIRPAL II (9th cent. BC) and ASSURBANIPAL (7th cent. BC), both of which are in the British Museum. Guardian animals, usually lions and winged beasts with bearded human heads, were sculpted partially in the round for fortified royal gateways. Exquisite examples of Assyrian relief carving may be seen at the British and Metropolitan museums. Assyrian language Assyrian language, Hamito-Semitic language of ancient times, in the Akkadian group. See LANGUAGE. Astaire, Fred Astaire, Fred, 1899-1987, American dancer; b. Omaha, Nebr., as Frederick Austerlitz. After dancing in VAUDEVILLE with his sister, Adele, he made many films, often with Ginger Rogers, in which he displayed an elegant style of ballroom dance and tap. He also danced in movies with Eleanor Powell, Rita Hayworth, and Cyd Charisse, and on television with Barrie Chase. His influence on dancing is incalculable. Many classical dancers, notably NUREYEV and BARYSHNIKOV, acknowledge their debt to him. Astarte Astarte, Semitic goddess of fertility and love. Dominant in ancient Eastern religions, she was the most important goddess of the Phoenicians, corresponding to the Babylonian ISHTAR and the Greek Aphrodite. See also GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS. astatine astatine (At), semimetallic radioactive element, discovered in 1931 by Fred Allison and E.J. Murphy. The heaviest known HALOGEN, it is believed to be similar to iodine in its chemical properties. Astatine-211 (half-life: 7.21 hr) is used as a radioactive tracer because it collects in the thyroid gland. See ELEMENT; PERIODIC TABLE. aster aster, widely distributed, wild and cultivated perennial flowering plants (genus Aster) of the COMPOSITE family. Most species have white, pink, blue, or purple flowers that bloom in the fall. The China aster (Callistephus chinensis), the common aster of florists and flower gardens, and the golden asters (genus Chrysopsis) are in the same family. asteroid, planetoid asteroid, planetoid, or minor planet,small, usually irregularly shaped body orbiting the sun, most often at least partially between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Ceres is the largest asteroid (diameter: 470 mi/750 km) and was the first discovered (1801). Of the more than 2,000 asteroids known, most have been discovered photographically; their paths appear as short lines in a time exposure. Asteroids may be fragments of a planet shattered in the remote past; material that failed to condense into a single planet; or material from the nuclei of old comets. The Trojan asteroids revolve in the same orbit as Jupiter, kept by perturbation effects in two groups 60 deg ahead of and 60 deg behind Jupiter. The Apollo asteroids cross the earth's orbit; they may be the cause of the earth's several meteorite craters and are a possible location for future mining. asthma asthma, chronic respiratory disorder characterized by labored breathing and wheezing resulting from obstructed and constricted air passages. Although asthma usually results from an allergic reaction (see ALLERGY), specific allergens are not always identifiable. Illness and stress may precipitate an attack. For acute attacks EPINEPHRINE injections and oxygen therapy bring immediate relief. Long-term control includes use of bronchodilators, STEROIDS, breathing exercises, and, if possible, the identification and avoidance of allergens. astigmatism astigmatism, visual defect resulting from irregular curvature of the cornea or lens, preventing light rays from converging on the retina (see EYE). With astigmatism, some light rays focus on the retina, while others focus in front of or behind it. Congenital or caused by disease or injury, astigmatism can occur in addition to FARSIGHTEDNESS and NEARSIGHTEDNESS. It may be alleviated with corrective lenses. Astor, John Jacob Astor, John Jacob, 1763-1848, American merchant; b. Germany. At 21 he arrived in Baltimore, penniless; later he opened a small fur shop in New York City. Shrewd and ambitious, he became a leader of the China trade. His AMERICAN FUR COMPANY (1808) exercised a virtual monopoly on the fur trade in U.S. territories, and at his death Astor was the wealthiest man in the country. His great-grandson William Waldorf Astor, 1st Viscount Astor, 1848-1919, b. N.Y.C., was an American-British financier. In 1890 he moved to England, where he contributed huge sums to public causes. He was made baron in 1916 and viscount in 1917. His elder son, Waldorf Astor, married Nancy Witcher (Langhorne) Astor, Viscountess Astor, 1879-1964, a British political leader who became the first woman to sit in PARLIAMENT. As a Conservative member (1919-45) she espoused temperance and reforms in women's and children's welfare, and in the 1920s she and her husband were leaders in the "Tory democracy" reform program. astrolabe astrolabe, instrument of ancient origin that measured altitudes of celestial bodies and determined their positions and motions. It typically consisted of a wooden or metal disk with the circumference marked off in degrees, suspended from an attached ring. Angular distances were determined by sighting with the alidade-a movable pointer pivoted at the disk's center-and taking readings of its position on the graduated circle. Skilled mariners used astrolabes up to the 18th cent. to determine latitude, longitude, and time of day. astrology astrology, form of DIVINATION based on the theory that movements of the celestial bodies (stars, planets, sun, and moon) influence human affairs and determine events. The Chaldaeans and Assyrians, believing all events to be predetermined, developed a nondeistic system of divination. The spread of astrological practice was arrested by the rise of CHRISTIANITY, with its emphasis on divine intervention and free will; but in the RENAISSANCE astrology regained popularity, in part due to rekindled interest in science and ASTRONOMY. Christian theologists warred against astrology, and in 1585 SIXTUS V condemned it. At the same time the work of KEPLER and others undermined astrology's tenets, although the practice has continued. One's horoscope is a map of the heavens at the time of one's birth, showing the positions of the heavenly bodies in the ZODIAC. astronaut astronaut or cosmonaut,crew member on a U.S. or Soviet manned spaceflight mission. The early astronauts and cosmonauts were generally trained aircraft test pilots; later astronauts and cosmonauts, however, have included scientists and physicians. As far as is possible, all conditions to be encountered in space, e.g., the physiological disorientation arising from weightlessness (see SPACE MEDICINE), are simulated in ground training. Using trainers and mock-ups of actual spacecraft, astronauts and cosmonauts rehearse every maneuver from liftoff to recovery; every conceivable malfunction and difficulty is anticipated and prepared for. Prominent Soviet cosmonauts include Yuri GAGARIN, Valentina TERESHKOVA, and Aleksei LEONOV. Prominent U.S. astronauts include Alan SHEPARD, John GLENN, Edward WHITE, Neil ARMSTRONG, Buzz ALDRIN, and John YOUNG. astronomical coordinate systems astronomical coordinate systems, four basic systems used to indicate the positions of celestial bodies on the celestial sphere. The latter is an imaginary sphere that has the observer at its center and all other celestial bodies imagined as located on its inside surface. Equatorial The celestial equator is the projection of the earth's EQUATOR onto the celestial sphere, and the celestial poles are the points where the earth's axis, if extended, intersects the celestial sphere. Right ascension (R.A.) is the angle (in hours, minutes, and seconds, with 1 h=15 deg) measured eastward from the vernal EQUINOX to the point where the hour circle (the great circle passing through the celestial poles and the body) intersects the celestial equator. Declination is the angle (in degrees, minutes, and seconds, as are all other angles defined hereafter) measured north (+) or south (-) along the body's hour circle between the celestial equator and the body. Horizon or Altazimuth Altitude is the angle measured above (+) or below (-) the observer's celestial horizon (the great circle on the celestial sphere midway between the points-zenith and nadir-directly above and below the observer) to the body along the vertical circle passing through the body and the zenith. Azimuth is the angle measured along the celestial horizon from the observer's celestial meridian (the vertical circle passing through the nearest celestial pole and the zenith) to the point where the body's vertical circle intersects the horizon. The earth's rotation constantly changes a body's altitude and azimuth for an observer. Ecliptic or Celestial The ecliptic poles are the two points at which a line perpendicular to the plane of the ECLIPTIC and passing through the earth's center intersects the celestial sphere. Celestial latitude is the angle measured north (+) or south (-) from the ecliptic to the body along the latitude circle through the body and the ecliptic poles. Celestial longitude is the angle measured along the ecliptic from the vernal equinox to the latitude circle, in the same sense as R.A. Galactic The galactic equator is the intersection of the mean plane of our galaxy with the celestial sphere, and the galactic poles are the two points at which a line perpendicular to the mean galactic plane and passing through the earth's center intersects the celestial sphere. Galactic latitude is the angle measured north (+) or south (-) from the galactic equator to the body along the great circle passing through the body and the galactic poles. Galactic longitude is the angle measured eastward along the galactic equator from the galactic center. astronomical unit astronomical unit (AU), mean distance between the earth and the sun. One AU is c.92,960,000 mi (149,604,970 km). astronomy astronomy, branch of science that studies the motions and natures of celestial bodies, such as PLANETS, STARS, and GALAXIES; more generally, the study of matter and energy in the universe at large. Astronomy is perhaps the oldest of the pure sciences. In many primitive civilizations the regularity of celestial motions was recognized, and attempts were made to keep records and predict events. Astronomical observations provided a basis for the CALENDAR by determining the units of MONTH and YEAR. Later, astronomy served in navigation and timekeeping. The earliest astronomers were priests, and no attempt was made to separate astronomy from the pseudoscience of ASTROLOGY. Astronomy reached its highest development in the ancient world with the Greeks of the Alexandrian school in the Hellenistic period. ARISTARCHUS OF SAMOS determined the sizes and distances of the MOON and SUN and advocated a heliocentric (sun-centered) cosmology. ERATOSTHENES made the first accurate measurement of the actual size of the earth. The greatest astronomer of antiquity, HIPPARCHUS, devised a geocentric system of cycles and epicycles (a compounding of circular motions) to account for the movements of the sun and moon. Using such a system, PTOLEMY predicted the motions of the planets with considerable accuracy (see PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM). One of the landmarks of the scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th cent. was Nicholas COPERNICUS' revival (1543) of the heliocentric theory (see COPERNICAN SYSTEM). The next great astronomer, Tycho BRAHE, compiled (1576-97) the most accurate and complete astronomical observations yet produced. Johannes KEPLER'S study of Brahe's observations led him to the three laws of planetary motion that bear his name (see KEPLER'S LAWS). GALILEO Galilei, the first to make astronomical use of the moons of JUPITER and the phases of VENUS) for the Copernican cosmology. Sir Isaac NEWTON, possibly the greatest scientific genius of all time, succeeded in uniting the sciences of astronomy and PHYSICS. His laws of motion and theory of universal GRAVITATION, published in 1687, provided a physical, dynamic basis for the merely descriptive laws of Kepler. By the early 19th cent. the science of CELESTIAL MECHANICS had reached a highly developed state through the work of Alexis Clairaut, Jean d'ALEMBERT, Leonhard EULER, Joseph LAGRANGE, Pierre LAPLACE, and others. In 1838, Friedrich BESSEL made the first measurement of the distance to a star (see PARALLAX). Astronomy was revolutionized in the second half of the 19th cent. by techniques based on photography and the SPECTROSCOPE. Interest shifted from determining the positions and distances of stars to studying their physical composition (see STELLAR EVOLUTION). With the construction of ever more powerful telescopes (see OBSERVATORY), the boundaries of the known universe constantly increased. Harlow SHAPLEY determined the size and shape of our galaxy, the MILKY WAY. Edwin HUBBLE'S study of the distant galaxies led him to conclude that the observations in new parts of the spectrum, e.g., gamma-ray astronomy, RADIO ASTRONOMY, ultraviolet astronomy, and X-ray astronomy. The new observational techniques have led to the discovery of strange new astronomical objects, e.g., PULSARS, QUASARS, and black holes (see GRAVITATIONAL COLLAPSE). astrophysics astrophysics, application of the theories and methods of physics to the study of stellar structure, STELLAR EVOLUTION, the origin of the SOLAR SYSTEM, and related problems of COSMOLOGY. Asturias, Miguel Angel Asturias, Miguel Angel, 1899-1974, Guatemalan writer. His major works are his novels, including The President (1946), a study of a dictatorship; The Green Pope (1954); and The Eyes of the Interred (1960), about banana exploitation in the Caribbean. He also wrote stories and poetry. He received the 1967 Nobel Prize in literature. Asturias, region and former kingdom, NW Spain, S of the Bay of Biscay. The major occupations are the mining of coal, iron, and other resources; steel-making; cattle-raising; fishing; and the growing of apples for cider. When the MOORS conquered 8th-cent. Spain, Christian nobles fled to the Asturian mountains, formed a kingdom, and began the long reconquest of Spain. In the 10th cent. Leon became the capital of the kingdom, then known as Asturias and Leon. The kingdom was united (1230) with CASTILE. Asuncion Asuncion, city (1982 est. pop. 455,517), S Paraguay, capital of Paraguay, on the Paraguay R. It is the nation's principal port and chief industrial and cultural center. Meat-packing is the largest industry. One of the oldest cities in South America, founded in 1537, it retains a colonial aspect. It became a center of early Jesuit missionary activity and was the most important town in the Rio de la PLATA region until it was partially eclipsed by BUENOS AIRES during the 18th cent. Aswan High Dam Aswan High Dam, one of the world's largest dams, on the Nile R., in Egypt, built (1960-70) c.4 mi (6.4 km) south of the smaller Aswan Dam (completed, 1902; enlarged, 1934). It is 375 ft (114 m) high and 11,811 ft (3,600 m) long. The dam has a hydroelectricity capacity of 10 billion kwh and stores sufficient water in impounded Lake Nasser to irrigate more than 7 million acres (2,809,400 hectares) of farmland. The USSR provided funding and engineers for the project. asylum asylum, refuge, most often granted by a nation to a fugitive from another nation. It is usually reserved for victims of political, religious, or other discrimination. See also EXTRADITION. At At, chemical symbol of the element ASTATINE. Atacama, Desert of Atacama, Desert of, extremely arid plateau, c.2,000 ft (610 m) high, in N Chile. It is c.600 mi (970 km) long and has great nitrate and copper wealth. Chile gained sole control of the area from Bolivia in the 1880s (see PACIFIC, WAR OF THE). Atalanta Atalanta, in Greek mythology, fleet huntress who joined the Calydonian boar hunt (see MELEAGER). She demanded that each of her suitors race her, the winner to be rewarded with marriage, the losers to die. Hippomenes finally won her by dropping three golden apples that she stopped to retrieve. Ataturk, Kemal Ataturk, Kemal, 1881-1938, Turkish leader, founder of modern Turkey, first president of TURKEY (1923-38). Originally known as Mustafa Kemal, he was an army officer who took part (1908) in the Young Turk movement, distinguished himself in World War I, and, after the collapse of Ottoman power, founded the Turkish Nationalist Party. With the Allies controlling the government at Constantinople (Istanbul), he set up a rival government at Ankara. He expelled the Greeks who were occupying Anatolia (1921-22), abolished the sultanate (1922), and forced the European powers to recognize the Turkish republic. He ruled for 15 years as a virtual dictator. He instituted widespread internal reforms in his efforts to Westernize his nation; those changes included abolishing the CALIPHATE (1924), which in effect disestablished Islam. In foreign affairs he pursued a moderate policy, maintaining friendly relations with Turkey's neighbors, especially Russia, with whom he established the Balkan Entente. Atget, Eugene Atget, Eugene, 1857-1927, French photographer. At 47 he began to produce his evocative record of Paris and its environs. He sold his work to printers and to the Paris historical monuments society. His images of the parks, vendors, bridges, and prostitutes of Paris go beyond documentation. Athabascan Athabascan, group of related North American Indian languages forming a branch of the Nadene linguistic family, or stock. See AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES. Athanasius, Saint Athanasius, Saint, c.297-373, patriarch of ALEXANDRIA (328-73), Doctor of the Church. At the first Council of NICAEA (325) he took part in the debate against the heresy of ARIANISM. He continued to defend the Nicene orthodoxy, especially in Discourses Against the Arians, and was exiled from his see five times between 335 and 365. The Athanasian CREED is no longer ascribed to him but to a 4th-cent. Western writer. Feast: May 2. atheism atheism, denial of the existence of God or gods and of any supernatural existence, to be distinguished from AGNOSTICISM, which holds that the existence cannot be proved. Since the 19th cent. atheism has been professed by many individuals and groups. Athelstan Athelstanor AEthelstan, d. 939, king of WESSEX (924-39). He built his kingdom on foundations laid by his grandfather ALFRED and by 937 he was overlord of all England. Popular and able, he issued laws that attempted to impose royal authority on customary law. Athena Athena or Pallas Athena,in Greek mythology, one of the most important OLYMPIAN deities, sprung from the forehead of ZEUS. She was the goddess of war and peace, a patron of arts and crafts, a guardian of cities (notably Athens), and the goddess of wisdom. Her most important temple was the PARTHENON and her primary festival the Panathenaea. A virgin goddess, Athena is represented in art as a stately figure, armored, and wielding her breastplate, the aegis. The Romans identified her with MINERVA. Athens Athens, city (1981 pop. 885,737), capital of Greece, E central Greece. Greater Athens, a transportation hub including the Aegean port of PIRAIEVS, accounts for most of the country's industry, including textiles, machine tools, and ships. Tourism is also important. Early Athens, the center of ancient Greek civilization, was rigidly governed by aristocratic archons until the reforms of SOLON (594 BC) and CLEISTHENES (506 BC) established a democracy of its freemen. It emerged from the PERSIAN WARS (500-449 BC) as the strongest Greek city-state, and reached its cultural and imperial zenith in the time of PERICLES (443-429 BC). Its citizens included SOCRATES, AESCHYLUS, SOPHOCLES, and EURIPIDES. After defeat by its arch-rival Sparta in the PELOPONNESIAN WAR (431-404 BC) it began a long decline that continued under the Macedonians and Romans; yet it could still boast such citizens as ARISTOTLE, ARISTOPHANES, and PLATO. Captured (395 AD) by Visigoths, it became the capital of the BYZANTINE EMPIRE, then came in turn under French, Spanish, and Ottoman Turkish rule before becoming (1834) the capital of newly independent Greece. The city escaped damage in World War II. The first modern OLYMPIC GAMES were held there in 1896. Overlooking the city is its foremost landmark, the ACROPOLIS, where the ruins of the PARTHENON, the Propylaea, and the ERECHTHEUM are located. Athens Athens, the Univ. of Georgia. Industries include poultry processing and the manufacture of clocks, electronic equipment, and textiles. The CLASSIC REVIVAL houses of numerous Georgia statesmen are notable. athlete's foot athlete's foot: see RINGWORM. Athos Athos or Akte,peninsula, NE Greece, in the Aegean Sea. At its southern tip is Mount Athos, also called Hagion Oros, a religious community (c.30 sq mi/80 sq km) of about 20 Eastern Orthodox monasteries of the Order of St. Basil. Founded c.963, it enjoyed administrative independence under the Byzantine and Ottoman empires and was made (1927) a theocratic republic under Greek suzerainty. Women and female animals are barred. Atlanta Atlanta, capital and largest city (1986 est. pop. 421,910; met. area 2,560,300) of Georgia, seat of Fulton co.; settled 1837, inc. as a city 1847. Located in one of America's fastest-growing urban areas, it is the largest commercial, industrial, and financial center in the SE U.S. and the largest city in Georgia, as well as a transportation hub and a convention center. Many facilities of the federal government are located in the area, which also produces textiles, chemicals, automobiles, aircraft, clothing, and a wide variety of other goods. The city is also a center of international trade and commerce. Atlanta was captured and burned (1864) by Gen. William T. SHERMAN; rebuilt, it prospered and became the state capital in 1868. Among its educational institutions are Emory Univ., the Georgia Inst. of Technology, and Atlanta Univ. Points of interest include the Atlanta Memorial Arts Center, Grant Park, and the grave of Martin Luther KING, Jr. Atlanta has a symphony orchestra and teams in all major sports. Atlanta campaign Atlanta campaign, May-Sept. 1864, of the U.S. CIVIL WAR. W.T. SHERMAN concentrated Union forces around Chattanooga, Tenn., and on May 6 moved south with two objectives: to destroy J.E. JOHNSTON'S Confederate army and to capture ATLANTA. Sherman repeatedly outflanked the Confederates, forcing them back to the Chattahoochee R. by July. J.B. HOOD, who had replaced Johnston, counterattacked but failed to halt the Union advance. Atlanta's communications were cut on Sept. 1, and Hood withdrew that night. Sherman took the city on Sept. 2. Atlantic Charter Atlantic Charter, program of peace aims enunciated on Aug. 14, 1941, by U.S. Pres. F.D. ROOSEVELT and British Prime Min. Winston CHURCHILL. Included among the aims was the list of human rights known as the FOUR FREEDOMS. Atlantic City Atlantic City, city (1986 est. pop. 35,980), SE N.J., an Atlantic resort and convention center; inc. 1854. On Absecon Island, a sandbar 10 mi (16 km) long, it was a fishing village until 1854, when the railroad began to transform it into a fashionable resort. It is known for its 6-mi (9.7-km) boardwalk, its convention hall, and its Steel Pier (built 1898; burned 1982). After the state legalized casino gambling there (1976), the city entered a new era of prosperity. Atlantic Ocean Atlantic Ocean, world's second largest ocean, c.31,800,000 sq mi (82,362,000 sq km), separating North and South America from Europe and Africa. It is narrowest (c.1,600 mi/2,575 km) off NE Brazil and deepest (c.28,000 ft/8,530 m) in the Milwaukee Deep, N of Puerto Rico. The generally narrow continental shelf reaches its greatest widths off NE North America, SE South America, and NW Europe. The ocean is divided lengthwise by the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a submarine mountain range c.300-600 mi (480-970 km) wide that extends c.10,000 mi (16,100 km) from Iceland to near the Antarctic Circle. This ridge, which has a few peaks that emerge as islands, is constantly widening, filling with molten rock, and pushing the bordering continents farther apart (see PLATE TECTONICS). Atlantis Atlantis, in Greek mythology, large island in the western sea. PLATO describes it as a UTOPIA destroyed by an earthquake. Questions as to its existence have provoked speculation over the centuries. One theory holds that it was a part of the Aegean island of THERA that sank c.1500 BC Atlas Atlas, in Greek mythology, a TITAN. After the defeat of the Titans by the OLYMPIANS, he was condemned to hold the sky upon his shoulders for all eternity. Atlas Mountains Atlas Mountains, mountain system, NW Africa, c.1,500 mi (2,410 km) long. It is widest and most rugged in Morocco, where Jebel Toubkal reaches a high point of 13,671 ft (4,167 m). The mountains are rich in phosphates, coal, iron, and oil. atmosphere atmosphere, the mixture of gases and other substances surrounding a celestial body with sufficient gravity to maintain it. Although some details about the atmospheres of the other planets and some satellites are known (see articles on individual planets), a complete description is available only for the earth's atmosphere, the study of which is called METEOROLOGY. The gaseous constituents of the earth's atmosphere are not chemically combined, and thus each retains its own physical and chemical properties. Within the first 40 to 50 mi (64 to 80 km) above the earth, the mixture is of uniform composition (except for a high concentration of OZONE at 30 mi/50 km). This whole region contains more than 99% of the total mass of the earth's atmosphere. Based on their relative volumes, the gaseous constituents are nitrogen (78.09%), oxygen (20.95%), argon (0.93%), carbon dioxide (0.03%), and minute traces of neon, helium, methane, krypton, hydrogen, xenon, and ozone. Additional atmospheric constituents include water vapor and particulate matter, such as various forms of dust and industrial pollutants. The earth's atmosphere is separated into certain distinct regions, each having a different temperature range. The troposphere, where air is in constant motion (see WIND), extends from the earth's surface to an altitude of 5 mi (8 km) at the poles and 10 mi (16 km) at the equator. Clouds and other WEATHER phenomena occur here (see also CLIMATE). All forms of the earth's animal and plant life exist in the troposphere or in the waters beneath it. Above the troposphere, the stratosphere extends to about 30 mi (50 km), followed by the mesosphere, up to about 50 mi (80 km), the thermosphere, up to about 400 mi (640 km), and finally the exosphere. The ionosphere is in the range (50 to 400 mi/80 to 640 km) that contains a high concentration of electrically charged particles (ions), which are responsible for reflecting radio signals. Above it, out to about 40,000 mi (64,400 km) in a region called the magnetosphere, electrically charged particles are trapped by the earth's magnetic field (see AURORA; VAN ALLEN RADIATION BELTS). The atmosphere protects the earth by absorbing and scattering harmful radiation and causing extraterrestrial solid matter (see METEOR) to burn from the heat generated by air friction. atoll atoll: see CORAL REEFS; ISLAND. atom atom, the smallest unit of a chemical ELEMENT having the properties of that element. An atom contains several kinds of particles. Its central core, the nucleus, consists of positively charged particles, called PROTONS, and uncharged particles, called NEUTRONS. Surrounding the nucleus and orbiting it are negatively charged particles, called ELECTRONS. Each atom has an equal number of protons and electrons. The nucleus occupies only a tiny fraction of an atom's volume but contains almost all of its mass. Electrons in the outermost orbits determine the atom's chemical and electrical properties. The number of protons in an atom's nucleus is called the ATOMIC NUMBER. All atoms of an element have the same atomic number and differ in atomic number from atoms of other elements. The total number of protons and neutrons combined is the atom's MASS NUMBER. Atoms containing the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are different forms, or ISOTOPES, of the same element. See also ATOMIC WEIGHT. History In the 5th cent. BC the Greek philosophers DEMOCRITUS and Leucippus proposed that matter was made up of tiny, indivisible particles in constant motion. Aristotle, however, did not accept the theory, and it was ignored for centuries. Modern atomic theory began with John DALTON, who proposed (1808) that all atoms of an element have exactly the same size and weight, and that atoms of elements unite chemically in simple numerical ratios to form compounds. In 1911 Ernest RUTHERFORD explained an atom's structure in terms of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons orbiting around it. In 1913 Niels BOHR used QUANTUM THEORY to explain why electrons could remain in certain allowed orbits without radiating energy. The development of quantum mechanics during the 1920s resulted in a satisfactory explanation of all phenomena related to the role of electrons in atoms and of all aspects of their associated spectra (see SPECTRUM). The quantum theory has shown that all particles have certain wave properties. As a result, electrons in an atom cannot be pictured as localized in space but rather should be viewed as a cloud of charge spread out over the entire orbit. The electron clouds around the nucleus represent regions in which the electrons are most likely to be found. Physicists are currently studying the behavior of large groups of atoms (see SOLID-STATE PHYSICS), and the nature of and relations among the hundreds of ELEMENTARY PARTICLES that have been discovered in addition to the proton, neutron, and electron. atomic bomb atomic bomb, weapon deriving its great explosive force from the sudden release of NUCLEAR ENERGY through the fission, or splitting, of heavy atomic nuclei. The first atomic bomb was successfully tested by the U.S. near Alamogordo, N.Mex., on July 16, 1945 (see MANHATTAN PROJECT). In the final stages of WORLD WAR II the U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima on Aug. 6, 1945, and on Nagasaki three days later to force Japan to surrender. Atomic bombs were subsequently developed by the USSR (1949), Great Britain (1952), France (1960), China (1964), and India (1974). Practical fissionable nuclei for atomic bombs are the isotopes URANIUM-235 and PLUTONIUM-239, which are capable of undergoing chain reaction. If the mass of the fissionable material exceeds the critical mass, the chain reaction multiplies rapidly into an uncontrollable release of energy. An atomic bomb is detonated by bringing together very rapidly (e.g., by means of a chemical explosion) two subcritical masses of fissionable material. The ensuing explosion produces great amounts of heat, a shock wave, and intense neutron and gamma radiation. The region of the explosion becomes radioactively contaminated, and wind-borne radioactive products may be deposited elsewhere as fallout. See also DISARMAMENT, NUCLEAR; HYDROGEN BOMB. atomic clock atomic clock: see CLOCK. atomic energy atomic energy: see NUCLEAR ENERGY. Atomic Energy Commission Atomic Energy Commission: see NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION. atomic mass atomic mass: see ATOMIC WEIGHT. atomic number atomic number, often represented by the symbol Z, the number of PROTONS in the nucleus of an ATOM. Atoms with the same atomic number make up a chemical ELEMENT. The elements are arranged in the PERIODIC TABLE in the order of their atomic numbers. atomic weight atomic weight, mean (weighted average) of the masses of all the naturally occuring ISOTOPES of a chemical ELEMENT; the atomic mass is the mass of any individual isotope. Atomic weight is usually expressed in atomic mass units (amu); the atomic mass unit is defined as exactly 1/12 the mass of a carbon-12 atom. Each proton or neutron weighs about 1 amu, and thus the atomic mass is always very close to the MASS NUMBER (total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus). Because most naturally occurring elements have one principal isotope and only insignificant amounts of other isotopes, most atomic weights are also very nearly whole numbers. For the atomic weight of individual elements, see PERIODIC TABLE. atonality atonality, systemic avoidance of harmonies and melodies that imply a keynote (see KEY). The term designates a method of composition in which the composer deliberately rejects the principle of TONALITY in favor of another principle of order, such as the 12-tone system (see SERIAL MUSIC). The move toward atonality has been apparent since the 19th cent., when WAGNER, Richard STRAUSS, and DEBUSSY obscured basic tonalities in their music. Atonal composers of the 20th cent. include SCHOENBERG, BERG, and IVES. Atonement, Day of Atonement, Day of: see JEWISH HOLIDAYS. ATP ATP: see ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE. Atreus Atreus, in Greek mythology, king of Mycenae; son of PELOPS, father of AGAMEMNON and MENELAUS. In retaliation for his brother Thyestes' seduction of his wife, Atreus murdered three of Thyestes' sons and served them to him at a feast. Thyestes then laid a curse on the house of Atreus. Thyestes' son AEGISTHUS killed Atreus, and Thyestes became king. atrium atrium, term for an interior court in Roman domestic architecture; also a type of entrance court in early Christian churches. The Roman atrium was an unroofed or partially roofed area with rooms opening from it. In early times it held a hearth in its center; later a tank collected rainwater. In more luxurious Roman dwellings, individual chambers had courts of their own, called peristyles. The ruins of POMPEII display atria in various forms. Attar Attar: see FARID AD-DIN ATTAR. Attila Attila, d. 453, king of the HUNS (434-53). From 434 he extorted tribute from the Eastern and Western Roman emperors. In 450 MARCIAN of the East and VALENTINIAN III of the West refused to pay. Valentinian's sister Honoria proposed an alliance with Attila, who took this as a marriage offer and demanded half the Western empire as dowry. Refused, he attacked Gaul but was defeated (451) by the Romans. He invaded (452) Italy but spared Rome, apparently because of a shortage of supplies and an outbreak of pestilence in his army. Although feared for his savagery, he was a just ruler. Attlee, Clement Richard, 1st Earl Attlee, Clement Richard, 1st Earl, 1883-1967, British statesman. A lawyer and social worker, he became leader of the Labour party in 1935. During World War II he served in Winston CHURCHILL'S coalition cabinet (1940-45), and in 1945 became prime minister. His government nationalized the Bank of England and much of British industry; enacted social reforms, including the National Health Service; and granted independence to Burma, India, Pakistan, Ceylon, and Palestine. Attlee left office in 1951. He led the opposition until 1955, when he received the title Earl Attlee. Atwood, Margaret Atwood, Margaret, 1939-, Canadian poet and novelist. Her powerful novels treat the destructiveness of human relations. They include The Edible Woman (1969), Surfacing (1972), Bodily Harm (1981), and The Handmaid's Tale (1986). Among her volumes of poetry is Selected Poems (1978). Au Au, chemical symbol of the element GOLD. Aubrey, John Aubrey, John, 1626-97, English antiquarian and writer. Friendly with many famous people, he left copious letters and memoranda. His most celebrated work, Lives of Eminent Men, was published in 1813. Only his Miscellanies (1696) appeared in his lifetime. Auckland Auckland, city (1987 pop. 889,200), NW North Island, New Zealand, on an isthmus between the Pacific Ocean and the Tasman Sea. It is the country's largest city and its chief port, industrial center, and naval base. Frozen meats and dairy products are important exports. Industries include shipbuilding, food processing, oil refining, and the manufacture of automobiles and chemicals. Auckland was founded in 1840 and was the capital of New Zealand until replaced (1865) by WELLINGTON. The Univ. of Auckland is among the city's educational institutions. Auden, W(ystan) H(ugh) Auden, W(ystan) H(ugh), 1907-73, Anglo-American poet, a major 20th-cent. literary figure. In the 1930s he was associated with Spender, MACNEICE, and ISHERWOOD; with the last he wrote the verse plays The Dog Beneath the Skin (1935), The Ascent of F6 (1936), and On the Frontier (1938). Some of Auden's most original poetry appeared in the early 1930s. Later volumes, ranging in subject from politics to psychology to Christianity, include The Double Man (1941), Collected Poetry (1945), The Age of Anxiety (1947; Pulitzer), Nones (1951), and About the House (1965). He also wrote critical essays and opera librettos. A U.S. resident from 1939 and citizen from 1946, Auden divided his last years among England, Italy, Austria, and New York. audiovisual instruction audiovisual instruction, the use of nonverbal as well as verbal materials, particularly pictures and sounds, to promote learning. Audiovisual devices, formerly limited to static materials such as maps, graphs, and textbook illustrations, were used successfully as instructional tools by the U.S. armed forces during World War II. As technology developed, audiovisual instruction began to include films, photographs, sound and video recordings, and television, as well as PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION provided through computers and other types of teaching machines. Instructional television is widely used in schools, industry, and the military; with the use of cable television and electronic audio and video equipment, it can be available in the home as well. auditing auditing: see under ACCOUNTING. Audubon, John James Audubon, John James, 1785-1851, American ornithologist; b. Les Cayes, Santo Domingo (now Haiti). After arriving in the U.S. in 1803, he began the extensive ornithological observations that would lead to the publication of his bird drawings and paintings as The Birds of America (1827-38). The accompanying text, called the Ornithological Biography (5 vol., 1831-39), was written in collaboration with the Scottish naturalist William MacGillivray. Audubon's drawings and paintings remain one of the great achievements of American intellectual history. Aue, Hartmann von Aue, Hartmann von: see HARTMANN VON AUE. August August: see MONTH. Augusta Augusta. 1 City (1986 est. pop. 45,440), seat of Richmond co., E Ga., on the Savannah R.; inc. 1798. The trade center for a large area of Georgia and South Carolina, it has diversified industries, including textiles and paper. A river trading port as early as 1717, it grew with tobacco and cotton trade. During the CIVIL WAR it housed the chief Confederate powder works. The city, a popular resort, is known for its golf tournaments and many fine old houses. 2 City (1986 est. pop. 20,640), state capital and seat of Kennebec co., SW Me., on the Kennebec R.; inc. as a city 1849. Shoes, fabrics, and paper products are among its manufactures. The Plymouth Company established a trading post on the site in 1628; Fort Western was built in 1754. In 1837 manufacturing began with the building of a dam. The Capitol building (1829) was designed by Charles BULFINCH and later enlarged. Augustine, Saint Augustine, Saint, 354-430, Doctor of the Church, bishop of Hippo (near present-day Annaba, Algeria); b. near Hippo. Brought up as a Christian by his mother, St. Monica, Augustine gave up his religion while at school in Carthage, then converted to MANICHAEISM. He taught rhetoric in Rome (after 376) and Milan (after 384). In Milan he was drawn to the teachings of St. AMBROSE and to NEOPLATONISM, and finally embraced Christianity, returning (387) to a monastic life in Tagaste. In 391 he was ordained a priest in Hippo, where he remained for the rest of his life, serving as bishop from 396. St. Augustine's influence on Christianity was immense, and theologians, both Roman Catholic and Protestant, look upon him as the founder of theology. His polemics against Manichaeism, Donatism, and Pelagianism are well known, and his autobiographical Confessions is a classic of Christian mysticism. On the Trinity systematized Christian doctrine, and The City of God, his monumental defense of Christianity against paganism, is famous for its Christian view of history. Feast: Aug. 28. Augustine of Canterbury, Saint Augustine of Canterbury, Saint, d. c.605, Italian missionary, called the Apostle of the English, first archbishop of Canterbury (from 601). A BENEDICTINE, he was sent by Pope GREGORY I to England, where he converted King AETHELBERT and introduced Roman monastic practices. Feast: May 27 (May 26 in England and Wales). Augustus Augustus, 63 BC-AD 14, first Roman emperor; a grandnephew of Julius CAESAR. Born Caius Octavius, he became on adoption by the Julian gens (44 BC) Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus (Octavian); Augustus was a title of honor granted (27 BC) by the senate. Caesar made the boy his heir without his knowledge, and after Caesar was killed (44 BC), Octavian became dominant at Rome. He made an alliance with ANTONY and Lepidus (d. 13 BC; see LEPIDUS, family) known as the Second Triumvirate and with Antony defeated the army of Marcus Junius Brutus (see BRUTUS, family) and Caius Cassius Longinus (see CASSIUS, family) at Philippi (42 BC). Octavian's forces next defeated POMPEY at Mylae (36 BC). After the naval victory at Actium (31 BC) over Antony and CLEOPATRA, Octavian controlled all of the Roman territories. The senate in 29 BC made him imperator [Lat.,=commander; from it is derived emperor] and in 27 BC augustus [august, reverend]. The month Sextilis was renamed Augustus (August) in his honor. He enacted many reforms in Rome and in the provinces and tried to hold the Roman borders set by Caesar. His attempt to make a buffer state in German territory led to the revolt of Arminius, in which a Roman army was destroyed. Augustus built ROMAN ROADS, beautified Rome, and was munificent to arts and letters. He was a patron of VERGIL, OVID, LIVY, and HORACE. He also established the concept of the Pax Romana [Roman peace]. He was succeeded by his stepson TIBERIUS. Augustus Augustus, Polish kings. Augustus II, 1670-1733, was king of POLAND (1697-1733) and, as Frederick Augustus I, elector of Saxony (1694-1733). He succeeded John III as king by becoming a Catholic and by giving the nobility unprecedented powers. In 1700 he involved Poland in the NORTHERN WAR. He was highly unpopular, and his death began the War of the POLISH SUCCESSION. One of its results was that his son, Augustus III, 1696-1763, succeeded him as king of Poland (1735-63). He was also, as Frederick Augustus II, elector of Saxony (1733-63). One of the unsuccessful claimants of the Hapsburg lands, he opposed Maria Theresa in the War of the AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION. auk auk, swimming and diving BIRD of the family Alcidae, which includes the PUFFIN and guillemot. Clumsy on land, auks seldom leave the water except to nest; they return to the same nesting site every year. The largest species, the flightless great auk (Pinguinus impennis), was hunted for its flesh, feathers, and oil; it became extinct c.1844. Aurangzeb Aurangzebor Aurangzib, 1618-1707, Mogul emperor of INDIA (1658-1707), son and successor of SHAH JAHAN. He ascended the throne after defeating his three brothers and imprisoning his father. The MOGUL Empire reached its greatest extent under him, but he was fanatically devoted to Islam and persecuted the Hindus (see HINDUISM) and SIKHS, thus fatally weakening Mogul control over the Indian population. Aurelian Aurelian (Lucius Domitius Aurelianus), c.212-275, Roman emperor (270-75). He succeeded Claudius II and defended the empire against the barbarians and ambitious rulers (e.g., Zenobia of Palmyra). One of Rome's greatest emperors, he regained Britain, Gaul, Spain, Egypt, Syria, and Mesopotamia and revived the glory of Rome. He was murdered, and Marcus Claudius Tacitus succeeded him. Auriol, Vincent Auriol, Vincent, 1884-1966, French statesman, first president (1947-54) of the Fourth Republic. A Socialist until 1959, he was finance minister (1936-37) under Leon BLUM and a member of the provisional government (1945). aurochs aurochs: see CATTLE. Aurora Aurora, city (1986 est. pop. 217,090), N central Colo., a residential suburb of DENVER; inc. 1903. It is the fast-growing trade center for a large livestock and farming area. Electrical products, aircraft parts, and oil-field equipment are manufactured. Tourism, construction, and nearby military bases are important to the local economy. aurora aurora, luminous display of various forms and colors in the night sky. The aurora borealis (northern lights) and aurora australis (southern lights) are usually visible at latitudes within, respectively, the Arctic Circle and Antarctic Circle, but they are sometimes seen in middle latitudes. Both are seen most frequently at the time of the equinoxes and at times of great sunspot activity. Auroras occur at altitudes of 35 to 600 mi (56 to 970 km) and are thought to be caused by high-speed particles from the sun excited to luminosity after colliding with air molecules. Auschwitz Auschwitz, now Oswiecim, Poland: see CONCENTRATION CAMPS. Ausgleich Ausgleich: see AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY. Ausonius Ausonius (Decimus Magnus Ausonius), c.310-c.395, Latin poet; b. Bordeaux. His travel verses (Mosella), family sketches (Parentalia), and Order of Noble Cities, on 20 Roman cities, give portraits of people and places. Austen, Jane Austen, Jane, 1775-1817, English novelist. She spent her first 25 years at her father's Hampshire vicarage, writing novels published much later. Northanger Abbey, written early, appeared posthumously (with Persuasion) in 1818. Published in her lifetime were Sense and Sensibility (1811), Pride and Prejudice (1813), Mansfield Park (1814), and Emma (1816), comedies of manners, depicting the self-contained world of the English counties. Providing husbands for marriageable daughters is a central theme. Austen's work is noted for polished irony, moral firmness, and vivid characterization. She received little notice during her life, but today she is regarded as one of the masters of the English novel. Austerlitz Austerlitz, Czech Slavkov u Brna, town, S Czechoslovakia, in Moravia. An agricultural center with sugar refineries and cotton mills, it was a seat of the ANABAPTISTS from 1528. At Austerlitz, NAPOLEON I won (Dec. 2, 1805) his greatest victory by defeating the Russian and Austrian armies. The town has an 18th-cent. castle and a 13th-cent. church. Austin, Stephen Fuller Austin, Stephen Fuller, 1793-1836, Texas colonizer, known as the Father of Texas; b. Wythe co., Va. He took up the colonizing plans of his father, Moses Austin, 1761-1828, and began (1822) planting settlements in Texas between the Brazos and Colorado rivers. He later forwarded the Texas Revolution (1836) and was briefly secretary of state of the Republic of Texas. Austin Austin, city (1986 est. pop. 466,550), state capital and seat of Travis co., S central Tex., on the Colorado R.; inc. 1839. It is the commercial heart of a ranching, poultry, dairy, cotton, and grain area. Hydroelectric development (beginning in the 1930s) has spurred enormous industrial growth; the city now manufactures a wide variety of products, and is a center for electronic and scientific research. The Univ. of Texas' main campus is in Austin. State capital since 1870, it was capital (1839-42) of the Texas Republic. Australasia Australasia, islands of the South Pacific, including AUSTRALIA, NEW ZEALAND, NEW GUINEA, and adjacent islands. The term sometimes includes all of OCEANIA. Australia Australia, smallest continent, c.2,400 mi (3,860 km) east to west and c.2,000 mi (3,220 km) north to south, only continent occupied by a single nation, the Commonwealth of Australia (1987 est. pop. 16,249,000), 2,967,877 sq mi (7,686,810 sq km). Subdivisions of the nation include the offshore island state of TASMANIA; the five mainland states of QUEENSLAND, NEW SOUTH WALES, VICTORIA, SOUTH AUSTRALIA, and WESTERN AUSTRALIA; the NORTHERN TERRITORY; and the AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY, containing CANBERRA, the federal capital. External territories include CHRISTMAS ISLAND, the COCOS (KEELING) ISLANDS, the CORAL SEA ISLANDS, NORFOLK ISLAND, Heard and McDonald islands, and the Australian Antarctic Territory. See map in separate section. Geography Australia is the flattest and driest of the continents, as well as the oldest and most isolated. Elevations range from 39 ft (12 m) below sea level at Lake EYRE, the lowest point, to a high point of 7,316 ft (2,230 m) at Mt. KOSCIUSKO, in the AUSTRALIAN ALPS near the New South Wales-Victoria border; much of the ancient western plateau is under 2,000 ft (610 m). Two thirds of the continent is either desert or semiarid. Humid climates are restricted to eastern coastal areas and to Tasmania. Alternating wet winters (June-August) and dry summers (November-March) occur in small areas of South Australia and Western Australia, and dry winters and wet summers alternate along the tropical northeastern coast. The MURRAY R. and its major tributaries, the DARLING and MURRUMBIDGEE, form the principal river system. Plant and animal life is distinctive, including many species, such as the giant EUCALYPTUS, KOALA, KANGAROO, bauxite, and a significant supplier of iron ore, wheat, meat, dairy products, sugar, and fruit. Manufacturing is highly developed and concentrated mainly in the coastal regions of Victoria and New South Wales. Iron, steel, automobiles, aircraft, electrical equipment and appliances, chemicals, and textiles are leading manufactures. SYDNEY, MELBOURNE, BRISBANE, ADELAIDE, and NEWCASTLE, all located along the southeastern coast, are the largest commercial and industrial centers. New South Wales and Victoria are the most populous states. Most Australians are of British ancestry. The indigenous population, the Australian aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders, totaled 159,897 in 1981. Immigration contributes significantly to population growth; in 1984 slightly more than 20% of the population had been born in Australia. Racially discriminatory immigration policies were officially ended in 1973, and recent years have seen increased Asian immigration. History and Government The aborigines are thought to have come from Southeast Asia c.20,000 years ago. The area was first visited by Europeans in the 17th cent. but attracted little interest until Capt. James COOK sailed (1770) into BOTANY BAY and claimed the entire eastern coast for Great Britain. The first settlement, a penal colony for "transported" British convicts, was established in 1788 where Sydney now stands. By the middle of the 19th cent. free colonization had replaced the old penal settlements, and the colonies of Tasmania (1825), Western Australia (1829), South Australia (1834), Victoria (1851), and Queensland (1859) had been established. Wool and wheat were early exports, and gold rushes in 1851 and 1892 attracted new settlers. In 1901 the colonies were federated as states of the Commonwealth of Australia, and in 1927 the seat of government was transferred from Melbourne to Canberra. Australia fought on the side of Britain in both world wars. In WORLD WAR II the Japanese bombed or shelled DARWIN, Port Jackson, and Newcastle, and the Allied victory in the battle of the CORAL SEA (1942) probably averted an invasion of Australia. Australia joined regional defense pacts after the war and sent troops to aid the U.S. in the VIETNAM WAR. The nation has a popularly elected bicameral parliament. Executive power rests with the governor general (representing the crown) and a cabinet and prime minister. British intervention in Australian affairs was formally abolished in 1986. Australian Alps Australian Alps, mountain chain, SE Australia, forming the southern part of the EASTERN HIGHLANDS. It reaches a high point of 7,316 ft (2,230 m) at Mt. KOSCIUSKO, the highest peak in Australia. Australian Ballet Australian Ballet, founded in Melbourne (1962). It drew on the tradition established (1940) by Edouard Borovansky of the Ballets Russes (see DIAGHILEV) and is linked to the ROYAL BALLET in style and repertoire. Performances include a film version (1973) of Rudolf NUREYEV'S Don Quixote. Australian Capital Territory Australian Capital Territory (1983 pop. 240,100), 939 sq mi (2,432 sq km), SE Australia, an enclave within NEW SOUTH WALES containing CANBERRA, the capital of Australia. Most of it was ceded to the federal government by New South Wales in 1911 for use as the future capital; a small section on the east coast, at Jervis Bay, was ceded for use as a port in 1915. The territory is administered by the federal government and has an 18-member elected House of Assembly with advisory responsibilities. Australian languages Australian languages, aboriginal languages spoken by perhaps 130,000 persons on the continent of Australia. These languages, estimated at 100 to 600 in number, do not seem to be related to any other linguistic family and have no writing of their own. Many are already or nearly extinct. Australopithecus Australopithecus: see MAN, PREHISTORIC. Austria Austria, Ger. Osterreich, officially Republic of Austria, federal republic (1987 est. pop. 7,573,000), 32,374 sq mi (83,849 sq km), central Europe; bordered by Yugoslavia and Italy (S), Switzerland and Liechtenstein (W), West Germany and Czechoslovakia (N), and Hungary (E). VIENNA is the capital; principal cities include SALZBURG, INNSBRUCK, GRAZ, and LINZ. The ALPS traverse Austria from west to east and occupy three fourths of the country; the highest peak is the Grossglockner (12,460 ft/3,798 m). Austria is drained by the DANUBE R. and its tributaries. Forestry, cattle-raising, and dairying are the main sources of livelihood in the alpine provinces. In the rest of the country tillage agriculture predominates; the chief crops are potatoes, sugar beets, barley, wheat, rye, and oats. Manufacturing (steel, chemicals, foodstuffs, textiles, and machinery) and mining (graphite, iron, magnesium, and lignite) employ nearly half of the labor force. Tourism is very important. Divided into nine provinces, Austria has a mixed presidential-parliamentary form of government. The population is predominantly German-speaking and Roman Catholic. History Located at the crossroads of Europe, Austria has been from earliest times a thoroughfare and a battleground. Settled by Celts, the area was conquered (15 BC-AD 10) by Rome; overrun (from the 5th cent.) by Huns, Goths, Lombards, and Bavarians; conquered (788) by CHARLEMAGNE; taken (after 814) by the Moravians (see MORAVIA) and then the MAGYARS; and reconquered (955) by Holy Roman Emperor OTTO I, who bestowed it (976) on the house of Babenberg. Acquired in 1251 by Ottocar II of BOHEMIA, it was claimed (1282) by RUDOLF I of Hapsburg, king of the Germans, and from that time until its fall in 1918, Austrian history is that of the house of HAPSBURG. (See AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE; AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY; AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR; CONGRESS OF VIENNA; FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS; GERMAN CONFEDERATION; HOLY ALLIANCE; HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE; METTERNICH SEVEN YEARS WAR; THIRTY YEARS WAR.) Following the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy at the end of WORLD WAR I, German Austria was proclaimed (1918) a republic. The Treaty of Saint-Germain (1919), which fixed its boundaries, reduced it to a small country of 7 million inhabitants, and deprived it of its raw materials, food, and markets. Unemployment, bankruptcy, and political unrest followed, and in 1934 a corporative totalitarian regime was established under Engelbert DOLLFUSS (who was assassinated) and his successor, Kurt von SCHUSCHNIGG. The nation became part of the German Third Reich in 1938, when it was occupied by German troops. After its capture (1945) by U.S. and Soviet troops, Austria was restored as a republic. Divided into zones, it was occupied by the Allies until 1955, when a peace treaty declared it a sovereign and neutral power. By the 1960s the country enjoyed unprecedented prosperity. Politically, a nearly equal balance of power between conservatives and socialists resulted in a succession of coalition governments until 1966, when the conservative People's party won a clear majority. The party was ousted in the 1970 elections by the Socialists, who, under Chancellor Bruno KREISKY, held power into the Austrian Succession, War of the Austrian Succession, War of the, 1740-48, European war precipitated by the succession of MARIA THERESA to the Hapsburg lands by virtue of the PRAGMATIC SANCTION. She was challenged by the elector of Bavaria (who became Emperor CHARLES VII in 1742), PHILIP V of Spain, and AUGUSTUS III of Poland. FREDERICK II of Prussia, claiming part of Silesia, opened hostilities by invading that region. Prussia was joined by France, Spain, Bavaria, and Saxony. After being promised its Silesian claim, Prussia made a separate peace in 1742. Saxony went over to Austria in 1743, and England (at war with Spain), Holland, and Sardinia became Austrian allies. Fearing Maria Theresa's growing power, Prussia reentered the war in 1744. Maria Theresa's husband was elected emperor, as FRANCIS I, in 1745, on the death of Charles VII. France defeated the English at Fontenoy, and GEORGE II sued for peace. The war dragged on in other areas, including North America (see FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS). In 1748 the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ended the war. Maria Theresa's throne was safe, but Prussia had emerged as a major European power. Austro-Hungarian Monarchy Austro-Hungarian Monarchy or Dual Monarchy,the HAPSBURG empire from the constitutional compromise (Ausgleich) of 1867 until its fall in 1918. The empire was divided into two states. Cisleithania (lands W of the Leitha River) comprised Austria proper, Bohemia, Moravia, Austrian Silesia, Slovenia, and Austrian Poland. Transleithania included Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, and part of Dalmatia. The Hapsburg monarch ruled Cisleithania as emperor of Austria and ruled Transleithania as king of Hungary. Both states elected separate parliaments for internal affairs and had independent ministries. A common cabinet dealt with foreign affairs, common defense, and common finances. The monarchy was weakened by this ethnic diversity. Czech, Italian, Slavic, and Rumanian minorities desired autonomy and later sought to break free of the empire. Archduke FRANCIS FERDINAND apparently had a plan for a South Slavic partner in the monarchy, but his assassination (1914) cut short this hope and precipitated WORLD WAR I. In foreign affairs Austria-Hungary allied (1879) with Germany (see TRIPLE ALLIANCE AND TRIPLE ENTENTE) and in 1908 angered SERBIA by annexing BOSNIA AND HERCEGOVINA. The empire was dissolved at the end of World War I, and Emperor CHARLES I abdicated (1918). The Treaty of VERSAILLES and other treaties established the boundaries of the successor states. Austronesian Austronesian, name sometimes used for the Malayo-Polynesian languages. See LANGUAGE. Austro-Prussian War Austro-Prussian War or Seven Weeks War,June 15-Aug. 23, 1866, between Austria (seconded by the various German states) and Prussia (allied with Italy). It was provoked by BISMARCK as a way of expelling Austria from the GERMAN CONFEDERATION, thereby assuring Prussian hegemony there. The pretext was a dispute between Prussia and Austria over the administration of SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN. Prussia quickly overran Holstein and the German states allied with Austria, and was victorious in Bohemia and Italy. The Treaty of Prague ended the war. Austria was excluded from German affairs and forced to cede Venetia to Italy. Prussia demanded no territory from Austria but annexed Hanover, Hesse, Nassau, and Frankfurt, laying the groundwork for the establishment (1871) of the German empire. auteur auteur, a term in film criticism. It is applied to a director who so dominates the film-making process that it is appropriate to call the director the auteur, or author, of the movie. authentic modes authentic modes: see MODE, in music. autism autism, in psychology, a condition-characterized by withdrawal, fantasies, delusions, and hallucinations-stemming from an inability to relate to and perceive the environment realistically. The symptoms of infantile autism include delay in the acquisition of speech, resistance to change of any kind, and obsessive and stereotyped body movements. Treatment is still experimental, and relatively few autistic children show significant remission of symptoms. autoimmune disease autoimmune disease, general term for several disorders in which the body produces antibodies (see IMMUNITY) against its own substances, resulting in tissue injury. For example, in systemic lupus erythematosus, individuals develop antibodies to their own nucleic acids and cell structures, causing dysfunction of many organs, including the heart, kidneys, and joints. Autoimmune diseases are treated by a variety of nonspecific IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE DRUGS and STEROIDS. automation automation, automatic operation and control of machinery or processes by devices that make and execute decisions without human intervention. Such devices use self-correcting control systems that employ feedback; i.e., they use part of their output to control their input. Because of their ability to store, select, record, and present data, COMPUTERS are widely used to direct automated systems. See also DATA PROCESSING; ROBOTICS. automobile automobile, self-propelled vehicle used for travel on land. The fundamental structure of the automobile consists of seven basic systems: the engine, usually mounted in front and driving either the two front or the two back wheels; the fuel system, using a CARBURETOR to produce the optimal combustible mixture of fuel and air; the electrical system, including a battery that provides a power source to the ignition; the cooling, steering and suspension, and BRAKE systems; and the TRANSMISSION, which transmits power from the engine crankshaft to the wheels by means of a series of gears. Evolving from earlier experiments with steam-powered vehicles, models using the gasoline-fueled INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE were first developed by the German engineers Karl BENZ (1885) and Gottlieb DAIMLER (1886). U.S. leadership in automobile production began with Henry FORD'S founding (1903) of the Ford Motor Co., its production (1908) of the inexpensive Model T, and its development of assembly-line techniques. General Motors, Ford's principal competitor, became the world's largest automobile manufacturer in the 1920s, and U.S. dominance of the field continued until the 1970s, when it was challenged by growing sales of Japanese and German cars. See also AUTOMOBILE RACING; DIESEL ENGINE; POLLUTION; SMOG. automobile racing automobile racing, sport in which high-speed, specially constructed automobiles are raced on outdoor or indoor courses. The five basic types of competition are the grand prix, a series of races in several countries that leads to the designation of a world-champion driver; stock car, using standard cars with special equipment; midget car; sports car; and drag racing, involving acceleration tests over 1/4-mi. (.4025-km) tracks. The sport originated in France in 1894. The best-known U.S. race is the Indianapolis 500, first held in 1911. autumnal equinox autumnal equinox: see EQUINOX. Averroes Averroes, Arabic Ibn Rushd, 1126-98, Spanish-Arabian philosopher. His greatest work, his commentaries on ARISTOTLE, remained influential in the West well into the Renaissance. Averroes held that the domains of faith and reason did not conflict, and that philosophic truth derives from reason rather than faith (see SCHOLASTICISM). In this he was opposed by St. THOMAS AQUINAS. Avery, Milton Avery, Milton, 1893-1965, American painter; b. Altmar, N.Y. A master colorist in the tradition of MATISSE, he is known for figurative works that display bold massing of forms and for landscapes that verge on complete abstraction, e.g., Dunes and Sea II (1960; Whitney Mus., N.Y.C.). Avestan Avestan, language belonging to the Iranian group of the Indo-Iranian subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See LANGUAGE. aviation aviation, operation of heavier-than-air aircraft and related activities. Aviation can be divided into military aviation (see AIRCRAFT CARRIER; AIR FORCE), air transport (commercial airline operations), and general aviation (agricultural, business, charter, instructional, and pleasure flying). The first successful flights of a motor-powered airplane carrying a human were made by Orville and Wilbur WRIGHT near Kitty Hawk, N.C. on Dec. 17, 1903. The first successful SEAPLANE was constructed in 1911-12. During the early 1900s, aviators demonstrated the feasibility of air travel to various parts of the world. World War I provided additional motivation for aviation research and development. The availability of cheap, surplus aircraft in the U.S. after the war encouraged barnstorming and stunt-flying; the result was a more airplane-conscious public. Private companies in America contracted the carrying of airmail after 1925. Technological improvements in WIND TUNNEL testing, engine and airframe design, and maintenance equipment combined in the 1930s to provide faster, larger, and more durable airplanes. The transportation of passengers became profitable, and routes were extended to include several foreign countries. Transpacific airmail service began in 1934, and was soon followed by a similar service for passengers. In 1939 the first transatlantic service for mail and passengers was inaugurated. The application of JET PROPULSION to commercial air transportation began in 1952. The first supersonic transports (SST) for passenger service were put into service during the mid-1970s. See also AIRSHIP; BALLOON; GLIDER; HELICOPTER. Avicenna Avicenna, Arabic Ibn Sina, 980-1037, Persian philosopher and physician, the most renowned philosopher of medieval Islam. His interpretation of ARISTOTLE followed that of the NEOPLATONISTS. Avicenna's Canon of Medicine, a classic text, was particularly influential from 1100 to 1500. Avignon Avignon, city (1982 pop. 91,474), capital of Vaucluse dept., SE France, on the Rhone R. It has a wine trade and many manufactures. The papal see during the Babylonian Captivity (1309-78), it was later (1378-1408) the residence of several antipopes (see PAPACY and SCHISM, GREAT). Avignon was joined to France after a plebiscite (1791). Medieval ramparts and the papal palace are highlights of the city. avionics avionics, the electronics used for the navigation and running of an airplane, missile, or space ship. Avionics are only those systems carried aboard the craft. They may include RADAR, guidance systems, and stabilization systems. The term also refers to the industry of producing avionic components, as well as the research and development of such systems. avocado avocado, tropical American broad-leaved evergreen tree (genus Persea) of the LAUREL family, and its pear-shaped fruit. The fruit has a tough, inedible, usually dark green skin and an oily flesh surrounding a large, hard seed. The flesh is eaten fresh, chiefly in salads. Avogadro, Amadeo, conte di Quaregna Avogadro, Amadeo, conte di Quaregna, 1776-1856, Italian physicist. In 1811 he advanced the hypothesis (since known as Avogadro's law) that equal volumes of gases under identical conditions of pressure and temperature contain the same number of molecules. This hypothesis led to the determination by other physicists of the value of Avogadro's number, i.e., the number of molecules in one MOLE, or gram-molecular weight, of any gas. Avogadro's number Avogadro's number: see MOLE, in chemistry. avoirdupois weights avoirdupois weights: see ENGLISH UNITS OF MEASUREMENT; WEIGHTS AND MEASURES,. Awami League Awami League, political party in PAKISTAN and BANGLADESH. Founded in 1949, it became the vehicle for the political interests of East Pakistan. When East Pakistan won independence (1971) as Bangladesh, the league became the new nation's dominant political party. However, in 1981 the National party defeated the league in national elections. axiom axiom, in MATHEMATICS and LOGIC, general statement accepted without proof as the basis for logically deducing other statements (THEOREMS). Examples of axioms used widely in mathematics are those related to equality (e.g., "If equals are added to equals, the sums are equal") and those related to operations (e.g., the ASSOCIATIVE LAW). A postulate, like an axiom, is a statement that is accepted without proof; it deals, however, with specific subject matter (e.g., properties of geometrical figures), not general statements. Axis Axis, 1936-45, coalition of countries in WORLD WAR II headed by Germany, Italy, and Japan. They were opposed, and defeated, by the Allies, headed by the United States, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and China. Ayacucho Ayacucho, city (1981 pop. 69,533), capital of Ayacucho dept., S central Peru. It is a commercial and tourist center in a region of rich gold, silver, and nickel mines. On the nearby plains of Ayacucho, Antonio Jose de SUCRE won (1824) a military victory that secured Peru's independence from Spain and assured the liberation of South America. Ayala, Ramon Perez de Ayala, Ramon Perez de: see PEREZ DE AYALA, RAMON. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini: see KHOMEINI, AYATOLLAH RUHOLLAH. Ayckbourn, Alan Ayckbourn, Alan, 1939-, English playwright. He is known for such ingenious antibourgeois FARCES as How the Other Half Loves (1970); Absurd Person Singular (1973); The Norman Conquests (1974), a trilogy; and Bedroom Farce (1975). Aymara Aymara, SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS of the Lake TITICACA basin in Peru and Bolivia. Their language is classified as a separate unit (see AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES). Believed to be the originators of the great culture seen in the ruins of TIAHUANACO, they were subjugated by the INCA (15th cent.) and by the Spanish (16th cent.) but retained their pastoral civilization and patrilineal society. Still dominant in the region today, the Aymara have adopted some aspects of Spanish culture and Christian belief. Ayub Khan, Muhammad Ayub Khan, Muhammad, 1907-74, president (1958-69) of PAKISTAN. After 1951 he was commander of the Pakistani armed forces, and in 1958 he led a military coup and became president. Although he inaugurated far-reaching reforms and a new constitution, unrest grew; despite his reelection in 1965, he bowed to pressure and resigned in 1969. azalea azalea, shrubs (genus Rhododendron) of the HEATH family, distinguished by typically deciduous leaves and large clusters of pink, red, orange, yellow, purple, or white flowers. Most grow in damp acid soils of hills and mountains, and are native to North America and Asia. Native American azaleas include the flame azalea (R. calendulacea) and the fragrant white azalea (R. viscosa), also called swamp honeysuckle. Most of the brilliantly flowered garden varieties are from China and Japan. Azana, Manuel Azana, Manuel, 1880-1940, president of Spain (1936-39). A leader of the republican revolution of 1930, he served as premier (1931-33) in the first republic. He headed the Loyalist government in the SPANISH CIVIL WAR but held little real power. Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republicor Azerbaidzhan, constituent republic (1987 est. pop. 6,811,000), 33,428 sq mi (86,579 sq km), SE European USSR, in Transcaucasia; capital: BAKU. It is bounded by the Dagestan Republic (N); Iran (S), where the Araks R. divides it from Iranian Azerbaijan; the Caspian Sea (E); and the Armenian Republic (W). The area is rich in oil and other minerals. Manufactures include cement and steel. Grapes, cotton, and tobacco are major crops. In addition to the Turkic-speaking Shiite Muslim Azerbaijani majority, there are Russian, Armenian, and other minorities. Under Persian and Mongol rule from ancient times, the region was acquired by Russia from Persia between 1813 and 1828. It became a Soviet republic in 1920. azidothymide azidothymide: see AZT. azimuth azimuth: see ASTRONOMICAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS. Azoic time Azoic time: see GEOLOGIC ERA. Azores Azores, island group belonging to Portugal (1986 est. pop. 253,500), 905 sq mi (2,344 sq km), located in the Atlantic Ocean, c.900 mi (1,448 km) west of mainland Portugal. The nine main islands are Sao Miguel (the largest) and Santa Maria in the southeast; Terceira, Pico, Fayal, Sao Jorge, and Graciosa in the center; and Flores and Corvo in the northwest. Ponta Delgado, on Sao Miguel, is the largest city. The islands are divided into three districts named after their capitals: Ponta Delgado, Angra do Heroismo (on Terceira), and Horta (on Fayal). Azorin Azorin: see MARTINEZ RUIZ, JOSE. AZT AZT or azidothymide,a drug used to treat AIDS. Although it does not cure AIDS, it inhibits the virus's ability to reproduce, prolonging the lives of most patients. Among its possible adverse effects are anemia, dementia, and blindness. Aztec Aztec, MIDDLE AMERICAN INDIANS dominating central Mexico at the time of the Spanish conquest (16th cent.), with a Nahuatlan language of the Uto-Aztecan stock (see AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES). Until the founding of their capital, Tenochtitlan (c.1325), the Aztec were a poor nomadic tribe in the valley of Mexico. In the 15th cent. they became powerful, subjugating the Huastec to the north and the MIXTEC and ZAPOTEC to the south, and achieving a composite civilization based on a TOLTEC and Mixteca-Puebla heritage. Engineering, architecture, art, mathematics, astronomy, sculpture, weaving, metalwork, music, and picture writing were highly developed; agriculture and trade flourished. The nobility, priesthood, military, and merchant castes predominated. War captives were sacrificed to the many Aztec gods, including the god of war, Huitzilopochti. In 1519, when CORTES arrived, many subject peoples willingly joined the Spanish against the Aztecs. Cortes captured MONTEZUMA, who was subsequently murdered, and razed Tenochtitlan. B B, chemical symbol of the element BORON. Ba Ba, chemical symbol of the element BARIUM. Baade, Walter Baade, Walter, 1893-1960, German-American astronomer. He presented evidence for the existence of two different stellar populations of older and newer stars. Baade knew that, at the then-accepted distance of the Andromeda galaxy, cluster-type variable stars should have appeared on photographs that he took with the 200-in. (5.08-m) telescope at Palomar Observatory. Because they did not, he correctly reasoned (1952) that the distances to this galaxy and other extragalactic systems must be doubled. Baal Baal, plural Baalim [Semitic,=possessor], the OLD TESTAMENT term for the deity or deities of CANAAN. First applied to local gods, it was later the name of the chief deity. His cult practiced holy PROSTITUTION and child sacrifice. In Israel it was denounced by Hebrew Prophets. The name is synonymous with evil, hence Beelzebub (see SATAN). Baal-Shem-Tov Baal-Shem-Tov [Heb.,=master of the good name, i.e., the name of God,] c.1698-1760, Jewish founder of modern HASIDISM; b. Poland as Israel ben Eliezer. He was called Baal-Shem-Tov because of his reputation as a miracle healer. Central to his teachings is the notion that one must worship God in all activities-and with joy. From his large circle of followers developed communities of modern HASIDIM. Babbage, Charles Babbage, Charles, 1792-1871, English mathematician and inventor, famous for his attempts to develop a mechanical computational aid he called the "analytical engine." Although it was never constructed and was decimal rather than binary in conception, it clearly anticipated the modern digital COMPUTER. A scientist with extremely broad interests, Babbage probed the roles of learned societies and government in advancing science, and wrote on mass production and on what is now called operational research. Babbitt, Irving Babbitt, Irving, 1865-1933, American scholar; b. Dayton, Ohio. A professor of French literature at Harvard (1912-33), he helped initiate New Humanism, a movement based on classical moderation. His works include The New Laokoon (1910) and On Being Creative (1932). Babbitt, Milton Babbitt, Milton, 1916-, American composer; b. Philadelphia. His "total serialization" attempts to apply 12-tone principles to all the elements of composition: dynamics, timbre, and rhythm, as well as melody and harmony (see SERIAL MUSIC; TWELVE-TONE MUSIC). In 1959 he became director of the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center (N.Y.C.). Babel, Isaac Emmanuelovich Babel, Isaac Emmanuelovich, 1894-1941, Russian writer. A brilliant stylist, he won fame with Odessa Tales (1923-24), depicting Jewish ghetto life, and Red Cavalry (1926), which drew on his Civil War experiences. His also wrote the novel Benia Krik (1927) and the play Sunset (1928). He was arrested in 1939 and died in a labor camp. Babel Babel, in the BIBLE, Babylonian city where NOAH'S descendants (who spoke one language) tried to build a tower reaching to heaven. For this presumption they lost the ability to speak intelligibly to each other. Gen. 11.1-9. Bab el Mandeb Bab el Mandeb, strategic strait between Arabia and NE Africa, 17 mi (27 km) wide, connecting the RED SEA with the Gulf of ADEN. It is a vital link in the MEDITERRANEAN SEA-SUEZ CANAL-INDIAN OCEAN sea lane. Babeuf, Francois Noel Babeuf, Francois Noel, 1760-97, French revolutionary activist. In 1794 he founded a political journal that argued for economic and political equality. Imprisoned in 1795, he grew surer of his communist views. He formed a secret society called the Conspiracy of Equals and plotted to overthrow the government of the DIRECTORY. The plot was discovered, and Babeuf was executed. Babington, Anthony Babington, Anthony, 1561-86, English conspirator. He was executed for plotting the murder of ELIZABETH I and the freeing of MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS. The proof against him convinced Elizabeth that it was necessary to behead Mary. Babism Babism, a 19th-cent. Persian sect, an outgrowth of SHIITE Islam that was founded by Mirza Ali Muhammad of Shiraz, who proclaimed himself the Bab gate in 1844. Babism, incorporating elements of SUFISM, GNOSTICISM, and Shiite Islam, centered on a belief in the coming of the Promised One. Oppressed from 1845, the movement declared its complete secession from ISLAM in 1848, and in 1863 the Babists were expelled from Persia. After 1868 a division had its center in Acre, under the leadership of BAHA ULLAH, the founder of BAHA'ISM. baboon baboon, large, powerful, ground-living MONKEY (genus Papio), also called dog-faced monkey, related to the MANDRILL. Found in the open country of Africa and Asia, baboons have close-set eyes under heavy brow ridges, long, heavy muzzles, powerful jaws, cheek pouches for storing food, and sharp, tusklike upper canine teeth. Baboons have a highly developed social structure. Babur Babur, 1483-1530, founder of the MOGUL empire in INDIA. A descendant of TAMERLANE, he invaded India from Afghanistan. He defeated (1526) the sultan of Delhi, captured Agra and Delhi, and later conquered most of N India. Babur was a poet; his autobiography is his major work. Babylon Babylon, ancient city of Mesopotamia, on the Euphrates R. It became one of the most important cities of the ancient Near East when HAMMURABI made it the capital of his kingdom of BABYLONIA. The city was destroyed (c.689 BC) by the Assyrians under SENNACHERIB, but it was rebuilt. The brilliant color and luxury of Babylon became legendary from the days of NEBUCHADNEZZAR (d. 562 BC). The Hanging Gardens were one of the SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD. The Persians captured the city in 538 BC Babylonia Babylonia, ancient empire of Mesopotamia. Historically the name refers to the first dynasty of Babylon established by HAMMURABI (c.1750 BC) and to the Neo-Babylonian period after the fall of the Assyrian empire. Hammurabi, who had his capital at BABYLON, issued a famous code of laws for the management of the empire. Babylonian religion and cuneiform writing were derived from the older culture of SUMER and the quasi-feudal society was divided into classes. These Babylonian institutions influenced ASSYRIA and so contributed to the later history of the Middle East and of Western Europe. Babylonia degenerated into anarchy (c.1180 BC), but flourished once again as a subsidiary state of the Assyrian empire after the 9th cent. BC Later, Nabopo lassar established (625 BC) what is generally known as the Chaldean or New Babylonian empire, which reached its height under his son NEBUCHADNEZZAR. In 538 BC the last of the Babylonian rulers surrendered to CYRUS THE GREAT of Persia. Babylonian art Babylonian art: see SUMERIAN AND BABYLONIAN ART. Babylonian captivity Babylonian captivity, in the history of Israel, the period from the fall of Jerusalem (586 BC) to the reconstruction in Palestine of a new Jewish state (after 538 BC). Following the capture of the city by the Babylonians, thousands of JEWS were deported to Mesopotamia. In 538 BC the Persian King CYRUS THE GREAT decreed the restoration of worship at Jerusalem. The century following this decree was the time of Jewish reintegration into a national and religious unit. baby's breath baby's breath, name for a plant of the PINK family, for the white bedstraw of the MADDER family, and for grape hyacinth of the LILY family. Bacchanalia Bacchanalia, in Roman religion, festival honoring BACCHUS, god of wine. Originally a religious ceremony, it led to drunken, licentious excesses and was outlawed (186 BC). Bacchus Bacchus, in Greek and Roman religion, god of wine, vegetation, and fertility. His worship was celebrated in orgiastic rites such as the Bacchanalia. Bacchylides Bacchylides, fl. c.470 BC, Greek lyric poet. He was a competent writer of dithyrambs, but he lacked the inspiration of his contemporary PINDAR. Bach Bach, German family of distinguished musicians who flourished from the 16th through the 18th cent., its most renowned member being Johann Sebastian Bach (see separate article). Johannes, or Hans, Bach, 1580-1626, was a carpet weaver and musical performer at festivals. His sons and descendants were noted organists and composers. One grandson, Johann Ambrosia Bach, 1645-95, a musician, was the father of Johann Sebastian Bach. Johann Christoph Bach, 1671-1721, Johann Sebastian's eldest brother, was an organist; he took his younger brother in and taught him after their parents' death. Of the 20 children of Johann Sebastian, several were noted as musicians. The eldest son, Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, 1710-84, was a brilliant organist and well-known composer, but his life ended in poverty and dissolution. A younger son was Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, 1714-88, also a composer and for 28 years (1740-68) the harpsichordist of Frederick the Great. He wrote an important treatise, Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments (1753). The youngest son, Johann Christian Bach, 1735-82, known as the "English Bach," became (1762) music master to King GEORGE III. A popular composer in the rococo style, he influenced the young MOZART. Bach, Alexander Bach, Alexander, 1813-93, Austrian politician. As minister of the interior (1849-59) he instituted the Bach system for the centralization and Germanization of Hapsburg lands. It also ended internal tariffs. The system met opposition, especially in Hungary, and was replaced after 1859. Bach, Johann Sebastian Bach, Johann Sebastian, 1685-1750, German composer and organist, one of the greatest composers of the Western world. Born into a gifted family, Bach was trained in music from childhood by his father, Johann Ambrosia, and later by his brother Johann Christoph. He held a variety of posts, serving as organist in Arnstadt (1703-7), Muhlhausen (1707-8), and Weimar (1708-17) before becoming (1717) musical director for Prince Leopold at Cothen. After the death (1720) of his first wife, Maria Barbara Bach, he married (1721) Anna Magdalena Wulken. He had in all 20 children, several of whom became noted as musicians (see separate article). In 1723, Bach became cantor and music director of St. Thomas Church, Leipzig, a distinguished post that he held until his death. In his instrumental and choral works, Bach perfected the art of POLYPHONY and brought the era of BAROQUE music to its culmination. During his lifetime he was better known as a virtuoso organist than as a composer, but since the 19th cent. his genius has been recognized, and his reputation has grown steadily. In his early years as organist, he composed a series of works for organ that culminated in the great preludes and FUGUES written at Weimar. At Cothen he focused on instrumental compositions, such as the Brandenburg Concertos, and keyboard works, such as Book I of the celebrated Well-Tempered Clavier. His superb religious compositions from the Leipzig period include the St. John Passion and the Mass in B Minor, and some 300 sacred CANTATAS, of which nearly 200 are extant. His last notable pieces are the Musical Offering, composed (1747) for Frederick the Great, and the Art of the Fugue (1749). bachelor's button bachelor's button, popular name for several plants usually characterized by rounded flowers, such as the CORNFLOWER and globe AMARANTH. Bach system Bach system: see under BACH, ALEXANDER. backgammon backgammon, game of chance and skill played by two persons on a specially marked board divided by a space (bar) into two "tables," each of which has 12 alternately colored points (elongated triangular spaces) on which each player places 15 pieces (disks) in a prescribed formation. Two dice are thrown to determine moves. The object is to be the first to move one's pieces around and off the board. The game has very ancient roots in the Middle East. Bacon, Francis Bacon, Francis, 1561-1626, English philosopher, essayist, and statesman. After his opposition (1584) to Queen Elizabeth I's tax program retarded his political advancement, he was favored by the earl of Essex, whom Bacon later helped to prosecute (1601). Under James I he advanced from knight (1603) to attorney general (1613) to lord chancellor (1618). In 1621 he pleaded guilty to charges of accepting bribes and was fined and banished from office; he spent the rest of his life writing in retirement. Bacon's best-known writings are his aphoristic Essays (1597-1625). He projected a major philosophical work, the Instauratio Magna, but completed only two parts: the Advancement of Learning (1605), later expanded in Latin as De Augmentis Scientarum (1623); and the Novum Organum (1620). His major contribution to philosophy was his application of INDUCTION, the approach used by modern science, rather than the a priori method of medieval SCHOLASTICISM. Bacon, Francis Bacon, Francis, 1909-, English painter; b. Ireland. Self-taught, he expresses the satirical, horrifying, and hallucinatory in such works as Three Studies for the base of Crucifixion (1944; Tate Gall., London). Bacon, Nathaniel Bacon, Nathaniel, 1647-76, leader of Bacon's Rebellion in colonial Virginia. Dissatisfied with the government of Sir William BERKELEY, and its neglect of frontier defense, Bacon led (1676) a popular uprising. He drove Berkeley from JAMESTOWN, but his death from malaria ended the revolt. Bacon, Roger Bacon, Roger, c.1214-94?, English scholastic philosopher and scientist, a FRANCISCAN. A celebrated teacher at Oxford, Bacon had an interest far in advance of his times in natural science and accurate observation of phenomena, without, however, abandoning his faith. Three of his most important works, summarizing his studies, were written for Pope CLEMENT I in one year (1267-68): the Opus majus, Opus minor, and the Opus tertium. Deeply interested in alchemy, Bacon was credited by contemporaries with great learning in magic. Many discoveries have been attributed to him, including the invention of gunpowder and the first examination of cells through a microscope, but much doubt has been cast on the authenticity of such claims. bacteria bacteria, microscopic, unicellular organisms having three typical forms: rod-shaped (bacillus), round (coccus), and spiral (spirillum). The cytoplasm of most bacteria is surrounded by a cell wall; the nucleus contains DNA but lacks the nuclear membrane found in higher plants and animals. Many forms are motile, propelled by movements of a filamentlike appendage (flagellum). Reproduction is chiefly by transverse fission (MITOSIS), but conjugation (transfer of nucleic acid between two cells) and other forms of genetic recombination also occur. Some bacteria (aerobes) can grow only in the presence of free or atmospheric oxygen; others (anaerobes) cannot grow in its presence; and a third group (facultative anaerobes) can grow with or without it. In unfavorable conditions, many species form resistant spores. Different types of bacteria are capable of innumerable chemical metabolic transformations, e.g., PHOTOSYNTHESIS and the conversion of free nitrogen and sulfur into AMINO ACIDS. Bacteria are both useful and harmful to humans. Some are used for soil enrichment with leguminous plants (see NITROGEN CYCLE), in pickling, and alcohol and cheese fermentation, to decompose organic wastes (in septic tanks and the soil), and in GENETIC ENGINEERING. Others, called pathogens, cause a number of plant and animal diseases, including CHOLERA, SYPHILIS, TYPHOID FEVER, and TETANUS. bacteriological warfare bacteriological warfare: see BIOLOGICAL WARFARE. bacteriophage bacteriophage or phage,VIRUS that infects BACTERIA, sometimes destroying them. A phage has a head composed of PROTEIN and an inner core of NUCLEIC ACID. It infects a host by attaching itself by its tail to the bacterial cell wall and injecting nucleic acid (DNA) into its host, in which it produces new phage particles. Eventually the bacterial cell is destroyed by lysis, or dissolution, releasing the phage particles to infect other cells. Phages are highly specific, with a particular phage infecting only certain species of bacteria; they are important tools in studies of bacterial genetics and cellular mechanisms. Bactria Bactria, ancient Greek kingdom in central Asia. Its capital was Bactra (now Balkh, in N Afghanistan). A satrapy of the Persian Empire, it fell to ALEXANDER THE GREAT in 328 BC It declared its independence in 256 BC and became a powerful state, carrying its conquests deep into N India. Later Bactria fell (c.1301 BC) to the nomadic Sakas and did not rise again as a state. Baden-Powell of Gilwell, Robert Stephenson Smyth Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell of Gilwell, Robert Stephenson Smyth Baden-Powell, 1st Baron, 1857-1941, British soldier, founder of the BOY SCOUTS. For his work in organizing (1908) the Boy Scout and Girl Guide movements, he received a peerage in 1929. badger badger, any of several related members of the WEASEL family. Most are large, nocturnal burrowers with broad, heavy bodies, long snouts, sharp claws, and long, grizzled fur. The Old World badger (Meles meles), found in Europe and N Asia, weighs about 30 lb (13.6 kg) and feeds on rodents, insects, and plants. The smaller American badger (Taxidea taxus) has short legs and a white stripe over the forehead and around each eye; a swift burrower, it will pursue prey into their holes and may construct its own living quarters 30 ft (9.1 m) below ground level. Badlands National Park Badlands National Park: see NATIONAL PARKS . badminton badminton, game played by two or four persons in which a shuttlecock (small, cork hemisphere with feathers) is volleyed over a net with light, gut-strung rackets. For singles play the court measures 17 ft (5.18 m) by 44 ft (13.40 m) ; the doubles court is 3 ft (.91 m) wider. The game, which is generally similar to tennis, probably originated in India. It was introduced into the U.S. in the 1890s. Badoglio, Pietro Badoglio, Pietro, 1871-1956, Italian soldier and premier (1943-44). In 1936 he victoriously ended the conquest of Ethiopia. After MUSSOLINI'S fall he became premier and negotiated an armistice (1943) with the Allies. Baeda Baeda: see BEDE, SAINT. Baedeker, Karl Baedeker, Karl, 1801-59, German publisher of travel guides. Issued in many editions, the "Baedekers" provided historical data. Auto touring guides were issued after 1950. Baer, Karl Ernst von Baer, Karl Ernst von, 1792-1876, Estonian biologist. Considered a founder of modern embryology, he discovered the notochord and the mammalian egg in the ovary. His History of the Development of Animals (2 vol., 1828-37) presented the theory of embryonic germ layers (consisting of cells from which body tissues and organs develop) and showed that early embryonic development is similar in all animals. Baez, Joan Baez, Joan, 1941-, American folk singer; b. N.Y.C. Singing ballads and SPIRITUALS in a clear, soprano voice, she greatly influenced the popularity of FOLK SONG in the 1960s. She was also involved in nonviolent social action. Baffin, William Baffin, William, c.1584-1622, British arctic explorer. Although he failed to find the NORTHWEST PASSAGE on two expeditions (1615-16), he discovered BAFFIN BAY. His belief that the Northwest Passage did not exist delayed arctic exploration for a time. Baffin Bay Baffin Bay, ice-clogged body of water with hazardous icebergs, c.700 mi (1,130 km) long, between Greenland and Baffin Island (NE Canada), linked with the N Atlantic Ocean by the Davis Strait. Visited (1585) by John Davis and explored (1616) by William BAFFIN, it was an important whaling station in the 19th cent. Baffin Island Baffin Island, 183,810 sq mi (476,068 sq km), NE Canada, largest island in the Arctic Archipelago and fifth largest in the world. Largely tundra in the west and mountains in the east, it is inhabited mainly by ESKIMOS. Iqaluit, in the southeast, is the largest settlement. Early explorers were Martin FROBISHER (1576-78) and William BAFFIN (1616). Baganda Baganda, also called Ganda, the largest ethnic group in Uganda. Bagandas comprise about 30% of the population and have the country's highest standard of living and literacy rate. Their traditional homeland is Buganda, an area of central and southern Uganda. Bagehot, Walter Bagehot, Walter, 1826-77, English social scientist. Editor (1860-77) of the highly regarded Economist, he studied the English banking system (Lombard Street, 1873) and economy (Economic Studies, 1880). His classic English Constitution (1867) distinguished effective government institutions from those in decay, while Physics and Politics (1872) was an early application of DARWINISM to the social sciences. He was also a noted literary critic. Baghdad Baghdad or Bagdad,city (1981 est. pop. 3,500,000), capital and largest city of Iraq, central Iraq, on both banks of the Tigris R. Most of Iraq's industries are in Baghdad; they include the making of carpets, leather, textiles, and cement. The present city was founded (AD 762) by the ABBASIDS and became their capital. Under the caliph HARUN AR-RASHID it developed into one of the great cities of Islam. The Mongols sacked Baghdad in 1258; it became (1638) part of the Ottoman Empire, and during World War I it was captured (1917) by the British. In 1921 the city was made the capital of newly created Iraq. Baghdad is rich in archaeological remains and has several museums. Bagot, Sir Charles Bagot, Sir Charles, 1781-1843, British diplomat. As minister to the U.S. (1815-20), he negotiated the RUSH-BAGOT CONVENTION, which limited armaments on the U.S.-Canadian border. He was later governor general of Canada (1841-43). bagpipe bagpipe, musical instrument, most widely used in Ireland and Scotland, consisting of an inflated bag, usually leather; one or two chanters (or chaunters), melody pipes with finger holes; and one or more drones, which produce one tone each. The bagpipe is an ancient instrument, probably carried E and W from Mesopotamia by Celtic migrations. Baha'ism Baha'ism, religion founded by BAHA ULLAH, a doctrinal outgrowth of BABISM, with Baha Ullah as the Promised One of the earlier religion. Emphasizing simplicity and charity, Baha'ists believe in the unity of all religions, in universal education, in world peace, and in the equality of men and women, and also advocate an international language and government. In the 20th cent. Baha'i teachings have spread across the world, particularly to Africa. The administrative center of the world faith is in Haifa, Israel; its U.S. headquarters is in Wilmette, Ill. Bahamas Bahamas, officially Commonwealth of the Bahamas, independent nation (1986 est. pop. 235,000), 4,403 sq mi (11,404 sq km), in the Atlantic Ocean, consisting of some 700 islands and islets and about 2,400 cays, beginning c.50 mi (80 km) off SE Florida and extending c.600 mi (970 km) SE, nearly to Haiti. Most of the islands are low, flat, and river less, and many are uninhabited. The capital is NASSAU, on New Providence island, which, although smaller than many of the other islands, is the major population center. Other islands, called "out islands," include Grand Bahama, Great and Little Abaco, the Biminis, and Great and Little Inagua. The Bahamas' fine beaches, lush vegetation, and colorful coral reefs have made it one of the hemisphere's most popular winter resort areas. Tourism is the major industry, although sugar and oil refining industries have been added to diversify the economy. The population is about 85% black and mulatto, and the language is English. History Christopher COLUMBUS set foot in the New World in the Bahamas (1492), presumably on San Salvador. The British settled the Bahamas in the 1600s and imported blacks to work cotton plantations, which disappeared in the mid-19th cent., after the slaves were freed. Black Bahamians won control of the government from the white minority in the 1960s, and independence was granted in 1973. In the early 1980s the government sought to preserve the character of the islands by restricting property sales to foreigners and stemming immigration from HAITI. Bahasa Indonesia Bahasa Indonesia, another name for Indonesian, one of the Malayo-Polynesian languages. See LANGUAGE . Baha Ullah Baha Ullah or Baha Allah,1817-92, Persian religious leader, originally named Mirza Husayn Ali Nuri. One of the first disciples of BABISM, in 1863 (shortly before being exiled to Constantinople) he declared himself to be the Promised One expected by Babists. He then founded BAHA'ISM and wrote its fundamental book, Kitabi Ikan (tr. The Book of Certitude, 1943). Bahrain Bahrainor Bahrein, officially the State of Bahrain, independent sheikhdom (1987 est. pop. 416,275), 231 sq mi (598 sq km), an archipelago in the PERSIAN GULF between the Qatar Peninsula and Saudi Arabia. The two main islands are Bahrain and Al Muharraq. The capital and chief port is AL MANAMAH. Flat and sandy, with a few low hills, Bahrain has a hot, humid climate. The economy is based on oil, and oil revenues have financed modernization projects, particularly in health and education. However, oil reserves are expected to be depleted during the 1990s, and steps are being taken to diversify the nonagricultural sector of the economy. The majority of the population are Muslim Arabs. Ruled successively by Portugal (16th cent.) and Persia (intermittently from 1602), Bahrain became a sheikhdom in 1783 and a British protected state in 1861. Independence was declared in 1971. A constitution, adopted in 1973, limited the sheikh's powers and gave women the vote, but in 1975 the sheikh dissolved the National Assembly. In the early 1980s Bahrain established closer ties with other Persian Gulf states, particularly Saudi Arabia, with which it is connected by a causeway built in the 1980s. Baikal, Lake Baikal, Lake: see BAYKAL. Baird, Spencer Fullerton Baird, Spencer Fullerton, 1823-87, American zoologist; b. Reading, Pa. While at the Smithsonian Institution (from 1850; as secretary from 1878) he supervised the building of a museum that housed the great collection of North American fauna amassed under his guidance. He set up the Marine Biological Station at Woods Hole, Mass., organized expeditions of the research ship Albatross, and initiated studies on wildlife preservation. His most important scientific papers were taxonomic studies of birds and mammals. Bairiki Bairiki, town (1979 est. pop. 1,800) on TARAWA atoll, capital of KIRIBATI. Baja California Baja California or Lower California, peninsula, NW Mexico, separating the Gulf of California from the Pacific Ocean. It is c.760 mi (1,220 km) long and 30 to 150 mi (48 to 241 km) wide, and is divided between the states of Baja California (N) and Baja California Sur (S). The peninsula is generally mountainous and arid, with some irrigated agriculture in the north, around Mexicali. Resort ranches, new roads, and deep-sea fishing facilities along the scenic coasts support a growing tourist industry. U.S. forces occupied (1847-48)) the peninsula during the MEXICAN WAR. Bakelite Bakelite for its inventor, Leo Baekeland, a synthetic thermosetting phenol-formaldehyde RESIN with an unusually wide variety of industrial applications ranging from billiard balls to electrical insulation. Baker, Howard Henry, Jr. Baker, Howard Henry, Jr., 1925-, U.S. public official; b. Huntsville, Tenn. As a conservative moderate Republican senator (1966-87) from Tennessee, he gained (1973) national attention as a member of the Senate committee investigating the WATERGATE AFFAIR. He became (1977) Senate minority leader, Senate majority leader after the 1980 elections, and White House Chief of Staff (1987-88) under Pres. Reagan. Bakersfield Bakersfield, city (1986 est. pop. 150,400), seat of Kern co., S central Calif., at the S end of the SAN JOAQUIN valley; inc. 1898. Petroleum was discovered in the area in 1899. The city is an oil drilling and refining, mining, and agricultural center. Cotton, citrus fruits, grapes, and roses are grown. baking soda baking soda: see SODIUM BICARBONATE. Bakke Case Bakke Case: see UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA REGENTS V. BAKKE. Bakst, Leon Nicolaevich Bakst, Leon Nicolaevich, 1866-1924, Russian painter, b. Lev Samuilovich Rosenberg. A painter of the eclectic school, he sought closer ties with the West before the Revolution through his involvement with the artists' group known as Mir Iskusstva or "World of Art." He is noted for his elaborate stage and costume designs for the Russian ballet, e.g., L'Apres-midi d'un Faune (1912). Baku Baku, city (1987 est. pop. 1,741,000), capital of the AZERBAIJAN SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLIC, SE European USSR, on the Caspian Sea. Baku is a major Soviet port and a center for oil drilling, refining, and shipbuilding. Until World War II it was the leading source of Soviet oil. Under independent Shirvan shahs the city was a medieval center of trade and crafts. It was under Persian rule from 1509 to 1806 when it was annexed by Russia. In 1920 it became part of the USSR. Bakunin, Mikhail Bakunin, Mikhail, 1814-76, Russian revolutionary and leading exponent of ANARCHISM. After taking part (1848-49) in revolutions in France and Saxony, he was exiled to Siberia. He escaped (1861) to London, where he worked with Aleksandr HERZEN. In the first International Workingmen's Association he clashed with Karl MARX and was expelled (1872); their philosophical split led the International to dissolve (1876). Bakunin held that human beings are inherently good and deserve absolute freedom; he advocated the violent overthrow of existing governments. His works include God and the State (1882). Balaguer, Joaquin Balaguer, Joaquin, 1907-, president of the Dominican Republic (1960-62, 1966-78). He served in dictator TRUJILLO MOLINA'S government as vice president (1957-60) and president until ousted (1962) by the military. During his second tenure, he restored financial stability, but political chaos led him to resort to repression. He ran unsuccessfully for president in 1982. Balakirev, Mili Alekseyevich Balakirev, Mili Alekseyevich, 1837-1910, Russian composer and conductor, leader of the group called the FIVE. His music, combining ROMANTICISM with Russian folk songs, includes the symphonic poem Tamara. balalaika balalaika: see STRINGED INSTRUMENT. balance of payments balance of payments, relation between all payments in and out of a country over a given period. It is an outgrowth of the concept of BALANCE OF TRADE, which it includes; it also includes the movement of government and private capital between countries (e.g., investments and debt payments). The INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND was created (1945) to deal with problems relating to the balance of payments. The U.S., which has generally experienced an unfavorable balance of payments since the late 1950s, sought to improve the balance in the early 1970s through DEVALUATION of the dollar. balance of power balance of power, system of international relations in which nations shift alliances to maintain an equilibrium of power and prevent dominance by any single state. Its modern development began in the 17th cent. with efforts of European countries to contain the France of LOUIS XIV. The balance of power was of primary concern to European nations from 1815 to 1914, particularly to contain the rising power of GERMANY, and was attacked as a cause of WORLD WAR I. It declined with the rise of the U.S. and the USSR as superpowers after 1945, but after the 1960s, with the emergence of China, the THIRD WORLD, and a revived Europe, it seemed to be reemerging as a component of international relations. balance of trade balance of trade, relation between the value of a nation's exports and imports. The concept first became important in the 16th and 17th cent. with the growth of MERCANTILISM, whose theorists held that a nation should have an excess of exports over imports (i.e., a favorable balance); although challenged by Adam SMITH and other economists, the idea is still widely believed. The balance of trade is a major element in a nation's BALANCE OF PAYMENTS. Balanchine, George Balanchine, George, 1904-83, American choreographer and ballet dancer; b. Russia. A member of Sergei Pavlovich DIAGHILEV'S BALLETS RUSSES (1924-28), he moved (1933) to the U.S. and helped to found (1934) the School of American Ballet. In 1948 he became artistic director and principal choreographer of the NEW YORK CITY BALLET. His many works, e.g., Serenade, Agon, emphasize form, often abstract. He was one of the most important figures in ballet in the 20th cent. Balboa, Vasco Nunez de Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, c.1475-1519, Spanish CONQUISTADOR, discoverer of the PACIFIC OCEAN. Fleeing HISPANIOLA in 1510, he hid in a vessel that took the explorer Enciso to Panama. After reaching Darien, he seized command from Enciso and, with the aid of friendly Indians, marched across the isthmus. He reached the Pacific in Sept. 1513, claiming it and its shores for Spain. He was later accused of treason and beheaded. Balch, Emily Green Balch, Emily Green, 1867-1961, American economist and pacifist; b. Jamaica Plain, Mass. She taught at Wellesley College until her dismissal (1918) for opposing U.S. involvement in World War I. Co-founder (with Jane ADDAMS) of the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom, Balch shared the 1946 Nobel Peace Prize with J.R. Mott. bald cypress bald cypress, common name for the Taxodiaceae, a family of deciduous or evergreen CONIFERS with needlelike or scalelike leaves and woody cones. Most species are native to the Far East; some, e.g., the big trees and redwoods (see SEQUOIA) and bald cypresses, are native to North America. Almost all are cultivated for ornament. The common bald cypress (Taxodium distichum), valued for its softwood, forms dense forests in the SE U.S. and is common in the EVERGLADES. Bald cypresses are called "bald" because of their deciduous character, unusual in conifers. True CYPRESSES belong to a separate family. Balder Balder, beautiful and gracious Norse god of light; son of Odin (see WODEN) and FRIGG. Invulnerable to everything but mistletoe, he was killed by a mistletoe dart made by LOKI. Baldung Baldungor Baldung-Grien, Hans, c.1484-1545, German religious and mythological painter. His style reveals his interest in brilliant color, light, and twisted forms. He is best known as a painter of disturbing subjects, e.g., Death and the Maiden (Basel, Switzerland). Baldwin Baldwin, Latin emperors of CONSTANTINOPLE. Baldwin I, 1171-1205 (r. 1204-05), was a leader in the Fourth CRUSADE as count of Flanders. Elected emperor of Constantinople, he was taken in battle by the Bulgarians (1205) and died in captivity. His brother, HENRY OF FLANDERS, succeeded him. Baldwin II, 1217-73 (r. 1228-61), was the last Latin emperor of Constantinople. To obtain funds, he sold part of the True Cross to LOUIS IX of France and pawned his own son to the Venetians. When MICHAEL VIII of Nicaea stormed Constantinople, Baldwin fled to Italy. Baldwin Baldwin, Latin kings of Jerusalem. Baldwin I, 1058?-1118 (r.1100-18), was a brother of GODFREY OF BOUILLON, whom he accompanied in the First CRUSADE. He gained the chief ports of Palestine and aided other Latin rulers against the Muslims. His cousin and successor, Baldwin II, d. 1131 (r.1118-31), was also in the First Crusade. As king he warred with the Turks in N Syria. During his reign TYRE and Antioch became Jerusalem's dependents. Baldwin III, 1130-62 (r. 1143-62), the son of Fulk of Anjou, ruled as Latin power in the East began to decay. Edessa fell (1144) to the Muslims, the Second Crusade failed, and the Turkish sultan Nur ad-Din took (1154) N Syria. His nephew Baldwin IV (the Leper), c.1161-85 (r.1174-85), defended his kingdom constantly against SALADIN. When his leprosy became worse, he had his child-nephew crowned (1183) Baldwin V (d. 1186). Baldwin, James Baldwin, James, 1924-87, black American author; b. N.Y.C. His works, dealing with American blacks and relations between the races, include novels, e.g., Go Tell It on the Mountain (1953) and Just Above My Head (1979); essay collections, e.g., Notes of a Native Son (1955); plays; and short stories. Baldwin, Robert Baldwin, Robert, 1804-58, Canadian statesman. A reform leader in Upper CANADA, he proposed (1836) representative government for the entire country. After the reunion (1841) of Upper and Lower Canada, Baldwin and LA FONTAINE formed a coalition government (1842), and won an overwhelming victory in the 1847 election. Their second coalition (1847-51), called the "great ministry," implemented responsible government. Among its accomplishments was the Baldwin Act, which reformed local government in ONTARIO. Baldwin, Roger Nash Baldwin, Roger Nash, 1884-1981, American civil libertarian; b. Wellesley, Mass. He helped to found (1920) the AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION and was its director until 1950 and its adviser on international affairs thereafter. He also taught at the New School for Social Research (1938-42) and the Univ. of Puerto Rico (1966-74). Baldwin, Stanley Baldwin, Stanley, 1867-1947, British statesman. A Conservative, he was three times prime minister (1923-24; 1924-29; 1935-37). He broke the 1926 general strike and secured the abdication of EDWARD VIII. An able politician, Baldwin has been criticized for his apparent blindness to the threat to peace indicated by the rise of fascism in Europe. Balearic Islands Balearic Islands, archipelago (1986 pop. 754,777) in the W Mediterranean Sea, forming Baleares prov. of Spain. The three principal islands are Majorca, Minorca, and Ibiza. All have a mild climate and are popular tourist centers. The Balearics were occupied by Moors in the 8th cent. and captured (1229-35) by James I of Aragon. They were included (1276-1343) in the independent kingdom of Majorca and reverted to the Aragonese crown under Peter IV. Balenciaga, Cristobal Balenciaga, Cristobal: see FASHION . Balfour, Arthur James Balfour, 1st earl of Balfour, Arthur James Balfour, 1st earl of, 1848-1930, British statesman. A Conservative, he held many cabinet positions and was prime minister from 1902 to 1905. As foreign secretary under LLOYD GEORGE (1916-19), he issued the Balfour Declaration (1917), pledging British support for a Jewish national home in Palestine. Bali Bali, island and (with two offshore islets) province (1980 pop. 2,469,930), S Indonesia, c.2,200 sq mi (5,700 sq km), separated from JAVA (W) by the narrow Bali Strait. The fertile, scenic, and densely populated island is largely mountainous and volcanic, reaching a high point of 10,308 ft (3,142 m) at Mt. Agung. Rice, vegetables, fruits, and coffee are grown, and livestock is important. Industries include food processing, tourism, and handicrafts. The Balinese people retain their Hindu religion in a predominantly Muslim nation and are known for their uniquely ritualistic and beautiful music, folk drama, dancing, and architecture. Balinese music Balinese music, a survival of the pre-Islamic music of Java, uses the tonal systems of JAVANESE MUSIC. The orchestras of tuned percussion instruments (gamelans) include xylophones, gongs, flutes, fiddles, rattles, cymbals, and drums. Each of various forms of dance and drama has a gamelan that specializes in its music. Baliol, John de Baliol, John de, d. 1269, English nobleman; founder of Balliol College, Oxford. A regent for ALEXANDER III of Scotland, he was removed from office and later fought for HENRY III of England in the BARONS' WAR. His third son, John de Baliol, 1249-1315, king of Scotland (1292-96), claimed the throne at the death of MARGARET MAID OF NORWAY. EDWARD I of England supported him over ROBERT I in return for feudal overlordship, and he was crowned. In 1296 he renounced his oath of fealty, was defeated, and surrendered to Edward. He was imprisoned until 1299, when he retired to France. His son, Edward de Baliol, d. 1363, king of Scotland, invaded Scotland (1332) with the aid of EDWARD III and defeated supporters of DAVID II. After David's return from France (1341), he never held power. Balkan Peninsula Balkan Peninsula, generally mountainous land area, SE Europe, projecting south from the line of the Sava and Danube rivers between the Black, Aegean, Mediterranean, Ionian, and Adriatic seas. It comprises all or parts of six nations-Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Yugoslavia, and Romania-collectively referred to as the Balkan states. The peninsula, which was at times part of ancient Greece and the Roman and Byzantine empires, was ruled by Turks as part of the Ottoman Empire from the late 15th cent. until the end of the BALKAN WARS in 1913. Balkan Wars Balkan Wars, two short wars (1912, 1913) fought for possession of the European territories of the deteriorating OTTOMAN EMPIRE (Turkey). In the first war, Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro expelled Turkey from all of its European possessions except Constantinople (now Istanbul). The second war was brought on by Serbia (joined by Greece, Rumania, and Turkey), which demanded that Bulgaria cede to it the larger part of Macedonia. Bulgaria lost and was forced to cede territories to all four victors. The nationalism heightened by the Balkan Wars was one of the causes of WORLD WAR I. Ball, Lucille Ball, Lucille, 1911-89, American actress and producer; b. Jamestown, N.Y. An accomplished comedienne, she starred (1951-74) in three popular television series, beginning with "I Love Lucy." She also headed Desilu Productions (1962-67) and Lucille Ball Productions (1967-89). Her films include Stage Door (1937) and Mame (1974). ballad ballad, in literature, short narrative poem usually relating a dramatic event. Folk ballads date from c. 12th cent., literary ballads from the 18th. The anonymous folk ballad was originally sung, passed along orally, and changed in transmission. It was short, simple, and formulaic, often with a stock refrain. From the late 18th cent. hundreds were collected-historical, romantic, supernatural, nautical, or heroic. American ballads deal with cowboys, outlaws, folk heroes, and blacks. Mid-20th cent. FOLK MUSIC has drawn on the tradition. The literary ballad is more elaborate, a prime example being S.T. COLERIDGE'S Rime of the Ancient Mariner. ballade ballade, in literature, French 14th-15th cent. verse form, usually consisting of three eight-line stanzas and a concluding four-line envoy (a summary or address). Ballades by Francois VILLON and, in English, by Geoffrey CHAUCER are famous. ballet ballet [Ital. ballare,=to dance], classic, formalized solo or ensemble dancing of a disciplined, dramatic nature, performed to music. Foreshadowed in mummeries and masquerades, it emerged as a distinct form in Italy before the 16th cent. The first ballet combining dance, decor, and special effects was presented in 1581 at the French court of CATHERINE DE' MEDICI. The 17th-cent. court ballets, danced until 1681 by males only, incorporated OPERA and drama. In 1708 the first ballet for public performance marked the appearance of a separate art form. Choreographic notation came into being and mythological themes were explored. Italian influence brought elevated and less horizontal movement, and Pierre Beauchamps established the five basic foot positions (see diagram). Marie Camargo introduced a shortened skirt, tights, and the first ballet slippers, allowing great freedom of movement. Her rival, Marie Salle (the first female choreographer), wore a liberating, Grecian-style costume. The ballet d'action, developed c.1760 by Jean Georges Noverre, told a story through movement and facial expression. Modern ballet technique, stressing the turned-out leg and resulting variety of movement, was set down in 1820 by Carlo Blasis. With La Sylphide (1832) the romantic period began. Brilliant choreography emphasized the beauty and virtuosity of the prima ballerina; the male dancer functioned only as her partner until the 20th cent., when virtuoso male dancing revived. Conflicts of reality and illusion, flesh and spirit were revealed in romantic love stories and fairy tales. Under the pressure of NATURALISM in the theater, ballet declined through the mid-19th cent., but after 1875 a renaissance in romantic ballet began in Russia, where Marius Petipa and other European masters created many of the great standard ballets, e.g., Sleeping Beauty and Swan Lake. In 1909 the Russian impresario Sergei DIAGHILEV brought his Ballets Russes to Paris. In the following 20 years the Russian style, with the revolutionary music of composers like STRAVINSKY and modified by the MODERN DANCE influences of Isadora DUNCAN and others, brought a ballet renaissance to Europe and America. Paris, London, and New York City became major centers. Today Russian and English ballet continue to exemplify one major trend, toward storytelling and lavish production. American ballet, under the influence of George BALANCHINE, displays an opposing tendency toward abstraction in theme and simplicity in design. See articles on major dance companies and individual dancers. Ballet Folklorico de Mexico Ballet Folklorico de Mexico, Mexico's national dance company. It was founded (1952) by Amalia Hernandez at the National Institute of Fine Arts, Mexico City, to produce dances based on Mexican folklore for television. Artistic excellence led to its recognition as one of the world's finest "ethnic" ballets. Ballets Russes Ballets Russes: see DIAGHILEV, SERGEI PAVLOVICH. ballistics ballistics, science of projectiles, such as bullets, bombs, rockets, and missiles. Interior ballistics deals with the propulsion and motion of a projectile within a gun or firing device. Exterior ballistics is concerned with the motion of the projectile while in flight, and includes the study of the trajectory, or curved flight path, of the projectile. Terminal ballistics is concerned with the phenomena occurring at the termination of the projectile's flight; such termination may result from impact on a solid target or explosion of the projectile. In criminology, the term ballistics is applied to the identification of the weapon from which a bullet was fired. Microscopic imperfections in a gun barrel make characteristic scratches and grooves on bullets fired through it. balloon balloon, lighter-than-air craft without a propulsion system, lifted by inflation of one or more containers with a gas lighter than air or with heated air. During flight, altitude is gained by discarding ballast, e.g., bags of sand, and lost by releasing some of the lifting gas from its container. In some late designs using air heated by a gas-fired burner, the altitude is controlled by varying the temperature of the heated air. The balloon was invented by the French brothers Joseph and Jacques Etienne MONTGOLFIER, who in 1783 caused a linen bag about 100 ft (30 m) in diameter to rise in the air. Using a Montgolfier balloon, Pilatre de Rozier and the marquis d'Arlandes made the first manned balloon flight on Nov. 21, 1783. The Americans Ben Abruzzo, Maxie Anderson, and Larry Newman made (1978) the first successful transatlantic balloon crossing. Today WEATHER BALLOONS equipped with radio transmitters (see RADIOSONDE) and other instruments transmit meteorological readings to ground stations at regular intervals. High-altitude balloons are used in astronomy, especially in the study of cosmic rays and the photography of other planets. See also AIRSHIP; PICCARD, AUGUSTE. balsa balsa: see BOMBAX. Balthazar Balthazar: see WISE MEN OF THE EAST. Baltic languages Baltic languages, a subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See LANGUAGE . Baltic Sea Baltic Sea, N Europe, arm of the Atlantic Ocean, c.163,000 sq mi (422,170 sq km), bordered by Denmark, Finland, Germany, Poland, Sweden, and the USSR. Shallow and partly frozen in winter, it is connected to the Atlantic by several straits, including the KATTEGAT and SKAGGERAK, and by the Kiel Canal. Principal arms of the Baltic are the gulfs of Bothnia, Finland, and Riga. Baltimore, George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore, George Calvert, 1st Baron: see CALVERT, GEORGE. Baltimore Baltimore, city (1986 est. pop. 752,800), N Md., on the Patapsco R. estuary, a branch of CHESAPEAKE BAY; settled early 17th cent., inc. 1745. One of the ten largest U.S. cities, Baltimore is a major seaport, industrial center, and railhead. Shipbuilding, food processing, metal and oil refining, and the production of aircraft, missiles and chemicals are among the leading industries. The city grew phenomenally with the opening (1818) of the NATIONAL ROAD and the founding (1827) of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad. Largely rebuilt after a fire in 1904, it became famous for its white-stepped, red-brick row houses. Johns Hopkins Univ., Goucher College, and the Peabody Conservatory of Music are among the city's many educational institutions. Cultural features include the Baltimore Museum of Art and the Enoch Pratt Free Library. H.L. MENCKEN, Babe RUTH, and Billie HOLIDAY were among Baltimore's best-known natives. The city's sights include the U.S.S. Constellation; the first U.S. Roman Catholic cathedral (1806-21), designed by B.H. LATROBE; and the Inner Harbor, part of a major urban redevelopment scheme for the downtown area. Balts Balts, peoples of the E coast of the Baltic Sea, namely the Latvians, Lithuanians, and now-extinct Old Prussians. The Estonians are related to the Finns rather than to the Balts. In the 13th cent. the TEUTONIC KNIGHTS and Livonian Brothers of the Sword conquered and Christianized Estonia and Latvia, which remained under German economic dominance until the 20th cent. The Lithuanians, who resisted annexation and adopted Christianity in 1387, formed a powerful state that united (1569) with Poland. Estonia passed in 1561 to Sweden and in 1721 to Russia, which by 1795 controlled all the Baltic lands. Independent after World War I, LATVIA, LITHUANIA, and ESTONIA were incorporated into the USSR in 1940. Baluchi BaluchiLANGUAGE . Balzac, Honore de Balzac, Honore de, 1799-1850, French writer, among the great masters of the NOVEL. Half starving in a Paris garret, he began his career by writing sensational novels to order under a pseudonym. His great work, called "The Human Comedy," written over a 20-year period, is a collection of novels and stories recreating French society of the time, picturing in precise detail individuals of every class and profession. Chief among them are Pere Goriot (1835) and Cousin Bette (1847). His short stories include some of the best in the language. Bamako Bamako, city (1976 pop. 404,022), capital of Mali, a port on the Niger R. It is a major regional trade center connected by rail to DAKAR, on the Atlantic Ocean. Manufactures include processed meat, textiles, and metal goods. Bamako was a center of Muslim learning under the MALI empire (c.11th-15th cent.). It became (1908) the capital of the Sudan, a province of French West Africa. It has a botanical and zoological park, gardens, and several educational institutions. bamboo bamboo, plant (genus Bambusa) of the GRASS family, chiefly of warm or tropical regions. The genus contains the largest grasses, sometimes reaching 100 ft (30 m). Bamboo stalks are hollow, usually round, and jointed, with deciduous leaves. Bamboo is used as wood, and for construction work, furniture, utensils, fiber, paper, fuel, and innumerable other articles. Bamboo sprouts and the grains of some species are eaten. Native American bamboo is a CANE. banana banana, name for a family of tropical herbs (the Musacae), for a genus (Musa) of herbaceous plants, and for the fruits they produce. Bananas are probably native to tropical Asia, but are widely cultivated. They are related to the economically valuable MANILA HEMP and to the BIRD-OF-PARADISE FLOWER. Banana plants have a palmlike aspect and large leaves, the overlapping bases of which form the so-called false trunk. Only female flowers develop into the banana fruit (botanically, a berry), each plant bearing fruit only once. The seeds are sterile; propagation is through shoots from the rhizomes. Bananas are an important food staple in the tropics. Bancroft, George Bancroft, George, 1800-1891, American historian and public official; b. Worcester, Mass. Bancroft was secretary of the navy (1845-46) under Pres. POLK and established the U.S. Naval Academy. Later he was minister to Britain (1846-49) and Prussia (1867-74). He supported Pres. LINCOLN in the CIVIL WAR. His History of the United States (10 vol., 1834-74) is anti-British and intensely patriotic but remains valuable because of its extensive use of source materials. Bancroft, Hubert Howe Bancroft, Hubert Howe, 1832-1918, American historian; b. Granville, Ohio. A wealthy publisher, he produced, with a staff of researchers and writers, a prodigious history of the U.S. West, Central America, and Mexico (39 vol., 1874-90). In 1905 he presented his collection of 60,000 books, manuscripts, maps, and personal narratives to the Univ. of California, and as the Bancroft Library it remains an outstanding repository of the history of the West. band band, in music, a group of musicians playing mainly on WIND and PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS, often outdoors. Such groupings in medieval and Renaissance Europe were the town and military bands, integral to the civic and social life of the community. The U.S. Marine Band, founded 1798, was the first important band in the U.S. In the mid-19th cent. the concert band developed, with a repertory including marches, flourishes, and music transcribed from other mediums. Leading bandmasters include J.P. SOUSA and E.F. GOLDMAN. Modern bands include marching bands, dance bands, JAZZ bands, and rock bands (see ROCK MUSIC). Banda, Hastings Kamuzu Banda, Hastings Kamuzu, 1902?-, president of MALAWI (1966-). A physician, he was a leading nationalist in Nyasaland. He became president for life when it became independent as Malawi. Bandaranaike, Sirimavo Bandaranaike, Sirimavo, 1916-, prime minister (1960-65, 1970-77) of SRI LANKA (formerly Ceylon). She was largely responsible for the constitution of 1972 that transformed Ceylon into the republic of Sri Lanka. In 1980 of abuses as prime minister. Bandung Bandung or Bandoeng,city (1980 pop. 1,462,637), capital of West Java prov., Indonesia, 75 miles (120 km) SE of DJAKARTA. Founded by the Dutch in 1810, it became the administrative and military headquarters of the Netherlands East Indies. Third largest city in Indonesia, Bandung is an industrial hub, a famous educational and cultural center, and a tourist resort. It is a textile center and site of the country's quinine industry. Bandung Conference Bandung Conference, 1955, meeting of diplomats from 29 African and Asian countries held at BANDUNG, Indonesia. It promoted economic and cultural cooperation and opposed colonialism. Communist China played a prominent part. Bangalore Bangalore, city (1981 pop. 2,914,000), capital of Karnataka state, S central India. It is an industrial center producing electronic equipment, aircraft, textiles, and other manufactures. Founded in 1537, it became the administrative seat of Mysore (now Karnataka) in 1831. The city has many parks and several institutes of learning. Bangkok Bangkok, city (1986 pop. 5,446,708), capital of Thailand, S central Thailand, on the east bank of the Chao Phraya R., near the Gulf of Siam. Thailand's largest city, its financial and industrial hub, and a leading city of Southeast Asia, Bangkok lies in the rice-growing region. Rice, tin, teak, and rubber are shipped from the city's port. Industrial plants include rice mills, textile mills, sawmills, oil refineries, and shipyards. The city is also a famous jewelry-trading center. Ethnic Chinese dominate commerce and industry. A city that contrasts ancient and modern structures, Bangkok contains the vast, walled Grand Palace and over 400 Buddhist temples. It is the site of five universities, as well as the National Museum. It became the nation's capital in 1782. Thon Buri, part of metropolitan Bangkok, is an industrial city on the river's west bank. It was the capital of Siam (1769-82). Bangladesh Bangladesh, officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh, republic, formerly East Pakistan (1986 est. pop. 102,563,000), 55,126 sq mi (142,776 sq km), S Asia, bordered by India (W, N, and E), Burma (SE), and the Bay of Bengal (S). Principal cities include DACCA (the capital) and CHITTAGONG. A low-lying alluvial region, Bangladesh is composed mainly of the combined delta of the GANGES, BRAHMAPUTRA, and Meghna rivers. The climate is tropical monsoonal, and there are frequent, devastating floods. The economy is agricultural; jute (of which Bangladesh produces over 50% of the world supply), rice, and tea are the principal crops. Bangladesh has the highest population density in the world. The majority of the people are Bengalis, and about 80% are Sunni Muslims. History Governed for centuries by Afghan, Mogul, and Muslim rulers, the area that is now Bangladesh became part of British India in the late 18th cent. When Pakistan achieved independence in 1947, Bangladesh, then called East Bengal and, after 1955, East Pakistan, became an eastern province of Pakistan, from which it is separated by more than 1,000 miles. A movement for greater autonomy was spearheaded by Sheikh Mujibar Rahman, whose AWAMI LEAGUE won a majority in the federal Pakistani assembly in 1970. The government postponed assembly sessions, and on Mar. 26, 1971, the Awami League declared the province independent as Bangladesh. Civil war ensued, and an estimated 1 million Bengalis were killed before India intervened on Bangladesh's behalf and Pakistan was defeated in Dec. 1971. Widespread famine and political unrest have plagued the new nation. Rahman was assassinated in a military coup in 1975. Two countercoups quickly followed, bringing to power Gen. Ziaur Rahman, who was elected president in 1978. He brought some stability to the country and reintroduced civilian rule, but was killed in an abortive coup in 1981. Another coup, and the introduction of martial law, followed in 1982. Lt. Gen. H.M. Ershad became president in 1987. Bangor Bangor, city (1980 pop. 31,643), seat of Penobscot co., S Me., at the confluence of the Penobscot and Kenduskeag rivers; inc. as a city 1834. It is a port of entry, commercial center, and gateway to a large resort and lumber area. Shoes, paper, lumber, and electronic equipment are produced. Settled in 1769 (as Sunbury), it was an important 19th-cent. shipbuilding center with a trade in ice, lumber, and stone. Bangui Bangui, city (1984 pop. 473,817), capital of the Central African Republic. A port and light industrial center on the Ubangi R., it handled most of the country's international trade until 1978, when an overland route was opened through Cameroon. The city is being developed as a tourist center for the country's large wildlife reserves and national parks. Bangui was founded (1889) by French explorers. It has a university (est. 1970). banjo banjo: see STRINGED INSTRUMENT. Banjul Banjul, formerly Bathurst, port city (1983 pop. 44,188), capital of Gambia, on St. Mary's Island where the Gambia R. enters the Atlantic Ocean. It is Gambia's only large city and its administrative and economic center. Peanut processing, the chief industry, provides the leading export. The city was founded (1816) by the British as a trading post and a base for suppressing the slave trade. Bank for International Settlements Bank for International Settlements (BIS), financial institution established (1930) in Basel, Switzerland, by bankers and diplomats of Europe and the U.S. As a meeting place for the governors of West European central banks, the BIS serves to promote international financial cooperation. It is the representative of several important West European financial enterprises and holds the accounts of the European Coal and Steel Community (see EUROPEAN COMMUNITY). The BIS is run by a board composed of eight West European central bank governors and five other financiers. Officials of the U.S. FEDERAL RESERVE SYSTEM attend BIS meetings. banking banking, primarily the business of dealing in money and instruments of credit. Banks are usually differentiated from other financial institutions by their principal functions of accepting deposits-subject to withdrawal or transfer by check-and of making loans. In recent years, however, this distinction has become blurred, as more and more nonbanking companies have moved to take over the traditional business of banks. Banking, in the form of making loans at interest, dates back to antiquity. It developed rapidly in the 18th and 19th cent. to support the expansion of industry and trade. The first bank in the U.S. was the Bank of North America, established (1781) in Philadelphia. Congress chartered the first BANK OF THE UNITED STATES in 1791 to engage in commercial banking and to act as fiscal agent of the government but failed to renew its charter in 1811. A similar fate attended the second Bank of the United States. In 1838 New York adopted the Free Banking Act, which permitted anyone to engage in banking, upon compliance with certain charter provisions. The idea spread rapidly, and from 1840 to 1863 all banking business was done by state-chartered institutions (state banks). The National Bank Act (1863) created a system of banks to be chartered by the federal government (national banks). Both types of banks continue in existence today. The FEDERAL RESERVE SYSTEM was established in 1913 to oversee the U.S. banking system. The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC; 1933) provides for insurance of bank deposits. International banking grew in importance after World War II. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) makes loans to governments and private investors, and the International Monetary Fund provides members with technical assistance in international banking. Many of the world's major banks operate branches in other countries. Two major types of banks in the U.S. are commercial banks and mutual savings banks. The 14,000 commercial banks are the mainstay of the U.S. banking system. Known as full-service banks, they render a wide range of services, in addition to their primary functions of making loans and investments and handling demand (checking) as well as savings and other time deposits. Savings banks, which are exclusively state-chartered, until recently accepted only savings deposits and made loans mainly for home mortgages. Today they have the right to offer checking accounts, either as a result of legislation or indirectly through NOW (negotiable order of withdrawal) accounts. A similar thrift institution is the SAVINGS AND LOAN ASSOCIATION. Types of financial institutions that perform one or more banking functions include building and loan associations, mortgage companies, finance companies, brokers or dealers in securities, CREDIT UNIONS, and investment bankers. By the early 1980s, sweeping changes brought about by improved communications and computers enabled the nation's 29,000 nonbank financial institutions to pose a serious challenge to the traditional banks. The sharp rise of MONEY-MARKET FUNDS, the widespread use of COMMERCIAL PAPER for loans, and the creation of financial conglomerates siphoned off billions of dollars of banking business. Bank of the United States Bank of the United States, name of two national banks created by the U.S. Congress. The first bank (1791-1811), proposed by Alexander HAMILTON and the Federalists, aroused opposition, especially from the West, for its conservative policies. Its charter was allowed to expire. Difficulties in financing the WAR OF 1812 caused the creation of a second bank (1816-36). It prospered under the management of Nicholas BIDDLE, but was viewed as a tool of Eastern commercial interests by the Jacksonians. Pres. JACKSON vetoed its rechartering and in 1833 began depositing government funds in state banks. bankruptcy bankruptcy, legal proceeding to deal with the liabilities of an insolvent debtor (individual or business). Its purpose is to distribute the bankrupt's assets equitably among the creditors and, in most cases, to free the bankrupt from further liability. Bankruptcy may be instituted by the debtor (voluntary) or by the creditors (involuntary). In the U.S., bankruptcy is governed by federal laws. Banks, Sir Joseph Banks, Sir Joseph, 1743-1820, English naturalist and patron of the sciences. He accompanied Capt. James COOK on his voyage (1768-71) around the world, collecting biological specimens, most previously unclassified. He was chiefly responsible for making Kew Gardens an important botanical center and was president (1778-1820) of the Royal Society. Bannister, Sir Roger (Gilbert) Bannister, Sir Roger (Gilbert), 1929-, British athlete. He was the first man to run the mile in under 4 min, clocking 3 min 59.4 sec at Oxford, England, in 1954. He was knighted in 1975. Banting, Sir Frederick Grant Banting, Sir Frederick Grant, 1891-1941, Canadian physician. He and John MACLEOD won the 1923 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine for isolating (1921), together with Charles BEST, the pancreatic hormone later called INSULIN. He made valuable studies of the cortex of the adrenal glands, of cancer, and of silicosis. He was knighted in 1934. Bantu Bantu, ethnic and linguistic group of Africa, numbering about 70 million. They inhabit most of Africa S of the Congo R., except the extreme southwest. The classification is primarily linguistic, and there are almost 100 Bantu languages, including Luganda, Zulu, and Swahili. Few cultural generalizations concerning the Bantu can be made. There were some highly developed Bantu states, and several Bantu confederations were formed in the 19th cent., e.g., the Zulu and the Basuto. Other Bantu tribes include the Matabele and the Mashona. In South Africa the term Bantu is commonly used to refer to the native African population, which is subject to the policies of APARTHEID. Bantu languages Bantu languages, group of African languages forming a subdivision of the Benue-Niger division of the Niger-Congo branch of the Niger-Kordofanian language family. See AFRICAN LANGUAGES . bantustan bantustan, territory set aside by the Union of South Africa for blacks and given nominal independence in stages. The 10 bantustans, covering 14% of the country's land, were created from the former "native reserves." Four of them have been proclaimed independent: TRANSKEI (1976), BOPHUTHATSWANA (1977), VENDA (1979), and CISKEI (1981). No foreign government has recognized the new "states," and the policy has been condemned as an extension of APARTHEID because blacks in the independent bantustans (8 million thus far) lose their limited rights as South African citizens. baobab baobab, huge tree (Adansonia digitata) of the BOMBAX family, native to India and Africa. The trunk diameter of this relatively short tree is exceeded only by that of the SEQUOIA, and the trunks of living trees are hollowed out for dwellings. The bark is used for rope and cloth, the leaves yield condiments and medicines, and the gourdlike fruit (monkeybread) is eaten. Bao Dai Bao Dai, 1913-, emperor (1926-45) of ANNAM. He was emperor under French colonial rule and cooperated with the Japanese in World War II. He abdicated (1945) but returned (1949) as chief of state of VIETNAM. Bao Dai was ousted (1955) by Ngo Dinh DIEM, who became president of South Vietnam. baptism baptism [Gr.,=dipping], in most Christian churches a SACRAMENT. Usually required for membership in a church, it is a rite of purification by water, invoking the grace of God to regenerate a person and cleanse him or her of sin. Formal baptism is performed by immersion (as among the BAPTISTS) or by pouring or sprinkling water on the person to be baptized. Some churches baptize infants; others withhold baptism until a relatively mature age. baptistery baptistery, part of a church, or a separate connected building, used for administering BAPTISM. At first it was simply a pool or basin set in the floor. Later a separate structure was set aside for the ceremony; the earliest extant is in the Lateran basilica at Rome. Most early baptisteries, found in Italy and in Asia Minor, were circular or octagonal. When immersion was no longer practiced, standing fonts took their place. In Italy separate baptisteries continued to be built, e.g., at Florence, in the 12th to 15th cent. Baptists Baptists, denomination of Protestant Christians holding that baptism is only for believers and solely by immersion. Begun (c.1608) by English SEPARATISTS in Amsterdam, it now has a membership of over 31 million worldwide. The first American congregation was founded (1639) by Roger WILLIAMS in Providence, R.I. The churches are congregational, with nongoverning general associations, e.g., the Southern Baptist Convention and the National Baptist Convention, U.S.A., Inc. Bar, Confederation of Bar, Confederation of (1768-72), union formed at Bar, Podolia (now W Ukraine, USSR), by a faction of Polish nobles and the Roman Catholic clergy for the purpose of defending Polish independence and Roman Catholicism, and of opposing Russian interference in Polish affairs. It also opposed the Russian-backed king, STANISLAUS II. In 1772 the confederation fought a bitter war against Russia; it ended with the dissolution of the confederation and the First Partition of Poland. Barabbas Barabbas, bandit whose release was granted to the mob by PONTIUS PILATE instead of JESUS. Mat. 27.15-18; Mark 15.6-15; Luke 23.13-25; John 18.39, 40. Baraka, Imamu Amiri Baraka, Imamu Amiri, 1934-, black American author and political activist; b. Newark, N.J., as LeRoi Jones. His works often express the black man's hatred for white society. Among his plays are Dutchman, The Toilet, and The Slave (all: 1964). He has also published a volume of selected poetry, another of plays and prose (both 1979), and an autobiography (1984) Baranov, Aleksandr Andreyevich Baranov, Aleksandr Andreyevich, 1747-1819, Russian trader. He governed (1800-1818) operations in Alaska for the Russian American Company. His dogged determination kept Russian activity in Alaska prosperous despite British and U.S. competition. Barbados Barbados, island state (1985 pop. 253,055), 166 sq mi (430 sq km), WEST INDIES, E of St. Vincent in the Windward Islands. The capital is Bridgetown. The easternmost of the major islands in the Windward chain, Barbados is generally low-lying, rising to no more than 1,104 ft (336 m), with no rivers, but ample rainfall from June to December. The porous soil and moderate warmth are ideal for the growing of sugarcane, traditionally the island's major occupation. Rum and molasses are exported, there is commercial fishing, and some light industry was introduced in the 1970s and early 1980s. However, the largest source of foreign exchange is tourism, the island having long been a favorite resort area. The population is mostly rural and about 95% of black African origin. The Portuguese probably discovered and named Barbados, but it was settled in the early 1600s by the British. The sugar economy that they introduced survived the abolition of slavery in 1834, and for a time Barbados served as the administrative capital of the Windward Islands. It became a separate colony of Britain in 1885 and an independent associated state of the Commonwealth in 1966. Barbarossa Barbarossa, c.1483-1546, Turkish corsair. He and his brother Aruj seized Algiers from Spain in 1518, and placed it and the other BARBARY STATES under Turkish suzerainty. As admiral of the Turkish fleet under SULAYMAN I, he twice defeated (1533, 1544) the Italian admiral DORIA and ravaged the coasts of Greece, Italy, and Spain. Barbarossa, Frederick Barbarossa, Frederick: see frederick i under FREDERICK, rulers of the Holy Roman Empire. Barbary States Barbary States, term historically applied to the North African states of Tripolitania, TUNISIA, ALGERIA and MOROCCO. In the 16th cent., led by the corsair BARBAROSSA, they came under Turkish suzerainty despite efforts by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V to defeat the Turks. As Turkish hold on them weakened, they became the home base for pirates who demanded booty, ransom, and slaves from raids on Mediterranean (and occasionally Atlantic) shipping and ports. The major European naval powers in general found it more convenient to pay tribute to the Barbary States than to try to destroy them. By the 19th cent., however, opposition to them was strong, and the TRIPOLITAN WAR reflected U.S. opposition. In 1830 France captured Algiers, and c.1835 Morocco was forced to abandon plans to rebuild its fleet-in effect ending Barbary Coast piracy. Barber, Samuel Barber, Samuel, 1910-81, American composer; b. West Chester, Pa. His music is lyrical and generally tonal. Among his major compositions are Adagio for Strings (1936); Knoxville: Summer of 1915 (1947), for soprano and orchestra; and the operas Vanessa (1956; Pulitzer) and Antony and Cleopatra (1966), commissioned to open the new METROPOLITAN OPERA House, at LINCOLN CENTER (N.Y.C.). Barbie, Klaus Barbie, Klaus, 1913-87, Nazi war criminal known as the "Butcher of Lyons." Gestapo chief in Lyons (1942-44), he was responsible for the deaths of French Resistance members and thousands of Jews. After the war he secretly served as a U.S. army agent in Germany. In 1951, he escaped and settled in Bolivia. When a civilian government took power, he was extradited to France (1983), found guilty of crimes against humanity, and sentenced to life imprisonment. Barbirolli, Sir John Barbirolli, Sir John, 1899-1970, English conductor and cellist. He succeeded TOSCANINI as conductor of the New York Philharmonic (1937-42) and later conducted (1960-67) the Houston Symphony Orchestra (see ORCHESTRA, ). barbiturate barbiturate, any depressant drug derived from barbituric acid. In low doses, barbiturates have a tranquilizing effect. Increased doses are hypnotic or sleep-inducing, and still larger doses act as anticonvulsants and anesthetics. Barbiturates are commonly taken as sleeping pills; such use may lead to psychological dependency, physiological tolerance, and even death by overdose (see DRUG ADDICTION AND DRUG ABUSE). Barbiturates do not relieve pain. Barbizon school Barbizon school, an informal association of French landscape painters that flourished c.1830-c.1870. Its name derives from the village of Barbizon, a favorite residence of members of the group. Theodore ROUSSEAU led the group, which also included Jules Dupre, Narciso Diaz de la Pena, Constant Troyon, and Charles DAUBIGNY. They rendered landscape from direct observation of nature, in a straightforward, anticlassical manner much influenced by 17th-cent. Dutch masters, including RUISDAEL and HOBBEMA. COROT and MILLET, although often linked with the group, stand outside its main line of development. The Barbizon school influenced late-19th- and early-20th-cent. American LANDSCAPE PAINTING. Barbuda Barbuda: see ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA. Barca Barca, surname of members of a powerful Carthaginian family: see HAMILCAR BARCA; HANNIBAL; HASDRUBAL. Barcelona Barcelona, city (1981 pop. 1,754,900), capital of Barcelona prov. and the chief city of CATALONIA, NE Spain, on the Mediterranean Sea. It is Spain's second largest city and largest port. Among its manufactures are textiles and machinery. Founded by settlers from CARTHAGE, it was held by the Romans and Visigoths; fell to the MOORS (8th cent.) and to CHARLEMAGNE (801); and was ruled from the 9th cent. by the counts of Barcelona. It reached its peak c.1400 as a center of trade, banking, and cloth-making. The center of the Catalan revolt against Spain (1640-52), it was the capital of the Catalan autonomous government (1932-39) and the seat of the Spanish Loyalist government (1938-39). Barcelona is a modern city with striking new buildings. Notable older structures include the Cathedral of Santa Eulalia (14th-15th cent.) and the Church of the Sagrada Familia (begun 1882), designed by Antonio GAUDI. The 1992 summer Olympic games are scheduled to be held in Barcelona. bar code bar code, an input/output device that identifies food and other products. It is an identifying code (it does not provide pricing information). The most common is the Universal Product Code (UPS), which provides for 12 numeric characters, each of which consists of two dark bars and two light bars. Bar codes are decoded by scanning the symbol optically in an X-shaped pattern. Bardeen, John Bardeen, John, 1908-, American physicist; b. Madison, Wis. He is known for his studies of semiconductivity and other aspects of SOLID-STATE PHYSICS. The first to win a Nobel Prize twice in the same field, Bardeen shared the 1956 physics prize with Walter Brattain and William Shockley, for work in developing the TRANSISTOR, and the 1972 physics prize with Leon Cooper and John Schreiffer, for their theory of SUPERCONDUCTIVITY. Barenboim, Daniel Barenboim, Daniel, 1942-, Israeli pianist and conductor; b. Argentina. He made his debut in Buenos Aires at seven. In 1967 he married the English cellist Jacqueline du Pre. He has played CHAMBER MUSIC and recorded widely. He was music director of the Orchestre de Paris from 1975 until 1989, when he disagreed with a public official about the orchestra. Barents Sea Barents Sea, arm of the Arctic Ocean, off N Norway and E USSR, partially enclosed by Franz Josef Land (N), Novaya Zemlya (E), and Svalbard (W). Remnants of the North Atlantic Drift, a continuation of the GULF STREAM, keep its ports, including MURMANSK and Vardo, ice-free throughout the year. Barentz Barentz or Barents, Willem,d. 1597, Dutch navigator. He made three expeditions to the arctic (1594, 1595, 1596-97) in search of the NORTHWEST PASSAGE. His importance lies in the extent of his explorations and the accuracy of his charts. Bar Harbor Bar Harbor, town (1986 est. pop. 4,120), SE Me., on Mount Desert Island and Frenchman Bay; settled 1763, inc. 1796. One of the most famous 19th-cent. resorts, it is near Acadia National Park (see NATIONAL PARKS, ) and has summer ferry service to Nova Scotia. A 1947 fire destroyed much of Bar Harbor. The renowned Jackson Laboratory for biological research (est. 1929) is located there. barite, barytes barite, barytes, or heavy spar,white, yellow, blue, red, or colorless barium sulfate mineral (BaSO4). Abundant worldwide in tabular crystals or in granular or massive form, barite is used as a commercial source of the element BARIUM, as a filler in the manufacture of linoleum, oilcloth, rubber, and plastics, and as a mud for sealing oil wells during drilling. baritone baritone: see VOICE. barium barium (Ba), metallic element, isolated by electrolysis in 1808 by Sir Humphry DAVY. It is a soft, silver-white ALKALINE-EARTH METAL. Its principal ore is BARITE. Various barium compounds are used as paint pigments, rat poison, a drying agent, and a water softener, and in pyrotechnics. See ELEMENT ; PERIODIC TABLE. bark bark, outer covering of the STEM of woody plants, composed of waterproof CORK cells (the outer bark) protecting a layer of food-conducting tissue (the inner bark or phloem). As the stem grows in size (see CAMBIUM), the outer bark gives way by splitting, shredding, or peeling in patterns typical of the species. Various barks are sources of textile fibers (e.g., HEMP, FLAX, and JUTE), tannin, cork, dyes, flavorings (e.g., CINNAMON), and drugs (e.g., QUININE). Barker, Harley Granville- Barker, Harley Granville-: see GRANVILLE-BARKER. Bar Kokba, Simon Bar Kokba, Simon, d. AD 135, Hebrew hero and leader of a major but unsuccessful revolt against Rome (AD132-135). In recent excavations at MASADA, Israeli archaeologists have found letters in his handwriting. Barlach, Ernst Barlach, Ernst, 1870-1938, pioneer German expressionist sculptor, graphic artist, and writer. He produced compact, angular sculptures and WOODCUTS that convey intense emotion and compassion. The NAZIS destroyed much of his work. He illustrated his own poems and plays. barley barley, annual cereal plant (Hordeum vulgare) of the GRASS family, widely cultivated except in hot and humid climates. Barley was known to the ancients and was the chief bread grain in Europe as late as the 16th cent. Today, each of the many varieties grown has a special purpose, e.g., for stock feed, for malting, as a minor source of flour, and in soups. Barlow, Joel Barlow, Joel, 1754-1812, American writer and diplomat; b. Redding, Conn. A CONNECTICUT WIT, he is known for his verse epic The Vision of Columbus (1787; rev. ed., The Columbiad, 1807) and his mock heroic eulogy The Hasty-Pudding (1793). His prose works include Advice to the Privileged Orders (1792) and a critique of the French Constitution of 1791. Barlow served as U.S. consul to Algiers, where he negotiated several treaties. He was killed during Napoleon I's retreat from Moscow. bar mitzvah bar mitzvah, Jewish ceremony in which a young male (traditionally at age 13) is initiated into the religious community and performs his first act as an adult, reading in the synagogue from the weekly portion of the TORAH. The bat (or bas) mitzvah is a comparable 20th-cent. ceremony for girls of 12 or 13. Barnabas, Saint Barnabas, Saint, Cypriot Christian apostle, relative of St. MARK; companion of St. PAUL on his first missionary journey. An epistle attributed to him is in the pseudepigrapha. barnacle barnacle, sedentary marine animal (subclass Cirripedia), a CRUSTACEAN. Barnacles permanently attach themselves to a substrate by means of an adhesive cement. They secrete a calcareous shell around themselves and form conspicuous encrusting colonies on rocks, pilings, boats, and some marine animals (e.g., whales, turtles). The attached end of the animal is the head; jointed legs (cirri) sweep food particles through the shell opening to the mouth. Some barnacles lack shells and are PARASITES of other invertebrates. Barnard, Christiaan Neethling Barnard, Christiaan Neethling, 1923-, South African surgeon. In 1958 he was appointed director of surgical research at Groote Schuur Hospital, Cape Town, where on Dec. 3, 1967, he completed the first human heart transplant. Barnard has designed artificial heart valves and developed surgical procedures for organ transplants. Barnard, Edward Emerson Barnard, Edward Emerson, 1857-1923, American astronomer; b. Nashville. An astronomer at Lick and Yerkes observatories, he discovered 16 comets, Jupiter's satellite Amalthea (1892), and Barnard's star (1916), a star having the largest observed proper motion. He took important photographs of comets, planets, nebulae, and the Milky Way. Barnard, Frederick Augustus Porter Barnard, Frederick Augustus Porter, 1809-89, American educator; b. Sheffield, Mass. While president (1864-89) of Columbia College (now Columbia Univ.) Barnard expanded the curriculum, added departments, and increased the enrollment from 150 to 1,500 students, turning a small undergraduate college into what would become (1896) a great university. He advocated equal education for men and women, and wrote extensively on education and other topics. He encouraged N.M. BUTLER in the founding of Teachers College, Columbia. Barnard College, for undergraduate women, is named for him. Barnard, Henry Barnard, Henry, 1811-1900, American educator; b. Hartford, Conn. As a member (1837-39) of the Connecticut legislature he secured passage in 1838 of an act providing better supervision of the common schools. He and Horace MANN became leaders in the reform of the country's common schools, and Barnard did pioneer work in school inspection, recommendation of textbooks, and organization of teachers' institutes and parent-teacher associations. The first U.S. commissioner of education (1867-70), he edited and published the American Journal of Education (31 vol., 1855-81). Barnard College Barnard College: see COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY. Barnburners Barnburners, radical element in the New York state Democratic party (1842-48), opposed to the conservative HUNKERS. The name derives from a fabled Dutchman who burned his barn to kill the rats; by implication, Barnburners favored destroying corporations and public works to rid them of abuses. They opposed the extension of slavery. Among their number were Martin VAN BUREN and S.J. TILDEN. After 1848 some Barnburners joined the FREE-SOIL PARTY. Barnes, Djuna Barnes, Djuna, 1892-1982, American author; b. Cornwall, N.Y. She is best known for Nightwood (1936), a novel marked by horror and decay. Other works include poetry, short stories, and a verse tragedy, Antiphon (1958). Barneveldt, Johan van Olden Barneveldt, Johan van Olden: see OLDENBARNEVELDT, JOHAN VAN. Barnum, P(hineas) T(aylor) Barnum, P(hineas) T(aylor), 1810-91, American showman; b. Bethel, Conn. In 1842 he opened his American Museum in New York City and immediately became famous for his extravagant advertising and his exhibits of freaks, including "Gen. TOM THUMB" and the original SIAMESE TWINS. Barnum managed the hugely successful U.S. tour of the Swedish singer Jenny LIND in 1850. In 1871 (after a brief political career) he opened his famous circus, "The Greatest Show on Earth." Merged with its chief competitor in 1881, it continued as Barnum & Bailey. Barocchio, Giacomo Barocchio, Giacomo: see VIGNOLA, GIACOMO DA. Baroja y Nessi, Pio Baroja y Nessi, Pio, 1879-1956, Spanish novelist from the BASQUE PROVINCES. His popular cyclical works include The Struggle for Existence (3 vol., 1904), about the Madrid underworld, and Memoirs of a Man of Action (22 vol., 1913-34), about 19th-cent. Spain. barometer barometer, instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure. The mercurial barometer consists of a mercury-filled glass tube that is sealed at one end and inverted in a cup of mercury. Pressure on the surface of the mercury in the cup supports the mercury in the tube, which varies in height depending on variations in atmospheric pressure. At 32 deg F (0 deg C), standard sea-level pressure (1 standard atmosphere) is 14.7 lb/in.2 (1,030 g/cm2), which is equivalent to a column of mercury 29.92 in. (76 cm) in height. The aneroid barometer contains a sealed, partially evacuated metallic box. As the air pressure on it varies, one of its surfaces expands or contracts; this motion is transmitted by a train of levers to a pointer, which shows the pressure on a graduated scale. In WEATHER forecasting, a rising barometer usually indicates fair weather; a rapidly falling barometer, stormy weather. Baron, Salo Wittmayer Baron, Salo Wittmayer, 1895-, American Jewish historian and educator; b. Galicia, Austria-Hungary. He taught at Columbia from 1930 to 1963, holding the first professorship of Jewish history in a U.S. university. His major work is the monumental Social and Religious History of the Jews (vol. I-XVII, 2d ed., 1952-80). Barons' War Barons' War, in English history, war of 1263-67 between HENRY III and his barons. In 1261 Henry reasserted his power and renounced the PROVISIONS OF OXFORD. Led by Simon de MONTFORT, the barons resorted to arms. They failed to establish control over the crown but helped prepare for the constitutional developments in the reign of EDWARD I. baroque baroque, in art and architecture, style developed in Europe, England, and Latin America during the 17th and 18th cent. Its essential characteristic is an emphasis on unity, a balance among diverse parts. Architecture took on the plastic aspects of sculpture and, along with sculpture, was enhanced by the chiaroscuro (high-contrast) effects of painting. Works in all media were produced on a grand scale. Illusionism increased an unequaled sense of drama, energy, and mobility of form. Baroque buildings, e.g., VERSAILLES, Christopher WREN'S churches, compelled order upon overwhelming multiple forms. Throughout Europe undulating facades and complex ground plans abounded. Fountains burst forth as joyous geysers and cascades. Deep PERSPECTIVE was developed in painting, e.g., by RUISDAEL and de HOOCH. Chiaroscuro intensified the works of CARAVAGGIO, ZURBARAN, Georges de LA TOUR, and REMBRANDT. Color was superbly exploited to diverse effect by VERMEER, RUBENS, CLAUDE LORRAIN, and Pietro da CORTONA. Sculptors used multiple materials for a single work, e.g., BERNINI'S Ecstasy of St. Theresa, which also exemplifies the baroque fascination with intense emotional states. Landscape subjects were ennobled by the CARRACCI, Ruisdael, HOBBEMA, Rembrandt, Salvator ROSA and Claude Lorrain, and GENRE and STILL LIFE by Vermeer, STEEN, de Hooch, and the LE NAINS. In the Early Baroque (c.1590-c.1625), the Roman artists Caravaggio, the Carracci, DOMENICHINO, and Guido RENI were position to France. Painters such as MURILLO used lighter colors and softer forms, and the baroque style gradually gave way to the ROCOCO. baroque baroque, in music, the period and style of composition and performance prevailing from the last decades of the 16th cent. to the beginning of the 18th cent. The 16th-cent. revolt against the POLYPHONY of the Renaissance gave rise to an emphasis on the character of individual voices and instruments and also on the use of HARMONY in composition. Use of the older church modes was replaced by major and minor TONALITY as the basis of composition. Principal forms of vocal writing of the period included the OPERA, ORATORIO, and CANTATA; instrumental writing included the SONATA, CONCERTO, and OVERTURE Barozzi, Giacomo: see VIGNOLA, GIACOMO DA. barracuda barracuda, slender, elongated, ferocious FISH (family Sphyraenidae) with a long snout and projecting lower jaw edged with large, sharp teeth. Found in tropical seas, barracudas will strike at anything that gleams and are excellent game fish. The great barracuda (Sphyraena barracuda), up to 10 ft (3 m) in length, is dangerous to swimmers. Barranquilla Barranquilla, city (1985 pop. 920,695), N Colombia, on the Magdalena R., 8 mi (12.9 km) from the Caribbean Sea. Founded in 1629, it developed as a port in the mid-19th cent., with the advent of steam navigation, and is now Colombia's principal port. Manufactures include aluminum sheets, Barrie, Sir J(ames) M(atthew), 1860-1937, Scottish playwright and novelist. Best remembered for his play Peter Pan (1904), a fantasy about a boy who refused to grow up, Barrie was a journalist and published Scottish sketches before the success of his novel The Little Minister (1891). Its dramatization (1897) established him as a playwright. Barron, James Barron, James, 1769-1851, U.S. naval officer; b. Hampton, Va. He was court-martialed for failing to clear his ship, the Chesapeake, for action during an 1807 incident with the British ship Leopard. In 1820 he mortally wounded Stephen DECATUR in a duel. Barrow, Sir John Barrow, Sir John, 1764-1848, British geographer. As second secretary of the admiralty, he promoted scientific voyages and instigated arctic expeditions by John ROSS and William Parry. He helped found (1830) the Royal Geographical Society. Point Barrow, Cape Barrow, and Barrow Strait bear his name. Barrow Barrow, city (1980 pop. 2,207), N Alaska, inc. 1958. The main trade center of N Alaska, it has government and military facilities. The population is predominantly ESKIMO, and the area has been inhabited for centuries. Hunting, fishing and whaling, and Eskimo crafts are important. North Slope oil production is beginning to affect the local economy. barrow barrow, in archaeology, burial mound, built usually of earth and stone or timber, perhaps to simulate cave burial. In W Europe long barrows date from the New STONE AGE and round barrows from the BRONZE AGE. More recent Asian round barrows (STUPAS) usually house Buddhist relics. See also MOUND BUILDERS. Barry, Philip Barry, Philip, 1896-1949, American playwright; b. Rochester, N.Y. He is primarily known for his satirical comedies, e.g., Holiday (1928), Tomorrow and Tomorrow (1931), The Animal Kingdom (1932), and The Philadelphia Story (1939). Barrymore Barrymore, Anglo-American family of actors. The first of the name, Maurice Barrymore, 1847-1905, was an Englishman; b. India as Herbert Blythe. A handsome leading man, he came to the U.S. in 1875 to appear with Augustin Daly's company. His wife, Georgiana Drew Barrymore, 1856-93, b. Philadelphia, was a great comedienne. She began her career with the company of her parents, Louisa and John DREW, and acted with her husband in Mme Modjeska's troupe. Their elder son, Lionel Barrymore, 1878-1954, b. Philadelphia, was a much admired character actor remembered for his film roles in A Free Soul (1931; Academy Award) and Dinner at Eight (1933), and for his annual radio portrayal of Scrooge in A Christmas Carol. His sister, Ethel Barrymore, 1879-1959, an actress of dignity and warmth, achieved success in Captain Jinks of the Horse Marines (1901) and is remembered for The Corn Is Green (1940) and the film None but the Lonely Heart (1944; Academy Award). Their brother, John Barrymore, 1882-1942, a tempestuous matinee idol, was also a distinguished actor, famous for his electrifying Hamlet (1922). His films include Grand Hotel (1932) and Twentieth Century (1934). Barth, Karl Barth, Karl, 1886-1968, Swiss Protestant theologian, one of the leading thinkers of 20th-cent. Protestantism. A Swiss minister, he became a professor (1921-35) in Germany, and opposed the Nazi regime. Deported to Switzerland, he later taught at Basel, where he continued to expound his views, known as dialectical theology or theology of the word. Barth sought to reassert the principles of the Reformation. He saw the central concern of theology as the word of God and His revelation in Jesus Christ, which he thought was the only means for God to reveal Himself to humans, who must listen in awe, trust, and obedience. Among his many works is his Church Dogmatics (vol. I-IV, 1932-62). Barthelme, Donald Barthelme, Donald, 1931-, American writer; b. Philadelphia. He uses idiosyncratic language and symbol to fit his vision of an absurd reality. His work includes the novels Snow White (1967) and The Dead Father (1975) and the short-story collections City Life (1971) and Sixty Stories (1981). Barthes, Roland Barthes, Roland, 1915-80, French literary critic, the major theorist of semiology (see SEMIOTICS; STRUCTURALISM). In Writing Degree Zero (1953) he attempted to distinguish "scription," the act of writing, from conventional categories of language and style. He followed that work with controversial studies of aspects of French culture. In Elements of Semiology (1964), Barthes systematized the study of signs proposed earlier by Ferdinand de SAUSSURE. In his other works he applied his linguistic theories to cliches of national culture, the work of individual writers, photography, and other topics. Bartholdi, Frederic Auguste Bartholdi, Frederic Auguste, 1834-1904, French sculptor; b. Alsace. He produced numerous monumental sculptures, including the Lion of Belfort and his most famous work, Liberty Enlightening the World, on Liberty Island, New York Bay (see LIBERTY, STATUE OF). Bartholomew, Saint Bartholomew, Saint, one of the Twelve Disciples; identified with NATHANAEL. By tradition he was a missionary in India. Bartok, Bela Bartok, Bela, 1881-1945, Hungarian composer and collector of folk music. Utilizing folk elements, ATONALITY, and traditional techniques, he achieved an original modern style that has had great influence on 20th-cent. music. Bartok became known for his compositions for piano, e.g., Mikrokosmos (1926-27); for violin, e.g., Music for Strings, Percussion, and Celesta (1936), and for orchestra, e.g., Concerto for Orchestra (1943). In 1940 he emigrated to the U.S. and was commissioned by Columbia Univ. to transcribe a large collection of Yugoslav folk melodies. Barton, Clara Barton, Clara, 1821-1912, American humanitarian; b. Oxford, Mass. Called the Angel of the Battlefield, she set up a supply service during the CIVIL WAR, was nurse in army camps and on battlefields, and led searches for the missing. After working behind German lines for the International Red Cross in the FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR, she organized (1881) the American RED CROSS, which she headed until 1904. Bartram, John Bartram, John, 1699-1777, pioneer American botanist; b. near Darby, Pa. He planted the first botanical garden in the U.S. His exchange of many plants with the great European botanists introduced many American plants into Europe and established some European species in the New World. In search of new plants he made many journeys around the North American continent, including trips to the Alleghenies, the Catskills, the Carolinas, and Florida. Baruch, Bernard Mannes Baruch, Bernard Mannes, 1870-1965, U.S. financier and government adviser; b. Camden, S.C. An industrial and economic adviser to the government during both world wars, Baruch was U.S. representative (1946) to the UN Atomic Energy Commission. Baruch Baruch, book included in the OLD TESTAMENT of the Western canon and the Septuagint but not in the Hebrew Bible, and placed in the APOCRYPHA in the Authorized Version. Named for a Jewish prince, Baruch (fl. 600 BC), a friend of the prophet JEREMIAH and the editor of his book, it includes a message from exiled Jews to those still at home, a famous messianic allusion, a consolation, and a letter of Jeremiah. baryon baryon: see ELEMENTARY PARTICLES. Baryshnikov, Mikhail Baryshnikov, Mikhail (mi'khail bariy'shnikak'v) 1948-, Russian-American dancer and choreographer; b. Riga, Latvia. He studied in Riga and performed with the KIROV BALLET (1966-74). He defected (1974) to the West, danced with the AMERICAN BALLET THEATRE (1974-78) and the NEW YORK CITY BALLET (1978-79), and became director of the ABT. He acted in the movie The Turning Point (1977). barytes barytes: see BARITE. Barzun, Jacques Barzun, Jacques, 1907-, American scholar; b. France. He began teaching history at Columbia Univ. in 1928. Later he was dean of the graduate faculties (1955-58) and dean of faculties and provost (1958-67). He has written on a variety of subjects, e.g., Darwin, Marx, Wagner (1941). basal metabolism basal metabolism: see METABOLISM. basalt basalt, fine-grained igneous ROCK of volcanic origin, with a high percentage of iron and magnesium, in a range of dark colors. Its texture varies depending on conditions of cooling. Most of the world's great LAVA flows (e.g., the COLUMBIA PLATEAU in the NW U.S.) are basalt. It underlies the sediment cover in the world's oceans and is believed to underlie the CONTINENTS as well. Many of the lunar rocks obtained by the Apollo astronauts are basalt. base base, in chemistry: see ACIDS AND BASES. baseball baseball, the "national game" of the U.S., popular also in Japan and in Cuba, Puerto Rico, Mexico, and other Latin American countries. It derives its name from the four bases, spaced 90 ft (27.43 m) apart on the inner playing field (the diamond). Cowhide-covered hard balls, wooden bats, and padded gloves constitute the basic equipment. A game is played by two opposing teams of nine players each-a pitcher, a catcher, four infielders, and three outfielders. To win, a team must score more runs in nine innings than its opponent, a run being a complete circuit of the bases. Extra innings are played to resolve ties. A form of baseball, doubtless derived from the English games of CRICKET and rounders, was played in the early 19th cent. The belief that Abner Doubleday invented the modern game in 1839 has been largely refuted. In the U.S., two main professional associations form the major leagues. The National League (organized in 1876) and the American League (1900) comprise a total of 26 teams representing U.S. and two Canadian cities. Champions of each league meet annually in the World Series. Major-league baseball became truly national in scope with the westward migration of several franchises, beginning in 1953, when the Boston Braves moved to Milwaukee. During the 1960s the number of clubs expanded from 16 to 24, with two divisions in each league. The game's greatest figures are elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame, at Cooperstown, N.Y. (opened 1939). Baseball is also played by minor-league professional clubs and by semiprofessional, amateur, college, and school teams. Basel Baselor Basle, city (1985 est. pop. 174,600), N Switzerland, divided by the Rhine R. A river port and financial center, it is the seat of the Swiss chemical and pharmaceutical industries. Founded by the Romans, it became (7th cent.) an episcopal see and (11th cent.) a free imperial city. It was the residence of prince-bishops, expelled after Basel accepted (1523) the Reformation. Its university attracted ERASMUS (who is buried in the 11th-cent. cathedral), HOLBEIN the Younger, John CALVIN, and NIETZSCHE. The city houses a valuable collection of Holbein's work. Basel, Council of Basel, Council of, 1431-49, council of the Roman Catholic Church. Called primarily to discuss the HUSSITE heresy it accepted the conciliar theory that ultimate authority in the church rests in the council and not with the pope. After being denounced (1437) by Pope EUGENE IV, the council deposed him and elected (1439) AMADEUS VIII (antipope Felix V). Lacking support, Felix resigned (1449); the council then recognized Eugene's successor and dissolved. basenji basenji, medium-sized HOUND; shoulder height, c.17 in. (43.2 cm); weight, c.23 lb (10.4 kg). Its short, silky coat is chestnut, red, black, or black and tan, with white markings. Bred in ancient Africa and at the courts of Egypt's pharaohs, it whines rather than barks and cleans itself like a cat. Basho Basho, 1644-94, usually considered the foremost Japanese HAIKU poet. He did not in fact write haiku but composed stanzas of haikai no renga (a sequence of linked verses, usually by a group of poets). The 17-syllable opening, and most important, stanza (hokku) was later separated as the verse form haiku. A master of both hokku and the integration of verses in a sequence, Basho imbued what was formerly a social pastime with the spirit of ZEN BUDDHISM, attending to the often lowly details of everyday life in the context of the eternal. BASIC BASIC: see PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE. Basie, Count Basie, Count (William Basie), 1904-84, black American JAZZ pianist and bandleader; b. Red Bank, N.J. He worked in New York City and Kansas City, where he formed (1935) a highly influential band that continues to present a powerful yet relaxed style of music featuring his own laconic piano. Basil Basil, Byzantine emperors. Basil I (the Macedonian), c.813-86 (r.867-86), was the favorite of and co-ruler (866) with MICHAEL III, whose murder (867) he ordered. Basil reformed finance and law, protected the poor, and restored the empire's military prestige. Art and architecture flourished during his rule. He tried to prevent an open break between the Eastern and Western churches. Basil II, c.958-1025 (r.976-1025), followed the usurpers NICEPHORUS II and JOHN I as co-ruler with his debauched brother, Constantine VIII. Basil suppressed rebellious landowners and strengthened the laws against them. He annexed (1018) Bulgaria and extended the empire east to the Caucasus. The schism between the Eastern and Western churches increased during his reign. basil basil, tender herb or small shrub (genus Ocimum) of the MINT family, cultivated for the aromatic leaves. Common, or sweet, basil (O. basilicum) is used for seasoning. Holy basil and bush basil are related plants. basilica basilica, large Roman building used to transact business and legal matters. Often rectangular, with a roofed hall, it usually had an interior colonnade, with an APSE at one or both ends. The wide central aisle was usually higher than the flanking aisles, so that light could penetrate through the clerestory windows. Early examples are in Rome and Pompeii. In the 4th cent. Christians began to build places of worship related in form in Europe and the Middle East, e.g., the Church of the Nativity at Bethlehem (6th cent.). The massive Romanesque churches still retained the fundamental plan of the basilica. Baskerville, John Baskerville, John, 1706-75, English printer and, with CASLON, one of two great 18th-cent. English TYPE designers. His type faces introduced the modern pseudoclassical style, emphasizing the contrast of light and heavy lines. His books are typically large, with wide margins, and made with excellent paper and ink. Printer for Cambridge Univ. after 1758, he produced a famous folio Bible (1763). basketball basketball, game played generally indoors by two opposing teams of five players each. At each end of the court-usually about 92 ft (28 m) long and 50 ft (15 m) wide-is a bottomless basket made of cord net and suspended from a metal ring attached 10 ft (3.05 m) above the floor to a backboard. The ball may be passed, batted, or dribbled (bounced), but the players may not run with it. Players of one team attempt to shoot the ball through one basket while seeking to keep the opposition from scoring through the other basket. Each field goal, or basket, scores two points (sometimes three points in professional basketball); foul shots, awarded mostly for illegal body contact, count one point. Overtime periods are played to break ties. Basketball was originated (1891) in Springfield, Mass., by Dr. James Naismith of the YMCA. It quickly grew into a leading U.S. school and college sport and spread throughout the world, becoming (1936) a part of the OLYMPIC GAMES. Professional basketball gained great popularity in the U.S. after the formation (1949) of the National Basketball Association (NBA). U.S. women's basketball developed rapidly in the 1970s on professional, collegiate, and high school levels. basketry basketry, art of weaving or coiling flexible materials to form utensils for the preparation, storage, or serving of food; boats; huts; traps; apparel; and other objects. Twigs, roots, hide, bamboo, cane, raffia, grass, or straw are used. In antiquity, Egyptians (4000-5000 BC) used baskets for storing grain, and North American Indians of the Southwest (c.1500 BC) covered baskets with clay and baked them to create fireproof cooking vessels, anticipating pottery. In some parts of the world pottery preceded basketry. Baskin, Leonard Baskin, Leonard, 1922-, American artist; b. New Brunswick, N.J. Known for his powerful figurative graphics and sculpture, e.g., Man with a Dead Bird (Mus. Mod. Art, N.Y.C.), Baskin is also an influential teacher. Basque Provinces Basque Provinces, comprising the provinces of Alava, Guipuzcoa, and Vizcaya, N Spain, on the Bay of Biscay, bordering France in the northeast. In Alava and Guipuzcoa the major occupations are the mining of iron, lead, copper, and zinc; shipbuilding; metalworking; and fishing. Alava is largely agricultural. Nationalism is strong among the BASQUES, and in 1980 the provinces were granted regional autonomy. Basque terrorists, however, continue to press for total independence. Basques Basques, people of N Spain and SW France, numbering 2 million. Probably the oldest ethnic group in Europe, they preserve their ancient, unique language, and their customs and traditions. Since Paleolithic times the Basques have been genetically and culturally distinct. Mostly peasants, shepherds, fishermen, navigators, miners, and metalworkers, they have produced such famous figures as St. IGNATIUS OF LOYOLA and St. FRANCIS XAVIER. The Basques accepted Christianity late (3d-5th cent.). In the 6th cent. they expanded northward into Gascony, to which they gave their name. The kingdom of NAVARRE, founded in 824, united almost all Basques, but after its conquest (1512) by CASTILE Basque prosperity declined. Of the Basque provinces, only Navarre supported the Franco forces in the SPANISH CIVIL WAR (1936-39). Basque nationalism in Spain, often involving violent incidents, continued into the 1980s. Basra Basra, city (1970 est. pop. 333,684), SE Iraq, on the SHATT AL ARAB. Iraq's only port, it has a commercially advantageous location near oil fields and 75 mi (121 km) from the PERSIAN GULF. Since 1948 many oil refineries have been built in the city. Basra was founded (AD 636) by the caliph Umar I and was a cultural center under HARUN AR-RASHID. In 1982 the area around Basra was the scene of heavy fighting in the IRAN-IRAQ WAR. bass bass, any of various FISHES of the families Serranidae (sea basses) and Centrarchidae (black basses and sunfishes). Sea basses, a large, diverse family of fishes with oblong, rather compressed bodies, inhabit warm and temperate seas worldwide and are highly valued as food and game fish. The largest sea basses are GROUPERS. Sunfishes, spiny-finned, freshwater fishes with flattened bodies, are found in North America. Black basses, averaging 2 to 3 lb (.9 to 1.4 kg), are the most valuable American freshwater game fishes. bass bass: see VOICE. Bassano, Jacopo Bassano, Jacopo, c.1515-1592, Venetian mannerist painter (see MANNERISM); b. Jacopo da Ponte. Primarily a painter of biblical themes, he introduced vignettes of country life into his works, e.g., Annunciation to the Shepherds (National Gall., Wash., D.C.). His sons Francesco Bassano, 1549-92, and Leandro Bassano, 1558-1623, were also painters. basset hound basset hound, short-legged, long-bodied HOUND; shoulder height, 12-15 in. (30.1-38.1 cm); weight, 25-50 lb (11.3-22.7 kg). Its short, dense coat is black, tan, or white, or a combination. The breed was developed centuries ago in France to hunt game in heavy ground cover. bassoon bassoon: see WIND INSTRUMENT. basswood basswood: see LINDEN. Bastille Bastille, fortress and prison in Paris, begun c.1369, now demolished. The Bastille became a hated symbol of absolutism because it was used for arbitrary and secret imprisonment by the crown. On July 14, 1789, a Parisian mob stormed the prison, hoping to seize its store of ammunition, but found only seven prisoners. This marked the start of lower-class participation in the FRENCH REVOLUTION. July 14-Bastille Day-became a national holiday in France. bat bat, the only MAMMAL (order Chiroptera) capable of true flight. Numbering between 1,000 and 2,000 species, bats range in size from less than 1 in. (2.5 cm) to 15 in. (45 cm), with a wingspan of from less than 2 in. (5 cm) to 5 ft (150 cm). The body is furry and mouselike, with the forelimbs and extensions of the skin of the back and belly modified to form wings. Bats are most abundant in the tropics, and temperate species often hibernate or migrate to warmer areas in the winter. Most species frequent crevices, caves, or buildings, and are active at night or twilight; they roost during the day, often in large numbers and usually hanging by their feet. Most bats see well but depend on echolocation to navigate in the dark. Bats are fruit-eaters (fruit, nectar, pollen) or insect-eaters (fruit, insects, small animals, and fish); one species, the South American vampire bat, feeds exclusively on the blood of living animals, chiefly mammals. Bataan Bataan, peninsula and province (1981 pop. 321,860), W Luzon, the Philippines, between Manila Bay and the South China Sea. The capital is Batanga. A mountainous jungle region with bamboo forests, Bataan has a pulp and paper mill, fertilizer plant, and oil refinery. Subsistence farming is also carried on. U.S. and Filipino troops captured on Bataan (April 1942) by the Japanese in WORLD WAR II underwent a brutal "death march" to a prison camp; thousands died. Batavian Republic Batavian Republic, name for the United Provinces of the Netherlands (1795-1806) after their conquest by the French in the FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS. In 1806 NAPOLEON I made Batavia into the kingdom of Holland under his brother Louis Bonaparte (see BONAPARTE family). Bates, Henry Walter Bates, Henry Walter, 1825-92, English naturalist and explorer. His pioneering theory of mimicry, explaining similarity among species, was used by Charles DARWIN as a proof of his theory of natural selection. During travels (1848-59) along the upper Amazon R., he collected specimens of nearly 15,000 animal species (mostly insects), more than 8,000 previously unclassified. Bath Bath, city (1986 est. pop. 84,400), Avon, SW England. In the 1st cent. AD the Romans built elaborate baths at the natural hot springs. Bath became England's most fashionable spa in the 18th cent., and the Georgian architecture and Roman baths remain tourist attractions. Bath, Order of the Bath, Order of the: see DECORATIONS, CIVIL AND MILITARY. batholith batholith, enormous mass of igneous ROCK, granitic in composition, with steep walls and without visible floors. Batholiths commonly extend over thousands of square miles. Their method of formation is controversial; most appear to have moved up through the earth's crust in a molten state, shattering and incorporating the overlying country rock. Bathory Bathory, Hungarian noble family. Stephen Bathory, 1477-1534, a supporter of JOHN I of Hungary, was made (1529) voivode governor of Transylvania. His younger son, STEPHEN BATHORY, became (1575) king of Poland and was succeeded as prince of Transylvania by his brother, Christopher Bathory, 1530-81. Christopher's son and successor, Sigismund Bathory, 1572-1613, was mentally unbalanced. He abdicated (1597, 1599) for brief periods, and finally in 1602. Other family members included Elizabeth Bathory, d. 1614, who was reputed to be a werewolf. To renew her youth, she is said to have slaughtered virgins and bathed in their blood. Gabriel Bathory, 1589-1613, became (1608) prince of Transylvania and was killed in a revolt by nobles against his rule. Bath-sheba Bath-sheba, in the BIBLE, wife of Uriah the Hittite. DAVID seduced her, effected the death of her husband, and married her. She was the mother of SOLOMON. 2 Sam. 11;12; I Kings 1-2. batik batik, method of decorating fabric used for centuries in Indonesia. With melted wax, a design is applied to the cloth (cotton or, sometimes, silk), which is then dipped in cool vegetable dye. Areas covered by wax do not receive the dye and display a light pattern on the colored ground. The process may be repeated several times. When the design is complete, the wax is removed in hot water. A crackling effect occurs if dye has seeped into cracks of hardened wax. The same or similar patterns have been used for c.1,000 years. Batik was brought to Europe by Dutch traders, was adopted in the 19th cent. by Western craftsmen, and is still widely used. Batista y Zaldivar, Fulgencio Batista y Zaldivar, Fulgencio, 1901-73, Cuban dictator (1933-44, 1952-59). An army sergeant, he took part in the 1933 military coup and, as army chief of staff, became de facto ruler of CUBA and its elected president (1940-44). He accepted his candidate's defeat in 1944, but in 1952 he seized power and had himself elected president (1954, 1958). His corrupt rule caused popular discontent, and he fled (1959) the country during the CASTRO revolution. bat mitzvah bat mitzvah: see under BAR MITZVAH. Baton Rouge Baton Rouge [Fr., = red stick], city (1986 est. pop. 369,250), state capital and seat of East Baton Rouge parish, SE La., on the Mississippi R.; inc. 1817. A deepwater port and trade hub, it is a major center of petrochemical production with large refineries and machine shops. The city was founded in 1719 and was alternately French, English, and Spanish. Acquired by the U.S. in 1815, it became state capital in 1849. The old (1882) and new (1932) capitols, many antebellum homes, and Louisiana State Univ. are among the points of interest. Batory Batory: see STEPHEN BATHORY and BATHORY, family. Battenberg Battenberg, German princely family, issued from the morganatic union of Alexander, a younger son of Louis II, grand duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, and countess Julia von Hauke, who was created princess of Battenberg in 1858. Their oldest son, Louis (1854-1921), an admiral in the British navy, was created marquess of Milford Haven and married a granddaughter of Queen VICTORIA. During World War I, he anglicized his name to Mountbatten. He was the father of Louis MOUNTBATTEN and the grandfather of Philip, duke of EDINBURGH. Alexander's second son was Prince Alexander of Bulgaria. A third son, Henry, married Beatrice, daughter of Queen Victoria; their daughter, Victoria, married ALFONSO XIII of Spain. battery, electric battery, electric: see CELL, in electricity. Battle above the Clouds Battle above the Clouds: see CHATTANOOGA CAMPAIGN. Battle of Britain Battle of Britain: see WORLD WAR II. baud baud, a measure of the speed with which a signal travels over a telecommunications link. It is expressed in terms of the number of events that take place in one second, e.g., in COMPUTER input/output, one baud is equal to one bit per second. Baudelaire, Charles Baudelaire, Charles, 1821-67, French poet whose work has been a major influence on Western poetry. His poems, classical in form, introduced symbolism (see SYMBOLISTS). Baudelaire was moody and rebellious, imbued with an intense religious mysticism, and his work reflects an unremitting inner despair. His main theme is the inseparable nature of beauty and corruption. His major work, The Flowers of Evil (1857), originally condemned as obscene, is recognized as a masterpiece, especially remarkable for the brilliant phrasing, rhythm, and expressiveness of its lyrics. Baudouin Baudouin, 1930-, king of the Belgians (1951-). He joined his father, LEOPOLD III, in exile (1945-50) in Switzerland and became king when Leopold abdicated. Bauhaus Bauhaus, school of art and architecture in Germany. It was founded at Weimar in 1919 and headed by Walter GROPIUS; its faculty included Paul KLEE, Lyonel FEININGER, Wassily KANDINSKY, Laszlo MOHOLY-NAGY, and Marcel BREUER. The teaching concentrated on functional craftsmanship applied to industrial problems of mass production. Bauhaus style was characterized by severely economic, geometric design and by respect for materials. Enormously controversial and unpopular, the school moved in 1925 to Dessau. Gropius resigned in 1928 and was succeeded by Johannes Meyer, who was replaced in 1930 by MIES VAN DER ROHE. The Bauhaus moved again to Berlin in 1932 and was closed by the NAZIS in 1933. Its influence in design of architecture, furniture, typography, and weaving found international acclaim and continued to flourish in the U.S., especially at the Chicago Institute of Design, founded by Moholy-Nagy. Baum, L(yman) Frank Baum, L(yman) Frank, 1856-1919, American journalist, playwright, and author of juvenile stories; b. Chittenango, N.Y. His most famous work is The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1900), which was made into a movie in 1938. Baum published 13 more Oz books. bauxite bauxite, mixture of hydrated aluminum oxides usually containing oxides of iron and silicon. A noncrystalline substance formerly thought to be a mineral, bauxite is claylike, ranging from white to brown or red in color, and is the chief source of ALUMINUM and its compounds. It is widely distributed, with important deposits in Africa, South America, France, the USSR, the West Indies, and the U.S. Bavaria Bavaria, Ger. Bayern, state (1986 pop. 10,993,400), 27,239 sq mi (70,549 sq km), S West Germany. It is the largest state of West Germany. Forestry and agriculture are important occupations, and much of its industry is centered in MUNICH, the capital. The region, whose boundaries have often varied, was conquered (15 BC) by the Romans and invaded (6th cent. AD) by the Baiuoarii, who set up a duchy. In 788 CHARLEMAGNE added Bavaria to his empire. It was ruled (788-911) by the CAROLINGIANS and in 1070 passed to the GUELPH family. In 1180 the Holy Roman Emperor bestowed the duchy on the WITTELSBACH family, who ruled it until 1918. In 1806 it became a kingdom. Bavaria joined the German Empire in 1871 and became the chief German state after Prussia. The monarchy was overthrown in 1918, and Bavaria later joined the Weimar Republic. Following World War II, Bavaria became (1949) part of West Germany. Bavarian Succession, War of the Bavarian Succession, War of the, between Austria and PRUSSIA, 1778-79. In 1777 Charles Theodore, the duke of Bavaria, in a secret treaty with JOSEPH II, the Holy Roman emperor, ceded Lower BAVARIA to Austria. The Bavarian heir apparent, advised by FREDERICK II of Prussia, protested the transfer. The resulting war, with no significant engagements, ended with Austria's renunciation of all but a small portion of Lower Bavaria. Bax, Sir Arnold Edward Trevor Bax, Sir Arnold Edward Trevor, 1883-1953, English composer. He studied piano at the Royal Academy of Music. Known for his symphonic poems, The Garden of Fand (1916) and Tintagel (1917), he also wrote seven symphonies, each dedicated to a favorite composer. He became (1941) Master of the King's Music. Influenced by Irish folklore, he wrote poetry and prose in Ireland under the name Dermot O'Byrne. Bayamon Bayamon, city (1980 pop. 185,087), NE Puerto Rico, a residential and industrial suburb of San Juan. Bayamon was established in 1772. Fruit is a major product; manufactures include clothing, furniture, and metal products. bayberry bayberry, common name for the Myricaceae, a family of chiefly temperate and subtropical aromatic trees and shrubs. The waxy gray berries of some species (mainly Myrica cerifera) are used to make bayberry candles, scented soap, and sealing wax. Sweet gale (M. gale) yields tannic acid; sweet fern (Comptonia peregrina) is used for medicines and tea. Bayeux tapestry Bayeux tapestry, an embroidery chronicling the Norman conquest of England (see under WILLIAM, kings of England). It is a strip of linen, 230 ft by 20 in. (70 m by 51 cm) in the Bayeux Museum, France. Attributed to William's wife, Queen Matilda, it is a valuable document on the history and costumes of the time. Baykal Baykalor Baikal, lake, SE Siberian USSR. Nearly 400 mi (650 km) long, it is the largest (12,160 sq mi/31,494 sq km) freshwater lake in Eurasia. It is also believed to be the deepest lake in the world, its maximum known depth being 5,714 ft (1,742 m). The lake is in danger of pollution because of recent industrial development near its shores. Bay of Pigs Invasion Bay of Pigs Invasion, 1961, unsuccessful invasion of Cuba by U.S.-backed Cuban exiles. On Apr. 17, 1961, about 1,500 Cuban exiles landed in the Bahia de Cochinos (Bay of Pigs) with the aim of ousting the Communist regime of Fidel CASTRO. They had been trained in Guatemala by the CIA, supplied with U.S. arms. Most were captured or killed by the Cuban army. The U.S. government was severely criticized for the attack at home and abroad. In December 1962, Cuba traded 1,113 captured rebels for $53 million in food and medicine raised by private donations in the U.S. Bayreuth Festival Bayreuth Festival: see MUSIC FESTIVAL . bazooka bazooka, military weapon consisting of a portable, lightweight tube that serves as a rocket launcher, usually operated by two men. Developed by the U.S. as an INFANTRY weapon for use against TANKS, pillboxes, and bunkers, it was widely employed during World War II and the Korean War but was later superseded by more powerful, accurate weapons, notably recoilless weapons and antitank missiles. Be Be, chemical symbol of the element BERYLLIUM. Beach, Moses Yale Beach, Moses Yale, 1800-1868, American journalist; b. Wallingford, Conn. As owner of the New York Sun, Beach vied with his chief competitor, James Gordon BENNETT of the Herald, in employing ingenious means of getting news fast, e.g., carrier pigeons. Rising costs led to the formation of the New York Associated Press, partly at Beach's instigation (see NEWS AGENCY). His weekly American Sun was the first European edition of an American paper. Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st earl of Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st earl of: see DISRAELI, BENJAMIN. Beadle, George Wells Beadle, George Wells, 1903-, American geneticist; b. Wahoo, Nebr. For their work on the bread mold Neurospora crassa, which showed that genes control cellular production of enzymes and thus the basic chemistry of cells, Beadle and Edward TATUM shared the 1958 Noble Prize in physiology or medicine with Joshua LEDERBERG. beagle beagle, small, compact HOUND; shoulder height, 10-15 in. (25.4-38.1 cm); weight, 20-40 lb (9.1-18.1 kg). Its short, close-lying, harsh coat is usually black, tan, and white. Developed in England to hunt hares, it was introduced into the U.S. in the 1870s. bean bean, name for seeds of trees and shrubs of the PULSE family, and for various plants of the family having edible seeds or seed pods. True beans are in the genus Phaseolus. The COWPEA, CAROB, and CHICK-PEA are sometimes considered beans. Cultivated worldwide, beans are an important food staple. They are high in protein and often used as a meat substitute. bear bear, large MAMMAL of the family Ursidae, found almost exclusively in the Northern Hemisphere. Bears have large heads, bulky bodies, short, powerful, clawed limbs, and coarse, thick fur; almost all are omnivorous. In cold climates, bears do not hibernate (see HIBERNATION) but sleep most of the winter; their metabolism remains normal, and they may wake and emerge during warm spells. North American brown bears include the Kodiak bear and the grizzly. The Kodiak, the largest bear, sometimes stands 9 ft (2.7 m) high and weighs over 1,600 lb (730 kg). The grizzly, characterized by silver-tipped (grizzled) fur, is more highly carnivorous than most bears and preys on large mammals such as deer. The most widespread North American bear is the black bear, smaller than the brown bears and ranging in color from light brown to black. The large, white polar bear is an arctic species. A solitary, fearless hunter, it is a powerful swimmer and feeds mostly on marine animals. Beard, Charles A(ustin) Beard, Charles A(ustin), 1874-1948, American historian; b. near Knightstown, Ind. As a professor at Columbia Univ. he taught that history encompasses all aspects of civilization. He was particularly interested in the relationship of economics and politics and in 1913 published An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution. Beard helped to found the New School for Social Research. With his wife, Mary Ritter Beard (1876-1958), he wrote The Rise of American Civilization (2 vol., 1927) and its sequels (vol. 3 and vol. 4),America in Midpassage (1939) and The American Spirit (1943). Bearden, Romare Bearden, Romare, 1914-88, American painter; b. Charlotte, N.C., raised in Harlem. Rendered in vibrant, flat planes, often with collage, his works deal with the black experience in America. His work appears in many museum collections. Beardsley, Aubrey Vincent Beardsley, Aubrey Vincent, 1872-98, English illustrator and writer. His unique, largely self-taught work was influenced by Greek vase painting, Japanese woodcuts, and the French ROCOCO. He developed a superbly artificial, flat, linear, black-and-white style, illustrating macabre, often erotic themes for books, e.g., Oscar WILDE'S Salome (1894), and periodicals, e.g., The Yellow Book (1894-96), for which he was art editor. He died at 26 of tuberculosis. bearing bearing, machine part used to reduce FRICTION between moving surfaces and to support moving loads. There are two principal types. A plain, or journal, bearing is a cylinder that supports a rotating shaft such as a motor shaft; its inner lining, the bushing, is usually made of a metal softer than that of the shaft, so that any slight misalignment of the shaft can be adjusted by an equivalent wearing of the bushing. An antifriction bearing is a cylinder containing a movable inner ring of small steel balls (the ball bearings used primarily in light machinery) or larger cylindrical rollers. The rotating machine part fits into a center of the ring, which takes up the motion of the rotating part, distributing and reducing friction through the movement of its bearings. beat frequency beat frequency, half of the difference of the frequencies of two sets of waves traveling in the same direction. Sets of waves combine to form a beat, which has a varying amplitude and a fixed frequency. The number of beats occurring in one second is equal to twice the beat frequency. Beats are an example of interference, and, in sound waves, can be used for practical purposes, such as piano tuning. beat generation beat generation, certain American artists and writers popular in the 1950s. Influenced by Eastern religions, e.g., ZEN BUDDHISM, and the rhythms of "progressive" JAZZ, they rejected traditional forms and sought expression in intense experiences and beatific illumination. Novelists in the movement included William Burroughs and Jack KEROUAC. Among the "beat" poets were Allen GINSBERG and Lawrence FERLINGHETTI. Beatitudes Beatitudes, eight blessings spoken by Jesus at the beginning of the Sermon on the Mount (Mat. 5.3-12). Luke 6.20-26, a parallel passage, names four blessings and four woes. Beatles, The Beatles, The, English rock music group (1959-69). Members were John Lennon (1940-80), Paul McCartney (1942-), George Harrison (1943-), and Ringo Starr (Richard Starkey) (1940-). Influenced by Americans like Elvis PRESLEY, the Beatles dominated ROCK MUSIC in the 1960s with their wit, stage presence, and music that evolved from tight rhythm and blues to allusive lyricism. The lyrics and music for their songs were written mostly by Lennon and McCartney. The group recorded numerous albums, made films, and toured widely. Beaton, Sir Cecil Beaton, Sir Cecil, 1904-80, English stage and costume designer, photographer, writer, and painter. His credits include the designs for the Broadway shows My Fair Lady (1956) and Coco (1969), and photographic portraits of many famous people. Beatrice Portinari Beatrice Portinari, 1266-90, Florentine woman thought to be the Beatrice of DANTE'S Divine Comedy and Vita nuova. Beatrix