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Newsgroups: news.answers,sci.answers,sci.op-research
Path: senator-bedfellow.mit.edu!bloom-beacon.mit.edu!nic.hookup.net!swrinde!cs.utexas.edu!howland.reston.ans.net!vixen.cso.uiuc.edu!uchinews!cdsmail!timbuk.cray.com!walter.cray.com!jwg
From: jwg@cray.com (John Gregory)
Subject: Linear Programming FAQ
Message-ID: <linear-programming-faq-1-754759312@cray.com>
Followup-To: sci.op-research
Summary: A List of Frequently Asked Questions about Linear Programming
Originator: jwg@ceres
Keywords: FAQ, LP, Linear Programming
Lines: 930
Nntp-Posting-Host: ceres.cray.com
Reply-To: jwg@cray.com (John Gregory)
Organization: Cray Research, Inc., Eagan MN USA
Date: 1 Dec 93 09:22:15 CST
Approved: news-answers-request@MIT.Edu
Expires: 02/04/94
Xref: senator-bedfellow.mit.edu news.answers:15616 sci.answers:716 sci.op-research:419
Posted-By: auto-faq 2.4
Archive-name: linear-programming-faq
Last-modified: December 1, 1993
Linear Programming - Frequently Asked Questions List
(linear-programming-faq)
Posted monthly to Usenet newsgroup sci.op-research
Most recent update: December 1, 1993
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
"The best way to get information on Usenet isn't to ask a question, but
to post the wrong information." -- aahz@netcom.com
Q0. "What's in this FAQ?"
A: Table of Contents
Q1. "What is Linear Programming?"
Q2. "Where is there a good code to solve LP problems?"
Q3. "Oh, and we also want to solve it as an integer program."
Q4. "I wrote an optimization code. Where are some test models?"
Q5. "What is MPS format?"
Q6. "Just a quick question..."
Q7. "What references are there in this field?"
Q8. "How do I access the Netlib server?"
Q9. "Who maintains this FAQ list?"
See also the related FAQ on Nonlinear Programming (NLP).
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Q1. "What is Linear Programming?"
A: A Linear Program (LP) is a problem that can be put into the form
minimize cx
subject to Ax = b
x >= 0
where x is the vector of variables to be solved for, A is a matrix of
known coefficients, and c and b are vectors of known coefficients. The
expression "cx" is called the objective function, and the equations
"Ax=b" are called the constraints. All these entities must have
consistent dimensions, of course, and you can add "transpose" symbols
to taste. The matrix A is generally not square, hence you don't solve
an LP by just inverting A. Usually A has more columns than rows, and
Ax=b is therefore under-determined, leaving great latitude in the
choice of x with which to minimize cx.
LP problems are usually solved by a technique known as the Simplex
Method, developed in the 1940's and after. Briefly stated, this method
works by taking a sequence of square submatrices of A and solving for
x, in such a way that successive solutions always improve, until a
point is reached where improvement is no longer possible. A family of
LP algorithms known as Interior Point (or Barrier) methods comes from
nonlinear programming approaches proposed in 1958 and further developed
in the late 80's. These methods can be faster for many (but so far not
all) large-scale problems. Such methods are characterized by
constructing a sequence of trial solutions that go through the interior
of the solution space, in contrast to the Simplex Method which stays
on the boundary and examines only the corners (vertices). Large-scale
LP codes, whatever the algorithm, invariably use sparse matrix
techniques.
LP has a variety of uses, in such areas as petroleum, finance,
forestry, transportation, and the military.
The word "Programming" is used here in the sense of "planning"; the
necessary relationship to computer programming was incidental to the
choice of name. Hence the phrase "LP program" to refer to a piece of
software is not a redundancy, although I tend to use the term "code"
instead of "program" to avoid the possible ambiguity.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Q2. "Where is there a good code to solve LP problems?"
A: Nowadays, with good commercial software (i.e., code that you pay
for), models with a few thousand constraints and several thousand
variables can be tackled on a 386 PC. Workstations can often handle
models with variables in the tens of thousands, or even greater, and
mainframes can go larger still. Public domain (free) codes can be
relied on to solve models of somewhat smaller dimension. The choice of
code can make more difference than the choice of computer hardware.
It's hard to be specific about model sizes and speed, a priori, due to
the wide variation in things like model structure and variation in
factorizing the basis matrices; just because a given code has solved a
model of a certain dimension, it may not be able to solve *all* models
of the same size, or in the same amount of time.
There is a public domain code, written in C, called "lp_solve" that its
author (Michel Berkelaar, email at michel@es.ele.tue.nl ) says has
solved models with up to 30,000 variables and 50,000 constraints. The
author requests that people retrieve it by anonymous ftp from
"ftp.es.ele.tue.nl" in directory pub/lp_solve. There is an older
version to be found in the Usenet archives, but it contains bugs that
have been fixed in the meantime, and hence is unsupported. (As an
editorial opinion, I must state that difficult models will give this
code trouble. It's not as good as a commercial code. But for someone
who isn't sure just what kind of LP code is needed, it represents a
very reasonable first try, since it does solve non-trivial-sized
models, and it is free.) The author also made available a program that
converts data files from MPS-format into lp_solve's own input format;
it's in the same directory, in file mps2eq_0.1.tar.Z.
For academic users only, on a limited variety of platforms, there is
available a free version of LOQO, a linear/quadratic program solver.
Binary executables have been installed in /pub/opt-net/software/loqo,
via anonymous ftp at elib.zib-berlin.de. There are versions for
workstations by IBM, Silicon Graphics, HP, and Sun. The package
includes a subroutine library (libloqo.a), an executable (loqo), the
source for the main part of loqo (loqo.c), and associated documentation
(loqo.dvi and *.eps). The algorithm used is a one-phase primal-dual-
symmetric interior-point method. If you wish to purchase a commercial
version, please contact Bob Vanderbei (rvdb@Princeton.EDU) for details.
The next several suggestions are for public-domain codes that are
severely limited by the algorithm they use (tableau Simplex); they may
be OK for models with (on the order of) 100 variables and constraints,
but it's unlikely they will be satisfactory for larger models. 1) For
DOS/PC users, there is an LP and Linear Goal Programming binary called
"tslin", by anonymous ftp at garbo.uwasa.fi in directory /pc/ts (the
current file name is tslin33b.zip, using ZIP compression), or else I
suggest contacting Prof. Salmi at ts@uwasa.fi . For North American
users, the garbo server is mirrored on ftp site wuarchive.wustl.edu,
in directory mirrors/garbo.uwasa.fi . 2) Also on the garbo server is a
file called lp261.zip, having a descriptor of "Linear Programming
Optimizer by ScanSoft". It consists of PC binaries, and is evidently
some sort of shareware (i.e., not strictly public domain). 3) There is
an ACM TOMS routine for LP, #552, available from the netlib server, in
directory /netlib/toms. This routine was designed for fitting data to
linear constraints using an L1 norm, but it uses a modification of the
Simplex Method and could presumably be modified to satisfy LP purposes.
4) There are books that contain source code for the Simplex Method.
See the section on references. You should not expect such code to be
robust. In particular, you can check whether it uses a 2-dimensional
array for the A-matrix; if so, it is surely using the tableau Simplex
Method rather than sparse methods, and it will not be useful for large
models.
The following suggestions may represent a low-cost way of solving LP's
if you already have certain software available to you. 1) Some
spreadsheet programs have an embedded LP solver, or offer one as an
installable option. 2) A package called QSB (Quantitative Systems for
Business, from Prentice-Hall publishers) has an LP module among its
routines. 3) If you have access to a commercial math library, such as
IMSL or NAG, you may be able to use an LP routine from there.
4) Mathematical systems MATLAB (The Math Works, Inc., (508) 653-1415)
and MAPLE (reference?) also have LP solvers; an interface from MATLAB
to lp_solve is available from Jeff Kantor (Jeffrey.Kantor@nd.edu), and
there's also a Simplex code written in the MATLAB language, available
from the netlib server, file netlib/matlab/optimization/simplex1.m.Z.
(There's a Usenet newsgroup on MATLAB: comp.soft-sys.matlab.) If
speed matters to you, then according to a Usenet posting by Pascal
Koiran (koiran@ens-lyon.fr), on randomly generated LP models, MATLAB
was an order of magnitude faster than MAPLE on a 200x20 problem but an
order of magnitude slower than lp_solve on a 50x100 problem. (I don't
intend to get into benchmarking in this document, but I mention these
results just to explain why I choose to focus mostly on special purpose
LP software.)
If your models prove to be too difficult for free or add-on software to
handle, then you may have to consider acquiring a commercial LP code.
Dozens of such codes are on the market. There are many considerations
in selecting an LP code. Speed is important, but LP is complex enough
that different codes go faster on different models; you won't find a
"Consumer Reports" article to say with certainty which code is THE
fastest. I usually suggest getting benchmark results for your
particular type of model if speed is paramount to you. Benchmarking
can also help determine whether a given code has sufficient numerical
stability for your kind of models.
Other questions you should answer: Can you use a stand-alone code, or
do you need a code that can be used as a callable library, or do you
require source code? Do you want the flexibility of a code that runs
on many platforms and/or operating systems, or do you want code that's
tuned to your particular hardware architecture (in which case your
hardware vendor may have suggestions)? Is the choice of algorithm
(Simplex, Interior Point) important to you? Do you need an interface
to a spreadsheet code? Is the purchase price an overriding concern?
If you are at a university, is the software offered at an academic
discount? How much hotline support do you think you'll need? There is
usually a large difference in LP codes, in performance (speed,
numerical stability, adaptability to computer architectures) and in
features, as you climb the price scale.
At the end of this section is a *very* condensed version of a survey of
LP software published in the June 1992 issue of "OR/MS Today", a joint
publication of ORSA (Operations Research Society of America) and TIMS
(The Institute of Management Science). For further information I would
suggest you read the full article. It's likely that you can find a
copy, either through a library, or by contacting a member of these two
organizations (most universities probably have several members among
the faculty and student body). This magazine also carries
advertisements for many of these products, which may give you
additional information to help make a decision.
The author of that survey, Ramesh Sharda, has updated and expanded it
for 1993 into a larger report called "Linear and Discrete Optimization
and Modeling Software: A Resource Handbook". For information, contact
Lionheart Publishing Inc., 2555 Cumberland Parkway, Suite 299, Atlanta,
GA 30339. Phone: (404)-431-0867. This book is fairly expensive, and
geared toward users whose needs for LP software are considerable.
Another book, to be available in November 1993 is "Optimization
Software Guide," by Jorge More and Stephen Wright, from SIAM Books.
Call 1-800-447-7426 to order ($24.50, less ten percent if you are a
SIAM member). It sounds promising ("75 software packages...").
In the table below, I give the name of the software and the phone
number listed in the June 1992 survey. I have included, where I know
of one, an email address (information not given in the June 1992
survey), and other information obtained from non-proprietary sources.
To keep the table short enough to fit here, I decided not to include
postal addresses. (I suppose that an "800" number will not be useful
to people outside the US; consult the full survey for more information
on contacting such vendors. Also, for some companies there may exist
European or Asian contact points, but this is beyond the scope of this
document.)
The first part of the table consists of software I deem to be LP
solvers. The second part is software that in some sense is a front end
to the solvers (modeling software). In some cases it becomes a hazy
distinction, but I hope this arrangement of information turns out to be
useful to the reader.
Under "H/W" is the minimum hardware said to be needed to run the code;
generally I conceive of a hierarchy where PC's (and Macintoshes) are
the least powerful, then workstations (WS) like Suns and RS-6000's, on
up to supercomputers, so by the symbol "^" I mean "and up", namely that
most commonly-encountered platforms are supported beyond the given
minimum level.
Even more so than usual, I emphasize that you must use this information
at your own risk. I provide it as a convenience to those readers who
have difficulty in locating the OR/MS Today survey, I take no
responsibility for errors either in the original article or by my act
of copying it manually, though I will gladly correct any mistakes that
are pointed out to me.
Key to Features: S=Simplex I=Interior-Point or Barrier
Q=Quadratic G=General-Nonlinear
M=MIP N=Network
V=Visualization
Solver
Code Name Feat. H/W Phone Email address
--------- ----- ---------- ------------ -------------
AT&T KORBX IQ WS ^ 908-949-8966
Best Answer S Mac-Plus 510-943-7667
CPLEX SIMN PC-386 ^ 702-831-7744 info@cplex.com
Excel SMG PC/Mac 206-882-8080
FortLP SM PC ^ 708-971-2337
HS/LP SM PC-386/VAX 201-627-1424
INCEPTA SMV PC-386 416-896-0515
LAMPS SM PC-386 ^ 413-584-1605 al@andltd.and.nl
LINDO SMQ PC ^ 800-441-2378 lindo@delphi.com
LOQO IQ PC ^ 609-258-0876 rvdb@princeton.edu
LP88 S PC 703-360-7600
MathPro SMV PC-286/WS 202-887-0296
MILP88 SM PC 703-360-7600
MILP LO SV PC (+361)149-7531
MPS-III SMNQ PC-386 ^ 703-558-8701
MSLP-PC S PC 604-361-9778
OMP SM PC/VAX/WS 919-847-9997
OSL SIMNQ PC/WS/IBM 914-385-6034 randym@vnet.ibm.com
PC-PROG SMQ PC 919-847-9997 Ge.vanGeldorp@lr.tudelft.nl
SAS/OR SMN PC ^ 919-677-8000
SCICONIC SM PC-386 ^(+44)908-585858
STORM SMN PC 216-464-1209
TurboSimplex S PC/Mac 703-351-5272
What If SMG PC 800-447-2226
XA SM PC ^ 818-441-1565 sunsetsoft@aol.com
XPRESS-MP SM PC-286 ^ 202-887-0296
YLP S PC ^ 702-831-4967
Modeling
Code Name H/W Phone Email address
--------- ---------- ------------ -------------
DATAFORM PC-386 ^ 703-558-8701
GAMS PC-286 ^ 415-583-8840 gams@gams.com
LINGO PC ^ 800-441-2378 lindo@delphi.com
MIMI/LP WS 908-464-8300
MPL Sys. PC 703-351-5272
OMNI PC-386 ^ 202-627-1424
VMP PC-386/WS 301-622-0694
What's Best! PC/Mac/WS 800-441-2378 lindo@delphi.com
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Q3. "Oh, and we also want to solve it as an integer program.
A: Integer LP models are ones where the answers must not take
fractional values. It may not be obvious that this is a VERY much
harder problem than ordinary LP, but it is nonetheless true. The
buzzword is "NP-Completeness", the definition of which is beyond the
scope of this document but means in essence that, in the worst case,
the amount of time to solve a family of related problems goes up
exponentially as the size of the problem grows, for all algorithms that
solve such problems to a proven answer.
Integer models may be ones where only some of the variables are to be
integer and others may be real-valued (termed "Mixed Integer LP" or
MILP, or "Mixed Integer Programming" or MIP); or they may be ones where
all the variables must be integral (termed "Integer LP" or ILP). The
class of ILP is often further subdivided into problems where the only
legal values are {0,1} ("Binary" or "Zero-One" ILP), and general
integer problems. For the sake of generality, the Integer LP problem
will be referred to here as MIP, since the other classes can be viewed
as special cases of MIP. MIP, in turn, is a particular member of the
class of Discrete Optimization problems.
People are sometimes surprised to learn that MIP problems are solved
using floating point arithmetic. Although various algorithms for MIP
have been studied, most if not all available general purpose large-
scale MIP codes use a method called "Branch and Bound" to try to find
an optimal solution. Briefly stated, B&B solves MIP by solving a
sequence of related LP models. (As a point of interest, the Simplex
Method currently retains an advantage over the newer Interior Point
methods for solving these sequences of LP's.) Good codes for MIP
distinguish themselves more by solving shorter sequences of LP's, than
by solving the individual LP's faster. Even more so than with regular
LP, a costly commercial code may prove its value to you if your MIP
model is difficult.
You should be prepared to solve *far* smaller MIP models than the
corresponding LP model, given a certain amount of time you wish to
allow (unless you and your model happen to be very lucky). There exist
models that are considered challenging, with a few dozen variables.
Conversely, some models with tens of thousands of variables solve
readily. The best explanations of "why" usually seem to happen after
the fact. 8v) But a MIP model with hundreds of variables should
always be approached, initially at least, with a certain amount of
humility.
A major exception to this somewhat gloomy outlook is that there are
certain models whose LP solution always turns out to be integer. Best
known of these is the so-called Network-Flow Problem. Special cases of
this problem are the Transportation Problem, the Assignment Problem,
and the Shortest Path Problem. The theory of unimodular matrices is
fundamental here. It turns out that these particular problems are best
solved by specialized routines that take major shortcuts in the Simplex
Method, and as a result are relatively quick-running even compared to
ordinary LP. Some commercial LP solvers include a network solver. See
[Kennington], which contains some source code for Netflo. Netflo is
available by anonymous ftp at dimacs.rutgers.edu, in directory
/pub/netflow/mincost/solver-1
but I don't know the copyright situation (I always thought you had to
buy the book to get the code). Another text containing Fortran code is
[Bertsekas], though I am unaware of any place that has the source code
online. There is an ACM TOMS routine, #548, that solves the Assignment
problem using the Hungarian Method, available from the netlib server,
in directory /netlib/toms. An article in the ORSA Journal on Computing
in 1991 by Kennington and Wang investigated the performance of some
algorithms.
The public domain code "lp_solve", mentioned earlier, accepts MIP
models, as do a large number of the commercial LP codes in the OR/MS
Today survey (see section above). I have seen mention made of
algorithm 333 in the Collected Algorithms from CACM, though I'd be
surprised if it was robust enough to solve large models.
In [Syslo] is code for 28 algorithms, most of which pertain to some
aspect of Discrete Optimization.
There is a code called Omega that analyzes systems of linear equations
in integer variables. It does not solve optimization problems, except
in the case that a model reduces completely, but its features could be
useful in analyzing and reducing MIP models. Have a look via anonymous
ftp at ftp.cs.umd.edu:pub/omega (documentation is provided there), or
contact Bill Pugh at pugh@cs.umd.edu.
Mustafa Akgul (AKGUL@TRBILUN.BITNET) at Bilkent University maintains an
archive via anonymous ftp (firat.bcc.bilkent.edu.tr or 139.179.10.13).
In addition to a copy of lp_solve (though I would recommend using the
official source listed in the previous section), there is mip386.zip,
which is a zip-compressed code for PC's. He also has a couple of
network codes and various other codes he has picked up. All this is in
directory pub/IEOR/Opt and its further subdirectories LP, PC, and
Network.
The better commercial MIP codes have numerous parameters and options to
give the user control over the solution strategy. Most have the
capability of stopping before an optimum is proved, printing the best
answer obtained so far. For many MIP models, stopping early is a
practical necessity. Fortunately, a solution that has been proved by
the algorithm to be within, say, 1% of optimality often turns out to be
the true optimum, and the bulk of the computation time is spent proving
the optimality. For many modeling situations, a near-optimal solution
is acceptable anyway.
Once one accepts that large MIP models are not typically solved to a
proved optimal solution, that opens up a broad area of approximate
methods, probabilistic methods and heuristics, as well as modifications
to B&B. See [Balas] which contains a useful heuristic for 0-1 MIP
models. See also the brief discussion of Genetic Algorithms and
Simulated Annealing in the FAQ on Nonlinear Programming.
Whatever the solution method you choose, when trying to solve a
difficult MIP model, it is usually crucial to understand the workings
of the physical system (or whatever) you are modeling, and try to find
some insight that will assist your chosen algorithm to work better. A
related observation is that the way you formulate your model can be as
important as the actual choice of solver. You should consider getting
some assistance if this is your first time trying to solve a large
(>100 integer variable) problem.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Q4. "I wrote an optimization code. Where are some test models?"
A: If you want to try out your code on some real-world LP models,
there is a very nice collection of small-to-medium-size ones (with a
few that are rather large) on netlib, in directory lp/data. The netlib
LP files (after you uncompress them) are in a format called MPS, which
is described in another section of this document.
Also on netlib is a collection of infeasible LP models, located in
directory lp/infeas.
There is a collection of MIP models, housed at Rice University. Send
an email message containing "send catalog" to softlib@rice.edu , to
get started. Or try anonymous ftp at softlib.cs.rice.edu, then
"cd /pub/miplib".
There is a collection of network-flow codes and models at DIMACS
(Rutgers University). Use anonymous FTP at dimacs.rutgers.edu. Start
looking in /pub/netflow. Another network generator is called NETGEN
and is available on netlib (lp/generators).
The modeling language GAMS comes with about 150 test models, which you
might be able to test your code with.
John Beasley has posted information on his OR-Lib, which contains
various optimization test problems. Send e-mail to
umtsk99@vaxa.cc.imperial.ac.uk to get started. Or have a look in the
Journal of the Operational Research Society, Volume 41, Number 11,
Pages 1069-72. Information about test problems for the problem areas
listed below can be obtained by emailing o.rlibrary@ic.ac.uk with the
email message being the file name for the problem areas you are
interested in.
Problem area File name
Assignment problem assigninfo
Crew scheduling cspinfo
Data envelopment analysis deainfo
Generalised assignment problem gapinfo
Integer programming mipinfo
Linear programming lpinfo
Location:
capacitated warehouse location capinfo
p-median pmedinfo
uncapacitated warehouse location uncapinfo
Multiple knapsack problem mknapinfo
Quadratic assignment problem qapinfo
Resource constrained shortest path rcspinfo
Scheduling:
flow shop flowshopinfo
job shop jobshopinfo
open shop openshopinfo
Set covering scpinfo
Set partitioning sppinfo
Steiner:
Euclidean Steiner problem esteininfo
Rectilinear Steiner problem rsteininfo
Steiner problem in graphs steininfo
Travelling salesman problem tspinfo
Two-dimensional cutting:
assortment problem assortinfo
constrained guillotine cgcutinfo
constrained non-guillotine ngcutinfo
unconstrained guillotine gcutinfo
Vehicle routing:
fixed areas areainfo
fixed routes fixedinfo
period routing periodinfo
single period vrpinfo
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Q5. "What is MPS format?"
A: MPS format was named after an early IBM LP product and has emerged
as a de facto standard ASCII medium among most of the commercial LP
codes. Essentially all commercial LP codes accept this format, but if
you are using public domain software and have MPS files, you may need
to write your own reader routine for this. It's not too hard. See
also the comment regarding the lp_solve code, in another section of
this document, for the availability of an MPS reader.
The main things to know about MPS format are that it is column oriented
(as opposed to entering the model as equations), and everything
(variables, rows, etc.) gets a name. MPS format is described in more
detail in [Murtagh].
MPS is an old format, so it is set up as though you were using punch
cards, and is not free format. Fields start in column 1, 5, 15, 25, 40
and 50. Sections of an MPS file are marked by so-called header cards,
which are distinguished by their starting in column 1. Although it is
typical to use upper-case throughout the file (like I said, MPS has
long historical roots), many MPS-readers will accept mixed-case for
anything except the header cards, and some allow mixed-case anywhere.
The names that you choose for the individual entities (constraints or
variables) are not important to the solver; you should pick names that
are meaningful to you, or will be easy for a post-processing code to
read.
Here is a little sample model written in MPS format (explained in more
detail below):
NAME TESTPROB
ROWS
N COST
L LIM1
G LIM2
E MYEQN
COLUMNS
XONE COST 1 LIM1 1
XONE LIM2 1
YTWO COST 4 LIM1 1
YTWO MYEQN -1
ZTHREE COST 9 LIM2 1
ZTHREE MYEQN 1
RHS
RHS1 LIM1 5 LIM2 10
RHS1 MYEQN 7
BOUNDS
UP BND1 XONE 4
LO BND1 YTWO -1
UP BND1 YTWO 1
ENDATA
For comparison, here is the same model written out in an equation-
oriented format:
Optimize
COST: XONE + 4 YTWO + 9 ZTHREE
Subject To
LIM1: XONE + YTWO <= 5
LIM2: XONE + ZTHREE >= 10
MYEQN: - YTWO + ZTHREE = 7
Bounds
0 <= XONE <= 4
-1 <= YTWO <= 1
End
Strangely, there is nothing in MPS format that specifies the direction
of optimization. And there really is no standard "default" direction;
some LP codes will maximize if you don't specify otherwise, others will
minimize, and still others put safety first and have no default and
require you to specify it somewhere in a control program or by a
calling parameter. If you have a model formulated for minimization
and the code you are using insists on maximization (or vice versa), it
may be easy to convert: just multiply all the coefficients in your
objective function by (-1). The optimal value of the objective
function will then be the negative of the true value, but the values of
the variables themselves will be correct.
The NAME card can have anything you want, starting in column 15. The
ROWS section defines the names of all the constraints; entries in
column 2 or 3 are E for equality rows, L for less-than ( <= ) rows, G
for greater-than ( >= ) rows, and N for non-constraining rows (the
first of which would be interpreted as the objective function). The
order of the rows named in this section is unimportant.
The largest part of the file is in the COLUMNS section, which is the
place where the entries of the A-matrix are put. All entries for a
given column must be placed consecutively, although within a column the
order of the entries (rows) is irrelevant. Rows not mentioned for a
column are implied to have a coefficient of zero.
The RHS section allows one or more right-hand-side vectors to be
defined; most people don't bother having more than one. In the above
example, the name of the RHS vector is RHS1, and has non-zero values
in all 3 of the constraint rows of the problem. Rows not mentioned in
an RHS vector would be assumed to have a right-hand-side of zero.
The optional BOUNDS section lets you put lower and upper bounds on
individual variables (no * wild cards, unfortunately), instead of
having to define extra rows in the matrix. All the bounds that have
a given name in column 5 are taken together as a set. Variables not
mentioned in a given BOUNDS set are taken to be non-negative (lower
bound zero, no upper bound). A bound of type UP means an upper bound
is applied to the variable. A bound of type LO means a lower bound is
applied. A bound type of FX ("fixed") means that the variable has
upper and lower bounds equal to a single value. A bound type of FR
("free") means the variable has neither lower nor upper bounds.
There is another optional section called RANGES that I won't go into
here. The final card must be ENDATA, and yes, it is spelled funny.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Q6. "Just a quick question..."
Q: What is a matrix generator?
A: This is a code that creates input for an LP (or MIP, or NLP) code,
using a more natural input than MPS format. There are no free
ones. Matrix generators can be roughly broken into two classes,
column oriented ones, and equation oriented ones. The former class
is older, and includes such commercial products as OMNI (Haverley
Systems) and DATAFORM (Ketron). Big names in the latter class are
GAMS (Scientific Press), LINGO (LINDO Systems), and AMPL
(information is in netlib/opt on the netlib server, or send email
to 70742.555@compuserve.com). These products have links to various
solvers (commercial and otherwise).
Q: How do I diagnose an infeasible LP model?
A: A model is infeasible if the constraints are inconsistent, i.e., if
no feasible solution can be constructed. It's often difficult to
track down a cause. The cure may even be ambiguous: is it that
some demand was set too high, or a supply set too low? A useful
technique is Goal Programming, one variant of which is to include
two explicit slack variables (positive and negative), with huge
cost coefficients, in each constraint. The revised model is
guaranteed to have a solution, and you can look at which rows have
slacks that are included in the "optimal" solution. By the way, I
recommend a Goal Programming philosophy even if you aren't having
trouble with feasibility; "come on, you could probably violate this
constraint for a price." 8v) Another approach is Fourier-Motzkin
Elimination (article by Danztig and Eaves in the Journal of
Combinatorial Theory (A) 14, 288-297 (1973). A software system
called ANALYZE was developed by Harvey Greenberg to provide
computer-assisted analysis, including rule-based intelligence;
for further information about this code, and a bibliography of more
than 400 references on the subject of model analysis, contact
Greenberg at HGREENBERG@cudnvr.denver.colorado.edu. A system based
on the MINOS solver, called MINOS(IIS), available from John
Chinneck (chinneck@sce.carleton.ca), can also be used to identify
a so-called Irreducible Infeasible Subset. As a final comment,
commercial codes sometimes have built-in features to help.
Q: I want to know the specific constraints that contradict each other.
A: This may not be a well posed problem. If by this you mean you want
to find the minimal set of constraints that should be removed to
restore feasibility, this can be modeled as an Integer LP (which
means, it's potentially a harder problem than the underlying LP
itself). Start with a Goal Programming approach as outlined above,
and introduce some 0-1 variables to turn the slacks off or on.
Then minimize on the sum of these 0-1 variables. An article
covering another approach to this question is by Chinneck and
Dravnieks in the Spring 1991 ORSA Journal on Computing (vol 3,
number 2).
Q: I just want to know whether or not a feasible solution *exists*.
A: From the standpoint of computational complexity, finding out if a
model has a feasible solution is essentially as hard as finding the
optimal LP solution, within a factor of 2 on average, in terms of
effort in the Simplex Method. There are no shortcuts in general,
unless you know something useful about your model's structure
(e.g., if you are solving some form of a transportation problem,
you may be able to assure feasibility by checking that the sources
add up to at least as great a number as the sum of the
destinations).
Q: I have an LP, except it's got several objective functions.
A: Fundamental to the class of Multiple Criteria models is that there
may no longer be the concept of a unique solution. I am unaware of
any public domain code to approach such problems, though I have
seen a reference to MATLAB's Optimization Toolbox. Approaches that
have worked are:
- Goal Programming (treat the objectives as constraints with costed
slacks), or, almost equivalently, form a composite function from
the given objective functions;
- Pareto preference analysis (essentially brute force examination);
- Put your objective functions in priority order, optimize on one
objective, then change it to a constraint fixed at the optimal
value (perhaps subject to a small tolerance), and repeat with the
next function.
There is a section on this whole topic in Reference [1]. As a
final piece of advice, if you can cast your model in terms of
physical realities, or dollars and cents, sometimes the multiple
objectives disappear! 8v)
Q: I have an LP that has large almost-independent matrix blocks that
are linked by a few constraints. Can I take advantage of this?
A: In theory, yes. See section 6.2 in Reference [1] for a discussion
of Dantzig-Wolfe decomposition. I am told that the commercial code
OSL has features to assist in doing this. With any other code,
you'll have to create your own framework and then call the LP
solver to solve the subproblems. The folklore is that generally
such schemes take a long time to converge so that they're slower
than just solving the model as a whole, although research
continues. For now my advice, unless you are using OSL or your
model is so huge that a good solver can't fit it in memory, is to
not bother decomposing it. It's probably more cost effective to
upgrade your solver, if the algorithm is limiting you, than to
invest your time; but I suppose that's an underlying theme in a lot
of my advice. 8v)
Q: I need to find all integer points in a polytope.
A: There is no known way of doing this efficiently (i.e., with an
algorithm that grows only polynomially with the problem size). For
small models, it may be practical to find your answer by complete
enumeration. A related question is how to find all the vertices of
an LP, with the same pessimistic answer. [Schrijver] is said to
discuss this. Two people mentioned on the net, said to be working
on code for this, are Dick Helgason (helgason@seas.smu.edu) and
Betty Hickman (hickman@odin.unomaha.edu).
Q: Are there any parallel LP codes?
A: IBM has announced a parallel Branch and Bound capability in their
package OSL, for use on clusters of workstations. "This is real,
live commercial software, not a freebie. Contact
forrest@watson.ibm.com". Jeffrey Horn (horn@cs.wisc.edu) recently
compiled a bibliography of papers relating to research on parallel
B&B. There is an annotated bibliography of parallel methods in
Operations Research in general, in Vol 1 (1), 1989 of the ORSA
Journal on Computing, although by now it might be a little out of
date. I'm not aware of any implementations (beyond the "toy"
level) of general sparse Simplex or interior-point solvers on
parallel machines. If your particular model is a good candidate
for decomposition (see topic, above) then parallelism could be very
useful, but you'll have to implement it yourself.
Q: I am trying to solve a Traveling Salesman Problem ...
A: TSP is a famously hard problem that has attracted many of the best
minds in the field. Look at the bibliography in the Integer
Programming section of Reference [1], particularly the ones with
the names Groetschel and/or Padberg in them. Solving for a proved
optimum is combinatorial in nature. There are some heuristics for
getting a "good" solution; see the article by Lin and Kernighan in
Operations Research, Vol 21 (1973), pp 498-516. I don't believe
there are any commercial products to solve this problem. [Syslo]
contains some algorithms and Pascal code.
Q: I need to do post-optimal analysis.
A: Many commercial LP codes have features to do this. Also called
Ranging or Sensitivity Analysis, it gives information about how the
coefficients in the problem could change without affecting the
nature of the solution. Most LP textbooks, such as Reference [1],
describe this. Unfortunately, all this theory applies only to LP.
For a MIP model with both integer and continuous variables, you
could get a limited amount of information by fixing the integer
variables at their optimal values, resolving the model as an LP,
and doing standard post-optimal analyses on the remaining
continuous variables; but this tells you nothing about the integer
variables, which presumably are the ones of interest. Another MIP
approach would be to choose the coefficients of your model that are
of the most interest, and generate "scenarios" using values within
a stated range created by a random number generator. Perhaps five
or ten scenarios would be sufficient; you would solve each of them,
and by some means compare, contrast, or average the answers that
are obtained. Noting patterns in the solutions, for instance, may
give you an idea of what solutions might be most stable. A third
approach would be to consider a goal-programming formulation;
perhaps your desire to see post-optimal analysis is an indication
that some important aspect is missing from your model.
Q: Some versions of the Simplex algorithm require as input a vertex.
Do all LP codes require a starting vertex?
A: No. You just have to give an LP code the constraints and the
objective function, and it will construct the vertices for you.
Most codes go through a so-called two phase method, wherein the
code first looks for a feasible solution, and then works on getting
an optimal solution. The first phase can begin anywhere, such as
with all the variables at zero (though commercial codes typically
have a so-called "crash" algorithm to pick a better starting
point). So, no, you don't have to give a code a starting point.
On the other hand, it is not uncommon to do so, because it can
speed up the solution time tremendously. Commercial codes usually
allow you to do this (they call it a "basis", though that's a loose
usage of a specific linear algebra concept); free codes generally
don't. You'd normally want to bother with a starting basis only
when solving families of related and difficult LP's (i.e., in some
sort of production mode).
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Q7. "What references are there in this field?"
A: What follows here is an idiosyncratic list, a few books that I like
or have been recommended on the net. I have *not* reviewed them all.
Regarding the common question of the choice of textbook for a college
LP course, it's difficult to give a blanket answer because of the
variety of topics that can be emphasized: brief overview of algorithms,
deeper study of algorithms, theorems and proofs, complexity theory,
efficient linear algebra, modeling techniques, solution analysis, and
so on. An unscientific poll of ORCS-L mailing list readers uncovered a
consensus that [Chvatal] was in most ways pretty good, at least for an
algorithmically oriented class. For a class in modeling, a book about
a commercial code (LINDO, AMPL, GAMS are suggested) would be useful,
especially if the students are going to use such a code; and I have
always had a fondness for [Williams]. I have marked with an arrow
("->") books that received positive mention in this poll (I included
my own votes too 8v) ).
General reference [1]
- Nemhauser, Rinnooy Kan, & Todd, eds, Optimization, North-Holland,
1989. (Very broad-reaching, with large bibliography. Good
reference; it's the place I tend to look first. Expensive, and
tough reading for beginners.)
LP textbooks
-> Bazaraa, Jarvis and Sherali. Linear Programming and Network Flows.
(Grad level.)
-> Chvatal, Linear Programming, Freeman, 1983. (Undergrad or grad.)
-> Daellenbach and Bell, A User's Guide to LP. (Good for engineers,
but may be out of print.)
-> Ecker & Kupferschmid, Introduction to Operations Research.
- Luenberger, Introduction to Linear and Nonlinear Programming,
Addison Wesley, 1984. (Updated version of an old standby.)
-> Murtagh, B., Advanced Linear Programming, McGraw-Hill, 1981. (Good
one after you've read an introductory text.)
- Murty, K., Linear and Combinatorial Programming.
-> Schrijver, A., Theory of Linear and Integer Programming, Wiley,
1986. (Advanced)
-> Taha, H., Operations Research: An Introduction, 1987.
-> Thie, P.R., An Introduction to Linear Programming and Game Theory,
Wiley, 1988.
-> Williams, H.P., Model Building in Mathematical Programming, Wiley
1985. (Little on algorithms, but excellent for learning what makes
a good model.)
Interior Point LP (popularly but imprecisely called "Karmarkar")
(There is also a bibliography (with over 1300 entries!?!) obtainable by
mailing to "netlib@ornl.gov" and saying "send intbib.bib from bib".)
-> Fang and Puthenpura, Linear Optimization and Extensions. (Grad
level textbook, also contains some Simplex and Ellipsoid. I heard
mixed opinions on this one.)
- Lustig, Marsten & Shanno, "Interior Point Methods for Linear
Programming - Computational State of the Art", to appear in ORSA
Journal on Computing, early 1994. (Available as a tech report from
shanno@dantzig.rutgers.edu as RUTCOR Report RRR 41-92.)
- Marsten, et al., "Interior Point Methods for Linear Programming",
Interfaces, pp 105-116, July-August 1990. (Introductory article,
written by authors of a good commercial code, article superseded
by [Lustig] when it appears.)
Documentation for commercial codes
-> Brooke, Kendrick & Meeraus, GAMS: A Users' Guide, The Scientific
Press, 1988.
-> Fourer, Gay & Kernighan, AMPL: A Modeling Language for Mathematical
Programming, The Scientific Press, 1992.
-> Greenberg, H.J., Modeling by Object-Driven Linear Elemental
Relations: A User's Guide for MODLER, Kluwer Academic Publishers,
1993.
-> Schrage, L., LINDO: An Optimization Modeling System, The Scientific
Press, 1991.
Books containing source code
- Arbel, Ami, Exploring Interior-Point Linear Programming, MIT Press,
1993. (New, I have no information about the quality of this book.
Supposed to include IBM PC software.)
- Best and Ritter, Linear Programming: active set analysis and
computer programs, Prentice-Hall, 1985.
- Bertsekas, D.P., Linear Network Optimization: Algorithms and Codes,
MIT Press, 1991.
- Bunday and Garside, Linear Programming in Pascal, Edward Arnold
Publishers, 1987.
- Bunday, Linear Programming in Basic (presumably the same publisher).
- Kennington & Helgason, Algorithms for Network Programming, Wiley,
1980. (A special case of LP; contains Fortran source code.)
- Press, Flannery, Teukolsky & Vetterling , Numerical Recipes,
Cambridge, 1986. (Comment: use their LP code with care.)
- Syslo, Deo & Kowalik, Discrete Optimization Algorithms with Pascal
Programs, Prentice-Hall (1983). (Contains code for 28 algorithms
such as Revised Simplex, MIP, networks.)
Other publications
- Ahuja, Magnanti & Orlin, Network Flows, Prentice Hall, 1993.
- Balas, E. and Martin, C., "Pivot And Complement: A Heuristic For 0-1
Programming Problems", Management Science, 1980, Vol 26, pp 86-96.
- Bondy & Murty, Graph Theory with Applications.
- Forsythe, Malcolm & Moler, Computer Methods for Mathematical
Computations, Prentice-Hall.
-> Gill, Murray and Wright, Numerical Linear Algebra and Optimization,
Addison-Wesley, 1991.
- Greenberg, H.J., A Computer-Assisted Analysis System for
Mathematical Programming Models and Solutions: A User's Guide for
ANALYZE, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1993.
- Lawler, Lenstra, et al, The Traveling Salesman Problem, Wiley, 1985.
- Murty, Network Programming, Prentice Hall, 1992.
- Reeves, C.R., ed., Modern Heuristic Techniques for Combinatorial
Problems, Halsted Press (Wiley). (Contains chapters on tabu search,
simulated annealing, genetic algorithms, neural nets, and Lagrangean
relaxation.)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Q8. "How do I access the Netlib server?"
A: If you have ftp access, you can try "ftp research.att.com", using
"netlib" as the Name, and your email address as the Password. Do a
"cd <dir>" where <dir> is whatever directory was mentioned, and look
around, then do a "get <filename>" on anything that seems interesting.
There often will be a "README" file, which you would want to look at
first. Alternatively, you can reach an e-mail server via
"netlib@ornl.gov", to which you can send a message saying "send index
from <dir>"; follow the instructions you receive.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Q9. "Who maintains this FAQ list?"
A: John W. Gregory jwg@cray.com 612-683-3673
Applications Dept. Cray Research, Inc. Eagan, MN 55121 USA
I suppose I should say something here to the effect that "the material
in this document does not reflect any official position taken by Cray
Research, Inc." Also, "use at your own risk", "no endorsement of
products mentioned", etc., etc. "IMHO"s are implicit throughout.
In compiling this information, I have drawn on my own knowledge of the
field, plus information from contributors to Usenet groups and the
ORCS-L mailing list. I give my thanks to all those who have offered
advice and support. I've tried to keep my own biases (primarily,
toward the high end of computing) from dominating what I write here,
and other viewpoints that I've missed are welcome. Suggestions,
corrections, topics you'd like to see covered, and additional material
(particularly on NLP) are solicited.
Copies of this FAQ list may be made freely, as long as it is
distributed at no charge and with the date of last update and this
disclaimer included. If you wish to cite this FAQ formally (hey,
someone actually asked me this), you may use:
Gregory, John W. (1993) "Linear Programming FAQ", Usenet
sci.answers. Available via anonymous ftp from rtfm.mit.edu
in /pub/usenet/sci.answers/linear-programming-faq
There's a mail server on that machine, so if you don't have ftp
privileges, you can send an e-mail message to
mail-server@rtfm.mit.edu containing:
send usenet/sci.answers/linear-programming-faq
as the body of the message.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
END linear-programming-faq