The ancient nation of Iran, historically known to the West as Persia and once a major empire in its own right, has been overrun frequently and has had its territory altered throughout the centuries. Invaded by Arabs, Seljuk Turks, Mongols, and others--and often caught up in the affairs of larger powers--Iran has always reasserted its national individuality and has emerged from its tribulations as a political and cultural entity.

Archeological findings have placed knowledge of Iranian prehistory at middle paleolithic times (100,000 years ago). The earliest sedentary cultures date from 18,000-14,000 years ago. The sixth millenium B.C. had a fairly sophisticated agricultural society and the beginnings of proto-urban concentrations.

Many dynasties have ruled Iran. Its first period of greatness was under the Achaemenians (559-330 B.C.), a dynasty founded by Cyrus the Great. After the Hellenistic period (300-250 B.C.) came the Parthian (250 B.C.-A.D. 226) and the Sassanian (A.D. 226-651) dynasties. The Arab Muslim conquest of Iran was followed by the conquests of the Seljuk Turks, the Mongols, and Tamerlane. Iran underwent a revival under the Safavid dynasty (1501-1736), the most prominent figure of which was Shah Abbas. The conqueror Nadir Shah and his successors were followed by the Qajar (1795-1925) and the Pahlavi dynasties (1925-1979).

Modern Iranian history began with a nationalist uprising in 1905, the granting of a limited constitution in 1906, and the discovery of oil in 1908. In 1921, Reza Khan, an Iranian officer of the Persian Cossack Brigade, seized control of the government. In 1925, he became shah and ruled as Reza Shah Pahlavi for almost 16 years. During his reign, Iran began to modernize, and the central government reasserted its authority over the tribes and provinces. In September 1941, Reza Shah was forced to abdicate in favor of his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.

During World War II, Iran was a vital link in the Allied supply line for lendlease supplies to the Soviet Union. After the war, Soviet troops stationed in northwestern Iran not only refused to withdraw but backed communist revolts that established short-lived, pro-Soviet separatist regimes in the northern regions of Azerbaijan and Kurdistan. These crumbled in 1946, however, partly as a result of U.S. support for Iranian policies and U.S. and UN pressure.

The ensuing period witnessed a growth in Iranian nationalism leading to the nationalization of the British-owned oil industry in 1951 under the premiership of Mohammad Mossadeq. Following an abortive coup in August 1953, Mossadeq was arrested by pro-Shah army forces. The Shah then assumed a more authoritarian role. In 1961, Iran initiated a series of economic, social, and administrative reforms that became known as the Shah's White Revolution. The core of this program was land reform. Modernization and economic growth proceeded at an unprecedented rate, fueled by Iran's vast petroleum reserves, third largest in the world.

In 1978, domestic turmoil swept the country as a result of religious and political opposition to the Shah's rule and programs. Opponents were particularly critical of Western influences on these programs. In January 1979, the Shah departed Iran. In February of that year, exiled religious leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini returned from France to direct a revolution resulting in a new, theocratic republic guided by Islamic principles.

The early days of the regime were characterized by severe human rights violations and political turmoil, including the seizure of the U.S. Embassy compound and its occupants on November 4, 1979, by Iranian militants. By mid-1982, the clerics had eliminated from power other factions that had participated in the revolution. Since then, there has been a moderation of the more flagrant excesses, but Iran is still beset by a number of crises, including the war with Iraq, internal political struggles and unrest, and economic disorder.

Current Political Conditions

The December 1979 Iranian constitution defines the political, economic, and social order of the Islamic Republic and pants broad powers to the Muslim clergy. Leadership of the republic is entrusted to a religious leader or, in the absence of a single leader, to a council of religious leaders. The leader or members of the council of leaders are supposed to emerge from the clerical establishment on the basis of their qualifications and the high esteem in which they are held by Iran's Muslim population.

The leader or council appoints the six religious members of the Council of Guardians (the six lay members--lawyers--are named by the National Assembly); appoints the highest judicial authorities, who must be religious jurists; commands the armed forces; and approves the competence of candidates for the presidency of the republic.

The constitution provides for an executive composed of a prime minister and a president. The president is elected to a 4-year term by an absolute majority of votes and supervises the affairs of the executive branch. The prime minister is nominated by the president and approved by a vote of the National Assembly. The prime minister supervises the Council of Ministers, coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the National Assembly.

The National Assembly (Majles) consists of 270 members elected to a 4-year term. The members are elected by direct and secret ballot. All legislation from the Assembly must be reviewed by the Council of Guardians. The Council's six lawyers vote only on limited questions of constitutionality of legislation; the religious members consider all bills for conformity to Islamic principles.

The constitution provides that Shi'a Islam is Iran's official religion. The military is charged with defending Iran's borders and maintaining internal security, while the Revolutionary Guard Corps is charged with acting as "the guards of the revolution." Judicial authority is constitutionally vested in the Supreme Court and the four-member High Council of the Judiciary. Together, they are responsible for supervising the enforcement of all laws and for establishing judicial and legal policies.

Iran has 23 provinces, each headed by a governor general. Nine governorates are presided over by governors. The provinces and governorates are further divided into counties, districts, and villages.

Ayatollah Khomeini, who returned to Iran on February 1, 1979, after 15 years in exile in Turkey, Iraq, and France, is Iran's spiritual and revolutionary leader. His approval is required on virtually all significant government actions and policies.

The Islamic Republican Party (IRP) is Iran's dominant political party. One of its cofounders, Ali Khamene'i, serves as Iran's president. Through its members, the IRP controls nearly all branches of the executive, legislative, and judicial structure.

Source: U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs, May 1987.