Tunisians are descended mainly from indigenous Berber tribes and from Arab tribes which migrated to North Africa during the seventh century AD. Recorded history in Tunisia begins with the arrival of Phoenicians, who founded Carthage and other North African settlements. Carthage was defeated by Romans (146 AD), who ruled North Africa until their defeat by tribesmen (fifth century) from Europe. In the seventh century, the Muslim conquest transformed North Africa, and Tunisia became a center of Arab culture until its assimilation in the Turkish Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.

In 1881, France established a protectorate there, only to see a rise of nationalism lead to Tunisia's independence in 1956. A leader of this movement was Habib Bourguiba, Tunisia's president from independence in 1956 until his removal by the current president, Zine El-Abidine Ben Ali, in 1987.

During the early years of independence, a series of tensions existed between France and Tunisia, which were finally resolved after France withdrew from its naval base in Bizerte in 1962. In 1964, Tunisia nationalized foreign interests, and relations with France deteriorated again. Close cooperation was reestablished in 1968. Since then, France has extended important economic credits and established many technical assistance programs in Tunisia.

Political Conditions

The Tunisian republic was established in 1957 with Bourguiba as president. Elections followed promulgation of Tunisia's constitution in June 1959. President Bourguiba was unopposed, and legislative candidates, backed by the Neo-Destour Party and affiliated labor and professional groups, met only token opposition. In October 1964, the Neo-Destour Party was renamed the Destourian Socialist Party (PSD). In 1974, Bourguiba was named president-for-life through a constitutional amendment. Legislative elections in 1981 marked the return of legal opposition parties, but the PSD swept all seats. The ruling party demonstrated its entrenched position by again sweeping legislative elections in 1986 and 1989 and was renamed the Constitutional Democratic Party (RCD) by Ben Ali in 1988. Over time, party and state functions have fused. The RCD has no rigid ideology. Its members are expected to reflect public opinion. Internal party debate can be lively, but initiative for policy changes comes from the top.

On assuming power in 1987, President Ben Ali moved to defuse tensions which had built up during the last years of Bourguiba's reign. Ben Ali began to address some human rights issues by releasing political prisoners and abolishing special state security courts. He also started a process of democratization.

According to the constitution as amended in 1988, the president of the republic is chief of state. He is elected for a 5-year term and permitted to run for two additional terms. The president has full responsibility for determining national policy, and presidential bills have priority before the Chamber of Deputies. The president may govern by decree when the Chamber is not in session.

In the presidentially appointed cabinet, the prime minister is responsible for executive policy and succeeds the president in the case of death or disability. Tunisia's 141-member unicameral Chamber of Deputies is elected concurrently with the president and meets twice a year.

The constitution does not prohibit opposition parties, but the government has approved only six other political parties. These parties and all other major political forces--including Islamic fundamentalists--signed Ben Ali's 1988 National Pact, which set out secular, pluralist political rules.

Among other liberalizing gestures, Ben Ali advanced presidential and legislative elections from 1991 to 1989. He won the presidential election unopposed, and the ruling party swept all seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Candidates of the unrecognized Islamic fundamentalist Hizb An-Nahda (Renaissance Party) garnered an average of 18% of the vote in districts they contested as independents. Despite Hizb An-Nahda's apparent popularity, the government continued to deny it legal status in 1990, partly owing to grave doubts that An-Nahda truly accepts a pluralist, secular political system.

Although national elections are governed by a winner-take-all electoral code, the government introduced modified proportional representation for 1990 municipal elections. Opposition parties boycotted these elections to protest what they saw as overbearing RCD control of the process. Opposition parties also claim that the cumbersome voter registration system has disenfranchised a large portion of the electorate.

Trade unions played a key role in Tunisia's struggle for independence. Indeed, the assassination of Tunisian labor leader Ferhat Hached in 1952 was catalyst for the final push against the French. The General Union of Tunisian Workers (UGTT) had a decisive political presence during the first two decades of the republic. In 1978, and again in 1984-85, Bourguiba cracked down on the UGTT. Arrests of the UGTT leaders and ruling-party takeover of union locals left the UGTT moribund until Ben Ali's accession to power. Ben Ali encouraged a revival of the UGTT. Despite a drop in union membership from 400,000 to perhaps 250,000 as the structure of the economy changed, the UGTT resumed a prominent place in political and social affairs after its extraordinary congress in 1989.

Tunisia is a leader in the Arab world in the promotion of equal status for women under the law. Polygamy was prohibited in 1957. Tunisian women enjoy full civil and political rights. The government supports an active family-planning program.

Tunisia's judiciary is headed by the Court of Cassation, whose judges are appointed by the president.

The country is divided administratively into 23 governorates. The president appoints all governors.

Source: U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs, February 1987.