home
***
CD-ROM
|
disk
|
FTP
|
other
***
search
/
SIGCAT GRIPS 1989
/
SigCatGrips89.cdr
/
images
/
slar
/
readme.mac
< prev
Wrap
Text File
|
1989-07-18
|
14KB
|
242 lines
U.S. Geological Survey
Side-Looking Airborne Radar Data
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has acquired Side-Looking
Airborne Radar (SLAR) image data for selected earth-science applications
sites for more than one-third of the Nation; digital data are also
available for more than half of these areas. The data are held and dis-
tributed by:
User Services
EROS Data Center
U.S. Geological Survey
Sioux Falls, SD 57198
(605) 594-6151
Technical information concerning the USGS Side-Looking Airborne
Radar (SLAR) Program may be obtained from U.S. Geological Survey Radar
Program, MS 521, Reston, VA 22092, phone (703) 648-4138 (FTS 959-4138).
This CDROM disc holds digital files of eight selected SLAR data
strips of the eastern Grand Canyon and western Marble Canyon, Arizona,
1- x 2-deg. quads. collected in 1988. Generally these files cover west
of the major bend in the Grand Canyon that lies near long. 112W, lat.
36N.
Below are a table of specifications of the SLAR digital files and a
primer describing SLAR technology.
THE SLAR FILES
The following table gives specific information concerning the SLAR
data files. The label files in the IMAGES subdirectory are IMDISP
executable label files containing the required file information and path
names to the data files themselves. If you use image display software
other than IMDISP and wish to display the image files in the IMAGFILS
subdirectory without using the label files, you will find the lines-per-
file and samples-per-line information on the right of the table. The
"Flight path" column indicates the approximate alignment of the strip.
Approximate geographic coordinates are given for the northwest and
southeast corners of the strip. Note that a lowercase "d" is used in
lieu of the degree symbol; a lowercase "m," for the minute symbol.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Flight Corner Coord
File ---------- Range --------------------- Lines Samples
Path Line W Long N Lat
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Grand Canyon, AZ Look direction: E
GCYN1_AZ
GCP1091N.DAT N-S 1091 Near NW 113d04m 37d02m 10,000 1,700
SE 112d53m 35d58m
GCYN2_AZ
GCP1100N.DAT N-S 1100 Near NW 112d56m 37d02m 10,000 1,700
SE 112d43m 35d58m
GCYN3_AZ
GCP1110N.DAT N-S 1110 Near NW 112d48m 37d03m 10,000 1,700
SE 112d35m 35d58m
GCYN4_AZ
GCP1120N.DAT N-S 1120 Near NW 112d39m 37d02m 10,000 1,700
SE 112d26m 35d58m
GCYN5_AZ
GCP1130N.DAT N-S 1130 Near NW 112d30m 37d02m 10,000 1,700
SE 112d17m 35d58m
GCYN6_AZ
GCP1140N.DAT N-S 1140 Near NW 112d21m 37d02m 10,000 1,700
SE 111d08m 35d58m
GCYN7_AZ
GCP1150N.DAT N-S 1150 Near NW 112d12m 37d02m 10,000 1,700
SE 111d59m 35d58m
Grand and Marble Canyons, AZ Look direction: E
GCYN8_AZ
MCP1160N.DAT N-S 1160 Near NW 112d04m 37d02m 10,000 1,700
SE 111d51m 35d58m
------------------------------------------------------------------------
A Primer on Side-Looking Airborne Radar
Side-looking airborne radar (SLAR) images are so different from
other types of remotely sensed data, in both mode of acquisition and
techniques for interpretation, that a short explanation of important
concepts and the use of this technology in the earth sciences will aid
potential users.
SLAR is an electronic image-producing system that derives its name
from the fact that the radar beam is transmitted perpendicular to the
ground track of the aircraft acquiring the data. The result is an ob-
liquely illuminated plan (or vertical) view of the terrain, a view that
enhances subtle surface features and facilitates geologic interpreta-
tion. This enhancing characteristic is one of the reasons why SLAR im-
agery is so useful to earth resource scientists and managers involved in
mineral and energy exploration, earth hazards studies, and diverse other
geologic, hydrologic, cartographic, and engineering applications.
Another important property of SLAR is that it is an active system
that provides its own source of illumination in the form of microwave
energy; thus imagery can be obtained either day or night. Since SLAR
penetrates most clouds, it can be used to prepare image-base maps of
perpetually cloud-covered areas of the world where collecting conven-
tional aerial photographs is impractical, such as over the rain forests
of Brazil or along the Aleutian Arc of Alaska. However, precise topo-
graphic mapping using SLAR data is not currently practical because of
uncorrected geometric distortions inherent in radar imagery. For exam-
ple, in mountainous terrain, positional error may be as much as several
hundred meters.
Since the radar signal is transmitted at a small depression angle
below the horizontal plane in which the aircraft is flying, the signal
strikes the terrain at an rather flat angle, and the surficial
expression of the geologic structure may thus be enhanced. The
topographic expression of some surface features, such as subtle faults
and folds, may be more clearly seen on the radar image than on
conventional aerial photographs or satellite images. For example, a
depression angle ranging from approximately 10 to 40 degrees across the
imaged swath is used for many earth-science applications. The change in
depression angle across the imaged swath (a swath having a width of
approximately 40 km is used by some commercially available systems)
results in features nearer the flightline having shorter radar shadows
than features of equal elevation farther from the flightline. Since
SLAR is an active system, when a radar beam strikes a sufficiently
elevated terrain feature, a radar shadow is cast by the feature; this is
an area of no data return. The gradual change of shadow length across
the range perpendicular to the flight path (and parallel to the width of
the image swath) has resulted in the convention of designating the
halves of the radar swath either near range, or that half of the radar
swath nearest the flightline; or far range, that half of the swath
farthest from the flightline. Azimuth is the term used to describe the
direction of the radar image parallel to the flightline, or the bearing
of the flightline itself.
The SLAR products generally used for analysis are image strips and
mosaics. SLAR images, whether photographic or digital, are the graphic
representations of the SLAR data. Usually, the strips are much longer
in azimuth than in range, since it is more efficient to fly long contin-
uous flightlines. Photographic copies of the strips are generally re-
garded as better than photomosaics for interpretation for two reasons:
they are at least one photographic generation closer to the original
than subsequent products such as image mosaics, and strips are not
cosmetically altered to produce a pleasing composite image as is
sometimes done in the mosaicking process. Digital files retain much
more of the recorded dynamic range of the data than do photographic
copies. For example, photographic images are generally limited to a
dynamic range of about 15 db by the performance of the photographic
emulsion; whereas an 8-bit digital file holds an available dynamic range
of 30-40 db.
SLAR mosaics provide a synoptic view of the terrain, but both the
resolution and information content are slightly degraded in mosaic prep-
aration. In addition, on mosaics, differences in length of shadow from
terrain features, produced by the changes in depression angle across the
range of the image swath, occur across mosaic junction lines between
adjoining strips. These differences in length of shadow, as well as
possible variations in the radar returns from similar features in near
and far range, can result in misinterpretation of terrain and surface
characteristics.
It should be noted that positive photographic transparencies of
both image strips and mosaics are generally considered superior to
photographic paper for interpretation, because the film has a greater
density range and therefore contains more information. Again it should
be noted that digital files generally contain a greater dynamic range of
information. Because image strips generally have an overlap of 60
percent, both near- and far-range mosaics can be prepared by laying the
respective halves of adjacent SLAR image strips side by side. These two
SLAR presentations complement each other since the near-range data have
less radar shadowing while the far-range data have more surface
enhancement.
The look direction of a radar image refers to the illumination di-
rection; for example, west looking means the radar beam was transmitted
to the west. The choices of mission design parameters such as look di-
rection and depression angle are usually based on an analysis of the
geologic structure of the area. The parameters are then chosen to as-
sure optimum data acquisition for the goals of the study. For example,
linear structures such as faults that are parallel or nearly parallel to
the range, or look, direction may not be easily detected since little
radar shadow is present and enhancement is minimized.
In analyzing radar imagery, the image is oriented with the shadows
on the side of the feature toward the viewer. "Shadows stab stomach" is
the old adage used by radar interpreters. This practice assists in
interpreting hills as hills and valleys as valleys.
Most commercially available SLAR systems operate in the X-band at
frequencies of 12-18 GHz and wavelengths of 2.4-3.8 cm. Usually these
systems transmit and receive horizontally polarized signals (HH). For
some purposes it is advantageous to acquire data with an experimental
radar system that operates at more than one frequency and utilizes a
vertically polarized (either transmitted or received or both) radar
beam; radar data can be like- (HH or VV) or cross- (HV or VH) polarized
depending on the antenna design. In addition to X-band, other frequen-
cies in current use are C-band at 8-4 GHz and 3.8-7.6 cm, and L-band at
2-1 GHz and 15-30 cm.
SLAR is a somewhat generic term for two distinctly different radar
antenna technologies: real-aperture radar, also known as "brute force";
and synthetic-aperture radar (SAR), also known as coherent radar.
In a real-aperture system, a fan-shaped beam is transmitted, re-
flected by the surface, received, processed, and recorded as a line on
the image. Although the angle of the transmitted radar beam is constant
(for example, 0.45 degrees), the width of the beam is narrower in the
near range than in the far range, and thus the resolution is better in
the near range than the far range. Resolution in the range direction
(perpendicular to the flightline) is constant. Using our previous exam-
ple, portions of the data in the near range would have a resolution of
approximately 30x75 m in range and azimuth respectively, while portions
of the far range would have a resolution of approximately 30x150 m.
Synthetic-aperture radar has constant range and azimuth resolutions
through the image. This constancy is accomplished primarily by using
more detailed information processing of the returned signal, thus
simulating a longer antenna. A longer antenna produces a narrower radar
beam, improving the resolution. Presently available synthetic-aperture
systems have resolutions of approximately 10x10 m or better.
It must be noted that resolution and detectability are not the same
thing with radar; objects of less than 1 m size may be routinely
detected because of the strong radar return of some features. Bright
radar returns may be caused by such things as corner-reflector geometry,
electrical resonance effects, or electronic interference.
SLAR data are particularly valuable when used in conjunction with
traditional earth-science data, as well as with other remotely sensed
data. Scientists from private industry, government, and university have
effectively used SLAR all over the world to aid in mapping previously
known and undiscovered geologic features that have contributed to the
discovery of new mineral and energy reserves. More than 25 million
square km of SLAR data have been gathered for government and private
sector interests in many countries, including Brazil, Canada, Columbia,
Ecuador, Guinea, Indonesia, Japan, Nigeria, Peru, and the United States.