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Path: senator-bedfellow.mit.edu!bloom-beacon.mit.edu!news.kei.com!sol.ctr.columbia.edu!caen!nic.umass.edu!ymir.cs.umass.edu!ymir.cs.umass.edu!usenet From: walsh@cs.umass.edu (Norman Walsh) Newsgroups: comp.fonts,news.answers Subject: comp.fonts FAQ: General Info (1/3) Supersedes: <font-faq-1_748294975@cs.umass.edu> Followup-To: poster Date: 22 Sep 1993 15:11:50 GMT Organization: Dept. of Computer Science, Univ. of Mass (Amherst) Lines: 1299 Approved: news-answers-request@MIT.Edu Distribution: world Expires: 5 Nov 1993 15:10:25 GMT Message-ID: <font-faq-1_748710625@cs.umass.edu> Reply-To: walsh@cs.umass.edu (Norman Walsh) NNTP-Posting-Host: ibis.cs.umass.edu Summary: This posting answers frequently asked questions about fonts. It addresses both general font questions and questions that are specific to a particular platform. Xref: senator-bedfellow.mit.edu comp.fonts:10171 news.answers:12786 Archive-name: fonts-faq/part1 Version: 2.0.2 Frequently Asked Questions About Fonts ---------------------------------------------------------------------- The comp.fonts FAQ Version 2.0.2. September 17, 1993 Compiled by Norman Walsh Copyright (C) 1992, 93 by Norman Walsh <walsh@cs.umass.edu>. Portions of the OS/2 section are Copyright (C) 1993 by David J. Birnbaum. All rights reserved. Reproduced here by permission. Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this document provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. Subject: Table of Contents 1. General Information 1.1. Font Houses 1.2. What's the difference between all these font formats? 1.3. What about "Multiple Master" fonts? 1.4. Is there a methodology to describe and classify typefaces? 1.5. What is the "f" shaped "s" called? 1.6. What about "Colonial" Typefaces? 1.7. Where can I get ... fonts. 1.8. Where can I get fonts for non-Roman alphabets? 1.9. What about fonts with the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) sy... 1.10. How can I convert my ... font to ... format? 1.11. Are fonts copyrightable? 1.12. Typeface Protection 1.13. File Formats 1.14. Ligatures 1.15. Built-in Fonts 1.16. Glossary 1.17. Bibliography 1.18. Font Encoding Standards 1.19. TrueType 1.20. Unicode Information 1.21. Can I Print Checks with the MICR Font? 1.22. Rules of Thumb 1.23. Acknowledgements 1.24. A Brief Introduction to Typography 1.25. Pronounciation of Font Names 1.26. What does `lorem ipsum dolor' mean? 2. Macintosh Information 2.1. Macintosh Font formats 2.2. Frequently Requested Mac Fonts 2.3. Commercial Font Sources 2.4. Mac Font Installation 2.5. Mac Font Utilities 2.6. Making Outline Fonts 2.7. Problems and Possible Solutions 2.8. Creating Mac screen fonts 3. MS-DOS Information 3.1. Frequently Requested MS-DOS fonts 3.2. MS-DOS Font Installation 3.3. What exactly are the encodings of the DOS code pages? 3.4. MS-DOS Font Utilities 3.5. Converting fonts under MS-DOS 3.5.1. Converting Mac Type 1 fonts to MS-DOS format 3.5.2. Converting PC Type 1 and TrueType fonts to Mac format 3.5.3. Converting PC Type 1 fonts into TeX PK bitmap fonts 3.5.4. Converting TeX PK bitmaps into HP LaserJet softfonts (and vice... 3.5.5. TrueType to HP LaserJet bitmap softfonts (HACK!) 3.6. MS-DOS Screen Fonts (EGA/VGA text-mode fonts) 4. OS/2 Information 4.1. Preliminaries 4.2. Fonts under DOS 4.3. Windows 4.4. Differences between Windows and OS/2 4.5. Installation under Windows and Win-OS/2 4.6. FontSpecific PostScript Encoding 4.7. AdobeStandardEncoding 4.8. AdobeStandardEncoding under Windows (and Win-OS/2) 4.9. AdobeStandardEncoding under OS/2 4.10. Consequences for OS/2 users 4.11. Advice to the user 4.12. OS/2 2.1 and beyond 5. Unix Information 6. Sun Information 6.1. Fonts Under Open Windows 6.1.1. Does OpenWindows support Type 1 PostScript fonts? 6.1.2. Improving font rendering time 6.1.3. Making bitmap fonts for faster startup 6.1.4. Converting between font formats (convertfont, etc.) 6.1.5. Xview/OLIT fonts at 100 dpi 6.2. Where can I order F3 fonts for NeWSprint and OpenWindows? 7. NeXT Information 7.1. Tell me about NeXTstep fonts 7.2. Tell me more about NeXTstep fonts 7.3. Porting fonts to the NeXT 7.4. Font availability 7.5. Why can I only install 256 fonts on my NeXT? 8. Amiga Information 9. X11 Information 9.1. Getting X11 9.2. Historical Notes about X11 9.3. X11 Font Formats 9.4. X11 Font Server Information 9.5. Fonts and utilities for X11 10. Utilities 10.1. PS2PK 10.2. TeX Utilities 10.3. MFPic 10.4. fig2MF 10.5. GNU Font Utilities 10.6. Font Editors 10.7. The T1 Utilities 10.8. Where to get bitmap versions of the fonts 10.9. Converting between font formats 10.10. Getting fonts by FTP and Mail 10.11. MetaFont to PostScript Conversion 10.12. How to use Metafont fonts with Troff 10.13. PKtoBDF / MFtoBDF 10.14. PKtoPS 10.15. PKtoSFP / SFPtoPK 10.16. PostScript to MetaFont 10.17. Mac Bitmaps to BDF Format 11. Vendor Information Subject: 1. General Information Many FAQs, including this one, are available by anonymous ftp from rtfm.mit.edu in the directory pub/usenet/news.answers. Each posted section of the FAQ is archived under the name that appears in the "Archive-name" header at the top of the article. This FAQ is a work in progress. If you have any suggestions, I would be delighted to hear them. This FAQ is maintained in TeXinfo format. A Perl script constructs the postable FAQ from the TeXinfo sources. TeX DVI, PostScript, and Info versions of this FAQ are available from ftp.shsu.edu in /tex-archive/help/comp-fonts-FAQ. A "Gopher" server is also maintained at shsu.edu which can provide interactive access to the FAQ. The posted version of the FAQ is organized in a quasi-digest format so that it is easy to find the questions you are interested in. All questions that appear in the table of contents can be found by searching for the word "Subject:" followed by the question number. The "TeXinfo" distribution from the Free Software Foundation contains a program called "Info" that can be used to read the Info version of the FAQ in a hypertext manner. The "TeXinfo" distribution can be obtained from prep.ai.mit.edu in the /pub/gnu directory. At the time of this writing, texinfo-2.16.tar.gz is the most recent version. Info files can also be read in hypertext form by GNU Emacs. Future versions of the FAQ will make more use of the hypertext capabilities provided by the Info format. At present, the FAQ is organized as a simple tree. A plain ASCII, postable version of the FAQ will always be maintained. All trademarks used in this document are the trademarks of their respective owners. Standard disclaimers apply. Subject: 1.1. Font Houses This section will be expanded on in the future. It contains notes about various commercial font houses. Compugraphic ============ See "Miles, Agfa Division" Miles, Agfa Division ==================== Compugraphic which was for a while the Compugraphic division of Agfa, is now calling itself "Miles, Agfa Division" (yes, the Miles drug company), since CG's off-shore parent Agfa has been absorbed by Miles. So typographically speaking, Compugraphic, CG, Agfa, A-G ag, and Miles all refer to the same company and font library. Their proprietary fonts are still CG Xyz, but the name is Miles Agfa. Subject: 1.2. What's the difference between all these font formats? This question is not trivial to answer. It's analogous to asking what the difference is between various graphics image file formats. The short, somewhat pragmatic answer, is simply that they are different ways of representing the same "information" and some of them will work with your software/printer and others won't. At one level, there are two major sorts of fonts: bitmapped and outline (scalable). Bitmapped fonts are falling out of fashion as various outline technologies grow in popularity and support. Bitmapped fonts represent each character as a rectangular grid of pixels. The bitmap for each character indicates precisely what pixels should be on and off. Printing a bitmapped character is simply a matter of blasting the right bits out to the printer. There are a number of disadvantages to this approach. The bitmap represents a particular instance of the character at a particular size and resolution. It is very difficult to change the size, shape, or resolution of a bitmapped character without significant loss of quality in the image. On the other hand, it's easy to do things like shading and filling with bitmapped characters. Outline fonts represent each character mathematically as a series of lines, curves, and 'hints'. When a character from an outline font is to be printed, it must be 'rasterized' into a bitmap "on the fly". PostScript printers, for example, do this in the print engine. If the "engine" in the output device cannot do the rasterizing, some front end has to do it first. Many of the disadvantages that are inherent in the bitmapped format are not present in outline fonts at all. Because an outline font is represented mathematically, it can be drawn at any reasonable size. At small sizes, the font renderer is guided by the 'hints' in the font; at very small sizes, particularly on low-resolution output devices such as screens, automatically scaled fonts become unreadable, and hand-tuned bitmaps are a better choice (if they are available). Additionally, because it is rasterized "on demand," the font can be adjusted for different resolutions and 'aspect ratios'. Werenfried Spit adds the following remark: Well designed fonts are not scalable. I.e. a well designed 5pt font is not simply its 10pt counterpart 50% scaled down. (One can verify this by blowing up some small print in a copier and compare it with large print; or see the example for computer modern in D.E. Knuth's TeXbook.) Although this fact has no direct implications for any of the two methods of font representation it has an indirect one: users and word processor designers tend to blow up their 10pt fonts to 20pt or scale them down to 5pt given this possibility. Subtle details, but well... LaserJet .SFP and .SFL files, TeX PK, PXL, and GF files, Macintosh Screen Fonts, and GEM .GFX files are all examples of bitmapped font formats. PostScript Type 1, Type 3, and Type 5 fonts, Nimbus Q fonts, TrueType fonts, Sun F3, MetaFont .mf files, and LaserJet .SFS files are all examples of outline font formats. Neither of these lists is even close to being exhaustive. To complicate the issue further, identical formats on different platforms are not necessarily the same. For example Type 1 fonts on the Macintosh are not directly usable under MS-DOS or Unix, and vice-versa. It has been pointed out that the following description shows signs of its age (for example, the eexec encryption has been thoroughly hacked). I don't dispute the observation and I encourage anyone with the knowledge and time to submit a more up to date description. It has further been suggested that this commentary is biased toward Kingsley/ATF. The omission of details about Bitstream (and possibly Bauer) may be considered serious since their software lies inside many 3rd-party PostScript interpreters. The moderators of this FAQ would gladly accept other descriptions/ explanations/viewpoints on the issues discussed in this (and every other) section. [Ed Note: Liam R. E. Quin supplied many changes to the following section in an attempt to bring it up to date. Hopefully it is a better reflection of the state of the world today (12/07/92) than it was in earlier FAQs] Henry Schneiker <reachable electronically?> wrote the following description of the differences between several scalable font technologies: ((( semi-quote ))) There has been a lot of confusion about font technologies in recent times, especially when it comes to Type 1 versus Type 3 fonts, "hints," PostScript compatibility, encryption, character regularizing, kerning, and the like. * Encryption (eexec) All fonts produced with Adobe's font technology are protected through data encryption. The decryption is provided by the `eexec' (encrypted execute) PostScript operator and, until recently, was only present in Adobe's licensed PostScript. Adobe has published the details of the Type 1 font format in the `Black Book', Adobe Type 1 Font Format (version 1.1), Adobe Systems Inc., 1990. The encryption was mainly used because of font copyright problems; unencrypted fonts can also be used, but these tend to use an efficient binary encoding, also in documented the Type 1 book, and so are still not readable PostScript. * Type 1, Type 3, and Type 5 font formats There are generally three font formats used in Adobe PostScript printers: Type 1, Type 3, and Type 5. Type 1 fonts are Adobe's downloadable format. Type 3 fonts are third-party downloadable format. Type 5 fonts are the ROM-based fonts that are part of your printer. There is no functional difference between a Type 1, Type 3, or Type 5 font. A Type 3 font can do anything a Type 1 or Type 5 font can do. The only real difference between them is where the `BuildChar' routine comes from. For Type 1 and Type 5 fonts it's built into the printer. For Type 3 fonts it's built into the font. In other words, anything a Type 1 font can do a Type 3 font can also do. [Ed note: the reverse is not true. Type3 fonts can do things that Type1 fonts cannot. But they aren't hinted...] When PostScript is asked to generate a character, PostScript looks in the font's dictionary for FontType. If FontType is 1 or 5 PostScript executes an internal routine that knows how to interpret the font data stored in CharStrings. If FontType is 3 PostScript executes the routine BuildChar from the font's dictionary to interpret the font data (often stored in CharStrings). However, each BuildChar routine is written to read data formatted in a method convenient to the vendor. Adobe, Altsys, Bitstream, and Kingsley/ATF all format their font data differently and, hence, have different BuildChar routines. [Ed note: relative hard disk efficiency of Kingsley vs. Adobe fonts deleted on 12/07/92] Type 5 fonts are special in that they often include hand-tuned bitmaps for the commonly used sizes, such as 10- and 12-point. Other sizes are generated from the outlines in normal fashion. Don't confuse Type 1, Type 3, and Type 5 fonts with Bitstream's Type A, Type B, Type C, and Type F. They are not the same and serve only to confuse the issue. * Resolution `hints' When a character is described in outline format the outline has unlimited resolution. If you make it ten times as big, it is just as accurate as if it were ten times as small. However, to be of use, we must transfer the character outline to a sheet of paper through a device called a raster image processor (RIP). The RIP builds the image of the character out of lots of little squares called picture elements (pixels). The problem is, a pixel has physical size and can be printed only as either black or white. Look at a sheet of graph paper. Rows and columns of little squares (think: pixels). Draw a large `O' in the middle of the graph paper. Darken in all the squares touched by the O. Do the darkened squares form a letter that looks like the O you drew? This is the problem with low resolution (300 dpi). Which pixels do you turn on and which do you leave off to most accurately reproduce the character? All methods of hinting strive to fit (map) the outline of a character onto the pixel grid and produce the most pleasing/recognizable character no matter how coarse the grid is. [Ed note: deleted some paragraphs that are no longer true. Times change...] * Optical Scaling Optical Scaling modifies the relative shape of a character to compensate for the visual effects of changing a character's size. As a character gets smaller, the relative thickness of strokes, the size of serifs, the width of the character, the inter-character spacing, and inter-line spacing should increase. Conversely, as a character gets larger, the relative thickness, widths, and spacing should decrease. Contrast this with linear scaling, in which all parts of a character get larger or smaller at the same rate, making large characters look wide and heavy (strokes are too thick, serifs are too big) while small characters look thin and weak. * Kerning As applied to PostScript fonts, kerning refers to kern pairs. A kern pair specifies two characters (e.g., A and V) and the distance to move the second character relative to the first. The typical use of a kern pair is to remove excessive space between a pair of characters. However, it may also be used to add space. * PostScript clones There are currently several printer manufacturers on the market with PostScript clones. To be viable, a PostScript clone must comply with the `red book' (PS Language Reference Manual). In order to avoid paying royalties to Adobe, and because Adobe's Type 1 font format was originally proprietary, many PostScript interpreters use some other font format. Sun uses F3, and some other vendors use Bitstream's Speedo format, for example. The only real problem this causes is that the widths of characters (the `font metrics') may vary from Adobe's, so that programs that assume the Adobe character widths will produce poor quality output. Bitstream fonts used to be particularly bad in the early days, but they and most or all of the other vendors have solved those problems. * Apple TrueType [Ed note: formerly "Royal (`sfnt')"] format and System 7 Apple's new System 7.0 supports a new format of outline font that will allow high-quality characters of any size to be displayed on the screen. TrueType stores font outlines as B-spline curves along with programmed resolution hints. B-spline curves are faster to compute and easier to manipulate than the Bezier curves used in PostScript. Adobe is not going to support Apple's new format by converting the Adobe/Linotype library to B-spline format. There are two reasons for this: First, there is no support for font encryption (yes, the hooks are there, but nothing is implemented). Second, Adobe does not want to dilute PostScript and its font library. However, the Macintosh is too big a market to simply turn away from. Therefore, Adobe will provide its Font Manager to display its own fonts on the Mac screen. Apple ships Adobe's ATM for this purpose. ((( unquote ))) Subject: 1.3. What about "Multiple Master" fonts? Multiple Master Fonts are an extension to the Adobe font format. providing the ability to interpolate smoothly between several "design axes" from a single font. Design axes can include weight, size, and even some whacko notions like serif to sans serif. Adobes' first Multiple Master Font was Myriad - a two-axis font with WEIGHT (light to black) on one axis, and WIDTH (condensed to expanded) along the other axis. In the case of Myriad, there are four "polar" designs at the "corners" of the design space. The four designs are light condensed, black condensed, light expanded, and black expanded. Given polar designs, you can set up a "weight vector" which interpolates to any point within the design space to produce a unique font for a specific purpose. So you can get a "more or less condensed, somewhat black face". Multiple Master Fonts can be used on any PostScript printer. Multiple Master Fonts need a new PostScript operator known as makeblendedfont. The current crop of Multiple Master Fonts supply an emulation of this operator so the printer doesn't need this operator. A short tutorial on Multiple Master Fonts and makeblendedfont appears in PostScript by Example, by Henry McGilton and Mary Campione, published by Addison-Wesley. Danny Thomas contributes that there are a few PostScript interpreter (version)s which have bugs that appear with the emulation of the makeblendedfont operator used to support Multiple Master fonts. There weren't many exhibiting this problem, though it may have happened even with one Adobe interpreter. Subject: 1.4. Is there a methodology to describe and classify typefaces? There is a standard, Panose, but it is mostly ignored by typographers (not because it's bad, just because they don't need it). The Panose system is documented, among other places, in the Microsoft Windows 3.1 Programmer's Reference from Microsoft Press. The ISO also has a scheme, but it is not Panose. At least one book by a respected authority, Alexander Lawson, Printing Types: An Introduction, describes another, less rigorous system [ed: of his own], which is exposited in "An Introduction" and used without exposition in his later "Anatomy of a Typeface". There is another book, Rookledges International Typefinder, which has a very complete system that uses tell-tales of individual glyphs as well as overall style to index most known faces right in the book. J. Ben Leiberman has another book on type face description. Terry O'Donnell adds the following comments: The current ISO system was initiated (I believe) by Archie Provan of RIT--a successor to Mr. Lawson. Whereas in typographic practice or teaching--only a high level classification is necessary - times have changed and the current ISO system aims to accomplish something beyond the high level. A major goal is to aid software to help users make selections. For example, a naive user might ask for all fonts on a font server which have a Roman old style appearance. Another goal would be to help users with multi-lingual text: a user creating a document in English using e.g. Baskerville wants to know what Arabic or Japanese language font on his system/file server would harmonize well with the Baskerville. It is not all in place yet--but the more detailed ISO classes--and the current addition of non-latin typefaces--are an attempt to address this issue. A second goal is to help with the font substitution problem. Neither ISO or Panose address the metrics issues in font substitution--but both might aid software in picking the nearest style of available available fonts. Subject: 1.5. What is the "f" shaped "s" called? Both the "f" with half a crosbar (roman) and the integral sign (italic) are called long-S. Subject: 1.6. What about "Colonial" Typefaces? Why does colonial printing have that "Colonial" feel? ===================================================== Colonial type was either very roughly treated by moist salt air on the crossing and in colonial port cities, or was copied locally by tacky techniques (such as driving used foundry type into soft lead to make very soft deformable matrices), and the paper was very rough, which abrades both the serifs and the hairlines. So except for the best work done with new, european types, the serifs were much smaller, even broken off, than the original founder/punchcutter intended. Thins could be abraded by rough paper to nothingness, esp after humid salt air had leached the hardener out of the alloy. What fonts are good for mock-colonial uses? =========================================== For example, what fonts have the following features: old-style figures (non-lining numbers), the long s character, slightly irregular shapes (a la type produced by colonial printers), and a decent complement of ligatures. And what about free or cheap faces like this? I don't know if any exist with all of 1-5. As I believe you get what you pay for, especially in fonts, I haven't looked at free and cheap-copy fonts. Microsoft's expansion set for their Win3.1 optional fonts has Garamond Expert & Expert Extensions, which has a good complement of ligatures and I think I remember it having the long ess too. I forget about OSFigs; it should tho'. Monotype's metal faces "16th Century Roman" and "Poliphilus" may be available in digital; if so, they imitate early presswork with early and are very close to what one wants. "A commercial supplier [not yet sampled] is Image Club Graphics in Calgary (1-800-661-9410). It is called Caslon Antique. It is supplied as both roman and italic, together, for $25. They advertise in MacWorld/MacUser/MacBlah. I am unable to tell from abcDEF123 if the numerals are old-style, but I think not. Ligatures? long-S? Not yet known. Guillemots, though, are there. ... Letraset, circa 1977, showing a Caslon Antique with modern numerals, no ligatures, and only UKPounds and German ss extensions." [Ike Stoddard] NB: Caslon Antique is not a Caslon per se: "The last Caslon to mention is that ubiquitous but unrelated Caslon Antique, which possesses no similarity whatsoever to the original. This old reprobate was introduced by Barnhart Brothers of Chicago under the name Fifteenth Century. Its negative reception lasted until about 1918, when, with a simple name change to Caslon Antique, it became the most commonly selected type for reproductions of colonial American printing. It is now seen in everything from liquor advertisments to furniture commercials" [Lawson, 1990,Anatomy] Miles Agfa (Compugraphic) has always had a Caslon Antique; I don't know if it is available for TrueType or Type 1, but Agfa has been doing TrueType bundles at reasonable prices. [wdr] What fonts could a colonial printer have had? ============================================= According to D.B.Updike in the classic reference "Printing Types: Their History, Forms & Use", he indicates that most colonial work was with types of the Caslon Old Style fonts and cheap copies of same in the 18th C. Before that, it would have been the older Dutch & English faces, almost always lagging English tastes. If you can find the Oxford Fell types, they are classic Dutch-as-used-by-englishmen. Anything with a Dutch moniker and the Oldstyle adjective is probably ok; Van Dijck if you find it, say (died 1673). Ben Franklin recommended Caslon faces. But these were not available in England before 1720, first full broadside in 1734. Lawson declares that the first printing of the Declaration of Independance was in Caslon. Wilson's Scotch Modern was the "modern" font that surfaced in quantity in america. If the Scotch Roman your vendor has is sort-of like-Bodoni but nicer than his Bodoni, that's it. It wasn't available until late 1700s, though. Subject: 1.7. Where can I get ... fonts. Before I go any farther, let me extol the virtues of the Archie servers. If you need to find something on the net, and you have any idea what it might be called, Archie is the place to go. In North America, telnet to "archie.rutgers.edu" and login as "archie". There are many other servers around the world, any Archie server can give you a list of other servers. There are better documents than this to describe Archie and you should be able to find them from the above starting point. If you have trouble, feel free to ask norm (via Email please, no need to clutter comp.fonts with a query about Archie ;-). In addition to the telnet option, several archie clients exist including a very nice X11 implementation (Xarchie) * Adobe Type 1 Fonts in MS-DOS/Unix Format: ftp.cica.indiana.edu:/pub/pc/win3/fonts ftp.cica.indiana.edu:/pub/pc/win3/fonts/atm archive.umich.edu:/msdos/mswindows/fonts * Adobe Type 1 Fonts in Mac Format: mac.archive.umich.edu:/mac/system.extensions/font/type1 sumex-aim.stanford.edu:/info-mac/font * Adobe Type 3 Fonts in Mac Format: mac.archive.umich.edu:/mac/system.extensions/font/type3 * TrueType fonts in MS-DOS Format: ftp.cica.indiana.edu:/pub/pc/win3/fonts/truetype * TrueType fonts in Mac Format: mac.archive.umich.edu:/mac/system.extensions/font/truetype * TeX PK/PXL/GF fonts: The TeX community has it's own support groups that can provide better answers to this question. The canonical list of MetaFont fonts is posted occasionally to comp.text.tex. The comp.text.tex newsgroup (or the Info-TeX mailing list, if you do not have access to news) are good places to start. Email norm if you need more specific information. * LaserJet bitmap fonts: wuarchive.wustl.edu:/mirrors/msdos/laser Also on other simtel20 mirrors... If you know of other archive sites (the above list is no where near complete) or other formats that are available on the net, please let us know. The sites above represent places where shareware and public domain fonts are available. Many, many typefaces are not available in shareware form. And many shareware faces are less than adequate for a variety of reasons, particularly at small sizes. It seems to be the consensus of the comp.fonts community that "you get what you pay for." If you need a professional quality font, you should probably buy it from a professional. A list of font vendors (annotated with information about non-Roman alphabets) was contributed by Masumi Abe. Masumi was Adobe's Manager of Typographic Marketing for Asia, he has since left Adobe. The list is quite long and it is posted separately. It can be retrieved via anonymous ftp from /pub/norm/comp.fonts on ibis.cs.umass.edu. Subject: 1.8. Where can I get fonts for non-Roman alphabets? As mentioned above, the list of font vendors is annotated with information about non-Roman alphabets. Commercially, Masumi suggests that Linguists' Software is the current [ed: as of 7/92] leading supplier of non-Roman fonts. Subject: 1.9. What about fonts with the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) symbols? I summarized Scott Brumage's recent post for the FAQ: Shareware or free (PostScript Type 1 and/or TrueType): ====================================================== * TechPhon Seems to lack some characters and has no zero-offset characters (for accents). * PalPhon A phonetic font which you can get by anonymous ftp from mac.archive.umich.edu. It is called PalPhon. There are actually two fonts: the basic PalPhon and one with additional accents and symbols called PalPi. The package includes some documents on using the fonts as well. * SIL-IPA SIL-IPA is a set of scalable IPA fonts containing the full International Phonetic Alphabet with 1990 Kiel revisions. Three typefaces are included: * SIL Doulos (similar to Times) * SIL Sophia (similar to Helvetica) * SIL Manuscript (monowidth) Each font contains all the standard IPA discrete characters and non-spacing diacritics as well as some suprasegmental and puncuation marks. Each font comes in both PostScript Type 1 and TrueType formats. The fonts are also available for Microsoft Windows. These fonts were designed by the Printing Arts Department of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, Dallas, Texas. Shareware or free (TeX): ======================== METAFONT sources of the phonetic symbols developed by Tokyo-Shoseki-Printing and Sanseido are available. The font contains all of IPA (Internatioanl Phonetic Alphabet) symbols. You can get phonetic symbols METAFONT (named TSIPA) from ftp.foretune.co.jp:/pub/tools/TeX/Fonts The IP address for ftp.foretune.co.jp is 133.123.1.2. Commercial: =========== Linguist's Software Adobe (ITC Stone Phonetic [#255], Times Phonetic [#278]) Subject: 1.10. How can I convert my ... font to ... format? Conversion from one bitmapped format to another is not generally too difficult. Conversion from one scalable format to another is very difficult. Several commercial software packages claim to perform these tasks, but none has been favorably reviewed by the comp.fonts community. ATech's AllType program, in particular, has had poor reviews [ed: as of 7/92]. In an effort to settle a long-running and oft-asked question, I'll be blunt: as of today [6/93], THERE ARE NO NON-COMMERCIAL PROGRAMS WHICH WILL CONVERT FROM ONE SCALABLE FORMAT TO ANOTHER. Not from TrueType to PostScript Type 1, Type 3, Type 5, or any other scalable PostScript format. Not from PostScript Type 1 to TrueType. Not to or from Intellifont. Not to or from Sun F3 format. There are some commercial programs: AllType, Metamorphosis, Font Monger, and even MoreFonts (to/from some proprietary format, I believe). And there are probably other commercial programs as well. However, as several people have noted, conversion from one scalable format to another is a bad idea. If the original font was well hinted, the converted font will not be. Of course, if the original was poorly hinted, maybe it won't matter much. For specific conversions, check the platform specific parts of the FAQ. Most of the conversions discussed require platform specific tools. Here is a summary of the conversions discussed (and the section in which they appear): Mac Type 1 PostScript To PC Type 1 PostScript (MS-DOS). To TrueType (commercial). PC Type 1 PostScript To Mac Type 1 PostScript (Mac, commercial). To TrueType (commercial). To TeX PK (MS-DOS). TrueType To Type 1 PostScript (Mac and MS-DOS, commercial). To HP LaserJet bitmaps (MS-DOS, hack!). TeX PK To HP LaserJet bitmap softfonts (MS-DOS). HP LaserJet bitmap softfonts To TeX PK (MS-DOS). In addition, Adobe ships a copy of Adobe Font Foundry with all of its fonts which can convert Type 1 fonts into HP LaserJet softfonts. Subject: 1.11. Are fonts copyrightable? This topic is hotly debated at regular intervals on comp.fonts. Terry Carroll. provides the following analysis of current [ed: as of 6/92] legislation and regulation regarding fonts and copyrights in the United States. Terry is "Editor in Chief" of Volume 10 of the Santa Clara Computer and High Technology Law Journal. Members of the comp.fonts community are encouraged to submit other materials that add clarity to the issue. It has been pointed out that this section deals primarily font copyright issues relevant to the United States and that this situation is not universal. For example, in many parts of Europe typeface designs are protectable. "First, the short answer in the USA: Typefaces are not copyrightable; bitmapped fonts are not copyrightable, but scalable fonts are copyrightable. Authorities for these conclusions follow. Before we get started, let's get some terminology down: A typeface is a set of letters, numbers, or other symbolic characters, whose forms are related by repeating design elements consistently applied in a notational system and are intended to be embodied in articles whose intrinsic utilitarian function is for use in composing text or other cognizable combinations of characters. A font is the computer file or program that is used to represent or create the typeface. Now, on to the legal authorities: Volume 37 of the Code of Federal Regulations specifies this about the copyrightability of typefaces: "The following are examples of works not subject to copyright and applications for registration of such works cannot be entertained: . . . typeface as typeface" 37 CFR 202.1(e). The regulation is in accordance with the House of Representatives report that accompanied the new copyright law, when it was passed in 1976: "The Committee has considered, but chosen to defer, the possibility of protecting the design of typefaces. A 'typeface' can be defined as a set of letters, numbers, or other symbolic characters, whose forms are related by repeating design elements consistently applied in a notational system and are intended to be embodied in articles whose intrinsic utilitarian function is for use in composing text or other cognizable combinations of characters. The Committee does not regard the design of typeface, as thus defined, to be a copyrightable 'pictorial, graphic, or sculptural work' within the meaning of this bill and the application of the dividing line in section 101." H. R. Rep. No. 94-1476, 94th Congress, 2d Session at 55 (1976), reprinted in 1978 U.S. Cong. and Admin. News 5659, 5668. It's also in accordance with the one court case I know of that has considered the matter: Eltra Corp. V. Ringer, 579 F.2d 294, 208 USPQ 1 (1978, C.A. 4, Va.). The U.S. Copyright Office holds that a bitmapped font is nothing more than a computerized representation of a typeface, and as such is not copyrightable: "The [September 29, 1988] Policy Decision [published at 53 FR 38110] based on the [October 10,] 1986 Notice of Inquiry [published at 51 FR 36410] reiterated a number of previous registration decisions made by the [Copyright] Office. First, under existing law, typeface as such is not registerable. The Policy Decision then went on to state the Office's position that 'data that merely represents an electronic depiction of a particular typeface or individual letterform' [that is, a bitmapped font] is also not registerable." 57 FR 6201. However, scalable fonts are, in the opinion of the Copyright Office, computer programs, and as such are copyrightable: "... the Copyright Office is persuaded that creating scalable typefonts using already-digitized typeface represents a significant change in the industry since our previous [September 29, 1988] Policy Decision. We are also persuaded that computer programs designed for generating typeface in conjunction with low resolution and other printing devices may involve original computer instructions entitled protection under the Copyright Act. For example, the creation of scalable font output programs to produce harmonious fonts consisting of hundreds of characters typically involves many decisions in drafting the instructions that drive the printer. The expression of these decisions is neither limited by the unprotectable shape of the letters nor functionally mandated. This expression, assuming it meets the usual standard of authorship, is thus registerable as a computer program." 57 FR 6202." This is Info file comp.fonts.faq.info, produced by Makeinfo-1.55 from the input file FAQ.texinfo. Subject: 1.12. Typeface Protection [This article first appeared in TUGboat 7:3 (October 1986), pp. 146-151. Reproduced with permission.] Preamble ======== The main question of typeface protection is: "Is there anything there worth protecting?" To that the answer must certainly be: "Yes." Typeface designs are a form of artistic and intellectual property." To understand this better, it is helpful to look at who designs type, and what the task requires. Who makes type designs? ----------------------- Like other artistic forms, type is created by skilled artisans. They may be called type designers, lettering artists, punch-cutters, calligraphers, or related terms, depending on the milieu in which the designer works and the technology used for making the designs or for producing the type. ("Type designer" and "lettering artist" are self-explanatory terms. "Punch-cutter" refers to the traditional craft of cutting the master image of a typographic letter at the actual size on a blank of steel that is then used to make the matrix from which metal type is cast. Punch-cutting is an obsolete though not quite extinct craft. Seeking a link to the tradition, modern makers of digital type sometimes use the anachronistic term "digital punch-cutter". "Calligrapher" means literally "one who makes beautiful marks". The particular marks are usually hand-written letters, though calligraphers may design type, and type designers may do calligraphy.) It usually takes about seven years of study and practice to become a competent type designer. This seems to be true whether one has a Ph.D. in computer science, a high-school diploma, or no academic degree. The skill is acquired through study of the visual forms and practice in making them. As with geometry, there is no royal road. The designing of a typeface can require several months to several years. A family of typefaces of four different styles, say roman, italic, bold roman, and bold italic, is a major investment of time and effort. Most type designers work as individuals. A few work in partnership (Times Roman(R), Helvetica(R), and Lucida(R) were all, in different ways, the result of design collaboration). In Japan, the large character sets required for a typeface containing Kanji, Katakana, and Hiragana induce designers to work in teams of several people. Although comparisons with other media can only be approximate, a typeface family is an accomplishment on the order of a novel, a feature film screenplay, a computer language design and implementation, a major musical composition, a monumental sculpture, or other artistic or technical endeavors that consume a year or more of intensive creative effort. These other creative activities can be protected by copyright or other forms of intellectual property protection. It is reasonable to protect typefaces in the same way. The problem of plagiarism ------------------------- A lack of protection for typeface designs leads to plagiarism, piracy, and related deplorable activities. They are deplorable because they harm a broad range of people beyond the original designers of the type. First, most type plagiarisms are badly done. The plagiarists do not understand the nature of the designs they are imitating, are unwilling to spend the necessary time and effort to do good work, and consequently botch the job. They then try to fob off their junk on unsuspecting users (authors, editors, and readers). Without copyright, the original designer cannot require the reproducer of a type to do a good job of reproduction. Hence, type quality is degraded by unauthorized copying. Secondly, without protection, designs may be freely imitated; the plagiarist robs the original designer of financial compensation for the work. This discourages creative designers from entering and working in the field. As the needs of typography change (on-line documents and laser printing are examples of technical and conceptual changes) new kinds of typefaces are required. Creative design in response to such needs cannot flourish without some kind of encouragement for the creators. In a capitalist society, the common method is property rights and profit. In a socialist (or, in the past, royalist) society, the state itself might employ type artists. France, as a monarchy and as a republic, has had occasional state sponsorship of typeface design over the past 400 years. The Soviet Union has sponsored the design of new typefaces, not only in the Cyrillic alphabet, but also in the other exotic scripts used by various national groups in the Soviet Union. Those who would justify plagiarism often claim that the type artists do not usually receive a fair share of royalties anyway, since they have usually sold their designs to some large, exploitive corporation. It is true that type designers, like many artists, are often exploited by their "publishers", but plagiarism exacerbates the problem. Plagiarism deprives the designer of decent revenues because it diverts profits to those who merely copied the designs. Plagiarism gives the manufacturer yet another excuse to reduce the basic royalty or other fee paid for typeface designs; the theme song is that the market determines the value of the design and cheap rip-offs debase the value of a face. For those interested in the economic effects of piracy, it is clear that plagiarism of type designs ultimately hurts individual artists far more than it hurts impersonal corporations. Kinds of protection for type ---------------------------- There are five main forms of protection for typefaces: * Trademark * Copyright * Patent * Trade Secret * Ethics Trademark ......... A trademark protects the name of a typeface. In the U.S., most trademarks are registered with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. The R in a circle (R) after a trademark or tradename indicates U.S. registration. The similarly placed TM indicates that a trademark is claimed, even if not yet officially registered. However, a trademark may be achieved through use and practice, even without registration. Owners of trademarks maintain ownership by use of the trademark and by litigation to prevent infringement or unauthorized use of the trademark by others. As a few examples of registered typeface trademarks, there are Times Roman (U.S. registration 417,439, October 30, 1945 to Eltra Corporation, now part of Allied); Helvetica (U.S. registration 825,989, March 21, 1967, also to Eltra-Allied), and Lucida (U.S. reg. 1,314,574 to Bigelow & Holmes). Most countries offer trademark registration and protection, and it is common for a typeface name to be registered in many countries. In some cases the registrant may be different than the originator. For example, The Times New Roman (Times Roman) was originally produced by the English Monotype Corporation. In England and Europe, most typographers consider the design to belong to Monotype, but the trademark was registered by Linotype (Eltra-Allied) in the U.S., as noted above. Trademark protection does not protect the design, only the name. Therefore, a plagiarism of a design is usually christened with a pseudonym which in some way resembles or suggests the original trademark, without actually infringing on it. Resemblance without infringement can be a fine distinction. Some pseudonyms for Times Roman are: "English Times", "London", Press Roman, "Tms Rmn". Some for Helvetica are "Helios", "Geneva", "Megaron", "Triumvirate". So far, there seem to be none for Lucida. There are generic typeface classifications used by typographers and type historians to discuss styles, trends, and categories of design. Occasionally these apparently innocuous classification systems are employed by plagiarists to devise generic pseudonyms, such as "Swiss 721" for Helvetica, and "Dutch 801" for Times Roman. It is not certain whether this usage of a generic classification is more for clarification or for obfuscation. In general, the proper tradename is a better indicator of identity, quality, and provenance in typefaces than a generic name. Some people believe that the same is true for other commodities such as wine, where taste is important. A trademark usually consists of both a proprietary and a generic part. For example, in the name "Lucida Bold Italic", "Lucida" is the proprietary trademark part and "Bold Italic" is the generic part. The generic word "type" is usually understood to be a part of the name, e.g. "Lucida Bold Italic type". Sometimes a firm will append its name or a trademarked abbreviation of it to the typeface name, to achieve a greater degree of proprietary content, e.g. "B&H Lucida Bold Italic". A related matter is the use of the name of a type's designer. A firm that ethically licenses a typeface will often cite the name of the designer-- e.g. Stanley Morison (with Victor Lardent) for Times Roman, Max Miedinger (with Edouard Hoffmann) for Helvetica, Charles Bigelow and Kris Holmes for Lucida. Although a person's name is not usually a registered trademark, there are common law restrictions on its use. The marketing of plagiarized type designs generally omits the names of the designers. Although Trademark is an incomplete kind of protection, it is used effectively (within its limitations) to prevent the theft of type names. Certain traditional typeface names, usually the surnames of illustrious designers like Garamond, Caslon, Baskerville, Bodoni, and others have become generic names in the public domain. Trademark protection of such names requires the addition of some proprietary word(s), as with these hypothetical creations, "Acme New Garamond", or "Typoluxe Meta-Baskerville". Copyright ......... Copyright of typefaces can be divided into two parts: copyright of the design itself; and copyright of the font in which the design is implemented. In the U.S., typeface designs are currently not covered by copyright. This is a result of reluctance by the copyright office to deal with a complex field; by lobbying against copyright by certain manufacturers whose profits were based on typeface plagiarism; by a reluctance of Congress to deal with the complex issues in the recent revision of the copyright law. The reluctance of Americans to press for typeface copyright may have been influenced by a feeling that typeface plagiarism was good for U.S. high-tech businesses who were inventing new technologies for printing, and plagiarizing types of foreign origin (Europe and England). If the situation becomes reversed, and foreign competition (from Japan, Taiwan, and Korea) threatens to overcome American technological superiority in the laser printer industry, then American firms may do an about-face and seek the protection of typeface copyright to help protect the domestic printer industry. Such a trend may already be seen in the licensing of typeface trademarks by Adobe, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, Imagen, and Xerox in the U.S. laser printer industry. In Germany, where typeface design has always been a significant part of the cultural heritage, and where typefounding has remained an important business, there are more than one kind of copyright-like protections for typefaces. Certain long-standing industrial design protection laws have been used to protect typeface designs in litigation over royalties and plagiarisms. Further, there is a recent law, the so-called "Schriftzeichengesetz" enacted in 1981, that specifically protects typeface designs. New designs are registered, as is done with copyright in most countries. This law only protects new, original designs. It is available to non-German designers and firms. Therefore, some type firms and designers routinely copyright new designs in West Germany. This gives a degree of protection for products marketed in Germany. Since multinational corporations may find it cheaper to license a design for world-wide use rather than deal with a special case in one country, the German law does encourage licensing on a broader scale than would initially seem to be the case. France, like Germany, has ratified an international treaty for protection of typefaces. This 1973 Vienna treaty will become international law when four nations ratify it. So far, only France and West Germany have done so, and thus a design must be protected separately in each country. Even when the treaty becomes law, it will take effect only in those countries that have ratified it. The treaty was principally the work of the late Charles Peignot, a French typefounder, and John Dreyfus, an English typographer and typographic scholar. Presently, typefaces may be registered for protection in France under a 19th century industrial design protection law. In the U.S., there continues to be some movement for typeface design protection. A proposed bill that would protect the designs of useful articles, like type, has been in committee for a few years. It seems to be going nowhere. Digital (as opposed to analog) fonts may be protected by copyright of digital data and of computer programs. It has been established that computer software is copyrightable. Therefore, software that embodies a typeface, e.g. a digital font, is presumably also protected. There is some objection to this kind of copyright, on the grounds that the ultimate output of the program or the result of the data (i.e. a typeface design) is not copyrightable. However, the current belief expressed by the National Commission on New Technological Use of Copyrighted Works is that software is copyrightable even if its function is to produce ultimately a non-copyrightable work. Hence, typefaces produced by Metafont or PostScript(R), two computer languages which represent fonts as programs, are presumably copyrightable. Typefaces represented as bit-map data, run-length codes, spline outlines, and other digital data formats, may also be copyrightable. Some firms do copyright digital fonts as digital data. % The copyright office is currently reviewing %this practice to determine if it is acceptable. Note that the designs themselves are still not protected in the U.S. A plagiarist could print out large sized letters (say, one per page) on an Apple LaserWriter, using a copyrighted PostScript digital font, and then redigitize those letters by using a scanner or a font digitizing program and thus produce a new digital font without having copied the program or digital data, and thus without infringing the copyright on the font. The quality of the imitation font would usually be awful, but it wouldn't violate copyright. Of course, the plagiarist would usually need to rename the font to evade trademark infringement. [As I write these words, I have the guilty feeling that I have just provided a recipe for type rip-off, but others have obviously thought of just such a scheme--John Dvorak has even proposed something like it in one of his columns.] Design Patent ............. The designs of typefaces may be patented in the U.S. under existing design patent law. Many designs are patented, but type designers generally don't like the patent process because it is slow, expensive, and uncertain. Nevertheless, some types do get patented, and it is a form of potential protection. Note that this is Design Patent--the typeface doesn't have to be a gizmo that does something, it merely has to be unlike any previous typeface. The drawback here is that most attorneys and judges are not aware that there are more than two or three typefaces: say, handwriting, printing, and maybe blackletter. Therefore, litigating against infringement is an educational as well as a legal process. It is easy to see that typeface theft is more subtle than knocking over a liquor store; it may not be illegal and the returns may be greater. Protections like design patent are available in many other countries, but there is not an international standard (to my knowledge) so the situation must be examined on a country by country basis. Invention Patent ................ Methods of rendering typefaces can be patented as mechanical or electronic inventions. For example, the old hot-metal Linotype machinery was protected by various patents, as was the IBM Selectric typewriter and type ball. IBM neglected to trademark the typeface names like Courier and Prestige, so once the patents had lapsed, the names gradually fell into the public domain without IBM doing anything about it (at the time, and for a dozen years or so, IBM was distracted by a major U.S. anti-trust suit). Most students of the type protection field believe that those names are probably unprotectable by now, though IBM could still presumably make a try for it if sufficiently motivated. There is currently a noteworthy development regarding a patent for outline representation of digital type as arcs and vectors, with special hardware for decoding into rasters. This patent (U.S. 4,029,947, June 14, 1977; reissue 30,679, July 14, 1981) is usually called the Evans & Caswell patent, after its inventors. It was originally assigned to Rockwell, and in 1982, Rockwell sued Allied Linotype for infringement. Allied settled out of court, having paid an amount rumored to be in the millions. Rockwell sold the patent, along with other typographic technology, to Information International, Inc. (III), which then sued Compugraphic for infringement. According to the Seybold Report, a respected typographic industry journal, Compugraphic recently settled out of court for 5 million dollars. Although many experts believe the patent to be invalid because of several prior inventions similar in concept, it nevertheless seems to be a money-maker in corporate litigation. The Seybold Report has speculated on which firms III would litigate against next. Among the candidates suggested by the Seybolds was Apple for its LaserWriter, which uses outline fonts. Since the entire laser printer industry and the typesetting industry is moving toward outline font representation, Apple is certainly not alone. The Seybolds further speculate on whether the difference between character-by-character CRT typesetting and raster-scan laser typesetting and printing would be legally significant in such a case. Ultimately, some firm will hold out for a court judgement, and the matter will be decided. %Although the Evans & Caswell patent doesn't have much to do with %typeface copyright per se, it does make many font vendors nervous. Trade Secret ............ Given that typeface designs have relatively little copyright protection in the U.S., they are often handled as trade secrets. The secret must apply to the digital data or programs only, because the images themselves are ultimately revealed to the public as printed forms. It is much more difficult to reconstruct the formula of Coca-Cola from its taste than it is to reconstruct the design of Helvetica from its look on the page. The exact bitmap or spline outline of a digital font is usually not reconstructable from the printed image, although CRT screen fonts at usual resolutions (60-120 dots per inch) may be reconstructed by patient counting and mapping of bits off a screen display. Typeface licenses often contain stipulations that the digital data will be encrypted and confidential. Just as a firm will protect the secret of a soft drink recipe, so a type firm will protect the exact nature of its digital data. Ethics ...... Some typographers are motivated by higher principles than greed, profit, expediency, and personal interest. Idealists afflicted with concepts of ethical behavior and a vision of typography as a noble art may find it distasteful to use plagiarized types. Some graphic designers insist on using typefaces with bona-fide trademarks, both to ensure that the type will be of high quality, and to encourage creativity and ethics in the profession. A consequence of plagiarism that is sometimes overlooked is a general erosion of ethics in an industry. If it is okay to steal typeface designs, then it may be okay to purloin other kinds of data, to falsify one's resume, to misrepresent a product, and so forth. Most professional design organizations attempt to promote ethical standards of professional behavior, and personal standards may extend to avoidance of plagiarism. The Association Typographique Internationale (ATypI) is an international organization of type designers, type manufacturers, and letterform educators. Its purpose is to promote ethical behavior in the industry, advancement of typographic education, communication among designers, and other lofty aims. Members of ATypI agree to abide by a moral code that restricts plagiarism and other forms of depraved behavior (pertaining to typography). These are noble goals, but some members (especially corporate members) of ATypI, confronted with the pressures and opportunities of commercial reality, nevertheless plagiarize typefaces of fellow members, the moral code notwithstanding. Since ATypI is a voluntary organization, there is very little that can be done about most such plagiarism. Some years back, a world-famous type designer resigned %the noted type designer Hermann Zapf from the ATypI Board of Directors in protest over the organization's flaccid attitude toward plagiarists among its ranks. He has since agreed to sit on the board again, but criticism of the organization's inability to prevent type rip-offs by its own members, not to mention by non-members, continues to be heard. Moderates in ATypI believe that a few morals are better than none. It is not clear whether their philosophical stance derives from Plato, Hobbes, or Rousseau. Given the general attitude of users toward copyrighted video and software, it is doubtful that ethical considerations will hinder most end-users' attitude to plagiarized type fonts. A desire to have the fashionable "label" or trademark may be a greater motivation toward the use of bona-fide fonts than an ethical consideration. Further reading --------------- "The State of the Art in Typeface Design Protection", Edward Gottschall, Visible Language, Vol. XIX, No. 1, 1985 (a special issue on "The Computer and the Hand in Type Design"--proceedings of a conference held at Stanford University in August, 1983). Der Schutz Typographischer Schriftzeichen, by Guenter Kelbel. Carl Heymans Verlag KG, Cologne, 1984. (A learned account, in juridical German prose, of the significance of the Vienna Treaty of 1973 and the West German Schriftzeichengesetz of 1981.) Disclaimer ---------- These notes were originally prepared at the request of Brian Reid, for informal distribution. They are based on the author's review of available literature on the subject of typeface protection, and on personal experience in registering types for trademark, copyright, and patent. However, they are %While they result from careful research, no claim is made for accuracy; not legal advice. If one is contemplating protecting or plagiarizing a typeface, and seeks legal opinion, it is advisable to consult an attorney. The term "plagiarize" (and words derived from it) is used here in its dictionary sense of "to take and use as one's own the ideas of another" and does not mean that the practice of typeface plagiarism is illegal, as that is determined by the laws of a particular country. The author is a professor of digital typography as well as a professional designer of original digital typefaces for electronic printers and computer workstations. He therefore has an obvious bias toward the inculcation of ethical standards and the legal protection of artistic property. Other commentators might have a different perspective.