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$Unique_ID{bob00411}
$Pretitle{}
$Title{Nepal
Chapter 8.    Artistic and Intellectual Expression}
$Subtitle{}
$Author{George L. Harris}
$Affiliation{HQ, Department of the Army}
$Subject{work
century
katmandu
nepalese
valley
nepal
newar
sculpture
forms
architecture}
$Date{1973}
$Log{}
Title:       Nepal
Book:        Nepal, Bhutan, Sikkim, An Area Study: Nepal
Author:      George L. Harris
Affiliation: HQ, Department of the Army
Date:        1973

Chapter 8.    Artistic and Intellectual Expression

     In the 1950s and early 1960s the arts were reviving after more than
five centuries during which little of lasting significance was done. A new
interest in writing, given impetus by the relaxation of the strict censorship
which existed under the Ranas, brought some promising developments in
literature. A number of poets were experimenting with new styles, and a few
intellectuals were producing works on history, economic and social problems.
Respect for learning is traditional, but interest in the humanities and fine
arts was being subordinated to scientific and technical studies. Traditional
scholarship, as represented in the study of sacred scriptures, was almost
extinct except in Buddhist monastaries in the Mountain Region. Music and dance
were favorite means of recreation and self-expression among villagers, and a
few Nepalese popular singers had become favorites on Indian radio. However,
contemporary development of architecture, painting and sculpture was extremely
weak, and the standard of handicrafts was low.

     By contrast, great achievements in the arts had been recorded in Nepal in
two illustrious eras in the past. The seventh century and the eleventh to the
fourteenth centuries were periods of great cultural vitality, when the style
and standards of Nepalese sculpture, painting and, particularly, architecture
were admired and imitated widely in southern and eastern Asia.

     The contributions of Nepal to world culture in these periods were made
almost entirely by the Newar in the Katmandu Valley, which was and continues
to be the center of art and learning in the country. Virtually without
exception, the source of inspiration for these Newari artisans was religious-a
blend of Buddhist and Brahmanic traditions which had entered the Valley over
the centuries in alternate waves from India and Tibet. Of the two traditions,
the Brahmanic was the more pervasive.

Intellectual and Literary Currents

     In the area of formal thought the paramount influence of Buddhist and
Brahmanic tradition until the mid-nineteenth century was reflected in the
preoccupation with philosophy and religion to the practical exclusion of all
else. The learned devoted themselves to meditation in search of release from
worldly concerns, and scholarship centered on commentaries on sacred texts,
mostly in Sanskrit. Original thought and critical inquiry were alien to the
intellectual climate.

     The Katmandu Valley was a great center of learning at two periods in its
history: first, under Amsuvarman (A.D. 620-640), when Buddhist influence was
predominant; and later, during the period of Brahmanic ascendancy, culminating
in the reign of Jayasthiti Malla in the late fourteenth century. In the
artistic and intellectual ferment of both eras the religious scholar, the
imaginative architect and the talented sculptor enjoyed high prestige.

     In secular and scientific knowledge, ideas and values from the outside
world have slowly penetrated Nepalese society despite the efforts of the Ranas
for more than a century to insulate the country from them. They have gained
currency not only among the educated elite in government, business and the
professions in the Katmandu Valley, but in some degree have touched the people
of hill villages. They have been carried there by Gurkha mercenaries returning
from service with British and Indian forces outside the country. Since the
fall of the Rana regime in 1951, the spread of Western-generated ideas has
gained momentum. Customs and traditional beliefs, however, continue to offer
more than nominal competition to the new forces impinging on Nepalese
intellectual life, particularly outside the valley enclave of Katmandu.

     Some prose and poetry continue to be written in Sanskrit, which for
centuries was the language of the literate few. Since 1951, however, Nepali
and English have been the principal literary languages. Recent publications
include articles and full-length works on economics, history, international
relations and social problems, as well as poetry, short stories and
collections of folk tales. Outstanding among contemporary scholars are
Balchandra Sharma, President of the Royal Nepal Academy, an honorary society
for leading artists and scholars; and Dilli R. Regmi, an eminent historian.

     A number of young poets show considerable promise, but none as yet has
achieved the stature of the men who initiated the development of modern
Nepalese literature. Bhanubhakta Acharya (1812-68) is known as the father of
Nepalese poetry. His most famous work is the Ramayan, an epic poem telling the
story of Rama, the incarnation in human form of the Hindu God, Vishnu. It was
the first major work in the Nepali language. Laxmi Prasad Devkota (1903-59)
was a linguist, essayist and, above all, poet, whose most popular work is the
romantic tragedy, Muna Mudan.

     Two contemporary literary figures, the poet, Lekth Nath Poudyal, and the
dramatist, poet and essayist, Balkrishna Sama, have been giving the Nepali
language a new richness, experimenting with fresh forms and styles. Poudyal,
now honored as poet laureate, in the 1930s made his work the vehicle for
carefully disguised political criticism of the Ranas. Sama is known for his
pioneering work in modern poetic forms and more importantly for his dramas.
Nationalist themes characterize much of the work of the younger generation of
writers, some of whom studied in India, where they were exposed to liberal and
leftist political influences.

     As of mid-1963 the government, under the auspices of King Mahendra, was
taking a number of steps to foster literary and intellectual development.
Public funds were being used to finance the translation of foreign language
texts, to support literary organizations and to subsidize a number of
promising young writers. A number of foreign scholars had been invited to
Nepal to teach and write, and delegations of Nepalese writers had been sent
abroad. King Mahendra, who is deeply interested in the arts, has encouraged
the restoration of historic monuments and has awarded medals to a number of
leading scholars and writers. A strong effort is being made to develop
education at all levels, and a large proportion of the national income is
devoted to it.

Architecture

     In architecture the country has made a distinguished contribution to
world culture. In the Katmandu Valley some 2,500 temples and shrines display
the skill and highly developed aesthetic sense of a succession of Newar
artisans. Many of the more imposing are the multiple-storied pagodas, which
may have originated in this area and spread to India, China, Indochina and
Japan.

     At the same time that some Newar architects were endowing the Katmandu
Valley with great monuments and temples, others were exercising their skills
elsewhere in Asia. Particularly important in influencing stylistic
developments in China and Tibet was Arniko, a Newar youth called to the court
of Kublai Khan in the thirteenth century A.D. He is celebrated for his statues
in copper and brass, portraits painted on silk, and for a golden temple he
built in Tibet.

     Virtually all the principal religious structures in Nepal are in the
Katmandu Valley, except those at Muktinath, a pilgrimage site some 40 miles
northwest of Pokhara, and Rummin-dei (Lumbini), birthplace of Buddha, about 8
miles south of Bethari in the Bhairawa District. A stupa (monument containing
sacred relics) built at Patan in 250 B.C. by Emperor Asoka is the oldest
structure in the country. Turret-shaped and surrounded by smaller stupas, it
is ornamented with symbolic figures of the meditating Buddha.

     Better known are the stupas at Swayambhunath, a Buddhist shrine high on a
hill overlooking Katmandu from the west, and the Bauddhanath shrine, 4 miles
northeast of the city. Both consist of a main stupa composed of a hemisphere
topped by a tower decorated on the four sides of its base with huge pairs of
blue eyes depicting the omniscience of the Buddha. They are surrounded by many
smaller buildings and sacred images.

     Other great temples in Katmandu include Pashupatinath (on the banks of
the Baghmati Nadi), the largest and most sacred Hindu shrine in the country,
and Nyatpola (in Bhadgaon), distinguished by the five pairs of figures derived
from Hindu mythology which guard its entrance steps. Built in the early
eighteenth century by Bhupatindra Malla, a great patron of the arts, it is in
the classic pagoda style, a square entablature of brick rising in a series of
successively smaller stories to a considerable height. Each story is capped by
an overhanging tile or copper gilt roof; the supporting columns are overlaid
with whole pantheons of intricately carved, garishly painted deities portrayed
in ritually erotic postures. Door frames and window cornices are similarly
decorated with deities, foliage and arabesque designs.

     Another building completed under Bhupatindra Malla is the old royal
palace at Bhadgaon, an imposing structure of great historical interest. The
original building is of typically Nepalese brick and wood construction and
is set off by a gate which is an example of the best of the goldsmith's art.
The Ranas introduced the European neoclassical style of architecture and used
it for many public buildings despite the disharmony between its massive marble
and concrete forms and the indigenous traditional ones.

Sculpture, Painting and Handicrafts

     In art and handicrafts, as in architecture, the Newar stand out. They
have traditionally excelled in woodcarving, copper, bronze and brass work
and metal statuary and have been proficient painters. Newar artists and
artisans took their inspiration from India, in turn saw their own work
followed to a large extent in Tibet. The earliest known Nepalese
paintings-a series of illuminated manuscripts of the eleventh
century-conform closely to the canons developed in the great monasteries of
northern India under the Pala dynasty (approximately A.D. 750 to 1150).
Similarly, in sculpture, the style of the earliest surviving metal
effigies (approximately fifteenth century A.D.) suggests that of the twelfth
century Pala images and of works of other Indian schools. Even as late as
the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries, the influence of Pala concepts
and forms was still apparent in Nepalese sculpture, as evidenced in the
elegance and graceful modeling of the multitude of bronzes still surviving
from this period.

     Sculpture underwent its golden age in the Katmandu Valley from the
tenth to the sixteenth century. Newar artisans of that era made use of the
balance of form and spontaneity of Indian models, adding, however, a feeling
of rhythm that was exclusively their own. Among sculptures of that period
which survive are images of Dinpankar Buddha in the Katmandu Museum and of
Nateswar (the god of dancing) near the temple of Pashupatinath. Several
pieces of sculpture in stone by unknown masters, believed to have been
produced much earlier, still survive. Among the more notable is the famous
image of the recumbent Vishnu, the original of which lies in a temple in
the village of Buda Nilkantha near Katmandu. Some authorities date it from
the sixth century.

     Painting in the premodern period was seen as having its creative source
in spiritual contemplation, and artists were interested in neither attempting
to imitate nature nor portraying secular life. The painter was expected to
convert his own spiritual experiences and visions into symbolic forms and
colors with the aim of conveying his enlightenment to others. The best
extant examples of their work are ancient illuminated manuscripts and
scroll paintings executed in powerful and contrasting colors.

     Related to the great achievements in sculpture and painting was the
development of handicrafts and small industries. Crafts flourished in
Nepal from earliest times, the physical isolation of most villages requiring
that each community make what it needed. Pottery making, papermaking, wood
carving, and the casting of hard metals were perfected in the Katmandu Valley
by Newar artisans, whose aesthetic sense found expression in utilitarian as
well as ornamental objects. Outside the Valley, other ethnic groups and
occupational castes were associated with particular specialties. The Gurung
and Limbu, for example, were noted for their woolen textiles. The cane and
bamboo products of the Western Tarai area were particularly renowned.

     Since the sixteenth century, painting, sculpture and crafts of all
types underwent a steady decline, and in this sphere the modern period has
not yet produced anything approaching the achievements of the past. In the
twentieth century, owing to the importation of cheap manufactured goods
from abroad, craftsmen have experienced little demand for their work, and
what they have produced has often been of poor quality. In recent years,
however, the government has supported the revival of certain traditional
crafts with the Cottage Industries Program, under which young people are
trained in such crafts as weaving, jewelry making and metalwork (see ch.
18, Labor).

     Some jewelry work continues to be done. The most valued metals are
gold and copper, which is considered sacred. Women ornament themselves
with bracelets, necklaces, earrings and sometimes noserings. Amulets,
bells, household containers and boxes of various types are also made of
metal, often ornamented with conch shells, lotuses, wheels and other
Buddhist symbols. Other craftsmen work in wood and ivory. Brocade is also
made, and the purses carried by Newar are typically made of this material.

Popular Music and Dance

     Singing is a favorite pastime among villagers, for whom it affords both
a means of emotional expression and an opportunity to display wit and
imagination through the spontaneous composition of lyrics. People sing both
for recreation and to relieve monotony and fatigue in their daily work. Song
is almost invariably an accompaniment to such tasks as turning handmills,
walking to the woods to gather fagots, and carrying loads along the trail.
Communal singing is a standard part of the rice-planting process. Men
preparing the soil and women transplanting the seedling work in accordance
with the strong rhythmic pattern of the music, each sex vying with the other
in improvising verse after verse sung to a traditional tune.

     Leisure and formal occasions call for special songs, types of
instrumental music and often dancing. One such occasion is the Saturday
night gathering of soldiers in the garrison, where the group sits around a
lamp, while a soloist sings and dances to the beating of a drum,
hand-clapping and choral responses by the audience.

     Although the subjects vary, folk songs are usually concerned with
the beauty of Nepal's natural setting, the joy of the harvest, love and
separation and, particularly, valor and gallantry in battle. The heroic
exploits of Gurkha soldiers in distant theaters of war have inspired
countless lyrics, carried from place to place by minstrels who accompany
themselves on a sarangi (small stringed instrument). The gaine (minstrel)
reminds the recruit leaving home:

And why should you fear the foe?
A son of Nepal knows no death
Nurtured as he is in waters cool.
He knows not how to retreat a single step
Ever forward he marches on in the face of the enemy.

     Most villagers are eager to hear popular songs from abroad as well as
their own, and transistor radios are usually left turned to popular music
programs. Gurkha soldiers returning from Malaya, Indonesia, Hong Kong and
other distant points are sought out in the expectation that they will know the
latest tunes.

     Drums, cymbals and tambourines are the most common musical instruments.
Among the drums are the madal, a narrow-barreled drum with beating surfaces
at each end pitched to different keys, and the disc-shaped damfu, which is
held in the left hand and hit with the right. One of the few wind instruments
is the narasingha, a serpentine-shaped copper trumpet. Strict social
conventions govern the production and playing of this and other locally
made instruments, which in many instances are made by a low caste or
untouchable group but may be played only by members of a high caste.
Instruments of Indian derivation are used in connection with the religious
chants and epic songs of Nepalese classical music, which is based on the
scale pattern of the Indian raga (mode-fixed patterns) on which individual
melodies, each associated with a particular mood, are based. Western band
instruments of somewhat antiquated design have been in use by the Nepalese
military for more than half a century.

     Dancing is an activity generally limited to males. Forms of dance
range from the stylized classical masked dances, based on subject matter
taken from the Puranas (ancient Hindu epics) to the spontaneous
grass-gatherer's dance popular among the Magar and Gurung. The latter is
a vigorous communal dance involving much turning, twisting and leaping by
the participants. Considerable uniformity in respect to dance costumes and
basic movements is apparent in forms from region to region, but the tempo
of most of the dances of the Tarai is said to be quicker than those of the
Mountain Regions, where energy must be conserved.