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This is Info file ../info/cl, produced by Makeinfo-1.55 from the input file cl.texi. This file documents the GNU Emacs Common Lisp emulation package. Copyright (C) 1993 Free Software Foundation, Inc. Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also that the section entitled "GNU General Public License" is included exactly as in the original, and provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one. Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions, except that the section entitled "GNU General Public License" may be included in a translation approved by the author instead of in the original English. File: cl, Node: Modify Macros, Next: Customizing Setf, Prev: Basic Setf, Up: Generalized Variables Modify Macros ------------- This package defines a number of other macros besides `setf' that operate on generalized variables. Many are interesting and useful even when the PLACE is just a variable name. - Special Form: psetf [PLACE FORM]... This macro is to `setf' what `psetq' is to `setq': When several PLACEs and FORMs are involved, the assignments take place in parallel rather than sequentially. Specifically, all subforms are evaluated from left to right, then all the assignments are done (in an undefined order). - Special Form: incf PLACE &optional X This macro increments the number stored in PLACE by one, or by X if specified. The incremented value is returned. For example, `(incf i)' is equivalent to `(setq i (1+ i))', and `(incf (car x) 2)' is equivalent to `(setcar x (+ (car x) 2))'. Once again, care is taken to preserve the "apparent" order of evaluation. For example, (incf (aref vec (incf i))) appears to increment `i' once, then increment the element of `vec' addressed by `i'; this is indeed exactly what it does, which means the above form is *not* equivalent to the "obvious" expansion, (setf (aref vec (incf i)) (1+ (aref vec (incf i)))) ; Wrong! but rather to something more like (let ((temp (incf i))) (setf (aref vec temp) (1+ (aref vec temp)))) Again, all of this is taken care of automatically by `incf' and the other generalized-variable macros. As a more Emacs-specific example of `incf', the expression `(incf (point) N)' is essentially equivalent to `(forward-char N)'. - Special Form: decf PLACE &optional X This macro decrements the number stored in PLACE by one, or by X if specified. - Special Form: pop PLACE This macro removes and returns the first element of the list stored in PLACE. It is analogous to `(prog1 (car PLACE) (setf PLACE (cdr PLACE)))', except that it takes care to evaluate all subforms only once. - Special Form: push X PLACE This macro inserts X at the front of the list stored in PLACE. It is analogous to `(setf PLACE (cons X PLACE))', except for evaluation of the subforms. - Special Form: pushnew X PLACE &key :test :test-not :key This macro inserts X at the front of the list stored in PLACE, but only if X was not `eql' to any existing element of the list. The optional keyword arguments are interpreted in the same way as for `adjoin'. *Note Lists as Sets::. - Special Form: shiftf PLACE... NEWVALUE This macro shifts the PLACEs left by one, shifting in the value of NEWVALUE (which may be any Lisp expression, not just a generalized variable), and returning the value shifted out of the first PLACE. Thus, `(shiftf A B C D)' is equivalent to (prog1 A (psetf A B B C C D)) except that the subforms of A, B, and C are actually evaluated only once each and in the apparent order. - Special Form: rotatef PLACE... This macro rotates the PLACEs left by one in circular fashion. Thus, `(rotatef A B C D)' is equivalent to (psetf A B B C C D D A) except for the evaluation of subforms. `rotatef' always returns `nil'. Note that `(rotatef A B)' conveniently exchanges A and B. The following macros were invented for this package; they have no analogues in Common Lisp. - Special Form: letf (BINDINGS...) FORMS... This macro is analogous to `let', but for generalized variables rather than just symbols. Each BINDING should be of the form `(PLACE VALUE)'; the original contents of the PLACEs are saved, the VALUEs are stored in them, and then the body FORMs are executed. Afterwards, the PLACES are set back to their original saved contents. This cleanup happens even if the FORMs exit irregularly due to a `throw' or an error. For example, (letf (((point) (point-min)) (a 17)) ...) moves "point" in the current buffer to the beginning of the buffer, and also binds `a' to 17 (as if by a normal `let', since `a' is just a regular variable). After the body exits, `a' is set back to its original value and point is moved back to its original position. Note that `letf' on `(point)' is not quite like a `save-excursion', as the latter effectively saves a marker which tracks insertions and deletions in the buffer. Actually, a `letf' of `(point-marker)' is much closer to this behavior. (`point' and `point-marker' are equivalent as `setf' places; each will accept either an integer or a marker as the stored value.) Since generalized variables look like lists, `let''s shorthand of using `foo' for `(foo nil)' as a BINDING would be ambiguous in `letf' and is not allowed. However, a BINDING specifier may be a one-element list `(PLACE)', which is similar to `(PLACE PLACE)'. In other words, the PLACE is not disturbed on entry to the body, and the only effect of the `letf' is to restore the original value of PLACE afterwards. (The redundant access-and-store suggested by the `(PLACE PLACE)' example does not actually occur.) In most cases, the PLACE must have a well-defined value on entry to the `letf' form. The only exceptions are plain variables and calls to `symbol-value' and `symbol-function'. If the symbol is not bound on entry, it is simply made unbound by `makunbound' or `fmakunbound' on exit. - Special Form: letf* (BINDINGS...) FORMS... This macro is to `letf' what `let*' is to `let': It does the bindings in sequential rather than parallel order. - Special Form: callf FUNCTION PLACE ARGS... This is the "generic" modify macro. It calls FUNCTION, which should be an unquoted function name, macro name, or lambda. It passes PLACE and ARGS as arguments, and assigns the result back to PLACE. For example, `(incf PLACE N)' is the same as `(callf + PLACE N)'. Some more examples: (callf abs my-number) (callf concat (buffer-name) "<" (int-to-string n) ">") (callf union happy-people (list joe bob) :test 'same-person) *Note Customizing Setf::, for `define-modify-macro', a way to create even more concise notations for modify macros. Note again that `callf' is an extension to standard Common Lisp. - Special Form: callf2 FUNCTION ARG1 PLACE ARGS... This macro is like `callf', except that PLACE is the *second* argument of FUNCTION rather than the first. For example, `(push X PLACE)' is equivalent to `(callf2 cons X PLACE)'. The `callf' and `callf2' macros serve as building blocks for other macros like `incf', `pushnew', and `define-modify-macro'. The `letf' and `letf*' macros are used in the processing of symbol macros; *note Macro Bindings::.. File: cl, Node: Customizing Setf, Prev: Modify Macros, Up: Generalized Variables Customizing Setf ---------------- Common Lisp defines three macros, `define-modify-macro', `defsetf', and `define-setf-method', that allow the user to extend generalized variables in various ways. - Special Form: define-modify-macro NAME ARGLIST FUNCTION [DOC-STRING] This macro defines a "read-modify-write" macro similar to `incf' and `decf'. The macro NAME is defined to take a PLACE argument followed by additional arguments described by ARGLIST. The call (NAME PLACE ARGS...) will be expanded to (callf FUNC PLACE ARGS...) which in turn is roughly equivalent to (setf PLACE (FUNC PLACE ARGS...)) For example: (define-modify-macro incf (&optional (n 1)) +) (define-modify-macro concatf (&rest args) concat) Note that `&key' is not allowed in ARGLIST, but `&rest' is sufficient to pass keywords on to the function. Most of the modify macros defined by Common Lisp do not exactly follow the pattern of `define-modify-macro'. For example, `push' takes its arguments in the wrong order, and `pop' is completely irregular. You can define these macros "by hand" using `get-setf-method', or consult the source file `cl-macs.el' to see how to use the internal `setf' building blocks. - Special Form: defsetf ACCESS-FN UPDATE-FN This is the simpler of two `defsetf' forms. Where ACCESS-FN is the name of a function which accesses a place, this declares UPDATE-FN to be the corresponding store function. From now on, (setf (ACCESS-FN ARG1 ARG2 ARG3) VALUE) will be expanded to (UPDATE-FN ARG1 ARG2 ARG3 VALUE) The UPDATE-FN is required to be either a true function, or a macro which evaluates its arguments in a function-like way. Also, the UPDATE-FN is expected to return VALUE as its result. Otherwise, the above expansion would not obey the rules for the way `setf' is supposed to behave. As a special (non-Common-Lisp) extension, a third argument of `t' to `defsetf' says that the `update-fn''s return value is not suitable, so that the above `setf' should be expanded to something more like (let ((temp VALUE)) (UPDATE-FN ARG1 ARG2 ARG3 temp) temp) Some examples of the use of `defsetf', drawn from the standard suite of setf methods, are: (defsetf car setcar) (defsetf symbol-value set) (defsetf buffer-name rename-buffer t) - Special Form: defsetf ACCESS-FN ARGLIST (STORE-VAR) FORMS... This is the second, more complex, form of `defsetf'. It is rather like `defmacro' except for the additional STORE-VAR argument. The FORMS should return a Lisp form which stores the value of STORE-VAR into the generalized variable formed by a call to ACCESS-FN with arguments described by ARGLIST. The FORMS may begin with a string which documents the `setf' method (analogous to the doc string that appears at the front of a function). For example, the simple form of `defsetf' is shorthand for (defsetf ACCESS-FN (&rest args) (store) (append '(UPDATE-FN) args (list store))) The Lisp form that is returned can access the arguments from ARGLIST and STORE-VAR in an unrestricted fashion; macros like `setf' and `incf' which invoke this setf-method will insert temporary variables as needed to make sure the apparent order of evaluation is preserved. Another example drawn from the standard package: (defsetf nth (n x) (store) (list 'setcar (list 'nthcdr n x) store)) - Special Form: define-setf-method ACCESS-FN ARGLIST FORMS... This is the most general way to create new place forms. When a `setf' to ACCESS-FN with arguments described by ARGLIST is expanded, the FORMS are evaluated and must return a list of five items: 1. A list of "temporary variables". 2. A list of "value forms" corresponding to the temporary variables above. The temporary variables will be bound to these value forms as the first step of any operation on the generalized variable. 3. A list of exactly one "store variable" (generally obtained from a call to `gensym'). 4. A Lisp form which stores the contents of the store variable into the generalized variable, assuming the temporaries have been bound as described above. 5. A Lisp form which accesses the contents of the generalized variable, assuming the temporaries have been bound. This is exactly like the Common Lisp macro of the same name, except that the method returns a list of five values rather than the five values themselves, since Emacs Lisp does not support Common Lisp's notion of multiple return values. Once again, the FORMS may begin with a documentation string. A setf-method should be maximally conservative with regard to temporary variables. In the setf-methods generated by `defsetf', the second return value is simply the list of arguments in the place form, and the first return value is a list of a corresponding number of temporary variables generated by `gensym'. Macros like `setf' and `incf' which use this setf-method will optimize away most temporaries that turn out to be unnecessary, so there is little reason for the setf-method itself to optimize. - Function: get-setf-method PLACE &optional ENV This function returns the setf-method for PLACE, by invoking the definition previously recorded by `defsetf' or `define-setf-method'. The result is a list of five values as described above. You can use this function to build your own `incf'-like modify macros. (Actually, it is better to use the internal functions `cl-setf-do-modify' and `cl-setf-do-store', which are a bit easier to use and which also do a number of optimizations; consult the source code for the `incf' function for a simple example.) The argument ENV specifies the "environment" to be passed on to `macroexpand' if `get-setf-method' should need to expand a macro in PLACE. It should come from an `&environment' argument to the macro or setf-method that called `get-setf-method'. See also the source code for the setf-methods for `apply' and `substring', each of which works by calling `get-setf-method' on a simpler case, then massaging the result in various ways. Modern Common Lisp defines a second, independent way to specify the `setf' behavior of a function, namely "`setf' functions" whose names are lists `(setf NAME)' rather than symbols. For example, `(defun (setf foo) ...)' defines the function that is used when `setf' is applied to `foo'. This package does not currently support `setf' functions. In particular, it is a compile-time error to use `setf' on a form which has not already been `defsetf''d or otherwise declared; in newer Common Lisps, this would not be an error since the function `(setf FUNC)' might be defined later. File: cl, Node: Variable Bindings, Next: Conditionals, Prev: Generalized Variables, Up: Control Structure Variable Bindings ================= These Lisp forms make bindings to variables and function names, analogous to Lisp's built-in `let' form. *Note Modify Macros::, for the `letf' and `letf*' forms which are also related to variable bindings. * Menu: * Dynamic Bindings:: The `progv' form * Lexical Bindings:: `lexical-let' and lexical closures * Function Bindings:: `flet' and `labels' * Macro Bindings:: `macrolet' and `symbol-macrolet' File: cl, Node: Dynamic Bindings, Next: Lexical Bindings, Prev: Variable Bindings, Up: Variable Bindings Dynamic Bindings ---------------- The standard `let' form binds variables whose names are known at compile-time. The `progv' form provides an easy way to bind variables whose names are computed at run-time. - Special Form: progv SYMBOLS VALUES FORMS... This form establishes `let'-style variable bindings on a set of variables computed at run-time. The expressions SYMBOLS and VALUES are evaluated, and must return lists of symbols and values, respectively. The symbols are bound to the corresponding values for the duration of the body FORMs. If VALUES is shorter than SYMBOLS, the last few symbols are made unbound (as if by `makunbound') inside the body. If SYMBOLS is shorter than VALUES, the excess values are ignored. File: cl, Node: Lexical Bindings, Next: Function Bindings, Prev: Dynamic Bindings, Up: Variable Bindings Lexical Bindings ---------------- The "CL" package defines the following macro which more closely follows the Common Lisp `let' form: - Special Form: lexical-let (BINDINGS...) FORMS... This form is exactly like `let' except that the bindings it establishes are purely lexical. Lexical bindings are similar to local variables in a language like C: Only the code physically within the body of the `lexical-let' (after macro expansion) may refer to the bound variables. (setq a 5) (defun foo (b) (+ a b)) (let ((a 2)) (foo a)) => 4 (lexical-let ((a 2)) (foo a)) => 7 In this example, a regular `let' binding of `a' actually makes a temporary change to the global variable `a', so `foo' is able to see the binding of `a' to 2. But `lexical-let' actually creates a distinct local variable `a' for use within its body, without any effect on the global variable of the same name. The most important use of lexical bindings is to create "closures". A closure is a function object that refers to an outside lexical variable. For example: (defun make-adder (n) (lexical-let ((n n)) (function (lambda (m) (+ n m))))) (setq add17 (make-adder 17)) (funcall add17 4) => 21 The call `(make-adder 17)' returns a function object which adds 17 to its argument. If `let' had been used instead of `lexical-let', the function object would have referred to the global `n', which would have been bound to 17 only during the call to `make-adder' itself. (defun make-counter () (lexical-let ((n 0)) (function* (lambda (&optional (m 1)) (incf n m))))) (setq count-1 (make-counter)) (funcall count-1 3) => 3 (funcall count-1 14) => 17 (setq count-2 (make-counter)) (funcall count-2 5) => 5 (funcall count-1 2) => 19 (funcall count-2) => 6 Here we see that each call to `make-counter' creates a distinct local variable `n', which serves as a private counter for the function object that is returned. Closed-over lexical variables persist until the last reference to them goes away, just like all other Lisp objects. For example, `count-2' refers to a function object which refers to an instance of the variable `n'; this is the only reference to that variable, so after `(setq count-2 nil)' the garbage collector would be able to delete this instance of `n'. Of course, if a `lexical-let' does not actually create any closures, then the lexical variables are free as soon as the `lexical-let' returns. Many closures are used only during the extent of the bindings they refer to; these are known as "downward funargs" in Lisp parlance. When a closure is used in this way, regular Emacs Lisp dynamic bindings suffice and will be more efficient than `lexical-let' closures: (defun add-to-list (x list) (mapcar (function (lambda (y) (+ x y))) list)) (add-to-list 7 '(1 2 5)) => (8 9 12) Since this lambda is only used while `x' is still bound, it is not necessary to make a true closure out of it. You can use `defun' or `flet' inside a `lexical-let' to create a named closure. If several closures are created in the body of a single `lexical-let', they all close over the same instance of the lexical variable. The `lexical-let' form is an extension to Common Lisp. In true Common Lisp, all bindings are lexical unless declared otherwise. - Special Form: lexical-let* (BINDINGS...) FORMS... This form is just like `lexical-let', except that the bindings are made sequentially in the manner of `let*'. File: cl, Node: Function Bindings, Next: Macro Bindings, Prev: Lexical Bindings, Up: Variable Bindings Function Bindings ----------------- These forms make `let'-like bindings to functions instead of variables. - Special Form: flet (BINDINGS...) FORMS... This form establishes `let'-style bindings on the function cells of symbols rather than on the value cells. Each BINDING must be a list of the form `(NAME ARGLIST FORMS...)', which defines a function exactly as if it were a `defun*' form. The function NAME is defined accordingly for the duration of the body of the `flet'; then the old function definition, or lack thereof, is restored. While `flet' in Common Lisp establishes a lexical binding of NAME, Emacs Lisp `flet' makes a dynamic binding. The result is that `flet' affects indirect calls to a function as well as calls directly inside the `flet' form itself. You can use `flet' to disable or modify the behavior of a function in a temporary fashion. This will even work on Emacs primitives, although note that some calls to primitive functions internal to Emacs are made without going through the symbol's function cell, and so will not be affected by `flet'. For example, (flet ((message (&rest args) (push args saved-msgs))) (do-something)) This code attempts to replace the built-in function `message' with a function that simply saves the messages in a list rather than displaying them. The original definition of `message' will be restored after `do-something' exits. This code will work fine on messages generated by other Lisp code, but messages generated directly inside Emacs will not be caught since they make direct C-language calls to the message routines rather than going through the Lisp `message' function. Functions defined by `flet' may use the full Common Lisp argument notation supported by `defun*'; also, the function body is enclosed in an implicit block as if by `defun*'. *Note Program Structure::. - Special Form: labels (BINDINGS...) FORMS... The `labels' form is a synonym for `flet'. (In Common Lisp, `labels' and `flet' differ in ways that depend on their lexical scoping; these distinctions vanish in dynamically scoped Emacs Lisp.) File: cl, Node: Macro Bindings, Prev: Function Bindings, Up: Variable Bindings Macro Bindings -------------- These forms create local macros and "symbol macros." - Special Form: macrolet (BINDINGS...) FORMS... This form is analogous to `flet', but for macros instead of functions. Each BINDING is a list of the same form as the arguments to `defmacro*' (i.e., a macro name, argument list, and macro-expander forms). The macro is defined accordingly for use within the body of the `macrolet'. Because of the nature of macros, `macrolet' is lexically scoped even in Emacs Lisp: The `macrolet' binding will affect only calls that appear physically within the body FORMS, possibly after expansion of other macros in the body. - Special Form: symbol-macrolet (BINDINGS...) FORMS... This form creates "symbol macros", which are macros that look like variable references rather than function calls. Each BINDING is a list `(VAR EXPANSION)'; any reference to VAR within the body FORMS is replaced by EXPANSION. (setq bar '(5 . 9)) (symbol-macrolet ((foo (car bar))) (incf foo)) bar => (6 . 9) A `setq' of a symbol macro is treated the same as a `setf'. I.e., `(setq foo 4)' in the above would be equivalent to `(setf foo 4)', which in turn expands to `(setf (car bar) 4)'. Likewise, a `let' or `let*' binding a symbol macro is treated like a `letf' or `letf*'. This differs from true Common Lisp, where the rules of lexical scoping cause a `let' binding to shadow a `symbol-macrolet' binding. In this package, only `lexical-let' and `lexical-let*' will shadow a symbol macro. There is no analogue of `defmacro' for symbol macros; all symbol macros are local. A typical use of `symbol-macrolet' is in the expansion of another macro: (defmacro* my-dolist ((x list) &rest body) (let ((var (gensym))) (list 'loop 'for var 'on list 'do (list* 'symbol-macrolet (list (list x (list 'car var))) body)))) (setq mylist '(1 2 3 4)) (my-dolist (x mylist) (incf x)) mylist => (2 3 4 5) In this example, the `my-dolist' macro is similar to `dolist' (*note Iteration::.) except that the variable `x' becomes a true reference onto the elements of the list. The `my-dolist' call shown here expands to (loop for G1234 on mylist do (symbol-macrolet ((x (car G1234))) (incf x))) which in turn expands to (loop for G1234 on mylist do (incf (car G1234))) *Note Loop Facility::, for a description of the `loop' macro. This package defines a nonstandard `in-ref' loop clause that works much like `my-dolist'. File: cl, Node: Conditionals, Next: Blocks and Exits, Prev: Variable Bindings, Up: Control Structure Conditionals ============ These conditional forms augment Emacs Lisp's simple `if', `and', `or', and `cond' forms. - Special Form: when TEST FORMS... This is a variant of `if' where there are no "else" forms, and possibly several "then" forms. In particular, (when TEST A B C) is entirely equivalent to (if TEST (progn A B C) nil) - Special Form: unless TEST FORMS... This is a variant of `if' where there are no "then" forms, and possibly several "else" forms: (unless TEST A B C) is entirely equivalent to (when (not TEST) A B C) - Special Form: case KEYFORM CLAUSE... This macro evaluates KEYFORM, then compares it with the key values listed in the various CLAUSEs. Whichever clause matches the key is executed; comparison is done by `eql'. If no clause matches, the `case' form returns `nil'. The clauses are of the form (KEYLIST BODY-FORMS...) where KEYLIST is a list of key values. If there is exactly one value, and it is not a cons cell or the symbol `nil' or `t', then it can be used by itself as a KEYLIST without being enclosed in a list. All key values in the `case' form must be distinct. The final clauses may use `t' in place of a KEYLIST to indicate a default clause that should be taken if none of the other clauses match. (The symbol `otherwise' is also recognized in place of `t'. To make a clause that matches the actual symbol `t', `nil', or `otherwise', enclose the symbol in a list.) For example, this expression reads a keystroke, then does one of four things depending on whether it is an `a', a `b', a RET or LFD, or anything else. (case (read-char) (?a (do-a-thing)) (?b (do-b-thing)) ((?\r ?\n) (do-ret-thing)) (t (do-other-thing))) - Special Form: ecase KEYFORM CLAUSE... This macro is just like `case', except that if the key does not match any of the clauses, an error is signalled rather than simply returning `nil'. - Special Form: typecase KEYFORM CLAUSE... This macro is a version of `case' that checks for types rather than values. Each CLAUSE is of the form `(TYPE BODY...)'. *Note Type Predicates::, for a description of type specifiers. For example, (typecase x (integer (munch-integer x)) (float (munch-float x)) (string (munch-integer (string-to-int x))) (t (munch-anything x))) The type specifier `t' matches any type of object; the word `otherwise' is also allowed. To make one clause match any of several types, use an `(or ...)' type specifier. - Special Form: etypecase KEYFORM CLAUSE... This macro is just like `typecase', except that if the key does not match any of the clauses, an error is signalled rather than simply returning `nil'. File: cl, Node: Blocks and Exits, Next: Iteration, Prev: Conditionals, Up: Control Structure Blocks and Exits ================ Common Lisp "blocks" provide a non-local exit mechanism very similar to `catch' and `throw', but lexically rather than dynamically scoped. This package actually implements `block' in terms of `catch'; however, the lexical scoping allows the optimizing byte-compiler to omit the costly `catch' step if the body of the block does not actually `return-from' the block. - Special Form: block NAME FORMS... The FORMS are evaluated as if by a `progn'. However, if any of the FORMS execute `(return-from NAME)', they will jump out and return directly from the `block' form. The `block' returns the result of the last FORM unless a `return-from' occurs. The `block'/`return-from' mechanism is quite similar to the `catch'/`throw' mechanism. The main differences are that block NAMEs are unevaluated symbols, rather than forms (such as quoted symbols) which evaluate to a tag at run-time; and also that blocks are lexically scoped whereas `catch'/`throw' are dynamically scoped. This means that functions called from the body of a `catch' can also `throw' to the `catch', but the `return-from' referring to a block name must appear physically within the FORMS that make up the body of the block. They may not appear within other called functions, although they may appear within macro expansions or `lambda's in the body. Block names and `catch' names form independent name-spaces. In true Common Lisp, `defun' and `defmacro' surround the function or expander bodies with implicit blocks with the same name as the function or macro. This does not occur in Emacs Lisp, but this package provides `defun*' and `defmacro*' forms which do create the implicit block. The Common Lisp looping constructs defined by this package, such as `loop' and `dolist', also create implicit blocks just as in Common Lisp. Because they are implemented in terms of Emacs Lisp `catch' and `throw', blocks have the same overhead as actual `catch' constructs (roughly two function calls). However, Zawinski and Furuseth's optimizing byte compiler (standard in Emacs 19) will optimize away the `catch' if the block does not in fact contain any `return' or `return-from' calls that jump to it. This means that `do' loops and `defun*' functions which don't use `return' don't pay the overhead to support it. - Special Form: return-from NAME [RESULT] This macro returns from the block named NAME, which must be an (unevaluated) symbol. If a RESULT form is specified, it is evaluated to produce the result returned from the `block'. Otherwise, `nil' is returned. - Special Form: return [RESULT] This macro is exactly like `(return-from nil RESULT)'. Common Lisp loops like `do' and `dolist' implicitly enclose themselves in `nil' blocks. File: cl, Node: Iteration, Next: Loop Facility, Prev: Blocks and Exits, Up: Control Structure Iteration ========= The macros described here provide more sophisticated, high-level looping constructs to complement Emacs Lisp's basic `while' loop. - Special Form: loop FORMS... The "CL" package supports both the simple, old-style meaning of `loop' and the extremely powerful and flexible feature known as the "Loop Facility" or "Loop Macro". This more advanced facility is discussed in the following section; *note Loop Facility::.. The simple form of `loop' is described here. If `loop' is followed by zero or more Lisp expressions, then `(loop EXPRS...)' simply creates an infinite loop executing the expressions over and over. The loop is enclosed in an implicit `nil' block. Thus, (loop (foo) (if (no-more) (return 72)) (bar)) is exactly equivalent to (block nil (while t (foo) (if (no-more) (return 72)) (bar))) If any of the expressions are plain symbols, the loop is instead interpreted as a Loop Macro specification as described later. (This is not a restriction in practice, since a plain symbol in the above notation would simply access and throw away the value of a variable.) - Special Form: do (SPEC...) (END-TEST [RESULT...]) FORMS... This macro creates a general iterative loop. Each SPEC is of the form (VAR [INIT [STEP]]) The loop works as follows: First, each VAR is bound to the associated INIT value as if by a `let' form. Then, in each iteration of the loop, the END-TEST is evaluated; if true, the loop is finished. Otherwise, the body FORMS are evaluated, then each VAR is set to the associated STEP expression (as if by a `psetq' form) and the next iteration begins. Once the END-TEST becomes true, the RESULT forms are evaluated (with the VARs still bound to their values) to produce the result returned by `do'. The entire `do' loop is enclosed in an implicit `nil' block, so that you can use `(return)' to break out of the loop at any time. If there are no RESULT forms, the loop returns `nil'. If a given VAR has no STEP form, it is bound to its INIT value but not otherwise modified during the `do' loop (unless the code explicitly modifies it); this case is just a shorthand for putting a `(let ((VAR INIT)) ...)' around the loop. If INIT is also omitted it defaults to `nil', and in this case a plain `VAR' can be used in place of `(VAR)', again following the analogy with `let'. This example (from Steele) illustrates a loop which applies the function `f' to successive pairs of values from the lists `foo' and `bar'; it is equivalent to the call `(mapcar* 'f foo bar)'. Note that this loop has no body FORMS at all, performing all its work as side effects of the rest of the loop. (do ((x foo (cdr x)) (y bar (cdr y)) (z nil (cons (f (car x) (car y)) z))) ((or (null x) (null y)) (nreverse z))) - Special Form: do* (SPEC...) (END-TEST [RESULT...]) FORMS... This is to `do' what `let*' is to `let'. In particular, the initial values are bound as if by `let*' rather than `let', and the steps are assigned as if by `setq' rather than `psetq'. Here is another way to write the above loop: (do* ((xp foo (cdr xp)) (yp bar (cdr yp)) (x (car xp) (car xp)) (y (car yp) (car yp)) z) ((or (null xp) (null yp)) (nreverse z)) (push (f x y) z)) - Special Form: dolist (VAR LIST [RESULT]) FORMS... This is a more specialized loop which iterates across the elements of a list. LIST should evaluate to a list; the body FORMS are executed with VAR bound to each element of the list in turn. Finally, the RESULT form (or `nil') is evaluated with VAR bound to `nil' to produce the result returned by the loop. The loop is surrounded by an implicit `nil' block. - Special Form: dotimes (VAR COUNT [RESULT]) FORMS... This is a more specialized loop which iterates a specified number of times. The body is executed with VAR bound to the integers from zero (inclusive) to COUNT (exclusive), in turn. Then the `result' form is evaluated with VAR bound to the total number of iterations that were done (i.e., `(max 0 COUNT)') to get the return value for the loop form. The loop is surrounded by an implicit `nil' block. - Special Form: do-symbols (VAR [OBARRAY [RESULT]]) FORMS... This loop iterates over all interned symbols. If OBARRAY is specified and is not `nil', it loops over all symbols in that obarray. For each symbol, the body FORMS are evaluated with VAR bound to that symbol. The symbols are visited in an unspecified order. Afterward the RESULT form, if any, is evaluated (with VAR bound to `nil') to get the return value. The loop is surrounded by an implicit `nil' block. - Special Form: do-all-symbols (VAR [RESULT]) FORMS... This is identical to `do-symbols' except that the OBARRAY argument is omitted; it always iterates over the default obarray. *Note Mapping over Sequences::, for some more functions for iterating over vectors or lists. File: cl, Node: Loop Facility, Next: Multiple Values, Prev: Iteration, Up: Control Structure Loop Facility ============= A common complaint with Lisp's traditional looping constructs is that they are either too simple and limited, such as Common Lisp's `dotimes' or Emacs Lisp's `while', or too unreadable and obscure, like Common Lisp's `do' loop. To remedy this, recent versions of Common Lisp have added a new construct called the "Loop Facility" or "`loop' macro," with an easy-to-use but very powerful and expressive syntax. * Menu: * Loop Basics:: `loop' macro, basic clause structure * Loop Examples:: Working examples of `loop' macro * For Clauses:: Clauses introduced by `for' or `as' * Iteration Clauses:: `repeat', `while', `thereis', etc. * Accumulation Clauses:: `collect', `sum', `maximize', etc. * Other Clauses:: `with', `if', `initially', `finally' File: cl, Node: Loop Basics, Next: Loop Examples, Prev: Loop Facility, Up: Loop Facility Loop Basics ----------- The `loop' macro essentially creates a mini-language within Lisp that is specially tailored for describing loops. While this language is a little strange-looking by the standards of regular Lisp, it turns out to be very easy to learn and well-suited to its purpose. Since `loop' is a macro, all parsing of the loop language takes place at byte-compile time; compiled `loop's are just as efficient as the equivalent `while' loops written longhand. - Special Form: loop CLAUSES... A loop construct consists of a series of CLAUSEs, each introduced by a symbol like `for' or `do'. Clauses are simply strung together in the argument list of `loop', with minimal extra parentheses. The various types of clauses specify initializations, such as the binding of temporary variables, actions to be taken in the loop, stepping actions, and final cleanup. Common Lisp specifies a certain general order of clauses in a loop: (loop NAME-CLAUSE VAR-CLAUSES... ACTION-CLAUSES...) The NAME-CLAUSE optionally gives a name to the implicit block that surrounds the loop. By default, the implicit block is named `nil'. The VAR-CLAUSES specify what variables should be bound during the loop, and how they should be modified or iterated throughout the course of the loop. The ACTION-CLAUSES are things to be done during the loop, such as computing, collecting, and returning values. The Emacs version of the `loop' macro is less restrictive about the order of clauses, but things will behave most predictably if you put the variable-binding clauses `with', `for', and `repeat' before the action clauses. As in Common Lisp, `initially' and `finally' clauses can go anywhere. Loops generally return `nil' by default, but you can cause them to return a value by using an accumulation clause like `collect', an end-test clause like `always', or an explicit `return' clause to jump out of the implicit block. (Because the loop body is enclosed in an implicit block, you can also use regular Lisp `return' or `return-from' to break out of the loop.) The following sections give some examples of the Loop Macro in action, and describe the particular loop clauses in great detail. Consult the second edition of Steele's "Common Lisp, the Language", for additional discussion and examples of the `loop' macro. File: cl, Node: Loop Examples, Next: For Clauses, Prev: Loop Basics, Up: Loop Facility Loop Examples ------------- Before listing the full set of clauses that are allowed, let's look at a few example loops just to get a feel for the `loop' language. (loop for buf in (buffer-list) collect (buffer-file-name buf)) This loop iterates over all Emacs buffers, using the list returned by `buffer-list'. For each buffer `buf', it calls `buffer-file-name' and collects the results into a list, which is then returned from the `loop' construct. The result is a list of the file names of all the buffers in Emacs' memory. The words `for', `in', and `collect' are reserved words in the `loop' language. (loop repeat 20 do (insert "Yowsa\n")) This loop inserts the phrase "Yowsa" twenty times in the current buffer. (loop until (eobp) do (munch-line) (forward-line 1)) This loop calls `munch-line' on every line until the end of the buffer. If point is already at the end of the buffer, the loop exits immediately. (loop do (munch-line) until (eobp) do (forward-line 1)) This loop is similar to the above one, except that `munch-line' is always called at least once. (loop for x from 1 to 100 for y = (* x x) until (>= y 729) finally return (list x (= y 729))) This more complicated loop searches for a number `x' whose square is 729. For safety's sake it only examines `x' values up to 100; dropping the phrase `to 100' would cause the loop to count upwards with no limit. The second `for' clause defines `y' to be the square of `x' within the loop; the expression after the `=' sign is reevaluated each time through the loop. The `until' clause gives a condition for terminating the loop, and the `finally' clause says what to do when the loop finishes. (This particular example was written less concisely than it could have been, just for the sake of illustration.) Note that even though this loop contains three clauses (two `for's and an `until') that would have been enough to define loops all by themselves, it still creates a single loop rather than some sort of triple-nested loop. You must explicitly nest your `loop' constructs if you want nested loops.