Although Saudi Arabia's harsh climate historically has militated against extensive settlement except for a few major cities and oases, civilization in the country is more than 5,000 years old. The Dilmun culture, along the Arabian Gulf, was contemporaneous with Sumer and ancient Egypt, and most of the empires of the ancient world traded with the states of the Arabian Peninsula. However, the country is best known as the birthplace of Islam, which in the century after the Prophet Muhammad's death in A.D. 632 conquered much of the Mediterranean world. Islam obliges all Muslims who are able to make the hajj, or pilgrimage to Makkah, at least once during their lifetime, and the Saudi Government takes its stewardship of the holy places of Islam seriously.

The Saudi state first arose in central Arabia about 1750 when a local ruler, Muhammad bin Saud, joined forces with an Islamic reformer, Muhammad Abd al-Wahhab, to create a dynamic new political entity. Over the next 150 years, the fortunes of the Saud family rose and fell several times as Saudi rulers contended with Egypt, the Ottoman Turks, and other Arabian families for control within the peninsula.

The modern Saudi state was founded by the late King Abd al-Aziz Al-Saud (known internationally as Ibn Saud--pronounced sah-00D). In 1902, Abd al-Aziz recaptured Riyadh, the Al Saud dynasty's ancestral capital, from the rival al-Rashid family. Continuing his conquests, Abd al-Aziz vanquished al-Hasa, the rest of Nejd, and the Hijaz between 1913 and 1926. In 1932, these regions were unified as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The country's southern border with Yemen was partially defined by the 1934 Treaty of Taif, which ended a brief border war between the two states, but the border remains undemarcated in many areas. Boundaries with Jordan, Iraq, and Kuwait were established by a series of treaties negotiated in the 1920s. Two "neutral zones"--one with Iraq and the other with Kuwait--were created at that time. The Saudi-Kuwaiti neutral zone was administratively partitioned in 1971, with each state continuing to share equally the petroleum resources of the former zone. Tentative agreement on the partition of the Saudi-Iraqi neutral zone was reached in 1981, and partition was finalized by 1983. The border between Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates was agreed upon in 1974.

Oil was discovered in Saudi Arabia by American geologists in the 1930s, although large-scale production did not begin until after World War II. Saudi oil reserves are the largest in the world, and oil wealth made possible rapid economic and social development, which began in earnest in the 1960s and accelerated spectacularly in the 1970s, transforming the kingdom.

King Abd al-Aziz died in 1953 and was succeeded by his eldest son, Saud. Saud reigned for 11 years until 1964, when ill health and differences over policy matters brought about his abdication in favor of his brother, Faisal. Faisal already had served his father as foreign minister, signing the UN Charter in 1945 on behalf of Saudi Arabia. Even before his abdication, King Saud had been persuaded, because of fiscal difficulties, to delegate the direct conduct of Saudi Government affairs to Faisal in 1958. Except for a brief period when Saud regained control in 1960-62, Faisal served as prime minister and continued to do so even after being proclaimed King in 1964 by senior royal family members and religious leaders. This precedent has been continued by subsequent kings. In October 1962, Faisal outlined a broad reform program, stressing economic development.

The mid-1960s were dominated by external pressures generated by Saudi-Egyptian differences over Yemen. When civil war broke out in September 1962 between Yemeni royalists and republicans, Egyptian forces entered Yemen to support the new republican government while Saudi Arabia backed the royalists. Tensions subsided only after 1967, when Egypt withdrew its troops from Yemen.

Saudi forces did not participate in the Six-Day (Arab-Israeli) War of June 1967, but the Saudi Government subsequently provided annual subsidies to Egypt, Jordan, and Syria to help repair war damage to their economies.

Supporting the Arab cause during the 1973 Arab-Israeli war, Saudi Arabia participated in the Arab oil boycott of the United States and Netherlands. As a member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), Saudi Arabia already had joined with the other member countries in a series of moderate oil price increases beginning in 1971. However, the price of oil rose substantially in the aftermath of the 1973 war, thereby dramatically increasing Saudi wealth and political influence.

In March 1975, King Faisal was assassinated by a discontented and unstable young nephew, who was subsequently executed after an extensive investigation concluded that he acted alone. Faisal was succeeded by his half-brother Khalid as King and Prime Minister, and Prince Fahd was named Crown Prince and First Deputy Prime Minister. The transition went smoothly. King Khalid empowered Crown Prince Fahd to oversee many aspects of the government's international and domestic affairs. Economic development continued rapidly under the reign of King Khalid, while the kingdom assumed an increasingly influential role in regional politics and international economic and financial matters.

In June 1982, King Khalid died, and his brother Fahd became King and Prime Minister. His half-brother Prince Abdullah, the Commander of the Saudi National Guard, was named Crown Prince and First Deputy Prime Minister. Another brother, Prince Sultan, the Minister of Defense and Aviation, became Second Deputy Prime Minister. Again the transition was smooth, and King Fahd has emphasized the continuity of Saudi policy.

During the first 6 years of his reign, King Fahd has managed the adjustment of the Saudi economy to sharply lower oil revenues resulting from declining oil demand and prices. He was in charge of Saudi security during some of the most difficult periods of the Iran-Iraq war, helping to defend the rights of neutral shipping in the gulf and aiding Iraq's war-strained economy, as well as playing a major part in bringing about the August 1988 cease-fire. He also has played an important role in organizing and strengthening the Gulf Cooperation Council, an organization of six Arabian Gulf states dedicated to fostering economic cooperation and peaceful development in that crucial area.

Political Conditions

The central institution of Saudi Arabian Government is the monarchy. No formal constitution exists in the Western sense; political parties and national elections are unknown. The authority of the monarchy is based on Islamic law (Sharia). Although the king's powers are undefined, in practice, they are limited because he must observe the Sharia and Saudi traditions. He also must retain a consensus of the Saudi royal family, religious leaders (ulema), and other important elements in Saudi society. The responsible members of the royal family choose the king from among themselves with the subsequent sanction of the ulema.

Saudi kings gradually have developed a central government. Since 1953, the Council of Ministers appointed by the king and responsible to the king, has advised on the formulation of general policy and directed the activities of the growing bureaucracy. The Council of Ministers currently consists of a prime minister, the first and second deputy prime ministers, the 20 ministers (one of whom, the minister of defense, also is the second deputy prime minister), two ministers of state, and a small number of advisers and heads of major autonomous government organizations.

Legislation is by resolution of the Council of Ministers, ratified by royal decree, and must be compatible with the Sharia. Justice is administered according to the Sharia by a system of religious courts, the judges (qadis) of which are appointed by the king on the recommendation of the Supreme Judicial Council, composed of 12 senior jurists. The independence of the judiciary is protected by law. The king acts as the highest court of appeal and has the power of pardon. Access to high officials (usually during a majlis, or public audience) and the right to petition them directly are well-established traditions.

The kingdom is divided into 14 provinces, which are governed by princes or close relatives of the royal family. All governors are appointed by the king. Despite rapid economic progress, Saudi society remains strongly conservative and religious, with a tribal orientation. The king encourages modernization without undermining the country's stability and Islamic heritage.

Saudi Arabia's security rests in the hands of three independent entities:

-- The Ministry of Defense and Aviation, with four uniformed services--air force, army, navy, and air defense--responsible for meeting conventional military attacks from outside the country;

-- The Saudi Arabian National Guard, responsible for defending vital internal installations (e.g., oil fields and refineries), maintaining internal security, and supporting the Ministry of Defense and Aviation as required; and

-- The Ministry of Interior, with internal security and police functions and paramilitary frontier guard elements.

Source: U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs, July 1989.