Parenting - Prenatal to preschool/Parenting_PrenatalToPreschool.bin/dp/0026/00260.txt

Text File | 1993-06-25 | 79KB | 1,439 lines

$Unique_ID{PAR00260}
$Pretitle{}
$Title{Child Development:  Physical Development and Exercise}
$Subtitle{}
$Author{
Lansky, Vicki}
$Subject{Physical Developing Develop Develops Exercise Exercising
Introducing Introduction Newborn Appearance Head Eyes Ears Nose Mouth Skin
Chest Genitals Abdomen Arms Legs Hair Reflexive reflexes reflex root arm flex
righting fencer fencing position tonic neck grasp grasping
Babinski step steps stepping Moro startle response Responsive coo coos smile
smiles cry cries Sense Senses Touch Smell Taste Hearing Vision Stimulate
Stimulated Stimulation Visual Development Growth Size Rate Tooth Formation
Eruption teeth Skills Gross Motor Big Muscle Muscles Control Sit Sitting Roll
Rolling Over Crawl Crawling Stand Standing Cruise Cruising Walk Walking Fine
Motor Exercises child development}
$Log{
Eruption of the Primary Teeth*0026001.tif
Motor Development Milestones*0026002.tif
Exercise (One- to Four-Month-Old):  Grip*0026003.tif
Exercise (One- to Four-Month-Old):  Chest Cross*0026004.tif
Exercise (Three- to Four-Month-Old):  Bicycle*0026005.tif
Exercise (Five- to Six-Month-Old):  Pull-Up*0026006.tif
Exercise (Five- to Six-Month-Old):  Elbow Stand*0026007.tif
Exercise (Seven- to Eight-Month-Old):  Toe to Ear*0026008.tif
Exercise (Seven- to Eight-Month-Old):  Wheelbarrow*0026009.tif
Exercise (Nine- to Eleven-Month-Old):  Mountain Climbing*0026010.tif
Exercise (Nine- to Eleven-Month-Old):  Hand Walk*0026011.tif
Exercise (Twelve- to Twenty-two Months):  Lay-Back*0026012.tif
Exercise (Twelve- to Twenty-two Months):  Touch and Hug*0026013.tif
Exercise (Twelve- to Twenty-two Months):  Let's Squat!*0026014.tif
Exercise (Twelve- to Twenty-two Months):  Hip Lift*0026015.tif
Exercise (Twelve- to Twenty-two Months):  Curl Down*0026016.tif
Exercise (Twelve- to Twenty-two Months):  Head-to-Toes*0026017.tif
Exercise (Twelve- to Twenty-two Months):  Train Tracks*0026018.tif
Exercise (Twelve- to Twenty-two Months):  Board Walk*0026019.tif
Exercise (Twelve- to Twenty-two Months):  Ball Toss*0026020.tif
Exercise (Twenty-three Months to Three Years):  Squat Bend*0026021.tif
Exercise (Twenty-three Months to Three Years):  Jack-in-the-Box*0026022.tif
Exercise (Twenty-three Months to Three Years):  Toe Touch*0026023.tif
Exercise (Twenty-three Months to Three Years):  Rowing*0026024.tif
Exercise (Twenty-three Months to Three Years):  Hill Walk (Step 1)*0026025.tif
Exercise (Twenty-three Months to Three Years):  Hill Walk (Step 2)*0026026.tif
Exercise (Twenty-three Months to Three Years):  Balance Beam Walk*0026028.tif
Exercise (Twenty-three Months to Three Years):  Basic Push-Up*0026029.tif
Exercise (Twenty-three Months to Three Years):  The Angry Cat*0026030.tif
Exercise (Twenty-three Months to Three Years):  Jump in Hoop (Step 1)*0026031.tif
Exercise (Twenty-three Months to Three Years):  Jump in Hoop (Steps 2 & 4)*0026032.tif
A newborn baby looks different--her legs are only 1/3 of her length*0055201.tif
A baby's growth and development begin inside the womb*0055601.tif
By 4 months, he can raise his head and chest above a surface using his arms*0055901.tif
As the infant grows older, the whole family should join in the fun*0056001.tif
This is the time to introduce toys that make things happen*0056101.tif
When your child is awake, give him every opportunity to crawl around*0056201.tif
Your child will show readiness to kick, twist, and lift himself*0056301.tif
Each baby is unique and asserts her individuality from day one*0058301.tif
As a newborn, your baby can already see, hear, feel, taste, and smell*0058401.tif
Your toddler grows nimble as he gains confidence in his physical skills*0058601.tif
One of the most important means for communicating with your baby is touch*0059001.tif}

Complete Pregnancy and Baby Book


Physical Development and Exercise


Introducing the Newborn

     After nine months of anticipation, the two of you may feel that you have
had ample time to consider the consequences of your pregnancy, perhaps even
time enough to read about babies or to attend a parenting class.  But unless
you have actually had hands-on experience with a newborn, your baby's
appearance may surprise you.  Since many movies and television programs cast
an older baby for the part of a newborn in tender scenes with parents after
the delivery, it is no wonder that many first-time parents expect to give
birth to a sturdy, smiling three-month-old baby.
     If you feel amazed upon first seeing your newborn, think of the
astonishment he must feel.  Although all his senses had been intact since the
twenty-eighth week of gestation, his perceptions were muted while he was
within the confines of the uterus.   He was able to hear sounds, such as your
muffled voices and his mother's heartbeat.  Occasionally he could see soft
light filtering into his world.  He felt his mother's movements and the gentle
pressure of your hands as you caressed the outlines of his body.
     Throughout the pregnancy the uterus underwent many changes.  As the fetus
grew larger, his movements became restricted as the ability of the uterus to
stretch reached its limits.  With the onset of labor, increasingly stronger
contractions began pushing him outward.  His head squeezed through the bony
pelvic outlet or was pulled by strong hands through a cesarean incision.  His
soft body followed.  Suddenly, his delicate skin was no longer cushioned by
warm fluid.  The air felt relatively cooler.  Unfamiliar hands and fabrics
rubbed against him.  Brighter lights and louder voices bombarded his senses.
Once separated from you, he had to take over all the life-sustaining functions
you had controlled for him.  He was forced to take his laborious first breath.
For him, birth represented a dramatic change.
     Once in your arms, he began to feel better.  With his head snuggled
against your chest, he heard that familiar heartbeat and felt reassured.  Your
voice also comforted him.  As your adoring face moved close, he scrutinized
it.
     In the next few days, he began to make the enormous adjustment to his
strange new environment.  Having survived birth is a testament to the fact
that he is not as fragile as he looks.

Physical Appearance of the Newborn

     A newborn looks very different from older babies and children.  Her head
is relatively large, measuring one fourth of her entire length.  Her
disproportionately short legs are only one third of her length.  Clearly, in
humans, brain development takes precedence over development of the rest of the
body.

     Head

     Aside from being large, her head may look misshapen and even a little
bruised.  The bones of the skull are separated, rather than fused as they are
in adults.  This separation allows the bones to slide over each other as the
head passes through the narrow birth canal.  Also, this mobility is essential
to accommodate an infant's rapid brain growth.
     If you caress the top of her head, you will feel the "soft spots," or
fontanels, in the skull.  Here the bones are widely separated, but the brain
is covered by a tough membrane and scalp.  You won't hurt your baby by gently
touching these areas.  The anterior fontanel, located in the midline on top of
the head, usually closes between nine and eighteen months after birth.  Behind
it is the smaller posterior fontanel, which closes by four months.

     Eyes

     Your baby's eyelids may be red and swollen from pressure during the
delivery.  In most hospitals, antibiotic drops are applied to the newborn's
eyes.  The drops may cause mild, temporary inflammation.
     As your baby studies your face, you may notice that one eye wanders or
that the two eyes don't move together smoothly.  Unless one eye seems to be
almost fixed in position (cross-eyed or walleyed), this wandering is normal
and will be corrected as the baby gains strength and coordination in the
muscles that move the eyes.

     Ears

     The cartilage in the outer ear is very flexible in the newborn.  If an
ear looks folded, don't worry--it will probably straighten out.  If the
problem continues, talk to your doctor.

     Nose

     At birth, the nose and mouth are often filled with mucus.  After the
delivery, suctioning by hospital staff with a rubber syringe clears the
airways and helps your baby to breathe.  Her own sneezing helps clear her
nasal passages and is not necessarily the sign of a cold.

     Mouth

     An occasional baby already has one or more teeth at birth, which usually
fall out.  Your doctor may want to extract these teeth so that your baby
doesn't later choke on them.  If your baby did a lot of sucking in the womb,
blisters may be present on the upper lip, as well as on the fingers, hands, or
forearm.

     Skin

     Your baby's skin is wonderfully soft.  It may not, however, appear as
flawless as the complexion of an older infant.  The newborn's skin often has a
ruddier hue.   For the first few days, the hands and feet may appear to be
tinged with blue.   Soon, the baby's circulation will improve and the skin
color will be more uniform.
     Over half of newborns have some degree of jaundice in the first week of
life.  In most cases, this condition is due to the immaturity of the liver and
is not a threat to the baby.  The liver is the organ that helps to clear
bilirubin, a waste product of broken-down red blood cells.  Since the liver is
not completely mature at birth, babies are often not able to excrete bilirubin
as well as adults.  It is the deposition of bilirubin in the skin and the
whites of the eyes that gives them a yellowish tinge.
     Jaundice first appears on the face and spreads downward as the bilirubin
level increases.  Normal newborn, or "physiologic," jaundice usually is first
visible between the second and fifth days of life, peaks between the fifth and
seventh days, and clears within one to two weeks, In some breast-fed babies
jaundice may last a bit longer.
     Unless your doctor determines that the bilirubin level is too high, you
can probably manage your baby's jaundice at home.  The mainstay of home
treatment is frequent feedings at breast or bottle.  Bilirubin is eliminated
in the urine and feces; the elimination can be accelerated by increasing fluid
intake.  Bilirubin is broken down in the skin, and light stimulates the
action. The wavelength of light that hastens bilirubin breakdown in the skin
passes through glass and plastic.  Because this is so, placing the baby near a
sunny window (for short periods of time) is beneficial.
     Your doctor may follow your baby's progress by checking the bilirubin
level with a simple blood test.  If the level rises excessively, the baby will
require hospitalization for phototherapy treatment (exposure to light at a
wavelength similar to that of ultraviolet light) and to determine whether the
jaundice is due to something more serious than immature liver function.
     In most babies, the jaundice resolves spontaneously.  If your baby has
jaundice, your doctor will tell you what to do to speed its disappearance.
     Birthmarks are a fairly common skin condition of the newborn.  Babies of
darker-skinned parents may have "mongolian spots," due to a bluish
pigmentation under the skin over the lower part of the back and the buttocks.
"Stork bites" (also called "angel kisses") are red, flat birthmarks usually
located on the bridge of the nose, the upper eyelids, or the back of the neck.
They usually disappear by the second birthday, but may reappear with crying.
Sometimes the spots on the nape of the neck persist into adulthood.
     Rashes often develop within the first few days of life.  Although parents
tend to worry about these skin blemishes, most of them are harmless and go
away on their own.  Milia are small white "pimples" on the face, caused by
maternal hormones.  They go away in several days without treatment.  Erythema
toxicum--a rash of red bumps with yellow centers and a generally
"flea-bitten" appearance--occurs in half of all newborns.  It is harmless and
disappears on its own in a week or so.
     The skin of most babies peels a little after birth.  Peeling is most
noticeable on the palms and soles.  It is more marked in babies born after
more than forty weeks of pregnancy.  You might also notice a flaky condition
known as "cradle cap" on the scalp.  This flaking goes away by itself.  Daily
washing with soap and water is helpful.

     Chest

     Your baby breathes at a faster rate than you.  The normal newborn
breathes between thirty and fifty times a minute.  The rate is often
irregular.  If you watch closely, you may see a faint motion of the heart
beating against the left chest wall.  The pulse in new babies is also
fast--130 to 160 beats per minute.
     You may also notice that your baby's breasts are enlarged.  This
enlargement, caused by exposure to high estrogen levels while in the uterus,
is temporary.

     Genitals

     Exposure to maternal hormones may also cause swelling in the baby's
genitals, especially the labia in girls.  In the first few weeks, girls may
have a white, blood-tinged, mucous discharge from the vagina due to withdrawal
from those hormones.
     In boys, the foreskin that covers the penis is not easily retractable.
Don't try to force it back, as this may hurt your baby.

     Abdomen

     After the umbilical cord has been cut, a stump remains.  If it is kept
clean and dry, it will fall off within ten days.  Many hospitals recommend
that you gently clean the base of the stump with a cotton ball and rubbing
alcohol.
     Your baby's first bowel movements will be sticky and greenish-black.
This tar-like substance is called meconium.  After your baby has been drinking
milk for a few days, her bowel movements will appear yellow to brown.

     Arms and Legs

     Your baby can move all four extremities quite well.  He prefers to keep
them flexed and close to his body.  Their exact position may resemble his
posture during the last few weeks in the uterus.  The legs often flop open at
the hips, giving him a frog-legged look.
     Extending his arms and legs makes him feel insecure.  When he is fretful,
you may be able to make him more comfortable by wrapping him snugly in a
blanket and holding him close to you.

     Hair

     The amount of hair on the head is variable.  Any amount is normal.  Most
of this hair will fall out and be replaced.  The color and texture of the new
hair may be quite different from those of the hair he was born with.
     Inside the womb, the baby's body was covered with fine, downy hair called
lanugo.  Unless your baby was premature, most of this body hair will have
disappeared, except for some fuzz on the back.  Even this residual lanugo will
be gone in a few weeks.

The Newborn as a Reflexive Being

     After making the dramatic transition to life outside the womb, your baby
is faced with the task of learning to survive in his completely new
environment.  Fortunately, nature has provided him with many reflexes to
maximize his success until he is able to do certain things voluntarily.  Your
own instinctual responses will guide you in meeting your baby's needs.
     Just as a mother's breasts are programmed to provide milk to nourish her
newborn, a baby automatically knows how to respond to attempts to feed him.
When you stimulate his cheek, mouth, or lips with the nipple of a breast or a
bottle, his head will turn toward it, his mouth will open, and his tongue will
move forward.  This movement of his head and mouth is called the rooting
reflex and helps him find a source of nourishment.  As soon as the inside of
his sensitive mouth is stimulated, he will automatically suck and swallow in a
coordinated fashion.
     A similar reaction, the hand-to-mouth reflex, occurs if you stroke your
baby's cheek or the palm of his hand.  His mouth will "root" and his arm will
flex.  After his hand and mouth find each other, he may suck his fist
energetically for several minutes.  This reflex helps babies suck and swallow
any mucus that might have been clogging their upper airways (nose and mouth)
after birth.
     If you slowly pull your baby to a sitting position from his back, he will
make a gallant attempt to keep his head upright.  This response is called the
righting reflex.  Because his head is heavy and his muscles are not yet strong
enough to hold it steady, his head will wobble back and forth.  You will
quickly learn to support his head when you pick him up.
     For the first few weeks, your baby will lie with one cheek down when on
his back.  As his head turns to one side, the arm on the same side straightens
and the opposite arm bends.  This posture resembles a "fencing position" and
is called the tonic neck reflex.  Lying in this position gives your baby an
opportunity to discover his own hand in the weeks to come.  Because it is
difficult to turn over on an outstretched arm, this reflex will have to fade
before your baby can roll over.
     A newborn baby has a very strong grasping reflex.  If you place your
finger in his palm, his fingers will curl tightly around it.  The automatic
grasp reflex fades over the first two to three months to enable your baby to
grasp objects voluntarily.  Gentle pressure against the sole of his foot
causes his toes to curl downward.  Stroking the side of his soles will cause
his toes to spread and the big toe to extend upward.  This Babinski reflex is
the opposite of the normal adult response, in which the big toe turns
downward.
     Holding your baby upright and pressing the sole of one foot at a time to
a firm surface will elicit the stepping reflex.  He will alternately bend each
leg as though walking.  This remarkable reflex fades rapidly but reappears
months later, as your baby prepares himself for voluntary walking.
     Stroking one leg causes the other to bend, cross the first leg, and push
away the offending object.  He moves as though to escape from a
harmful stimulus.
     When placed on his belly, your baby will lift his head and turn it from
side to side.  He may even attempt to crawl.  His responses make it virtually
impossible for him to smother when he is lying on his stomach on a firm, flat
surface.  (For this reason, you need not worry that your baby will have
trouble breathing while prone.  You should, however, keep excess bedclothes,
toys, and stuffed animals out of the way.)
     The most dramatic reflex is the Moro, or startle response.  A loud noise
or rough handling will cause your baby to throw back his arms and legs, extend
his neck, and cry out.  Then he will bring his arms together in an embrace and
flex his legs.  Unfortunately, your baby's response disturbs him further.  His
own furious crying only serves to startle him again.  You can help break this
cycle by calmly bringing his flailing extremities close to his body; applying
steady, gentle pressure with your hand against his chest and abdomen; or
simply holding him securely against your own body.  By three months of age,
this reflex will disappear.

The Newborn as a Responsive Being

     Your baby is not simply a bundle of reflexes.  Each baby is unique.  From
day one, your baby asserts her individuality and makes known her temperament.
You will soon discern her particular style in responding to the environment.
     Within a few weeks, you will see her express her pleasure with coos and
fleeting smiles and communicate her hunger, pain, or fear by varying cries of
distress.  You will learn to read each other.  If you are responsive to her
needs, she will learn to trust you.  Your fostering of a sense of security
will encourage her to continue to reach out to you.  This circle of positive
interaction will be gratifying to you all.
     Many parents worry about "spoiling" their baby.  Everyone would agree
that a child who is rude and selfish is unpleasant.  Your infant, however,
does not yet have the intellectual maturity to be manipulative.  At birth, she
doesn't know about people; she doesn't recognize that she is a being separate
from you.  She is merely aware of her needs and expresses them as best as she
can.
     Don't worry about picking up your newborn when she cries.  From her
perspective, she was carried about for nine months.  Gathering her into your
arms to comfort her only makes sense.  It is probably safe to say that you
can't hold your baby too much during the first three months.
     As your baby gets older, responding to her includes replying to her
babbling sounds.  Your verbal responsiveness promotes her listening skills and
language recognition.  Many specialists in infant development feel that
holding and talking to your baby are the most important contributions you can
make to her future development.

The Special Senses of the Newborn

     Your new baby is constantly receiving and responding to stimuli in his
environment.  By his seventh month in the womb, all of his senses were
developed.  As a newborn, he can already see, hear, feel, taste, and smell.
Some of these senses need time to fully mature.  Yet, from birth, he is ready
to learn about his new world and everything in it.
     Failure to stimulate his senses can have disastrous effects on his future
growth and development.  Happily, you, as loving parents, will know how to
provide just the right kind of sensory input for your baby.

     Touch

     One of the most important means you have for communicating with your baby
is touch.  Babies enjoy gentle handling and rhythmic motion.  While inside the
womb, your baby became accustomed to being rocked by your movements.  After
birth, that same swaying motion comforts him.  A fretful infant will often
become quiet if you gather him close to your body and gently rock him.
     Even the most mundane activities--feeding and bathing him, changing his
clothes and diapers, holding him, walking with him in your arms--stimulate
your baby's sense of touch and movement.

     Smell and Taste

     At birth, babies demonstrate that they discriminate odors by turning away
from unpleasant smells.  Your baby will quickly learn to recognize familiar
smells, especially your scent.
     Although his taste buds aren't completely mature at birth, your baby can
tell sweet from sour and much prefers the former.  It is no coincidence
that breast milk is very sweet.

     Hearing

     During the last trimester of pregnancy, a baby listens to his mother's
muffled voice as well as to the sounds of her heartbeat, breathing, and
digestion.  When your baby's head is pressed against your chest, he no doubt
finds those familiar sounds comforting.  You may notice that he selectively
listens to higher-pitched voices.  Even men unconsciously raise the pitch of
their voices when speaking to babies.  As your baby gains more control over
his head movements, it will become clear that he not only can hear, but can
accurately determine the location of a sound source.
     Loud, sharp noises often upset babies.  Soft, rhythmic sounds are
calming.  Music boxes, toys that make pleasant sounds, and soft music will
stimulate your baby's sense of hearing.  He will enjoy listening to you sing
and talk to him.  Soon the monologue will turn into a delightful dialogue as
he starts replying with his own babbling sounds.

     Vision

     Upon emergence from their dim intrauterine environment, babies exhibit a
protective reflex of tightly shutting their eyes against bright light.  This
response is called the blinking reflex.
     Once you and your baby have settled into an environment more subdued than
the delivery room, you will notice your baby scanning your face with wide-eyed
interest.  Although his visual system is immature, a newborn sees quite well
at a distance of eight inches from the bridge of his nose.  Parents
instinctively bring their faces that close to inspect the new member of the
family.
     Like an old-fashioned camera, your newborn infant has "fixed" focus, that
is, he is not able to adjust his eyes to clearly see images closer than eight
inches or farther away than ten inches.  He will quickly learn to accommodate
(to focus the eyes with changing object distance).  By six weeks of age, he
will be able to focus at a distance of approximately twelve inches.  The
ability to accommodate matures by four months.  In fact, at this age, infants
not only see distant objects well, but can focus on images that are very close
better than an adult can.
     The muscles that move the eyes to help them both focus on an object to
produce a single image are immature at birth.  You may notice that one eye or
the other occasionally wanders.  As long as that eye is not always deviated in
the same direction, this wandering is normal.  Visual coordination is much
improved within a few weeks.  By the age of six weeks, he will be able to
smoothly move both eyes in concert as he follows a moving object.  By eight
weeks, your baby will be able to converge both eyes perfectly when viewing a
stationary object.
     The ability of both eyes to focus on the same image is essential to the
development of depth perception, the capacity to distinguish near from far.
Infants less than two months of age are probably not able to perceive depth.
Your baby will be able to discern relative distances by four to six months.
His ability to estimate distances matures after he has the experience of
reaching and crawling.  Until your baby has had experience with propelling
himself around his environment, he probably will not have any fear of heights.
If you leave him on a raised surface, for instance, he will blithely scoot
over the edge.
     Color vision is probably immature at birth.  Color discrimination is
learned early, starting with yellow and ending with blue.  By four months,
babies can see all colors well and often prefer red.

What Your Baby Will Enjoy Looking At

     At birth, babies prefer high contrast.  Black and white designs provide
the most contrast.  At first, babies prefer geometric patterns with stripes
and angles.  Soon they shift their preference to circular patterns, such as a
bull's-eye.
     Within three weeks, the most exciting image in his visual field is the
human face.  Because your hairline and your eyes offer the most contrast, he
will at first concentrate his gaze between your nose and your forehead.
Between four and eight weeks, your baby may break into his first social smile
while studying your face.  At three months, he will be able to distinguish
your face from a stranger's.  By rewarding you with a special smile, he lets
you know that he recognizes you.  By four months, his vision has matured.
Like you, he enjoys looking at things that are colorful, novel, and in motion.
     How do you know when your baby finds something visually interesting?  An
alert, calm baby will respond to a pleasing object in his visual field by
brightening his face and moving his arms and legs rhythmically.  An active
baby will stop moving and carefully scan the object with his eyes.  He will
signal to you when an object doesn't interest him or when he has had enough
stimulation by turning away and withdrawing.
     Avoid bombarding your baby with visual input during the first two months
of his life.  During this time, while he is getting settled, all stimuli
should be low-key.  In these first weeks, he is becoming familiar with his
hands and should not be exposed to a lot of jazzy visual stimuli that will
distract him from that familiarization process.  Later, when he has begun to
master basic visual skills and has gained control over his head and hand
movements, he will be ready to explore his visual environment.  As always,
take your cues from him.

Things That Stimulate Visual Development

  -  Black and white geometric patterns
  -  Your face
  -  Toys with faces
  -  Out-of-reach mobiles (remove them when the baby can sit, to avoid
     entanglement)
  -  Mirrors (choose stainless-steel mirrors he can't break)
  -  Being carried about with you
  -  Being placed in an infant seat (always fasten the lap belt and never
     leave him unattended)

Patterns of Growth

     A baby's growth and development begin inside the womb.  In fact, her most
rapid rate of growth will occur during the first four months of the pregnancy.
After birth, she will continue to grow rapidly.  Each baby's pattern of
growing and developing is unique, influenced by gestational age at birth,
birth size, body type, general state of health, quality of diet and exercise,
and the sizes and growth patterns of the parents.

     Birth Size

     After spending approximately forty weeks inside the womb, the average
newborn weighs seven and a half pounds.  Most babies weigh between five and a
half and ten pounds.  The average length of a newborn is twenty inches (fifty
centimeters), with a range of eighteen to twenty-two inches.  The average head
circumference (the distance around the head) is fourteen inches (thirty-five
centimeters).
     At each visit, your doctor will chart your child's growth.  The best
indicators of growth are weight, height, and head circumference.  Plotting
these growth measurements is a simple and extremely useful way of monitoring
your child's state of health.

     Rate of Growth

     During the first few days after birth, you can expect your baby to lose
six to ten percent of her birth weight.  Most of the weight lost is in the
form of extra body water.  If you are a mother who plans to breast-feed, your
milk will be "coming in" during this time.  The first milk, or colostrum,
albeit scanty, is high in protein and will sustain the baby as your milk
supply increases.
     After three to four days, the baby will begin to regain weight and should
attain or surpass her birth weight by ten to fourteen days.  For the next
three months, your infant will grow at the astonishing rate of approximately
an ounce a day.  Between three and six months, her weight gain will decline to
four to five ounces a week.  Between six and twelve months, the weight gain
slows to two to three ounces a week.  After the first year, the growth rate
further tapers.  During the second year of life, appetite sometimes diminishes
as physical activity increases, resulting in temporary plateaus in growth.
     If you have an average-size baby, you can expect her to double her birth
weight by five months, triple it by one year, and quadruple it by two years.
The average gain in length or height is ten to twelve inches in the first year
and five inches in the second year.  Keep in mind that these predictions are
estimates for the average-size baby.  If your baby was smaller at birth, she
may grow faster; if she was larger, she will probably grow at a slower rate.
     The growth curve isn't always smooth.  Babies often grow in spurts.  If
your baby is ill or preoccupied with acquiring a new physical skill, her
growth rate may temporarily decline (she may be burning more calories, and may
be less interested in eating).  Also bear in mind that bigger is not
necessarily better.  Obesity at any age should be avoided.

Tooth Formation and Eruption

     Tooth buds for your baby's first teeth begin to form at about six weeks
of fetal life.  Between the fourth and fifth months of fetal life, some tooth
buds become evident.  By about the seventh month of fetal life, the tooth buds
for all of your baby's primary (deciduous) teeth are formed.  At birth, the
crowns--the portions of the teeth visible above the gums--of your baby's front
teeth are already formed and contain most of their enamel covering.  The
crowns for some of the other primary teeth are partially formed, and the tooth
buds for some of the permanent molars are forming.  By the time your child is
three years old, the crowns of some permanent teeth will be fairly well
formed, and the tooth buds for the last molars will have formed.
     As early as three months of age, your baby may begin teething.  Teething
is marked by drooling, fretting, and chewing on things in an attempt to reduce
the discomfort of sore, swollen gums.  Some babies will exhibit these symptoms
for up to four months before the first tooth finally erupts.  If your baby
seems uncomfortable, you can help reduce the pain and swelling in her gums by
giving her firm, smooth, cool, unbreakable objects to chew.  Massaging the
inflamed gums with a clean fingertip may also be helpful.  Medications to numb
painful gums are also available.
     Don't be alarmed if your baby seems less interested in the breast or the
bottle while teething; sucking increases the blood flow and hence the swelling
and pain of the gums.  If she's old enough, you might try offering her fluids
from a cup.
     Your baby's first tooth should appear when she is four to eight months
old.  It is not unusual for a child to be ten or more months old before the
first tooth appears, though, and occasionally a baby is born with one or more
teeth already erupted.  Although most babies will have cut six to eight teeth
by their first birthday, some normal babies will have just two teeth or fewer.
If your baby is approaching the age of one year and no teeth are evident (you
may see the outlines of teeth before they erupt), you should talk to your
baby's doctor about having a dental evaluation.
     Even though all of your baby's teeth may have erupted by one and a half
or two years of age, you will have to exercise care in the foods you give her.
A child's chewing ability usually is not fully developed until about the age
of four years.  Children younger than this should not be given such foods as
popcorn, nuts (especially peanuts), raw vegetables such as carrots, whole
grapes, hot dogs, and round candies.  If these and similar food items are not
properly chewed, they may lodge in a small child's windpipe and cut off the
air supply.
     Because a baby's teeth begin to form so early in fetal life, what the
mother ate, or did not eat, during pregnancy can have an effect on the
development of the baby's teeth.  However, the nutritional needs of the teeth
and their supporting bones and muscles are easily met by a well-balanced diet;
an ample supply of calcium is essential.  After birth, the diet recommended by
your baby's doctor will contain the proper nutrients for your baby's healthy
growth and development, including healthy tooth formation.  (For more
information on tooth care, see Chapter 9.)

Development of Physical Skills

     While your baby is busy growing taller, gaining weight, and cutting
teeth, he will also be learning how to interact physically with his
environment.  That is not to say that your baby's physical development does
not begin until after birth.  No doubt you were well aware of your infant's
intrauterine acrobatics.
     During the first three months of your baby's life, however, reflexes
govern much of his behavior.  As these newborn reflexes fade, they are
replaced by more purposeful movements.  As he gains strength and coordination
in his muscles, your baby is able to explore and manipulate things in his
environment.  Each day, he moves more competently.
     Physical development is divided into two categories:  fine motor and
gross motor.  Fine motor skills require precise coordination of the small
muscles.  Acquisition of hand-eye coordination is the focus of fine motor
development. Gross motor skills are governed by larger, stronger, less
exacting muscles. These skills include holding up the head, sitting, crawling,
and walking.
     Acquisition of developmental skills occurs in an orderly, predictable
sequence.  The precise timing of the mastery of any one skill, though, is
subject to much normal variation--something to keep in mind when you are
tempted to label your baby as "early" or "late" in development.
     Each baby approaches the world with his own unique style.  Resist
comparing your child with your friends' children.  When you hear that another
child is walking at nine months, don't despair because your child is still
perfecting his crawl.  Instead, focus on his special talents.  For instance,
your baby may be much better than another at picking up and examining small
objects.  No matter when it occurs, celebrate your child's every
accomplishment with him.

Physical development follows three general patterns:

     1. Muscular development progresses from head to toe.  In other words,
        your baby will learn to lift and hold up his head before his torso is
        strong enough to maintain a sitting posture.
     2. The strength and coordination of the limbs begins close to the body
        and moves outward.  Your baby will coordinate his arm movements at the
        shoulder, then the elbows, then the wrists.  Skillful manipulation of
        the fingers comes last.
     3. Motor responses are general at first.  Later they become more
        specific.  For example, if you hold a red ball before your baby when
        he is three months old, he may smile, wave his arms and legs, and
        finally make an attempt to swipe at the ball with one or both arms.
        A few months later, he may still smile at the ball, but will quickly,
        smoothly, and deliberately grasp it with one hand.

     Gross Motor Development:  Controlling the Big Muscles

     Head Control
     The first motor hurdle your infant must clear is to gain control over his
relatively large head.  If you imagine trying to lift your head while
balancing a huge, unabridged dictionary on top of it, you will have some idea
of the challenge facing your baby.  He will spend the first three to four
months learning to control his head movements.
     Gradually, his neck muscles will strengthen and his head will become less
wobbly.  In the meantime, you will need to support his head when you pick him
up.  By three months he will be able to control his head when gently pulled up
to sit, though his head will still bob a little if you hold him in a sitting
position.  By four to six months, his head doesn't fall backward as you sit
him up; and once sitting, he can hold his head steady.
     Despite the head's relatively large size, your healthy newborn can raise
his head long enough to move it from side to side when lying on his stomach.
Hence, he can avoid suffocation.  Over the next three months, he will develop
enough strength to lift his head ninety degrees away from a flat surface.
Between two and four months, if his arms are extended in front of his chest,
he can raise his head and chest above a surface.

     Sitting
     As your baby gains strength progressively down his torso to his hips, he
will be able to sit.  Around four months of age, he will be able to sit with
support for ten to fifteen minutes.  At this point, he will enjoy sitting with
his back supported by an infant seat, pillows, or friendly hands.  Stroller
rides become much more fun because he is able to sit up and observe the world.
He might even enjoy brief outings in a baby backpack.  During meals, he can
sit in a high chair with a pillow or blanket supporting the lower part of his
back.
     Between five and seven and a half months, if you set him down with his
legs spread apart, he will be able to sit alone.  You may still want to place
pillows or blanket rolls around him to pad his fall should he topple over.
For a while, he will still need to lean forward on his hands to maintain his
sitting posture.  But soon he'll be able to balance, freeing his hands to
finger interesting objects.  By nine months, he will be able to push himself
into a sitting position.  His increasing independence will give him hours of
delight as he sits and plays with his toys.

     Rolling Over
     Rolling represents your baby's first whole-body maneuver and his first
means of locomotion.  As the tonic neck reflex fades, his arm no longer
automatically extends as he turns his head.  When he has enough control over
his head, torso, and legs, he can tuck his arm under himself and roll.  His
weighty head initiates the rotation.
     At about three months, babies start to turn by rolling to their sides.
Between four and six months, your baby will probably first roll from his
stomach to his back.  A month or so later, he will master rolling in both
directions.  Never leave a baby of any age unattended on a raised surface, as
even young infants can accidentally flip themselves over.

     Crawling
     During the same time that your baby is learning to sit, he may also start
to crawl.  The onset of crawling is extremely variable.  Some babies prefer to
bounce along on their buttocks from a sitting position.  A few babies seem to
decide that they would rather omit crawling and proceed directly to walking.
     If crawling is to occur, first attempts can begin as early as five months
of age.  If yours is a very active baby, he may then travel by half rolling
and half pushing himself in the desired direction.  He may start to crawl at
seven months.
     The average baby begins by creeping in the sixth or seventh month.
Because a baby's arms are stronger and better coordinated than his legs, he
may drag himself around by pushing with his arms, dragging his legs behind.
His first progress may be in a backward direction.  Later, he will begin to
dig in with his toes and knees.  By eight months, he will probably be scooting
about on hands and knees in the traditional crawl position.
     Once crawling begins, your child will be jubilantly exploring all the
things in the house he had to passively view from a distance for so long.  He
will be able to entertain himself for longer periods.  The trade-off is that
you will need to be especially vigilant about his activities.  You must "baby
proof" your house (check for safety hazards) before your baby can navigate on
his own.  He may be as curious about the electrical outlets in your house as
he is about his toys.  See Chapters 4 and 8 for important information about
baby safety.

     Standing
     Between three and six months, your baby will bear some weight on his legs
when you stand him up.  At first, he will stiffly lock his legs.  A few weeks
later, he will bounce by bending and straightening his legs.  Check to see
that he can stand with his feet flat; "toe walking" may be a sign that he is
bearing his weight on his legs too early.
     Your baby may begin pulling himself to a standing position as early as
six months or as late as ten months.  Most babies pull to a stand between the
eighth and ninth months, You can help your baby by providing him with stable
objects that won't topple over with his weight.  Surrounding him with pillows
will cushion him if he falls; but keep an eye out to make sure he doesn't
suffocate.
     At first, he will be delighted with his upright posture.  Happy gurgles
may turn to wails of despair, though, when he discovers he doesn't know how to
sit back down.  You can help him learn to sit by sliding his hands down the
supporting object to lower his buttocks to the floor.
     During the eleventh month, your child will probably be able to stand well
alone.  About this same time, he may get himself to a stand by bending his
knees and pushing off from a squatting position.

     Cruising and Walking
     After he can pull himself up to a stand by holding onto a piece of
furniture, he will start to "cruise."  Cruising consists of taking steps while
holding onto the furniture for support.  At first, he will probably face the
furniture and shuffle sideways.  As he gains confidence in his balance, he
will slide one hand as he walks in a forward direction.  Cruising usually
begins in the ninth month, but can begin as early as seven and a half months
and as late as twelve and a half months.
     When your child bravely lets go of the furniture and takes his first solo
steps, walking has begun.  This milestone of development is as exciting for
you as it is for your child.  Walking with or without assistance usually
occurs by a baby's first birthday, and most babies walk well by fourteen
months of age.
     Your baby will quickly grow more nimble and confident.  By eighteen
months, he will be able to walk backward.  Between fourteen and twenty-one
months, he will learn to walk up stairs, though it may be a couple of months
longer until he can confidently walk down the stairs.  At eighteen months he
will be able to run stiffly.  In just a few months more, he will not look so
precarious as he runs toward you.

     Fine Motor Control:  Coordinating Hand and Eye

     As your newborn looks about her world, her own fisted hand randomly
passes through her field of vision.  This strange object may interest her, but
she has no idea of what it is or how it got there.  By compelling her arm to
extend in front of her face when she turns her head to the side, the tonic
neck reflex creates plenty of opportunities for her to study her hand.  During
the first six weeks, she devotes more and more time to regarding her own
fisted hand.
     As the grasp reflex fades, she is increasingly able to unclench her fist.
Similarly, her body unwinds from its flexed position.  As the tonic neck
reflex disappears, she spends more time looking up rather than looking to the
side when she lies on her back.  Hand-to-mouth activity, which began as a
reflex at birth, becomes a more deliberate, conscious act.  She moves her
hands over her chest where she can look at them, explore them with her mouth,
and finger one with the other.
     Until three months of age, she will look at things without touching them
and finger objects absently without looking at them.  Then, the two systems
for examining the world fuse.  She feels something and turns her head to see
what it is.   She sees something interesting and reaches out to learn more
about it by touch.
     Her first attempts at hand contact consist of broad swipes.  Her entire
arm sweeps in a grand gesture as she bats at, and occasionally contacts, an
object.  The coordination of her arms begins closest to her body--at the
shoulder.  At six to fourteen weeks, sturdy objects suspended within an arm's
length of your baby make good toys.
     After this swiping period, you may notice that your baby begins to make
slow, labored attempts to reach out and touch an object with one or both
hands.  If you watch carefully, you might see her glance back and forth
between the object and her hand as she calculates the remaining distance.
Having not yet mastered the correct sequence for grasping, she may close her
fist before she reaches the object.  During this time (between fourteen and
twenty-three weeks), try to be patient when you hand her a toy.  Give her
plenty of time as she laboriously tries to reach out and grasp it.  Practicing
this sort of hand-eye coordination is important for her development.
     Between four and six and a half months, she will have mastered the
ability to smoothly lift her hand and accurately grasp an object.  This is the
time to introduce toys that make things happen--toys that help her to learn
cause and effect (such as squeaky ducks or spinning bathtub toys).
     During her sixth through eighth months, your baby will avidly explore
everything in sight with her eyes, hands, and mouth.  She will use both hands
simultaneously to explore objects; while holding an object in each hand, for
instance, she may delight in banging the two together.  Given a small block,
she will be able to transfer it from one hand to the other.
     At six months, most babies can deliberately, but perhaps awkwardly, let
go of an object.  By ten months, your baby will be quite adept at uncurling
her fingers at will to release an object.  Over and over, she will grasp
something and drop it for the sheer pleasure of watching it fall.  For a
while, she will rely upon you to retrieve these objects.
     Between eight and fourteen months, your baby may spend long periods of
time examining small objects.  She will learn to prod an object with a single
index finger.  Rather than raking at things with her whole hand, she will
begin to oppose her thumb and index finger in a "pincer grasp" to pick up a
small object.  At first, your baby may need to steady the side of her hand
against a firm surface as she learns the pincer grasp.  By her first birthday,
your child will be an expert at plucking the smallest crumbs from the kitchen
floor.
     Your doctor will be keeping track of when your baby masters these motor
skills.

Growing Up With Exercise

     There are many habits we want to impart to our children--brushing their
teeth, picking up after themselves, having good personal hygiene--but none
will have as much total impact as good fitness habits.
     Start by simply putting your new little person on a blanket to watch you
exercise.  Let your baby see you doing exercises, enjoying them, and looking
and feeling great.  Children of exercising parents grow up accepting the
exercise habit as both natural and necessary, which is the first step on the
road to an active and healthy lifestyle.

One to Twelve Months

     Proud parents always seem to have an endless supply of photos of and
stories about their cherished little one.  Wouldn't they love to tell others
that their child talked sooner than any of the other babies on the block?  And
when that baby reached toddler age, wouldn't they love to point out how she
ran, jumped, and tumbled with surprising strength and balance?
     Why is it that some children seem to develop at a faster rate than their
peers?  These children may have only one special advantage over
others--parents who actively care about their growth, both physical and
intellectual.  Sadly, though, many parents who are very concerned about mental
development give little thought to exercising their babies.
     Babies who have reached the age of one month or who have recovered their
full birth weight need movement.  At this stage of life, babies need their
parents' encouragement to move.  As the baby gets older, movement and exercise
will help him to learn to maintain balance, develop strength, and use new
muscles.

     The Need for Exercise

     There are three basic reasons why babies should be active:  their
learning habits, both motor and verbal, benefit; they establish a habit of
activity that will carry over into adulthood; and they experience the pure joy
of movement.
     Researchers have shown that babies who exercised vigorously from the age
of one month seem to out-learn their unexercised counterparts.  And these
researchers are talking about intellectual development as well as physical,
for the former seems to depend not only on early mental stimulation but also
on early physical stimulation.
     This exciting discovery was the result of a controlled study conducted in
Czechoslovakia by Dr. Jaroslav Koch, a psychologist at the Institute for the
Care of Mother and Child in Prague.  The investigation concerned three groups
of infant boys; two of the groups performed exercises prescribed by Dr. Koch,
and the third did not exercise.
     The first group consisted of ten boys born at the Institute and kept
there for six months.  The Institute staff exercised the babies according to
Dr. Koch's wishes.
     The second group of twenty boys was raised and exercised at home, but the
boys' mothers came to the hospital every two weeks for instruction from
Professor Koch.
     The ten boys in the third group had no contact with the physician other
than regular checkups every three months.
     The exercise program began when the children were one month old.  The
hour-long exercise periods, with the children nude to provide complete freedom
of movement, included rhythmic exercises using large body muscles.  For
example, the infants were encouraged to roll over.  Other activities worked
their arms, legs, and the upper part of their bodies.  In addition, the
program (which lasted about a year) included such precision work as grabbing
onto an overhead rubber ring and fitting pegs into holes.
     At the end of the study, all three groups were tested at the Institute
for Mental Development and Physical Progress.  The tests indicated that the
motor-stimulated babies, both those exercised at the hospital and those
exercised at home, developed faster than the unexercised control group in
several ways.  For one, they learned to talk sooner.  The average year-old
child has an active vocabulary of about five words, but the exercised groups
displayed vocabularies of ten to twenty words at the same age.  Dr. Koch also
found that the babies trained in motor activity and problem-solving seemed to
understand a great deal of everyday conversation, something most one-year-olds
are seldom capable of doing.  The exercised children's movement patterns,
strength, and coordination also were superior to those of the control
group.
     Many educators argue that any child learns quickly if he is exposed to
reading, conversation, music, and other cultural phenomena.  But Dr. Koch
maintains that the early stages of growth are highly dependent on physical
activity.  Some pediatricians have questioned the validity of Dr. Koch's
testing procedures and conclusions, but most endorse the value of exercise per
se, for young and old alike.
     Earlier societies, either by accident or design, seemed to know that a
child's mental development could be fostered through physical development.
Ancient cultures considered physical activity indispensable for survival.  The
Greeks stressed that the body had to be cultivated along with the mind, and it
did not matter whether the Greek was a Spartan interested in military
proficiency or an Athenian interested in culture.

     What You Can Do

     The first step toward promoting physical activity in your child is to be
active yourself!  A child's attitude toward exercise is definitely shaped by
that of the parents.  Active children generally have active parents who
encourage their children to exercise.  Conversely, inactive youngsters
frequently have sedentary parents who do not promote physical activity.
     Dr. Koch's study seems to indicate that the active child learns more.
Movement, manipulation of various objects, and a variety of body positions
stimulate the child's brain and nervous system and enhance his learning
experience.  On the other hand, the parent who confines a child to a crib or
playpen all day does the offspring a grave injustice.  A child needs activity
and explorative movement--not restraint!
     Try not to put your child in a playpen or crib unless it is nap time.
When he is awake, give him every possible opportunity to crawl around on the
floor and explore.  If the child must be in a crib or playpen, supply
objects--rings that go on a spool, blocks, nesting boxes, toys with
dials--that stimulate manipulatory skills.
     You can start exercising your child when he is about one month old or has
regained his birth weight.  While any time is appropriate for an exercise
session, bath time or the evening is probably the best.  The session can be
long or short depending on your child's response.  The session should be
consistent in length and held at the same time every day.  The idea is to fit
exercise into the daily routine of both parent and child.
     If the exercises are conducted in the same place every day, the child
will become familiar with the feel of the floor, the bed, or the towel.
Consequently, when placed in that position she will show readiness by kicking,
cooing, twisting, and smiling.
     While exercising, the child should be dressed in loose-fitting diapers, a
little swimsuit, or--if you and the baby don't mind--a "bare bottom."  The
room temperature should be comfortable.
     If you turn on some music, you will give the child a chance to make a
pleasurable association between sound and exercise.
     Most important of all, make sure that you exercise with the child!
     As the infant grows older, the whole family should join in the fun.  It
has been said that our overurbanized, mechanized society is driving each
member of the family his or her separate way.  His job may cause a father to
travel extensively; children may be in a nursery school or a day care center,
particularly if a mother is employed; the mother who is not employed
frequently devotes time to community or social activities.  Consequently, the
family has less time together to communicate, less time to touch, less time to
share.
     All too often, individual family members are involved in exercise
programs that reduce their "together time" even more.  Dad goes off to play
golf, while Mom goes to a health club.  These efforts toward fitness are often
inadequate, and the absence of family members makes the family suffer.  An
opportunity for real family togetherness is wasted.
     Learning together, touching, talking, and sharing improve human
relations.  Creating a family gymnastics program and enjoying it on a regular
basis is a terrific way to enjoy time together as well as to keep in shape.
After all, you owe it to your toddler, who, having enjoyed the "diaper
fitness" program, expects to learn new skills.
     Set time aside in the evening for free play.  Turn off the television
early enough to allow thirty minutes of gymnastics, tumbling-type activities,
or family wrestling.


Suggested Exercises:  One- to Four-Month-Old

     Grip

     Lay baby on his back on the floor.  Wrap your baby's hand around your
forefinger; hold in place with your thumb and third finger.  Stretch out
baby's arm by gently drawing his hand toward you.  Do not pull baby up off the
floor.  Return to the starting position.  Repeat five times with each arm.

     Chest Cross

     This time, hold both the baby's hands in the Grip position.  Spread
baby's arms out to the sides, bring them in across his chest, and spread them
out again.  Do this exercise slowly and gently, repeating the movement five
times.  As an alternate, you can raise baby's arms upward and downward.


Suggested Exercise:  Three- to Four-Month-Old

     Bicycle

     With baby lying on his back, hold his feet or lower legs and gently push
one leg up toward his chest while extending the other.  Alternately push and
extend each leg three times.  Stop and then repeat a second time.  After you
finish, let baby kick freely.


Suggested Exercises:  Five- to Six-Month-Old

     Pull-Up

     Grasp your baby's forearms.  Keeping his back straight, pull baby up
slowly to a sitting position.  Then slowly and softly return baby to the
floor.  Repeat four times.

     Elbow Stand

     Lay the child on his stomach, and place his elbows directly underneath
his shoulders.  Grasp and lift baby's hips and trunk to form a
forty-five-degree angle with the floor.  Let the child rest on his forearms.
Try to lift the legs up a little higher, but make sure the baby doesn't bang
his nose.


Suggested Exercises:  Seven- to Eight-Month-Old

     Toe to Ear

     Lay the baby on his back.  Slowly bring his right big toe toward his left
ear (do not force it), and then guide it back to the starting position.  Then
bring the left toe toward the right ear.  Keep the leg straight as you move
it.  Repeat five times with each foot.

     Wheelbarrow

     With baby lying on his stomach, place your hand under his belly and
pelvis, and lift the lower part of his body.  The child should support his own
upper body weight using arms and hands.  Notice that baby will hold his head
up and look forward.  Hold for a slow count of three (count 1001, 1002, 1003).


Suggested Exercises:  Nine- to Eleven-Month-Old

     Mountain Climbing

     Sit on the floor, with legs extended and knees slightly bent.  Hold baby
on your lap facing you and grasp him around the rib cage.  Lean back slightly,
and let baby walk up the front of your body.  This is a good exercise for
young legs.

     Hand Walk

     This exercise is identical to the Wheelbarrow, except baby walks forward
on his hands.  Again, support baby's pelvis and trunk with your hand.


Twelve- to Twenty-two Months

     Babyhood is gone.  From now on, when your child is awake, she will be on
the go.  More and more, she exhibits her own personality, strengths, and
abilities.  Development of language, social, intellectual, and motor skills
accelerates.
     What does this have to do with exercise?  Your child is constantly
learning.  By exercising your toddler every day, you are helping her learn to
control her body; becoming stronger and more coordinated means fewer bumps,
bruises, and spills in her exploration efforts.  Understanding her growth and
development stage will help you tailor a program according to your child's
individual personality and temperament.
     Trunk exercises for abdominal muscles are often overlooked.  Abdominal
and lower back muscles control and support the body.  Strengthen the trunk
muscles first, then the arms and legs.  As abdominal strength increases, other
movements change and become smoother.
     Your child's attention span is short.  Take this into account when
exercising together.  Change exercises every twenty to thirty seconds.  This
will increase coordination and concentration while decreasing the chance of
injury or muscle soreness from overuse.  We've provided a large variety of
exercises, so you can change from one to another frequently and avoid boredom.
     In this age group, your child will sometimes follow directions.  After
she is familiar with the exercise routine, she may initiate the exercises
herself when you sit down together.  However, the easiest and most fun way for
both of you is for you to do it with her.
     In general, thirty to forty-five minutes is a good period of time for
your child's exercise program, but on some days, even ten minutes will be too
long.  We all have days when we need to rest, digest new information, and have
a time-out from new experiences.  Grown-ups call such periods a vacation or a
"holiday."  Toddlers use a few hours or a day here or there.  Give your child
this time to consolidate and solidify her learning.
     Toddlers respond to music.  Be sure to add various kinds to your routine.
Music helps develop a natural rhythm and coordination that will last long
after the music fades.


Exercise:  Lay-Back

Benefit:

  -  Strengthens abdominal and arm muscles

  1. Sit with your toddler lying between your bent legs, as shown.  Hold
     hands, supporting her forearms with your fingers.
  2. Slowly pull her to a sitting position (let her use her arms and abdominal
     muscles as much as possible).
  3. Slowly lower your toddler back to the floor.  Caution:  Be sure her head
     is in line with her spine and not hanging backward.  Repeat five times.


Exercise:  Touch and Hug

Benefits:

  -  Strengthens legs, shoulders, upper back, and arms
  -  Increases flexibility
  -  Provides body contact and closeness

  1. Position your toddler as shown, letting her lean against you.  Holding
     her right ankle and left hand, slowly bring the foot and hand together.
     (Do not force the limbs together.)
  2. Stretch out the right leg and the left arm (high overhead).  Repeat three
     to five times.
  3. Change arm and leg.  Repeat three to five times.
  4. Holding your child's wrists and hands, cross her arms over her chest.
     Hug!
  5. Slowly, stretch both of your child's arms above her head.  Repeat from
     previous step three to five times.


Exercise:  Let's Squat!

Benefit:

  -  Strengthens entire leg, especially quadriceps muscles (fronts of thighs)
     and knees

  1. Stand next to each other.  Feet should be shoulder-width apart, with toes
     pointing forward.  Place hands on hips.
  2. Bend the knees, lowering hips and buttocks toward floor.  Buttocks should
     be pushed back (out) as you squat.  Do not try to squat straight down or
     drop buttocks lower than backs of knees.  You can place hands on the
     floor in front of you for stability, if needed.
  3. Push up and repeat eight times.


Exercise:  Hip Lift

Benefits:

  -  Strengthens back muscles
  -  Increases flexibility

  1. Lay your toddler on her back, with her knees bent and her feet flat on
     the floor.  Slip your hands around her waist, at the same time supporting
     her back.
  2. Help your toddler lift the trunk of her body two to four inches off the
     floor; encourage her to use her leg and buttock muscles.  Hold for two to
     three seconds.
  3. Lower your toddler slowly back to the floor, keeping her knees bent.


Exercise:  Curl-Down

Benefit:

  -  Strengthens abdominal muscles

  1. Sit facing your toddler, with your legs crossed (or with knees bent and
     feet flat on floor).  Have your toddler sit with her knees bent and feet
     flat.  Arms may be crossed (as shown) or held out straight toward you.
     Hold your toddler's ankles (not feet) so knees remain bent and feet flat.
  2. Have her tuck her chin to her chest and round her back, as she slowly
     curls down to the floor to a count of four.
  3. Return to the starting position by pulling your toddler up or having her
     push herself up.  Repeat sequence five to eight times.

Caution:  Never let your child perform this exercise with a straight back; it
could strain the lower back, causing pain or injury.  Be sure your toddler
breathes normally during the downward move.  If you find she is holding her
breath, remind her to breathe--she should count, sing, or talk.  Also, she
should try to curl back without leaning to one side or the other


Exercise:  Head-to-Toes

Benefits:

  -  Increases lower back flexibility
  -  Strengthens abdominal muscles

  1. Sit side by side or facing each other.  Each of you place the soles of
     your feet together, well away from your body, and relax your legs.
  2. Round your back and slowly curl your body toward your feet.
  3. Curl back up (head will be the last thing to come up) to starting
     position.  Repeat ten times (or more, if your toddler is agreeable).


Exercise:  Train Tracks

Benefits:

  -  Greatly improves overall coordination
  -  Strengthens leg, abdominal, and lower back muscles
  -  Improves eye-foot/leg coordination

  1. Place two two-by-fours on the floor, about one foot apart and parallel to
     each other.  Your toddler should stand at one end, with one foot on each
     board.
  2. Hold your toddler's hand as she walks the length of the boards.  Repeat
     four times.


Exercise:  Board Walk

Benefits:

  -  Improves balance
  -  Increases eye-foot coordination

  1. Use a two-by-four, slightly raised from or flat on the floor, for this
     exercise.  Place your child at one end with both feet on the board, one
     in front of the other.
  2. Stand beside your child.  Hold one hand while you place your other hand
     under her other arm.
  3. Encourage your child to walk from one end of the board to the other.
     Repeat the sequence four times, twice in each direction.


Exercise:  Ball Toss

Benefits:

  -  Improves concentration
  -  Increases eye-hand coordination

  1. Sit close to your toddler, so that you are facing each other.  Hold a
     large, bright, lightweight beach ball in front of you.  Roll the ball to
     your child.  Have your toddler roll or throw the ball back to you.
     Repeat eight to ten times, or as long as interest lasts.
  2. This time your toddler sits and you stand.  Throw the ball to your child.
     Have her return it to you any way she can.  Repeat eight to ten times.


Twenty-Three Months to Three Years

     A child this age will keep you busier than ever.  He can hold a thought
and he enjoys solving problems--like how to get on top of that counter or out
the front door faster than you!  He is physically strong, has a good memory,
and is a constant surprise.  Climbing and running are his choice activities.
Even a parent in good physical condition will be awed by his seemingly
inexhaustible energy level.
     Exercise will refine his skills and help him learn to master his body.
Cardiovascular (aerobic) exercises for his heart and lungs should be
encouraged and fostered during play, like running, chasing, and kicking
balls to a partner.  Try for twelve minutes of nonstop action to develop his
stamina and endurance (aerobic fitness).
     Adding some new equipment to the routine will increase interest and
variety.  Mastering new tricks is a challenge; repeating old ones is
reassuring.  Children love new experiences as well as repetition.
     At this age, children sometimes develop fears.  Don't force a new
experience.  Hug and hold your child.  Reassure him to help him feel safe.
Fear will pass.
     Choose a time when your child is naturally active for your exercise time.
Although no special clothing is needed, children love to dress up for the
occasion.  A warm-up suit or leotard may increase the fun.
     Don't forget music!  When possible, let your child decide what music to
use, and offer him a wide variety.
     If you wish, you can use your favorite exercises from the previous
section in addition to those that follow.


Exercise:  Squat Bend

Benefit:

  -  Strengthens entire leg, especially quadriceps muscles (fronts of thighs)
     and knees

  1. Stand next to or facing each other.  Feet should be shoulder-width apart,
     with toes pointing forward.  Place hands on hips.
  2. Bend the knees, pushing buttocks out and back.  Lean upper body slightly
     forward so abdomen is over tops of thighs.  At all times, keep heels flat
     on the floor, with weight distributed evenly on soles.  Do not (1) try to
     squat straight down, (2) turn toes out, or (3) drop buttocks lower than
     backs of knees.
  3. Concentrating on your leg muscles, push up to the starting position.
     Keep knees "soft" as you reach the starting position.  Do not snap them
     into a locked position by pushing kneecaps backward.
  4. Repeat four to eight times.


Exercise:  Jack-in-the-Box

Benefit:

  -  Strengthens quadriceps muscles (fronts of thighs)

  1. Stand next to each other and squat (as in Squat Bends), placing your
     hands on the floor in front of you.
  2. Push up quickly (using legs), popping up as high as you can.  Straighten
     body as much as you can.  Bend knees as you land, returning to squatting
     position.  Repeat four to eight times.

Caution:  Do this one on a hardwood floor or carpet, an exercise mat, or
grass. Do not perform on a linoleum or concrete floor with no "give."


Exercise:  Toe Touch

Benefits:

  -  Strengthens abdominal muscles
  -  Increases leg and lower back flexibility

  1. Sit close to each other with legs in front of you.  Hold one foot with
     both hands.
  2. Bring toe to your nose (not vice versa).  Lower leg to starting position.
     Repeat five to ten times.
  3. Change feet and repeat sequence.


Exercise:  Rowing

Benefits:

  -  Strengthens arms, back, chest, and abdominal muscles
  -  Increases hamstring (back of the thigh) flexibility

As you do this exercise, try singing "Row Row Row Your Boat"--it's great fun!

  1. Sit facing your child, as shown, with your child's feet touching the
     insides of your knees.  Hold a dowel or stick between the two of you,
     with your hands snugly but gently over hers.
  2. Slowly lean slightly backward, pulling your toddler toward you.
  3. Reverse the action as your toddler leans backward.  Legs should be as
     straight as possible, but keep knees slightly bent, not locked.  If your
     hamstrings are tight, making it uncomfortable to sit with straight legs,
     bend your knees as needed.  Repeat sequence ten to sixteen times.


Exercise:  The Hill Walk

Benefits:

  -  Offers a safe challenge
  -  Improves balance and coordination
  -  Increases body/spatial awareness

Use a homemade ramp, one purchased at a teachers supply store, or a four- to
five-foot-long, one-foot-wide platform (or board) with one end securely
propped one foot off the floor.

  1. Holding your child's hand, have her walk from the low to the high end.
     (Telling her which foot she is on as she walks will help her learn right
     and left.)  At the high end, while still holding her hands, have her
     jump off--she'll need no encouragement!  Tell her to land on both feet
     and keep her knees bent.  (If your child is very small and a distance of
     one foot is too high to jump, or if she seems reluctant, you can either
     lower the board or have your child sit down at the upper end, then jump
     off.) Repeat four to six times.
  2. Reverse the walk, going from the high end to the low end.
  3. As your child feels more comfortable with these moves, have her walk
     forward up the ramp and backward down the ramp.  Then let her walk down
     and then up the ramp backwards.


Exercise:  Hug Yourself

Benefits:

  -  Improves flexibility in arms, upper back, and shoulders
  -  Improves coordination

  1. Sitting or standing, bring arms snugly around chest.  Relax shoulders.
     Hold for a slow count of eight to ten.
  2. Reverse arms and repeat.
  3. To increase stretch, "walk" fingers slowly toward back.  Hold.


Exercise:  Balance Beam Walk

Benefits:

  -  Improves balance, poise, coordination, and confidence
  -  Enhances self-esteem and body awareness

If you have been working with your child on a two-by-four on the floor you can
introduce her to something higher.  Use a four-inch-wide board on a sawhorse
(clamped or nailed securely) or a balance beam.  Stay close.  She may exhibit
some fear in the beginning.

  1. Place your child at one end of the beam.  Standing beside her, hold her
     left hand in your left hand, with your right arm around her back and
     holding her right arm.  Have your child take a step forward, while
     telling her which foot she is using.
  2. Continue walking your child to the end of the beam.  Repeat the sequence
     at least twice (more if your child is willing).

After your child gets comfortable walking on the beam, try this:

  3. Place your toddler on one end of the beam, facing you.  Hold both of her
     hands.
  4. Have her walk backward, slowly, to the end of the beam.  Tell her which
     foot she's using.  Repeat this sequence at least twice.

Note:  Remember to securely hold your child at all times, floor padding
beneath the balance beam is also a good idea.  Teach your child never to climb
on this piece of equipment unless you are present.


Exercise:  Basic Push-Up

Benefit:

  -  Strengthens arms, shoulders, back, and chest muscles

This is a modified version of the all-time best upper body exercise.  It
doesn't have to be super-hard to be effective.  This version will give both of
you results.

  1. Kneel, facing each other or side by side, with hands and chin resting on
     floor.  Keep hips and buttocks in the air, as shown.  Keep your abdomen
     tight, and don't let your back sag.
  2. Lift your upper body by straightening your arms.  Back should be flat and
     parallel to the floor.  Repeat six to eight times, working up to twenty.

Caution:  Keep neck in line with spine.  If you curl or flex your neck up, to
look at each other you may experience discomfort or pain in the neck.  It's
best to look down at the floor


Exercise:  The Angry Cat

Benefits:

  -  Strengthens abdominal muscles
  -  Stretches lower back muscles, increasing flexibility

For fun or while telling a story, make cat noises while doing this exercise.

  1. Begin on hands and knees, side by side, facing the floor.  Keep your back
     flat; don't let it sag.
  2. Slowly, pull in your abdomen by tightening your abdominal muscles and
     round your back.  (All the action should come from the abdominal muscles,
     do not push with your arms.)  Breathe normally.  Hold for a slow count of
     eight to ten.  Return slowly (no sharp, jerky movements) to starting
     position.
  3. Repeat four to eight times.


Exercise:  Jump in the Hoop

Benefit:

  -  Enhances coordination, concentration, and balance

Sometimes young children have difficulty getting both feet off the ground at
the same time.  Be patient and offer help if your child has difficulty.

Caution:  Do this exercise on a padded carpet, grass, or a wooden floor.  Do
not jump on concrete or linoleum floors.  Both knees should be bent before
jumping.  As your child lands, tell him to bend his knees.

  1. Have your child stand outside a hoop placed on the floor.  Remember,
     knees should be slightly bent.
  2. Have your child push off the floor, landing inside the hoop.  He should
     land on the front part of the foot and immediately press his heel down
     and bend the knees.  (Cheer and clap for encouragement.)
  3. Have him bend his knees and get ready to jump.
  4. Have him push off the ground, landing outside the hoop.  Repeat sequence
     four to eight times.

     The three-year-old is a true delight.  Tears and temper tantrums are
gone.  She has even developed some patience.  Her vocabulary has grown, and
she is able to cooperate more and more each day.
     Use these exercises and make up stories to go with the moves.  The same
can be done with any equipment or combination of pieces of equipment.  Now is
the time to be creative and imaginative.  Equipment might include Frisbees,
hoops, ladders, a slant board, one or more two-by-fours with supports, balls,
balloons, and wooden dowels or slicks.  Use your imagination!