Modern World History examines international relations from the First World War to the present. Learn about the events that triggered the Second World War and the start of the Cold War. Discover how the spread of \JCommunism\j affected the United States, and trace the development of the United Nations Organisation.
\IThis section includes text from Modern World History, a Cambridge University Press publication by Tony McAleavy.\i
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"Modern World History Contents",2,0,0,0
\JPeace Treaties 1919-23\j
\JLeague of Nations: Setting it up\j
\JHitler: The Rhineland and Austria\j
\JWorld War II: Overview\j
\JCommunist China\j
\JTito and Stalin\j
\JUnited Nations: Overview\j
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"World War I: Origins",3,0,0,0
In the late summer of 1914 the most powerful countries in Europe went to war. By the time the fighting stopped. Four years later, 20 million people had been killed. Why did this disastrous war start? In 1919 the countries on the winning side met together and said that the war had been \JGermany\j's fault.
\BWas the War the fault of the German government?\b
Historians have identified a number of long-term and short-term causes of the war:
\BThe Rise of Germany\b
Until the middle of the nineteenth century \JGermany\j was divided into many separate states. The most important of these German states was a kingdom called \JPrussia\j. In the 1860s the leaders of \JPrussia\j wanted to unite \JGermany\j. \JFrance\j was unhappy about this and went to war against \JPrussia\j from 1870 to 1871.
France was beaten and the victorious Prussian government was able to set up a new German Empire. This was a massive new state that included most German-speaking people. Wilhelm I, King of \JPrussia\j, was declared to be the emperor or Kaiser of \JGermany\j. His chief minister, \JBismarck\j, became the powerful Chancellor of \JGermany\j.
Between 1871 and 1914 the economy of the new German state went from strength to strength. This was based on an amazing industrial revolution and by 1914 the output of German factories had overtaken the output of British factories.
Chancellor \JBismarck\j was very skilful. After 1870 he stopped the German government from getting involved in any more wars. \JFrance\j was the sworn enemy of \JGermany\j but Bismarck made sure that \JFrance\j remained isolated.
As long as he was in charge of German foreign policy there was no danger of \JGermany\j going to war against \JRussia\j or Britain. This all changed when \JGermany\j got a new Kaiser- Wilhelm II - and \JBismarck\j lost the chancellorship.
\BThe New Kaiser\b
Now that \JGermany\j was the equal of Britain in terms of wealth and industry, some German people felt that their country should have a worldwide empire like Britain. One German who believed this was the new ruler of \JGermany\j, Kaiser Wilhelm II, who came to power in 1888. He made \JBismarck\j retire in 1890.
Wilhelm wanted a new, more aggressive approach to the rest of the world. He ended the friendly relationship that \JBismarck\j had encouraged between \JGermany\j and \JRussia\j. As a result of his attitude, other countries began to see \JGermany\j as a threat.
\BThe two alliances\b
Germany signed a treaty of alliance with Austria-Hungary in 1879. The two states remained allies in the decades that followed. At first the only likely enemy of this alliance was \JFrance\j. However, Wilhelm's clumsy policy encouraged \JRussia\j to join forces with \JFrance\j. In 1892 \JFrance\j and \JRussia\j agreed to an alliance: if either country was attacked by \JGermany\j, the other state would go to war against the Germans.
The government of Britain began to look around for allies at the turn of the century. British politicians thought about an alliance with \JGermany\j against \JFrance\j and \JRussia\j. However, German policy under the Kaiser was so badly managed that Britain felt forced to look to \JFrance\j and \JRussia\j.
Britain established friendly relations with \JFrance\j in 1904 and \JRussia\j in 1907. The link was not an official alliance but an 'entente' or understanding that the countries would try to work together. People talked of the Triple Entente: an anti-German grouping of \JFrance\j, \JRussia\j and Britain.
\BThe Arms Race\b
After 1897, the German government started building up an enormous navy that could challenge the might of the British navy. The Germans knew that a worldwide empire would have to be defended by a worldwide navy.
The German government passed a law in 1900 ordering the building of a huge new fleet of 40 battleships and 60 cruisers. The British responded energetically to this threat by increasing the size of their navy. They introduced a new type of powerful \Jbattleship\j called a 'Dreadnought' in 1906. The Germans responded by building similar ships of their own. The British went on to order even more substantial battleships called 'Super Dreadnoughts'.
Other countries also took part in this arms race. The French increased their forces and by 1914 had an army of nearly 4 million soldiers. The Russians spent a fortune on military railways that were clearly designed to take troops to fight \JGermany\j and Austria-Hungary. Russian spending on its army was huge. People in \JGermany\j feared that this mighty force would one day flatten Berlin.
\BThe crisis in Europe: summer 1914\b
By January 1914 the situation in Europe was tense. Between January and August a number of short-term causes led to the outbreak of war.
\BThe Killing in Sarajevo\b
The city of \JSarajevo\j in Bosnia was the center of world attention in June 1914. Bosnia was part of Austria-Hungary but many of its people were Serbs who wanted to be ruled by the neighboring state of \JSerbia\j. On 28 June 1914 a Serb called Gavrilo Princip shot dead the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, and his wife.
The killing of the Archduke was linked to a bitter dispute between Austria-Hungary and the state of \JSerbia\j. Austria-Hungary was looking for an excuse for a war against \JSerbia\j.
Austria-Hungary blamed \JSerbia\j for the murder and got ready to attack.
The system of alliances led to several other countries becoming involved in the outbreak of war between Austria-Hungary and \JSerbia\j. While Austria-Hungary was allied to \JGermany\j, \JSerbia\j was closely linked to \JRussia\j. The government of Austria-Hungary looked to \JGermany\j for help. \JSerbia\j expected Russian help.
The Russians, in turn, hoped for support from \JFrance\j and Britain. In this way, the killing at \JSarajevo\j made possible a wider war which would involve all the powerful countries of Europe.
\BThe German Decision for War\b
In 1913 there had been another argument between Austria-Hungary and \JSerbia\j and \JRussia\j about how land taken from Turkey should be divided. This nearly led to war between the two alliances. It had not because the German government refused to support Austria-Hungary.
A year later the German policy changed. On 5 July 1914 the Kaiser gave his full backing for an Austrian attack on \JSerbia\j. Austria-Hungary would not have risked war without help from their more powerful ally. The German government knew that there was a good chance that \JRussia\j would go to war on the side of \JSerbia\j, and that the result would be a general war.
In the following weeks of crisis the German government did more than offer support. It urged Austria-Hungary to make sure that war broke out. When Britain and \JRussia\j tried to get Austria-Hungary to negotiate, \JGermany\j told her ally to ignore these attempts to stop the war.
\BConfusion About the British Position\b
The Germans were not sure whether the British would fight. If the British had made clear their determination to fight, the German leaders might have thought again about the war. The position of the British Foreign Secretary, Sir Edward Grey, was not complicated. Although Britain had links with \JFrance\j and \JRussia\j there was no of formal alliance. Legally, Britain was not bound to go war on the side of \JFrance\j and \JRussia\j.
As the crisis developed, senior civil servants urged Grey to say that Britain would definitely side with \JFrance\j and \JRussia\j. They hoped that an announcement like this would frighten the Germans into stepping back from war. Grey disagreed.
He wanted to try to avoid war by negotiating. Talks continued right up to 3 August when \JGermany\j attacked \JFrance\j via \JBelgium\j. At this point Britain stopped talking and, a day later, went to war.
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"World War I: Overview",4,0,0,0
On 28 July Austria-Hungary declared war on \JSerbia\j. By 4 August \JGermany\j and Austria-Hungary (the Central Powers) were at war with \JRussia\j, \JFrance\j and Britain (the Allies). Generals in all countries were desperate to mobilize their troops; that is, to get them moving towards the frontier with the enemy. Rapid mobilization reduced the time available for discussion and negotiation to virtually nothing.
\BStalemate in the West\b
Each side expected the war to be short-lived. The German plan was for a quick knock-out blow against \JFrance\j. This nearly worked. The German army swept through \JBelgium\j and northern \JFrance\j. The German advance was finally stopped by the French army on the River Marne, not far from Paris . The Germans were driven back little and a front-line was established. This front-line did not change very much for the following three years.
Attempts to break the stalemate led to enormous casualties. In 1916 the Germans tried to break through at the Battle of \JVerdun\j. They failed but in the fighting, that went on between February and July there were about a million casualties.
In the same year the British attacked on the River Somme. On the first day of the Battle of the Somme, 60,000 British troops were killed but the outcome was indecisive. In 1917 Britain once again tried to break through the German lines at a place called Passchendaele; there were half a million casualties. The result of this enormous suffering was that the British line moved forward only four miles.
Once the fighting had led to stalemate, the leaders had no idea how to end the war without losing face. Both sides looked for new allies to break the deadlock. \JItaly\j and \JRomania\j joined the Allied side and \JBulgaria\j joined with the Central Powers. These new combatants did not end the war; quite the opposite. Each new player wanted some of the profits of war and was ready to fight until it got a 'fair share'.
\BThe naval war and the Americans\b
There was no decisive victory in the war at sea. The only major naval battle took place in the North Sea in 1916 at the Battle of Jutland. Neither the British nor the German fleet was destroyed but afterwards the German fleet retired to port and did not venture out for the rest of the war.
Unable to destroy the British navy, \JGermany\j turned to submarine warfare. The German submarines were known as U-boats. They attacked British shipping in order to try to cut off vital supplies.
The \JU-boat\j campaign helped to bring America into the war on the side of Britain and \JFrance\j. By 1917 U-boats were trying to sink any ship that might be trading with Britain. This involved attacks on American ships. The American government responded by declaring war on \JGermany\j in April 1917. The power and wealth of the USA greatly strengthened the position of the Allies.
While the USA entered the war on the Western Front, \JRussia\j was being defeated in the east. The war had been going badly for the Russians for some time. Revolution in \JRussia\j in 1917 led to a collapse of the Russian war effort and withdrawal from the war.
Faced with total defeat, the new communist rulers of \JRussia\j agreed to all the German demands and signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. Under this peace treaty \JGermany\j dealt very harshly with \JRussia\j, taking control of huge areas of Russian territory.
\BGerman defeat and the armistice\b
Meanwhile, on the Western Front it took time for the American army to make a full contribution to the fighting. In March 1918 the Germans launched their last major offensive in the west. They tried to smash through to Paris before American reinforcements arrived in great force. After some successes the German attack petered out.
By August 1918 the American reinforcements were in place and the allied forces were ready for a huge counter-attack. With the help of tanks the Allies made a decisive breakthrough. The German generals decided that they were about to be defeated and the German government asked the American President Wilson for peace. There was an agreement to stop fighting on 11 November 1918. This agreement was called the Armistice.
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"Russian Revolution (history)",5,0,0,0
\BRussia before communism\b
In 1917 \JRussia\j had been ruled for many years by Tsar Nicholas II. He was an autocrat; this meant that there were no limits to his power. The great majority of Russians were extremely poor peasants living in the countryside. A small but growing number of people lived in towns and worked in mines and factories.
In 1904-1905 \JRussia\j fought a war against \JJapan\j and lost. Defeat led to an attempted revolution in \JRussia\j in 1905. Tsar Nicholas only retained control by promising reforms. He set up a parliament for \JRussia\j called the \Jduma\j. This had little real power and it proved to be a great disappointment.
Russia took part in the First World War and fought against \JGermany\j and Austria-Hungary. The war was a disaster for \JRussia\j and by 1917 many Russians were ready for another revolution.
\BThe two revolutions of 1917\b
Revolution first broke out in St Petersburg (known at the time as Petrograd) in March 1917. Shortages of bread led to strikes and riots in the city. Law and order broke down. The army mutinied and refused to help . Tsar Nicholas admitted defeat and abdicated on 15 March.
\BWhy did some Russians want a change of government in 1917?\b
ò The gap between rich and poor was enormous. Peasants and factory workers wanted a fairer deal.
ò Ordinary people had no political power. They were angry that the Tsar could do what he liked and disappointed that the \Jduma\j had no real power.
ò Russians did very badly in the First World War. Russian armies were defeated by \JGermany\j.
ò The war put a great strain on the Russian economy. Prices went up and food was scarce.
\BThe Soviets and the Bolsheviks\b
Although the Tsar was no longer in charge, there was confusion about who would replace him. The \Jduma\j set up a so-called 'provisional government'. Workers and soldiers in Petrograd established a governing committee or soviet. Soon soviets were set up in other large towns. Both the provisional government and the soviets claimed to be in charge.
Among the revolutionaries was a group of communists known as \JBolsheviks\j. The Bolshevik leader, Lenin, returned from exile to Petrograd in April 1917. Lenin and the \JBolsheviks\j wanted to overthrow the provisional government. His slogan was 'All power to the soviets !'. One of Lenin's most important colleagues was Leon Trotsky. He played a key role in the organization of the Petrograd soviet. On the 6-7 November Bolshevik fighters, known as Red Guards, seized power in Petrograd. Soviets all over \JRussia\j followed the lead from Petrograd and took control of their local area. The Bolshevik revolution had begun.
\BThe Treaty of Brest-Litovsk\b
At first. Lenin was convinced that the revolution would soon spread to the rest of the world. There was no need for a foreign policy because non-communist states were doomed. This belief encouraged him to make peace with \JGermany\j in 1918. \JRussia\j lost huge areas of territory under the treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Lenin was not concerned because he thought the settlement would soon be swept aside by a world revolution.
\BThe civil war\b
The Bolshevik take-over was opposed by many Russians. In May 1918 fighting broke out between the Red Guards and anticommunist forces known as the Whites. This was the start of a vicious civil war. In areas such as the \JUkraine\j, Georgia and \JSiberia\j, independent White governments were set up. The British, French, Americans and Japanese also sent forces to fight the \JBolsheviks\j. The Bolshevik leader, Leon Trotsky, organized the Red Army very effectively. The Whites were divided among themselves and the foreign armies began to withdraw in 1919. By 1920 the civil war was over and the \JBolsheviks\j had won.
\BWorld revolution?\b
Immediately after the Russian Revolution communists in other countries tried to copy the Russian example. Lenin encouraged this; he thought that without communist revolutions in other countries, revolutionary \JRussia\j would be destroyed. In 1919 an organization known as \JComintern\j (the Communist International) was set up by the \JBolsheviks\j to encourage revolutionaries in other countries. There were many followers of \Jcommunism\j in \JGermany\j. Communists briefly took power in \JHungary\j but were overthrown in July 1919.
Lenin died in 1924. By this time there was no immediate prospect of a world revolution. Stalin took control of the Soviet Union and Trotsky went into exile in 1927. The new Soviet leader did little to encourage revolution abroad. Instead, he concentrated on transforming the Soviet Union into a powerful industrial country. However, all over the world governments remained afraid of the spread of communist ideas.
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"Big Three",6,0,0,0
Britain, \JFrance\j and the USA won the First World War. In 19l9 their leaders met together in Paris to decide on the future of Europe and the world. These leaders were known as the Big Three.
\BWhat were the motives of the Big Three in 1919?\b
\BProblems for the winners\b
The leaders of the victorious countries faced a number of complex problems:
ò Germany had nearly defeated Britain, \JRussia\j and \JFrance\j single-handed. How could the winners make sure that \JGermany\j could not fight another war in the future?
ò Communists had seized power in \JRussia\j. Communists wanted to destroy all other capitalist governments by workers' revolution.
ò Central and Eastern Europe were in chaos. The royal families of \JGermany\j and Austria-Hungary had abdicated before the peace conference.
ò The British and the French governments had entered into a number of secret treaties during the war. They had promised \JJapan\j special treatment in Asia. Under the Treaty of London of 1915 \JItaly\j had agreed to join the allies in return for the promise of gains from Austria-Hungary. \JJapan\j and \JItaly\j now expected to be given their rewards.
ò Nationalists in Eastern Europe had set up new governments even before the war had officially ended. By early November 1918 there were new states in Yugoslavia, \JPoland\j and \JCzechoslovakia\j.
ò The end of the war came more quickly than the allies had expected. The victorious allies had given little thought to the arrangements for the peace. When they did begin discussing the peace it became clear that the winners had very different views about the future.
\BDifferences between the Big Three\b
Perhaps the biggest problem faced at the peace conferences was fact that the winning countries had very different views about what should happen next The key players were the so-called Big Three (The term 'the Big Four' is used when \JItaly\j is also included.)
The differences between the Allies were hidden while the war was fought. The French and the British did not agree with many of Wilson's views. However, they had been desperate to make sure the USA supported the war. During the war, they kept quiet in public for fear that disagreement would limit the American war effort. Once the fighting had stopped the French and the British started to side with the Americans.
\BA 'just peace' or reparations?\b
The American President Wilson was a very religious man. His aim was a just peace. He believed that God wanted him to make the world a better place. He disliked his allies in Britain and \JFrance\j. Wilson believed that politics was a simple matter of right and wrong. The European leaders were more concerned about selfish national interest than doing good.
Wilson thought that Europeans had caused the war and it was America's mission to stop this happening again. In 1919 Wilson said, 'I do not mean any disrespect to any other great people when I say that America is the hope of the world. And if she does not justify that hope the results are unthinkable.' He thought that the old style of politics could be swept away if a new world organization was set up called the League of Nations.
Wilson was a great believer in the idea of self-determination. This meant that each nation should have the right to decide for itself how it should be governed. Living far away in America, Wilson did not appreciate how difficult self-determination was in much of Eastern Europe. If Czechs and Germans and Slovaks lived together in an area, who had the right of self-determination?
The opposite of self-determination was \Jimperialism\j: the control of many nations by one powerful empire. The British and the French were imperialists. Their governments were very suspicious of talk of self-determination.
Britain and \JFrance\j wanted \Jreparations\j from \JGermany\j. This was the payment of compensation for the damage caused in the war. Wilson was much less concerned about \Jreparations\j. Britain and \JFrance\j had built up huge debts to pay for the war; they saw \Jreparations\j as a way of getting rid of these debts. The USA did not have enormous war debts. Indeed, America was owed much of the money borrowed by Britain and \JFrance\j.
\BThe Fourteen Points\b
Woodrow Wilson made his own idealistic aims clear a year before the Paris conference. Speaking in January 1918, long before the war ended, President Wilson stated what he wanted as Fourteen Points.
\BThe response of the European allies\b
The British and the French leaders did not agree with all the Fourteen Points. The French leader, Clemenceau, asked why Wilson needed as many as 14 when God had made do with only 10 commandments. The Fourteen Points attacked many ideas that the French and British held dear. They were also annoyed at what the Fourteen Points did not say. Wilson said nothing about the future of \JGermany\j and ways of making \JGermany\j pay \Jreparations\j for starting the war.
\BClemenceau and a harsh peace\b
The French leader at Paris was Georges Clemenceau. His nickname was 'the tiger'. He was aware that most French people wanted revenge for the devastation of the war. The level of destruction was like no previous war and much of the bloodshed and destruction had taken place in \JFrance\j.
France had suffered greatly during the First World War. A quarter of all French men aged 18-27 had been killed. Another 4 million had been wounded. Much of north-eastern \JFrance\j had been devastated. The French government had borrowed huge sums of money to fight the war and was faced with an enormous debt. The French wanted \JGermany\j to pay for all these losses. They also wanted revenge for the defeat in the war of 1870-71 and the loss of Alsace-Lorraine.
Ideally the French wanted to break up \JGermany\j into a number of small, weak states. Failing this, Clemenceau called for \JGermany\j to lose the Rhineland, Saarland, Upper \JSilesia\j, \JDanzig\j and East \JPrussia\j. These areas included much of \JGermany\j's coal and heavy industry.
The French leaders disagreed very strongly with the USA over the question of compensation or \Jreparations\j. The position of the USA was very different to \JFrance\j and Britain. For the two European countries, particularly \JFrance\j, the war had been an economic catastrophe. The USA had not suffered economically during the war and had no demands for substantial \Jreparations\j.
\BLloyd George and a compromise peace\b
Lloyd George was the British Prime Minister. He occupied the middle ground between \JFrance\j and the USA. Like Clemenceau he had to listen to public opinion at home. This had been influenced by a press campaign demanding harsh treatment for \JGermany\j. He was not personally anxious to punish the Germans severely. He was afraid that if \JGermany\j was too weak this would give \JFrance\j too much power in Europe.
The chief concern of Lloyd George was to make sure that the British Empire did not suffer as a result of the settlement. There was an early difference of opinion between Wilson and Lloyd George over the future of the former German colonies.
Wilson hated \Jimperialism\j and he wanted the colonies to be looked after by the new League of Nations until they became independent. Lloyd George wanted them divided up between the winning powers. Lloyd George wanted to make sure that South Africa, \JAustralia\j and New Zealand were rewarded with nearby German territories. Both Britain and \JFrance\j also wanted a share of the former Turkish lands of the Middle East.
The British government team was suspicious of \JFrance\j. Traditionally \JFrance\j had been an enemy of Britain. The British did not want a Europe dominated by \JFrance\j any more than they wanted a German-controlled Europe. This was another reason for making sure that \JGermany\j was not too harshly treated. Lloyd George was also worried that a weak \JGermany\j would be unable to stop the spread of \Jcommunism\j.
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"Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations",7,0,0,0
During the early months of 1919 the Big Three argued in Paris about the peace settlement. In June 1919 they finally agreed about how \JGermany\j should be treated. This settlement was called the Treaty of Versailles.
\BHow far did the Big Three get what they wanted? \b
\BThe League and self-determination\b
The peace talks began in January 1919. President Wilson wanted the Conference to set up the League of Nations as one of its first tasks. Britain and \JFrance\j agreed. The rules of the League of Nations were drawn up. These rules were known as the League Covenant. The Covenant was included in the Treaty of Versailles and in all the other peace treaties.
Wilson believed very strongly in self-determination for all peoples. Groups from all over the world made their way to Paris to argue that they should be allowed to set up their own nation-states. People ruled over by the French and British Empires demanded independence. The French and the British were unhappy at this.
Wilson gave way to pressure from his allies. The idea of self-determination was not applied to the world empires of \JFrance\j and Britain. People such as Irish and Vietnamese nationalists, who had gone to Paris hoping for independence, left disappointed.
\BThe mandates\b
Britain and \JFrance\j wanted control of German and Turkish colonies. The USA wanted these to be run by the League. Finally, a compromise was accepted. The colonies were divided up among the winning powers, but they agreed to look after these territories on behalf of the League of Nations. These lands were to be known as 'mandates' of the League of Nations.
Through the mandates, Britain and \JFrance\j added considerably to their world-wide empires. The German colonies in Africa were divided among Britain, \JFrance\j and South Africa.
\BGerman loss of territory\b
In northern Europe new states were set up in \JPoland\j, \JLithuania\j, \JEstonia\j and \JLatvia\j. \JGermany\j had annexed the three Baltic states from \JRussia\j a year earlier. In keeping with the idea of self-determination these small states now became independent.
Clemenceau was particularly keen to ensure that \JPoland\j was large and powerful. He hoped that a strong \JPoland\j would weaken the future position of \JGermany\j. The new \JPoland\j took territory from \JGermany\j, \JRussia\j and Austria-Hungary. Former German land in West \JPrussia\j, Posen and part of Upper \JSilesia\j was given to \JPoland\j. As a result there was a barrier or corridor of Polish territory that divided most of \JGermany\j from the German lands of East \JPrussia\j. This Polish Corridor was necessary if \JPoland\j was to have access to the sea in line with Wilson's Fourteen Points.
The French wanted the largely German-speaking port of \JDanzig\j to be given to \JPoland\j. Lloyd George disagreed. Instead \JDanzig\j was turned into a 'free city': this meant that it was not part of any state but was controlled by the League of Nations.
Each of the Big Three agreed that \JAlsace\j and Lorraine should be returned to \JFrance\j. Wilson had mentioned the return of Alsace-Lorraine in his Fourteen Points. The French also wanted to annex the nearby coal-rich district of the Saarland.
Neither Wilson nor Lloyd George was prepared to give the Saarland to \JFrance\j. Instead it was decided that the area should be run by the League of Nations for 15 years, but during this time the French would have control of its coal-mines.
Clemenceau had also wanted the large and wealthy Rhineland area of \JGermany\j to be permanently divided from the rest of the German state. A separate Rhineland would weaken \JGermany\j and form a barrier between \JGermany\j and \JFrance\j.
The British and the Americans argued that this would be a mistake. The Germans would be so angry that afterwards they would demand revenge. Clemenceau eventually compromised. The Big Three agreed that no German soldiers should be allowed into the Rhineland and that it should be occupied by allied troops for 15 years.
\BGerman losses in \JBelgium\j and Denmark\b
Alsace-Lorraine and the Polish Corridor were the largest losses of German territory. In addition. \JGermany\j lost the small districts of Eupen, Moresnet and Malmedy to \JBelgium\j. The treaty ordered that there should be a \Jplebiscite\j or vote in North \JSchleswig\j to see whether the local people wanted to stay in \JGermany\j or join Denmark. The result of the \Jplebiscite\j was that North \JSchleswig\j became part of Denmark.
The French were successful in arguing that there should be strict limits on the armed forces of \JGermany\j. The treaty banned \JGermany\j from using tanks and armored cars. There was to be no German airforce. The German army was limited to a mere 100, 000 men. The German navy was to be limited to six battleships and there were to be no German submarines.
\BWar guilt and reparations\b
The treaty made it clear that \JGermany\j was guilty of causing the First World War. This was stated in Clause 231 of the treaty. The idea of war guilt was used to justify the payment of \Jreparations\j.
While the Americans agreed to go along with French ideas about war guilt, they differed wildly in their view of the right level of compensation. The French wanted \JGermany\j to pay an enormous $200 billion in \Jreparations\j the British argued for $120 billion and the American view was that the right figure was $22 billion. In the end the conference failed to agree and set up a \JReparations\j Commission to look into the matter of the level of payment after the Treaty was signed.
\BWhy did Wilson accept the treaty?\b
The American leader was unhappy with much of the treaty. Many British leaders were also concerned that the treaty was too hard on \JGermany\j. They went along with it because they thought the problems of the treaty could be sorted out at a later date. Wilson put much faith in the League of Nations. He thought that this organization would be able to solve any arguments between countries.
\BThe 14 points and the Peace treaties compared:\b
\Bò \BAchieved in full\b
7. \JGermany\j to leave \JBelgium\j
8. Alsace-Lorraine to be returned to \JFrance\j
10. Independence for the peoples of Austria- \JHungary\j
13. Independence for \JPoland\j
\Bò \BPartially achieved\b
9. Italian borders to be settled
11. Invading armies to leave Balkans
14. An effective League of Nations to keep the peace
\BNot achieved\b
1. A ban on secret treaties between states
2. Free movement of ships anywhere in the world
3. Free trade between countries without import taxes
4. General disarmament
5. Greater independence for colonies
6. Non-interference in \JRussia\j
12. Independence for the non-Turkish people of the Turkish Empire.
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"Peace Treaties 1919-23",8,0,0,0
The Paris peace conference was not simply concerned with \JGermany\j. The Big Three also made important decisions about the future of Austria-Hungary, \JBulgaria\j and the Turkish Ottoman Empire. All these states had been on the losing side during the First World War.
The plans for these territories were stated in a series of treaties signed between 1919 and 1923. All of the treaties included reference to the League of Nations as the organization which would solve future problems between states. All of the defeated countries were initially ordered to pay \Jreparations\j.
\BSaint-Germain: The Treaty with \JAustria\j 1919\b
The peace settlement dealt with the two parts of Austria-Hungary in separate peace treaties. The agreement with \JAustria\j was known as the Treaty of St Germain and was signed in September 1919.
Terms of the treaty
Austria lost the South Tyrol and Istria to \JItaly\j and huge areas of land to three new states: \JCzechoslovakia\j, \JPoland\j and Yugoslavia.
The lands given to \JCzechoslovakia\j included some of \JAustria\j's wealthiest territories and over 3 million German speakers were placed in the new state.
Austria was reduced to a small mountainous country of 6.5 million people. A third of the population lived in the great city of Vienna.
Austria was forbidden from ever seeking unification or 'Anschluss' with \JGermany\j.
The Austrian army was limited to 30,000 men.
\BNeuilly: The Treaty with \JBulgaria\j 1919\b
Bulgaria had also fought on the losing side. The Treaty of Neuilly was signed in November 1919.
Terms of the treaty
Land was taken from \JBulgaria\j and given to \JGreece\j, Yugoslavia and \JRomania\j.
The Bulgarian army was restricted to no more than 20,000 men.
\BTrianon: The Treaty with \JHungary\j 1920\b
While the peace talks were taking place, Hungarian communists seized power in Budapest led by Bela Kun. The signing of a peace treaty was delayed until Bela Kun had been overthrown and a right-wing government took over. The new ruler of \JHungary\j, Admiral Horthy, was forced to sign the Treaty of Trianon in March 1920. The idea of self-determination led to the carving up of the old \JHungary\j.
Terms of the treaty
Two thirds of Hungarian territory was given to \JCzechoslovakia\j, Yugoslavia and \JRomania\j.
The population of \JHungary\j was reduced by these changes from 18 million to 7 million people.
The Hungarian army was limited to 35,000.
\BSevres: The Treaty with Turkey 1920\b
The Ottoman family had ruled over a powerful Turkish Empire for many centuries. The Ottoman Empire had been in decline in the years before the First World War. The Turks fought on the losing side in the war.
Terms of the treaty
Turkey lost nearly all its land in Europe to \JGreece\j.
The lands of the Turkish Empire in the Arab Middle East were confiscated: \JFrance\j took charge in \JSyria\j and Britain took control in Palestine, Jordan and \JIraq\j.
Turkey was to pay \Jreparations\j.
\BLausanne: Revising the Turkish Treaty 1923\b
Many Turkish people were outraged by the treaty. A general known as Ataturk led a revolution and overthrew the Ottoman family in 1921. Once in power Ataturk used his armies to overturn the Treaty of Sevres by force. As a result a new agreement, the treaty of \JLausanne\j, was signed in 1923.
Terms of the treaty
Turkey regained much of the land lost to \JGreece\j.
No \Jreparations\j were to be paid.
#
"Peace Treaties 1919-23: The Aftermath",9,0,0,0
The peace treaties of 1919-23 created a new Europe. As the treaties were carried out, many problems emerged. There was political turmoil across central and Eastern Europe.
\BWhat was the immediate impact of the treaties? \b
\BThe Weimar Republic\b
Defeat and the peace treaty brought chaos to \JGermany\j. In 1919 a new government was set up in the town of Weimar, and it became known as the Weimar Republic. The new government was attacked on all sides. Between 1919 and 1923 there were repeated attempts by both left-wing and right-wing militants to overthrow the new Weimar Republic.
In January 1919 communist revolutionaries, called Spartacists, tried to stage a revolution in Berlin. In April communists tried to seize power in Munich. Both of these rebellions were smashed by armed and violent groups of ex-servicemen known as 'Freikorps' (Free Corps).
In 1920 a Freikorps force attempted to seize Berlin. The army sympathized with the Freikorps and refused to fight them. This attempt at a right-wing revolution was eventually stopped by a strike by left-wing workers.
Attempts to pay the \Jreparations\j bill after 1921 added to \JGermany\j's economic problems and helped to cause a huge level of \Jinflation\j. At the same time a new political crisis created economic problems. The French invaded the Ruhr area in January 1923, on the grounds that the Germans were not paying their \Jreparations\j. This was the center of German industry. Germans responded with strikes - but this had the effect of doing more damage to \JGermany\j than to \JFrance\j.
The economic situation went out of control in 1923; \Jinflation\j made banknotes virtually worthless. This was known as hyper-inflation. Pensioners lost their life savings. On 20 November 1923 one American dollar was worth 4 billion German marks.
Another right-wing attempt to seize power was launched in November 1923. The leader of this rebellion was a militant nationalist called Adolf Hitler. The rebellion ended in fiasco in Munich after a few of Hitler's followers had been shot. Hitler was dealt with leniently and was imprisoned for a short time. By this time the economy of \JGermany\j had begun to recover and it seemed that stability was beginning to return to the country.
\BAnger in Hungary\b
The peace treaties created great bitterness and instability in \JHungary\j. As in \JGermany\j, left-wing and right-wing militants tried to seize power. In 1919 the communist Bela Kun briefly set up a Soviet-style government. He was overthrown and Admiral Horthy, a right wing military dictator, came to power He remained in charge until the Second World War. Under Horthy there was no democracy in \JHungary\j.
Hungarians were horrified by the terms of the Trianon Treaty. Before the First World War Hungarians had controlled a huge, multi-national empire in Eastern Europe. In 1920 \JHungary\j lost two-thirds of its pre-war territory. The lost land was given to \JRomania\j, Yugoslavia and \JCzechoslovakia\j. In each of these countries there was a Hungarian minority.
After 1920 Hungarian foreign policy was completely dominated by a wish to 'get back' the lost lands. As a result, \JRomania\j, \JCzechoslovakia\j and Yugoslavia felt threatened. The governments of these three countries formed an alliance in order to protect themselves from the threat of a Hungarian invasion. This became known as the Little Entente.
\BEthnic tension in Czechoslovakia\b
Czechoslovakia was the only new state in Eastern Europe that allowed free speech and democracy. There was great tension between different ethnic groups. The Czechs of the western part of the country were wealthier than the Slovaks of the east. Slovaks complained that they were treated as second-class citizens. Only 65 per cent of the population were Czechs or Slovaks.
There were over 3 million Germans, known as the Sudeten Germans, and in many border areas the Germans were in a majority. Like the Slovaks, some Sudeten Germans said that they were not treated fairly by the Czechs.
\BWar and revolution in Poland\b
Poland, with 30 million people, was by far the largest of the states set up by the treaties. The new Polish state was immediately involved in a series of brief wars with most of its neighbors. The Poles were not content with the borders set up in the peace treaties.
Between 1918 and 1921 \JPoland\j fought against \JGermany\j, \JCzechoslovakia\j, \JLithuania\j and the Soviet Union. These wars showed how difficult it was to impose the terms of the peace treaties. In 1920 the Poles defied the treaties and took control of the Lithuanian city of Vilna. By 1921 \JPoland\j had conquered a huge area of \JBelarus\j and \JUkraine\j from the Soviet Union.
Polish politics were chaotic in the early 1920s. It seemed impossible to form a stable government and the country was close to civil war. The chaos came to an end in May 1926 when Marshal Pilsudski seized power and ended democracy in \JPoland\j.
#
"Treaty of Versailles",10,0,0,0
The Germans were horrified at what they saw as the harshness of the peace treaty. They had hoped for milder terms in line with the Fourteen Points. There has been a lively argument since 1919 about the fairness of the Treaty of Versailles.
\BWas the Treaty of Versailles fair?\b
Germans had difficulty coming to terms with defeat. They had been proud of their army and were surprised and upset when \JGermany\j was defeated. Some said that people inside \JGermany\j, Jews, socialists and communists - had deliberately organized the surrender. They talked about the 'stab in the back'. The politicians who signed the armistice were called the 'November criminals'.
Those Germans who felt that their country had been betrayed were appalled by the treaty. The section of the Versailles Treaty that most angered people in \JGermany\j was Clause 231 describing German 'war guilt'. They felt that it was wrong to put the entire blame for the war on their country. The payment of \Jreparations\j was also deeply resented.
The Big Three had not allowed \JGermany\j to negotiate the treaty. The Germans were simply given the treaty and forced to sign it. This lack of discussion and consultation angered Germans who called it a 'diktat': a dictated peace.
The loss of German land was a severe blow. The fact that East \JPrussia\j was now separated by the Polish Corridor seemed unfair. Germans also resented bitterly the loss of their colonies in Africa.
\BConflicting interpretations\b
Some of the people on the winning side also thought that Versailles was quite wrong. One non-German critic of the Versailles Treaty was John Maynard Keynes. He had been a British official at Paris and later he became a very famous economist. Keynes left the Conference early, disgusted at the treatment of \JGermany\j. In 1920 he wrote a famous attack on the Treaty of Versailles. His book, The Economic Consequences of the Peace was widely read. Many people in Britain, the USA and \JGermany\j agreed with Keynes.
Between 1920 and 1939 many writers and politicians in Britain and the USA agreed with the view of Keynes. As a result politicians, particularly in the British government, were ready to make concessions to \JGermany\j to try to improve on a flawed treaty. Since 1950 most historians have disagreed with Keynes and have taken a more sympathetic view of the treaty.
\BAssessing the terms of the Treaty\b
It was wrong to put the sole blame for the war on \JGermany\j. Other countries had been aggressive in the years leading up to 1914. One of the causes of the war was \Jimperialism\j; many countries, including Britain and \JFrance\j, had tried to build up world empires.
The settlement removed only limited amounts of land from \JGermany\j. In places like Alsace-Lorraine and the Polish Corridor most people were not German-speakers and saw themselves as French or Polish.
The treaty was unfair because it punished the people of \JGermany\j instead of the rulers of \JGermany\j. \JReparations\j hurt ordinary Germans who were not guilty.
German statements about the Fourteen Points were hypocritical. When Wilson described them in a speech in January 1918 the Germans made no reply. They only took the Fourteen Points seriously much later in the year when they had been beaten and were looking for the best possible terms. When Wilson was talking about the need for a just peace the Germans were busy defeating the Russians and imposing a brutal peace treaty on them. When they were winning, the Germans ignored fairness; when they were losing they demanded it.
Germany was tricked because her government had been offered justice and fairness by Wilson when he made his speech about the Fourteen Points. When the Germans stopped fighting they expected to be dealt with under Wilson's terms. There was nothing about war guilt and \Jreparations\j in the Fourteen Points.
The treaty aimed to destroy the economy of \JGermany\j. This was a mistake that would do no-one any good. People throughout Europe would lose out if there were no successful German factories and businesses.
The basic strength of the German economy was not destroyed by the Treaty of Versailles. \JGermany\j soon recovered its position as the most successful economy in Europe. In 1925 \JGermany\j was producing twice as much steel as Britain.
The German Army was reduced in size but the leaders of the German Army were not removed. The army remained a power force in German society. The generals were ready and able to re-build German armed forces when the time was right.
#
"Peace Treaties of 1919-23: Overview",11,0,0,0
\BParis Peace Conference\b
The winners gathered in Paris in 1919 to decide on the future of Europe. The leaders of the victorious countries each had different objectives:
ò Woodrow Wilson, the US President, wanted a fair peace. During the war he had called for a fair settlement in his famous Fourteen Points speech January 1918. The USA had suffered much less than its allies in loss of life and economic damage. He accepted that \JGermany\j must be punished but he did not want this to be too harsh. He believed in self-determination - that every nation should have its own government.
ò Clemenceau, the French Premier, called for harsh treatment of \JGermany\j. Much of the war had been fought in \JFrance\j and the level of damage was enormous. His aim was to weaken \JGermany\j so much that it would never again try to dominate Europe.
ò Lloyd George, the British Prime Minister, wanted a middle ground between the French and American positions. He was more interested in the British Empire than events in Europe.
\BThe Treaty of Versailles 1919\b
This dealt with the future of \JGermany\j.
Germany was forced to disarm. The army was limited to 100,000. Tanks were banned and the navy was limited to six warships. German troops were banned from the Rhineland area, bordering \JFrance\j.
The territory of \JGermany\j was reduced. Alsace-Lorraine was returned to \JFrance\j. \JPoland\j gained West \JPrussia\j, Posen and part of Upper \JSilesia\j; \JDanzig\j was to be controlled by the League of Nations. A 'corridor' of Polish territory separated East \JPrussia\j from the rest of \JGermany\j.
Small territories were given to \JBelgium\j, Denmark and \JLithuania\j. The coal-rich Saarland was put under League of Nations control for 15 years and the coal mines were handed over to \JFrance\j for this period. \JGermany\j was forbidden from ever uniting with \JAustria\j. German colonies were confiscated.
Germany was ordered to pay huge compensation or 'reparations' to the winning powers. These payments were justified on the grounds that \JGermany\j was guilty of starting the war. A war guilt clause was included in this treaty.
\BThe Other Peace Treaties\b
Other treaties signed at the end of the First World War
ò The Treaty of St Germain 1919 with \JAustria\j
ò The Treaty of Neuilly 1919 with \JBulgaria\j
ò The Treaty of Trianon 1920 with \JHungary\j
ò The Treaty of Sevres 1920 with Turkey. This was revised in 1923 and replaced by the Treaty of \JLausanne\j.
#
"League of Nations: Setting it up",12,0,0,0
After the First World War a new organization called the League of Nations was set up to solve arguments between countries in a peaceful way. The League was not a success and did not bring peace to the world.
\BWhy was the League unable to ensure world peace?\b
\BThe organization of the League\b
The setting up of the League of Nations was written into the Treaty of Versailles and all the other treaties that were signed at the end of the war. The rules of the League, known as the League Covenant. formed part of each peace treaty. The League officially began its work in January 1920 when the Treaty of Versailles came into effect.
Geneva was chosen for the League headquarters because it was in \JSwitzerland\j, which had a long tradition of \Jneutrality\j. Some officials worked permanently for the League in Geneva. They were known as the Secretariat.
The League set up a number of commissions and committees to deal with particular issues and problems. The most important commissions were those which dealt with disarmament and the running of the 'mandates ' (the former German and Turkish colonies).
The committees included the Health Organization which campaigned to improve the health of people, particularly in poorer countries, and the International Labor Organization which tried to improve conditions for working people.
The peace treaties not only set up the League but also established a group called the conference of ambassadors. The conference was supposed to have oversight of the way the peace treaties were put into effect. There was some uncertainty about which issues should be decided by the League and which should be sorted out by the conference of ambassadors.
All member states sent representatives to the League Assembly. This body met at least once a year. The League Assembly had no real power. Power in the League lay with a much smaller body known as the League Council. This was dominated by a few rich countries who were permanent members of the Council: Britain, \JFrance\j, \JItaly\j and \JJapan\j.
In theory, decisions by the Council would be carried out by all member-states. Council decisions had to be unanimous: that is, all Council members had to agree. This rule made it difficult for the Council to take action if there was any disagreement among its members.
\BA European club?\b
Many non-Europeans were very unhappy with the way the Covenant gave power to the European countries of Britain, \JFrance\j and \JItaly\j. At the first meeting of the Assembly, non-Europeans criticized the rules of the League. The representatives from Argentina were particularly critical. They argued for a democratic League, with the Council elected by all the countries of the Assembly. These ideas were rejected and the Argentine delegation walked out.
Some non-European countries were worried that the League would be dominated by white people. The Japanese asked that the League should promise to oppose racial discrimination. The Americans the British rejected this proposal. The Covenant took a very patronizing view of people living in colonies. It considered that more 'civilized' states should have the job of looking after those 'peoples not yet able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modern world'.
\BAmerica says 'no' to the League\b
At first it was envisaged that the USA would be a member of the Council, but in the end America failed to join the League. Woodrow Wilson was a Democrat. The majority in the US Senate belonged to another party - the Republicans - and many of them disliked Wilson.
There was a strong tradition of isolationism in the USA: a belief that America should not get involved in international politics. Wilson was very stubborn and he failed to compromise or to persuade his opponents to support the League. In March 1920 the US Senate stopped the USA from joining the League. The absence of the USA greatly weakened the authority of the new League of Nations.
#
"League of Nations: The Early Years",13,0,0,0
\BAbsent friends?\b
Forty-five states were founder-members of the League of Nations. These were all either victorious or neutral in the First World War. The defeated nations were not allowed to join immediately. As a result \JGermany\j, \JAustria\j and \JHungary\j saw the League as a club for their enemies.
The founders were frightened of the spread of \Jcommunism\j, and the new Soviet Union was also not invited to join. Lacking American, German and Russian membership, the League could not really claim to be the voice of world opinion.
\BTension between Britain and France\b
In the absence of other powerful countries, the League was dominated by Britain and \JFrance\j. These two countries had different views of how the League should work. The French wanted to make the League into a military alliance, with strict obligations on members to support each other. This was a result of the French obsession with the dangers of an attack on \JFrance\j by \JGermany\j.
The British saw the League as a much looser, less formal organization. The British resisted French demands for a stronger League. The British were finding it difficult to defend their own empire and had no wish to get involved unnecessarily in military conflicts anywhere else in the world.
\BThe French turn to direct action\b
By 1923 the French were unhappy at the League's inability to ensure \JGermany\j kept to the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. They were determined to make \JGermany\j pay \Jreparations\j. The \JReparations\j Commission announced in 1921 that \JGermany\j should pay ú6,600 million over 42 years. The Germans, however, made only a small payment in 1922 and then stopped paying. The French were angry and took matters into their own hands.
\BThe occupation of the Ruhr\b
On 11 January 1923 French and Belgian soldiers invaded the German industrial area of the Ruhr. This area was the heartland of the German economy. The occupation of the Ruhr did not work out well for \JFrance\j. The British and the Americans disapproved of the use of force. The people of the Ruhr refused to co-operate with the invaders and went on strike. Within a few months the French had to admit that direct action had not worked.
\BCollective security\b
Although the USA did not join the League, the ideas of Woodrow Wilson were central to its work. Wilson said that the League would provide 'collective security'. This meant that if a member state of the League was attacked, all other countries of the League would act together to Stop the aggression. Collective security could make use of four possible weapons:
\BWorld public opinion\b
Wilson believed in the power of public opinion. He felt that if ordinary people were allowed to speak out politicians would never go to war. Wilson claimed that if the League of Nations had existed in 1914 politicians would not have dared to start the First World War.
Looking back, the ideas of Wilson seem very naive. His talk of the power of world public opinion was based on a number of mistakes:
ò In democracies like the USA people felt free to disagree with their government and could express a public opinion. Many other countries were not democratic and in these countries there was no such thing as a voice of public opinion.
ò There was no evidence that ordinary people preferred peace and justice to war and injustice. Aggressive governments often had widespread support among the public.
ò World public opinion did not always speak with one clear voice. What people wanted in \JFrance\j, for example, at the end of the war was very different from what most Americans wanted.
ò Democratic government had to pay attention to public opinion in their country. Powerful undemocratic governments could ignore public opinion at home and abroad.
#
"League of Nations: World Public Opinion",14,0,0,0
\BDisarmament\b
The League was committed to disarmament: getting rid of weapons. Woodrow Wilson saw the arms race before 1914 as one of the causes of the First World War. The Covenant said that all members of the League should disarm.
The problem with this talk of disarmament was that it was so vague. The Covenant said that countries could keep a minimum level of arms needed for self-defense: it was not at all clear what level was. A Disarmament Commission was set up to persuade countries to get rid of their weapons. The Commission had no way of forcing countries to disarm or checking that they had disarmed.
\BThe use of sanctions and force\b
Perhaps the most important part of the Covenant were those articles that stated how the League would respond to future aggression. These ideas were found in Articles 11 and 16 of the Covenant: Article 11 said that the League of Nations would take action to stop war: Article 16 said that an attack on one member state would be seen as an attack on all League members. The League Council would decide on the appropriate punishment to use against the offending state.
The League had no army of its own. Instead. the idea was that all countries could act to help any other country if it was attacked. This turned out to be completely unrealistic.
Every member state would first of all stop trade with an aggressive country, and if this failed every country would supply soldiers for a joint war against the aggressive country. This assumed that governments would be remarkably generous and would risk the money and lives of their own people in order to sort out a quarrel between two other countries. The threat of trade sanctions was weakened by the absence of the USA from the League. Members of the League knew that if they stopped trading, the USA could simply fill the gap.
\BThe Geneva Protocol\b
From the beginning, people were aware that the League was weak. The French, terrified as they were by the idea of a strong \JGermany\j, tried to give real military power to the League. However, Britain blocked moves in the early 1920s to improve the arrangements for the use of force.
In 1923 a 'draft treaty of mutual assistance' was discussed. This was meant to make the threat of force more practical by saying that the League would only ask members to send troops to nearby conflicts. In 1924 a document called the Geneva Protocol was discussed.
The Protocol set out clear rules for the peaceful \Jarbitration\j of disputes. If countries did not follow these rules the League was entitled to use trade sanctions and force. The British government was not keen to get involved in other peoples' arguments. Britain was able to throw out the draft treaty.
The British leader, Ramsay MacDonald, initially supported the Geneva Protocol. He fell from power in 1924 and the new government rejected the Protocol. Attempts to strengthen the military power of the League had come to nothing.
\BThe achievements of the League\b
The commissions and committees of the League did some good work. Refugees from conflicts were given vital help. A famous Norwegian explorer Fridjof Nansen, worked for the League on the problems of prisoners of war stranded in \JRussia\j and he helped half a million men to return safely home.
The International Labor Organization (ILO) was led by an energetic and effective French man called Albert Thomas. Under his guidance the ILO encouraged many countries to improve working conditions for ordinary workers. The ILO is still in existence today and continues to campaign for workers' rights.
The Health Organization organized work on health matters, particularly in poorer countries. It worked successfully to reduce the number of cases of leprosy. Like the ILO the Health Organization continues its work today as part of the United Nations Organization (today it is known as the World Health Organization).
\BThe League in Action\b
ò In 1920 the League dealt successfully with a dispute between Sweden and \JFinland\j. Both countries claimed control of the Aland Islands. The League decided that the islands should be given to \JFinland\j and this decision was accepted by Sweden.
ò Throughout the 1920s the League administered the Saarland area of \JGermany\j and the Baltic city of \JDanzig\j with great fairness.
ò The League was unable to find a solution to an argument between \JPoland\j and \JLithuania\j over the town of Vilna. \JPoland\j had seized the town in 1920 in defiance of the peace treaties and the League was unable to persuade \JPoland\j to leave.
ò In 1922 the League successfully organized a rescue plan for the Austrian economy.
ò In 1923 \JItaly\j invaded the Greek island of \JCorfu\j. The League could not agree on what action to take. \JFrance\j did not want to annoy the Italian government and blocked firm League action. A settlement was eventually reached between \JGreece\j and \JItaly\j but the League took no part in negotiating this deal.
ò Greece and \JBulgaria\j came close to all-out war in 1925. The League took prompt action and ruled that \JGreece\j was at fault. Both sides stopped fighting and \JGreece\j agreed to pay compensation.
#
"Reparations: The Dawes and the Young Plan",15,0,0,0
In early 1923 \JFrance\j had invaded the Ruhr area to make \JGermany\j pay \Jreparations\j. Sending soldiers into the Ruhr solved nothing. The use of force did not make the Germans pay up. In November 1923 \JFrance\j was forced to agree to take part in a review of the \Jreparations\j organized by an American banker Charles Dawes. The Dawes Plan was agreed in April 1924.
\BThe Terms of the Dawes Plan\b
ò There was to be a 2 year freeze on the payment of \Jreparations\j.
ò The level of German payments was scaled down.
ò The USA offered huge loans to \JGermany\j.
ò The French agreed to get their forces out of the Ruhr.
\BThe consequences of the Dawes Plan\b
During the following five years the Germans paid a \Jreparations\j bill of about $1 billion. and received American loans of about $2 billion; \JGermany\j did well out of the Dawes Plan. Much of the money from the American loans was spent on building new German factories.
The French had wanted \Jreparations\j in order to make \JGermany\j weak. The Dawes Plan helped \JGermany\j to become even stronger. As a result of the occupation of the Ruhr the Treaty of Versailles had been significantly altered in Germanys favor.
\BThe Young Plan: 1929\b
The German government continued to complain at the level of \Jreparations\j. The question of \Jreparations\j was reviewed in 1929 by a committee led by an American called Owen Young. The committee produced the Young Plan. This considerably reduced the amount of \Jreparations\j.
The Young Plan was a considerable achievement for the German Foreign Minister Stresemann. However it did not bring peace and harmony to \JGermany\j. Extreme nationalists objected to the payment of any \Jreparations\j and bitterly denounced the Young Plan.
After 1929 the Great Depression led to a great rise in unemployment in \JGermany\j and \Jreparations\j effectively came to an end. In 1932 the participants in the Young Plan met to agree a conclusion to the sorry story of \Jreparations\j. After a three-year freeze \JGermany\j was supposed to make a final payment. This payment was never made.
\BThe spirit of Locarno\b
In the 1920s there was much discussion and debate among the most powerful countries of the world. A number of international treaties were signed.
#
"Treaties of Rapallo and Washington",16,0,0,0
\BDid the agreements of the 1920s make the world a safer place?\b
\BDiscussions in Washington 1921-2\b
The USA had refused to support the League of Nations. America ignored the League and organized conferences of its own in Washington in 1921 and 1922. The conferences concentrated on trying to limit tension in the Pacific Ocean between \JJapan\j and the USA. This was precisely the sort of dispute that the League was intended to sort out.
The Washington Conferences showed the world the limits of the authority of the League. The Washington Treaty was signed in February 1922. The USA and Britain agreed to have navies of equal size. The Japanese navy was limited to three fifths of the size of each of the American and the British navies. The proportions of the navies were, therefore, set at 5:5:3.
\BThe outcasts club together: Rapallo 1922\b
The British Prime Minister, Lloyd George, organized an international conference in \JGenoa\j in 1922. He wanted to find a solution to the argument between \JGermany\j and \JFrance\j over the payment of \Jreparations\j and the level of German disarmament. The conference was a disastrous failure: the Americans refused to attend and the French and the Germans continued to disagree about \Jreparations\j and disarmament.
Germany and Soviet \JRussia\j had not been invited to join the League of Nations. While the main conference was taking place at \JGenoa\j, the German delegation had discussions with the Soviets at the nearby town of Rapallo. A treaty was signed on 16 April between \JGermany\j and the Soviets. It became known as the Treaty of Rapallo.
The two governments agreed to establish friendly relations, and secretly agreed to co-operate on military planning. News of the treaty and rumors of the secret military deal shocked the French government. The deal between \JGermany\j and the Soviet Union enabled \JGermany\j to get hold of most of the weapons banned under the Treaty of Versailles. As a result, the Treaty of Rapallo was a blow to the authority of the League of Nations.
\BLocarno: 1925\b
After the failure of the occupation of the Ruhr, \JFrance\j looked for compromise with \JGermany\j. This search for compromise continued in 1925 when a major conference took place at Locarno, \JSwitzerland\j. The key players at Locarno were the Foreign Ministers of \JFrance\j, Britain and \JGermany\j: Aristide Briand, Austen Chamberlain and Gustav Stresemann.
The talks produced treaties that were greeted with wild enthusiasm. Many people saw Locarno as an end to the bitterness of the war and the start of a new period of peace in Europe. The three leaders won the Nobel Peace Prize for their work at Locarno.
#
"Locarno Conference 1925",17,0,0,0
\BThe Terms of the Locarno Treaties\b
ò Under the main Locarno treaty \JGermany\j, \JFrance\j and \JBelgium\j agreed to accept their existing borders with each other as set up by the Versailles Treaty.
ò Britain and \JItaly\j agreed to 'guarantee' the main agreement; this meant that Britain and \JItaly\j promised to take action if any of the three countries attacked each other.
ò The main agreement and the guarantee did not apply to the eastern borders of \JGermany\j as laid down by the Versailles Treaty.
ò Germany agreed to join the League of Nations.
ò In separate treaties signed at Locarno, \JFrance\j promised to defend \JBelgium\j, \JPoland\j and \JCzechoslovakia\j if any of these countries was attacked by \JGermany\j.
In September 1926 the German delegates took their place at the Leagues Assembly Hall in Geneva. People saw this as a very historic and hopeful moment. They felt that the scars of the First World War were beginning to heal.
The French leader, Briand, gave the Germans an enthusiastic welcome in his speech to the Assembly, saying, Away with rifles, machine guns and cannon! Make way for \Jarbitration\j, conciliation and peace!' Locarno was seen as a symbol of a new period of peace and stability. Some talked enthusiastically about the 'spirit of Locarno'.
A minority of people were much more suspicious of the Locarno settlement. Behind his back, civil servants at the British Foreign Office made up a rhyme that expressed their view of the British Foreign Secretary: 'Good Sir Austen at Locarno, Fell into a heap of guano.'
\BLocarno: The Impact on Germany\b
ò The main Locarno agreement said nothing about German frontiers in the east, and this encouraged German hopes to overturn this part of the 1919 settlement. \JPoland\j and \JCzechoslovakia\j were not allowed to take part in the main discussions and their representatives were invited to join only at the end in order to be told what the larger powers had decided.
ò Each state saw the treaty differently. For \JGermany\j, Locarno was the beginning of change to the Versailles Treaty.
ò The Locarno settlement was a great triumph for the German Foreign Minister, Stresemann. After Locarno large amounts of American money were invested in \JGermany\j and this helped the Germans to improve their factories. Stresemann was not content with Locarno. He continued to ask for further concessions.
\BLocarno: The Impact on France\b
ò The power of \JFrance\j to intervene in \JGermany\j was weakened by Locarno. The section forbidding invasion stopped \JFrance\j from repeating the 1923 occupation of the Ruhr.
ò The French leaders continued to feel threatened and insecure after Locarno. They knew that sooner or later Allied troops would have to leave the Rhineland and that this would strengthen the German threat. This feeling of insecurity was expressed in the decision in 1927 to build the Maginot Line. Between 1929 and 1939 the French government spent a vast amount of money on the building of a huge line of fortifications along the border with \JGermany\j. This was the brainchild of a politician called Andre Maginot, and it was named after him.
#
"Kellog-Briand Pact (Pact of Paris)",18,0,0,0
In April 1927 Briand suggested that \JFrance\j and the USA should sign a pact promising never to go war against each other. This proposed agreement was meaningless because there was absolutely no possibility of war between America and \JFrance\j. However Briand saw it as a way of symbolizing the friendship between the two countries.
The American government could see little value in the pact. The American Secretary of State was called Frank Kellogg. He eventually suggested that instead of an American-French agreement. all countries should be invited to sign an agreement not to go to war.
On 29 August 1928 government leaders of 15 powerful countries gathered together to sign the Pact of Paris. This soon became known as the Kellogg-Briand Pact. It said that each participating country would not use warfare in order to get what it wanted. In the months that followed most countries in the world agreed to the Kellogg-Briand Pact.
The Pact was worthless as it put no real obligations or restrictions on countries. \JJapan\j and \JItaly\j both signed the Pact but before very long they used war to get what they wanted and the Kellogg-Briand Pact was shown to be completely irrelevant.
#
"Hitler and the Nazis",19,0,0,0
\BHitler's Early Life\b
Adolf Hitler was born in 1889 in \JAustria\j. On leaving school Hitler tried and failed to get a place in an art college. Unemployed and very unhappy, he lived in poverty in Vienna and Munich in the years before the First World War. His life was transformed by the outbreak of war. Hitler joined the German army and, for the first time, there was a sense of purpose to his life.
For most of the war Hitler had a dangerous job as a messenger at the Front and he was awarded medals for bravery. He was horrified in 1918 when \JGermany\j lost the war. Like many Germans he felt that the Versailles Treaty of 1919 was very hard on \JGermany\j.
Although he hated \Jcommunism\j, Hitler was impressed by the way communists were ready to use violence to get what they wanted. In November 1922 he said:
'The communists teach "If you will not be my brother, I will bash your skull in." Our motto shall be "If you will not be a German, I will bash your skull in." We cannot succeed without a struggle. We have to fight with ideas but, if necessary, also with our fists.'
After the war Hitler began his political life in the Bavarian city of Munich. In 1919 he joined and took over a tiny group called the German Workers' Party. Hitler was lazy but he was a brilliant speaker. He appealed to the many ex-servicemen who were unhappy about \JGermany\j after the war.
Slowly membership grew and in 1920 Hitler changed the name of the organization to the National Socialist German Workers' Party (the term 'Nazi' is a shortened version of the: German words 'National Sozialistisch' meaning national socialist). His followers deliberately got into fights with socialists and communists.
In 1921 these Nazi street-fighters were organized into a private army called the 'Sturmabteilung' (the Storm Section or the Storm Troop) - the SA. They were also known as the \Jbrownshirts\j because of their distinctive uniforms.
\BNovember 1923: Hitler tries to seize power\b
Germany went through a great crisis in 1923. A French army occupied the industrial Ruhr area because \JGermany\j had not paid the \Jreparations\j required as part of the Versailles Treaty. Germans went on strike as a protest against the French occupation and this led to many economic problems. The value of the German currency collapsed. People lost their life savings. Hitler decided that the time was right for a revolution.
On 8 November 1923 Hitler tried to use the SA to seize control of \JBavaria\j. He planned to march to Berlin and force a Nazi government on the whole of \JGermany\j. This was a dismal failure. The event became known as the 'Beer Hall Putsch', because it began when Hitler used force to take over a meeting in a Munich beer hall.
The next day, 9 November, the Nazi forces marched from he beer cellar and were stopped by armed police. The police opened fire, 16 Nazis were killed and the rest, including Hitler, then ran away. The revolution was over. Two days later Hitler was arrested.
After the Beer Hall Putsch, Hitler was put on trial for \Jtreason\j. He made skilful use of the trial to win publicity and sympathy from German nationalists. He was treated leniently by the court; he was sentenced to five years in prison but he only served nine months. 'Hitler learnt a lot from his failed revolution. Afterwards he decided to concentrate on using legal means to get power.
\BMein Kampf: 1925\b
While in prison Hitler wrote a book explaining his beliefs, it was called Mein Kamp or 'My Struggle' and was published 1925. This book stated Hitler's basic ideas:
ò The Treaty of Versailles was an unjust attack on the German nation and must be overturned.
ò The leaders of the Weimar Republic were traitors because they had accepted the Treaty of Versailles.
ò The Jewish people were the cause of many of \JGermany\j 's problems. Jews were sub-human and were always trying to wreck \JGermany\j.
ò Russian \Jcommunism\j was wicked. Its leaders were Jews who wanted to destroy \JGermany\j.
ò The German people needed more space or 'Lebensraum ' (living space). This space should be taken from Russians and other non-German people of Eastern Europe.
\BThe lean years\b
The Nazi Party was not very successful between 1925 and 1930. When Hitler came out of prison the German economy was beginning to recover. With jobs and more money people were less attracted to extremist nationalists like Hitler. The economic recovery, however, came to a very sudden end in 1930 as a result of the worldwide Depression.
A return of unemployment and hard times caused a great upsurge in support for Hitler. Hitler finally took power in 1933. He was to remain Chancellor of \JGermany\j until his suicide in 1945 at the end of the Second World War.
#
"Great Depression of America",20,0,0,0
\BWall Street Crash\b
24 October 1929 was a fateful day in the history of the world. This was the day of the Wall Street Crash. The value of shares on the American stock market collapsed. People tried frantically sell their shares before the prices fell even further. In one day no fewer than 13 million shares were sold. This was the start of an economic crisis that devastated the whole world.
\BWhat were the political consequences of the Depression?\b
The depression began with the Wall Street Crash. This was a collapse of confidence among American investors. After Wall Street there was a dramatic slump in the USA. This had catastrophic results for the world economy. The world economy depended on the USA.
After Wall Street there was a worldwide economic crisis. Governments turned to protectionism: they imposed high import taxes to protect their own industries. This resulted in a further decline in world trade and widespread unemployment.
\BThe Depression and the USA\b
In the years before 1929 the American economy had grown at a dramatic rate. The USA was by far the most important manufacturing country in the world. On the eve of the Depression, the USA was producing 4.5 million cars a year, while \JGermany\j, Britain and \JFrance\j made less than half a million cars between them. Taken together, Britain, \JFrance\j, \JGermany\j, \JItaly\j, \JJapan\j and the USSR produced fewer manufacturing goods than the USA did by itself.
The national income of the USA fell by nearly a half between 1929 and 1932. American factories, which had become so successful, suddenly fell silent. Exports of cars fell from $541 million in 1929 to $76 million in 1932. Farmers were also badly hit: wheat exports fell from $200 million to a mere $5 million in 1932.
\BIsolationism\b
American foreign policy had been isolationist before the Depression. The US government became even more isolationist after 1929. Politicians were more interested in rebuilding the American economy.
In 1932 a new President was elected: F. D. Roosevelt. Under Roosevelt policy became even more isolationist. Roosevelt called for a New Deal for America. This New Deal policy was based on government spending on public projects and government help for businesses and farmers. Roosevelt needed the support of extreme isolationists in the US Congress to get support for his New Deal.
\BAmerica and the dictators\b
Lacking support from Washington, the leaders of \JFrance\j and Britain were encouraged to be cautious towards the dictators. Many American politicians said that America should be neutral if there was ever another war in Europe. This encouraged Hitler to think that \JGermany\j could be aggressive without much risk of war with the wealthy USA.
American reluctance to get involved was seen during the crisis over \JAbyssinia\j in 1935. Mussolini was criticized by the US government for invading this African country but nothing practical was done to stop him. American companies greatly helped Mussolini by allowing a mass increase in the sale of American oil to \JItaly\j.
#
"Great Depression in Germany",21,0,0,0
\BThe Depression and Germany\b
In Europe the impact of the Depression was at its greatest in \JGermany\j. By 1932 German factories were only producing about 60 per cent of the output of 1928. By 1932 one out of every three of the working population was unemployed. The slump hurt farmers as well as factory workers. The income of German farmers fell by about half between 1928 and 1932. The result was massive discontent.
Democratic government was already in trouble before the Depression started. On both the left and the right, some German politicians had been unhappy for years with democracy. In addition. many senior army officers and civil servants disliked the rule of parliament. The Depression added a new sense of crisis to German politics. As early as 1930 emergency powers were given to the president that limited the power of the parliament or Reichstag.
\BHitler's luck\b
The Depression was a tremendous piece of good luck for Adolf Hitler. Before the Depression his Nazi Party was very small. There were elections in \JGermany\j in 1928 and the Nazis won only 12 seats in parliament. Hitler's breakthrough came in September 1930 when the party won 107 seats and became the second largest party in \JGermany\j.
At the same time, there was an increase in support for the communist party. As people lost their faith in democracy they turned to the two parties that wished to destroy parliament. Although deadly enemies, both Nazis and communists agreed that democracy was weak and worthless.
As unemployment rose in \JGermany\j there was an increase in street violence between gangs of Nazis and communists. The Nazis made further progress in the elections of July 1932 when they won 230 seats and became the largest party in the Reichstag. Hitler's appeal was based on the problems of the Depression: most of his supporters were impressed by the way his propaganda called for 'Work and Bread'.
\BHitler takes over\b
Hitler was now in a powerful position. There were further elections in November 1932. The Nazis lost a little ground but remained the single largest party. Although he did not win an outright majority, Hitler was able to do deals with other parties and he became the Chancellor of \JGermany\j on 30 January 1933.
After elections in March 1933 Hitler took complete control. Democracy came to an end on 23 March 1933 when the Reichstag passed the so-called 'Enabling Law'. This gave Hitler the power to introduce future laws without the agreement of the Reichstag. Hitler was now the dictator of \JGermany\j.
\BGerman rearmament\b
Hitler's rise to power did not lead to immediate war between \JGermany\j and other states. However in October 1933 Hitler showed his contempt for the Versailles settlement by withdrawing \JGermany\j from the League of Nations. At the same time he withdrew \JGermany\j from the Disarmament Conference that had been meeting at Geneva since 1932. In the following two years he concentrated on strengthening his position in \JGermany\j and rearming \JGermany\j.
In February 1933, days after he came to power, Hitler instructed the German general, Von Fritsch, to end German disarmament and to create an army of the greatest possible strength . This was a breach of the Treaty of Versailles.
Germany began a remarkable increase in its level of weaponry that was to gather momentum during the mid-1930s. By July 1933 tanks were being produced. By 1934 \JGermany\j was making \Jaircraft\j and warships.
The airforce did particularly well from the first days of rearmament. The production of military \Jaircraft\j rose from 36 planes in 1932 to 1 938 planes in 1934 and 5 112 planes in 1936. In 1935 Hitler introduced conscription and began to increase massively the number of German soldiers. The limits on German power in the Treaty of Versailles had been completely overturned.
#
"Great Depression in Britain",22,0,0,0
\BThe Depression and Britain\b
In Britain the Depression wrecked traditional manufacturing industries. The production of textiles fell by two thirds. Shipbuilding collapsed: in 1933 British yards were producing only 7 per cent of the amount produced in 1914. Between 1929 and 1932 iron and steel production halved.
At the time London was the most important financial center in the world and the pound was a key currency in international trade. In 1931 the value of the pound was reduced and it was no longer linked to the price of gold. These changes were a blow to British pride and further evidence that Britain was losing its place as a great power.
At the time of the Wall Street Crash, Britain was ruled by a Labor government. The crisis undermined the position of the government and led to a split in the Labor Party. The Prime Minister, Ramsay MacDonald, left the Labor Party and set up a coalition government with largely Conservative support.
\BCaution and cuts in defence\b
After the Depression, British leaders became very worried about the British Empire. They were not convinced that Britain was rich enough to defend its far-flung Empire. Above all, the government became convinced that they could not afford to fight two wars at the same time - one against \JJapan\j to defend the Empire in Asia and another to stop the rise of German power in Europe.
Since the Empire was the first priority, the financial crisis encouraged the British government to take a very cautious approach to \JGermany\j.
Ramsay MacDonald responded to the Depression by cutting public spending. The result was a dramatic reduction in spending on defense in the early 1930s. It was not until 1936 that British spending on defense began to rise again. This further weakened Britain's ability to stand up to Hitler. Full-scale rearmament did not occur until 1938.
Cuts in defense spending coincided with a huge increase in German spending on weapons. By 1936 the German air force was close to overtaking in size that of Britain. British generals and admirals became very pessimistic about how well Britain could do in a war.
#
"Great Depression in France",23,0,0,0
The Depression took longer to have an impact on \JFrance\j because the French Economy depended less on international trade. However, when the slump did start in \JFrance\j it had a very damaging effect. After 1933 French industry went through a great crisis. As late as 1938 \JFrance\j had still failed to restore the level of national income to that of the 1920s.
As in Britain, the slump had an impact on defense. With a huge debt for money borrowed during the First World War and war pensions, the French government could not give its armed forces adequate weapons. The production of new \Jaircraft\j fell and compared very badly with output in \JGermany\j. In one year, 1937, the French built 370 military \Jaircraft\j while the Germans built 5,606.
The economic problems added to the bitter social divisions that existed in \JFrance\j. Unemployment trebled between 1931 and 1935. The membership of the French Communist Party rose dramatically at the same time. The Communist Party began to do very well in elections.
The crisis also led to a great surge in extreme right-wing political support. A right-wing demonstration in Paris during February 1934 turned into a riot in which 14 people were killed. The deep divisions between left and right in \JFrance\j between 1933 and 1936 stopped the French government from standing up to Hitler.
#
"Crisis in Manchuria",24,0,0,0
The authority of the League of Nations collapsed in the 1930s. \JJapan\j invaded the north Chinese province of Manchuria in 1931. \JJapan\j was criticized by the League but little was done in practice to drive the Japanese out of Manchuria.
\BWhy did the League fail to stop Japan?\b
\BThe rise of Japan\b
In 1853, after centuries of isolation, the peace of \JJapan\j was disturbed by the arrival of the American navy in \JTokyo\j Bay. The arrival of the wealthy, well-armed Westerners was a great shock to people in \JJapan\j. They were both impressed and worried by their American visitors.
In 1868 a group of angry 'samurai' or warrior nobles seized control of the government. They were determined to change \JJapan\j so that, unlike many other Asian lands, their country would not be taken over by Westerners. To resist Western armies the Japanese government was determined to make \JJapan\j as rich and powerful as Britain or America.
In the late nineteenth century the Japanese government built up a strong economy and established a well-educated workforce. As a result the Japanese were able to build armaments as powerful as those of America and Europe.
\BVictory over Russia\b
The push for modernization was so successful that in 1904 \JJapan\j was able to wage war against \JRussia\j. To the astonishment of the world the Japanese had defeated \JRussia\j by 1905. The Russian navy was convincingly beaten and its main fleet was sunk. \JJapan\j had arrived as a powerful nation.
Having defeated a great European country the Japanese government expected to be treated as an equal by other powerful states. In particular, the Japanese government wanted an empire in Asia. This empire could supply raw materials for the increasing numbers of Japanese factories. The Western nations were very unhappy at the idea of a Japanese empire. This was a threat to their own interests in Asia. The argument about a possible Japanese empire centered on China.
In the First World War \JJapan\j joined forces with Britain and \JFrance\j and declared war on \JGermany\j. Japanese forces occupied all the German territories in the Pacific. The Japanese government also used the war to build up an empire in the area of China known as Manchuria. The Japanese were disappointed by the 1919 peace settlement. They were on the winning side and they expected more rewards than they got. This lead to a great sense of resentment to Britain, \JFrance\j and America.
\BAttack on Manchuria\b
The army was a very powerful force in \JJapan\j. In the 1920s the power of the army grew to a point where politicians could no longer tell soldiers what to do. Army officers wanted to increase Japanese control in Manchuria. The army took the initiative in September 1931 when they organized an armed clash with Chinese forces in Manchuria. War followed. \JJapan\j won the war in Manchuria and set up a puppet government.
The invasion of Manchuria was a clear test of the League and collective security. Both China and \JJapan\j were members of the League. Would the League use economic sanctions or war to stop the Japanese take-over? In fact the League did virtually nothing. A group known as the Lytton Committee was sent to Manchuria to find out what was happening. It took months to carry out its work by which time \JJapan\j was firmly in control. Eventually it criticized both \JJapan\j and the government of China.
The League Council accepted the Lytton Committee Report. It criticized \JJapan\j but did not recommend a trade ban or the use of force. Even though the League did little, \JJapan\j was not prepared to accept any criticism and left the League in 1933.
\BThe missing powers\b
Two powerful countries with an interest in this part of Asia were not members of the League. These were the USA and the USSR. The USSR was worried about the actions of the Japanese. The move in Manchuria was seen as a challenge to Soviet power in East Asia. However. the government of the USSR was busy at the time, dealing with chaos at home as peasants were forced to live on new collective farms. In addition, the USSR had no allies who might join forces against \JJapan\j, and Soviet leaders were not ready to act alone.
Some members of the American government were appalled by the Japanese aggression. However, President Hoover believed in isolationism and did not want to get involved in the conflict between China and \JJapan\j. As a result the USA refused to support the idea of economic sanctions against \JJapan\j. This greatly weakened the ability of the League to threaten trade sanctions. Members of the League knew that if they refused to trade with \JJapan\j the USA might simply carry out the trade instead.
\BThe sympathetic powers\b
Italy and \JGermany\j were important members of the League. They were happy with Japanese aggression. \JItaly\j was not interested in the Far East but, like \JJapan\j, was keen to build up its own empire. \JGermany\j had investments in China, but its main concern was to see if the Japanese would get away with the use of force. As a result, \JItaly\j and \JGermany\j offered no opposition to \JJapan\j.
\BThe worried powers\b
The French were completely preoccupied with the German threat in Europe. While they disapproved of Japanese actions the French had no wish to get involved in a war in Asia. The use of French and British forces against \JJapan\j would weaken defenses against \JGermany\j in Europe. In public the French government condemned Japanese action; in private messages were sent to the Japanese to let them know that \JFrance\j sympathized with the difficulties faced by \JJapan\j in China.
Members of the British government were in a difficult position. They did not feel that the British navy was in a position to take on the Japanese. The advice from military leaders was that a war with \JJapan\j might be disastrous. Vital parts of the British Empire - India, \JSingapore\j and Hong Kong -could well be lost if fighting broke out between Britain and \JJapan\j. British businesses did considerable trade with \JJapan\j and the government was unwilling to lose the trade. Although the British government was worried about \JJapan\j it was not prepared to take firm action.
#
"Mussolini and Italian Fascism",25,0,0,0
Italy had many political problems in the years after the First World War. Italians felt cheated. About half a million Italian soldiers had been killed in the war. Italians expected payment for this sacrifice from the peace settlement. However, the peace treaties were a great disappointment because the Italians failed to get all the land they expected. It became known as the ' mutilated peace'.
At home there were deep divisions between those who supported the ideas of the Russian Revolution and those who hated \Jsocialism\j and \Jcommunism\j. Few people respected the Italian parliament. Five governments were formed between 1919 and 1922 and none of them was able to take control of the situation.
\BMussolini the man\b
Benito Mussolini was born in 1883. Before the First World War he had been a socialist journalist. He left the socialist party because he supported the war and other socialists did not. In 1919 Mussolini began to organize gangs of angry ex-servicemen into a powerful political force. They were known as 'fascists', because they belonged to a 'fascio' or armed squad. The fascists soon got a reputation for attacking and beating up their enemies.
Mussolini loved parades and uniforms. The fascist fighters wore distinctive black shirts. Throughout his early political career he kept changing his policies. He was ready to drop any belief that got in the way of his search for power. Once in power, Mussolini encouraged Italians to look up to him as a special leader with extraordinary powers. He was called 'duce', which is the Italian word for ' leader'.
\BThe fascist take-over\b
Mussolini came to power in 1922. His followers staged a dramatic march in \JRome\j to get publicity and to show how strong they were. \JItaly\j was in chaos. The king of \JItaly\j turned to Mussolini because he thought the fascists would improve law and order and stop \JItaly\j turning towards \Jcommunism\j.
At first the fascists did not have complete control and had to share power with other parties. After rigged elections in 1924 Mussolini strengthened his grip on power. The leader of the rival Socialist Party was murdered . From 1925 Mussolini began to rule \JItaly\j as a dictator. In 1920 all other parties were banned. Leading communists and socialists were imprisoned.
Some were murdered. Widespread use was made of propaganda to convince Italian people that Mussolini was an almost super-human leader. Posters were put up throughout the country saying. 'Mussolini is always right'. The voting laws were changed in 1928 so that only fascist men could vote, and the only permitted candidates were fascists. Not surprisingly, Mussolini did well in the elections that followed. In 1929 Mussolini came to an agreement with the Pope about the place of the Catholic Church in \JItaly\j. In return for giving the Church special privileges Mussolini made sure that the Church would not challenge \Jfascism\j.
\BMussolini goes to war\b
By 1930 the fascist revolution at home was largely over. In the 1930s Mussolini looked to foreign policy for further triumphs. In 1935-6 \JItaly\j invaded and conquered \JAbyssinia\j (modern Ethiopia). He made an agreement to work with Hitler in 1936: the link between \JGermany\j and \JItaly\j was called the Rome-Berlin Axis.
In 1940 when it looked as if \JGermany\j was going to win the Second World War, Mussolini joined forces with Hitler and went to war against \JFrance\j and Britain. The war was a disaster for Mussolini. His forces were defeated in North Africa by Britain and the USA.
By 1943 \JItaly\j itself had been invaded. Mussolini was overthrown by other fascists and imprisoned. Hitler sent German paratroopers to rescue him. For the last two years of the war Mussolini ruled part of northern \JItaly\j, but real power lay with the Germans. He was captured and killed by anti-fascist fighters in April 1945 and his dead body was put on public display in Milan.
\BThe Key Ideas of Italian Fascism\b
ò Italians should take a fierce pride in their country.
ò War is good for a country. Young Italian men should be ready to fight.
ò Italy should establish an empire in Africa.
ò No other political parties are allowed.
ò Communism and \Jsocialism\j are the enemies of \Jfascism\j.
ò Democracy is useless. \JItaly\j needs a strong powerful leader who can tell people what to do.
ò The place of women is at home. Italian women should have as many children as possible.
ò A great country should be self-sufficient. The government should tell firms what to produce to bring this about.
#
"Abyssinian Crisis 1935",26,0,0,0
Italy conquered \JAbyssinia\j in 1935-6. Some historians see a direct link between the crisis over \JAbyssinia\j and the outbreak of world war in 1939. In 1977 a British historian called Anthony Adamthwaite wrote: 'If there was a turning-point on the road to war it was the Abyssinian crisis of 1935-6. The crisis was the major step towards war.
\BWhat were the results of the invasion of Abyssinia?\b
\BThe search for an empire\b
In the late nineteenth century \JItaly\j tried to conquer the African state of \JAbyssinia\j (known today as Ethiopia). The attempt ended in disaster. In 1896 the Abyssinians destroyed an Italian army at Adowa. The Abyssinians castrated the Italian prisoners of war taken at Adowa. The battle stopped \JItaly\j for a while but after Adowa many Italians wanted to take revenge.
\BMussolini looks south\b
By the early 1930s \JItaly\j was suffering from the Depression. Mussolini wanted a successful war to strengthen his position at home. He was also disturbed by the rise of Hitler. Hitler was planning to dominate central Europe, so Mussolini decided to look south and make \JItaly\j a great Mediterranean power. This led him to think about an Italian return to \JAbyssinia\j.
\BThe Stresa Front\b
France and Britain were keen to stop \JItaly\j joining forces with \JGermany\j. In return, they seemed ready to give \JItaly\j a free hand in Africa. In April 1935 Mussolini met the French and British prime ministers in the Italian town of Stresa. They condemned German breaches of the Treaty of Versailles. People began to talk about the Stresa Front: an anti-German grouping of \JItaly\j, Britain and \JFrance\j.
The Stresa agreement was vague: the declaration talked only about the need to 'keep the peace in Europe.' Mussolini understood this to mean that \JFrance\j and Britain would not object to the Italian use of force outside Europe. Mussolini thought that in return for supporting \JFrance\j and Britain in Europe he would be allowed to attack \JAbyssinia\j without any retaliation.
\BThe Anglo-German Naval Agreement\b
The British government greatly weakened the Stresa Front in June 1935. Britain signed a treaty with \JGermany\j over the strength of their navies. This fixed the size of the German navy at 35 per cent of the British navy. The agreement allowed \JGermany\j to have submarines. The French and the Italians were annoyed by the Naval Agreement. They had not been consulted and the agreement was breach of the Versailles Treaty.
\BInvasion\b
The Italian attack on \JAbyssinia\j began on 3 October 1935. Symbolically, one of the first Italian actions was the bombing of the town of Adowa. scene of the Italian defeat in 1896.
Britain and \JFrance\j were caught in a dilemma. They did not want to annoy Mussolini, but they also wanted to support the League of Nations and the idea of collective security. \JAbyssinia\j was a member of the League of Nations. The League condemned Italian action and imposed a trade ban. However, the ban did not include the trade in oil and petrol. This was crucial. As long as the Italian had petrol they could continue the war. Limited sanctions did not work.
\BThe Hoare-Laval Pact\b
The reaction of the French and British governments was half-hearted. In December 1935 the British Foreign Secretary, Hoare, had secret talks with Laval, the Prime Minister of \JFrance\j. They designed a compromise, known as the Hoare-Laval Pact, under which \JAbyssinia\j would have been divided in two, with \JItaly\j given the richer part. The war was going badly for Mussolini and he might have accepted the deal. However, the details of the Pact were leaked to the press. There was uproar in Britain. People saw it as a surrender to Italian aggression. The Pact was scrapped and Hoare was forced to resign.
After the failure of the Hoare-Laval Pact Britain and \JFrance\j took a tougher line against \JItaly\j. In March 1936 they finally decided to ban the sale of oil and petrol to \JItaly\j but by this time it was too late. In May 1936, before the oil and petrol ban had started properly, \JItaly\j won the war. The League had failed and on 15 July all the sanctions against \JItaly\j were ended.
#
"Abyssinian Crisis Aftermath",27,0,0,0
The League of Nations was broken by the Abyssinian crisis. Afterwards no one took it seriously. The failure of the League was highlighted by Hailie Selassie, the Abyssinian emperor, who made a passionate speech to the League Assembly after his country had been conquered.
\BA discredited League\b
In the crises that followed \JAbyssinia\j, the League was completely helpless. When the Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936 \JGermany\j and \JItaly\j sent help to the anti-government side. The Spanish government appealed to the League: the League did nothing. In 1938-9, as the Second World War drew close, the League played no part in serious attempts to avoid conflict. When war broke out in September 1939 none of the countries involved bothered to tell the League that a war was taking place.
\BGermany and \JAbyssinia\j \b
Hitler was deeply interested in the crisis in \JAbyssinia\j. He wanted to know how far Britain and \JFrance\j would go to stop the Italians. He was not impressed at the confused and feeble response of the democracies.
\BThe fall of the Stresa Front\b
After \JAbyssinia\j the British and French governments hoped to re-establish a good relationship with \JItaly\j. Mussolini had different ideas. He had been annoyed by what he saw as British and French double dealing. Instead he turned to Hitler. The German leader had not interfered over \JAbyssinia\j. In January 1936 Mussolini thanked Hitler and made it clear that he was happy for an increase in German control over \JAustria\j, This was a significant development. In 1934 Mussolini had opposed German expansionism towards \JAustria\j. The Stresa Front against \JGermany\j had collapsed.
\BThe Axis and the Anti-Comintern Pact\b
By November Mussolini was talking of a new force in European politics - a linking together of the fascist states of \JItaly\j and \JGermany\j called the Rome-Berlin Axis. Later in the same month the leaders of \JGermany\j, \JItaly\j and \JJapan\j signed the Anti-Comintern Pact (Comintern was the Soviet organization whose job was to spread \Jcommunism\j world-wide).
On one level, the Anti-Comintern Pact was simply an agreement to work together against \Jcommunism\j. As far as Hitler was concerned it was much more important than that; it was a step towards an alliance of those countries that wanted to take land off their neighbors.
\BThe Benefits of the Abyssinian Crisis for Hitler:\b
ò The League was unlikely to stop German aggression any more than it had stopped Mussolini.
ò The anti-German Stresa Front fell apart.
ò The crisis provided Hitler with an opportunity for his first act of aggression - the sending of German troops into the Rhineland area.
ò The Rome-Berlin Axis and the Anti-Comintern Pact strengthened the position of Hitler.
#
"League of Nations: The rise and fall",28,0,0,0
\BThe Establishment of the League\b
ò The idea of a League of Nations was discussed by American, British and French politicians during the First World War, as an organization that would prevent future war.
ò The American President, Woodrow Wilson, was very keen on the idea of the League. He was very idealistic but not very practical about how the League should work.
ò The League was set up as part of the Treaty of Versailles, 1919. It began work in 1920. Its headquarters was in Geneva, \JSwitzerland\j.
ò The plan was that the League would bring peace to the world through a system called 'collective security'. Collective security meant that the members of the League would act together to punish and stop any country that attacked another state. This punishment could be either economic sanctions: a ban on trade with an aggressor country; or military action: the use of war.
\BThe Organization of the League\b
ò Decisions were taken by the Council. This small group was dominated by a few powerful countries who were permanent members. At first the permanent members were Britain, \JFrance\j, \JItaly\j and \JJapan\j. Other countries took it in turns to have temporary membership of the Council.
ò At first it was expected that the USA would be a leading member of the League. President Wilson had a disagreement with the US Senate about the League. In 1920 the Senate refused to let the USA join the League.
ò Any decisions taken by the Council had to be unanimous: every member of the Council had to agree before any action could be taken.
ò 11 member states could send representatives to the Assembly. This was a place to discuss the problems of the world. It had little real power.
\BThe Work of the League\b
The League was responsible for several organizations that did good work in a number of fields. These organizations still exist today as part of the United Nations and included:
ò The Refugee Organization which helped the victims of war;
ò The International Labor Organization which tried to improve working conditions;
ò The Health Organization which encouraged schemes to improve healthcare.
\BSuccesses in Peace-keeping\b
The League made some progress in solving arguments between states during the 1920s. Often the success stories involved arguments between smaller countries:
ò 1920: an argument was settled between \JFinland\j and Sweden about the Aland Islands;
ò 1922: the League rescued \JAustria\j from a financial crisis;
ò 1925: action by the League stopped war from breaking out between \JGreece\j and \JBulgaria\j;
ò 1926: \JGermany\j joined the League as part of the Locarno settlement;
ò 1934: the Soviet Union became a member of the League.
\BFailures in Peace-keeping\b
From the beginning, the League found it difficult to stop powerful countries from attacking other states. The weakness of the League became clear to the world in the 1930s:
ò 1923: \JItaly\j seized the Greek island of \JCorfu\j. The League could not agree on any action;
ò 1931: \JJapan\j attacked the Chinese province of Manchuria. The League did little and \JJapan\j remained in Manchuria. \JJapan\j did not like being criticized by the League and left the organization in 1933;
ò 1934: Hitler had despised the League since it was set u p. A year after he took power, \JGermany\j left the League;
ò 1935: \JItaly\j invaded \JAbyssinia\j. The League tried to stop \JItaly\j through the use of economic sanctions. These did not include a ban on the sale of oil and they failed. After this the League was not taken seriously.
\BWhy did the League fail?\b
ò Some powerful countries were not members
The League was greatly weakened by the refusal of the USA to join. If America had joined, the League would have had more power and authority. Other powerful countries were either excluded or chose to leave. \JGermany\j did not join until 1926. The USSR was excluded until 1934, by which time \JGermany\j had left the League.
ò Britain and \JFrance\j could not always agree
In the absence of the USA the most powerful states in the League were Britain and \JFrance\j. They did not trust each other and often disagreed about how the League should work. The rule that Council decisions had to be unanimous made it even more difficult for the League to make decisions.
ò The League lacked teeth
Collective security did not work. \JFrance\j, Britain and other members were more concerned about their own interests than the authority of the League. As a result they were reluctant to get involved in collective security. The League could not make powerful countries obey its rulings.
ò The Depression undermined the League
The League was weakened by the Great Depression that swept the world after 1929. At a time of economic crisis governments were less interested in what happened in faraway places. \JJapan\j and \JItaly\j were able to invade other countries without being punished effectively by the League.
#
"Hitler: The Rhineland and Austria",29,0,0,0
In 1936 Hitler defied the Treats of Versailles. He ordered German troops to march into the Rhineland. Two years later he broke the Treaty again by uniting \JGermany\j with \JAustria\j.
\BThe risk of war\b
Hitler took considerable risks in moving into the Rhineland. There was a good chance that \JFrance\j would send troops to resist the German forces and this would mean war. The German army was not ready for war. No one in \JGermany\j knew how the French would react. Many German generals were unhappy at Hitler's plan.
If the French had sent an army into the Rhineland they could easily have outnumbered the German forces. The first troops into the Rhineland were ordered to retreat if they met with French resistance. In the days immediately after the invasion the German generals called upon Hitler to retreat. He refused.
\BHitler the peacemaker?\b
Instead of giving way, Hitler tried to show the world that the action in the Rhineland was reasonable. The ambassadors of Britain, \JItaly\j and \JFrance\j were told that Hitler had important new plans for long-term peace in Europe. He proposed a 25-year agreement between \JGermany\j, \JFrance\j and \JBelgium\j: \JGermany\j promised not to attack its western neighbors.
Hitler also suggested that there should be a demilitarized zone on either side of the French-German borders. He talked about \JGermany\j returning to the League of Nations. These were not serious proposals, but they made Hitler seem reasonable. Many people were taken in by his proposals. In Britain, for example, the Labor politician Arthur Henderson said that Hitler's offer of the 'olive branch. . .ought to be taken at face value'.
On the day of the reoccupation Hitler spoke to the Reichstag. Again, his intention was to convince the world that the action in the Rhineland was not worth fighting for. He suggested that he was actually trying to build a new peaceful Europe.
\BThe reaction of the French and the British\b
French ministers and generals met in emergency session on the day of the occupation. They thought about sending the French army to fight. In the end the French decided to protest but not to fight.
In Britain hardly anyone wanted to go to war over the Rhineland. Many British people approved of what Hitler had done; this was German territory, and they thought the German army had a right to be there. One politician said that the British did not care 'two hoots' about the Rhineland. The British government sympathized with this view. They took no action.
The Rhineland crisis showed that Hitler could seize an opportunity on the spur of the moment. He had been planning to wait until 1937, by which time the German army would have been stronger due to rearmament. However, he recognized that the Abyssinian crisis provided an unusual opportunity. Britain, \JFrance\j and the League of Nations were overwhelmed by the crisis in \JAbyssinia\j and there was a reluctance to get involved in any more conflicts.
\BThe 'Anschluss': the German take-over of Austria\b
In early 1938 \JAustria\j was in a state of crisis. Local Nazis were making life difficult for the government of Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg. Hitler did not have complete control over these Austrian Nazis, and they sometimes acted without waiting for orders from Berlin.
In January 1938 it was discovered by the Austrian authorities that there was a plot by Austrian Nazis to create chaos in \JAustria\j by killing the German ambassador. Austrian Nazis hoped that in the turmoil the German government would take over \JAustria\j.
The Austrian leader, Schuschnigg, visited Hitler for crisis talks in \JGermany\j in February 1938. Schuschnigg was badly treated at this meeting. Hitler raved and shouted at him for two hours. He demanded that Nazis be allowed to join the Austrian government and be given control of law and order. Schuschnigg felt that he had no option and agreed to Hitler's terms.
When Schuschnigg got back to \JAustria\j he was in a difficult situation. He took very seriously Hitler's threat of force unless Nazis were given more power in \JAustria\j. There was no chance of help from abroad. The British had made it clear that they would not stop a German take-over.
\BThe plebiscite\b
On 9 March Schuschnigg made one last desperate attempt to keep \JAustria\j independent. He announced that there would be a \Jplebiscite\j, or referendum, in \JAustria\j to decide whether Austrians wanted their country to remain independent. He fixed the lowest age of voting at twenty-four, so that young Nazis would not be able to vote.
Hitler was enraged when he heard about the \Jplebiscite\j plan. He feared that Schuschnigg would win the \Jplebiscite\j and he ordered the army to invade before the \Jplebiscite\j. On 11 March 1938 the German army invaded \JAustria\j. Arrests began immediately of enemies of the Nazis. In the city of Vienna alone 76.000 people were arrested in the aftermath of the invasion. On 12 March Hitler himself crossed into \JAustria\j. He went to his own home town of Linz where he was greeted by cheering crowds.
#
"Munich Crisis",30,0,0,0
The peace treaties at the end of the First World War had created a new country called \JCzechoslovakia\j. In 1938 Britain and \JFrance\j signed the Munich Agreement that broke up \JCzechoslovakia\j and gave much of it to \JGermany\j.
\BWhat happened at Munich?\b
\BThe Sudeten Germans\b
There were about 3 million German speakers in \JCzechoslovakia\j. They were a large minority in a country dominated by Czechs and Slovaks. They were known as Sudeten Germans and were concentrated in the border areas. Nazis were active among the Sudeten Germans. The local Nazi leader, Konrad Henlein, led a political party called the Sudeten German Party that received money from Hitler. Henlein claimed that the Sudeten Germans were not treated fairly. He took part in negotiations with the Czechoslovak government but these got nowhere.
Hitler met Henlein on 28 March 1938 to give him instructions. He told the Sudeten leader to keep making demands that the Czechoslovak government could not possibly accept. By dragging out the negotiations, Hitler hoped to create a crisis over \JCzechoslovakia\j.
\BSupport from Britain and France?\b
The government of \JCzechoslovakia\j looked to Britain and \JFrance\j for help. British leaders had no treaty with \JCzechoslovakia\j. The leaders of the British armed services could not see any way that Britain could help. By March 1938 Chamberlain was saying in private that \JCzechoslovakia\j could not be saved.
France had signed a treaty with \JCzechoslovakia\j in 1925. This said that \JFrance\j would give \JCzechoslovakia\j military help if it was attacked by \JGermany\j. In April 1938 there was a change of government in \JFrance\j. The new Prime Minister, Daladier, was not keen on the idea of going to war with \JGermany\j over \JCzechoslovakia\j . His Foreign Minister, Bonnet, tried to find a way of avoiding war without clearly going back on the promise to \JCzechoslovakia\j.
\BHitler prepares to act\b
Hitler was sure that neither Britain nor \JFrance\j would intervene if he attacked \JCzechoslovakia\j. In April he visited \JRome\j and was told by Mussolini that \JItaly\j would support \JGermany\j. On 30 May Hitler let his generals know that he had decided to 'smash \JCzechoslovakia\j by military action in the near future'.
The British and the French governments reacted to the crisis by putting pressure on the Czechoslovaks to make concessions. The British government sent a politician called Lord Runciman to \JCzechoslovakia\j in July to try to work out a settlement between the two sides. Runciman was biased in favor of the Sudeten Germans. He recommended to the British government that the Sudetenland should be separated from \JCzechoslovakia\j.
\BThe Munich Crisis\b
Hitler was ready to go to war against \JCzechoslovakia\j in the summer of 1938. Many of his leading generals disagreed. They were afraid that Britain and \JFrance\j would fight and they did not feel that \JGermany\j was ready for a large-scale war. Hitler refused to listen to the generals. He was sure that Britain and \JFrance\j would do nothing.
Tension rose in early September. Henlein ordered local Nazis to attack Czech and Jewish targets. As a result of this violence, negotiations between the Sudeten Germans and \JPrague\j were broken off. Henlein left \JCzechoslovakia\j on 15 September. In \JGermany\j much publicity was given to his stories of the mistreatment of Sudeten Germans.
\BChamberlain flies to Germany\b
Chamberlain met Hitler in \JGermany\j at Berchtesgaden on 15 September. Hitler complained to Chamberlain about the treatment of the Sudeten Germans. Chamberlain gave in to Hitler. He agreed with him that the Sudetenland should be annexed by \JGermany\j. In return he asked Hitler not to use force to take control. Chamberlain returned to London and got Cabinet support for a peaceful German take-over.
The French leaders Daladier and Bonnet came to London on 18 September and agreed to support the partition of \JCzechoslovakia\j in return for a British promise to defend what was left of the Czechoslovak state. A day later the Czech President, Benes, was told that he must hand over the Sudetenland. Benes was extremely unhappy about this, and at first he refused to co-operate. By 21 September he realized that he was powerless to resist without Allied support so he reluctantly agreed to the take-over.
Hitler did not want a peaceful settlement. He wanted to destroy \JCzechoslovakia\j by force. He was annoyed when Chamberlain came to see him for a second time on 22 September at Bad Godesberg with news that Britain, \JFrance\j and \JCzechoslovakia\j had agreed to his proposals. To Chamberlain's horror, Hitler then refused to accept deal he had suggested a week earlier.
Hitler made new demands: that the German take-over should be immediate, that there should votes on whether to stay in \JCzechoslovakia\j in additional areas, that the claims of \JHungary\j and \JPoland\j to other parts of \JCzechoslovakia\j needed consideration. Chamberlain tried to get him to compromise but he refused. Chamberlain returned to London disappointed.
\BWar?\b
At this point a war between Britain and \JGermany\j seemed a real possibility. The British government prepared to issue 38 million gas masks and anti-aircraft guns were put in place. Chamberlain tried once again to get Hitler to find a peaceful solution. He sent Sir Horace Wilson to talk to Hitler on 26 and 27 September. Hitler was not in a mood for negotiation. He told Wilson several times that he was going to 'smash the Czechs'.
\BAn invitation to Munich\b
On 28 September Chamberlain was in the middle of a speech to parliament describing the negotiations when he was passed an important note. The note told him that Hitler had agreed to a conference at Munich with representatives of Britain, \JFrance\j and \JItaly\j. The conference would try to explore a peaceful solution to the crisis over \JCzechoslovakia\j. There was wild cheering among MPs, who were relieved to hear that war might be avoided.
The Munich Conference began on 29 September. A day later the British and French Prime Ministers agreed with Hitler on the terms of the annexation of the Sudetenland. \JCzechoslovakia\j was not represented at the conference. The conference did not involve any real negotiations. Britain and \JFrance\j simply agreed to give Hitler what he wanted. On 1 October German troops marched unopposed into the Sudetenland. The Czech President, Benes, was forced to go into exile.
#
"Chamberlain and appeasement",31,0,0,0
Since 1945 historians have disagreed passionately about Chamberlain's policy of trying to satisfy Hitler's demands, known as 'appeasement'. There have been two conflicting views: some historians say appeasement was cowardly and stupid because it encouraged Hitler to demand more and more; other historians are much more sympathetic and say that Chamberlain's decisions made a lot of sense at the time.
\BWas the British policy of appeasement justified? \b
\BTwo Interpretations of Chamberlain's response to Hitler\b
ò Interpretation A
Chamberlain was foolish. He misunderstood Hitler. Chamberlain thought that Hitler was a reasonable man. He was wrong.
ò Interpretation B
Chamberlain was no fool! It's easy to look back and criticize Chamberlain but he was in a difficult position. Appeasement seemed sensible at the time.
\BFactor 1\b
\BThe Personality of Chamberlain\b
Like many people who had lived through the First World War, Chamberlain was horrified at the idea of another war. He believed passionately in the importance of peace.
Chamberlain was not used to dealing with fanatics like Hitler. He was a great believer in the power of talk and negotiations. In 1937 he said to the Soviet ambassador to London: 'If only we could sit down at a table with the Germans and run through all their complaints and claims. That would greatly reduce the tension.' Chamberlain was an honest man and assumed that other leaders were also honest.
He believed Hitler when the German leader said that after \JCzechoslovakia\j there would be no more threats to peace in Europe. Hitler was in fact lying. On his return from Munich Chamberlain told his colleagues that Hitler now respected him. This was not true. In private Hitler described Chamberlain as a worm and said that he would like to kick him down a flight of stairs.
\BFactor 2\b
\BConcern for the Empire\b
The British Empire mattered a great deal to British politicians in the 1930s. The most powerful voices in the Empire were those of the self-governing countries, known as the dominions - Canada, \JAustralia\j, New Zealand and South Africa. The dominions were great supporters of appeasement and made it very clear at the time of Munich that they would not back Britain if it came to a war over \JCzechoslovakia\j.
On 1 September 1938 Chamberlain was told that the South African and Australian governments would not give military support if war broke out. On 24 September the South African parliament voted in favor of \Jneutrality\j if war broke out between \JGermany\j and Britain. It was clear to Chamberlain that an aggressive policy towards \JGermany\j would split the British Empire.
The Empire influenced Chamberlain in another way. Much of the Empire was in Asia where Britain faced another threat in the form of the rise of \JJapan\j. British military leaders were terrified at the idea of a war with both \JGermany\j and \JJapan\j. The generals and admirals did not believe that Britain was strong enough to fight both countries at the same time. The military leaders supported the idea of appeasement of \JGermany\j.
\BFactor 3\b
\BThe Sleeping Superpowers\b
If Britain had been given effective support by the USA or the USSR its leaders could have taken a harder line towards \JGermany\j. This was not possible because the USA maintained its 'isolationist' policy and the British leaders did not trust the communist USSR.
Until the late 1930s American spending on defense was very limited. As a result, the Americans did not have the military strength to match their economic strength. Although the USA was a very rich country, in 1937 it spent only 1.5 per cent of its national income on defense. By contrast, \JGermany\j was spending 23.5 per cent of its total income on defense in the same year.
The USA was rightly described as a 'sleeping giant'. As a result of the longstanding policy of isolation, the American armed forces were in no position to fight. In 1937 the USA had a small standing army, largely equipped with inefficient, old-fashioned weapons. The American air force was considerably outnumbered by the German and Japanese air forces.
The American President, F. D. Roosevelt, hated war. He was also a realistic politician who tried to respond to the mood of the American people. America had been devastated by the Depression and the American people were concerned with the need to rebuild their own country.
Many Americans were not interested in what happened in Europe. Other Americans did care about the wider world but felt that the USA should try to stamp out war and the arms trade. A temporary \JNeutrality\j Act was passed in 1935 and this was made permanent in 1937. As a result, Chamberlain could expect no help from America in any struggle with \JGermany\j.
The Soviet Union was another source of potential support against Hitler. The Soviet Red Army was large but the British authorities did not have a very high opinion of its ability. The British leaders hated \Jcommunism\j. The unreliability of the USSR was heightened by the purges that Stalin carried out in the late 1930s. The Soviet leader accused many leading communists of treachery and many them were killed.
In 1937 the purges reached the Red Army. Stalin destroyed almost his entire military leadership: 35,000 leading officers were executed, including nearly all his top military experts of the 80 members. Of the Supreme Military Council, 75 were executed. This greatly weakened the fighting capacity of the Soviets. It also convinced British leaders that Soviet military help against \JGermany\j was of little use.
Chamberlain knew that without support from other powerful countries, war with \JGermany\j was risky. In the First World War, Britain and \JFrance\j fought \JGermany\j with allies in \JRussia\j, \JItaly\j and \JJapan\j. Even with these allies, Britain and \JFrance\j were only able to defeat \JGermany\j when the USA entered the war. In the late 1930s Britain and \JFrance\j had no powerful allies. If it came to war they could not be sure of winning.
\BFactor 4\b
\BPlaying for time\b
Appeasement was a complex policy. It was not just a question of giving in to Hitler. The negotiations were accompanied by a policy of rearmament so that, if necessary, aggression could be resisted by force.
Between 1934 and 1938 Britain increased four-fold the amount of money spent on defense. One view of appeasement is that it gave Britain time to rearm so that when the crisis with \JGermany\j finally came to a head in 1939 Britain was better prepared. At the time of Munich in 1938 Chamberlain felt that rearmament had not gone quite far enough for Britain to risk a war. His military advisers urged him to play for time.
At the end of the war Hitler himself looked back to Munich and wondered if he had not made a mistake. He felt cheated by the Munich deal. He told his assistant, Bormann, that \JGermany\j should have gone to war in 1938 over \JCzechoslovakia\j.
#
"Nazi-Soviet Pact: Preceding events",32,0,0,0
In 1939 Stalin amazed the world by doing a deal with his deadly enemy, Hitler. Within a few days of the signing of the Nazi-Soviet Pact the Second World War broke out.
\BWhy did Stalin agree to the Nazi-Soviet Pact? \b
\BCommunist beliefs\b
As a communist Stalin believed that there was little difference between the fascist dictatorships and the Western democracies. \JGermany\j, \JItaly\j, Britain and \JFrance\j were all, to him, capitalist states and potential enemies of the Soviet Union. The most important task for him was to ensure that they did not unite to fight against the USSR. He was perfectly happy to do a deal with either.
Communist writers taught that capitalist powers were naturally aggressive. Countries attacked each other to get more markets or raw materials. Stalin believed this and expected that sooner or later there would be another war like the First World War. His concern was that capitalist countries did not gang up together against the Soviet Union. He tried to make sure that the USSR was on the winning side in any war among capitalist countries.
\BReacting to Hitler\b
The rise of Hitler posed a problem for Stalin. As early as January 1934 Stalin made it clear that he was prepared to do business with Hitler. In that month he made a speech stating that the USSR could work with any country that did not threaten it. At this stage Hitler had no interest in good relations with Stalin and this early attempt by Stalin to do a deal with Nazi \JGermany\j was not successful.
\BSupport for the League and collective security\b
Having failed to establish a relationship with Hitler, Stalin turned instead to the Western powers. In September 1934 the Soviet Union suddenly joined the League of Nations. Before that, the Soviet government had referred to the League as 'a gang of robbers'. In 1935 communist parties across the world were ordered to stop trying to organize revolution. Instead they co-operated with any anti-fascist forces.
The Soviet Foreign Minister was Maxim Litvinov. Between 1934 and 1938 he tried to build links with Britain and \JFrance\j, in order to counter the threat from \JGermany\j. He was a great believer in the idea of collective security: by standing together, the countries of Europe could stop German aggression.
\BAppeasement and the Soviets\b
The policy of appeasement disappointed Litvinov and Stalin and forced them to think again about the value of a link with Britain and \JFrance\j. With regards to the Rhineland, \JAustria\j and at Munich the Western Allies seemed too ready to ignore Hitler or do a deal with him. Stalin had never really trusted the British and the French. He suspected that their secret aim was to encourage a war between Nazi \JGermany\j and the Soviet Union in the hope that the two sides would destroy each other.
#
"Nazi-Soviet Pact",33,0,0,0
\BA Soviet offer to the West\b
By the spring of 1939 there was a real possibility of Britain and \JFrance\j going to war with \JGermany\j. What was not clear was the position of the Soviet Union. Both sides wanted a deal with the Soviet Union. For a while it still seemed that the Western powers would succeed in winning Soviet support.
On 17 April 1939 the Soviet Foreign Minister, Litvinov, outlined the basis for a treaty to \JFrance\j and Britain. This would have involved all three promising to defend the existing borders of the states of Eastern Europe from German attack, and each country promising to help the others in case of German attack.
\BA change of foreign minister\b
It took Britain six weeks to reply to this offer. Stalin was not impressed that it took so long. He thought it indicated that the Western allies were not serious about an alliance. He began to look towards \JGermany\j for a deal. Stalin indicated a change of approach in May. He dismissed Litvinov and appointed Molotov to be the Soviet Foreign Minister.
Litvinov had been on friendly terms with some Western politicians. His dismissal was a sign that Stalin was open to offers from Nazi \JGermany\j. Exploratory talks began between the Soviets and the Germans in May. These were secret talks and the British and the French knew nothing of them.
Contacts between the Germans and the Soviets continued through the summer. \JGermany\j made it clear that, if the Soviet Union stayed neutral, the Soviet government could increase its territory in Eastern Europe.
\BFailure in Leningrad\b
Public talks between the Western powers and the Soviets carried in the early summer of 1939 but they got nowhere. On 12 August British, French and Soviet military leaders met for talks in \JLeningrad\j. The Soviet delegates asked the British and the French if they could ensure a right of passage for Soviet troops through Polish and Romanian territory. The British and the French said 'no'.
The Polish and Romanian governments did not want Soviet troops entering their territory on the way to fight the Germans. The Soviet generals were exasperated by this. Voroshilov, the leader of the Soviet delegates, said, 'Are we supposed to beg for the right to fight our common enemy?' The talks ended in failure on 21 August.
\BHitler sends a letter\b
The Soviets were further annoyed that the British and French delegates did not include senior ministers or top generals. As a result they did not have the power to sign a treaty. The Germans did things differently. On 20 August Hitler took the unusual step of writing a personal letter to Stalin offering high level talks in Moscow. Stalin was impressed by this.
\BRibbentrop calls on Stalin\b
On 23 August, two days after the talks with Britain and \JFrance\j had broken down, Hitler sent Ribbentrop, his Foreign Minister, to Moscow. Ribbentrop, unlike the British and the French delegates, was a senior figure and he had full power to negotiate and sign a non-aggression treaty.
In Moscow, Ribbentrop met Stalin and began bargaining. Stalin was particularly interested in a secret section of the proposed treaty. In the so-called 'secret protocol', \JGermany\j and the Soviet Union agreed to carve up most of the territory that lay between their two countries.
The Soviet Union was offered control of vast areas of territory, including \JFinland\j, \JLatvia\j, \JEstonia\j. \JLithuania\j. and parts of \JBelarus\j and the \JUkraine\j that were ruled by \JPoland\j. The pact was soon signed. Stalin celebrated by drinking champagne with Ribbentrop and proposing a toast to Hitler: 'I know how much the German people loves its Fuhrer; I should therefore like to drink his health'.
\BThe British and French offer\b
The British and French offered a military agreement with the Soviet Union. If \JGermany\j attacked \JPoland\j, the Soviet Union would join Britain and \JFrance\j and go to war against \JGermany\j. The theory was that the threat of war from Britain, \JFrance\j and the Soviet Union would be enough to stop Hitler from sending his troops into \JPoland\j.
It was not at all clear how this military agreement would work in practice. The Polish government disliked the Soviet leader and refused to accept that Soviet troops could enter \JPoland\j. By signing, the Soviet Union risked getting involved in a war. In return, the Soviet Union would receive support from Britain and \JFrance\j if German troops attacked Soviet territory. The Soviet Union would not gain any additional land by signing.
\BThe German offer\b
The Germans offered a non-aggression pact with the USSR. This meant that each side promised not to attack the other. In addition there was a secret offer to divide up much of Eastern Europe between \JGermany\j and the USSR.
In return for allowing the Germans to conquer most of \JPoland\j, the USSR would be given control of the Baltic states and parts of \JBelarus\j, the \JUkraine\j and the remainder of \JPoland\j. These were territories that \JRussia\j had controlled before the 1917 Revolution. By signing, the Soviet Union avoided, at least for a while, involvement in a war. In return the Soviet Union would be given control of huge areas in Eastern Europe.
#
"Hitler's war",34,0,0,0
German forces entered Polish territory on 1 September. Two days later, on 3 September 1939, the British and the French governments declared war on \JGermany\j. The Second World War had begun.
\BWhy did the Second World War break out? \b
In March 1939 \JGermany\j invaded what was left of \JCzechoslovakia\j. Britain and \JFrance\j took no action. Hitler then turned to \JPoland\j. Having taken \JCzechoslovakia\j without any resistance, he thought that Britain and \JFrance\j would not try to stop him over \JPoland\j. Hitler said that the city of \JDanzig\j must be returned to \JGermany\j and \JGermany\j must have access to \JDanzig\j through Polish territory. The Treaty of Versailles had taken \JDanzig\j from \JGermany\j and put it under League of Nations control.
The fall of \JCzechoslovakia\j, however, had convinced the British and the French that appeasement had failed. Chamberlain's reaction when he heard the news from \JCzechoslovakia\j was to say, 'After this I cannot trust the Nazi leaders again.' On 31 March the British government stated that Britain would stand by \JPoland\j in case of war.
British politicians had concluded that Hitler had to be stopped otherwise he would eventually challenge the existence of the British Empire. Similarly, the French Prime Minister, Daladier decided that only war would stop Hitler from dominating Europe and controlling \JFrance\j. Hitler thought that Chamberlain and Daladier were bluffing.
On 23 August 1939 the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact was signed. This was part of Hitler's plan for the conquest of \JPoland\j. He thought that without Soviet support Britain and \JFrance\j would not feel strong enough to risk a war with \JGermany\j. The pact led Hitler to make an enormous mistake. He did not realize that by this stage Britain and \JFrance\j were prepared for war.
The governments of Britain and \JFrance\j were not as frightened t the German-Soviet Pact as Hitler had hoped. They did not think much of the Soviet army so they were not too worried by Soviet \Jneutrality\j. \JItaly\j and \JJapan\j were annoyed by the news of the pact and they refused to help Hitler.
The loss of \JItaly\j and \JJapan\j was good news for leaders in Britain and \JFrance\j. The British government was also heartened to know that the dominions of Canada, \JAustralia\j and New Zealand supported a new tough line and had abandoned appeasement. To Hitler's surprise, Britain and \JFrance\j responded to his attack on \JPoland\j by declaring war.
\BComplex causes? \b
During and immediately after the Second World War the cause of the conflict seemed very simple: the war was caused by the aggression of Hitler. More recently, historians have argued about the part played by Hitler. Some of them have put more emphasis on other causes. Several of these causes have been explored in earlier sections of this book.
\BOne war: Many Causes\b
ò The Treaty of Versailles, 1919
Most Germans disliked the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. They were unhappy at the way land was taken from \JGermany\j.
ò The failure of the League of Nations
After the First World War people hoped that the League of Nations would sort out arguments between states. The League and its policy of collective security did not work well. It was unable to stop aggression in Manchuria and \JAbyssinia\j.
ò The Depression of the early 1930s
The political results of the Depression made the world a more dangerous place-there was an increase in isolationism in the USA; support for the Nazi Party in \JGermany\j; disarmament and a sense of weakness in \JFrance\j and Britain.
ò The Policy of Appeasement
Britain and \JFrance\j were reluctant to take a firm line against \JGermany\j 1936-1938.
ò Stalin's decision in August 1939
The Soviet leader rejected an alliance with Britain and \JFrance\j. Instead he signed an agreement with Nazi \JGermany\j.
\BAn argument among historians\b
Debate about the start of the war has centered on a number of questions:
ò How far was Hitler to blame for the war?
ò Did Hitler have a plan to get \JGermany\j involved in a world war.
ò Were Hitler's policies before 1939 any different from those of earlier German leaders, such as Wilhelm II and Stresemann?
\BTaylor asserted that:\b
ò Hitler did not stick to a grand plan. He made his policies up as he went along.
ò He hoped to make gains through threatening war but wanted to avoid war.
ò Hitler's views were similar to those of many other Germans.
ò Other factors, besides the personality of Hitler, played a crucial role in the outbreak of war. These factors include the appeasement policy of Britain and \JFrance\j.
#
"World War II: Preceding Years",35,0,0,0
\BThe Impact of the Depression\b
After Locarno in 1925 it seemed that the world was entering a new period of peace. The years of optimism ended with the Wall Street Crash in October 1929. Many American investors were ruined when millions of dollars were wiped off the value of shares. This led to a great economic crisis that swept the whole world. Most governments made matters worse by 'protectionism': putting up taxes on imports.
The Depression had serious political consequences that made war more likely:
ò The USA became more isolationist. Roosevelt was elected as US President in 1932. He was more concerned with rebuilding the American economy than foreign affairs.
ò The Depression encouraged extreme politics in \JGermany\j. The fanatical nationalist, Hitler, became Chancellor in 1933.
ò In \JItaly\j and \JJapan\j, leaders were keen to win new territory to offset the effect of the economic crisis.
ò Both Britain and \JFrance\j went through political turmoil and felt less able to take a firm line against aggressive \Jnationalism\j.
\BA Catalogue of Aggression\b
Japan, \JItaly\j and \JGermany\j went on the offensive in the 1930s. In each country the leaders believed in aggressive \Jnationalism\j. They challenged the peace by seizing land from other countries. At first, other powerful countries did virtually nothing to stop them.
1931: \JJapan\j seized the Chinese province of Manchuria.
Japan was criticized by the League of Nations but no action was taken to stop Japanese aggression.
1932-3: A major disarmament conference ended in failure.
The new leader of \JGermany\j, Adolf Hitler, took \JGermany\j out of the conference. \JGermany\j also left the League of Nations.
1935-6: \JItaly\j conquered the African state of \JAbyssinia\j (modern Ethiopia).
The League of Nations imposed a ban on trade with \JItaly\j but this did not include restrictions on the sale of petrol. The trade ban did not stop \JItaly\j from conquering \JAbyssinia\j.
1936: Hitler marched German troops into the Rhineland.
The positioning of German forces in this border area was forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles. The government of \JFrance\j considered sending troops to stop the Germans but they decided to take no action.
1938: In March \JGermany\j annexed \JAustria\j.
The unification of \JGermany\j and \JAustria\j was called the 'Anschluss'. In September \JGermany\j annexed the Sudetenland area of \JCzechoslovakia\j. Britain and \JFrance\j agreed to the takeover of the Sudetenland.
1939: \JGermany\j invaded the remaining part of \JCzechoslovakia\j in March. Hitler then threatened \JPoland\j and demanded control of the city of \JDanzig\j.
\BThe Collapse of the Locarno Settlement\b
ò In 1925 Britain, \JFrance\j, \JItaly\j and \JGermany\j accepted the borders in Western Europe established in the Treaty of Versailles. Agreement between these powerful countries ended in the 1930s.
ò Germany left the League of Nations in 1933.
ò In 1935 an anti-German grouping of Britain, \JFrance\j and \JItaly\j was established called the Stresa Front.
ò In 1936, after \JAbyssinia\j, the Stresa Front fell apart.
ò Italy, \JGermany\j and \JJapan\j signed the Anti-Comintern Pact in 1936; they pledged to fight against \Jcommunism\j.
\BAppeasement\b
In every international crisis between 1931 and 1938 Britain and \JFrance\j refused to use force to stop aggression. Often they tried to negotiate a deal and to give way to the aggressor states. This was called 'appeasement'. It was the policy of the British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain. The climax of appeasement came at the Munich Conference in September 1938. Here Britain and \JFrance\j agreed to the carving-up of \JCzechoslovakia\j: the Sudetenland area was handed over to Hitler.
Appeasement has been widely criticized as a weak response to aggression. Some critics say that appeasement encouraged more aggression. Recently historians have been more sympathetic and have tried to understand why Chamberlain believed in appeasement.
ò Appeasement was based on the idea that Mussolini and Hitler were reasonable men who had just grievances.
ò The richest country in the world was the USA. Its policy was 'isolationist' - Americans wanted nothing to do with foreign problems. Without American support it was hard for Britain and \JFrance\j to take action against aggression.
ò British leaders were very worried about the defense of the British Empire. They avoided conflict in Europe in order to protect the Empire.
ò Under Chamberlain, appeasement went hand in hand with rearmament. He wanted to make sure that Britain was properly armed before risking war in Europe.
\BThe End of Appeasement\b
Having been successful in the Rhineland, \JAustria\j and the Sudetenland, Hitler continued his aggressive foreign policy. In March 1939 he seized the remaining parts of \JCzechoslovakia\j.
In the early summer of 1939 Hitler prepared for a war against \JPoland\j. He created a crisis over the city of \JDanzig\j. He did not believe that Britain or \JFrance\j would help \JPoland\j. The complete take-over of \JCzechoslovakia\j led to an abandonment of appeasement in Britain and \JFrance\j. They got ready for war with \JGermany\j. Hitler thought they were bluffing.
Both sides tried to win the support of Stalin, the Soviet leader. Hitler was successful. A German-Soviet Pact was signed in August 1939. Hitler felt that without Soviet support Britain and \JFrance\j would not risk war.
On 1 September 1939 Hitler invaded \JPoland\j. To his surprise Britain and \JFrance\j responded by declaring war on 3 September 1939. The Second World War had begun.
#
"World War II: Overview",36,0,0,0
\BBlitzkrieg in Poland\b
The Second World War began when \JGermany\j invaded \JPoland\j on 1 September 1939. Britain and \JFrance\j had pledged to defend \JPoland\j. On 3 September the French and the British governments declared war on \JGermany\j. The French and the British could do very little to stop a German victory in \JPoland\j. By the end of the month, Polish resistance had collapsed.
On 17 September Soviet forces crossed the Polish frontier and took control of part of eastern \JPoland\j. This was part of the deal Hitler had struck with Stalin before the war in the Nazi-Soviet Pact. Stalin also moved his troops into the Baltic states of \JLatvia\j, \JLithuania\j and \JEstonia\j.
In \JPoland\j and each of the following campaigns Hitler's methods became known as a 'Blitzkrieg' or \Jlightning\j war. \JBlitzkrieg\j involved the use of overwhelming force, in as short a time as possible, in order to crush the enemy. Extensive use was made of tanks and other armored vehicles. The Germans had much success with this technique.
\BThe phoney war\b
Having succeeded in the east, Hitler's thoughts turned west. He began to make plans for an attack on \JFrance\j. Meanwhile the British and the French tried to weaken \JGermany\j by stopping German trade by sea. In particular they tried to cut off the supply of iron ore from Scandinavia. From October 1939 to April 1940 there was little fighting between Britain, \JFrance\j and \JGermany\j. This period became known as the 'phoney war'.
Fighting did take place in the winter of 1939-40 between the USSR and the small Baltic state of \JFinland\j. The Finnish army fought with great skill and ferocity and it took from October 1939 to March 1940 for the USSR to defeat her small neighbor. Eventually \JFinland\j was defeated and forced to give territory and a naval base to the USSR. The Soviet struggle to defeat \JFinland\j convinced Hitler that the Red Army could easily be beaten by \JGermany\j. His secret long-term plan was to turn against the Soviet Union and set up a new German empire in the east.
In April 1940 the French and the British started mining Norwegian waters to stop the trade in iron ore. \JGermany\j responded by invading \JNorway\j and Denmark. The fall of \JFinland\j, \JNorway\j and Denmark led to a political crisis in Britain and \JFrance\j. Both prime ministers were forced to resign. In Britain Winston Churchill came to power in May 1940.
\BThe Fall of France\b
After months of waiting Hitler struck west in May 1940. The Netherlands, \JBelgium\j and \JFrance\j were invaded and rapidly defeated by German forces. A British army was forced to flee from the continent back to Britain from the port of \JDunkirk\j. \JGermany\j took direct control of much of \JFrance\j. Leaving part of the south and south-east of the country under a puppet French government, with its capital in the town of \JVichy\j.
At this point it seemed that Hitler had virtually won the war. \JFrance\j was beaten and much of Europe was occupied. Only Britain remained to fight \JGermany\j. Sensing that the war was nearly over Mussolini joined forces with \JGermany\j in June 1940. He wanted \JItaly\j to get some of the rewards of victory.
Having defeated \JFrance\j, Hitler prepared for a German invasion of Britain. The German airforce, the \JLuftwaffe\j, set out to win control of the air over Britain. This was the first stage of the invasion plan. German planes bombed military sites, factories and the capital city, London, in August and September 1940. The British airforce, the RAF, fought back and the clash of the two airforces became known as the Battle of Britain.
Although there were heavy losses on both sides, the RAF got the upper hand in the Battle of Britain and as a result Hitler was forced to put off his plans for an invasion of Britain.
The Italian attempt to share in Hitler's victory went disastrously wrong. An Italian army was defeated by Britain in North Africa, and \JGreece\j successfully stopped an Italian attempt to invade. Hitler was obliged to send German forces to north Africa and to \JGreece\j in order to help his ally.
\BHitler turns east\b
One of the great turning points of the war took place on 22 June 1941 when \JGermany\j invaded the Soviet Union in an operation known to the German leaders as Barbarossa. At first, the \Jblitzkrieg\j approach was successful for \JGermany\j. An army of over 3 million men stormed into the USSR, armed with over 3,000 tanks and 5,000 \Jaircraft\j. Stalin was taken completely by surprise. German forces penetrated deep inside the Soviet Union capturing key cities such as \JSmolensk\j and \JKiev\j.
By mid-October over 3 million Soviet troops had been captured and the Germans were moving in on Moscow. At this point the campaign began to go wrong for Hitler. The German army reached the suburbs of the Soviet capital but met with fierce resistance and failed to capture the city. German troops were not equipped for the freezing Russian winter because Hitler thought that the war would be over in three months.
\BAmerica joins the war: the attack on Pearl Harbor \b
While the battle for Moscow raged, the most powerful country in the world, the USA, became involved in the war. On 7 December 1941 the Japanese went to war against the USA with a surprise attack on the US naval base of Pearl Harbor. The result of this was that the USA joined forces with Britain and the USSR to fight \JGermany\j, \JJapan\j and \JItaly\j. In the end this was to swing the balance of the war decisively against \JGermany\j. At first \JJapan\j was all-conquering and in the early months of 1942 Japanese forces seized control of much of Eastern Asia and the islands of the Pacific.
\BThe tide turns\b
In the summer of 1942 the Germans renewed their attack on the USSR. They concentrated their forces in the south and tried to capture the southern city of Stalingrad. A fierce battle for the control of the city was fought in the autumn of 1942. The Soviet forces launched a counter-attack in November and the German army was eventually surrounded.
At the end of January 1943 the German army at Stalingrad surrendered. The battle for Stalingrad was a crucial event. It proved that the Red Army could beat the German army. After Stalingrad, \JGermany\j was on the defensive and the war began to go against Hitler.
There were further decisive battles in 1942. In June the USA stopped the tide of Japanese conquest at the Battle of Midway Island. After Midway, American forces began a slow process of capturing the islands of the Pacific from the Japanese. In October 1942 the German army in north Africa was defeated by British forces at the Battle of El Alamein. By May 1943 the Germans and Italians had been completely driven out of north Africa.
\BThe Holocaust\b
Both the Germans and the Japanese treated many of their prisoners with extreme brutality. The most horrific atrocity of the war was the way millions of Jewish civilians were systematically murdered in Europe. This act is now known as the \JHolocaust\j. As German forces captured territory in Eastern Europe, special army units massacred local Jews and other groups disliked by the Nazi Germans.
In July 1941 the German leadership decided on a 'Final Solution' to the question of how Jewish people should be treated by the Nazi authorities. Death camps were set up to exterminate the Jewish population. Many were gassed to death: others were used as slave labor until they died. There can be no doubt that Hitler personally approved the decision.
\BThe end game\b
After the decisive battles of 1942 the war went against Hitler and his allies. However, progress was slow:
ò British and American forces landed in \JItaly\j in 1943. The Germans put up stiff resistance to the liberation of \JItaly\j. \JRome\j was taken in June 1944 but it was not until 1945 that the whole of \JItaly\j was under British and American control.
ò In January 1944 the Germans abandoned the siege of \JLeningrad\j, which had been going on for over two years. By the summer of 1944 the Germans were in retreat across the Soviet Union.
ò France was invaded on 6 June 1944. This was known as 'D Day'. By 25 August the British and American forces had reached Paris. The Germans launched a counter-attack in December 1944 in the Ardennes area of \JBelgium\j. After some early success the German attack was turned back.
ò The USA liberated territories in the Pacific were taken by \JJapan\j. The Japanese forces put up ferocious resistance at every stage. In October 1944 the Americans invaded the \JPhilippines\j. Over 170,000 Japanese soldiers were killed before the capital, Manila, was taken.
German power in Europe finally collapsed in April 1945. Soviet forces captured Berlin and Hitler committed suicide. The German forces finally surrendered on 8 May 1945 but the war continued against \JJapan\j. The American government was very worried at the level of Japanese resistance. The Americans expected a huge loss of life if they invaded and tried to conquer the islands of \JJapan\j.
American scientists had been working for some years on the development of a new kind of weapon - the immensely powerful atomic bomb. In August 1945 two atomic bombs were dropped on the Japanese cities of \JHiroshima\j and \JNagasaki\j. The devastation caused by these bombs forced the Japanese government to surrender on 14 August 1945. The Second World War was over.
#
"De-colonization and the collapse of European Empires",37,0,0,0
In the early twentieth century much of Africa, Asia and the Caribbean was controlled by European countries. These European empires all collapsed in the years after 1945.
\BThe causes of the collapse of empire:\b
ò The colonies suffered badly during the Depression of the 1930s. The imperialist European countries had encouraged their colonies to produce raw materials for European factories. The price of raw materials fell catastrophically during the Depression. The result was poverty and great unrest in the colonies.
ò During the war much of the Asian territory held by the Europeans was conquered by the Japanese forces. Eventually the Japanese were defeated but the war had fatally weakened the control of the Europeans. It was now clear to the local people that the Europeans could be beaten.
ò After the war Britain, \JFrance\j and other European states faced many economic problems. They could no longer afford the cost of keeping their empires.
ò After the war there was a rising tide of \Jnationalism\j in the colonies. At the same time there was a decline in imperialist feeling in the European countries.
\BHanding over power\b
In the late 1940s there was a wave of de-colonization in Asia and the Middle East. French forces left \JSyria\j and the \JLebanon\j in 1946. The \JPhilippines\j was given independence from the USA in 1946. At first the Dutch tried to fight nationalists in the Dutch East Indies but by 1948 the Dutch admitted defeat and granted independence to a new state known as \JIndonesia\j. Britain gave up control of the Indian sub-continent in 1947: two new states were created called India and \JPakistan\j. A year later the British colonies of \JBurma\j and Ceylon (Sri Lanka ) became free.
Independence came a little later for African and Caribbean countries. Most French and British colonies were given independence in the early 1960s. The sudden decision of the Belgian government to pull out of the \JCongo\j (modern Zaire) in 1960 led to a civil war.
The end of European \Jcolonialism\j was complicated in those countries where a large number of European people had settled permanently. A bitter war was fought in \JAlgeria\j from 1954 to 1962 between French forces and Algerian nationalists. The white minority in Rhodesia (modern Zimbabwe) refused to share power with the black majority until 1980.
In South Africa there was a large minority of white people. Largely descended from Dutch and British settlers. Britain had given independence to South Africa in 1910 but this white minority held on to power. It was not until 1994 that the black majority of South Africans were allowed to vote and the black nationalist, Nelson Mandela, came to power.
The French tried to keep their old colonies in Indo-China, which included the modern countries of Vietnam, Laos and \JCambodia\j. Local communists fought a war against the French. The Vietnamese communists defeated French forces in 1954 and won control of northern Vietnam. At this point the USA intervened and propped up a pro-western government in South Vietnam until 1975.
The government of \JPortugal\j was extremely reluctant to grant independence to its African colonies of \JAngola\j and \JMozambique\j. There was fierce fighting between nationalists and the Portuguese before independence was granted in 1975.
\BAfter Empire\b
ò The history of the newly independent states was often troubled. The European states had imposed artificial boundaries, which sometimes led to ethnic unrest. The economies of most former colonies were undeveloped and relied too heavily on the sale of raw materials to the former colonial powers.
ò The passing of their empires caused a sense of crisis in many European countries. There was a marked decline in power and status for those countries like Britain and \JFrance\j that had lost large world empires. Arguments over empire led to political turmoil and the fall of governments in \JFrance\j in 1958 and \JPortugal\j in 1975. Eventually most of the former colonial powers found a new identity as part of the European Community.
ò The end of empire led to a large number of newly independent countries. Some of the leaders in these countries were unhappy that world politics was dominated by the conflict between the USA and the Soviet Union. A new 'non-aligned' movement began in 1955, when representatives from 29 countries met in \JIndonesia\j for the \JBandung\j Conference, setting up a loose organization of states that were not allied to the superpowers.
#
"Cold War: Causes",38,0,0,0
Almost as soon as the Second World War ended the winners started to argue with each other. In particular, a bitter conflict developed between the USA and the USSR. This struggle continued until the late 1980s. Walter Lippmann, an American journalist writing in the 1940s, called it a cold war and the phrase has been widely used since.
Historians have produced three conflicting explanations for the start of the Cold War:
1. The USSR was to blame. Stalin planned for a communist take-over of the world. The take-over of Eastern Europe was the first step towards world control.
2. The USA was to blame. Soviet actions were defensive. The USA wanted to control its area of influence but refused to allow the USSR to do the same.
3. Neither side was to blame. The Cold War was based on misunderstanding and forces beyond the control of both sides.
\BThe long-term causes of the Cold War\b
The roots of the Cold War are to be found in earlier history. One historian said that the Cold War started, not in the 1940s, but in 1917, when the Russian Revolution took place and Soviet \Jcommunism\j was born. By 1917 the USA was the richest country the world. The two countries were both enormous and both had great natural resources. However, there was no chance of real friendship between them because the leaders of the new Soviet Union had extremely different beliefs from those of American politicians.
\BAmerican Capitalism\b
1. People should be free to make as much money as they can.
2. Factories and other property should be owned by individuals and companies.
3. The government should interfere as little as possible in the lives of ordinary people.
4. At elections people should be allowed to choose anyone they want for the government.
5. The Press should be able to criticise the government.
6. The government should not interfere in religion.
\BSoviet Communism\b
1. Rich people are wicked and selfish. They should be forced to share their wealth
2. Factories and other property should be owned by the state on behalf of all the people.
3. A communist government should get involved in every aspect of life.
4. At elections people should only be allowed to choose communists for the government.
5. The Press should never criticise a communist government.
6. Religious belief is nonsense and should be wiped out by the government.
Not only did American and Soviet leaders disagree totally. Each side was completely convinced that it was right and that other countries around the world should follow their lead. Americans believed that the answer to world problems was for other people to learn to live in an American way. The Soviet leaders were sure that their communist ideas would eventually spread to every country in the world. As a result the USA and the Soviet Union were very hostile towards each other after 1917.
In 1919 the USA joined Britain, \JFrance\j and other countries in an attempt to destroy Soviet \Jcommunism\j by force. They invaded the Soviet Union in support of the White Russians who were engaged in a civil war with the Bolshevik revolutionaries. This use of force failed but the hostility remained.
\BThe common enemy\b
The hostility between the USA and the Soviet Union was suspended in 1941. They were linked by their common wish to destroy Hitler. As soon as it looked as though Hitler was going to be defeated the old tension began to re-emerge. Hitler predicted that once the war was over the two wartime allies would no longer have anything in common and would become hostile towards each other once again.
The end of the war produced a difficult situation. Nazi power over Europe had been destroyed but what should replace it? In many countries there was no proper government. Decisions had to be made about the future of these countries. Inevitably, American and Soviet leaders had very different views on the best type of government for the countries of the new Europe. Shortly before his death, Hitler predicted the start of the Cold War.
'After the collapse of the German \JReich\j, and until there is a rise in \Jnationalism\j in Asia, Africa or Latin America. there will only be two powers in the world: The United States and Soviet \JRussia\j. Through the laws of history and geographical position these giants are destined to struggle with each other either through war, or through rivalry in economics and political ideas.'
#
"Yalta Conference and the invasion of Warsaw",39,0,0,0
The victory over Hitler created new worries for the winners. They had different views as to the future of Europe after the war. Before the end of 1945 deep divisions were emerging between the leaders of the USA and the Soviet Union.
\BWhy did the wartime alliance fall apart in 1945? \b
\BYalta and the argument over Poland\b
In February 1945 the leaders of Britain, the USA and the Soviet Union met at a place called Yalta. The three leaders were Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin. The end of the war was in sight and they met to decide on the shape of the post-war world. Much of their time was spent discussing the future of \JPoland\j. They disagreed about how \JPoland\j should be governed.
\BYalta: The attitude of the leaders\b
Roosevelt was already very ill - two months later he would be dead. Roosevelt was keen that democracy should be introduced into Eastern Europe. However, he trusted Stalin and wanted to make sure that the USA and the USSR remained on good terms after the war.
Churchill was very concerned about the future of \JPoland\j and Eastern Europe. He did not trust Stalin. He wanted to stop Stalin from imposing \Jcommunism\j on the territory taken by the Red Army. Britain had gone to war in 1939 to help \JPoland\j and Churchill did not want to abandon \JPoland\j to Soviet control.
Stalin was obsessed with the security of the USSR. He wanted the Soviet Union to retain the Polish territory he had taken in 1939 as part of the Nazi-Soviet Pact. He also wanted to make sure that the new government of \JPoland\j would be friendly towards the Soviet Union.
\BWhy was \JPoland\j the center of attention at Yalta? \b
Poland was the largest country in Eastern Europe. Its post-war settlement was likely to set a pattern for the rest of Eastern Europe but the wartime allies had disagreed strongly about that settlement before Yalta.
Two different groups wanted to form the new government for \JPoland\j. Each group had a very different relationship with Stalin:
\IThe London Poles\i
When the war broke out, some members of the Polish government fled to London and set up a 'government-in-exile'. They were strongly anti-Soviet. Much of \JPoland\j had been in the Russian Empire before 1917. The London Poles were Catholics and many were landowners: they hated both the idea of \Jcommunism\j and Stalin because he had carved up their country through the German-Soviet Pact in 1939.
In 1943 they were horrified to learn that the Soviet army had executed about 15,000 Polish officers and buried their bodies at a place called Katyn. Stalin knew that if the London Poles formed a Polish government, it would be hostile to the USSR.
\IThe \JLublin\j Poles\i
In July 1944 the USSR set up its own future government for \JPoland\j. This first met at the town of \JLublin\j, and they became known as the \JLublin\j Poles. They were mostly communists and Stalin felt that they could be trusted.
\BThe Warsaw Uprising\b
The London Poles decided that their only chance of frustrating Stalin was to seize control of part of \JPoland\j before the Red Army did. In August 1944 Polish resistance fighters, loyal to the London Poles, attacked the German forces occupying Warsaw, the capital of \JPoland\j. The Soviet army was nearby but did nothing to help the Poles. Stalin did not want them to defeat the Germans. He wanted the \JLublin\j Poles to take over after the war.
The British and the Americans were appalled by the Soviet attitude. Without Soviet help, the Rising was ruthlessly smashed by the Germans and nearly 300,000 Poles were killed. The Germans sent the surviving people of Warsaw to concentration camps and when the Red Army finally took the city it was completely deserted. The Red Army went on to take control of the whole of \JPoland\j. By January 1945 the USSR announced that \JPoland\j had been liberated and the \JLublin\j group was now in charge of \JPoland\j.
#
"Yalta Agreement",40,0,0,0
The three leaders had met before - at the Tehran summit in late 1943. The meeting at Yalta, in the Soviet Union, took place between 4 and 11 February 1945. Stalin had refused to leave the USSR so the two Western leaders had to go to him. The three men were pleased at the way the war was going. President Roosevelt talked about the friendly, 'family' atmosphere of the meeting but beneath the surface, serious disagreements existed.
The discussions at Yalta were very wide-ranging but the future of \JPoland\j dominated. The three leaders had previously agreed that the Soviet Union would take land from \JPoland\j and \JPoland\j would, in turn, be given German land. At Yalta they argued about the details and Churchill tried to limit the changes. He was worried about taking too much land from \JGermany\j and said: 'I do not want to stuff the Polish goose until it dies of German \Jindigestion\j'. There was even greater disagreement about who should govern \JPoland\j.
Eventually, Truman and Churchill thought that they had won a major concession from Stalin: the Soviet leader agreed that the \JLublin\j government should be expanded to include some of the London Poles and he accepted that free elections should be held as soon as possible in \JPoland\j. When asked how soon these elections could be held, Stalin replied: 'It should be possible within a month.'
\BThe terms of the Yalta Agreement\b
The final Agreement included a Declaration on Liberated Europe. This stated that each liberated country would be given an emergency government with representatives from any important non-fascist groups and that free elections would be held as soon as possible to set up a democratic government.
The borders of \JPoland\j were to be altered so that the USSR gained a huge amount of territory from eastern \JPoland\j. In return \JPoland\j was promised land taken from the eastern part of \JGermany\j.
The \JLublin\j government in \JPoland\j was to be expanded so that it also included some of the London Poles. Free elections would be held in \JPoland\j as soon as possible.
The British and the Americans held many prisoners of war from Soviet territory. These were men from German occupied lands who had chosen or been forced to join the German army. At Yalta it was agreed that they would be sent back to the USSR. About 10,000 of these men were executed on their return and many more were imprisoned.
The leaders agreed that \JGermany\j should be divided into occupied zones. Churchill argued that there should be a French zone, as well as a British, American and Soviet zone. This was because Churchill was keen to restore the power of \JFrance\j. Stalin and Roosevelt accepted this suggestion.
The USSR agreed to help in the war against \JJapan\j. In return the USSR gained control of island territories north of \JJapan\j. This turned out to be a very good deal for the USSR because Soviet troops did not have to do very much fighting before the Japanese surrender.
The leaders agreed to the setting up of the United Nations. Stalin successfully argued that each country should have a veto on the decisions of the powerful Security Council.
#
"Yalta Agreement: The Problems",41,0,0,0
\BThe weakness of the Yalta Agreement\b
Yalta was the high-point of the wartime alliance. To Roosevelt and many Americans it seemed like the beginning of a post-war period of co-operation. There was enthusiastic cheering in the American Senate when the Agreement was read out. In fact, the Yalta Agreement was flawed in a number of important ways:
\BYalta: The Problems\b
ò The Soviets and the Americans interpreted it differently. The Agreement talked about the need for 'democracy' and 'free elections'. For Roosevelt, democracy was the American system of free speech. Stalin's idea of democracy was a communist one, in which the communist party represented the people and no opposition was allowed.
ò Yalta raised false expectations in the USA. People expected that Stalin would now allow western-style governments to be set up in Eastern Europe. They were bitterly disappointed when this did not happen.
ò The Agreement tried to achieve compromise over the future of \JPoland\j. In fact, compromise was not possible. Either \JPoland\j was democratic or it was friendly towards the USSR. Leading figures in Polish society were anti-Russian. Stalin knew that he could only make sure that \JPoland\j was friendly by destroying free speech.
\BYalta in practice\b
Roosevelt was proud of the Yalta Agreement. He was disappointed to see how Stalin put it into practice. Stalin paid only lip service to the idea of bringing non-communists into the government of \JPoland\j. At Yalta it was agreed that the Soviet Foreign Minister, Molotov would negotiate the details of the new Polish government with the British and American ambassadors to Moscow. These talks were not successful. Molotov refused to let the London Poles play a significant part in the government.
Harriman, the American ambassador, later said: 'We began to realize that Stalin's language was somewhat different from ours.' By the beginning of April, Harriman was reporting to Truman that the talks had achieved nothing. At the same time Polish opponents of \Jcommunism\j were dealt with ruthlessly. In March, 16 leaders of the Polish Resistance went, at the invitation of Stalin, to have talks with the Soviet authorities near Warsaw. They were promised their own personal safety. They were arrested and were never seen again.
#
"Truman and the Potsdam Conference",42,0,0,0
\BA new face at the White House\b
A key figure in the early stages of the Cold War was the American President, Harry Truman. It was only through chance that he became President. As Vice President he took over when Roosevelt died in April 1945. Truman was a Democrat politician from Missouri. He had made his reputation in domestic politics. He had only been Vice President for a few weeks and he had almost no experience of international politics.
He was very different from Roosevelt and his personality played a part in the development of a tougher American policy. Roosevelt was much more diplomatic than Truman. Roosevelt was sure that the USA and the Soviet Union could remain friendly after the war. Just a few hours before he died Roosevelt sent a message to Churchill.
The British leader had been trying to get Roosevelt to take a tough line on communist control in \JPoland\j. Roosevelt replied: 'I would minimize the general Soviet problem as much as possible.' To the last, Roosevelt remained convinced that the USA would stay on good terms with the Soviet Union. Truman was less certain about Soviet intentions.
\BTruman takes a tough line\b
Truman showed his different style as soon as he came to power. In April 1945 Truman spoke angrily to the Soviet Foreign Minister, Molotov. He insisted that the Soviets must carry out the Yalta Agreement and allow free elections in \JPoland\j. He would not listen to Molotov's explanations. As Molotov left he said: 'I have never been talked to like that before in my life.' To which Truman said: ' Carry out your agreements and you won't get talked to like that.'
\BThe \JPotsdam\j Conference\b
The leaders of the USA, USSR and Britain met at \JPotsdam\j, near Berlin, between 17 July and 2 August 1945. This was the last of the great wartime summit meetings. The membership of the Conference showed that the wartime alliance was changing. At previous conferences the American leader had been Roosevelt; now it was Truman. Churchill was replaced halfway through by the Labor leader, Clement Attlee.
At \JPotsdam\j, Truman told Stalin that America had the atomic bomb. Churchill noticed the sense of power that Truman seemed to feel now that he had this powerful weapon. Later Churchill wrote: 'Truman was a changed man. He told the Russians where they got on and off and generally bossed this whole meeting.'
The US government thought that it might take 20 years for the Soviet Union to develop an atom bomb. Truman believed that the bomb put the USA in a strong position in any arguments with the Soviet Union.
\BPotsdam: Areas of Agreement and Disagreement\b
ò German \Jreparations\j were agreed. Each country was to take \Jreparations\j from its own area of occupation. The Soviet Union was to receive some additional industrial equipment from the western zones of occupation: little of this was ever handed over.
ò The details of the German-Polish borders on the rivers Oder and Neisse were finally agreed. The British and Americans disliked the position of the new border but could do little about it.
ò It was agreed that the Nazi Party should be stamped out in all sectors of \JGermany\j.
ò The Soviet Union wanted to play a part in the running of the rich German industrial area of the Ruhr. The USA rejected this idea.
ò The Soviet Union wanted to share in the occupation of \JJapan\j. Truman firmly blocked this idea.
ò The USA and Britain asked for a greater say in what went on in Eastern Europe. Stalin rejected this suggestion.
\BThe Iron Curtain\b
The new hostility towards the Soviet Union was encouraged by Winston Churchill in a famous speech on 5 March 1946 The speech was made at Fulton. Missouri President Truman was in the audience and had seen the speech before it was given. Churchill called for an American-British alliance to meet the communist menace. At first, some Americans felt that he was exaggerating. Gradually most Americans came to agree with him.
#
"Soviet take-over of Eastern Europe",43,0,0,0
After 1945 the Soviet Union took control of much of Eastern Europe. Historians are still debating the motives behind this take-over. Was this a defensive move or was this a step towards a take-over of the whole of Europe?
\BWhy did Stalin take control of Eastern Europe? \b
The Soviet take-over was not complete until 1948 but it began before the end of the Second World War. As the Red Army drove the Germans westwards the Soviet leadership made sure that territory came under the control of people friendly to the Soviets.
In most countries the Soviet government set up anti-fascist coalition governments but gave local communists a leading position. These communist-dominated governments introduced \Jnationalization\j and took land away from the landlords. Opposition parties were gradually undermined. Elections were rigged. Eventually all opposition was destroyed and Soviet control was complete. The process was more rapid in some countries than in others.
\BStage 1: The take-over of Poland\b
As we have seen, Stalin's first priority was control of \JPoland\j. At the end of June 1945 a few London Poles were included in the Polish government. However, it remained completely dominated by the communists of the \JLublin\j group.
The Western allies admitted defeat over \JPoland\j by 'recognizing' the largely communist government on 5 July 1945. This meant that Britain and the USA accepted that the communists were in charge in Warsaw. Communist power was strengthened even further in January 1947 when rigged elections were held in \JPoland\j. The leader of the London
Poles, Mikolaczyk, thought his life was in danger and fled the country.
\BStage 2: The take-over of \JRomania\j and Bulgaria\b
After \JPoland\j, Stalin's immediate priorities were the control of \JRomania\j and \JBulgaria\j. As the Red Army swept into \JBulgaria\j and \JRomania\j in late 1944 coalition governments dominated by communists were set up. In February 1945, within days of the Yalta agreement, a top Soviet politician, Andrei Vyshinsky, ordered the King of \JRomania\j to appoint a new prime minister chosen by Stalin. When the King said that this was not in line with the Yalta agreement, Vyshinsky slammed his fist on the table and shouted at the King. Stalin got his prime minister.
By the middle of 1945 communists were in firm control in \JRomania\j. Elections took place in \JBulgaria\j in November. These elections were rigged and the communist Fatherland Front won. In September 1946 the communist government in \JBulgaria\j abolished the monarchy. The monarchy in \JRomania\j was abolished in 1947.
\BStage 3: The take-over of \JHungary\j and Czechoslovakia\b
In contrast with \JPoland\j, \JRomania\j and \JBulgaria\j Stalin did not at first have a clear view of what he wanted for \JHungary\j and \JCzechoslovakia\j. He allowed free elections to take place in \JHungary\j in November 1945. The non-communist Smallholders' Party was the most successful party. Fresh elections were held in August 1947. This time the elections were rigged and an exclusively communist government took power. In November all non-communist parties were banned.
The final stage in the take-over came when communists seized power in \JCzechoslovakia\j in 1948. Before that the country was ruled by a coalition of communists and non-communists. This was the one country in Eastern Europe with a strong local communist party. There were fair elections in 1946 and the communists won 38 per cent of the vote.
The President, Benest, was a non-communist, while Gottwald, the Prime Minister, was a communist. The Foreign Minister, Jan Masaryk, was also a non-communist. There was an economic crisis in the country from mid-1947. The harvest was bad and industry was in trouble.
Elections were due for May 1948. The communists were afraid that they would do badly. The communists used armed force to seize power. Many non-communists were arrested and Masaryk j was murdered. Rigged elections were held shortly afterwards and the communists won a huge majority. The Soviet take-over was complete.
\BThe war as a triumph for Soviet communism\b
The Soviet leaders felt that their country had made by far the most important contribution to the winning of the war. The British and the Americans had helped, but Stalin believed, with some justification. that the Soviet Union had cut the heart out of the German army. 10 million Germans, who represented 80 per cent of German losses, died on the Eastern Front. The Soviet leaders believed their country had largely won the war, so they had a right to shape the future of Europe.
Stalin also saw the war as proof that \Jcommunism\j worked: in the battle to the death between communist \JRussia\j and capitalist \JGermany\j, \Jcommunism\j had triumphed. This gave a new sense of confidence and determination to the Soviet government.
\BNever again: the Level of the Soviet wartime sacrifice\b
The Soviet Union suffered much more than the other allies during the war. This made a difference to attitudes after the war. About 15 million Soviet soldiers and civilians had been killed by the Germans. In addition, many people had died because of shortages of food and the other harsh conditions of wartime. As many as 25 million Soviet citizens may have died because of the war. Stalin was determined that this should never be allowed to happen again.
\BSoviet strategic thinking\b
How could the Soviet Union ensure that the devastation of the Second World War was not repeated? In 1914 and 1941 \JGermany\j had attacked \JRussia\j through \JPoland\j. In 1945 Stalin thought that sooner or later there could be yet another attack through \JPoland\j. To stop this he was determined to control \JPoland\j and other East European states.
Before the Second World War these countries had been independent. Almost all of them had been governed by right wing, anti-communist leaders. In Moscow it seemed quite likely that if the countries of Eastern Europe were again allowed to be independent, the states would again become anti-Soviet.
\BUS imperialism?\b
The USA was by far the wealthiest country in the world in 1945. The Soviet government was convinced that American business leaders were planning to spread their power and increase their profits by buying up companies in other countries and selling American goods wherever they could. In this way the USA could build up a new kind of world empire.
American troops would not need to conquer new lands: American \Jcapitalism\j would do it instead. As good communists it was the job of the Soviet leaders to try to stop American businesses from dominating the world. The setting up of a group of friendly communist countries was one way of doing this.
#
"Truman Doctrine",44,0,0,0
The government of the USA was deeply unhappy at the spread of \Jcommunism\j to Eastern Europe. Traditionally American foreign policy was based on isolationism: having as little to do as possible with international politics. The Soviet take-over forced American politicians to think again and to reject traditional thinking.
\BHow did the USA react to the Soviet take-over of Eastern Europe?\b
After 1945 the USA moved away from isolationism and became active throughout the world. Eventually the USA built up its own 'sphere of interest': a group of pro-American states that included all of the world's richest industrialized countries.
\B1946: Cold War attitudes develop\b
Relations between the USA and the Soviet Union deteriorated throughout 1946:
ò The Americans were very critical of Soviet policy in \JIran\j. Soviet troops were in the north of \JPersia\j, now \JIran\j, at the end of the war. Under wartime agreements they were supposed to withdraw in March 1946. The US government suspected that this was the first step towards a Soviet take-over of part of \JIran\j. They criticized the Soviet occupation at the United Nations. Stalin gave in and withdrew his troops.
ò The Council of Foreign Ministers met in Paris in April 1946. The American representative, Byrnes, blocked every Soviet proposal and criticized Soviet policy in Eastern Europe.
ò The Soviet navy wished to send ships through the Black Sea Straits and to set up naval bases in the area. Turkey felt threatened by these plans and in August 1946 the US government blocked the Soviet plans. The Americans made it clear that they would use force to resist any Soviet move. American warships were sent to the area to warn off the Soviets.
\BThe crisis of 1947\b
American policy took shape in the crucial year of 1947. At the beginning of the year there was an economic crisis in Western Europe. The harvest in 1946 was poor and there was food shortage in many places. The winter was unusually fierce and people were cold as well as hungry.
In Britain, unemployment was soaring and food rationing was more severe than it had been during the war. In \JGermany\j, people were close to starvation. Millions of refugees had fled to western \JGermany\j and this added to the shortage of fuel, food and jobs.
In \JFrance\j and \JItaly\j discontent led to massive support for the local communist parties; unless conditions improved there was a real possibility that the communists could come to power. By early 1947 it was clear to the US government that their friends in Western Europe could not cope alone. Some Americans had hoped that the return of peace would allow the USA to go back to its isolationist policy. Truman and his advisers realized that this was not possible.
\BThe Truman Doctrine\b
In February 1947 the British government sent a dramatic message to Washington - Britain could no longer afford to pay for troops in \JGreece\j and Turkey. Unless America replaced Britain in \JGreece\j and Turkey these countries could easily come under Soviet control.
Truman decided to offer American financial help to \JGreece\j and Turkey. He went further and declared that American support was available for any people who wanted to fight \Jcommunism\j. This became known as the Truman Doctrine. It was based on the idea of containment - the USA would use its wealth and power to stop or contain the spread of \Jcommunism\j.
Through the Truman Doctrine, the USA had rejected 'isolationism'. America had announced to the world that it would play a leading part in world politics. In \JGreece\j and Turkey the doctrine was successful. The communist side was defeated in the Greek Civil War by 1949, and Turkey remained part of the Western pro-American group of countries. Initially, 'the doctrine' was applied in Europe and the Middle East. Eventually, it was extended to the whole world and led to war in Korea and Vietnam.
#
"Marshall Plan (in detail)",45,0,0,0
Another strand of American policy emerged in 1947. In Washington there was a belief that \Jcommunism\j could only be stopped if Western Europe became wealthy. By the spring of 1947 it was clear that without American help there was little chance of economic recovery.
The USA decided to offer massive economic aid to Western Europe. The project was organized by the American Secretary of State, General George Marshall, and was known as the Marshall Plan. Marshall announced his scheme in a speech at Harvard University in June 1947.
A large amount of American money was made available to those European countries which made an acceptable application. The Soviet Union was, in theory, able to apply for help. However, Stalin saw the plan as an attempt to impose capitalist ideas on European countries. He refused to have anything to do with it.
The governments of \JPoland\j and \JCzechoslovakia\j wanted to join the Marshall Plan but Stalin ordered them not to take part. Stalin was right in thinking that Marshall Plan money would be tied to American-style ideas. The Plan was based on a belief that \Jcommunism\j would be much less attractive to ordinary people if they had good jobs and were well paid.
Leaders of 16 West European countries met in Paris between July and September 1947 and wrote a recovery plan. The military governors of western \JGermany\j took part. The US accepted the plan and the first American money was transferred. The Marshall Plan was a step towards the division of \JGermany\j and this angered the Soviet authorities. Economically, the western area of \JGermany\j was now functioning as if it was a separate country from the eastern sector.
The Plan was a great success. Over four years, $13,000 million of help was provided. European countries were encouraged to reduce import taxes and this increased the level of trade. By 1952, when the Marshall Plan officially ended, the countries of Western Europe were well on the road to a period of great economic prosperity. The Plan was also very useful to the USA. By rebuilding Western Europe, America was creating wealthy trade partners who would want to buy large amounts of American goods.
\BThe Soviet response\b
The Soviet Union organized an international conference in September 1947 in order to condemn the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan. A new organization was set up to strengthen the links between communist parties in different countries. It was called Cominform (The Communist Information Bureau).
Communists in Western countries were told to try to wreck the Marshall Plan through strikes. There were very large communist parties in \JFrance\j and \JItaly\j. In the winter of 1947-8 communist workers in these two countries organized a series of strikes and demonstrations. This attempt to wreck the Marshall Plan did not work. Despite the strikes, American money flowed into Western Europe and eventually the strikes came to an end.
\BComecon\b
Having failed to destroy the Marshall Plan the USSR created its own economic block of countries in Eastern Europe. In January 1949 Comecon (the Council for Mutual Economic Aid) was set up. It was a trading organization of communist countries but was nowhere near as successful as the Marshall Plan. It did not involve any injection of money into East European countries. Eventually the Soviet Union used it to encourage each country to specialize in different products.
#
"Cold War: America's motives",46,0,0,0
The American government responded very energetically to the soviet take-over in Eastern Europe. The Truman Plan and the Marshall Plan signaled a new stage in the developing Cold War.
\BWhy was the US government hostile towards the Soviet Union?\b
\BThe world's leading nation\b
The USA was well-placed to play a leading part in world affairs after 1945. It was in excellent economic condition, unlike almost every other powerful country. At the end of the war the defeated nations of \JGermany\j and \JJapan\j lay in ruins. Several of the 'winners' also faced great difficulties.
Britain and \JFrance\j were in debt and were selling very few goods abroad. As a result they could no longer afford to maintain huge armed forces. Much of the Soviet Union was wrecked by the war. By contrast, the rich USA became even richer in the war years. The output of American factories increased by 50 per cent during the war. By 1945 half of all the manufactured goods in the world were made in the USA. One third of all the world's exports came from the USA. Money flooded in and in 1945 the USA held almost two-thirds of all the gold reserves in the world.
As the leaders of the world's richest and most successful country, American politicians were very confident and expected to have a major say in the way the world was run. Leading Americans were extremely proud of their country and believed that American-style \Jcapitalism\j and free trade was the way forward for all other countries. They were. therefore annoyed by Soviet communists who tried to stop the spread of American business and said that American \Jcapitalism\j was wicked.
\BThe nuclear monopoly\b
The USA was not only rich, it was also powerful. With 1,200 major warships and over 2,000 heavy bombers it had the strongest navy and airforce in the world. The American feeling of power was greatly increased when the atomic bomb was produced in 1945. No other country had this immensely powerful weapon. The Soviet Union produced an atom bomb in 1949, but in 1945 Americans thought that it could be 20 years before any other country caught up with their atomic power.
American politicians took a more aggressive line towards the Soviet Union because they thought they could use the bomb as a threat. (This overestimated the importance of the atomic bomb. Stalin rightly thought that the bomb was so terrible that the Americans would hardly ever dare to use it.)
\BMemories of the 1930s\b
At the start of 1946 there was a strong feeling in Washington that the US government needed to take a tough line with the USSR. Talks were getting nowhere and Truman became convinced that only the threat of force would stop the Soviets from taking over more land. In January Truman told his advisers that he wanted the USSR to be faced with an 'iron fist'. He added, 'I'm tired of babying the Soviets '
This hard-line approach was greatly influenced by recent memories. The world had been through great turmoil in the 1930s. In Washington it seemed that the causes of the problem were
ò the rise of evil dictators like Hitler
ò the economic crisis of the pre-war Depression.
People in Washington thought that they needed to stop the rise of any more wicked dictators like Hitler. During the war most Americans had a positive view of Stalin. Soon after the war the American Press portrayed him, like Hitler, as a monster and a dictator. The lesson of the 1930s was that appeasement did not work with such people. It would therefore be disastrous if Americans made any concessions to the Soviet Union.
There was also an economic reason for taking a tough line on \Jcommunism\j. American politicians were terrified at the idea that there could be another Depression like the one in the early 1930s. Another Depression could only be avoided if American factories were busy. American business was the engine of the world economy and it needed new markets in which to sell its goods. Communist countries were unlikely to buy many American goods. So the spread of \Jcommunism\j was a threat to the American economy.
\BGeorge Kennan and the 'long telegram'\b
One American expert played a crucial part in encouraging a hostile attitude towards the Soviet Union. His name was George Kennan. In February 1946 Kennan sent a famous report to Washington. He was based at the time at the American Embassy in Moscow and his report gave the American government a detailed view of Soviet motives. The report became known as 'the long telegram'. It made a big impact in Washington.
The US government accepted Kennan's views and published hundreds of copies of the telegram for its officials to read. Kennan said that the Soviet government was determined to expand and must be stopped. Kennan also developed the idea of ' containment '. The theory of containment was that the USA should use all means, including the threat of force, to stop Soviet power spreading any further. The USA became committed to containment and this remained its policy until the end of the Cold War in the late 1980s.
#
"Berlin Blockade and Airlift",47,0,0,0
In 1948 Stalin tried to starve the people of West Berlin into submission. He failed. The Western allies kept West Berlin supplied through a massive airlift.
\BWhat were the consequences of the Berlin Blockade? \b
\BTowards a divided Germany\b
By early 1948 Stalin had control of much of Eastern Europe. The Americans responded by helping to make Western Europe wealthy and pro-American. As part of this process the division of \JGermany\j became more and more permanent. The west of \JGermany\j had long been the industrial heartland of continental Europe. The US government decided to include western \JGermany\j in its plans for a new non-communist Western Europe.
News of a new currency for the west of \JGermany\j alarmed Stalin. He saw it as another step towards a divided \JGermany\j with the wealthier, larger part of the country closely allied to the USA. Stalin was worried by the idea of a successful, anti-communist government in the west of \JGermany\j. In his mind it raised the possibility of another German attack on \JRussia\j, as in 1914 and 1941.
In attempting to stop the formation of West \JGermany\j, Stalin thought he had one powerful weapon. West Berlin was controlled by the American, French and British forces - but it was a western 'island' deep inside the Soviet sector of \JGermany\j. Soviet forces controlled all the land routes into West Berlin. Over 2 million people lived in West Berlin and Stalin could cut off their supplies by simply closing the roads and the railways. As a protest against the currency reforms and the moves towards a divided \JGermany\j Stalin decided to put a blockade on West Berlin.
\BThe emergence of West Germany\b
ò The Marshall Plan for the economic rebuilding of Europe was extended to the western part of \JGermany\j but not to the Soviet zone
ò In January 1947 the British and the American governments fused their two zones of \JGermany\j into a single administrative unit that was known at the time as Bizonia. In many ways this was the beginning of the establishment of West \JGermany\j.
ò In June 1948 the Western allies introduced a new currency into their area of control. The new money, known as the Deutschmark, was not used in the Soviet zone.
\BThe Berlin Airlift\b
The Western allies were taken by surprise at the start of the blockade. The Americans were initially not sure how to respond. Some advisers thought that the Western powers would have to give way because the 2 million people in West Berlin would starve as long as the roads out of Berlin remained blocked. Another view was that tanks should be used to blast a way through the blockade.
The leading American military expert, General Clay, was keen to send his troops down the autobahn towards Berlin. This could easily have led to a full-scale war with the USSR. The government decided on a middle course: not to provoke war by sending troops towards Berlin but to keep the city supplied by \Jaircraft\j. Never before had a huge besieged city been kept going by an airlift.
To people in the West, Stalin seemed to be acting with extreme aggression. The attack on Berlin looked like the first step towards a communist march westwards. The Western allies acted firmly in carrying out the airlift. To President Truman it was a test of the new policy of containment: the USSR could not be allowed to take over West Berlin.
\BStalin ends the siege\b
Eventually Stalin had to admit that his attempt to starve out West Berlin had failed. In May 1949 the Soviet authorities called off the blockade. The airlift was a triumph for the American and British air forces. During the airlift British and US planes flew nearly 200,000 missions to Berlin. At the end of the blockade the airport in West Berlin was handling an enormous 1,000 arrivals and departures every day.
Over 1.5 million tons of food, fuel and equipment was sent in to Berlin. This achievement clearly proved how determined the USA was to resist Stalin. The Berlin airlift showed how far international politics had changed since 1945. Berlin had then been a symbol of defeated Nazism . By 1948 it was a symbol of Western freedom and the struggle with \Jcommunism\j.
#
"West Germany: The formation",48,0,0,0
Stalin's attempt to put a stop to the creation of West \JGermany\j was a complete failure. The blockade accelerated moves towards a powerful, pro-Western state in much of \JGermany\j. As the airlift began, the military authorities in the western zones also organized meetings to work out a constitution for West \JGermany\j. The new state was called the Federal Republic of \JGermany\j and it was formally founded in May 1949. The Soviet Union responded to this by setting up a new constitution for East \JGermany\j. In October 1949 the eastern state was officially established and it was known as the German Democratic Republic.
West \JGermany\j held its first elections in August 1949. A political party called the Christian Democrats won the greatest number seats and dominated the new state. Its leader was Konrad Adenauer, a conservative who hated \Jcommunism\j and believed strongly in linking West \JGermany\j to the USA and Western Europe. The development of West \JGermany\j under Adenauer was the last thing that Stalin wanted. The idea of a powerful capitalist German state made him feel insecure.
#
"NATO: The formation",49,0,0,0
The blockade also encouraged the Western allies to form the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).
The alliance was dominated by the USA. American influence has been reflected in the fact that every single supreme command \JNATO\j has been an American. The formation of \JNATO\j was a milestone in American foreign policy. Never before had the USA been a member of a peacetime military alliance. The fact that Truman broke with all the traditions of American foreign policy shows how determined he was to stop the spread of \Jcommunism\j.
NATO was more than a promise of American help in case of emergency. The alliance was to be supported with large numbers of troops on the ground. In particular there was a large build-up of \JNATO\j forces in West \JGermany\j. By 1953, five divisions of US troops were permanently based in \JGermany\j.
The Soviet Union felt threatened by this. The sense of threat increased in 1955 when West \JGermany\j joined \JNATO\j. The Soviet Union responded by setting up its own military alliance in 1955. This was established under a treaty called the Warsaw Pact. For the next three decades \JNATO\j and Warsaw Pact forces faced each other and prepared for war.
#
"Cold War: Overview",50,0,0,0
\BThe wartime allies become enemies\b
Soon after the end of the war the USA and the USSR became hostile towards each other. A period of hostility known as the old War lasted until the late 1980s.
\BYalta and Potsdam\b
The leaders of the USA, USSR and Britain met twice in 1945 to talk about the world after the war. They had met once before in Tehran, 1943.
ò Yalta, February 1945
Leaders present: Roosevelt (USA), Stalin (USSR), Churchill (Britain)
Discussed: \JPoland\j and the rest of Eastern Europe
Agreed: non-communists to be part of emergency governments free elections as soon as possible
Outcome: Soviet Union did not allow democracy in \JPoland\j and great bitterness caused in the USA
ò Potsdam, July 1945
Leaders present: Truman (USA), Stalin (USSR), Churchill, replaced by Attlee (Britain)
Discussed: the future running of \JGermany\j
Agreed: borders between \JGermany\j and \JPoland\j wiping out Nazi influence arrangements for \Jreparations\j
Outcome: USA prevented Soviet Union involvement in the rich Ruhr area of \JGermany\j and occupied \JJapan\j. The Soviet Union blocked American involvement in Eastern Europe.
\BThe Soviet take-over\b
In 1946 Churchill described how an iron curtain was being put across Europe; the iron curtain divided Soviet-style states in Eastern Europe from democratic capitalist states in Western Europe. Between 1945 and 1948 the Soviet Union imposed communist governments on several East European countries:
ò Poland
ò Bulgaria
ò Romania
ò Hungary
ò Czechoslovakia
The communist coup in \JCzechoslovakia\j in 1948 particularly angered people in the West.
For the Soviet leader, Stalin, the take-over was a defensive move: an attempt to build up a friendly buffer between the USSR and the Western capitalist states.
For the American leader, Truman, the take-over was an offensive move: the first step in a Soviet attempt to impose \Jcommunism\j on all the countries of the world.
\BThe American response\b
Between 1945 and 1949 the Americans developed a policy called . 'containment'. This involved using the power and wealth of the USA to try to stop or 'contain' the spread of \Jcommunism\j, first of all in Europe and later throughout the world.
\BContainment in Europe\b
1947: The Truman Doctrine
The American President Truman said that the world was being divided into free, democratic countries and undemocratic communist states. Truman promised help for any people who wanted to resist \Jcommunism\j and immediate help to anti-communist governments in \JGreece\j and Turkey.
1947: The Marshall Plan
The economy of Europe was in ruins at the end of the war. The Marshall Plan, named after General George Marshall, the US Secretary of State, aimed to re-build the European economy so that it could resist \Jcommunism\j. In theory, East European countries could join but the Americans made it clear that communist states were not welcome.
1949: the founding of \JNATO\j
The USA took the lead in organizing a military alliance of non-communist countries in Europe and North America. It was called the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. All members agreed to defend each other in case of Soviet attack.
1949: the setting up of West \JGermany\j
At the end of the war \JGermany\j was divided into the British, French, American and Soviet zones. The city of Berlin was also divided into four zones. At first both the USA and the USSR wanted a unified \JGermany\j. When the Soviet Union took control of much of Eastern Europe, America moved towards the setting up of a pro-Western state in the British, French and American zones. West \JGermany\j, officially known as the Federal Republic of \JGermany\j, was established in May 1949.
\BThe Soviet reaction to containment\b
Stalin, in turn, saw American actions after 1945 as aggressive and a threat to the Soviet Union. The Soviet response was as follows:
1948-1949: the Berlin Blockade
West Berlin was an island of democracy and \Jcapitalism\j in the Soviet zone. Stalin was worried by the possibility of a strong West German state. In June 1948 Stalin blocked all road and rail transport with West Berlin. This was a failure. Britain and the USA organized an unprecedented airlift to stop West Berliners from being starved out. The blockade was ended in May 1949. The blockade accelerated moves towards a separate West \JGermany\j and the \JNATO\j alliance.
1949: COMECON
In January 1949 the Soviet Union tried to answer the Marshall Plan by setting up a trading bloc of communist countries. It was called the Council for Mutual Economic Aid or COMECON.
1949: the setting up of East \JGermany\j
After the official establishment of West \JGermany\j the Soviet zone of \JGermany\j was turned into a separate communist state, officially known as the German Democratic Republic.
1949: the Soviet atom bomb
The USA had a monopoly of atomic weapons after 1945. Stalin ordered Soviet scientists to produce an atomic bomb and in 1949 they succeeded.
1955: the Warsaw Pact
In 1955 \JNATO\j was expanded to include West \JGermany\j. The Soviet Union created a military alliance of communist countries known as the Warsaw Pact.
#
"Communist China",51,0,0,0
\BThe civil war\b
There was a bitter struggle for control of China from 1927 to 1949 between nationalists and communists. The nationalists were led by Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai-shek); the leader of the communists was Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung).
At first the nationalists were the more powerful. By 1934 Jiang Jieshi destroyed the communist forces in the east of the country. Mao Zedong re-organized the surviving communists and led them on a famous Long March north to safety in the region of Yanan.
The civil war was interrupted between 1937 and 1945 by a war with the Japanese. In 1945 fighting broke out again. At this point the communists controlled only part of northern China and had a smaller army than the nationalists.
Jiang had American backing. However, his government failed to win the support of the ordinary people. Taxes were high and the government had a reputation for corruption. Most Chinese people lived in the countryside. Mao promised the poor country people a fair share of the land. His soldiers fought a skilful guerrilla war against the nationalist armies.
By 1946 Jiang lost control of Manchuria. The communist armies swept to victory in 1948-9. In September 1949 Mao announced that the People's Republic of China was now established. The communists controlled all China, except for the large off-shore island of \JTaiwan\j. Jiang Jieshi fled to \JTaiwan\j.
\BA new superpower? \bAs the state with the greatest population in the world the government of China expected to be taken seriously by other powerful countries. China saw itself as an equal of the Soviet Union and the USA. This view was given extra weight when China exploded its first atomic bomb in 1964.
\BChina and the Soviet Union\bThe relationship between communist China and the Soviet Union was tense from the beginning. Mao was not impressed by the level of support he had received from Stalin during the years of struggle The Chinese leadership was not prepared to see the USSR as the senior partner in the communist world.
After Stalin's death Mao was angered that the Soviet leaders did not consult him before attacking Stalin's memory. These tensions came to the surface in 1960 when the Chinese criticized Khrushchev for being too friendly towards the West. The USSR ordered home many of the Soviet scientists and engineers who were in China.
Between 1968 and 1970 the USSR and China came close to war over arguments about the frontier. The two countries remained on poor terms until the time of Gorbachev in the late 1980s.
\BThe Great Leap forward and the Cultural Revolution\b
Mao tried to bring about rapid change in the Chinese economy in 1958. Collective farms or 'communes' were set up in the countryside. New factories were built. This attempt to increase output rapidly was called the Great Leap Forward. It was not successful. Mao tried to increase his power by organizing a period of turmoil between 1966 and 1969, known as the Cultural Revolution.
Young radical followers of Mao, called Red Guards, toured the country terrorizing people in senior positions. Amid the chaos Mao was able to remove many opponents from power. The Cultural Revolution badly damaged the Chinese economy. It also harmed China's relations with the outside world.
China had a very poor relationship with the USA throughout the 1950sand 1960s. After the Cultural Revolution the two countries began to look again at their relationship. The US president in the early 1970s was Richard Nixon and he was keen to build a good relationship with China. Under Nixon the USA recognized the government of China for the first time. Nixon visited China in 1972.
\BAfter Mao\bWhen Mao died in 1976 there was a power struggle between radicals and moderates. The leaders of the radicals became known as the Gang of Four, and included Mao's widow, Jiang Qing. The power struggle was eventually won by the moderates. Led by Deng Xiaoping.
The Gang of Four were blamed for the chaos of the Cultural Revolution and imprisoned. In the 1980s Deng Xiaoping abandoned many of the ideas of communist economics and encouraged free enterprise and competition. At the same time there was no increase in free speech.
A so-called 'pro-democracy movement' developed among students in the early months of 1989. Demonstrators camped in Tiananmen Square. \JBeijing\j (Peking) and demanded free speech and free elections. The students were joined by large numbers of ordinary people. On 3 June the Chinese army moved in and used tanks to clear the square. Many thousands of people were killed.
Afterwards, leaders of the pro-democracy movement were arrested and imprisoned. The massacre in Tiananmen Square shocked the world and affected the relationship between China and other countries. After Tiananmen, the government continued with its policy of Western-style economics but little political freedom.
#
"Korean War: US involvement",52,0,0,0
The Truman Doctrine stated that the USA would help people to fight against \Jcommunism\j. In 1950 the USA showed that this was more than words: US troops went to war to stop the spread of \Jcommunism\j in Korea.
\BHow successful was the USA in the Korean War? \b
\BA divided land\b
The Japanese controlled Korea between 1904 and 1945. At the end of the Second World War Korea was in a situation similar to \JGermany\j. Russian forces were in the north of Korea and American troops had landed in the south. Korea became divided in two at the 38th parallel. In 1948 separate Korean governments were set up in the north and south of the country.
A communist, Kim II Sung, took power in the North. From 1948 the President of South Korea was the anti-communist, Syngman Rhee. He was a corrupt leader and he soon became very unpopular. In April 1950 Rhee did badly in elections. Many of the people of the south voted in favor of unification with the communist state of the north.
\BInvasion\b
On 25 June 1950 North Korean troops invaded the South in a bid to re-unite Korea by force. Historians disagree about whether the North Koreans were told to invade by the Russians. Truman believed that the Russians were behind the attack and that it was a test of the US policy of containing \Jcommunism\j. The invasion came at a time when many Americans were extremely worried about the challenge of \Jcommunism\j China had recently become a communist state.
In September 1949 the Americans found out that the USSR had nuclear weapons. American politicians became convinced that communists wanted to take over the world. On hearing the news from Korea, Truman immediately ordered US forces in \JJapan\j, led by General MacArthur, to help South Korea.
Truman asked the United Nations Security Council to back the use of American troops in Korea. At that time the Soviet Union was boycotting the Security Council and was not able to use its veto. As a result the Security Council supported the USA and called on other member states to provide troops. Soldiers from a number of countries fought in Korea, including Britain, Canada, \JAustralia\j and New Zealand. However, the bulk of the UN forces were provided by the USA.
\BThe US counter-attack\bAt first the North Korean attack was very successful. Within four days the Southern capital of Seoul had been captured. The North Koreans conquered all of the country except for a small area in the south around the town of Pusan. In July 1950 MacArthur sent American forces to Pusan and prepared for a counter-attack.
The US fight-back began in September. MacArthur organized a successful amphibious attack on the town of Inchon. At the same time US forces broke out of the Pusan area. The counter-attack went extremely well and by 1 October the US troops had reached the 38th parallel, the original border between North and South Korea.
The Americans faced a dilemma. Should they push on and invade North Korea? They now had a chance to go beyond containment and 'roll back' the frontiers of \Jcommunism\j. On the other hand, there was a possibility that by invading the North the Americans might provoke China to join the war.
MacArthur was keen to go on. Truman approved the change of policy and the US forces crossed the 38th parallel on 7 October. Eventually MacArthur's troops reached the Yalu River, close to the Chinese border. This was the first time since 1945 that Americans had tried to liberate a communist state.
\BThe risk of Chinese intervention\bCommunist China was a new force in the world. Few people believed that they would risk war with the mighty USA. In early October the Chinese issued a statement that said, 'China will not sit back with folded hands and let the Americans come to the border'. The Americans ignored this warning and continued to march north. On 10 October the Chinese government said that Chinese troops would attack the Americans if MacArthur continued. MacArthur ignored this threat.
#
"Korean War: Chinese intervention",53,0,0,0
At the end of October Chinese troops went into action and attacked South Korean and American troops. In November the South Koreans and Americans were forced to retreat. Truman and MacArthur were not put off by the Chinese intervention.
Britain and \JFrance\j wanted Truman to talk to the Chinese. The advice from these allies was ignored. Instead, MacArthur planned a further push towards the Chinese border. This renewed attack began on 25 November. It went badly wrong. MacArthur made a big mistake: he divided his forces in two and marched north.
The Chinese had little difficulty in attacking and destroying many of the US forces. MacArthur had to retreat and the Chinese soon took control of almost all North Korea. Once again it was the turn of the communist forces to push over the border into South Korea. The Chinese offensive continued into the New Year. On 1 January they crossed the 38th parallel, and on 4th January they took the Southern capital, Seoul.
The success of the Chinese caused great disappointment in America. There were behind-the-scenes arguments about what to do next. General MacArthur recommended extreme action. Truman hinted at a press conference that he might drop the atomic bomb on China.
\BMacArthur's advice: December 1950\bò The US should consider all methods to defeat the Chinese; this could include the use of atomic bombs against China.
ò The war should be extended to the Chinese mainland in order to cut off supplies to the communist forces in Korea.
ò The ultimate aim of the war should be not only the recapture of North Korea, but also the defeat of \Jcommunism\j in China.
The British government was appalled by talk of using atom bomb and invading China. The British Prime Minister, Attlee, flew to Washington and urged Truman to negotiate with the Chinese. Attlee failed to get the Americans to talk to the Chinese but Truman did stop talking about dropping the atom bomb.
\BThe fall of MacArthur\b
In February 1951 the Americans launched a further attack on the communist troops. By March the communist forces had been pushed back to the original border, the 38th parallel. At this point MacArthur disagreed with Truman. Truman now abandoned the idea of conquering all of Korea and was considering making peace with China.
For a long time there had been tension between Truman and MacArthur. This now reached breaking point. On 24 March MacArthur made a public statement criticizing the idea of a deal with the Chinese. Truman was annoyed when he heard this.
MacArthur wanted to cross the border again in order to re-conquer North Korea. He sent a message to an American politician explaining his view that America should keep fighting until the Chinese were defeated. Truman was very angry that a general was trying to control the war, instead of obeying his orders, and in April MacArthur was dismissed. This caused a sensation in the United States.
\BThe stalemate\b
By early summer 1951 the two sides in the Korean War had reached a stalemate. The Chinese launched a huge push south in April and May, but it was not successful. The loss of life on the Chinese side was enormous. In these two months over 200,000 men were killed. Peace talks began in July 1951 but there was no agreed cease-fire. Sporadic but bloody fighting continued.
The negotiations soon got stuck over where to draw the border and the exchange of prisoners. As the months passed the situation became similar to the Western Front in the First World War, with both sides dug in to strong defensive positions. This situation continued throughout the second half of 1951 and through the whole of 1952.
Soldiers continued to be killed in large numbers on both sides. Between the start of the talks and November 1952, 45,000 American troops were killed or wounded. At the end of 1952 the Americans elected a new President, Ike Eisenhower. The new President took power in January 1953 and he was determined to end the war. An agreement to stop fighting was eventually signed on 27 July 1953.
#
"Cuban missile crisis (in detail)",54,0,0,0
Cuba is a large island in the Caribbean. In 1959 a revolution took place in \JCuba\j and Fidel Castro came to power. He introduced a Soviet-style government on the island and he looked to the Soviet Union for support. There was a great uproar in 1962 when the Soviet leader, Khrushchev, placed nuclear missiles on the island.
\BWhat happened during the Cuban missile crisis? \b
The revolution in \JCuba\j was a great blow to America. A communist state had been set up only 90 miles from the USA. In April 1961 the American \JCIA\j organized an attack on \JCuba\j. This was carried out by Cuban exiles. Their plan was to land in a remote part of the island and set up a base for guerrilla war against the government of \JCuba\j. They expected that other Cubans would rise up and join the rebellion. The invasion force landed at a place called the Bay of Pigs.
The attack at the Bay of Pigs went disastrously wrong: the Americans had underestimated the strength of the Cuban armed forces and the \JCIA\j had misunderstood how popular Castro was. The invasion force was easily defeated by the Cuban government and there was no widespread support for the invasion from among the people of \JCuba\j . The fiasco at the Bay of Pigs was humiliating for the American President, Kennedy.
The struggle for control of \JCuba\j was part of the world-wide Cold War. In early 1962 the Americans placed a number of nuclear missiles in Turkey, within easy range of many cities of the USSR. Shortly afterwards Khrushchev decided to place missiles on \JCuba\j.
\BThe crisis\b
The Soviets tried to move the missiles secretly to the Caribbean. In public Khrushchev stated that no missile capable of reaching the United States will be placed in \JCuba\j. A U-2 spy plane flew over \JCuba\j on 14 October and took photographs of the missile site. On 16 October 1962 President Kennedy was shown the photographs proving that Soviet missiles were on \JCuba\j. The missiles had only recently arrived and would not yet have been in working order.
The Americans spent six days secretly discussing and planning how to respond. They did not consult with their allies at this stage. Even the government of Britain, the closest ally was not told about the missiles until 21 October, shortly before Kennedy made an announcement to the American people.
\BOn the edge of a nuclear catastrophe\b
Kennedy's response to the news of the missiles was twofold: he decided to get ready for an invasion of \JCuba\j but first of all to mount a blockade of the island. On 22 October a so-called quarantine was announced - the Americans stated that they would stop and search all ships bound for \JCuba\j.
Even at this stage, Khrushchev refused to accept publicly that there were missiles on \JCuba\j. This put the USSR in a difficult position when Kennedy was able to show the world that Khrushchev was lying. Two days later a number of Soviet ships, which probably contained warheads for the missiles, turned back just short of the line of the blockade. This was not the end of the crisis because some warheads were already on the island.
The Americans announced that the missiles must be dismantled immediately or else \JCuba\j would be attacked and invaded. There was a real possibility of a nuclear war breaking out between the USA and the USSR.
According to one source, Castro actually suggested to Khrushchev that the USSR should launch nuclear missiles against America to stop the imminent invasion of \JCuba\j. Khrushchev was not impressed by this advice and was horrified to discover that some of his top generals thought it would be better to have a nuclear war than back down. Instead he decided to write an urgent letter to Kennedy. This was sent on 26 October.
Before Kennedy had replied to this message Khrushchev sent a second letter on 27 October. with different demands. This second letter demanded that the Americans must take their missiles out of Turkey in return for the removal of the Cuban missiles.
The Americans did not know how to respond. The Americans had already considered taking their missiles out of Turkey but Kennedy did not want to be seen to be backing down in the face of Soviet pressure. The American military leaders recommended an immediate air attack on \JCuba\j. Kennedy was unsure. A letter was about to be sent to Khrushchev refusing to do a deal over the Turkish missiles.
At this point it was suggested that the Americans ignore the second letter, but reply to the first letter accepting the Soviet proposal that the missiles should be withdrawn in return for an American commitment not to invade \JCuba\j. The President liked this idea and a suitable letter was sent.
#
"Cuban missile crisis averted",55,0,0,0
\BThe President's brother\b
Later on the 27 October Robert Kennedy, the brother of the President, went to see the Soviet ambassador. The conversation between Robert Kennedy and the ambassador, Anatoly Dobrynin, was the key to the solution of the crisis.
Kennedy gave Dobrynin an ultimatum: he said that if the Soviets did not promise to remove the missiles by the next day the Americans would use force to destroy the missiles. He then made an offer to the Russians - there could be no official deal, but if the Cuban missiles were removed the missiles in Turkey would follow soon after. This message was relayed to Khrushchev, and it was enough for the Russians.
On 28 October Dobrynin reported to back to Robert Kennedy and announced that the Russians would withdraw their missiles from \JCuba\j. The crisis was over.
\BAfter the crisis\b
ò The end of the crisis was seen as a victory for Kennedy and a defeat for Khrushchev. The deal over the missiles in Turkey was kept secret so it seemed to the world as if the Soviets had simply backed down. This was good for Kennedy's reputation, but damaging for the Soviet leader. Leading Soviet communists were angry that their country appeared to climb down. This put Khrushchev in a difficult position at home, and contributed to his fall from power in 1964.
ò The European allies of the USA were shocked at how little they were consulted during the emergency. It seemed that their opinions was not seen as important by the Americans. The French government of de Gaulle felt this very strongly. As a result de Gaulle eventually pulled \JFrance\j out of \JNATO\j and encouraged Western Europe to follow an independent line.
ò On the communist side, the Chinese were not impressed by the Soviet performance. They felt that Khrushchev mishandled the crisis and looked cowardly when he removed the missiles. This further encouraged the Chinese to follow an independent line of their own in world politics.
ò The most important long-term result of the crisis was that both sides realized the great dangers of direct conflict between the USSR and the USA. Both Soviet and American leaders were shocked at how close they had come to nuclear war. After the Cuban Missile Crisis the Cold War continued but the two superpowers carefully avoided direct hostility. A special \Jtelephone\j 'hotline' was installed so that leaders could communicate easily in any future crisis. The level of tension between the USA and the USSR was never again to be as great as it was in November 1962.
#
"Cold War and the Middle East",56,0,0,0
\BIsrael and the superpowers\b
Throughout much of the twentieth century there was a bitter argument between Jewish and Arab people over control of the area of the Middle East originally known as Palestine. Until the First World War the territory was part of the Turkish Empire. It was then controlled by the British.
After the Second World War the United Nations decided to set up a Jewish state, called Israel, in part of Palestine. As British forces left the area in May 1948, Jewish leaders declared the existence of the new state. Israel was immediately attacked by the neighboring Arab states of \JEgypt\j, Jordan, \JSyria\j, \JLebanon\j and \JIraq\j. Fighting came to an end in January 1949 with Israel victorious but this was not the end of the dispute. The two superpowers soon took sides in this conflict. Israel became strongly pro-American, while the Soviet Union became hostile towards Israel.
\BSuez\b
There was an upsurge of Arab \Jnationalism\j in the 1950s supported by the Soviet Union. In 1952 a passionate Arab nationalist called Gamal Nasser took power in \JEgypt\j. He turned to the Soviet Union for help in developing the country. In 1956 Nasser seized control of the Suez Canal from the Western powers of Britain and \JFrance\j.
In October 1956 Britain, \JFrance\j and Israel attacked the Suez Canal area. The government of the USA was unhappy about the invasion of \JEgypt\j and forced Britain and \JFrance\j to pull out. The Americans got little credit for their actions and radical \JArabs\j increasingly looked to the USSR for assistance. After Suez there was increased Soviet involvement in the Middle East.
\BWar and peace\b
War broke out again between Israel and the Arab states in 1967 and in 1973. Israel won both these wars and gained control of substantial lands inhabited by Palestinian \JArabs\j The success of Israel was a blow to the USSR. The Soviets had supplied \JEgypt\j and \JSyria\j with their weapons but they had lost. Israel was a small country but, with American help, the Israelis had defeated their hostile neighbors.
After 1973 the USA was much more successful than the USSR in influencing events in the Middle East. A new Egyptian leader, Anwar Sadat, broke off relations with the Soviet Union and established a good relationship with the USA. With American help and encouragement the states of \JEgypt\j and Israel signed a peace treaty in 1979.
In the 1980s the Americans tried to bring Jewish Israelis and Arab Palestinians together. After many years of American pressure the Palestinian leader, Yasser Arafat, signed a peace treaty with the Israeli Prime Minister, Yitzhak Rabin, in 1993. By this time the Soviet Union had fallen apart and the Soviet leaders did not play a significant part in the Middle East peace treaty.
#
"Vietnam War: Reasons for US involvement",57,0,0,0
Between 1965 and 1973 US troops fought a disastrous war against communists in South Vietnam. In the end, the wealthiest country in the world was unable to defeat the Vietnamese fighters.
\BWhy did the USA fight and lose the Vietnam War? \b
\BVietnam divided\b
Vietnam had been a French colony. After the Second World War, Vietnamese nationalists and communists, led by Ho Chi Minh, fought against the French. In 1954 the French decided to pull out and Vietnam was divided in two. Communists took power in North Vietnam.
South Vietnam was ruled by an anti-communist leader called Ngo Dinh Diem. In 1959 the communist government of the North decided to encourage a revolution in the South. Southern communists, who had fled North, returned to fight. These forces were known as the Vietcong.
From 1954 South Vietnam depended on aid from the USA. American policy was based on the 'domino theory': the belief that because neighboring states are so interdependent, the collapse of one will lead to the collapse of others. The Americans used this theory as a justification of their involvement in foreign states, particularly in South-East Asia, which they felt were likely to be taken over by the communists.
In November 1961 President Kennedy began providing wide-ranging support for the army of the South, including some American soldiers as 'combat advisers'. He hoped that with this help Diem would be able to defeat the communist rebels. This did not happen. The Americans became increasingly unhappy with Diem.
In 1963 Diem's government further annoyed the USA by clashing with local Buddhists. With American approval, a group of South Vietnamese generals overthrew Diem in a coup in November 1963.
\BThe Gulf of Tonkin Incident\b
In 1964 regular North Vietnamese forces marched south along what became known as the Ho Chi Minh Trail to support the Vietcong. Without outside help South Vietnam looked doomed. American involvement increased dramatically after a clash at sea between North Vietnam and the USA in August 1964.
An American destroyer near the coast of North Vietnam was attacked by North Vietnamese ships. No serious damage was done in this so-called Gulf of Tonkin Incident. However, the new American President, Johnson, ordered the bombing of Northern naval bases in retaliation. Congress passed a resolution giving the President power to 'take all necessary steps, including the use of armed force' in order to defend South Vietnam. After this Johnson felt he had full authority to step up American involvement in the war.
#
"Vietnam War: US troops sent",58,0,0,0
\BThe arrival of US ground troops\b
By early 1965 American bombers were regularly attacking targets in the North. Johnson did not think that this was enough. He decided that the South Vietnamese needed the help of large numbers of American soldiers on the ground. In July 1965 President Johnson took a fateful step: he agreed to send 180,000 American troops to Vietnam. The number of US troops increased over the next three years until there were 540,000 American soldiers in Vietnam.
\BThe fighting intensifies\b
The arrival of large numbers of American soldiers stopped the collapse of South Vietnam and strengthened the position of the new South Vietnamese leader, General Thieu. Between 1965 and 1967 there was heavy fighting. The Americans regularly bombed North Vietnam. According to one calculation, more bombs were dropped on North Vietnam than on \JGermany\j in the Second World War. American involvement was widely criticized, and many people in the USA were unhappy about the war.
American tactics brought little success. The US forces had the technology to win straightforward battles between tanks or masse infantry. However, the Vietcong and the soldiers of North Vietnam refused to fight this kind of war. Instead they relied on guerrilla tactics: sabotage and sudden ambushes. The American response was to use:
ò massive airpower to try to bomb supply lines,
ò chemical defoliants to destroy areas of the countryside where communist soldiers might be hiding.
Neither of these methods worked; they simply angered the ordinary people of the Vietnamese countryside and increased support for the Vietcong and Ho Chi Minh.
\BThe Tet Offensive\b
In January 1968 North Vietnam launched a massive attack at the time of Tet, a religious festival. Communist troops attacked towns all over the country. They struck right in the middle of the Southern capital of \JSaigon\j, with attacks on the American embassy.
The communists hoped that the Tet Offensive would spark a popular revolution in the South. This did not happen. The losses on the communist side were enormous. About 50,000 communist troops were killed between January and March. The Americans used great force and won back the towns. American guns destroyed the historic center of the ancient city of \JHue\j, killing many civilians.
\BWhat were the results of the Tet Offensive? \b
The Tet Offensive was a turning-point in the war. Although in the short term it was a failure for the communists, in the long run it helped the North to win the war. The sight of communist fighters in the grounds of the American embassy in \JSaigon\j made a mockery of the idea that Americans were close to victory.
As a result of the violence of the attack and the clear determination of the communists, many American politicians and people became disillusioned with the war. The anti-war movement in the USA grew in strength. Leading figures in the government began to think that they could not win the war in Vietnam.
#
"Vietnam War: US calls for peace",59,0,0,0
\BJohnson bows out and peace talks begin\b
At the end of March 1968 Johnson admitted that he had failed in Vietnam. Presidential elections were due later in the year: Johnson declared that he would not be seeking re-election. He reduced the level of bombing in the North. He called for peace talks. North Vietnam agreed to negotiate and talks began in Paris in May 1968.
The peace talks got nowhere, but it was clear by the summer of 1968 that the American government was looking for a way out. A new President was elected in November 1968 - Richard Nixon - and he was determined to end the war.
\BNixon searches for peace with honor\b
The challenge for Nixon was to find a way out of Vietnam without humiliation or the clear abandoning of South Vietnam. Nixon tried a number of methods:
1. At the Paris peace talks he tried to persuade North Vietnam that North Vietnamese soldiers should withdraw from the South at the same time as American troops. He threatened a massive attack on the North if they refused to compromise. Nixon was bluffing and the government of North Vietnam called his bluff. They refused to make a deal but Nixon did not launch an attack.
2. Nixon tried to persuade the USSR and China to use their influence over the government of the North. He told the Soviets and the Chinese that if they helped him over Vietnam the Americans would help them in other areas. This approach did not work. The USSR and China saw no reason to try to help the Americans over Vietnam.
3. Nixon decided to put more of the burden of the war on the shoulders of the government of South Vietnam. He reduced the number of American soldiers and insisted that more of the fighting should be done by South Vietnamese. In April 1969 there were 543,000 American troops in Vietnam. By 1971 the number had gone down to 157,000. This policy of passing responsibility to South Vietnam was known as 'Vietnamisation'.
#
"My Lai incident strengthens anti-war protests",60,0,0,0
The American war effort was hit by another devastating blow in 1969. It became known that US troops had carried out an appalling atrocity against Vietnamese civilians. On 16 March 1968 American soldiers massacred the villagers of a place called My Lai.
The American officer, Lieutenant William Calley, was eventually court-martialled for the murder of 109 civilians. The story of what happened at My Lai horrified many Americans. They had seen their action in Vietnam as a fight against wicked communists. In My Lai all the wickedness was American.
\BProtests against the war\b
News of the atrocities at My Lai fuelled the anti-war feelings of many Americans. The war was shown on American \Jtelevision\j and this also caused many people to question why their country was fighting in Vietnam. As the peace talks made little progress in Paris there were increasing numbers of demonstrations in America calling for an end to the war.
\BDid Vietnamisation work?\b
The South Vietnamese forces were not strong enough to defeat the communists. The government of General Thieu lacked the support and loyalty of the Vietnamese people. Thieu had the backing of landlords and Catholic Church leaders but crucially he had little support from the ordinary Vietnamese people in the countryside.
As part of Vietnamisation the USA stepped up the bombing of the supply lines of the Viet Cong. This had the effect of spreading the conflict into neighboring countries of Laos and \JCambodia\j. The attacks on these countries did little to stop the supplies to the communist troops but did manage to encourage local communists.
Between 1969 and 1973 the US dropped over half a million tons of bombs on \JCambodia\j. This contributed to the support for the ruthless Cambodian communists, known as the Khmer Rouge. Communists won control of \JCambodia\j in 1975. Similarly, the communist force known as Pathet Lao gained support in Laos and took control of the whole country in 1975.
#
"Vietnam War cease-fire: 1973",61,0,0,0
The peace talks in Paris dragged on for years without achieving anything. By 1972 the communists felt strong enough to launch another all-out attack on the cities of the South, similar to the Tet Offensive. This attack was more successful than the Tet Offensive but the communists were still not able to conquer the main centers of population.
After the offensive of the summer of 1972, neither side could see any hope of victory and the peace talks started to make some progress. At last in January 1973 a cease-fire was agreed and the Americans started to take their troops home.
\BThe fall of the South: 1975\b
The American forces pulled out soon after the cease-fire agreement was signed. This ended US involvement but it did not end the war. Fighting soon resumed between the communists and the Southern forces. Two years after the agreement in Paris the North launched another major offensive against South Vietnam in March 1975. This time, relying only on South Vietnamese troops and without American air support, the \JSaigon\j government was not able to resist.
The Vietcong and the army of the North swept victoriously through the South. The war effectively ended on 29 April 1975 when the communists captured the southern capital of \JSaigon\j. American TV viewers watched in horror as thousands of south Vietnamese people fought to get on the last US helicopters out of \JSaigon\j.
\BAfter Vietnam: \Jdetente\j and a loss of confidence\b
American failure to contain \Jcommunism\j in Vietnam led to a deep re-assessment of policy towards the communist world. American leaders had been shocked by their failure in Vietnam. The cost has been enormous: 55,000 dead American soldiers and billions of dollars spent. This huge commitment had achieved nothing.
Communist governments had taken power not only in North and South Vietnam but also in the neighboring states of \JCambodia\j and Laos. In addition, Americans had lost the confidence in their mission as the world's leading nation.
The American President who took the US out of the war was Richard Nixon. Together with his adviser, Henry Kissinger, Nixon developed a new foreign policy for the post-Vietnam world. This became known as 'detente' and it involved striving for agreement and peace with the communist world.
#
"Nixon and arms control",62,0,0,0
\BNixon in China\b
Nixon tried to get better relations not only with the Soviet Union, but also with communist China. The world was surprised when Nixon announced in 1971 that he would visit China. Since 1949 the US government had treated China with contempt and had refused to 'recognize' the communist government. The visit took place in 1972 and led to much better relations between the two countries.
\BArms control\b
In dealing with the Soviet Union, Nixon emphasized the need for arms control negotiations. The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I ) began in 1969 and led to the signing of an agreement on intercontinental Ballistic Missiles in 1972. Nixon stated that American Policy on nuclear weapons was now one of 'sufficiency', rather than 'superiority': this meant that the Americans wanted enough weapons to defend themselves and were no longer committed to having more an the Soviet Union.
Detente also increased trade between the superpowers. In 1972 the US government agreed to supply wheat to the Soviet Union and soon a large proportion of all American wheat was exported to the Soviet Union.
In Europe, \Jdetente\j meant a reduction of tension over the divisions of \JGermany\j. In 1974 the USA formally recognized East \JGermany\j as an independent country. \JDetente\j allowed the two German states to establish better relations with each other.
Detente continued after Nixon's fall from office during the \JWatergate\j Scandal in 1974. Brezhnev, the Soviet leader organized a conference on the future of Europe in \JHelsinki\j between 1973 and 1975. This produced agreements on ways of avoiding confrontation between East and West and economic co-operation. The \JHelsinki\j agreements also committed all parties to respect human rights. Communist countries did very little to honor the pledge on human rights.
\BThe end of detente\b
The US president, Jimmy Carter (in office 1977-80) attempted to achieve more arms reductions through the SALT 2 talks. These talks were very protracted. Carter annoyed Brezhnev by trying to link cuts in weapons to discussions of human rights in the communist countries.
A SALT 2 treaty was finally signed in 1979. This set further limits on the number of nuclear weapons that each side could hold. The SALT 2 treaty was never ratified by the US Congress because the Soviet Union invaded \JAfghanistan\j in December 1979. The sending of troops into \JAfghanistan\j marked the end of the period of \Jdetente\j. The USA boycotted the Moscow Olympics in 1980 in order to show disapproval for the Soviet nation.
In 1981, Carter was replaced by a hard-line President, Ronald Reagan, who rejected \Jdetente\j and who started a new arms race with the Soviet Union. The early 1980s have been called the Second Cold War. Reagan attacked Soviet \Jcommunism\j in his speeches and talked of the need to oppose an 'evil empire'. His scientists were instructed to explore ways of giving the USA nuclear superiority by developing ways of shooting down Soviet missiles in space. This project was known as Star Wars, or the Defense Strategic Defense Initiative.
#
"Communism: US containment",63,0,0,0
After the communist take-over of Eastern Europe, US governments were preoccupied with the need to stop the spread of \Jcommunism\j. This policy was called containment.
\BThe fall of China: 1949\b
Led by Mao Zedong, communists took power in China in 1949. Communist success in China convinced American leaders that they needed to be more energetic in a worldwide struggle against \Jcommunism\j. This led to a huge increase in American spending on defense.
\BThe Korean War: 1950-3\b
At the end of the Second World War, Korea was divided in two at the 38th parallel - North Korea was communist, South Korea was anti-communist. North Korea invaded South Korea in June 1950. The Americans won UN support for a war against the invading North Koreans. General MacArthur led a fight-back that drove the North Koreans out of South Korea. MacArthur then continued to push deep into North Korean territory. This was going beyond 'containment' and became an attempt to 'roll back' \Jcommunism\j.
A massive Chinese army invaded to help the North Koreans in November 1950. The US army was driven back close to the original border in early 1951. There was then a military stalemate. MacArthur wanted to widen the war by attacking China itself. President Truman disagreed and dismissed MacArthur. Peace talks dragged on for two years. The war finally ended in July 1953.
\BThe Cuban Missile Crisis: 1962\b
Led by Fidel Castro, there was a revolution in \JCuba\j in 1959. Castro introduced communist ideas to \JCuba\j. The US attempted to invade and overthrow Castro, but this ended in disaster at the Bay of Pigs in 1961.
In 1962 Khrushchev, the Soviet leader, placed nuclear missiles on \JCuba\j. American spy planes discovered them and the American President, Kennedy, insisted that the missiles should be removed. There was a real possibility of a nuclear war. Eventually Khrushchev gave way and agreed to remove the missiles in return for a US promise to remove missiles in Turkey. The ending of the crisis was seen as a victory for Kennedy and a defeat for Khrushchev.
\BRestricting Soviet influence in the Middle East\b
Both the USA and the Soviet Union tried to influence states in the Middle East. The US encouraged the new Jewish state of Israel, set up in 1948. Some \JArabs\j, including the governments of \JEgypt\j and \JSyria\j and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), looked for Soviet help in their conflict with Israel.
With American money and weapons, Israel was able to defeat its Arab enemies in a series of wars (1948-9, 1967,1973). These defeats convinced the Egyptian president, Sadat, to break with the USSR. The US government enabled Israel and \JEgypt\j to sign a peace treaty in 1979.
\BThe Vietnam War: 1965-1975\b
Vietnam had been a French colony before the Second World War. The French pulled out in 1954 and Vietnam was divided between a communist state in the North, and an anti-communist state in South Vietnam. The leader of North Vietnam was Ho Chi Minh.
After 1958 communist guerillas, known as the Vietcong, helped by troops of the regular army of North Vietnam, tried to overthrow the government of South Vietnam. At first the Americans supplied the South with money and weapons and in March 1965 President Johnson sent US combat troops to Vietnam. Eventually there were 540,000 Americans fighting in Vietnam.
\BThe defeat of the USA\b
The USA was unable to defeat the Vietcong. Many people in the USA were opposed to the war. In January 1968 the Vietcong launched a massive series of attacks called the Tet Offensive. This was not a military success but it convinced American leaders that they would never win in Vietnam.
President Johnson was replaced by Richard Nixon, who was determined to pull out of Vietnam. Nixon tried 'Vietnamisation' - a policy of reducing American troops and trying to strengthen the forces of South Vietnam. In 1973 the US signed a peace treaty with North Vietnam and American troops left the country.
Vietnamisation did not work - without American forces the government of South Vietnam was overthrown by communist forces in 1975. Vietnam became a single, communist state. After the fall of Vietnam several neighboring countries also became communist.
\BAfter Vietnam: detente\b
The US presidents of the 1 970s - Nixon, Ford and Carter pursued a policy of 'detente'. This involved establishing peaceful relationships with the two great communist powers: the USSR and China.
Defeat in Vietnam reduced American self-confidence. Further disasters followed:
ò The pro-American government in \JIran\j was overthrown in a revolution in 1978. American diplomats were taken prisoner and were held hostage from 1979-81.
ò A Soviet army invaded \JAfghanistan\j in 1979 to support its new communist government.
\BThe end of detente\b
The new US President, Ronald Reagan, restored some of America's self-confidence in the 1980s. He ended \Jdetente\j. He aggressively challenged the Soviet Union and began a new arms race. This period has been called the Second Cold War. Reagan invested in 'Star Wars' (officially known as the Strategic Defense Initiative). This was intended to be a system for shooting down Soviet missiles in space. The Soviet Union could not compete.
Gorbachev came to power in the Soviet Union and established good relations with Reagan. The arms race came to an end and the Soviet Union pulled out of \JAfghanistan\j in 1988-9.
#
"Tito and Stalin",64,0,0,0
\BOrders from Moscow\b
After 1945 communists took power in some countries without Soviet help. This happened in Yugoslavia where a communist leader called Tito led a successful war against occupying German forces between 1941 and 1945. At first. Tito seemed to be highly regarded by Stalin.
In April 1945 Tito went on a tour of the USSR and was treated as a great hero. There was, however, an underlying tension between Tito and Stalin. The Yugoslav leader did not see why he should follow orders from Moscow.
Tito and Stalin argued in 1948. There were two immediate causes of this rift between Yugoslavia and the USSR: Yugoslav foreign policy was at odds with Soviet plans. Tito wanted to control the small neighboring state of \JAlbania\j. In late 1947 the Yugoslavs annoyed Stalin by sending their troops into \JAlbania\j. Tito was greatly offended by the way the Soviets recruited agents in Yugoslavia and asked them to report direct to Moscow. Many senior members of the army were asked to become Soviet spies.
The conflict between Stalin and Tito was announced to the world June 1948. Yugoslavia was thrown out of Cominform, the Soviet-led organization for world \Jcommunism\j. Stalin took action to bring Tito into line. Economic sanctions were used - the USSR and other East European states stopped trading with Yugoslavia.
Stalin was confident that Tito could be overthrown. At the beginning of the split he said. I will shake my little finger and there will be no more Tito. Stalin hoped that Yugoslav communists would turn against their leader. Tito dealt skillfully with his enemies. Local communists who sided with Stalin were arrested. People in Yugoslavia rallied round their leader.
\BTito turns West\b
Tito believed that the USA and other Western countries would support him in his dispute with Stalin. He was right. Western countries were keen to help Yugoslavia survive the economic blockade. In December 1948 the British provided a $30 million trade deal. Over the next few years the Americans gave considerable financial support.
With Western help Tito survived the early days of the split with Stalin. Having failed through other means Stalin began, in 1949, to threaten war. In the early 1950s the West began to give direct military help, as well as money. In 1951 the Americans provided the Yugoslav armed forces with equipment worth $60 million dollars.
Stalin spent his final years making sure that no other East Europe leaders tried to follow Tito. Some were accused of Titoism and executed. According to some sources Stalin was making plans to have Tito poisoned when he himself died in 1953. After the death of Stalin, the new Soviet leader, Khrushchev, ended the dispute with Yugoslavia in 1955. This was a victory for Tito, who continued with his independent foreign policy.
#
"Hungary and the Soviet Empire",65,0,0,0
In 1956 the Soviet Union shocked the world by sending troops to overthrow the government of \JHungary\j. A similar invasion of \JCzechoslovakia\j took place in 1968.
The Hungarians were a proud nation with a strong sense of identity. Before 1918 they played a key part in the running of the vast Austro-Hungarian Empire. Hungarian nationalists did not like being part of a Soviet Empire after the Second World War.
Stalin's actions increased anti-Soviet feelings in \JHungary\j. Free elections were held in November 1945. The communists got less than 20 percent of the vote. Stalin ignored the decision of the Hungarian people and imposed a government on the country in which communists had many of the most important posts.
In August 1947 another election was held in \JHungary\j. This time the Soviet Union made sure that the election was rigged so that the communists won. Between 1949 and 1953 \JHungary\j was badly treated by Stalin. Opponents of Soviet power were dealt with ruthlessly.
In 1949 the leader of the Roman Catholic Church in \JHungary\j, Cardinal Mindszenty was sentenced to life imprisonment. Even Hungarian communists were attacked if they showed any signs of disagreeing with Stalin. The leading communist. Laszlo Radk, was put on trial and hanged in 1949 because he was too independent-minded.
\BAfter Stalin\b
The death of Stalin in 1953 created a new uncertain situation in Eastern Europe. During the Stalinist years, \JHungary\j had been ruled with considerable brutality by Matyas Rakosi. Rakosi managed to hang on to power after 1953, but he was forced to invite a reformer called Imre Nagy to join his government. The two men got on badly and in 1955 Rakosi got the upper hand and threw Nagy out of the government and the party.
Hungarians were not sure how far the new Soviet leadership would allow \JHungary\j to operate as an independent country. For a number of reasons Hungarians hoped that they might be able to have greater independence:
ò The new Soviet leadership was friendly to Tito's Yugoslavia. Yugoslavia had successfully broken away from Soviet control in 1948. People in \JHungary\j thought that other countries could now follow the Yugoslav path.
ò Stalin was criticized by the new Soviet leader, Khrushchev, in a famous speech in February 1956. Hungarians hoped that Khrushchev would be very different from Stalin and would be happy with a new, independent \JHungary\j.
ò In June 1956 there were anti-Soviet demonstrations in \JPoland\j. Khrushchev looked for a compromise. He allowed reforms and he appointed Gomulka, a man who had been imprisoned by Stalin, as the new leader of the Polish Communist Party.
The news from \JPoland\j seemed like further proof that the bad old days of Soviet control were over. In fact this was a mistake: the new Soviet leaders still wanted to control the countries of the Warsaw Pact. Hungarians listened to radio broadcasts from the West that criticized \Jcommunism\j. Some felt that if \JHungary\j challenged Soviet power they could expect help from the USA.
Back in 1948 the Truman Doctrine had stated that the USA would help any people fighting against \Jcommunism\j. In practice, the US theory of containment meant that America would only threaten force to stop the spread of \Jcommunism\j: countries that were already communist could expect sympathy but no help.
\BAlarm in Moscow\b
There was an air of excitement in \JHungary\j in the summer of 1956. People heard the news from \JPoland\j. They wanted even more change in \JHungary\j. They talked about \JHungary\j breaking away from the Soviet bloc and becoming a neutral country. This was to much for Khrushchev. He could accept some changes but not Hungarian \Jneutrality\j. If \JHungary\j left the Warsaw Pact, other countries might follow. The protective buffer of friendly countries built up by Stalin might fall apart.
The Soviet leaders tried to stop the disturbances in \JHungary\j by changing the leadership of the Hungarian communists. Realising that Rakosi was extremely unpopular, the Soviet leadership forced him to resign in July 1956. The new ruler was Erno Gero. However Gero was seen as a Stalinist by many Hungarians and the change of leader made little difference.
On 6 October 1956, Laszlo Radk, the leading victim of Stalinist terror, was re-buried with a state funeral. A huge crowd turned to show their support for the memory of Radk and the idea of reform. Further demonstrations called for the removal of Gero an the reinstatement of the popular reformer Nagy. On 24 October
Nagy became Prime Minister. Khrushchev had hoped that this would end the disturbances. It did not. Across the country, workers set up revolutionary councils. They demanded a complete end to Soviet system in \JHungary\j. They called for free multi-party elections, a free Press and for \JHungary\j to leave the Warsaw Pact. Nagy agreed to accept these reforms. At this point Khrushchev decided to invade.
\BThe Soviet invasion\b
The Soviet forces reached Budapest on 4 November 1956. The Red Army forces comprised 200,000 soldiers and 2,500 tanks. The Hungarians fought against the invaders. At least 3,000 Hungarians were killed (some estimates are much higher). Despite Nagy's desperate appeal neither the United Nations nor the USA did anything to help. The powerful Soviet forces took control of \JHungary\j and imposed a new pro-Soviet government.
\BAfter the rising\b
ò The new communist government of \JHungary\j was led by a man called Janos Kadar. Under Kadar economic conditions in \JHungary\j gradually improved.
ò The supporters of the Rising were severely punished. Imre Nagy was executed in 1958.
ò The Hungarian Uprising showed East Europeans that they could expect no help from the USA if they rose up against Soviet control. The US policy of 'containment' meant that the Americans would fight to stop the spread of \Jcommunism\j but would not interfere if a country was already communist.
ò There was a period of uneasy peace in Eastern Europe for the next 10 years. It was not until the mid-1960s that people in the satellite states once again challenged Soviet control. In 1968 the government of \JCzechoslovakia\j decided to develop a new form of \Jcommunism\j that was much more liberal than Soviet \Jcommunism\j.
ò Communists around the world were dismayed by the way the Soviet Union used force against the Hungarian people. In Western Europe many communists were disillusioned. In China the leaders became more wary of Moscow.
ò The invasion was a blow to the reputation of the United Nations. It did nothing to stop an act of aggression by one member state on another member state.
#
"Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Empire",66,0,0,0
Economic problems were a major cause of calls for reform in \JCzechoslovakia\j. The country had been economically successful before the Second World War. By the mid- 1960s many people were very disappointed with the standard of living under Soviet-style \Jcommunism\j.
Czechoslovakia had also been a democracy before the war and people resented their lack of freedom of speech under the Soviet system. In 1966 there were student demonstrations and public criticism of the way the Soviet Union controlled the economy of \JCzechoslovakia\j. The student protesters called for greater democracy and free speech.
In January 1968 a new communist leader, Alexander Dubcek, was appointed. He was determined to improve \Jcommunism\j. His plans were described as ' \Jsocialism\j with a human face', and the early months of 1968 have become known as the 'Prague Spring'. Dubcek began to introduce a number of reforms:
ò the Soviet system of state planning would be altered to give more responsibility to farms and factories,
ò trade unions would be given greater freedom, more foreign travel to the West would be allowed,
ò censorship of the Press would be abolished so that people could say and write what they liked,
ò criticism of the government would not be seen as a crime.
At the same time Dubcek was still a communist. He did not want to introduce Western-style \Jcapitalism\j. Dubcek knew what had happened in 1956. He tried to reassure the Soviet leaders that his reforms were less radical than those called for during the Hungarian Uprising. He stated repeatedly that he wanted \JCzechoslovakia\j to remain a loyal member of the Warsaw Pact. He insisted that changes in \JCzechoslovakia\j were no threat to the security of the Soviet Union.
Brezhnev, the Soviet leader, did not accept these assurances from Dubcek. He was afraid that once the communist system allowed free speech the country would become chaotic. Brezhnev felt that the Czechoslovak reforms were the first step towards the country leaving the communist bloc and becoming a Western-style country, allied to the USA. He was not prepared to allow this.
Czechoslovakia was in an important strategic position. If it was allied to the USA, it would provide a corridor along which American forces could march from West \JGermany\j to the Soviet \JUkraine\j. Brezhnev was also under pressure from hard-line communists in East \JGermany\j. They argued that if free speech was allowed in \JCzechoslovakia\j, people in all other Eastern bloc countries would demand the same rights. This would weaken the power of the communist parties throughout Eastern Europe.
\BHelp from the USA?\b
Brezhnev, the Soviet leader, began to plan an invasion of \JCzechoslovakia\j. By late July Soviet tanks and troops were massed on the Czechoslovak border. Brezhnev was encouraged by developments in the West. The American government was in crisis in the summer of 1968. There were race riots in the black districts of several cities.
The war in Vietnam had gone disastrously wrong for the USA. Brezhnev calculated that there was no possibility of America taking any action to stop the invasion. The Vietnam crisis distracted attention from \JCzechoslovakia\j, just as in 1956 the Suez crisis reduced the impact of the invasion of \JHungary\j.
Dubcek's response to the Soviet threat made matters worse. He invited Tito, the independent communist leader of Yugoslavia, to \JPrague\j. Tito arrived on 9 August. To Brezhnev this seemed like a signal that Dubcek was moving away from the Warsaw Pact and towards the same independent position taken by Yugoslavia. Dubcek also entered into negotiations with the Romanian leader, Nicolae Ceausescu.
A pact of friendship between \JCzechoslovakia\j and \JRomania\j was signed. The Romanian leader also resented control from Moscow. The closer ties between these two countries seemed like an attempt to undermine Soviet control of the Warsaw Pact.
\BWarsaw Pact forces invade\b
Soviet forces crossed the Czechoslovak frontier on 20 August 1968. They were joined by token forces from East \JGermany\j, \JPoland\j and \JBulgaria\j. A day later the Warsaw Pact forces were in \JPrague\j, the Capital of \JCzechoslovakia\j. Large-scale loss of life was avoided because the Czechoslovak government decided not to resist the invading army. People took to the streets to protest but there was none of the bloody street fighting that had taken place in Budapest in 1956.
The Soviet troops took Dubcek to Moscow and ordered him to abandon his reforms. He was finally removed from office in 1969. A pro-Soviet leader called Husak took his place. Soviet power was demonstrated in May 1970 when a Soviet-Czechoslovak treaty was signed. In this the Czechoslovaks were forced to thank the Soviets for the invasion.
\BThe aftermath of \JCzechoslovakia\j 1968\b
After the invasion Brezhnev said that the Soviet Union was not prepared to let any communist country abandon \Jcommunism\j. If a state did try to give up \Jcommunism\j, the Soviet Union claimed the right to impose \Jcommunism\j by force. This view became known as the Brezhnev Doctrine. The doctrine was finally abandoned in the 1980s.
The way the Soviet Union dealt with \JCzechoslovakia\j was less bloody than the treatment of \JHungary\j after 1956. Nagy was executed. Dubcek was thrown out of the communist party in 1970. He spent the 1970s and 1980s working as a \Jforestry\j inspector. However, he kept his life and his freedom.
The government of China was unhappy at the invasion and it led to a further deterioration in relations between the two communist superpowers. The Chinese disliked the way the Soviet Union treated other communist countries. Afterwards, Mao encouraged Yugoslavia and \JRomania\j to remain independent of Moscow. There were border clashes between Soviet and Chinese troops in the months after the invasion.
The invasion disillusioned communists around the world. In Western Europe many communists stopped looking to Moscow for guidance. In the 1970s the powerful Italian and French communist parties called for a new style of \Jcommunism\j that allowed free speech and free elections.
#
"Berlin Wall (in detail)",67,0,0,0
In 1945 Berlin was divided into American, British, French and Soviet zones. Berlin itself was deep inside the Soviet zone of eastern \JGermany\j. This created a curious situation in Berlin. The American, British and French zones joined together to form a single area known as West Berlin. It became an island of Western \Jcapitalism\j in the middle of the communist sea of East \JGermany\j. In 1961 a wall was built to separate East and West Berlin. This became the most famous symbol of the Cold War.
\BWhy was the Berlin Wall built? \b
\BBerlin and Moscow\b
The existence of West Berlin was very annoying to Soviet leaders in Moscow:
ò It was much more prosperous than communist East \JGermany\j and was an advertisement for the economic success of Western Europe.
ò Western governments used Berlin as a headquarters for their spying activities.
ò German people could move freely from communist East \JGermany\j to West Berlin. Many decided to flee via West Berlin. Between 1949 and 1960, 3 million East Germans fled to the West through Berlin. These people were often young, talented and well-educated. The communist government could not afford to lose its future managers and leaders.
The crisis over Berlin was not simply about the problems the city posed for East \JGermany\j. It was part of the wider Cold War struggle between the USA and the USSR. In the early 1960s both countries had confident aggressive leaders. The Soviet leader was Nikita Khrushchev and the American leader was John F. Kennedy. Each one was convinced that his side was right and each one was ready to threaten war to get what he wanted.
\BKhrushchev and the Soviet challenge\b
Nikita Khrushchev had emerged victorious from the power struggle that followed the death of Stalin in 1953. Khrushchev was confident that Soviet \Jcommunism\j would eventually triumph over Western democracy and \Jcapitalism\j. He believed that the communist world was just about to overtake the West in wealth and scientific research.
In October 1957 the Soviets launched the world's first ever satellite, called \JSputnik\j. Khrushchev thought that this proved the strength of the communist world. Convinced of the increasing power of \Jcommunism\j. Khrushchev decided to extend communist influence in Europe. He chose Berlin as the place for a trial of strength.
\BKhrushchev calls for a neutral Berlin\b
The crisis that led to the building of the wall started in 1958 when Khrushchev called for the end of the four-power control of Berlin. He set a time limit of six months for the settlement of the future of Berlin. There was a vague threat of war if the matter was not resolved. His own plan was that Berlin should become a neutral free city and Western troops should withdraw.
The Western powers were divided about how to react to Khrushchev. The West German leader, Konrad Adenauer, was strongly against any deal. By contrast, the US President, Eisenhower, was ready to negotiate over the future of Berlin. As the deadline approached Eisenhower made it clear that he did not want to risk a war over Berlin. Khrushchev dropped his ultimatum. At a summit meeting in September 1959 Eisenhower said that he was prepared to make concessions on the future of Berlin.
\BThe U-2 spy plane incident\b
So far, Khrushchev had been very successful. Through threatening war he had divided the Western allies and won a promise of change from the US President, Eisenhower. Khrushchev and Eisenhower agreed to meet for further discussions about Berlin in May 1960.
This meeting did not take place. Just before it was due to start, an American U-2 spy plane was shot down over Soviet territory. The pilot, Gary Powers, was taker prisoner and put on trial. Khrushchev demanded an apology. Eisenhower refused to apologize. Khrushchev cancelled the summit meeting. As a result he missed his chance to do a deal over Berlin.
\BA change of president\b
Eisenhower retired at the end of 1960. The new President was the young John F. Kennedy. In his election speeches Kennedy said that he was going to be tougher with the Soviets than Eisenhower.
\BThe threat of war\b
Kennedy brought a new firm approach to the argument over Berlin Kennedy and Khrushchev met in Vienna in June 1961. This was unfriendly and unsuccessful. Khrushchev demanded that Berlin should become neutral. He angrily talked about the danger of war if the USA refused to pull out of Berlin. Banging his hands on the conference table. Khrushchev said. 'I want peace, but if you want war, that is your problem.' Kennedy ended the conference by saying, 'It's going to be a cold winter.'
Afterwards Khrushchev repeated his demands in public and insisted, as he had done with Eisenhower, that the USA must act within six months. At the same time he increased Soviet spending on defense by 30 per cent. Unlike Eisenhower, Kennedy was in no mood to do a deal.
At the end of July Kennedy announced a complete rejection of the Soviet demands. He ordered a massive increase in the American armed services: the number of troops was increased by 15 per cent, spending on defense was increased by $3 billion and many new \Jaircraft\j and warships were ordered. In public speeches both Kennedy and Khrushchev suggested that they were ready for war over Berlin.
Behind the angry words it seems that neither side was really willing to start a nuclear war over the future of Berlin.
\BBuilding the wall\b
While Khrushchev threatened nuclear war, he secretly planned a different solution to the Berlin crisis. The continued uncertainty over Berlin increased the number of East Germans who fled to West Berlin. Every day over a thousand East Germans entered the Western part of the city. In the early hours of 13 August 1961 barbed wire and barricades were erected all around West Berlin. When the people of West Berlin woke up their city was sealed off from East \JGermany\j. The barbed wire was later replaced by more substantial barriers; the Berlin Wall was created.
\BWho gained and who lost from the building of the Berlin Wall?\b
ò The flow of refugees from East to West stopped almost completely. This allowed the communists to consolidate their control over East \JGermany\j.
ò Enemies of \Jcommunism\j could argue that \Jcommunism\j was so awful that people had to be walled in to make sure that they did not run away from \Jcommunism\j.
ò Between 1948 and 1960 there was a real possibility that arguments about Berlin would lead to a Third World War. This possibility stopped with the building of the Berlin Wall.
ò People in East \JGermany\j who did not support \Jcommunism\j were now trapped. Those who tried to get over the wall were shot.
ò The building of the wall was the beginning of a period of calm in Europe. On both sides people accepted that there was no immediate prospect of change and the level of tension went down.
#
"Solidarity (history)",68,0,0,0
In 1980 a remarkable new development took place in Eastern Europe. Since the communist take over in the 1940s Moscow had not allowed any real political opposition to \Jcommunism\j in the countries of Eastern Europe. In \JPoland\j, in 1980. this changed. A powerful non-communist organization called Solidarity challenged the government.
\BWhat part did Solidarity play in the decline of Soviet power? \b
\BThe challenge of Poland\b
With a population of 35 million, \JPoland\j was, after the Soviet Union, the largest country in Eastern Europe and there were several reasons why the Soviets had problems controlling \JPoland\j:
1. Much of \JPoland\j had been ruled by \JRussia\j since the eighteenth century. Most Poles were proud of their nation and disliked Soviet \Jcommunism\j.
2. The Second World War increased the Poles' hatred for Soviet \JRussia\j. Stalin had carved up their country with Hitler in 1939. In 1940 Stalin massacred thousands of Polish Army officers and buried them at Katyn. In 1944 the Soviet Red Army deliberately allowed the Warsaw Rising to fail, with huge loss of Polish life.
3. Most Poles were Catholics. The Catholic Church, which was too well-organized to be broken by the communists, encouraged Polish \Jnationalism\j. In 1978 a leading Polish churchman became Pope John Paul 11.
4. Ordinary Polish people had more power than in other communist countries. Polish farmers successfully held on to their own farms. Among Polish factory workers there was a strong tradition of using strikes against the government. In 1956 and 1970 strikes had forced the communist government to change both its leaders and its policies.
\BThe birth of Solidarity\b
Polish living standards were poor in the 1970s. The communist government had large international debt. In July 1980 new price rises led to widespread unrest and strikes. Strikers were particularly active at the Lenin shipyards in the town of Gdansk (formerly Danzig).
The workers at Gdansk were led by a remarkable man, an electrician called Lech Walesa. He was a brilliant speaker. In August the striking workers set up a new trade union called Solidarity. Unlike all other trade unions in communist states, Solidarity was not controlled by communists. Soon it had 9 million members and was demanding not only better conditions for workers, but also more political and religious freedom.
Unrest spread throughout \JPoland\j. The communist leader, Gierek, was replaced in September as the communist party tried to find a way out of the crisis. In November, judges in the Polish Supreme Court sided with Solidarity and declared that the union was legal.
Once Solidarity was formed and became a national force, the Polish communist leaders were in an impossible position:
ò If they tried to destroy Solidarity they would be despised by the great majority of the Polish people.
ò If they accepted the existence of a non-communist opposition force they risked provoking an armed invasion by the USSR.
\BSend in the tanks?\b
In December 1980 and March 1981 the Soviet leaders considered sending troops into \JPoland\j to impose Soviet power. just as they had done in \JHungary\j in 1956 and \JCzechoslovakia\j in 1968. They decided against immediate armed intervention but urged the Polish communists to destroy Solidarity before it got out of control. A new Polish Prime Minister was appointed called Wodciech Jaruzelski. He was a communist and an army general. The Soviet leaders made it clear to him that he must control Solidarity or expect a Soviet invasion.
\BMartial law\b
Jaruzelski tried to negotiate with Solidarity but the talks were not successful. In December 1981 he took the advice from Moscow and declared a state of martial law in \JPoland\j. This meant that the army had emergency powers. The leaders of Solidarity and thousands of its supporters were arrested and held without trial. Meetings and demonstrations were forbidden. Many supporters of Solidarity lost their jobs. In October 1982 the government tried to replace Solidarity with new communist unions.
Jaruzelski's attempt to destroy Solidarity did not work. Walesa was imprisoned but this made him seem even more of a hero. The movement survived underground. No one took the new unions seriously. Communist party members left the party in huge numbers. Almost a year after the declaration of martial law in November 1982, Wa1esa was released from prison.
In 1983 Walesa was awarded a Nobel Prize for his work for Solidarity. In the same year the Pope visited \JPoland\j and was greeted with great enthusiasm. He was another symbol of hope for Polish opponents of \Jcommunism\j. In 1984, Polish people were outraged to learn that Father Jerzy Popielusko, a priest who supported the union, had been beaten to death by secret police. The continuing support for Solidarity was shown when a quarter of a million people attended his funeral.
\BThe impact of Gorbachev\b
In 1985 the political mood in \JPoland\j began to change because of the rise to power of Gorbachev in the USSR. By calling for greater freedom in the Soviet Union Gorbachev undermined old-style \Jcommunism\j in Eastern Europe. The threat of Russian tanks also began to disappear.
Jaruzelski introduced reforms similar to those being tried in the USSR under Gorbachev. Jaruzelski held a referendum in November 1987 asking for backing for his economic reforms. He failed to win enough votes which was a great blow to his authority. In 1988 Walesa and the still illegal Solidarity organized a nationwide series of strikes against price rises. Walesa called for talks with the government and finally Jaruzelski agreed. As a result of these talks Solidarity was once again legalized and elections were organized for June 1989.
\BSolidarity triumphs in elections\b
For the first time since the 1940s free elections were being held in Eastern Europe but the freedom was limited. They were organized so that 65 per cent of seats in the main chamber of the Polish Parliament were reserved for communists. Nevertheless the elections were a disaster for the communists. So few people voted for them that they looked ridiculous. Almost all leading communists failed to get elected.
The Polish people voted massively for Solidarity. In the Polish Senate, the second chamber of the Polish parliament, there were no restrictions and Solidarity won 99 out of 100 seats. Weeks of chaos followed as the discredited communists tried and failed to form a government. Eventually, Jaruzelski agreed that Solidarity could help to form a government.
In August, Tadeuz Mazowiecki, a leading member of Solidarity, became the Prime Minister of a coalition government that included both communist and Solidarity ministers. In less than a year Solidarity had gone from being illegal to being the leading part of the government. The remaining communist ministers soon resigned and the Solidarity take-over was complete.
#
"Communism: The decline",69,0,0,0
Between 1985 to 1991 Mikhail Gorbachev was the leader of the USSR. In 1989 Soviet control of Eastern Europe collapsed. In 1991 the Soviet Union fell apart.
\BWas Gorbachev responsible for the collapse of \Jcommunism\j in Europe? \b
\BThe standard of living\b
In the early 1960s, communists had been convinced that \Jcommunism\j was better than \Jcapitalism\j and that the communist states would soon produce more goods than in the USA and Western Europe. By the 1980s it was clear that \Jcommunism\j had failed to deliver high living standards.
Most people in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe were much poorer than the people of Western Europe. Some basic goods, such as sugar, were rationed. The gap between communist and capitalist economies was growing all the time. The Soviet Union and its allies were not able to compete with the West in the new industries of the 1980s - computers and telecommunications.
By the 1980s Soviet farming had failed. The Soviet Union had rich land at its disposal but it could not produce enough food to feed its people. Many people worked on the land but they were very inefficient. In the 1980s farming employed over 20per cent of the workforce, compared with 3 per cent in the USA. On average each American farmer produced seven times more food than each Soviet farmer. As a result the USSR had to import millions of tons of grain, much of it from the USA.
\BCorruption and the decline of communism\b
The founders of \Jcommunism\j promised a new kind of state based on fairness and equality. Under the leadership of Brezhnev, Soviet \Jcommunism\j moved a long way from these ideals and became more corrupt. As a result ordinary people had less respect for \Jcommunism\j.
It was widely known that the family of Brezhnev was corrupt. Leading communists had luxurious country houses or 'dachas' built for themselves. According to one joke that circulated in the Soviet Union at the time, Brezhnev showed his own mother round a new luxury house that he had just had built: his mother commented, 'It's wonderful, Leonid. But what happens if the communists come back to power?'
\BA second Cold War\b
With the communist economies in trouble, the cost of the Cold War became more and more unbearable. The price of weapons was constantly increasing. By the 1980s a single bomber cost the same as 200 bombers built during the Second World War. America and its allies could afford these higher costs because their economies were doing well. The Soviet Union could only keep up with the USA by diverting a huge proportion of its national income to defense. People suffered even lower living standards as tanks were built instead of cars and televisions.
The cost of the Cold War began to increase when the US President, Ronald Reagan, came to power in 1981: He rejected the idea of \Jdetente\j and encouraged a policy of confrontation with the Soviets. He took the view that \Jcommunism\j was wicked and needed to be approached with great firmness. Reagan increased military spending and challenged the USSR to join a new arms race.
The early 1980s have been called the 'Second Cold War' because there was heightened tension between the USA and the Soviet Union. The competition between the superpowers was symbolized by Reagan's 'Star Wars' project (officially known as SDI: the Strategic Defense Initiative). This project involved research into ways of giving America nuclear superiority by destroying Soviet missiles in space.
\BWar in Afghanistan\b
Brezhnev made a big mistake in December 1979. Soviet troops invaded \JAfghanistan\j to support its communist government. The invasion was widely criticized and lost the USSR many friends. It led to a widespread boycott of the Olympic Games that were held in Moscow. \JAfghanistan\j was a Muslim country and the USSR was criticized by much of the Islamic world. The Afghan rebels received help from the USA and the invasion encouraged Reagan to take a tough anti-Soviet stance when he became president in 1980.
The Soviet military action was a failure. The official Afghan army was not strong enough to win alone and once the Soviet forces had become involved it became very difficult to withdraw. With Soviet help the Afghan government controlled Kabul, the capital, and other large towns, but the rebels controlled much of the countryside. More and more Soviet troops were needed to prop up an unpopular government. In the early 1980s there were about 125,000 Soviet troops in the country.
The situation of the Soviets in \JAfghanistan\j was similar to that of the Americans in Vietnam a decade earlier. The 10-year war led to the death of about 15,000 Soviet troops. It also damaged the Soviet economy: one estimate is that the war cost the USSR about $8 billion dollars a year. The last Soviet troops finally left \JAfghanistan\j in February 1989.
#
"Andropov and Gorbachev",70,0,0,0
The ideas of Gorbachev were not completely original. By 1980 there were many younger, idealistic communists who were disgusted by corruption and wanted to reform the system. Several reformers gathered around the head of the \JKGB\j, Yuri Andropov. Gorbachev was one of this group. Brezhnev died in 1982 and Andropov became the new Soviet leader. Within a few months he became desperately ill and he died in February 1984. Although he was not in power long, Andropov introduced some policies that were later developed by Gorbachev:
ò He called for an end to the arms race, and offered to reduce the Soviet stockpile of weapons in return for American reductions.
ò He attacked corruption at home.
Andropov made a number of offers to Reagan. One of these was revolutionary - this was a plan to abandon the Brezhnev Doctrine and to promise never again to invade other Warsaw Pact countries. Reagan did not take this offer seriously and it came to nothing.
Although Andropov had many original ideas he did little to provide more freedom for the people of the Soviet Union. As the \JKGB\j Chairman from 1967-82 he had played a key role in the persecution of \Jdissidents\j, nationalists and different religious groups. After the death of Andropov. the new leader of the Soviet Union was Konstantin Chernenko. He had little interest in reform.
Like Andropov, Chernenko did not live long enough to have much impact. He died in 1985 and his replacement as General Secretary was the reformer Mikhail Gorbachev. He introduced policies of 'glasnost' or 'openness' and 'perestroika' or 'economic restructuring'.
One critical difference between Gorbachev and Andropov was in the way glasnost gave new freedom to the people of the Soviet Union. This was a radical change. Control of ideas had always been a central part of the Soviet system. Under glasnost, people were told an increasing amount about the atrocities committed by the government when Stalin had been in power. Thousands of political prisoners were released. The leading dissident Andrei Sakharov was released in 1986.
\BThe Gorbachev Agenda\b
The economy was failing. The communist system needed to be reformed but not replaced. This would be done by a process called 'perestroika' or 'restructuring'.
Perestroika would require a new honesty on the part of people in the Soviet Union. Free speech should be allowed. There should be a new spirit of 'glasnost' or 'openness'. There should be an end to the persecution of the \Jdissidents\j. Corruption must be stamped out.
A key cause of the economic problems was the amount of money being spent on defense. To reduce this the Soviet Union should: pull out of \JAfghanistan\j; negotiate arms reductions with the USA; and stop interfering in the affairs of other communist countries.
Another distinctive feature of the Gorbachev leadership was the energy and imagination with which he pursued the idea of disarmament with the US president, Reagan. Unlike Andropov he was able to persuade Reagan that he genuinely wanted an end to the Cold War.
The two men met, face-to-face, at a series of summit meetings. The main focus for these discussions was arms control. The result was a major disarmament treaty in 1987. Both the USA and the Soviet Union agreed to remove medium-range nuclear missiles from Europe within three years.
\BWithdrawal from Afghanistan\b
As soon as he was in office, Gorbachev began to explore ways of ending the war in \JAfghanistan\j without destroying the communist government in that country. In February 1988 he announced publicly that the Soviet army was going to pull out of \JAfghanistan\j The withdrawal began in May 1988. By February 1989 the last Soviet troops had left.
\BFailure at home\b
Gorbachev had many triumphs in foreign policy but he was less successful at home. By encouraging free speech Gorbachev simply brought problems out into the open. He wanted to make the Soviet system of centrally planned production more efficient. This did not happen. The levels of corruption and inefficiency in the economy were too great. The managers of the Soviet economy saw the reforms as a threat to their jobs and they blocked the changes.
#
"Gorbachev and the fall of the Iron Curtain",71,0,0,0
\BThe end of the Brezhnev Doctrine\b
Another foreign policy breakthrough came in December 1988, when Gorbachev spoke at the United Nations. He announced huge cuts in the Soviet armed forces. Gorbachev also made it clear that the Brezhnev Doctrine was now abandoned: the countries of Eastern Europe could do what they liked. There would be no more Soviet tanks rolling into \JPrague\j or Budapest.
\B1989: year of revolution\b
When it became clear that the Soviet Union was no longer ready to use force to control its Empire, there was rapid change. In May 1989 the Hungarian government opened the frontier with \JAustria\j; there was now a gap in the Iron Curtain. In June free elections were held in \JPoland\j. Solidarity won and in August led a new non-communist government.
Gorbachev expressed support for a peaceful handover of power. The rolling back of \Jcommunism\j in Eastern Europe had begun. Many young East Germans made their way to \JHungary\j and passed though \JAustria\j into West \JGermany\j. This made a nonsense of the Berlin Wall.
In October 1989 Gorbachev visited East \JGermany\j for the celebration of the fortieth anniversary of the state. Behind the scenes Gorbachev explained to East German leaders that he had no intention of using Russian force to stop reform. A month later, on 10 November, the Berlin Wall was torn down. The most famous symbol of the Cold War had been destroyed.
On 17 November a series of massive anti-communist demonstrations took place in \JCzechoslovakia\j. By early December the Czechoslovak communist government had collapsed. On 21 December a revolution began in \JRomania\j. The Romanian dictator, Ceausescu, was executed on Christmas Day.
Throughout Eastern Europe there was no popular support for \Jcommunism\j and, without the threat of Soviet tanks, \JCommunism\j fell apart. In 1990 the two halves of \JGermany\j were re-united and a single pro-Western state was established.
\BThe last days of the USSR\b
After 1989 Gorbachev was in a difficult position. His plan to reform \Jcommunism\j had failed. \JCommunism\j had been rejected by Eastern Europe and different nationalities demanded independence from the Soviet Union. The call for independence was strongest in the Baltic republics of \JLatvia\j, \JLithuania\j and \JEstonia\j. In \JRussia\j itself, the heart of the USSR, many people demanded an end to \Jcommunism\j. On 4 February l990, 250,000 people demonstrated in Moscow against \Jcommunism\j.
With his plans in ruins Gorbachev responded by drawing back from reform and trying to make an alliance with old style, hard-line communists. On May Day 1990, demonstrators humiliated Gorbachev by shouting at him in public during the traditional communist march.
\BThe rise of Yeltsin\b
Boris Yeltsin became the leader of the reformists. He had been a communist boss in the city of Moscow until he was dismissed in 1987 by Gorbachev because of his radical views. In May 1990 Yeltsin was elected President of \JRussia\j. The USSR was divided into separate republics and \JRussia\j was the largest of them. A month later Yeltsin left the communist party and joined forces with those who wanted to destroy Soviet \Jcommunism\j. Gorbachev was losing control of events.
In the autumn of 1990 Gorbachev tried to stop the disintegration of the USSR by using force against nationalists in the Baltic republics At the same time Gorbachev appointed more old-style communists to key positions of government. This new hard line from Gorbachev was not a success. He began to lose many of his long-standing friends and supporters.
In December 1990 the Soviet Foreign Minister, Eduard Shevardnadze, resigned and complained of a move towards dictatorship. This was a great blow - Shevardnadze had been one of Gorbachev's allies for many years.
\BThe fall of Gorbachev\b
The struggle for control of the USSR came to a head in 1991. Yeltsin attacked the power of the communist party in the daily life of Russian people. He banned the party from operating at all places of work. The Russian Parliament that Yeltsin controlled became more powerful and challenged the central government of Gorbachev. Gorbachev did not know which way to turn.
In August 1991 a group of hard-line communists tried to seize power. They arrested Gorbachev and declared a state of emergency. The coup was opposed by Boris Yeltsin and it soon collapsed. After the coup, the authority of Gorbachev was damaged. In December 1991 the individual Soviet republics became independent and Gorbachev resigned as Soviet leader. The Soviet state, born in the 1917 revolution, no longer existed.
#
"Soviet Empire 1948-91",72,0,0,0
\BThe split with Tito\b
The Yugoslav communist leader, Tito, liberated Yugoslavia from German control without help from Moscow. He argued with Stalin and refused to take orders from Moscow. In 1948 Yugoslavia was expelled from Cominform, the international grouping of communist parties.
The Soviet Union imposed a trade ban on Yugoslavia but they survived due to support from the USA. Stalin dealt ruthlessly with other East European countries between 1949 and 1953. He was worried that they might try to copy Tito. Leading communists with independent ideas were imprisoned or executed.
\BTurmoil in the Communist World after Stalin\b
ò After Stalin's death in 1953 people in Eastern Europe hoped for more freedom from Soviet control.
ò The new Soviet leader, Khrushchev, established friendly relations with Yugoslavia in 1955. Hungarians hoped to copy Yugoslav independence.
ò In 1956 unrest in \JPoland\j led to reforms and concessions by the communist government. This encouraged Hungarians to demand reforms.
\BThe Hungarian Uprising\b
In October 1956 unrest in \JHungary\j led to the appointment of a new Prime Minister, the communist reformer, Imre Nagy. People demanded that \JHungary\j should leave the Warsaw Pact and become neutral. Nagy agreed but in November 1956 Soviet troops invaded \JHungary\j and imposed a new pro-Soviet government. There was fierce street fighting in which thousands of people were killed. Nagy was arrested and later executed. The USA did nothing to help the Hungarians: people in the West were preoccupied with the Suez crisis.
\BThe \JPrague\j Spring\b
Economic problems caused unrest in \JCzechoslovakia\j in 1967. A new communist leader, Dubcek, took power in January 1968. He introduced democratic reforms while remaining communist. In August 1968 Soviet troops invaded \JCzechoslovakia\j to end the reforms. Dubcek lost his job in 1969 and a pro-Soviet government was put in place. Afterwards the Soviet leader, Brezhnev, announced the Brezhnev Doctrine: the Soviet Union would use force to keep communists in power in any country.
\B1956 and 1968 compared\b
ò In both cases the Soviet Union used force to end reforms in East European countries. New pro-Soviet governments were imposed.
ò The Hungarian government wanted to break with the Soviet Union, leave the Warsaw Pact and become neutral. The Czechoslovak government wanted much more democracy at home but promised to stay in the Warsaw Pact.
ò In both cases the USA did nothing to help. The West was preoccupied with Suez in 1956 and Vietnam in 1968.
ò The Hungarians fought against the Soviet invasion thousands were killed. The Czechoslovak people offered non-violent resistance. The Hungarian leader, Nagy, was executed; the Czechoslovak leader, Dubcek, lost his job, but remained alive and free.
\BThe Berlin Wall\b
Between 1958 and 1961 there was a dispute between the Soviet Union and the USA over Berlin. The Soviet leader, Khrushchev, said that Western forces should leave the city and that it should become neutral. The US president, Eisenhower, was prepared to compromise but he was replaced in 1961 by President Kennedy.
Kennedy refused to compromise and both leaders publicly threatened war over Berlin. In 1961 the crisis was resolved. and the threat of immediate war disappeared, when a wall was built around West Berlin to stop East Germans fleeing the communist state.
\BPoland and the rise of Solidarity\b
Shipyard workers in Gdansk went on strike in 1980 in protest against rising prices. They were led by Lech Walesa and formed a new non-communist trade union called Solidarity. Millions of workers joined Solidarity. The Soviet government considered invading \JPoland\j in order to crush the union.
To avoid this the Polish communist leader, Jaruzelski, banned Solidarity in December 1981. He declared martial law and imprisoned Solidarity leaders without trial but failed to destroy the union. Solidarity did well in elections in 1989 and formed a non-communist government.
\BSoviet \JCommunism\j in decline\b
The Soviet Union was in crisis by the early 1980s:
ò The economy had failed to match the economies of America and Western Europe.
ò The arms race further reduced living standards.
ò There was widespread corruption.
ò The Soviet Union was fighting a disastrous war in \JAfghanistan\j.
\BThe second Cold War\b
After the Vietnam War the USA pursued a policy of \Jdetente\j with the Soviet Union. This involved peaceful co-existence and some arms reductions. Ronald Reagan became president of the USA in 1981 and he ended \Jdetente\j and began a new arms race with the USSR.
\BGorbachev\b
Mikhail Gorbachev, a reformist communist, took control in the Soviet Union in 1985. He wanted to improve the Soviet Union by 'perestroika' - 'restructuring' or reforming the economy and 'glasnost' - greater 'openness' and freedom of speech. His reforms undermined the position of old-style pro-Soviet leaders in other countries. He renounced the 'Brezhnev Doctrine' of interference in other countries.
The whole of communist Europe was swept with revolution in 1989. One by one, the communist authorities were overthrown. The Soviet Union led by Gorbachev did nothing to stop this process. The Berlin Wall was torn down in November 1989. In 1991 the Soviet Union fell apart. After a failed communist coup in August, the republics that made up the USSR declared their independence. Gorbachev resigned. \JRussia\j became a separate state ruled over by Boris Yeltsin.
#
"United Nations: Overview",73,0,0,0
Towards the end of the Second World War the victorious allies decided to set up a world organization to replace the failed League of Nations. The United Nations was founded in 1945. From 1952, the UN had a permanent headquarters in New York.
\BPower in the UN\b
ò The Secretary General
The person in charge of the day-to-day running of the United Nations is called the Secretary General.
ò The General Assembly
All member states send representatives to a General Assembly. This is a place for the discussion of world problems. By 1995 there were 185 members of the General Assembly. It has no real power. It can make recommendations but they are not binding on members. Before 1960 the USA had great influence over the General Assembly. This changed as more and more former colonies became independent. The newly independent countries were often critical of US policy.
ò The Security Council
Power in the UN lies in the hands of a small committee of member states called the Security Council. This originally had representatives from eleven countries; the number was increased to fifteen in 1965. Five powerful countries had permanent membership: the USA, the USSR (Russia since 1992), China, Britain and \JFrance\j.
Each permanent member of the Security Council has a veto over any decisions. The veto rule can stop the Security Council from being effective. In the days of the Cold War the Americans and the Soviets rarely agreed on major issues. The USSR repeatedly used its power of veto. Other countries took turns at having membership of the Security Council.
\BThe UN in action\b
The UN has been effective on some occasions when the use of force had the full backing of the USA. The Korean War ( 1950-3 ) and the Gulf War ( 1990-91 ) were both fought by the USA in the name of the UN. If two sides in a conflict were ready to talk, the UN was able to mediate and bring them together. In this way the UN helped to bring about cease-fires at the end of wars such as the Iran-Iraq War ( 1980-88 ).
Like the League of Nations before it, the United Nation has no armed forces of its own. The UN had great difficulty in peace-keeping during the civil wars that started in 1991 in the former Yugoslavia.
While the UN has only had limited success in peace-keeping, it has done much good in many other areas of life. There are a large number of UN agencies that aim to help different groups of people across the world. The World Health Organization runs projects in many poor countries in order to improve people's health.
The Food and Agriculture Organization encourages farmers in poorer countries to develop farming methods. The United Nations High Commission for Refugees provides basic help to people who have had to flee their homeland.
\BThe work and success of the UN\b
The UN was set up in 1945 by the winners of the Second World War. The main features of the organization were:
ò a large General Assembly with little power:
ò a powerful Security Council with five permanent and ten (originally six) temporary members.
\BPurpose and Problems\b
The aims of the United Nations were stated in the United Nations Charter of June 1945:
ò to encourage peace and avoid war;
ò to develop international co-operation;
ò to encourage economic and social progress;
ò to promote respect for human rights.
The UN has not been very successful in peace-keeping. The Security Council has been stopped from taking firm action because of the right of veto held by permanent members and the Cold War conflict between the USA and the USSR.
\BUN Agencies\b
In addition to peacekeeping, the UN has run a number of organizations to ensure economic and social progress and deal with a whole range of global problems. This aspect of the work of the UN has been more successful than its peacekeeping activities. Organizations include:
ò UNESCO-the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization;
ò UNICEF- the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund;
ò ILO -the International Labor Organization;
WHO-the World Health Organization;
ò UNHCR-the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.
\BThe changing face of the United Nations\b
In the late 1940s and 1950s the General Assembly was dominated by the United States. This began to change in the late 1950s as more African and Asian colonies became independent and joined the UN. In 1945 there were 51 members, by 1965 there were 118. Some of the new states were sympathetic to the USSR, many others were 'non-aligned'.
It became much more difficult for the USA to dominate the General Assembly. The influence of the non-aligned countries increased in 1971 when communist China joined the United Nations. Non-aligned countries played an increasing role in the agencies of the UN. In the 1980s the US government claimed that these agencies were anti-American.
\BThe UN in Korea and the Congo\b
A UN army, led by the USA, fought the Korean War, 1950-53, against communist North Korea and communist China. UN support for the war was only possible because the USSR was boycotting the Security Council in 1950. The UN forces drove the communists out of South Korea but were unable to conquer North Korea.
The African state of the \JCongo\j (modern Zaire) was a Belgian colony. After independence in 1960 it was torn apart by civil war. A UN force was sent to bring peace to the \JCongo\j. The leader of the breakaway province of \JKatanga\j, Tshombe, defied the UN. The UN was criticized by the USSR for not doing enough. In 1961 the UN took a tougher line with \JKatanga\j and finally reunited the \JCongo\j 1963.
#
"UN and the Cold War",74,0,0,0
The United Nations was set up by the winners of the Second World War. Like the League of Nations after the First World War it was intended to ensure an end to war. The UN faced many challenges in the following years, such as conflicts in Korea and the \JCongo\j.
\BHow successful was the United Nations in the Korean and \JCongo\j crises? \b
When the United Nations was founded in 1945 its members signed a document, known as the Charter of the United Nations, that set out the aims and principles of the organization.
\BThe United Nations and the Cold War\b
How would the UN ensure world peace in the way described by Source A? How would it avoid repeating the failures of the League of Nations? The founders of the UN hoped that it would be an effective force for peace because it would be led by the same powerful countries that had been able to unite and destroy Hitler.
The League of Nations had been fatally weakened by the absence of the USA and other powerful countries. The UN did not have this problem. Its membership included the most powerful countries in the world: the USA, the USSR and Britain. The American President, Roosevelt, hoped that these three states could act together in leading the United Nations, just as they fought together against Hitler.
The organization of the United Nations reflected the fact that the wartime allies intended to work together to impose peace on the world. Under their joint leadership, the UN was intended to be a 'policeman' for all of humanity. The Security Council had a special responsibility for international peace. It was controlled by its permanent members, which included the wartime allies.
The UN Charter described how the Security Council could try to stop countries from attacking other states. It could order trade sanctions member states would stop selling goods to any aggressive country. If sanctions failed, the Security Council could order military action by United Nations forces. A Military Staff Committee was set up to control any United Nations force and it had members from each of the five permanent member-states.
The plans of the wartime leaders - Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill - did not work out very well in practice. The organization of the United Nations was based on the assumption that the most powerful countries would continue to co-operate after the war but this did not happen. The Cold War soon developed and the two superpowers, the USA and the USSR, became extremely hostile towards each other.
The Cold War disrupted the work of the Security Council. The Americans and the Soviets constantly disagreed and this stopped the Security Council from acting effectively to stamp out wars. American proposals were consistently vetoed by the Soviet Union; Soviet suggestions were blocked by the American veto. The result was deadlock. In both the Korean and the \JCongo\j crises the work of the UN was influenced and distorted by superpower rivalry.
#
"UN in Korea",75,0,0,0
The United Nations used armed force against North Korea and China during the Korean War, 1950-53. Communist North Koreans invaded South Korea. A UN army, led by the USA, invaded Korea and tried to drive the communists back.
When it seemed that the UN forces might conquer the whole of Korea, the North Koreans were reinforced by troops from communist China. The war eventually led to stalemate and Korea remained divided into communist North Korea and non-communist South Korea. There are at least two possible interpretations of the role of the UN in the Korean War:
ò Interpretation A
The Korean War was a success for the United Nations. It showed that the UN could take firm action against aggression.
ò Interpretation B
The Korean War was a failure for the United Nations. The UN forces were completely dominated by the USA. The Korean War showed that the Cold War had ruined the original idea of the United Nations.
\BA UN army or an American army?\b
The UN army that fought against the communists in Korea was dominated by the USA and was led by the US General MacArthur. The government of the United States controlled the war and simply reported its decisions to the Security Council. Another 15 countries supplied troops to the UN but they were a small minority of the total UN force. Leaders of countries, such as Britain which sent troops, became annoyed at the way General MacArthur and President Truman failed to consult them about important decisions in the war.
#
"Security Council and Communism",76,0,0,0
Communists took power in most of China in 1949. The Americans would not allow the new communist government to join the Security Council. Instead the Chinese place on the Security Council remained occupied by the non-communist nationalists who, by 1949, only controlled the Chinese island of \JTaiwan\j.
The argument about who should represent China became another episode in the bitter Cold War. The Soviet Union demanded that the nationalist Chinese should leave the Security Council and give way to the communist Chinese. In protest, the Soviet representatives walked out of the Security Council in January 1950.
In June 1950 North Korea invaded South Korea and the Security Council met to discuss its response. The absence of representatives from the Soviet Union meant that they were not able to veto the American proposal to help South Korea.
#
"Congo Crisis 1960-64",77,0,0,0
The \JCongo\j is today known as Zaire. Before 1960 it was a Belgian colony. It became independent on 30 June 1960 and the country was soon thrown into chaos. The Belgian government had done very little to prepare the \JCongo\j for independence. All the important jobs in government, industry and the army were performed by white Belgians. For example, there was not a single black doctor in the whole country. This created a very difficult situation for the Prime Minister of the newly independent state, Patrice Lumumba.
Almost immediately, trouble broke out. The white Belgian officers in the national army refused to promote any black Congolese men to join them as officers. The soldiers mutinied and attacked both their officers and other white people.
The problems faced by Lumumba soon increased. The Belgian government sent paratroops to defend European people in the \JCongo\j. At the same time the copper-rich province of \JKatanga\j broke away from the rest of the \JCongo\j. The Katangan leader, Moise Tshombe, declared \JKatanga\j to be an independent state. Tshombe used white mercenaries to build up a new army in \JKatanga\j. He received support and encouragement from many Belgians and from Belgian mining companies who still wanted to have a presence in the new state.
Lumumba turned to the United Nations for help. The Secretary General of the UN was Dag Hammarskjold. He was keen to take action because he wanted to show that the UN could bring peace to the trouble spots of the world. Following his advice, on 13 July 1960 the Security Council agreed to restore order in the \JCongo\j and 4,500 UN soldiers immediately flew out to the troubled African country.
Eventually there was a force of 8,000 UN troops in the \JCongo\j. The Security Council ordered \JBelgium\j to withdraw its troops. The Belgians agreed to pull out of much of the country but they refused to leave \JKatanga\j. The UN forces were successful in restoring order in much of the country but they were not able to stop the fighting between the forces of Lumumba and those of Tshombe.
Lumumba soon had a bitter argument with the UN about their role in the \JCongo\j. He wanted UN soldiers to attack \JKatanga\j and end Tshombe's breakaway government. Hammarskjold was not happy at the idea of the UN becoming involved in a civil war and he refused to invade \JKatanga\j.
\BSuperpower mischief\b
The position of Hammarskjold was undermined by each of the two superpowers. They insisted on pursuing their own policies, independent of the Security Council. The Soviet leader, Khrushchev, publicly criticized Hammarskjold for not offering enough help to Lumumba. The USSR wanted to show itself to be a friend of newly independent countries and it strongly supported Lumumba.
In August Lumumba ignored the United Nations, turned directly to the Soviet Union, and tried to invade \JKatanga\j with Soviet help. Despite being a member of the Security Council, the government of the USSR disregarded UN policy and provided Lumumba with military \Jaircraft\j for his invasion plan but the attack failed. A month later, in September 1960, Lumumba was overthrown by one of his own army officers, Joseph Mobutu.
The US government gave secret support to Mobutu in his bid for power because they thought that he would be more pro-Western than Lumumba. Lumumba was eventually captured by the forces of Tshombe and murdered in January 1961. The debate about how the UN should act in the \JCongo\j led to angry scenes at the United Nations General Assembly meeting in September 1960. Khrushchev argued that Hammarskjold's job should be abolished. Despite these criticisms, Hammarskjold remained in his post.
\BThe end of the emergency\b
By early 1961 UN intervention had not brought peace to the \JCongo\j. With the help of white mercenaries, Tshombe remained in control of the breakaway region of \JKatanga\j. The Security Council tried to stop a civil war by announcing in February that, except for the UN forces, all foreign troops must leave the country. Tshombe refused co-operate. Hammarskjold was killed in an air accident in the \JCongo\j in September.
The new Secretary-General was a Burmese man called U Thant. He took a tougher line with Tshombe and in December 1961 UN troops began fighting the white mercenaries and other Katangan forces. By the end of 1962, after periods of negotiation and renewed fighting, the UN succeeded in expelling the mercenaries. In January 1963 the Katangan leader, Tshombe, went into exile and the \JCongo\j was reunited. The UN had, at last, brought peace to the country but its own reputation had suffered.
Some of the UN soldiers acted with brutality during the fighting in \JKatanga\j. People were unhappy at the sight of 'peacekeepers' involved in fighting. The UN forces left the \JCongo\j in 1964 and a year later Joseph Mobutu became President of the united country. The \JCongo\j crisis was over but people have disagreed ever since about whether the UN operation was a success or a mistake.
