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<text id=93CT1725>
<title>
India--History
</title>
<history>
Compact ALMANAC--CIA Factbook
South Asia
India
</history>
<article>
<source>CIA World Factbook</source>
<hdr>
History
</hdr>
<body>
<p> The people of India have had a continuous civilization since
2500 B.C., when the inhabitants of the Indus River Valley
developed an urban culture based on commerce and sustained by
surplus agriculture. This civilization declined around 1500
B.C., probably due to ecological changes.
</p>
<p> During the second millenium B.C., pastoral, Aryan-speaking
tribes migrated across the Himalayas into the subcontinent. As
they settled in the middle Ganges Valley, they adapted to the
cultures that had preceded them.
</p>
<p> The political map of ancient and medieval India was made up
of a myriad of kingdoms with fluctuating boundaries. In the 4th
and 5th centuries A.D., Northern India was unified under the
Gupta Dynasty. During this period, known as India's Golden Age,
Hindu culture and political administration reached new heights.
</p>
<p> Islam entered the subcontinent over a period of 500 years. In
the 10th and 11th centuries, Turks and Afghans invaded India and
established sultanates in Delhi. In the early 16th century
descendants of Genghis Khan swept across the Khyber Pass and
established the Mughal (Mogul) Dynasty, which would last 200
years. From the 11th to the 15th centuries, southern India was
dominated by the Hindu Chola and Vijayanagar dynasties. During
this time, the two systems--the prevailing Hindu and the
Muslim--mingled, leaving lasting cultural influences on each
other.
</p>
<p> The first British outpost in South Asia was established in
1619. at Surat on the northwestern coast of India. Later in the
century, the East India Company opened permanent trading
stations at Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta, each under the
protection of native rulers. The British gradually expanded
their influence from these footholds, until, by the 1850s, they
controlled almost the entire area of present-day India,
Pakistan, and Bangladesh. In 1857, a rebellion in north India
led by mutinous Indian soldiers caused the British parliament to
transfer all political power from the East India Company to the
Crown. From then until independence in 1947, Great Britain
administered most of India directly and controlled the rest
through treaties with local rulers.
</p>
<p> Beginning in 1920, Indian leader Mahatma Gandhi transformed
the Indian National Congress into a mass movement and used it to
mount a popular campaign against British colonial rule. The
Congress used both parliamentary and extraparliamentary means--nonviolent resistance and noncooperation--to seek its goal.
</p>
<p> Independence was achieved on August 15, 1947, and India
became a dominion within the Commonwealth of Nations with
Jawaharlal Nehru as prime minister. Longstanding frictions
between the Hindus and Muslims led the British to create two
countries out of British India--India, and Pakistan as the
homeland for the Muslims. India's constitution was promulgated
on January 26, 1950, when the country became a republic within
the Commonwealth.
</p>
<p> Prime Minister Nehru governed the nation until his death in
May 1964. He was succeeded by Lal Bahadur Shastri, a veteran of
the Congress movement. When Shastri died in January 1966, power
passed to Jawaharlal Nehru's daughter, Indira Gandhi, who was
prime minister from 1966 to 1977. In 1975, beset with deepening
political and economic problems, Mrs. Gandhi declared a state of
emergency, suspending many civil liberties. Seeking a mandate at
the polls for her policies, Mrs. Gandhi called for elections in
1977, only to be defeated. Prime Minister Gandhi was replaced by
veteran political leader Moraji Desai, who headed the Janata
Party, an amalgam of five opposition parties that had united
against Mrs. Gandhi and the Congress Party. In 1979, dissension
within the Janata government led to Desai's loss of a majority
in the Parliament. He was succeeded as prime minister by Charan
Singh, whose interim government set the stage for new
elections, which returned Mrs. Gandhi to office in January 1980.
Her assassination on October 31, 1984, was followed by the
selection of her son, Rajiv Gandhi, as prime minister.
</p>
<p>Current Political Conditions
</p>
<p> The Congress Party has ruled India since independence, with
the exception of the 1977-79 period of Janata Party rule. Swept
into office on an anti-Indira Gandhi wave that was in large
part a product of the emergency (1975-77) the Janata Party
unraveled in July 1979 after months of dispute over party
structure and discord among party leaders. Subsequent efforts
by opposition parties to unite against the Congress (I) Party
have had little success.
</p>
<p> Promising a government that works, Mrs. Gandhi and her son,
Sanjay, staged a remarkable political come back in 1980, leading
Congress (I) to an overwhelming victory, first in the
parliamentary elections and later in 14 of the 22 state
assembly elections. A year after Sanjay Gandhi's death in a June
1980 plane accident, Mrs. Gandhi's elder son, Rajiv, was
persuaded to enter politics and was elected to his brother's
parliamentary seat in Uttar Pradesh by a wide margin.
</p>
<p> Leadership of the Congress (I) and the nation fell to Rajiv
when Mrs. Gandhi was assassinated on October 31, 1984. Seven
weeks later, Rajiv led Congress (I) to a resounding victory in
national elections, capturing 401 of the 508 parliamentary
seats that were contested. Sympathy for Mrs. Gandhi and failure
of the major opposition parties to unite against Congress (I)
were contributing factors in the landslide: another key factor
was Rajiv's ability to inspire younger voters with his pledges
to promote efficiency and honesty in government.
</p>
<p> The young prime minister inherited numerous problems stemming
from the growth of communal violence and the demands of regional
parties that the central government cede more authority to the
states. The most serious of these problems is in Punjab where
some Sikhs have agitated for a separate Sikh state. In June
1984, the Indian Army was deployed against armed Sikh militants
who had barricaded themselves in the Golden Temple in Amritsar.
The extremists had used the temple for months as a sanctuary
from which they directed terrorist attacks against politicians,
government officials, and police, both Hindu and Sikh. Mrs.
Gandhi's assassins claimed their act was in revenge for the
attack on the Golden Temple. The assassination was followed by
anti-Sikh violence in New Delhi and some other northern cities.
Sikh terrorism and the government's inability to implement
political and economic policies acceptable to moderate Sikhs
have further complicated efforts to resolve the Punjab situation
in a manner that preserves the integrity of Indian federalism.
</p>
<p> In mid-1986 and 1987, Prime Minister Gandhi's Congress Party
was defeated by regionally based parties in state elections in
Kerala, West Bengal, and Haryana, although these setbacks did
not affect Congress' commanding majority in parliament.
Congress' weakened position in Indian politics was attributed to
its inability to resolve the Punjab crisis, allegations of
corruption within the party and government, and a string of
resignations and dismissals of key officials.
</p>
<p>Source: U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs,
March 1989.
</p>
</body>
</article>
</text>