The axolotl, A. mexicanum, is a salamander that normally does not metamorphose from an aquatic, larval stage to an air-breathing, terrestrial form. If the axolotl, however, is transported to a cooler, drier environment, or if its thyroid is
hormonally stimulated, it loses external gills and finned tail, develops lungs and functional feet, and becomes a land-dwelling tiger salamander, A. tigrinum. (Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc.)
-END-
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1073
CAT
-A-
A
-T-
A_^<N__^<N_A/a is the first letter of the English alphabet and of almost all alphabets derived from the ancient Semitic writing system. Both the form of the letter and its position at the beginning of the alphabet are from the Latin alphabet, which
derived it from the Greek by way of the Etruscan. _^<N__^<N_The Greeks call the letter alpha. Its name, form, and position were taken by them, along with the rest of the alphabet, from a Semitic writing system--probably Phoenician but possibly
Aramaic. In Semitic writing systems, the name of the sign is aleph; there, it does not represent a vowel but rather a consonant similar to the glottal stop (a sound produced by closing the gap between the vocal chords) that precedes the emphatic
pronunciation of initial vowels in English (all, in, out, up). _^<N__^<N_In English, the letter a stands for a number of vowel sounds, as in bald, father, fat, any, fate, and soda. _^<N__^<N_The double a does not occur in native English words but
is found in some words (aardvark, kraal, and Aaron) taken from languages that have this sequence. _^<N__^<N_I. J. Gelb and R. M. Whiting
-END-
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1056
CAT
-A-
Aachen
-T-
Aachen_^<N__^<N_Aachen (French: Aix-la-Chapelle) is a city in northwestern Germany in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia, near the border with Belgium and the Netherlands. It has a population of 241,861 (1991 est.). Aachen is the site of an
important engineering school (Technische Hochschule Aachen) and is a rail center of a large coal-mining region. It also has important iron and steel works. Other industries produce textiles, glass, and chemicals. The mineral spas have operated
since Roman times. _^<N__^<N_Aachen was Charlemagne's northern capital and the center of Carolingian civilization. The German kings from Otto I (936) to Ferdinand I (1531) were crowned there. Aachen remained a free imperial city until occupied by
France in 1794. In 1815 it passed to Prussia by an act of the Congress of Vienna. It was occupied by the Allies after World War I until 1930 and was heavily damaged during World War II. Aachen's octagonal cathedral, which Charlemagne founded and
which contains his tomb, was modeled after the church of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy.
-END-
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422
CAT
-A-
Aakjaer, Jeppe
-T-
Aakjaer, Jeppe_^<N__^<N_{aw'-kyair, yep'-uh} _^<N__^<N_Jeppe Aakjaer, b. Sept. 10, 1866, d. Apr. 22, 1930, was one of Denmark's finest social novelists and most popular poets. Such early novels as Children of Wrath (1904) deal with the harsh
conditions of farm laborers in his native Jutland. His simple, lyric poetry has been set to music and is included in such volumes as Songs of the Rye (1906). He also wrote several volumes of memoirs.
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20
CAT
-A-
Aalborg:
-T-
Aalborg:_^<N__^<N_see ALBORG.
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3648
CAT
-A-
Aalto, Alvar
-T-
Aalto, Alvar_^<N__^<N_{ahl'-toh, ahl'-vahr} _^<N__^<N_Hugo Alvar Henrik Aalto, b. Finland, Feb. 3, 1898, d. May 11, 1976, was one of the major architects of the 20th century and of enormous influence in the development of MODERN ARCHITECTURE.
Aalto's greatest contribution was his rare gift for humanizing the technocratic architectural tenets of the BAUHAUS and other exponents of the INTERNATIONAL STYLE. He stated his own credo succinctly: "It is the task of the architect to give life
a gentler structure." In all his work, this simple principle is clearly dominant. _^<N__^<N_Aalto graduated from the Helsinki Polytechnic School in 1921; within a decade he was the acknowledged master of Finnish architecture, which first achieved
world renown through his buildings and furniture designs. With his first wife, the architect Aino Marsio, Aalto founded (1935) the Artek firm to produce new household furnishings, many of them in molded and laminated wood. _^<N__^<N_Aalto
established his distinctive style with the Viipuri Library (1927-35; destroyed 1943)--famous for the undulating acoustic wood ceiling in its lecture hall--and with the Turun Sanomat newspaper building (1927-30), radically innovative then as now
for the tapered concrete columns in its press room. The tuberculosis sanatorium in Paimio (1929-33) brought Aalto international fame; the six-story convalescent buildings are screened from the staff quarters and sited for maximum sunlight on
their cantilevered balconies. For his industrialist patrons Harry and Mairea Gullichsen, Aalto built Villa Mairea (1938-39). Every element of this airy, elegant country house is fully integrated to achieve luxury without ostentation. Aalto's
Finnish pavilions for the Paris Exposition of 1937 and the New York World's Fair of 1939 added to his international stature, augmenting the acclaim for the 1938 exhibition devoted to his work at New York's Museum of Modern Art. For the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, Mass., where he was a visiting professor for six years, Aalto designed Baker House dormitory (1947); its serpentine form affords every room a sweeping view of the Charles River. _^<N__^<N_The
destruction wrought in Finland by the Russo-Finnish War (1940) and World War II necessitated rebuilding and urban planning on a nationwide scale; all of it was designed by a technical office under Aalto's supervision. For the island village of
Saynatsalo, Aalto designed a civic center (1950-52) with intimately scaled red-brick structures of various shapes clustered around an elevated grass court that affords vistas of the surrounding lake and forests. _^<N__^<N_The buildings of Aalto's
later years are more austere in appearance, but even the monumental Finlandia House (1962-75), the cultural center of Helsinki, retains a human scale. The lakeside group of clean geometric shapes in white marble consists of meeting halls,
exhibition areas, and an acoustically perfect concert hall. Aalto was deeply sensitive to all the arts, and numbered among his personal friends the artists Jean Arp, Constantin Brancusi, and Fernand Leger, as well as his great compatriot in both
homeland and spirit, the composer Jean Sibelius. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Aalto, Alvar, Alvar Aalto Furniture, ed. by Juhani Pallasmaa (1985); Dunster, David, ed., Alvar Aalto (1984); Fleig, Karl, ed., Alvar Aalto (1975); Gutheim, Frederick,
Alvar Aalto (1960); Pearson, Paul D., Alvar Aalto and the International Style (1978; repr. 1989); Quantrill, Malcolm, Alvar Aalto: A Critical Study (1983). _^<N__^<N_See also: ARCHITECTURE; FUNCTIONALISM; FURNITURE; INTERIOR DESIGN; MUSIC
AND CONCERT HALLS; SCANDINAVIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE.
-END-
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911
CAT
-A-
aardvark
-T-
aardvark_^<N__^<N_The aardvark (or ant bear), Orycteropus afer, is the only species in the MAMMAL family Orycteropodidae, order Tubulidentata. Its name is derived from the Afrikaans for "earth pig," and this slow, massive animal somewhat resembles a
pig. It is brown to yellowish, about 150 cm (5 ft) long, with a 60-cm-long (2-ft) tail, and weighs 45 to 77 kg (100 to 170 lb). It has a narrow head and a long snout. Its ears are large and rabbitlike, and hearing is acute. The short, stout legs,
partially webbed feet, and long claws are well suited for burrowing its large sleeping dens and for tearing apart mounds of the ants and termites on which it feeds with its long, sticky tongue. _^<N__^<N_Aardvarks are found throughout sub-Saharan
Africa, usually in open country. They are shy, nocturnal creatures. The female bears one or two young in October or November. Aardvarks live about ten years in captivity. _^<N__^<N_Everett Sentman
-END-
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692
CAT
-A-
aardwolf
-T-
aardwolf_^<N__^<N_The aardwolf, Proteles cristatus, is a CARNIVORE belonging to the family Hyaenidae, order Carnivore. Its name is derived from the Afrikaans for "earth wolf." It is grayish tan with dark stripes, about 76 cm (30 in) long not
including a 30-cm-long (12-in) bushy tail, and about 50 cm (20 in) high at the shoulder. The neck is long, with a coarse mane that bristles when attacked. Unlike the hyena, the aardwolf has weak teeth and jaws. It eats termites, insect larvae, and
sometimes small mammals. The aardwolf lives on the dry plains of southern and eastern Africa. It is nocturnal in habit. The female produces a litter of two to four young in November and December. _^<N__^<N_Everett Sentman
-END-
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293
CAT
-A-
Aare River
-T-
Aare River_^<N__^<N_{ah'-ruh} _^<N__^<N_The Aare River is the longest (295 km/183 mi) river in Switzerland and drains an area of 17,780 sq km (6,865 sq mi). Rising in the Bernese Alps, it passes by Meiringen, through the Aare Gorge, into Lake Thun,
past Bern, and joins the Rhine River at the village of Koblenz.
-END-
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18
CAT
-A-
Aarhus:
-T-
Aarhus:_^<N__^<N_see ARHUS.
-END-
-C-
523
CAT
-A-
Aaron
-T-
Aaron_^<N__^<N_Brother of MOSES, Aaron was Moses' spokesman before Pharaoh and was his assistant during the Exodus from Egypt. Even though Aaron was involved in constructing the GOLDEN CALF that the Israelites worshiped while Moses was on Mount
Sinai, he and his sons were appointed priests, with Aaron as high priest. He was also designated head of the LEVITES, ministers of lower rank, and his authority was miraculously confirmed by a flowering staff (Exod. 28-29, 32; Num. 8, 17-18). Aaron
died before his people reached Canaan.
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1519
CAT
-A-
Aaron, Henry
-T-
Aaron, Henry_^<N__^<N_Henry Louis "Hank" Aaron, b. Mobile, Ala., Feb. 5, 1934, is American baseball's all-time champion home-run hitter (see BASEBALL). Aaron entered the record books on Apr. 8, 1974, by breaking Babe RUTH's record of 714, and he
went on to hit a total of 755 homers before completing his 23-year major-league career. _^<N__^<N_Aaron began playing professionally for all-black teams in Mobile, Ala., and Indianapolis, Ind., but he signed with the National League's Milwaukee
Braves organization at the age of 18. He reached the major leagues when he was only 20 and quickly established himself as one of the game's finest players. He played for the Braves almost exclusively, first in Milwaukee (1954-65), then in Atlanta
(1966-74). He ended his career with the American League's Milwaukee Brewers (1975-76). Along with a lifetime batting average of .305, Aaron had 2,297 runs batted in (1st all-time), 6,856 total bases (1st), 12,364 at bats (2d), 3,771 hits (3d),
3,298 games played (3d), and 624 doubles (8th). Aaron was the NL's Most Valuable Player in 1957, and the right fielder won 3 Gold Glove awards for his fielding prowess. He led the NL in home runs, runs batted in, and slugging average 4 times
each, and in batting average twice (1956: .328; 1959: .355). In a poll of about a half million fans in the summer of 1989, Aaron's 715th career home run was voted "the greatest moment in baseball history." _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Aaron, Henry,
and Wheeler, Lonnie, I Had a Hammer: The Hank Aaron Story (1991).
-END-
-C-
1807
CAT
-A-
abacus
-T-
abacus_^<N__^<N_{ab'-uh-kuhs} _^<N__^<N_An abacus is an instrument that helps a person make arithmetic calculations. In its best-known form, as the Chinese suan pan, it is composed of beads strung on parallel wires in a rectangular frame. In
ancient times, however, the abacus was composed of a row of grooves in sand into which pebbles were placed. Later, the use of a slate or a board (in Greek, abax, from which the current name is derived) made it a portable device; and the pebbles
were systematically arranged along parallel lines. _^<N__^<N_The value assigned to each pebble (or bead, shell, or stick) is determined not by its shape but by its position: one pebble on a particular line or one bead on a particular wire has the
value of 1; two together have the value of 2. A pebble on the next line, however, might have the value of 10, and a pebble on the third line would have the value of 100. Therefore, three properly placed pebbles--two with values of 1 and one with
the value of 10--could signify 12, and the addition of a fourth pebble with the value of 100 could signify 112, using a place-value notational system of multiples of 10. _^<N__^<N_Thus the abacus works on the principle of place-value notation: the
location of the bead determines its value. In this way, relatively few beads are required to depict large numbers. The beads are counted, or given numerical values, by shifting them in one direction. The values are erased (freeing the counters
for reuse) by shifting the beads in the other direction. An abacus is used simply as a memory aid by a person making mental calculations. In contrast, ADDING MACHINES, electronic calculators, and computers are used to make physical calculations.
_^<N__^<N_Thomas M. Smith _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Moon, Parry H., The Abacus (1971); Pullan, J. M., The History of the Abacus (1969).
-END-
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1027
CAT
-A-
Abadan
-T-
Abadan_^<N__^<N_{ah-bah-dahn'} _^<N__^<N_Abadan (1982 est. pop., 294,068) is a city on Abadan Island in the SHATT AL-ARAB, at the head of the Persian Gulf in Khuzestan province, southwestern Iran. About 402 km (250 mi) southwest of Isfahan, it is
the terminus of pipelines from Iranian oil fields and has one of the world's largest oil refinery complexes. Average temperatures range from 36 deg C (97 deg F) in July to 12 deg C (53 deg F) in January. _^<N__^<N_Settled as early as 1047, Abadan
remained small until oil was discovered here in 1908 and the first refineries were constructed the next year. Abadan's refining facilities, the largest in the world until 1951, processed more than 18 million metric tons (20 million U.S. tons) of
crude oil a year before the GULF WAR between Iran and Iraq erupted in 1980. Both Abadan's refinery and its port installations at Ma'shur and Kharg Island were repeatedly attacked and severely damaged during that war. In 1983 an Iraqi attack
caused the worst oil spill in Persian Gulf history off Kharg Island.
-END-
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892
CAT
-A-
abalone
-T-
abalone_^<N__^<N_{ab-uh-lohn'-ee} _^<N__^<N_Abalone is the common name applied to any marine GASTROPOD in the MOLLUSK genus Haliotis. It is also sometimes applied to other gastropods. Unlike the many gastropods that have highly coiled shells,
abalones have a broad, flattened, asymmetrical shell, the shape of which resembles the human ear--hence another common name, ear shell, or sea-ear. This shape minimizes water resistance in the abalones' intertidal habitats. The animals respire and
discharge wastes through a row of holes on one side of the shell; old holes fill up and new ones appear as the animals age. Abalones are primitive gastropods along with other members of the order Archaeogastropoda, such as the LIMPET. They are
commercially valuable for their large, edible foot and for the mother-of-pearl that lines their shells, which is used to make articles such as buttons. _^<N__^<N_Stephen Charles Reingold
-END-
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627
CAT
-A-
abandonment
-T-
abandonment_^<N__^<N_Abandonment, in law, is the voluntary giving up of property or of rights. If a person leaves his or her automobile by the side of a road and does not intend to come back for it, the person has abandoned it. Under the law,
abandoned property may be appropriated by the next comer, but the owner's intention to abandon it must be shown. _^<N__^<N_In divorce law, abandonment occurs when one spouse leaves the other and does not intend to fulfill his or her legal
obligations. For example, a man who is legally separated from his wife may be charged with abandonment if he fails to provide the financial support he has promised.
-END-
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1452
CAT
-A-
Abbado, Claudio
-T-
Abbado, Claudio_^<N__^<N_{ah-bah'-doh} _^<N__^<N_Claudio Abbado, b. Milan, June 26, 1933, a leading member of the new generation of conductors, comes from a musical family. His father, Michelangelo, was vice-principal of the Milan Conservatory
where Claudio and his elder brother, Marcello, studied. He began his career as a pianist, and he studied composition with Bruno Bettinelli and conducting with Hans Swarowsky in Vienna. In 1971 he became permanent conductor of the Vienna
Philharmonic, the orchestra of the Vienna State Opera, whose music director he became in 1986. From 1969 to 1986 he was conductor and then music director of La Scala Opera House in Milan. During his tenure he extended La Scala's season and
presented Alban Berg's Wozzeck in the original German, a considerable innovation for Milan. He also has had long-term associations with the London Symphony Orchestra, the Chicago Symphony, and the European Community Youth Orchestra. In 1989 he was
named music director of the Berlin Philharmonic. _^<N__^<N_Ella A. Malin _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: "Abbado, Claudio," in Current Biography (May 1973). _^<N__^<N_Discography: Beethoven, Ludwig van, Symphonies nos. 1-9 (Everest); Berg, Alban, Suite
Abbas I_^<N__^<N_{ah-bahs'} _^<N__^<N_Abbas I, b. Jan. 27, 1571, d. Jan. 19, 1629, shah of Persia (1588-1629), expanded Persia's boundaries to the Indus in the east and to the Tigris in the west. He created a standing army, the first in Persia,
and in 1598 launched an attack on the Uzbeks in the east, defeating them near Herat (now in Afghanistan). From 1602 he campaigned against the Ottoman Turks, capturing Tabriz, Erivan, Shirvan, Baghdad, and Mosul. Abbas also restored internal order,
promoted trade and the arts, and made his new capital at Isfahan, one of the most beautiful cities in the world. A member of the SAFAVID dynasty, he is regarded as one of the greatest Persian rulers. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Arberry, A. J., ed.,
The Legacy of Persia (1953); Frye, Richard, Persia, 3d ed. (1969); Jackson, P., and Lockhart, L., eds., The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 6 (1986); Savory, Roger, Iran under the Safavids (1980).
-END-
-C-
1660
CAT
-A-
Abbasids
-T-
Abbasids_^<N__^<N_{ah-bas'-ids} _^<N__^<N_The Abbasids were the dynasty of caliphs who ruled the Islamic Empire from 750 until the Mongol conquest of the Middle East in 1258. The dynasty takes its name from its ancestor al-Abbas, the uncle of the
Prophet Muhammad. In 750 the Abbasids defeated the UMAYYADS and transferred the capital of the CALIPHATE from Damascus to Baghdad, thereby shifting the empire's center from Syria to Iraq. _^<N__^<N_The regime reasserted the theocratic concept of
the caliphate and continuity with orthodox Islam as the basis of unity and authority in the empire. The Abbasid "revolution" also made Islam and the fruits of power accessible to non-Arabs. A strong Persian influence persisted in the government
and culture of the Abbasid period, and Hellenistic ideas led to the rapid growth of intellectual life. _^<N__^<N_The Abbasid period may be divided into two parts. In the period from 750 to 945 the authority of the caliphs gradually declined, while
the Turkish military leaders gained increasing influence. The dynasty's power peaked in the reign (786-809) of HARUN AL-RASHID. In the later period, from 945 to 1258, the caliphs generally held no more than nominal suzerainty; real power, even
in Baghdad, passed to dynasties of secular sovereigns. _^<N__^<N_Michael W. Dols _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ahsan, M. M., Social Life under the Abbasids (1979); Goldschmidt, A., Jr., A Concise History of the Middle East, 3d rev. ed. (1988);
Hitti, Philip K., History of the Arabs, 10th ed. (1970); Lassner, J., The Shaping of Abbasid Rule (1980); Mansfield, Peter, The Arab World: A Comprehensive History (1976); Shaban, M. A., The Abbasid Revolution (1970; repr. 1979).
-END-
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669
CAT
-A-
Abbe, Ernst
-T-
Abbe, Ernst_^<N__^<N_{ahb'-uh} _^<N__^<N_The German physicist Ernst Abbe, b. Jan. 23, 1840, d. Jan. 14, 1905, was the principal scientific figure behind the Carl ZEISS Optics Company. A graduate (1861) of Gottingen University, Abbe took a position
at Jena University in 1863 and began collaborating with Carl Zeiss. When Zeiss died in 1888, Abbe took over the firm and established the Carl Zeiss Foundation for scientific research and social improvement; in 1896 he reorganized the entire
establishment. His innumerable contributions to optics, such as the Abbe REFRACTOMETER and apochromatic lens, led directly to modern phase-contrast microscopy and the ELECTRON MICROSCOPE. _^<N__^<N_Carl Zapffe
-END-
-C-
582
CAT
-A-
Abbevillian
-T-
Abbevillian_^<N__^<N_{ab-vil'-ee-uhn} _^<N__^<N_Abbevillian, in the archaeology of the PALEOLITHIC PERIOD, is a term once used for the earliest stage of the ACHEULEAN tool industry in western Europe. Named for a site on the Somme River near
Abbeville, France, the 500,000-year-old industry is characterized by few flake tools and by thick, ragged-edged hand-axes frequently with unfinished butt ends. Finds at the Abbeville site, uncovered form 1836 on, were among the first evidence of
the great antiquity of the human species. _^<N__^<N_David S. Brose _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Wymer, John, The Paleolithic Age (1984).
-END-
-C-
580
CAT
-A-
abbey
-T-
abbey_^<N__^<N_In the Roman Catholic and Anglican churches an abbey is a monastery, usually belonging to the Benedictine or Cistercian order, governed by an abbot (for communities of men) or an abbess (for communities of women). An abbey is normally
an independent institution. Subordinate or less important monasteries are called priories. In Britain the term abbey is also used for such churches as WESTMINSTER ABBEY or such country houses as Woburn Abbey, which formerly belonged to monastic
institutions. _^<N__^<N_See also: BENEDICTINES; CISTERCIANS; MONASTICISM; MONASTIC ART AND ARCHITECTURE.
-END-
-C-
614
CAT
-A-
Abbey, Edwin Austin
-T-
Abbey, Edwin Austin_^<N__^<N_Edwin Austin Abbey, b. Apr. 1, 1852, d. Aug. 1, 1911, was an American painter and illustrator. After studying at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, he worked as a painter and an illustrator, primarily for
Harper's, and illustrated works by such authors as Herrick, Goldsmith, and Shakespeare. In 1878, Abbey settled in England, and in 1898 he was elected to the Royal Academy of Arts. Abbey dealt with historical and literary themes, as in his mural The
Quest for the Holy Grail (1901) at the Boston Public Library. In 1902 he was the court portraitist for the coronation of Edward VII.
-END-
-C-
1851
CAT
-A-
Abbey Theatre
-T-
Abbey Theatre_^<N__^<N_The Abbey Theatre in Dublin, Ireland, opened its doors in December 1904 and quickly became, along with Andre Antoine's THEATRE LIBRE and Konstantin Stanislavsky's MOSCOW ART THEATRE, one of the seminal producers of modern
drama. The Abbey's first directors were W. B. YEATS, Lady GREGORY, and J. M. SYNGE. These writers, along with Padraic COLUM and George FITZMAURICE, discovered a new subject in the Irish peasant. The riots over Synge's PLAYBOY OF THE WESTERN WORLD
(1907) drew attention to the theater as a major exponent of poetic folk drama. Later playwrights, such as Saint John ERVINE, Lennox ROBINSON, and T. C. Murray turned the theater toward realism. However, in the city plays of Sean O'CASEY an urban
realism was wedded to a kind of earthy poetry, even though Abbey audiences again rioted at his The Plough and the Stars (1926). Later Abbey Theatre playwrights of world importance have been Brendan BEHAN, Brian FRIEL, and Paul Vincent Carroll.
Over the years, dozens of Abbey actors, such as Sara Allgood, Barry Fitzgerald, Cyril Cusack and his daughter, Sinead, and Siobhan McKenna, have made their mark on the stages of London and New York, and in films as well. _^<N__^<N_Robert Hogan
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ellis-Fermor, Una, The Irish Dramatic Movement (1929); Fay, Gerard, The Abbey Theatre, Cradle of Genius (1958); Fitz-Simon, C., The Irish Theatre (1983); Gregory, Lady, Our Irish Theatre (1913); Hogan, Robert, and
Kilroy, James, The Irish Literary Theatre, 1899-1901 (1975), Laying the Foundations, 1902-1904 (1976), and The Abbey Theatre: The Years of Synge, 1905-1909 (1978); Kavanagh, Peter, The Story of the Abbey Theatre (1950); Mikhail, E. H., ed., Abbey
Theatre: Interviews and Recollections (1986); Robinson, Lennox, Ireland's Abbey Theatre, A History, 1908-1951 (1951). _^<N__^<N_See also: IRISH LITERARY RENAISSANCE.
-END-
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305
CAT
-A-
abbot
-T-
abbot_^<N__^<N_Abbot was a title used from the 4th century for older, more experienced Christian ascetics. Later it was applied to the head of a religious house following a monastic rule, such as the rule of St. Benedict. Abbots became important
figures in MONASTICISM and church government during the Middle Ages.
-END-
-C-
1016
CAT
-A-
Abbot, Francis Ellingwood
-T-
Abbot, Francis Ellingwood_^<N__^<N_Francis Ellingwood Abbot, b. Nov. 6, 1836, d. Oct. 23, 1903, was an American philosopher and theologian who sought to reconstruct THEOLOGY in accord with scientific method. As a spokesman for "free religion," he
asserted that Christianity, understood as based on the lordship of Christ, is no longer tenable. He rejected all dogma and reliance on Scriptures or creeds, teaching that truth is open to every individual. _^<N__^<N_Born in Boston, Abbot graduated
from Harvard and the Meadville Theological School. He served Unitarian churches in Dover, N.H., and Toledo, Ohio, but left the ministry in 1868 to devote himself to writing, editing, and teaching. Abbot's theological position was stated in
Scientific Theism (1885) and The Way Out of Agnosticism (1890). He committed suicide by taking poison at his wife's grave site. _^<N__^<N_Conrad Wright _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Blau, Joseph L., Men and Movements in American Philosophy (1952; repr.
1977); Schneider, H. W., A History of American Philosophy, 2d ed. (1963).
-END-
-C-
37
CAT
-A-
Abbott, Bud:
-T-
Abbott, Bud:_^<N__^<N_see ABBOTT AND COSTELLO.
-END-
-C-
595
CAT
-A-
Abbott, Berenice
-T-
Abbott, Berenice_^<N__^<N_The American photographer Berenice Abbott, b. Springfield, Ohio, July 17, 1898, d. Dec. 9, 1991, began her career as assistant to the surrealist artist Man RAY. In the 1930s her series of documentary photographs of New
York City received wide acclaim. Abbott also rediscovered and brought to public attention the work of the early 20th-century French photographer Eugene ATGET. Her books include Changing New York (1939; repr. as New York in the 30's, 1973),
Greenwich Village: Today and Yesterday (1949), Photographs (1970), and The World of Atget (1964; repr. 1979).
-END-
-C-
926
CAT
-A-
Abbott, George
-T-
Abbott, George_^<N__^<N_An American playwright, director, and producer, George Abbott, b. Forestville, N.Y., June 25, 1887, is famous for such farces as Three Men on a Horse (1935) and for his fast-paced direction of musical plays, such as On Your
Toes (1936; 1954; 1983). Among the musicals he co-authored and directed were The Pajama Game (1954; film, 1957), Damn Yankees (1955; film, 1958), and Fiorello! (1959; Pulitzer Prize for drama, 1960). Frequently called in to revive foundering
shows, Abbott has a style and magic touch that often assures success on Broadway. His autobiography, Mister Abbott, was published in 1963. Abbott was a 1982 recipient of the Kennedy Center Honors for lifetime achievement in the performing arts.
In 1983 he directed a revival of the musical On Your Toes, and was active as a director into the late 1980s. In 1989, Abbott directed Frankie, a musical version of the Frankenstein legend.
-END-
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682
CAT
-A-
Abbott, Grace
-T-
Abbott, Grace_^<N__^<N_Grace Abbott, b. Grand Island, Nebr., Nov. 17, 1878, d. June 19, 1939, whose special interests included immigrant and child labor problems, was a pioneer in public welfare administration. In 1908 she joined Jane ADDAMS at
Hull House, where she worked with immigrant slum dwellers of Chicago. In 1917 she published The Immigrant and the Community, a book instrumental in arousing concern for the problems of recent immigrants from Europe. _^<N__^<N_Her interest in child
welfare led her to join the U.S. Children's Bureau in Washington, where she served as director from 1921 to 1934. She was teaching social work at the University of Chicago when she died on June 20, 1939.
-END-
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727
CAT
-A-
Abbott, Lyman
-T-
Abbott, Lyman_^<N__^<N_Lyman Abbott, b. Roxbury, Mass., Dec. 18, 1835, d. Oct. 22, 1922, was an American Congregational minister and editor who popularized liberal theology through his sermons and lectures. In 1876 he joined Henry Ward BEECHER in
editing the Christian Union (called Outlook after 1893); he succeeded Beecher in 1888 as pastor of the Plymouth Congregational Church in Brooklyn. His liberal views about religion and social reform, based on an evolutionary interpretation of
doctrine and society, were stated forcibly in his many writings, which included The Evolution of Christianity (1892) and Christianity and Social Problems (1896). _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Brown, Ira, Lyman Abbott: Christian Evolutionist (1953; new
ed., 1970).
-END-
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505
CAT
-A-
Abbott, Sir John Joseph Caldwell
-T-
Abbott, Sir John Joseph Caldwell_^<N__^<N_Sir John Abbott, b. Mar. 12, 1821, d. Oct. 30, 1893, was prime minister of Canada from 1891 to 1892. A lawyer, he was elected to the Legislative Assembly as a Conservative in 1857. He served there, and later
in the Canadian House of Commons, until 1874. Abbott sat in the House again from 1880 to 1887, when he was appointed to the Canadian Senate. He was chosen prime minister on Sir John Macdonald's death in 1891, but poor health forced his resignation
after 18 months.
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831
CAT
-A-
Abbott and Costello
-T-
Abbott and Costello_^<N__^<N_William "Bud" Abbott, b. Oct. 2, 1895, d. Apr. 24, 1974, and Lou Costello (real name, Louis Francis Cristillo), b. Mar. 6, 1908, d. Mar. 3, 1959, rose from the ranks of burlesque to become one of America's most popular
comedy teams. Abbott portrayed a fast-talking con man and Costello a baby-faced patsy. Together they were famous for such rapid-fire dialogue routines as "Who's on First?" Critics called their material old hat, but Abbott and Costello's expert
delivery made the oldest jokes seem fresh. They appeared in many films, including Buck Privates (1941), Hold That Ghost (1941), and Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein (1948). Their television show was aired between 1952 and 1954.
_^<N__^<N_Leonard Maltin _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Mulholland, Jim, The Abbott and Costello Book (1975); Thomas, Bob, Bud and Lou (1977).
-END-
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787
CAT
-A-
abbreviation
-T-
abbreviation_^<N__^<N_An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase that is used to save space in written form. Certain types of abbreviations, such as some acronyms, may also facilitate memory and are spoken, if easily pronounced, as
well as written. (An example is UNESCO, United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization.) The use of abbreviations dates back to ancient times, but the proliferation of abbreviations has been most acute in the 20th century. This
is directly related to the vast increase in information, especially in science and technology, and to the ever-burgeoning number of agencies and organizations, both private and governmental. The following tables, divided into several categories,
list some of the major abbreviations in current usage.
-END-
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43
CAT
-A-
ABC:
-T-
ABC:_^<N__^<N_see RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING.
-END-
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1250
CAT
-A-
Abd al-Hamid II, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire
-T-
Abd al-Hamid II, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire_^<N__^<N_{ahb-dul-hah-meed'} _^<N__^<N_Abd al-Hamid II, b. Sept. 21, 1842, d. Feb. 10, 1918, the last major Ottoman sultan (1876-1909), modernized the Ottoman Empire and defended it against foreign
attacks and national revolts. Initially he enacted a liberal constitution and frustrated foreign intervention at the Constantinople Conference (1876), turning partial authority over to an elected parliament. Defeats in the Russo-Turkish War of
1877-78 and the parliament's failure to rule efficiently caused him to dissolve it and rule autocratically. The remainder of his reign was disturbed by national revolts in Macedonia and eastern Anatolia as well as by foreign occupation of Cyprus,
Tunisia, Egypt, Bosnia and Hercegovina, and East Rumelia. _^<N__^<N_Abd al-Hamid II stabilized Ottoman administration and finance but drove most intellectuals into exile. The exiled YOUNG TURKS and their Macedonian-army allies finally forced him to
restore (1908) the constitution and parliament, but an abortive conservative counterrevolution (Apr. 13, 1909) led to his overthrow and exile. _^<N__^<N_Stanford J. Shaw _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Haslip, J., The Sultan: The Life of Abdul Hamid, 2d
ed. (1973); Lewis, B., The Emergence of Modern Turkey, 2d ed. (1968).
-END-
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885
CAT
-A-
Abd al-Rahman I, Emir of Cordoba
-T-
Abd al-Rahman I, Emir of Cordoba_^<N__^<N_{ahb-dul-rah-mahn'} _^<N__^<N_Abd al-Rahman I, b. 731, d. Sept. 30, 788, emir of Cordoba (756-88), created an independent Muslim kingdom in Spain. After the overthrow of his family, the UMAYYADS, who had
ruled the Islamic world as successors to Muhammad, he fled to Spain. There he defeated the governor and established his own kingdom. Although faced with numerous rebellions, he maintained his throne and founded a dynasty that lasted until 1031.
CHARLEMAGNE invaded Spain in 778 and attempted in vain to take Zaragoza. By beginning the construction of the great mosque of Cordoba, Abd al-Rahman laid the basis for the future greatness of the city. _^<N__^<N_Joseph F. O'Callaghan
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Emamuddin, S. M., Muslim Spain, 711-1492 A. D. (1965; repr. 1981); Hitti, Philip K., Makers of Arab History (1968); Watt, W. M., A History of Islamic Spain (1965).
-END-
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897
CAT
-A-
Abd el-Krim
-T-
Abd el-Krim_^<N__^<N_{ahb-del-krim'} _^<N__^<N_Abd el-Krim (Muhammed ben Abd al-Karim Khattabi), b. c.1882, d. Feb. 5, 1963, led the BERBER tribes of the Rif in Morocco, in revolt against Spanish and French rule. Educated in Spanish schools and
a Muslim university, he served as a public official and newspaper editor in Spanish Morocco. Infuriated by corruption and exploitation, he gathered a small rebel force and began attacking Spanish garrisons in 1921. After several major defeats of
the Spanish, he advanced into French Morocco in 1925. There he was checked by a Franco-Spanish army under Marshal PETAIN in 1926. He was exiled to French Reunion but in 1947 escaped to Egypt, where he fostered Moroccan nationalist efforts.
_^<N__^<N_Donald J. Harvey _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Pennell, C. R., A Country with a Government and a Flag: The Rif War in Morocco, 1921-1926 (1986); Woolman, David S., Rebels in the Rif (1968).
-END-
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1704
CAT
-A-
abdomen
-T-
abdomen_^<N__^<N_The abdomen, in humans, is the part of the body that lies between the thorax, or CHEST, and the PELVIS. Commonly known as the belly, it does not include the spinal column and the remainder of the back wall; some anatomists include
the pelvis, however. _^<N__^<N_The abdomen is arbitrarily divided into nine regions: the right and left hypochondriacs (derived from the Greek hypo, "under," and chondros, "cartilage") located uppermost; the right and left inguinals (pertaining to
the groin), located lowermost; the right and left laterals, located between the hypochondriacs and inguinals; and the epigastric (meaning above the stomach), umbilical (navel), and pubic or hypogastric (under the stomach) regions. _^<N__^<N_Present
within the abdomen is the abdominal cavity, a space bounded by the abdominal wall in front, the diaphragm above, the lumbosacral wall in back, and the pelvis below. The abdominal cavity is arbitrarily demarcated from the pelvic cavity by an
imaginary plane across the top of the hipbones. The abdominal cavity contains the STOMACH, small INTESTINE, most of the large intestine, the LIVER, GALLBLADDER, SPLEEN, PANCREAS, KIDNEYS, and URETERS; the pelvic cavity contains the urinary bladder,
sigmoid colon, rectum, and, in the female, the reproductive organs. A serous membrane, the peritoneum, lines the interior of the abdominal wall and the pelvic cavity and extends from the rear wall to cover most of the abdominal organs.
_^<N__^<N_The abdominal wall contains muscles that are arranged in sheets. Together with connective tissue, they protect the delicate abdominal organs. _^<N__^<N_The term abdomen is also applied to the posterior segment of insects, crustaceans, and
other arthropods. _^<N__^<N_Roy Hartenstein
-END-
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1030
CAT
-A-
Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem
-T-
Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem_^<N__^<N_{ab-dul'-juh-bar', kuh-reem'} _^<N__^<N_Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, b. Ferdinand Lewis Alcindor, Jr., in New York City, Apr. 16, 1947, has blended height, coordination, and skills to become the "perfect big man" in
basketball. Jabbar, 7 ft 2 in (2 m 18 cm) tall, led his New York City high school team, Power Memorial Academy, to 71 consecutive victories. At the University of California, Los Angeles, his team won 3 NCAA titles (1967-69); he was an
All-American all 3 years and College Player of the Year twice. As a professional for the Milwaukee Bucks (1969-75) and the Los Angeles Lakers (1975-89) of the National Basketball Association, he accumulated a record 38,387 points (24.6 per game)
and 17,440 rebounds (11.2 per game). Jabbar was voted the NBA's most Valuable Player a record 6 times, and his teams have won 6 NBA titles (1971, 1980, 1982, 1985, 1987, 1988). _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Abdul-Jabbar, K., and Krobler, P., Giant
Steps (1985); Haskins, James, From Les Alcindor to Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, rev. ed. (1979).
-END-
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1539
CAT
-A-
Abdul Rahman, Tunku
-T-
Abdul Rahman, Tunku_^<N__^<N_{ahb-dul-rah-mahn', tung'-koo} _^<N__^<N_Tunku Abdul Rahman, b. Feb. 8, 1903, d. Dec. 6, 1990, was the first prime minister of independent Malaya (1957-63) and then (1963-70) of the successor state of Malaysia. The
Tunku (or prince, in Malay) was a son of a sultan who ruled for more than 60 years in the state of Kedah. Having received his early schooling in Malaya and Thailand, Abdul Rahman later attended Cambridge University and studied law at London's
Inner Temple. A founder of the United Malays National Organization (1945), he was chief architect of its alliance with the Malayan Chinese Association (1952) and the Malayan Indian Congress (1956) and helped to form what became the ruling Alliance
party. _^<N__^<N_Abdul Rahman was credited with founding (1961) the Association of Southeast Asia, consisting of Malaya, Thailand, and the Philippines, to resist the claims of SUKARNO of Indonesia. It later became (1967) the Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). He was also the key figure in the formation (1963) of the Federation of Malaysia. Domestically, Abdul Rahman attempted to accommodate the large Chinese and Indian minorities in Malaya. Agitation against this
policy led to suspension of the constitution in 1969 and Abdul Rahman's retirement in 1970. In the late 1980s he raised his voice as an elder statesman in opposition to the policies of Malaysian Prime Minister MAHATIR MOHAMMED. _^<N__^<N_Richard
Butwell _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Abdul, Rahman, T., Looking Back (1977); Healy, A. M., Tunku Abdul Rahman (1982).
-END-
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573
CAT
-A-
Abdullah
-T-
Abdullah_^<N__^<N_{ahb-dul'-ah} _^<N__^<N_Abdullah (Abd Allah ibn al-Husayn), b. 1882, d. July 20, 1951, was the first ruler of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. A leading Arab nationalist, he occupied Transjordan in 1921 and became its ruler under
the British mandate. After independence in 1946 he was crowned king. Abdullah accepted the partition of Palestine and the creation of Israel, but he took part in the 1948 ARAB-ISRAELI WAR, occupying the West Bank of the Jordan River and
incorporating a large Palestinian population into Jordan. He was assassinated by a Palestinian nationalist.
-END-
-C-
1090
CAT
-A-
Abe Kobo
-T-
Abe Kobo_^<N__^<N_{ah'-bay koh'-boh} _^<N__^<N_Abe Kobo, b. Mar. 7, 1924, d. Jan. 22, 1993, was a leading experimental Japanese prose writer and dramatist. His best- known works, such as The Woman in the Dunes (1962; Eng. trans., 1964; film, 1964),
explore in a surrealistic fashion the emptiness and nightmare of urban life. _^<N__^<N_Influenced by Western avant-garde literature, Abe's novels and short stories have few of the lyrical qualities typical of Japanese literature. His work is often
compared to that of Franz KAFKA. His narratives are sparse, elliptical, and normally unresolved. Abe's other works of fiction include Inter Ice Age Four (1959; Eng. trans., 1970; repr. 1981), The Face of Another (1964; Eng. trans., 1966), The
Ruined Map (1967; Eng. trans., 1969), and The Box Man (1973; Eng. trans., 1974). One of his most widely performed plays is Friends (1967; Eng. trans., 1969). Abe also wrote plays for radio and screenplays for films and received numerous Japanese
literary awards. _^<N__^<N_Edward B. Fowler _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Miyoshi, Masao, Accomplices of Silence: The Modern Japanese Novel (1974; repr. 1982).
-END-
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173
CAT
-A-
Abel
-T-
Abel_^<N__^<N_According to Genesis 4, Abel was the second son of Adam and Eve. A shepherd, he was murdered by his brother CAIN out of envy. His innocence is praised in Matthew 23:35.
-END-
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343
CAT
-A-
Abel, I. W.
-T-
Abel, I. W._^<N__^<N_Iorwith Wilbur Abel, b. Magnolia, Ohio, Aug. 11, 1908, d. Aug. 10, 1987, was president of the UNITED STEELWORKERS OF AMERICA from 1965 to 1977. He began working in a steel mill at the age of 17 and 11 years later he became
an organizer for the union. Abel was known for his lack of pretension and for his tolerance of dissent.
-END-
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403
CAT
-A-
Abel, John J.
-T-
Abel, John J._^<N__^<N_John Jacob Abel, b. Cleveland, Ohio, May 19, 1857, d. May 26, 1938, was an American physician and physiological chemist who isolated the hormone insulin in crystalline form and also isolated the hormone epinephrine
(adrenaline), thus making possible further detailed work on their chemical structure. He studied the chemistry of the endocrine glands and of other animal tissues and fluids.
-END-
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684
CAT
-A-
Abel, Niels Henrik
-T-
Abel, Niels Henrik_^<N__^<N_Niels Henrik Abel, b. Aug. 5, 1802, d. Apr. 16, 1829, was a brilliant Norwegian mathematician. He earned wide recognition at the age of 18 with his first paper, in which he proved that the general EQUATION of the fifth
degree is insolvable by algebraic procedures. _^<N__^<N_Abel was instrumental in establishing mathematical analysis on a rigorous basis. In his major work, Recherches sur les fonctions elliptiques (Investigations on Elliptic Functions, 1827), he
revolutionized the understanding of elliptic functions by studying the inverse of these functions. _^<N__^<N_Arthur Schlissel _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ore, Oystein, Niels Henrik Abel, Mathematician Extraordinary (1957; repr. 1974).
-END-
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571
CAT
-A-
Abel, Sir Frederick Augustus
-T-
Abel, Sir Frederick Augustus_^<N__^<N_An English chemist best known for his invention of cordite, an explosive, Sir Frederick Abel, b. July 17, 1829, d. Sept. 6, 1902, was for many years the British War Department's chief explosives advisor. In 1889
his research into the properties of GUNCOTTON led to the development of cordite, an explosive propellant paste made of guncotton, nitroglycerin, and mineral jelly, and named for its cordlike shape. A smokeless, relatively stable substance, it is
still in use today. Abel was knighted in 1883, and in 1893 he was created a baronet.
-END-
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3244
CAT
-A-
Abelard, Peter
-T-
Abelard, Peter_^<N__^<N_{ab'-uh-lahrd} _^<N__^<N_Peter Abelard, b. c.1079, d. Apr. 21, 1142, a French philosopher and theologian, was an early exponent of SCHOLASTICISM. After studying in Paris under WILLIAM OF CHAMPEAUX and ROSCELLIN, he soon
became a recognized teacher himself. His brilliant academic career was cut short in 1118-19, however, by the consequences of his love affair with Heloise (c.1098-1164), the young niece of Canon Fulbert of Notre-Dame. Castrated by order of Fulbert
and publicly disgraced, Abelard became a Benedictine monk. He continued to devote his vast energies to theological studies and writing, but Saint BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX, doubting the orthodoxy of Abelard's teaching on the Trinity, instigated the
burning of one of his books on the subject at the Council of Soissons (1121). _^<N__^<N_In 1125, Abelard established a convent called the Paraclete near Troyes; Heloise became prioress and a famous teacher there. Meanwhile Abelard was unexpectedly
elected (1126) abbot of the notoriously immoral monks of Saint-Gildas-de-Rhuis in Brittany. His efforts to reform the monastery ended with his having to flee for his life. Returning to Paris, Abelard resumed his teaching, numbering among his pupils
John of Salisbury. At the Council of Sens (1140), however, Saint Bernard again succeeded in having Abelard condemned for heresy. This condemnation was soon confirmed by the pope. _^<N__^<N_Already a broken man in his sixties, Abelard decided to
travel on foot to Rome to appeal his case. He got only as far as Cluny, whose understanding abbot was Peter the Venerable, a personal friend of Bernard and renowned for his moderation in controversy. Through Peter's patient efforts a reconciliation
was effected between Abelard and Bernard. Abelard spent the rest of his life at Cluny, dying at the nearby priory of Saint-Marcel-sur-Saone. _^<N__^<N_In the philosophical controversy over UNIVERSALS, Abelard rejected both the extreme realism of
William of Champeaux and the crude nominalism of Roscellin. While denying that universals are real things, he asserted that they are more than mere words since they express factors common to individual, real things; thus universals are tools of
logic, the basis for logical predication. This position is essentially Aristotelian, although Abelard had only limited access to the works of Aristotle through the translations of Boethius. Abelard's moderate realism in philosophy, his development
of the dialectical method of argument, his familiarity with the Bible and many of the Church Fathers, and his intellectual brilliance--rather than any systematic presentation of Christian theology aided by reason--make him one of the important,
although much neglected, pioneers of scholasticism. _^<N__^<N_James A. Weisheipl _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Gilson, Etienne, Heloise and Abelard, trans. by L. K. Shook, rev. ed. (1960); Luscombe, D. E., The School of Peter Abelard (1969); Moncrieff,
C. K. Scott, ed., The Letters of Abelard and Heloise (1925; repr. 1964); Muckle, J. T., ed., The Story of Abelard's Adversities (1954); Murray, A. V., Abelard and Saint Bernard (1967); Robertson, D. W., Abelard and Heloise (1972); Sikes, J. G.,
Peter Abailard (1932; repr. 1965); Starnes, Kathleen M., Peter Abelard (1981); Whitman, Cedric, Abelard (1965).
-END-
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544
CAT
-A-
Abell, George O.
-T-
Abell, George O._^<N__^<N_{ay'-buhl} _^<N__^<N_American astronomer George Ogden Abell, b. Los Angeles, Mar. 1, 1927, d. Oct. 7, 1983, is best known for his work on clusters of galaxies but was also a noted lecturer and author. He published a catalog
of 2,712 clusters in 1958 and was preparing a catalog of southern clusters at the time of his death. Studies of these clusters have helped to define the problem of missing mass in the universe that confronts COSMOLOGY today. Abell also determined
the relative numbers of galaxies with various absolute magnitudes.
-END-
-C-
972
CAT
-A-
Abell, Kjeld
-T-
Abell, Kjeld_^<N__^<N_{ah'-bel, kee-el'} _^<N__^<N_Kjeld Abell, b. Aug. 25, 1901, d. Mar. 5, 1961, is generally considered the most important and innovative Danish playwright of this century. He began his theatrical career as a scene designer
and gained recognition as a playwright with The Melody That Got Lost (1935; Eng. trans., 1939), an expressionistic tragicomedy that satirizes the dull, unimaginative life of the middle class. Anne Sophie Hedvig (1939; Eng. trans., 1944),
considered his finest play, condones the use of violence against the evils of nazism. Such postwar plays as The Blue Pekinese (1954) and Skriget (The Scream, 1961), dealing with the plight of contemporary humankind in an age of conformity, are
modern examples of the BEAST EPIC. Hans Christian ANDERSEN's influence on Abell's work is most noticeable in the play Andersen, or the Fairy Tale of His Life (1955). _^<N__^<N_Kjetil A. Flatin _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Mitchell, P. M., A History
of Danish Literature (1957).
-END-
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1139
CAT
-A-
Abercrombie, John
-T-
Abercrombie, John_^<N__^<N_Guitarist-bassist-composer John Abercrombie, b. Port Chester, N.Y., Dec. 16, 1944, was one of the first musicians to experiment with jazz-rock fusion. After graduating from the Berklee College of Music in Boston
(1962-67), he briefly performed with jazz organist John Hammond Smith's band, before joining (1968) the fusion group Dreams, with Michael and Randy Brecker, Billy Cobham, and Barry Rogers. In 1970, he moved to New York to work with
drummer-composer Chico Hamilton. In the meantime, Abercrombie was in demand as a session guitarist and by 1973, when he joined Billy Cobham's band, he had begun composing as well. After a year with Cobham, he moved on to Jack DeJohnette's group,
Directions, then in 1974 released the solo album Timeless. Gateway, released in 1975, gave birth to a loosely tied group of the same name with DeJohnette and Dave Holland. He formed the Abercrombie Quartet and released its debut, Arcade, in 1979.
The Quartet included Richie Beirach, George Mraz, and Peter Donald. Early in 1982, Five Years Later spotlighted the guitarist in partnership with Ralph Towner. _^<N__^<N_Paulette Weiss
-END-
-C-
657
CAT
-A-
Abercrombie, Lascelles
-T-
Abercrombie, Lascelles_^<N__^<N_{las'-ulz} _^<N__^<N_Lascelles Abercrombie, b. Jan. 9, 1881, d. Oct. 27, 1938, was an English poet, critic, and teacher who was called the latter-day Browning. He used the dramatic monologue effectively in his long
verse narrative in six acts, The Sale of St. Thomas (1911, 1930). Abercrombie's other volumes of poetry include Emblems of Love (1912); notable critical works are Thomas Hardy (1912), The Theory of Poetry (1924), and Principles of Literary
Criticism (1932). _^<N__^<N_Robin Buss _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Cooper, Jeffrey, Bibliography and Notes on the Works of Lascelles Abercrombie (1969); Sastri, C. L., Abercrombie's Poems: A Critical Study (1971).
-END-
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760
CAT
-A-
Aberdeen (city in Scotland)
-T-
Aberdeen (city in Scotland)_^<N__^<N_Aberdeen (1991 pop., 201,099) is the major port and commercial center of northeastern Scotland. Located on the North Sea, it is the center of the Scottish fishing industry and the supply port for the Orkney and
Shetland islands. The discovery and development of North Sea oil deposits have brought added growth and prosperity to Aberdeen. _^<N__^<N_Old Aberdeen developed around the Cathedral of Saint Machar (1424) and King's College (1495), on the Don
River. New Aberdeen grew around the superior port on the Dee and around Marischal College (1593). The two colleges combined in 1860 to form the University of Aberdeen, and Old and New Aberdeen merged in 1891. Aberdeen's buildings are distinctive
for their use of locally quarried granite.
-END-
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446
CAT
-A-
Aberdeen (city in South Dakota)
-T-
Aberdeen (city in South Dakota)_^<N__^<N_Aberdeen (1980 pop., 25,956) is a city in northeastern South Dakota. A railroad junction, it serves as the commercial, processing, and shipping center for a large wheat- and cattle-raising area. It is the
seat of Brown County and the site of Northern State College. Aberdeen was settled in 1880 by German and Russian immigrants and named by the railroad tycoon Alexander Mitchell for his birthplace in Scotland.
-END-
-C-
748
CAT
-A-
Aberdeen (county in Scotland)
-T-
Aberdeen (county in Scotland)_^<N__^<N_Aberdeen, situated on the North Sea, was a civil county in northeastern Scotland until 1975, when it became part of the administrative region of Grampian. The Grampian Mountains cut across the southwestern
portion of Aberdeen, and the region is drained by the rivers Dee, Don, Deveron, and Ythan. Along the coast, fishing (salmon, herring, whitefish) is a major industry. Inland, farmers raise sheep and cattle. Their major crops include oats and
turnips. _^<N__^<N_Settled by about 2000 BC, Aberdeen has long been noted for its fertile lowlands. The area was a royalist stronghold during the 17th-century religious wars. Balmoral Castle, the royal residence in Scotland, located in the Dee
Valley, was completed in 1856.
-END-
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797
CAT
-A-
Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of
-T-
Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of_^<N__^<N_Lord Aberdeen, b. Jan. 28, 1784, d. Dec. 14, 1860, was prime minister of Britain (1852-55) through most of the CRIMEAN WAR. Earlier in his long political career he served twice as foreign
secretary (1828-30, 1841-46), and his successes included settling of two boundary disputes with the United States by the Webster-Ashburton and Oregon treaties (1842, 1846). As prime minister of a coalition government, Aberdeen allowed a diplomatic
drift that led to Britain's entry into the Crimean War (1854). He was blamed for poor management of the war and was forced to resign. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Chamberlain, M. E., Lord Aberdeen (1983); Conacher, J. B., The Aberdeen Coalition,
1852-1855 (1968); Jones, Wilbur D., Lord Aberdeen and the Americas (1958).
-END-
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487
CAT
-A-
Aberdeen, University of
-T-
Aberdeen, University of_^<N__^<N_The University of Aberdeen (enrollment: 7,332; library: about 1,000,000 volumes) was formed by the merger in 1860 of King's College (1494) and Marischal College (1593). Located in Aberdeen, Scotland, it is a
coeducational institution and has faculties of arts, science, divinity, law, and medicine. All grant undergraduate and graduate degrees. Associated colleges are Robert Gordon's Institute of Technology and the North of Scotland College of
Agriculture.
-END-
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802
CAT
-A-
Aberhart, William
-T-
Aberhart, William_^<N__^<N_{ay'-bur-hahrt} _^<N__^<N_The Canadian political leader William Aberhart, b. near Seaforth, Ontario, Dec. 30, 1878, d. May 23, 1943, was the premier of the first Social Credit government (1935-43) in Alberta. A
high-school principal and radio evangelist, he adopted Social Credit ideas, which called for a redistribution of wealth, in the early '30s and won a large following in western Canada. In 1935 Aberhart and his SOCIAL CREDIT PARTY swept to victory
in the Alberta provincial elections. His reforms were opposed by the federal government, and many were declared unconstitutional by the courts. Aberhart nevertheless remained in office, shifting to an increasingly conservative program, until his
death. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Irving, John A., The Social Credit Movement in Alberta (1959).
-END-
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1030
CAT
-A-
Abernathy, Ralph David
-T-
Abernathy, Ralph David_^<N__^<N_Ralph David Abernathy, b. Linden, Ala., Mar. 11, 1926, d. Atlanta, Apr. 17, 1990, was a Baptist minister and pioneer black civil rights leader. Ordained in 1948, he accepted a pastoral post in Montgomery, Ala., in
1951. In 1955 he and the Rev. Martin Luther KING, Jr., organized the Montgomery bus boycott to protest discrimination. Two years later they founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). White terrorists dynamited Abernathy's home
and church in retaliation. After Martin Luther King's assassination in 1968, Abernathy served as president of the SCLC until 1977. In that year he unsuccessfully ran for a seat in the U. S. House of Representatives. Abernathy served as a
minister in Atlanta for many years. In 1989, Abernathy was criticized by some black civil rights leaders for passages in his recently-published book that referred to alleged extramarital affairs by Martin Luther King. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Abernathy, Ralph David, And the Walls Came Tumbling Down (1989).
-END-
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772
CAT
-A-
aberration, chromatic
-T-
aberration, chromatic_^<N__^<N_Chromatic aberration is a defect in the image-forming property of a simple LENS that results in a colored fringe around an image. The focal length of a lens depends on the curvature of the lens surfaces and the INDEX
OF REFRACTION of the lens material. Because the refractive index of any transparent substance varies with the wavelength (or color) of the light (a phenomenon called DISPERSION), a simple lens forms not one but a series of images when white light
is used. The result is a colored smearing of the edge of any image. Chromatic aberration can be reduced considerably by a special two-component lens design using glasses with different dispersive properties. Such achromatic lenses are used in
better optical instruments. _^<N__^<N_Grant R. Fowles
-END-
-C-
1919
CAT
-A-
aberration, optical
-T-
aberration, optical_^<N__^<N_An aberration, in OPTICS, is some property of a LENS or a curved MIRROR that impairs its ability to form a perfect image. Several types exist, including chromatic aberration and the geometric types called spherical
aberration, coma, astigmatism, distortion, and curvature of field. _^<N__^<N_Chromatic aberration produces a colored fringe around an image when white light is involved. A lens' focal length depends on the curvature of the lens surfaces and on the
INDEX OF REFRACTION of its material. The colored fringe occurs because the refractive index of any transparent substance varies with the wavelength (color) of the light--a phenomenon called DISPERSION. _^<N__^<N_Spherical aberration results from
the geometry of the REFRACTION and REFLECTION of light rays. It limits the ability of a converging lens or mirror to bring parallel rays into perfect focus, because the focal length for rays focused by the central part of the lens differs from
that for rays focused by the outer parts. _^<N__^<N_Coma is named for the cometlike appearance of the image of a point source of light formed by a simple lens, when the source is located off the lens' central axis. The effect results from the fact
that the optical focus (see FOCAL POINT) of rays passing through the lens center is a point, but for those passing through the outer parts it is a circle. Similar geometric reasons account for astigmatism, in which an image is blurred;
distortion, in which imaged lines bend either inward (pincushion effect) or outward (barrel effect); and curvature of field, in which the lens forms an image focused on a spherical rather than a flat plane. _^<N__^<N_Aberrations are reduced by
varying the curvature of a lens or mirror surface. In most optical system, two or more lenses of appropriately different dispersive qualities and different curvatures are combined so as to cancel out each other's aberrational effects.
_^<N__^<N_Grant R. Fowles
-END-
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879
CAT
-A-
aberration, spherical
-T-
aberration, spherical_^<N__^<N_Spherical aberration is a property inherent in any converging LENS or MIRROR that has spherical surfaces, which limits its ability to bring a parallel beam of light into perfect focus. The defect is not caused by any
imperfections in the optical surfaces, but results entirely from the geometry of the refraction or reflection of the light rays. Specifically, the focal length for rays brought to focus by the central part is different from the focal length for
rays focused by the outer portions of the lens. Spherical aberration in a mirror can be corrected by making the surface parabolic rather than spherical, a process called parabolizing. Astronomical reflecting telescopes are generally made with
parabolic mirrors. The defect in lenses can be reduced by the use of aspherical surfaces and also by combinations of two or more lenses. _^<N__^<N_Grant R. Fowles
-END-
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617
CAT
-A-
aberration, stellar
-T-
aberration, stellar_^<N__^<N_The aberration of starlight is the apparent displacement of the path of light from a star caused by the orbital motion of the Earth. James BRADLEY, attempting to measure stellar PARALLAXES, first discovered this effect
in 1725, when he observed that all stars seemed to shift their position as much as 20.5 seconds of arc in a period of one year, in a way that could not be accounted for. In the same way that an umbrella must be tilted during a vertical rainfall in
proportion to the speed of the pedestrian, so the angle of a telescope pointing at a star must be adjusted for stellar aberration.
-END-
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356
CAT
-A-
Aberystwyth
-T-
Aberystwyth_^<N__^<N_{ab-ur-ist'-with} _^<N__^<N_Aberystwyth (1979 est. pop., 12,000) is a municipal borough on Cardigan Bay in the county of Dyfed, Wales. The town grew around a 13th-century Norman castle that was later destroyed. With the
establishment of the University College of Wales (1872) and the National Library of Wales (1907), it became a center of Welsh culture.
-END-
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1156
CAT
-A-
Abidjan
-T-
Abidjan_^<N__^<N_{ah-bi-jahn'} _^<N__^<N_Abidjan (1984 est. pop., 1,850,000) is the largest city, former capital, and chief port of Ivory Coast located on the Ebrie Lagoon, Gulf of Guinea, on the coast of West Africa. Settled in 1898, Abidjan
became a railroad terminus in 1904. It remained a small town until 1950, when the completion of the Vridi Canal opened the lagoon to the sea and made Abidjan an ocean port. Abidjan processes and exports coffee, cacao, timber, manganese, and fruit.
In 1983 the capital was formally transferred to Yamoussoukro, the birthplace of Felix HOUPHOUET-BOIGNY, although the legislature still meets in Abidjan. _^<N__^<N_The city is divided into several types of quarters: the commercial and
administrative centers, such as the Plateau; the traditional residential and industrial centers of Adjame and Treichville, a suburb on the island of Petit-Bassam, which is connected to the Plateau area by a bridge; and the modern residential
section of Cocody. The climate is humid, and at the outskirts of the city is a tropical rain forest, the Banco National Park. Abidjan has a university (1964), a museum, and one of the world's largest cathedrals.
-END-
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434
CAT
-A-
Abilene (Kansas)
-T-
Abilene (Kansas)_^<N__^<N_{ab'-uh-leen} _^<N__^<N_Abilene (1990 census, 6,242), on the Smoky Hill River in east-central Kansas, is an agricultural distribution center and the seat of Dickinson County. During the years 1867-71, Abilene was an
important railhead, at the end of the CHISHOLM TRAIL. Wild Bill HICKOK was Abilene's marshal in the 1870s. Places of interest include Dwight D. EISENHOWER's boyhood home and the Eisenhower Museum and Library.
-END-
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751
CAT
-A-
Abilene (Texas)
-T-
Abilene (Texas)_^<N__^<N_{ab'-uh-leen} _^<N__^<N_Abilene (1990 census, 106,654) is the marketing, shipping, and financial center of west central Texas and the seat of Taylor County. A rapidly growing city with varied industries, it has nevertheless
retained its original frontier character. It was founded as a shipping point when the railroad arrived in 1881, and the town was named for Abilene, Kans. Livestock is still a major product of the region served by the city, but agriculture is now
supplemented by related industries and the oil industry. Abilene is the site of Hardin-Simmons and Abilene Christian universities, McMurry College, and Dyess Air Force Base, a Strategic Air Command unit. The climate is semiarid, with an annual
rainfall of 610 mm (24 in).
-END-
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414
CAT
-A-
ablation
-T-
ablation_^<N__^<N_{ab-lay'-shuhn} _^<N__^<N_Ablation collectively describes the processes that decrease the mass of a glacier, iceberg, ice sheet, or snowfield. Melting and evaporation are the most important; calving and removal by wind and by
avalanching are less so. In the lower part of a glacier, ablation outpaces accumulation, causing shrinkage. Higher up, the reverse is true, and the glacial mass increases. _^<N__^<N__^<N__^<N_Robert L. Nichols
-END-
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31
CAT
-A-
ABM:
-T-
ABM:_^<N__^<N_see ANTIBALLISTIC MISSILE.
-END-
-C-
1762
CAT
-A-
Abnaki
-T-
Abnaki_^<N__^<N_{ab-nah'-kee} _^<N__^<N_A major group of Algonquian-speaking Indian tribes living along the river valleys of Maine, the Abnaki confederacy was important in American colonial history until the time of the Revolution. The collective
name for this confederacy, used by both French and English, means "people of the eastern lands." It included the PASSAMAQUODDY, PENOBSCOT, Sokoki, Malecite, and Etchimin tribes, all of whom were sedentary, horticultural peoples who also depended
heavily upon hunting and fishing for subsistence. _^<N__^<N_The Abnaki began their long association with the French following the visit of Samuel de Champlain in 1607. Threatened by the northward expansion of the English seaboard colonies and
aggressive raids of the Five Nations Iroquois, they had become firm allies of New France by the middle of the 17th century. Made vulnerable by their exposed position and weakened by constant wars, the Abnaki began to abandon their homeland in Maine
in the 1670s. Most migrated northward to French territory in Quebec and New Brunswick; others moved west to the Great Lakes region. In 1681 a group of Sokoki formed part of the sieur de La Salle's support party during his exploration of the Lake
Michigan area, and they settled among the Miami and the Potawatomi there. Other groups of Penobscot, Passamaquoddy, and Malecite remained in Maine after making peace with the English. _^<N__^<N_In 1972 descendants of the Abnaki brought a suit
against the state of Maine for the illegal surrender of their lands in the 1790s. The 1980 settlement gave the Indians about $81 million in federal funds. _^<N__^<N_James A. Clifton _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Trigger, Bruce, ed., Handbook of North
American Indians, vol. 12 (1978); Vetromile, Eugene, The Abnakis and Their History (1866; repr. 1977).
-END-
-C-
1869
CAT
-A-
abnormal psychology
-T-
abnormal psychology_^<N__^<N_Abnormal psychology is the study of the nature, causes, and treatment of psychological disorders. Most modern classifications are based on the work of the German psychiatrist Emil KRAEPELIN, who in the 1890s developed
systematic descriptions of mental illnesses. Although many psychologists do not believe that most problems in thinking, feeling, or behaving are due to organic (bodily) disorder, diagnostic categories are still used as descriptive tools. Persons
are classified on the basis of the complaint they bring to the clinician, their behavior, and the results of psychological testing. _^<N__^<N_The major diagnostic categories are NEUROSIS, PSYCHOSOMATIC DISORDERS, SCHIZOPHRENIA, sexual disorders,
affective (feeling emotion) disorders, character disorders, alcohol and drug addiction, and organic brain dysfunction. Each of these includes many identifiable subtypes, such as the paranoid, catatonic, hebephrenic, and simple schizophrenias.
Some psychologists reject the notion of diagnostic categories and prefer to focus only on specific behaviors that are maladaptive. Abnormality is defined not only in terms of deviance from the norms of the individual's sociocultural group but also
by subjective discomfort. _^<N__^<N_Treatment varies according to the nature of the disorder and the orientation of the psychotherapist. It may include BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION, individual or GROUP THERAPY, drugs, or milieu therapy. As knowledge
increases, specific therapies are being developed for specific problems, such as systematic desensitization for phobias. _^<N__^<N_John M. Dyckman _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: White, Robert W., and Watt, Norman, The Abnormal Personality, 5th ed.
abolitionists_^<N__^<N_In U.S. history, the abolitionists were those who sought to end the institution of black SLAVERY. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, groups of abolitionists in Britain and France acted vigorously and effectively,
protesting slavery in their nations' colonies and exposing the horrors of the African slave trade. Their example was followed in the United States, where abolitionists first achieved prominence during the American Revolution; the opponents of
slaveholding included some illustrious Founding Fathers. Certain that slavery violated the ideals of the Declaration of Independence, Benjamin FRANKLIN, Alexander HAMILTON, John JAY, Thomas PAINE, and Benjamin RUSH joined their antislavery efforts
with those of the Quakers (Society of FRIENDS) and other religiously inspired Northerners. _^<N__^<N_By 1804 emancipation on a gradual basis had been enacted by every Northern state legislature. Because, in part, of abolitionists' pressure,
measures were also taken on the national level to end U.S. participation in the African slave trade (1808) and to prohibit slavery's expansion in certain Western territories (the MISSOURI COMPROMISE, 1820). Some abolitionists also involved
themselves in colonization societies, most notably the AMERICAN COLONIZATION SOCIETY, which sought to resettle freed slaves in Africa. During this era, however, abolitionist efforts proved ineffective in the Southern states, where slaveholding was
deeply entrenched. From 1790 to 1830 the advocates of abolition in the South, led by Benjamin LUNDY, spoke mildly and favored gradual emancipation. A disruptive and radical abolitionism, however, had emerged by the early 1830s. Groups of New
Englanders had begun branding slavery as a horrible sin and demanding "immediate, complete, and uncompensated emancipation" everywhere in the nation. _^<N__^<N_These abolitionists constituted one of the most controversial movements in American
history. Its leadership included famous blacks and women as well as white males and was typified by editors such as the fiery William Lloyd GARRISON, orators such as Frederick DOUGLASS, Angelina GRIMKE, Wendell PHILLIPS, and Theodore WELD, and
many other philanthropists, black agitators, and feminists. From the first, their aim was to transform the conscience of each white American, Northerner and Southerner, by preaching against the sin of slavery. They believed that through such
agitation it was possible to convince slaveholders to show repentance by releasing their slaves. Abolitionists also called upon each white citizen to cast aside prejudice against blacks and to join the crusade against slavery. In December 1833
the abolitionists formed the American Anti-Slavery Society, hoping to mount a national campaign, and by 1835 they had established networks of state and local societies. As they founded abolitionist newspapers (for example, Garrison's The
Liberator), held rallies, and distributed emancipationist tracts, these reformers also worked to improve conditions for Northern blacks by protesting segregation, founding schools and libraries, and protecting slaves who had escaped from the South.
They also petitioned state legislatures and the U.S. Congress, demanding action against slavery. Congress's attempt to stem the flow of petitions by GAG RULES only provoked stronger agitation. _^<N__^<N_By the early 1840s, however, widespread
and often violent opposition to the abolitionists' efforts had caused members of the movement to disagree profoundly about strategies and tactics. Abolitionists had also divided over controversial new issues such as women's rights, black
separatism, and opposition to organized religion. They never again formed a united front. In 1840 some of the moderates formed the LIBERTY PARTY, which ran James BIRNEY as its presidential candidate in 1840 and 1844. These advocates of direct
political action later supported the FREE-SOIL PARTY and ultimately the REPUBLICAN PARTY. _^<N__^<N_After the passage of the new FUGITIVE SLAVE LAW in 1850, many abolitionists involved themselves in the UNDERGROUND RAILROAD, by which slaves escaped
to the North. That law also provoked Harriet Beecher STOWE to write the abolitionist classic UNCLE TOM'S CABIN (1852). Passage of the KANSAS-NEBRASKA ACT (1854), with its provision that the settlers in these territories decide whether there
should be slavery, caused a migration of people dedicated to antislavery. They clashed with proslavery settlers, and a local civil war developed. One such antislavery settler was John BROWN, whose extremism led him to murder five proslavery
settlers in Kansas and subsequently (1859) to seize HARPERS FERRY. _^<N__^<N_During the Civil War, as the organized movement dissolved, many individual abolitionists pushed Abraham Lincoln to issue the EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION (1863). After the
war they still lobbied for constitutional amendments and civil rights laws to protect the newly emancipated slaves. Others raised funds to support black education programs in the old slave states and served in the South as teachers, ministers, and
political reformers. The intensity of effort ended, however, with the passage in 1865 of the 13th Amendment abolishing slavery, the goal for which the abolitionists had fought. _^<N__^<N_James Brewer Stewart _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Curry, Richard
O., ed., Abolitionists (1965); Davis, David B., The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution (1975); Hawkins, Hugh, The Abolitionists: Means, Ends, and Motivations, 2d ed. (1972); Magdol, Edward, The Antislavery Rank and File (1986);
Quarles, Benjamin, Black Abolitionists (1969); Soderlund, Jean R., Quakers and Slavery (1985); Stewart, James Brewer, Holy Warriors: The Abolitionists and American Slavery (1976); Walters, Ronald G., The Antislavery Appeal (1977).
-END-
-C-
760
CAT
-A-
abominable snowman
-T-
abominable snowman_^<N__^<N_The abominable snowman, or yeti, is a giant creature believed by Himalayan tribesmen to roam the mountains at night searching for victims. It is described as having an upright stance, a covering of black to reddish hair,
and the appearance of a bear, ape, or human. The yeti legend first became known outside the area in 1921, when English explorers found tracks in the snow resembling huge human footprints. Several scientific expeditions failed to find any other
evidence of the yeti's existence. The most plausible explanation for the tracks is that they are probably those of foxes or dogs, melted together by the heat of the Sun. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Izzard, Ralph, The Abominable Snowman (1955);
Aborigines, Australian_^<N__^<N_{ab-uh-rij'-uh-neez} _^<N__^<N_The Australian Aborigines established themselves over the entire Australian continent, including Tasmania, long before Europeans discovered it. By about 40,000 years ago small groups
had arrived by sea, probably traveling from Southeast Asia to the north coast of Australia. Aborigines are dark skinned, with numerous regional variations in their anatomical features and hair color. Although they are sometimes classified within
the Australasian race, many anthropologists no longer consider Aborigines to be part of a separate racial group. Before the first European settlement of Australia, the Aborigines numbered about 300,000. Their present population is estimated at
about 125,000-130,000; about 45,000-50,000 are of homogeneous ancestry, and 70,000-80,000 are mixed Aboriginal and European. _^<N__^<N_ TRADITIONAL ABORIGINAL CULTURE_^<N__^<N_Australian Aborigines were socioculturally homogeneous only in a
general way. Traditionally, about 500 different tribal groups existed, each occupying a particular stretch of country and speaking a different language or dialect. Among the best-known Aboriginal groups are the ARANDA (Arunta), Bidjandjadjara
(Pitjantjatjara), Gurindji, Gunwinggu, Kamilaroi, Murngin, Tiwi, Wailbri (Walbiri), Wurora, and Yir-yoront. _^<N__^<N_As seminomadic HUNTER-GATHERERS, the Aborigines traditionally were restricted to their own territories, but they joined with
adjacent groups for certain purposes, among them religious gatherings and trade. They did not have permanent settlements but made small camps near watering places, building windbreaks and huts. _^<N__^<N_Because the Aborigines needed to be mobile,
they had few everyday belongings. Men carried spears, spear-throwers, and various kinds of BOOMERANGS; women, their digging sticks, dishes, and bags or baskets. They usually went naked, but groups in cold southern areas made and wore fur cloaks.
Aboriginal society had a well-developed trading economy: goods of various kinds (spears, ochres, stone and bone implements, pearl-shell pendants) were exchanged and passed from one group to the next, so that the whole country was crisscrossed with
trade routes. _^<N__^<N_ Social Organization and Kinship_^<N__^<N_Religion and economics played an essential part in the two kinds of social units traditionally found in one form or another throughout the continent. The first, a local descent
group determined according to male ancestry, owned a specific area of land containing sacred sites of mythototemic significance; its adult male members were responsible for maintaining these sites and for conducting the associated rituals. The
second kind of social unit, the mobile residential group, occupied and used available land in a given area. Every male and female was a member of a specific local descent group but would join with others from the same and from other local descent
groups for purposes of food collecting and other activities. The size of such residential groups varied according to the season. _^<N__^<N_All members of a tribe were linked through kinship, which was expressed in a complex system of genealogical
and other types of classification. Every Aboriginal society had its own set of kin terms in its own particular kinship system, but all the societies had some elements in common. Kin terms indicated, among other things, marriage eligibility,
responsibilities, and reasons for avoidance of particular individuals. Marriage rules varied, but generally a person had to marry someone who was already related to him or her in a specified way. Marriage was seen as a union not just between two
individuals but between two families or kin groups. _^<N__^<N_ Ritual and Art_^<N__^<N_In the traditional religious system of the Aborigines, human beings were believed to be a part of nature, intimately associated with other living things. This
relationship underlined the concept sometimes called the Dreaming, of which totemism is one aspect. The Dreaming refers to the creative period when mythic spirits were believed to have shaped the land, bringing into being various species and
establishing human life. These beings were thought to live on eternally in spirit form and to have left tangible evidence of their presence in the shape of certain prominent land forms considered sacred. Religious ritual was pervasive in
traditional Aboriginal life. Although presided over by males, it involved all members of the community. Some rituals, including elaborate funeral customs and initiation rites, served to renew the participants' ties with the Dreaming, considered a
continuing stream from which life came. _^<N__^<N_The Aborigines produced a wide range of ritual objects and emblems. Oral and visual arts were highly developed, the latter including fine bark and cave paintings, rock engravings, and sculptured
posts and figures (see OCEANIC ART). Song poetry ranged from the succinct verses of Central Australia and the Western Desert to the elaborate song-cycles of northeastern Arnhem Land, which made use of complex symbolic allusion and imagery. Dance
and the dramatic arts were also well developed. _^<N__^<N_ ABORIGINAL LIFE AFTER EUROPEAN CONTACT_^<N__^<N_With the arrival of Europeans in 1788, many Aboriginal societies, caught within the coils of expanding white settlement, were gradually
destroyed. Clashes between Aborigines and Europeans were common. Large numbers of Aborigines were killed, others driven into the bush. Epidemics also contributed to their dispersal and depopulation. _^<N__^<N_Maltreatment and violence gradually
declined, but traditional sociocultural life became difficult to maintain. In some areas Aborigines of mixed European and Aboriginal ancestry replaced the traditional population. Over much of the southwestern, southeastern, and mideastern parts
of the continent, traditional life ceased to exist. In the central and northern regions it continued in a modified form, especially in Arnhem Land and in the great Central Reserve. Today all Aborigines have had some contact with the Europeans.
Those who live in the fringe settlements are rapidly incorporating Australian-European features into their culture. _^<N__^<N_All Aborigines are now Australian citizens and are no longer subject to restrictive legislation; they are eligible to
vote and to receive Social Service benefits. In recent years they have been involved more directly in political protest, which has materially altered their past condition of poverty and deprivation. Issues of paramount importance are land rights,
housing and health, and political representation at all levels. _^<N__^<N_Many Aboriginal communities have their own councils, employ advisors, engage in socioeconomic ventures, and plan and manage many of their affairs. Educational programs
include bilingual teaching and special orientation courses in Aboriginal schools and in schools of mixed populations. _^<N__^<N_Ronald M. Berndt _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bennett, S., Aborigines and Political Power (1989); Berndt, Catherine and
Ronald, The First Australians (1978); Brock, P., ed., Women, Rites and Sites (1989); Burbank, V. K., Aboriginal Adolescence (1988); Charlesworth, Max, et al., eds., Religion in Aboriginal Australia (1984); Chatwin, Bruce, The Songlines (1987);
Collman, J., Fringe-Dwellers and Welfare (1988); Cowan, J., Mysteries of the Dreamtime (1990); Gumbert, M., Neither Justice nor Reason (1984); Howard, M. C., ed., Aboriginal Power in Australian Society (1982); Mol, Hans, The Firm and the
Formless (1982); Reid, J., Body, Land, and Spirit (1985); Rowley, Charles D., Recovery: The Politics of Aboriginal Reform (1986); White, Isobel, et al., eds., Fighters and Singers (1985).
-END-
-C-
8216
CATO
4771
-A-
abortion
-O-
000000|abortion
000201| Medical Aspects
002924| Legal Aspects
005926| Impact of Legalization
006940| Ethical Aspects
-T-
abortion_^<N__^<N_An abortion is the termination of a pregnancy by loss or destruction of the fetus before birth. An abortion may be spontaneous or induced. The latter is an act with ethical and legal ramifications. _^<N__^<N_ Medical
Aspects_^<N__^<N_Spontaneous abortion, or miscarriage, occurs when the embryo fails to develop, when there is complete or incomplete expulsion of the products of conception--the embryo or fetus, and placenta--or when the fetus dies prior to 20
weeks from the woman's last menstrual period (LMP). If fetal death occurs at 20 weeks or more after the LMP, it is termed a late fetal death or a stillbirth. _^<N__^<N_Perhaps as many as three-fourths of conceptions are spontaneously aborted.
Most occur before the woman's pregnancy can be confirmed, prior to 6 weeks after her LMP. They constitute about one-fifth of confirmed pregnancies and about one-tenth of all hospitalizations for pregnancy in the United States. The woman may
experience cramping and blood loss similar to that of a normal menstrual period, heavier cramping or blood loss, or pains closely resembling those of childbirth. _^<N__^<N_Induced abortion is a procedure intended to terminate a suspected or known
pregnancy and to produce a nonviable fetus at any gestational age. Most induced abortions in the United States are performed in the first trimester--within 12 weeks of the LMP. The technique for virtually all first-trimester pregnancy
terminations utilizes a procedure called vacuum aspiration or vacuum curettage. After dilation of the cervix, a hollow plastic tube with a hole near its end is inserted into the uterus. The embryo or fetus and placenta are drawn into the tube
through vacuum pressure. _^<N__^<N_Second-trimester induced abortion involves a more complicated procedure. If the pregnancy has progressed to no more than 16 weeks since the LMP, the most common technique is dilation and evacuation, a method that
is similar to vacuum aspiration. The next most common procedure, injection of fluid into the amniotic sac, usually is postponed until after the 16th week in order to reduce the risk of injection outside the amniotic cavity. Fluid injected into
the cavity may be either a saline solution or hormones called PROSTAGLANDINS. Comparative studies of abortion techniques have determined that surgical evacuation techniques, especially up to 17 weeks' gestation, are safer than instillation
techniques. Hysterotomy (surgical incision of the uterus) and HYSTERECTOMY may be used when medically indicated. _^<N__^<N_In France during the 1980s an abortion-inducing drug called RU 486 was proved 85 percent effective during the first six
weeks after LMP, especially when used with prostaglandins. By the early 1990s the drug remained licensed only in France, China, and the United Kingdom. There has been a push by individual U.S. states to allow the drug to be tested and made
available for continuing research into its uses against diseases such as cancer. _^<N__^<N_ Legal Aspects_^<N__^<N_Although discouraged by most major religions, induced abortion has been practiced in every culture since ancient times. During the
19th century several countries passed laws prohibiting abortion to protect women from the dangerous methods then in use. Between 1920 and 1967 the USSR, most Eastern European and Scandinavian countries, Japan, and Great Britain legalized abortion.
About half of the world's people live in countries where abortion is available on request, and another fourth live in areas where abortion is permitted to protect the woman's health. The most restrictive policies tend to be found in
fundamentalist Islamic countries and countries of sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America. In several of these countries, however, medical practitioners provide abortions without being prosecuted. In the 1980s about 40 to 60 million induced
abortions occurred each year; about 33 million of them were legal. _^<N__^<N_In the United States legal induced abortion was generally unavailable until 1970, when a few states liberalized their abortion laws. Early in 1973 the U.S. Supreme Court
declared most restrictive abortion laws unconstitutional because they violated the woman's right of privacy. Since then, abortion has been generally available throughout the United States. The 1973 Supreme Court cases ROE V. WADE AND DOE V.
BOLTON left the decision to have a first-trimester abortion to the woman and her physician. States could pass regulations to insure the safety of second-trimester abortions, and could prohibit third-trimester abortions. Since then further
restrictions have been legalized. In the 1989 case of Webster v. Reproductive Services, the Supreme Court upheld a Missouri law that prevented the performance of abortions by public employees or in taxpayer-supported facilities. In 1990 the Court
ruled that states may require teenage girls to notify both parents before obtaining an abortion or else request a judicial hearing. A 1991 administrative decision barred federally funded clinics from mentioning abortion as an option, but this
restriction has been somewhat eased. _^<N__^<N_A number of state legislatures have voted on bills that would outlaw abortion except in cases of rape, incest, or to save the mother's life, but most have not passed or have been vetoed by the
governor. Severely restrictive laws have been passed in several states as part of an effort to produce a Supreme Court decision reversing Roe v. Wade. In 1992 the Court upheld the 1973 ruling but permitted states to place further restrictions on
abortions, such as parental or spousal notification and a 24-hour waiting period before the procedure. _^<N__^<N_The Hyde Amendment passed by Congress in 1976 severely restricted federal funds for abortions, although many states continue to fund
abortions for indigent women. In 1988 the Reagan administration banned federal funding of research using fetal tissue obtained from induced abortions, a ban extended by the Bush administration in 1989. _^<N__^<N_ Impact of Legalization_^<N__^<N_In
the 1960s, deaths from illegal abortions amounted to one-fifth of all deaths related to pregnancy and childbirth in the United States. After the 1973 decision, mortality and hospitalizations dropped dramatically, in part due to improved training
and the use of safer techniques among abortion providers. Legalization also stimulated development of more convenient and lower-cost service. By the 1980s the majority of abortions were in freestanding clinics, and about one-half were outpatient
procedures. About 27 per 1,000 U. S. women of childbearing age had induced abortions each year, a rate higher than in other industrialized Western nations but about half the worldwide rate. _^<N__^<N_Studies of long-term consequences of abortion
show that risks of spontaneous abortion, preterm delivery, and low birth weight for a second pregnancy following vacuum aspiration are no greater than risks for a first pregnancy and have been unable to link abortion with long-term psychological
problems. _^<N__^<N_ Ethical Aspects_^<N__^<N_Opponents of legalized abortion believe that human life begins at conception and that abortion is the intentional killing of a human being. Members of the "right to life" movement have lobbied for a
constitutional amendment on the rights of the unborn. Opposing this position is the "pro-choice" stance, which stresses the woman's right to choose to continue or terminate a pregnancy. "Pro-choice" supporters also argue that legal abortion is
safer than illegal abortion and relieves the psychological and social problems associated with bearing an unwanted child. _^<N__^<N_Carol Hogue _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Barry, Robert L., Medical Ethics (1989); Butler, J. D., and Walbert, D. F.,
eds., Abortion, Medicine and the Law (1986); Chalker, Rebecca, and Downer, Carol, A Woman's Book of Choices (1992); Ficarra, Bernard J., Abortion Analyzed (1989); Glendon, M. A., Abortion and Divorce in American Law (1987); Ide, A. F., Abortion
Handbook, 2d ed. (1987); Miller, Patricia G., The Worst of Times (1992); Olasky, Marvin, Abortion Rites: A Social History of Abortion in America (1992); Rodman, Hyman, et al., The Abortion Question (1990); Rosenblatt, Roger, Life Itself:
Abortion in the American Mind (1992); Schwartz, S., The Moral Question of Abortion (1990).
-END-
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285
CAT
-A-
abracadabra
-T-
abracadabra_^<N__^<N_Abracadabra was originally a magical incantation intended to ward off evil spirits. It was first employed in the Middle East in the occult ceremonies of the 2d-century Gnostics. Now, however, "abracadabra" is merely gibberish
frequently used in popular magic and conjuring.
-END-
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1769
CAT
-A-
Abraham
-T-
Abraham_^<N__^<N_Abraham, originally called Abram, was Israel's first great patriarch. He probably lived in the late 3d or early 2d millennium BC, but the earliest source for information on his life is GENESIS 11-25, written about 10 centuries
later. He was born at Ur in Chaldea, where he married his half-sister SARAH. Under divine inspiration, he went to Haran in Mesopotamia. Later God commanded him to leave his home for a new land; in return God offered Abraham fame, land, and
descendants, promising that he would become a blessing to all nations. Abraham obeyed and migrated to Canaan, where he lived as a nomadic chieftain. He soon became wealthy, but he still had no son. Because Sarah was advanced in years, she
substituted her Egyptian slave HAGAR, who bore ISHMAEL, Abraham's first son. Later, in accord with a divine promise, Sarah gave birth to ISAAC. Abraham's faith was put to a severe test when God commanded that he sacrifice Isaac, his only son by
Sarah. Abraham did not waver and he prepared for the sacrifice, but God spared the boy at the last moment, substituting a ram. The Bible portrays Abraham as a man struggling to trust God's promises. By his faith Abraham became the father of the
Israelite people and is still honored in three different religions. Jewish tradition stresses MONOTHEISM. Christians see him as a model for the man of faith and recognize him as their spiritual ancestor. Muslims accept him as an ancestor of the
Arabs through Ishmael. Numerous works of art are based on the story of the sacrifice of Isaac. _^<N__^<N_J. J. M. Roberts _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bright, John, A History of Israel (1972); Neusner, Jacob, Genesis Rabbah: The Judaic Commentary on the
Book of Genesis, 3 vols. (1985); van Seters, John, Abraham in History and Tradition (1975).
-END-
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881
CAT
-A-
Abrahams, Peter
-T-
Abrahams, Peter_^<N__^<N_Peter Abrahams, who has used the pseudonym, Peter Graham, was born in a township near Johannesburg on Nov. 19, 1919. He was the first black South African writer to gain worldwide recognition and to attract attention to the
plight of blacks in that country. In an early novel, Mine Boy (1946), in his early short stories in Dark Testament (1942), and in his autobiographical novel, Tell Freedom (1954), he protests the treatment of blacks under APARTHEID (segregation). He
has lived in England and Jamaica for more than 30 years, earning his living as a journalist. Abrahams's later novels include A Wreath for Udomo (1956), set in West Africa, and This Island Now (1966), set in the Caribbean. Even in his writings set
entirely outside Africa, Abrahams remains distinctly African in his outlook. _^<N__^<N_Richard K. Priebe _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Wade, Michael, Peter Abrahams (1971).
-END-
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654
CAT
-A-
Abrams, Creighton
-T-
Abrams, Creighton_^<N__^<N_Creighton Williams Abrams, Jr., b. Springfield, Mass., Sept. 15, 1914, d. Sept. 4, 1974, was the U.S. commander in the VIETNAM WAR from 1968 to 1972. A graduate (1936) of West Point, he served in World War II and in 1964
became a general and vice chief of staff of the army. Succeeding William WESTMORELAND as commander in Vietnam, Abrams implemented the program known as Vietnamization. This was supposed to bring a gradual end to U.S. involvement in Vietnam and to
enable the South Vietnamese to become increasingly responsible for running the war. After returning to the United States, Abrams served (1972-74) as army chief of staff.
-END-
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1136
CAT
-A-
abrasive
-T-
abrasive_^<N__^<N_An abrasive is any powdered, granular, or solid substance used to wear off the surface of materials in order to alter their shape or to supply a finish. Common natural abrasives include garnet and emery, used for sandpaper; the
quartz grains used in SANDBLASTING stone and metals; and pumice, which is used as a scouring material in soaps and some dental pastes. The most important synthetic abrasives are silicon carbide, known by its trade name CARBORUNDUM, which is used
for grinding nonferrous metals and nonmetallic materials; aluminum oxide, a hard, steel-grinding abrasive; and metallic abrasives such as iron and steel shot, steel wool, and metallic grit. Natural or synthetic diamonds, the hardest of all
abrasives, are used in powdered form to grind or machine very hard materials, including solid diamonds. _^<N__^<N_Abrasives are glued or bonded onto grinding wheels or belts. They are also commonly used as a coating on cutting instruments and as a
binder for cement. As a suspension in air, water, or oil, they can be projected against a surface that is to be ground. _^<N__^<N_John Neely _^<N__^<N_See also: GRINDING AND POLISHING; MACHINING.
-END-
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1327
CAT
-A-
Abravanel, Isaac ben Judah
-T-
Abravanel, Isaac ben Judah_^<N__^<N_{uh-brah'-vuh-nel} _^<N__^<N_Isaac Abravanel (or Abrabanel), b. 1437, d. 1508, was a Jewish biblical scholar, philosopher, and financier. Born in Lisbon, he served the rulers of Portugal (1471-83) and Castile
(1484-92) until the Jews were expelled (1492) by Ferdinand and Isabella from Spain. He then served the government of Naples until 1495, when Naples was conquered by the French. He later settled in Venice. _^<N__^<N_His biblical commentaries on the
Pentateuch, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and 1 and 2 Kings and on both the Major and the Minor Prophets were unusual in introducing comparisons with the social situation of his own time. Abravanel was also one of the earliest Jewish commentators to
refer to the contributions of Christian biblical scholars. His acceptance of the historical authenticity of the Bible led him to write a commentary criticizing those chapters of the Guide for the Perplexed in which MAIMONIDES had presented a
naturalistic view of prophecy. Abravanel also offered philosophic defenses of the traditional messianic expectation that looked forward to the age when the Jews would return to the Holy Land and the MESSIAH would rule the world. _^<N__^<N_Joseph L.
Blau _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Netanyahu, Benzion, Don Isaac Abravanel, 2d ed. (1968); Reines, Alvin Jay, Maimonides and Abrabanel on Prophecy (1970).
-END-
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1233
CAT
-A-
Abravanel, Judah
-T-
Abravanel, Judah_^<N__^<N_Judah Abravanel (or Abrabanel), 1460-1523, a Jewish physician and philosopher, wrote Dialoghi d'Amore (Dialogues of Love), one of the most widely circulated products of Renaissance NEOPLATONISM. Born in Lisbon, the son of
Isaac Abravanel, he fled to Spain in 1483 and then to Naples in 1492 after the expulsion of the Jews. His dialogues, composed by 1502, were first published posthumously in 1535. Probably written initially in Italian, they were later translated into
Latin, French, Spanish, and Hebrew; in modern times there have been translations into English (The Philosophy of Love, 1937) and German. The central theme of the work, akin to that of the Symposium of Plato, is that love is the major creative force
in the universe, and that love of God is the ultimate goal of the human soul. Thus a circle of love leads from God's creation in love to man's return to God through love. Abravanel was also a minor poet, but his influence on the poetry of his age
was felt more through his dialogues than through his verse. _^<N__^<N_Joseph L. Blau _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Minkin, Jacob S., Abravanel and the Expulsion of the Jews from Spain (1938); Netanyahu, Benzion, Don Isaac Abravanel: Statesman and
Philosopher, 2d. ed. (1968).
-END-
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1134
CAT
-A-
Abruzzi
-T-
Abruzzi_^<N__^<N_{ah-broot'-see} A mountainous region of central Italy, Abruzzi has a population of 1,236,060 (1984 est.) and an area of 10,794 sq km (4,168 sq mi). L'Aquila is the capital city of Abruzzi; its provinces include Chieti, L'Aquila,
Pescara, and Teramo. The Adriatic Sea forms the region's eastern border. The average annual temperature is 13 deg C (55 deg F), and the rainfall averages 1,015 mm (40 in) in the Apennine Mountains. The Apennines cross the region in three
northwest-southeast ranges, reaching a maximum altitude of 2,913 m (9,560 ft) in the Gran Sasso d'Italia group. Abruzzi's chief rivers are the Pescara, the Sangro, and the Tronto. The rugged terrain permits most agriculture of the subsistence
variety. The chief crops are grapes, olives, sugar beets, and tobacco. Small amounts of foodstuffs, textiles, and clothing are produced. Conquered by the Romans in the 4th century BC, Abruzzi later was held by the Lombards (6th-11th centuries), the
Normans (12th-13th centuries), and the Kingdom of Naples (13th-19th centuries). The neighboring region of Molise was separated from Abruzzi in 1965. _^<N__^<N_Daniel R. Lesnick
-END-
-C-
689
CAT
-A-
Abruzzi, Luigi Amedeo, Duca degli
-T-
Abruzzi, Luigi Amedeo, Duca degli_^<N__^<N_{ah-broot'-see, loo-ee'-jee ah-may-day'-oh} _^<N__^<N_An Italian explorer, Abruzzi, b. Jan. 29, 1873, d. Mar. 18, 1933, was the son of Amadeus, king of Spain (1870-73), prince of Savoy-Aosta, and a
cousin of VICTOR EMMANUEL III, king of Italy. Abruzzi was the first to climb (1897) Mount St. Elias in Alaska and led (1899) a polar expedition that set a new record in the northern latitude reached. He later led mountain-climbing expeditions in
the Ruwenzori range of East Africa (1906) and the Himalayas (1909). In World War I, Abruzzi commanded an Italian fleet in the Adriatic Sea and afterward took part in the Italian colonization effort in East Africa.
-END-
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246
CAT
-A-
Absalom
-T-
Absalom_^<N__^<N_{ab'-suh-luhm} _^<N__^<N_Absalom was a son of King DAVID who led a revolt against his father. Absalom was defeated, and while fleeing was caught by his long hair in a tree; he was then killed by Joab, the commander of David's forces
(2 Sam. 15-18).
-END-
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920
CAT
-A-
Absalom, Absalom!
-T-
Absalom, Absalom!_^<N__^<N_In William FAULKNER's complex, difficult, and innovative novel Absalom, Absalom! (1936), racial pride and innocence of human needs and desires destroy the dynastic dreams of Thomas Sutpen. The novel is constructed as a
reverie and debate on the meaning of the past, using multiple narrators, including Quentin Compson of The Sound and the Fury, and varieties of the STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS technique to speculate on rather than reveal the Sutpen family's mysterious
history of aggrandizement, miscegenation, abandonment, and murder. Absalom, Absalom!, perhaps Faulkner's most demanding novel, is considered one of his greatest works. _^<N__^<N_Thomas L. McHaney _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Brooks, Cleanth, The
Yoknapatawpha Country (1963) and William Faulkner: Toward Yoknapatawpha and Beyond (1978); Lee, A. R., William Faulkner: The Yoknapatawpha Fiction (1986); Pilkington, John, The Heart of Yoknapatawpha (1981).
-END-
-C-
1504
CAT
-A-
ABSCAM
-T-
ABSCAM_^<N__^<N_The ABSCAM (a contraction of "Abdul Scam") investigation conducted by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in 1978-80 resulted in the conviction of seven members of the U.S. Congress and five other public officials for bribery,
conspiracy, and related charges. As revealed early in 1980, FBI agents impersonating an Arab sheikh and his henchmen had offered bribes in return for preferential treatment in gaining entry into the United States, building casinos in Atlantic
City, N.J., and other favors. Their encounters were recorded on videotapes, showing public officials and their associates in the act of accepting bribes. _^<N__^<N_Sen. Harrison Williams and Reps. John Jenrette, Richard Kelly, Raymond Lederer,
John Murphy, Michael Myers, and Frank Thompson were the members of Congress convicted. Either already convicted (and, in the case of Myers, expelled from the House--the first expulsion since 1861) or under indictment at the time of the 1980
elections, all the representatives except Lederer lost their bids for reelection. Lederer later resigned. Williams, who was not up for election in 1980, resigned in 1982 to avoid expulsion from the Senate. _^<N__^<N_Critics of the FBI's methods
in the ABSCAM case questioned whether ENTRAPMENT had taken place. Late in 1982 a special Senate panel criticized the FBI's management of the ABSCAM investigation but concluded that civil rights had not been violated. Appeal efforts, continuing
into 1985, on behalf of those convicted were unsuccessful.
-END-
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773
CAT
-A-
abscess
-T-
abscess_^<N__^<N_An abscess results when bacteria--usually Streptococcus--spreading into tissue causes INFLAMMATION. A fibrous wall forms so that the infection is sealed off from other tissue, and pus--yellowish white fluid containing white blood
cells, bacteria, and dead tissue--fills the center of the walled-in region. An abscess is painful when the inflamed area becomes congested, causing pressure on nearby nerve endings. In order to heal, an abscess must be drained and then treated with
antibiotic drugs. Common skin abscesses are BOILS and CARBUNCLES, and they can affect such areas as the middle ear (see EAR DISEASE) and the eye (see STY). An abscess of a tooth root can occur if dental decay is advanced (see TEETH), and
tuberculosis begins with abscesses in the lungs.
-END-
-C-
492
CAT
-A-
abscisic acid
-T-
abscisic acid_^<N__^<N_{ab-sis'-ik} _^<N__^<N_Abscisic acid, or dormin, is a plant HORMONE that promotes abscission, the process responsible for the fall of leaves, flowers, and fruits. It is produced in response to such stimuli as the changing
relative lengths of day and night during autumn. Abscisic acid also counters the growth-stimulating effects of the plant hormones known as AUXINS, GIBBERELLINS, and kinins (see CYTOKININ) and thus induces DORMANCY of buds and inhibits seed
germination during winter.
-END-
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692
CAT
-A-
absentee voting
-T-
absentee voting_^<N__^<N_Absentee voting enables voters to cast their ballots in an election without going to the polls. Most democratic countries permit absentee voting for persons who are unable to get to the polls because they are ill or away
from their voting districts. Usually ballots are cast by mail. Sometimes voters are permitted to vote ahead of the election date if they are going on a journey. Absentee ballots have been in use for several centuries. During the U.S. Civil War,
soldiers in the field were encouraged to vote by absentee ballot. In some Asian and African countries where illiteracy is high, absentee voting is not permitted or is restricted to those who can read and write.
-END-
-C-
1454
CAT
-A-
absolute
-T-
absolute_^<N__^<N_The word absolute is used by philosophers and by theologians to indicate ultimate reality conceived as an all-inclusive whole. This reality is considered to be both the source of and the sum total of everything that exists
physically, mentally, and spiritually. The absolute is self-sufficient and unconditional; it is not influenced or affected by anything external. It is distinguished from the relative, for whatever is relative depends on and is conditioned by that
which lies outside itself. _^<N__^<N_The phrase the absolute became prominent through the writings of the 18th- and 19th-century German idealists Johann Gottlieb FICHTE, Friedrich W. J. SCHELLING, and especially G. W. F. HEGEL. In Hegelian IDEALISM
the absolute is interpreted as rational mind. Hegel, however, emphasized that the absolute can be known and analyzed only as it is manifested in human experience and history. The term is prominent in the writings of the English idealist F. H.
BRADLEY and the American philosopher Josiah ROYCE. _^<N__^<N_In logic, absolute means certain or indubitable, as opposed to probable and hypothetical. In theology, the absolute is sometimes viewed as a personal creator (God) who is the "ground of
being" and the source of value. _^<N__^<N_Robert M. Baird _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Copelston, Frederick, A History of Philosophy, vol. 7 (1963); Ewing, Alfred C., Idealism: A Critical Survey (1936; repr. 1974); Moore, G. E., Some Main Problems of
Philosophy (1953; repr. 1966).
-END-
-C-
34
CAT
-A-
absolute magnitude:
-T-
absolute magnitude:_^<N__^<N_see MAGNITUDE.
-END-
-C-
594
CAT
-A-
absolute music
-T-
absolute music_^<N__^<N_Instrumental music that is abstract, free of literary or pictorial associations, is called absolute music. In contrast with PROGRAM MUSIC it has no titles or story connotations that cause the listener to involve his or her
imagination beyond an appreciation of the form and style of the composition or the technical skills of the performers. Attention is focused on the relationship of themes, the formal organization of the musical material, and the beauty of the music
itself. Most SYMPHONIES, SONATAS, CONCERTOS, FUGUES, and CHAMBER MUSIC are absolute music. _^<N__^<N_Elwyn A. Wienandt
-END-
-C-
39
CAT
-A-
absolute temperature:
-T-
absolute temperature:_^<N__^<N_see KELVIN SCALE.
-END-
-C-
2813
CAT
-A-
absolute zero
-T-
absolute zero_^<N__^<N_Absolute zero is the lowest theoretical temperature, representing the complete absence of heat. At this temperature matter would possess zero ENTROPY and maximum molecular order, the volume of an ideal gas would vanish, and a
thermodynamic HEAT ENGINE would operate at one hundred percent efficiency. Although absolute zero cannot actually be reached, approximations of less than 0.001 deg C above absolute zero have been created in the laboratory. _^<N__^<N_Absolute zero
is the lowest point of an absolute temperature scale. Such a scale can be established by measuring the pressure of a trapped volume of gas as a function of its temperature in ordinary Celsius or Fahrenheit degrees. Most gases display a linear
relationship between pressure and temperature under conditions not far from ambient; this experimental fact is known as Charles's law. Extrapolating this linear relationship to the point at which the gas pressure becomes zero defines the absolute
zero of temperature. The extrapolation is necessary because all gases turn to liquid before absolute zero is reached. The absolute zero thus determined is -273.15 deg C (-459.67 deg F). This temperature is the zero point of the absolute Kelvin
and Rankine temperature scales. One Celsius degree and one Kelvin are equal in magnitude, as are one Farenheit degree and one Rankine degree, but the absolute Kelvin and Rankine scales assign only positive values to all attainable temperatures.
_^<N__^<N_The fact that absolute zero is unattainable in any real process is known as the Third Law of THERMODYNAMICS. Formulated by Walther Nernst in 1906, this natural law states that no matter how cold an object becomes, it can be made still
colder without reaching absolute zero. Thus experiments in low-temperature physics can only approach absolute zero asymptotically. _^<N__^<N_Absolute zero is an essential concept in low temperature physics, or CRYOGENICS. Attempts to reach
cryogenic temperatures began with the liquefaction of air in the late 19th century. James Dewar succeeded in liquefying hydrogen in 1898 and invented the modern vacuum flask that bears his name. Ten years later, helium, the gas with the lowest
boiling point, was first liquefied by the Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes. Modern cryogenicists have concentrated on discovering and investigating the cryogenic behavior of matter. This field includes SUPERFLUIDITY, the disappearance of
viscosity in liquid helium and SUPERCONDUCTIVITY, the loss of almost all electrical resistance in materials chilled near absolute zero. In the late 1980s, however, materials were discovered that exhibit the later phenomenon at higher temperatures.
_^<N__^<N_Gary S. Settles _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Borovik-Romanov, A. S., Low Temperature Physics (1985); Mendelssohn, K., The Quest for Absolute Zero (1966).
-END-
-C-
862
CAT
-A-
absolutism
-T-
absolutism_^<N__^<N_Absolutism is a political system that concentrates power in the hands of one person or a group of persons who have almost unlimited authority. History is replete with tyrants and dictators, but the notion of absolutism became
prominent in Europe during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries when monarchs were struggling to wrest power from groups such as the church and the nobility and to create national states. The most famous absolutist was Louis XIV of France, who is
said to have declared that he himself was the state: "L'etat, c'est moi." Others were the Tudor and Stuart rulers of England and Frederick the Great of Prussia. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Beik, William, Absolutism and Society in Seventeenth Century
France (1985); Beloff, Max, Age of Absolutism 1660-1815 (1966); Cobban, Alfred, Dictatorship: Its History and Theory (1939; repr. 1970).
-END-
-C-
1158
CAT
-A-
absorption
-T-
absorption_^<N__^<N_In chemistry, absorption is the process by which energy or a material called the absorbate is taken up by some other material, called the absorbent, in such a way that the former is distributed throughout the latter. It is thus
differentiated from ADSORPTION, which is a surface phenomenon. This distinction can be made clearly when the absorbent is liquid, but it often becomes blurred in solid absorbents, which are crisscrossed with fine pores, so that taking up of the
absorbate on the surface of the pores can result in its dispersion throughout the absorbent. In some instances the absorbent reacts chemically with the absorbate. _^<N__^<N_A commonplace example of absorption is the action of blotting paper, which
is essentially a mat of cellulose fibers; liquids are readily taken up into the interstices between the fibers. In industry, absorption is often used to remove a noxious gas that could cause air pollution, such as the sulfur dioxide produced in the
burning of coal. The absorption of light is widely used in quantitative chemical analysis. _^<N__^<N_In biology, absorption refers to the taking up of substances by the blood or lymph. _^<N__^<N_George Gorin
-END-
-C-
3260
CAT
-A-
absorption, light
-T-
absorption, light_^<N__^<N_When light is incident on a material, some or all of it may be absorbed, reflected, transmitted, or scattered. Each effect is caused by the interaction of the light with the atoms and molecules of the material; the
optical effect that predominates depends on the nature of the material and on the wavelength of the incident light. _^<N__^<N_Light energy that is absorbed is transformed into internal ENERGY within the material. The most common transformation is
to thermal energy, or heat, although changes to other forms such as chemical energy (see PHOTOCHEMISTRY) are possible. Energy that is reradiated at the same wavelength is known as scattered light. FLUORESCENCE and PHOSPHORESCENCE are phenomena in
which the incident radiation is reemitted at longer wavelengths. _^<N__^<N_All transparent substances absorb light to some extent. Small quantities of water may seem completely transparent, but light that traverses large distances through water is
diminished, as is obvious at ocean depths. The degree of light absorbance by a substance depends on the wavelength of the incident light. A colorless substance, such as air or quartz crystals, absorbs light uniformly throughout the range of
visible wavelengths. In order for a substance to appear colored, it must interact differently with light of various wavelengths. Grass absorbs red light so that the reflected component is seen as green, the complementary COLOR of red.
_^<N__^<N_The absorption characteristics of gases are more easily seen than those of other stages. Gases generally absorb a series of single wavelengths from the spectrum of visible light rather than the broad bands of liquids and solids. The
absorption spectrum of each substance enables the spectroscopist to readily determine the structure of the absorbing material. _^<N__^<N_The absorption of light as it passes through a medium varies linearly with the distance the light travels and
with concentration of the absorbing medium. Where a is the absorbance, the Greek lower-case letter epsilon is a characteristic constant for each material at a given wavelength (known as the extinction coefficient or absorption coefficient), c is
concentration, and l is the length of the light path, the absorption of light may be expressed by the simple equation a= epsilon times c times l. The relationship is known as Beer's law or Beer-Lambert's law and is used by chemists and physicists
to determine the concentration of a component of a solution. The absorption of a given wavelength of light of a solution of unknown concentration is compared with the corresponding absorption of a set of solutions of the same component whose
concentrations are precisely known. Using Beer's law, the unknown concentration can be calculated. _^<N__^<N_Devices that measure light absorption are the colorimeter (usually used only for visible light) and the spectrophotometer (which is able
to function at additional wavelengths, including ultraviolet light and infrared radiation). These instruments are common to most laboratories. _^<N__^<N_D. J. Lovell _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bohren, C. F., and Huffman, D. R., Absorption and
Scattering of Light by Small Particles (1983); Bragg, W. L., The Universe of Light (1969); Sobel, Michael I., Light (1987); _^<N__^<N_See also: SPECTROSCOPY.
-END-
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301
CAT
-A-
abstract
-T-
abstract_^<N__^<N_An abstract, in law, is a summary of a case or a document. Abstracts are often made of titles to real estate, giving the names of past owners and describing liens, easements, or other agreements affecting rights to the property, in
order to protect the purchaser against defects in the title.
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4622
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abstract art
-T-
abstract art_^<N__^<N_Abstract art is generally taken to mean painting and sculpture by artists for whom the manner and the means are the subject rather than the representation of any object. All art is abstract to some degree; that is, it is
removed from the perceived elements of nature. The sculpture of archaic Greece, of Egypt, of primitive tribes, both ancient and modern, use simplified, often geometricized forms, and the frescoes of GIOTTO DI BONDONE thus honor the
two-dimensionality of his medium. The term abstract art, however, is best used to signify a main line of development that only began in this century with the profound desire in MODERN ART to express the continuum of inner life in purely pictorial
terms. Abstract art's beginnings can be traced to James McNeill WHISTLER's "art for art's sake" theories and to his Arrangements, Symphonies, and Nocturnes, closely related to the art of music, which, to many abstractionists, is the universal
abstract language. _^<N__^<N_Wassily KANDINSKY, in 1910, made his first consciously abstract watercolor, a composition of swirling, interacting spots of color deeply related to his love of music, the basis of his aesthetic principle. During the
same year, Kandinsky began to write Concerning the Spiritual in Art, expounding his metaphysically based ideas concerning inner reality. In 1911-12, the Czech artist Frantisek KUPKA painted what is often considered the first totally abstract
canvas, Fugue in Red and Blue (National Gallery, Prague), whose rhythmic patterns of color were directly inspired by musical correspondences. Pure color as both form and subject was the central idea in the ORPHISM of Robert DELAUNAY and Francis
PICABIA, which developed beginning in 1912. _^<N__^<N_Pure abstraction was, however, carried to its most extreme limits by the Russians, beginning in 1913, who extended the philosophical and geometric elements of CUBISM and developed an
architecturally based abstraction completely removed from exterior realms. The most far-reaching experimentation in abstract art as the expression of the reality of the fourth dimension (inner reality) took form in the Rayonism of Natalia
GONCHAROVA and Mikhail LARIONOV (begun by Larionov in Moscow in 1911-12); the CONSTRUCTIVISM of Naum GABO, Antoine PEVSNER and Vladimir TATLIN; the nonobjectivism of Aleksandr RODCHENKO; and the SUPREMATISM of Kasimir MALEVICH. The principles
established by these artists have had wide significance in successive abstract art movements from the BAUHAUS during the 1920s and '30s to the structures of MINIMAL ART during the 1960s. _^<N__^<N_Chief among the other innovators of abstract art
are Piet MONDRIAN and artists of the DE STIJL movement (such as Theo Van DOESBURG and Bart van der Leck), developed in the Netherlands around 1917. In neoplasticism, Mondrian developed his ideas of pure plastic (formative) relationships as the
basis for attaining the objective purity and universality of mathematics. In his philosophical reduction of form to the use of the three primary colors (red, yellow, and blue) and the right angle in horizontal-vertical position, Mondrian exerted
great influence both on architecture and on painting, from the Bauhaus to the American Abstract Artists (founded in New York in 1936) to the American ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISTS of the 1940s and '50s. _^<N__^<N_Abstract art, defined as the expression
in pictorial terms of the universal structures and rhythms of inner reality, has continued as the central concern of numerous painters, sculptors, and architects to the present, all of whom have, to some degree, worked from the fundamental
contributions of the pioneers in the field. _^<N__^<N_Barbara Cavaliere _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Barr, Alfred H., Jr., Cubism and Abstract ARt (1936; repr. 1986); Cork, Richard, Vorticism and Abstract Art in the First Machine Age, 2 vols.
(1976, 1977); Fry, Edward, Cubism (1966); Kandinsky, Wassily, Concerning the Spiritual in Art (1947; repr. 1976); Kramer, Hilton, Abstract Art: A Cultural History (1987); Malevich, Kasimir, The Non-Objective World (1959); Mondrian, Piet,
The New Art: The New Life, The Collected Writings of Piet Mondrian, ed. by Harry Holtzman (1972); Rickey, George, Constructivism: Its Origins and Evolution (1967); Roberts-Jones, Philippe, Beyond Time and Place: Non-Realist Painting in the
Nineteenth Century (1978); Seuphor, Michel, Abstract Painting (1962); Tuchman, Maurice, et al., eds., The Spiritual in Art: Abstract painting 1890-1985 (1986); Vallier, Dora, Abstract Art (1970); Whitford, Frank, Understanding Abstract Art
abstract expressionism_^<N__^<N_Abstract expressionism is the collective name for the work of a heterogeneous group of New York artists who produced vivid, emotionally charged nonrepresentational paintings characterized by very bold uses of color
and mass. The term abstract expressionism was used in 1929 by Alfred H. BARR, Jr., founder of the MUSEUM OF MODERN ART in New York, in reference to the early improvisations of Wassily KANDINSKY. In 1946, Robert Coates, art critic of The New
Yorker magazine, employed it in relation to a group of paintings done in New York. The term was popularized during a series of discussions that took place in 1952 at the "Club" on Eighth Street in New York City among a number of painters and
sculptors; during the sessions, the artists themselves rejected it as an unsatisfactory indicator of their art. Although the term, along with others used to refer to the art that developed in New York during the 1940s--action painting, the New
York school, and American-type painting--is in many ways misleading, it has remained the predominant one in discussion of this art. Abstract expressionism is not a unified artistic style; what the artists who promulgated it had in common was the
search for a significant subject in an abstract format. They sought a format that could express their individual personalities and at the same time could lead to the expression, through the process of painting, of a universal, timeless content.
_^<N__^<N_During the 1930s many of these artists had worked on the Federal Art Project under the Works Progress Administration. Some had come in contact with Hans HOFMANN, already an influential teacher of modernist theory in New York City. The
majority had been exposed to various modernisms (such as CONSTRUCTIVISM, DADA, SURREALISM and the work of Paul KLEE and Kandinsky) through gallery and museum shows, and most had grappled with CUBISM, specifically in the then overwhelming person of
Pablo PICASSO. In 1937, John Graham's influential book System and Dialectics of Art was published, and his ideas on the prominence of the subconscious, based on the theories of Sigmund FREUD and C. G. JUNG, were already becoming an important topic
of conversation. Willem DE KOONING and Arshile GORKY, then close friends of Graham, were already showing a shift in style and direction. By the end of the 1930s, a few small groups of painters in New York City were expressing their
dissatisfaction with the current, prevalent trends of social realism and geometric abstraction (as exemplified by the group called American Abstract Artists). During the next few years many prominent European modernist artists such as Andre
BRETON, Max ERNST, Fernand LEGER, Andre MASSON, and Piet MONDRIAN immigrated to New York to escape the war in Europe. Their arrival reinforced the American artists, who were politically conscious of, as well as schooled in, modernist art theory,
Freudian and Jungian psychology, existentialist philosophy, theories of symbolist poetry, and Oriental art and ideas. They also knew the work of Milton AVERY, Arthur DOVE, and the group shown by Alfred STIEGLITZ at his American Place Gallery, the
most avant-garde artists of that period in the United States. _^<N__^<N_During the early 1940s, two important groups of artists were actively meeting and discussing an art that combined mastery of painterly values with psychologically intense
content, and thus expressed universal human emotions appropriate to the tragic climate of World War II. In 1941-42 the American artists William BAZIOTES and Robert MOTHERWELL, along with the Chilean surrealist MATTA ECHAURREN, were discussing such
ideas; they were soon joined by Jackson POLLOCK and Lee KRASNER. They based their work on surrealism's generative principle of "psychic automatism" but differed from the Europeans in their equal regard for the process of painting, for the plastic
qualities of the painterly medium. At the same time, Adolph GOTTLIEB and Mark ROTHKO, soon joined by Barnett NEWMAN and Theodoros STAMOS, were advocating the use of ancient mythology and primitivizing content in their similar efforts to forego
current aesthetics. Separately and simultaneously, other artists such as Clyfford STILL, Richard POUSETTE-DART, and Ad REINHARDT were evolving their art of parallel ideas. By the mid-'40s these artists had discovered their unique painting
approach, one that placed them at the forefront of abstract painting at midcentury. By the end of the decade, they were moving apart; interrelationships, although intense, were always tentative, largely because of the individualistic nature of
their art. _^<N__^<N_The abstract expressionists are usually divided into two groups: the "gestural" wing includes Gorky, de Kooning, Hofmann, and Pollock; the "color-field" wing, Gottlieb, Newman, Rothko, and Stamos. Any such classification,
however, is an oversimplification. Even though the abstract expressionists benefited mutually during their formative years of the 1940s, in the end they must be considered separately, as painters who always work toward the universal via the
personal, striving to convey a timeless and deeply emotional human content through abstract form. _^<N__^<N_Barbara Cavaliere _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Alloway, Lawrence, Topics In American Art since 1945 (1975); Ashton, Dore, The New York School:
A Cultural Reckoning (1973); Auping, Michael, ed., Abstract Expression: The Critical Developments (1987); Cavaliere, Barbara, and Hadler, Mona, William Baziotes: A Retrospective Exhibition (1978); Doty, Robert, and Waldman, Diane, Adolph
Gottlieb (1968); Hess, Thomas B., Willem de Kooning (1968); Hobbs, Robert Carlton, and Levin, Gail, Abstract Expressionism: The Formative Years (1978); Kingsley, April, The Turning Point: The Abstract Expressionists and the Transformation of
American Art (1992); O'Connor, Francis V., Jackson Pollock (1967); Sandler, Irving, The Triumph of American Painting: A History of Abstract Expressionism (1970); Tuchman, Maurice, Abstract Expressionism in the '40s and '50s (1971); Wolfe, Tom,
The Painted Word (1976). _^<N__^<N_See also: ABSTRACT ART; ART; MODERN ART; PAINTING.
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1076
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absurdism
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absurdism_^<N__^<N_Absurdism is an idea commonly associated with EXISTENTIALISM. Beginning in the 19th century, mainly through the influence of Soren KIERKEGAARD, religion was often described as absurd because it could not be justified on rational
principles; rather, it was considered as based on what Kierkegaard called "a leap of faith." In their discussions of consciousness, Martin HEIDEGGER and Jean Paul SARTRE described the human consciousness as facing an apparently absurd world--absurd
because it finds itself at the crossroads of Being and Nothingness, baffled by the meaninglessness of the human condition. Sartre's ideas of absurdity, anguish, and disgust are expressed in his plays and novels, especially in Nausea (1938; Eng.
trans., 1949). A philosophical basis for the modern THEATER OF THE ABSURD has been established by other existentialists, such as Albert CAMUS, Karl JASPERS, and Gabriel MARCEL. _^<N__^<N_Karl Beckson _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Barrett, William, What
Is Existentialism? (1963); Esslin, Martin, The Theatre of the Absurd, rev. ed. (1973). _^<N__^<N_See also: ALIENATION.
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589
CAT
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Abu Bakr
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Abu Bakr_^<N__^<N_{ah'-boo bak'-ur} _^<N__^<N_Abu Bakr, b. c.573, d. Aug. 23, 634, father-in-law of the Prophet MUHAMMAD, was first caliph ("successor") after the Prophet's death in 632. An early convert and loyal follower of Muhammad, Abu Bakr
led the Muslim community from 632 to 634, but his caliphate was contested by ALI, the Prophet's son-in-law. He also faced opposition from unruly tribes and led successful military campaigns across the Arabian peninsula into Syria and Palestine.
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Crone, P., and Hinds, M., God's Caliph (1986); Shaban, M. A., Islamic History, AD 600-750 (1971).
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426
CAT
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Abu Dhabi
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Abu Dhabi_^<N__^<N_{ah'-boo dah'-bee} _^<N__^<N_Abu Dhabi (1989 est. pop., 363,432) is the capital of the Abu Dhabi sheikhdom on the southeast shore of the Persian Gulf and the capital of the United Arab Emirates. Its climate is arid, with an
average annual rainfall of 60 mm (2.4 in). Income from oil production has transformed it from a fishing village in the 1960s into a high-rise city with an international airport and an artificial harbor.
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465
CAT
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Abu Madi, Iliya
-T-
Abu Madi, Iliya_^<N__^<N_{ah'-boo mah'-dee, ee'lee-yah} _^<N__^<N_Abu Madi, (1889-1957), was a Lebanese poet and journalist who immigrated to the United States and collaborated with Kahlil Gibran. He published several collections, of which The
Brooks (1927) and The Thickets (1940) are the most notable. Nostalgia for happiness, philosophical skepticism about the purpose of life, optimism, egalitarianism, and brotherly love among human beings are his main themes. _^<N__^<N_Issa J.
Boullata
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546
CAT
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Abu Nuwas
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Abu Nuwas_^<N__^<N_{ah'-boo noo-wahs'} _^<N__^<N_The Arabic poet Abu Nuwas, Father of the Forelocks, (c.756-c.810), gained this nickname from two locks of hair that reached to his shoulders. His real name was Hasan ibn Hani. Although he composed a
variety of poems in traditional style, such as panegyrics, satires, hunting verses, and elegies--even religious poems--his fame, both in his own time and in posterity, rests on his wine (khamr) poetry called Khamriyat and on his love poems, which
he addressed to young boys in the Persian manner. _^<N__^<N_Ilse Lichtenstadter
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1310
CAT
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Abu Simbel
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Abu Simbel_^<N__^<N_{ah'-boo sim'-bul} _^<N__^<N_Abu Simbel, or Ibsambul, located 282 km (175 mi) south of Aswan, Egypt, on the west bank of the Nile, is the site of two famous rock-hewn temples built during the reign of Ramses II (1304-1237 BC).
Four colossal statues of Ramses, measuring about 20 m (65 ft) high, are carved on the facade of the larger temple. Four others, about 10 m (33 ft) high, together with two statues of his principal queen, Nefertari, embellish the facade of the
smaller temple. _^<N__^<N_The inner walls of the larger temple bear painted reliefs of the king performing religious ceremonies and fighting against the Hittites and other foreign foes. At the far end, 55 m (180 ft) from the entrance, are statues
of the gods Ptah, Amon-Re, Re-Harakhti, and the deified king, on which the direct rays of the Sun shine at sunrise twice annually, on Feb. 20 and Oct. 20. The smaller temple, also decorated with religious scenes, was dedicated to the goddess Hathor
and the deified Nefertari. _^<N__^<N_The construction of the Aswan High Dam and the creation of Lake Nasser made it necessary to move the temples to high ground above the original site. The project was finished in 1968 at a cost of $40 million.
_^<N__^<N_I. E. S. Edwards _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Desroches-Noblecourt, Christiane, and Gersten, Georg, The World Saves Abu Simbel (1968).
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441
CAT
-A-
Abuja
-T-
Abuja_^<N__^<N_{ah-boo'-jah} _^<N__^<N_Abuja, Nigeria's first planned city, is located in the sparsely populated Chukuku Hills of central Nigeria. It replaced LAGOS as the official capital of the country in December 1991. The city has modern roads
and communications facilities but is still under construction. It is part of the Federal Capital Territory, created in 1976, which has an area of 7,315 sq km (2,824 sq mi) and a population of 298,300 (1992 est.).
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334
CAT
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abundance
-T-
abundance_^<N__^<N_Abundance, or relative abundance, is the percentage of the natural occurrence of an ISOTOPE of an element in the entire population of atoms of that element. The isotope oxygen-16, for example, has an abundance of 99.759% of all
oxygen atoms. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Weast, Robert C., ed., CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (1977).
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1198
CAT
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Abydos
-T-
Abydos_^<N__^<N_{uh-by'-duhs} _^<N__^<N_Abydos, approximately 521 km (324 mi) south of Cairo, is the Greek name for the ancient Egyptian city of Abdu. The shrine of its primeval local god, Khenti-amentiu, became the major sanctuary dedicated to
OSIRIS, whose head was traditionally believed to be buried here. Abydos was continuously occupied from the Predynastic to the Roman period. What may be the tombs of kings of the Archaic period were excavated by Sir Flinders PETRIE in the
northwest sector of the site. Among the most impressive monuments are the temple of SETI I of the 19th (1320-1200 BC) dynasty, which contains perhaps the finest royal painted relief preserved from ancient Egypt, and the famous Gallery of the List
of Kings, on the walls of which appears the chronological succession of most of the Egyptian rulers from Menes to Seti I. To the east of the temple lies the Osireion, also built by Seti I. It is a subterranean complex of chambers dedicated to the
cult of Osiris and perhaps symbolizes the emergence of the world from the waters of chaos. _^<N__^<N_Robert S. Bianchi _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Sety, O., and El Zeini, J., Abydos (1983); Simpson, William K., The Terrace of the Great God at Abydos
(1974).
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1207
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abyssal zone
-T-
abyssal zone_^<N__^<N_{uh-bis'-ul} _^<N__^<N_The abyssal zone of the OCEAN is the largest biome, or environmental unit, in the world, with an upper boundary at the 4 deg C (40 deg F) ISOTHERM--the water temperature prevalent at depths of about 1,000
to 3,000 m (3,300 to 10,000 ft)--and a lower boundary between about 6,000 and 7,000 m (19,800 and 23,100 ft). Some oceanographers treat the great ocean deeps and trenches as a separate environmental region. The abyssal zone covers more than 75
percent of the total ocean and more than 50 percent of the total area of the Earth. _^<N__^<N_Temperature and salinity remain nearly constant in a given particular area of this zone, producing a characteristic deep-water fauna that feeds on the
rain of organic detritus settling from above. The associated ocean bottom is generally flat in the Atlantic and hilly in the Pacific and is composed mainly of pelagic or partially pelagic muds--that is, open-ocean sediments as contrasted to those
deposited near continents by rivers. _^<N__^<N_Harold R. Wanless _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Charnock, H., et al., eds., The Deep Sea Bed (1990); Siebold, E., and Berger, W., The Sea Floor (1982). _^<N__^<N_See also: BATHYAL ZONE; HADAL ZONE;
OOZE, DEEP-SEA; SEDIMENT, MARINE.
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24
CAT
-A-
Abyssinia:
-T-
Abyssinia:_^<N__^<N_see ETHIOPIA.
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639
CAT
-A-
Abyssinian cat
-T-
Abyssinian cat_^<N__^<N_{ab-uh-sin'-ee-uhn} _^<N__^<N_The Abyssinian is a medium-sized cat with a triangular face, large pointed ears, lean body, and long tail. The almond-shaped eyes are hazel to orange, and the fine, short-haired coat ranges from
light brown to silver. Each hair is ticked, or banded, with darker brown, gray, or black. The tail and ears are darker toward the tip. The red Abyssinian is a recognized breed. _^<N__^<N_Despite its name, the Abyssinian probably originated in the
upper Nile Valley and may be the closest living relative of the sacred cat of ancient Egypt. It differs from many cats in that it enjoys playing with water. _^<N__^<N_Everett Sentman
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967
CAT
-A-
Abzug, Bella S.
-T-
Abzug, Bella S._^<N__^<N_{ab'-zuhg} _^<N__^<N_Bella Savitzky Abzug, b. New York City, July 24, 1920, represented New York's 19th and 20th districts in Congress from 1971 to 1976. A lawyer long active in liberal causes, particularly the civil
rights and peace movements, Abzug became nationally prominent in the early 1970s as an articulate advocate of women's rights and as a leader of the House of Representatives' antiwar group. In 1976 Abzug was unsuccessful in a bid for the U.S.
Senate, and she was defeated in a 1978 attempt to reenter Congress. Prominent in several women's political organizations, she was co-chairwoman of the President's National Advisory Committee on Women from November 1977 to January 1979.
Subsequently, she returned to the private practice of law in New York City. Abzug has written Bella! Ms. Abzug Goes to Washington (ed. by Mel Ziegler, 1972) and Gender Gap: Bella Abzug's Guide to Political Power for American Women (with Mim
Kebler, 1984).
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28
CAT
-A-
AC:
-T-
AC:_^<N__^<N_see ALTERNATING CURRENT.
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1956
CAT
-A-
acacia
-T-
acacia_^<N__^<N_{uh-kay'-shuh} _^<N__^<N_Acacia is the common name for plants of the genus Acacia of the legume family, Leguminosae. The genus contains a large number of familiar and useful species. Acacias are known as wattles in Australia, as
thorns in eastern Africa, and are sometimes sold by florists as Mimosa in Europe and North America. (The name wattle comes from the use of the bark of this plant for temporary "wattle and daub" dwellings in Australia.) _^<N__^<N_World climatic
zones that have a long, dry winter and a short, wet summer often support a shrubby vegetation known as thorn scrub and savanna. Acacia trees constitute much of the vegetation in such climatic regimes. The trees are characterized by their umbrella
shape, with basal branching of the stems; the foliage forms a flattened or curved crown. The flowers, usually yellow, grow in crowded, globose heads or cylindrical spikes. Spines are common, and the Central American bull-horn acacia, A. cornigera,
hosts a pulp-eating ant that hollows out its large spines in search of food and then lives in them. Acacias can tolerate long periods of drought and, because of the thorns, survive heavily grazed areas. _^<N__^<N_Acacias are used as ornamentals in
tropical and subtropical gardens, as shade trees, and as indoor plants. Livestock are fed the leaves of some acacias; in Australia and parts of Africa the seeds or pods of other acacias are used by humans for food. _^<N__^<N_Australians also use
acacia wood for railroads ties, wheels, handles, and furniture. Some pods yield a substance used for washing silk and as a shampoo. Gums derived from various species of African acacias include Sudan, or Kordofan, gum; Senegal, or Berbera, gum; sunt
gum; and Suakin, or talha, gum. Wattle gum comes from Australia. "Acacia negra" is the name given to the bark of several acacias used in the tanning industry as a source of tannin. Cutch, a brown or olive vegetable dye, is derived from a stem
exudate of acacia. _^<N__^<N_Robert C. Romans
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35
CAT
-A-
academic art:
-T-
academic art:_^<N__^<N_see ACADEMIES OF ART.
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4185
CAT
-A-
academic freedom
-T-
academic freedom_^<N__^<N_Academic freedom traditionally refers to the freedom of scholars, usually at college and academic levels, to teach, publish, and engage in research unhindered by others. Those protected by academic freedom, in turn, have
the responsibility to conduct research honestly, to report their findings accurately, and to teach without bias. In democratic societies academic freedom is respected as a right. In totalitarian societies, where education is partly directed
toward indoctrination, it is rejected. _^<N__^<N_An important protection of academic freedom is tenure, the practice of assuring professors of continuation in their positions once they have passed successfully through a probationary period,
typically seven years in the United States, and provided they are not later found seriously deficient by a carefully specified procedure. _^<N__^<N_Although the academic freedom of untenured professors, and of students, is not as formally protected
as that of tenured professors, it is of equal concern in academic communities. Untenured professors, who suspect they are being fired because of their views, are entitled to a full hearing. Students are usually protected against disclosure by
their professors of the views they express in papers and examinations, against improper release of their records or files, and against any attempt to monitor or interfere with the free exchange of ideas. _^<N__^<N_The modern concept of academic
freedom has origins in the 17th- and 18th-century movements for political freedom and freedom of thought developed during the ENLIGHTENMENT. It was further developed by 19th-century German academics who distinguished between, but insisted equally
upon, Lehrfreiheit ("freedom of teaching") and Lernfreiheit ("freedom of learning"). Lehrfreiheit claimed certain privileges for the professor that set him apart from other civil servants. He was not required to submit his course plans or his
articles to higher officials for approval before teaching or publishing his results. The academic freedom of students to learn in their own way, Lernfreiheit, entitled them to move from university to university, to attend lectures or not, and,
within generous limits, to live as they pleased, subject only to the inevitable reckoning of the examinations. In general, the university itself was accorded a status not enjoyed by other state-supported institutions. It was generally free to
choose its own officers, to determine who should be advanced, and to chart its own priorities. _^<N__^<N_In the United States, where there is a much more diverse system of higher education, it has been necessary to seek common agreement on the
principles of academic freedom and to form organizations for their defense. The AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF UNIVERSITY PROFESSORS (AAUP, founded in 1915) has generally been accepted as the leader in the movement toward academic freedom for professors.
The AAUP's 1940 Statement of Principles on Academic Freedom and Tenure, adopted jointly with the Association of American Colleges, is now widely accepted as definitive. Until the student revolt of the 1960s, the United States lagged in
recognizing student academic freedom; statements on student academic freedom have been issued by the AAUP and by the American Civil Liberties Union. _^<N__^<N_The U. S. Supreme Court has given legal status to academic freedom claims as falling
under the 1ST AMENDMENT in decisions such as Sweezy v. New Hampshire (1957) and Perry v. Sinderman (1972). _^<N__^<N_Despite such actions, challenges to academic freedom regularly occur and have become acute at critical stages in U. S. history.
Following World War II, for example, the credentials of academics suspected of Communist-party affiliations were often questioned, and teachers were dismissed as actual or suspected Communists. _^<N__^<N_Edmund Pincoffs _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Bok, Derek C., Beyond the Ivory Tower (1982); Hofstadter, Richard, Academic Freedom in the Age of the College (1955); Hook, Sidney, In Defense of Academic Freedom (1971); Metzger, Walter P., et al., Dimensions of Academic Freedom (1968);
Pincoffs, Edmund L., ed., The Concept of Academic Freedom (1975); Robbins, L. C., Of Academic Freedom (1986).
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1293
CAT
-A-
Academie des Sciences
-T-
Academie des Sciences_^<N__^<N_{ah-kah-day-mee' day see-awns'} _^<N__^<N_Founded in 1666 by Jean Baptiste Colbert and Louis XIV, the Academie des Sciences in Paris quickly became the national center for French science and for the French scientific
establishment, as well as the model for similar institutions elsewhere. Until its reform in 1699, the academy numbered a dozen men who worked collectively and anonymously. Enlarged to 50 resident members in various classes and grades, from adjunct
to funded pensioner, the academy then formally assumed bureaucratic control over French science and technology. _^<N__^<N_From 1699 the academy published its famous scientific series Memoires, offered prizes for scientific research, and supported
several important scientific expeditions. Buffon, Condorcet, Fontenelle, Laplace, and Lavoisier numbered among its more important members and officers. The academy was closed in 1793 during the French Revolution and reconstituted as part of the
INSTITUT DE FRANCE in 1795. It served as an active center for scientific research and debate until the 1830s. Today it continues as the national academy and the premier scientific society in France. _^<N__^<N_James E. McClellan
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hahn, Roger, The Anatomy of a Scientific Institution: The Paris Academy of Sciences, 1666-1803 (1971).
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1800
CAT
-A-
Academie Francaise
-T-
Academie Francaise_^<N__^<N_{ah-kah-day-mee' frawn-sez'} _^<N__^<N_The Academie Francaise (French Academy) is the most renowned and oldest of the five learned societies that make up the INSTITUT DE FRANCE. Established by Cardinal RICHELIEU, the
Academie received its charter from Louis XIII in 1635. Richelieu had asked the founding members to work "at the development, unification, and purification of the French language." The academicians still fulfill this mission, in part, in the
Academie's continual revision of the Dictionnaire. Eight editions of the work were published between 1694 and 1932, and work on the ninth continues. The entries are conservative--words are illustrated with literary citations, and slang and
colloquialisms are avoided. A similar conservatism is evident in the Academie's Grammaire, published in 1932. _^<N__^<N_Membership in the Academie today is largely honorary, with writers, professors, theologians, historians, and philosophers
filling the 40 chairs to which they are elected for life. Candidates for the Academie file a formal application, stating their qualifications, and elections take place when a chair is vacated. The new academicien delivers a discourse thanking the
Academie and praising his predecessor. _^<N__^<N_Since 1914, the Academie has annually bestowed a literary prize, Le Grand prix du roman de l'Academie Francaise, on an author whose work is of "elevated inspiration and style." Laureates have
included Georges BERNANOS, Francois MAURIAC, and Antoine de SAINT-EXUPERY. Other yearly prizes are also awarded. Landmarks in the society's long history occurred in 1971, when the Academie installed its first foreign member, Julian GREEN (an
American novelist who wrote in French), and in 1981, when the first woman member, Marguerite YOURCENAR, took her seat. _^<N__^<N_Joseph A. Reiter
-END-
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849
CAT
-A-
Academie Royale de Danse
-T-
Academie Royale de Danse_^<N__^<N_{ah-kah-day-mee' rwah-yahl' duh dahns'} _^<N__^<N_The Academie Royale de Danse, established in 1661 by LOUIS XIV, was the first royally recognized, and therefore officially sanctioned, organization devoted to
perfecting the teaching of dance. Its 13 members, all professional dancing masters of the court, met at the LOUVRE or informally at a nearby tavern, L'Epee de Bois (The Wooden Sword). In 1672, Louis awarded the supervisory title maitre de ballet
("ballet master") to the noted choreographer Charles Louis Beauchamps. Guided by Beauchamps and later by Raoul Auger Feuillet and Louis Pecour, the academy began the formal codification of movement through which the ballet de cour ("court ballet")
evolved into the classical BALLET vocabulary used today. _^<N__^<N_Barbara Newman _^<N__^<N_See also: BEAUJOYEUX, BALTHAZAR DE; DANCE; DAUBERVAL, JEAN.
-END-
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7579
CAT
4834
-A-
academies of art
-T-
academies of art_^<N__^<N_Academies of art are generally both art schools and honorary bodies; they provide training for students and, through restricted membership, prestige for recognized professionals. Since such prestige depends on the power
and opinion of particular groups, it has varied throughout history, with the academies rising or falling in esteem according to social taste. The aim of art academies is to preserve the RENAISSANCE identification of artistic practice with the
ideals of HUMANISM and to perpetuate the craftsmanship that makes this association meaningful. _^<N__^<N_The term academy is derived from the Greek akademia, which originally referred to an olive grove situated near Athens and named for Akademus, a
local hero. Plato founded his school of philosophy there, and it became known by the same name. Later applications of this term carried all the honorable associations of the philosopher's august assembly. Eventually, it came to mean a higher
school or a specialized institution such as a military academy. The term was also used by learned societies that were not schools in the ordinary sense, and it subsequently became attached to honorary groups seeking to cultivate and promote the
arts and sciences. _^<N__^<N_Until recent times, art academies epitomized the highest expression of art for an elite audience and for various government bodies, who relied on academy members to design and decorate royal houses and public monuments.
An academy's association with these groups and its tendency to support the status quo predisposed outsiders to label all its products "official art." Modernist ideals in particular have done much to devalue and discredit the historical
contribution of art academies. Since 1900 academic art has for many people been associated with "bad art," and the term academic is often used as a reproach for hackneyed work. That almost all artists revered in modern times by both specialists
and the public attended one form of art academy or another is generally overlooked. Significantly, academic art is currently being reevaluated as various avant-garde ideals based on tentative experiments exhaust themselves and are subject to
commercial exploitation. Most of the major academies are still in existence. Society seems to have a need for such institutions, which tend to maintain a balance between tradition and innovation. _^<N__^<N_The first academies of fine arts were
founded in Italy: the Accademia del Disegno (Academy of Design) in Florence in 1563 under the sponsorship of Duke Cosimo I de' MEDICI; and the Accademia di San Luca (St. Luke was the patron saint of artists) in 1593 in Rome. These were
primarily associations of artists and patrons that attempted to challenge the powerful and restrictive GUILD system, in which artists were identified with artisans, and to elevate the status of painters and sculptors. Their founders recognized
that a permanent break required a drastic revision of the pedagogical system. As against the practical, on-the-job training in the workshops of the guilds, the academies formulated a theoretical component they termed disegno--the drawing and
design that underlay all artistic activity. This embraced the principles of PERSPECTIVE and ANATOMY. Since Renaissance humanism regarded the human being as the highest expression of the divine ideal, life drawing became the keystone of academic
curricula. _^<N__^<N_The art schools of later academies were divided into two basic sections: one for the study of the antique (plaster casts of ancient Greek and Roman statues and reliefs) and an advanced section for study from live models.
Since the academies taught that art should ennoble nature, they claimed that nature itself was an insufficient model for "high" art. The "ideal" works of the ancients compensated for nature's imperfections and were therefore considered a necessary
first step in preparation for work with a live model. _^<N__^<N_The most important academy of modern times was the Academie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, founded in 1648 in Paris to overcome restrictions pressed on court painters by the
guild. Eventually, this organization was encompassed in the centralized planning of LOUIS XIV and his finance minister Jean Baptiste COLBERT and was subject to their review. They had clear ideas about how art should be used (mainly to glorify the
king and to embellish the royal residences), and consequently the Academie Royale systematized its pedagogical procedures. For the first time, problems of technique and composition were explicitly formulated, methods explained, and basic
conventions defined. These procedures were in turn handed down to later academies, most notably Madrid's Academia de San Fernando (1752), the Dusseldorf Akademie (1767), London's Royal Academy (1768), the Munich Akademie (1770), and New York's
NATIONAL ACADEMY OF DESIGN (1825), founded by the painter-scientist Samuel F. B. MORSE. _^<N__^<N_Academies burgeoned during the 18th century, often sponsored by the ruling aristocracy since they coveted the implicit commitment to the
ENLIGHTENMENT ideals of social progress denoted by academies. Although academies originally obtained support from artists because it gave them improved social and professional status, they proliferated because the dominant classes saw in them an
instrument for their own glorification. By also giving the academies a monopoly over art instruction, they could further control the actual images produced. The French Academie Royale instituted a hierarchy of modes that persisted through the 19th
century in practice, if not in principle. Subjects for painting were carefully ranked: at the top was history painting and PORTRAITURE, and at the bottom STILL LIFE, LANDSCAPE, and GENRE PAINTING (scenes of everyday life). History painting
comprised biblical motifs, events from ancient and contemporary history, especially scenes featuring the king or his ancestors, and allegorical and mythological representation. _^<N__^<N_During the French Revolution, the Academie Royale was
suppressed, but it was reconstituted two years later (1795) as part of the Institut de France, with the honorary and pedagogical functions strictly separated. The art school, which eventually became the world-famous ECOLE DES BEAUX-ARTS (School of
Fine Arts), offered advanced drawing instruction, architectural training, and a series of competitions culminating with the PRIX DE ROME--a special traveling fellowship enabling the gifted pupil to reside at the academy's branch in Rome. Other art
academies were established in Rome, for example, the American Academy in Rome, founded in 1894 as a school of architecture. _^<N__^<N_The Royal Academy in London became one of the best regulated in the world under the painter Sir Joshua REYNOLDS,
its founder. GEORGE III provided it with "patronage, protection, and support," and he early made his influence felt in selecting as its second president the American expatriate artist Benjamin WEST. _^<N__^<N_The National Academy of Design in New
York is also both a school and a body of professionals. American academies of art such as the National Academy and the PENNSYLVANIA ACADEMY OF THE FINE ARTS, founded in 1805, were unique in admitting women early on, much earlier than the European
academies. _^<N__^<N_Albert Boime _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hutchinson, Sidney C., The History of the Royal Academy, 1768-1986 (1987); McMann, Evelyn, ed., The Royal Canadian Academy of Arts (1981); Pevsner, Nicolaus, Academies of Art, Past and
Present (1940; repr. 1973); Rosenblum, Robert, and Janson, H. W., Nineteenth-Century Art (1984).
-END-
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2541
CAT
-A-
academy
-T-
academy_^<N__^<N_An academy is an association dedicated to learning and the arts. It may be a learned society, a professional body, an institution for specialized instruction in a particular subject, or even a high school. _^<N__^<N_The original
Academy was a school founded (387 BC) near Athens by PLATO to embody a new educational idea. Plato planned to have a single center for teaching and research that would bring together experts in all branches of learning and that would include
younger scholars to give continuity to its work. Mathematics, astronomy, and legislation were three areas in which the Academy became distinguished. The school had a library, a residential building, and a garden. Tradition held that, long ago,
the garden had been owned by Akademus, a local hero of the Trojan War. His former garden, or olive grove, was therefore called akademia before Plato established his Academy there. In addition to Plato, the mathematician Eudoxus of Cnidus was a
senior member; younger academicians included Aristotle, Xenocrates, and Speusippus. The Academy continued as a center of learning until it was closed by the emperor Justinian in AD 529. It is the direct ancestor of all later Western colleges and
universities. _^<N__^<N_Several academies of poets and artists thrived in France and Italy in the 13th and 14th centuries. The Accademia Platonica, founded in Florence during the 1440s, was the most famous of the Renaissance academies. It
stressed the study of Plato's works, the purification of the Italian language, and the study of Dante. _^<N__^<N_The ACADEMIE FRANCAISE, chartered in 1635 and still operating today, was established to render the French language "pure, eloquent, and
capable of treating the arts and sciences." Other academies, such as the British ROYAL SOCIETY, chartered in 1662, encouraged the growth of experimental science through discussion and occasional sponsorship of scientific projects. Academies of
painting and sculpture became common in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. _^<N__^<N_In colonial America, "academies" were established in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and the Southern states to educate the middle classes in useful skills as well
as academic subjects. The word has regained its professional and artistic connotations in modern America without losing the technical overtones of the schools. Perhaps the best-known of the professional institutions is the Academy of Motion
Picture Arts and Sciences, which annually gives Academy Awards, or Oscars, to outstanding motion pictures, performers, and technicians.
-END-
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1902
CAT
-A-
Academy Awards
-T-
Academy Awards_^<N__^<N_The Academy Awards are annual awards presented by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for achievement in various categories of filmmaking. Nominees are selected by their colleagues in the movie industry (for
example, cinematographers nominate cinematographers and producers nominate producers), and the winners are chosen in secret ballot by a vote of the full academy membership. About two dozen awards are given for American films, of which the most
famous are those for best actor and actress, best director, and best picture. The academy also presents an award for the best foreign film and occasionally presents special awards. _^<N__^<N_At the awards ceremony, televised each spring with much
publicity, a gold statuette is presented to each winner. This famous symbol of professional success was dubbed "Oscar" in 1931 by a subsequent executive director of the academy, Margaret Herrick, who thought it resembled her uncle of the same
name. _^<N__^<N_The first Academy Awards were presented in 1929, with Paramount's Wings (1928) taking the coveted best-picture prize. Since then, Oscars have been awarded to dozens of famous film personalities. M-G-M's 1959 epic Ben-Hur, with 11
awards, holds the record for the most prizes won by any one film. Actress Katharine HEPBURN and director John FORD hold the most awards (4) given to an individual. Directors Frank Capra and William Wyler, actress Ingrid Bergman, and actor Walter
Brennan are all triple award winners. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Holden, Anthony, Behind the Oscars: The Secret History of the Academy Awards (1993); Levy, Emmanuel, And the Winner Is... The History and Politics of the Academy Awards (1987);
Michael, Paul, The Academy Awards: A Pictorial History, 3d rev. ed. (1975); Osborne, Robert, Fifty Golden Years of Oscar (1979), The Academy Awards: Years with Oscar (1977); Pickard, Roy, The Oscar Movies from A-Z (1978).
-END-
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1266
CAT
-A-
Academy of Sciences of the USSR
-T-
Academy of Sciences of the USSR_^<N__^<N_The Academy of Sciences of the USSR, renamed the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1991, oversaw the natural and social sciences of the former Soviet Union. Organized in 17 scientific, technical, and scholarly
departments, the academy supervised more than 260 scientific institutions, supervised and published numerous books and journals, and was responsible to the Council of Ministers of the USSR. The academy was founded in 1724 as the Academy of Sciences
and Arts, at the request of Peter I (the Great), and was opened by his widow in 1725. Given control of Soviet science and technology in 1917, it was renamed the Academy of Sciences of the USSR in 1925. In 1934 its headquarters moved from Leningrad
to Moscow. _^<N__^<N_The Library of the Academy of Sciences, founded in 1714 by Peter, is the oldest Russian science library. Located in Saint Petersburg, it contains more than 17,500,000 items and numerous collections, including all materials
published by the Academy. In 1988 the library suffered a devastating fire that destroyed more than 400,000 books and damaged many millions more. _^<N__^<N_James E. McClellan _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Berry, M. J., Science and Technology in the USSR
(1988); Graham, L. R., Science in Russia and the Soviet Union (1992).
-END-
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1968
CAT
-A-
Acadia
-T-
Acadia_^<N__^<N_{uh-kay'-dee-uh} _^<N__^<N_Acadia (in French, Acadie) is a region of present-day Canada that was a province or colony of NEW FRANCE. Never clearly defined, the term always referred to at least part of today's Maritime Provinces of
Canada (New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island) and to part of Maine. _^<N__^<N_Throughout the 17th century and until 1713, the colony of Acadia included the mainland of Nova Scotia and some settlements on the Bay of Fundy shore of
present-day New Brunswick. The population of the former centered in the settlement of Port Royal (now Annapolis Royal), first founded (1605) by the Sieur de MONTS, and never exceeded 2,100 persons of European descent. Given very little economic
support by France and finding itself a pawn in the colonial power struggle among France, Holland, and Britain, the colony was forced to become virtually self-sufficient. It lived off agriculture, fishing, and trade--the last often illicit in the
eyes of France. _^<N__^<N_When the main part of Acadia was ceded to Britain as Nova Scotia in 1713, France retained the rest of the region and tended to refer to all of it, whether under British or French rule, by the traditional name. Some of the
French-speaking Acadians moved to Cape Breton and Prince Edward Islands, but most remained in Nova Scotia until they were harshly expelled in 1755 and again in 1758 because they would not swear allegiance to the British crown. Of those among them
who survived the resulting severe hardship, many returned later to reestablish themselves in Acadia, or, more commonly, in northern New Brunswick and in pockets of the other Maritimes. Other survivors settled in Louisiana, where their
descendants--known as CAJUNS--still preserve a distinct culture. Still others returned to France. _^<N__^<N_F. J. Thorpe _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Brebner, J. B., New England's Outpost: Acadia before the Conquest of Canada (1927; repr. 1991); Clark,
A. H., Acadia: The Geography of Early Nova Scotia to 1760 (1968).
-END-
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627
CAT
-A-
Acadia National Park
-T-
Acadia National Park_^<N__^<N_{uh-kay'-dee-uh} _^<N__^<N_Acadia National Park is a mountainous, forested area along the Atlantic coast of northeastern Maine. The park covers 170 sq km (66 sq mi) and is primarily on Mount Desert Island, but it also
includes several smaller islands and part of Schoodic Peninsula on the mainland. Outstanding features include Cadillac Mountain (466 m/1,530 ft), a fjord called Somes Sound, a 32-km (20-mi) drive that overlooks the ocean, and the Abbe Museum of
Stone Age Antiquities. Established as Lafayette National Park in 1919, it was renamed Acadia in 1929. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., donated much of the land.
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906
CAT
-A-
acanthus (architecture)
-T-
acanthus (architecture)_^<N__^<N_{uh-kan'-thuhs} _^<N__^<N_An acanthus is a leaf-shaped ornament on architectural elements. Based on the leaves of the acanthus plant, the ornament is found especially in the Corinthian and Composite orders in Greek
and Roman architecture. Its first known occurrences are on two buildings of the Athens ACROPOLIS: the PARTHENON (447-32 BC), where it is used in acroteria (PEDIMENT plinths), and the ERECHTHEUM (421-05 BC), where it appears on the frieze. Its
first use in the Corinthian CAPITAL was attributed (c.425 BC) by Vitruvius to CALLIMACHUS of Athens; this may be correct. The style of an acanthus ornament is useful to archaeologists in dating specific monuments. _^<N__^<N_John Stephens Crawford
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Dinsmoor, William, The Architecture of Ancient Greece (1975); Lawrence, A. W., Greek Architecture (1984); Robertson, D. S., A Handbook of Greek and Roman Architecture (1964).
-END-
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684
CAT
-A-
acanthus (plant)
-T-
acanthus (plant)_^<N__^<N_{uh-kan'-thuhs} _^<N__^<N_The acanthus family, Acanthaceae, contains about 250 genera of mainly perennial, thistlelike shrubs native to warmer regions of the world. The name applies most commonly to about 12 species that
make up the genus Acanthus. Their whitish rose to lilac flowers grow on spikes up to 46 cm (18 in) high, and the leaves are up to 60 cm (24 in) long. The spiny leaves of some species, such as varieties of the Mediterranean acanthus, A. mollis,
have a hairy, attractive upper surface, and the shrubs are cultivated as border plants. Other genera are also popular, including species of Ruellia that are grown in the southern United States. _^<N__^<N_Charles Wilson
-END-
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991
CAT
-A-
Acapulco
-T-
Acapulco_^<N__^<N_Acapulco (or in full: Acapulco de Juarez) is a seaport on the Pacific coast of Mexico in the state of Guerrero. It has a population of 515,374 (1990). Located on the bay of Acapulco 305 km (190 mi) south of Mexico City, it is a
major resort area and a shipping point for cotton, coffee, and sugar. The rainy season is from June to September, and the average annual temperature is 27.2 deg C (81 deg F). _^<N__^<N_Acapulco was founded (1550) by Spaniards, and until 1815 it
was the center for trade with the Philippines and for the transshipment of goods across Mexico to Spain. Fort San Diego was built here in 1616 to protect Spanish shipping. Destroyed by an earthquake (1776) and later rebuilt, Fort San Diego was
the site of a Mexican victory over the Spanish in 1821. The climate, atmosphere, deep-sea fishing, and beautiful beaches have made Acapulco an international vacation spot. Many visitors enjoy the cliff divers who leap from the 40-m (140-ft)
promontory west of the bay.
-END-
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584
CAT
-A-
Accademia dei Lincei
-T-
Accademia dei Lincei_^<N__^<N_{ah-kah-day'-meeah day leen-chay'-ee} _^<N__^<N_Founded in Rome in 1603, the Accademia dei Lincei (Academy of the Linx-eyed) is the oldest extant scientific society in the world. Derived from Italian literary societies
of the Renaissance, the academy flourished until the death of its patron, Duke Federico Cesi, in 1630, when it had 32 members, including Galileo. Sporadically revived in the 18th and 19th centuries, the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei today serves
as Italy's national academy of sciences. It publishes Atti (Acts) and Memorie (Memoirs). _^<N__^<N_James E. McClellan
-END-
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649
CAT
-A-
Accademia del Cimento
-T-
Accademia del Cimento_^<N__^<N_{ah-kah-day'-meeah del chee-men'-toh} _^<N__^<N_The Accademia del Cimento (Academy of Experiment) in Florence was the first institution devoted solely to scientific experiment. Founded by Leopoldo de' MEDICI in 1657,
the academy consisted of 10 scientists, including G. A. Borelli and Galileo's pupil, Viviani, who performed collective experiments in physics. These were published as the famous Saggi di naturali esperienze (1667). The academy ceased functioning in
1667 when Leopoldo de' Medici became a cardinal. _^<N__^<N_James E. McClellan _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Middleton, W. E. Knowles, The Experimenters: A Study of the Accademia del Cimento (1971).
-END-
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1247
CAT
-A-
acceleration
-T-
acceleration_^<N__^<N_Acceleration is the rate of change of an object's velocity. The concepts of "speeding up" and "slowing down" actually imply positive and negative accelerations (negative acceleration is commonly called deceleration). For
example, if the speed of an automobile traveling in a straight line increases from 15 to 25 meters per second (34 to 55 mph) in 10 seconds, then the auto's average acceleration is 1 m/sec per second (2.1 mph per second). The auto's speed increases
every second by an amount equal to 1 m/sec. _^<N__^<N_Objects falling freely toward the ground experience a uniform acceleration of 9.8 m/sq sec (32 ft/sq sec) due to gravity. _^<N__^<N_Types of acceleration other than the uniform linear
acceleration described above also occur. Angular acceleration, for example, is the time rate of change of angular velocity. Since velocity is a VECTOR quantity composed of a speed in a given direction, any change in either speed or direction
represents an acceleration. An object traveling in a circle has a centripetal acceleration toward the center of the circle because of its constantly changing direction. _^<N__^<N_Gary S. Settles _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Halliday, David, and Resnick,
Robert, Fundamentals of Physics (1974). _^<N__^<N_See also: FREE FALL; LAWS OF MOTION.
-END-
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15002
CATO
4785
9591
14387
-A-
accelerator, particle
-O-
000000|accelerator, particle
002449| DIRECT VOLTAGE ACCELERATORS
003235| Van de Graaff Electrostatic Generator
004527| Betatron
004955| ACCELERATORS USING ALTERNATING ELECTRIC FIELDS
005279| Linear Accelerator
008694| Cyclotron
010870| Synchrotron
012333| Storage Rings
-T-
accelerator, particle_^<N__^<N_A particle accelerator is a device for increasing the energy of electrically charged atomic particles. The particles may be electrons, protons, or charged atomic nuclei. (The particles called neutrons cannot be
accelerated individually because they have no charge. They can be given higher energy, however, by accelerating deuterons, the nuclei of heavy hydrogen; the deuteron comprises one proton and one neutron and can be accelerated because the proton
carries a charge.) The purpose of increasing the energy of charged particles is to make them useful in studies of nuclear and particle physics, by shooting them at atoms and studying the resulting products with a DETECTOR. At very high energies,
the charged particles can break up the nuclei of other atoms and interact with other particles, producing transformations that make it possible to study the nature and behavior of the fundamental units of matter. Particle accelerators are also
important tools in the effort to develop nuclear fusion devices (see FUSION, NUCLEAR). _^<N__^<N_The energy of a charged particle is measured in electron volts, where one electron volt is the energy gained by an electron when it passes between
electrodes having a potential difference of one volt. Electrons have a negative charge; protons have the same quantity of charge as an electron, but their polarity is positive. Thus, because it includes a proton and an electron, the hydrogen atom
is electrically neutral. Other nuclei with several protons in their nuclei have equal numbers of electrons circulating; therefore they too are neutral. If one or more electrons are stripped from an atom, the atom becomes an ion and has a net
positive charge equal to the number of electrons removed. _^<N__^<N_A charged particle can be accelerated only by the application of an electric field, which moves it toward the opposite charge. Beams of particles may be focused by magnets; the
effectiveness of the magnets is further enhanced if they are superconducting (see SUPERCONDUCTIVITY). Early machines in nuclear physics used static, or direct, electric fields; but most modern machines, particularly those for the highest particle
energies, use alternating fields. The latter are arranged so that particles are exposed to the field only when the field is in the accelerating direction. When the field is reversed and is in a decelerating direction, the particles are shielded
from the field by various electrode configurations. _^<N__^<N_ DIRECT VOLTAGE ACCELERATORS_^<N__^<N_The first accelerator to be used in nuclear physics was the machine designed by J. D. COCKCROFT and E. T. S. WALTON and built in 1932 at the
Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge, England. The machine comprised a high-voltage TRANSFORMER in which the voltage was multiplied by standard engineering techniques to a final value of 700,000 volts (700 kV). An evacuated tube led from the
high-voltage terminal to the grounded end of the system. A hydrogen-gas discharge ion source in the terminal was used to direct protons into the tube, where they were accelerated by the high voltage to an energy of 700,000 electron volts (700 keV)
to yield the first artificially produced nuclear disintegrations. Cockcroft and Walton received the 1951 Nobel Prize for physics. _^<N__^<N_ Van de Graaff Electrostatic Generator_^<N__^<N_During the early 1930s another type of direct voltage
generator was developed by R. J. VAN DE GRAAFF at Princeton University. In this machine a charge is carried on an insulating belt from a "spray charger," comprising points charged to a relatively high voltage, to a high-voltage terminal where the
belt is discharged and the voltage builds up on the terminal. Eventually, if the process is not limited, an electric discharge similar to a lightning bolt will discharge the terminal. With great care, voltages as high as 3 million volts can be
achieved. As in the machine built by Cockcroft and Walton, an evacuated tube carries charged particles from an ion source in the terminal to the grounded end of the system, where they are used to disintegrate nuclei. _^<N__^<N_Later it was shown
that much higher voltages are achievable if the machine is enclosed in a tank where a pressure of several atmospheres is maintained. The gas in the tank can be air, or it can be any one of several other gases that seem more suitable for maintaining
high voltages. The art of building electrostatic VAN DE GRAAFF GENERATORS continues to advance. An enormous machine currently being built in Great Britain is expected to be able to maintain 30 million volts on its terminal. _^<N__^<N_
Betatron_^<N__^<N_Another type of direct-voltage accelerator is the BETATRON, a device in which a varying magnetic field generates the electric field that accelerates a beam of electrons, while the electrons are maintained in a circular orbit by a
second magnetic field. The betatron can be thought of as a transformer in which the primary winding excites the magnetic field, and the secondary winding is the accelerating electron beam. _^<N__^<N_ ACCELERATORS USING ALTERNATING ELECTRIC
FIELDS_^<N__^<N_By using alternating electrical fields in the radio frequency (rf) range for acceleration, it becomes possible to accelerate a particle in a number of steps while maintaining the electric fields at manageable levels, thus avoiding
problems connected with electrical breakdown. _^<N__^<N_ Linear Accelerator_^<N__^<N_The simplest rf accelerator is the linear accelerator, or linac. It has different forms, depending on whether the purpose is to accelerate electrons or ions. For
the acceleration of ions, an appropriate frequency is 200 million cycles per second (200 MHz) or less. The ions are injected along the axis of a long tank, which is excited by a high-powered rf system in a field pattern that includes an electric
field along the axis. While the field is in the decelerating phase, the ions are shielded from it by drift tubes in the tank, which are pipes through which the beam passes. As the particles gain energy and velocity, they travel farther during the
deceleration phase; therefore, the drift tubes must be longer toward the end of the tank to match the period of the accelerating field. _^<N__^<N_The first linear accelerator was built in 1928 by Rolf Wideroe in Norway. Containing three drift
tubes, it was used to accelerate sodium and potassium ions. The accelerator was used solely to demonstrate the principle of rf acceleration. During the 1930s further work was done on the ion linear accelerator at the University of California. But
the lack of amplifiers for generating high power at high radio frequencies delayed application of the principle until after World War II, at which time rf sources became available through the development of radar. Shortly after the war, Luis Walter
ALVAREZ built the first proton linear accelerator in which protons reached an energy of 32 million electron volts (MeV). The power required at a frequency of about 200 MHz was about 2 million watts (megawatts); this very high level limited
operation of the machine to pulses less than 1 millisecond long. _^<N__^<N_Since 1950 several proton and ion linear accelerators have been built, some as injectors for still larger machines and some for use in nuclear physics. The largest
accelerator is the 800-MeV machine at the LOS ALAMOS SCIENTIFIC LABORATORY in New Mexico. It is used as a meson factory, producing for study the particles of mass that are intermediate between the electron and the proton and that seem to give the
force necessary for holding the atomic nucleus together. _^<N__^<N_Because electrons are much lighter than ions, their velocity at a given energy is significantly higher than that of ions. The velocity of a 1-MeV proton is less than 5 percent that
of light, whereas a 1-MeV electron has reached 94 percent of the velocity of light. This makes possible the running of electron linacs at much higher frequencies--usually about 3,000 MHz-- than those used in ion linacs. The accelerating system for
electrons is a few centimeters in diameter, whereas diameters of a few meters are needed for ion linacs. Electron linacs having energies of 10 to 50 MeV are widely used in RADIATION THERAPY as sources of X rays for treating tumors with intense
radiation. _^<N__^<N_The largest electron linac in existence began operation in 1966 at the STANFORD LINEAR ACCELERATOR CENTER (SLAC) in California. This machine, more than 3.2 km (2 mi) long, has been able to provide electrons with energies of
more than 50,000 MeV, that is, 50 billion, or giga, electron volts (50 BeV or GeV). The addition to SLAC of colliding-beam facilities (discussed below) culminated in the late 1980s in the Stanford Linear Collider (SLC), which can provide collision
energies of more than 100 GeV between a beam of electrons and a beam of positrons. _^<N__^<N_ Cyclotron_^<N__^<N_Although the ion linear accelerator evolved slowly, a research report by Wideroe in 1928 was the inspiration for another machine that
has proved important: the CYCLOTRON. Ernest LAWRENCE of the University of California read the report the next year and realized that an ion can be deflected in a circle by a magnetic field in such a way that it will return to a gap where it can
receive additional acceleration. It was easily shown that, at least at low energies, in a magnetic field the angular velocity of an ion (see MOTION, ROTATIONAL) is independent of its energy. This makes it possible for the ion to return several
times to be accelerated again by the same rf field at the same gap. As the energy is increased, the ion is deflected less by the magnetic field. The result is that the ion path is a spiral, beginning near the center of the magnet and eventually
emerging with high energy at the edge of the magnet. The linac's drift tubes are replaced by half-pillboxes (called dees because they are shaped like the letter D), in which the ions are shielded during the deceleration phase of the rf field. With
M. S. Livingston, Lawrence built a working cyclotron in 1931. During the 1930s and 1940s larger and larger machines were built at the University of California and elsewhere, primarily for the purpose of accelerating protons and deuterons to
energies that would reach into the hundreds of MeV. _^<N__^<N_At energies of a few tens of MeV, relativistic effects begin to appear. Instead of velocity increasing with energy, the ion mass increases. This spoils the operating principle of the
cyclotron. In the late 1930s this seemed to set an upper limit on the energy that could be achieved by cyclotrons. In 1945, however, E. M. McMillan in California and V. I. Veksler in the USSR, working independently, discovered the principle of
"phase stability." According to this principle, if the frequency of the accelerating field is changed as the radius of the orbit increases, the energy limit of a cyclotron can be increased indefinitely. Such frequency modulated cyclotrons, also
called synchrocyclotrons, were built and soon reached energies of more than 700 MeV. _^<N__^<N_ Synchrotron_^<N__^<N_At high energies, the magnet required for guiding the particles became massive. Pole diameters approached 6 m (20 ft), which
necessitated magnet weights of several thousand tons. To achieve still higher energies, a new device was required. In the machine subsequently developed, which was another result of the principle of phase stability, particles traveled on a roughly
circular orbit of constant radius. The magnetic field that maintained the particles in orbit was increased as a radio -frequency field increased the energy of the particles. Called a synchrotron in the Western world and a synchrophasotron in the
USSR, this machine seemed to be limited in the energy it could obtain only by size. _^<N__^<N_Early synchrotrons were used to accelerate electrons, and a number have reached energies of several GeV, but the largest synchrotrons are designed to
accelerate protons. The first proton synchrotron, the Cosmotron at BROOKHAVEN NATIONAL LABORATORY, became operational in 1952 and was the first accelerator to produce energies above 1 GeV. The largest synchrotrons are the 500-GeV machine at the
CERN Laboratory in Geneva, Switzerland (see EUROPEAN ORGANIZATION FOR NUCLEAR RESEARCH), and the 500-GeV machine at the FERMI NATIONAL ACCELERATOR LABORATORY (Fermilab) in Chicago. The use of superconducting magnets at Fermilab in 1983 raised that
machine's potential to 1 TeV (1 trillion eV) and gained it the name of Tevatron (see SUPERCONDUCTIVITY). _^<N__^<N_ Storage Rings_^<N__^<N_The most recent development in the field has been the storage ring, in which accelerated particle beams
circulate in opposite directions for several hours, if necessary. Using an antiproton storage ring, Fermilab is achieving collision energies of nearly 1.8 TeV; at CERN, a similar system provides energies of more than 600 GeV. Both U.S. and European
scientists are planning still larger accelerators. The proposed U.S. machine, the Superconducting Super Collider (SSC), would yield collision energies of 40 TeV and would require construction of an oval 87 km (54 mi) in circumference. In 1988,
Ellis County, Tex., was chosen as the site for the SSC. First ground for the project was broken the following year, despite continuing political objections to the possible cost of the project before its planned completion date of 1999. Some
scientific observers felt that the SSC would absorb funds that would be better distributed among several different fields than devoted solely to high-energy particle physics. The first budget presented by the Clinton administration in February 1993
called for continued development of the SSC, although at a slower pace. The U.S. House of Representatives, however, voted in June 1993 to end funding for the project--in effect terminating it. _^<N__^<N_CERN's large project, the Large
Electron-Positron Collider (LEP), was completed in 1989. Starting energies for the LEP were in the 100-GeV range, but CERN scientists hope to double that capacity within a few years. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union had planned to complete a 600-GeV
proton accelerator at Protvino, south of Moscow, but with the demise of the USSR it was uncertain whether the Russian government would have the means to continue the project. _^<N__^<N_The development, in 1952, of alternating-gradient focusing--the
alternate focusing and defocusing of particle beams-- drastically reduced the size of the magnets needed in synchrotrons and storage beams and lowered the cost of accelerators. _^<N__^<N_John P. Blewett _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Anderson, Ian, "A
Production Line for Particle Physics,", New Scientist, May 19, 1988; Close, Frank, et al., The Particle Explosion (1987); Dawson, J. M., "Plasma Particle Accelerators," Scientific American, March 1989; Humphries, Stanley, Principles of Charged
Particle Acceleration (1986); Month, Melvin, and Turner, S., eds., Frontiers of Particle Beams (1988). Sessler, A. M., "New Particle Acceleration Techniques," Physics Today, January 1988; Trefil, J. S., From Atoms to Quarks (1980) and "Beyond the
Quark" New York Times Magazine, Apr. 30, 1989. _^<N__^<N_See also: DETECTOR, PARTICLE; FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES; SYNCHROTRON RADIATION.
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accelerometer
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accelerometer_^<N__^<N_Accelerometer is a term applied to two classes of test instruments that operate on similar principles but have different purposes: one class measures vibration and shock applied to, or observed on, a structure; the other
measures the FORCE required to accelerate or decelerate a body in motion--whether the motion is linear or rotary. _^<N__^<N_The measurement of vibrations is mainly concerned with the departure of an object from its normal position. Development of
linear accelerometers was prompted by the development of guided missiles and space vehicles, because such structures are subject to high vibration and shock conditions on takeoff. Linear ACCELERATION is often expressed in terms of the acceleration
of gravity, denoted by the symbol g. If an astronaut is subject to an acceleration of 6 g on launch, his weight during that period will be six times his normal weight. Measurement of acceleration is also important in the development of industrial
machinery and transportation equipment that are braked automatically. _^<N__^<N_The basic instrument for measuring vibrations or forces involves a mass suspended from a spring; the mass is mounted within a case attached to the structure under test
and filled with some form of fluid. The fluid causes damping, which resists the free vibration of the mass. The period of free oscillation of the spring-mass system is related to the ratio of the stiffness of the spring to the mass and determines
whether the instrument will respond as a displacement meter, vibrometer, or linear accelerometer. TRANSDUCERS convert this mechanical movement into an electrical signal, which can be recorded on a chart or stored on magnetic tape. _^<N__^<N_Frank
J. Oliver
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accent
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accent_^<N__^<N_Accent is the stress, or vocal emphasis, placed on a certain syllable or syllables in a word. In the word accent, the stress is on the first syllable. Rhetorical accent is the stress put on a word because of its function in a line of
verse or in a sentence, and metrical accent is the stress pattern established by the meter. If the metrical pattern in a line of verse requires a change in the natural stress, it is called a wrenched accent. A hovering accent occurs when it is not
clear whether a syllable should be stressed. (See VERSIFICATION.) _^<N__^<N_The term accent is also applied to the pronunciation and speech patterns of particular regional or other groups. Thus, the English language may be spoken with a Scottish or
a Midwestern accent, and foreign-language speakers bring distinctive accents to their spoken English. _^<N__^<N_J. A. Cuddon
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702
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accentor
-T-
accentor_^<N__^<N_The accentor, any small (13-18 cm/5-7 in) old-world sparrow-like bird of the genus Prunella, is found in mountain meadows, scrub vegetation, or forests from Britain across Eurasia to Japan. Both sexes are streaked brownish or
reddish, with gray underparts and sometimes a gray head. Of 12 species, the best-known is the sweet-singing European HEDGE SPARROW (P. modularis). Accentors feed mainly on insects in summer and on seeds and berries in winter. The cup-shaped nest is
built on the ground or in low shrubs, and three or four blue eggs are usually laid. Both sexes feed the young. Accentors constitute the family Prunellidae of the order PASSERIFORMES, suborder Passeres. _^<N__^<N_Robert J. Raikow
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CAT
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accessory
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accessory_^<N__^<N_An accessory, in criminal law, is one who contributes to or aids in the commission of a crime without participating in the act itself. An accessory before the fact is one who assists or encourages another person to commit a crime;
an accessory after the fact is one who, knowing a crime has been committed, helps the criminal escape justice or gives him or her aid or comfort. An accessory during the fact is one who stands by during the crime and does not interfere.
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20
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accipiter:
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accipiter:_^<N__^<N_see HAWK.
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1109
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acclimatization
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acclimatization_^<N__^<N_In biology, acclimatization, or acclimation, is a general term for the responses an organism exhibits as it adjusts to some long-term change or changes in its environment, or to being moved into a new environment. The term
suggests climatic changes only, but acclimatization also includes the adjustment of wild plants to cultivation and of wild animals to captivity, as well as any other situations involving such essential changes in environmental conditions.
_^<N__^<N_The degree to which a given organism is able to acclimatize has its bases in the genetics of the organism. For example, some plants prove highly successful when introduced into a new setting, whereas others may grow under the new
conditions but still require human intervention to propagate. The acclimatization process itself is considered reversible, and its results are not genetically encoded for passing on to a new generation. Acclimatization thus differs from
adaptation (see ADAPTIVE RADIATION), the evolutionary process by which entire populations of organisms gradually change in their genetic makeup (see EVOLUTION).
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CAT
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accomplice
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accomplice_^<N__^<N_An accomplice, in criminal law, is a person who participates knowingly in the commission of a crime. If there is common intent between the person who commits the act and the accomplice, the accomplice is implicated regardless of
whether he or she is present. Sometimes the term is used to include accessories after the fact--persons who knowingly gave help to the criminal after the crime was committed. An accused cannot be convicted of a crime on the uncorroborated testimony
of an accomplice; in some jurisdictions, accessories have been classed as accomplices to exclude their testimony.
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684
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accordion
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accordion_^<N__^<N_The accordion, a WIND INSTRUMENT, produces sound by means of reeds over which wind is forced by working a bellows. The instrument was invented (1821) in Germany by Friedrich Buschmann, who supplied it with right-hand buttons for
producing treble pitches. Left-hand buttons for playing bass cords were added in 1829. Eventually, a keyboard supplanted the right-hand buttons, producing the piano accordion. A popular instrument, the accordion has only a limited place in the
classical repertoire, although several 20th-century composers have used the instrument in their works. The CONCERTINA is a type of miniature accordion. _^<N__^<N_Elwyn A. Wienandt _^<N__^<N_See also: WIND INSTRUMENTS
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CATO
4797
9572
14361
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accounting
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000000|accounting
000936| FUNCTIONS OF ACCOUNTING
001665| Financial Accounting
006114| Managerial Accounting
007469| Tax Accounting
008715| AUDITING
011354| DEVELOPMENT OF ACCOUNTING
013737| THE ACCOUNTING INDUSTRY
015133| ACCOUNTING STANDARDS
-T-
accounting_^<N__^<N_Accounting is the compilation of financial information for use in making economic decisions. BOOKKEEPING provides the basic accounting data, by systematically recording such day-to-day financial information as revenue from the
sale of products or services; expenses of business operations such as the cost of merchandise sold; and overhead expenses such as rent, wages, and so forth. Accounting principles determine which financial events and transactions should be recorded
in the bookkeeper's ledgers, journals, and computer printouts. The analysis and interpretation of these records is the primary function of accounting. The various financial statements produced by accountants then furnish business and other types of
organizations with the basis for their financial planning and control, and provide other interested parties (investors, the government) with information they can use to make decisions about these organizations. _^<N__^<N_ FUNCTIONS OF
ACCOUNTING_^<N__^<N_Accounting provides informational access to a firm's financial condition for three broad interest groups. First, it gives the firm's management the information to evaluate financial performance over a previous period of time,
and to make decisions regarding the future. Second, it informs the general public, and particularly the firm's stockholders or those interested in buying its stock, about the financial status of the firm over the previous quarter or year. Third,
accounting provides reports for the tax and regulatory departments of the various levels of government. Accountants also perform many of the same functions for agencies of the government, nonprofit organizations, and other entities. _^<N__^<N_
Financial Accounting_^<N__^<N_Large corporations maintain their own internal accounting departments; small firms may hire the services of an outside accountant. In either case, the accountant's principal duty is to gather the figures that relate to
such financial matters as profits, losses, costs, tax liabilities, and other debts, and to present them to the firm's management in a form that is logical and readily understood. _^<N__^<N_For publically traded companies--those which offer stocks
and bonds for sale to the public--accountants also prepare regularly published reports of interest to those outside the organization who are concerned with the company's financial condition: investors and potential investors, creditors, and the
general public. At the end of the fiscal year, a summary, or annual report, is published, which must include the "opinion" of an outside reviewer as to its accuracy. The reviewer is an independent accountant called an auditor. _^<N__^<N_These
reports represent, usually, the only communication a company has with stockholders and other outsiders. They are prepared in accordance with rules known as Generally Accepted Accounting Principles, which are established by professional
organizations of accountants. A standard set of financial statements is always included in an annual report. The statements include the following: _^<N__^<N_The balance sheet compares the firm's assets and liabilities. Assets include cash, accounts
receivable (moneys owed to the company), the cash value of inventories, and the worth of property, plant, and equipment. Liabilities include company debts, "stockholders' equity," or the amount of stock held by investors, as well as the amount of
"retained earnings," or assets that are invested back into the company rather than disbursed in the form of dividends to stockholders. _^<N__^<N_Although some balance-sheet items, like cash, are easily measured for reporting, the value of others,
like plant and equipment, must be estimated. Plant and equipment are usually represented by figures that are reduced by a certain proportion each year. For example, a truck worth $X when it is purchased will be worth $X minus 15 percent the next
year, and $X minus 30 percent the second year after purchase. The percentage of depreciation--the presumed worth of the truck over time--varies according to the depreciation method used, but almost every item of plant and equipment is subject to
depreciation, which is listed by accountants as an expense. Inventory valuation is also subject to a variety of accounting methods, since many inventory items cannot be specifically costed. The grain in a grain elevator, for example, comes from
different sources and may have been bought at several prices. An accountant must choose between one of several methods for valuing the grain; each will provide a slightly different value figure, as well as a different basis for figuring taxes.
_^<N__^<N_The statement of changes in financial position shows the sources and applications of working capital, and indicates whether the company generated sufficient cash to fund operations, or whether borrowing was necessary. _^<N__^<N_The income
statement shows the results of a company's operations over time, as well as for the current period. Income is the difference between revenues and expenses. Accountants usually report revenues at the time when they are earned (when a sale is made,
not when cash for the sale is received), and expenses only when they are incurred, rather than when they are paid out. This practice--of relating current expense with current revenues earned--is called accrual accounting and is fundamental to
almost all accounting systems. The simpler cash method, which records revenues when cash for sales is received and expenses when cash is disbursed, rarely presents a true financial-activity picture of an organization. _^<N__^<N_The statement of
retained earnings and stockholder's equity demonstrates for investors what has happened with their ownership in the company, how earnings and new stock issuance have increased its worth, and what dividends were paid. _^<N__^<N_Each of these reports
will contain figures for previous quarters and years, as well as for the current period, providing a way of comparing present and past company performance. Accompanying the statements will be a set of notes, presenting information about the
particular accounting methods used, as well as explanations of the impact of important events within the previous year. _^<N__^<N_ Managerial Accounting_^<N__^<N_The process of providing management with data to evaluate costs, practice budgetary
planning, and review employee and executive performance is the basis of the work of the managerial, or cost, accountant. Cost accounting is primarily responsible for determining the cost of manufacturing a specific product or providing a particular
service. This usually requires complex estimates of overhead costs, variable costs, and unit costs for services such as advertising or consulting. Costs may be monitored daily, in order to warn management when performance is off budget; with
computerized bookkeeping, reports can be generated almost as soon as the data has been collected. Cost statements will also help management determine whether it might be more profitable to make or to buy a particular item; to invest in more
machinery or other capital assets, or to make do with the old; to increase production by hiring more workers or by automating plant facilities; and so forth. _^<N__^<N_Working with each division of the firm, the accountant may also be responsible
for creating a budget setting forth goals based on realistic estimates of what can be accomplished. Comparing actual performance with the planned-for goals is another function of budgetary planning and is useful in evaluating the performance of
individual divisions and managers. _^<N__^<N_ Tax Accounting_^<N__^<N_Tax and compliance reporting together make up another major accounting function. In the United States, tax accounting is a matter of legal compliance with the Internal Revenue
Code and various state and local tax laws. The tax accountant must keep abreast of the numerous changes in tax law that apply to his or her organization. Many tax accountants are, therefore, also lawyers. _^<N__^<N_The methods chosen to report
assets and liabilities will influence the amount of tax to be paid, at least within the fiscal year. In addition, most organizations must adjust their financial reports for the unique requirements of reporting to the Internal Revenue Service and
other taxing bodies. _^<N__^<N_Companies must also report to the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), which, since 1934, has required its own form of compliance accounting from publically traded corporations. The SEC has a well-prescribed
reporting process that a company must follow when it issues stocks or bonds to be traded on the open market. In addition to the basic data included in the annual report, the SEC requires disclosure of ownership, management backgrounds, company
operations, and other information useful to investors in deciding whether to buy into a company. _^<N__^<N_ AUDITING_^<N__^<N_Auditors are accountants who review financial statements, and their responsibility is to verify the accuracy of company
reporting. Internal auditors--those who are hired by and work within the company itself--help identify accounting weaknesses and correct them before significant errors occur. They are often systems-oriented people who make flowcharts of accounting
systems and evaluate these flowcharts to suggest improvements in division of labor, paper flow, cash control, or other accounting responsibilities. They usually work under the company's treasurer or controller, who can thus provide a check and
balance on the accounting department. _^<N__^<N_Independent auditors are hired by a company's board of directors to represent the stockholders by reviewing financial statements, in order to reassure outsiders that annual reports are fair
representations of the financial position of the company. The independent auditor issues an opinion whose wording is standardized so that readers can easily identify what it implies. The standard "clean opinion" reads as follows: In our opinion,
the financial statements . . . present fairly the position of XYZ Corporation as of Dec. 31, 19XX, and the results of its operations and the changes in its financial position for the year then ended, in conformity with generally accepted
accounting principles applied on a basis consistent with that of the preceding year. _^<N__^<N_Any other wording in an opinion probably indicates trouble. Independent auditors may qualify their opinion with a paragraph describing some variance they
found. An opinion may also be disclaimed, if the auditor finds some reason that prevents him or her from completing an audit. Finally, and rarely, an opinion can state that the financial statements do not fairly represent the company's actual
financial situation. _^<N__^<N_The notion of "materiality"--what kind of information is relevant and necessary, and what data can be omitted because it is "immaterial" to a reporting function--is central to the profession of accounting. To a
bookkeeper, even a few cents "out of balance" constitutes a material misstatement that must be rectified. However, the accountant's reports contain rounded figures, and reflect judgments about what kinds of depreciation, expense accruals, and other
data should be included. To the auditor, whose certification will be based on reports involving rounded thousands, or even millions, of dollars, a number may not be "materially" misstated if it can be proved to within 5 percent. Thus, at each
reporting level, the accuracy required to present fairly the company's financial position changes. _^<N__^<N_ DEVELOPMENT OF ACCOUNTING_^<N__^<N_Historians generally credit 14th-century Italian merchants with developing the practice of double-entry
bookkeeping, which is the basis for modern-day accounting. The method was invented when investors sought a way of recording the financial aspects of ventures that might last for months, or even years (the commissioning of a merchant fleet, for
example), and in which many investors had bought shares. The Italian system resembled its modern counterpart. The balance sheet had two sections: one listed assets and the effect of sales, purchases, and investments on assets; the other recorded
shares and shareholders, along with other liabilities incurred. Thus, owners who had bought shares from the original shareholders, or who had inherited them, could claim their proportion of the profits when and if the venture succeeded.
_^<N__^<N_At the end of the 15th century, Luca Pacioli, a Franciscan monk, published a treatise on mathematics that contained, along with discussions of arithmetic and algebra, a description of double-entry bookkeeping. Other books on accounting
began to appear as manufacturing and trade grew more widespread and financing became more complex. The profession of accountant existed by the 18th century, and by the late 19th century regulations controlled the chartering of accountants in both
Europe and America. _^<N__^<N_Modern accounting has developed in response to changes in the legal structure of companies, as well as to rising public demand for accurate financial reports, and to government regulations. Of the changes in the legal
structures of businesses, the development of the corporation has probably had the greatest impact, because it allowed public scrutiny of accounting records. Under earlier forms of ownership, the sole proprietorship and the partnership, public
scrutiny was almost unheard of. The rise of the multinational corporation has also increased accounting responsibilities, for it requires foreign-currency translation, reporting under a variety of legal environments, and the adjustment of ownership
and income reporting to achieve the least costly payments within many different systems of taxes, tariffs, and other government controls. Finally, the extraordinary increase in the number and kinds of financial instruments that has taken place
since the mid-1970s has multiplied the work required of accountants. _^<N__^<N_ THE ACCOUNTING INDUSTRY_^<N__^<N_Public accountants are those who are available to the public at large for such accounting functions as monthly bookkeeping and tax
preparation. Most states do not regulate the qualifications or performance of public accountants. _^<N__^<N_The only accountants permitted to offer opinions about financial statements, however, are Certified Public Accountants (CPAs), who have
passed rigorous national examinations and must also fulfill the requirements of the state in which they practice--including several years of varied experience within the profession. _^<N__^<N_As auditors, CPAs are expected to maintain a
relationship of strict independence and professionalism with the firms for whom they work (for example, they do not hold stock in their client companies), so that the independence of their opinions may not be questioned. _^<N__^<N_Most U.S. CPA
firms are relatively small and represent individuals and privately held businesses for whom they prepare financial statements and act as advisors on tax matters. The largest accounting firms in the United States are known collectively as "The Big
Six." They are immense organizations with offices throughout the world and the nation's largest companies as their clients. The services they offer reach well beyond their principal function, the auditing of financial reports, and have come to
include the lucrative field of management consulting. _^<N__^<N_ ACCOUNTING STANDARDS_^<N__^<N_The Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) researches accounting issues and writes advisory statements that are generally accepted as accounting
principles. (Other sources of principles include the rules of the SEC, the tax laws, and general practice.) Unfortunately, in undertaking reviews of the accounting problems of individual industries, the Board has not been able to resolve the larger
issues of how accounting theory can reflect current economic conditions: the effect of inflation, for example, on the reported value of real estate, or the question of how to record pension assets and liabilities. _^<N__^<N_Such large-scale
financial scandals as the savings and loan failures of late 1980s (see SAVINGS INDUSTRY) have created some public mistrust of auditing practices and accounting principles, and have brought down on the profession--especially on the Big Six firms--a
number of liability suits. _^<N__^<N_The auditing industry is largely responsible for disciplining itself to ensure the independence of its auditors; and where an auditor differs from management as to the appropriate reporting principles, the
auditor will require adherence to generally accepted accounting principles. The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) has developed standards of performance for auditors designed to ensure both independence and that adequate
audit work is performed. _^<N__^<N_When financial statements are issued a "clean opinion" but later are found to be misleading, the independence of the auditor may be challenged. Although the auditor's task is not specifically to uncover fraud,
courts have found auditors liable when their audit work was insufficient or lacked an adequate level of independence. _^<N__^<N_William J. Oliver _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Blensly, D. L., and Plank, T. M., Accounting Desk Book, 9th ed. (1989);
Briloff, A. J., Unaccountable Accounting (1972); Meigs, W. B. and R. F., Accounting: The Basis for Business Decisions, 8th ed. (1989); Weinstein, G. W., The Bottom Line: Inside Accounting Today (1989).
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1503
CAT
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Accra
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Accra_^<N__^<N_{uh-krah'} _^<N__^<N_Accra, a manufacturing center, is the capital and largest city of Ghana. Situated on the coastal Accra Plains on the Gulf of Guinea, it has a population of 949,113 (1988 est.). The landscape is primarily flat,
with the exception of some notable hills, including Legon, where the University of Ghana is located. The main streets of the city radiate from the center and are connected by Ring Road. The temperature varies little from the annual mean of 29
degrees C (84 degrees F); rainfall averages 735 mm (29 in) a year, considerably less than the rest of the west African coast. The economy is based upon the busy port and the manufacturing of processed foods, timber and plywood, and clothing.
_^<N__^<N_The population is primarily of the GA ethnic group, although it consists of substantial numbers of AKAN and EWE. Nearly two-thirds are Christian; most of the remainder adhere to Islam or traditional African religions. _^<N__^<N_The site
of modern Accra has been occupied for centuries by Ga villages. Between 1650 and 1680 European activity began with the construction of a castle and two fortified trading posts near the site of present-day Accra. The city of Accra traces its
formation to 1877, when the capital of the British Gold Coast colony was transferred from Cape Coast to Osu, which is one of the Ga villages in the area. In 1898 the Accra Municipal Council was formed to carry out local government functions. Today
Accra is a federal area separate from the regions of Ghana. _^<N__^<N_Ronald D. Garst
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1652
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accreditation of schools and colleges
-T-
accreditation of schools and colleges_^<N__^<N_Accreditation is the practice of certifying schools and universities to ensure that their educational programs and practices meet generally recognized standards. This procedure is usually performed by
national governments, but in the United States, which has a long tradition of locally controlled education, it is done by six private regional organizations. These organizations were established between 1885 and 1924, as increases in public
education and geographical mobility made it necessary for students, educators, parents, and universities to be able to judge schools with which they were personally unfamiliar. The six regional accreditation associations in the United States, in
the order of their founding, are the New England Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools (1885), the Middle States Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools (1887), the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools (1895),
the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (1895), the Northwest Association of Secondary and Higher Schools (1917), and the Western Association of Schools and Colleges (1924). The Southern Association is the only accrediting body that
accredits elementary as well as secondary schools and colleges. In the other regions, the state education department evaluates the performance of elementary schools. Evaluations take into account credentials of the teachers, the courses offered in
the school, the amount of money spent on each student in the school, and physical facilities such as the number of library books and the laboratory facilities for science courses. _^<N__^<N_Dale Koch
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1730
CAT
-A-
acculturation
-T-
acculturation_^<N__^<N_In anthropology, acculturation is the influence of one society or ethnic group on another as a result of continuous face-to-face contact. Acculturation, or culture contact as it is also called, is a form of diffusion of
culture traits and institutions (see DIFFUSION, CULTURAL). It differs from other forms of diffusion, however, in that it involves direct interaction between groups. Although acculturation involves changes in both of the societies and cultures in
contact, the term generally is used to refer to changes that occur in a nonindustrial society under the influence of a complex Western society. An example of this is the influence of American culture on the native tribes of North America.
Anthropologists often study acculturation resulting from the effect of colonialism and of modern national cultures on nonindustrial peoples. Acculturation became a strong interest of social and cultural anthropologists in the 1930s. In 1935, the
Social Science Research Council formed a committee of three noted anthropologists, Melville HERSKOVITS, Ralph LINTON, and Robert REDFIELD, to define the nature and scope of the acculturation process. Since then others have refined and extended such
studies. Acculturation brought about by governmental programs or agencies has been called "directed culture change." _^<N__^<N_Charles Wagley _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Austin, Clyde N., Cross-Cultural Reentry (1986); Bredy, Ivan A., and Isaac, Barry
L., A Reader in Culture Change (1975); Cohen, Yehudi A., Man in Adaptation, 2d ed. (1974); Herskovits, Melville J., Acculturation: The Study of Culture Contact (1938); Malinowski, Bronislaw, The Dynamics of Culture Change (1961; repr. 1976);
Padilla, Amanda M., ed., Acculturation (1980).
-END-
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885
CAT
-A-
Acetabularia
-T-
Acetabularia_^<N__^<N_Acetabularia is a genus of unicellular green ALGAE with a unique umbrellalike shape and a height of up to several centimeters (1-3 in). This curious organism, with its single cell differentiated into a long stalk, a cap, and a
rootlike base that contains the cell nucleus, has played a key role in the history of biology. Some of the best evidence that hereditary information is transmitted by the cell nucleus comes from experiments with Acetabularia conducted by the
German embryologist Joachim Hammerling in the 1930s. Hammerling found that when he cut one of these algae in fragments, those fragments containing at least some nucleus material could develop into complete new, fertile algae, whereas those without
nucleus material might also grow awhile but remained sterile. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bold, Harold C., and Wynne, M. J., Introduction to the Algae, 2d ed. (1985).
-END-
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433
CAT
-A-
acetaldehyde
-T-
acetaldehyde_^<N__^<N_{as-uht-al'-duh-hide} _^<N__^<N_Acetaldehyde, also known as ethanal and as acetic aldehyde, is an organic compound belonging to the ALDEHYDE group. It is a colorless liquid with a fruity odor and boils at 20.8 deg C.
Acetaldehyde is produced in industrial quantities by the hydration of acetylene or by the oxidation of ethyl alcohol. Acetaldehyde is widely used as a starting material for the synthesis of many organic compounds.
-END-
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748
CAT
-A-
acetaminophen
-T-
acetaminophen_^<N__^<N_Acetaminophen is a drug often used as a substitute for ASPIRIN to relieve pain and reduce fever. Best known by the trade name Tylenol, acetaminophen is an ANALGESIC. It relieves moderate pain of HEADACHES and muscle or
peripheral nerve disorders, but not intense pain or the pain caused by spasms of smooth muscles (such as the muscles lining the digestive or urinary tracts). Its virtue as an aspirin substitute is that it does not upset the stomach, as aspirin
sometimes does. However, it does not have the anti-inflammatory and antirheumatic properties of aspirin. Acetaminophen's fever-reducing, or antipyretic, properties result from its chemical similarity to the antipyretic drug phenacetin, which is a
more toxic chemical.
-END-
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430
CAT
-A-
acetate
-T-
acetate_^<N__^<N_{as'-uh-tayt} _^<N__^<N_In organic chemistry, acetates are the salts or esters derived from ACETIC ACID. The salts, such as sodium acetate, are obtained by the reaction of acetic acid with bases; the esters, such as ethyl acetate,
by the reaction of acetic acid with alcohols. The name acetate is used commercially for cellulose acetate, which is used as a synthetic fiber and obtained by the reaction of acetic acid with CELLULOSE.
-END-
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751
CAT
-A-
acetic acid
-T-
acetic acid_^<N__^<N_{uh-see'-tik} _^<N__^<N_Acetic acid is a weak organic acid and the sour constituent of VINEGAR. The latter is obtained by the enzymatic oxidation of the ethyl alcohol in wine or cider by the bacterium Mycoderma aceti;
concentrations of 3%-6% acid are reached. In industry, acetic acid is produced by the destructive distillation of wood and by the catalytic oxidation of acetaldehyde. The pure acid is called glacial acetic acid and is a corrosive, colorless liquid
with a pungent smell. It solidifies at 16.63 deg C. Acetic acid reacts with alcohols to form ACETATES that are widely used as solvents. It reacts with cellulose to form cellulose acetate, which is the starting material for rayon and other
artificial fibers and for photographic film.
-END-
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368
CAT
-A-
Acetobacter
-T-
Acetobacter_^<N__^<N_{uh-see'-toh-bak'-tur} _^<N__^<N_Acetobacter is a genus of rod-shaped BACTERIA that are found on fruits and vegetables, in souring fruit juices, in vinegar, and in alcoholic beverages. They are commonly called acetic-acid
bacteria because of their ability to convert ethyl alcohol to acetic acid (vinegar) and are used industrially for this purpose. _^<N__^<N_Wayburn S. Jeter
-END-
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706
CAT
-A-
acetone
-T-
acetone_^<N__^<N_{as'-uh-tohn} _^<N__^<N_Acetone, or 2-propanone, or dimethylketone, is a fragrant, colorless, and flammable liquid that boils at 56.2 deg C and solidifies at -34.8 deg C. Acetone is mainly produced by the dehydrogenation of
isopropyl alcohol, which is obtained from propylene. Small amounts of acetone are present in blood and urine, but some diabetic patients show larger than normal concentrations. Diabetics evacuate this excess in urine (acetonuria) and through their
lungs; its presence in the exhaled air causes an odor known as "acetone breath." In industry, acetone is an important solvent for cellulose nitrate and cellulose acetate and is also used in the production of explosives. _^<N__^<N_See also: RAYON.
-END-
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309
CAT
-A-
acetyl group
-T-
acetyl group_^<N__^<N_{uh-see'-tul} _^<N__^<N_The acetyl group is a common constituent of organic molecules. The acetyl group takes its name from acetic acid, which consists of an acetyl group combined with a hydroxyl group, OH. Other simple
compounds containing the acetyl group include ACETALDEHYDE, ACETONE, and acetophenone.
-END-
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810
CAT
-A-
acetylcholine
-T-
acetylcholine_^<N__^<N_{uh-see'-tul-koh'-leen} _^<N__^<N_Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter, an organic chemical that promotes the transmission of electrical impulses from one NERVE CELL to the next in the autonomic NERVOUS SYSTEM. When an
electrical impulse reaches the tip of a nerve cell's axon, it causes acetylcholine to be released into the space, or synapse, lying between that cell's axon and the dendrites of the next cell. The chemical diffuses across the synapse and binds to
receptors on the other side. It reverses the polarity of the receiving membrane, causing the impulse to be transmitted. Acetylcholine is also involved in the transmission of impulses from nerve cells to smooth and cardiac muscles and to certain
glands, and from motor nerve cells to skeletal muscles. _^<N__^<N_See also: BIOPOTENTIAL; NEUROPHYSIOLOGY.
-END-
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464
CAT
-A-
acetylene
-T-
acetylene_^<N__^<N_{uh-set'uh-leen} _^<N__^<N_Because of its triple bond, acetylene easily undergoes addition reactions. Vinyl chloride is manufactured from acetylene by the addition of hydrogen chloride. Similar additions with acetic acid, and with
hydrogen cyanide, yield vinyl acetate and acrylonitrile. Both compounds are important in the production of artificial fibers and plastics. Acetylene gas is used in metal cutting and welding because of its high combustive temperature.
-END-
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1078
CAT
-A-
Achad ha-Am
-T-
Achad ha-Am_^<N__^<N_{ah-kahd' hah-ahm'} _^<N__^<N_Achad ha-Am, b. Aug. 18, 1856, d. Jan. 2, 1927, was a Jewish scholar and Zionist leader originally named Asher Ginzberg. He was born in the Ukraine and adopted the name Achad ha-Am (One of the
People) with his first published article, Lo Zeh ha-Derech (This is Not the Way, 1889). In that article, he disagreed with those advocating mass settlement in Palestine (see ZIONISM). Like his compatriots Sholem ALEICHEM and Hayyim BIALIK and
others in the pacifist Choveve Zion movement, Achad ha-Am saw the need for a cultural and spiritual revival of Jews. What was needed was not the Jewish state proposed by Theodor HERZL ("a state of Germans or Frenchmen of the Jewish race"), but a
center where "the creative faculties of the nation" and "a system of Jewish education" would radiate outward to imbue ghetto Jews with pride. After World War I, Achad ha-Am emigrated to Palestine, where he worked to achieve the cultural hub he
thought so essential to the rebirth of the Jewish people, without impinging on the rights of the Arabs. _^<N__^<N_Saul S. Friedman
-END-
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880
CAT
-A-
Achaea
-T-
Achaea_^<N__^<N_{uh-kee'-uh} _^<N__^<N_Achaea was an area of ancient Greece in the northern Peloponnesus and southeastern Thessaly, settled by a people known since the 14th-13th centuries BC as the Achaeans. Probably of Mycenaean origin, the
Achaeans by the 4th century BC had formed a confederation of small cities, the first of two Achaean leagues, as a defense against pirates. A more powerful second league was formed in 280 BC, liberating Sicyon (251 BC), and later CORINTH, from
Macedonian domination. CLEOMENES III of Sparta warred with the confederacy (228 BC), which first allied itself with Rome and Macedonia and then in 146 BC opposed Rome in a battle at Corinth that resulted in the dissolution of the league. Modern
Achaea (Akhaia), a Greek department, roughly corresponds to the Peloponnesian portion of the ancient region. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Larsen, F. A. O., Greek Federal States (1968).
-END-
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963
CAT
-A-
Achaemenids
-T-
Achaemenids_^<N__^<N_{uh-kee'-meh-nidz} _^<N__^<N_The Achaemenids were Persian kings who ruled over a vast empire extending from the Aegean Sea to the Indus River from 549 to 330 BC. They were named after an eponymous ancestor, Achaemenes. This
was the first world empire of antiquity, and many civil institutions first appeared under the Achaemenids' rule. Universal law (the king's law), the postal system, coinage, and other institutions were used, and ZOROASTRIANISM became widespread in
this period. The first Achaemenid ruler was CYRUS THE GREAT, but DARIUS I was the real architect of the empire; DARIUS III, its last monarch, was defeated and succeeded by Alexander the Great. _^<N__^<N_Richard N. Frye _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Cook, John M., The Persian Empire (1983); Frye, R. N., Heritage of Persia (1962; repr. 1976); Huot, J.L., Persia: From Its Origins to the Achaemenids, trans. by H.S. Harrison (1965); Olmstead, A.T.E., History of the Persian Empire (1948;
repr. 1959).
-END-
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1379
CAT
-A-
Achebe, Chinua
-T-
Achebe, Chinua_^<N__^<N_{uh-chay'-bay, chin'-wah} _^<N__^<N_The Nigerian Chinua Achebe, b. Nov. 16, 1930, is among the best-known of contemporary African writers. His works, written in English, give a sharply realistic view of Ibo society from
the late 1890s, when British missionaries first arrived, to present-day black Africa and its struggle to reintegrate its damaged society, the legacy of colonialism. Achebe's first novel, Things Fall Apart (1958), remains his most famous. Other
novels followed: No Longer at Ease (1960), Arrow of God (1964), and A Man of the People (1966). After more than two decades spent as a teacher, editor, diplomat, essayist, and short-story writer, Achebe returned to the novel and his major themes
with Anthills of the Savannah (1988). _^<N__^<N_Achebe grew up in a small, traditional Ibo community where his father taught in a mission school. He graduated (1953) from Ibadan University and worked for the Nigerian Broadcasting Company. During
the Biafran secession from Nigeria (1967-70) he served Biafra as a diplomat. Subsequently, he taught at several universities in the United States and Nigeria. _^<N__^<N_Richard K. Priebe _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Carroll, David, Chinua Achebe
(1980); Killam, G. D., The Novels of Chinua Achebe (1969); Njoku, Benedict, The Four Novels of Chinua Achebe (1984); Ravenscroft, Arthur, Chinua Achebe (1969); Wren, R., Achebe's World (1980).
-END-
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19
CAT
-A-
Achernar:
-T-
Achernar:_^<N__^<N_see STAR.
-END-
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2533
CAT
-A-
Acheson, Dean
-T-
Acheson, Dean_^<N__^<N_{ach'-uh-suhn} _^<N__^<N_Dean Gooderham Acheson, b. Middletown, Conn., Apr. 11, 1893, d. Oct. 12, 1971, was a U.S. secretary of state (1949-53) and a major architect of the nation's foreign policy after World War II. Acheson
graduated from Yale (1915) and Harvard Law School (1918) and was private secretary to U.S. Supreme Court Justice Louis D. Brandeis before joining (1921) a prominent Washington law firm. In 1933, President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed him
undersecretary of the treasury. Except for several brief periods with his law firm, Acheson worked for the State Department from 1941 to 1953. _^<N__^<N_Acheson helped formulate an active role for the United States in the postwar world, reversing
earlier isolationist policies. As undersecretary of state to George C. Marshall, he helped to develop a policy of containment toward Communism and to secure aid for Greece and Turkey against Communist-backed insurgents in 1947. He also helped draft
the MARSHALL PLAN to rebuild Western Europe. _^<N__^<N_Appointed secretary of state by President Harry S. Truman, Acheson continued the containment policy by supporting the formation of the NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION in 1949. In Asia he
attempted to disentangle the United States from the Chinese Nationalist regime on Taiwan while rejecting recognition of the Communist regime on the mainland. In 1950, Acheson used the Soviet boycott of the United Nations Security Council to secure
UN support for U.S. intervention in the Korean War. The war also enabled Acheson to push for expansion of U.S. and NATO forces and for West German rearmament. By signing a peace treaty with Japan and supporting France in Indochina, Acheson extended
containment to include East Asia. _^<N__^<N_While in office, Acheson received much criticism. Despite his strong anti-Communist stand, he was accused of having permitted the Communist victory on mainland China, and the military setbacks in Korea
brought additional criticism. Senator Joseph R. McCarthy even accused Acheson of harboring known Communists in the State Department. Acheson, however, remained in office until the end of Truman's administration and afterward continued to advise
succeeding presidents. _^<N__^<N_Among Acheson's published writings his autobiographical Present at the Creation (1969) won a Pulitzer Prize. _^<N__^<N_Reviewed by David S. McLellan _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Brinkley, Douglas, ed., Dean Acheson and
the Making of U. S. Foreign Policy (1993); McLellan, David S., Dean Acheson: The State Department Years (1976); Smith, Gaddis, Dean Acheson (1972).
-END-
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1356
CAT
-A-
Acheulean
-T-
Acheulean_^<N__^<N_{uh-shoo'-lee-uhn} _^<N__^<N_The Acheulean, in archaeology, is a Lower Paleolithic tool industry first identified at Saint Acheul along the Somme River in northern France. The first occurrences of Acheulean industry were in
Africa some 1.5 million years ago. It eventually spread throughout Europe and Asia and was a predominant industry until about 200,000 years ago. Essentially a continuation of the CHELLEAN tradition, the Acheulean is characterized by numerous
varieties of oval, pointed, and cleaver-edged hand axes with broad, shallow flake scars. Associated forms include a large series of flake tools, including scrapers, side scrapers, borers, and backed knives, and many notched and denticulate tools.
Numerous functional differences occur among Acheulean artifacts found at sites in western Europe, north and sub-Saharan Africa, the Near East, and India. The LEVALLOISIAN technique is often associated with Acheulean industries in European
assemblages. The Acheulean is associated most often with Homo erectus in lower Bed II at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania and with Homo erectus fossils of somewhat later date at Swanscombe in England. _^<N__^<N_David S. Brose _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Bailey, G.N., and Callow, P., Stone Age Prehistory (1986); Bordes, Francois, The Old Stone Age, trans. by J. E. Anderson (1968); Wymer, John, The Paleolithic Age (1982).
-END-
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1662
CAT
-A-
achievement motivation
-T-
achievement motivation_^<N__^<N_Achievement MOTIVATION is the tendency to strive to excel when one knows that performance will be evaluated in relation to a standard. That standard may be an ideal, the performance of others, or one's own past
performance. Those who are encouraged to be independent, responsible, and competent in childhood are likely to become more motivated to achieve than others. _^<N__^<N_When too strong, achievement motivation can produce overexcitement that
interferes with efficient performance. This often happens in the opening plays of a football game or when students take an important test. The same strong motivation will produce greater investment of time in achievement-related activities, such
as schoolwork or a career. _^<N__^<N_The interest in achievement expressed in the literature of different societies throughout history serves as a gauge of the economic development (and decline) of those societies. The strength of achievement
motivation (as distinct from leadership) in men reaches a peak in their thirties and then declines. Research begun in 1968 has indicated that among women expression of achievement motivation in a career may be complicated by a conflicting fear of
success--an anticipation of the potentially painful consequences of excelling in competition with men. _^<N__^<N_J. W. Atkinson _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Atkinson, John W., and Birch, David, An Introduction to Motivation, rev. ed. (1978);
McClelland, David C., The Achieving Society (1967; repr. 1976); McClelland, David C., et al., The Achievement Motive (1976); Mednick, Martha, et al., Women and Achievement (1975); Spence, J. T., ed., Achievement and Achievement Motives (1983).
-END-
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1413
CAT
-A-
Achilles
-T-
Achilles_^<N__^<N_{uh-kil'-eez} _^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, Achilles was the strongest, swiftest, and most competent of the Greek heroes who fought in the TROJAN WAR. He was the son of the nymph THETIS, who dipped him as an infant into the River
Styx and thus made every part of his body invulnerable--except the heel by which she held him. Knowing that Achilles would die at Troy, Thetis sought to prevent his going by hiding him among the women of the court of King Lycomedes. He was found
there by Odysseus, however, and persuaded to join the Greek army before Troy. _^<N__^<N_According to Homer's ILIAD, in the tenth year of the Trojan War, Achilles withdrew from the fighting after Agamemnon seized Briseis, his favorite slave girl.
He sulked in his tent until the death of his close friend Patroclus stirred him to return to battle. The smith-god Hephaestus forged him a fine set of arms, including a famous shield on which was depicted the whole range of the human condition.
Thus equipped, he avenged Patroclus's death in a celebrated duel with the great Trojan hero HECTOR. After dragging Hector's body seven times around the walls of Troy behind his chariot, Achilles was persuaded to allow the slain Trojan hero a
proper funeral. According to several other traditions, Achilles died shortly after when wounded in his heel--his one vulnerable spot--by an arrow fired by Paris or Apollo. His armor was awarded to Odysseus.
-END-
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673
CAT
-A-
achondrite
-T-
achondrite_^<N__^<N_{ay-kahn'-dryt} _^<N__^<N_An achondrite is a stony meteorite (see METEOR AND METEORITE) that contains no chondrules (small rounded bodies of chiefly silicate minerals) and only traces of metallic nickel-iron. Achondrites are
BRECCIAS containing broken fragments whose mineralogy and texture resemble those of a variety of basaltic igneous rocks. Like lunar breccias, achondrites probably formed when basaltic rocks were fragmented and rewelded during meteorite impacts on
the surfaces of their parent bodies. In most cases, their constituent igneous rocks crystallized 4.6 billion years ago, but some achondrites were recrystallized much more recently. _^<N__^<N_Lawrence Grossman
-END-
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3887
CAT
-A-
acid rain
-T-
acid rain_^<N__^<N_Acid rain is a common term for pollution caused when sulfur and nitrogen dioxides combine with atmospheric moisture to produce a rain, snow, or hail of sulfuric and nitric acids. Such pollution may also be suspended in a fog, or
the pollutants may be deposited in dry form. Environmental damage from acid rain has been reported in northern Europe and North America. High levels of acid rain have also been detected in other areas of the world, such as above the tropical rain
forest of Africa. Acid rain has destroyed plant and animal life in lakes, damaged forests and crops, endangered marine life in coastal waters, eroded structures, and contaminated drinking water. _^<N__^<N_Research has shown that although some of
the damage attributed to acid rain is a result of natural causes, sulfur dioxide from oil and coal combustion and nitrogen oxides produced from automobile engines have greatly intensified the acid rain problem. Winds can carry the pollutants
thousands of kilometers away from their source. The British government has recognized that sulfur emissions from power plants in the United Kingdom are contributing to acid deposition in Scandinavia. Canadian emissions contribute substantially to
acid rain in the northeastern United States, for example, and much of the sulfur falling in eastern Canada is believed to originate in the United States. In 1986 the U.S. National Academy of Sciences acknowledged that acid rain from U.S. sources
had become a serious problem in the eastern United States and Canada. Although the Canadian government has agreed to reduce sulfur dioxide emissions, the United States has not placed limitations on its sulfur emissions that may drift into Canada.
_^<N__^<N_Scientists agree that acid rain is harmful, but reports concerning its severity conflict. A U.S. government report issued in September 1987 minimized the environmental damage caused by acid rain and concluded that the acid-rain problem
is not increasing. A 1988 survey conducted by the Environmental Protection Agency, however, indicated that streams in the eastern United States were more acidic than was previously believed. In 1990 the National Acid Precipitation Assessment
Program (NAPAP), created by Congress in 1980, issued a report on the results of its study. The report indicated that acidic waters also occur in the southern and midwestern United States but downplayed acid-rain damage to forests. _^<N__^<N_Many
scientists urge that measures to control acid rain begin immediately. The most direct action would be to cut off pollution at the source. Regulations require that new coal-burning plants must install expensive scrubbers in their smokestacks to
remove most of the dioxides (see POLLUTION CONTROL). Other possible measures include burning only low-sulfur oil or coal, or removing the sulfur from coal with high sulfur content. The 1990 revision of the Clean Air Act focuses on reducing urban
smog, acid rain, and emissions. The costs of such measures are considerable, however, and who should pay these costs continues to arouse controversy. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bubenick, D. V., Acid Rain Information Book, 2d ed., (1984); Elliott,
T. C., and Schwieger, R. G., eds., The Acid Rain Sourcebook (1984); Howard, Ross, and Perley, Michael, Acid Rain (1982); Johnson, A. H., "Acid Deposition," Environment, May 1986; Martin, H. C., ed., Acid Precipitation (1987); McCormick, J.,
Acid Rain (1986); Mohnen, V. A., "The Challenge of Acid Rain," Scientific American, August 1988; Ostmann, Robert, Jr., Acid Rain: A Plague upon the Waters (1982); Park, C. C., Acid Rain (1988); Rhodes, S. L., and Middleton, P., "The Complex
Challenge of Controlling Acid Rain," Environment, May 1983; Schmandt, Jurgen, ed., Acid Rain and Friendly Neighbors, rev. ed. (1989); White, J. C., Acid Rain (1987); Yanarella, E., and Ihara, R. H., eds., The Acid Rain Debate (1985).
-END-
-C-
439
CAT
-A-
acidosis
-T-
acidosis_^<N__^<N_{as-i-doh'-sis} _^<N__^<N_Acidosis, the presence of excess acids in body fluids, depresses the nervous system and, in severe cases, may lead to coma and death. Acidosis may accompany kidney and liver diseases, diabetes mellitus, or
lung disorders that cause too much carbon dioxide to be retained in the body. It can also result from ingesting too many acid salts and from severe diarrhea or dehydration. The opposite disorder is ALKALOSIS.
-END-
-C-
5833
CATO
4774
-A-
acids and bases
-O-
000000|acids and bases
000594| Definition
001764| Bronsted-Lowry Theory
002710| Lewis Acids
003387| Acid Strength
004413| Neutralization
004740| Inorganic Acids and Bases
005237| Organic Acids and Bases
-T-
acids and bases_^<N__^<N_Acids and bases, and the SALTS produced by the reaction between acids and bases, are principal classifications of chemical substances. These categories were established long before their physical nature or the reasons for
their characteristic properties were understood (see CHEMISTRY, HISTORY OF). Acids were recognized originally by their sour taste in water and because they could attack and dissolve some metals. The word acid is derived from acetum (Latin,
"vinegar"). Bases were substances that were usually soapy to the touch and that could react with acids in water to form salts. _^<N__^<N_ Definition_^<N__^<N_Attempts to define acids and bases more precisely began in 1777 when the French chemist
Antoine Laurent Lavoisier suggested that acids were compounds that contained oxygen. It was then discovered that hydrochloric acid (HCl) contained no oxygen. The English chemist Sir Humphry Davy proposed in 1810 that hydrogen rather than oxygen
was the necessary element in acids. In 1838 the German chemist Justus von Liebig offered the first really useful definition of an acid, namely, a compound containing hydrogen that can react with a metal to produce hydrogen gas. _^<N__^<N_About 50
years later another German chemist, Wilhelm Ostwald, and the Swedish chemist Svante August Arrhenius realized that when acids, bases, and salts are dissolved in water they are separated (dissociated) either partially or completely into charged
particles called IONS, that is, positively charged CATIONS and negatively charged ANIONS. Because solutions of ions are good electrical conductors, the substances that produce them are called ELECTROLYTES. Acids were considered electrolytes that
produced the hydrogen ion (H+) and bases as electrolytes that produced the hydroxide ion (OH-). _^<N__^<N_ Bronsted-Lowry Theory_^<N__^<N_Although extremely useful, the hydrogen ion-hydroxide ion definition of acids and bases was confined by its
nature to solutions that contained water, not organic solvents. In 1923 the Danish chemist Johannes Nicolaus Bronsted and the English chemist Thomas Martin Lowry independently formulated a more general definition. They proposed that an acid was
any species that could give up a proton, and a base was any species that could accept a proton. The term species includes ions and molecules, and the proton denotes a hydrogen atom that has lost an electron. _^<N__^<N_Although the definition of an
acid was not greatly changed by this theory, that of a base became more general. Any acid, by definition, produces a (conjugate) base by loss of a proton. Because some acids can yield two or more protons by stepwise dissociation, certain species
produced can act as both acids and bases; that is, they are AMPHOTERIC COMPOUNDS. _^<N__^<N_ Lewis Acids_^<N__^<N_In 1923 the American chemist Gilbert Newton Lewis defined acids and bases in terms of electron rather than proton transfer. By his
theory an acid is a species that can accept electrons from a base to form a chemical bond. The Lewis definition has proved useful, especially in describing systems that do not contain hydrogen. It has not been as widely accepted, however, as the
Bronsted-Lowry definition, perhaps because it does not recognize the special role of the hydrogen ion. Therefore, the term Lewis acid is generally reserved for reagents that function by accepting electrons from donor molecules without the
participation of hydrogen or hydroxide ions. _^<N__^<N_ Acid Strength_^<N__^<N_The strength of an acid in water is indicated by the extent of its DISSOCIATION. Dissociation is the separation of an acid, HA, into the hydrogen ion, and its conjugate
base. Similarly, a base MOH can dissociate into the hydroxide ion and a metal ion. Strong acids and bases are highly dissociated in water; weak acids and bases may be dissociated to the extent of only a few percent, and often considerably less
than 1 percent. _^<N__^<N_The strength of a solution of an acid or base is designated by its PH on a scale of 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is defined as neutral; solutions with a lower pH are acidic, and those with a higher pH are basic, or alkaline. The
pH scale is related to the concentration of hydrogen ions in solution so that a tenfold increase or reduction in the hydrogen-ion concentration reduces or increases the pH of the solution by 1 pH unit. Weak organic acids or bases that exhibit
characteristic color changes depending on the pH of a solution are used to determine its strength (see INDICATOR). _^<N__^<N_ Neutralization_^<N__^<N_Acids and bases can react with each other to produce a neutral salt solution. As an example, when
the same number of molecules of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and hydrochloric acid (HCl) are mixed, the hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions react to form water, leaving only the sodium ions and chloride ions in solution. _^<N__^<N_ Inorganic Acids and
Bases_^<N__^<N_Inorganic acids and bases are those made from such minerals as sulfur, phosphorus, and nitrogen. The inorganic acid sulfuric acid is by far the largest single product of the chemical industry. It is used in the manufacture of
fertilizer, the refining of petroleum, and the pickling of metals. Nitric acid is used in the manufacture of explosives and dyestuffs. Of the bases, the hydroxides of sodium and potassium are used in soap, and ammonia is used in fertilizer.
_^<N__^<N_ Organic Acids and Bases_^<N__^<N_The several classes of organic acids have characteristic acid groups that are attached to one or more hydrocarbon (R) groups. AMINES are an important class of organic bases. They form their conjugate
acids by attaching an additional proton to the nitrogen atom. _^<N__^<N_C. F. Baes, Jr. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bates, R. G., Determination of pH: Theory and Practice, 2d ed. (1973); Brown, Theodore L., and LeMay, H. E., Chemistry, 3d ed.
(1985); Hand, C. W., Acid Base Chemistry (1986); Neveu, E. L., Introduction to Chemistry (1985). _^<N__^<N_See also: BUFFER; TITRATION.
-END-
-C-
554
CAT
-A-
acmeists
-T-
acmeists_^<N__^<N_{ak'-mee-ists} _^<N__^<N_The acmeists were a group of Russian poets, including Anna AKHMATOVA and Osip MANDELSTAM, who were active between 1912 and 1922. Their concreteness of imagery and coherent expression were a reaction to the
mystical vagueness of the Russian symbolists. Their name is derived from the Greek acme, "highest point," or "perfection." _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Strakhovsky, Leonid I., Craftsmen of the Word: Three Modern Poets of Russia: Gumilyov, Akhmatova,
Mandelstam (1949); Tucker, J.G., Innokentij Annenskij and the Acmeist Doctrine (1987).
-END-
-C-
2007
CAT
-A-
acne
-T-
acne_^<N__^<N_{ak'-nee} _^<N__^<N_Acne is a disorder of the sebaceous glands of the skin. Sebaceous glands secrete through pores and hair follicles--which are most abundant on the face and scalp--a fatty lubricant known as sebum. Acne occurs when
the pores become clogged with sebum. Blackheads--external plugs formed of sebum and dead cells--may be invaded by bacteria, which cause pus-filled inflammations, or pimples. The overlying skin may become stretched to the point of rupture,
resulting in lesions and, in prolonged severe cases, eventual scarring. Adolescents are most prone to acquiring a case of acne. _^<N__^<N_The exact cause of acne is not known but is believed to be related both to genetic predisposition and to the
increased hormonal activity that occurs during puberty. Poor skin hygiene and lack of sunlight or exercise can often aggravate acne. In a reaction comparable to allergy, certain foods may increase irritation in susceptible persons. _^<N__^<N_A
physician may evacuate the contents of blackheads and pimples under aseptic conditions, thus lessening the possibility of scarring. Astringent lotions are sometimes used to counteract the oiliness of the skin, and therapeutic creams are considered
useful in releasing blackheads. Antibiotics, particularly tetracycline, are prescribed in more severe cases of acne to reduce infection from bacteria and prevent the appearance of new lesions. Long-term use of antibiotics, however, can result in
bacterial resistance. The appearance of scarred skin may be improved by a surgical procedure called dermabrasion. _^<N__^<N_Two drugs related to VITAMIN A, tretinoin (brand name, Retin-A) and isotretinoin (brand name Accutane), have been used in
acne treatment. Tretinoin also shows promise as a treatment for smoothing out wrinkled, sun-aged skin, and isotretinoin might deter some forms of skin cancer. Isotretinoin, however, has caused birth defects among pregnant users. Doctors are
concerned that the two drugs might cause other harmful side effects. _^<N__^<N_Peter L. Petrakis
-END-
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2150
CAT
-A-
Acoma
-T-
Acoma_^<N__^<N_{ak'-oh-maw} _^<N__^<N_Acoma, a pueblo founded about AD 1100, is possibly the oldest continuously inhabited settlement in the United States. It is located 135 km (84 mi) west of Albuquerque, N.Mex. Perched atop a sandstone mesa that
rises 109 m (357 ft) above the valley floor, it stands at an elevation of 2,130 m (about 7,000 ft). Since prehistoric times, a PUEBLO Indian people who speak a Western Keresan language have lived at Acoma in three-storied homes made of flat stones
plastered with adobe and supported with wooden beams. Their irrigated fields of maize, beans, and squash are located below the mesa approximately 19 km (12 mi) away at Acomita. Acoman legend refers to ancestors pushing their way up from the
worlds below to the present world. Their mother-creator, Latiku, is credited with establishing the religious and social order of the Acomans, who are organized into matrilineal clans with animal and plant names. The male head of the Antelope
clan, traditionally considered the father of the KACHINAS (spirits who bring rain for the crops), was also the religious and political head of the village. _^<N__^<N_Spaniards led by Francisco Vazquez de Coronado contacted the Acoma people in 1540;
in 1599, Juan de Onate brought about their conquest. The missionary father Juan Ramirez arrived in 1629 and began construction of a church dedicated to Saint Stephen, who later became patron saint of the Acomans. A proud and independent people,
they supported the Pueblo Revolt of 1680; only after intense fighting did they again submit to colonial rule in 1699. The aboriginal population of Acoma at the time of European contact was probably about 3,000. In 1760, 1,052 villagers were
reported; in the 1920s their numbers had declined to fewer than 1,000. Their population in the mid-1980s exceeded 3,000. Although a majority of the Acoma people are Catholic, a number of social and religious traditions of village life are
maintained. _^<N__^<N_Fred W. Voget _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: James, Harold L., Acoma: The People of the White Rock (1970); Minge, Ward A., Acoma: Pueblo in the Sky (1976); White, Leslie, The Acoma Indians (1932; repr. 1983).
-END-
-C-
833
CAT
-A-
Aconcagua
-T-
Aconcagua_^<N__^<N_{ah-kohn-kah'-gwah} _^<N__^<N_Mount Aconcagua is a peak in the Andes Mountains in Argentina near the Chilean border and about 88 km (55 mi) north-northeast of Santiago. It is the highest peak in the Western Hemisphere, rising
6,960 m (22,834 ft) above sea level and a total of 12,954 m (42,500 ft) above the deep ocean trench off the nearby coast of Chile. The peak was first scaled in 1897 by Mattias Zurbriggen, a Swiss climber. _^<N__^<N_Aconcagua's west and northwest
sides are gently sloped, windswept, and covered with loose rock. The steeper south and southwest sides are mainly clear of snow and ice except for a glacier flanked by mountain spurs. The mountain is located in a region of frequent earthquakes.
Its treacherous climate, with temperatures as low as -25 deg C (-13 deg F) and strong winds, makes it difficult to climb.
-END-
-C-
31
CAT
-A-
aconite
-T-
aconite_^<N__^<N_aconite: see MONKSHOOD.
-END-
-C-
29
CAT
-A-
acorn worm:
-T-
acorn worm:_^<N__^<N_see HEMICHORDATE.
-END-
-C-
35
CAT
-A-
acoustics:
-T-
acoustics:_^<N__^<N_see SOUND AND ACOUSTICS.
-END-
-C-
82
CAT
-A-
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
-T-
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome_^<N__^<N_Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome: see AIDS.
-END-
-C-
626
CAT
-A-
Acre (Brazil)
-T-
Acre (Brazil)_^<N__^<N_{ah'-kray} _^<N__^<N_Acre is a state in western Brazil, bordered by Peru on the west and south and Bolivia on the east. It covers an area of 152,590 sq km (58,915 sq mi) and has a population of 366,837 (1985 est.). The
capital is Rio Branco. Located in the rain-forest zone, Acre is a major producer of rubber and brazil nuts, and coffee, rice, and sugar are grown. Acre was ceded to Bolivia by Brazil in 1867, but it was settled in the late 19th century by
Brazilian rubber gatherers who declared Acre an independent nation in 1899. Acre was reannexed to Brazil as a territory in 1903, and it became a state in 1962.
-END-
-C-
858
CAT
-A-
Acre (Israel)
-T-
Acre (Israel)_^<N__^<N_{ahk'-ur} _^<N__^<N_Acre (Hebrew: Akko) is a coastal city of Israel, on the Bay of Haifa, 19 km (12 mi) north of Haifa. It has a population of 38,700 (1980 est.). Although its once thriving port has filled with sand, its
beaches are popular with vacationers. A fortified harbor and old crusader capital, Acre has been besieged repeatedly over the centuries by Romans, Arabs, Crusaders, Turks, and British. The Crusaders called it Saint Jean d'Acre. In 1922, Acre
became part of the British mandate of Palestine, and in 1948, part of Israel. The ancient section of the city includes the Crypt of Saint John, dating from the 13th century, and old Arab inns. The Mosque of Jazzar Pasha and other elaborate
buildings were constructed in the 18th century. The British citadel prison in Acre was the scene of fierce Jewish resistance fighting in 1948.
-END-
-C-
20
CAT
-A-
acrobat:
-T-
acrobat:_^<N__^<N_see CIRCUS.
-END-
-C-
23
CAT
-A-
acrophobia:
-T-
acrophobia:_^<N__^<N_see PHOBIA.
-END-
-C-
5421
CATO
4783
-A-
Acropolis
-O-
000000|Acropolis
001258| Parthenon
002856| Propylaea
003521| Temple of Athena Nike
004133| Erechtheum
-T-
Acropolis_^<N__^<N_{uh-krahp'-uh-lis} _^<N__^<N_The term acropolis (Greek, "uppermost city") refers to the highest and most defensible part of an ancient Greek city. In classical Greece every important settlement had an acropolis, on which were
placed temples, treasuries, and other important civic buildings (see GREEK ARCHITECTURE). In times of attack the acropolis became the last bastion of defense. _^<N__^<N_The best-known acropolis is that of Athens, upon which the ancient Greeks
built one of the finest groups of temples in the ancient world. The Athenian Acropolis rises from the plain of Attica to 152 m (500 ft) above sea level. First settled in Neolithic times, by the Bronze Age (c.3000 BC) the plateau was occupied by
houses and a royal palace. The buildings that survive date from an extensive building program initiated by the 5th-century BC statesman Pericles. The major monuments, in the order in which they were built, are the temple of Athena Parthenos (the
Parthenon), 447-432 BC; the Propylaea (gateway), 437-432 BC; the temple of Athena Nike, 427-424 BC; and the temple of Erechtheus (the Erechtheum), 421-405 BC. Sizable portions of these structures are still standing, but little remains of the
other buildings and enclosures that filled the Athenian Acropolis. _^<N__^<N_ Parthenon_^<N__^<N_The largest building atop the Athenian Acropolis is the Parthenon, a temple dedicated to Athena Parthenos (Athena the Warrior Maiden). It is a Doric
building, made entirely of white pentelic marble and surrounded by free-standing columns. It was designed by Ictinus and Callicrates, with sculpture by Phidias. The sculpture was composed of a giant ivory and gold figure of Athena, a continuous
frieze band inside the colonnade depicting the Panathenaic procession, and metope panels depicting, among other scenes, the Battle of the Lapiths and the Centaurs. The temple was unusual in that it had two rooms within its cella, the enclosed
space inside the colonnade. The smaller room, dedicated to the maiden goddess (parthenon), eventually lent its name to the whole building; the larger chamber housed the huge image of Athena by Phidias (which much later was removed by the
Crusaders to Constantinople and there destroyed). _^<N__^<N_In later times, the Parthenon served in succession as a Byzantine church, a Roman Catholic church, a Turkish harem, and a Turkish powder magazine. On Sept. 16, 1687, a direct hit by
Venetian artillery caused the powder in the Parthenon to explode, scattering debris across the Acropolis. The remaining sculpture rapidly began to disappear. A few pieces were taken to France by the duc de Choiseul, but most of it was sent to
Britain in 1802-03 by Thomas Bruce, Lord ELGIN. In 1922-23 the Greek archaeologist Nicolas Balanos collected the remaining fragments of the temple and restored a number of columns and parts of the entablature that they carried. _^<N__^<N_
Propylaea_^<N__^<N_The Propylaea, located at the west end of the hill, is the gateway into the Acropolis. Although never completed, the present structure was worked on in 437-432 BC by the architect Mnesicles. His gate was intended to replace an
earlier one built under the administration of Peisistratus in c.530 BC. The inner and outer colonnades are Doric, recalling those of the Parthenon although they are much more severe. Inside are more slender Ionic columns. Flanking the central
gate-hall are two chambers. One was used as a pinakotheke ("painting gallery"); the other, although never completed, was probably intended as a glyptotheke ("sculpture gallery"). _^<N__^<N_ Temple of Athena Nike_^<N__^<N_The diminutive temple of
Athena Nike (Athena of Victory), which measures only 5.64 by 8.34 m (18.5 by 27 ft), stands southwest of the Propylaea, on a rebuilt Mycenaean fortification. The only wholly Ionic building on the Acropolis, it was designed by the architect
Callicrates in a delicate style, with four columns on the front and on the rear porches. The Nike temple remained intact until 1686, when the Turks dismantled the building to use the blocks in fortifications. It was reassembled hastily in 1836
and then more carefully reerected by Balanos and A. K. Orlandos in 1935-40. _^<N__^<N_ Erechtheum_^<N__^<N_The temple of Erechtheus, or Erechtheum, was the last, the most complex, and the most richly embellished of the Periclean buildings. The
unorthodox two-level plan adopted by the architect (perhaps MNESICLES) served to accommodate several sites long held sacred by the Athenians. The upper portion of the temple, facing east, contained a sanctuary dedicated to Athena Polias (Athena
Protectress of the City); on a lower level at the west end were three smaller chambers dedicated to local gods and to Poseidon. The large porch opening to the north, enclosed by elegantly proportioned Ionic columns, protected a stone believed to
have been struck by Poseidon's trident. _^<N__^<N_The Erechtheum is best known for its caryatid porch on the south side, facing the Parthenon. Its roof is supported by six caryatids, columns in the form of female figures. The present caryatids are
copies, the originals having been moved to the Acropolis Museum in order to preserve them. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Boardman, John, and Finn, David, The Parthenon and Its Sculptures (1985); Bruno, V. J., ed., The Parthenon (1974); Carpenter,
Rhys, The Architects of the Parthenon (1970); Hopper, R. J., The Acropolis (1971); Travlos, John, Pictorial Dictionary of Ancient Athens (1971; repr. 1980).
-END-
-C-
1459
CAT
-A-
acrostic
-T-
acrostic_^<N__^<N_{uh-kraws'-tik} _^<N__^<N_An acrostic is formed when the words of a poem or other composition are so ordered that the first, last, or middle letters (sometimes syllables) of successive lines make a word or phrase when read
vertically or diagonally. Acrostics are found in the Old Testament and were especially popular among the early Christians. Two of history's better-known examples are plays on the name Jesus Christ. The initial Greek letters in the words making up
the phrase "Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior" spell out "fish," a symbol with which Jesus and his followers were associated. A Latin verse was triply acrostic in spelling out Jesus, IESVS in Latin, with the center IESVS bisecting a horizontal IESVS
to form a Greek cross. Acrostics, motivated by the delight in wordplay, were also a characteristic feature of Renaissance poetry in Italy, France, and Elizabethan England. _^<N__^<N_Acrostics is also the name of a word-building game. In this, a
word of at least three letters is chosen by the players, who then write it vertically down the left side of a sheet of paper and also, with the letters reversed, down the right side. The object of the game is to fill in the space between the two
columns with the same number of words as there are letters in the key word, starting and ending each new word with the letter at either side. The winner is either the first person to fill in all the words, or the player with the longest or most
original words.
-END-
-C-
16
CAT
-A-
Acrux:
-T-
Acrux:_^<N__^<N_see STAR.
-END-
-C-
30
CAT
-A-
acrylic
-T-
acrylic_^<N__^<N_acrylic: see PLASTICS.
-END-
-C-
857
CAT
-A-
acrylonitrile
-T-
acrylonitrile_^<N__^<N_Acrylonitrile is a colorless, flammable, toxic liquid with a boiling point of 77 deg C. An organic molecule with formula CH(2)CH CN, acrylonitrile is slightly soluble in water and completely soluble in most organic solvents.
Because acrylonitrile readily undergoes POLYMERIZATION, it is valuable precursor to such common acrylic fibers as Orlon and Acrilan. It is also used in the making of surface coatings, adhesives, and beverage and food containers. In 1977, studies
found acrylonitrile to be a potential carcinogen, and in the following year the U.S. government set standards for exposure in processing plants. The use of the substance in making nonalcoholic beverage containers was banned from 1977 to 1985,
when a manufacturing process was devised that left only acceptably small residual amounts of acrylonitrile in the container.
-END-
-C-
40
CAT
-A-
act:
-T-
act:_^<N__^<N_see NARRATIVE AND DRAMATIC DEVICES.
-END-
-C-
306
CAT
-A-
act of God
-T-
act of God_^<N__^<N_An act of God is the legal term for a natural event of overwhelming force, an accident or disaster not resulting from human action and that no amount of prudence or foresight could have prevented. Under the law of negligence, a
party cannot be held responsible for resulting damages or injuries.
-END-
-C-
39
CAT
-A-
ACT Tests:
-T-
ACT Tests:_^<N__^<N_see EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENT.
-END-
-C-
431
CAT
-A-
Acta diurna
-T-
Acta diurna_^<N__^<N_{ak'-tuh dy'-ur-nuh} _^<N__^<N_The Acta diurna ("daily acts") were a type of Roman news gazette that began about 59 BC. The Acta consisted of political and social notices authorized by the state, copies of which were posted
daily at public places in Rome and the provinces. One of the earliest forms of news dissemination, it reported such varied topics as official appointments, local births and deaths, and astronomical events.
-END-
-C-
221
CAT
-A-
Actaeon
-T-
Actaeon_^<N__^<N_{ak'-tee-uhn} _^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, Actaeon was a hunter, the son of Aristaeus. When he unintentionally surprised the goddess Artemis bathing naked in the woods, she changed him into a stag, and his dogs killed him.
-END-
-C-
38
CAT
-A-
ACTH:
-T-
ACTH:_^<N__^<N_see ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE.
-END-
-C-
8748
CATO
4779
-A-
acting
-O-
000000|acting
000670| THEORIES
002328| TRAINING
002816| HISTORY
-T-
acting_^<N__^<N_Acting is the practice of performing a role so that an audience may participate in the illusion that it is observing and reacting to a character rather than the actor. No simple definition can fully cover what the actor does to
create this illusion. Over the centuries many differing opinions have been held about what acting is and how it is achieved. But most theorists agree that a strong link exists between acting and the imaginative structures created in childhood, in
everyday social interaction, and in religious rituals. Many cultures have been able to touch deep and fundamental truths about life through the disciplined and structured playing out of events. _^<N__^<N_ THEORIES_^<N__^<N_Acting theory began with
the effort to discover how actors might induce a creative state that would free them from extreme variations of performance. Foremost among the 20th-century theorists of Western theatrical traditions who sought to create a practical system for
disciplined creativity was Konstantin STANISLAVSKY, founder (1898) and director of the MOSCOW ART THEATER. Stanislavsky approached acting by dividing it into two parts: work on the self and work on the role. In the first area he stressed the need
for freeing spontaneous impulses, for responding to imaginative stimuli, for concentrating attention, and for using personal experience. Work on the role stressed a full understanding of the world of the character within the play, and communicating
that character by a system of physical actions. _^<N__^<N_Most modern theories of acting have taken Stanislavsky's work as their starting point, even if their major thrust is not the direct emotional involvement of the realistic theater. Bertolt
BRECHT, whose work with the Berliner Ensemble in a style he called epic realism aimed at putting the audience in a judicial frame of mind, owed much to Stanislavsky (see EPIC THEATER). Even Jerzy GROTOWSKI, director of the POLISH LABORATORY
THEATER, claims that his almost acrobatic performance mode is aimed at the revelation of inner truth. _^<N__^<N_Controversy arises over the question whether acting is an internal or external process or a blend of the two, but many actors and
theorists doubt whether the distinction is useful. Those who favor a holistic approach note that almost all external behavior has its roots in the workings of the inner life. _^<N__^<N_ TRAINING_^<N__^<N_Whether in a college or in a professional
conservatory, actor training seeks to achieve the union of which Talma spoke. Professionally oriented programs usually include study in script analysis and scene studies, ensemble techniques, improvisation, and sensory and imaginative awareness
training, as well as the development of physical, voice, and speech skills. Fencing, dance, martial arts, and circus techniques are often taught. Some courses include specialized camera work. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY_^<N__^<N_Acting in a formal sense
probably began in Greece in the 5th century BC, growing out of the celebration of religious festivals. The Greek THESPIS, standing apart from the chorus to deliver a separate solo text, is the first recorded actor. Later Aeschylus added a second
actor to his tragedies, making dialogue and play structure possible. Sophocles introduced a third actor to the cast, increasing complexity. Euripides gave drama greater potential by diminishing the use of the chorus. _^<N__^<N_Acting under the
Romans grew increasingly bawdy and further removed from its Greek origins. Performances were stopped by the Christian church in the 6th century. For several centuries actors were denied access to the rites of the church and were reduced to the
status of jugglers and mountebanks. During the Middle Ages acting was revived, although mostly on an amateur and church-related level. Simple plays based on the Bible and the lives of the saints were performed by members of trade guilds and by
priests. _^<N__^<N_It was not until the Renaissance that acting became a profession once again. Versions of Greek and Roman plays were performed throughout Italy in elaborate theaters at the great courts of princes and other rulers. Troupes of
actors meanwhile traveled around playing pieces that were essentially improvisations built on traditional characters and situations, developing a style called COMMEDIA DELL'ARTE. These plays and players inspired playwrights such as MOLIERE and
GOLDONI to incorporate their free spirit and traditional characters into more formal plays. _^<N__^<N_In Elizabethan England, theatrical companies played in a simple style to audiences that represented a cross section of the community. Like many
playwrights of his time, William SHAKESPEARE was himself an actor, taking such roles as the ghost in Hamlet. Prominent in Shakespeare's company were Will KEMP, who created many great comic roles such as Falstaff, and Richard BURBAGE, who first
played most of the major tragic roles. Female roles were played by boys, since women were not allowed on the public stage until the Restoration of the Stuarts in the middle of the 17th century. _^<N__^<N_In France, between 1658 and 1673, Moliere
also combined the functions of actor and playwright. Building on the commedia dell'arte tradition, Moliere wrote and played in a number of comedies. The acting company that he founded eventually became the COMEDIE FRANCAISE, which continues today.
_^<N__^<N_In the late 17th century actors emerged as powerful figures in their own right. By the 18th century many of Shakespeare's plays had been rewritten to suit the tastes of the leading English actors and their audiences. A florid and
artificial style of acting held the stage until David Garrick appeared in 1741 and introduced a style that was, by the standards of his day, extremely realistic, using simplified movement and gesture and a diction closer to the everyday manner of
speech. _^<N__^<N_At about the same time America's first significant acting company was established. Lewis Hallam opened his performance schedule in Williamsburg, Va., in 1752 and then toured from the Carolinas to New England. _^<N__^<N_The 19th
century was a golden age for actors in the United States. English stars such as Edmund KEAN, Fanny and Charles KEMBLE, and William Charles MACREADY toured the nation. American stars such as Edwin Forrest and Edwin Booth had devoted followers.
Joseph Jefferson, playing in Rip Van Winkle, was among the most popular comedy stars. _^<N__^<N_The stars' domination of the theater began to diminish when George II, duke of SAXE-MEININGEN, formed a company in Germany devoted to the notion that
all members of the ensemble were of equal importance. Between 1874 and 1890 his troupe toured widely and greatly influenced Andre ANTOINE, proponent of naturalism who founded the Theatre Libre in Paris in 1887. _^<N__^<N_Realistic ensemble acting
came to dominate early 20th-century theater. The style was exemplified by the work of Stanislavsky and the Moscow Art Theater, especially in their productions of the plays of Anton CHEKHOV. In the United States, Stanislavsky's work was taken up by
the GROUP THEATER, which included, among others, Lee STRASBERG, a founder of the ACTORS STUDIO. Stanislavsky's system came to be called The Method in popular discussion. Such teachers as Uta Hagen, Stella Adler, Herbert Berghof, and Sanford Meisner
have contributed to the widespread use of Stanislavsky's system. _^<N__^<N_The Method inspired other groups that have grown in individualistic ways. For example, the POLISH LABORATORY THEATER has influenced many groups. In the United States, the
profound influence of Viola Spolin, who created a systematic approach to theater improvisation, can be seen in the work of The Second City Company and Paul Sills's Story Theater. Stanislavsky's emphasis on inner truth has been adapted to a number
of different ends. In recent years American directors such as Joseph CHAIKIN, Richard SCHECHNER, and Andre Gregory have founded acting companies that perform in a style incorporating both the improvisational thrust of Spolin and the physical
activity characteristic of Grotowski. Today productions everywhere blend elements of realistic and nonrealistic acting styles to produce what they consider to be truthful human characters. _^<N__^<N_Richard P. Brown _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Chaikin,
J., The Presence of the Actor (1972); Callow, S., Being an Actor (1985); Grotowski, J., Towards a Poor Theatre (1968); Hagen, Uta, with H. Frankel, Respect for Acting (1973); Olivier, L., On Acting (1986); Spolin, V., Improvisation for the Theatre
(1963) and Theater Games for Rehearsal (1985); Stanislavsky, K., Stanislavsky on the Art of the Stage (Eng. trans., 1961); Willet, J., trans., Brecht on Theatre (1964); Wilson, G. B., A History of American Acting (1966; repr. 1980); Worthen, W. B.,
The Idea of the Actor (1984). _^<N__^<N_See also: COSTUME AND MAKEUP, THEATRICAL; MIME AND PANTOMIME; THEATER, HISTORY OF THE.
-END-
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3713
CATO
-A-
actinide series
-O-
000000|actinide series
000475| Actinides Found in Nature
001992| Discovery of Actinide Series
002705| Characteristics
-T-
actinide series_^<N__^<N_{ak'-tuh-nyd} _^<N__^<N_The actinide elements are the 14 chemical elements that follow ACTINIUM in Group IIIB of the PERIODIC TABLE. Because of some chemical similarities, actinium is usually included in the series. All of
the actinides are radioactive, because their nuclei are so large that they are unstable and release great amounts of energy when they undergo spontaneous FISSION. Most of the actinides are not found in nature but are artificially produced in the
laboratory. _^<N__^<N_ Actinides Found in Nature_^<N__^<N_Two of the actinides have isotopes with such a long HALF-LIFE that they have not completely decayed since the Earth was formed. One isotope of thorium, Th-232, has a half-life of 14 billion
years and has an abundance of 12 parts per million in the Earth's crust. It is a principal constituent of some minerals, notably thorite and monazite (a mixed rare-earth and thorium phosphate). Three isotopes of uranium are found in nature.
Their isotopic abundances and half-lives are U-234, 0.006%, 230,000 years; U-235, 0.72%, 696 million years; and U-238, 99.27%, 4.51 billion years. Some laboratory-produced isotopes of uranium also have long half-lives. _^<N__^<N_The overall
abundance of uranium in the Earth's crust is about 4 parts per million, and it is concentrated in many minerals, principally pitchblende, autunite, torbernite, and carnotite. Deposits of uranium minerals large enough to be profitably mined are
found principally in parts of Africa and in Canada, the Soviet Union, and the southwestern United States. _^<N__^<N_Actinium and protactinium, as well as some isotopes of thorium and uranium, are found in nature as decay products of Th-232, U-235,
or U-238. All of the heavier actinide elements, the TRANSURANIUM ELEMENTS, as well as some isotopes of the lighter actinides, have been synthesized since 1940. Small amounts of neptunium-239 and plutonium-239 have been found in uranium ores;
they are produced by the absorption of neutrons generated by the spontaneous fission of U-238. _^<N__^<N_ Discovery of Actinide Series_^<N__^<N_Many chemists at first considered actinium to be chemically similar to lanthanum, thorium to hafnium,
protactinium to tantalum, and uranium to tungsten. Neils Bohr suggested in 1923, however, that actinium might begin a series of elements similar to the series of rare earth elements and filling the 5f subshell, parallel to the LANTHANIDE SERIES,
which fills the 4f subshell. In 1944 Glenn Seaborg and co-workers hypothesized that the elements following uranium would indeed parallel the lanthanides. These predictions were correct, and many of the actinides are in fact chemically similar to
the lanthanides--for example, the chemistry of curium is much like that of gadolinium. _^<N__^<N_ Characteristics_^<N__^<N_All of the actinide elements are shiny, hard metals that tarnish in air and are so electropositive that they are difficult to
reduce from their compounds. Oxides have been prepared for all the elements through einsteinium; the elements thorium through berkelium have stable dioxides. Thorium, uranium, and plutonium dioxides are used in nuclear reactors. Because U-235
and Pu-239 undergo nuclear fission when they absorb neutrons, they are used in nuclear reactors and in nuclear weapons. The actinide elements are among the most prevalent of radioactive waste products from nuclear reactors. Many compounds of the
actinide elements have been studied, often using only a few micrograms because of the elements' scarcity and intense radioactivity. _^<N__^<N_Lester R. Morss _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bagnall, K. W., The Actinide Elements (1972); Erdos, Paul, and
Robinson, J. M., The Physics of Actinide Compounds (1983); Manes, L., ed., Actinides: Chemistry and Physical Properties (1985).
-END-
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518
CAT
-A-
actinium
-T-
actinium_^<N__^<N_{ak-tin'-ee-uhm} _^<N__^<N_The chemical element actinium is a radioactive metal, the first member of the ACTINIDE SERIES. Its symbol is Ac, its atomic number 89, and its atomic weight 227 (stablest isotope). Actinium was
discovered in 1899 by French chemist Andre Debierne, who found it in pitchblende residues. Many radioactive isotopes of actinium are known, one of which, Ac-227 has a HALF-LIFE of 21.6 years and is present in natural uranium. The other isotopes
have half-lives of 10 days to less than 5 seconds.
-END-
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26
CAT
-A-
actinolite:
-T-
actinolite:_^<N__^<N_see AMPHIBOLE.
-END-
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1218
CAT
-A-
actinometer
-T-
actinometer_^<N__^<N_{ak-tih-nahm'-uh-tur} _^<N__^<N_An actinometer is an instrument for measuring the ability of ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION coming from the Sun or an artificial light source to produce chemical changes. Such an ability is called an
actinic property. Actinic rays range from the ultraviolet to infrared. Actinometers are primarily used in PHOTOGRAPHY, to measure the light intensity, and hence they are called light meters or exposure meters. The first actinometer was devised
in 1840 by French optician Jean Baptiste Francois Soleil. In their study of sensitive emulsions, Ferdinand HURTER and V. C. Driffield used an actinometer in the form of a gas thermometer that registered the amount of light received in terms of
the heat it produced. _^<N__^<N_The modern form of actinometer is the photoelectric exposure meter. The original Weston type used a selenium barrier-layer PHOTOELECTRIC CELL that produced an electric current proportional to the flux density of
radiation. The present type of exposure meter typically uses a cadmium sulfide photoconductive cell, which changes resistance and hence causes a change in the current produced by a miniature battery, in response to changes in light intensity.
_^<N__^<N_Frank J. Oliver
-END-
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365
CAT
-A-
Actinomyces
-T-
Actinomyces_^<N__^<N_{ak-ti-noh-my'-seez} _^<N__^<N_Actinomyces is a genus of rod-shaped BACTERIA that microscopically show occasional branching. The natural habitat of these organisms is the soil, but two species, A. bovis and A. israelii, cause
the disease actinomycosis in cattle and in humans. A. israelii can be isolated from most human tonsils, gums, and teeth. _^<N__^<N_Wayburn S. Jeter
-END-
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29
CAT
-A-
actinomycin:
-T-
actinomycin:_^<N__^<N_see ANTIBIOTICS.
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788
CAT
-A-
actinosphaerium
-T-
actinosphaerium_^<N__^<N_{ak-ti-noh-sfir'-ee-uhm} _^<N__^<N_An actinosphaerium is any member of the genus of freshwater PROTOZOA belonging to the order Heliozoa. Actinosphaeria are famous as the "sun animalcules" described by early Victorian
microscopists. The spherical, one-celled heliozoans are closely related to the planktonic RADIOLARIANS and, like them, usually have silica-containing skeletons. The actinosphaeria, however, are naked, with no stiffening skeleton. Like all
heliozoans, actinosphaeria reproduce by binary fission; they may also reproduce sexually. They obtain food by extending axopodia (footlike projections that are stiffened with axial filaments) and then drawing the food back into the cell body.
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Lee, J. J., et al., Illustrated Guide to the Protozoa (1985).
-END-
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1718
CAT
-A-
ACTION
-T-
ACTION_^<N__^<N_ACTION is an independent U. S. government agency, established in 1971, which administers volunteer service programs within the United States. These programs are varied, but their underlying purpose is essentially to support
self-help efforts to overcome poverty conditions. One well-known program is Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA), launched in 1964 as a domestic counterpart to PEACE CORPS (which itself was an autonomous part of ACTION from 1971 to 1981).
VISTA volunteers, of differing ages and backgrounds, spend a year living and working among the poor in urban or rural areas and receive a subsistence allowance and health insurance. Volunteers are mostly recruited locally for community projects
seeking to alleviate aspects of illiteracy, unemployment, hunger, and homelessness. _^<N__^<N_ACTION also oversees the Foster Grandparent Program, created in 1965; this activity offers men and women at least 60 years of age an opportunity to help
children with special needs. Foster grandparents (who receive a small stipend) serve in schools, hospitals, and other institutions for handicapped, disturbed, disadvantaged, or neglected children. Participants in the Senior Companion Program
mostly serve older persons in their own homes. The Retired Senior Volunteer Program organizes projects that permit older persons to perform various services on a regular basis in their communities. The Volunteer Management Support Program
collaborates with an agency of the Commerce Department in a demonstration program aimed at promoting and expanding minority business development. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: ACTION, Domestic Programs Factbook (annual); Balzano, Michael P.,
Reorganizing the Federal Bureaucracy (1977).
-END-
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989
CAT
-A-
Action Francaise
-T-
Action Francaise_^<N__^<N_{ahk-see-ohn' frawn-sez'} _^<N__^<N_The Action Francaise was a right-wing political movement in France active from 1899 to 1944. Founded by Charles Maurras (1868-1952), it espoused royalism, authoritarianism, nationalism,
and anti-Semitism. Through its newspaper, L'Action Francaise, and its student groups, called Camelots du Roi, the movement attacked the democratic institutions of the Third Republic. In 1926 Pope Pius XI banned Roman Catholic participation in the
movement, and in 1936 it was officially dissolved by the French government for complicity in a physical attack on Leon BLUM. Surviving clandestinely, the Action Francaise contributed to the ideology of the VICHY GOVERNMENT during World War II. It
disintegrated in 1944 when France was liberated and Maurras was imprisoned for collaboration. _^<N__^<N_Donald J. Harvey _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Arnal, Oscar L., Ambivalent Alliance (1985); Weber, Eugen, Action Francaise: Royalism and Reaction in
Twentieth Century France (1962).
-END-
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491
CAT
-A-
action painting
-T-
action painting_^<N__^<N_Action painting is a term first used by the American critic Harold ROSENBERG in an article in 1952. He had the painting of Willem DE KOONING especially in mind, with the idea that the work was itself a permanent record of
the action, or process, of painting. Soon the term was used more or less interchangeably with ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM, although usually linked with the "gestural" abstract expressionists, such as Jackson POLLOCK and Hans HOFMANN, as well as de
Kooning.
-END-
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714
CAT
-A-
Actium
-T-
Actium_^<N__^<N_{ak'-tee-uhm or ak'-shee-uhm} _^<N__^<N_Actium was an ancient town and sanctuary in western Greece, in Acarnania, famous for the naval battle that occurred offshore in the Ionian Sea on Sept. 2, 31 BC. In that decisive battle, the
fleet of Octavian (later the Roman emperor AUGUSTUS) defeated the forces of MARK ANTONY and CLEOPATRA to win control of the Roman world. Actium was on a promontory projecting northward into the Ambracian Gulf; on the opposite promontory Augustus
built Nicopolis ("City of Victory"), near present-day Preveza. Also to commemorate his victory, Augustus enlarged the existing (5th century BC) temple of Apollo at Actium and established games in Actium that were held every five years.
-END-
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3428
CAT
-A-
active transport
-T-
active transport_^<N__^<N_Active transport is the process by which dissolved substances (solutes) are moved across biological membranes and accumulated against concentration gradients at the expense of metabolic energy. This process contrasts
sharply with passive diffusion, whereby a dissolved substance becomes evenly distributed on both sides of a membrane that is permeable (allowing passage) to it. The membranes of cells and the special structures, or organelles, within them are
impermeable to most water-soluble substances. The contents of cells and organelles are controlled by transport proteins embedded in the membranes and designed for the movement of particular solutes across them. This movement occurs against
concentration gradients, that is, in the direction of the greater existing concentration. Without this control system, life would be impossible because cells and their organelles would simply not contain the necessary materials for metabolism and
other life activities. For example, specific concentrations of ions (charged atoms) of certain chemical elements are essential to enzyme function, muscle contraction, protection of cells from osmotic swelling (see OSMOSIS), and the conduction of
nerve impulses (see NEUROPHYSIOLOGY). _^<N__^<N_Primary active transport directly uses metabolic energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which contains a high-energy phosphate bond, to move small ions across membranes. The transport
proteins are termed ion pumps or transport "ATPases." These include the sodium pump, which transports sodium ions (Na(+)) outward and potassium ions (K(+)) inward across animal cell membranes, and the calcium pump, which moves calcium ions (Ca(2+))
back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum (an intracellular membrane system for calcium storage) following MUSCLE CONTRACTION. _^<N__^<N_Other small molecules, such as sugars and amino acids, are accumulated by secondary active transport, in which a
transport protein couples the movement of two different solutes across a membrane. In such a case, an ionic concentration gradient established by primary active transport provides the energy for moving the second solute. _^<N__^<N_Recent advances
in the study of active transport have used X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, and high-speed centrifugation to analyze the structure of ion pumps. Radioactive tracers have been employed to follow solute movement using intact membranes and
isolated pumps that have been reconstituted into artificial membranes. Other sophisticated techniques have been applied to the detection of changes in pump shape. Although the detailed molecular mechanism is still a mystery, it is now known that
transport proteins are too large to shuttle back and forth across the membrane in the manner of a ferry. Rather, they appear to operate as restricted pores, with a binding site accessible to one and then the other side of the membrane. Energy
enters the cycle when the transport protein reacts with ATP. The high-energy phosphate bond of ATP breaks, and a phosphate group becomes bonded to the transport protein, causing a change in the shape of the protein that alters the position of the
binding site. Investigation of this very basic process continues. _^<N__^<N_Bliss Forbush III _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Andreoli, T. E., Hoffman, J. F., and Fanestil, Darrel D., Membrane Physiology (1978 repr. 1980); Friedman, M. H.,
Principles and Models of Biological Transport (1986).
-END-
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1388
CAT
-A-
activity
-T-
activity_^<N__^<N_In physical chemistry the concept of activity is used to modify THERMODYNAMIC calculations to allow for the nonideal behavior of SOLUTIONS. The activity of a component in a solution is a measure of its tendency to take part in a
given reaction and depends on the pressure and temperature. The activity coefficient is a ratio of the activity and the actual concentration of the component. These terms were introduced by the American chemist Gilbert N. LEWIS in 1907.
_^<N__^<N_An ideal solution is one in which the solution's components display certain physical or chemical behavior depending on their concentrations. Some solutions, however, are nonideal--the components behave as though their concentrations were
greater or less than they actually are. The activity of the components can express how much a nonideal solution differs from an ideal one and often replaces the concentration value in thermodynamic equations for greater accuracy. For example,
chemical equilibrium constants usually are expressed in terms of concentrations, as though the solutions were ideal. For a more exact treatment in equilibrium constants of nonideal solutions, however, activities are used. A similar concept,
fugacity, allows for the nonideal behavior of gases. _^<N__^<N_Gerald C. Roper _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bailar, John C., Jr., et al., Chemistry (1978); McQuarrie, D. A., Chemical Thermodynamics (1983).
-END-
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1523
CAT
-A-
Acton, John Emerich Edward Dalberg Acton, 1st Baron
-T-
Acton, John Emerich Edward Dalberg Acton, 1st Baron_^<N__^<N_The historian John Emerich Edward Dalberg Acton, b. Jan. 10, 1834, d. June 19, 1902, was one of the greatest spokesmen of English liberalism. He served in the House of Commons from
1859 to 1865 and was created 1st Baron Acton in 1869. _^<N__^<N_Acton edited The Rambler, a Roman Catholic monthly, from 1859 to 1864, when he resigned because of church limitations on its independence. _^<N__^<N_Although he remained a devoted
member of his church, he opposed such measures as the Syllabus of Errors issued by Pope Pius IX and the declaration on papal infallibility at the First Vatican Council. _^<N__^<N_Lord Acton espoused the rigorous methods of the new scientific school
of history and set out to write the definitive history of liberty. He never completed this book, but he set forth his ideas in two lectures delivered in 1877--"The History of Freedom in Antiquity" and "The History of Freedom in Christianity." In
1886 Acton became a founder of the English Historical Review, and in 1895 he was named regius professor of modern history at Cambridge. In 1899 he also became the editor of the Cambridge Modern History, which under his direction became a model of
careful scholarship. _^<N__^<N_It was Acton's contention that "Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely. Great men are almost always bad men." _^<N__^<N_Joel Colton _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Himmelfarb, Gertrude, Lord Acton:
A Study in Conscience and Politics (1952); Schuettinger, Robert L., Lord Acton: Historian of Liberty (1977).
-END-
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636
CAT
-A-
Actors' Equity Association
-T-
Actors' Equity Association_^<N__^<N_Actors' Equity Association, founded in 1913, is the union encompassing all professional performers who work in the legitimate theater in the United States. It affiliated with the American Federation of Labor in
1919 and is now part of the AFL-CIO. The union determines the minimum pay scales for Broadway and Off Broadway performers, provides for arbitration arising out of members' contracts, and regulates the importation of foreign actors and the use of
nonunion performers. Any actor who has worked within Equity's jurisdiction or who has a bona fide offer from an Equity producer is qualified to join.
-END-
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1227
CAT
-A-
Actors Studio
-T-
Actors Studio_^<N__^<N_The Actors Studio is an actors' workshop founded in New York City in 1947 by Cheryl Crawford, Elia Kazan, and Robert Lewis and joined in 1948 by Lee STRASBERG, who was its artistic director until his death in 1982. Later,
performers Ellen Burstyn and Al Pacino became codirectors. The studio is best known for its controversial "method" approach to acting, an adaptation of the acting system first developed by the Russian director Konstantin STANISLAVSKY. In such
training, the actor works by improvisation and emotional exercises to achieve a close identification with the character being played. _^<N__^<N_During the 1950s the Actors Studio had a profound influence on American theater, training for the stage
and screen such leading actors as Marlon Brando, Montgomery Clift, Julie Harris, Paul Newman, and Geraldine Page. Although its influence has declined, the studio still trains actors at its principal centers in New York City and Los Angeles. In
1957 the studio added a Playwrights Unit, in 1960 a Directors Unit, and in 1962 a Production Unit. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Edwards, Christine, The Stanislavsky Heritage (1965); Hirsch, Foster, A Method to Their Madness (1986); Strasberg, Lee, A
Dream of Passion (1987).
-END-
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1730
CAT
-A-
Acts of the Apostles
-T-
Acts of the Apostles_^<N__^<N_The Acts of the Apostles is the fifth book of the New Testament, written between AD 70 and 90 by the author of the Gospel according to LUKE. Acts is an account of the early preaching about Jesus Christ, the growth of
the primitive Christian community, and the spread of the Christian message. It covers the period from the Ascension of Christ (chapter 1) and the Pentecost to the visit of Saint PAUL to Rome, where he was placed under house arrest. _^<N__^<N_The
early chapters of Acts contain an idyllic portrait of the Jerusalem community praying together, practicing common ownership of property, and preaching. The author attributes the vitality and activity of Christianity to the Holy Spirit, which plays
a prominent part in Acts. Speeches constitute one-third of the book, and the early sermons of PETER summarize the message as understood by the author of Acts. Three of the key ideas are that Christ fulfills the promises of the Old Testament, that
salvation comes through him, and that the Christian community is the new chosen people. _^<N__^<N_After chapter 10, the emphasis shifts to the spread of Christianity to the Gentiles through the missionary work of Saint Paul. In contrast to earlier
New Testament documents, such as 1 Thessalonians, written by Paul about AD 51, the end of the world is not considered imminent but has receded into the vaguely distant future. The very composition of Acts focuses attention on the present and on
spreading Christianity "to the ends of the earth"(1:8). Thus Acts is a fairly detailed account of early Christianity in its progress from Jerusalem to Rome. _^<N__^<N_Anthony J. Saldarini _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Harrison, E. F., Interpreting Acts
(1986); Johnson, Luke, Acts of the Apostles (1992).
-END-
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392
CAT
-A-
actuary
-T-
actuary_^<N__^<N_{ak'-chuh-wair-ee} _^<N__^<N_An actuary estimates risks and determines premiums for insurance companies. For example, an actuary may calculate the likelihood of fires causing losses for a particular group of property owners, basing
the projection on their rate of fires in the past. The profession requires intensive training in mathematics, statistics, accounting, and insurance probabilities.
-END-
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679
CAT
-A-
Acuff, Roy
-T-
Acuff, Roy_^<N__^<N_{ay'-kuhf} _^<N__^<N_Singer, songwriter, fiddler, and bandleader Roy Claxton Acuff, b. Maynardsville, Tenn., Sept. 15, 1903, d. Nov. 23, 1992, was known as the "King of Country Music." With the Smoky Mountain Boys, he had his
biggest hit records in the late 1930s, "Great Speckled Bird" and "Wabash Cannonball." He joined Nashville's GRAND OLE OPRY in 1938, and became one of country music's first stars with weekly appearances on the Opry, which he eventually hosted. In
1942, Acuff and songwriter Fred Rose formed Acuff- Rose Publishing, which became the largest country music publisher. In 1961, Acuff was the first living performer elected to the country music Hall of Fame.
-END-
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3608
CAT
-A-
acupuncture
-T-
acupuncture_^<N__^<N_Acupuncture is a form of medical therapy that involves inserting thin, solid needles into selective sites on the surface of the body. It has been part of Chinese medicine since ancient times (see MEDICINE, TRADITIONAL). Outside
China, acupuncture was long used in overseas Chinese communities, but Western interest in it did not become widespread until the 1970s, when physicians in China demonstrated that it could be used to control surgical pain. _^<N__^<N_The early
Chinese postulated a system of energy circulation that predated by many centuries current understanding of blood circulation and the nervous system. They thought that vital life energy flows through a series of pathways, or meridians, 12 of which
were on each side of the body. Meridians were said to course through the deep tissues of the body, surfacing occasionally. The areas where the meridians touch the surface were considered useful treatment points for diseases, which were thought to
be caused by imbalances in the energy flow. Inserting a needle into certain points could increase energy flow, and the needles also were used to drain away excessive pressure or to break down blocks or dams in energy flow. Meridians were variously
related to the heart, the lungs, the colon, the gallbladder, the liver, and the other organs. The flow of energy in each meridian was read by taking the pulse associated with it at the wrist. Therapy was aimed at restoring normal energy flow so
that perfect equilibrium existed throughout the body. _^<N__^<N_The use of acupuncture for controlling surgical pain is a recent development in China, and it does not strictly reflect the ancient medical philosophy. Classical Chinese medicine
concerned itself with restoring normal function as opposed to creating abnormal conditions, such as total pain reduction. To control surgical pain in contemporary China, needles are inserted into various parts of the body, and the patient is
stimulated by electrical current delivered through the needles or by the more traditional manual twirling of the needles. Practitioners may also inject various solutions at these body sites or use ultrasonic probes instead of needles. After about
20 minutes of stimulation, the surgery can begin. If acupuncture treatment has been effective, the patient will be wide awake, alert, and aware of all the major surgical procedures but will experience little or no pain (see ANESTHETICS).
_^<N__^<N_The mechanisms by which patients are able to tolerate surgery during acupunctural stimulation are still unknown. Some scientists speculate that large sensory fibers are activated, which inhibit transmission of impulses from the small
fibers carrying the sensory input of pain. Other scientists speculate that naturally produced morphinelike substances--endorphins and enkephalins--may be released within the brain in response to acupuncture. When these substances bind to OPIATE
RECEPTOR cells, a pain-inhibition system is activated. _^<N__^<N_Acupuncture is highly effective in giving short-term relief to patients suffering chronic pain from backache, headache, or abdominal pain. A small percentage of American physicians
are adding acupuncture to their therapeutic methods because it is safe, it works well for certain problems, and it is an alternative to treatment by medications that have undesirable side effects. _^<N__^<N_C. Richard Chapman
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Dale, R. A., The Complete Guide to Acupuncture (1994); Mann, F., Acupuncture, 2d ed. (1992); Stux, G., and Pomeranz, B., Basics of Acupuncture, 2d ed. (1993); Warren, F. Z., and Toguchi, M., Complete Guide to Acupuncture and
Acupressure (1991).
-END-
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765
CAT
-A-
Ada
-T-
Ada_^<N__^<N_Ada is a high-level COMPUTER LANGUAGE written for the U.S. Department of Defense in the 1970s to replace its then-standard language, COBOL. In 1991 the U.S. Congress mandated that all military software be written in Ada. Created at the
French company Cii-Honeywell Bull, Ada was inspired by highly "readable" modular languages such as PASCAL. It also contains coding features found in low-level ASSEMBLY languages that can be machine-processed in "real time." Thus Ada reconciles the
conflicting computer language goals of human readability and processing efficiency. Ada is widely used in the aerospace industry and is gaining ground in the ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE community. It was named after British programming pioneer Ada
Lovelace (1815-52). _^<N__^<N_Philip Storey
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605
CAT
-A-
Adam
-T-
Adam_^<N__^<N_According to the Bible, Adam was the first man. His name, which means "man" in Hebrew, is probably derived from the Hebrew word for "earth." The first three chapters of Genesis relate that God created Adam from dust, breathed life into
him, and placed him in the Garden of EDEN, where he lived with his wife, EVE, until they ate the forbidden fruit from the tree of knowledge of good and evil (see ORIGINAL SIN). The biblical account is similar to Egyptian and Mesopotamian accounts,
in which the first man was made from clay, infused with life by a divine being, and placed in a paradise of delight.
-END-
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365
CAT
-A-
Adam, Adolphe
-T-
Adam, Adolphe_^<N__^<N_Adolphe Charles Adam, b. July 24, 1803, d. May 3, 1856, was a French composer who is today best known for his score to the ballet Giselle (1841). After overcoming parental opposition, he studied music at the Paris
Conservatory. Adam composed music for 13 ballets and 20 comic operas, of which the most successful was Le Postillon de Longjumeau (1836).
-END-
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4419
CAT
-A-
Adam, Robert
-T-
Adam, Robert_^<N__^<N_Robert Adam, one of the major English architects of the second half of the 18th century, was a leader in international neoclassicism (see NEOCLASSICISM, art) and the creator of the Adam style in interior design. _^<N__^<N_Adam
was born in Kirkcaldy, Scotland, on July 3, 1728. He was trained by his wealthy architect father, William Adam, and began his architectural career in Scotland with his oldest brother, John. From 1754 to 1758 he undertook an extensive tour of
Italy (considered obligatory for educated Britons of the period), which was to change the course of his career. He was much inspired by the widespread renewed interest in antiquity and by personal acquaintances with such influential contemporaries
as the French interior designer Charles Louis Clerisseau and the Italian artist and antiquarian Giovanni Battista Piranesi. The presence in Italy of numerous well-traveled English noblemen (and potential clients) led Adam to establish himself in
London on his return home early in 1758. He was later joined there by his younger brother, James. _^<N__^<N_Robert Adam began to attract patrons immediately. By the early 1760s he had a great many commissions and had been appointed joint
architect to the King's Works, along with Sir William Chambers, who was to be his principal rival for leadership in English architecture. The publication of Adam's Ruins of the Palace of the Emperor Diocletian at Spalatro in Dalmatia (1764) firmly
established his version of neoclassical style in England. The Adam style replaced the Burlingtonian Palladian style--derived from the much-published work of the Italian architect Andrea Palladio--which was heavier and closer to its Greek and Roman
sources. Adam used the same elements but with far more freedom and imagination. _^<N__^<N_Adam's work in the late 1750s and 1760s included a series of major remodelings of country houses and completion of houses begun by others, as well as a few
houses built from the ground up; his finest accomplishments were to be in the planning and decoration of interiors, always to the smallest details. Among his principal commissions of this type were Syon House, Middlesex (c.1760-1769); Kedleston
Hall, Derbyshire (c.1759-1771); Kenwood, London (1767-69); Harewood House, Yorkshire (c.1758-1771); Nostell Priory, Yorkshire (1766-76); and Osterly Park, Middlesex (1761-80). Adam also began work on a number of London town houses, such as
Lansdowne House (c.1760-1768; partially demolished; dining room in Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City), but was even more active in the 1770s, as at Wynn House (1772-74), Derby House (1773-74; destroyed), and Home House (1775-77; now the
Courtauld Institute of Art). _^<N__^<N_Adam was also responsible for a number of town-planning schemes, such as the Adelphi (1768-72; destroyed), Portland Place (1776-c.1780), and Fitzroy Square (c.1790-1800) in London and Charlotte Square in
Edinburgh (1791-1807). The Adelphi scheme, a group of sumptuous town houses on the River Thames, bankrupted Adam and may have been responsible for occasional lapses of quality in his output after 1775. His public buildings include the Admiralty
Screen, London (1759-60); the Register House, Edinburgh (c.1774-1792); and Edinburgh University (begun 1789-93). Although Adam was less active in the early 1780s, during the last years of his life he received a number of commissions, many for
large Gothic Revival castles, especially in Scotland. He died on Mar. 3, 1792, and is buried in Westminster Abbey. _^<N__^<N_Adam exerted an enormous influence, clearly seen in the work of such other English architects as George Dance, James
Wyatt, and the young Sir John Soane, who in 1833 bought most of Adam's drawings, now in the Soane Museum, London. In the architectural pattern books of the day, the Adam style predominates. Adam's influence reached as far as the new United
States, as in the buildings of Charles Bulfinch and Benjamin Latrobe, and the Russia of Catherine II, in the palaces of the Scottish architect Charles Cameron. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Adam, Robert and James, The Works in Architecture of Robert and
James Adam, 3 vols. (1773-1822; repr. 1975); Fleming, John, Robert Adam and His Circle (1962); Harris, Eileen, The Furniture of Robert Adam (1963); Rykwert, J. and A., Robert and James Adam (1985); Stillman, Damie, The Decorative Work of
Robert Adam (1966); Yarwood, Doreen, Robert Adam (1970).
-END-
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931
CAT
-A-
Adam Bede
-T-
Adam Bede_^<N__^<N_{beed} _^<N__^<N_Adam Bede (1859), George ELIOT's first full-length novel, takes up the theme of moral growth through suffering. Set in late 18th-century England, the novel depicts a stable, rural society of farmers, artisans,
and gentry. Adam Bede, a talented and intelligent carpenter, loves Hetty Sorrel, a young woman with nothing more than looks to recommend her. After Hetty is seduced by Arthur Donnithorne, a young village squire, she becomes pregnant, runs off,
and is eventually charged with murdering her child. Donnithorne, who is sympathetically portrayed, and Hetty grow into greater moral awareness, while Adam, by observing them, comes to realize that his self-righteousness is a form of pride. The
novel idealizes the values of work and social stability. _^<N__^<N_Charlotte D. Solomon _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Fisher, P., Making Up Society: The Novels of George Eliot (1981); Hardy, Barbara, The Novels of George Eliot (1959).
-END-
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572
CAT
-A-
Adam de la Halle
-T-
Adam de la Halle_^<N__^<N_{duh lah ahl} _^<N__^<N_Adam de la Halle, known as Adam le Bossu (Adam the Hunchback), c.1250-c.1288, was a French poet and musician who wrote lyrics of courtly love and two popular plays, Le Jeu de la Feuillee (The Play of
the Greensward, 1276) and Le Jeu de Robin et Marion (c.1283). The former, a satirical comedy, presents an early form of the harlequin, later a stock character of the Italian COMMEDIA DELL'ARTE. Adam's second drama is a pastoral set to music that
anticipates the style of comic opera. He is regarded as the originator of French secular drama.
-END-
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630
CAT
-A-
Adamic, Louis
-T-
Adamic, Louis_^<N__^<N_{ad'-uh-mik} _^<N__^<N_Louis Adamic, b. Mar. 23, 1899, d. Sept. 4, 1951, was born in Slovenia, but emigrated to the United States in 1913 and eventually wrote books about both countries. After achieving considerable success
with The Native's Return (1934), a novel about his homeland, Adamic wrote novels about American immigrant life, such as Grandsons (1935), and an autobiographical volume called My America (1938; repr. 1976). His death was apparently a suicide. A
biography of Marshal Tito, The Eagle and the Roots (1952), was published posthumously. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Christian, H. A., ed., Louis Adamic: A Checklist (1971).
-END-
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757
CAT
-A-
Adamov, Arthur
-T-
Adamov, Arthur_^<N__^<N_{ad-uh-mawf'} _^<N__^<N_Arthur Adamov, b. Aug. 23, 1908, d. Mar. 16, 1970, was a Russian-born dramatist prominent in the avant-garde French theater of the 1950s and '60s. Adamov's early plays are surrealist fantasies of a
nonsensical world whose cruelty and uncertainty recall the work of Franz Kafka. His first play, La Parodie (1947), was performed in Paris in 1952. In Ping Pong (1955; Eng. trans., 1962), a satire on business and politics, Adamov adopted a realistic
style. His later works, such as Les Petits bourgeois (1959) and Les Ames mortes (Dead Souls, 1960), adapted from Maksim Gorky and Nikolai Gogol, respectively, were influenced by the theater of Bertolt Brecht. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Esslin, Martin,
The Theatre of the Absurd, 4th ed. (1987).
-END-
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1250
CAT
-A-
Adams, Abigail
-T-
Adams, Abigail_^<N__^<N_Abigail Adams, b. Weymouth, Mass., Nov. 11, 1744, d. Oct. 28, 1818, was the wife of John Adams, the second president of the United States, and the mother of John Quincy Adams, sixth president. Originally named Abigail Smith,
she was the daughter of a clergyman in Weymouth. _^<N__^<N_Educated at home by her grandmother, she displayed a lively intelligence and expressed her strong opinions in a straightforward manner. She is credited with having had a notable influence
on the long and distinguished career of her husband, accompanying him on his diplomatic missions to Europe and advising him by letter when she remained in Massachusetts managing family affairs. As First Lady, she was a skillful political hostess,
although she offended some by her strong Federalist views. _^<N__^<N_Abigail Adams was a prodigious letter writer, and many editions of her letters have been published. Her grandson Charles Francis Adams (1807-86) published the most nearly complete
edition in 1841 and 1876. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Butterfield, L. H., et al., eds., The Book of Abigail and John: Selected Letters of the Adams Family, 1762-84 (1975); Gelles, E. B., Portia: The World of Abigail Adams (1992); Levine, P. L., Abigail
Adams (1987); Nagel, P., The Adams Women (1987).
-END-
-C-
1290
CAT
-A-
Adams, Ansel
-T-
Adams, Ansel_^<N__^<N_Ansel Adams, b. San Francisco, Feb. 20, 1902, d. Apr. 22, 1984, became a recognized leader of modern photography through his sharp and poetic landscape photographs of the American West. Trained as a pianist, he divided his time
between music and photography until 1930, when, impressed by the work of Paul STRAND, he decided to concentrate fully on photography. In 1932 he had his first solo show in a major museum and, with Imogen CUNNINGHAM, Edward WESTON, and others,
founded the influential Group F/64. In 1937, Adams moved to Yosemite, Calif., and after 1940 he photographed extensively in the country's national parks. His sharply defined prints are in marked contrast with the evocative work of earlier
pictorialists and even surpass the realistic detail of 19th-century landscape photographs. Working mostly in black and white, Adams used brilliant light to produce intense images. His collections include My Camera in Yosemite Valley (1949);
Portfolio Two: The National Parks (1950); This Is the American Earth (1960); Ansel Adams, Images 1923-1974 (1975); and The Portfolios of Ansel Adams (1977). _^<N__^<N_Elizabeth Pollock _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Alinder, M. S. , and Stillman, A. G.,
Adams, Brooks_^<N__^<N_Brooks Adams, b. Quincy, Mass., June 24, 1848, d. Feb. 13, 1927, the youngest son of Charles Francis Adams, was an American historian who applied laws of science to the study of the development of civilizations. In The
Emancipation of Massachusetts (1887) he employed the concept of survival of the fittest. Adams utilized the principles of energy in propounding a cyclical interpretation of history in The Law of Civilization and Decay (1895).
-END-
-C-
1248
CAT
-A-
Adams, Charles Francis
-T-
Adams, Charles Francis_^<N__^<N_Charles Francis Adams, b. Boston, Aug. 18, 1807, d. Nov. 21, 1886, was an American historian and diplomat. The son of President John Quincy Adams, he spent his early years managing the family property in
Massachusetts, writing historical articles, and editing the letters of his grandmother Abigail Adams and writings of his grandfather John Adams. Holding antislavery views, he was the vice-presidential candidate of the Free-Soil party in 1848.
_^<N__^<N_Elected to Congress in 1858 as a Republican, Adams was appointed minister to Great Britain in 1861. His major task was to prevent British recognition of the Confederate States. In this he was successful despite the open sympathy of the
British ruling classes for the South. Personally well-liked and an adroit and tactful diplomat, he was able to prevent a rupture over the delicate TRENT AFFAIR. The success of his mission was a vitally important contribution to the Northern
victory. _^<N__^<N_After his return to the United States in 1868, except for membership in the Alabama Claims Commission, Adams retired from public life. In 1874 he began the publication in 12 volumes of his father's diary. _^<N__^<N_Harry Ammon
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Duberman, Martin B., Charles Francis Adams, 1807-1886 (1961).
-END-
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728
CAT
-A-
Adams, Charles Francis, Jr.
-T-
Adams, Charles Francis, Jr._^<N__^<N_Charles Francis Adams, Jr., b. Boston, May 27, 1835, d. Mar. 20, 1915, the third son of Charles Francis Adams, was a railroad expert whose interest turned to writing New England history. After fighting in the
Civil War, he wrote Chapters of Erie (1871), in which he exposed the stock manipulations of the directors of the Erie Railroad. He became chairman of the Massachusetts Board of Railroad Commissioners (1872-79) and then president (1884-90). His
works include Richard Henry Dana: A Biography (1890), Massachusetts: Its Historians and History (1893), and a biography (1900) of his father. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Kirkland, Edward Chase, Charles Francis Adams, Jr., 1835-1915: The Patrician at
Bay (1965).
-END-
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556
CAT
-A-
Adams, Franklin Pierce
-T-
Adams, Franklin Pierce_^<N__^<N_The American humorist and journalist Franklin Pierce Adams, b. Nov. 15, 1881, d. Mar. 23, 1960, informed and entertained millions through his newspaper column "The Conning Tower," started in 1914, and his work on the
"Information Please" radio program (1938-48). Adams's humor, epigrams, and poetry made the column a popular feature first in the New York Tribune and subsequently in the World, Herald Tribune, and Post. His puns, quips, and overall knowledge helped
make "Information Please" one of radio's top shows. _^<N__^<N_Ernest C. Hynds
-END-
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1730
CAT
-A-
Adams, Henry
-T-
Adams, Henry_^<N__^<N_Henry Brooks Adams, b. Boston, Feb. 16, 1838, d. Mar. 27, 1918, an American historian, was the son of Charles Francis ADAMS and the descendant of two presidents, but he gradually abandoned his family's involvement in
politics to pursue the study of history. After completing his studies at Harvard, he traveled abroad as the secretary of his father, a diplomat. In 1870 he began teaching history at Harvard and became the editor of the North American Review, a
reform journal that focused attention on corruption and advocated civil service reforms. From 1877 to 1879 he edited the papers and wrote a biography of Albert GALLATIN. A decade later his research in this period of American history culminated in
his 9-volume History of the United States (1889-91). _^<N__^<N_In the meantime, Adams's disillusionment with politics surfaced in a satirical novel, Democracy, which he published anonymously in 1880. In 1885 his wife's suicide drove him to search
for new meaning in life and history. Adams recorded this spiritual odyssey in two important works that went far beyond the narrow political approach of his earlier work: in Mont Saint Michel and Chartres (1913) he expressed his admiration for the
medieval church, and in his autobiography, The Education of Henry Adams (1918), he gave a moving account of one man's struggle to understand change. _^<N__^<N_Joel Colton _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Adams, James Truslow, The Adams Family (1930);
Harbert, E. N. ed., Critical Essays on Henry Adams (1981); Levenson, J. C., The Mind and Art of Henry Adams (1957); O'Toole, Patricia, The Five of Hearts: An Intimate Portrait of Henry Adams and His Friends, 1880-1918 (1990); Samuels, Ernest,
The Life of Henry Adams, 3 vols. (1948-64).
-END-
-C-
741
CAT
-A-
Adams, Herbert Baxter
-T-
Adams, Herbert Baxter_^<N__^<N_Herbert Baxter Adams, b. Shutesbury, Mass., Apr. 16, 1850, d. July 30, 1901, was an American historian who, as a professor (1876-1901) at Johns Hopkins University, shaped U.S. graduate studies in history and
political science. Receiving his doctorate in 1876 from the University of Heidelberg, he introduced the German seminar-teaching method at Johns Hopkins and trained many prominent scholars. In monographs written in 1882 and 1883, Adams argued for
the Germanic origins of New England towns. He was a founder (1884) of the American Historical Association. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Holt, W. S., ed., Historical Scholarship in the United States, 1876-1901, as Revealed in the Correspondence of
Herbert B. Adams (1938).
-END-
-C-
930
CAT
-A-
Adams, James Truslow
-T-
Adams, James Truslow_^<N__^<N_James Truslow Adams, b. Brooklyn, N. Y., Oct. 18, 1878, d. May 18, 1949, was a popular American historian who wrote primarily about New England. After working from 1900 to 1912 for a New York Stock Exchange firm, he
turned to historical writing. The Founding of New England (1921), in which he stressed social history and was critical of Puritanism, won a Pulitzer Prize. Adams continued this story with Revolutionary New England, 1691-1776 (1923) and New
England in the Republic, 1776-1850 (1926). The Epic of America (1931), a sweeping historical survey, won acclaim in the United States and abroad. Adams's other works include studies of the Adams family of Massachusetts (to which he was not
related) and of the British Empire. He was editor in chief of the Dictionary of American History (6 vols., 1940). _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Nevins, Allan, James Truslow Adams: Historian of the American Dream (1968).
-END-
-C-
8905
CAT
4851
-A-
Adams, John
-T-
Adams, John_^<N__^<N_In three remarkable careers--as a foe of British oppression and champion of Independence (1761-77), as an American diplomat in Europe (1778-88), and as the first vice-president (1789-97) and then the second president (1797-1801)
of the United States--John Adams was a founder of the United States. Perhaps equally important, however, was the life of his mind and spirit; in a pungent diary, vivid letters, learned tracts, and patriotic speeches he revealed himself as a
quintessential Puritan, patriarch of an illustrious family, tough-minded philosopher of the republic, sage, and sometimes a vain, stubborn, and vitriolic partisan. _^<N__^<N_John Adams was born in Braintree (now Quincy), Mass., on Oct. 30, 1735, in
a small saltbox house still standing and open to visitors. His father, John Adams, a deacon and a fifth-generation Massachusetts farmer, and his mother, the former Suzanna Boylston, were, their son wrote, "both fond of reading"; so they resolved
to give bookishly inclined John a good education. He became the first of his family to go to college when he entered Harvard in 1751. There, and in six further years of intensive reading while he taught school and studied law in Worcester and
Boston, he mastered the technicalities of his profession and the literature and learning of his day. By 1762, when he began 14 years of increasingly successful legal practice, he was well informed, ambitious, and public spirited. His most notable
good fortune, however, occurred in 1764 when he married Abigail Smith. John Adams's marriage of 54 years to this wise, learned, strong-willed, passionate, and patriotic woman began the brilliant phase of Adams family history that produced their
son John Quincy, his son Charles Francis, his sons Henry and Brooks, and numerous other distinguished progeny. _^<N__^<N_In 1761, John Adams began to think and write and act against British measures that he believed infringed on colonial liberties
and the right of Massachusetts and the other colonies to self-government. A pamphlet entitled A Dissertation on the Canon and the Feudal Law and town instructions denouncing the STAMP ACT (1765) marked him as a vigorous, patriotic penman, and,
holding various local offices, he soon became a leader among Massachusetts radicals. Although he never wavered in his devotion to colonial rights and early committed himself to independence as an unwelcome last resort, Adams's innate conservatism
made him determined in 1770 that the British soldiers accused of the BOSTON MASSACRE receive a fair hearing. He defended the soldiers at their trial. He also spoke out repeatedly against mob violence and other signs of social disintegration.
_^<N__^<N_In 1774-76, Adams was a Massachusetts delegate to the CONTINENTAL CONGRESS in Philadelphia. His speeches and writings (especially a newspaper series signed "Novanglus" in 1775) articulating the colonial cause and his brilliant
championing of American rights in Congress caused Thomas JEFFERSON to call him the "Colossus of Independence." Adams helped draft the DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, secured its unanimous adoption in Congress, and wrote his wife on July 3, 1776, that
"the most memorable Epoch in the History of America has begun." _^<N__^<N_After 18 months of toil in committee and on the floor of Congress managing the AMERICAN REVOLUTION, Adams crossed the Atlantic to be an American commissioner to France. The
termination of this mission after less than a year in Paris allowed him to return home long enough to take a leading role in drafting the new Massachusetts constitution. He sailed again for Europe, accompanied by two of his sons, in November 1779
as a commissioner to seek peace with Britain. After quarrels in Paris with Benjamin FRANKLIN and French officials, he left for the Netherlands, where he secured Dutch recognition of American independence and a substantial loan as well. He
returned to Paris in October 1782 to insist on American rights (especially to fish on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland) in the negotiations that led to Britain's recognition of the independence of the United States in the Treaty of Paris of Sept. 3,
1783. _^<N__^<N_For two more years Adams helped Franklin and Jefferson negotiate treaties of friendship and commerce with numerous foreign powers. Then, appointed the first American minister to Britain, Adams presented his credentials to George
III in 1785, noting his pride in "having the distinguished honor to be the first {ex-colonial subject} to stand in your Majesty's royal presence in a diplomatic character." The king, aware of the poignancy of the occasion, returned Adams's
compliments and hoped that the "language, religion, and blood" shared by the two nations would "have their natural and full effect," but the British ministry obstructed Adams's efforts to restore equitable commerce between the two nations.
_^<N__^<N_When he returned to the United States in 1788, Adams was greeted by his countrymen as one of the heroes of independence and was promptly elected vice-president under the new Constitution. This post, regarded by Adams as "the most
insignificant office that ever the invention of man contrived or his imagination conceived," left him time to work out his increasingly sober views of republican government. In Europe he had been impressed with both the unsuitability of
self-government for masses of destitute, ignorant people, and the usefulness, in evoking patriotism and in maintaining order, of the pomp and ceremony of monarchy. He was thus appalled, but not surprised, at the riotous French Revolution and
emphasized the need for dignity, ritual, and authority in a republic like the United States. He also supported the efforts of George WASHINGTON to give the presidency an almost regal quality and to extend executive power, and he agreed with
Alexander HAMILTON on most of the latter's fiscal plans. He never accepted, however, the "high" Federalist biases toward commercial growth and government by "the rich, the well-born, and the able." _^<N__^<N_Although his own presidency (1797-1801)
was a troubled one, Adams made uniquely important contributions during his term as chief executive. He managed orderly transitions of power at both the beginning and the end of his administration, and he gave the government stability by continuing
most of the practices established under Washington. The major crisis he faced, however, arose from strained relations with revolutionary France. When, in the so-called XYZ AFFAIR (1797-98), American peace commissioners returned from Paris with
lurid stories of deceit and bribery, Adams called for an assertion of national pride, built up the armed forces, and even accepted the ALIEN AND SEDITION ACTS as emergency national security measures. With his opponents (led by Jefferson) charging
oppression and some of his own FEDERALIST PARTY (led by Hamilton) urging war and conquest, Adams kept his nerve and, when the opportunity arose, dispatched another peace commission to France. This defused the crisis and led in 1800 to an agreement
with France that ended the so-called Quasi-War. Nonetheless, deserted by Hamilton and other Federalists who disapproved of his independent course, and attacked by the Jeffersonian Republicans as a vain monarchist, Adams was forced out of office
after one term. _^<N__^<N_When he and Abigail returned to Massachusetts, they moved into a comfortable but unpretentious house in Quincy (it is known today and open to visitors as the Adams National Historic Site) they had bought 12 years before.
There, tending to his fields, visiting with neighbors, and enjoying his family, John Adams lived for 25 years as a sage and national patriarch. Of his numerous correspondences, the cherished 14-year (1812-26) one with Jefferson became a literary
legacy to the nation. Although the debilitations of old age and the death of his beloved Abigail in 1818 troubled his last years, his mind remained sharp and his spirit buoyant until the end. Like Jefferson, he died on July 4, 1826, the 50th
anniversary of the Declaration of Independence. Ninety years old at his death, Adams was revered by his countrymen not only as one of the founding fathers but also as a plain, honest man who personified the best of what the nation could hope of
its citizens and leaders. _^<N__^<N_Ralph Ketcham _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Adams, John, The Adams Papers, 13 vols., ed. by Lyman H. Butterfield et al. (1961-77); Ellis, Joseph J., Passionate Sage: The Character and Legacy of John Adams (1993);
Ferling, John, John Adams: A Life (1992); Handler, Edward, America and Europe in the Political Thought of John Adams (1964); Howe, John R., and Tebbenhoff, Edward H., John Adams, 2 vols. (1987); Kurtz, Stephen G., The Presidency of John Adams
(1957); Peterson, Merrill D., Adams and Jefferson: A Revolutionary Dialogue (1976); Shaw, Peter, The Character of John Adams (1976); Smith, Page, John Adams, 2 vols. (1962). _^<N__^<N_
-END-
-C-
797
CAT
-A-
Adams, John Couch
-T-
Adams, John Couch_^<N__^<N_John Couch Adams, b. June 5, 1819, d. Jan. 21, 1892, was an English astronomer and mathematician who, at the age of 24, was the first person to predict the position of a planetary mass beyond Uranus. He subsequently became
the subject of a famous priority dispute with the French astronomer Urbain LEVERRIER, whose later prediction was published before Adams's and led directly to the discovery of NEPTUNE ON Sept. 23, 1846. Adams was educated at Cambridge and became a
fellow, tutor, and professor of astronomy and geometry before being named director of Cambridge Observatory in 1861. Adams's many other astronomical contributions, notably his studies of the Leonid meteor shower and of the motion of the Moon, have
been overshadowed by his role as the codiscoverer of Neptune.
-END-
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8173
CAT
4828
-A-
Adams, John Quincy
-T-
Adams, John Quincy_^<N__^<N_John Quincy Adams, the sixth president of the United States, was a child of American independence, the primary architect of the first century of the nation's foreign policy, and an implacable foe of slavery.
_^<N__^<N_Adams was born in Braintree (now Quincy), Mass., on July 11, 1767, the first son of the brilliant, patriotic, and strong-willed Abigail Smith Adams and her husband, John Adams, then a little-known country lawyer. When John Quincy was
seven years old, his father, who was in Philadelphia attending the First Continental Congress, wrote to his wife of her duty to "mould the minds and manners of our children. Let us teach them not only to do virtuously, but to excel. To excel they
must be taught to be steady, active, and industrious." A year later, mother and son watched the smoke and heard the cannons from the Battle of Bunker Hill. The letter, and the close, frightening, but also exhilarating event, set the boy's life on
its course. _^<N__^<N_John Quincy Adams began 70 years of public service when in 1778, at the age of 11, he acted as his father's secretary during a diplomatic mission to France. In 1780 he again went to Europe with his father, this time as an
official secretary, and a year later he served as secretary and interpreter to Francis Dana on the first American mission to the Russian court at St. Petersburg. Returning to western Europe via Sweden, Denmark, and Germany in early 1783, Adams
lived for the next two years in The Hague, London, and Paris, where he pursued his formal education. When he came back to America in 1785 to enter Harvard College, he knew five or six modern languages as well as Latin and Greek, had traveled
throughout northern and western Europe, had been under the close tutelage of his father for seven years, and had taken part in much of the diplomacy of the American Revolution. _^<N__^<N_Adams graduated from Harvard in 1787 and two years later
finished his legal apprenticeship. Without enthusiasm he began to practice law in Boston in 1790. He was soon easily distracted into writing a notable series of newspaper articles attacking the ideas of Thomas Paine's The Rights of Man, and in
1794 he eagerly accepted President Washington's appointment of him as American minister to Holland. He subsequently served as minister to Prussia from 1797 to 1801. His letters to American officials contained by far the most perceptive and
influential news coming back across the Atlantic during the crucial years of Napoleon's rise to dominance. During a mission to London in 1796-97 he married Louisa Catherine Johnson, the daughter of a Maryland merchant serving as U.S. consul in
London. Their marriage produced three children and lasted until his death 51 years later. _^<N__^<N_Home again in 1801, Adams served briefly in the Massachusetts Senate and then in the U.S. Senate from 1803 to 1808. Although nominally in the
FEDERALIST PARTY, he had no use for that party's increasingly regional posture and instead supported most of the policies of Thomas Jefferson's administration, including the EMBARGO ACT of 1807. His refusal to bow to heavy pressure from the
Massachusetts legislature to repudiate that measure led to his resignation from the Senate--and, 150 years later, to his inclusion in John F. Kennedy's Profiles in Courage. _^<N__^<N_President James Madison then appointed Adams minister to Russia,
and he sailed--this time with members of his own young family--for St. Petersburg, arriving just before ice closed the Baltic in December 1809. He lived there for four years and gained the confidence of Russian officials, who began negotiations
leading to the end of the War of 1812. Adams traveled about northern Europe for 18 months pursuing these negotiations. As chief American commissioner, he signed the Treaty of Ghent on Christmas Eve, 1814. Madison promptly appointed him the first
postwar American minister to Britain. Like his father before him and his son, Charles Francis Adams, after him, he stood proudly before the king of the former mother country as the representative of his independent nation. _^<N__^<N_As secretary of
state during the administration (1817-25) of James MONROE, Adams took a leading role in all its deliberations and earned his standing as perhaps the most successful secretary of state in American history. He concluded negotiations he had begun in
London to demilitarize the American border with Canada (1818), purchased Florida (1819), demarked a long southern boundary with Spanish Mexico that for the first time recognized American claims extending to the Pacific Ocean (1819), and set forth
the principles of Anglo-American reconciliation and New World independence from the Old, known ever since as the MONROE DOCTRINE (1823). _^<N__^<N_Increasingly bitter political strife, however, puzzled and eventually infuriated Adams. He felt,
justly, that he was entirely qualified--indeed that it was his due--to become president in 1825; yet he had only contempt for the selfish machinations and public circus apparently necessary for electoral success. His ambition triumphed, however.
Although no candidate won a majority of the electoral vote in 1824, Adams accepted the support of Henry CLAY to secure his final selection--over Andrew JACKSON and William H. CRAWFORD--by the House of Representatives. Although inaugurated as a
"minority president," he nonetheless submitted a broad, national program to an increasingly factional and sectionally oriented Congress and public. He called in 1825 for recognition of the new Latin American republics, support of canals and other
internal improvements, establishment of a national university, support for scientific explorations, and in general for Congress "to give efficacy to the means committed to us for the common good." Congress ignored these grand programs and instead
increasingly responded to the rising tide of laissez-faire expansionism and frontier individualism that swept Adams out and Andrew Jackson into the White House in 1829. _^<N__^<N_Retired permanently--he thought--to his books and to his farm in
Massachusetts, Adams nevertheless responded dutifully when his neighbors elected him to the House of Representatives in 1830 and kept him there for nine consecutive terms. There, as "Old Man Eloquent," again and again speaking his conscience and
calling the nation to respond to its highest impulses, he lived out his last and perhaps most remarkable career. In his relentless, eventually successful opposition to the so-called GAG RULES, which stifled antislavery petitions, Adams dramatized
for the nation the repressive character of slavery. When fatally stricken in the House in 1848, almost 70 years to the day after he had first sailed for Europe with his father, he had just voted against a resolution thanking the American generals
of the MEXICAN WAR, a conflict he had opposed. _^<N__^<N_When Adams died on Feb. 23, 1848, he was not only the last surviving statesman of the American Revolution but also the first national leader to have dramatized the moral issue that
precipitated the Civil War. He thus nearly encompassed in his public career the "four score and seven years" of which Abraham Lincoln was soon to speak; he had also defined the foreign and domestic purposes that in his view undergirded the nation
that his father had helped to found and his son would help to preserve. Although he was at times rigid, demanding, self-righteous, and even quaint, John Quincy Adams possessed the personal integrity, devotion to principle, intellectual intensity,
and strong will that have made his name and his family a national resource. _^<N__^<N_Ralph Ketcham _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Adams, John Q., Memoirs, 12 vols., ed. by C. F. Adams (1874-77; repr. 1970); Bemis, Samuel F., John Quincy Adams and
the Foundations of American Foreign Policy (1949; repr. 1973); Ford, W. C., ed., The Writings of John Quincy Adams, 7 vols. (1913-17); Hargreaves, Mary W., The Presidency of John Quincy Adams (1985); Hecht, Marie B., John Quincy Adams
(1972); Richards, Leonard L., The Life and Times of Congressman John Quincy Adams (1986); Seward, William H., The Life and Public Services of John Quincy Adams (1849; repr. 1971). _^<N__^<N_
-END-
-C-
866
CAT
-A-
Adams, Maude
-T-
Adams, Maude_^<N__^<N_Maude Adams, b. Salt Lake City, Utah, Nov. 11, 1872, d. July 17, 1953, an American actress of both intellect and pixielike charm, is best remembered for her performance in the title role of Sir James M. Barrie's Peter Pan
(1905-07). A successful child actress (she first appeared on stage at the age of nine months), she made her New York debut in 1888 and became famous playing threatened heroines of melodrama. Producer Charles Frohman made her a star, and Barrie
wrote her most successful parts, in such plays as The Little Minister (1897-98), Quality Street (1902), and What Every Woman Knows (1908-09). After Frohman's death in 1915 her career declined, and she retired in 1918. _^<N__^<N_Andrew Kelly
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Davies, Acton, Maude Adams (1901); Patterson, Ada, Maude Adams (1907; repr. 1971); Robbins, Phyllis, The Young Maude Adams (1959).
-END-
-C-
631
CAT
-A-
Adams, Robert McCormick
-T-
Adams, Robert McCormick_^<N__^<N_Robert McCormick Adams, b. Chicago, July 23, 1926, is an American anthropologist and archaeologist who is best known for his studies of the development of ancient cities and states, based on his excavations in
Mesopotamia. He has proposed that these complex societies developed not as a result of a single condition, such as technological or scientific growth, but as a product of numerous interrelated conditions, particularly social organization and craft
specialization. His best-known book is The Evolution of Urban Society (1966). Adams has been a professor at the University of Chicago since 1955.
-END-
-C-
2774
CAT
-A-
Adams, Samuel
-T-
Adams, Samuel_^<N__^<N_Samuel Adams, b. Boston, Sept. 17, 1722, d. Oct. 2, 1803, was a major leader in the American Revolution. The son of a wealthy brewer, he inherited one-third of the family property but lost most of it through poor management.
After attending Harvard, he became active in colonial politics and enjoyed a popular following through his activities in the Boston political clubs, such as the Caucus Club, which was influential in nominating candidates for local office. He was an
effective spokesman for the popular party opposed to the entrenched circle around the royal governor. Adams organized the protest against the STAMP ACT (1765) and was a founder of the SONS OF LIBERTY. Undoubtedly the most influential member of the
lower house of the Massachusetts legislature (1765-74), he drafted most of the major protest documents, including the Circular Letter (1768) against the TOWNSHEND ACTS. He also wrote frequently for the press in defense of colonial rights. Adams
formed close ties with John HANCOCK, whose connections with the Boston merchants made him useful in the revolutionary cause. After 1770 he was the focal point in the creation of intercolonial committees of correspondence to sustain the spirit of
resistance. He was a principal organizer of the BOSTON TEA PARTY (1773). Because of the intemperate language of his essays for the press (Lt. Gov. Thomas Hutchinson called him the greatest "incendiary" in the empire) and his early advocacy of
independence, Adams was regarded as a radical. At the First Continental Congress he worked closely with John Adams, his second cousin. Their influence was crucial in the rejection of the plan of union presented by Joseph GALLOWAY and in the
adoption of a compulsory nonimportation agreement (in effect a boycott of British goods). Samuel Adams remained in Congress until 1781, participating in the drafting of the Articles of Confederation. After the Revolution his influence in
Massachusetts was never as great, although he continued to be active in state politics, serving as lieutenant governor (1789-93) and as governor (1794-97). A more conservative figure in later years, he condemned the farmers' actions during SHAYS'S
REBELLION and endorsed ratification of the federal Constitution. _^<N__^<N_Harry Ammon _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Cushing, Harry A., ed., The Writings of Samuel Adams, 3 vols. (1904-08; repr. 1968); Galvin, John B., Three Men of Boston (1976); Gerson,
Noel B., Grand Incendiary: A Biography of Samuel Adams (1973); Harlow, Ralph V., Samuel Adams, Promoter of the American Revolution (1972); Hosmer, James, Samuel Adams (1898; repr. 1980); Maier, Pauline, The Old Revolutionaries: Political Lives in
the Age of Samuel Adams (1982); Miller, John C., Sam Adams, Pioneer in Propaganda (1936; repr. 1960).
-END-
-C-
434
CAT
-A-
Adams, Samuel Hopkins
-T-
Adams, Samuel Hopkins_^<N__^<N_Samuel Hopkins Adams, b. Dunkirk, N.Y., Jan. 26, 1871, d. Nov. 15, 1958, was an American journalist and novelist whose muckraking articles on public health and medicine printed in McClure's and Collier's magazines
helped bring about the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906. He also wrote both a fictional account, Revelry (1926), and a factual one, Incredible Era (1939), of the scandal-ridden Harding administration.
-END-
-C-
834
CAT
-A-
Adams, Walter Sydney
-T-
Adams, Walter Sydney_^<N__^<N_The research of the American astrophysicist Walter Sydney Adams, b. Kessab, Syria, Dec. 20, 1876, d. May 11, 1956, ranged from the study of planetary atmospheres to his greatest achievement, the discovery of a
fundamentally new method for determining stellar distances. A graduate of Dartmouth College and the University of Chicago, Adams excelled first at Yerkes Observatory in Wisconsin (1901-04) and then at Mount Wilson in California (1904-46), where,
under his direction from 1923 to 1946, the observatory attained a position of worldwide preeminence. His early work on sunspot spectra furnished clues that were crucial to the development of the method of spectroscopic parallax, whereby stellar
luminosities, and thereby distances, can be determined from the intensities of certain sensitive spectral lines.
-END-
-C-
394
CAT
-A-
Adam's Peak
-T-
Adam's Peak_^<N__^<N_Adam's Peak (also known as Samanala or Sri Padastanaya) is a cone-shaped mountain in south central Sri Lanka about 72 km (45 mi) east of Colombo. It is 2,243 m (7,360 ft) high and is considered a sacred mountain by Buddhists,
Hindus, and Muslims because of a 1.5-m-long (5-ft) depression of its summit resembling a footprint, variously believed to be that of Buddha, Shiva, or Adam.
-END-
-C-
54
CAT
-A-
Adamson, Robert:
-T-
Adamson, Robert:_^<N__^<N_see HILL, D. O., AND ADAMSON, ROBERT.
-END-
-C-
657
CAT
-A-
Adana
-T-
Adana_^<N__^<N_{ah-dah-nah'} _^<N__^<N_Adana (1990 pop., 931,555) is the capital city of Adana province on the southern coast of Turkey. Located on the banks of the Seyhan River, 52 km (32 mi) north of the Mediterranean, it is Turkey's fourth
largest city. The climate is hot and semiarid, with summer temperatures above 29 deg C (84 deg F) and average yearly rainfall of 619 mm (24.4 in). Adana is the center of the Turkish cotton industry. _^<N__^<N_Possibly an ancient Hittite city,
Adana was later a Roman military station. It became a Turkish city during the 16th century. Notable buildings in the city include 16th-century mosques and the ancient covered market Kapali Carsi.
adaptive radiation_^<N__^<N_Adaptive radiation is the EVOLUTION of a species into many diverse species, each adapted to a different habitat. Differentiation and complexity of the species are increased, with the resulting decrease in competition. As
a result, the species is able to make use of all available niches in the habitat so that more populations flourish. Adaptive radiation occurs most rapidly when a species colonizes a new environment in which many ecological niches are unoccupied.
The results are a population increase and multiple divergence. After a species radiates and diverges, dominant forms eventually prevail. When environmental conditions change, those forms of the species which cannot readapt may become extinct.
_^<N__^<N_DARWIN'S FINCHES (see also DARWIN, CHARLES) are a classic example of adaptive radiation. All 14 species living on the Galapagos Islands are derived from a single species of finch--a ground-dwelling seedeater--that migrated to those
islands. Because the ecological niches on the isolated islands were unoccupied, the finch differentiated into 14 diverse species. Some remained ground-dwelling seedeaters, and others lived on cactus or insects and dwelled in trees.
-END-
-C-
657
CAT
-A-
Addams, Charles
-T-
Addams, Charles_^<N__^<N_The American cartoonist Charles Samuel Addams, b. Westfield, N.J., Jan. 7, 1912, d. Sept. 29, 1988, was an undisputed master of macabre humor in which humanoid monsters were shown in everyday situations. His cartoons
began appearing in the New Yorker magazine in 1935. One depicted his favorite character, a haggard vamp, knocking at the door of an old crone and asking, "May I borrow a cup of cyanide?" His cartoons have been published in several books, including
Drawn and Quartered (1942), My Crowd (1970), and Creature Comforts (1981), and were the basis for a television series, "The Addams Family" (1964-66). _^<N__^<N_Christopher G. Trump
-END-
-C-
1100
CAT
-A-
Addams, Jane
-T-
Addams, Jane_^<N__^<N_Jane Laura Addams, b. Cedarville, Ill., Sept. 6, 1860, d. May 21, 1935, was an American social reformer, pacifist, and women's rights advocate. In 1889, influenced by British precedents, she founded HULL HOUSE, an institution
in Chicago where she and other social reformers lived and worked to improve conditions in the city's slums. Hull House became a model for many other settlement houses in the United States. Jane Addams became president of the Women's International
League for Peace and Freedom in 1919. Together with Nicholas Murray Butler, she received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931. Her books include Democracy and Social Ethics (1902) and Twenty Years at Hull House (1910). _^<N__^<N_John Robinson
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Addams, Jane, The Social Thought of Jane Addams, ed. by Christopher Lasch (1965); Davis, Allen F., American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams (1973; repr. 1983); Farrell, John C., Beloved Lady: A History of
Jane Addams's Ideas on Reform and Peace (1967); Johnson, Mary Ann, ed., The Many Faces of Hull House: The Photographs of Wallace Kirkland (1990).
-END-
-C-
769
CAT
-A-
addax
-T-
addax_^<N__^<N_{ad'-aks} _^<N__^<N_The addax, Addax nasomaculatus, is the single species of addax among many antelope species in the family Bovidae of the order Artiodactyla. It is found only in the Sahara, where it was once widespread. The plump,
short-legged addax is more than 1.8 m (6 ft) long and about 1 m (39 in) tall at the shoulders, and it weighs up to 120 kg (265 lb). Both sexes have long horns that are ringed and screw-shaped. The coat is gray to white, with a black skullcap and
facial markings. The broad hooves are an adaptation for travel on desert sands. Addaxes usually get water only from the plants they eat, but in captivity they drink large amounts. Unable to flee hunters as speedily as some other antelopes do, the
addax is an endangered species. _^<N__^<N_Everett Sentman
-END-
-C-
863
CAT
-A-
adder
-T-
adder_^<N__^<N_An adder is any of several venomous snakes of the viper family, Viperidae. The name is also applied to several other kinds of snakes, some nonpoisonous. The species best known simply as "adder" is the common adder, or European
viper, Vipera berus, found throughout Europe and northern Asia. Its stocky body--typical of vipers, which ambush and strike their prey and wait for them to die, rather than actively pursue them--reaches a length of about 60 cm (2 ft) and is
usually brownish, with a black zigzag stripe down the back. The snake feeds on lizards and small mammals, and its bite is rarely fatal to humans. It is ovoviviparous; the eggs reach full development within the female and the young are born live
or hatch immediately upon laying. _^<N__^<N_Peter L. Petrakis _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Minton, Sherman A., and Madge R., Venomous Reptiles, rev. ed. (1980).
-END-
-C-
596
CAT
-A-
adder's-tongue
-T-
adder's-tongue_^<N__^<N_Adder's-tongue is any of about 25 species constituting the herb genus Erythronium of the lily family, Liliaceae. Other common names are dog's-tooth violet, fawn lily, and trout lily. The plants are 15-60 cm (6-24 in) high,
and their two broad leaves are richly mottled, and the graceful flowers may be a variety of colors, making them attractive plants for rock gardens. They are native to North America, with one species in Eurasia. Adder's-tongue fern is the common
name for the fern genus Ophioglossum, which is widely dispersed in temperate and tropical regions. _^<N__^<N_Charles Wilson
-END-
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49
CAT
-A-
addiction:
-T-
addiction:_^<N__^<N_see ALCOHOLISM; DRUG ABUSE; SMOKING.
-END-
-C-
4306
CATO
-A-
adding machine
-O-
000000|adding machine
000757| MECHANICAL DEVICES
003382| ELECTRONIC DEVICES
-T-
adding machine_^<N__^<N_The adding machine is a mechanical device that adds numbers. The forerunners of such devices were prehistoric and may have been scratches in rock, notches in wood, knots in a strip of hide, or pebbles grouped together. The
regularly spaced knots in a ship's line that were added to tell the depth of the water, or an array of stone counters shifted on a board in ancient and medieval times, were used to perform some of the functions of an adding machine, as were the
beads-on-wires of the medieval Chinese suan pan, called ABACUS today (from Greek abax, meaning "counting board"). All these early devices required their operators to know how to count, and they demonstrated that physical objects could be placed
and moved to represent numbers and sums. _^<N__^<N_ MECHANICAL DEVICES_^<N__^<N_Knowledge of these devices was used to design the earliest-known machine that itself added numbers by moving and shifting physical objects without requiring a human
operator to know how to add. The physical objects were gear wheels and worm gears, meshed to form a train of gears. Described in a treatise by Hero of Alexandria that dates from the 2d century AD, this machine could add up the stades (kilometers
or miles) that a carriage traveled. _^<N__^<N_The principle of its operation, based on the rotation of the pegged or single-tooth wheel, is still found today in water meters, gas meters, and bicycle and automobile ODOMETERS. If a one-tooth gear,
driven by a wheel of the carriage, engages its single tooth with a ten-teeth gear once every time it revolves, the result will be that it must make ten revolutions in order to rotate the ten-teeth gear once. If the ten-teeth gear has on its axle a
second one-tooth gear that engages a second ten-teeth gear, then the second ten-teeth gear will revolve once for every 100 revolutions of the original single-tooth gear. _^<N__^<N_If the vehicle travels 0.01 km every time the first single-tooth
gear revolves once, then the second ten-teeth gear will revolve once per kilometer. If the ten numbers 0 through 9 are evenly spaced around the rim of the second ten-teeth gear wheel, then as each number appears behind a tiny window in front of
the rim, 1 km is registered. For every matched pair of one- and ten-teeth gears added to the train thereafter, another window may be added. Thus, two windows read up to 99 km, and four windows up to 9,999 km. _^<N__^<N_In the 17th century the
French mathematician Blaise PASCAL converted this mechanical arrangement of the odometer into an adding machine that a clerk could operate. He made each ten-teeth wheel accessible to be turned directly by a person's hand (later inventors added
keys and a crank), with the result that when the wheels were turned in the proper sequences, a series of numbers was entered and a cumulative sum was obtained. The gear train supplied a mechanical answer equal to the answer that is obtained by
using arithmetic. _^<N__^<N_In the same century the German mathematician and philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm von LEIBNIZ extended the adding ability of Pascal's machine to produce a multiplying calculator that achieved results by adding. Thus, the
answer to 14 x 5 was obtained by adding 14 five times. The mechanical principles of the adding machine were extended and incorporated in hand-cranked calculators during the 18th and 19th centuries and in electrically operated calculators during
the 20th century. _^<N__^<N_ ELECTRONIC DEVICES_^<N__^<N_By the middle of the 20th century, the electronic circuitry of the COMPUTER began to replace the electromechanical adding operations of business office machines, and by the last quarter of
the century microminiaturization of circuits made the handheld CALCULATOR possible. The startlingly rich and varied logical capacities of these devices virtually eclipsed their still-retained ability to function as adding machines. Thus, although
the familiar adding machine of the 19th and early 20th centuries became obsolete in the face of technological progress, human exploitation of the fundamental capacity of machines to "add" by physical operations persists. _^<N__^<N_Thomas M. Smith
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Houston, S., Office Calculators and Adding Machines (1981); Merchant, Ronald, Adding Machines and Calculators (1974); Walker, A. L., et al., How to Use Adding and Calculating Machines, 3d ed. (1967).
-END-
-C-
643
CAT
-A-
Addington, Henry, 1st Viscount Sidmouth
-T-
Addington, Henry, 1st Viscount Sidmouth_^<N__^<N_Henry Addington, b. May 30, 1757, d. Feb. 15, 1844, served briefly as Tory prime minister (1801-05) of Great Britain. Addington entered the House of Commons in 1784 and was Speaker from 1789 to
1801, when he became prime minister. An uninspired leader, he resigned over his mishandling of British military efforts in the NAPOLEONIC WARS. _^<N__^<N_Created (1805) Viscount Sidmouth, he was home secretary from 1812 to 1821. Instrumental in
crushing the LUDDITES, the reactionary Addington increased British magistrates' summary powers, suspended HABEAS CORPUS, and introduced acts limiting rights of assembly.
-END-
-C-
1724
CAT
-A-
Addis Ababa
-T-
Addis Ababa_^<N__^<N_{ad'-is ah'-buh-buh} _^<N__^<N_Addis Ababa ("New Flower") is the capital of Ethiopia and has a population of 1,423,111 (1984 est.). It is located in the Entoto Mountains of Shewa province in the northwestern region of the
African high plateau. At an elevation of 2,400 m (8,000 ft), the city has a pleasant temperature range of 15 deg-18 deg C (60 deg-65 deg F). The rainy season, with cooler temperatures, lasts from mid-June to mid-September. The average yearly
rainfall is 1,120 mm (44.1 in). _^<N__^<N_Addis Ababa was established in 1887 by Emperor Menelik II. Amharas predominate, but other ethnic groups are also represented. In addition, an international community of approximately 50,000 is centered
around the Organization of African Unity (OAU) and the UN Economic Commission for Africa, both of which have headquarters in the city. _^<N__^<N_The architectural pattern reflects the mixed population. The upper section of the city includes
traditional living areas, shanty towns, the central market, and Addis Ababa University. The newer and lower section contains government buildings, international offices (such as the OAU's Africa Hall), the Jubilee Palace, and other palaces of
former emperors. The growth of the city has, however, been sporadic and unplanned. _^<N__^<N_Addis Ababa is the site of Addis Ababa University (1950), and numerous churches. Saint Michael's Church, consecrated in 1986, is one of the largest
Christian churches in Africa. Many artists, most of whom paint church scenes on animal skins or canvas, reside in the city. Jewelry, rugs, and baskets are also produced. Many industrial establishments, such as cement factories, beer and tobacco
plants, and textile mills are located in the city. _^<N__^<N_Peter Schwab
-END-
-C-
2910
CATO
-A-
Addison, Joseph
-O-
000000|Addison, Joseph
000335| Political Career
001473| Writings
-T-
Addison, Joseph_^<N__^<N_Joseph Addison, b. May 1, 1672, d. June 17, 1719, an English poet and essayist, was coauthor with Sir Richard STEELE of the great series of periodical essays The Tatler and The Spectator. He is ranked among the minor
masters of English prose style and credited with raising the general cultural level of the English middle classes. _^<N__^<N_ Political Career_^<N__^<N_Addison, educated at Oxford, had his first poem published in 1693. He was politically
ambitious, and much of his literary effort was an adjunct to his ambition. His early poems paid court to important WHIG leaders; he first achieved celebrity with The Campaign (1704), a poem commemorating the Battle of Blenheim. Later he wrote
two series of essays, The Whig Examiner (1710) and The Freeholder (1715-16), in defense of his party. So closely was he identified with the Whigs that when he produced his only play, Cato (1713), a tragedy whose hero is the Roman patriot, it
enjoyed great success as an allegory of contemporary politics. _^<N__^<N_These efforts proved effective: Addison was appointed undersecretary of state (1706), secretary to the lord lieutenant in Ireland (1709), and secretary to the Regency
following the death of Queen Anne (1714). His highest office was secretary of state (1717-18), from which he retired with a generous pension. His personal conduct had always been sober; on his deathbed he is said to have summoned his stepson to
his side so that he might see "in what peace a Christian can die." _^<N__^<N_ Writings_^<N__^<N_Addison had been schoolboy friends with Steele, to whose Tatler (1709-11) he became chief contributor. In The Spectator (1711-12) their positions were
reversed: of 555 essays, Addison wrote 274. Addison adopted Steele's purpose from The Tatler, "to enliven Morality with Wit, and to temper Wit with Morality," and added a further purpose: to introduce his middle-class public to recent
developments in philosophy and literature and thus to educate their taste. Thus Addison helped to popularize the philosophy of John LOCKE; he devoted a series of Spectator essays to criticism of John MILTON's PARADISE LOST; and he inculcated
principles of good judgment in the arts. He did this with the urbanity of a man about town, and in prose that remains a model of intelligent, graceful simplicity. _^<N__^<N_He also continued from The Tatler the practice of inventing fictional
characters who represented different walks of life and whose adventures entertained readers. The most popular of these was Sir Roger de Coverley, a country gentleman of charming eccentricity, good sense, and kindness. To later generations this
character embodied a sentimental ideal of the English country squire. _^<N__^<N_William McCarthy _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Allen, Robert J., Addison and Steele: Selections from the Tatler and the Spectator (1957); Ketcham, M.C., Transparent Designs
(1985); Smithers, Peter, The Life of Joseph Addison, 2d ed. (1968).
-END-
-C-
615
CAT
-A-
Addison's disease
-T-
Addison's disease_^<N__^<N_Addison's disease is caused by insufficient production of hormones by the cortex of the ADRENAL GLANDS, usually resulting from damage by tuberculosis or by fungal infections. The disease is named for Thomas Addison
(1793-1860), the English physician who first described it in 1855. Symptoms are weakness, anemia, weight loss, gastrointestinal problems, low blood pressure, tanning of the skin, and sometimes nervousness and irritability. Although the disease
was once nearly always fatal, patients treated with synthetic cortical hormones may now expect to recover completely. _^<N__^<N_Peter L. Petrakis
-END-
-C-
25
CAT
-A-
addition:
-T-
addition:_^<N__^<N_see ARITHMETIC.
-END-
-C-
497
CAT
-A-
Ade, George
-T-
Ade, George_^<N__^<N_The journalist, humorist, and playwright George Ade, b. Kentland, Ind., Feb. 9, 1866, d. May 16, 1944, mastered a midwestern idiom of homespun phrases and incongruous moralisms best illustrated in Fables in Slang (1899). His
parables of naivete and pomposity first appeared in his Chicago Record newspaper column. Ten of his plays appeared on Broadway, including The County Chairman (1903) and The College Widow (1904). _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Lazarus, A. L., ed., The Best
of George Ade (1985).
-END-
-C-
1402
CAT
-A-
Adelaide
-T-
Adelaide_^<N__^<N_Adelaide is the capital city of South Australia and Australia's fifth largest city, with a population of 1,023,617 (1991). More than 70 percent of all people in South Australia live in Adelaide. Located in the southeastern part of
Australia, it is on the Torrens River approximately 8 km (5 mi) inland from the Gulf of St. Vincent on an alluvial plain between the coast and the Mount Lofty Range. _^<N__^<N_Adelaide, founded in 1836, was named for Queen Adelaide, consort of
William IV. It is a planned and uncongested city, whose center is divided by the Torrens into two areas, the northern, residential area and the southern, business area. A parkland belt runs along the river, and a green belt surrounds the central
city. _^<N__^<N_Heavy industry--automobile plants, tire plants, steel works, chemical plants, oil refineries, and sugar refineries--is concentrated along the rail link between Adelaide and Port Adelaide. An oil refinery is also located at Hallett
Cove, approximately 32 km (20 mi) south of the city. Dairy farming and apple orchards flourish in the fertile areas around the city. _^<N__^<N_Adelaide is the home of the University of Adelaide (1874) and the biennial Adelaide Festival of Arts,
held in the modern Adelaide Festival Centre. The South Australian Museum houses the world's largest collection of aboriginal artifacts. The Institute of Art and the Adelaide Museum are also located in the city.
-END-
-C-
53
CAT
-A-
Adelaide, University of:
-T-
Adelaide, University of:_^<N__^<N_see AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES.
-END-
-C-
1371
CAT
-A-
Aden
-T-
Aden_^<N__^<N_Aden (1984 est. pop., 318,000) was the capital of the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen until 1990, when the two Yemens merged and Sana became the political capital of the new Republic of Yemen. Located on the northwest shore of
the Gulf of Aden, about 160 km (100 mi) east of the Bab el-Mandeb, it is the country's principal port. Aden, a drab city, is hot and extremely dry. The average temperature is 29 deg C (84 deg F), and the average annual rainfall is 39 mm (1.54
in). Oil is the most important product, and extensive oil bunkerage facilities have been built in the harbor. Salt, tiles, bricks, textiles, coal, and hides are also produced. _^<N__^<N_The city is made up of several separate areas. Crater, or
the old city, is on a small peninsula and within the walls of an ancient volcano. The Crescent, or new city, includes the port and commercial area on the western peninsula. The oil refinery is on the mainland at Little Aden. The University of
Aden was founded here in 1975. _^<N__^<N_Settled as early as the 3d century BC, Aden was a Roman trading port. It was captured by the Turks in 1538 and controlled by North Yemen until 1728. From 1839 to 1967 it was controlled by Great Britain.
The port was used as an important station on the route from the Mediterranean through the Suez Canal, to India. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Khour, Z. H., The History of Aden (1981).
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666
CAT
-A-
Aden, Gulf of
-T-
Aden, Gulf of_^<N__^<N_The Gulf of Aden is the sea link between the Red Sea and the Arabian Sea extending between the Arabian Peninsula and the Horn of Africa. It is bordered on the north by Yemen (Aden), on the west by Djibouti, and on the south by
Somalia. In the northwest it is connected with the Red Sea by the strait of Bab el-Mandeb; on the east it opens to the Arabian Sea. The gulf was heavily used by oil tankers heading south toward the Cape of Good Hope and north through the Suez
Canal, but such traffic has declined in recent years. It is of strategic importance for oil-consuming states. The main ports on the gulf are Aden, Djibouti, and Berbera. _^<N__^<N_Peter Schwab
-END-
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2049
CAT
-A-
Adenauer, Konrad
-T-
Adenauer, Konrad_^<N__^<N_{ah'-duh-now-ur} _^<N__^<N_Konrad Adenauer, b. Jan. 5, 1876, d. Apr. 19, 1967, was the first chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany. The son of a court clerk in Cologne, he became a lawyer, entered politics, and was
mayor of his native city from the last year of World War I until his expulsion by the National Socialists in 1933. He was a leader of the catholic Center party; he also served (1920-33) as chairman of the Prussian upper house, the Council of
State, during the Weimar Republic and twice was seriously considered for the chancellorship. _^<N__^<N_Relatively undisturbed during the Third Reich until, late in 1944, the Gestapo imprisoned him for two months, Adenauer was reinstated as mayor
when U.S. forces took Cologne in spring 1945. He then became cofounder and leader of the postwar Christian Democratic Union, president of the assembly that drafted the constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany being formed from the U.S.,
British, and French zones of occupation, and, in 1949, the republic's first chancellor. He retired from this office in 1963 at the age of 87, but he remained in the West German parliament until his death four years later. _^<N__^<N_A stern
patriarch and shrewd politician, Adenauer was deeply committed to the traditional values of Western Christendom that Adolf Hitler and many of his followers had repudiated. But he was no less opposed than Hitler to communism and therefore pursued
throughout his long chancellorship a single-mindedly Western-oriented foreign policy, with the result that West Germany became not only a major economic and political power in Western Europe but also a pillar of NATO. _^<N__^<N_Donald S. Detwiler
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Adenauer, Konrad, Memoirs, 4 vols., trans. by Beate von Oppen (1966-70); Heidenheimer, Arnold J., Adenauer and the CDU: The Rise of the Leader and the Integration of the Party (1960); Cudlipp, E., Adenauer (1985);
Hiscocks, Richard, The Adenauer Era (1966); Prittie, Terence, Konrad Adenauer, 1876-1967 (1971); Ryder, A. J., Twentieth-Century Germany (1973).
-END-
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639
CAT
-A-
adenoids
-T-
adenoids_^<N__^<N_{ad'-uhn-oidz} _^<N__^<N_Adenoids are tonsillike folds of lymphoid tissue in the nasopharynx, the passage leading from the nose to the throat. They are correctly called pharyngeal tonsils; the term adenoids is applied when the
tissues are enlarged and inflamed. Their function is not known exactly, but they tend to atrophy as a child grows up. The adenoids can become infected, however, in which case they cause earaches and interfere with breathing. The infection may
spread to the tonsils or to the eustachian tubes. The standard treatment of infected pharyngeal tissues is to remove them surgically. _^<N__^<N_Peter L. Petrakis _^<N__^<N_See also: TONSILS.
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663
CAT
-A-
adenoma
-T-
adenoma_^<N__^<N_{ad-uh-noh'-muh} _^<N__^<N_An adenoma is a nonmalignant tumor of glandular tissue. It can occur in mucous glands of the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts and in endocrine glands. Although adenomas are not likely to become
malignant, they can cause medical problems. For example, adenoma in the stomach is associated with vague stomach pain, lack of stomach hydrochloric acid, and pernicious anemia. Bronchial adenoma is associated with the coughing up of blood and with
repeated pulmonary infections. Adenoma in the endocrine glands can result in excessive secretion of endocrine hormones by these glands, which affects numerous body organs. _^<N__^<N_Peter L. Petrakis
-END-
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635
CAT
-A-
adhesion
-T-
adhesion_^<N__^<N_In physics, adhesion is the attraction of two different substances, one of which is usually a liquid and the other a solid. Adhesion results from intermolecular forces between the substances and is distinct from cohesion, which
involves only intermolecular attractive forces within a single substance. The forces in both adhesion and cohesion are chiefly van der Waals forces. The competition of adhesive and cohesive forces results in CAPILLARITY, in which a liquid either
rises or falls in a fine tube. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Crane, Dale, Physics (1986); Weber, Robert, et al., College Physics (1974). _^<N__^<N_See also: SURFACE TENSION.
-END-
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2397
CAT
-A-
adhesive
-T-
adhesive_^<N__^<N_An adhesive is a substance capable of holding two surfaces together in a strong, often permanent bond. Adhesives may be classified as natural or synthetic; or they may be classified by their reaction to heat (thermoplastic and
thermosetting adhesives) or by their ability to remain rigid or to stretch (ELASTOMER adhesives). _^<N__^<N_In the 20th century, natural adhesives--primarily organic and of animal or vegetable origin--have been replaced or modified by synthetics,
either used alone or added to natural adhesives. Most synthetics are polymers--composed of huge molecules formed by the union of many simple molecules--and supply great strength and flexibility. Thermoplastic resin adhesives, such as vinyl resins
and cellulose derivatives that can be softened by heating, are used for the manufacture of safety glass and for the bonding of wood, rubber, metal, and paper products. Some thermoplastics, such as the polyamides, ROSIN derivatives, polyethylene,
and polyvinyl acetate, are used as hot-melt adhesives: they are applied in the molten state to form a rigid bond on cooling. Thermosetting adhesives, which include a large number of synthetic resins, are converted by heat or a catalyst into
insoluble and infusible materials. Tough, strong EPOXY RESINS shrink little as they harden. They are applied in two parts; the resin itself is cured or set by the addition of a catalyst, and the mixture usually hardens rapidly at room
temperature. Elastomeric adhesives include natural and synthetic rubber cements and are used for bonding flexible materials such as paper, textiles, and leather. _^<N__^<N_Medical researchers are investigating the use of adhesives, instead of
sutures and staples, in delicate microsurgeries and other situations where tissue damage must be minimized. In Europe, surgeons are already using a natural adhesive made of blood-clotting agents, and a similar substance is being tried
experimentally in the United States. Synthetic adhesives such as cyanoacrylates are also being used in eye surgeries, even though the substances are potentially damaging to tissues and have not been approved by the U. S. Food and Drug
Administration. Another possible medical adhesive is based on the chemistry of the protein used by mussels to attach themselves firmly to objects. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Kinloch, A. J., Adhesion and Adhesives (1987). _^<N__^<N_See also:
PLASTICS; RESIN.
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2017
CAT
-A-
adiabatic process
-T-
adiabatic process_^<N__^<N_{ad-ee-uh-bat'-ik} _^<N__^<N_Adiabatic compression and expansion are thermodynamic processes in which the pressure of a gas is increased or decreased without any exchange of heat energy with the surroundings. In fact, any
process that occurs without heat transfer is called an adiabatic process. (See HEAT AND HEAT TRANSFER.) _^<N__^<N_The adiabatic compression or expansion of a gas can occur if the gas is insulated from its surroundings or if the process takes place
quickly enough to prevent any significant heat transfer. This is essentially the case in a number of important devices, including air compressors, rockets, and internal combustion engines. The propagation of sound through the atmosphere also
takes place due to a series of adiabatic compression and expansion waves. _^<N__^<N_An adiabatic expansion is usually accompanied by a decrease in the gas temperature. This can be observed in the case of a common aerosol can, which becomes cold
after a quantity of gas has been released. The reason for the temperature drop is that the gas is released too quickly to absorb any significant heat energy from its surroundings. Thus, the work performed in expanding the released gas drains some
of the internal energy of the gas still in the can, making it colder. Once the can itself becomes cold to the touch, however, the process is no longer adiabatic. In a similar fashion, adiabatic compression usually increases the temperature of a
gas, since work is done on the system by the surroundings. For example, when air is pumped into an automobile tire, the air's temperature rises as a result of compression. _^<N__^<N_Adiabatic compression and expansion also occur in liquids and
solids. Liquid and solid matter, however, compress and expand to a much smaller degree than matter in the gaseous state. _^<N__^<N_Gary S. Settles _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Resnick, R., and Halliday, D., Physics for Students of Science and
Engineering, Part I (1960); Taffel, Alexander, Physics (1986). _^<N__^<N_See also: CARNOT CYCLE; GAS LAWS; THERMODYNAMICS.
-END-
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369
CAT
-A-
Adige River
-T-
Adige River_^<N__^<N_{ah-dee'-jay} _^<N__^<N_Located in northern Italy, the Adige River rises in Alpine lakes and runs 410 km (255 mi) past Bolzano and the Val Lagarina, near Verona, to enter the Adriatic Sea about 24 km (15 mi) south of Venice. It
has a drainage area of 12,200 sq km (4,710 sq mi). The Adige supplies hydroelectric power in the Alps and irrigates portions of the Veneto.
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1001
CAT
-A-
Adirondack Mountains
-T-
Adirondack Mountains_^<N__^<N_The Adirondack Mountains are a group of rounded, forested peaks in northeastern New York covering about 12,950 sq km (5,000 sq mi). Forty-five summits exceed 1,200 m (4,000 ft) in height; the tallest is Mount Marcy
(1,629 m/5,344 ft). Ancient Precambrian rocks (over 1 billion years old) underlie the mountains. Lake George, Lake Placid, and the Upper, Lower, and Middle Saranac lakes are among the many lakes created by glaciation. The Hudson River rises near
the top of Mount Marcy. Other river systems draining the region are the Sacandaga, the Black, and the Oswegatchie. _^<N__^<N_Almost two-thirds of the region is included in the wilderness Adirondack State Park, created by the state, and although
winter temperatures of -36 deg C (-35 deg F) are registered, it is a year-round recreation resort. Some iron ore deposits are mined. The Indians never settled permanently here, and the area remains sparsely populated. The name is derived from the
Indian for "they of the Great Rocks."
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44
CAT
-A-
Adivar, Halide Edib:
-T-
Adivar, Halide Edib:_^<N__^<N_see HALIDE EDIB ADIVAR.
-END-
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31
CAT
-A-
adjective:
-T-
adjective:_^<N__^<N_see PARTS OF SPEECH.
-END-
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2944
CAT
-A-
Adler, Alfred
-T-
Adler, Alfred_^<N__^<N_Alfred Adler, b. Feb. 7, 1870, d. May 28, 1937, was an Austrian physician and psychologist who created a socially oriented personality theory and system of psychotherapy called individual psychology. According to this
theory, people are guided by values and goals of which they may be aware, not driven by unconscious instincts. A younger contemporary of Sigmund FREUD, Adler attended Freud's circle from 1902 to 1911, leading Freud to claim him as a disciple who
later defected. Adler rejected the label of disciple, conceding only, "I learned from his mistakes." Adler pioneered in preventive psychiatry by establishing more than 30 child-guidance centers in Vienna and by countless speaking engagements to
large audiences. From 1926 until his death he lectured extensively in the United States, where he settled in 1935. Adler presented his system in The Neurotic Constitution (1912; Eng. trans., 1917), Practice and Theory (1920; Eng. trans.,
1925), Understanding Human Nature (1927; Eng. trans., 1927), Social Interest (1933; Eng. trans., 1938), and other works. _^<N__^<N_In individual psychology, the person is seen as moving away from situations that make him or her feel inferior
and toward goals of success and superiority. Adler accepted the phrase inferiority complex to denote extreme feelings of inadequacy. How one sees oneself and the world, one's goals, and one's manner of striving for these goals constitute one's
life-style. It is manifested in all one does, including one's dreams and early recollections. An individual is part of larger systems: physical; social, ranging from the family to all humanity; and biological, including the male-female system.
These create the problems of work, friendship, and sexual love. Their solution requires development of the human capacity for social interest. This coordinates one's striving with that of one's fellow humans. All forms of maladjustment, failure
in life, are striving for socially useless goals. In Adler's psychotherapy the patients' self-esteem is boosted and they are made aware of mistakes in life-style so that they may correct them. _^<N__^<N_By emphasizing the whole person as an active
agent relating to the surrounding world, Adler anticipated recent trends, and his psychology is increasingly popular. _^<N__^<N_H. L. Ansbacher _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Adler, Alfred, Superiority and Social Interest: A Collection of Later Writings,
ed. by H. L. and R. R. Ansbacher, 3d rev. ed. (1979), The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler, ed. by H. L. and R. R. Ansbacher (1956), and What Life Should Mean to You (1931); Ansbacher, H. L., Alfred Adler Revisited (1987);
Bottome, Phyllis, Alfred Adler: Apostle of Freedom, rev. ed. (1957); Orgler, Hertha, Alfred Adler: The Man and His Work (1939; 3d ed., 1963); Sperber, Manes, Masks of Loneliness: Alfred Adler in Perspective (1974); Stepansky, Paul E., In
Freud's Shadow: Adler in Context (1983).
-END-
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1142
CAT
-A-
Adler, Cyrus
-T-
Adler, Cyrus_^<N__^<N_Cyrus Adler, b. Van Buren, Ark., Sept. 13, 1863, d. Apr. 7, 1940, was an American educator and spokesman for Jewish rights. After graduating from the University of Pennsylvania and Johns Hopkins University, he taught Semitic
languages at the latter from 1884 to 1893. Other positions followed at the National Museum, the Smithsonian Institution, Dropsie College, and Jewish Theological Seminary, where he was president from 1915 to 1940. A regular contributor to
publications of the American Jewish Historical Society, Adler helped to establish the Jewish Publication Society of America. He also edited the articles on postbiblical antiquities and American Jews in the Jewish Encyclopedia (1905). Adler reacted
publicly against anti-Semitic excesses in Kishinev (1903), Poland (1917), the Ukraine (1919), and Palestine (1929). As president of the American Jewish Committee (1929-40), he spearheaded relief to Jews during the early years of Adolf Hitler.
_^<N__^<N_Saul S. Friedman _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Adler, Cyrus, Jews in the Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States (1906) and Selected Letters (1985); Neumann, A. A., Cyrus Adler (1942).
-END-
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1218
CAT
-A-
Adler, Dankmar
-T-
Adler, Dankmar_^<N__^<N_The German-born American architect Dankmar Adler, b. July 3, 1844, d. Apr. 16, 1900, was a member of the CHICAGO SCHOOL of architects that greatly influenced modern architecture in the United States. Adler gained his training
by working for various architectural firms after immigrating to Detroit in 1854. He moved to Chicago about 1865, and there he formed a partnership with Louis SULLIVAN that lasted from 1881 until 1895. In the partnership Adler was engineering
designer and administrator, and Sullivan was planner and artist for the buildings their firm constructed. Adler's mastery of acoustics, first evident in his plans for the Central Music Hall in Chicago (completed in 1879), achieved its zenith in the
theater (now restored) of the AUDITORIUM BUILDING (built 1887-89). The son of a liberal rabbi, Adler took part in the design and construction of a series of synagogues in Chicago, most notably, Isaiah Temple (1899). _^<N__^<N_J. Meredith Neil
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Charernbhak, Wichit, Chicago School Architects and Their Critics (1984); Morrison, H. S., Louis Sullivan: Prophet of Modern Architecture, rev. ed. (1971); Mumford, Lewis, ed., Roots of Contemporary American Architecture
(1952; repr. 1972).
-END-
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930
CAT
-A-
Adler, Felix
-T-
Adler, Felix_^<N__^<N_Felix Adler, b. Aug. 13, 1851, d. Apr. 24, 1933, was a German-born American educator and founder of the ETHICAL CULTURE movement. He studied at Columbia College and at the universities of Berlin and Heidelberg. After two
years as professor of Hebrew and Oriental literature at Cornell, Adler founded (1876) the New York Society for Ethical Culture. The Ethical Culture society welcomed people from all backgrounds and taught that an ethical reality existed
independently of the existence of a personal God. Under Adler, the society was active in child welfare, medical care for the poor, slum improvement, labor relations, and city politics. _^<N__^<N_Adler also pioneered in education, advocating
progressive education, free kindergartens, and vocational training schools. He was professor of political and social ethics at Columbia from 1902 to 1918. His books include Creed and Deed: A Series of Discourses (1877).
-END-
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2105
CAT
-A-
Adler, Jacob, Stella, and Luther
-T-
Adler, Jacob, Stella, and Luther_^<N__^<N_The Russian-born actor Jacob P. Adler, b. Jan. 1, 1855, d. Mar. 31, 1926, is widely considered to have been one of the greatest dramatic actors of the Yiddish stage. While the YIDDISH THEATER was in its
infancy, the 24-year-old Adler joined a professional troupe that toured Russia, presenting popular operettas. Although not a gifted singer, he excelled in romantic parts. Following the 1882 tsarist ban on Yiddish theater, Adler emigrated to London,
and four years later he went to the United States. Unsuccessful, he soon went back to Europe, but he returned to New York in 1890. His first production there failed, but his second offering, Soldier Moishele, was enthusiastically received.
Overnight, he became the idol of the Yiddish stage, a position he held for the rest of his life. One famous role was as Shakespeare's Shylock, which he played (1893) in Yiddish with an English-speaking cast. He also adapted Shakespeare's Hamlet and
King Lear for the Yiddish theater and often directed the productions he appeared in. _^<N__^<N_Adler (reverently referred to as the "Great Eagle") always starred in his own productions. He had commanding stage presence, enhanced by a fiery
temperament, a striking physique, and a rich, sonorous voice. He was at his best when playing highly dramatic or tragic roles. Adler was also instrumental in introducing the plays of Jacob GORDIN, the most celebrated Yiddish playwright of his time.
Adler's 1891 presentation of Siberia, the first Gordin play ever produced, inaugurated the "golden epoch" of the Yiddish theater. _^<N__^<N_Two of Adler's children distinguished themselves in the American theater. Luther Adler, b. May 4, 1903, d.
Dec. 8, 1984, was a prominent character actor on stage and in movies. Stella Adler, b. Feb. 10, 1902, d. Dec. 21, 1992, was one of the original members of the Group Theater and later opened her own acting studio, establishing herself as one of the
foremost American interpreters of the Stanislavsky acting method. _^<N__^<N_Edna Nahshon _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Rosenfeld, Lulla, The Yiddish Theater and Jacob P. Adler, rev. ed. (1988).
-END-
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1128
CAT
-A-
Adler, Mortimer J.
-T-
Adler, Mortimer J._^<N__^<N_The American professor and editor Mortimer Jerome Adler, b. New York City, Dec. 28, 1902, is best known for conceiving large publishing ventures, including the 54-volume Great Books of the Western World. Adler received
his doctorate at Columbia University. For 22 years he taught philosophy of law at the University of Chicago, becoming associated with Robert M. Hutchins in revising the university's curriculum. _^<N__^<N_Adler believed that a liberal education
could be derived from reading great works. With Hutchins he arranged the publication, in 1952, of the Great Books series, to which he appended a 2-volume index, the Synopticon. _^<N__^<N_Adler became director of the Institute for Philosophical
Research in 1952. For Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc., he edited Gateway to the Great Books (with Hutchins; 10 vols.) and Annals of America (20 vols.). He then served as director of planning of the 15th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Adler
also wrote the best-selling How to Read a Book (1940). His other books include Philosopher at Large: An Intellectual Autobiography (1977) and A Guidebook to Learning (1986).
-END-
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622
CAT
-A-
Adler, Renata
-T-
Adler, Renata_^<N__^<N_Renata Adler, b. Milan, Italy, Oct. 19, 1938, is an American writer known for her sharp, witty essays and inventive fiction. After studying at the Sorbonne and Harvard, in 1962, Adler became a reporter/writer for The New
Yorker. Her essays in Toward a Radical Middle (1970) cover a variety of political and cultural topics; her film reviews (1968-69) for The New York Times are collected in A Year in the Dark (1970). Her novels Speedboat (1976) and Pitch Dark (1983),
artistically fragmented works, received mixed notices. Reckless Disregard: Westmoreland v. CBS, et al.; Sharon v. Time (1986) is reportage.
-END-
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7223
CATO
4787
-A-
administrative law
-O-
000000|administrative law
000477| THE DEVELOPMENT OF ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES
003437| PRINCIPLES OF ADMINISTRATIVE LAW
003810| The Nondelegation Doctrine
004755| The Right to a Hearing
005928| Judicial Review
-T-
administrative law_^<N__^<N_Administrative law is the branch of law that governs and limits the exercise of decision-making authority by governmental agencies and officials. It consists of policies and procedures designed to prevent bureaucratic
arbitrariness, to ensure that administrative officials adhere to legislative mandates, to guarantee a fair hearing to individuals when significant interests may be affected by governmental action, and to subject administrative authority to judicial
control. _^<N__^<N_ THE DEVELOPMENT OF ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES_^<N__^<N_Administrative law is a response to the growth of the governmental administrative process in the United States. As the nation expanded, and as it became increasingly
industrialized and urbanized, it faced economic and social problems that required responses more technologically expert, more institutionally flexible, and more procedurally expeditious than either Congress or the courts could provide.
Administrative agencies--now numbering in the scores in the federal government and in the thousands in the state governments--were created to remedy institutional deficiencies in formulating and administering public policy. As a result, the
administrative process has become a fourth branch of government, comparable in the scope of its authority to the three traditional branches--the executive, the legislative, and the judicial. In fact, the decisions of administrative agencies
probably affect the lives of ordinary citizens more pervasively and more intimately than the decisions of the federal courts. Administrative law--the governing of the fourth branch of government--takes on importance because of its capacity to
subject the decisions of administrative agencies to procedural fairness and democratic accountability. The modern administrative process dates from the establishment of the Interstate Commerce Commission in 1887. Among the most prominent federal
administrative agencies are the FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION (1934), the NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD (1935), the SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION (1934), the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (1965), and the ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
AGENCY (1970). State governments generally rely on administrative agencies to regulate public utilities, to administer workers' compensation and public assistance programs, to collect taxes, and to supervise land use and zoning. The gradual growth
in the number and influence of the federal administrative agencies has required that new principles of law be developed to govern administrative agencies because they differ so significantly in structure and function from the legislature and the
courts. For example, the members of an administrative agency are appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate for limited terms of office, rather than being elected directly by the people as legislators are. In addition, the members of an
administrative agency, unlike other officials of government, are permitted to combine the inconsistent functions of investigating, prosecuting, and adjudicating--despite the risks of bias that such a combination of functions introduces--in order to
enhance their decision-making capabilities. Finally, administrative agencies, unlike other government institutions, are authorized to develop policy by a coordinated reliance on trial-type adjudicative proceedings characteristic of courts and on
rule-making proceedings similar to legislative hearings. _^<N__^<N_ PRINCIPLES OF ADMINISTRATIVE LAW_^<N__^<N_The principles of administrative law are rooted in the U.S. Constitution, the Administrative Procedure Act (a comprehensive federal
statute enacted in 1946), federal legislation creating the individual administrative agencies, the rules and procedures adopted by the agencies for the conduct of their responsibilities, and court decisions. _^<N__^<N_ The Nondelegation
Doctrine_^<N__^<N_A fundamental principle of administrative law prohibits Congress from delegating legislative power to administrative agencies without providing statutory standards to guide the exercise of the delegated power. The nondelegation
doctrine requires Congress to provide statutory standards in order to ensure that important public-policy issues are decided, at least in broad outline, in legislative forums that more closely reflect popular political sentiments. The Supreme
Court, however, has almost invariably sustained the constitutionality of statutes delegating legislative power, even when the standards have been vague and indefinite. A typical formulation directs an agency to serve "the public interest,
convenience, and necessity." Therefore, many commentators believe that the nondelegation doctrine has been ineffective in preventing the unrestricted transfer of legislative power to administrative agencies. _^<N__^<N_ The Right to a
Hearing_^<N__^<N_Another fundamental principle of administrative law requires an administrative agency to grant a hearing to those whose interests are likely to be affected significantly by the agency's proposed action. This requirement reflects
the historic judgment that the right to a hearing is an important protection for the individual against precipitate, possibly erroneous, governmental action. Administrative law, however, intentionally departs from the traditional judicial practice
of trial-type hearings. It permits agencies considerable flexibility in designing hearing procedures that are specifically adapted to the task at hand. Thus, the procedures by which an agency conducts its hearings may be ADVERSARY in nature if
factual issues are in dispute or legislative in nature if policy choices are involved. Sometimes they are an intermediate blend of trial-type and legislative procedures when factual and policy issues are intertwined. Whatever procedures an agency
chooses, it must comply with the DUE PROCESS clause of the Constitution and grant the affected individual an opportunity to be heard at a meaningful time and in a meaningful manner. _^<N__^<N_ Judicial Review_^<N__^<N_Still another fundamental
principle of administrative law requires that decisions of administrative agencies typically be subject to review by the courts. Judicial review of administrative action vindicates the rule of law, under which courts have always been the ultimate
guarantors of the legality of governmental action. It also ensures that administrative agencies, which may sometimes act with excessive zeal, pursue their mandate within the limits of their legislative authority and with a proper respect for
individual rights. Nevertheless, much administrative decision making remains beyond effective judicial control. No system can hope to review the vast number of informal decisions that every agency makes regularly. _^<N__^<N_James O. Freedman
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Davis, Kenneth C., Administrative Law of the Seventies (1976) and Administrative Law Treatise, 2d ed. (1977); Freedman, James O., Crisis and Legitimacy: The Administrative Process and American Government (1978); Lorch, R.S.,
Administrative Law, 2d ed. (1985), and Democratic Process and Administrative Law (1969; repr. 1973); Schwartz, Bernard, Administrative Law (1976) and Administrative Law Textbook, 2d ed. (1984); Wade, H. W., Administrative Law, 5th ed. (1982).
_^<N__^<N_See also: GOVERNMENT REGULATION.
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246
CAT
-A-
administrator
-T-
administrator_^<N__^<N_An administrator, in law, is a person given the authority to manage the ESTATE of a deceased person. An administrator differs from an EXECUTOR in being appointed by a court rather than being named in the will of the deceased
person.
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619
CAT
-A-
Admiral's Men
-T-
Admiral's Men_^<N__^<N_The Admiral's Men, a major Elizabethan acting company, was formed in 1594 as a successor to Lord Strange's Men and the Earl of Derby's Men. It was the chief rival of Shakespeare's CHAMBERLAIN'S MEN. After 1603 it became Prince
Henry's Men. The company's principal actor was Edward ALLEYN, featured in the tragedies of its leading playwright, Christopher MARLOWE: DOCTOR FAUSTUS, TAMBURLAINE THE GREAT, and The JEW OF MALTA. Also in its repertoire were plays by George
CHAPMAN, Thomas DEKKER, Ben JONSON, and Thomas KYD. _^<N__^<N_David M. Zesmer _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Chambers, E. K., The Elizabethan Stage, 4 vols. (1923).
-END-
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28
CAT
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admiralty:
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admiralty:_^<N__^<N_see MARITIME LAW.
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940
CAT
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Admiralty Islands
-T-
Admiralty Islands_^<N__^<N_The Admiralty Islands, in the Bismarck Archipelago, lie in the Pacific between the equator and New Guinea. They have a population of 27,000 (1984 est.). The daily mean temperature is 27 deg C (81 deg F); average annual
rainfall is 2,030-2,540 mm (80-100 in). Manus Island makes up about three-fourths of their 2,070 sq km (800 sq mi). The Dutch mariner Willem Schouten sighted the islands in 1616. About 16 islands are volcanic, and two dozen are coral. Heavily
forested mountains on Manus reach an elevation of 718 m (2,356 ft). Lorengau, the main port, is also the administrative center. The people, mostly members of Melanesian tribes, farm and fish. Commercial products include shells, pearls, and copra.
Japan occupied Manus during World War II, after which the Admiralties became part of a UN trust territory administered by Australia (1946). They are now part of Papua New Guinea, which gained independence in 1975.
-END-
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911
CAT
-A-
adobe
-T-
adobe_^<N__^<N_{uh-doh'-bee} _^<N__^<N_Adobe is sun-dried brick made of clay mixed with vegetable matter. It is believed to be African in origin, the word being derived from the Arabic for "brick." Adobe dwellings are common in the southwestern
United States and in Mexico, and the ruins of early pueblos reflect such construction. _^<N__^<N_An ideal building material for areas having little rainfall, adobe is made by kneading clay with a vegetable fiber such as straw, which acts as a
binder and reduces shrinkage during the curing process. Water is added to make a stiff plastic compound that is forced by hand into a wooden mold. The brick is placed outside to bake in the hot sun for several weeks and then set with moist adobe as
a cementing mortar. The finished building is also called an adobe. Inexpensive, fireproof, and an excellent insulating material, adobe is still used wherever the climate and the native clay are suitable.
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11903
CATO
4768
9608
-A-
adolescence
-O-
000000|adolescence
001156| PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGE
004028| COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
006215| IDENTITY FORMATION
008741| PARENT-ADOLESCENT RELATIONS
010281| ADOLESCENCE IN MODERN SOCIETY
-T-
adolescence_^<N__^<N_Adolescence is the developmental stage between childhood and adulthood; it generally refers to a period ranging from age 12 or 13 through age 19 or 21. Although its beginning is often equated with the onset of puberty,
adolescence is characterized by psychological and social stages as well as by biological changes ( see YOUNG PEOPLE). _^<N__^<N_Adolescence can be prolonged, brief, or virtually nonexistent, depending on the type of culture in which it occurs. In
technologically simple societies, for example, the transition from childhood to adulthood tends to be rapid and is marked by traditionally prescribed passage rites (see PASSAGE, RITES OF). By contrast, in American and European society the
transition period for young people has been steadily lengthening over the past 100 years, giving rise to an adolescent subculture and to a variety of problems and concerns specifically associated with this age group. Psychologists single out four
areas that especially touch upon adolescent behavior and development: physiological change and growth; cognitive, or mental development; identity, or personality formation; and parent-adolescent relations. _^<N__^<N_ PHYSIOLOGICAL
CHANGE_^<N__^<N_Between the ages of 9 and 15, almost all young people undergo a rapid series of physiological changes, known as the adolescent growth spurt. Beginning in the pituitary gland, these hormonal changes include an acceleration in the
body's growth rate; the development of pubic hair; the appearance of axillary, or armpit, hair about two years later; changes in the structure and functioning of the reproductive organs (see REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM); the mammary glands in girls;
and development of the sweat glands, which often leads to an outbreak of ACNE. In both sexes, these physiological changes occur at different times in different cultures, generally earlier in southern climates and later in northern climates.
_^<N__^<N_Girls typically begin the growth spurt shortly after age 10, reach a peak at about age 12, and decelerate markedly by age 14. The spurt occurs almost two years later in boys; thus, girls are typically taller and heavier than boys from
about ages ten and one-half to thirteen. _^<N__^<N_In girls, the enlargement of the breasts is usually the first external sign of impending puberty. Actual puberty is marked by the beginning of MENSTRUATION, or menarche. In the United States, 80
percent of all girls reach menarche between the ages of eleven and one-half and fourteen and one-half, 50 percent between 12 and 14, and 33 percent at or before age 11. The average age at which menstruation begins for American girls has been
dropping about six months every decade, and today contrasts greatly with the average age of a century ago, between 15 and 17. _^<N__^<N_Boys typically begin their rapid increase in growth at about twelve and one-half years of age, reach a peak
slightly after 14, and slow down sharply by age 16. This period is marked by the enlargement of the testes, scrotum, and penis; the development of the prostate gland; darkening of the scrotal skin; the growth of pubic hair and pigmented hair on
the legs, arms, and chest; and the enlargement of the larynx, containing the vocal cords, which leads to a deepening of the voice following a transitional period in which the voice "cracks." _^<N__^<N_No diseases are unique to adolescence, other
than problems directly related to the physical onset of puberty. Some conditions, however, tend to make their first appearance then, such as migraine (see HEADACHE), iron-deficiency ANEMIA, certain bone and thyroid problems, and various urinary
tract infections. Mild acne is common. Girls may experience irregular menstruation or have painful periods, but these developments are usually self-correcting. Vision changes such as myopia may become marked, and hearing impairment is sometimes
observed (often in association with exposure to greatly amplified music). In addition, onset of certain congenital problems such as KLINEFELTER'S SYNDROME is most common during the adolescent years. _^<N__^<N_ COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT_^<N__^<N_Current views on the intellectual changes that take place during adolescence have been heavily influenced by the work of the Swiss psychologist Jean PIAGET, who sees the mental capability of adolescents as both qualitatively
and quantitatively superior to that of younger children. According to Piaget and the developmentalist school of psychology, the thinking capacity of young people automatically increases in complexity as a function of age. Developmentalists find
distinct differences between younger and older adolescents in ability to generalize, to handle abstract ideas, to infer appropriate connections between cause and effect, and to reason logically and consistently. _^<N__^<N_Whether these changes in
cognitive ability should be attributed primarily to a new and invariant developmental stage, as Piaget suggests, or should be considered the result of accumulating knowledge that allows for new mental and moral perspectives, an enlarged capacity
for making distinctions, and a greater awareness of and sensitivity to others, is a question on which psychologists continue to disagree. Behaviorists such as Harvard's B. F. SKINNER, for instance, did not believe intellectual development could be
divided into distinct stages. Rather, they emphasized the influence of conditioning experiences on behavior, that is, of a continuous flow of punishments and rewards. Thus, to the extent that intellectual ability in adolescence differs from that
of earlier years, they see it as the result of learning, or the acquisition of more appropriate responses brought about by conditioning. Other investigators have found a strong association between certain socioeconomic characteristics and
adolescent intellectual achievement. Findings suggest that well-educated, economically secure, small-sized families provide the kind of environment--including parental encouragement, books and other cultural tools, individual attention, and an
extended vocabulary--in which intellectual development among adolescents is most apt to flourish. Test scores, however, seem to be more related to the verbal ability than to the performance aspects of adolescents' intelligence. _^<N__^<N_ IDENTITY
FORMATION_^<N__^<N_Psychologists also disagree about the causes and significance of the emotional and personality changes that occur during adolescence. Many Freudian psychologists believe that the overt sexual awakening of adolescents is an
inevitable cause of emotional strain, sometimes leading to neurosis. Psychologists following other schools of thought place less emphasis on the specifically sexual aspects of adolescence, considering sex as only one of many adjustments young
people must make in their search for a stable identity. _^<N__^<N_The effects of physical change, the development of sexual impulses, increased intellectual capacity, and social pressure to achieve independence all contribute to molding a new
self-definition. The dynamics of identity formation are linked to the adolescent's self-image. This is especially affected by the opinions of people who are important in the lives of adolescents and interact with them. Gradually, the emotional
dependency of childhood yields to an emotional commitment to meet the expectations of others--parents, peers, teachers, employers. If adolescents fail to meet the goals set for them by the important people in their lives, they usually feel obliged
to reevaluate their motives, attitudes, or activities. The ensuing censure or approval to which they are subjected in this learning cycle help determine both their later commitment to responsible behavior and their sense of social competence
throughout life. _^<N__^<N_The peer group also provides a standard by which individuals can measure themselves during the process of identity formation. Within the peer group, a young person can try out a variety of roles--leader or follower,
deviant or conformist. The values and norms of the group permit adolescents to acquire a perspective on their own values and attitudes. A peer group can also help them to make the transition from reliance on the family to relative independence.
The common language, clothing, music, and customs adopted by their generation allow them to express a distinct identity that in turn eases the anxiety of separation from past sources of reference and identity. _^<N__^<N_A prime source of identity
for adolescents is the type of work chosen or envisioned. The vocational decision can lead to an "identity crisis" before a specific career is finally chosen. Adolescent girls who either marry early or make no career plans beyond the prospect of
marriage and children often experience a sense of identity diffusion, an incomplete sense of identity. _^<N__^<N_ PARENT-ADOLESCENT RELATIONS_^<N__^<N_The FAMILY has traditionally provided a set of values and the milieu where young people can
observe and begin to learn adult ways of behavior. The extended family of previous generations, which often included grandparents and relatives as distant as nieces and nephews, has in many Western countries given way to the nuclear family unit,
consisting of parents and one or two children. In modern industrial societies, however, the nuclear family has come to seem relatively unstable, as divorce grows increasingly common and many children reach adolescence with only one parent. In
addition, rapid social changes have weakened the continuity of life experience and values between the generations, and adolescents may often view their parents as having little capacity to guide them in their adjustment to the larger world. The
conflict that sometimes results from differing parent-adolescent perceptions is called the "generation gap." Such conflict is by no means inevitable and is less likely to characterize families in which both adolescents and parents have been exposed
to the same new ideas and values. _^<N__^<N_Other parental characteristics likely to influence adolescents include social class, the pattern of equality or dominance between mother and father, and the consistency with which parental control is
exercised. Young people with parents whose guidance is firm, consistent, and rational tend to possess greater self-confidence than those whose parents are either overly permissive or authoritarian. _^<N__^<N_ ADOLESCENCE IN MODERN
SOCIETY_^<N__^<N_Adolescence is often looked upon as a period of stormy and stressful transition. Anthropologists have noted that in less developed cultures the adolescent years do not always have to exhibit such characteristics, when children can
participate fully in the activities of their community. As life in industrialized societies grows more complex, however, adolescents are increasingly cut off from the activities of their elders, leaving most young people with education as their
sole occupation. Inevitably, this has isolated many of them from the adult world and has prolonged their adolescence. In advanced industrial societies such as the United States, the adolescent years have become marked by violence to an alarming
degree; indeed, violence has replaced communicable diseases as the leading cause of juvenile death. The phenomenon of teenage SUICIDE has become particularly disturbing, but risk-taking behaviors of many sorts can be observed, including alcohol
and DRUG ABUSE. _^<N__^<N_Robert E. Grinder and Theron Alexander _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Conger, John J., Adolescence: Generation under Pressure (1980); Dacey, J. E., Adolescents Today, 3d ed. (1986); Feldman, S. Shirley, and Elliott, Glen R.,
At the Threshold (1990); Fuhrman, B. S., Adolescence, Adolescents (1986); Hauser, Stuart T., et al., Adolescents and Their Families (1991); Muuss, R. E., Theories of Adolescence, 5th ed. (1988); Nielson, Linda, Adolescence (1987); Santrock, J.
W., Adolescence: An Introduction, 3d ed. (1987); Sprinthall, Norman, and Collins, W. A., Development in Adolescence, 2d ed. (1985).
-END-
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548
CAT
-A-
Adonais
-T-
Adonais_^<N__^<N_{ad-uh-nay'-is} _^<N__^<N_In his poem "Adonais" (1821) Percy Bysshe SHELLEY recast a Greek pastoral ELEGY into a formal lament for the poet John Keats, whose death (1821) Shelley felt had been hastened by the critics blamed in the
poem. Its concluding 18 Spenserian stanzas are a magnificently sustained exposition of the variant forms of immortality that Shelley not only accorded Keats but shared with him through the intensity of his poetic inspiration. "Adonais" ranks with
John Milton's "Lycidas" as the greatest of English elegies. _^<N__^<N_E. B. Murray
-END-
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1044
CAT
-A-
Adonis (mythology)
-T-
Adonis (mythology)_^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, Adonis was a handsome young shepherd loved by APHRODITE. The offspring of a love affair between King Cinyras of Cyprus and his daughter Myrrha, Adonis was born from the trunk of the myrrh tree into
which his mother had been changed by the gods. Aphrodite left the infant Adonis in the care of PERSEPHONE, the queen of the underworld, who also fell in love with him. While hunting, Adonis wounded a wild boar, which turned on him and killed him.
Aphrodite pleaded that he be restored to her, but Zeus decided that both goddesses should share him for eternity: Adonis would spend the spring and summer with Aphrodite and the rest of the year with Persephone in the underworld. The anemone,
the wild flower that each year blooms briefly and then dies, is said to have sprung from his blood. Adonis, imported probably from the Phoenicians, came to be revered as a dying-and-rising god. Athenians held Adonia, a yearly festival
representing his death and resurrection, in midsummer. _^<N__^<N_Robert E. Wolverton
-END-
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786
CAT
-A-
Adonis (writer)
-T-
Adonis (writer)_^<N__^<N_Adonis or Adunis is the pen name of Ali Ahmad Said, b. Syria, 1930, who is one of the Arab world's finest avant-garde poets and essayists. His daring poetic forms and his vision of a radically changed life for the Arabs
challenge Arab literary tradition and culture. He has written innovative works on literary theory and intellectual history and has published several poetry collections, including The Songs of Mihyar, the Damascene (1961) and Singular in the Form of
the Plural (1977). His Introduction to Arab Poetics, translated by Catherine Cobham, was published in 1991. In January 1993, he was selected as a member of the Universal Academy of Cultures, established by Elie Wiesel. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Jayyusi, S. K., Trends and Movements in Modern Arabic Poetry (1977).
-END-
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3205
CAT
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adoption and foster care
-T-
adoption and foster care_^<N__^<N_Adoption is the legal proceeding whereby a person who is not a child's natural parent becomes the child's legal parent. Adopted children have all the rights and duties of natural children. Foster care, on the other
hand, is a temporary arrangement, usually made by a state or municipal child-welfare agency, that places a child from a broken, abusive, or poverty-stricken home in the care of a foster family. _^<N__^<N_U.S. adoptions may be arranged privately
(although not without agency supervision in some jurisdictions) or through either public or private agencies. The agencies investigate both the child's parentage and the suitability of the adoptive family. Placements are then reviewed and normally
sanctioned by a court, which then issues a new birth certificate designating the adoptive parents as the parents. Most U.S. states require the sealing of agency records from the adoptive family, the child, and the natural parents. However, under
pressure from adoptive persons wishing to know their "true" identity, states increasingly have granted adoptive adults access to their original birth certificates. The "right to know"--automatic in 1992 in only Alaska, Hawaii, and Kansas--has also
fostered the practice of open adoption, in which adoptive parents allow natural parents visitation rights. _^<N__^<N_In the past most babies put up for adoption were the children of unwed mothers. In recent years, however, the wider use of
contraceptives and the greater availability of abortions have reduced the pool of available children. Moreover, because illegitimacy itself has lost much of its stigma, many unwed mothers now choose to keep their babies. The number of available
adoptees--particularly white infants--has thus shrunk dramatically, in the face of growing demand. Many U.S. families seek their adoptive children outside the United States. South Korea was formerly an important source. Mexico and other Latin
American countries continue to be. Many U.S. babies are also adopted outside the usual agency channels, through either private arrangements or illegal black-market undertakings made between the natural mother and the prospective parents with the
aid of a doctor or lawyer, often for a very high fee. _^<N__^<N_In 1980 the U.S. Congress passed legislation designed to encourage the adoption of children in foster care by providing foster families with maintenance payments and Medicaid when they
adopt. (Under previous regulations, if the foster family adopted, maintenance payments were cut off.) This legislation recognized the essential failure of the foster-care system, which since the 1960s had provided federal subsidies for placing
children with foster families, while neglecting to subsidize attempts either to rehabilitate natural families or to find some means by which children can remain with one set of foster parents rather than being shifted from family to family. By the
early 1990s there were some 250,000 U.S. children in foster homes and an estimated 3 million U.S. adoptees. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Adams, C., and Pierce, W., The Encyclopedia of Adoption (1991); Gilman, L., The Adoption Resource Book, rev. ed.
(1987); Rowe, Janet, et al., Long-Term Foster Care (1984).
-END-
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569
CAT
-A-
adoptionism
-T-
adoptionism_^<N__^<N_Adoptionism, or adoptianism, was a theological doctrine propounded in the 8th century by a Spanish bishop, Elipandus of Toledo. Concerned to distinguish between the divine and human natures of Christ, Elipandus held that in his
divinity Christ was the son of God by nature, but in his humanity by adoption only. The doctrine was opposed by the English scholar Alcuin and condemned as heresy by the Council of Frankfurt (794). Similar views were held by PAUL OF SAMOSATA and
the followers of MONARCHIANISM. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Belloc, H., Great Heresies (1938).
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750
CAT
-A-
Adorno, Theodor W.
-T-
Adorno, Theodor W._^<N__^<N_Theodor Wiesengrund Adorno, b. Sept. 11, 1903, d. Aug. 6, 1969, was a German sociologist, philosopher, and musicologist. He is perhaps best known as coauthor (with Else Frenkel-Brunswik and others) of The Authoritarian
Personality (1950), a survey of Fascist mental attitudes. He also wrote The Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947; Eng. trans., 1972), with Max Horkheimer; Philosophy of Modern Music (1949; Eng. trans., 1971); studies of Hegel and Kierkegaard; and
several other works. He spent the Nazi years in England and in the United States. Strongly influenced by Marx and Hegel, Adorno was an intellectual leader of West Germany's New Left movement in the 1960s. _^<N__^<N_John Robinson
adrenal gland_^<N__^<N_The adrenal glands are major endocrine glands anatomically associated with the kidneys. Each adrenal gland consists of two parts, an inner portion called the medulla and an outer portion called the cortex. Both parts secrete
into the bloodstream important HORMONES that regulate the functions of other organs and systems. _^<N__^<N_The adrenal medulla secretes only two hormones, ADRENALINE (or epinephrine) and NORADRENALINE (or norepinephrine), which have similar
actions. The medulla is not essential to life and can be removed without causing much disturbance to body functioning, since its hormones are also secreted by portions of the nervous system. Adrenaline and noradrenaline regulate activity in the
sympathetic nervous system, the involuntary part of the nervous system that controls automatic functions such as blood vessel constriction, heart rate, gastrointestinal movements, pupil dilation, and glucose METABOLISM. Thus, when secretion by the
adrenal medulla is increased, blood vessels constrict, the heart accelerates, gastrointestinal movements diminish, and glucose is released into the bloodstream. These events occur in emergencies and are adaptations that help the individual
survive. _^<N__^<N_The adrenal cortex secretes a variety of hormones called corticosteroid hormones. In contrast with the adrenal medulla, the cortex is essential to life. The steroid hormones secreted by the cortex regulate many important body
functions, including salt and water metabolism; carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism; neuromuscular function; sexual function; resistance to infection and other stresses; and the action of other endocrine glands. Death after removal of
the adrenal glands is the result of the loss of cortical hormones and is usually due to disturbances in water and salt metabolism or to circulatory collapse. _^<N__^<N_The most important corticosteroid hormone is 17-hydroxycorticosterone, since it
regulates the greatest number of physiologic activities. It can be administered to maintain life in an animal that has had its adrenals removed or to a patient with Addison's disease, a disease of the ENDOCRINE SYSTEM in which hormone secretion by
the cortex is impaired. _^<N__^<N_In some persons, the adrenal cortex may produce excessive quantities of hormones, including the hormones that regulate sexual function. This can cause precocious sexual development in very young male children or
masculinization in women. _^<N__^<N_Peter L. Petrakis _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Mazzaferri, Ernest L., Endocrinology, 3d ed. (1985); Mulrow, P. J., The Adrenal Gland (1986); Williams, Robert H., ed., Textbook of Endocrinology, 5th ed. (1974).
-END-
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630
CAT
-A-
adrenaline
-T-
adrenaline_^<N__^<N_{uh-dren'-uh-lin} _^<N__^<N_Adrenaline is another name for epinephrine, the HORMONE produced in the ADRENAL GLAND that is vital in enabling an individual to meet sudden dangers and emergencies. In states of alarm, adrenaline
pours into the bloodstream, from which it affects other parts of the body. Carbohydrate reserves are mobilized; muscle strength is increased; pupils are dilated, letting in more light; and peripheral blood vessels contract, causing increased blood
pressure. Adrenaline is synthesized for use as a drug to check the hemorrhaging of wounds, to relieve asthma, and to counteract the effects of hypoglycemia.
-END-
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1486
CAT
-A-
adrenocorticotropic hormone
-T-
adrenocorticotropic hormone_^<N__^<N_Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) is one of several hormones secreted into the bloodstream by the pituitary gland, an endocrine gland located below the brain, when the gland is stimulated by substances from the
area of the brain called the hypothalamus. The hormone, in turn, stimulates the outer layer, or cortex, of the ADRENAL GLAND--another endocrine gland--to secrete several of its hormones into the bloodstream. Such hormones include corticosterone and
cortisol (see GLUCOCORTICOID). Thus all body functions regulated by these hormones are indirectly controlled by the pituitary gland through the action of ACTH. The functions include metabolism of salt, water, carbohydrate, fat, and protein;
neuromuscular function; sexual function; resistance to infection and other stresses; and the actions of other endocrine glands. If ACTH is absent, the adrenal cortex may continue to secrete hormones, but at a lower level than normal. Because ACTH
secretion increases in response to stress and various external stimuli, the resulting increase in secretion of adrenal cortical hormones accounts for some of the disturbances seen when the body is under stress. ACTH has been synthesized and is used
in treating asthma, arthritis, and several other disorders. _^<N__^<N_Peter L. Petrakis _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Dun, N. J., and Perlman, R. L., eds., Neurobiology of Acetylcholine (1987); Ludecke, D. K., et al., ACTH, Cushing's Syndrome, and Other
Hypercortisolemic States (1990).
-END-
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605
CAT
-A-
Adrian, Edgar Douglas
-T-
Adrian, Edgar Douglas_^<N__^<N_Edgar Douglas Adrian, b. Nov. 30, 1889, d. Aug. 4, 1977, was an English physiologist who, along with Charles Scott SHERRINGTON, was awarded the 1932 Nobel Prize for physiology and medicine for his work on the function
of nerve cells. Adrian demonstrated that the speed and strength of a nerve impulse does not diminish but travels along the nerve fiber at a steady rate once stimulus threshold is reached. Now known as the all-or-none law, this finding was an
important step in understanding nerve function. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Crawford, E., The Beginnings of the Nobel Institution (1984).
-END-
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577
CAT
-A-
Adrian I, Pope
-T-
Adrian I, Pope_^<N__^<N_Adrian I, b. c.720, d. Dec. 25, 795, was pope from 772 to 795. He allied the papacy with the Frankish king CHARLEMAGNE who, at Adrian's behest, overthrew the Lombard kingdom and returned papal territories annexed by the
LOMBARDS. Adrian also supported the condemnation of ICONOCLASM by the Orthodox church at the Second Council of Nicaea (787), worked for uniformity in liturgy and canon law, and sponsored extensive building and fortification projects in Rome.
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: The Lives of the Eighth-Century Popes (Liber Pontificalis), trans. by R. Davis (1992).
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754
CAT
-A-
Adrian IV, Pope
-T-
Adrian IV, Pope_^<N__^<N_Adrian IV, b. c.1115, d. Sept. 1, 1159, has been the only Englishman elected (Dec. 4, 1154) pope. His original name was Nicholas Breakspear. As pope, he was involved in the continuing reform of the papal financial
administration and in the reclaiming of lands that had been usurped by the Italian nobility. Throughout his pontificate he was embroiled in serious difficulties with FREDERICK I of Germany concerning the conflicting claims of the German monarchy
and the papacy to political and ecclesiastical overlordship in north and central Italy. He was once believed to have issued the bull Laudabiliter, giving Henry II of England the right to seize Ireland, but this document is now assumed to be a
forgery. _^<N__^<N_David Harry Miller
-END-
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411
CAT
-A-
Adrian VI, Pope
-T-
Adrian VI, Pope_^<N__^<N_Adrian VI, b. Mar. 2, 1459, d. Sept. 14, 1523, was pope from 1522 to 1523. A Dutchman whose name was Adrian Florensz Dedal, he was the first pope to respond to the Protestant REFORMATION by attempting to reform the Roman
Catholic church. After teaching theology at the University of Louvain, he succeeded LEO X. Adrian VI was the last non-Italian to be elected to the PAPACY before JOHN PAUL II.
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23
CAT
-A-
Adrianople:
-T-
Adrianople:_^<N__^<N_see EDIRNE.
-END-
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418
CAT
-A-
Adrianople, Treaty of
-T-
Adrianople, Treaty of_^<N__^<N_{ay-dree-uh-noh'-pul} _^<N__^<N_The Treaty of Adrianople (Sept. 14, 1829) ended the RUSSO-TURKISH WAR of 1828-29. By its terms Russia gained control of the mouth of the Danube and navigational rights through the
Dardanelles and Bosporus. The Ottoman Empire, or Turkey, was required to pay an indemnity to Russia, to grant autonomy to Greece, and to reconfirm the autonomy of Moldavia, Walachia, and Serbia.
-END-
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1401
CAT
-A-
Adriatic Sea
-T-
Adriatic Sea_^<N__^<N_The Adriatic Sea is an arm of the Mediterranean Sea extending about 800 km (500 mi) northwest from the Strait of Otranto between Italy and the Balkan Peninsula. Its average width is 160 km (100 mi). In the Middle Ages the
Adriatic served as the major shipping route between Europe and the Orient. Venice, located at its head, later declined in importance, but is still the principal Adriatic port. Other major ports are Trieste and Bari in Italy, and Rijeka in Croatia.
_^<N__^<N_The sea was named for the town of Adria, possibly an ancient Etruscan settlement and later a Roman port; now, because of siltage from the Po River, Adria is located 21 km (13 mi) inland. The Italian coast of the Adriatic is generally low
and straight; much of it is sandy, with marshy northern headlands. The Balkan shore--occupied by Slovenia, Croatia, Yugoslavia (Montenegro), and Albania--is steep and rocky, fretted with numerous islands and inlets. The sea is shallow near the
Italian shore and deeper on the opposite side. The average depth is 444 m (1,457 ft). _^<N__^<N_Accessible to northern Europe and noted for its mild climate (surface water temperature in August is 24 degrees C/76 degrees F), the Adriatic coast is
popular with tourists and vacationers. Fishing is locally important, but the sea is somewhat deficient in nutrients and marine life. Northeast squalls, called bora, are a danger to winter navigation.
-END-
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1200
CAT
-A-
adsorption
-T-
adsorption_^<N__^<N_Adsorption is the process by which a solid, liquid, or gas (the adsorbate) is held at the surface of some other material (the adsorbent). The adsorbent is usually a solid but may also be a liquid. The process results from
molecular interaction at surfaces. Activated charcoal is widely used for its exceptional adsorbing powers. In water purification, for example, the charcoal adsorbs a wide range of dissolved organic impurities. _^<N__^<N_The method of separating
the components of a mixture by CHROMATOGRAPHY depends on adsorption. The basis of the technique is that the forces binding each component to an adsorbent can differ greatly, and each component can be released sequentially by changes in the
chemical environment. _^<N__^<N_Adsorption phenomena are usually studied quantitatively by measuring the amount of adsorbate per unit of surface. A related phenomenon, chemisorption, is essentially adsorption in which the adsorbate is held
strongly to the adsorbent (binding energy greater than about 60 kilojoules per mole of adsorbate). _^<N__^<N_George Gorin _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Adamson, A., Physical Chemistry of Surfaces (1976); Oscic, J., Adsorption (1983). _^<N__^<N_See
also: ABSORPTION; QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS.
-END-
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5347
CATO
4749
-A-
adult education
-O-
000000|adult education
000484| OBJECTIVES
002834| BARRIERS TO ADULT EDUCATION
003902| ADULT BASIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES
-T-
adult education_^<N__^<N_Adult education involves a variety of programs aimed at improving the skills, knowledge, or sensitivity of men and women after their formal schooling is completed. Public and private educational institutions and religious
and professional groups sponsor adult education, which includes elementary, secondary, and higher education programs as well as nondegree continuing education. Other forms of adult education include on-the-job industrial training and
self-education programs. _^<N__^<N_ OBJECTIVES_^<N__^<N_Adult education has traditionally been justified as serving a socially desirable purpose. The first known book on adult schools, published by Thomas Pole in 1814, praised them in its lengthy
subtitle: "An Account of Some of the Beneficial Effects already Produced on the Moral Character of the Laboring Poor (and) Considerations of the Important Advantages likely to be productive to Society at Large." _^<N__^<N_Programs have frequently
been funded on the premise that they would alleviate some major problem of concern to the society. From time to time adult education has been promoted through the use of slogans such as "Open a school and close a jail," as though education were
guaranteed to reduce crime. In times of high unemployment, adult education may be funded ostensibly as a solution, in the belief that the lack of some given level of educational attainment is the condition that produces the unemployment.
_^<N__^<N_In Western countries, adult education is being used to prepare women for jobs that have traditionally been considered suitable only for men and to assist segments of society that historically have been underprivileged. In Third World
countries, adult education is an important part of modernization and industrialization, where goals cannot be met without increasing the literacy rate (see LITERACY AND ILLITERACY). Other campaigns are directed at preventing disease, raising
agricultural production, and increasing the use of family planning. _^<N__^<N_In all countries, adult education is used to bring about a more equitable distribution of the opportunities of the society. It has traditionally emphasized the practical
rather than the academic, the applied rather than the theoretical, the acquisition of skills rather than knowledge of facts; but many adults take courses because they simply want to broaden their knowledge. Night sessions make this education more
convenient for many. On the whole, persons who are relatively secure economically and who have some postsecondary education show interest in college credits, certificates, diplomas, and degrees. Most American adults, for example, are better
served by the noncredit programs for adults offered by public schools and COMMUNITY AND JUNIOR COLLEGES than by the nontraditional programs emphasizing credits and degrees that are currently popular among educators. _^<N__^<N_ BARRIERS TO ADULT
EDUCATION_^<N__^<N_One obstacle to adult education is the misconception that adults do not learn as well as younger people. A major study called Adult Learning (1928), by Edward L. THORNDIKE and others, demonstrated that adults can learn well
until at least the age of 70. Subsequent studies by educators on several continents demonstrated that adults 90 years old and older can learn foreign languages and master other difficult subjects. _^<N__^<N_Several studies have shown that the
primary obstacle to full-time adult education for Americans is cost. About half the adults who say they are interested but not involved in systematic learning cite the financial barrier. The second most important obstacle is lack of time.
_^<N__^<N_In the Western democracies, the most persistent problem facing adult education is the lack of participation by the least-educated groups in the society. Illiterate adults do not perceive education as a means of improving their lives; so
they generally do not enroll. If enrolled, they often do not attend the classes designed for them. _^<N__^<N_ ADULT BASIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES_^<N__^<N_Adult basic education (ABE) programs to improve basic reading, writing, and
computation skills are designed to enable undereducated adults to function more effectively in the workplace, at home, and in the community. ABE was given impetus when economic opportunity legislation passed in the 1960s granted funds to the
individual states for adult basic education programs. _^<N__^<N_In the mid-1980s more than 23 million people, or nearly 14 percent of the adults in the population, were enrolled in some form of adult education program in the United States. There
were about 2.5 million more women enrolled than men. Of those enrolled in over 40,000 courses, 65% were studying for job-related reasons; the remainder took courses for general education or for personal or social reasons. _^<N__^<N_William S.
Griffith _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Harman, David, Adult Education in the United States (1985); Harrington, Fred, The Future of Adult Education (1977); Knowles, Malcolm, The Adult Education Movement in the U.S. (1962; repr. 1976) and Modern
Practice of Adult Education (1970); Knox, Alan, Adult Development and Learning (1977); Moreland, W. D., and Goldenstein, E. H., Pioneers in Adult Education (1985); Rivera, W. M., Planning Adult Learning (1987); Smith, R., Aker, G., and Kidd,
J., eds., Handbook of Adult Education in the United States (1970). _^<N__^<N_See also: CHAUTAUQUA; CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOL.
-END-
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287
CAT
-A-
Adult Education Association of the U.S.A.
-T-
Adult Education Association of the U.S.A._^<N__^<N_The Adult Education Association of the U.S.A. was founded in 1951 to promote continuing education throughout life. Its headquarters is in Washington, D.C. It publishes monthly periodicals as well as
professional monographs about adult education.
-END-
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380
CAT
-A-
adultery
-T-
adultery_^<N__^<N_Voluntary sexual relations between a married person and someone other than his or her spouse is adultery. Most religions place strong taboos on adultery. Throughout history, social and religious sanctions against adultery have
ranged from death by stoning to furnishing sufficient legal grounds for divorce, though men have usually been treated more leniently than women.
-END-
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426
CAT
-A-
Advanced Placement Program
-T-
Advanced Placement Program_^<N__^<N_The Advanced Placement Program, established in 1955 by the College Entrance Examination Board, helps secondary schools offer college-level courses for advanced students. It sets, administers, and grades
examinations and sends the grading documents to colleges, as well as providing consulting services to the schools. The program is administered by the Educational Testing Service in Princeton, N.J.
-END-
-C-
505
CAT
-A-
advection
-T-
advection_^<N__^<N_Advection is the process by which one or more components of the atmosphere--such as temperature, moisture, or a pollutant--are affected by air movements. Thus cold advection occurs when cold air moves toward the equator from polar
regions, and moisture advection occurs when oceanic air blows toward a dry continent. Advection usually refers to horizontal motion but can also be used to describe vertical motion. _^<N__^<N_Richard A. Anthes _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Anthes,
Richard A., et al., The Atmosphere (1978).
-END-
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395
CAT
-A-
Advent
-T-
Advent_^<N__^<N_A Christian liturgical season, Advent is the period of preparation for both Christmas and the SECOND COMING OF CHRIST. It extends over the four Sundays preceding Christmas. Festivities are discouraged, and the solemn character of the
period is demonstrated by the use of purple vestments. Fasting was formerly prescribed. The first Sunday of Advent marks the beginning of the church year.
-END-
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1939
CAT
-A-
Adventists
-T-
Adventists_^<N__^<N_Adventists are members of various Christian groups who believe that the SECOND COMING OF CHRIST is imminent. Their millennial hopes (see MILLENARIANISM) were aroused by the preaching of William MILLER (1782-1849). On the basis of
a detailed examination of the Bible, especially the books of Daniel and Revelation, Miller predicted that Mar. 21, 1844, and later that Oct. 22, 1844, would be the day when Christ would return in glory and the Earth would be cleansed by fire,
ushering in the millennium--a 1,000-year reign of righteousness and peace before the Last Judgment. When the time passed without event, many believers drifted away. _^<N__^<N_The faithful remnant of Millerites coalesced into several religious
bodies, the most important of which are the Seventh-Day Adventists and the Advent Christian Church. Leaders of the former group had been influenced by Sabbatarian Baptists; thus, in that denomination, Saturday rather than Sunday is kept as the
Sabbath. The most important early leader of the Seventh-Day Adventists was Ellen G. White (1827-1915). She was interested in health reform, and Seventh-Day Adventists continue to be noted for their medical missionaries, sanitoriums, and concern for
sound health practices, as well as for their millennialism and Sabbatarianism. _^<N__^<N_In 1991 the Seventh-Day Adventists (headquartered in Silver Spring, Md.) had 701,781 members in the United States and 38,679 in Canada. The Advent Christian
Church (headquartered in Charlotte, N.C.) had 25,400 members in the United States. _^<N__^<N_Conrad Wright _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Damsteegt, P. Gerard, Foundations of the Seventh-Day Adventists (1977); Gaustad, Edwin S., ed., The Rise of Adventism
(1975); Greenleaf, Floyd, The Seventh-Day Adventist Church in Latin America and the Caribbean (1993); Hoekema, Anthony A., Seventh Day Adventism (1974); Land, Gary, ed., Adventism in America (1986); Numbers, R. L., and Butler, J. M., eds., The
Disappointed (1987).
-END-
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764
CAT
-A-
Adventures of Augie March, The
-T-
Adventures of Augie March, The_^<N__^<N_With his picaresque novel The Adventures of Augie March (1953), Saul Bellow won both a National Book Award and his first popular success. The first-person story of a young Chicagoan from a lower-class Jewish
background, it follows Augie through a series of jobs, locales, and relationships--both comic and serious--that constitute the "hero's" education in life. Augie's refusal to follow the opportunistic path to success taken by his older brother Simon,
his insistence on maintaining his freedom and an integrity of sorts, and, above all, his inextinguishable spontaneity and optimism lead him (and the reader) by the novel's end to recognize that freedom resides in admitting that one's fate is one's
character. _^<N__^<N_Jerome Klinkowitz
-END-
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28
CAT
-A-
adverb:
-T-
adverb:_^<N__^<N_see PARTS OF SPEECH.
-END-
-C-
661
CAT
-A-
adversary procedure
-T-
adversary procedure_^<N__^<N_Adversary procedure, in law, is the form of trial procedure used in the United States, England, and other COMMON LAW countries. The defense and prosecution both offer evidence, examine witnesses, and present their
respective sides of the case as persuasively as possible. The judge or jury must then decide between the adversaries. In the inquisitorial procedure, used in countries with CIVIL LAW systems, the court--as well as the prosecution and
defense--investigates the case before it. The court staff and the judge gather evidence and conduct interrogations, and the judge's decision of guilt or innocence is based on the investigation.
-END-
-C-
15440
CATO
4804
9567
14327
-A-
advertising
-O-
000000|advertising
001210| The Advertising Industry
003815| The Advertising Agency
005086| The Advertising Media
007556| Advertising Goals
008254| Restraints on Advertising
009695| Economic Effects of Advertising
011298| The Social Impact of Advertising
013163| Advertising and Politics
-T-
advertising_^<N__^<N_An advertisement is a message--printed in a newspaper or magazine, broadcast on radio or television, sent to individuals through the mails, or disseminated in some other fashion--that attempts to persuade readers or listeners to
buy a particular product, favor a particular organization, or agree with a particular idea. It is paid for by the advertiser and may be prepared either by the advertiser or, more commonly, by a professional advertising agency. _^<N__^<N_National
advertising, which promotes the products or the identity of a firm that markets nationwide, is the dominant form of advertising. Retail and other local business advertising is second in importance. Other types include trade advertising, which
addresses retailers, asking them to stock and promote the advertised brand; industrial advertising, which sells goods from one producer to another; and professional advertising, from producers to professionals, such as doctors, who influence
consumer purchases. _^<N__^<N_Supplementing the print and broadcast media of mass communication, direct mail is used by advertisers to mail advertisements to the persons appearing on lists of names that are chosen for particular characteristics,
such as age or income. _^<N__^<N_ The Advertising Industry_^<N__^<N_Essentially the industry is a triad consisting of advertisers, the media, and the advertising agencies who create and place most national and many retail ads. In 1992 an estimated
$131 billion was spent in the United States by about 250,000 national advertisers and 1,750,000 local advertisers--a figure that was almost 4 percent higher than 1991's $126.4 billion. About one-quarter of the total each year is spent by the 100
top national advertisers, led in the early 1990s by Procter and Gamble, Philip Morris, General Motors, and Ford. Others in the top ten include the Chrysler Corp., Pepsico, Sears Roebuck, Toyota, General Mills, and Unilever. Much of the money spent
by these firms is on national network and spot television. (Spot ads are those that appear on selected network stations and are used to target local markets.) Advertisers spent a total of $29.5 billion on TV advertising in 1992. _^<N__^<N_Despite
the vast sums spent on national television advertising, however, the print media--newspapers, magazines, and direct mail--continue to earn over half of total advertising expenditures, with local newspapers gaining the largest share. Direct-response
(or DIRECT MAIL) advertising is probably the fastest-growing segment of the industry, largely because computerized lists of names and addresses--which can be broken down by location, income, age, and so on--have allowed advertisers to pinpoint
their potential customers. _^<N__^<N_The industries that advertise most heavily are automobile manufacturers (who spent $3.6 billion in 1992); retailers ($2.9 billion); the food industry ($1.78 billion); restaurants ($1.3 billion); the
entertainment industry ($1.1 billion); the telephone industry ($733 million); finance ($552 million); alcoholic beverages ($552 million); the toiletries industry ($537 million); and proprietary medicines ($525 million). _^<N__^<N_The 1980s saw a
rash of agency mergers, resulting in the creation of huge "mega-agencies" that offer their clients integrated advertising, marketing, and public relations services in business centers around the world. In 1986, after acquiring 12 companies in ten
years, the British firm of Saatchi and Saatchi became the world's largest advertising agency. By 1992, however, it had been outranked by the London-based WPP Group (worldwide gross income: $2.8 billion) and two other international agency holding
companies. The largest single U.S. agency is Chicago's Leo Burnett Co. _^<N__^<N_The United States spends more on advertising than any other nation. Japan, Great Britain, Germany, and Brazil also have large advertising industries. _^<N__^<N_ The
Advertising Agency_^<N__^<N_Agencies serve their clients with a variety of experts. The account executive acts as liaison between advertiser-client and agency, meeting with the client to determine objectives and budgets. The agency's copywriters
and art directors take their assignments from the account executive, who brings their work back to the client for approval or modification. When decisions on content are completed, often after research studies to determine consumer response, the
production department prepares the finished ads, with the aid of typographers, engravers, printers, and radio or television commercial production companies. The media department, meanwhile, has prepared a comprehensive media plan that will involve
the purchase of space in a newspaper or magazine or time on radio or television. After the completed printing plates, tapes, or films are shipped to the appropriate media, the account executive checks media performance for proper scheduling and
adequate reproduction. _^<N__^<N_Closely related MARKETING activities, such as PUBLIC RELATIONS and sales promotion, are handled by the agency, by other outside organizations, or by the advertiser. Advertising must be coordinated with these other
activities and with the company's overall objectives. _^<N__^<N_ The Advertising Media_^<N__^<N_A magazine, television program, or any other advertising medium is judged by an advertiser according to "exposure opportunity," the number of people who
might see the ad, and "message opportunity," the way in which a particular medium allows the ad to communicate. _^<N__^<N_In considering exposure, advertisers speak of "reach"--the number of people who see the ad at least once--and "frequency"--the
average number of times each person is reached. An ad's total impact is indicated by its number of gross impressions: reach times frequency. A further aspect of exposure is cost, usually stated as cost per thousand gross impressions (CPM). Another
is target reach, the number of people within a specific audience who have seen the ad. Often advertisers want to reach only women, only teenagers, or Presbyterians, or residents of Chicago, and so on. _^<N__^<N_The media vary in these
characteristics. Television provides high exposure and low CPM nationwide but is not efficient for specific targets. Newspapers have much lower absolute exposure but reach a higher percentage of the areas they cover; they are excellent for
geographic targeting. Radio is good for targeting to various geographic, age, and interest groups; its CPM is very low. Magazines provide less exposure nationally than television but are highly selective on audience interests. Direct mail is not
cheap but is the most selective of all, because the advertiser uses mailing lists containing only persons within the selected audience. _^<N__^<N_Because television supplies sound, pictures, and movement, it offers the most complete message
opportunity; it cannot distribute coupons as can print, however. Television and radio messages disappear after running, but print can be saved for future reference. Radio, offering nothing but sound, is the most limited medium. Magazines can
reproduce more attractively than newspapers, but newspapers are printed more often. Direct mail can offer lengthy messages but may be discarded without being examined. _^<N__^<N_Newspapers earn the highest proportion of advertising expenditures, 23
percent of the total (of which about 85 percent comes from local advertisers). Television earns 22 percent (74 percent supplied by national advertisers); direct mail, 19 percent; magazines, 5.3 percent; and radio, 6.6 percent. Farm, trade, and
business publications, the yellow pages of telephone directories, and outdoor advertising make up the remainder of advertising expenditures. _^<N__^<N_ Advertising Goals_^<N__^<N_The most common advertising goal is to influence consumer choice of a
particular brand. Marketing, or motivation, research can determine which types of consumers are most likely to buy the advertised product, and it can also test the features, benefits, images, or other appeals to which consumers might respond. The
advertising will then associate the brand with those appeals. _^<N__^<N_Different ads focus on different immediate goals. A sign at a bar advertising a beer is aimed at producing immediate purchase, but it may not be effective without previous ads
that produce public familiarity with the name, associate appeals with the brand, and create favorable beliefs and attitudes. _^<N__^<N_ Restraints on Advertising_^<N__^<N_The U.S. government and most states prohibit deceptive or unfair ads. The
criterion is whether the consumer is harmed, not whether the ad is technically false. Some true claims may deceive by omitting important facts. For example, "This cat food contains more phosphorus" may be a true statement, but cats do not need
phosphorus. On the other hand, some false claims may be unharmful because they are obviously false ("In brand-name auto you'll feel like you're flying!"). Violators are ordered to "cease and desist" from running harmful ads. There are no fines or
other criminal penalties for violations unless the advertiser persists beyond the order date. _^<N__^<N_Although in the early 1980s regulatory pressures decreased, many developments from the 1960s and 1970s remain. In addition to withdrawing their
ads advertisers may be asked to run "corrective advertising," in which they restate earlier claims accurately, or to offer substantiation for their claims. _^<N__^<N_U.S. advertisers are also controlled by their own self-regulatory body, the
National Advertising Review Board, as well as by the media, which often refuse ads they consider unfit in their editorial or programming context. Advertisers have also felt compelled to respond to organized public pressure, as when Action for
Children's Television attacked the advertising aimed at children that was presented by some of the popular hosts of children's programs. _^<N__^<N_ Economic Effects of Advertising_^<N__^<N_Critics claim that advertising costs consumers money;
advertisers assert that it saves consumers money. Certainly a low CPM makes advertising more efficient than the personal selling it replaces and allows it to supply most efficiently the consumer information that can create a mass market, with its
associated economies of scale. _^<N__^<N_Much of today's advertising, however, wastes money because competitors cancel out one another's efforts. If two companies producing similar soft drinks spend great sums to increase their market shares, with
the result that neither gains, then that money has been spent with no benefit to either producers or consumers. If neither company advertised it could avoid such waste, but no company can stop while its competition continues, for fear of losing
market share. Thus the money must be spent, and the extra expense will be passed on to consumers. Nor do consumers receive any informational benefit, because the product category is an established, familiar one, and the information conveyed by
advertising amounts only to artificial brand distinctions based on images. _^<N__^<N_Even when advertising reduces marketing costs, producers may not pass the savings on to consumers and may actually raise prices when the artificial brand
distinctions produced by advertising lead to consumer brand loyalty and a willingness to pay more. Thus a mass market may be created for a product category, but if advertising pulls much of the market share to one particular brand, the result may
be lower producer costs and higher consumer prices simultaneously. _^<N__^<N_ The Social Impact of Advertising_^<N__^<N_Advertising has been accused of ruining everything from the environment (billboards blocking scenic views) to the English
language ("Nobody doesn't like Sara Lee"). It has been charged with making people buy things they do not really need or want, often by invoking negative motivations such as guilt, anxiety, or fears of inferiority. It is said to encourage people to
regard purchasing and consuming as the major activities of their lives and to create false images--depicting the average citizen, for instance, as young, attractive, wealthy, and leisured. There have been strong criticisms of the stereotypical
images of women and minorities in many advertisements. _^<N__^<N_In defense, advertisers argue that consumers are well able to make up their own minds and will not buy things they do not want. The public, they claim, is very tolerant of mass
persuasion and has generally not raised serious objections to advertising content. _^<N__^<N_Advertisers have sometimes created new social impacts by the heavy use of advocacy ads, which persuade the public not about products but about public
issues over which companies wish to influence opinion. Mobil's ad series in the late 1970s and early '80s, which presented its version of the role of the oil companies in the energy shortage, is a famous example. Critics say that such ads are
unfairly one-sided; advertisers say that the mass media have been equally one-sided in failing to report company views. _^<N__^<N_Another important social impact stems from advertising's financial support of the mass media: it provides about
two-thirds of print revenue and virtually all broadcast revenue. Media operators thus see the public not as their primary audience, but as mere bait for attracting advertisers; media content, by and large, is designed to attract those citizens
whose spending power is greatest. _^<N__^<N_ Advertising and Politics_^<N__^<N_Perhaps the most controversial of advertising's effects is in politics, where heavy media campaigns have been common since the 1952 presidential candidacy of Dwight D.
Eisenhower. Unlike competing brands, political candidates are not usually similar, yet their campaign ads often hide important differences behind smokescreens of smiles and empty slogans. Political claims are not subject to regulation as are
product claims. Public pressures on occasion have resulted in the withdrawal of objectionable messages, but no law prohibits even the most blatant political lies. _^<N__^<N_Another source of complaint is that wealthy candidates can gain an unfair
advantage and that third-party candidates cannot match the campaign funds available to nominees of the two major parties. Federal Elections Commission rules allow candidates to receive federal campaign funds in return for limiting private donations
(see CAMPAIGN, POLITICAL). Nevertheless, funding regulations permit sizable individual and group contributions to party committees and allow groups to mount their own advertising campaigns in support of candidates. _^<N__^<N_Of the three major
types of political advertising--television, print, and direct mail--TV is by far the most costly and, in the judgment of most campaign experts, the most effective. The factors affecting a voter's decision, however, may go far beyond TV images and
slogans; and heavy TV ad expenditures do not guarantee votes. Carefully targeted direct-mail campaigns--using computer-created mailing lists sorted by individual income, interests, education, and any of a thousand other politically significant
qualities--have also produced positive results. _^<N__^<N_Ivan L. Preston _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Barthel, Diane, Putting on Appearances: Gender and Advertising (1988); Berman, R., Advertising and Social Change (1981); Diamond, E., and Bates, S.,
The Spot: The Rise of Political Advertising on TV, 3d ed. (1992); Fine, S., The Marketing of Ideas and Social Issues (1981); Goodrum, C., and Dalrymple, H., Advertising in America: The First 200 Years (1990); Jamieson, K. H., Dirty Politics (1992);
Norris, James D., Advertising and the Transformation of American Society, 1865-1920 (1990); Preston, Ivan L., The Great American Blow-Up (1975).
-END-
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223
CAT
-A-
advocate
-T-
advocate_^<N__^<N_In law, an advocate is one who represents another person in court. In the United States, any lawyer may act as an advocate. In England, a BARRISTER represents the client in court, but a solicitor prepares the case.
-END-
-C-
1064
CAT
-A-
Ady, Endre
-T-
Ady, Endre_^<N__^<N_{ah'-dee, en'-dreh} _^<N__^<N_Endre Ady, b. Nov. 22, 1877, d. Jan. 27, 1919, is generally considered the greatest Hungarian poet of the 20th century. His innovative poems, influenced by French symbolism, countered the earlier
poetic tradition of Janos Arany and Sandor Petofi. _^<N__^<N_Ady left the study of law to become a journalist. After he met Adele Brull, called "Leda" in many of his poems, he followed her to Paris, where he came in contact with new literary
fashions. When he returned to Hungary, his unconventional beliefs and attacks on the Hungarian aristocracy made him a controversial figure. His break with poetic and social traditions came with Uj versek (New Poems, 1906) and continued in nine
subsequent volumes. Beginning about 1909 he contributed poetry and prose to Nyugat (West), a leading literary and social journal. Ady's lyrical and religious verse draws on colloquial and biblical sources and explores suffering and death in a world
that has lost God. _^<N__^<N_Albert Tezla _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ady, Endre, Poems of Endre Ady, trans. by Anton N. Nyerges (1969).
-END-
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946
CAT
-A-
adz
-T-
adz_^<N__^<N_{adz} _^<N__^<N_An adz, or adze, is a woodworking tool with a wide, thin, slightly curved blade placed at right angles to a long handle. A finishing tool, it is used to shape wood and to give the wood surface a distinctive texture,
ranging from uniformly rippled to flat and almost smooth. Various types of blade have been designed to meet the specific requirements of such operations as CARPENTRY, SHIPBUILDING, and WOOD CARVING. The gutter adz has a concave blade for forming a
troughlike shape. Some adzes are made with a poll, a projection opposite the blade's cutting edge that is used to drive down nails so that the blade will not be nicked. Most have removable heads so that they can be sharpened on a grindstone. The
tool's application falls between that of the ax, which leaves a rough surface, and the plane, which leaves a smooth surface. The tool is swung so that its handle is the radius of an arc formed by the blade. _^<N__^<N_R. J. De Cristoforo
-END-
-C-
26
CAT
-A-
AE:
-T-
AE:_^<N__^<N_see RUSSELL, GEORGE W.
-END-
-C-
408
CAT
-A-
Aeacus
-T-
Aeacus_^<N__^<N_{ee'-uh-kuhs} _^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, Aeacus was a just king who in life ruled the island of Aegina but in the afterlife was a judge of the dead in Hades. He was the son of the NYMPH Aegina and of ZEUS, ruler of heaven. When
HERA, Zeus' wife, discovered her husband's infidelity, she took revenge by visiting a deadly plague on an island whose misfortune it was to be called Aegina, the name of her rival.
-END-
-C-
12866
CATO
4777
9604
-A-
Aegean civilization
-O-
000000|Aegean civilization
001496| SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
002981| EARLY AEGEAN PEOPLES
004634| EMERGENCE OF MINOAN CIVILIZATION
006815| EMERGENCE OF MYCENAEAN CIVILIZATION
009971| DECLINE OF AEGEAN CIVILIZATION
-T-
Aegean civilization_^<N__^<N_{ee-jee'-uhn} _^<N__^<N_Aegean civilization is the name given to the highly developed BRONZE AGE culture in existence between 3000 and 1000 BC in the area that corresponds to modern Greece. The main geographical
divisions of this area are the island of Crete, the Cycladic islands to the north, and the Greek mainland. _^<N__^<N_The location and fertile character of Crete gave it importance in early times. The first high civilization on European soil arose
here during the 3d millennium BC. The impetus for this may have been the introduction of the working of copper and bronze by emigrants from Anatolia or Syria. _^<N__^<N_Sir Arthur EVANS named the Cretan Bronze Age civilization Minoan, after MINOS,
the legendary king of KNOSSOS, which was the chief Bronze Age center of the island. The Bronze Age of the Cyclades is known as Cycladic; and that of the Greek mainland, as Helladic, from Hellas, the ancient name of Greece. The developmental
sequences in these areas are divided into Early, Middle, and Late phases, based upon changes of fashion distinguishable chiefly in pottery styles. The term Mycenaean, after the site of MYCENAE on the mainland, is often used for the Late Bronze Age
there, and sometimes for that of the whole Aegean. _^<N__^<N_The three main phases of the Aegean Bronze Age correspond roughly in time with the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms in ancient Egypt. Approximate dates for the Aegean Bronze Age are based
upon connections with Egypt, supplemented by scientific methods of age determination. _^<N__^<N_ SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE_^<N__^<N_Later Greeks were aware of a previous age when iron was unknown and weapons were of bronze, as described by Homer. Their
legends preserved some names and vague traditions from this age. Massive Bronze Age defensive walls, such as those at Mycenae and TIRYNS, were thought to be the work of giant CYCLOPES, but factual information about this Bronze Age has only come
from excavations in the past hundred years. _^<N__^<N_In 1876, Heinrich SCHLIEMANN found unplundered royal shaft graves with spectacular gold treasures at Mycenae. Work there and at Tiryns and elsewhere in the PELOPONNESUS, the southernmost region
of the mainland, revealed much about the Mycenaean civilization of the Late Bronze Age, with its palaces and impressive corbel-vaulted beehive tombs, or tholoi. In the 1890s the Cyclades were explored, and a complete Bronze Age town was cleared at
Phylakopi on Melos. _^<N__^<N_From 1900 onward attention shifted to Crete, where Sir Arthur Evans exposed the great palace of Minos at Knossos, and a Minoan civilization was revealed, older than the Mycenaean and ancestral to it. Between the wars
further work was begun on the mainland, where Carl Blegen discovered (1939) the well-preserved Mycenaean palace of Nestor at PYLOS. In recent years Nicolas Platon uncovered a Minoan palace at Zakros in eastern Crete, and Spyridon Marinatos
identified a rich Minoan settlement buried under ash at Akrotiri on the volcanic island of THERA (Thira), also called Santorini. _^<N__^<N_ EARLY AEGEAN PEOPLES_^<N__^<N_Bands of primitive hunters roamed the Greek mainland during Paleolithic (Old
Stone Age) times. At the beginning of the 6th millennium BC or earlier, groups of people still using stone tools but with knowledge of agriculture reached the Aegean from Anatolia or farther east and settled in parts of the mainland and in Crete.
_^<N__^<N_Other emigrants from the east may have entered the Aegean at the beginning of the Bronze Age about 3000 BC. Early Bronze Age settlements in the Aegean were usually small but situated in defensible positions and surrounded by strong
walls. This type of settlement suggests the existence of many tiny independent states ruled by chieftains inhabiting small palaces. Conditions were probably similar to those after the end of the Bronze Age from about 1000 BC, when the Aegean was
divided among small communities engaged in constant warfare. _^<N__^<N_Names of centers like Knossos and Tiryns appear to be non-Indo-European and evidently date back to Early Bronze Age times or earlier. The early Aegean peoples may have spoken a
common language, or related languages, akin to the earliest languages known in Anatolia. The same types of bronze tools and weapons were used, and similar fashions were followed in gold and silver jewelry throughout the Aegean area. But
considerable local differences existed, notably in pottery and in burial customs. Thus the remarkable corbel-vaulted circular tombs were built in some parts of Crete to house the dead of a whole clan over many generations; smaller family vaults
were more usual on the mainland. In the Cyclades, individual slab-lined cist-graves were prevalent. _^<N__^<N_ EMERGENCE OF MINOAN CIVILIZATION_^<N__^<N_From about 2500 BC Crete began to take the lead in the emergence of a civilization marked by
an extensive use of engraved seals and the development of writing. Seal usage and perhaps even writing were also known in the Cyclades and on the mainland, notably at Lerna. But further progress there was inhibited for a time by an influx of
relatively barbarous peoples from the east and from the north. _^<N__^<N_Invaders from various parts of Anatolia occupied many of the Cycladic islands about 2200 BC and settled at Lerna and other sites in the eastern Peloponnesus. A few centuries
later, invaders coming from the Balkans appear to have reached the Peloponnesus and left traces at Lerna. These northerners may have spoken an Indo-European language, perhaps an early form of Greek. _^<N__^<N_Crete does not appear to have suffered
invasion at this time. The Minoan civilization continued to develop, and great palaces were eventually built at PHAISTOS, Knossos, Mallia, and Zakros. The early palaces at Knossos and Phaistos were destroyed by fire about 1700 BC, perhaps in
warfare between the Cretan states. But in the time of the second palaces, from about 1700 to 1450 BC, Minoan civilization reached its height in terms of artistic achievement, which may have been matched by political expansion. A Cretan colony was
established well before 2000 BC at Kastri on the island of Kythera, between Crete and the Peloponnesus. After 1700 BC, Cretan settlers appeared alongside the native inhabitants on many other Cycladic islands, notably at Akrotiri on Thera,
Phylakopi on Melos, and Hagia Irene (Ayia Irini) on Kea. _^<N__^<N_The Cyclades and some parts of the mainland may by this time have become tributary to Crete, as suggested by legends about sons of Minos ruling the islands and by the legend of
THESEUS and the tribute of young men and women imposed on Athens. The 16th-century BC shaft graves at Mycenae, with their lavish funerary articles, also date from this period. Many of the finest treasures found in the graves--magnificent swords,
inlaid daggers, and gold signet rings engraved with scenes of warfare and hunting--may have been made by Cretan artists. _^<N__^<N_ EMERGENCE OF MYCENAEAN CIVILIZATION_^<N__^<N_Until recently archaeologists believed that the settlements at Thera
were buried by volcanic eruption about 1500 BC. Evidence from improved dating techniques, however, places the eruption at about 1628 BC. The cause of the demise of the settlements remain unresolved. At a later time, about 1450 BC, Crete was
overrun by invaders from the Greek mainland. People from the mainland also occupied the Cyclades. They built a palace on the site of an earlier one at Phylakopi on Melos, and surrounded the town with defensive walls. _^<N__^<N_Mainland palaces
like that at Phylakopi differed from those of Minoan Crete. They centered around a great hall with a large central hearth and an entrance porch, developed from the long house standard in the Middle Bronze Age on the mainland. This hall is called
the megaron in Homer's Odyssey, in which comparable palaces are described. In front of its porch was a courtyard, with various rooms and offices clustered around it. In contrast to this, a Minoan palace was built around a spacious rectangular
court, which was given a north-south orientation, perhaps for ritual reasons. The Mycenaean invaders of Crete destroyed the palaces at Phaistos, Mallia, and Zakros, but spared and adapted that at Knossos. At Hagia Triada (Ayia Triadha) near
Phaistos, they appear to have constructed a palace of the mainland type on the ruins of a small Minoan one. _^<N__^<N_New burial customs and changes in pottery reflect the presence of mainland conquerors after about 1450 BC at centers like Knossos.
A different system of writing, called LINEAR B to distinguish it from the Linear A script used in Crete before the conquest, appeared at Knossos, where many clay tablets with inscriptions have been recovered. In 1952 the language of the tablets
was deciphered by Michael VENTRIS as Greek. His decipherment, if accepted, implies that the Mycenaean conquerors of Crete spoke Greek and were ancestors of the non-Dorian Greeks of later times. _^<N__^<N_The Aegean, under Mycenaean domination from
about 1450 BC onward, became the scene of a uniform civilization, although local differences can be distinguished, especially in the style of pottery decoration. Palaces at centers like Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos, and Thebes on the mainland, or
Knossos in Crete, indicate the existence of several relatively large independent states. Some of these states were probably absorbed by others before the end of the Bronze Age. The palace at Knossos in particular may have been destroyed for the
last time in the 14th century BC. _^<N__^<N_In the 13th century BC, Mycenae, with the largest of the circular vaulted tholoi for royal burials (including the so-called Treasury of Atreus) may have been the capital of a miniature empire controlling
most of the Aegean. Ahhiyava, which occurs in contemporary texts of the Hittite empire of Anatolia, appears to be the same word as Achaioi, Homer's name for the Greeks besieging Troy, and may refer to such a Mycenaean empire or to some lesser
state. Mycenaeans were now in control of places on the western coast of Anatolia such as MILETUS, which Minoans had colonized before them. _^<N__^<N_ DECLINE OF AEGEAN CIVILIZATION_^<N__^<N_Warfare between the Mycenaean states may have led to the
dissipation of wealth and military resources. In the years around 1200 BC the palaces on the mainland were destroyed and never rebuilt. But sites such as Mycenae and Tiryns, or Knossos in Crete, continued to be occupied, although in much reduced
fashion. _^<N__^<N_Scholars have proposed several theories concerning the destruction of the palaces and the eventual disappearance of the Mycenaean civilization. In one view, the Mycenaens were overwhelmed by the first wave of Greeks to invade
from the north and settle in their lands; but this is incompatible with a belief that the language of the Linear B script is Greek. Other possible agents of destruction were the DORIANS, the last wave of Greeks to enter the Peloponnesus; but they
seem to have come later. Alternatively, raiders such as the SEA PEOPLES, who attacked Egypt during this period, might, with concomitant drought and consequent famine, have created a vacuum that the Dorians afterward filled. Wars between the
Mycenaean states have also been suggested as a reason for the destructions. _^<N__^<N_In the wake of the destructions, Mycenaean refugees from the Peloponnesus migrated to the Cyclades and to Crete, and even as far afield as Cyprus. Evidence
indicates that at the same time barbarous peoples from beyond the northern frontiers of the Mycenaean world began to settle in the southern parts of Greece after about 1200 BC, introducing new burial customs and fashions in dress. These newcomers
evidently mixed with remnants of the indigenous population and adopted some of the Mycenaean civilization, which continued in an adulterated form with many local variations until the end of the Bronze Age. Then, about the middle of the 11th century
BC, this hybrid evolved in some areas, notably ATTICA, into what is recognizably the ancestor of the civilization of classical Greece. _^<N__^<N_What brought about the downfall of the Mycenaean world is the most obscure and difficult question
confronting scholars of the Aegean civilization. Much also remains to be learned about the beginnings of the Bronze Age in Crete and other parts of the Aegean. Meanwhile, excavations continue in Greek lands with spectacular results, notably at
Akrotiri on Thera and at such long-established centers as Mycenae, Tiryns, and Knossos. _^<N__^<N_Sinclair Hood _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Betancourt, Philip, The History of Minoan Pottery (1985); Branigan, Keith, The Foundations of Palatial Crete
(1970); Chadwick, John, The Mycenaean World (1976); Hood, Sinclair, The Minoans: The Story of Bronze Age Crete (1971); Sandars, N. K., The Sea Peoples (1978); Simpson, Richard, Mycenaean Greece (1982); Vermeule, Emily, Greece in the Bronze
Age (1964); Warren, Peter, The Aegean Civilization (1975) and Aegean Civilizations (1989). _^<N__^<N_See also: GREECE, ANCIENT; MINOAN ART.
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2883
CAT
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Aegean Sea
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Aegean Sea_^<N__^<N_{ee-jee'-uhn} _^<N__^<N_The Aegean Sea is a branch of the MEDITERRANEAN extending northward between Greece and Turkey. It covers an area of about 214,000 sq km (82,625 sq mi) and is studded with islands. Its southern entrance is
partially blocked by the islands of CRETE and RHODES. The Aegean extends about 640 km (400 mi) from Crete northward to the coast of Thrace, and its width ranges from 195 to 400 km (120 to 250 mi). _^<N__^<N_The coast of the Aegean is mountainous,
and only in Macedonia and Thrace in the north are there extensive coastal plains. Few large rivers discharge into the sea. In the north, the Vardar (Axios), Struma (Strimon), and Maritsa (Evros) enter from the Balkan Peninsula, and the Menderes
enters from Anatolia. Most others are small, and in many the flow is seasonal. The narrow waterway known as the DARDANELLES enters the Aegean from the northeast and carries the discharge from the Black Sea. It gives access through the Sea of
Marmara and the Bosporus to Soviet and Danubian ports. _^<N__^<N_The Aegean Basin consists of a submerged block of the Earth's crust, across which long belts of folded rocks extend from the mountains of Greece to the mountains of Turkey. On the
seafloor these belts form submarine ridges, separated by deep basins. The ridges, clearly traceable on the seafloor, are the foundation of most of the Aegean islands. In the north the islands of Limnos and Imroz lie between the Khalkidhiki
Peninsula in Greece and northwestern Turkey. To the south, the Sporades group, Psara, and Chios (Khios), form another such island chain. From Attica and the island of EUBOEA (Evvoia), the CYCLADES (Kikladhes) stretch southeastward toward the
promontories of southwest Anatolia. Last, Crete, Rhodes, Kithera, and Karpathos stretch from southern Greece toward the Taurus Mountains of Turkey and enclose the Aegean Sea on the south. Recently, volcanoes have been active in the more southerly
islands. The greatest depth, about 2,010 m (6,600 ft), is north of Crete. _^<N__^<N_Several important ports ring the Aegean littoral, among them PIRAEUS and SALONIKA in Greece and IZMIR (Smyrna) in Turkey. Bulgaria has long sought access to the sea
and held the port of Kavalla at various times from 1912 to 1944. _^<N__^<N_A major feature of the Aegean is that no ship can be out of sight of land for long. In classical times, this encouraged navigation and facilitated movement between its
shores; the sea was a link between the Greek cities that lay around it. Thus, a cultural unity within the Aegean Basin lasted with few interruptions from the 2d millennium BC until the Turkish conquest of Anatolia in the 11th century. The Turks
never destroyed the Greek character of the Aegean Sea, and not until the exchange of population of the 1920s were Greek settlements eliminated along the Turkish shore. Most of the islands remain politically and culturally Greek. _^<N__^<N_Norman J.
G. Pounds
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1361
CAT
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Aegina
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Aegina_^<N__^<N_{ee-jy'-nuh} Aegina (Greek: Aiyina) is an island of Greece in the Saronic Gulf of the Aegean Sea, 23 km (14 mi) south of Athens. Triangular in shape, it has an area of 83 sq km (32 sq mi) and a population of 11,127 (1981). The main
seaport town, Aegina, is located on the northwestern coast, where olives, figs, nuts, and grapes are cultivated. Inland gorges and coastal cliffs of volcanic rock render most of the rest of the island unproductive. Tourism, sponge fishing, and
ceramics aid the economy. Named for the mythological nymph Aegina, the island has been settled since Late Neolithic times. There is evidence of Mycenaean occupation before about 1500 BC, followed by Dorian Greek conquest (c.1100 BC). During the
Archaic Period, Aegina was noted for its powerful navy and merchant marine and was an important artistic center. Aeginetan coinage appeared in the 7th century, and the island flourished commercially until defeated by its rival, Athens, in the 5th
century. Of several ancient towns and sanctuaries, the most important site is the shrine of the native goddess Aphaia. It consists of a monumental gateway, altar, priests' quarters, and a partially reconstructed Doric temple (c.500 BC). Its
pediment contained the famous Aeginetan marbles (now in the Glyptothek, Munich), sculptures of Athena and heroes in combat. _^<N__^<N_Jean Macintosh Turfa
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23
CAT
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aegirine:
-T-
aegirine:_^<N__^<N_see PYROXENE.
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326
CAT
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aegis
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aegis_^<N__^<N_{ee'-jis} _^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, the aegis was a shield associated with ZEUS, who was called "the aegis bearer," and with the goddess ATHENA. HOMER described the aegis as a shaggy breastplate bordered with serpents. The
tasseled aegis of Athena, constructed of goatskin, was set with the fearful head of MEDUSA, the gorgon.
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820
CAT
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Aegyptopithecus
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Aegyptopithecus_^<N__^<N_{ee-jip'-toh-pith'-uh-kuhs} _^<N__^<N_Aegyptopithecus ("Egyptian ape") is a genus of fossil apes found in the Fayum desert region of Egypt. It is now more commonly referred to as Propliopithecus. Fossil bones belonging to
this extinct PRIMATE, first identified in 1964, were recovered from sediments deposited about 32-35 million years ago, during the Oligocene Epoch. Certain features of the teeth and skull suggest not only that Aegyptopithecus had a vegetarian diet
but also that it may have been ancestral to the Miocene ape DRYOPITHECUS, which is believed to be the direct ancestor of the modern chimpanzee and gorilla. Unlike these more recent primates, however, Aegyptopithecus was a relatively small-brained
animal with a tail, a protruding, dog-like face, and a large snout. _^<N__^<N_Alan Mann and Nancy Minugh
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598
CAT
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AElfric
-T-
AElfric_^<N__^<N_{al'-frik or al'-fritch} _^<N__^<N_AElfric, 955-1020, was one of the most prolific writers in Old English. A Benedictine monk, he was a respected scholar and educator of his time. His Homilies and other works, including translations
from Latin, were designed to give instruction in Roman Catholic doctrine. He also wrote biographies, a Latin grammar, and a series of dialogues in Latin called the Colloquium, which gives a vivid picture of Anglo-Saxon life and society. ROBIN BUSS
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Greenfield, Stanley B., A Critical History of Old English Literature (1965); Hurt, James, Aelfric (1972).
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481
CAT
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Aelian
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Aelian_^<N__^<N_{ee'-lee-uhn} _^<N__^<N_Aelian, or Claudius Aelianus, 170-235, was a literary historian and teacher of rhetoric in Rome. His two main works, written in Greek, are De natura animalium (On the Nature of Animals) and Varia historia
(Miscellany). The first is a collection of animal tales with moralizing lessons. The second is a collection of curious lore about men and manners. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: De natura animalium and Rustic Letters, ed. and trans. by A. F. Scholfield, 2
vols. (1958-59).
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635
CAT
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Aeneas
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Aeneas_^<N__^<N_{i-nee'-uhs} _^<N__^<N_In the Aeneid of VERGIL, Aeneas was the Trojan hero whose descendants founded Rome. When the Greeks destroyed Troy, many survivors fled the burning city. Among the refugees were Aeneas, his wife and small son,
and his aged father, ANCHISES. His wife was lost in the confusion, but Aeneas, leading his son and carrying his aged father on his back, made his way to safety. With a band of fugitives Aeneas set sail to find a new beginning but was shipwrecked at
Carthage, where he stayed with Queen DIDO. The Aeneid describes the wanderings of the Trojans who after many adventures finally reached the shores of Italy.
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1645
CAT
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Aeneid
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Aeneid_^<N__^<N_{i-nee'-id} _^<N__^<N_VERGIL's epic masterpiece, the Aeneid, written between 30 BC and 19 BC, was to Augustan Rome what Homer's Iliad and Odyssey had been to the classical Greeks--an explanation of their origins and heroic past. The
poem, in 12 books, treats of the founding of Roman civilization by the Trojan AENEAS. It traces his career from his escape from the ruins of Troy, through his extended wanderings westward and his tragic love affair with DIDO, queen of Carthage, to
his establishment in Italy after long years of bitter conflict with the indigenous Latins and Rutulians. _^<N__^<N_The poem is cast in the heroic mold, with its characters and events modeled after their Homeric predecessors; Vergil thereby appears
to be glorifying the ideals of Rome and its first emperor, Augustus. However, by a judicious use of symbol, image, and analogy, Vergil's critical emphasis falls on the cost in sacrifice and loss of humanity inherent in such ideals. Accordingly,
the tradition of Vergil as the "emperor's poet" has been challenged by recent critics. _^<N__^<N_Gerald Fitzgerald _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: The Aeneid, trans. by W. F. Jackson Knight (1956); Camps, W. A., Introduction to Virgil's Aeneid
(1969); Clausen, W., Virgil's Aeneid and the Traditions of Hellenistic Poetry (1986); Hardie, P., Virgil's Aeneid (1986); Highet, Gilbert, The Speeches in Vergil's Aeneid (1972); Poeschl, Viktor, The Art of Virgil: Image and Symbol in the
Aeneid, trans. by Gerda Seligson (1962); Putnam, Michael C., Poetry of the Aeneid (1965); Quinn, Kenneth, Virgil's Aeneid: A Critical Description (1968); Williams, G., Technique and Ideas in the Aeneid (1985).
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998
CAT
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aeolian harp
-T-
aeolian harp_^<N__^<N_{ee-oh'-lee-uhn} _^<N__^<N_The aeolian harp is a shallow box ZITHER about 1-1.5 m (3-5 ft) long, strung with multiple strings of the same length but of different thicknesses and tuned in unison. The harp is suspended where the
wind will set the strings in motion; the wind force and the different diameters of the strings cause the eddies of air immediately downwind to vary considerably, which in turn causes variations in tone. Thus, the harp produces strange, ghostly
sequences of harmonies, swelling and diminishing with the strength of the wind. Named for AEOLUS, god of the winds, the aeolian harp originated in the 17th century and achieved its greatest popularity in the romantic era. _^<N__^<N_Robert A. Warner
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Marcuse, Sybil, Dictionary of Musical Instruments, 2d ed. (1975); Richardson, E. G., Sound, 4th ed. (1947); Sachs, Curt, History of Musical Instruments (1940); Sadie, Stanley, ed., The ANew Grove Dictionary of Musical
Aeolus_^<N__^<N_{ee'-oh-luhs} _^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, Aeolus was the god of the winds and ruler of the Aeolian Islands. According to HOMER, he gave ODYSSEUS favorable winds for his homeward voyage and a bag in which the contrary winds were
confined.
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5572
CAT
4811
-A-
aerial photography
-T-
aerial photography_^<N__^<N_Photographs of land areas taken by CAMERAS mounted in aircraft or satellites are, like maps, extremely useful in interpretation of the Earth's surface features, both natural and man-made. Geologists, agricultural and
economic geographers, soil scientists, foresters, civil engineers, students of urban and rural studies, hydrologists, and archaeologists all make extensive use of aerial photographs. _^<N__^<N_Air cameras are typically rigid fixed-focus instruments
designed for electrically powered operation using roll FILM. Formats generally range from 18 by 18 cm (7 by 7 in) to 23 by 23 cm (9 by 9 in). Film, usually fast panchromatic emulsions, is carried in interchangeable magazines holding lengths of up
to 300 m (1,000 ft). _^<N__^<N_Although often erroneously referred to as photomaps, aerial photographs are unlike maps in one important way. A map has a uniform or controlled variable scale--the latter dependent on choice of map projection. The
aerial photograph, on the other hand, does not have a constant or uniformly changing scale. Hypothetically, if a photograph of a perfectly flat horizontal ground surface is exposed at an instant when the camera is pointing downward exactly at a
right angle to that surface and is taken with a camera whose lens is distortion-free, the photograph will have a uniform scale. In actuality, these conditions are never met. _^<N__^<N_Scale is defined as the ratio between (1) the length of a
ground distance shown on a map and (2) the actual ground distance. For example, if a 5-cm line on a map represents a ground distance of 1.5 km, the scale is computed as follows: _^<N__^<N_5 cm/1.5 km = 5 cm/150,000 cm = 1/30,000 _^<N__^<N_Although
the measurements are made in units of length (centimeters and kilometers), the scale itself is dimensionless. Thus, an inch on the map in the example above would equal 30,000 inches (2,500 ft, or 0.473 mi) on the ground. The same principle
applies to the ideal photograph. The scale of the photograph (ratio of image length to ground distance) is equal to the ratio between focal length and camera height (aircraft altitude). A photograph taken at an altitude of 1,000 m by a camera with
a focal length of 10 cm would thus have a scale of _^<N__^<N_10cm 10cm 1 ------ = ---------- = ------- 1,000m 100,000 cm 10,000 _^<N__^<N_or 10 cm = 1 km (about 6 in. per mi). _^<N__^<N_Aside from lens imperfections, which for
all practical purposes--except when utmost precision is demanded--may be considered negligible, the two major factors responsible for variations in the scale of a photograph are topographic relief (land, no matter how flat, is never quite
horizontal) and the tilt of the optical axis of the camera. The optical axis is the line along which the camera points, through the center of the lens, perpendicular to the film. When the axis is perpendicular to the land surface, a vertical
photograph is produced; when it is inclined, an oblique photograph is produced. When a vertical photograph is taken of a nonhorizontal surface, distances that are of equal length on the ground will appear unequal on film because of topographic
irregularities. Topographically higher distances (nearer the camera) will appear longer than those that are topographically lower. _^<N__^<N_Aerial photographs have two primary uses: mapmaking and interpretation. Numerous photogrammetric
instruments are used in making maps from aerial photographs: simple and complex, small and large, inexpensive and extremely costly. One of the functions of many of these instruments is to remove distortion (scale variability) resulting from axial
tilt. Perhaps the most important characteristic of aerial photographs is that they can be viewed stereoscopically, or in three dimensions. This is true whether they are black-and-white, color, infrared, or any other special type, and whether used
by the photogrammetrist or the photo interpreter. When an area is photographed from two positions in space, the two photographs that are produced are not geometrically identical. The brain, however, transforms the two distinct images into a
three-dimensional mental image of the irregular ground surface. The stereoscopic effect enables photo interpreters to extract many kinds of useful information from aerial photographs. Military applications, for example, include tasks such as
identifying military installations, selecting targets, and estimating bomb damage. Using aerial photographs, the geologist can identify rock types, determine geologic structure, and obtain information that will assist in the search for petroleum
and mineral deposits. In the fields of Geomorphology and hydrology, aerial photographs find application in watershed studies, flood control, and evaluation of water pollution and shoreline changes. Geographers and agronomists use the photographs
to chart crop distribution, to plan blight-control programs, and to monitor land use and changes in urban characteristics and industrial development and for soil mapping. In forestry, the photographs are extensively used for species identification
and distribution mapping, to map forest reserves, and for implementing disease control. From aerial photographs engineers gather data necessary for highway, dam, and pipeline construction, for detecting slope instability, and for locating deposits
of natural construction materials such as sand and gravel. _^<N__^<N_Victor C. Miller _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Gerster, Georg, Below from Above (1985); Graham, Ron, and Read, Roger E., Manual of Aerial Photography (1987). _^<N__^<N_See also:
LANDSAT; REMOTE SENSING; SATELLITE, ARTIFICIAL.
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7455
CATO
4692
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aerial sports
-O-
000000|aerial sports
001170| POWERED FLIGHT
003113| POWERLESS FLIGHT
003130| Gliding
004217| Hang Gliding
004591| Ballooning
006584| Parachuting
-T-
aerial sports_^<N__^<N_Aviation has been a popular sport almost from the moment the airplane was invented. The Federation Aeronautique Internationale (FAI), which oversees all international aerial competition and certifies all official aviation and
space records, was founded in 1905, just two years after the WRIGHT brothers' famous first flight. _^<N__^<N_In its first full decade, aviation was considered nothing more than a sport, a pastime for daredevils. Its military possibilities were not
fully realized until well into World War I, and commercial aviation did not begin to prosper until the 1930s. _^<N__^<N_Most of the early FAI-sanctioned competitions were for power-driven AIRCRAFT, but some competitions were held for ballooning and
GLIDER flying (soaring). Since World War II, such pursuits as parachuting (skydiving), hang gliding, and model-airplane flying have been included as aerial sports. The FAI lists speed records for feats as obscure as a flight between Capetown,
South Africa, and Auckland, New Zealand, via the South Pole at a speed of 860.09 km/h (534.43 mph) in a Pan American Airways 747 SP. It even considers the American-Soviet space race to be a kind of aerial competition. _^<N__^<N_ POWERED
FLIGHT_^<N__^<N_The first official FAI-sanctioned air race, involving 38 primitive power-driven airplanes, was held at Reims, France, in 1909. Most of the entrants crashed before completing the contest. By the 1920s, competition for such
air-racing trophies as the Bennett, Schneider, and Bendix cups was avidly followed and keenly waged as a matter of national honor. Speeds as high as 708 km/h (440 mph) were attained as early as 1933. _^<N__^<N_Since World War II, the fastest planes
have been military aircraft costing millions of dollars, and therefore impractical for civilian use. Most of the planes used in continuing events, such as the U.S. National Air Races, are remodeled P-51 Mustangs and other World War II-era
aircraft. _^<N__^<N_The first records for speed and for distance over a measured course--41.292 km/h (25 mph) and slightly more than 180 m (200 yd)--were certified by the FAI in 1906. More recent speed and altitude records--3,529.56 km/h (2,193.16
mph) by an American in 1976 and 37,650 m (123,524 ft) by a Soviet in 1977--illustrate how far powered aviation has advanced. _^<N__^<N_Long-distance events such as the Powder Puff Derby in the United States for women, employing conventional
pleasure aircraft and testing navigational skills and fuel economy, remain popular. _^<N__^<N_Precision aerobatics is another popular and spectacular powered-aircraft competition. Pilots must perform intricate maneuvers within specified altitude
limits. An outgrowth of the barnstorming and dogfighting days, it has fostered the manufacture of an entirely new line of high-performance aircraft. _^<N__^<N_Competitions are organized for antique aircraft, such as the still numerous World War
II-era Steerman biplane, and for experimental aircraft, including many bizarre designs powered by small automobile engines. _^<N__^<N_The holder of the most individual records for powered flight is Jacqueline COCHRAN, with more than 250 for speed,
distance, altitude, and innovator flights. _^<N__^<N_ POWERLESS FLIGHT_^<N__^<N_ Gliding_^<N__^<N_Gliding or soaring is considered the most beautiful of the aerial sports. It has enjoyed a phenomenal popularity in recent times. Towed aloft by
powered aircraft (usually to about 600 m/2,000 ft) or launched by an automobile or winch tow, gliders fly by using air currents and updrafts in the atmosphere for lift. Their slender, fragile design and long wingspan permit them to travel as much
as 40 meters forward for every meter they drop. _^<N__^<N_Although gliders were used by such aviation pioneers as the Wright brothers and their predecessor, Otto Lilienthal, in the late 1890s, the first FAI glider meet was not held until 1922.
World soaring championships are now held every 2 years, for both open and standard classes. _^<N__^<N_Soaring's elite are the "diamond badge" pilots who must achieve a 5,000-m (16,404-ft) or more altitude gain, fly 500 km (310.7 mi) or more
cross-country, and also fly 300 km (186.4 mi) or more to a specific goal to qualify for the honor. The long-distance record for a glider is 1,460 km (907 mi), achieved by Hans Grosse of West Germany on Apr. 25, 1972. _^<N__^<N_ Hang
Gliding_^<N__^<N_Hang gliding, in which fliers suspend themselves from what is little more than a rudimentary, kitelike wing and work the updrafts along cliffs and bluffs, was once considered only a dangerous novelty but is now accorded full FAI
status. World hang-gliding championships have been established, and a world-record distance of 188.2 km (303.4 mi) has been flown. _^<N__^<N_ Ballooning_^<N__^<N_Ballooning, the oldest aerial sport, was inaugurated by the French MONTGOLFIER
BROTHERS in 1783 with a hot-air balloon. Hydrogen, however, soon became the gas of choice because of its inherent buoyancy. BALLOON flights were common in the 1800s, with observation balloons used widely during the U. S. Civil War and World War
I, after which safer, nonflammable helium rose to ascendancy. _^<N__^<N_Balloon competition includes cross-country races--for speed and distance--and hare-and-hound races--in which the "hare," with a head start, is given chase by other balloons.
_^<N__^<N_Even the most sophisticated balloon is at the mercy of the prevailing winds and can be steered only by seeking different winds at different altitudes. More than 15 attempts have been made to cross the Atlantic Ocean in a balloon since
1873, and some have been fatal. From 1978 to 1984, however, some major helium accomplishments occurred. In 1978 a three-man team (Ben Abruzzo, Maxie Anderson, and Larry Newman) from Albuquerque, N.Mex., crossed the Atlantic in the Double Eagle
II. In 1980, Anderson made headlines again when he and his son, Kris, completed the first nonstop transcontinental flight in the Kitty Hawk. The voyage, which began near San Francisco and ended on Canada's Gaspe Peninsula, covered more than 5,000
km (3,100 mi), a record for overland balloon flights. Early in 1981, Anderson and Don Ida failed on an around-the-world attempt after only three days; they both died in a balloon crash in West Germany in 1983. Late in 1981, Abruzzo, Newman, Ron
Clark, and Rocky Aoki became the first to cross the Pacific, in the Double Eagle V; Abruzzo died in an airplane crash in 1985. In 1984, Joe Kittinger achieved the first solo transatlantic flight, from Caribou, Maine, to Savona, Italy. In 1987,
British entrepreneur Richard Branson and Swede Per Lindstrand achieved the first transatlantic hot-air balloon flight in a record 33 hours, from Sugarloaf Mountain in Maine to Northern Ireland. _^<N__^<N_ Parachuting_^<N__^<N_Sport parachuting, or
SKYDIVING, was not developed until the 1950s. The jumper falls several thousand feet at the rate of 193 km/h (120 mph) before opening the chute. Competitions are judged on style (maneuvers or group formations achieved during the free-fall) or
accuracy (how close a jumper can land to a 15-cm/6-in disk on the ground). _^<N__^<N_Michael D. Kilian _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Boyne, Walter, J., The Smithsonian Book of Flight (1987); Crouch, Tom D., The Eagle Aloft: Two Centuries of the
Balloon in America (1983); Gregory, Howard, Parachuting's Unforgettable Jumps III, 3d ed. (1987); Mrazek, James, Hang Gliding, rev. ed. (1981); Paynter, Dan, Hang Gliding, 10th ed. (1981); Piggott, Derek, A Handbook on Soaring Flight, 5th
ed. (1987); Rechs, Robert J., Who's Who of Ballooning: 1783-1983 (1983). _^<N__^<N_See also: FLIGHT, HUMAN-POWERED.
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Aerobee
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Aerobee_^<N__^<N_Aerobee, one of the most successful SOUNDING ROCKETS developed in the United States, was designed in 1946 to explore the upper atmosphere. In its original form it weighed a little more than 453 kg (1,000 lb) and had an overall
length of 5.73 m (18.8 ft) and a diameter of 0.38 m (1.25 ft). The rocket was launched with the assistance of a high-thrust, solid-propellant booster and ultimately reached a velocity of 4,489 km/h (2,790 mph) and an altitude of about 28,956 m
(95,000 ft). _^<N__^<N_Following the first successful launching (1947), summit altitudes of more than 112 km (70 mi) were regularly achieved. A typical payload comprised a magnetometer, Geiger-Mueller counters, and a cosmic-ray telescope. One of
the world's first experiments to test the reactions of space flight on small mammals was made by the U.S. Air Force in 1952 using an Aerobee launched from Holloman Air Force Base. Two monkeys and two mice, rocketed to an altitude of about 60,960 m
(200,000 ft), were recovered by parachute in the Aerobee nose cone. _^<N__^<N_Later, much-improved models have included Aerobee-Hi, Aerobee 200, and Aerobee 350, produced by Aerojet Liquid Rocket Company. The Aerobee 350, 15.2 m (50 ft) long and
0.55 m (1.8 ft) in diameter, can carry a 272-kg (600-lb) payload to a height of 325 km (202 mi). _^<N__^<N_Kenneth Gatland _^<N__^<N_See also: ROCKETS AND MISSILES.
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aerobic exercise:
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aerobic exercise:_^<N__^<N_see EXERCISE.
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aerodynamics
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000000|aerodynamics
001308| Airplane Flight
002797| Modern Aerodynamic Design
003808| Supersonic Flight
006769| Aerodynamic Testing
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aerodynamics_^<N__^<N_Aerodynamics is the study of the flow of air and other gases and of the forces acting on bodies moving through the gases. It is a branch of fluid mechanics, in which the same principles are also applied to the study of liquids.
Aerodynamics is mainly employed to study the flight of heavier-than-air craft, and is so discussed here. It is also used to describe the motion of lighter-than-air craft such as dirigibles and blimps and to determine the aerodynamic forces acting
on bridges, buildings, and other structures. WIND TUNNELS are basic tools of aerodynamic research. _^<N__^<N_Underlying aerodynamics and all other branches of theoretical mechanics are the laws of motion developed by Isaac NEWTON in the 17th
century. These laws state the effects of forces acting on bodies in motion or at rest. Newton also developed the concept of fluid friction, or viscosity--the resistance of air or any other fluid to motion, whether its own or that of a body moving
through it. A younger contemporary, Daniel BERNOULLI, applied Newton's laws of motion to the study of fluids in particular. He developed the principle that the velocity of a fluid is related to the pressure within it: the faster the fluid flow,
the lower the pressure. (See BERNOULLI'S LAW.) These concepts formed the basis for future studies. _^<N__^<N_ Airplane Flight_^<N__^<N_Such concepts were essential before humans could realize the ancient dream of being able to fly through the air.
As early as the 16th century, Leonardo da Vinci had sketched devices resembling the modern helicopter, but without understanding the aerodynamic forces involved in flight, practical attempts were doomed to failure. _^<N__^<N_Four main forces act
on an aircraft: thrust, gravity, and the aerodynamic forces of drag and lift. Thrust and drag work against each other, as do gravity and lift. _^<N__^<N_An aircraft moves forward because of the thrust supplied by its propellers or jet engines.
Forward motion continues as long as the thrust forces are greater than the drag forces, which result from the viscosity of air. Aircraft are therefore designed to reduce as much as possible the drag forces acting on different parts of the craft.
_^<N__^<N_In order to overcome the Earth's gravity and rise into the air, an aircraft must be acted on by a lift force. This is supplied mainly by the craft's wings. A wing or other surface designed to produce a desired effect when acted on by
flowing air is called an airfoil. Bernoulli's law forms the basis for the theory of the lift exerted on an airfoil such as a wing. The cross section of a wing is designed so that the angle at which the wing meets the air causes the air to flow
more rapidly past the upper surface of the wing than the lower surface. As a result, air pressure is lower above the wing than below it, resulting in lift. _^<N__^<N_ Modern Aerodynamic Design_^<N__^<N_In making an aerodynamic analysis of an
aircraft, it is necessary to consider the component parts of the vehicle and to calculate the airflow about each part separately. The results are combined to obtain the forces acting on the vehicle as a whole. Thus, the wing and tail are
analyzed, and then the passage of air around the fuselage is included as a disturbance of the flow about the first two. In modern aerodynamic design, the availability of computers has made it possible to study the complete wing, body, and tail
configuration. _^<N__^<N_Designers of high-speed aircraft must also take into account other aerodynamic concepts such as the boundary layer. This is the layer of air nearest the skin of the craft where the effects of the turbulence caused by air
resistance are exhibited most strongly. It is desirable to keep turbulence to a minimum, so aircraft are designed to keep the stream of air flowing around the craft as undisturbed as possible--hence the term streamlining. _^<N__^<N_ Supersonic
Flight_^<N__^<N_Such considerations become especially important at very high speeds. High aircraft speeds are described in terms of Mach numbers, this number being the ratio of the speed of a given aircraft to the speed of sound in air of that
density. When the two speeds are equal, the Mach number is 1. Speeds less than Mach 1 are called subsonic, those above Mach 1 are supersonic, and those above about Mach 5 are called hypersonic. _^<N__^<N_In the region of Mach 1 and above, special
aerodynamic problems arise. At lower speeds, the air flowing around a craft can be considered an incompressible fluid, that is, a fluid whose density does not change. At high speeds, however, the density of the air increases sharply, as does its
pressure and temperature. To offset this effect, supersonic aircraft fly at a considerably higher altitude than subsonic craft, to pass through thinner air. As the aircraft approaches the speed of sound, shock waves form on its body wherever the
local Mach number exceeds 1. As the speed of the craft increases further, these shock waves become more intense, producing a sonic boom. _^<N__^<N_The increase in speed from just below to just above the speed of sound is called the transonic speed
range. Fighter pilots of World War II referred to it as "breaking the sound barrier" when, in flight, their craft entered this transonic region, developing shock waves that buffeted the craft. This buffeting was brought about by the unsteadiness
of the shock waves at local spots on the wings in transonic flow. At supersonic speeds the shock waves become steady and remain firmly attached to the entire aircraft. _^<N__^<N_The swept-back wing was designed to delay the formation of shock
waves on all aircraft made to fly at high subsonic speeds. For flying at higher, supersonic speeds, the sweepback is further increased to form a delta wing. Such a wing is seen on the Concorde, which flies at a Mach number of about 2. Only
experimental craft have been designed to fly at still higher speeds, in the hypersonic region. For example, the SPACE SHUTTLE passes through this flight region as it reenters the Earth's atmosphere from orbit, slows down, and makes a conventional
landing. Space vehicles that have returned from outer space prior to the Shuttle have not been flown in but have simply made a so-called ballistic landing. (See BALLISTICS.) _^<N__^<N_A characteristic feature of all supersonic flight, and a
phenomenon even more characteristic of hypersonic flight, is the generation of intense heat. This is caused by friction between the vehicle and the atmosphere. All the kinetic energy of these fast-moving bodies is converted into heat, which in
turn is dissipated into the atmosphere. To prevent returning spacecraft from burning up as meteors do when they enter the atmosphere, heat shields have been developed. These shields are insulated and coated with special material that melts and
burns off at a carefully controlled rate. _^<N__^<N_ Aerodynamic Testing_^<N__^<N_Aerodynamic testing is performed extensively, in conjunction with theoretical research, in order to gain a better understanding of aerodynamic problems. Most testing
is done in wind tunnels; about 400 exist in the world, roughly half in the United States. Some wind tunnels are highly specialized; they can generate airflows of short duration or in an intermittent way, such as in large shock-tubes.
_^<N__^<N_Wind tunnels are usually classified as subsonic, transonic, supersonic, or hypersonic, according to their Mach-number capability. It is important to simulate the air friction of the full-size flight vehicle, but this is often difficult
and extremely expensive. It requires a very large tunnel and correspondingly large models, or a pressurized tunnel to attain low air-friction. A few tunnels in the subsonic region can do this, but no tunnel has been built to operate at
low-friction flow in the supersonic region. Wind tunnels are also used to test design models of bridges and other structures. Computer modeling techniques are also of use in conjunction with actual testing in wind tunnels, and such models are now
available for transonic speeds. _^<N__^<N_R. E. Street _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Allen, John E., Aerodynamics (1982); Anderson, J. D., Jr., Introduction to Flight, 3d ed. (1988); Aynsley, R. M., et al., Architectural Aerodynamics (1977);
Scibor-Rylski, A. J., Road Vehicle Aerodynamics, 2d ed. (1984).
aerosol_^<N__^<N_An aerosol is a relatively stable suspension of liquid or solid particles in a gas, especially air. Smoke, fog, and mist are aerosols. Sometimes the term is incorrectly applied to the familiar particles alone. _^<N__^<N_Aerosols
are ubiquitous in the Earth's ATMOSPHERE, which can properly be considered one huge aerosol, and these naturally occurring aerosol particles can have major effects on the Earth's CLIMATE. Aerosols can also be prepared by any of a large number of
artificial methods; these usually involve either the dispersion of a liquid or powder or the condensation of a vapor. Aerosols in which the particles are nearly the same size (monodisperse) are often prepared for research purposes. The various
properties of aerosols--particle concentrations, the rates of sedimentation and coagulation, light-scattering properties, and the degree of penetration of the particles into the lungs--are often measured. _^<N__^<N_The term aerosol has recently
been used to refer to a package with the capability of converting its contents to a spray, foam, paste, or cream. The walls of the package may be of metal, plastic, or glass, and the interior is pressurized so that the contents are expelled
through a nozzle when a valve is opened. Among the wide variety of products packaged in this manner are deodorants, hair sprays, paints, pesticides, dessert toppings, shoe polish, and household cleaners. _^<N__^<N_The propellants that furnish the
pressurization may be either liquid or gaseous at room temperature. They serve the dual purposes of forcing the contents from the chamber and helping to produce a spray or foam. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have been used extensively as propellants
because of their vapor pressure, lack of toxicity, inflammability, and chemical inertness. It was found, however, that CFCs lead to the destruction of stratospheric ozone (see OZONE LAYER), so their manufacture was being phased out in the 1990s as
researchers sought to develop substitutes. Alternative propellants that have been tried include hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrocarbons, and various compressed gases, such as carbon dioxide dissolved in acetone. _^<N__^<N_Richard D. Cadle
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hidy, G. M., ed., Aerosols (1984); Masuda, S., and Takahashi, K., eds., Aerosols, 2 vols. (1990).
013733| Aerospace Contributions to Other Technologies
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aerospace industry_^<N__^<N_The aerospace industry encompasses a worldwide complex of manufacturers who produce airplanes, helicopters, military aircraft, missiles, rockets, spacecraft, and satellites. These manufacturers employ a vast number of
supplier firms who make a variety of products ranging from avionics and hydraulic systems to rubber gaskets and adhesives. _^<N__^<N_ History_^<N__^<N_From its beginnings--from the Wright brothers' primitive wind tunnel--aerospace has depended on
scientific research for the knowledge that could be translated into airborne and space-going machinery. The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA; established 1915) began the first important programs in aeronautic research in the United
States. Work done by NACA, and in the laboratories of aircraft manufacturers, culminated in the 1930s in a new generation of efficient and reliable metal airliners. The now classic DC-3, with its wing flaps, retractable gear, and controllable pitch
propellers, set the standard for air travel for many years. On the eve of World War II, American manufacturers had already produced pressurized, four-engine airliners whose availability in the early postwar era lengthened the U.S. lead in the field
of transport design. _^<N__^<N_World War II forced the urgent development of many technologies that would characterize the aerospace industry of the postwar years. Rocketry, for example, grew dramatically (see ROCKETS AND MISSILES), along with
advanced electronic technologies, such as RADAR, a British invention, and jet-powered aircraft, which were first used during the war by both Great Britain and Germany (see JET PROPULSION). In order to mass-produce such highly complex aircraft as
the B-29, the United States developed systems for coordinating the work of thousands of independent contractors and suppliers. Moreover, these systems, which grew into the fields of SYSTEMS ENGINEERING and OPERATIONS RESEARCH, became essential for
manufacturing the complex and interdependent products that would soon be required of the industry. _^<N__^<N_Research and development continued in the postwar era not only within NACA and in many aerospace firms, but also in research facilities
established by the military services. Universities also conducted research under contract. Entities such as the Jet Propulsion Laboratory of the California Institute of Technology were almost entirely government funded. _^<N__^<N_In 1958, NACA
became the NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION (NASA), underscoring the interrelated aspects of the growing aerospace field, which now included SPACE EXPLORATION vehicles and the development of long-range BALLISTIC MISSILES (see also
SPACE PROGRAMS, NATIONAL). New generations of civilian jet transports not only utilized advanced electronic instrumentation, but also created new demands for navigational equipment and air-traffic control; new systems were evolved using advanced
electronic techniques. Jet fighters and bombers, now flying at supersonic speeds, were equipped with increasingly sophisticated electronics, becoming integrated weapons systems. _^<N__^<N_ The Industry Today_^<N__^<N_The space race and the cold war
both created incentives for the United States and the USSR to promote their aerospace industries, and in the 1980s they led the world in overall accomplishment, although Japan and several European nations possess equal technological skills in many
areas. The global aerospace market grew steadily in the 1980s, despite slowed U.S. space sales caused by the SPACE SHUTTLE accident that destroyed the Challenger in 1986. In fact, the United States decided, in 1991, to end its reliance on Shuttle
launches. Thus, although some U.S. and European launch programs experienced setbacks in the 1980s due to temporary booster failures, rocket-based space launches have become more vital than ever to the global industry. China and Japan expanded their
space programs as well. They may move into markets opened by the U.S. Shuttle program's decline and the Soviet space program's uncertain future as the result of political tumult. _^<N__^<N_Private firms have begun to enter the space-launch business
with such international, private-public projects as the joint Soviet-U.S. Space Commerce Corp. development of a new, commercial mobile launch vehicle based on the Soviet SS-20 medium-range missile. Both NASA and the Pentagon plan to hire commercial
rockets for some government-sponsored space launches. In early 1990, for example, the privately constructed Pegasus rocket, carrying a navy satellite and a NASA science project, was launched into space from under the wing of an air force B-52
flying at 12,200 m (40,000 feet). (See also SPACE EXPLORATION, COMMERCIAL.) With cold-war hostilities fading, those parts of the industry devoted to military aerospace began to shrink slowly in the 1980s, but industry analysts were confident that
the loss would be compensated by a growth in the market for civilian aircraft, spurred by a projected rise in air traffic, by the need to replace aging aircraft, and by new regulations that call for modifications on existing aircraft to achieve
lower noise levels. _^<N__^<N_ The Role of Governments in Aerospace_^<N__^<N_Of the principal government agencies involved in U.S. aerospace activities, NASA plans, directs, and conducts nonmilitary research and development in the design,
construction, and navigation of aircraft and spacecraft. NASA also has a special relationship with the Department of Defense in regard to space activities and aeronautical research that might apply to military aircraft. At its nine major
installations, NASA engages in extensive research and development. Although production of NASA projects, such as the Space Shuttle, is accomplished by contractors across the country, management decisions are coordinated by NASA personnel at the
lead center for each project. Johnson Space Center in Texas, for example, was responsible for the Orbiter of the Space Shuttle; the prime contractor was Rockwell International. The large solid-propellant boosters and the liquid propellant tank were
the responsibility of the Marshall Space Flight Center in Alabama, and the prime contractors were Morton Thiokol Chemical Corporation and Martin Marietta Aerospace. NASA headquarters in Washington, D.C., carried out overall planning. _^<N__^<N_Very
similar arrangements are made by the Department of Defense and other government agencies. Defense, in addition to the acquisition of missiles and military aircraft, also funds a number of research and development projects for communications and
surveillance satellites and for related technologies, including launch vehicles. The Department of Commerce operates weather and environmental satellites. The Department of Energy has been involved in nuclear-powered electric generators for NASA
and Defense missions, as well as studies for solar-energy satellites. The Department of the Interior manages a variety of satellite data systems for resource management and cartography. The Federal Aviation Administration engages in extensive
aeronautical research as well as monitoring the safety of the nation's airways. The International Civil Aviation Organization, operating under the authority of the United Nations, establishes worldwide guidelines for aircraft navigational and
communications procedures, and thus influences the development of certain types of equipment, such as the new microwave landing system that will be installed at all U.S. international airports during the 1990s. _^<N__^<N_Partly in an effort to
compete with the United States in aerospace, the British, French, and Italians in the 1970s established nationalized industries (British Aerospace Corp., Aerospatiale, Aeritalia), which have assumed a primary role in aerospace development. Western
Europe has also developed consortia, the largest of which, the EUROPEAN SPACE AGENCY (ESA), built the 3-stage Ariane launch vehicle. By agreement with NASA, ESA also produced the SPACELAB, a laboratory module that was carried into orbit aboard the
Space Shuttle on some flights prior to the Challenger disaster. Program changes following the disaster called for a cutback in many Spacelab flights that had been planned aboard the Shuttle during the 1990s. Great Britain, Germany, Spain, and Italy
have also united to form the European Fighter Aircraft program to develop a fighter plane. _^<N__^<N_The Soviet aerospace industry has maintained separate ministries for astronautics and aeronautics, with manufacture taking place at plants run by a
separate production ministry. In 1985 the Soviet Union also established a space-commercialization organization named Glavkosmos, its purpose being to sell Soviet space services to foreign customers. The nation's political upheavals in the 1990s may
eventually lead to most or all of its space systems being offered for sale. _^<N__^<N_ Research and Development_^<N__^<N_The evolution of most aerospace products relies heavily on applied research. In the case of an aircraft, designers use
computers to generate mathematical models that are then used to simulate hundreds of different flight patterns. When a successful design has emerged from this process, extensive wind-tunnel research, using scale models of the plane and its
components, verifies the final configuration. A full-scale vehicle is then fabricated. Its wings, fuselage, landing gear, movable surfaces, and other assemblies are subjected to simulated flight loads and operational requirements. The findings of
the simulated flights are incorporated into one or more operational aircraft, which undergo flight testing. For large airliners, testing may take several months. A complex military aircraft may require several years. When the aircraft finally
enters production, the prime contractor assembles it from components and subsystems supplied by hundreds of subcontractors. _^<N__^<N_Specifications relating to the function of the aircraft also play a large role in its design. For a military
fighter, designers must consider the types of targets to be attacked, the desired speed, fuel capacity, and range of the vehicle, and its weaponry, which will differ in planes intended for high- or low-altitude combat. A low-level combat plane will
generally carry heavier armor plate, more specialized weapon-control systems, and equipment to reduce the threat of ground-based heat-seeking missiles. The manufacturer of the craft must also consider the man-hours required to supply and maintain
the vehicle, as well as the training required for maintenance crews. Maintenance costs and training are also considerations in the design of civil aircraft, in addition to the other requirements peculiar to airline operations. The length of runways
and their load-bearing weight may influence the proposed gross weight of the plane, the design of its wings, and the configuration of its landing gear. Allowances must be made for different seating patterns for high-density and low-density routes.
Performance requirements will vary for operations from airports in hot climates at sea level or cold climates above 1,500 m (5,000 ft). _^<N__^<N_ The Internationalization of the Industry_^<N__^<N_Because of the immense costs of developing and
producing aircraft, risk-sharing agreements have become increasingly common. The acquisition of a foreign partner can be vital, because the U.S. market, in itself, may not produce enough sales to insure profitability. For foreign partners such
investment means new jobs, visibility in a high-technology field, and the acquisition of advanced technologies, in addition to the potential for profits. _^<N__^<N_Boeing's twinjet wide-body airliner, the 767, demonstrated current risk-sharing
practice. In 1978, Boeing signed risk-sharing agreements with two foreign partners, making them major participants in the development and production of the 767. Italy's Aeritalia designed and manufactured the moving surfaces for the 767's wings and
tail, as well as the vertical fin and the nose radome, using advanced composites incorporating graphite and kevlar. A consortium of Japanese manufacturers produced the 767's body panels. (An additional 1,300 firms in 26 U.S. states and 7 countries
also contributed to the 767, not including "second-tier suppliers" who provided parts to the subcontractors.) _^<N__^<N_Several other major aerospace firms in the United States have entered into substantial collaborative ventures. In the mid-1970s
General Dynamics arranged with the governments of Belgium, Denmark, Norway, and the Netherlands for coproduction of the advanced F-16 fighter. In this case the plane was completely designed in the United States, but the Europeans built large
numbers in their own factories. In the mid-1980s, McDonnell Douglas agreed to coproduce the MD-82 jet with Chinese aircraft manufacturers. _^<N__^<N_The European aircraft sector has itself become increasingly multinational. Airbus Industrie, a
European consortium embracing France, Germany, Great Britain, the Netherlands, and Spain, has gained an increasingly large share of the international air transport market. The company has produced the A300 and A311 wide-body transports, the A320
regular model, and the A330 and A340 long-range jets. _^<N__^<N_In Canada, a nationalized organization, Canadair, produces aircraft and aerospace components. Israel's aerospace firms market both military and civil aircraft as well as electronic
equipment. Brazil has successfully marketed a twin-engine commuter transport. _^<N__^<N_Japan's versatile aerospace industry produces U. S. aircraft under license and works independently and with American firms in the development of launch vehicles
and satellites. In the late 1980s, however, the U. S. industry began to question such cooperative arrangements, fearing that the sharing of technological advances might create formidable competitors in the future. _^<N__^<N_ Aerospace Contributions
to Other Technologies_^<N__^<N_Artificial satellites (see SATELLITES, ARTIFICIAL) have had a profound impact on earth science, agriculture, and communications. The spread of materials--paints, adhesives, fabrics, fasteners, and alloys--that were
first developed in space research can be traced throughout almost every major manufacturing area. NASA's research has broadened to include such projects as electricity generation through giant windmills and more economical fuel-burning and
electrically powered automobiles. NASA experiments with ferrofluids (magnetic liquids) have led to advances in the fabrication of semiconductor chips and other industrial applications. _^<N__^<N_COSMIC, the Computer Software Management and
Information System, represents a comprehensive library of computer programs developed by NASA and other federal agencies with high-technology activities. COSMIC's programs are available to industry at a fraction of their original cost and have been
used in the design of hydroelectric equipment, valves for nuclear generators, oil-refinery turbines, and other advanced machinery. Other spinoffs from the aerospace industry include a wide range of devices for monitoring or controlling complex
processes in physiology, astronomy, and materials science. _^<N__^<N_Roger E. Bilstein _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Aerospace Industries Association, Aerospace Facts and Figures (annual); Aviation Week & Space Technology (special annual issue,
"Aerospace Forecast and Inventory"); Bilstein, Roger, Flight in America: From the Wright Brothers to the Astronauts (1984); Gidwitz, Betsy, The Politics of International Air Transport (1980); National Aeronautics and Space Administration,
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President (annual); Spinoff (annual); Young, A. D., ed., Progress in Aerospace Studies, vol. 21 (1986).
-END-
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29
CAT
-A-
aerospace law:
-T-
aerospace law:_^<N__^<N_see SPACE LAW.
-END-
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1172
CAT
-A-
Aeschines
-T-
Aeschines_^<N__^<N_{es'-kuh-neez} _^<N__^<N_Aeschines, c.390-c.322 BC, was a fine Athenian orator who is primarily known as the political enemy of DEMOSTHENES. Their point of contention was Athenian public policy with regard to PHILIP II of
Macedonia. Although Aeschines initially favored resistance to Philip's expansionism, he came to advocate a negotiated peace. This was achieved in 346, after two diplomatic missions in which both Aeschines and Demosthenes participated. However,
Demosthenes accused Aeschines first of accepting Macedonian bribes and then (343) of treason. Aeschines successfully defended himself against the latter charge in his speech On the False Embassy. _^<N__^<N_Perhaps encouraged by his victory, in 336
he attacked Demosthenes by accusing Demosthenes' friend Ctesiphon of illegally proposing a state honor for his friend. The case was not heard until 330. Demosthenes, speaking in Ctesiphon's defense, so successfully defended his own career that
Aeschines lost the suit and was required to pay a fine. Discredited, he left Athens for Anatolia and apparently died there. _^<N__^<N_Charles W. Fornara _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Pickard-Cambridge, A. W., Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 6 (1953).
-END-
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6830
CATO
4758
-A-
Aeschylus
-O-
000000|Aeschylus
001669| CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF DRAMA
004469| AESCHYLEAN CHARACTERISTICS
-T-
Aeschylus_^<N__^<N_{es'-kuh-luhs} _^<N__^<N_Aeschylus, the Greek dramatist who wrote the earliest surviving Greek tragedies, was born about 525 BC at Eleusis in Attica and died in 456 BC at Gela, Sicily. The PERSIAN WARS, in which he fought at
Marathon (490) and Salamis (480), together with the consolidation of Athenian democracy and the spread of Athens' empire, strongly influenced his work. In his hands, early drama took on a high religious purpose, serving as a forum for resolving
profound moral conflicts and expressing a grandeur of thought and language. _^<N__^<N_Aeschylus wrote between 80 and 90 plays. Of these, 7 tragedies are preserved intact, along with substantial fragments of a SATYR PLAY and smaller bits of other
works. In all, he won 13 victories at the Greater Dionysia, the annual dramatic festival held in Athens. A special law allowed his plays to be performed after his death. _^<N__^<N_Of Aeschylus's early life little is known. He began to submit
plays in the opening decade of the 5th century and won his first victory in 484. Although associated with Athens, Aeschylus spent much of his life in Syracuse, in Sicily, which he initially visited about 475 and where he presented The Women of
AEtna to celebrate the tyrant Hieron's founding (476) of the city of Aetna. From at least 468 to 458, he was back in Athens, but then returned to Sicily, allegedly dissatisfied with the Athenian public. He died in Gela (according to a comic
legend, a tortoise shell dropped by an eagle struck his bald head). The Geloans honored him with a splendid tomb and an epigram--possibly composed by the poet--commemorating his valor at Marathon but saying nothing of the many plays he created.
_^<N__^<N_ CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF DRAMA_^<N__^<N_Inheriting a primitive form of drama from his predecessors and contemporaries--THESPIS, Choerilus, Pratinas--Aeschylus added a second actor, reduced the role of the chorus, and gave
greater prominence to dialogue. The ancient anonymous Life of Aeschylus also credits him with introducing a third actor, but Aristotle assigned this innovation to SOPHOCLES. Aeschylus, however, effectively utilized the third actor at dramatic
moments in the Oresteia (the Cassandra and Pylades scenes) and possibly in the Prometheus. A true showman, he staged his own plays as spectacles with striking visual effects: exotic robes, painted scenery, daring costumes and masks, high boots
(kothornoi ) that magnified the height of the actors, and elaborate machinery to shock his audience. The Life reports that at the appearance of the FURIES in the Eumenides, "boys fainted and women miscarried." _^<N__^<N_In his earliest preserved
play, the Persians (472 BC), which recounts Athens' naval victory over Persia at Salamis, Aeschylus exhibited remarkable sympathy for the defeated invaders: the audience sees Atossa, the Persian queen, experiencing the blow of her son's defeat,
while XERXES' initial pride in conquest degenerates into mere vengeful destructiveness toward his subjects' lives and property. The catastrophe attendant upon dynastic ambition is a recurrent theme in Aeschylus's work. _^<N__^<N_Seven Against
Thebes (467 BC) is the last play of a trilogy about the destruction of the House of OEDIPUS. It focuses on the decision of Eteocles, the son of Oedipus and the ruler of Thebes, to meet his brother in battle, where each kills the other.
_^<N__^<N_Because of its archaic structure, the Suppliant Women was long thought to be the poet's earliest work, but recent evidence based on a papyrus introducing the play suggests a date about 463. The first play in a trilogy, it dramatizes the
decision of the king of Argos to shelter the Danaids, 50 Egyptian women fleeing marriage to their cousins. _^<N__^<N_The Oresteia (458 BC)--comprising the Agamemnon, Choephoroe, and Eumenides--the only surviving trilogy from ancient times,
dramatizes the curse on the House of Atreus from the time of AGAMEMNON's return and murder to Orestes' matricide and purification. Inspired by confidence in Athens' democratic institutions, Aeschylus here celebrated the evolution of justice from
primitive blood vengeance to civic law. _^<N__^<N_Prometheus Bound (c.460-56 BC), like the Oresteia, concerns divine justice and the cosmic order: ZEUS, a harsh god, punishes the Titan PROMETHEUS for giving fire to mortals. The lost plays of the
trilogy presented Prometheus's liberation and perhaps his reconciliation with Zeus. Because of its intellectual, Sophistic vocabulary, some have doubted its Aeschylean origins. _^<N__^<N_ AESCHYLEAN CHARACTERISTICS_^<N__^<N_Apart from the
Persians, the surviving plays date from the last decade of Aeschylus's life and form parts of connected trilogies, possibly a late development in his work. His tragedies are generally more formal than those of Sophocles or EURIPIDES, less
concerned with character development, and more stylized in the use of ritual elements such as responsive prayer or chant. His heroes, for instance, rather than being three-dimensional individuals, are bearers of tragic conflicts often rooted in
the acts of a past generation. They are usually larger than life. His plots involve the rebellion of Titans, the downfall of aristocratic houses, and the capriciousness of the gods. The Aeschylean hero must make tragic choices between
alternatives that both involve suffering. The hero's personal choice is the arena in which the issue of cosmic justice is worked out. In the connected trilogy, justice is accomplished over the course of several generations or even, as in the
Prometheus trilogy, over thousands of years. _^<N__^<N_Aeschylus used bold metaphors, vivid images, flamboyantly poetic words, and magnificent geographical description. His religious grandeur is probably unequaled in classical literature. In
ARISTOPHANES' satire The Frogs (405 BC), Aeschylus defeats Euripides in a literary contest and embodies the original vitality of tragedy: its martial, public spirit, democratic energy, and nobility of language and ideas. _^<N__^<N_Recent
scholarship has stressed the range and boldness of Aeschylus's religious conceptions, the depth and intensity of his presentation of tragic conflict, and the coherence and psychological incisiveness of his mythic and poetic imagery.
_^<N__^<N_Charles Segal _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Finley, John H., Pindar and Aeschylus (1955); Gagarin, Michael, Aeschylean Drama (1976); Golden, Leon, In Praise of Prometheus: Humanism and Rationalism in Aeschylean Thought (1966); Harington,
J., Aeschylus (1986); McCall, Marsh, ed., Aeschylus, A Collection of Critical Essays (1972); Murray, Gilbert, Aeschylus, the Creator of Tragedy (1940; repr. 1978); Podlecki, Anthony J., The Political Background of Aeschylean Tragedy (1966);
Smyth, Herbert W., Aeschylean Tragedy (1924; repr. 1969); Thomson, G., Aeschylus and Athens (1940; repr. 1969). _^<N__^<N_See also: GREEK LITERATURE, ANCIENT; ORESTEIA; TRAGEDY.
-END-
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2036
CAT
-A-
Aesop
-T-
Aesop_^<N__^<N_Aesop, a Greek folk hero who is supposed to have lived in the 6th century BC, acquired a great reputation as a teller of animal FABLES. According to one tradition, he was born in Thrace, lived for a while as a slave on the island of
Samos, was freed and traveled widely, and was murdered while visiting Delphi. _^<N__^<N_Aristotle describes (330 BC) how Aesop defended a corrupt politician by telling the story of the fox and the hedgehog. A fox, Aesop said, was troubled by
fleas, and a hedgehog asked if he could help remove them. The fox replied: "No, these fleas are full and no longer suck much blood. If you take them away, new, hungry fleas will come." "So, gentlemen of the jury," Aesop is supposed to have said,
"if you put my client to death, others will come along who are not rich and will rob you completely." _^<N__^<N_No evidence indicates that Aesop wrote down his fables or published them. Collections of fables, authentic or imitative, were made as
early as the 4th century BC. The two oldest surviving collections date from the 1st century AD; they were written by Phaedrus in Latin and by Babrius in Greek. Aesop's fables later served as a springboard for the verse satires of the
17th-century French writer Jean de LA FONTAINE. _^<N__^<N_Because Aesop's fables are short, simply expressed, and entertaining to children, they have been used since classical times as texts in elementary schools. The most popular English version
is probably that by Samuel Croxall, originally published in 1722 and widely read throughout the 18th and 19th centuries in Britain and North America. Croxall saw a political meaning in the fables and accompanied each with an "application," or
moral. _^<N__^<N_George Kennedy _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Aesop, Fables, trans. by S. A. Handford (1964) and Fables, trans. by John Warrington (1961); Jacobs, Joseph, ed., Fables of Aesop (1894; repr. 1979); Perry, Ben Edwin, Studies in the
Text History of the Life and Fables of Aesop (1981); Shapiro, N. R., Fables from Old French: Aesop's Beasts and Bumpkins (1987).
-END-
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2292
CAT
-A-
aestheticism
-T-
aestheticism_^<N__^<N_{es'-thet-ih-sizm} _^<N__^<N_Aestheticism was a literary and artistic movement that flourished in England and France toward the end of the 19th century. It was based on the theory that the intense perception of beauty ("art
for art's sake") is the highest good and, as such, is independent of social, political, or ethical considerations. For the so-called aesthete, life itself must be lived as a work of art. _^<N__^<N_The basic concept of aestheticism was derived from
the writers and philosophers of German ROMANTICISM, particularly KANT. In France, Benjamin CONSTANT is believed to have coined the phrase l'art pour l'art ("art for art's sake") in 1804, and Theophile GAUTIER further articulated the concepts of
aestheticism in the preface to his novel Mademoiselle de Maupin (1835). The works of the American writer Edgar Allan POE also influenced the French movement. The notion was central to the poetry of Charles BAUDELAIRE, particularly in his Les
Fleurs du mal (The Flowers of Evil, 1857), and influenced the later writers and painters of French SYMBOLISM. _^<N__^<N_Aestheticism in England can be traced to the poetry of KEATS, the criticism of John RUSKIN and Walter PATER, and the paintings
and poetry of such PRE-RAPHAELITES as Dante Gabriel ROSSETTI. Pater concluded in his Studies in the History of the Renaissance (1873) that, in a world without God, value lies in moments of intense sensation. He urged his readers "to burn always
with this hard gem-like flame" and embrace "the love of art for art's sake." Pater's ideas particularly influenced Oscar WILDE and the poets of the Rhymers Club, founded by W. B. YEATS. Such painters as James McNeill WHISTLER rapidly moved away
from representationalism and toward an abstract art of pure form and color. During the 1890s the elevated sentiments of aestheticism were gradually superseded by the more perverse and flamboyant style called DECADENCE. _^<N__^<N_Herbert Sussman
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Child, Ruth C., Aesthetic of Walter Pater, (1940; repr. 1978); Hamilton, Walter, Aesthetic Movement in England, 3d ed. (1882; repr. 1986); Hough, Graham, The Last Romantics (1949); Spencer, Charles, ed., Aesthetic
Movement: 1869-1890 (1973); Spencer, Robin, Aesthetic Movement (1972); Van Dyke, John C., Art for Art's Sake (1898; repr. 1973).
-END-
-C-
8355
CATO
4805
-A-
aesthetics
-O-
000000|aesthetics
000929| PHILOSOPHY OF ART
000947| Metaphysics of Art
003275| Experience of Art
003880| Judgments and Interpretations
004882| Production of Art
005557| Definition of Art
006158| PHILOSOPHY OF BEAUTY
-T-
aesthetics_^<N__^<N_Aesthetics is the branch of philosophy that aims to establish the general principles of art and beauty. It can be divided into the philosophy of art and the philosophy of beauty. Although some philosophers have considered one of
these a subdivision of the other, the philosophies of art and beauty are essentially different. The philosophy of beauty recognizes aesthetic phenomena outside of art, as in nature or in nonartistic cultural phenomena such as morality, science, or
mathematics; it is concerned with art only insofar as art is beautiful. The history of the arts in the West, however, has made it increasingly clear that there is much more to art than beauty and that art often has little or nothing to do with
beauty. Until the 18th century, the philosophy of beauty was generally given more attention than the philosophy of art. Since that time, aestheticians have devoted more energy to the philosophy of art. _^<N__^<N_ PHILOSOPHY OF ART_^<N__^<N_
Metaphysics of Art_^<N__^<N_Aestheticians ask two main questions about the metaphysics of art: (1) What is the ontological status of works of art, or what kind of entity is a work of art? (2) What access, if any, does art give the viewer or
hearer to reality, or what kind of knowledge, if any, does art yield? The first question arises, in part, because some works of art, such as SCULPTURES, are much like ordinary physical objects; others, such as PAINTINGS, have aspects that suggest
that not all works of art can be merely physical objects. A painting, for example, is typically flat, but it can represent spatial depth; and what the painting represents often seems more relevant aesthetically than its physical dimensions. To
some aestheticians, the representational character seems to be what is essential to a painting as a work of art. Some philosophers have therefore concluded that works of art are mental entities of some sort, because it is mental entities, such as
visions and dreams, that are typically representational. Other philosophers, who have noticed that artists can and do express some of their own attitudes, emotions, and personality traits in their art, have concluded that art works belong in a
category with NONVERBAL COMMUNICATIONS rather than with physical objects. _^<N__^<N_A different line of thought suggests that works of art are not like objects even on a first impression. For example, the score of a SYMPHONY is not the same as the
symphony. The score is a set of directions for playing the music, but the musical work can exist even if no one ever plays the score. Considerations such as these have led many philosophers to say that works of art exist only in the minds of their
creators and of their hearers, viewers, or readers. _^<N__^<N_The question whether art can provide knowledge of, or insight into, reality is as old as philosophy itself. Plato argued in The Republic that art has the power to represent only the
appearances of reality. According to this theory, a painter reproduces (imitates) a subject on canvas. The counterposition, that art can yield insight into the real, is commonly held by modern philosophers, artists, and critics. Many critics, in
fact, allege that art offers a special, nondiscursive, and intuitive knowledge of reality that science and philosophy cannot achieve. _^<N__^<N_ Experience of Art_^<N__^<N_Modern discussions about how art is experienced have been dominated by
theories devised in the 18th century to describe the experience of beauty. As a consequence, many philosophers still think of the typical experience of art as distanced, disinterested, or contemplative. This experience is supposed to be
different, and removed, from everyday affairs and concerns. A few modern aestheticians, especially John DEWEY, have stressed the continuity between aesthetic experience and everyday experience and have claimed for the experience of art a
psychologically integrative function. _^<N__^<N_ Judgments and Interpretations_^<N__^<N_The study of critics' judgments and interpretations of art tries to specify the kind of reasoning involved in such opinions. One question is whether evaluative
judgments can be backed by strictly deductive reasoning based on premises descriptive of the art-work. _^<N__^<N_A radical position on this issue is that evaluative judgments are merely expressions of preference and thus cannot be considered either
true or false. With respect to critical interpretations of a work, as distinct from evaluations, a basic question is whether conflicts over interpretations of a work can be definitively settled by facts about the work, or whether more than one
incompatible but reasonable interpretation of the same work is possible. A related concern is what the criteria of relevance are for justifying an interpretation or evaluation. Some aestheticians in this century, for example, have argued that
appeals to the artist's intentions about a work are never relevant in such contexts. _^<N__^<N_ Production of Art_^<N__^<N_Philosophical speculation about the production of art centers primarily on the following questions: What is the role of
genius, or innate ability, in artistic production? What is the meaning of creativity? How do the conditions for producing fine art differ from those for producing CRAFTS? On the last issue, ancient and medieval philosophers assumed the same
model for producing fine art and crafts; they had no conception that the two are distinct. The present distinction between the two emerged in Western culture after the RENAISSANCE; nearly all aestheticians now assume that something is unique
about producing fine and especially great art. _^<N__^<N_ Definition of Art_^<N__^<N_Attempts to define art generally aim at establishing a set of characteristics applicable to all fine arts as well as the differences that set them apart. By the
middle of the 20th century, aestheticians had not agreed upon a definition of art, and a skeptical position became popular, holding that it is impossible in principle to define art. This skepticism has an interesting parallel in the 18th century
when, after many unsuccessful attempts to define beauty, most philosophers agreed that beauty could not be defined in terms of the qualities shared by all beautiful objects. _^<N__^<N_ PHILOSOPHY OF BEAUTY_^<N__^<N_The skepticism about beauty
culminated in the Critique of Judgment (1790), Immanuel KANT's contribution to aesthetics. In that work, Kant analyzed the "judgment of taste," that is, the judgment that a thing is beautiful. He asserted that the judgment of beauty is subjective.
Before Kant, the common assumption was that "beauty" designated some objective feature of things. Most earlier theories of beauty had held that beauty was a complex relation between parts of a whole. Some philosophers called this relation
"harmony." From the time of the Greeks, a common assumption was that beauty applied not only, or primarily, to art, but that it manifested itself in cultural institutions and moral character as well as in natural and artificial objects. By the end
of the 18th century, however, the range of accepted beautiful things was becoming more and more restricted to natural things and artworks. _^<N__^<N_Whereas theorists of beauty had generally admitted that the perception of beauty always gives
pleasure to the perceiver, Kant turned the pleasure into the criterion of beauty. According to Kant, people can judge a thing beautiful only if they take pleasure of a certain kind in experiencing it. The American philosopher George SANTAYANA took
this subjectivism a step further by declaring that beauty is the same as pleasure--but pleasure then can be seen as "objectified" in things. Santayana's work (1896) marked the virtual end, until recently, of aestheticians' serious theoretical
interest in beauty. _^<N__^<N_Guy Sircello _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Adorno, T. W., Aesthetic Theory, trans. by G. Lenhardt (1984); Beardsley, Monroe, Aesthetics, 2d ed. (1981); Collingwood, R. G., The Principles of Art (1938); Croce,
Benedetto, Aesthetic, trans. by Douglas Ainslie (1909); Dewey, John, Art as Experience, (1934); Kant, Immanuel, Critique of Judgment (1790; new trans. by J. C. Meredith, 1957); Langer, Susanne K., Feeling and Form (1953); Margolis, Joseph,
Philosophy Looks at the Arts, 3d ed. (1986); Santayana, George, The Sense of Beauty (1896); Sircello, Guy, A New Theory of Beauty (1975); Tartarkiewicz, W., History of Aesthetics, 3 vols. (1970, 1974).
-END-
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377
CAT
-A-
AEthelbert, King of Kent
-T-
AEthelbert, King of Kent_^<N__^<N_{ath'-uhl-burt} _^<N__^<N_AEthelbert, 552-616, king of Kent from 560, was the first Christian Anglo-Saxon ruler in England. He married Bertha, a Christian Frankish princess, and in 597, AEthelbert himself was
converted by the missionary Saint Augustine of Canterbury. AEthelbert issued a code of laws (c.600) that is the oldest surviving document in Old English.
-END-
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561
CAT
-A-
AEthelflaed
-T-
AEthelflaed_^<N__^<N_{ath'-uhl-flad} _^<N__^<N_AEthelflaed, d. 918, daughter of King Alfred of Wessex, ruled the semiautonomous Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Mercia, first with AEthelred, ealdorman of Mercia, whom she married c.880, and then on her own
during the illness that preceded his death (911) and thereafter until her own death. Known as the Lady of the Mercians, she built fortresses and helped recover areas held by the Danes--victories that facilitated the ascendancy of her brother EDWARD
THE ELDER. After AEthelflaed's death, Edward incorporated English Mercia into Wessex.
-END-
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889
CAT
-A-
AEthelred II, King of England (AEthelred the Unready)
-T-
AEthelred II, King of England (AEthelred the Unready)_^<N__^<N_{ath'-uhl-red} _^<N__^<N_AEthelred II, 968-1016, king of England (978-1016), lost his kingdom to Danish conquerors. His nickname, "the Unready," is derived from the Old English unrede,
meaning that he lacked advice. Beginning his reign under suspicion of murdering his half-brother, King Edward the Martyr, AEthelred proved a weak ruler. In 980 the Danes renewed their raids on England after a 25-year truce. Unable to mount
effective resistance, AEthelred began payment (991) of the Danegeld, a form of tribute, to buy off the raiders. In 1013, however, the Danes under SWEYN overran the entire country, and AEthelred fled to Normandy. Although he returned in 1014, the
Danish king CANUTE completed the Danish conquest of England in 1016, shortly after AEthelred's death. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Stenton, F. M., Anglo-Saxon England, 3d ed. (1971).
-END-
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559
CAT
-A-
Aetius, Flavius
-T-
Aetius, Flavius_^<N__^<N_{ee'-shuhs, flay'-vee-uhs} _^<N__^<N_Flavius Aetius, AD 396-454, was a Roman general who, winning favor with VALENTINIAN III, became virtual ruler of the western empire. He was first given command in Gaul. There, after the
death of the powerful rival general Boniface (432), he crushed the rebels (433) and destroyed the Burgundian kingdom. Allying his forces with the Visigoths in 451, Aetius defeated ATTILA and the Huns in the battle of Chalons. Aetius had been made
consul three times, and his power threatened Valentinian, who had him assassinated.
-END-
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904
CAT
-A-
Aetolia
-T-
Aetolia_^<N__^<N_{ee-toh'-lee-uh} _^<N__^<N_Aetolia was a district of ancient Greece that lay north of the Gulf of Corinth and was bordered on the east by Mount Oxya and on the west by the Achelous River. The Aetolians had several coastal towns, but
most of the area was cut off from the sea by mountains. The people pursued an agrarian economy, farming their rich interior plains. They maintained an important shrine to Apollo at Thermum and to Artemis at Calydon. _^<N__^<N_The Aetolian League,
was formed in the 4th century BC. A strong confederacy, it seized DELPHI about 300 and became a major opponent of the Achaean League (see ACHAEA) and MACEDONIA. The league allied with the Romans to defeat PHILIP V of Macedonia in 197, but it later
sided with ANTIOCHUS III against Rome, and with his downfall (189 BC) the Aetolians were forced to become subject allies of Rome. Although the league survived, its influence was destroyed.
-END-
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478
CAT
-A-
Afanasiev, Aleksandr Nikolayevich
-T-
Afanasiev, Aleksandr Nikolayevich_^<N__^<N_{uh-fuh-nah'-see-ev, ul-yik-sahn'-dur nik-ul-ly'-uh-vich} _^<N__^<N_The Russian writer Aleksandr Nikolayevich Afanasiev, b. July 11 (N.S.), 1826, d. Oct. 23 (N.S.), 1871, was an outstanding collector of
folktales, literary historian, and bibliographer. His Russian Folk Tales (8 vols., 1855-64; Eng. trans., 1945) was, when published, the most extensive compilation of these stories and had a considerable influence on Russian literature.
_^<N__^<N_Ralph E. Matlaw
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58
CAT
-A-
Afars and Issas, Territory of the:
-T-
Afars and Issas, Territory of the:_^<N__^<N_see DJIBOUTI (country).
-END-
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483
CAT
-A-
affenpinscher
-T-
affenpinscher_^<N__^<N_{ah'-fen-pin-shur} _^<N__^<N_The affenpinscher is a toy breed that resembles the terriers. It has bushy eyebrows that hang down over large black eyes, a mustache, and a slightly protruding lower jaw that bears a hair tuft. Its
stiff, wiry coat is usually black but may have tan, gray, or red markings. The tail is usually docked. The affenpinscher stands about 25 cm (10 in) high at the shoulder. It was recognized as a separate species as long ago as the 17th century in
Europe.
-END-
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612
CAT
-A-
affidavit
-T-
affidavit_^<N__^<N_An affidavit is a sworn statement made before a notary or some other person authorized to administer an oath; it is used in a court of law to advise the court of certain facts. It differs from a DEPOSITION in that the person
making the affidavit may not be cross-examined. An affidavit of merits states that a defendant in a legal action has a meritorious defense and informs the court of the facts on which the defense is based. In some states it is known as an affidavit
of defense. The plaintiff in such an action may also be required to file an affidavit certifying the truth of his or her charges.
-END-
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1905
CAT
-A-
affirmative action
-T-
affirmative action_^<N__^<N_Affirmative action is a formal effort to provide increased employment opportunities for women and ethnic minorities, to overcome past patterns of discrimination (see EQUAL OPPORTUNITY). Under the Equal Opportunity Act of
1972, most federal contractors and subcontractors, all state governments and institutions (including universities), and most local governments must initiate plans to increase the proportions of their female and minority employees until they are
equal to the proportions existing in the available labor market. _^<N__^<N_The measures employers and institutions should take to demonstrate their compliance with the law have been the subject of controversy. Affirmative action plans that
establish racial quotas were declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA V. BAKKE (1978) but upheld in the case of private businesses and unions in UNITED STEELWORKERS OF AMERICA V. WEBER (1979). In 1984 and 1986 the
justices ruled against upsetting seniority systems to favor minorities. In two cases in 1986, however, the Court reaffirmed its support for limited use of racial preferences for minority groups (who may not personally have suffered discrimination)
to redress specific job discrimination when other measures are unavailing. In 1989, in several rulings, the Court further narrowed the effect of the 1972 act. Responding to criticism, a bipartisan coalition in Congress then negotiated the Civil
Rights Act of 1991, reaffirming and strengthening the protections afforded minorities by earlier acts. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Carter, Stephen L., Reflections of an Affirmative Action Baby (1991); Combs, Michael, and Gruhl, Johns, eds.,
Affirmative Action: Theory, Analysis, and Prospects (1986); Fiscus, Ronald J., The Constitutional Logic of Affirmative Action (1992); Graham, H. D., The Civil Rights Era (1990); Schwartz, B., Beyond Bakke (1988).
-END-
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619
CAT
-A-
Afghan hound
-T-
Afghan hound_^<N__^<N_The Afghan hound, a hunting dog and pet, originated in ancient Egypt but developed its present traits in mountainous Afghanistan. With wide-set prominent hipbones, it can run easily over rocky and hilly terrain with powerful
leaps and quick turns. It is one of the few hounds that hunts by sight rather than scent. Long silky hair, which may be of any color, grows in a topknot on its head and also covers its body, legs, and long, drooping ears. The comparatively hairless
tail is held in a high, tight curve. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Miller, Constance, and Gilbert, Edward, The Complete Afghan Hound, 3d ed. (1975).
-END-
-C-
15947
CATO
4724
9484
14305
-A-
Afghanistan
-O-
000000|Afghanistan
000674| LAND AND RESOURCES
001083| Climate
001460| Drainage
002026| Vegetable and Animal Life
002445| Resources
002973| PEOPLE
004355| Demography
005457| Health
005847| Education
006487| THE ARTS
007083| ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
007529| Agriculture
008057| Industry and Transportation
008495| HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT
-T-
Afghanistan_^<N__^<N_The Islamic State of Afghanistan is a country situated between the Indian subcontinent, Central Asia, and the nations of the Middle East. Although it has no access to the sea, its location was central to the wars, migrations,
and trade that dominated inner Asia until early modern times. It is bordered by Pakistan on the east and south, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan on the north, Iran on the west, and China in the extreme northeast. The USSR occupied the
country in 1979 on behalf of its Marxist government, which had seized power in a violent coup the previous year. The last Soviet forces withdrew in 1989 and the Marxist government was ousted in 1992. _^<N__^<N_ LAND AND
RESOURCES_^<N__^<N_Afghanistan is dominated by rugged mountains and arid plains. Its central and eastern regions are covered by high mountain ranges centering on the HINDU KUSH. The system spurs off from the Himalayas; many peaks in the extreme
northeast reach more than 6,100 m (20,000 ft). Barren plains flank the mountain core to the north, west, and south. In the southwest the plains become deserts. _^<N__^<N_ Climate_^<N__^<N_Afghanistan's dry, continental climate produces four
distinct seasons and sharp contrasts in temperatures by day, by season, and by elevation. Winters bring snow followed by early spring rains. Summers are hot and dry. Autumns are moderate and also dry. Average annual rainfall is about 180 mm (7
in) and is rarely more than 380 mm (15 in) anywhere in the country. _^<N__^<N_ Drainage_^<N__^<N_Afghanistan's major internal rivers rise in the central mountain core and flow outward generally in the four cardinal directions. Only the Kabul
River, flowing east to join the Indus in Pakistan, reaches the sea. The largest is the Helmand, which runs south-southwest past KANDAHAR to the swamps of Sistan on the Iranian border. The Hari Rud flows west past Herat, and the Kunduz north to
meet the navigable AMU DARYA (Oxus), which forms the northern border. After a heavy spate in the spring, the runoff of all the internal river is irregular and low. _^<N__^<N_ Vegetable and Animal Life_^<N__^<N_Thin soil and a harsh climate limit
natural life to the sturdiest strains. Tree cover is concentrated in the east where pine forests are common. Pistachio grows wild on the slopes of the hills of the north and northwest. Thin grasses briefly provide mountain grazing for nomadic
herds in the spring and summer. Wildlife includes wolves, hyenas, foxes, leopards, gazelles, bears, and ibex. _^<N__^<N_ Resources_^<N__^<N_Incompletely surveyed and only marginally exploited, Afghanistan's mineral resources offer considerable
potential for development. There are major deposits of iron, chrome, copper, natural gas, and possibly of uranium. Soft coal is available at numerous sites, and recent surveys suggest that the country may have exploitable oil reserves. Lapis
lazuli continues to be taken from ancient mines in the northeast. Timber harvest is restricted to the eastern mountains. There is considerable hydroelectric potential. _^<N__^<N_ PEOPLE_^<N__^<N_Afghan society is a composite of primary family,
village, and tribal units scattered within a mosaic of ethnic, linguistic, and regional communities. Millennia of conquests and folk movements have left remnants of all the peoples who have roamed inner Asia. _^<N__^<N_The PATHAN (Pashtun) people
form the dominant ethnic and linguistic community, accounting for just over half the population. Tribally organized, the Pathan are concentrated in the east and the south. As they gained control over the rest of the country in the 19th century,
however, many of them settled in other areas too. The Dari- (Persian-) speaking TAJIK are the second-largest community, accounting for approximately 20% of the population. They are strongly identified with sedentary farming and town life, mostly
in the fertile eastern valleys north and south of the Hindu Kush. Some 11% of the population are Turkic, mostly UZBEK and TURKMEN, who live in the northern plains as farmers and herders. The central mountains yield a meager living to some 1.3
million Hazaras, a Mongoloid people who mostly speak Persian. There are many smaller communities, the most important of which are the Nuristanis of the high mountains of the east and the BALUCH of the desert south. _^<N__^<N_Virtually all Afghans
are Muslim, and four-fifths of them are Sunni. A few thousand Hindus and Sikhs live as traders in the cities. _^<N__^<N_ Demography_^<N__^<N_Population data are imprecise and incomplete; there has never been a census. The pre-1980 population was
at least 90% rural. Most farmers lived in settled villages in the best watered valleys where the major rivers intersect the plains. Various forms of nomadic herding are practiced by as much as 20 percent of the population. The warfare that
disrupted the country during the Soviet occupation forced some 5 million Afghans to become international refugees, mostly in Pakistan and Iran. Large tracts of the best agricultural land were systemically depopulated, and perhaps 1 million Afghans
were killed. The major cities were also swollen with internal refugees fleeing from the fighting in the countryside. It is estimated that Kabul, the capital, doubled in size. The other major cities--Kandahar, Herat, Mazar-e-Sharif, Jalalabad,
and Kunduz--also experienced sudden increases. The resettlement of the refugees, who began to return home in 1988, is to be coordinated by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. The massive task is complicated by continued civil war.
_^<N__^<N_ Health_^<N__^<N_Whereas endemic diseases such as malaria and cholera have been recently brought under control, effective medical care and public health services have been largely limited to the cities. The situation has been aggravated
by warfare and the breakdown of central government control. The population is growing slowly, the high birth rate offset by very high infant and child mortality. _^<N__^<N_ Education_^<N__^<N_Great expansion in education was accomplished between
1950 and 1973. Primary schools became accessible to more than half the school-age children, secondary schools were functioning in nearly all provincial towns, and the national university at Kabul offered increasingly sophisticated graduate-level
programs. Despite this progress, made possible largely by assistance from many countries, 90% of the population remained illiterate. Following the Soviet invasion in 1979, education, especially in the rural areas, was devastated by the war;
government schools and teachers were principal targets of the anti-Soviet resistance. _^<N__^<N_ THE ARTS_^<N__^<N_Afghanistan has been a center of Persian, Indo-Greek, Buddhist, and Islamic cultures. Numerous archaeological sites of great
potential significance await excavation. Among the architectural remains that have been excavated are the Buddhist monasteries at BAMIAN and Hadda, the Ghaznavid palace complexes at Ghazni, and the Greek city at ai-Khanum. Herat was a major
center of Persian culture from the 11th to the 16th centuries, renowned especially for the exquisite miniature painting patronized by the TIMURIDS in the late 15th century. Carpet making remains the primary folk art. _^<N__^<N_ ECONOMIC
ACTIVITY_^<N__^<N_Modern economic change began in Afghanistan early in the 20th century with superficial efforts to expand trade, begin manufacture, improve transportation, and generate greater government revenue. Substantial development was
initiated in the 1950s, mostly through foreign aid from the United States and the USSR and, later, from Iran and the Persian Gulf states. After 1979 war destroyed much of the fruits of this development. _^<N__^<N_ Agriculture_^<N__^<N_Afghanistan's
economy is essentially agrarian. Wheat, the primary food grain, is grown mostly as an irrigated winter crop. Cotton is a major cash crop. Fruits, especially grapes and melons, are important seasonally. Skins, hides, and the fur of the karakul
lamb are also exported. Agricultural output declined more than 50% between 1979 and 1988, however, and revival of the farming sector has been complicated by the destruction of irrigation canals and the presence of large numbers of unexploded land
mines. _^<N__^<N_ Industry and Transportation_^<N__^<N_Industrial development remains rudimentary and is largely restricted to agricultural processing. All-weather paved roads connect all major cities and the principal border points, and a network
of airports connects nearly all of the provinces. Substantial natural-gas exports to the USSR largely ended before the Soviet withdrawal for fear of sabotage, and the 1991 breakup of the USSR ended Soviet subsidies. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY AND
GOVERNMENT_^<N__^<N_Afghanistan's crossroads position in Central Asia has subjected it to constant invasion and conquest throughout its long recorded history. The parade of conquerors in historic times includes DARIUS I of Persia in the 6th
century BC; ALEXANDER THE GREAT in 328 BC; the Sakas (SCYTHIANS), Parthians, and the Buddhist Kushans in the 2d and 1st centuries BC; and the Hephthalites, or White Huns, in the 5th and 6th centuries AD. The Arabs introduced ISLAM in the 7th
century, and the Turks under MAHMUD OF GHAZNI briefly made Afghanistan the center of Islamic power and civilization at the beginning of the 11th century. The MONGOLS invaded Afghanistan early in the 13th century, and TIMUR added it to his empire
at the end of the 14th century. In the early 16th century, Timur's descendant BABUR, first of the MOGULS, founded an empire in India from his base at Kabul. During the 16th and 17th centuries some parts of the country owed allegiance to the
Moguls, and others to the SAFAVIDS of Persia. _^<N__^<N_In 1747 the Pathan, having thrown off the Persian yoke, established a dynasty of their own under Ahmad Shah Sadozai, the leader of a tribal confederation. Pathan strength was consolidated by
Dost Muhammad Khan (r. 1826-63) who founded a second dynasty early in the 19th century. Effective physical control over all of the country, however, was first achieved by Dost Muhammad's grandson, Abdur Rahman Khan (r. 1880-1901); Abdur Rahman's
diplomacy also prevented either the British or the Russian empires from gaining internal control over Afghanistan. Frustrated by their failure to subdue the country in the Anglo-Afghan wars of 1839-42 and 1878-80, the British agreed to subsidize
an Afghan ruler strong enough to serve as a buffer between the empires. _^<N__^<N_Abdur Rahman's grandson, Amanullah Shah (r. 1919-29), ended (1921) British involvement in Afghan affairs. He also initiated a series of ambitious efforts at social
and political modernization, but tribal opposition forced him to flee the country. Zahir Shah ruled Afghanistan from 1933 to 1973. In 1964 he sponsored a serious attempt at liberal, Islamic constitutionalism including free elections and partial
parliamentary democracy. When the experiment foundered, the king's cousin Mohammad Daud Khan seized power in a nearly bloodless coup and ruled as a republican president from 1973 to 1978. Zahir Shah went into exile in Europe. _^<N__^<N_Daud was
killed in a Marxist coup in April 1978. This brought the semiclandestine Marxist PDPA (People's Democratic party of Afghanistan) to sudden power under Nur Mohammad Taraki. Its brutal methods and impractically radical reforms in education and land
and family law fomented a popular backlash, especially in the rural areas. Despite growing Soviet support, the regime was increasingly threatened by general revolt late in 1979. Its link with Moscow was weakened in September when Taraki was
removed (and later killed) by his lieutenant, Hafizullah Amin. _^<N__^<N_The USSR intervened militarily in December 1979. Amin was executed and replaced by Babrak KARMAL, who had been a long-time Marxist rival of Taraki and Amin. The Afghan
government attempted to establish control over the country with the help of Soviet air and land forces and several thousand Soviet civilian advisors. _^<N__^<N_After the Soviet invasion, popular opposition became a national resistance movement
active throughout the whole of Afghanistan. After several years of fighting, the poorly-equipped mujahadin (Islamic warriors), aided by the United States and Pakistan, controlled most of the countryside. The movement remained, however, politically
divided between rival claimants to leadership based in Pakistan. In 1986, with no end to the war in sight, Karmal stepped down and was replaced by Sayid Mohammad Najibullah, former head of the Afghan secret police. _^<N__^<N_In January 1987, an
international Islamic conference called on the Soviet Union to remove its troops from Afghanistan. Najibullah announced plans for a cease-fire on Jan. 1, 1987, and called on the mujahadin Moslem resistance forces to adhere to the armistice. But
the seven associated mujahadin rebel groups rejected the cease-fire, saying they would negotiate only with the Soviet government--not with the Soviet "puppet government" in Kabul--for a complete withdrawal of Soviet forces from Afghanistan. Rebel
forces had increasing success in battle, partly because of substantial arms aid--such as ground-to-air Stinger missiles from the United States--and prospects for a military solution by the Soviets grew dimmer. _^<N__^<N_In November 1987 Najibullah
convened a nationwide gathering of tribal leaders that approved a new constitution and elected Najibullah president. Elections were held in April 1988 for a two-chamber National Assembly to replace the PDPA Revolutionary Committee that had
governed the country since 1978. On Feb. 19, 1989, however, Najibullah declared a nationwide state of emergency and named a military council to rule until it was lifted. _^<N__^<N_Accords signed in Geneva, Switzerland, in April 1988 set a
timetable for the withdrawal of Soviet forces. Pakistan and Afghanistan agreed not to interfere in each other's affairs and to allow the return of millions of refugees. The USSR and the United States were to serve as guarantors of the accords,
and a United Nations negotiator was given a mandate to help the Afghans form a broad-based government. Half of the Soviet forces were withdrawn by Aug. 15, 1988, and the remainder left the country by Feb. 15, 1989. _^<N__^<N_The politically
divided mujahadin, who had not signed the accords, still controlled the countryside. Najibullah ruled under a state of emergency from February 1989 to May 1990, when the constitution was amended to provide for multiple political parties. The
mujahadin continued to fight. In April 1992 they occupied Kabul. Najibullah was forced into hiding and later resigned from office when crucial military leaders abandoned him. Among these was Gen. Abdul Rashid Doestam, the leader of powerful
militia forces. Afghanistan then became an Islamic state ruled briefly by a 51-member Islamic Jihad Council and then by an interim regime pending elections. After the mujahadin victory, various ethnic, military, and religious factions continued
to struggle for power. Guerrilla leader Burhanuddin Rabbani was elected interim president. He faced continuing military opposition, however, as his forces clashed in heavy fighting in 1993 and early 1994 with troops loyal to Gen. Abdul Rashid
Doestam, who was allied with Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, an Islamic fundamentalist and nominal prime minister. _^<N__^<N_Richard S. Newell _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: American University, Afghanistan: A Country Study, 5th ed. (1988); Arnold, Anthony,
Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion in Perspective, 2d ed. (1985); Bonner, A., Among the Afghans (1987); Bradsher, Henry, Afghanistan and the Soviet Union, 2d rev. ed. (1985); Giradet, Edward, Afghanistan: The Soviet War (1985); Goodwin, Jan,
Caught in the Crossfire (1987); Gregorian, Vartan, The Emergence of Modern Afghanistan (1969); Gupta, B. S., Afghanistan (1986); Klass, R., ed., Afghanistan (1988); Mangus, R., and Naby, E., Afghanistan (1992); Roy, O., Islam and Resistance in
Afghanistan, 2d ed. (1990); Saikal, A., and Maley, W., eds., The Soviet Withdrawal from Afghanistan (1989); Urban, M., War in Afghanistan (1988); Yengst, W. C., Afghan Retribution (1990). _^<N__^<N_
-END-
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3932
CAT
-A-
AFL-CIO
-T-
AFL-CIO_^<N__^<N_The American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO) is a national federation of labor unions in the United States. It was formed in 1955 by the merger of the AFL, an organization composed primarily
of craft unions founded in 1886, and the CIO, a federation of industrial unions founded in 1938. (Craft unions organize workers by trades--bricklayers may form one union, carpenters another. Industrial unions enroll members from an entire industry
regardless of trade or level of skill, as in the automobile, steel, or chemical industry.) _^<N__^<N_The CIO was first formed within the AFL as the Committee for Industrial Organization in 1935; its mission was to organize workers in
mass-production industries, which had few unions at that time. In 1938 the CIO was expelled from the AFL and became the Congress of Industrial Organizations. The conflict between the two federations was largely over whether the mass-production
industries were to be organized along industrial or along craft lines. The leadership of the CIO included John L. LEWIS of the UNITED MINE WORKERS, David DUBINSKY of the INTERNATIONAL LADIES' GARMENT WORKERS UNION, Sidney HILLMAN of the
AMALGAMATED CLOTHING AND TEXTILE WORKERS UNION, and Charles Howard of the INTERNATIONAL TYPOGRAPHICAL UNION. _^<N__^<N_By 1955, when the two federations merged into the AFL-CIO, the original divisive issue had lost much of its force. A need was
felt for unity in the face of anti-union legislation and a slowdown in union growth. _^<N__^<N_In 1983 the AFL-CIO comprised 98 national and international union affiliates, together with 740 local central bodies, 50 state central bodies (including
Puerto Rico, Panama, and Guam), and 8 trade and industrial union departments. The federation membership was 14.2 million in 1983. The state and local bodies are smaller federations made up of locals of the AFL-CIO national unions. The trade and
industrial departments are groupings of national unions with interests in a particular industry or field, such as the metal or building trades. They coordinate the activities of affiliates in such matters as organizing, collective bargaining,
influencing legislation, and carrying on public relations and various research activities. _^<N__^<N_The AFL-CIO acts as the political and legislative voice of the trade union movement. It seeks to influence legislation by helping political
candidates who are favorable to its aims and by lobbying in Congress and in state legislatures. It maintains a staff of researchers, social insurance experts, lawyers, public relations officers, and specialists in fields ranging from civil rights
to veterans' affairs. The AFL-CIO's chief governing body is the executive council, composed of the president, the secretary-treasurer, and 33 vice-presidents. Questions of general policy may be referred to a general board made up of the executive
council, one principal official from each of the national and international unions, and one official from each of the trade and industrial union departments. _^<N__^<N_The TEAMSTERS were expelled from the AFL-CIO in 1957 on grounds of corruption;
in 1987 the 1.6 million Teamsters were readmitted to the AFL-CIO. The UNITED MINE WORKERS withdrew voluntarily from the AFL-CIO; The UNITED AUTO WORKERS also withdrew but reaffiliated in 1981. Other unions have never affiliated. _^<N__^<N_George
MEANY, who had served as president of the AFL-CIO since its merger in 1955, stepped down in November 1979; he died in January 1980. Lane Kirkland, who as secretary-treasurer had been the number two man in the federation, became president on Nov.
19, 1979. _^<N__^<N_Jack Barbash _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Galenson, Walter, The CIO Challenge to the AFL (1960); Griffith, Barbara S., The Crisis of American Labor (1988); Taft, Philip, The A. F. of L., 2 vols. (1957-59); repr. 1970);
Zieger, Robert, American Workers, American Unions, 1920-1985 (1986). _^<N__^<N_See also: LABOR UNION.
-END-
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54
CAT
-A-
Afonso:
-T-
Afonso:_^<N__^<N_for Portuguese kings of this name see ALFONSO.
-END-
-C-
41869
CATO
4862
9708
14528
19345
24184
28955
33775
38544
-A-
Africa
-O-
000000|Africa
002798| LAND AND RESOURCES
006111| Geology
008357| Climate
010802| Drainage
013213| Soils
014330| Vegetation
015289| Fauna
017165| Mineral Resources
018801| Water Resources
019431| PEOPLE
022780| Languages
024343| Religion
025034| Education
025825| Health
027128| Demography
028764| ECONOMY
030125| Agriculture
032842| Forestry and Fishing
033805| Transportation and Communications
036265| Trade
037412| RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
-T-
Africa_^<N__^<N_Africa is the second-largest continent after Asia. It is separated from Asia by the Suez Canal, the Gulf of Suez, and the Red Sea, and from Europe by the Straits of Gibraltar and Mediterranean Sea. It is bounded by the Atlantic
Ocean on the west and the Indian Ocean on the east. Offshore islands considered part of Africa include, in the Indian Ocean, MADAGASCAR, MAURITIUS, REUNION, ZANZIBAR, PEMBA, the SEYCHELLES and the COMOROS. In the North Atlantic Ocean are the
CANARY ISLANDS, CAPE VERDE ISLANDS, and MADEIRA ISLANDS; in the South Atlantic are ASCENSION ISLAND and SAINT HELENA; and in the Gulf of Guinea (See GUINEA, GULF OF) are Annobon, BIOKO, and SAO TOME and PRINCIPE. _^<N__^<N_The earliest known
protohuman fossils have been found in Africa, primarily in Kenya and Tanzania. The continent was also the home of one of the world's oldest civilizations, that of ancient Egypt. Egyptian influence spread south up the Nile into present Sudan by
the 1st millennium BC, at the same time as the Phoenicians were founding Carthage and other city states along the Mediterranean coast north of the Atlas Mountains. North Africa came under European influence during the period of Roman rule (1st
century BC-7th century AD). Beginning in the 7th century, Arab culture and the Muslim faith spread across the Sahara following trade routes between the north coast and towns along the Sahara's southern border region. There a number of powerful
African kingdoms, including Ghana, Mali, KANEM-BORNU, and SONGHAI, flourished during the Middle Ages. Further south in the rainforests the kingdoms of ASHANTI, BENIN, KONGO, Oyo, and Dahomey emerged after the 14th century and lasted until the
colonial partition of Africa. East central Africa was occupied by the kingdoms of Ankole, Buganda, Bunyoro, Luba, and Lunda. _^<N__^<N_The modern European colonization of Africa was begun by the Portuguese, who established trading stations on the
coasts in the 15th and 16th centuries, but the interior of what Europeans called "the Dark Continent" was not explored or colonized until the 19th century. By the early 20th century nearly all of Africa had been subjected to European rule. Since
World War II, 48 nations have gained their independence, but the colonial experience left Africa with arbitrarily defined boundaries, a diversity of political systems and problems, and economies dependent upon the industrial world. (The Republic
of South Africa, though independent, is controlled by descendants of European settlers; its black African majority is not represented in the government.) Africa's peoples remain divided by race, language, religion, and politics in a complex
cultural mosaic. In 1990, Africa contained about 12% of the world's population and was the second most populous continent after Asia. _^<N__^<N_ LAND AND RESOURCES_^<N__^<N_Africa has a number of outstanding natural features that have influenced
its history and development. The northern coastal area is separated from the rest of the continent by the SAHARA, the largest desert in the world. The coastlines are remarkably straight with a few large bays, estuaries, and protected indentations
that can serve as harbors. Most major rivers have waterfalls and rapids close to the coast, which hindered colonial penetration and still limit navigation. In Subsaharan Africa a narrow coastal plain, often swampy along the Gulf of Guinea, arid
from Angola south to Cape Town, and swampy, forested, or arid northward along the east coast to the Red Sea, is backed by steep escarpments and mountain ranges that form the edge of the African high plateau. _^<N__^<N_Africa lacks a major mountain
system like the Andes of South America or the Himalayas of Asia. Several small ranges, however, break the monotony of the flat to gently rolling plateaus that constitute the bulk of Africa. The ATLAS MOUNTAINS of northwest Africa extend from east
to west across Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco, reaching their highest elevation, 4,166 m (13,668 ft), at Mount Toubkal, Morocco. The DRAKENSBERG, rising above 3,000 m (10,000 ft), extends through eastern South Africa and Lesotho. The high plateau
of Africa stretches from Ethiopia southwest to Angola and Namibia and includes the Ethiopian Massif, the East African Plateau, the RUWENZORI (Mountains of the Moon), the Munchinga Mountains of Zambia, and the Bihe of Angola. Rising above this
plateau are Mount KILIMANJARO (5,895 m/19,340 ft), a semiactive volcano and Africa's highest peak, Mount Kenya (5,199 m/17,058 ft), and Mount Elgon (4,321 m/14,178 ft), also of volcanic origin. The Sahara is interrupted by the TIBESTI MASSIF and
Ahaggar and Air mountains. The Cameroon Mountains, a volcanic chain extending northeast through Cameroon, are the highest mountains in western Africa. The Futa Jallon of Guinea and Liberia contains the headwaters of the NIGER (Djouf) RIVER and
the SENEGAL RIVER, West Africa's largest. Between these highland zones are a series of shallow sedimentary basins usually associated with rivers. They include the basins of the Niger, Chad, and Sudd rivers on the southern margins of the Sahara,
the CONGO (Zaire) RIVER of central equatorial Africa, and the KALAHARI DESERT in southern Africa. _^<N__^<N_One of Africa's most distinct topographical features is the GREAT RIFT VALLEY. This is a giant trough that cuts into the high plateaus and
extends from the Dead Sea in the Middle East southward to Mozambique and Swaziland, a distance of almost 8,000 km (5,500 mi). The northern section is filled by the Red Sea between Africa and Arabia. The central section cuts through Ethiopia and
divides near Lake Rudolf, or Turkana (see RUDOLF, LAKE), into two branches: the western rift arcs through Uganda to Lake NYASA (Lake Malawi), and is occupied by Lakes Albert, Edward, Kivu, and Tanganyika (see ALBERT, LAKE; EDWARD, LAKE; KIVU,
LAKE; TANGANYIKA, LAKE); the eastern rift cuts through Kenya and Tanzania and joins the western rift near Lake Nyasa. In places the rift-valley walls rise more than 3,200 m (10,500 ft) above the flat and sometimes drowned valley floor. (See also
EAST AFRICAN RIFT SYSTEM.) _^<N__^<N_ Geology_^<N__^<N_Africa is a massive crystalline platform of ancient granites, schists, and gneisses, the oldest of which are more than 3.2 billion years old. They contain rich and varied minerals including
copper, zinc, lead, gold, uranium, diamonds, and many rare metals. Present-day Africa was once part of the supercontinent known as GONDWANALAND, which also included Australia, Antarctica, South America, Madagascar, and the Indian subcontinent.
During the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous periods these land masses drifted apart, but compared with the other continents, Africa remained relatively stable. South America was separated from Africa about 80 million years ago when the floor of
the Atlantic Ocean was opened up by seafloor spreading. Arabia split off approximately 20 million years ago. _^<N__^<N_As Gondwanaland fractured and drifted, Africa acquired its scarp-dominated coastline, interior seas that occupied shallow
depressions emptied, and rivers carved steep gorges and formed new courses. Volcanic outpourings covered vast areas of east and southern Africa. As the Cretaceous Period came to an end, the sedimentary rocks of northwestern Africa were severely
folded and uplifted in a series of orogenic phases to form the Atlas Mountains, which geologically are part of Europe's alpine system. Epicontinental seas extended across North Africa linking the present Mediterranean with the Gulf of Guinea,
which in their wake left extensive deposits of limestone and sandstone. Gigantic meridian fractures occurred in the African shield producing the Great Rift Valley. As tensional forces wrenched the land apart, some land blocks sank while others
rose and tilted, allowing volcanic materials to break the surface. Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Cameroon were formed this way. _^<N__^<N_During Gondwana's last 100 million years of existence, southern Africa was covered by the Dwyka ice field,
which scoured the crystalline surface and deposited tillites hundreds of meters thick. Following the glacial age, southern Africa became progressively drier, and a lengthy period of sedimentary accumulation began in the Kalahari and Karroo basins.
These sediments in turn were covered by outpourings of basalt as much as 7,600 m (25,000 ft) thick. _^<N__^<N_ Climate_^<N__^<N_The climates of Africa are predominantly tropical. Limited areas of subtropical and temperate climates are found only
at the northern and southern extremities and in the high altitudes of Ethiopia and East Africa. The cold ocean currents that parallel the western Sahara (Canaries Current) and Namibia (Benguela Current) modify the temperatures of the adjoining
coastal lowlands. The absence of lengthy high mountains and other weather divides permits a free circulation of tropical air over the continent so that changes in climate occur very gradually. Rainfall is heaviest along the coast of the Gulf of
Guinea, in the equatorial lowlands facing the Atlantic, in scattered mountain locations, and in eastern Madagascar. There the average annual rainfall exceeds 2,032 mm (80 in). Africa's wettest place is in western Cameroon (10,160 mm/400 in).
Rainfall decreases polward from the equator to the Sahara, Kalahari, and NAMIB deserts, regions that generally receive less than 150 mm (6 in) of rain in the average year. Rainfall rather than temperature is the most variable element of climate
effecting distribution of soils, vegetation, and populations. There is increasing evidence that much of Africa is becoming progressively drier. _^<N__^<N_Six major climate types prevail and are arranged in a series of parallel zones ordered around
the equator. The tropical wet climate is characterized by uniformly hot temperatures, a heavy and evenly distributed rainfall, and year-round high humidity. This climatic region is burned by the tropical wet-dry, or savanna, climate, which is
distinguished by its long dry season (coincidental with the period of low Sun) and by a short, wet summer. The savanna gives way to tropical steppes where rainfall is light and highly variable from year to year, and prolonged droughts are common.
The steppes of West Africa are called the SAHEL, literally the "border" of the desert. _^<N__^<N_The tropical deserts have the least rainfall and the greatest temperature range of any African climate. Diurnal temperature ranges may exceed 10 deg C
(50 deg F). Africa's highest temperature (57.8 deg C/136 deg F) was recorded in the Libyan desert. Small areas of Mediterranean climate occupy coastal Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and South Africa's Cape of Good Hope region. A narrow zone of humid
subtropical climate, similar to that of the southeastern United States, is located along South Africa's Natal coast. _^<N__^<N_ Drainage_^<N__^<N_Africa's major rivers have cut deep gorges in their upper courses and through the coastal rimlands
before emptying into the oceans. Waterfalls, rapids, and irregular flows due to seasonal variations in rainfall all make river navigation difficult. Only a small percentage of the continent's vast waterpower potential is used to generate
electricity. The Congo River alone has the potential to produce 13% of the world's hydroelectric power. _^<N__^<N_The NILE, the world's longest river (6,650 km/4,132 mi), rises in Burundi and Uganda in equatorial east Africa. From Lake Victoria
it flows north through the swampy Sudd of Sudan and over six cataracts before entering the Mediterranean, where it has built a 25,000-sq km (9,653-sq mi) delta. Its majority tributary, the Blue Nile, rises in the headwaters of the Lake Tana (see
TANA, LAKE), Ethiopia, and joins the White Nile at Khartoum. The ASWAN DAM and Lake Nasser now regulate the flow of water downstream to the densely settled farmlands of lower Egypt. The Congo, Africa's second longest river (4,670 km/2,900 mi),
drains an area larger than the Nile. Fed by many tributaries including the UBANGI, Kasai, and Kwango, it sweeps around the Congo Basin and cuts through the Crystal Mountains to empty into the Atlantic. Africa's third longest river, the Niger
(4,185 km/2,600 mi), rises in the Futa Jallon of West Africa, flows northeast through the Djouf Basin of Mali, and then southeastward to Nigeria to form a delta on the Gulf of Guinea. The ZAMBEZI (about 2,650 km/1,600 mi) rises in south central
Africa and flows east over the VICTORIA FALLS and through a narrow gorge between Zimbabwe and Zambia to the Indian Ocean in central Mozambique. The ORANGE RIVER (2,100 km/1,300 mi) rises in the Drakensberg and flows west through South Africa to
the Atlantic. _^<N__^<N_Africa's largest and deepest lakes are found in East Africa, generally associated with the rift valley. They include, from north to south, Lakes Albert, Edward, Kivu, Tanganyika, and Nyasa in the western rift, and Lakes
Rudolf (Turkana), Natron, and Eyasi in the eastern rift. Lake Tanganyika is the world's second deepest lake (1,436 m/4,710 ft). Between the two limbs of the rift valley lies Lake Victoria, Africa's largest (69,481 sq km (26,827 sq mi). Lake Chad
(see CHAD, LAKE), between Nigeria and Chad, is extremely shallow, and its boundaries vary greatly with rainfall. _^<N__^<N_ Soils_^<N__^<N_Few areas of Africa possess fertile soils. In the humid tropics, lime, potash, phosphorus, and humus
material are washed out of the soil's top layers while high temperatures accelerate bacterial activity. What remains is a soil high in iron and aluminum that forms a hardpan through which roots penetrate with difficulty and that facilitates runoff
and the loss of surface water. In the dry regions the soils are thin, stony, high in calcium, and low in humus. The richest soils are associated with Africa's rivers. Among the richest, most extensive, and most productive alluvial soils are
those along the Senegal, the central reaches of the Niger, and the lower Juba, those at the confluence of the White and Blue Niles in central Sudan, and those in the Nile delta. There, large-scale irrigation projects have been developed.
Nonalluvial soils of good quality, often associated with volcanic materials, are found on the high veld of South Africa and in parts of Kenya and Cameroon. Inappropriate technology and overuse have destroyed millions of hectares of marginal soil
in several climatic regions. _^<N__^<N_ Vegetation_^<N__^<N_Africa has little natural vegetation that has not been modified by humans and their livestock. Overgrazing in the Sahel has destroyed the short grassland ecology and hastened desert
encroachment. The forests and grasslands have been cut and burned to provide building materials, agricultural land, and pastures. The tropical forest of the west equatorial belt produces mahogany, teak, ebony, rubber, oil palm, and silk-cotton
trees. Mangrove swamps clog many estuaries. North and south of the rainforests stretch the tropical grasslands or savannas with their characteristic acacia trees and baobabs. As rainfall decreases, the savannas give way to scrubby grasslands,
thorn bush, and eventually to the deserts that are virtually devoid of vegetation other than such widely scattered xerophytic plants as the stipa grass, tamarisk, and date palm. In the Mediterranean climatic zone, stands of pine, juniper, cork,
cedar, and olive are common. _^<N__^<N_ Fauna_^<N__^<N_Animal life in Africa is remarkable for its great diversity, vast numbers, and the presence of both primitive and more advanced forms of life. This is due to the continent's general climatic
stability and land connections with Asia. Animals such as the elephant evolved in Africa and spread to Asia across the Suez land bridge. Asia's elephants, monkeys, great apes, and certain bird groups such as the hornbills exhibit close relations
with those in tropical Africa. Among the truly indigenous African animals are the aardvark, the secretary bird, and the whale-headed stork of the Nilotic marshes. _^<N__^<N_Africa's rainforests contain gorillas, chimpanzees, monkeys, wild pigs,
and bongos. The tropical rivers, lakes, and swamps are populated by crocodiles, hippopotamuses, lizards, snakes, and an abundance of bird life including flamingos, pelicans, herons, storks, and kingfishers. The grasslands of the east and south
contain some of the world's largest herds of elephant, rhinoceros, wildebeest, giraffe, zebra, buffalo, and antelope as well as the carnivores that prey upon them, such as lions, leopards, cheetahs, hyenas, and jackals. The grasslands also support
a great diversity of birds including the bustard, falcon, hornbill, and ostrich. Uncontrolled hunting and poaching have severely reduced the animal populations, especially the elephant and rhinoceros, which are killed for their ivory tusks.
_^<N__^<N_Africa's insects and other invertebrates are as varied as the larger animals. The tsetse fly, which carries sleeping sickness, and the malaria-bearing mosquito limit the amount of land that humans and livestock may occupy. Common snakes
include the cobra, python, and mamba. _^<N__^<N_Among Africa's largest and most famous game reserves are Tanzania's SERENGETI NATIONAL PARK, Kenya's Tsavo Park and Amboseli Game Reserve, and South Africa's Kruger National Park. _^<N__^<N_ Mineral
Resources_^<N__^<N_African mineral resources are plentiful but only partially explored and exploited. Mining became an important and highly profitable activity during the colonial period, and today the bulk of prospecting and exploitation remains
in the hands of multinational corporations. With few exceptions, Africa's minerals and fuels are exported and have not given rise to local industry and general economic prosperity. Minerals provide the bulk of foreign revenues in several states
including Angola, Algeria, Libya, and Nigeria (petroleum); Liberia and Mauritania (iron ore); and Zambia (copper). South Africa has the greatest variety, total reserves, and current output of minerals in Africa. It has the world's largest known
reserves of manganese, platinum, chromium, vanadium, gold, and aluminum ore and is the largest producer of chromium, antimony, and manganese. _^<N__^<N_The major oil and natural gas reserves are located in Algeria, Libya, Egypt, and in the coastal
areas of Nigeria, Gabon, and Angola. Africa has limited coal reserves, especially coking coal for steel manufacture. The largest reserves are found in South Africa, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and Nigeria. Uranium is widely distributed, but
significant deposits occur in South Africa, Niger, Namibia, and Gabon. The largest iron ore deposits are found in South Africa, Liberia, Mauritania, Angola, and Algeria. The major copper producers are Zambia, Zaire, and South Africa. Africa has
the largest known reserves of chromium, antimony, and manganese, as well as significant amounts of bauxite (Guinea), diamonds (South Africa, Botswana), cobalt, and zinc. _^<N__^<N_ Water Resources_^<N__^<N_Africa has approximately 40% of the
world's hydroelectric potential, about half of it in Zaire. Most countries have chosen to build a few large facilities rather than several small dams. Large hydroelectric facilities in Africa include Egypt's Aswan High Dam, Mozambique's Cabora
Bassa, Zaire's Inga Dam, Ghana's Akosombo Dam, Nigeria's Kainji and Jos projects, and Cameroon's Edea project. A few projects, including the Aswan Dam, the Kariba Dam (shared by Zambia and Zimbabwe), and South Africa's Orange River Project,
provide not only power but water for irrigation, fishing, and soil-conservation purposes. _^<N__^<N_ PEOPLE_^<N__^<N_Africa contains a complex mosaic of peoples, languages, and cultures. Few of its states are ethnically homogeneous, and few have
developed a strong sense of national unity. For centuries traditional values prevailed. Africans identified first and foremost with members of their own tribe or nation and avoided or competed with those who spoke a different language and were of
a different culture. The imposition of colonial boundaries without regard for the indigenous cultural mosaic further divided the African people. _^<N__^<N_Population is unevenly distributed. Highest densities occur along the coast of the Gulf of
Guinea, in the lower reaches of the Nile, in the highlands of East Africa and Madagascar, along the northern coast, and in the urban and mining areas of South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Zaire. Lowest densities are found in the deserts, high mountains,
and thick forests where economic opportunities are poor. _^<N__^<N_In the Saharan states the dominant groups are ARABS, BERBERS, and TUAREGS. Beyond the cities the Berbers are agriculturists, and the Tuaregs are pastoral nomads. The Sahara forms
an effective divide between these peoples and the predominantly Negroid peoples to the south. In the Sahelian zone sedentary farmers are interspersed with pastoralists, the major groups being the HAUSA, FULANI, BAMBARA, and WOLOF. In the Horn of
Africa (Somalia and eastern Ethiopia), the pastoral SOMALI and GALLA are dominant, while the Dinka and Nuer prevail in the upper Nile. The densely settled coast of the Gulf of Guinea is home for literally hundreds of different ethnic groups, each
with its own language, territory, culture, and values. Among the numerically strongest are the YORUBA and IBO of Nigeria, the ASHANTI and GA of Ghana, and the KRU of Ivory Coast and Liberia. The sparsely populated forests of equatorial Africa are
home to FANG, Bateke, PYGMY, and others. In the east African savannas, the pastoral people, including the MASAI, KIKUYU, and KAMBA, have historically competed for grazing land and watering places. The LUO and Baganda occupy densely settled farms
along the north shore of Lake Victoria. _^<N__^<N_Ethnic diversity and population density tend to be less south of Zaire, except in the urban areas of South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. South Africa has ten indigenous groups, the largest being
the ZULU in Natal and the XHOSA of the eastern Cape; South Africa's AFRIKANERS are a people of Dutch and French descent. Swaziland, Lesotho, and Botswana are rare examples of ethnically homogeneous states and are populated by the SWAZI, SOTHO,
and TSWANA respectively. Arid Namibia's population includes the SAN (Bushmen), who are hunters and gatherers, and the HERERO, Damara, and OVAMBO. Other major groups in southern Africa are the SHONA and NDEBELE of Zimbabwe, the BEMBA of Zambia,
the Makonde and Makua of Mozambique, the YAO of Malawi, and the Ovimbundu of Angola. Madagascar is populated by the Betsimisaraka and by the Merina and Betsileo, whose ancestors came from Southeast Asia some 2,000 years ago. _^<N__^<N_The
nonindigenous peoples of Africa include Europeans and South Asians in southern and eastern Africa, especially South Africa and Kenya; Europeans in most capital cities; and a few Syrians and Lebanese who live primarily as traders in the urban
areas of the coast along the Gulf of Guinea. _^<N__^<N_ Languages_^<N__^<N_The number of languages spoken in Africa has been variously estimated at between 800 and 1,700. Five major stocks are generally recognized: Afroasiatic languages, dominant
in North Africa and the Horn, include Berber, Kushitic, Semitic, Chad, and Coptic languages; CLICK LANGUAGES, so named because of their characteristic implosive "click" sounds, include Khoisan, which is spoken by the Khoikhoi of southern Africa.
The Niger-Congo languages cover almost all of West Africa south of the Sahara and most of the Congo Basin and southern Africa and include Hausa, Peul, and Wolof in West Africa and SWAHILI, Tsonga, and Bemba east and south of Zaire. Sudanic
languages include Kanuri, Songhai, Turkana, and Masai. The MALAYO-POLYNESIAN LANGUAGES of Madagascar were introduced from Southeast Asia about 2,000 years ago. (See AFRICAN LANGUAGES; AFROASIATIC LANGUAGES.) _^<N__^<N_Superimposed on this
linguistic mosaic are English, French, Italian, Portuguese, German, and languages of the Indian subcontinent. English is the official language, or one of the two official languages, in all ex-British colonies, excluding Tanzania, where Swahili has
been adopted. French is the official language of most former French possessions south of the Sahara. Arabic is the official language of seven Saharan states. Numerous lingua franca, such as Lingala in Zaire and Manding in West Africa, are used
for commerce and in mixed-language areas. The multilinguistic nature of most African states has hindered nationalism and perpetuates tribal and local identities. _^<N__^<N_ Religion_^<N__^<N_The dominant religion of northern Africa is Islam, which
replaced Christianity in the 7th century and spread west and south across the Sahara and into the equatorial zones. With an estimated 155 million believers, Islam is the fastest-growing faith in Africa. _^<N__^<N_The Christian churches claim a
membership of some 140 million Africans of whom 55% are Protestants. Numerous denominations are present. Christianity's earliest hold in Africa was in Egypt and Ethiopia, home of the COPTIC CHURCH. European missionaries introduced Christianity
into Subsaharan Africa during the 19th century. Approximately two-fifths of the African population follows traditional religions and animism. _^<N__^<N_ Education_^<N__^<N_Educational standards, facilities, and programs vary considerably and
reflect differences in class, ethnicity, sex, and location. In all countries literacy rates for women are lower than those for men, more males than females attend primary school, and urban education is superior to rural. The richest countries
invest more in education than the poorest, and in most states, secondary school enrollments are less than half the primary school enrollments. Only a small fraction of Africa's young people attend universities. Adult literacy rates range from 6%
in Niger and 10% in Mali to approximately 70% in South Africa and Tanzania. Because of the lack of prestigious universities in Africa, many qualified students receive their training in U.S. and European universities. _^<N__^<N_
Health_^<N__^<N_There is an urgent need to improve general health and nutritional standards in Africa. A significant number of persons in every country suffers from chronic malnutrition due to poverty, ignorance, and poor agricultural practices.
On a per capita basis, food production declined in the 1970s and 1980s, and malnutrition rates are the highest in the world. In several countries of the Sahel, Guinea Coast, and equatorial Africa, as much as 40% of the population are malnourished
and suffer from such diseases as malaria, dysentery, schistosomiasis, and yaws. The Sahelian states from Senegal to Somalia recorded exceptionally high rates of death and malnutrition during the severe droughts of 1968-74, and again in the 1980s.
Other common ailments include influenza, tuberculosis, river blindness, and a host of parasitic disorders associated with unsanitary living conditions. _^<N__^<N_Most of the doctors and general hospitals are situated in the capitals and towns, as
the more populated rural areas have few health facilities and high incidences of disease, malnutrition, and infant mortality. Since World War II, national and international efforts to control mosquitoes, locusts, tsetse fly, and other pests have
increased, but AIDS (see AIDS) is a growing problem, especially in central Africa. _^<N__^<N_ Demography_^<N__^<N_Africa's population numbers 661 million (1990 estimate). The most populous states are Nigeria, Egypt, Ethiopia, Zaire, and South
Africa. If Africa's population continues to increase at its present rate, it will double by the first decade of the 21st century. Improved diets and sanitary conditions and improved medical technologies and insecticides have lowered death rates
considerably since 1960, but infant mortality rates remain the highest in the world. Life expectancy at birth is about 50 years, compared with more than 70 years in the United States. Birth rates will remain high unless the general desire for
large families changes and more Africans accept family planning. Africa has the highest fertility rates in the world, and nearly half its population are under 15 years of age. _^<N__^<N_Africa is the most rural and least urbanized of the
continents. Less than a third of the population live in cities, but several countries, including South Africa, Egypt, Nigeria, and Morocco, have large urban-industrial areas. In most countries the largest city is the capital, which is often also
the only city of significant size. Urban-population growth rates exceed rural growth rates as more and more Africans migrate to the cities in search of jobs, education, and security. Slums are growing and urban living conditions are deteriorating
in most countries. _^<N__^<N_In the 1970s and 1980s civil strife and political upheaval displaced millions of people in Ethiopia, Somalia, Sudan, Uganda, Angola, and other areas. Few countries have been willing or able to accommodate the refugees
despite United Nations (UN) assistance. _^<N__^<N_ ECONOMY_^<N__^<N_Despite Africa's great natural resources and energy potentials, industrialization is in its infancy. Africa contributes only 1% of worldwide industrial production. South Africa
is the only modern industrial state, although manufacturing is becoming increasingly strong in Zimbabwe, Nigeria, Egypt, and Algeria. Among the handicaps to rapid industrialization are weak agricultural economies, inadequate and poorly integrated
transport facilities, insufficient capital technology, political instability, a poorly trained work force, a small purchasing power, and economic policies and practices determined outside of Africa. _^<N__^<N_Since gaining independence, most
African countries have promoted import substitution industries to reduce their dependence on European and American manufactured goods. Light industries, including textiles, clothing, pharmaceuticals, food processing, and beverages, are the most
common and account for 70% of industrial employment. Heavy industry, including the manufacture of petrochemicals, iron and steel, rubber products, and cement, is concentrated in South Africa, which supplies a higher percentage of its industrial
needs than any other African nation. Industry tends to be concentrated in the capital cities, is generally small scale, and is capital rather than labor-intensive despite the abundance of cheap labor. _^<N__^<N_ Agriculture_^<N__^<N_Agriculture
accounts for about one-third of the continent's total economic output and more than half its export earnings; agriculture also employs 75% of the work force. Two distinct agricultural systems operate side by side: a traditional subsistence sector
and a modern commercial sector. The traditional sector employs the majority of Africa's rural population and is characterized by small and frequently fragmented farms, little use of technology or fertilizer, high reliance on human labor, low
yields, infrequent surpluses, and an emphasis on staple crops such as corn, millet, rice, cassava, sweet potatoes, peanuts, and other high-starch foods. Work on the farms is increasingly being left to women, children, and the aged as men migrate to
the cities. Traditional slash-and-burn practices are being restricted as population increases and land-ownership systems change. _^<N__^<N_The modern commercial sector is the economic backbone of many countries and the principal source of their
foreign-exchange earnings. Coffee, for example, is a major export for Burundi, cocoa for Ghana, and peanuts for Gambia. Other major cash crops include cotton, sugar, bananas, tea, oil palm, tobacco, and citrus fruits. These are produced on large
estates and plantations that are frequently owned by expatriates, urban elites, the state, and multinational corporations, and depend on cheap, abundant, and often seasonal labor. They tend to have much higher inputs of fertilizer, insecticides,
and capital in the form of machinery, processing, and storage facilities than the traditional sector. _^<N__^<N_The raising of cattle, goats, and sheep is very important in much of the savanna and steppe lands. Africans are only gradually
improving the quality of their herds, decreasing the traditional emphasis on herd size and the social importance attached to cattle ownership, and commercializing this activity. Commercial cattle farming is most advanced in areas of European
settlement such as South Africa, Kenya, and Zimbabwe. Africa possesses about 14% of the world's cattle population. _^<N__^<N_In the 1970s food production for subsistence and local markets failed to keep pace with population growth and rising
demands, especially in the urban areas. Famine conditions, which first appeared in the Sahel and Ethiopia during the droughts of 1972, later worsened and became more general. Low prices for farm products, rising costs of fertilizer, fuel, and
seed, poor farm management, soil deterioration, and the common practice of using land for export crops rather than staple foods, have all contributed to the shortage of food. On a per capita basis, less food is produced today than in 1970, and
food imports are rising. _^<N__^<N_ Forestry and Fishing_^<N__^<N_Although forests cover about 25% of Africa's land surface, the forest industry in general is not developed. High costs of clearing the forests, poor and costly transport, and a
limited amount of usable forest have hindered profitable exploitation. Cameroon, Congo, Gabon, and Ivory Coast are the main producers; mahogany, ebony, and okoume are the major commercial woods. _^<N__^<N_Ocean commercial fishing is economically
more important than freshwater fishing. The major fishing grounds are off South Africa, Namibia, and Angola; the West African coast from Morocco to Liberia; and in the Mediterranean Sea. Much of the catch from southern Africa is exported as
fish oil, fish meal, and fertilizer. Fresh and dried fish are important as food in certain areas of Ghana, Sierra Leone, and Zaire, but in general fish plays only a minor role in the African diet, despite government efforts to promote it. Tilapia
is the most widely consumed fish. _^<N__^<N_ Transportation and Communications_^<N__^<N_Africa's transportation systems were developed during the colonial era to move minerals and other raw materials to seaports for export. Roads and railroads
were used by the Europeans mainly to facilitate control over their African possessions. As a consequence, neighboring colonies were rarely linked, and even today the countries of Africa are poorly interconnected by road, rail, and air. Africa has
the lowest railroad density in the world, and 13 countries (including landlocked Niger, Chad, and Burundi) have no railroads. South Africa has more than one-third of the continent's railroad tracks and the most modern railroad facilities.
_^<N__^<N_Railroads continue to convey the bulk of Africa's minerals. The Great Uhuru (or Tan-Zam) Railway, built with help from China and completed in 1976, connects the copper mines of Zambia with Tanzania's Indian Ocean port of Dar es Salaam.
The Benguela Railway carries copper from Zaire's Shaba province across Angola to the Atlantic port of Benguela. Zimbabwe's mineral areas are linked by rail with ports in Mozambique and South Africa. _^<N__^<N_Africa has the least developed road
system in the world. Less than 100,000 km (62,000 mi) of the 1,350,000 km (837,000 mi) of roads are paved. The greatest densities of well-maintained roads occur in South Africa and the Mediterranean states. All countries need additional feeder
roads to link the rural populations and agricultural projects with the towns, cities, and railroads. Isolation, particularly severe during the rainy season when unpaved roads may become impassable, is a major handicap to development.
_^<N__^<N_River transport is handicapped by waterfalls and rapids and in many areas by irregular stream flow due to seasonal rainfall. Countries dependent on rivers to supplement their road and rail systems include Zaire, Congo, Nigeria, and Sudan.
Lengthy unnavigable stretches of the Congo River are bypassed by railroads that carry copper and other exports to the coast. _^<N__^<N_Air transport is of growing importance in Africa. Since independence, many countries have established national
airlines and extended their international routes. Few are profitable. In remote areas air travel is often the only practical means of transportation. _^<N__^<N_Africa's telecommunications systems are underdeveloped but expanding. Radio,
television, and telephone systems are concentrated in the urban areas, however, and rural districts are poorly served. _^<N__^<N_ Trade_^<N__^<N_Africa's principal trade is with Europe and North America. In most cases, an African country's leading
trade partner is the colonial power with which it was formerly connected. Since independence, however, trade contacts have diversified and increased, especially with the United States and the Soviet Union. Under the Lome Convention, first signed
in 1975, 63 African, Caribbean, and Pacific (APC) countries have preferred trade and economic-aid agreements with the European Economic Community (EEC). The African members of APC send about half their exports, mainly agricultural and mineral
products, to the EEC and receive about half their imports, mainly manufactured goods, from the EEC. _^<N__^<N_Trade between African nations is very limited, but mechanisms exist to promote it. West Africa has two regional trade groups: the
16-nation Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the smaller, French-speaking Communaute Economique de l'Afrique de l'Ouest (CEAO), whose six members also belong to ECOWAS. In southern Africa, South Africa, Botswana, Lesotho, and
Swaziland are joined together in the South African Customs Union. _^<N__^<N_ RECENT DEVELOPMENTS_^<N__^<N_Since independence Africa has faced a variety of obstacles to economic growth, many of which are beyond its ability to control. Nearly
three-fourths of all African nations are dependent upon one or two exports for the bulk of all foreign exchange earnings. Drops in world prices for many of these commodities, coupled with rising prices for imports, have reduced the money available
for development. In addition, many governments borrowed heavily to finance prestigious but often economically unviable large-scale projects; the cost of debt service has nearly bankrupted some countries. _^<N__^<N_Improvements in health care
contributed to rapid population growth that, in most countries, exceeded gains in food production and resulted in an overall decline in the standard of living. In the 1980s the spread of AIDS placed new burdens on health facilities in central
Africa. Prolonged and recurrent drought and other natural disasters have aggravated food shortages and destructive pressures on marginal lands and increased the refugee population. (Africa has less than 12% of the world's people and more than
one-third of its refugees.) The percentage of Africans living in urban areas more than doubled between 1960 and 1985. By keeping urban food prices low to discourage unrest, governments accelerated rural-to-urban migration and deprived farmers of
incentive to grow more food. African food imports tripled between 1974 and 1984, heightening trade imbalances. _^<N__^<N_Initially, most governments focused on the manufacturing sector, especially import substitution industries. However, only
South Africa has achieved a high order of industrial self-sufficiency. Most industries are final-stage assembly operations, and shortages of imported raw materials and spare parts have forced factories to cut production and lay off workers. The
majority of governments have recognized the failure of industry to alleviate poverty and have turned their attention to agriculture, including agro-based industry. _^<N__^<N_On the political front, Africa continues to be plagued by instability and
corruption. Few African leaders have relinquished power voluntarily; force has been the most common mechanism of political change. Many African countries are under military rule, and the great majority are formal or de facto one-party states.
Tribal conflicts and civil wars have diverted scarce resources and hampered efforts at nation-building. Inter-African disputes have hampered the work of the ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN UNITY, founded in 1963 to foster pan-African cooperation. African
leaders, while seeking international aid and foreign investment, generally agree that African-based regional organizations must play a more active role in combating poverty, under-development, and political instability. _^<N__^<N_Alan C. G. Best
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: _^<N__^<N_GENERAL: Europa Publications, Africa South of the Sahara (annual); Jones, Christine W., and Kiguel, Miguel A., Adjustment in Africa: Reforms, Results, and the Road Ahead (1994); Legum, Colin, Africa Contemporary
Record (1984); Martin, Phyllis M., and O'Meara, Patrick, Africa, 2d ed. (1987). _^<N__^<N_GEOGRAPHY: Boateng, E. A., A Political Geography of Africa (1978); Dorst, J. and D., A Field Guide to the Larger Mammals of Africa (1970); Hance, W. A.,
The Geography of Modern Africa (1975); Moreau, R. E., The Bird Faunas of Africa and Its Islands (1966); Thompson, B. W., The Climates of Africa (1964). _^<N__^<N_ECONOMICS AND POLITICS: Aluko, Olajide, Africa and the Great Powers in the 1980s
(1986); Callaghy, Thomas M., and Ravenhill, John, eds., Hemmed In: Responses to Africa's Economic Decline (1993); Duignan, P., and Jackson, R. H., Politics and Government in African States (1987); Guyer, J. I., Feeding African Cities (1987);
Liebenow, J. G., African Politics (1986); Meredith, M., First Dance of Freedom (1985); Packenham, Thomas, The Scramble for Africa: 1876-1912 (1992); Rosenblum, M., and Williamson, D., Squandering Eden: Africa at the Edge (1987); Tordoff, W.,
Government and Politics in Africa (1984). _^<N__^<N_PEOPLES AND CULTURES: Boamah-Wiafe, Africa Today: Its Peoples and Contemporary Cultures (1987); Hibbert, Christopher, Africa Explored: Europeans in the Dark Continent (1985); Lamb, D., The
Africans (1983; repr. 1984); Mazrui, Ali A., The Africans: A Triple Heritage (1986); Murray, J., ed., Cultural Atlas of Africa (1981); Udo, R. K., The Human Geography of Tropical Africa (1982). _^<N__^<N_
-END-
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Africa, history of
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000000|Africa, history of
000494| EARLY AFRICA
000507| Aksum and the Eastern City-States
002003| Interior Migrations
003599| West African Kingdoms
010140| Early European Contacts
014140| EARLY MODERN AFRICA
014160| Two Africas
016789| The Slave Trade
020360| Areas Resistant to the Slave Trade
021609| THE RISE OF NEW POWERS
021632| Zulu Nation and Nguni Dispersal
024290| Islamic Revolutions
028399| EUROPEAN SUPREMACY
028418| Colonial Partition
031930| Colonial Rule
033602| Resistance to Colonial Rule
035224| THE NATIONAL PERIOD
035872| The First Independent Countries
040912| The Congo
045260| East Africa
047999| The Later Independence Movement
053123| South Africa
059207| Recent Developments
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Africa, history of_^<N__^<N_Although the oldest dated bones of human beings have been found in eastern Africa, little else is known of the 3 or 4 million years from the days of these ancestors to the earliest substantial accounts of peoples
inhabiting Africa. This article will highlight the history of these peoples, generally in sub-Saharan Africa. For accounts of the prehistory of Africa and the ancient civilizations of North Africa, see the following articles: AFRICAN PREHISTORY;
CARTHAGE; CYRENE; EGYPT, ANCIENT. _^<N__^<N_ EARLY AFRICA_^<N__^<N_ Aksum and the Eastern City-States_^<N__^<N_CUSH, with its Egyptianlike civilization on the Nile, and the flourishing, irrigation-based culture of SHEBA (or Saba, modern north
Yemen) together contributed in about the 2d century AD to the rise of the kingdom of AKSUM (Axum). This kingdom was in the highlands above the Red Sea in and around what is now the Tigre region of northern Ethiopia. Originally a colony of emigrants
from Yemen, Aksum had begun trading with Greece, Rome, Cush, and Egypt. Local farmers grew spices and gum arabic, which Aksum exchanged--with tortoise shell collected along the Red Sea and ivory and gold obtained in Cush--for Egyptian cloth, linen,
articles of flint, glass, brass, sheets of soft copper, iron ingots, wine, olive oil, and gold and silver. _^<N__^<N_The army of this young kingdom made its force felt along and across the Red Sea and beyond the Nile. In the 3d century Aksum
conquered Yemen. During the 4th century, Aksum's finest, the famed king Ezana unified his African holdings and converted himself and his kingdom to Christianity. _^<N__^<N_To the south a profitable commerce had begun to develop between the peoples
of the coastal towns and seafaring merchants from Arabia, Persia, and other Asian centers. Some of the visitors, especially the ARABS, settled and intermarried with indigenous residents. Their descendants formed the nuclei for a series of
impressive East African city-states that flourished until the arrival of the more powerful Portuguese in the 16th century. _^<N__^<N_ Interior Migrations_^<N__^<N_During the centuries of the ascent of Aksum and the city-states, the pattern of life
of innumerable interior Africans began to alter drastically. Agriculturists, endowed with new crops and new tools and weapons of iron, began to effect a major change in the preexisting arrangements of African life across a great belt of Africa from
Nigeria in the west to Kenya in the east. The change included or was generated by a population explosion. This in turn propelled at least one set of agriculturists from their original base in eastern Nigeria southeastward toward the border of Zaire
and Zambia; this group then traveled westward, southward, and northeastward until it met a southern- and western-moving flank of peoples involved in pastoral pursuits. _^<N__^<N_The descendants of the first group now inhabit nearly all of Africa
south of an imaginary line across central Kenya, southern Uganda, northern Zaire, and southern Nigeria. The second, linguistically less numerous and markedly different from the first in the features of its members, includes the cattle herders of
Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia, the Sudan, and northern Nigeria. Yet both migrated (and were migrating until the colonial incursions of the 19th century) in large numbers, and both may well have owed their newfound mobility to the adaptation of new crops
and new techniques from Asia. _^<N__^<N_Whatever the impetus, a demographic and political revolution resulted from the dramatic movement of agriculturists and pastoralists from opposite directions and their final clash in the interior, possibly as
late as the 8th century. _^<N__^<N_ West African Kingdoms_^<N__^<N_For West Africa the pattern seems strikingly different, at least insofar as it emerges from the Arabic writings of early travelers and geographers. These writings, which date back
to the 8th century, contain much information about the powerful empires and other significant states that succeeded one another in western Africa (from the Senegal River to Lake Chad) from that period to the 19th century. _^<N__^<N_The main theme
of early West African history was the rise and fall of imperial fortunes along the great rivers that thread through the sub-Saharan dry zones--rather than in the crowded preurban environment of Nigeria's forests. From the earliest years small,
tightly knit, and fiercely autonomous states existed side by side, were created and destroyed, and fought to avoid being swallowed up by the major empires that sprang periodically from the ambitions, economic circumstances, or martial abilities of
a particular emerging state. Although some peoples of eastern and southern Africa lived, and still live, without chiefs or other hierarchically arranged organizations, West Africans experienced the government of single chiefs (sometimes men
accorded divine rights and powers), the government of chiefs and their councils, and--rarely--the government of councils of equals. _^<N__^<N_Alluvial gold was the first of the important raw materials that the states monopolized in order to supply
the markets of northern Africa and southern Europe; a second was salt mined near oases in the southern Sahara. Slaves captured in raids and war grew in importance as a commodity after about the 10th century. Kola nuts and other agricultural
products were also important, as were the dyestuffs of northern Nigeria. All these goods were highly prized in and around the Mediterranean basin, and West Africans traveled across the vast desert in mighty caravans to the markets of Fez and
Marrakesh in Morocco, Tunis in Tunisia, Tripoli in Libya, and Cairo in Egypt. In exchange the traders of the north brought cloth, horses, glass and metal ware, swords and armor, and--in time--muskets and other equipment of early modern warfare. The
caravans from the north also brought ISLAM and its scriptures and written language. _^<N__^<N_Ghana was the earliest of the great empires. In the markets of its capital in the southeastern corner of what is now Mauritania, not far from the Senegal
River, local entrepreneurs bartered the gold, ivory, and slaves of black Africa for the salt of the Sahara and for the horses, cloth, swords, and books of North Africa and Europe. Salt was worth its weight in gold. The empire of Ghana then
controlled the major sources of Africa's alluvial gold. Early writers in Arabic called the king of Ghana the richest person in the world because of his gold. _^<N__^<N_Ghana reached its imperial zenith in the 10th and 11th centuries. In 990 its
cavalry regiment conquered the state of Sanhaja, now part of Morocco. It governed peoples living as far south and east as the middle reaches of the Senegal River and the great bend of the Niger River. Ghana was ruled by a powerful monarch. He
administered his far-flung empire with the assistance of viceroys and counselors with oracular power. In addition to the major export of gold, which was taxed, the Ghanaians also traded honey, kola nuts, dried fruit, and cowrie shells within the
empire. _^<N__^<N_Ghana was conquered from the south by Islamic fundamentalists in the middle of the 11th century. The ALMORAVIDS swept out of what is now Senegal and across Ghana, into Morocco, and eventually subdued all of southern Spain. Ghana,
reduced in size, continued to function, but its major trading ties had been sundered and, by the 13th century, it was no longer a significant power. _^<N__^<N_Ghana's fall may have contributed to the development, from a series of smaller states in
the old Ghana, of the nucleus of what became the empire of Mali. Mali, with its center in the comparatively fertile plateau region between the upper reaches of the Senegal and Niger rivers, replaced Ghana as the most important kingdom of the
Western Sudan. Mali grew from a minor state into Ghana's successor in the early 13th century, after its leader Sundiata transformed an age-group or clan organization into the nucleus of a powerful army and began to expand its borders. His army
conquered Kaniaga in the upper Niger River region and attacked the capital of diminished Ghana. Later Sundiata made his own state the economic center of trade across the Sahara. Mali controlled the gold trade after Ghana and also monopolized
imports of salt. By the middle of the 13th century the kings, or mansas, of Mali reigned supreme from the upper Senegal River to the great bend of the Niger River, 800 km (500 mi) to the east, and from the Sahara in the north to the upper Volta
rivers in the south. _^<N__^<N_Mali was ruled by generals, many of whom were Muslims, and several of whom as early as 1300 were making pilgrimages all the way to Mecca. The most famous of these pilgrims was MANSA MUSA, who ruled from 1312 to 1337.
In about 1324 he went to Cairo with 500 slaves, each carrying a 6-lb (2.72-kg) staff of gold. His following caravan consisted of 100 camels, each individually laden with 300 lbs (136 kg) of gold. In Cairo, Musa's wealth, piety, generosity, and fine
clothes all made a favorable impression--so much so that until about 1750 the great blank spaces of inner Africa were inscribed by mapmakers only with Rex Melli or Musa Mali. _^<N__^<N_The rulers of Mali, a mercantile state much more sophisticated
than Ghana, held splendid court, but they maintained traditional rituals and observed the integrity of local chiefs. They set the governmental tone for succeeding empires and for the smaller states that somehow managed to maintain their autonomy
within or on the borders of the larger entities. _^<N__^<N_In northern Nigeria several city-states existed between Mali and its successor SONGHAI to the west and KANEM-BORNU, the growing empire to the east. Bornu dominated the Lake Chad region
throughout the 16th and 17th centuries and until the onset of colonialism. _^<N__^<N_Songhai succeeded Mali as the major empire of the sub-Saharan region. Its capital, Gao, was on the Niger River far to the east of Mali and on the frontier of the
very different forest zone to the south. After the reign of its king, Sonni Ali, in the mid-15th century, the might of Songhai encompassed the semidesert regions once ruled by Ghana, the northern sections of today's Burkina Faso and Dahomey, and
all the lands in between on either side of the Niger River. _^<N__^<N_ Early European Contacts_^<N__^<N_With the coming of the Europeans and, after about 1550, an increasing demand for slaves to open up America, first Portugal and Spain and then
England, France, and others began trading along the coasts of Senegal and Guinea and, later, in the Gulf of Guinea. They even established fortified warehouses along the Gold Coast (Ghana)--the first toeholds of colonialism. At these warehouses and
on ships, floating warehouses, along the eastern Nigerian coast, goods of the interior--eventually mostly slaves--began to be traded for the copper, cloth, and guns of Europe. The guns in turn gave the forest kingdoms new power over their neighbors
and assisted the rise to power of Benin (see BENIN, KINGDOM OF) and Oyo in western Nigeria; Dahomey, Akwamu, and Ashanti along the Gold Coast; and smaller states to the west and north. Westernization followed. Farther south, the king of KONGO was
converted to Christianity. _^<N__^<N_Seeking a sea route around Africa to the Orient, Portuguese sailors began sailing down the unknown west coast of Africa in 1418. They reached the coast of sub-Saharan Africa in 1441, crossed the equator and
reached the mouth of the Congo River in 1482, rounded the Cape of Good Hope in 1487, and sailed past the city-states of eastern Africa in 1498. _^<N__^<N_In the 16th century the Portuguese established themselves on the coast of present-day
Mozambique, moving up the Zambezi River to make contact with the wealthy kingdom of the Monomotapa, which eventually fell (1629) under their control. The neighboring Roswi kingdom of the Changamire, however, maintained its independence.
_^<N__^<N_The discovery of America quickened Europe's demand for slaves. On the islands of the Caribbean, at first indigenous Indians were enslaved to work plantations and dive for pearls. Similarly, on the mainland, Indians were for a short time
used in the gold and silver mines. The Indians soon died, however, and Africans were thus sought as replacements by the Portuguese and Spanish colonists in the Americas. Even so, the trade from Africa grew only gradually until the last decades of
the 16th century, when the American demand suddenly began to outstrip the available supply. Thereafter, the slaves were taken out of Africa in increasing numbers from all along the coast, but more and more from the lands in and around what is now
Senegal, Ghana, Nigeria, and Angola. _^<N__^<N_Portugal and Spain were the original merchants of the Atlantic slave trade, but the profits of the trade were sufficiently enticing to attract competition. In the 17th century the Dutch entered African
commerce in earnest, to be followed in the middle of the century by Swedish, Danish, German, French, and English syndicates. Each established trading posts and forts wherever it could along the coast of West Africa. From these, they shipped slaves,
gold, and agricultural produce to their colonies in the New World and sometimes home to Europe. Despite their activity and the profits involved, they were dependent throughout upon the cooperation and toleration of African entrepreneurs.
_^<N__^<N_These early colonial ventures were ineffectual. Except in Mozambique and the Congo, the merchants of Europe knew nothing of most of Africa and, aside from providing markets for slaves and thus the thrust of Africa's commercial energies,
influenced the evolution of inner Africa little until about 1700. There rivalries between pastoralists and agriculturists for available arable lands continued. Masses of people moved out of the central African heartland eastward and westward into
Malawi, Zambia, and Angola, out of the upper Nile region into Uganda and Kenya, and across the sub-Saharan zone of western Africa from the Atlantic highlands toward and into northern Nigeria. These migrations of peoples and cultures--and the effect
each had on the face of Africa--were more important, until the 19th century, than the activities of Europeans and, in most respects, more than the trade in slaves that the Europeans had intensified. _^<N__^<N_ EARLY MODERN AFRICA_^<N__^<N_ Two
Africas_^<N__^<N_During the 17th century two Africas emerged. One focused inward on the kinds of problems of statecraft and economic self-sufficiency that had long engendered interethnic conflict, migration of peoples, and the wholesale
transformation of regions from one religious and cultural persuasion to another. Around the central African lakes, centralized, highly stratified kingdoms began to replace the egalitarian, clan-based societies of an earlier era. A similar growth in
centralization was occurring in the grasslands of the Cameroons and, with an intensity and success peculiar to its locale, in and around the Gold Coast. In the basin of the Congo and on the high plateau along its rim this process would occupy the
18th century as well, with many preexisting agricultural peoples being absorbed into larger collectivities ruled by groups of innovative migrants. _^<N__^<N_In religion, too, it was a time of elaboration and differentiation. Economically, it was a
period of expanding horizons, of the intensification of long-distance trade involving astonishing journeys from the center of the continent to either coast, and of the development of markets, especially in the west and the north but also in the
east and central regions. Parts of Africa that had not yet fully entered the Iron Age began to use the metal, thus enhancing their abilities to cultivate and hunt--and also their propensity for wars. The stakes of war had grown higher too, making
conflict everywhere more frequent and costly. _^<N__^<N_The first Africa merged into the second Africa in and because of the clash of armies. The second Africa was, from the 17th century, thoroughly involved with the wider world. European contacts
increased everywhere and were felt in a special way in the south after the settlement of the Dutch Boers (see AFRIKANERS) at the Cape of Good Hope in the mid-17th century; contact also grew with the Arabs in the east. The predominant form of
involvement was the enslavement and sale of men and women. Wars supplied captives, and, as the needs of the Americas increased, so the frontier of European and Arab influence--but at this point not of European and Arab settlement--expanded.
_^<N__^<N_The underlying cause of this process was the growing demand for, and increased production of, sugar. Only in the 17th century did sugar begin to be cultivated successfully and extensively in the West Indies. The production of sugar
demands backbreaking labor, especially during the cane-cutting season. Without ready supplies of African labor, it would have proved costly--perhaps impossible--to grow cane successfully in the West Indies and Brazil. _^<N__^<N_ The Slave
Trade_^<N__^<N_Fueled by this foreign demand, the slave trade enveloped Africa throughout the 17th and 18th and a large part of the 19th centuries. The apparatus necessary for obtaining slaves, walking them to the marshaling yards at the coast,
fattening and feeding them there, and selling them--individual by individual--to ship captains for transport overseas demanded entrepreneurial initiative and managerial competence of a high and complex order. As the enlightenment of the 18th
century superseded the mercantilism of the 17th, it presumably also required a strong stomach and a hard heart on the part of Europeans and Africans alike. Certainly the treatment of slaves in the African ports was degrading. Even more inhumane was
the shackling and cramming of anxious, potentially rebellious slaves into ships and their transport across often stormy seas to auction yards in the Americas. If enslavement was an abomination--even by the standards of the day--the sea voyage, the
so-called Middle Passage of six to ten weeks, was totally destructive. _^<N__^<N_Approximately 10 million Africans were forcibly removed from Africa. A large number must have died during the Middle Passage, others as a result of abortive rebellions
or the original opposition to capture. Nevertheless, some of the areas well known for their slaves--eastern Nigeria, the Gold Coast, western Angola, and others--flourished demographically as well as economically during the centuries of the slave
trade. As cruel as enslavement was for individuals, the societies of Africa may themselves have suffered far less than has often been supposed. For individuals fortunate enough to remain behind, the trade in slaves brought new sources of capital
for development, markets for commodities in addition to slaves, the transfer of technology from the West to Africa, and an outlet--however perverse--for the talents of certain groups within the coastal and forest states. The rise of ASHANTI,
Dahomey, Oyo, and many less well-known peoples in the Congo basin and the hinterlands of Angola stem directly from their important roles in taking advantage of new, slave-centered terms of trade. _^<N__^<N_When pressure from humanitarians in Europe
was brought to bear on the iniquities of the slave trade in the late 18th century, the merchants of Africa were naturally among the loud-est in defending their livelihood. After slavery's abolition (1807) by Britain, and Britain's effective
persuasion of France, Portugal, and Spain--and later Zanzibar in the east--to follow suit, Africans complained ever more bitterly and sought to frustrate the activities of Britain's antislave patrol in the Atlantic. Yet as they protested, many of
these Africans found that their commercial talents could be put to good use supplying industrializing Europe with palm oil--for soap and industrial lubricants--and other crops. _^<N__^<N_The effects of the slave trade and its abolition were felt
increasingly in the inland regions as well as in areas nearer the coast. The quest for slaves naturally involved peoples farther and farther afield. In the mid-19th century, for example, Arabo-Swahili caravan leaders from ZANZIBAR were scouring the
lands within the distant Congo basin for slaves to supply the developing markets of Arabia and the Indian Ocean islands, where sugar was being grown, as well as the clove plantations of Zanzibar itself. Earlier the hinterlands of Malawi and Zambia
had been crisscrossed innumerable times for slaves and ivory, and virtually no part of Africa was unacquainted with the horrors of enforced enslavement. _^<N__^<N_ Areas Resistant to the Slave Trade_^<N__^<N_Some peoples, however, erected effective
barriers against the traders. Those who were warlike and aggressive, like the MASAI and their herding cousins the TURKANA and the Karamojong, all in East Africa, were never molested. Also, where there were centralized kingdoms like RWANDA and
Buganda on the great lakes, Africans moved freely and feared the slave trade little. _^<N__^<N_In Buganda, the nucleus of modern Uganda, a kabaka, or king, ruled autocratically with the assistance of a complex bureaucratic apparatus. Throughout the
middle of the 19th century, successive rulers of Buganda increased their personal power by curbing the religious authority of the indigenous priests, phasing out the autonomy of clans and clan leadership by installing regional subordinates in their
place, and enlisting an army responsible to themselves. By breaking the old societal bonds, the kabakas of Buganda created a society remarkably fluid and achievement oriented (as was the IBO society of eastern Nigeria); commoners could obtain
advancement and prestige more easily than they could elsewhere in Africa. As a result, the people of Buganda were receptive to Islam and Christianity when both arrived toward the end of the century. _^<N__^<N_ THE RISE OF NEW POWERS_^<N__^<N_ Zulu
Nation and Nguni Dispersal_^<N__^<N_The rise of Buganda was paralleled in time by the rise of other aggressive new states. Each was stimulated by a set of local circumstances--by a shift in ecological fortunes or the nature of trade, or by the rise
of a great leader. Each, in one way or another, was the end product of a chain of reactions set off by the increasing activity and encroachment of Europeans. Among the more dramatic and far-reaching of these developments, which set off a series of
chain reactions of its own, was the forcible integration of a number of Nguni-speaking clan units of southeastern Africa (what is now NATAL) into the great ZULU nation. Under SHAKA (c.1787-1828), a charismatic leader who modernized methods of
warfare and introduced new, superior weapons, the Zulu, unified for the first time, presented a solid front to the British and Boers, or Afrikaners (descendants of Dutch and Protestant French who settled the Cape of Good Hope during the 17th and
18th centuries). Shaka was a tyrant who came to power behind an assegai (a powerful stabbing spear) and left a legacy of autocratic centralization. _^<N__^<N_Yet Shaka could not gain the obedience of all Zulu. After their defeat by his armies,
several clans set in motion a far-ranging diaspora that, before the mid-19th century, engulfed virtually the whole of southern and central Africa. Three Zulu groups conquered their way northward, creating havoc and ending the independence of
numerous peoples across whose territories they marched. In nearby Zimbabwe, the NDEBELE offshoot established a major state that ruled south of the Zambezi River until the coming of the Europeans. The Kololo offshoot gained control for a time and
linguistically and materi-ally influenced the kingdom of the Lozi on the upper Zambezi. A larger detachment of Nguni smashed its way northward through Mozambique, eastern Rhodesia, and modern Zambia until, in about 1839, it too suffered from
internal rivalry. Fission resulted, with one Nguni group carving out a niche for itself in western Tanzania, another in southwestern Tanzania; a third began to dominate eastern Zambia; a fourth similarly ruled northern Malawi; and two others held
sway in southern Malawi. In addition, a separate segment gained control of southern Mozambique. Taken as a whole, the Nguni diaspora profoundly altered the nature of government and society in most of central and southern Africa. By laying waste to
the territories through which they passed and thoroughly cowing the agricultural peoples whom they encountered, the Nguni made conditions easier for slavers and, ultimately, for the conquest of the area by Europeans. _^<N__^<N_ Islamic
Revolutions_^<N__^<N_This cataclysm in the east had its counterpart in the west. However, where the Nguni were thoroughly traditional in their culture and religion, in their delight in cattle, and in their willingness to absorb the conquered into
their new states, in the west--as later in the north--the significant upheavals in large part received their legitimacy by promising religious purification. Without the support of the doctrines of fundamentalist Islam, the leaders of what was a
religious revival might not have been able to stimulate a war between believers and traditionalists throughout the breadth of Hausaland--now northern Nigeria. _^<N__^<N_Most believers were also immigrants, largely FULANI from the west, who, like so
many minorities, felt themselves disadvantaged under the various rulers of the separate HAUSA city-states. USMAN DAN FODIO, a Fulani leader who had studied with Muslim theologians, was in the forefront of this movement of reform. He particularly
wanted to reintroduce into Hausaland a spirit of religious orthodoxy that was in keeping with the literal teachings of the Koran and that would help foster the ideal society of an earlier golden age. _^<N__^<N_Usman's followers overran Hausaland;
the cities of Kano, Katsina, and Zaria fell like duckpins. By 1810 the victory had been won, and Usman ruled about 460,000 sq km (180,000 sq mi) and 15 city-states. His revolution integrated an enormous area that remained intact until its conquest,
early in the 20th century, by the British and its subsequent incorporation into the mammoth state of Nigeria. _^<N__^<N_Three other Islamic revolutions transformed sub-Saharan Africa on the eve of colonial rule. Ahmadu bin Hammadi Boubou, a Fulani
who had studied under Usman, in 1818 led Muslims in the Macina region of the upper Niger River against their BAMBARA overlords. By 1827, his state reached to the northern extremities of the Volta rivers in the south and to TIMBUKTU in the north.
Over its five emirates, Ahmadu ruled as the head of an intolerant theocracy. Beer, tobacco, and dancing were banned, and even foreigners were compelled to order their daily lives according to the dictates of the new government. _^<N__^<N_In the
1850s al-Hajj UMAR, another religious reformer who had studied with the descendants of Usman, led a further revival along the upper reaches of the Niger River. His armies won victories against the Bambara and against peoples to the west in what is
now Senegal. They even battled the French, who were approaching from the west. Toward the east, al-Hajj Umar conquered Ahmadu's empire, proclaiming a holy war against it, although it had earlier been created by the same process. These victories
were short-lived, however, as Umar died soon after, and the French destroyed his state a decade later. _^<N__^<N_A Muslim holy war of even greater consequence took place in the Sudan during the twilight years of African independence. By 1880 the
Sudan had been controlled for 60 years by the Turkish-speaking administration of Egypt. During these years trade in slaves had provided its economic lifeblood. The more powerful of these slavers even came to rule vast regions in the south and
southwestern portions of the territory. In the 1860s and 1870s, however, the rulers of Egypt attempted to curtail the slave trade, employing foreigners to manage the campaign. Muhammad Ahmad ibn Abdallah took advantage of these dissatisfactions by
uniting the proslavers, the anticorruptionists, and the anti-Egyptians in a brilliantly arranged revolution that engulfed the Sudan in the 1880s. _^<N__^<N_Proclaimed the MAHDI, or Savior, this learned Islamic fundamentalist declared a holy war
against backsliding infidels--who happened to be the rulers of the Sudan. In a series of decisive battles, his fanatical warriors conquered the Egyptian army and captured Khartoum (1885). For the next 13 years the puritanical followers of the Mahdi
reigned supreme throughout virtually all of the Sudan. It took a major British assault to subordinate the Sudan in 1898. By then, however, most of the rest of Africa had also fallen to one or another of the European powers. _^<N__^<N_ EUROPEAN
SUPREMACY_^<N__^<N_ Colonial Partition_^<N__^<N_The European conquest of Africa began with the slave trade and the subsequent establishment of commodity exchange centers along the coasts. It was fueled by the exciting explorations of Mungo PARK,
David LIVINGSTONE, Henry Morton STANLEY, Sir Richard BURTON, and Joseph THOMSON, who provided a collective prelude to the partition of Africa. Equally important were the activities of Roman Catholic and Protestant missionaries, who intrepidly
entered the interior in the wake of the explorers, developed systems for writing the indigenous languages, and then expounded their beliefs on why and how Western influence would benefit Africa. _^<N__^<N_Commercial interests were also important,
especially in West Africa where, during the 19th century, the early outposts became enclaves ruled by Europeans with the collaboration of Africans. Minor wars led to the gradual growth of these outposts. In South Africa, too, animosity between
English- and Afrikaans-speaking whites led to wars with Africans, the expansion of the frontier there, and the occupation by European powers of all of southern and central Africa. Everywhere the actions of a few commercial promoters were important.
_^<N__^<N_Above all, it was the political rivalries of the new Europe that accelerated the decisive carving up of the continent. Throughout the late 19th century, France, Germany, and Britain each attempted to gain a competitive edge over the
others by controlling sources of raw materials overseas--in East and South Asia and in the Pacific Islands, among other places. A war in Europe to end competition seemed an undesirable alternative; so instead they exploited Africa to satisfy their
strategic and economic needs. _^<N__^<N_Between 1880 and 1914, Europe systematically occupied Africa. Persuading Africans to sign treaties requesting protection, or using machine guns to silence opposition when treaties were disdained, Europeans
annexed one region after another. Because the Europeans had superior weapons and ready access to ammunition and other supplies, there was surprisingly little resistance. Most important, Africans were rarely united, and many welcomed whites for
protection against more powerful Africans, such as the Nguni. _^<N__^<N_Nevertheless, there were bitter battles in opposition. The Ashanti resisted British conquest from the 1820s to 1902, and the French had to overcome the armies of Ahmadu and
Umar as well as those of a late 19th-century mercenary state created by Samori of Guinea. Along the coast opposite Zanzibar, Arabo-Swahili warriors resisted the Germans for two years in the late 1880s. Up-country, Hehe warriors were subdued only
after long, costly battles. In Natal the Zulu twice defeated the British and the Afrikaners before being humbled by bigger and better guns. In Zimbabwe the Ndebele fought to retain their power. There were innumerable rearguard actions, too, where
isolated clans or tribes burned European camps and for years continued to attack European soldiers before finally being worn down. In the SOUTH AFRICAN WAR (1899-1902), Britain defeated the Afrikaners and established its dominance over South
Africa. In Ethiopia, King MENELIK II was able in 1896, at Adowa near the capital of much earlier Aksum, totally to oust a large army of invading Italians, as he had sufficient guns of European manufacture and a large, well-trained army. As a result
Ethiopia remained undominated by outsiders until 1936, when the Italians avenged their previous defeat, then governing the empire until 1941. _^<N__^<N_ Colonial Rule_^<N__^<N_Racial prejudice and segregation accompanied colonial rule, preeminently
in the settler colonies of southern and eastern Africa, but their collective taint poisoned the atmosphere everywhere. Legal segregation and denial of voting and other rights, the hated pass, or identification certificate, that everyone with black
skin had to carry, the taking of African-owned land without compensation, and the effective denial of any remedy in the courts were standard practices across the entire swath of Africa from the Cape of Good Hope to the northern borders of Kenya.
These measures themselves, and more particularly the attitudes that accompanied them, effectively stymied African creativity and initiative and fostered a strong, deep-seated resentment of whites as well as their colonial regimes. The actions of
missionaries did little to counter this reaction; Africans heard them preaching equality as they heard the administrators talking about trusteeship and protection. Nevertheless, when it came to their own advance, however limited, toward the distant
objective of home rule, Africans could never achieve satisfaction. _^<N__^<N_When whites of the day even understood this complaint, they often pointed to their economic, educational, and medical achievements. According to their justification, the
powers of Europe had brought the progressive ideas of their civilization to Africa. They opened schools and hospitals, introduced mercantile concepts, built roads and railways, erected impressive buildings, extracted minerals, and harvested
profitable crops. Everywhere they advanced the cause of materialism and launched Africa on the road toward modernity. _^<N__^<N_ Resistance to Colonial Rule_^<N__^<N_It is hardly surprising that colonial rule, with its coercive demands and
regulations, its racism, and its unfulfilled promises of personal growth and national evolution, encouraged a hostile response. This response took many forms. Some protest was manifested religiously, with Africans taking refuge in millennialistic
flights from the reality of foreign rule. Many Africans, most commonly but not always those from a traditional, rural background, were less patient. _^<N__^<N_When foreign rulers attempted to exact the last ounce of flesh, Africans rebelled
violently. In 1896-97 the Ndebele and SHONA almost succeeded in ending settler control of Rhodesia. In 1898, Bai Bureh led a revolt against taxation in Sierra Leone that undercut British rule. For three years in the first decade of the 20th century
German rule in East Africa was threatened by the success of the conglomerate of ethnic groups that was called Maji Maji. In 1915 in Nyasaland (now Malawi) an abortive uprising was led by John CHILEMBWE, a Christian preacher educated in the United
States. Although few lives were lost, Chilembwe's followers might have overrun the colony had their preparations been more complete. _^<N__^<N_The most recent of these violent outbursts against colonial rule was the KIKUYU led MAU MAU rebellion in
Kenya. From 1951 to 1956 whites farming in the rural areas lived in terror. So did Africans who refused to pledge their loyalty to Mau Mau. In no case, not even the last, did Africans succeed in overthrowing white rule by force. Their actions may,
however, occasionally have changed policies for the better. _^<N__^<N_ THE NATIONAL PERIOD_^<N__^<N_At the beginning of 1954, few would have predicted that with the exception of the Portuguese and Spanish possessions and Southern Rhodesia (later
Zimbabwe), the next 10 years would constitute tropical Africa's last decade of dependence. Although the Sudan had already begun to govern itself and the Gold Coast (later Ghana) soon followed, the Mau Mau emergency still engulfed Kenya, and
elsewhere on the continent only a few movements of nationalism had organized broadly. Well-meaning Africans, Americans, and Europeans envisaged a gradual transfer of power. They thought of independence in terms of half centuries, not years.
_^<N__^<N_ The First Independent Countries_^<N__^<N_In 1953, Sudanese leader Ismail al-Azhari's Egyptian-backed National Unionist party won a clear majority of seats in his country's British-style parliament. In 1955, Azhari and Britain agreed on a
peaceful handover of power, and on the first day of 1956, the Sudan became an independent republic. Two years later, however, the first of several coups d'etat occurred, and the army assumed power until 1964. Since then, rule by soldier-dictators
has alternated with parliamentary government. _^<N__^<N_Given the turbulence of the period from 1948 to 1950, the Gold Coast became Ghana with a minimum of friction. In 1951, Kwame NKRUMAH agreed with British authorities there to work within a
framework of "responsible government" that he had originally labeled as "bogus." Thereafter, as chief minister, he assumed more and more of the prerogatives of the British governor. He "Africanized" the local civil service and prepared his
Convention Peoples' party for national elections in 1954. Nkrumah won two-thirds of the seats in the local legislative assembly and the British rulers allowed the Gold Coast to become self-governing. In 1957 this experiment seemed to be working so
well that Britain granted the Gold Coast its independence, as Ghana. Nkrumah remained very much in command, becoming more and more authoritarian and corrupt. In 1966 soldiers ousted him and other civilians and commenced two decades of nearly
continuous military rule in Ghana and in many other parts of black Africa. _^<N__^<N_In West and Equatorial Africa, the government of France had increasingly shared its control of local territorial affairs with a new generation of indigenous
leaders. In 1956 a special law passed by the French national assembly permitted the granting of increased powers to overseas territorial assemblies. It gave substantial authority to African-dominated embryo cabinets in each of the French-speaking
colonies. It also introduced universal suffrage. _^<N__^<N_France still ruled, however, and before 1958 only Sekou TOURE, the head of the Parti Democratique de Guinee, and Sylvanus Olympo, the leader of the Comite de l'Unite Togolaise, openly asked
for independence. Others, like Felix HOUPHOUET-BOIGNY, the Ivory Coast's leader, continued to value the French connection and to concern themselves with territorial rather than anticolonial rivalries. _^<N__^<N_In 1958, when Gen. Charles de Gaulle
became president of France, he permitted each of France's overseas territories to vote for or against the constitution of the Fifth Republic and on membership in the new FRENCH COMMUNITY; only Guinea voted against the proposal and was separated
from France. All of the other French colonies remained self governing until 1960, when they peacefully gained their independence along with Togo and Cameroon (French-run trust territories of the United Nations). _^<N__^<N_In British Nigeria,
Africa's most populous colony, politics assumed a regional character during the 1950s. Nnamdi Azikiwe, an American-educated journalist, had formed the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC) in 1944. After adoption of the 1951
constitution, which emphasized the three regions of the country more than the whole, the NCNC catered more and more to the Ibo- and Ibibio-speaking peoples of the Eastern region. Yoruba-speakers from the West and Hausa-speaking Nigerians from the
North formed their own political parties. In the West, Obafemi Awolowo, a bitter antagonist of Azikwe, formed the Action Group. In the North, Abubakar Tafawa BALEWA, at the behest of the traditional ruling emirs in the region, gained control of the
Northern Peoples' Congress. Each of these parties became the dominant majority in its own regional assembly and each region gained self-government in 1957-58. Because the Northern Region was the most populous and the outgoing British government
distrusted southern "radicalism," Balewa began to lead an embryo national regime in 1957. Three years later Britain granted Nigeria independence. But by the end of 1965 the regional compromise had failed. In 1967, Ibo secessionists established the
independent republic of BIAFRA in southeastern Nigeria. After three years of bitter struggle, the Ibo were defeated and Biafra was reincorporated into Nigeria. The country subsequently remained largely under military control. _^<N__^<N_Elsewhere in
West Africa, where there was very little indigenous protest in the 1950s, Britain's retreat from imperialism after the disastrous SUEZ CRISIS (1956) also led to responsible government in Sierra Leone in 1958, and independence for that country in
1960. Sierra Leone had started its colonial existence as a British-inspired refuge for freed slaves in the late 1780s. Freetown, its capital, had been the home to rootless thousands plucked from slave ships and deposited on Africa's shores. The
Gambia, a 475-km (300-mi) long sliver of riverine territory surrounded by Senegal, did not become independent until 1965 because Britain first wished to explore the possibility of a Gambian-Senegalese union. _^<N__^<N_ The Congo_^<N__^<N_In the
Belgian Congo (later Zaire), Belgian authorities had always forbidden politics, whether by blacks or by white settlers. The Belgians emphasized the exploitation of copper and other natural resources and condoned no protests. They also preferred to
leave Africans uneducated. Before the 1950s, black political organizations were almost completely unknown. One of the first local leaders was Joseph KASAVUBU, a member of the Kongo people, who formed the Abako party in 1955 and began to demand full
political rights, freedom of thought, freedom of assembly, and freedom of the press. _^<N__^<N_The colonial government was hostile. It believed that simply by modernizing Belgium's paternal approach it could continue to rule the Congo for at least
another thirty years. The governor-general permitted local elections in 1957, and Kasavubu's party won most of the seats on the city council of Leopoldville (now Kinshasa), the capital. By then, too, the Africans of French-controlled Moyen Congo
(now the People's Republic of the Congo) across the Congo River were voting in the French referendum of 1958, and a number of newly ambitious Africans began in the Belgian territory to campaign against continued colonial domination. _^<N__^<N_At
the end of 1958, budding nationalists from all over the continent went to Accra, Ghana, to attend the first All-African People's Conference. Patrice LUMUMBA represented the Belgian Congo because Kasavubu was thought too "dangerous" to be permitted
to travel there. Dr. Hastings Kamuzu BANDA attended from Nyasaland (Malawi), Kenneth KAUNDA and Harry Nkumbula led delegations from Northern Rhodesia (Zambia), and Joshua NKOMO came from Southern Rhodesia. _^<N__^<N_These young political organizers
returned to their respective countries more determined than before to carry the battle against white rule to its ultimate conclusion. In Accra they had received ample moral support from other nationalists. President Nkrumah of Ghana and Gamel Abdel
NASSER, the fiery leader of Egypt, probably promised to supply funds and some arms. Lumumba returned to Leopoldville convinced that only a national campaign could succeed against the Belgians. He began to advocate immediate independence.
_^<N__^<N_On the eve of 1959, the Congo erupted into violence, marking the beginning of the CONGO CRISIS. Although only a few whites and Africans lost their lives in the initial rioting, the ferocity with which the rioters expressed their hatred of
whites and white rule overwhelmed the Belgians and contributed to the swift pace of change. Indeed, the riots panicked the Belgians, and, despite the total lack of previous preparation, the government of Belgium agreed to hold elections at the end
of 1959. Unlike the British and French colonies, the Belgian colony had never known elections or government in local hands. Nor had the Belgians educated more than a few Congolese. _^<N__^<N_At the end of 1959 Lumumba's Mouvement National Congolais
emerged victorious in the elections, which had been boycotted by Kasavubu's Abako. Early in 1960, Belgium's King Baudoin sponsored a representative conference in Brussels to decide what to do next. Under great pressure, the Belgians agreed to give
the Congo its freedom. They assumed that Baudoin would remain king of the Congo and that the ex-colony would remain tied economically to the mother country. _^<N__^<N_The Belgian administration sought to isolate Kasavubu and to transfer sovereignty
to Africans gradually. But, in the end, since Lumumba, Kasavubu, and others threatened violence, independence came all in a rush, leaving future relationships unclear, leaders untrained, and the country in a state of confusion. The Congo moved
rapidly from crisis to crisis. The central government lost control of provincial affairs. Lumumba was murdered. The rich southern province of Katanga (Shaba), rich in copper, seceded under Moise TSHOMBE, and the United Nations entered the ex-colony
to restore order and essential services. The UN also ended Katanga's separation and attempted to unify the Congo. U.S. paratroops and UN-mobilized forces helped end the rebellion of 1964. Fearful of Soviet intentions, the United States also helped
to install Gen. Joseph Desiree Mobutu (later MOBUTU SESE SEKO) as a stabilizing ruler of the Congo. He later became its dictator and converted the wealth of the country to his own uses. _^<N__^<N_ East Africa_^<N__^<N_The British colonies east of
the Congo had many more educated Africans than the Belgian domain. From the 1950s, if not before, there was an upsurge of anti-colonial agitation. In Kenya the Kikuyu leader Jomo KENYATTA, head of the Kenya African Union (KAU) began to urge Britain
to permit the direct election of Africans to the local Legislative Council. Meanwhile, the Mau Mau rebellion broke out, and Britain proclaimed a state of emergency; Kenyatta was accused of leading the insurgents and imprisoned. _^<N__^<N_British
repression largely brought the Mau Mau disturbances to an end by 1956, and nationalist politics began on a localized basis. The youthful Tom MBOYA, a LUO, helped organize the Kenya African National Union (KANU) in Nairobi, Kenya's capital, and
prepared for the time when colony-wide politics would again be permitted. That occurred in 1959 and 1960, after Britain decided it could no longer back local white farmers and businessmen. In 1961, KAU, with Mboya standing in for Kenyatta, won a
plurality of Legislative Council seats. In early 1963 the voters of Kenya gave Kenyatta, their hero, and KAU a decisive victory in balloting for the Legislative Council. Kenya became independent later that year. _^<N__^<N_In neighboring Uganda, the
British governor, Sir Andrew Cohen, inspired a resurgence of indigenous anti-colonial feeling by exiling (1953) Mutesa II, the kabaka of Buganda, who headed the dominant kingdom in the colony. Britain wanted no separatism, but the governor's
actions encouraged the rise of the Uganda People's Congress (UPC). A. Milton OBOTE, a Lango northerner, became its leader. Its opposition, the Roman Catholic-backed Democratic party, won the 1961 election. But a further election in 1962 gave power
to Obote's UPC coalition with the kabaka's supporters. Obote became prime minister and led Uganda to independence later in 1962. _^<N__^<N_Tanganyika, the other British-run East African trust territory, was spared the ethnic antagonisms of Kenya
and Uganda. Julius NYERERE and Oscar Kambona, two well-educated teachers, formed the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) in 1954. Prodded by the Trusteeship Council of the United Nations, TANU gradually became nationalistic. In 1958 it
arranged a coalition with Asians and whites and won a multiracial election. Nyerere espoused peaceful change in a harmonious, color-blind environment. Without serious opposition, he was able to move Tanganyika to independence in 1961. The young
nation became the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar in April 1964, after racial riots and a coup in Zanzibar in 1963 replaced the Arab-dominated government of Sheikh Ali Muhsin with Abeid Karume's pro-African party. The name Tanzania was
adopted in October 1964. _^<N__^<N_ The Later Independence Movement_^<N__^<N_To the south, in the Rhodesias and Nyasaland, the British government in 1953 opted for a transfer of power to the white settlers, not Africans, creating the Federation of
Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Settlers were in charge, but Africans were supposed to gain an increasing share of power and responsibility. A federation of the three colonies had economic advantages, but black leaders had no faith in the settlers'
government, and formed the African National Congresses of Southern and Northern Rhodesia, and of Nyasaland to oppose white rule. In 1958, Hastings Kamuzu Banda returned home after 40 years in Britain and Ghana to run the Nyasaland African Congress.
Joshua Nkomo took charge of the ANC in Southern Rhodesia. In Northern Rhodesia, Kenneth Kaunda broke away from Harry Nkumbula's moderate Northern Rhodesian ANC to establish the United National Independence party (UNIP). _^<N__^<N_In 1959 unrest and
militant agitation gripped Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia, where the UNIP boycotted the country's first national election for blacks. Emergencies were declared in all three colonies. Five hundred members of the Southern Rhodesian ANC were
arrested. Banda and about 1,000 of his followers were jailed. Kaunda and other top UNIP members were also detained. _^<N__^<N_Whites in the three territories hoped for the death of nationalism. But the violence and retaliation of 1959 marked the
beginning rather than the end of the nationalist struggle in Central Africa. The British realized that they could only govern their African dependencies with the consent of the majority. Britain therefore announced the coming end of the federation
(it died in 1963) and held a series of elections like those in East Africa, which showed the strength of African power. Nyasaland was the most unified. In 1961, coming out of prison, Banda led his new Malawi Congress party to victory in a
broadly-based poll. Independence followed in 1964, and Nyasaland became Malawi. In Northern Rhodesia, after more African protests and two bitter elections with white and black competition, UNIP won a full mandate in 1963 and the colony became
independent as Zambia in late 1964. _^<N__^<N_Whites in Southern Rhodesia were numerous, and determined to avoid black rule. In 1965 they unilaterally declared the colony independent, naming it simply Rhodesia. No other country recognized its
sovereignty; the United Nations, Britain, the United States, and other nations boycotted Rhodesian exports and attempted to strangle the land-locked territory economically. But sanctions failed and settler rule seemed secure until Africans led by
Robert MUGABE and Josiah Tongogara began (1972) a guerrilla war that progressively eroded the white economy and white confidence. _^<N__^<N_In 1979 representatives of all parties met at a conference in London. The conferees agreed to end the war,
to accept a new constitution, and to hold national elections under British supervision. In 1980 the voters gave Mugabe's Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) a strong victory over Nkomo's Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU), and Rhodesia
became Zimbabwe with Mugabe as prime minister. _^<N__^<N_ZANU's military impact was greatly helped after a revolution in Portugal in 1974 led to independence for Mozambique, which adjoins Zimbabwe, and Angola, Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde, and Sao
Tome and Principe. Mozambique became an independent Marxist state in 1975 under Samora MACHEL, who had led an 11-year rebellion against Portuguese rule. After independence, Machel's support of Rhodesian and South African black nationalists led to
the creation of the Mozambique National Resistance (RENAMO). Attacks by this guerrilla organization, supported first by the white Rhodesian government and later by South Africa, devastated the Mozambican economy. _^<N__^<N_Angola, where three
African movements had fought the Portuguese, also became independent in 1975. The Soviet Union and Cuba prevented a South African military thrust from installing the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), led by Jonas
SAVIMBI, in power. _^<N__^<N_Guinea-Bissau became independent in 1974. So did the island states of Cape Verde and Sao Tome and Principe, in 1975. Equatorial Guinea, a Spanish colony, gained its independence in 1968, but suffered harsh dictatorial
rule under Francisco Macias Nguema from 1972 to 1979. The Comoros separated from France in 1975, leaving the island of Mayotte as a French colony. The Seychelles, also in the Indian Ocean, became independent from Britain in 1976. _^<N__^<N_In
Southern Africa, the two British-run African monarchies of Lesotho and Swaziland were given their independence in 1966 and 1968, respectively. In 1966, Botswana became an independent multiparty democracy under the leadership of Sir Seretse Khama,
its first president. _^<N__^<N_In Ethiopia the monarchy was replaced (1974) by a military regime that developed close ties to Cuba and the USSR, officially proclaiming itself Communist in 1984. The country was in a continuous state of civil war
until 1991, when secessionist groups representing various ethnic minorities finally overthrew the central government. _^<N__^<N_ South Africa_^<N__^<N_From the late 1970s and throughout the 1980s the new nations of southern Africa as far north as
Angola, Zambia, and Mozambique were subjected to continual interference by South Africa, the region's economic and military power, and the last stronghold of white supremacy. On numerous occasions, South African troops both invaded and occupied
Angola. South Africa also raided Botswana, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, and Zambia several times, helped to install a new government in Lesotho in 1986, intervened in Swaziland for a number of years during the 1980s, and maintained a tight grip on
Namibia, which it had originally received as a League of Nations mandate, until 1989. _^<N__^<N_The Afrikaner-dominated NATIONAL PARTY came to power in South Africa in 1948, thrusting APARTHEID--rigid, legalized, segregation--onto all South
Africans. Blacks, comprising about 80 percent of the country's population, were no longer permitted to go to school with, attend university with, worship together with, or consort socially (or sexually) with whites. Freedom of assembly for blacks
was abrogated, as were civil liberties such as habeas corpus. South Africa, a stratified and segregated society before 1948, became an oppressive, rigidly organized society based exclusively on color. _^<N__^<N_Blacks protested the onrush of
apartheid in the 1950s. After police fired into a peacefully protesting crowd of Africans at Sharpeville (near Vereeniging, south of Johannesburg) in 1960, killing 69 and wounding hundreds, the leading African protest groups--the AFRICAN NATIONAL
CONGRESS (ANC) and the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC)--were banned. Nelson MANDELA, leader of the ANC, and others went underground and began to attack the state with bombs and guns. This phase of urban and rural sabotage and assassination ended in
the mid-1960s, with the capture and sentencing to life imprisonment of Mandela, Walter Sisulu, and several white accomplices. _^<N__^<N_South African security became especially brutal and effective in the late 1960s and early 1970s. In 1976,
however, the calm and stability of South Africa was shattered by a student-led uprising. About 600 black youths were killed and another 10,000 wounded before the revolt was suppressed in 1978. _^<N__^<N_Meanwhile the ANC had opened up exile bases
in Zambia, Mozambique, and Angola. After the 1976-78 rising the ANC began sending guerrilla cadres into South Africa to place bombs near commercial buildings or military installations in urban areas. By the late 1970s it had begun to pose a serious
threat to the once-complacent white government. _^<N__^<N_South Africa's raids against its neighbors were initially designed to compel those weaker countries to cease giving aid and comfort to the ANC. After they had complied, South Africa
continued to attack them in order to ensure its own hegemony in the region and in order to keep the countries weak and confused. South Africa also began to fund and arm UNITA in its effort to unseat the Soviet-backed government of Angola and helped
to sustain Mozambique's RENAMO insurgents, who were attempting to disrupt and overthrow the fragile socialist government of that country. These activities formed the core of South Africa's policy of destabilization. _^<N__^<N_In the late 1970s,
U.S. pressure compelled South Africa to begin negotiations over the future of Namibia, which it had refused to return to the United Nations after that international body succeeded the League of Nations in 1946. The talks dragged on until 1988, when
South Africa, Cuba, and Angola finally agreed upon a cease-fire for Angola and Namibia linked to the withdrawal of Cuban forces from Angola. Namibia gained full independence on Mar. 21, 1990, and multiparty elections were held in Angola in 1992.
That same year a tentative cease-fire was signed in Mozambique, raising hopes for an end to the civil war there. _^<N__^<N_After the repression of the 1976-78 rising, white South Africa began to modernize its manner of coping with the realities of
minority rule in a bitterly divided plural society. The National party began in the late 1970s to remove aspects of social segregation (petty apartheid) and altered parliament to include assemblies for Asians and Coloureds, as well as whites, while
ensuring that white legislators retained ultimate power. In the 1980s, Asians and Coloureds were allowed to vote in national elections for the first time since the mid-1950s. Blacks welcomed reform, scorned the tripartite parliament, and continued
to demand political rights. In 1984 a new wave of violent protest engulfed South Africa's black ghettos. It lasted three years and left about 3,500 blacks dead. At its peak many of the country's black townships were under local (youth dominated)
black control. After declaring sweeping states of emergency, imposing increasingly strict censorship, and imprisoning or detaining about 40,000 blacks, the government regained control of the townships. _^<N__^<N_The far-right Conservative party won
a surprising number of seats in the white legislative assembly in 1987, and the dominance of the National party continued to erode in the 1989 elections, although an overall majority went to candidates favoring interracial dialogue and cautious
reform. F. W. DE KLERK, who had replaced Botha as party leader and president earlier that year, moved dramatically in 1990 in an effort to satisfy black aspirations while protecting white rights. He lifted a 30-year ban on the ANC, released ANC
leader Nelson Mandela, lifted the state of emergency in all provinces except Natal, and pledged to dismantle apartheid as part of an overall settlement. The ANC, in turn, abandoned its armed struggle against the government. The basic laws
underpinning apartheid were repealed in 1991, although blacks still had no vote at the national level. In 1992, a whites-only referendum overwhelmingly approved negotiations aimed at including blacks in the national government, but negotiations on
a new postapartheid constitution were threatened by escalating black-on-black violence in which right-wing members of the white security forces were implicated. _^<N__^<N_ Recent Developments_^<N__^<N_By 1990, battered by rapid population growth,
declining export earnings, foreign debt, drought, and civil war, the average per-capita income in Africa was below what it had been in 1960, and more than half of all foreign aid was consumed by debt service. In addition, more than 1 million
Africans, primarily in Central and East Africa, were thought to be infected with the AIDS virus. This further complicated matters, particularly the rebuilding of Uganda after years of brutal dictatorship and bloody conflict. _^<N__^<N_Economic
distress, the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe and the dissolution of the USSR, and popular dissatisfaction with corrupt and autocratic rule spurred demands for political and economic reform. In country after country, due in part to demands
from international lenders, governments moved toward free-market economies, increasing prices paid to farmers and reducing the role of government in the economy. _^<N__^<N_Tunisia's longtime leader Habib Bourguiba was outed in 1987, and the early
1990s were marked by a wave of political change. Newly independent Namibian joined Africa's few genuine multiparty democracies in 1990, and in 1991, Benin became the first African country to oust an incumbent African president in democratic
elections. Many other nations adopted or planned to introduce multiparty systems in the early 1990s, including Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Congo, Gabon, Guinea, Buinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Kenya,
Madagascar, Mali, Mauritania, Nigeria, Rwanda, Sao Tome, and Principe Seychelles, Tanzania, and Zambia. Unprecedented protest against the longtime rulers of Malawi and Zaire took place. The army seized power in Sierra Leone in 1992, promising to
restore democracy there. In Algeria, however, the army canceled the second round of the 1992 multiparty legislative elections when it appeared that they would be won by Muslim fundamentalists. Regimes elsewhere in North Africa also cracked down on
their fundamentalist opponents. _^<N__^<N_The end of the cold war led to the collapse of the Communist regime in Ethiopia in 1991. Eritrea was expected to opt for independence from Ethiopia in 1993, but a planned independence referendum in Western
Sahara was repeatedly postponed. Hopes for an end to two of Africa's longest civil wars were raised by the signing of peace accords in Angola (1991) and Mozambique (1992). Civil war continued in the Sudan, however, and the overthrow of dictators in
Liberia in 1990 and Somalia in 1991 led to tribal warfare; millions of Somalis starved as strife hindered international aid efforts. Southern Africa was also hit by the worst drought in recent memory. Despite the continent's significant progress in
the early 1990s the gains in many places were fragile, and ethnic conflicts and economic difficulties remained. _^<N__^<N_Robert I. Rotberg _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: The Cambridge History of Africa, 8 vols. (1977-85); Carter, G. M., and O'Meara,
P., eds., African Independence (1985); Freund, B., The Making of Contemporary Africa (1984); Harding, Jeremy, The Fate of Africa: Trial by Fire (1993); Martin, P.M., and O'Meara, P., eds., Africa, 2d ed. (1986); Oliver, R., and Fage, J. D.,
A Short History of Africa, 6th rev. ed. (1989); Pakenham, T., The Scramble for Africa (1991); Rotberg, R. I., A Political History of Tropical Africa (1965).
012340| East and Southern African Region and Madagascar
013095| Influence in the West
-T-
African art_^<N__^<N_The traditional art of Africa consists principally of masks and figures of magico-religious significance, decorative objects used for personal adornment, and implements and insignia of rank or prestige. Most of these objects
are in some way allied to ceremonial and other structured activities (such as singing, dancing, drumming, and storytelling), without which the visual arts could not function in traditional African society. _^<N__^<N_The forms and functions of
traditional African art are strikingly diverse. Certain patterns of form and meaning can be discerned, however, by both a regional and a more general scrutiny. Sculpture is generally considered Africa's greatest achievement in the visual arts,
but, although sculpture is found in many parts of Africa, this medium of expression occurs with the greatest frequency in western and central Africa. The majority of sculptures are of wood, but objects are also made in metal, stone, terra-cotta,
mud, beadwork, ivory, and other materials. _^<N__^<N_In southern and eastern Africa are found ancient rock paintings attributed to the SAN (Bushman) people. The only other major rock art tradition in Africa is that of Algeria, Libya, and Chad, the
work of the prehistoric inhabitants of the Sahara (see PREHISTORIC ART). Islamic influence is seen throughout the west African savanna and the east African coast; populations of both areas have been involved with Islamic culture for at least a
thousand years. Some groups like the YORUBA of Nigeria carve a great variety of objects; others like the nomadic Pakot of Kenya rejoice in writing poetry about their cattle. Thus, one cannot generalize about African societies and their art forms
merely because the people live on the same continent. _^<N__^<N_ GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS_^<N__^<N_At least three basic themes occur again and again in traditional African art: (1) the distinction between bush and village, (2) the problematic
relationships between the sexes, and (3) the struggle to control various forces, natural as well as supernatural, to achieve desired ends. _^<N__^<N_The dualism of bush and village is pervasive in Africa, although the forms by which it is expressed
vary from place to place. The underlying notion is that the world consists of two complementary spheres: one a wild, chaotic, uncontrolled, exuberant region (or nature); the other an ordered, controlled, measured, predictable domain (or
culture), the human world of the village. The IBO of Nigeria express this dualism by means of masks and headdresses: the male symbolizes the elephant, most powerful of all bush creatures; the female symbolizes culture and is delicately coiffed
to express refinement and civilization. _^<N__^<N_Among the Yaka and other Congolese groups, masks that police the initiation rites are made of rough bush materials and have relatively abstract features; those worn at the conclusion of the
rites--when the boys have been symbolically brought from nature into culture--are made of wood, are more naturalistic, and are used to make fun of human foibles. For the DOGON of Mali, the distinction is embodied in the contrast between spirals
(nature) and rectangular forms (culture). _^<N__^<N_To deal with problems and issues surrounding the relations between the sexes, various African societies employ art as a therapeutic device. The Baule of Ivory Coast, for example, carve images
supposed to represent one's spirit lover because it is believed that these beings, if jealous, can cause the living unending problems with their spouses. _^<N__^<N_Africans are by no means passive in the face of powerful natural or supernatural
forces. Indeed, the principal function of art in traditional African society has been to help manipulate the forces that affect people's lives. These forces are not seen as preternaturally good or evil as they are in Western society; rather,
natural and supernatural powers are perceived as malleable and subject to influence and manipulation, provided the proper techniques are used. Thus, the Yoruba of southwestern Nigeria perform elaborate masked ceremonies known as Gelede to please
and honor witches; behind this lies an anthropomorphizing outlook which assumes that if flattery works on ordinary people it will on witches too. _^<N__^<N_Deliberately hideous masks intended to expel witches, such as the SENUFO "firespitter" of
Ivory Coast and many related savanna forms, constitute a violent counterattack on witchcraft that literally fights fire with fire. The same is true of FETISHES--magically constructed and empowered objects found throughout Africa. These
assemblages are specific prescriptions aimed at bringing about a desired end, whether the breaking of a bad habit, the improvement of one's love life, the destruction of a human enemy, or the warding off of a supernatural threat. In short,
traditional African art is essentially functional and optimistic. Its aims are primarily positive and are intended, through elaboration and vigorous expression, to enhance the human condition. _^<N__^<N_ REGIONAL STYLES_^<N__^<N_ Western Sudanic
Region_^<N__^<N_This area includes Burkina Faso, western Mali, and northern Ivory Coast. Among its most famous art-producing peoples are the Dogon, Bambara, Bwa, and Senufo. The fertility of crops is of basic importance in this dry area, as is
the placation of the ancestors and the indoctrination of the young in the ancient traditions of each society. To these ends, masks and figures representing legendary ancestors dance or receive sacrifices. Forms in the western Sudan tend to be
relatively stylized, austere, and angular. _^<N__^<N_ Central Sudanic Region_^<N__^<N_Centered in northern Nigeria, the central Sudan is dominated by the Muslim HAUSA and FULANI peoples, who have developed numerous city-states. Central Sudanic art
is mostly nonrepresentational and includes mud architecture, sometimes with molded, low-relief decoration; embroidered textiles; elaborate coiffure; metal and beadwork jewelry; and leatherwork decorated with geometric applique. In addition,
terra-cotta sculptures dating from about 500 BC to AD 200, associated with the so-called Nok culture, have been unearthed over a 480-km (300-mi) stretch of uplands in the southern part of the region. The Nok tradition represents the earliest known
sculpture yet found in sub-Saharan Africa and seems to have paved the way for the tradition of superb portrait terra cottas and bronzes that later developed at the holy city of IFE in western Nigeria. Some modern peoples in the central Sudanic
region such as the TIV, Goemai, Montol, Mama, Waja, Jukun, Mumuye, Chamba, and Afo carve masks or figures; these objects show a striking similarity to the art of the western Sudanic peoples. This suggests ancient linkages across the savanna belt
that have been disrupted only within approximately the past 1,000 years by the Islamic incursions. _^<N__^<N_ West Guinea Coast Region_^<N__^<N_This region consists of Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and the densely forested coastal portion
of Guinea and southwestern Ivory Coast. Characteristic masks and figures from the area are made by such peoples as the MENDE, Baga, Gola, and Dan. Forms in the west Guinea Coast are generally softer, shinier, and more rounded than in the
neighboring western Sudanic region. Carved wood masks are the dominant art form in the region, where they perform a great variety of functions. Masks are used to police ceremonies, punish wrongdoers, settle land disputes, and start and end wars.
An apt expression for the traditional west Guinea Coast way of life is "government by mask." _^<N__^<N_ Central Guinea Coast Region_^<N__^<N_The Central Guinea Coast extends from southeastern Ivory Coast, southern Ghana, Togo, Benin, and southern
Nigeria to the lower Niger River with an offshoot in the Cameroons grasslands. Central Guinea Coast art is the richest and the most complex of any area in Africa. Such well-known societies as the AKAN (ASHANTI), FON, YORUBA, and Benin inhabit this
region. Traditionally, these groups were courtly in character with divine kingship and other centralizing institutions; their art employs aristocratic materials including gold, silver, bronze, brass, beadwork, silk, and ivory. Specialized guilds
of artists attached to the courts produced intricately crafted art forms mainly for the benefit of the leaders. Guinea Coast art forms include stools, drums, elaborately decorated cloth, pottery, terra-cotta figurines, ornamental swords, miniature
masks, combs, mirrors, staffs, pipes, containers, and carved musical instruments. The affluence and accompanying artistic wealth of this region was in part the result of the lucrative trade with European ships that began to visit the west African
coast beginning in the late 15th century. _^<N__^<N_ East Guinea Coast Region_^<N__^<N_The lower Niger marks the approximate boundary between the aristocratic centralized societies of the central Guinea Coast and the more loosely organized peoples
of southwestern Nigeria. Here, in the absence of kings and paramount chiefs, one finds elaborately developed masquerades and plays, sometimes staged by SECRET SOCIETIES, sometimes by graded title societies. These performances serve to maintain law
and order in groups that vest leadership in their elders. Characteristic of the east Guinea Coast area is a dazzling array of masks, puppets, headdresses, and other theatrical devices. Prominent groups in the area include the IBO, IBIBIO, Idoma,
Ijo, Ejagham (Ekoi), and Ogoni. _^<N__^<N_ Equatorial Forest Region_^<N__^<N_Among the best-known peoples of the equatorial forest, which extends across Gabon and northern Zaire, are the FANG, Kota, Kwele, Ngbaka, Mbole, and Lega. This region,
which is covered with dense rain forest except where trees have been cleared for agriculture, still includes Pygmies, the original inhabitants, who are hunters and gatherers. The art-producing agricultural peoples began moving into this region
from southern Nigeria some 2,000 years ago, in what is frequently called the Bantu Expansion. Their art forms include numerous masks, figures, beautifully designed weapons, divination objects and carved fetishes, wall paintings, musical
instruments, and practical implements. One widespread visual motif is the so-called heart-shaped face, a method of rendering the face as a concavity from the eye sockets to the vicinity of the mouth. This motif may well have been brought by Bantu
migrants from Nigeria, where it is also used. _^<N__^<N_ Lower Congo Region_^<N__^<N_The styles that developed in the general vicinity of the mouth of the Congo River were influenced about 1500 by the Portuguese, who converted the king (the
Mani-kongo) and many of his courtiers to Christianity. During the next three centuries, Portuguese influence introduced a number of Christian themes. Following the Portuguese withdrawal, many of these borrowed symbols acquired pagan meanings;
crucifixes, for example, became symbols of chiefly power. Christian origins have also been suggested for other Lower Congo art forms, including stone mortuary statues, mother-and-child figures, and fetishes with nails driven into them. _^<N__^<N_
Southern Savanna Region_^<N__^<N_In the broad upland belt of central Africa are numerous Bantu peoples such as the CHOKWE, LUBA, Songye, Yaka, Pende, and Kuba and related groups such as the MBUNDU and Makonde. Perhaps the prime generators of art
in these groups are the initiation rites that mark the passage of boys from adolescence to manhood. Masks, figures, costumes, and spectacular theatrical effects are part of these initiations, functioning often as didactic devices to instruct the
boys in their culture and in proper manly behavior. The Kuba of central Zaire, in addition to complex initiation rites, have elaborate courtly art forms, including royal portrait statues, elegant cups, drums, containers, dolls, and numerous
regalia for persons of high rank. _^<N__^<N_ Eastern Sudanic Region_^<N__^<N_The artistic production of most of the peoples in this area is restricted to decorative art, but a few groups in the southern Republic of the Sudan and southwest Ethiopia,
including the Bongo, Konso, and Borana, carve wood figures to commemorate ancestors. This tradition probably relates more to the ancient pagan art still discernible in a broad arc across southern Asia than to the majority of African styles.
Similarly distinct is Ethiopian art, which shows strong links with Egyptian COPTIC ART and BYZANTINE ART. _^<N__^<N_ East and Southern African Region and Madagascar_^<N__^<N_Apart from Bushman paintings and engravings, eastern and southern Africa
have only a limited number of distinctive figural styles. The predominant arts in this region are architecture and architectural decorations, including the boldly patterned wall paintings of the NDEBELE in the Transvaal, and personal ornaments,
especially beadwork. Madagascar, the only large island lying off Africa's coast, was first settled not from Africa but from Indonesia, perhaps early in the Christian Era. Conspicuous here is the commemorative ancestor figure notable also in the
eastern Sudanic region and typical of Indonesia. Certain raffia textiles made by the ikat process find their closest parallels in Indonesia. _^<N__^<N_ Influence in the West_^<N__^<N_From the 16th century, European travelers acquired objects of
African art, particularly bronzes and ivories from the Benin court. Collections of African art were being formed in Europe by the 19th century. Early in the 20th century, African sculpture had an impact on the work of such modern artists as
Georges BRAQUE, Henri MATISSE, Amedeo MODIGLIANI, and Pablo PICASSO, who were attracted by the aesthetic values they perceived in African art forms. _^<N__^<N_Douglas Fraser _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Baldwin, James, et al., Perspectives: Angles on
African Art (1987); Bascom, William, African Art in Cultural Perspective: An Introduction (1972); Delange, Jacqueline, The Art and Peoples of Black Africa, trans. by Carol F. Jopling (1974); Duerden, Dennis A., A Concise Handbook of African
Art (1988); Fagg, William, African Tribal Images (1968); Fraser, Douglas, and Cole, Herbert M., eds., African Art and Leadership (1972); Gillon, Werner, A Short History of African Art (1987); Laude, Jean, The Arts of Black Africa (1971);
Leiris, Michel, and Delange, Jacqueline, African Art (1968); Leuzinger, Elsy, Africa: The Art of the Negro Peoples, 2d ed. (1967) and The Art of Black Africa (1972); Rubin, William, Primitivism in 20th Century Art, Affinity of the Tribal and
the Modern, 2 vols. (1984); Sieber, Roy, and Walker, R. A., African Art in the Cycle of Life (1987); Vogel, C., African Aesthetics (1987); Wassing, Rene S., African Art: Its Background and Traditions (1968); Willett, Frank, African Art
(1985). _^<N__^<N_See also: AFRICAN MUSIC.
-END-
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350
CAT
-A-
African hunting dog
-T-
African hunting dog_^<N__^<N_The African hunting dog, Lycaon pictus, is a wild CARNIVORE in the DOG family, Canidae, order Carnivora. It may be 104 cm (41 in) long and weigh 23 kg (50 lb). Sparse, mottled hair covers a dark-pigmented skin. The
animal has a musky odor. It is found south and east of the Sahara and kills more prey than it eats. _^<N__^<N_Everett Sentman
-END-
-C-
17143
CATO
4818
9620
14445
-A-
African languages
-O-
000000|African languages
000712| HISTORY
002140| CHARACTERISTICS OF AFRICAN LANGUAGES
002350| Phonetic Characteristics
004790| Grammatical Characteristics
007002| CLASSIFICATION
007208| Afroasiatic
007747| Nilo-Saharan
009137| Niger-Kordofanian
015475| Khoisan
-T-
African languages_^<N__^<N_More than 1,700 distinct languages are spoken on the African continent, and they constitute about 30 percent of all world languages. The exact number is impossible to ascertain, because not enough information is available
about many of them to determine whether different names refer to distinct languages or merely to mutually intelligible dialects of larger languages. Groups of people who speak a distinct African language range in size from several million down to
a thousand or even fewer. Apart from North Africa, only a few African countries, for example, Somalia, Rwanda, and Burundi, have a single or a dominant language. As a result, official languages are usually English, French, or Portuguese.
_^<N__^<N_ HISTORY_^<N__^<N_The study of African languages began before 1600 and was the task of early Christian missionaries. Few works of lasting importance, however, were produced before 1850. Missionaries and some governmental administrators
and agencies, in the colonial era and in the present time of independent African nations, have always been the primary contributors to research in African languages. Their goals have been largely practical: literacy, evangelization, and education.
Strictly scholarly interest in African languages, centered in university programs, dates back to about 1850 in South Africa, the late 1920s in Europe, 1959 in the United States, and about 1960 in a number of other African institutions. Even now,
relatively few American universities offer serious programs in African languages, but annual academic conferences on African linguistics are held in the United States. The survey of the classification of African languages in the last section of
this article is, with a few minor refinements, that proposed by Joseph H. Greenberg in 1963. Recently, some revisions in the subclassification of the Niger-Congo languages have been suggested, but these are only tentatively accepted at present.
Edgar Gregerson has recently theorized that the Nilo-Saharan and Niger-Kordofanian language families may have been related in the extremely distant past as members of an even older "Kongo-Saharan" superfamily. _^<N__^<N_ CHARACTERISTICS OF AFRICAN
LANGUAGES_^<N__^<N_Because of the variety and number of African languages, they possess a number of distinct phonetic and grammatical features, as well as marked similarities within families. _^<N__^<N_ Phonetic Characteristics_^<N__^<N_Although
the Khoisan languages, spoken by some hunting and gathering or cattle-raising peoples in southern Africa, make up only a fraction of the languages of Africa, they are of special interest because of their unique use of "click" consonants. This click
is similar to the sound one makes when saying "tsk, tsk" or that one uses to spur on a horse or to imitate the sound of a cork popping out of a bottle. But clicks function as the following consonants do in the Roman alphabet: p, t, and k. In
most Khoisan languages, almost every noun, verb, and adjective begins with such a click. The use of clicks has spread into some neighboring Bantu languages, notably IsiXhosa; they are generally represented in the written language by the letters c,
x, and q, which are not needed to represent other sounds. _^<N__^<N_Languages of the Niger-Kordofanian and Nilo-Saharan families, spoken by the majority of Saharan and sub-Saharan peoples, generally do not permit consonant sequences like those in
such English words as struts or prints. Consonants followed by "glides," such as the w and y sounds, however, are common. Examples are the Igbo word akwa ("cloth") and the Nupe word kyakya ("bicycle"). Common consonantal sequences are a nasal
followed by an oral consonant: mb, nd, and ng and also mp, nt, nk, and other combinations. These may function as unit consonants; some well-known names, for example, are properly syllabified as Ta-nza-ni-a, U-ga-nda, and Zi-mba-bwe. In some
languages, however, nasals may be syllables in their own right; they are just hummed, without a preceding or following vowel. An example is the Igbo word nta ("small"). Many languages permit only a few different syllable-final consonants or none
at all. _^<N__^<N_Almost all languages of sub-Saharan Africa are tone languages; the northern West Atlantic languages, Swahili, and a few others are not. In a tone language, distinctions in pitch are as important in the makeup of words as are
distinctions in consonants or vowels. Every word has its own tone or tone sequence, which may, however, undergo definable changes in some contexts. Tone may also signal grammatical differences. Some languages have two to four distinct tone
levels ("discrete level" systems). Others have two, sometimes three levels, plus a slight lowering of nonlow tones ("downstep"), as much as six or seven times in a phrase or sentence ("terraced level" systems). _^<N__^<N_ Grammatical
Characteristics_^<N__^<N_A striking grammatical feature of most African languages is that modifiers come after, rather than before, the noun. For example, the translation of the Swahili sentence kisu kikubwa kimoja kile changu ("that one big knife
of mine") is literally "knife big one that my." The order of grammatical elements in a sentence must also be noted. In some languages, like English, an object follows a verb. This is the rule in Igbo: o zuru mma ("he stole a knife"). The order
of the Igbo words is the same as that of the English translation. However, in Kpelle the verb follows the object: e kali ya (literally, "he a hoe bought"). _^<N__^<N_At least some languages in every branch of the Niger-Kordofanian family, except
Mande, have noun classes and agreement, or concord. This characteristic is most easily illustrated in a Bantu language such as Swahili. Personal nouns in Swahili have a singular prefix m- and a plural prefix wa-, for example, mtu ("a person") and
watu ("people"). Terms for trees and many other items have a singular prefix m- and a plural prefix mi-, for example, mti ("a tree") and miti ("trees"). Many other nouns have a singular prefix ki- and a plural prefix vi-, for example, kisu ("a
knife") and visu ("knives"). _^<N__^<N_Other singular-plural pairs are used as well as a "liquid mass" class with the prefix ma-, for example, maji ("water") and mafuta ("oil"). Each prefix determines an appropriate concord prefix for noun
modifiers as well as for verbal subject and object markers. Concord prefixes for a modifier meaning "that" are shown in the following examples: mtu yule ("that person"), watu wale ("those people"); mti ule ("that tree"), miti ile ("those
trees"); kisu kile ("that knife"), visu vile ("those knives"); maji yale ("that water"). Such systems vary from language to language, including the use of class-marking suffixes, rather than prefixes, but recognizable similarities pervade the
Niger-Kordofanian languages. Many Kwa languages have no singular-plural contrast in nouns at all and yet show remnants of noun classification in what must once have been prefixes, for example, Igbo mpi ("horn {of an animal}"), but opi ("musical
horn, flute"). _^<N__^<N_ CLASSIFICATION_^<N__^<N_Four main language families--groups of languages presumably descended from distinct ancestral languages--are recognized in Africa: Afroasiatic, Nilo-Saharan, Niger-Kordofanian, and Khoisan.
_^<N__^<N_ Afroasiatic_^<N__^<N_The AFROASIATIC family is considered a distinct language grouping. Its various languages are spoken primarily in northern Africa and in Ethiopia and Somalia, as well as outside the African continent. The branch
called Chadic is spoken in northern Nigeria and adjacent territories. Hausa is the most widely spoken of the Chadic languages and, after Swahili, the second most widely spoken language of sub-Saharan Africa. Between 10 and 15 million people are
native Hausa speakers, and many others use it as a second language. _^<N__^<N_ Nilo-Saharan_^<N__^<N_Languages in the Nilo-Saharan family are spoken in and just south of the Sahara, from Mali in the west to the Nile basin, and southward into
Uganda, Kenya, and northern Tanzania. The Songhai branch of Nilo-Saharan is spoken by the 500,000 or so people who live along the great bend of the Niger from Mali to northwestern Nigeria. It consists of Songhai, Dyerma, and Dendi, all closely
related and possibly mutually intelligible. The Saharan branch, primarily Kanuri and Teda, is spoken by more than 2.5 million people who live from northeastern Nigeria north through Niger and Chad to the Libyan border. Maban, Fur, and Koman are
three small branches; each comprises one or only a few languages. The remaining branch of the Nilo-Saharan family is Chari-Nile. Several Chari-Nile languages, most spoken by only a small number of people, form the Central Sudanic group of
languages, which are spoken by people scattered from the vicinity of Lake Chad to the Nile basin. An Eastern Sudanic group primarily includes the Nilotic languages: Dinka, which is spoken by 1 to 2 million people; Nuer and Shilluk in southern
Sudan; Achooli and Lwo in Uganda; Nandi and Suk in Kenya; and Masai in northern Tanzania. Each of the Eastern Sudanic languages is spoken by a few hundred thousand people. Two small isolated languages, Berta and Kunama, complete the Chari-Nile
branch. _^<N__^<N_ Niger-Kordofanian_^<N__^<N_The third African language family is the Niger-Kordofanian, the languages of which are spoken in nearly all the areas from Senegal to Kenya, and south to South Africa. Niger-Kordofanian is divided into
two subfamilies. The first, Kordofanian, is small and encompasses five branches: Koalib, Teqali, Talodi, Tumtum, and Katla. All are spoken in southern Sudan. None, however, are well known, nor are they spoken by any sizable number of people.
The Niger-Congo subfamily, on the other hand, includes a majority of all the languages of Africa. _^<N__^<N_The Niger-Congo subfamily comprises seven or perhaps eight branches. The Mande branch was apparently the first to diverge from the parent
Niger-Congo stock, possibly 6,000 years ago. Mande languages are spoken in a large area of West Africa, from Senegal and Mali to Liberia and Ivory Coast, but they are not spoken along the Atlantic coast, except in Liberia, where about 40,000 people
speak Vai. Isolated Mande languages are spoken in eastern Ivory Coast and western Ghana, in Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta), and in Benin and Nigeria. Mandekan is the most widely spoken and most important Mande language. It is better known
by the names of its major dialects--Bambara, Maninka or Malinke, and Dyula--and several million people use it. Other important Mande languages are Mende in Sierra Leone and Kpelle in Liberia. _^<N__^<N_A second branch of Niger-Congo is West
Atlantic, which may include two relatively distinct branches of the subfamily--northern and southern; the latter is also called Mel. The major Mel language is Temne, which is spoken by perhaps as many as 500,000 people in Sierra Leone. The
northern West Atlantic languages of the Niger-Congo subfamily include Wolof, which is spoken by about 700,000 people and is the major language of Senegal and its capital city Dakar. Much more widely spoken, however, is Fula (also known as Fulani,
Fulfulde, Peuhl), which is used by perhaps 4 to 5 million people. A major Fula concentration is found in northern Guinea. Some 2,400 km (1,500 mi) to the east, in northeastern Nigeria and Cameroon, is another large concentration of Fula speakers.
Between these extremes are other permanent Fula settlements, and a great many more Fula speakers are seminomadic cattle herdsmen. Several West Atlantic languages are spoken by small groups of people along or near the Atlantic coast from Senegal
to Liberia. _^<N__^<N_The Kru branch of the Niger-Congo subfamily consists of about 30 languages that are spoken in southeastern Liberia and southwestern Ivory Coast. Probably the most widely used is the language known as Krahn in Liberia and as
Guere in Ivory Coast; about 350,000 people use this language. Better known are Bassa, Kru, and Grebo in Liberia, and Bete in Ivory Coast. _^<N__^<N_The Gur, or Burkinabe (Voltaic), branch of Niger-Congo is spoken in interior parts of West Africa,
from eastern Mali and northern Ivory Coast through northern Benin. The most widely used Gur language, spoken by about 2 million people, is Moore in Burkina Faso. _^<N__^<N_Languages of the Kwa branch of Niger-Congo are spoken along the
south-facing Atlantic coast from central Ivory Coast to Cameroon, and generally for a few hundred miles inland. Some major Kwa languages are Baule in Ivory Coast; Akan, including Fante, Twi, and Ashanti, in Ghana; Ewe in Ghana, and Togo along
with Fon in Benin (the two perhaps constitute a single language); Yoruba, Igbo, and Efik in Nigeria. Yoruba and Igbo are the most widely spoken of these; between 6 and 10 million people speak each. _^<N__^<N_Languages of the Adamawa-Eastern
branch are spoken from northeastern Nigeria east to Sudan, north almost to the Sahara, and south to extreme northern Zaire. In most of this area, these languages are interspersed with Chari-Nile languages of the Nilo-Saharan family; in the
extreme west, Chadic languages of the Afroasiatic family are also spoken. Most of the Adamawa-Eastern languages are spoken by a relatively small number of people, and the status of many as distinct languages has not been determined. Zande is
spoken by some 700,000 people in northern Zaire and adjacent parts of Sudan and the Central African Empire. Sango, a derivative of Ngbandi in northern Zaire, has become a widespread language of trade and government in the Central African Empire
and, to some extent, in Chad. _^<N__^<N_The Benue-Congo branch of Niger-Congo includes a number of groups of languages in northern and eastern Nigeria, most not widely spoken, and almost all languages of the great southern projection of Africa from
Nigeria to northern Kenya to Capetown. The latter are the well-known Bantu languages. Apart from Bantu, the most widely used Benue-Congo language is Tiv in Nigeria; it is spoken by perhaps 1.4 million people. The Bantu languages were long thought
to be an independent language family, partly because of the vast area in which they are spoken, the large number of languages that can be considered Bantu, and the large number of their speakers. More than one-third of the most widely used
languages in Africa are Bantu languages. In terms of linguistic relationships, however, the Bantu languages are only an enormously overgrown subgroup within the Benue-Congo branch. _^<N__^<N_Most Bantu language names, as used by their own
speakers, consist of a prefix and a stem. What is widely known as "Swahili," for example, is properly KiSwahili; in written references, the stem -Swahili is capitalized, since non-Africans commonly use the stem alone. According to this
convention, the following Bantu languages, each spoken by a million or more people, may be distinguished: KiKongo and LiNgala (Zaire); Umbundu (Angola); IsiZulu and IsiXhosa, which are largely mutually intelligible (South Africa); SeSotho,
SePedi, Setswana, which are largely mutually intelligible (Lesotho, Botswana, South Africa); ChiShona (Zimbabwe); ChiBemba (Zambia and Zaire); ChiNyanja (Malawi); ShiTswa (Mozambique); KinyaRwanda and KiRundi, which are mutually intelligible
(BURUNDI and Rwanda); LuGanda (Uganda); GiKikuyu (Kenya); KiSwahili (Tanzania, Kenya, and, to some extent, Uganda and Zaire). Of these languages, KiSwahili is the most widely spoken; however, for a vast majority of its 20 to 30 million
speakers, Swahili is a second language, although they may speak it fluently. _^<N__^<N_ Khoisan_^<N__^<N_The fourth and smallest language family of Africa is the Khoisan. Most Khoisan languages are spoken by the so-called Bushmen and Hottentots of
southern Africa. These peoples include a few cattle-raising groups such as the Nama, totaling perhaps 50,000 speakers, and hunting and gathering groups in the Kalahari Desert of Botswana and Namibia. Many of these are bands of fewer than a
hundred speakers of distinct languages. Also included in the Khoisan language family are two languages in northern Tanzania: Sandawe, which is spoken by perhaps 25,000 people, and Hatza, which is spoken by only a few hundred people. The study of
language relationships reveals the dramatic and pathetic absorption, dispersion, and isolation of peoples such as most of the Khoisan speakers. Many of the PYGMY groups found in Zaire and Cameroon are thought to be Khoisan peoples who have adopted
their neighbors' Niger-Congo languages. _^<N__^<N_William E. Welmers _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bryan, Margaret A., The Languages of West Africa (1952); Greenberg, Joseph H., The Languages of Africa, 3d ed. (1970) and Studies in African Linguistic
Classification (1955); Guthrie, Malcolm, Comparative Bantu, 4 vols. (1967-70); Mann, Michael, and Dalby, David, eds., A Thesaurus of African Languages (1987); Sebeok, Thomas A., ed., Linguistics in Sub-Saharan Africa (1971), vol. 7 in Current
Trends in Linguistics; Tucker, Archibald N., and Bryan, Margaret A., The Non-Bantu Languages of North-Eastern Africa (1956); Welmers, William E., African Language Structures (1971); Westermann, Diedrich, and Ward, I. C., Practical Phonetics for
Students of African Languages (1933).
-END-
-C-
10962
CATO
4813
9624
-A-
African literature
-O-
000000|African literature
001210| AFRICAN LANGUAGE LITERATURES
003499| AFRICAN LITERATURE IN EUROPEAN LANGUAGES
003728| French
005374| English
008027| Portuguese
008489| Recent Trends
-T-
African literature_^<N__^<N_African literature comprises the oral and written works of the continent, composed in either AFRICAN LANGUAGES or foreign ones. Most formal African literature is still developing distinctive styles. The widespread
African oral tradition, however, is rich in folktales, myths, riddles, and proverbs that not only convey an imaginative view of the world but also serve a religious, social, and educational function. The oral tradition has had a significant effect
on the written literature. Although some African poetry was written more than a thousand years ago, the majority of African literary works have only been produced in the 20th century, most of them after World War II. Unlike Europe, the Middle
East, and parts of Asia, black Africa has no ancient traditions of written literature. The earliest examples are Muslim-inspired religious writings from North Africa. Much of sub-Saharan Africa was illiterate until Christian missionaries arrived
in the 19th century. Therefore, little African literature has existed for more than a hundred years; the major exceptions are an Arabic literature in the western Sudan, Swahili literature on the East African coast, and Ge'ez literature in
Ethiopia. _^<N__^<N_ AFRICAN LANGUAGE LITERATURES_^<N__^<N_Linguists estimate that more than a thousand languages and dialects are spoken in Africa. Written, creative literature--novels, short stories, plays, and poetry--has been produced in about
50 of these languages. Because most early works were published by missionary presses, they are heavily imbued with Christian didacticism. The first full-length narratives in Sesotho, Yoruba, and Ibo were modeled on John BUNYAN'S 17th-century
allegory PILGRIM'S PROGRESS. The first written literature in several other African languages consisted of translated church hymns and retold biblical stories. Later, as more of the population became literate and government agencies began to
publish books, newspapers, and magazines in local languages, a secular literature emerged, much of it focusing on problems of personal adjustment to Western ways or modern institutions. Today diverse themes are treated in some African language
literature, but topics such as sex and politics are seldom explored, possibly because publication is still strictly censored in many countries. _^<N__^<N_The strongest traditions in African-language literatures have developed in southern Africa and
those parts of West and East Africa colonized by the British. British colonial policy, which emphasized indirect rule, encouraged Africans to retain some of their institutions and traditions, and looked favorably upon the use of indigenous
languages for instructional purposes in elementary schools. The French and Portuguese, by contrast, aimed at assimilating the Africans in their colonies by giving them a Western education and, therefore, did not allow the use of local languages in
their schools. As a result, hardly any African-language literature has developed in countries formerly ruled by France and Portugal. _^<N__^<N_The most important African literary languages are Sesotho, Xhosa, Zulu, and Northern Sotho in southern
Africa; Nyanja, Bemba, and Shona in Central Africa; Swahili and Luganda in East Africa; and Yoruba, Asante-Twi, Akuampem-Twi, and Ewe in West Africa. The best-known works from these literatures are Thomas MOFOLO's legendary romance Chaka the
Zulu (1925; Eng. trans., 1931) and D. O. Fagunwa's folkloric The Forest of a Thousand Daemons (1938; Eng. trans., 1968). _^<N__^<N_ AFRICAN LITERATURE IN EUROPEAN LANGUAGES_^<N__^<N_African literature written in European languages--notably
French (Francophone), English (Anglophone), and Portuguese (Lusophone)--is better known outside Africa than are translated works. _^<N__^<N_ French_^<N__^<N_French-African writing first attracted international attention in the 1930s, when African
and Caribbean students in Paris launched a literary and philosophical movement known as NEGRITUDE, which gathered great momentum after World War II. By the late 1940s one of the founders of the movement, the Senegalese poet and statesman Leopold
Sedar SENGHOR, had published his first volumes of verse, edited an influential anthology of Negritude poetry, and helped to establish (1947) Presence Africaine as the most important literary journal in the black world. As a movement, Negritude was
greatly influenced by such European political and artistic movements as MARXISM and SURREALISM and by the Afro-American cultural awakening known as the HARLEM RENAISSANCE. Major figures in the movement include Aime CESAIRE and Leon DAMAS.
_^<N__^<N_The poetry written by advocates of Negritude fused anticolonial political ideas with romantic evocations of an idyllic African past expressed in vivid surrealist images. In the 1950s, as African nations prepared for independence, these
highly charged poetic images, which emphasized the humanity of black peoples, gave way to prose that satirized the colonizer and the colonized. Since independence, French-African writers have reexamined the past from a new perspective and have
focused on the social and political problems of the present. Negritude is not entirely dead in French-African writing, but most young authors now regard it as passe. Other influential French-African writers include Mongo BETI, CAMARA LAYE, Birago
DIOP, David DIOP, Ferdinand OYONO, Jean Joseph RABEARIVELO, and Tchicaya U Tam'si. _^<N__^<N_ English_^<N__^<N_The English-African literary movement emerged later than the French, but in recent years has become as mature. The first major works in
West Africa appeared in the 1950s at the end of the colonial era and were primarily concerned with reinterpreting African history from an indigenous point of view that stressed the dignity of the African past. Chinua ACHEBE'S novel Things Fall
Apart (1958) documents the disintegration of a rural community under the impact of Westernization and is a classic statement of this archetypal theme. Another celebrated classic is Amos TUTUOLA'S The Palm-Wine Drunkard (1952). After independence,
the literary emphasis in West Africa changed from a preoccupation with the past to a confrontation with the present. Wole SOYINKA, Achebe, and Ayi Kwei Armah wrote bitter satires aimed at contemporary evils in their own societies, and in recent
years Nigerian poets, novelists, and dramatists have described the horrors of the Nigerian-Biafran war. The distant past is no longer a major concern. _^<N__^<N_Writers in Anglophone East Africa followed those of Anglophone West Africa in first
producing anticolonial fiction and then self-critical, satirical fiction and drama. The early works of Kenya's leading novelist, NGUGIWA Thiong'o, express nationalistic enthusiasm, but his later fiction is characterized by deep postindependence
disillusionment. The East African literary scene is distinguished from that of West Africa by its poetry, particularly the style of comic singing introduced by OKOT P'BITEK in Song of Lawino (1966). P'Bitek and his followers have used a popular,
humorous idiom to express serious social and political ideas. _^<N__^<N_In South Africa, creative writing in English by blacks and by Coloureds (racially mixed South Africans) has been impeded by racial oppression and censorship. The novelist
Peter ABRAHAMS found conditions so repressive that he left South Africa in 1939 at the age of 20. The harsh Publications and Entertainments Act of 1963, the first of many such censorship laws, severely limited publishing by nonwhites, and the most
talented South African black writers began to leave their country. By the mid-1970s even black poetry was banned; many poets were imprisoned, and many others--including the famous poet Dennis Brutus--fled to less hostile environments. The
literary works of white South Africans, even those critical of the regime, have generally been better received. Among the best-known white writers in English are Roy CAMPBELL, Athol FUGARD, Nadine GORDIMER, Alan PATON, and Olive SCHREINER. (For a
discussion of literature written in Afrikaans, see AFRIKANERS.) _^<N__^<N_ Portuguese_^<N__^<N_Poetry has been the favorite literary form in Portuguese-speaking areas of Africa since the 19th century, but strong short-story movements emerged in
Angola and Mozambique in the 1950s. Anticolonial political themes dominated until the mid-1970s, when Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea-Bissau achieved independence. Today, writers in Lusophone Africa are no longer concerned with white European
models but base their work on indigenous African themes. _^<N__^<N_ Recent Trends_^<N__^<N_Wole Soyinka won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1986--the first time a black African writer had been so honored and, in fact, the first international
honor in literature ever won by a black African. Soyinka's fame may create a new interest in black African literature: to date, very little has been available to Western readers. _^<N__^<N_Among the African authors now published in English, a
number have been translated from the French. They include Sony Labou Tansi (The Parentheses of Blood, 1986), a Zairian whom some rank as the most talented contemporary black African writer, and North Africans such as Driss Chraibi (Flutes of
Death, 1985), a Moroccan who has written many works, although few have been translated. Buchi Emecheta (The Rape of Shavi, 1985), a Nigerian woman, has written a number of novels in English. Many other black writers are published in Africa. Most
continue to use French or English as their written language, although the influence of AFRICAN LANGUAGES is changing the feeling and meaning of these colonial tongues. _^<N__^<N_Bernth Lindfors _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Awooner, K., The Breast of
the Earth: A Survey of the History, Culture, and Literature of Africa South of the Sahara (1983); Blair, Dorothy, African Literature in French (1976; repr. 1981); Brink, A., and Coetzee, J. M., eds., A Land Apart: A South African Reader
(1987); Dathorne, O. R., African Literature in the Twentieth Century (1976) and The Black Mind: A History of African Literature (1974); Davies, C. B., and Graves, A. A., eds., Ngambika: Studies of Women in African Literature (1986); Gerard,
Albert S., Four African Literatures: Xhosa, Sotho, Zulu, Amharic (1971); Gugelberger, G. M., Marxism and African Literature (1985); Hamilton, Russell G., Voices from an Empire: A History of Afro-Portuguese Literature (1975); Lindfors, B.,
ed., Supplement to Black African Literature in English: 1777-1981 (1986); Mann, M., and Dalby, D., eds., A Thesaurus of African Languages (1987); Ngugi wa Thoing'o, Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature (1986);
Roscoe, Adrian A., Mother is Gold: A Study in West African Literature (1971) and Uhuru's Fire: African Literature East to South (1977); Wright, Edgar, ed., The Critical Evaluation of African Literature (1977); Zell, H., et al., eds., A New
African music_^<N__^<N_African music is generally classified into two main style areas: Arab North Africa (a branch of Middle Eastern music) and sub-Saharan Africa. This article focuses on the music of sub-Saharan Africa. The peoples of Africa speak
around 1,000 different languages, and there are more than 50 African nations, each with its own history and unique mixture of cultures and languages. There are many distinctive regional music styles, including a broad belt of Islamic influence
extending across the savannah region and down the East Coast. _^<N__^<N_ MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS_^<N__^<N_Stereotypes of African music stress the importance of drums. However, there are many other types of percussion instruments, including clap-sticks,
bells, rattles, slit gongs, struck gourds and clay pots, stamping tubes, and xylophones. There are two basic types of xylophone: frame xylophones, in which the keys are attached to a frame, with gourd resonators hung below; and loose-key
xylophones, in which the keys are laid across horizontal supports. _^<N__^<N_The lamellaphone ("thumb piano"), an instrument native to Africa, is found throughout the continent. Also called mbira, kalimba, and likembe, lamellaphones are a series of
metal or bamboo strips mounted on a board or box. The instrument is held in the hands or on the player's lap, and the free ends of the strips are plucked with thumbs or forefingers. _^<N__^<N_African drums come in many shapes and sizes. Wood,
gourds, and pottery are used to construct drum bodies. The membranes are usually made from animal skins. Important types of African drums include "drum-chimes," a set of tuned drums mounted in a frame and played by a team of drummers; friction
drums, in which sound is produced by rubbing or scraping the membrane; and the west African hourglass-shaped tension drum, or "talking drum,"which can imitate the tonal contours of spoken language. _^<N__^<N_African stringed instruments include
musical bows, lutes, lyres, harps, and zithers. The kora, played by professional musicians among the Mandinka people of Gambia, is a 21-string harp-lute. The xalam of Senegal, a plucked lute, is thought to be a close relative of the
African-American banjo. The single-stringed goge fiddle is played by Hausa musicians in northern Nigeria. Harps are found in a broad belt running north of the equator from Uganda to Mauritania. Lyres are played in Ethiopia, Sudan, Uganda, and
Kenya. The musical bow, which consists of a string stretched between two ends of a flexible stave, plays a particularly important role in the traditional music of southern African peoples, such as the San ("Bushmen"), Xhosa, and Zulu.
_^<N__^<N_African wind instruments include flutes, whistles, oboes, and trumpets. Transverse and end-blown flutes, made from bamboo, reeds, wood, clay, bones, and other materials, are distributed throughout the sub-Saharan region. Panpipes
ensembles are seen in central Africa, and globular flutes made from gourds or hard-shelled fruits are found in parts of southern Africa. Trumpets made from animal horns or wood are found over a wide area. Transverse clarinets made from guinea-corn
or sorghum stems, with a reed cut from the surface of the stem at one end, are played in the savannah region of west Africa. Double-reed instruments such as the Hausa algaita are derived from north Africa. _^<N__^<N_ MUSICAL STYLES_^<N__^<N_Despite
their diversity, it is possible to isolate common traits in the musics of Africa. One common feature is the use of repetition as an organizing principle. In the mbira music of the Shona people of Zimbabwe, a repeated pattern is established by the
interaction of the right and left hands, and the player develops improvisations out of this pattern. In this and many other African traditions, repetition is regarded as a necessary basis for musical variation. _^<N__^<N_Another important
characteristic of African music is the use of multi-part techniques to create polyphony. Much African music has a "conversational" quality, in which different voices, instrumental parts, or even the two hands of a single player are brought into a
lively exchange. One of the most common types of music-making is call-and-response singing, in which a chorus repeats a fixed refrain in alternation with a lead singer who has more freedom to improvise. _^<N__^<N_In west Africa, drum ensembles
consisting of from three to five musicians playing interlocking patterns are common. Each drummer uses special methods of striking the head in order to produce pitches and timbres which distinguish his drum from all of the others. Such ensembles
often include rattles and an iron bell, which is struck with a stick to produce a repeated pattern called a "time-line." This pattern penetrates the dense texture of the ensemble and helps the drummers to orient themselves in time. _^<N__^<N_In the
example of Yoruba sacred drum music, two supporting drums (omele) play interlocking patterns, and a third drum (gudugudu) plays the total pattern which results from the interaction of the other two parts. The master talking drummer plays rhythmic
improvisations and praises for the god. _^<N__^<N_In the amadinda xylophone music of the Baganda, three players perform on a single instrument. Two players alternate individual notes in rapid succession, while a third player plays a pattern
resulting from the interlocking of the two basic parts (a "resultant pattern"). In akadinda music two groups of three players face each other across one xylophone. The first group plays a regular pattern in octaves, and the second group fills in
the beats with an interlocking pattern. The tempo may approach 600 notes per minute, and the resulting dense texture has been likened to the interlocked fingers of folded hands or the murmuring of many voices. _^<N__^<N_In eastern, central, and
southern Africa, groups of musicians play sets of stopped flutes or trumpets, each person contributing a single note in strict rotation with the others. The alternation of the parts creates a rich polyphonic texture. This ensemble technique,
sometimes called "hocketting," is important in the musics of the San of the Kalahari Desert and the pygmies of the central African rainforests. _^<N__^<N_Among southern African peoples such as the Zulu, Sotho, Xhosa, and Swazi, polyphony is most
highly developed in vocal music. In traditional Zulu choral music individual voices enter at different points in a continuous cycle, overlapping with one another in a complex and constantly shifting texture. The same technique may be used in solo
vocal performances, where a singer will jump from one entrance-point to another in order to sketch in the polyphonic texture. _^<N__^<N_African music is also characterized by dense musical textures and complex timbres. A wide variety of vocal
qualities is used in African music , and it is common for sound-producing objects--jingles, rattles, membranes made of spider-web--to be attached to instruments in order to produce a continuous "sizzling" sound which augments the flow of the music.
_^<N__^<N_ MUSIC IN SOCIETY_^<N__^<N_Music plays an important role in African social life. It is a medium for the transmission of knowledge and values and for celebrating important communal and personal occasions. Music is often combined with
speech, dance, and the visual arts to create multimedia events. Even in societies with well-developed traditions of professional musicianship, the ability of all individuals to participate in a musical event--adding a voice to the chorus, dancing,
or adding an appropriate clap-pattern--is considered part of normal cultural competence. _^<N__^<N_In many African religions sound is thought to be one of the primary means by which deities and humans impose order on the universe. In west Africa,
drummers play a crucial role in possession-trance ceremonies. A competent drummer must know scores of specific rhythms for particular gods, and be responsible for regulating the flow of supernatural power in ritual contexts. _^<N__^<N_In the great
kingdoms which developed from the 10th through the 20th century in various parts of Africa, professional musicians (griots) played a crucial role as historians. Among the Mande peoples of the west African savannah, professional bards still recount
the histories of powerful lineages and offer counsel to contemporary rulers. _^<N__^<N_Music is often used to organize work activities. Kpelle men in Liberia use a form of vocal hocketting to coordinate their matchet blows while clearing dense
brush for rice fields. Kpelle women use call-and-response singing to coordinate the planting of the same fields, an activity which involves concerted movement by a row of women (the chorus). In pygmy societies of the central African rainforest,
singing and vocal cries are used to coordinate the movements of hunters through the brush. In southern Africa, herd boys use flutes and other instruments to control the movement of cattle. _^<N__^<N_In African societies the important stages of a
person's life are often marked by specific types of music. There are lullabies, children's game songs and music for adolescent initiation rites, weddings, title-taking ceremonies, funerals, and ceremonies for the ancestors. Among the Yoruba of
Nigeria, the mother of twins must perform a special repertoire of songs; in Ghana, there are even songs for teasing bedwetters and for celebrating one's first tooth. _^<N__^<N_ POPULAR MUSIC_^<N__^<N_African popular music typically blends aspects
of African, European, African-American, and Middle Eastern traditions. In most parts of Africa, popular music was pioneered by workers drawn into the expanding colonial economies of the early 20th century. The development of popular styles has
often been strongly influenced by the electronic mass media. _^<N__^<N_South Africa is home to some of the best-known styles of African popular music. Mbaqanga (Zulu for "maize bread"), the most popular form of dance music, has its roots in an
earlier style called marabi. Mbaqanga developed during the 1960s in nightclubs in the segregated black townships created by the apartheid system. Contemporary mbaqanga groups such as Mahlathini and the Mahotella Queens and the Soul Brothers include
a lead singer and chorus, electric guitar and bass, drum set, and some combination of saxophone, accordion, or organ. The Zulu male choral style isicathamiya, performed by Ladysmith Black Mambazo, draws upon traditional wedding songs, ragtime and
spiritual singing, and Wesleyan church hymns. Much South African popular music is organized around a set of basic harmonic progressions derived from Western music, which form the basis for a cyclical structure rooted in traditional polyphonic
principles. _^<N__^<N_In Zimbabwe Thomas Mapfumo and guitarist Jonah Sithole helped develop a style called jiti, transferring Shona mbira patterns onto the electric guitar. This style played an important role in disseminating songs of resistance
(chimurenga songs) during the war of independence against the white-controlled Rhodesian government. _^<N__^<N_The most influential style of popular music within Africa is Congolese guitar band music, known as soukous. Influenced by Afro-Cuban
music (see LATIN AMERICAN MUSIC AND DANCE), the style developed in the towns of central Africa, and is now played throughout the world. Proponents of soukous include Franco and l'Orchestre O.K. Jazz, Tabu Ley Rochereau, Mbilia Bel, Papa Wemba, and
Loketo. _^<N__^<N_In Ghana a style called highlife began to develop in the late 19th century. There are two types of highlife groups: dance bands, playing an Africanized version of Western ballroom dance and swing band music; and guitar bands.
Important innovators of highlife music include Kwaa Mensah ("Sam"), E. T. Mensah, C. K. Mann, Jerry Hansen and the Ramblers, and the Nigerian bandleader Bobby Benson. _^<N__^<N_In Nigeria, the afro-beat style of Fela Anikupalo-Kuti is strongly
influenced by African-American popular music and jazz. Yoruba musicians developed a variant of guitar band highlife called juju, which features the "talking drum." The biggest stars of juju music are King Sunny Ade and Chief Commander Ebenezer
Obey. _^<N__^<N_The griot tradition of the savannah region of west Africa is carried on by musicians such as Youssou N'dour of Senegal and Salif Keita of Mali. N'dour, from a family of professional musicians, developed a style called mbalax, based
on traditional Wolof drum rhythms. These musicians, who often record in Paris, mix traditional instruments such as the kora harp-lute and xylophone with electric guitars and synthesizers. Their vocal styles often reflect the North African influence
on the music of the savannah region. _^<N__^<N_The 1980s saw an increase in the international popularity of African music, stimulated by the release of recordings of King Sunny Ade, Youssou N'dour, and Salif Keita, and the participation of African
musicians on albums by Paul Simon (see SIMON AND GARFUNKEL), Peter Gabriel, and David Byrne (see TALKING HEADS). It remains to be seen whether this international exposure will significantly benefit the African creators of the music.
_^<N__^<N_Christopher A. Waterman _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Arom, S., African Polyphony and Polyrhythm (1991); Berliner, P., The Soul of Mbira (1978); Chernoff, J. M., African Rhythm and African Sensibility (1980); Coplan, D. B., "In Township
Tonight!" (1985); Gray, J., African Music (1991); Knight, R., "Music in Africa: The Manding Contexts," Performance Practice: Ethnomusicological Perspectives (1984); Merriam, Alan P., African Music in Perspective (1981); Nketia, J. H. K., The Music
of Africa (1974); Wachsmann, K., ed., Essays on Music and History in Africa (1971); Waterman, C. A., Juju (1990).
-END-
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3656
CAT
-A-
African National Congress
-T-
African National Congress_^<N__^<N_The African National Congress (ANC), the foremost South African black nationalist group and holder of the largest number of seats in the South African National Assembly following the 1994 multiracial elections, was
formed in 1912 as a nonviolent civil rights organization by middle-class, urban-based professionals and chiefs. In its formative years the ANC stressed peaceful protest, dialogue, and educating whites and the international community about black
demands and aspirations. _^<N__^<N_As the growth of an urban black workforce accelerated in the 1940s, the ANC became more militant, sponsoring strikes, marches, and protests against the pass laws and other discriminatory legislation. In 1949 the
ANC Youth League, led by Oliver Tambo, Nelson MANDELA, Walter Sisulu, and Anton Lembede, gained control of the organization. Membership soared in the early 1950s as the ANC, headed by Albert LUTHULI (who was later awarded the Nobel Peace Prize),
promoted passive resistance campaigns. In 1955 the ANC joined forces with political and labor organizations representing Coloureds, Asians, and whites and issued its Freedom Charter, which called for a nonracial democracy in South Africa.
_^<N__^<N_A period of increased militancy and racial assertiveness followed. Robert Sobukwe, who favored an exclusively African organization, broke with the ANC in 1959 to form the Pan-African Congress (PAC). The massacre of blacks protesting the
pass laws at Sharpeville in 1960 led the ANC to call for nationwide work stoppages and civil disobedience. The government retaliated by declaring a state of emergency, banning the ANC and the PAC and detaining many of their leaders.
_^<N__^<N_Nelson Mandela went underground and formed Umkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation), a military command that began a campaign of sabotage against the symbols of APARTHEID, including government offices and police stations. Mandela, who was
sentenced to life imprisonment in 1964, became the symbolic leader of the nationalist movement. _^<N__^<N_The ANC gained widespread support among black youths after the massacre of student protesters in SOWETO in 1976. Many young militants left
South Africa for ANC bases in neighboring countries. Despite South African raids on these bases and curbs on ANC activities in Mozambique, Lesotho, and Angola in the 1980s, guerrilla and sabotage activities increased steadily, particularly after a
1986 state of emergency closed most avenues of nonviolent black protest. _^<N__^<N_The 1989 Harare Declaration listed the ANC's conditions for negotiations with the government. The ban on the ANC was lifted on Feb. 2, 1990. Mandela was released on
February 11 and named effective head of the ANC on March 2. On August 7 the ANC suspended its armed struggle against white rule, although violence between followers of the ANC and of Zulu chief Gatsha Buthelezi's INKATHA intensified. Until 1991,
when it held a national conference inside South Africa and elected Mandela president, the ANC maintained a government-in-exile in Zambia. _^<N__^<N_In 1991, negotiations between the ANC and the NATIONAL PARTY led to the repeal of the basic
apartheid laws. In September 1993 parliament approved creating a multiparty Transitional Executive Council (with a black majority) to supervise the government pending multiracial elections in April 1994. The ANC won an overwhelming victory in these
elections, taking 62.6 percent of the vote and winning 252 seats in the new National Assembly. _^<N__^<N_Alan C. G. Best _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bibliography: Holland, H., The Struggle (1990); Johns, S., et al., Mandela, Tambo, and the African
National Congress (1991); Meli, F., South Africa Belongs to Us (1989).
-END-
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16344
CATO
4797
9584
14396
-A-
African prehistory
-O-
000000|African prehistory
000798| PREHISTORIC ARCHAEOLOGY IN AFRICA
001987| The Fossil Record
005565| Middle Stone Age in Africa
006884| Late Stone Age in Africa
008425| Animal and Plant Domestication
010075| BRONZE AGE AND IRON AGE AFRICA
-T-
African prehistory_^<N__^<N_African prehistory encompasses the vast span of time before the practice of making written records began in Africa. The greater part of the continent's history lies within the realm of prehistory and can only be
ascertained through ARCHAEOLOGY, HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS and related disciplines, and oral traditions (as far as they will reach back in time and only to the point where they are reliable). _^<N__^<N_The field of African prehistory is of special
importance because more than 90 percent of the evidence concerning human origins has thus far come from Africa. Consequently, in the past several decades archaeological research in Africa has been part of a massive, fast-moving investigative
campaign that has involved many disciplines and research tools and a large, dedicated body of scientists. _^<N__^<N_ PREHISTORIC ARCHAEOLOGY IN AFRICA_^<N__^<N_The acquisition of an abnormally large number of finds from a particular area may merely
reflect an extremely thorough investigation. On the other hand, it may reflect a genuine pattern from the past. Grounds now exist for believing that it was in eastern Africa from Ethiopia to the Transvaal, where more early hominid fossils have
been found than anywhere else in the world, that early MAN evolved out of the common ancestry he shares with the apes. _^<N__^<N_Apparently, Old World apes and monkeys evolved in Africa during a time when the continent was an island. Then, about
20-15 million years ago, CONTINENTAL DRIFT joined it to Asia in its northeastern part, and apes and monkeys appeared in southern Asia for the first time. The extinct genus DRYOPITHECUS ranged over the tropical regions of Africa and Asia, which
were then more widely forested than today. With the final shrinking of the Tethys Sea that lay between the two continents at that time, many of these forested areas became savanna or grassland. About 14 million years ago, a new type of ape
appeared, RAMAPITHECUS, better adapted to such conditions although still associated with forest. _^<N__^<N_ The Fossil Record_^<N__^<N_A number of archaeologists consider Ramapithecus the earliest known ancestor of man. Specimens have been found
in Europe and East Africa, but the greatest number are from southern Asia. It now appears that this area was the locus of man's most important evolutionary developments. The fossil record between 8 and 5 million years ago is incomplete, but
apparently bipedalism, the ability to walk upright, was developed during this period. By about 3 million years ago the changed environmental conditions sparked a burst of evolutionary activity, and in eastern Africa remains have been found of a
number of bipedal hominids adapted to open country. Important finds have been made in the Afar and the OMO Valley in Ethiopia, on the shores of Lake Turkana in Kenya, in OLDUVAI GORGE and LAETOLIL in Tanzania, and in South Africa at MAKAPANSGAT,
STERKFONTEIN, TAUNG, Kromdraai, and Swartkrans. _^<N__^<N_These upright-moving hominids included two species of AUSTRALOPITHECUS--Australopithecus robustus and Australopithecus africanus--and the creature called HOMO HABILIS. Australopithecus
robustus, as well as being larger and more massive than the slender, gracile A. africanus, had enormous molar teeth adapted to a hard, coarse vegetable diet; the dentition of both A. africanus and H. habilis seems to have been better adapted to
an omnivorous diet. The separate taxonomic status of Homo habilis and the question whether A. africanus could have been in the direct line of human ancestry have been subjects of unresolved debate. _^<N__^<N_It is also not clear which of these
creatures were toolmakers and tool users. More than one type of hominid has been found in the deposits yielding the earliest recognizable stone artifacts, dating from around 2 million years ago. The sites of the deposits are at East Turkana, in
the Shungura Formation of the Lower Omo Valley, and in Bed I at Olduvai Gorge. _^<N__^<N_Homo habilis is considered by a number of archaeologists as probably the earliest toolmaker. The earliest stone tools, rough choppers, are called OLDOWAN
after Olduvai Gorge. Although there is some overlap, they were succeeded, about 1 million years ago, by tools of a more developed type, characterized by their bifacial manufacture--oval or pointed-oval stones carefully chipped over both faces to a
regular pattern. _^<N__^<N_Some bifaces, also called handaxes, have a straight chisellike cutting edge at one end and are known as cleavers. Such collections of stone tools are called ACHEULEAN (after St. Acheul in France, where they were first
recognized). Acheulean tools are commonly associated with a more advanced type of hominid, HOMO ERECTUS. This hominid species succeeded in "breaking out" of East Africa and spreading Acheulean tools over southern Eurasia, as well as other parts
of Africa. In some areas, however, Homo erectus seems to have maintained the chopping-tool tradition. _^<N__^<N_Homo erectus had a brain about twice the size of the australopithecines but only two-thirds that of modern man. Sites in Africa
associated with H. erectus remains or early Acheulean tools include Sidi Abderrahman in Morocco; Ternifine in Algeria; Melka Kontoure in Ethiopia; Peninj in Kenya; and Swartkrans, Vereeniging, Sterkfontein, and Stellenbosch in South Africa.
Later Acheulean sites are widespread in Africa, including parts of what is now the Sahara but was then not a desert. Important sites have been investigated at AIN HANECH in Algeria, OLORGESAILIE and Olduvai Gorge in Kenya, KALAMBO FALLS in Zambia,
Kamoa in Zaire, and the Cave of Hearths in South Africa. _^<N__^<N_ Middle Stone Age in Africa_^<N__^<N_The Acheulean tool industry persisted for a long time, until 100,000 to 50,000 years ago, but thereafter an increasing regionalized
specialization occurred, first into the industries called Fauresmith in southern Africa and Sangoan in central and western Africa, and later into those of the African Middle Stone Age. The human type in Africa was then comparable to that of the
NEANDERTHALERS of Europe and western Asia and includes the fossils of BROKEN HILL MAN in Zambia and Saldanha man in South Africa. _^<N__^<N_Much greater regional diversity began to occur in the Middle Stone Age. More and more specialized tool
industries developed as different groups of the growing population adapted their way of life to a greater variety of ecological niches. Hunting, fishing, and gathering remained the basic way of life, but a greater variety of strategies was
employed in exploiting the resources of different environments. The Acheuleans had a wooden thrusting spear, which later was made more lethal with a stone point, and many of the Middle Stone Age peoples had a light stone-tipped throwing spear.
Homo sapiens sapiens (modern man) was now the human type throughout Africa, and by the beginning of the late Stone Age used the bow and arrow and made composite tools of wood, stone, and bone. _^<N__^<N_ Late Stone Age in Africa_^<N__^<N_In
northwest Africa, the Aterian (c.40,000-25,000 BC), an advanced tool industry of the Middle Stone Age, was succeeded by the Oranian (c.14,000-8,000 BC) and Capsian (c.7,000-4,000 BC) tool cultures. South of the Sahara the Late Stone Age seems to
have begun at dates ranging from 40,000 to 10,000 BC in different areas. Small shaped-stone artifacts, known as microliths--some of which were slotted into arrow shafts to make the points and barbs--indicate that in these communities hunting was
an important economic activity. Gathering the products of the wild was also important, although it usually leaves less obvious traces in the archaeological record. _^<N__^<N_As population increased, different communities exploited an even greater
range of environments and devised more specialized techniques for dealing with them. Seasonal movement was often involved, and in Nubia and in areas near the Nile Valley in Egypt, evidence indicates that wild grain was extensively collected.
Nubian cemeteries dating from 10,000 BC contain bodies pierced by stone arrow-points, which suggests intercommunity warfare. _^<N__^<N_From the 6th to the 4th millennium BC, the southern Sahara and the Sahel were considerably wetter than at present
and supported communities that depended on fish from lakes and rivers for a considerable part of their diet. This way of life extended into the north part of the Great Lakes area of East Africa. Dependence on such aquatic resources would seem to
imply at least a semisedentary type of existence. _^<N__^<N_ Animal and Plant Domestication_^<N__^<N_The central Sahara was also wetter than at present, and the highlands in particular supported large numbers of cattle pastoralists. The cattle,
widely portrayed in prehistoric rock art, may have been derived from an indigenous domestication of the wild North African ox or from cattle introduced via Tunisia or Egypt. The culture of these pastoralists and fishing peoples is sometimes
referred to as the Saharan Neolithic. _^<N__^<N_By the 5th millennium BC, people in the lower Nile Valley adopted cereal agriculture, using the Nile floodwaters to irrigate their crops of wheat and barley. In sub-Saharan Africa, which lies in the
summer rainfall area, it is impossible to grow wheat and barley by dry-farming methods. Therefore, local wild grasses had to be domesticated to form the African tropical cereals known today: the millets (Guinea corn, or sorghum; pearl, or
bulrush; millet; finger millet); African rice; fonio; chindumba; and the tiny Ethiopian grain called teff. These were domesticated in different areas of a broad zone stretching south of the Sahara from Senegal to Ethiopia and down into the
northern Great Lakes area of East Africa. _^<N__^<N_From the beginning of the 3d millennium BC the Sahara began to dry up. The fishing populations must have found that the stands of wild grasses that they also depended on became thinner and harder
to find, which probably stimulated the process of cereal domestication. Whatever the reason, domestication first occurred in the zone across Africa where they lived. Goats, sheep, and pigs must have been introduced into the rest of Africa from
its northeast corner. _^<N__^<N_ BRONZE AGE AND IRON AGE AFRICA_^<N__^<N_Most of sub-Saharan Africa missed out on a BRONZE AGE and passed directly, at different times in different areas, from the Stone Age into the IRON AGE. Apparently only in
Nubia and in the extreme west, in Mauritania, was there a period during which copper was exploited for tools and weapons before the advent of an iron technology. At Akjoujt, Mauritania, copper ores were exploited in the 5th century BC, and
numerous copper arrowheads and other weapons and tools have been found in the surrounding area. It is not known whether the metallurgy practiced at Akjoujt gave rise to an iron technology or whether this knowledge was introduced to sub-Saharan
West Africa from the area of North Africa influenced by CARTHAGE on the northeast coast or from the Nubian kingdom of MEROE on the Nile. _^<N__^<N_The city of Carthage was founded at the end of the 9th century BC by settlers from the Levant. Iron
was commonly used for tools and weapons in this area before it was so used (after 600 BC) in Egypt. In Meroe, an African kingdom independent from but much influenced by Egypt, iron smelting was practiced on a large scale by the 4th century BC.
Iron-smelting furnaces of about the same date in central Nigeria are associated with the Nok people, who produced the remarkable terra-cotta heads for which the Nok culture is famous. By the early 2d century AD, Meroe had been surpassed in
importance by the newly emergent power of AKSUM. This kingdom was founded farther to the east in the highlands of present-day Ethiopia by Semitic-speakers who had earlier come from southern Arabia. _^<N__^<N_By this time there were
long-established farming communities throughout the savanna lands. In the forests of the eastern part of West Africa food production had also been established, presumably based on yams, tuberous crops, and oil-palm products. In the central parts
of eastern Nigeria and in Cameroon, people speaking a language ancestral to the BANTU group of languages apparently began to move eastward through the savanna lands and northern forest margins of what is today the Central African Republic. In
their migration they reached the northeast angle of the equatorial rain forest, where they turned southward. What generated this movement is not yet known; data are insufficient to demonstrate a population explosion as the stimulus, although this
is the most commonly offered explanation. _^<N__^<N_Another group from the same homeland area in southern Cameroon apparently reached the savanna lands south of the equatorial forest, either by traveling along the coast or along Zaire River
tributaries, at a somewhat later date. These eastern and western streams of Bantu interacted and dispersed in complex ways over the rest of southern Africa as far as a line from Windhoek to Port Alfred. Much of this area had been inhabited by
hunter-gatherer Khoisan-speaking peoples, among them the SAN (Bushmen). In some places the Khoisan-speakers survived and were able to maintain their way of life alongside the Bantu-speaking farmers; in others they were driven out or absorbed. In
West Africa, a similar stone technology appears to have remained in use for more than a thousand years after iron was first used in other places. _^<N__^<N_Where a population of settled peasants remains over a long period, towns and other kinds of
centralized institutions tend to become established. The stimulus for this development is not the same in all areas. A number of potentially conducive circumstances sometimes work together and sometimes work in isolation, and historical or
geographical accident may determine the pace. Two situations in sub-Saharan Africa combined to delay centralization. First, Africa's indigenous cereal grains had to be domesticated. Unlike Egypt and Europe, Africa could not, for climatic
reasons, accommodate the grain grasses that were domesticated in southwest Asia. Second, just when the urban arts were being developed in Egypt, the desiccation of the 3d millennium BC changed the Sahara from a broad grassland corridor into a
desert barrier. _^<N__^<N_Nevertheless, towns did emerge in a number of widely separated places. With the Arab conquest of North Africa in the 7th century, long-distance trading was injected into localized exchange networks south of the Sahara.
This development further stimulated both the growth of urbanized communities and the centralization of political power. _^<N__^<N_The ancient kingdom of GHANA prospered as middleman in the gold trade between the West African forests and the Islamic
world and was succeeded by the kingdoms of MALI and SONGHAI. The state Bono Manso was based on the same trade with Begho as the collecting point for gold on the way to the great market center of Djenne. The center of political power later moved
into the forest itself when the ASHANTI established power. BENIN, IFE, and Igbo-Ukwu were other important West African centers of wealth and remarkable artistic achievement. _^<N__^<N_Another route by which the Islamic and Indian world obtained
the tropical African products they desired, above all ivory, was by sea from the East African coast. Beginning about the 9th century, voyagers from the Persian Gulf, and later from northwest India, were able to take advantage of the monsoon winds
in the Indian Ocean and establish a string of entrepots from the Somali coast as far south as Sofala, of which the most important and the best investigated is KILWA. The great fortified center of ZIMBABWE prospered in the 14th century as a result
of its middleman position in this trade. _^<N__^<N_Thurstan Shaw _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Clark, J. Desmond, ed., Atlas of African Prehistory (1967) and Cambridge History of Africa, vol. 1 (1982); Davidson, Basil, Africa, rev. ed. (1972);
Fage, J. D., ed., Cambridge History of Africa, vol. 2 (1979); Leakey, Louis S., Progress and Evolution of Man in Africa (1961) and Stone Age Africa (1936); Oliver, Roland A., and Fagan, Brian M., Africa in the Iron Age (1975); Phillipson, D.
W., African Archaeology (1985) and The Later Prehistory of Eastern and Southern Africa (1977); Shaw, Thurstan, "The Prehistory of West Africa," in History of West Africa, ed. by J. F. Ade Ajayi and Michael Crowder (1976). _^<N__^<N_See also:
AFRICA, HISTORY OF.
-END-
-C-
4899
CATO
4766
-A-
African universities
-O-
000000|African universities
001234| BRITISH AND FRENCH TRADITIONS
003238| SOUTH AFRICA
-T-
African universities_^<N__^<N_University education in Africa was extremely limited before World War II. With the exceptions of South Africa, and a few centers of Islamic studies in North Africa, (discussed in MIDDLE EASTERN UNIVERSITIES), only a
few specialized postsecondary schools existed to train civil servants, ministers, or physicians. Most African universities were founded between 1945 and 1970, and few became full-scale universities until their countries gained independence from
colonial rulers. _^<N__^<N_In general, a version of the French educational model prevails in the former French colonies of West Africa, and a British model has been the most common point of departure in East Africa. These models have been modified
in various ways since independence, and both tend to be state systems with advancement based on competitive examinations. _^<N__^<N_Countries such as Zaire (the former Belgian Congo) or Ethiopia (briefly an Italian colony) have tended to follow the
educational patterns prevailing in neighboring countries, although they have developed their own variations. African universities have, for the most part, native-born faculties and administrators, many of whom earned their degrees in American,
British, or continental European universities. _^<N__^<N_ BRITISH AND FRENCH TRADITIONS_^<N__^<N_Two characteristics of the French colonial educational system have proved useful to the universities of West Africa and have enabled them to meet the
educational needs of their populations more effectively than the former British colonies. The French introduced central planning of enrollment and programs, and they used French as the language of instruction in all grades. These seemingly
authoritarian practices prepared the countries of West Africa to deal with some difficult educational decisions of the postindependence period without the political pressure East African leaders faced from a population unaccustomed to firm
governmental policies. _^<N__^<N_The French tradition of centralized planning emphasized controlled enrollments in advanced programs to ensure jobs for university graduates in their chosen fields. The use of controlled enrollments enabled the
French colonial authorities to increase vocational training by channeling unsuccessful university applicants into vocational schools. _^<N__^<N_Political leaders in East Africa, working from a British tradition that placed more emphasis on free
choice of academic fields, have been unable to resist popular pressure for expansion of prestigious degree programs. They have thus wasted effort and resources in training more persons than could be employed in some professional areas and have
suffered shortages in critical vocational skills. _^<N__^<N_The imposition of French as the language of education in West Africa has also been useful, since it has helped unify the countries that retained it as their official language. In East
Africa, the indecision of Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania about the language of instruction retarded educational progress. _^<N__^<N_In recent years, however, African countries have increased their emphasis on vocational and agricultural education.
Many have placed less stress on university education, believing that literacy, industrialization, and increased agricultural production must take precedence. _^<N__^<N_ SOUTH AFRICA_^<N__^<N_Under APARTHEID, South African universities were divided
into three systems: white Afrikaans-speaking, white English-speaking, and nonwhite. Most of the white universities date back to the 19th century; those for nonwhites are newer and still small. The Extension of University Education Act of 1959
required each nonwhite student seeking admission to a white university to obtain government permission. the University Amendment Act of 1983 eased this restriction but empowered the minister of national education to impose racial quotas. The
quota system was never enforced, but a 1987 decree gave the government the right to suspend state subsidies to universities that did not crack down on antiapartheid activists. _^<N__^<N_In 1987, South Africa had five white Afrikaans-speaking
universities, four white English-speaking universities, one white bilingual university, nine black universities, one Coloured university, one Indian university, and one correspondence university open to all races. Blacks constituted about 20% of
the enrollment at the English-language universities, which at one time led such opposition to apartheid as existed, and about 2% of the enrollment at Afrikaans-language campuses. _^<N__^<N_Dale Koch _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Brown, Godfrey N., and
Hiskett, Mervyn, Conflict and Harmony in Education in Tropical Africa (1976); Fafunwa, A. B., and Aisku, J. U., eds., Education in Africa: A Comparative Study (1982); Furley, O. W., and Watson, Tom, A History of Education in East Africa
(1978); Gray, Mark, et al., Education and Society in Africa (1986); Thompson, A. R., Education and Development in Africa (1981).
-END-
-C-
447
CAT
-A-
African violet
-T-
African violet_^<N__^<N_African violets (Saintpaulia ionantha) are small, flowering HOUSEPLANTS or greenhouse plants belonging to the Gesneriaceae family. They are perhaps the most popular and most widely grown houseplant. Their thick, fuzzy leaves
and abundant blooms in soft tones of violet, purple, pink, and white make them very attractive. Numerous varieties and hybrids are available. African violets grow best in indirect sunlight. _^<N__^<N_Charles L. Wilson
Afrikaners_^<N__^<N_The Afrikaners are a South African people of Dutch or French Huguenot descent. Formerly also known as Boers (from the Dutch word for farmer), Afrikaners make up about 56 percent of South Africa's white population of 7,500,000
(1992 est.). Their language is Afrikaans, a derivative of Dutch. _^<N__^<N_ History_^<N__^<N_The first Afrikaners were Dutch pioneers who settled (1652) near what is now Cape Town. During the 18th and 19th centuries, Afrikaans-speaking settlers
pushed into the interior, fighting both their Bantu neighbors and the British (see GREAT TREK). They established two independent states, the South African Republic (1852; later the Transvaal) and the Orange Free State (1854). After the Afrikaner
defeat in the Second SOUTH AFRICAN WAR (1899-1902), these territories were annexed by the British, and in 1910 the Union of South Africa was formed. Politically, the Afrikaners played a secondary role to the English-speaking South Africans until
1948, when the electoral victory of the Afrikaner NATIONAL PARTY institutionalized Afrikaner political supremacy. _^<N__^<N_Originally a rural people for the most part, the Afrikaners began to migrate to the towns at the end of World War I. (Today
more than 70 percent live in cities.) Until relatively recently they were the least prosperous of the white groups, employed mainly in farming or in laboring jobs. During the 1930s, South Africa's "poor whites"--mainly Afrikaners--accounted for
nearly half the white population. After World War II, however, Afrikaners began to rise rapidly to key positions in government and industry. Although Afrikaners formed the core of the right-wing opposition to the dismantling of the APARTHEID system
that had guaranteed white supremacy, a majority of them backed the reform process in a 1992 referendum. In the multiracial national elections of Apr. 26-29, 1994, many voted for the National party led by F. W. DE KLERK. _^<N__^<N_
Religion_^<N__^<N_The overwhelming majority of Afrikaners are Calvinists and belong to the three Dutch Reformed churches, which have been a powerful integrating force since the first years of settlement. Urbanization, however, has somewhat
diminished the hold of the churches, as it has also weakened the power of the traditional Afrikaner family. _^<N__^<N_ Language_^<N__^<N_Afrikaans is the most widely spoken language in South Africa. It is the native tongue not only of the
Afrikaners but also of the majority of South Africa's COLOUREDS, a people of mixed Euro-African background. Together with English, Afrikaans was for years the official language of the Republic of South Africa. Afrikaans has shed many of the
inflections that characterize its mother language, Dutch, and has been enriched by loan words from other languages including English, German, and Khoisan. _^<N__^<N_Once a rural patois spoken mainly by poor people (Dutch was the language of the
well educated), Afrikaans began to be accepted as the national language only in the 19th century. The exertions of the Gennootskap van Regte Afrikaners, an Afrikaner nationalist organization, led to the publication of the first Afrikaans grammar
(1876), and to increasing commitment to Afrikaans as the Afrikaners' national tongue. The South African War intensified linguistic and cultural--as well as political--nationalism. In 1925, Afrikaans officially superseded Dutch. In 1933 the first
Afrikaans translation of the Bible was published. Concern with Afrikaans has always formed an essential component of Afrikaner nationalism, and various Afrikaner groups have tried to promote Afrikaans culture in a manner that has found no parallel
within the English-speaking community, whose language operates in an international context and whose members never experienced the Afrikaners ever-present sense of cultural jeopardy. _^<N__^<N_ Literature_^<N__^<N_At the same time that Afrikaans
was winning acceptance as their national language, the Afrikaners were developing a striking literature. In its 19th-century beginnings, its focus was essentially rural and religious. Eugene Marais (1871-1936) wrote what is considered the first
important poem in Afrikaans, "Winternag" (1905), and produced a body of work--both verse and prose--in a homespun Afrikaans that is still ranked as exemplary in the literary use of the language. The South African War provided new intellectual
dimensions for such writers as Totius (J. D. Du Toit, 1877-1953), a poet and biblical translator whose By die monument (1908) was the first volume of poems by a single writer published in Afrikaans. C. J. Langenhoven (1873-1932), a champion of the
Afrikaans language, was an essayist, novelist, and journalist whose prolific writings served his stated purpose: to teach his people to read in their own language. The physician C. Louis Leipoldt (1880-1947), who had been a newspaper reporter
during the Boer War, produced several volumes of highly regarded war poems. The novelist Jochem Van Bruggen (1881-1957) wrote humorous, naturalistic fiction about the lives of rural "poor whites." _^<N__^<N_The Dertigers (Men of the '30s) were a
group of talented poets who emerged during the 1930s. W. E. G. van Wyk Louw (1913- ) wrote Die ryke dwaas (The Rich Fool, 1934), breaking new ground in his treatment of love, youth, and religion. His elder brother N. P. van Wyk Louw (1906-70) began
his celebrated career with an epic poem (Raku, 1941) and a dramatic monologue (Die Hond von God, 1942), both still unsurpassed in Afrikaans literature. _^<N__^<N_World War II and the increasing industrialization of South Africa broadened the scope
of Afrikaans writing. Poets D. J. Opperman (1914- ) and S. J. Pretorius (1917- ) both wrote about the chaos created by urbanization. Two Coloured poets, P. J. Philander (1921- ) and Adam Small (1936- ), published notable work in Afrikaans. The
novelist Andre Brink (1935- ), who writes in English as well as Afrikaans, produced the first Afrikaans work to confront the issue of apartheid (Looking on Darkness, 1973; Eng. trans., 1974), which was also the first work in that language to be
banned by the South African authorities. _^<N__^<N_Etienne Leroux (1922- ) published his most significant novel, Sewe dae by die Silbersteins (Seven Days at the Silbersteins, 1967), in 1962. That novel and his later Magersfontein, O Magersfontein
(1976) both won South Africa's most prestigious literary award, the Hertzog Prize. Afrikaner writers better known to the English-speaking world--either because they write both in English and in Afrikaans, or because their works have been translated
and widely reviewed--include Breyten BREYTENBACH, poet and writer of memoirs; and J. M. COETZEE, whose novels have received wide attention in the West. _^<N__^<N_L. H. Gann _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Brink, A., and Coetzee, J. M., eds., A Land Apart:
A South African Reader (1987); Crapanzano, V., Waiting (1985); Gann, L. H., and Duignan, P., South Africa: War, Revolution, or Peace? (1978); Harrison, D., The White Tribe of South Africa (1982); Lelyveld, J., Move Your Shadow: South Africa Black
and White (1985); Patterson, S., The Last Trek (1957; repr. 1982); Villet, B., Blood River (1982).
-END-
-C-
1050
CAT
-A-
Afro-American cults
-T-
Afro-American cults_^<N__^<N_Afro-American cults are religions of African origin now practiced in the Caribbean islands and parts of South America; they often include elements derived from Christianity. Known as VOODOO in Haiti, Macumba or Candomble
in Brazil, Shango in Trinidad, Santeria in Cuba, and Kumina or Pocomania in Jamaica, these cults are devoted to West African deities or spirits of the dead, which in Roman Catholic countries are identified with various Christian saints. They
typically emphasize magical practices designed to bring good luck to the devotees or to work harm on their enemies. Cult ceremonies, in which participants experience ecstatic states and are believed to be possessed by spirits, usually involve
singing and dancing and sometimes animal sacrifices. In Jamaica, possession by spirits is known as myal, and their invocation for harmful purposes is called obeah. In Brazil there is no clear distinction between folk Catholicism and the Macumba
sects, which have flourished despite past governments efforts to suppress them.
-END-
-C-
56
CAT
-A-
Afro-American literature:
-T-
Afro-American literature:_^<N__^<N_see BLACK AMERICAN LITERATURE.
-END-
-C-
16794
CATO
4797
9582
14387
-A-
Afroasiatic languages
-O-
000000|Afroasiatic languages
000803| EGYPTIAN
001577| SEMITIC
002626| Aramaic
003279| Arabic
003892| Canaanite
005537| South Semitic
006118| Ethiopian
007701| CUSHITIC
009392| OMOTIC
009771| BERBER
010429| CHAD
011117| CHARACTERISTICS OF AFROASIATIC
014619| LINGUISTIC INVESTIGATION
-T-
Afroasiatic languages_^<N__^<N_Also known as Hamito-Semitic languages, Afroasiatic languages are spoken by 175 million persons representing a wide range of cultures through most of the Middle East, the Horn of Africa, North Africa, and large
portions of West Africa. The languages include Arabic and Hebrew. Afroasiatic is commonly divided into five main branches based on ancient roots: Egyptian, Semitic, Cushitic, Berber, and Chad. Omotic, formerly called West Cushitic, has recently
been suggested as constituting a sixth branch. These languages differ in their particulars, and the exact relationship among the branches has not yet been established. Scholars postulate, however, that all are derived from an unknown ancestor
language that was probably spoken in northeast Africa or the Sahara about the 6th millennium BC. _^<N__^<N_ EGYPTIAN_^<N__^<N_Egyptian is the oldest attested language of the family and has the longest known continuous history. As a written
language it proceeded in five distinct stages. The first three--Old Egyptian (c.3000 to c.2200 BC), Middle Egyptian (c.2200 to c.1200 BC), and Late or Neo-Egyptian (c.1300 to c.700 BC)--were all written in HIEROGLYPHICS. Demotic (c.700 BC to AD
c.300) was written in a simplified cursive script based on hieroglyphics and spoken by early Christians. Coptic (from AD 300), written in an alphabet based on Greek and comprising many dialects, was still widely spoken in the 16th century and in
some places possibly as late as the 19th century. One Coptic dialect, Bohairic, is now the liturgical language of the Christian Monophysite Coptic Church. _^<N__^<N_ SEMITIC_^<N__^<N_Semitic was originally confined to the Near East but gradually
spread to the Horn of Africa and then throughout North Africa. It comprises two major groups, which in turn comprise many smaller affinity groups. Semitic embraces the languages used by a number of cultures prominent in ancient times, including
the people of the BIBLE, as well as modern Arabic and Hebrew. East Semitic includes Akkadian, the language of the Assyro-Babylonians that was spoken in Mesopotamia from c.3000 to c.400 BC. It was written, usually from left to right, in a cuneiform
script. West Semitic can be further divided into central and southern branches and embraces the Hebrew, Aramaic, Arabic, South Arabian, and Ethiopian languages. Most languages in this group were or still are written from right to left in a
consonantal script without marked vowels. As Hebrew, Syriac, and Arabic further developed, users added diacritical vowel symbols or "points," which are now optional. The main branches of Central Semitic are Aramaic, Arabic, and Canaanite.
_^<N__^<N_ Aramaic_^<N__^<N_One of the branches of Central Semitic, Aramaic was once the colloquial language of the Near East after the decline of Akkadian. It was the native tongue of Jesus Christ and the language of the Jewish Talmud. Syriac,
one of its eastern branches, was used to transmit early Christian culture up to the 13th century. Today eastern Aramaic is still spoken by about 100,000 persons--many of whom are Jacobite and Nestorian Christians--in northeast Iran and neighboring
areas of Iraq and the USSR, as well as by Jews from the same region who have immigrated to Israel. Mandaic, the language of a Gnostic sect, is also still spoken in the region. _^<N__^<N_ Arabic_^<N__^<N_As a literary language, Arabic dates back to
the 7th century AD. It is the language of the KORAN, the holy book of ISLAM, and thus assumed tremendous importance because it was adopted by most of the peoples conquered and converted by Muslim Arabs. Arabic has also been spoken by the Christian
and Jewish minorities of the Islamic world. A North African branch, spoken by Christians and written in Roman characters, is the official language of Malta. A modernized version of classical Arabic, Modern Literary Arabic, is used in education,
literature, and mass communication by about 100 million persons. _^<N__^<N_ Canaanite_^<N__^<N_Canaanite comprises Hebrew and such ancient languages as Phoenician-Punic, Moabite, and Ugaritic. Hebrew, attested from the 10th century BC to the
present, is the language of Judaism and the Old Testament Bible. Its original domain included what is now Israel and nearby areas. Biblical Hebrew is found in texts dating from c.1000 to 400 BC. Mishnaic (Rabbinical) Hebrew (AD c.200) is the
language of the MISHNAH, the first great legal document of Judaism, and shows the influence of vernacular Aramaic. _^<N__^<N_Medieval Hebrew (6th to 13th century) was the written language of religious literature and poetry of Arabic-speaking Jews,
notably in Spain. Early modern Hebrew developed in the 18th century and became the vehicle for a secular literature and for correspondence between Jews, mainly in Eastern Europe. The Zionist settlers of Palestine (Israel) also adopted it as a
colloquial language, as a result of the systemization of modern Hebrew by Eliezer BEN-YEHUDAH early in this century. Today, Israeli Hebrew is spoken by about 3 million persons in Israel. _^<N__^<N_Phoenician-Punic was spoken in what is today
Lebanon, from the 10th century BC to the beginning of the Christian era. Phoenicians brought their language to the colonies that they established around the Mediterranean, the most famous of which was CARTHAGE. _^<N__^<N_Moabite, which was related
to biblical Hebrew, died out long ago, as did Ugaritic. Written in a cuneiform consonantal script, Ugaritic was the language of the city of UGARIT up to the 14th century BC. Its affiliations, as well as those of Amorite and of the recently
discovered language of EBLA, remain disputed. _^<N__^<N_ South Semitic_^<N__^<N_South Semitic is represented by three branches whose exact relationship has not yet been discerned. The original language of the southern half of the Arabian peninsula
was South Arabian and not Arabic. Epigraphic South Arabian is known only from short inscriptions dating from the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD. Its main varieties were Sabaean (Sheba), Minean, Awsani, Qatabani, and Hadramauti. Modern
South Arabian is not a descendant of the former. These languages are spoken by about 25,000 people in the Dhofar and on the island of Socotra (Soqotri). _^<N__^<N_ Ethiopian_^<N__^<N_Spoken in Ethiopia and Sudan in the Horn of Africa, Ethiopian
languages were transplanted to the area from South Arabia, possibly around 2000 BC. They were greatly transformed by the indigenous populations that adopted them. The script, written from left to right, is a continuation of the South Arabian
consonantal script. Here, however, a character stands for a consonant-vowel group, and the vowel is marked by a modification of the basic shape of the consonantal letter. _^<N__^<N_Ethiopian languages comprise northern and southern branches. In
the North Ethiopic group--Ge'ez, Tigrinya, and Tigre--Ge'ez was the language of civilization centering on Aksum. First attested in inscriptions from the 4th century AD, it died out as a spoken language in the 9th century but continued to be used
as a literary language and as the liturgical language of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Tigrinya still has several million speakers in Eritrea and the administrative region of Tigre; the Tigre language is spoken by less than a million people,
mostly Muslims. _^<N__^<N_The South Ethiopic group comprises two branches: Transversal South Ethiopic and Outer South Ethiopic. The chief language of the Transversal South Ethiopic branch is Amharic, the official language of Ethiopia, with more
than 8 million, mainly Christian, speakers. This branch also includes the almost extinct Argobba language, Harari--spoken in the Muslim city of Harar--and East Gurage. Outer South Ethiopic includes the recently extinct Gafat and the rest of the
so-called Gurage languages (Soddo, Chaha, and others). _^<N__^<N_ CUSHITIC_^<N__^<N_Cushitic is the most heterogeneous of the Afroasiatic languages. It comprises about 40 different languages spoken by 15 million persons in the Horn of Africa and
surrounding areas. Beja or Bedauye, spoken in eastern Sudan and northern Ethiopia by a small number of Muslims, has been classified as North Cushitic but may be an independent branch of Afroasiatic. Central Cushitic, comprising the Agau languages,
is spoken within enclaves of predominantly Semitic Ethiopia. East Cushitic, the largest member of the group, with about 2 million speakers in South Central Ethiopia, comprises Highland East Cushitic (Burji, Sidamo, Hadiyya, and others) and Lowland
East Cushitic, which is the most widespread. Its northern branch comprises the Afar-Saho or Dankali dialect cluster, with about 500,000 speakers located in south Eritrea and the Republic of Jibuti. _^<N__^<N_The other branch contains the widest
diversity. Somali, with about 4 million speakers, is the official language of Somalia and is also spoken in the Republic of Jibuti, in the Ogaden area of Ethiopia, and in the northwestern territory of Kenya. It is written in Roman script, although
Arabic and an indigenous script have also been used. Its closest relatives are Boni and Rendille in Kenya. _^<N__^<N_The most widely spoken Cushitic language is Oromo, or Galla, with about 8 million speakers. It is spoken in the southern half of
Ethiopia and in the adjacent areas of Kenya. It is written in the Ethiopian script and is grouped with the Konso cluster. South Cushitic comprises Dahalo or Sanye, Ma'a or Mbugu (a mixture of Cushitic and Bantu), both of which are spoken in
Kenya. Iraqw, Asax, and Quadza are spoken in Tanzania. _^<N__^<N_ OMOTIC_^<N__^<N_About 30 Omotic languages are spoken in the Omo valley in southern Ethiopia by more than a million people. Once considered to constitute West Cushitic, the Omotic
languages are so different from the other Afroasiatic languages that their inclusion in the family has been questioned. The most important of these languages is Walamo, followed by Gonga (Kafa) and Janjero. _^<N__^<N_ BERBER_^<N__^<N_The Berber
languages (formerly Numidian and Libyan) at one time dominated the whole of North Africa, west of Egypt. Today the separate Berber languages are spoken in Arabic-speaking territories across North Africa by perhaps 10 million speakers. Tuareg is
spoken in southern Algeria, Niger, and Mali. Morocco has the largest concentration of Berber speakers--with 6 million speakers of the Tamazight, Tashelhit, and Tarifit dialects--followed by Algeria, with 2.5 million Kabyles, Chowiya, and other
Berber tribes. These dialects are written in Arabic script, although the consonantal writing of Libyan inscriptions still survives. (See BERBERS.) _^<N__^<N_ CHAD_^<N__^<N_The Chadic languages are spoken in west central Africa in the area around
Lake Chad. Hausa, with 15 million speakers, is the most widely spoken, mainly in northwestern Nigeria, Niger, Chad, and northern Ghana. It is written in Roman script, although Arabic script is also used. The other Chadic languages, between 100
and 200 with a total of 7 million speakers, are located in areas east of the Hausa territory. Chadic languages comprise West Chadic (including Hausa, Bole, Kanakuru, Angas, Ron, Bade, Ngizim, Wanji), Biu-Mandara (including Tera, Margi, Higi,
Mandara, Bata, Kotoko, Musgu), East Chadic (including Somrai, Dangla, Mubi, and Sokoro), and Masa as a separate branch. _^<N__^<N_ CHARACTERISTICS OF AFROASIATIC_^<N__^<N_Despite grammatical differences, the kinship among the various branches of
Afroasiatic can be seen through basic similarities in their structures and vocabularies. For example, all branches except Egyptian have a set of emphatic consonants in addition to voiced and voiceless consonants. Lateral consonants (for example,
tl, dl) are found in some languages. The Cushitic, Omotic, and Chadic languages also have tones. _^<N__^<N_All branches of the family have masculine and feminine gender distinction, usually characterized by the feminine marker t (Arabic:
kalb/kalbat, "dog/bitch"); gender distinction in the plural, however, has disappeared in many of the languages. Ancient Egyptian and classical Semitic had not only singular and plural forms but a grammatical distinction for "two" or "double."
_^<N__^<N_Egyptian, Semitic, Berber, and, in remnants only, Cushitic use a system in which a root comprising two, three, or four consonants is used to create different words; this is done by superimposing on it a pattern comprising vowels, and
often of further consonants. Thus, in Arabic, the root k-t-b, meaning "write," is used in various combinations to form allied words, such as "writer" (ka:tib-) or "written" (maktu:b-). This root-and-pattern system is particularly important in the
verbal system: an original root m-w-t produces in Arabic the words ma:ta/yamu:tu to express "he died/dies." _^<N__^<N_In Semitic, Berber, and, to a limited extent, Cushitic, basic verbal conjugations are characterized by the addition of prefixes
and suffixes. Root vocalization marks tense. Egyptian, by contrast, has no prefix conjugation; its verbal system is of nominal origin--of the type "I am on/in/to doing," "is done by me," "I am a doer of" for various tenses and aspects of "I do."
In Chadic, a typical conjugation comprises a preposition containing a subject marker and a tense-and-aspect marker, followed by one of the major stem forms of the verb. Verbal derivation is quite rich in all these languages. A passive formation in
t and a causative in s or its developments; a reduplication of the verb, of a syllable, or of a consonant for repeated actions; and other methods of word formation are attested everywhere. In many languages, the verb has special negative forms.
Likewise, different verbal forms for main and subordinate clauses are found in several branches. _^<N__^<N_In the Cushitic and Omotic languages, the verb typically occupies the final position in the sentence, and subordinate clauses precede the
main one. Ethiopian Semitic has adopted the same order of elements. In old Egyptian, Berber, and classical Semitic, the verb is at the beginning of a sentence. Akkadian, an exception, placed the verb in the final position. Coptic, modern Arabic
dialects, Aramaic, and Hebrew now use a subject-verb-object order, as do almost all the Chadic languages. _^<N__^<N_In Hebrew and Arabic, adjectives follow the noun and agree with it in gender, number, and definiteness. Case marking is
prepositional in Chadic, Berber, Egyptian, and Semitic, though classical Semitic has some residual suffixal cases; Cushitic and Omotic use suffixes, but Somali expresses most case relations by means of preverbal particles. Similarity of numerals
occurs only between Semitic and Berber. In both branches, nouns following smaller numerals are in the plural, but after large numbers they are in the singular. In Semitic, numerals having a feminine ending occur with masculine nouns and vice
versa. _^<N__^<N_ LINGUISTIC INVESTIGATION_^<N__^<N_The formal study of Hebrew and Arabic has an extensive history. Motivated by the study of Judaism and Islam, it spread widely among scholars with the influence of the two religions. Ge'ez and
Amharic were first studied in the 17th century. Investigation into most of the other Afroasiatic languages grew from contact between indigenous speakers and Europeans--first travelers, then missionaries and colonial administrators, and ultimately
scholars whose motives were purely intellectual. _^<N__^<N_The extinct languages--Egyptian, Libyan, and those of the Semitic group--were preserved in inscriptions that were copied and, with the help of bilingual inscriptions or of known related
scripts, deciphered by scholars mainly during the past 100 years (see WRITING SYSTEMS, EVOLUTION OF). In recent years an upsurge has occurred in the study of Cushitic and Chadic languages in particular. Modern advances in general linguistic
theory have greatly stimulated the investigation of all branches. Two periodicals are devoted exclusively to the Afroasiatic language family: the Comptes Rendus of the Groupe Linguistique d'Etudes Chamito-Semitiques (Paris), founded in 1931; and
Afroasiatic Linguistics (Malibu, Calif., 1974- ). The Afroasiatic Dialects series (Malibu, Calif.) publishes introductory grammars of these languages. Every 4 years an International Hamito-Semitic Congress is held. _^<N__^<N_Robert Hetzron
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bender, Marvin L., ed., The Non-Semitic Languages of Ethiopia (1976); Bynon, James, ed., Current Progress in Afro-Asiatic Languages (1984); Bynon, James and Theodora, eds., Hamito-Semitica (1975); Diakonoff, Igor M.,
Semito-Hamitic Languages (1965); Gardiner, Alan N., Egyptian Grammar, 3d rev. ed. (1978); Gesenius, Wilhelm, Hebrew Grammar, ed. by E. Kautzsch (1963); Greenberg, Joseph H., The Languages of Africa (1966); Hodge, Carleton T., ed.,
Afroasiatic, a Survey (1971); Moscati, Sabatino, et al., An Introduction to the Comparative Grammar of Semitic Languages (1964); Newman, P. and R. M., eds., Papers in Chadic Linguistics (1977); Wright, William, A Grammar of the Arabic
Languages (1967).
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856
CAT
-A-
afterimages
-T-
afterimages_^<N__^<N_Afterimages are experienced when a prolonged or intense visual stimulus ceases. Because afterimages result from fatigue in portions of the retina, the visual afterimage seems to move with the eye, unlike external objects that
normally appear stationary despite eye movements. When one looks at a gray or white surface, the resulting negative afterimage that is seen is close to the complementary color of the original stimulus. After blue, a gray patch looks yellow; after
green, it looks red. Positive afterimages (of the same color as the original stimulus) are briefly seen, especially after short exposures or in a dark postexposure field. Afterimages mix to affect appearances of colored postexposure fields,
enhancing the color saturation of the fields when the afterimage and the postexposure field are of the same color. _^<N__^<N_Julian Hochberg
-END-
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1546
CAT
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Afternoon of a Faun, The
-T-
Afternoon of a Faun, The_^<N__^<N_The orchestral music for the Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun (Prelude a l'Apres-midi d'un Faune, 1894) by Claude DEBUSSY is one of the finest works of musical impressionism. Debussy's composition was inspired by
the poem L'Apres-midi d'un faune (1876) by his friend the French symbolist poet Stephane MALLARME. _^<N__^<N_The poem describes a faun who, while playing his flute on a hot afternoon, encounters two nymphs who are on their way to bathe. He becomes
enamored of one of them, who escapes his advances, leaving him playing with her scarf. _^<N__^<N_Debussy, in musically illustrating the dreamy eroticism of the poem's text, used several devices: chromaticism, whole-tone scales and modes,
dissonance, parallel chords, subdued dynamics, and subtle rhythm and meter changes. The woodwind solos, harp glissandi, and muted horns all suggest an idyllic dream. Composed in three continuous sections, the tone poem conveys constant, flowing
motion. _^<N__^<N_The Afternoon of a Faun was first performed as a ballet in Paris in 1912 by the Ballet Russes de Serge Diaghilev and caused a scandal. Vaslav NIJINSKY, who choreographed the ballet and danced the part of the faun, eventually won
acclaim for the work. In 1953 the American choreographer Jerome ROBBINS presented a contemporary interpretation of the work, which has since become a staple of the New York City Ballet's repertory. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Kirstein, Lincoln,
Movement and Metaphor (1970); Lockspeiser, Edward, Debussy, 4th ed. (1972); Palmer, Christopher, Impressionism in Music (1974).
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438
CAT
-A-
Afzelius, Arvid August
-T-
Afzelius, Arvid August_^<N__^<N_{ahf-zay'-lee-us, ahr'-veed ow'-goost} _^<N__^<N_Arvid August Afzelius, b. May 6, 1785, d. Sept. 25, 1871, was a Swedish folklorist, poet, and historian. After studying theology at Uppsala University, he became bishop
of Enkoping, but he is best known for his translations of Icelandic sagas and collections of early Swedish ballads and folktales. These influenced Swedish poetry and stimulated the study of Nordic mythology.
-END-
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972
CAT
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Aga Khan
-T-
Aga Khan_^<N__^<N_{ah'-guh kahn} _^<N__^<N_The Aga Khan is the spiritual leader, or imam, of the ISMAILI sect of Shiite Muslims. The hereditary title was first granted by the Persian court to Hasan Ali Shah, 1800-81, a supposed descendant of Ali,
son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad. He revolted against the shah, however, and fled to India in 1840. His grandson Aga Khan III (Sultan Sir Mohammed Shah), b. Nov. 2, 1877, d. July 11, 1957, was a founder (1906) of the All-India Muslim League and
took part in the London conferences on Indian constitutional reform in 1930-32. In 1937 he was president of the League of Nations Assembly. He was succeeded on his death by his grandson Karim al-Hussain Shah, Aga Khan IV, b. Dec. 13, 1936. The
present Aga Khan is known primarily for his business interests, which include a Thoroughbred-horse-breeding enterprise begun by his grandfather. He has promoted development projects among the Ismailis and sponsored a major study of Islamic
architecture.
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533
CAT
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Agadir
-T-
Agadir_^<N__^<N_{ah-guh-deer'} Agadir (1982 pop., 110,479) is a seaport in Agadir province of southwestern Morocco. It is located on the Atlantic coast, at the mouth of the Oued Sous, about 220 km (135 mi) southwest of Marrakech. Agadir is
Morocco's main fishing port, noted for its sardine catch. Founded by the Portuguese in the 16th century, Agadir was the scene of confrontation between Germany and France in 1911 (see MOROCCAN CRISES). It was largely destroyed by earthquakes in
1960; a modern city was built around the port facilities.
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733
CAT
-A-
Agam, Yaacov
-T-
Agam, Yaacov_^<N__^<N_{ah-gahm', yah'-kawf} Yaacov Agam, b. May 11, 1928, is a leading Israeli painter, sculptor, and kinetic artist. After studying in Jerusalem, Zurich, and Paris, Agam mounted his first one-man show in Paris in 1953. His painting
and sculptural style is derived in part from the geometric severities of the Dutch modernist Piet Mondrian and the tradition of neoplasticism (the rules of abstract composition formulated by the movement called DE STIJL), into which Agam injects a
characteristic liveliness and visual wit. His Holocaust memorial (1987) in Jerusalem, consisting of six glass pillars containing fire, set in water, and topped by stainless steel Stars of David, stirred considerable controversy. _^<N__^<N_Carter
Ratcliff
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904
CAT
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agama
-T-
agama_^<N__^<N_{ag'uh-muh} _^<N__^<N_Agamas are about 60 species of Old World lizards in the genus Agama, family Agamidae, order Squamata. These rough-scaled lizards have more or less flattened, robust bodies, well-developed limbs, and moderately
long tails. They feed on insects and other small animals; some also consume vegetation. Most small species are ground-living. The large species often live on rocky cliffs or in trees. They are found in southeastern Europe and in the jungles,
steppes, savannas, and desert regions of Africa, Arabia, and Southwest and Central Asia. _^<N__^<N_Steven C. Anderson _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Carr, A. F., The Reptiles (1963); Halliday, Tim, and Adler, Kraig, eds., The Encyclopedia of Reptiles
and Amphibians (1986); Halliday, Tim, and Adler, Kraig, eds., The Encyclopedia of Reptiles and Amphibians (1986); Schmidt, Karl P., and Inger, R. F., Living Reptiles of the World (1957; repr. 1975).
-END-
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944
CAT
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Agamemnon
-T-
Agamemnon_^<N__^<N_{ag-uh-mem'-nahn} _^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, Agamemnon, a son of ATREUS, was the commander in chief of the Greeks in the TROJAN WAR. He was the king of Mycenae and a brother of MENELAUS, whose kidnapped wife, HELEN OF TROY,
was the immediate cause of the conflict. On his way to Troy, Agamemnon agreed to sacrifice his daughter IPHIGENIA in order to ensure a fair wind for his ships. Upon Agamemnon's return from the war, his wife CLYTEMNESTRA, who had betrayed him with
Aegisthus, resolved to avenge her daughter's sacrifice. When her husband was at ease in the bath, she and her lover murdered him. Agamemnon's death was later avenged by his son ORESTES. These tragic events are the subject of a trilogy, the
ORESTEIA, written by the 5th-century BC dramatist AESCHYLUS. _^<N__^<N_C. Scott Littleton _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Fitts, Dudley, trans., Four Greek Plays (1960); Gagarin, Michael, Aeschylean Drama (1976); Hadas, Moses, ed., Greek Drama (1982).
-END-
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235
CAT
-A-
Agana
-T-
Agana_^<N__^<N_Agana (1990 pop., 1,139) is the capital of Guam, a U.S. unincorporated territory in the western Pacific. Situated on the west coast of the island, the town was destroyed in World War II and has been gradually rebuilt since then.
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255
CAT
-A-
Aganippe
-T-
Aganippe_^<N__^<N_{ag'-uh-nip-ee} _^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, Aganippe, daughter of the river-god Permessus, was a NYMPH. Her fountain on the slopes of Mount Helicon was sacred to the MUSES. It was believed that mortals who drank of its waters
would receive poetic powers.
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1029
CAT
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Agar
-T-
Agar_^<N__^<N_{ah'-gahr} _^<N__^<N_Agar is a substance prepared from a mixture of red algae, such as Gelidium, for laboratory or industrial use. It is made mainly in the Far East--the name agar, or agar-agar, is a Malay word for a type of seaweed
common in the area--and in California. The algae are washed and dried, and the agar, part of the cell wall, is extracted with boiling water, forming a gel as it cools. The gel is a complex mixture of several sugar compounds. _^<N__^<N_Agar is the
substance most commonly used in laboratories for making media in which to grow microorganisms. It is nontoxic, dissolves poorly in water, and is relatively unaffected by the salts and nutrients in the media or by the organisms themselves. Agar is
used to stabilize and thicken emulsions such as ice creams, jellies, soups, and sauces. It is also used to size, or fill the pores of, textiles and paper and in treating some intestinal disorders. _^<N__^<N_Charles L. Wilson
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hastings, G. W., and Ducheyne, P., eds., Natural and Living Biomaterials (1984).
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33
CAT
-A-
Agassiz, Lake:
-T-
Agassiz, Lake:_^<N__^<N_see LAKE, GLACIAL.
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2295
CAT
-A-
Agassiz, Louis Rodolphe
-T-
Agassiz, Louis Rodolphe_^<N__^<N_{ag'-uh-see} _^<N__^<N_One of the most influential scientists of the 19th century, the Swiss-born American naturalist Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz, b. May 28, 1807, d. Dec. 14, 1873, did pioneering work on fossil fish
and was the originator of the concept of ICE AGES. _^<N__^<N_A graduate in philosophy and medicine of the universities of Munich and Erlangen (1829, 1830), Agassiz worked in Paris with Georges CUVIER , the founder of the discipline of comparative
anatomy, and in 1832 became professor of natural history at the College of Neuchatel, Switzerland. There he undertook the research that resulted in his 5-volume work Recherches sur les poissons fossiles (Studies on Fossil Fish, 1833-44), which,
using the principles of comparative anatomy, describes more than 1,700 species. _^<N__^<N_In the late 1830s, Agassiz began his study of glaciers, charting their movement and asserting on the basis of geological evidence that ice had once covered
much of the European continent. His view of this catastrophic event opposed the famous doctrine of the Scottish geologist Sir Charles LYELL that only uniform and gradual changes occur in the Earth's history. But geological formations, as well as
the scratched surfaces of rocks in certain areas, supported Agassiz's theory. _^<N__^<N_In 1846, Agassiz went to the United States to deliver a series of lectures but remained for 25 years, teaching at Harvard. Renowned for his teaching abilities,
Agassiz trained an entire generation of naturalists. He enthusiastically explored the United States both east and west of the Mississippi and applied his theory of ice ages to North America. He established (1859) the Museum of Comparative Zoology
at Harvard and played an important role in founding (1863) the National Academy of Sciences. He was the most important scientist in the United States to oppose Darwin's theory of evolution. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Agassiz, Louis, Geological
Sketches (1895; repr. 1965) and The Intelligence of Louis Agassiz (1963); Lurie, Edward, Louis Agassiz: A Life in Science (1960) and Nature and the American Mind: Louis Agassiz and the Culture of Science (1974); Marcou, Jules, Life, Letters, and
Work of Louis Agassiz, 2 vols. (1896); Meadows, Jack, The Great Scientists (1987); Wilson, Grove, Great Men of Science (1929; repr. 1981).
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1335
CAT
-A-
agate
-T-
agate_^<N__^<N_{ag'-uht} _^<N__^<N_The common, widespread SILICA MINERAL (SiO2) agate often occurs in bands of varying color and transparency. A semiprecious variety of CHALCEDONY, it has long been used as a GEM and as an ornamental material. Agate
is identical with QUARTZ in composition and physical properties. Composed of silicon dioxide, it has a hardness of 7, a glassy luster, a conchoidal fracture, and a specific gravity of 2.60. The colored bands are iron hydroxide impurities added
during formation. _^<N__^<N_Agate forms when gas bubbles trapped in solidifying LAVA become filled with alkali and silica-bearing waters, which coagulate into a gel. The alkali attacks the iron in the surrounding lava, and bands of the resulting
iron hydroxide are created in the gel, which loses water and crystallizes, leaving the bands intact. Many agates, when cut in cross-section, reveal striking forms. Agate that has alternating, parallel bands of cloudy and colored material is called
ONYX. _^<N__^<N_According to ancient superstition, wearing agate made one agreeable, persuasive, prudent, and bold. It brought God's favor and bestowed the power to vanquish enemies and acquire riches. White agate supposedly cured insomnia.
_^<N__^<N_Ider and Oberstein, Germany, have been superseded as a source of the stones by the Rio Grande do Sul region of Brazil and Uruguay. _^<N__^<N_John B. Wheeler
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1266
CAT
-A-
agave
-T-
agave_^<N__^<N_{uh-gah'-vay} _^<N__^<N_Agave, Agave, is any of more than 300 species of plants with handsome foliage belonging to the agave family, Agavaceae. They form long, stiff evergreen leaves in clumps, or rosettes, from which tall, bare
flower stems arise. Agave plants are native to warm arid and semiarid regions of North and South America. They are used as houseplants and, in the South, as landscape plants. The century plant, A. americana, erroneously received its name because it
was believed to bloom only when 100 years old. It has leaves up to 1.8 m (6 ft) long and a flower stalk up to 12 m (40 ft) in height. It generally blooms after it is 10 years old; thereafter it dies back, but suckers sprout again from the base to
form new plants. This is the most popular species for landscaping and potting. _^<N__^<N_Some common agaves have commercial value. Pulque agave, A. atrovirens, is used in Mexico to produce the alcoholic drink pulque, and tequila is fermented from
other Mexican species. Fibers derived from henequen, A. fourcroydes, and sisal, A. sisalana, are used to make rope. The pulp of other species is used to produce soap and food. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Gentry, Howard S., The Agaves of Continental
North America (1982); Nobel, Park S., Remarkable Agaves and Cacti (1994).
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1586
CAT
-A-
Agca, Mehmet Ali
-T-
Agca, Mehmet Ali_^<N__^<N_{ahj'-ah} _^<N__^<N_Mehmet Ali Agca, b. 1958?, a Turkish terrorist, tried to assassinate Pope John Paul II in Rome in 1981. The son of a miner, Agca attended the universities of Ankara and Istanbul and in 1979 was charged
with the murder of Abdi Ipekci, editor of the left-wing Turkish newspaper Milliyet. He escaped from custody while his trial was in progress and reportedly threatened to kill Pope John Paul II when the latter visited Turkey in November of that year.
He subsequently fled abroad, and on May 13, 1981, shot and wounded the pope and two bystanders while the pontiff was greeting pilgrims in Saint Peter's square. Agca was sentenced to life imprisonment by an Italian court, but his motivation remained
a subject of controversy. Turkish authorities identified him as a member of the right-wing National Movement party, but he claimed to be connected with the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), a Palestinian Marxist group. The PFLP
denied any knowledge of him. He later told police that he had acted with the help of Bulgarian agents; this led to speculation that Bulgaria's Communist government might have inspired the assassination attempt at the prompting of the KGB because of
Soviet concern over the pope's encouragement of the SOLIDARITY movement in his native Poland. In November 1982, Serge I. Antonov, an employee of the Bulgarian state airline in Rome, was arrested as an accomplice of Agca. In 1986, after a long
trial, Italian officials dismissed the cases against the alleged Bulgarian conspirator for lack of conclusive evidence.
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26
CAT
-A-
age:
-T-
age:_^<N__^<N_see AGING; LIFE SPAN.
-END-
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253
CAT
-A-
age of consent
-T-
age of consent_^<N__^<N_The age of consent is the age at which a person is legally competent to give consent, as in making a contract or agreeing to marriage or to nonmarital sexual relations. It varies for different purposes and may be lower for
women than men.
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46
CAT
-A-
age determination:
-T-
age determination:_^<N__^<N_see RADIOMETRIC AGE-DATING.
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1212
CAT
-A-
Agee, James
-T-
Agee, James_^<N__^<N_{ay'-jee} _^<N__^<N_An American writer, James Agee, b. Knoxville, Tenn., Nov. 27, 1909, d. May 16, 1955, won distinction in a variety of literary forms. His volume of poems Permit Me Voyage (1934) was included in the Yale Series
of Younger Poets. His nonfictional Let Us Now Praise Famous Men (1941), illustrated with photographs of sharecroppers by Walker EVANS, is an evocative view of the Depression of the 1930s. As film reviewer for the magazines Time and The Nation in
the 1930s and 1940s, he brought unusual rigor and insight to film criticism; his reviews were later collected in two volumes, Agee on Film (1958, 1960). His autobiographical novel A Death in the Family (1957; film, 1963) won the 1958 Pulitzer Prize
for its poignant and honest treatment of the effect of a man's death on his 6-year-old son. Agee's credits as a screenwriter include The Night of the Hunter (1955) and the classic The African Queen (1951). _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Agee, James,
Letters of James Agee to Father Flye, 2d ed., ed. by James H. Flye (1971; repr. 1978) and Selected Journalism (1985); Doty, M. A., Tell Me Who I Am (1981); Kramer, V. A., Agee and Actuality (1990); Lofaro, M. A., ed., James Agee: Reconsideration
(1992).
-END-
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28
CAT
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Agena (astronomy):
-T-
Agena (astronomy):_^<N__^<N_see STAR.
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1371
CAT
-A-
Agena (rocket)
-T-
Agena (rocket)_^<N__^<N_{uh-jee'-nuh} _^<N__^<N_The Agena system was an upper rocket stage that employed a restartable rocket engine. It could operate as a satellite in its own right or it could be used to launch satellites and space probes in
conjunction with more powerful lower rocket stages. Typical first-stage boosters were THOR and ATLAS. _^<N__^<N_Agena B, built by Lockheed Aircraft Corporation, was used in a number of early U.S. Air Force satellite projects, including
DISCOVERER, SAMOS, Midas, and Vela, and a variety of NASA projects, including ECHO, MARINER, NIMBUS, and RANGER. Agena stages also were used as docking targets in the GEMINI manned space program. Dimensions of the stage depended on the mission.
A typical Agena B stage used in the U.S. Air Force programs of the 1960s was 8 m (26.5 ft) long and 1.5 m (5 ft) in diameter. The stage had a fueled weight of about 7,167 kg (15,800 lb). The Propellants were IRFNA and UDMH, and the Bell 8096
rocket engine developed a thrust of 7,257 kg (16,000 lb). _^<N__^<N_Agena D, the version of the vehicle in use after Agena B, had a length--excluding payload--of 7 m (23.25 ft) and carried more propellant than its predecessors. It could also
accept a variety of payloads. It was launched atop TITAN 3B, Atlas SLV-3A, and Thor. The last Agena to be manufactured was launched in 1987. _^<N__^<N_Kenneth Gatland _^<N__^<N_See also: ROCKETS AND MISSILES.
-END-
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703
CAT
-A-
Agency for International Development
-T-
Agency for International Development_^<N__^<N_The Agency for International Development (AID) is an agency of the U.S. Department of State, established by the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 to assist other countries in developing their economies and
improving the quality of life for their inhabitants. AID makes loans and grants to less developed countries for economic improvement programs and for programs relating to population growth. It also administers famine and disaster relief
assistance. In cooperation with the Department of Agriculture, it distributes farm commodities under the Food for Peace program. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Mosley, Paul, Foreign Aid (1987); Tendler, Judith, Inside Foreign Aid (1977).
-END-
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855
CAT
-A-
agent
-T-
agent_^<N__^<N_In law, an agent is a person authorized by another to act for him or her, particularly to transact business or to manage certain affairs. A large body of law deals with the relationship among agents, the persons for whom they act
(principal), and the persons with whom they deal (third party). The law of agency is important in business relationships, in that employees are agents for their employers, and brokers or lawyers are agents for their clients. The manager of a
business firm who has complete control of all its operations is given broad powers under the law. Agents hired to manage investments, on the other hand, are expected to exercise prudence in their dealings. Attorneys have the duty to advance their
clients' interests, but they cannot sign away their clients' rights except when authorized--even though it may benefit the client.
-END-
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38
CAT
-A-
Agent Orange:
-T-
Agent Orange:_^<N__^<N_see POLLUTANTS, CHEMICAL
-END-
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550
CAT
-A-
ageratum
-T-
ageratum_^<N__^<N_{aj-ur-ay'-tuhm} _^<N__^<N_Ageratum, a member of the aster family, Compositae, is a genus of about 29 species of herbs and shrubs native to central and tropical South America. Commonly called flossflowers, ageratums have clusters
of small blue, white, or pink flowers with a pleasant odor. Because they flower for long periods, they are used as border plants in gardens and as summer bedding plants in temperate climates. One species, A. conyzoides, contains hydrocyanic
acid, coumarin, and an alkaloid and is poisonous to animals. _^<N__^<N_Robert C. Roman
-END-
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1370
CAT
-A-
Agesilaus II, King of Sparta
-T-
Agesilaus II, King of Sparta_^<N__^<N_{uh-jes-i-lay'-uhs} _^<N__^<N_Agesilaus II, c.444-360 BC, succeeded his half-brother Agis II as one of the two Spartan kings in 399. In Anatolia from 396, he defeated the Persian satrap TISSAPHERNES but was
driven back by the powerful Persian navy. On his return (394) to Greece he defeated the Thebans and their allies at Coronea, but his losses were so heavy that he was forced to withdraw to the Peloponnesus. When a Sparto-Persian alliance forced
Athens and Thebes to abandon the Greek cities in Anatolia to Persian domination (the Peace of Antalcidas, 386), the Thebans and Athenians renewed war against Sparta. At peace talks in 371, Agesilaus refused to recognize the Theban general
EPAMINONDAS as the representative of all Boeotia. The Spartans soon invaded Boeotia and were overwhelmingly defeated by the Thebans at Leuctra. Sparta never regained its military strength. Agesilaus later tried to increase the state's revenues by
leading Spartan mercenaries in Anatolia and in Egypt. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bury, J. B., and Meiggs, Russell, A History of Greece, 4th rev. ed. (1975); Cartledge, P., Agesilaus and the Crisis of Sparta (1987); Hammond, N. G. L., A History
of Greece to 322 B.C., 2d ed. (1967); Jones, A. H. M., Sparta (1967); Laistner, M. L. W., A History of the Greek World from 479 to 323 B.C., 3d rev. ed. (1957).
-END-
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1530
CAT
-A-
aggregation
-T-
aggregation_^<N__^<N_Aggregation is the process by which particles come together and grow to form an entity with its own characteristic properties. Often the term refers to processes involving the elementary constituents of matter--molecules and
ions--but larger particles may also be involved. Gases, liquids, and solids represent different states of aggregation of molecules. In gases at low pressure, the molecules are separate; in liquids the molecules are in contact but can move past one
another; in solids the forces of attraction hold the molecules in fixed positions. In substances that are liquid or solid at room temperature the intermolecular attraction is stronger than it is in gases. _^<N__^<N_The causes of intermolecular
attraction are not completely understood, but it is believed that they have an electrical nature. Many solid substances are made up of ions that have a permanent charge; in other cases, the interaction is between two dipoles or between two charges
that are transient. _^<N__^<N_The shape of the molecules also has an effect on the attractive force, because it determines how closely they can be packed. Spherical particles occupy a space about two times larger than their volume, but they may be
packed more closely if they are elongated or flattened. _^<N__^<N_Aggregation is involved in the formation of some colloids and in their behavior. Some proteins and other macromolecules aggregate spontaneously to form complex biological structures;
examples include antigen-antibody complexes, some viruses, and ribosomes. _^<N__^<N_George Gorin
-END-
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4362
CAT
-A-
aggression
-T-
aggression_^<N__^<N_Aggression is attacking behavior that may be either self-protective and self-assertive or hostile toward others or toward oneself. Aggressive behavior ranges from mere self-assertion to the infliction of injury to the total
destruction of others. It has two main aspects: the intent of the act and the act itself. Acts that appear to be hostile may in fact not involve an intention to inflict injury but merely the intention to establish a dominant position in relation
to another. Threat rather than actual aggression is the usual means of establishing dominance, and the greater part of seemingly aggressive behavior in animals is of this type. _^<N__^<N_By far the most common forms of aggressive behavior among
animals involve neither fighting, violence, injury, nor physical contact. Aggression is ritualized and involves withdrawal or flight as well as threat. Ritualization, behavior that consists of social signals that are recognized and elicit an
appropriate response, obviates the need for fighting. _^<N__^<N_Observers distinguish 13 kinds of aggression according to the stimuli that elicit them: (1) Predatory aggression is evoked by the presence of a natural object of prey. (2)
Antipredatory aggression is elicited by the presence of a predator. (3) Territorial aggression is elicited by an intruder invading the animal's domain. (4) Dominance aggression is elicited by a challenge to the animal's rank or desire for an
object. (5) Maternal aggression is elicited by the proximity of some threatening agent to the young of a particular female. (6) Weaning aggression is elicited by the increased independence of the young, when the parents will threaten or even
(with restraint) attack their offspring. (7) Parental disciplinary aggression is elicited by a variety of stimuli, such as unwelcome suckling, rough or overextended play, wandering, and the like. (8) Sexual aggression is elicited by females for
the purpose of mating or the establishment of a prolonged union. (9) Sex-related aggression is elicited by the same stimuli that produce sexual behavior. (10) Intermale aggression is elicited by the presence of a male competitor of the same
species. (11) Fear-induced aggression is elicited by confinement or cornering or by the presence of some threatening agent. (12) Irritable aggression is elicited by the presence of any organism or object with characteristics (such as color or
darting movement) that stimulate an attack response. (13) Instrumental aggression includes any change in the environment as a consequence of the above types of aggression that increases the probability that aggressive behavior will recur in
similar situations. _^<N__^<N_None of these types of aggression is mutually exclusive. Each, however, has different underlying neural and endocrine bases. Nor do all these forms apply equally to humans and animals. Clearly, then, aggressive
behavior is not a single phenomenon, but something to be understood at many different levels. Predatory behavior among animals, for example, is found not to be aggressive behavior at all but rather a search for food that does not involve hostility.
_^<N__^<N_Psychologists and animal behaviorists are finding that, in most higher animals, especially human beings, learning plays a role in the development of aggressive behavior. This counters the theory (argued by Konrad LORENZ) that humans have
inherited murderous tendencies from their animal past and the contention of Sigmund FREUD that human aggression springs from basic drives. _^<N__^<N_Ashley Montagu _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bandura, Albert, Aggression: A Social Learning Analysis
(1973); Blanchard, R. J., et al., eds., Advances in the Study of Aggression, 2 vols. (1984-86); Fromm, Erich, The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness, rev. ed. (1973); Goldstein, Arnold, and Keller, Harold, Aggressive Behavior (1987); Johnson,
Roger N., Aggression in Man and Animals (1972); Lorenz, Konrad, On Aggression, trans. by Marjorie K. Wilson (1966); Mitscherlich, Dr. Margaret, The Peacable Sex (1987); Montagu, Ashley, The Nature of Human Aggression (1976); Moyer, K. E.,
Violence and Aggression: A Physiological Perspective (1986); Neuman, G. G., Origins of Human Aggression (1987); Otten, Charlotte M., ed., Aggression and Evolution (1973); Simmel, E. c., et al., eds., Aggressive Behavior: Genetic and Neural
Approaches (1983).
-END-
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474
CAT
-A-
Agincourt, Battle of
-T-
Agincourt, Battle of_^<N__^<N_{aj'-in-kort or ah-zhin-koor'} _^<N__^<N_The English victory over the French at Agincourt in northwest France on Oct. 25, 1415, was one of the most significant battles in the HUNDRED YEARS' WAR. A triumph for the
English bowmen, it is celebrated in Shakespeare's play Henry V. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hibbet, C., Agincourt, 2d ed. (1986); Keegan, John, The Face of Battle: A Study of Agincourt, Waterloo, and the Somme (1976); Nichol, J., Battle of
Agincourt (1974).
-END-
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13039
CATO
4789
9558
-A-
aging
-O-
000000|aging
001029| THE PROCESS OF AGING
005086| DIFFERENCES AMONG VARIOUS LIFE FORMS
005301| Plants
006824| Invertebrates
007766| Vertebrates
009395| THEORIES ON AGING
011430| PREMATURE AGING
-T-
aging_^<N__^<N_Aging, or senescence, is a widespread biological phenomenon that occurs in all higher organisms and in many of the lower ones. Its signs usually are a decrease in such functional capacities as the metabolic rate, the ability to sense
and respond to stimuli, and the ability to move and also to reproduce. Aging organisms also have an increased susceptibility to disease, injury, and predators. In contrast, protoplasm--the living substance that makes up both the cytoplasm and
nuclei of cells--appears to be potentially immortal. _^<N__^<N_Chronological age refers to the passage of time; generally, when the question is asked how old a person or an animal is, the answer is given in units of time. Physiological age means
the condition of the organism in relation to aging. A mouse of 3 years is a "very old" mouse, but a dog is not "very old" until about 15 years, nor a human being until 80 (see OLD AGE). Knowing the chronological age of an animal is almost
meaningless unless the LIFE SPAN of that animal's species is known as well. _^<N__^<N_ THE PROCESS OF AGING_^<N__^<N_The decline of metabolic rate (see METABOLISM) is an important index of the progress of aging. This decline, however, is more
complex than appears at first sight. The oxygen uptake in human beings, for example, does not decrease with advancing age; the mean resting heart rate, on the other hand, continues to decline throughout fetal and postnatal life. _^<N__^<N_The
organism ages primarily because the cells of the body, especially those which cannot replace themselves, undergo changes that result in decreased function, degeneration, and death. The different kinds of cells vary markedly in their ability to
replace themselves. Such surface layers of cells (epithelia) as those which form the outermost skin and the lining of the digestive and other tracts are able to replace themselves rapidly. Red blood cells are constantly generated in red bone
marrow, as are white blood cells in such lymphoid tissues as the lymph nodes, the thymus, and the spleen. The nervous system, conversely, has generally irreplaceable cells known as neurons. As a consequence, with the loss of neurons the brain, the
spinal cord, and the ganglia age. Cells of the heart, the voluntary muscles, and certain parts of the immune and endocrine systems also cannot be easily replaced. _^<N__^<N_Among mammals the size of the body is limited (determinate growth), and
when growth ceases certain changes set in. With increasing age come changes in the genetic components of a certain number of somatic (body) cells. These changes may be marked aberrations in the size and shape of the cell nuclei and nucleoli,
abnormalities of chromosomes, and the occurrence of irregular cell division. The nucleic acid DNA may incur permanent lesions, especially in the liver. _^<N__^<N_Immunological changes with age are those which involve the defense mechanisms,
especially those against bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances. The cellular defenses consist of the white blood cells, including some phagocytes that devour bacteria and others that produce antibodies. During the aging process in certain
mammals, marked changes--including decrease in size--occur in the lymph nodes, spleen, and bone marrow where these cells are produced. Macrophages--large phagocytic cells in the tissues--become clogged with pigment accumulation. Certain immune
functions decrease with age while the incidence of cancer, of immune diseases, and of infections increases. _^<N__^<N_The steps leading to the death of cells of the nervous system include a decrease or disappearance of the Nissl substance, which is
a basophilic material rich in ribosomes that is located in the cytoplasm. Lipofuscin, a yellow green pigment, begins to accumulate in the cytoplasm, and cell nucleoli and nuclei degenerate. These changes are known to occur in such mammals as mice,
rats, guinea pigs, dogs, and apes. Changes in human neurons, and the loss of these cells, occur in all parts of the human brain. Although the disorder atherosclerosis may greatly increase the rate and severity of neuronal changes, such changes
occur independently as part of the aging process. _^<N__^<N_Hormonal changes (see HORMONE) profoundly affect the functioning of the body. The most apparent change in humans is the decreased production of sex hormones, producing the onset of
MENOPAUSE in women and certain changes in men. Among other changes, lowered levels of insulin occur, causing increased risk of diabetes mellitus. In plants, certain hormones serve to delay senescence, including auxins, cytokinins, and giberrelins.
_^<N__^<N_The stage in which changes occur in the functioning of the nervous system, especially of its higher centers, is termed SENILITY. It is difficult to differentiate senility from senescence. Changes in gait, for example, may be due to
changes in the nervous system or to changes in joints, ligaments, or muscles. Senility is probably a distinctive condition, not just an acceleration of the normal aging process. Personality changes are common in senility, as are the onset of
paranoid tendencies and fits of irritation or depression. _^<N__^<N_ DIFFERENCES AMONG VARIOUS LIFE FORMS_^<N__^<N_Vast structural differences exist among classes and phyla of animals, making difficult any comparisons of change of structure with
age. Some such comparisons have been detailed. _^<N__^<N_ Plants_^<N__^<N_Because of the nature of the life processes in plants, their photosynthetic capacity, and their long-continued ability to grow, any statement about aging in plants is
complicated. Plants nevertheless share with animals the general properties of LIFE. As knowledge of the ultrastructural features of cells increases, more and more similarities of plant cells to those of animals have been discovered, including
similarities between the organelles--mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus--of plant and animal cells. _^<N__^<N_Even in natural conditions the life span of different kinds of plants varies from a few days or hours--as in
single-celled plants that reproduce continuously by cell division--to plants that flower annually or perenially to such giant trees as the redwoods that live thousands of years. The actual living part of such trees is relatively small in amount,
consisting chiefly of the green cambium layer just beneath the bark. _^<N__^<N_Certain morphological changes mark the aging process in plants. As a plant passes from youth to old age, the size of the area of the leaf that is enclosed by the
smallest branches of the fibrovascular bundles--areas known as leaf islets--becomes smaller and smaller. Propagation by asexual means does not reverse or change this trend; offspring grown from seed, on the other hand, have larger islets. Leaves
and fruits of higher plants show signs of senescence and eventual death. Such functional traits as respiratory intensity in leaves decrease with aging. _^<N__^<N_ Invertebrates_^<N__^<N_Within the phylum Protozoa--organisms that consist of a single
cell--are numerous species that reproduce by fission and in which some investigators have observed a real or potential immortality. Other kinds of Protozoa produce offspring within the body of a mother. In such species the adult body shows definite
changes of senescence. Clones of certain Protozoa begin to show age changes in their individual members after a certain number of generations. _^<N__^<N_In other invertebrate phyla, such as the Rotifera, a more typical relation to aging exists. In
rotifers, the older the mother from which an egg is produced, the shorter the life and the more rapid the aging process of the individual derived from the egg. In higher phyla of the invertebrates, such as Mollusca, Annelida, and Arthropoda, a
decrease in reproductivity capacity occurs with age, and senile changes occur in tissues and cells, especially in the nervous system. _^<N__^<N_ Vertebrates_^<N__^<N_The five classes of vertebrates differ considerably in the length of the growth
period, in the duration of reproductive processes, and in the aging process. Many fishes exhibit such characteristics as indefinite growth, no evidence of declining vigor, and no definite life span. Conversely, accelerated aging occurs in migratory
salmon, whereby they pass from vigorous sexual maturity to death in a period of a few weeks, with extensive aging of tissues throughout the body. _^<N__^<N_Many species of Amphibia have a definite growth period and an absolute adult size, but some
species of salamanders and frogs do not. Among vertebrates, reptiles show the greatest longevity. Individuals of at least five species of turtles have lived to more than 100 years of age in captivity. Evidence of a decline in reproductive capacity
with age is scanty for snakes, but many species do grow to a specific size at a relatively early age. In birds, the small and fast-breeding species are shorter-lived than the larger and more slowly breeding ones. Anatomical changes with age have
been described in both domestic and wild birds. _^<N__^<N_In the mammals, determinate growth, definite adult size, and rather well-defined life span are the predominant traits. Changes during aging in tissues and organs occur at about the same time
in individual species. The major changes with age in humans are graying of the hair; wrinkling of the skin; formation of the arcus senilis, a light-colored ring at the edge of the iris of the eye; bowing of the back; and atrophy of the muscles. The
internal organs similarly display certain characteristics of aging. _^<N__^<N_ THEORIES ON AGING_^<N__^<N_Various theories of the aging process have been proposed. Among these are the environmental theory, the metabolic theory, the genetic theory,
and the immunological theory. _^<N__^<N_The environmental theory of aging stresses the importance of the changes with age in the environment of the living cells. For instance, such deposits as collagen and calcium salts may accumulate, and in a
number of organs--including the thyroid gland, the gonads, and the muscles--the number of fibers and the bulk of fibrous tissue may increase. As a result, the epithelial cells often are living in a different and less favorable environment in old
than in young individuals. _^<N__^<N_The metabolic theory of aging is actually a more scientific version of the old "wear and tear" theory, which says that the body of an organism--like many of the machines produced by humans--has a life span
limited by the amount of daily use. According to this concept, a life of stress and overexertion, with inadequate time for rest and recuperation, is a deterrent to longevity. A more recent extension of the metabolic theory suggests that the
production of oxygen FREE RADICALS by damaged tissues, over time, causes further cell death. _^<N__^<N_Animal longevity is almost always species-specific, which indicates to some investigators that a genetic basis for life span exists. The genetic,
or gene-mutation, theory of aging stresses that during the life of an animal spontaneous mutations lead to an accumulation of errors in the control of gene expression that result, finally, in senescence. _^<N__^<N_The immunological, or autoimmune,
theory states that every cell in an individual organism is immunologically similar to every other cell in that organism. If cells undergo change from their genetic pattern, as occurs in mutation, the immunological character of those cells may
change. Both nuclei and cytoplasm of such cells may produce substances known as autoantigens. Other cells react to autoantigens by rejecting and killing such cells or by walling them off by deposits. _^<N__^<N_ PREMATURE AGING_^<N__^<N_An
interesting phenomenon known as premature aging (progeria) is a condition that has been observed only in humans. Two forms are distinguished by the age of onset. Infantile progeria occurs in childhood, usually after an apparently normal infancy.
Retarded growth, dwarfism, and progressively increasing malformation of the head and face may be observed. The skin atrophies, and hypertension occurs. Cataract and other phenomena usually associated with old age also often manifest themselves.
Mental development is often precocious in individuals so afflicted, and they generally die of coronary disease before the age of 30. _^<N__^<N_Adult progeria, or Werner's syndrome, usually occurs after growth has been largely or wholly completed.
Persons affected by Werner's syndrome often are short and exhibit characteristics similar to those observed in persons with infantile progeria. In the third or fourth decade the skin atrophies. Hypogonadism, calcification of the arteries, and, in
about half of such patients, a tendency to diabetes also are evident. Some of the changes in progeria, especially progeria of the adult form, may prove useful in elucidating the mechanisms of change in normal senescence. _^<N__^<N_Warren Andrew
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Barash, D. P., Aging (1983); Bittles, A. H., and Collines, K. J., eds., The Biology of Human Aging (1986); Cox, Harold, ed., Aging, 4th ed. (1985) and Later Life, 2d ed. (1988); Sowers, S. J., and Felicetta, J. V., eds.,
Endocrinology of Aging (1987); Warner, H. R., et al., Modern Biological Theories of Aging (1987). _^<N__^<N_See also: ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE; GERIATRICS.
-END-
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709
CAT
-A-
Aglipay, Gregorio
-T-
Aglipay, Gregorio_^<N__^<N_{ah-glee-py'} _^<N__^<N_Gregorio Aglipay, 1860-1940, was the first bishop of the Philippine Independent Church. A Roman Catholic priest in Manila, he became chaplain to the forces of Emilio Aguinaldo in the revolution
(1898) against Spanish rule. He was appointed vicar-general by Aguinaldo and was excommunicated as a result. Aglipay and his followers then formed (1902) the Philippine Independent Church, which, although divided into trinitarian and unitarian
factions, continues in existence today with a membership of 1.4 million (3.9 percent of the Philippine population). In 1935, Aglipay unsuccessfully sought election to the presidency of the Philippines as a militantly nationalist candidate.
-END-
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791
CAT
-A-
Agnatha
-T-
Agnatha_^<N__^<N_{ag'-nuh-thuh} _^<N__^<N_The Agnatha (superclass Agnatha) are primitive vertebrate fishes that lack true jaws, vertebrae, and pelvic fins. Living species have long eel-like bodies. Two living groups, the HAGFISHES and the
LAMPREYS, diverged almost 500 million years ago. The hagfishes, family Myxinidae, are marine scavengers with many fingerlike whiskers around the mouth. The lampreys, family Petromyzontidae, inhabit both fresh and marine habitats. Whether marine
or freshwater, all lampreys breed in freshwater streams, where the young go through a larval stage during which they are called the ammocete larva. Some species are parasitic and grow into adults that prey on other fish. Other species are
nonparasitic, the adults living only long enough to breed again. _^<N__^<N_Edward O. Wiley
-END-
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1065
CAT
-A-
Agnew, Spiro T.
-T-
Agnew, Spiro T._^<N__^<N_Spiro Theodore Agnew, b. Baltimore, Md., Nov. 9, 1918, is a former U.S. vice-president and governor of Maryland. Agnew studied law at the University of Baltimore and was admitted to the bar in 1949. He served as Baltimore
County executive from 1962 to 1966, when he was elected Republican governor of Maryland. In that office Agnew won Maryland's first open-housing legislation and a graduated income tax. _^<N__^<N_As Richard Nixon's vice-president (1969-73), Agnew
became known for his colorful speeches attacking radical dissidents and the news media. Charged with accepting bribes while governor and vice-president, he resigned on Oct. 10, 1973. He pleaded no contest to one count of income tax evasion and was
sentenced to 3 years probation and fined $10,000. He has written a novel, The Canfield Decision (1976). _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Cohen, Richard M., A Heartbeat Away: The Investigation and Resignation of Vice-President Spiro T. Agnew (1974); Lippman,
Theo, Spiro Agnew's America (1972); Marsh, Robert, Agnew: The Unexamined Man: A Political Profile (1971).
-END-
-C-
1972
CAT
-A-
Agnon, S. Y.
-T-
Agnon, S. Y._^<N__^<N_{ahg'-nohn} _^<N__^<N_Shmuel Yosef Agnon, b. July 17, 1888, d. Feb. 17, 1970, earned his reputation as a master craftsman of the Hebrew novel and short-story form. The acknowledged dean of Hebrew letters, he received
international recognition when he was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature in 1966. _^<N__^<N_Fully rooted in the traditions of his people, Agnon depicted the spiritual richness of East European Jewish life and its sad decline in the 1930s, as
well as the struggles of the early Jewish settlers in Palestine. He wrote realistic, psycho- logical fiction and highly symbolic tales. In expressionistic dreamlike stories, he portrayed human helplessness in a manner reminiscent of Franz KAFKA,
the European writer to whom he has most often been compared. His unique style is derived from classical Hebrew sources and marks a departure from contemporary usage. _^<N__^<N_Agnon's family name was originally Czaczkes. He was born in Galicia
(now in Poland), emigrated to Palestine in 1908 and, except for 11 years in Germany, lived in Jerusalem for most of his adult life. His first major novel, The Bridal Canopy (1930; rev. Eng. trans., 1967), offered a panoramic view of Jewish life
in late 18th- and early 19th-century Galicia. In the Heart of the Seas (1933; rev. Eng. trans., 1967) is a folk tale about the pilgrimage of pious 19th-century Jews to Palestine. In his autobiographical work A Guest for the Night (1939; Eng.
trans., 1968), Agnon revisits his hometown and views its postwar decline. The collection of tales titled Twenty-one Stories (1970) reveals the author's modernity. Many critics look upon Temol Shilshom (The Day Before Yesterday, 1945), which
concerns the problems of the westernized Jew, as Agnon's greatest novel. _^<N__^<N_Jacob Kabakoff _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Aberbach, David, At the Handles of the Lock (1985); Band, Arnold, Nostalgia and Nightmare (1968); Fisch, Harold, S. Y.
Agnon (1975); Hochman, Baruch, The Fiction of S. Y. Agnon (1970).
-END-
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2015
CAT
-A-
agnosticism
-T-
agnosticism_^<N__^<N_Agnosticism is the philosophical position that it is impossible to know about the nature or existence of GOD. The term was coined in 1869 by Thomas H. HUXLEY from the Greek agnostos ("unknowable") to refer to his own
conviction that knowledge is impossible on many matters covered by religious doctrines. Agnosticism is therefore concerned with questions of EPISTEMOLOGY, the examination of human knowledge; it considers valid only knowledge that comes from
ordinary and immediate experience. Agnosticism is distinct from ATHEISM on the one hand and SKEPTICISM on the other. Atheists reject belief in the existence of God. Skeptics hold the strong suspicion or probabilistic estimate that God does not
exist. Agnostics refuse to make such judgments. _^<N__^<N_The agnostic position is as old as philosophy and can be traced to the pre-Socratics and to the skeptics of ancient Greece. In modern times, agnosticism became prevalent during the 18th
and 19th centuries, mainly because of the growing mass of scientific data that seemed to contradict the biblical position and because of the disagreement of theologians and church authorities over the use of textual and historical criticism in the
interpretation of the BIBLE. Many of the best-known philosophers have been agnostics. Among them are Auguste COMTE, William JAMES, Immanuel KANT, George SANTAYANA, and Herbert SPENCER. _^<N__^<N_Thomas E. Wren _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Armstrong,
Richard A., Agnosticism and Theism in the Nineteenth Century (1977); Budd, Susan, Varieties of Unbelief: Atheists and Agnostics in English Society, 1850-1960 (1977); Burtt, E. A., Types of Religious Philosophy (1951); Collins, James, God in
Modern Philosophy (1959); Huxley, Thomas H., "Agnosticism" and "Agnosticism and Christianity," in Collected Essays, vol. 5 (1902; repr. 1969); Lightman, Bernard, The Origins of Agnosticism (1987); Mavrodes, George, Belief in God (1970);
Mills, David, Overcoming Religion (1980); Russell, Bertrand, Why I Am Not a Christian (1957).
-END-
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41
CAT
-A-
agon:
-T-
agon:_^<N__^<N_see NARRATIVE AND DRAMATIC DEVICES.
-END-
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786
CAT
-A-
agora
-T-
agora_^<N__^<N_In ancient Greece, an agora was a public area or marketplace, usually located in the middle of the city or near a harbor. Generally square in shape, it was always surrounded by a colonnade of single or double ranges of columns. In
early Greek times public assemblies were held in the agora. Later it functioned primarily as the center of commercial life in the city; markets were held here, and it was the site of transactions of all kinds. In later Greek times the agora also
became a religious center and contained temples, altars, commemorative statues, and sometimes even the tombs of important personages. The porticoes were often decorated with murals. The Roman FORUM was essentially an adaptation of the ancient Greek
agoraphobia_^<N__^<N_{ag-uh-ruh-foh'-bee-uh} _^<N__^<N_Agoraphobia is an intense, irrational fear of being in or crossing through a wide-open space. See PHOBIA.
-END-
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1177
CAT
-A-
Agostino di Duccio
-T-
Agostino di Duccio_^<N__^<N_{ah-goh-stee'-noh dee doo'-chyoh} _^<N__^<N_Agostino di Duccio, b. 1418, d. c.1481, was an Italian Renaissance sculptor from Florence whose contribution comes from important works done outside his native city. Influenced
by DONATELLO at an early stage, he developed a highly individual style, involving swirling linear surface play of a particularly lyrical quality. _^<N__^<N_Agostino's most important works are relief panels (1447-54) in the Tempio Malatestiano,
Rimini, and at the Oratory of San Bernardino (1457-61), Perugia. He also worked in Venice, Bologna, and Modena. In 1463 he completed the first (now lost) of two commissions for colossal statues for the Duomo, the Cathedral of Florence. The second
statue remained incomplete, and the huge marble block was used 40 years later by Michelangelo for his statue of DAVID (1501-04; Accademia, Florence). _^<N__^<N_Giulia Bartrum _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Avery, Charles, Florentine Renaissance Sculpture
(1989); Poeschke, J., Donatello and His World: Italian Renaissance Sculpture (1993); Rosenauer, Artur, Italian Renaissance Sculpture in the Time of Donatello (1985); Seymour, Charles, Jr., Sculpture in Italy, 1400-1500 (1966; repr. 1992).
-END-
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826
CAT
-A-
agouti
-T-
agouti_^<N__^<N_{uh-goo'-tee} _^<N__^<N_The agouti, genus Dasyprocta, is a rodent belonging to the family Dasyproctidae, order Rodentia. About 24 species exist. Agoutis are about 61 cm (24 in) long, have short tails (10-35 mm/2/5-1 2/5 in), and
weigh up to 3 kg (7 lb). The coarse, glossy coat ranges from pale orange to shades of brown and near-black; the underparts are whitish. The body is slender with a high, muscular rump well adapted for running. The front paws have five claws and the
hind have three much thicker claws. _^<N__^<N_Agoutis live from southern Mexico to southern Brazil. They flourish in cool, damp lowland forests, grasslands, and brush, and eat leaves, fruit, nuts, and roots. They dig burrows in which they raise
litters of two to four. _^<N__^<N_Everett Sentman _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Voelker, William, The Natural History of Living Mammals (1986).
-END-
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1046
CAT
-A-
Agra
-T-
Agra_^<N__^<N_Agra, a city in north central India on the right bank of the Yamuna River, is the administrative headquarters of the Agra district in Uttar Pradesh state. The population is 899,195 (1991). The average annual temperature is 26 deg C
(78 deg F), and rainfall averages 765 mm (30 in) annually. Although Agra has a rich Muslim heritage, the majority of its present population is Hindu. Agra was developed as a trading post and strategic capital site. Today it is a center for light
industry, and tourism is significant. Agra University was founded in 1927. _^<N__^<N_Babur, founder of the Mogul Empire (1526), informally established Agra as the administrative seat of his rule. In 1566, Akbar, grandson of Babur, formally made
the city the imperial capital. Agra is famous for its fine examples of Mogul architecture. These include Agra Fort, a red sandstone fortress complex, the mausoleum of Itimad-ud-daulah, and the world-renowned TAJ MAHAL, constructed of white marble
by Shah Jahan as a sepulcher for his empress Mumtaz Mahal. _^<N__^<N_Ashok K. Dutt
-END-
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1035
CAT
-A-
agranulocytosis
-T-
agranulocytosis_^<N__^<N_{ay-gran-yuh-loh-sy-toh'-suhs} _^<N__^<N_Agranulocytosis is a disorder of the blood in which the number of white cells is markedly reduced, usually resulting in the development of infected ulcers on the skin and in the
throat, intestinal tract, and other mucous membranes. The condition is usually caused by interference with the production and release of white cells in the bone marrow. This may result from damage to the bone marrow by ionizing radiation or by
drugs used to treat cancer and leukemia, as well as by certain antibiotics, tranquilizers, antidepressants, antithyroid agents, anti-inflammatory drugs, insecticides, and solvents. The condition may also be caused by certain hereditary disorders
affecting the bone marrow by a deficiency of folic acid and vitamin B-12. _^<N__^<N_Acute cases are characterized by chills, fever, and prostration. Because white blood cells are an important defense against invading microorganisms,
agranulocytosis may cause a bacterial infection to become life-threatening. _^<N__^<N_Peter L. Petrakis
-END-
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39
CAT
-A-
Agrarians:
-T-
Agrarians:_^<N__^<N_see FUGITIVES AND AGRARIANS.
-END-
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3714
CAT
-A-
agribusiness
-T-
agribusiness_^<N__^<N_Agribusiness is the name for the sector of the economy that purchases and processes agricultural commodities--and often produces them--and fabricates and sells agricultural production materials and equipment. _^<N__^<N_The
agribusiness sector is much larger than the farming industry. Of each dollar spent by consumers on food, about one-third goes to farms; the rest is absorbed by the transportation, processing, packaging, refrigerating, storage, marketing, and
retailing of foods transformed from farm commodities. In addition, the agribusiness sector processes the fertilizers, insecticides, herbicides, veterinary supplies, feed, and feed additives for growing or raising food. It supplies improved seed
varieties, machinery and equipment, specialized vehicles, and many other requirements of modern farming. This sector of the agricultural economy also receives the majority of federal farm subsidies, either in the form of subsidies to further the
sale of export crops or in direct subsidies to the growers of such commodities as sugar. _^<N__^<N_The growth of agribusiness, beginning largely in the post-World War II era, is primarily responsible for the present-day U.S. FOOD INDUSTRY.
Tractors, machines, and other equipment have replaced most farm labor. The broad application of chemical FERTILIZERS and PESTICIDES greatly increased farm yields--although, over the years, the effects of these chemicals on such other agricultural
components as soil and water have proved less than beneficial (see ORGANIC FARMING). Sophisticated FOOD TECHNOLOGY, combined with massive advertising expenditures, has promoted consumer acceptance of highly processed, packaged foods and permitted
the rapid growth of the fast-food industry (see FOOD SERVICE SYSTEMS). _^<N__^<N_Another result of the growth of agribusiness has been the vertical integration of portions of the food industry. A case in point is broiler-chicken production. A food
industry firm will supply a farmer with baby chicks, feed, and the antibiotics necessary to keep the flocks alive. In specially constructed broiler sheds, the farmer raises the chickens to market weight, at which point they are purchased,
processed, shipped, and marketed by the firm (see FACTORY FARMING). Some large supermarket chains contract directly with farmers for their output, then process and sell it themselves. _^<N__^<N_Agricultural technology is another field requiring the
financial inputs that only large firms can afford. For example, many of the biggest pharmaceutical producers in the United States are involved in the search for genetically improved plants and animals and for genetically engineered vaccines,
fertility and growth hormones, and other tools of biotechnology for agricultural use. _^<N__^<N_The accumulation of very large areas of productive land is another attribute of agribusiness. In the United States some 1,300 farms each sell more than
$5 million annually, and about 32,000 gross over $500,000. Most of these huge farms are family enterprises but are organized as corporations. Others are owned by corporations with interests in addition to farming. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Beierlein,
J., et al., Principles of Agribusiness Management (1986; repr. 1993); Cramer, G. L., and Jensen, C. W., Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness, 6th ed. (1994); Dinham, B., and Hines, C., Agribusiness in Africa (1984); Fenton, T. P., and Heffron,
Mary J., eds., Food, Hunger, Agribusiness (1987); Goldschmidt, W., As You Sow: Three Studies in the Social Consequences of Agribusiness (1978); Kramer, M., Three Farms, rev. ed. (1987); Voll, S. P., A Plough in Field Arable: Western Agribusiness in
Third World Agriculture (1980); Wallace, L. T., Agriculture's Futures: America's Food System (1987).
-END-
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1227
CAT
-A-
Agricola, Georgius
-T-
Agricola, Georgius_^<N__^<N_{uh-grik'-oh-luh, jor'-jee-uhs} _^<N__^<N_The German educator, city official, and physician Georgius Agricola (Latinized form of Georg Bauer), b. Mar. 24, 1494, d. Nov. 21, 1555, is best known as the author of De re
metallica (1556), a treatise on mining and metallurgy. The treatise was translated into English in 1912 by future U.S. president Herbert Hoover and his wife, Lou Henry Hoover. Agricola studied medicine at Leipzig University. He became a devoted
follower of ERASMUS, who wrote a foreword to Agricola's first book on mining and metallurgy (1530). While town physician of Joachimsthal (now Jachymov, Czech Republic), he became intensely interested in all aspects of the mining and metallurgy
industry by which the town thrived and began a 25-year study of the subject, which culminated in his posthumously published masterpiece. The 12-chapter treatise included 292 woodcut illustrations carefully executed by Blasius Weffring. Agricola
also wrote a number of works on medicine, geology, mineralogy, politics, and economics. _^<N__^<N_David Hounshell _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Agricola, Georgius, De re metallica, trans. by Herbert Clark Hoover and Lou Henry Hoover (1912; repr. 1950);
Dibner, Brian, Agricola on Metals (1958).
-END-
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574
CAT
-A-
Agricola, Gnaeus Julius
-T-
Agricola, Gnaeus Julius_^<N__^<N_{gnay'-uhs} _^<N__^<N_Gnaeus Julius Agricola, b. June 13, AD 37, d. Aug. 23, 93, was a Roman general who served ably as a conqueror and governor (78-84) of Britain. He subdued North Wales and expanded Roman rule
north into Scotland, defeating the Caledonians at Mons Graupius (location unknown) in 83. Agricola romanized Britain in a shrewd and gradual fashion, fostering urbanization and partial self-rule in the south. His son-in-law TACITUS left an account
of his enlightened rule. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hanson, W. S., Agricola and the Conquest of the North (1987).
-END-
-C-
1851
CAT
-A-
Agricultural Adjustment Administration
-T-
Agricultural Adjustment Administration_^<N__^<N_Created by the U.S. Congress under the Agricultural Adjustment Act of May 1933, the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) was the most important early NEW DEAL effort to combat the effects of
the DEPRESSION OF THE 1930S on the nation's farms. The AAA attempted to raise farm prices by restricting agricultural output. Under the Domestic Allotment Plan, which affected such staple crops as wheat, cotton, corn, and tobacco, benefits were
paid for lowered crop production. This plan helped raise commodity prices, but land-owning farmers benefited most; tenant farmers and sharecroppers often faced eviction when production was curtailed. _^<N__^<N_In January 1936 the U.S. Supreme
Court, in UNITED STATES V. BUTLER, declared the Domestic Allotment Plan unconstitutional on the grounds that subsidies imposed an unacceptable system of regulation. Congress responded by passing the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act
(1936), which allowed the AAA to pay benefits to farmers who planted soil-enriching instead of staple crops, and the Agricultural Adjustment Act (1938), which allowed the AAA to fix acreages for staple export crops and grant loans on the basis of
stored surplus crops. The AAA continued to function, with reduced authority, until 1945, when it was absorbed by the Production and Marketing Administration. _^<N__^<N_Richard Polenberg _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Blaisdell, D. C., Government and
Agriculture: The Growth of Federal Farm Aid (1940; repr. 1974); Conrad, D., The Forgotten Farmers (1965; repr. 1982); Hurt, R. D., The Dust Bowl: An Agricultural and Social History (1981); Perkins, V. L., Crisis in Agriculture (1969); Saloutos, T.,
The American Farmer and the New Deal (1982); Smith, D., The New Deal in the Urban South (1988); Svobida, L., Farming the Dust Bowl: A First Hand Account from Kansas (1986).
-END-
-C-
9585
CATO
4789
9576
-A-
agricultural ecology
-O-
000000|agricultural ecology
000522| Natural Ecosystems
002194| Ecosystems in Agriculture
003897| Consequences of Modern Agriculture
006402| Ecological Solutions
008193| Third World Ecologies
-T-
agricultural ecology_^<N__^<N_Agricultural ecology is the application of ecological principles to agricultural systems. Since ECOLOGY has several frameworks of analysis, agricultural ecology can be studied from the perspective of energy flow,
nutrient cycling, food webs, the interactions between populations of organisms, and the relations between organisms and their physical environment. The objective of agricultural ecology is to understand the conditions leading to sustainable,
productive agriculture that has harmonious environmental impacts. _^<N__^<N_ Natural Ecosystems_^<N__^<N_From an energy perspective, agriculture may be viewed as the capture and conversion of solar energy in the tissues of crops and livestock.
Using the process of PHOTOSYNTHESIS, plants trap sunlight and combine its energy with carbon dioxide and water to form carbohydrates--energy-rich chemical compounds that provide the materials required to sustain both plant and animal life. Most of
the energy captured by plants is used directly to sustain the plant, but a small fraction (termed the net primary productivity) is incorporated by the plant as growth--new biomass, or tissue, which is available as food for use by humans or other
animals. _^<N__^<N_In natural ecosystems the energy contained in plant biomass is generally consumed by herbivores--animals that subsist on plant tissues--which are in turn consumed by predators, forming pathways known as food webs. Each organism
in the pathway requires about 90 percent of its energy intake for its own maintenance, turning only about 10 percent into biomass. The rate of animal biomass production that can be sustained by an ecosystem is therefore much lower than that of
plants: most of the energy they consume is dissipated and rendered unavailable for further use. Thus the presence of animal species in natural ecosystems reduces the quantity of food available for humans. In addition, some portion of the biomass of
most ecosystems exists in forms unsuitable for human use. For these reasons relatively little energy is available for humans in natural ecosystems. It was necessary to develop agriculture, increasing the amount of available biomass, before human
societies could increase their populations. _^<N__^<N_ Ecosystems in Agriculture_^<N__^<N_The success of the development of agriculture is rooted in the alteration of natural ecosystems to enhance net production and reduce losses through
consumption by other species. By increasing the biomass conversion efficiencies of livestock species and the usability of the resulting biomass, and by reducing losses to undesired pest species, relatively large quantities of crops and livestock
may be raised on small parcels of land. This has been accomplished through the selective breeding of crop and livestock species; augmentation of the water and nutrient supplies available to plants through irrigation and fertilization; and the
reduction or elimination of undesired plant and animal populations through cultivation and pest control. _^<N__^<N_In traditional agriculture net productivity was maintained through the development of farming systems that had many of the properties
of natural ecosystems. Crop species with low susceptibility to pests were developed, animal and crop wastes were returned to the soil, and crops were rotated from year to year to ensure sustained soil fertility. These systems were generally
transmitted from generation to generation through cultural beliefs and customs dictating the proper relationship between humans and the natural world. _^<N__^<N_While natural ecosystems provide relatively low yields to humans, they also provide
many of the environmental services required to sustain their own productivity. Where the structure of these systems is disturbed through human intervention, the ability to sustain these services is generally lost, and productivity can be maintained
only through the introduction of energy and materials from beyond the farm. _^<N__^<N_ Consequences of Modern Agriculture_^<N__^<N_Modern agriculture has increasingly replaced the environmental services built into earlier agricultural systems with
industrial inputs--machinery and synthetic FERTILIZER and pesticides. But the ecological costs of agricultural gains have been considerable. Industrial agriculture, for example, is heavily dependent on energy, large amounts of water, and other
scarce natural resources. There is increasing evidence and concern that current agricultural practices will not be sustainable as natural resources become more scarce or more expensive. _^<N__^<N_Overreliance on chemical pesticides has had
deleterious consequences. Pest populations are typically reduced immediately by the application of an effective pesticide, but the predators of the pest, which naturally regulate pest populations, have often been completely eliminated by pesticide
application, while some members of the pest species survive to multiply freely in the absence of natural enemies. The short-term gains are thus frequently offset by greater pest problems later in the growing season. Even when a particular pest is
controlled, another insect, perhaps more destructive and difficult to eliminate, may move into the original pest's empty niche. To make matters worse, pest species frequently develop genetic resistance to particular pesticides. Thus pesticide
misuse has often necessitated larger dosages of toxic, expensive chemical compounds. _^<N__^<N_Industrial agriculture has historically relied on intensive tilling and cultivation techniques, which leave the soil's surface unprotected for long
periods of time, permitting erosion of topsoil. Although chemical fertilizers replace nutrients that are lost by the soil, they do little to replace the loss of the soil itself. New soil is built through the deposition and decomposition of plant
material, a process substantially reduced by industrial agriculture. As a result, the ability of the soil to retain water and nutrients may deteriorate over time, reducing soil fertility. _^<N__^<N_The chemical inputs of industrial agriculture
pollute the air, find their way into streams, and accumulate in groundwater supplies. _^<N__^<N_Finally, overreliance on IRRIGATION may lead to SALINIZATION, where salts contained in irrigation water accumulate in the soil as the water evaporates
or is used by plants. Plants can tolerate salt in limited concentrations, but heavy soil deposits have rendered large areas of land infertile in both the industrialized and developing world. _^<N__^<N_ Ecological Solutions_^<N__^<N_Existing
agricultural practices can be modified through the adoption of an ecological approach emphasizing the maintenance of environmental services within agricultural systems. Energy- and resource-intensive inputs would be reduced, and natural ecological
processes would be reintegrated into agricultural systems to enhance soil fertility and reduce pest infestations. For example, the use of integrated pest management--the cultivation of pest-resistant plant species, the maintenance of predator
populations, reduced reliance on single crop, or "monoculture," systems, which are particularly susceptible to pest outbreaks--may be less costly and more ecologically sound in controlling pest populations than the routine use of pesticides. (See
also PESTICIDES AND PEST CONTROL.) _^<N__^<N_Soil maintenance and regeneration can be accomplished using techniques such as covering the soil with crop residues, fertilization with animal wastes, and reduced tillage to cut erosion and accelerate
new soil formation. Some plant species such as legumes and alfalfa increase soil nutrient concentrations, and successive plantings of these species can maintain soil fertility without extensive use of fertilizers. _^<N__^<N_The use of drip
irrigation instead of more conventional techniques improves irrigation efficiency. As a result the heavy demands placed on water supplies and the energy needed to transport the water to arid and semiarid regions may be reduced substantially. Soil
salinization is also less of a threat with lower water use. _^<N__^<N_Organic farming has demonstrated the validity of the ecological approach. Organic farmers may not grow as much corn or soybeans as their industrialized neighbors, but their costs
are far lower, their soil generally richer, and their crops healthier. _^<N__^<N_ Third World Ecologies_^<N__^<N_Many Third World nations have developed agricultural programs that will not be sustainable over the long run. The Brazilian government,
for example, encouraged the establishment of agricultural settlements in the rain forests of the Amazon, on soils unsuitable for agriculture. Farming in most of the Amazon succeeds only through SLASH-AND-BURN cultivation, which is sustainable at
low population levels but very destructive at higher levels, especially when combined with modern tools, government subsidies, and other devices designed to increase production. _^<N__^<N_Third World agricultural development should be rooted in an
understanding of the ecology and culture of the country, so that food production works with, not against, nature. Only through properly designed programs that are sensitive to natural conditions can sustainable agricultural development be achieved.
_^<N__^<N_Richard B. Norgaard _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Altieri, Miguel, Agroecology: The Scientific Basis of Alternative Agriculture (1987); Cox, G. W., and Atkins, M. D., Agricultural Ecology (1979); Dover, Michael, and Talbot, Lee, To Feed the
Earth (1987); Ramakrishnan, P. S., Shifting Agriculture and Sustainable Development (1992); Soule, J. D., and Piper, J. K., Farming in Nature's Image (1992); Tivy, Joy, Agricultural Ecology (1990); Vasey, D. E., An Ecological History of Agriculture
(1992).
-END-
-C-
10231
CATO
4841
9655
-A-
agricultural economics
-O-
000000|agricultural economics
000519| The Work of Agricultural Economics
001547| Government and Agriculture
005412| Trade and the Globalization of Agriculture
007332| Agricultural Economics and the Developing Countries
-T-
agricultural economics_^<N__^<N_Agricultural economics is the field of social science concerned with economic solutions to the problems of agriculture, to the wise use and conservation of natural resources, and to the growth and development of a
food industry that responds effectively to changes in consumer demand. An applied academic field, it uses the principles of economics to analyze and suggest efficient allocation decisions for the use of land, labor, capital, and management given
the constraints of institutions, technology, and markets. _^<N__^<N_ The Work of Agricultural Economics_^<N__^<N_The field of agricultural economics encompasses a number of different specializations, including the study of the agricultural inputs
of land, labor, and finance; the economics involved in environmental pollution and regulation; policies relating to agriculture; international trade in agricultural products; and agricultural development in the third world. _^<N__^<N_Consumers have
spent an increasingly smaller proportion of their disposable income on food and related products in the second half of the 20th century. This percentage has decreased to an average of 14% in the United States in the 1990s, one of the lowest such
rates in the world. Farm numbers have decreased from over 6 million in the 1930s to 2 million in the 1990s as the industrialization of agriculture and the food industry has progressed. The 300,000 largest farms produce 80% of the total value of
farm output in the 1990s. Further concentration of production and distribution in all sectors of the food industry seems likely. _^<N__^<N_ Government and Agriculture_^<N__^<N_Government has intervened in agricultural production in nearly all
countries of the world during the 20th century. Aggregate demand for food is inelastic: the capacity of the human stomach is only so large regardless of how low prices fall. When new technology and scientific agriculture is adopted, supply often
increases more rapidly than effective demand. Prices fall or rise more than proportionately with small changes in supply. For storable commodities like wheat, corn, rice, and cotton, large stocks can accumulate and keep farm prices at very low
levels. It was out of these conditions in the 1920s and 1930s that government intervention had its beginnings. In North America and Western Europe crop stocks accumulated, farm prices fell, and the Great Depression left many people hungry and out
of work. World War II and the population explosion in the developing countries led to increased intervention in markets to affect both supply and demand conditions, especially for the basic food and feed grains. _^<N__^<N_The goal of agricultural
programs is to ensure for society an adequate supply of safe, high-quality, low-cost food and fiber, to conserve our scarce natural resources, and to encourage farms and firms in the industry to compete internationally. Important complementary
goals are to reduce hunger, both here and abroad, and to improve human nutrition and health. Over the years in the United States the New Deal programs of the 1930s have evolved into the comprehensive agricultural legislation of the 1990s. Major
revisions have been made by Congress every four or five years since 1973. It is a bipartisan process with both political parties committed to reducing government outlays for agricultural programs and allowing the market to have an increased role in
determining prices. _^<N__^<N_The Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990 is in effect until December 1995. This omnibus bill has 25 titles of which the first 11 deal with commodity programs. There is a separate title for each of the
storables, such as wheat, feed grains, cotton, and peanuts. A complex system of target prices and support levels has been established for producers who agree to limit production to a certain proportion of the cropland used historically for these
commodities and who agree to follow a set of approved conservation practices in production. The payment limit on each of these programs is established at $50,000 annually. Another major title covers revisions in the Food Stamp and other domestic
food distribution programs like School Lunch and the Women's, Infants', and Children's Program (WIC), where more than 50% of all budget allocations to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) are expended. Other major titles include conservation,
trade and export programs, marketing, forestry, credit, promotion, rural development, crop insurance, and global climate change, among others. Over the years special programs have been established, such as the Farmers Home Administration, which
provides low-cost credit to beginning farmers, and the Conservation Reserve, in which highly erodible cropland is rented to the government in long-term contracts. Necessary changes in basic legislation are accomplished through these titles. No
major changes are likely until 1995 when the next omnibus bill is considered. _^<N__^<N_Public awareness and concerns about the natural environment in which we live have increased. Additional efforts are being made by economists and scientists in
all agricultural disciplines to develop and analyze production systems that minimize long-term effects on soil, air, and water resources, as well as human health. Analyses of the tradeoffs from using different practices and technologies and
studying their costs and benefits are major thrusts of current research on sustainable systems around the world. _^<N__^<N_ Trade and the Globalization of Agriculture_^<N__^<N_Because food and fiber are such basic necessities, most countries in the
years following World War II established legislation and policies to protect and support domestic agriculture. The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) of the European Community (EC) is one of the basic building blocks holding the European Common
Market together. Even such major agricultural exporters as Canada and the United States have protectionist programs for eggs and dairy (Canada) and sugar and peanuts (U.S.). Over time these protectionist measures, which encourage domestic
production, have distorted world trade in agricultural products. Between 1970 and 1985, Western Europe has changed from being an importer of food and feed grains to a major exporter. Because protected internal prices in the EC exceed world prices
by a large margin, export dumping has been practiced, and the U.S. has responded by subsidizing exports to the same markets in competition. _^<N__^<N_Trade in all products has increased dramatically in the second half of this century, in large
measure because of the GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (GATT). Major reductions in barriers to trade have been negotiated over the past 50 years in most industries except agriculture. The Uruguay Round (late 1980s and early 1990s) has put
substantial emphasis on reducing barriers to trade in agricultural products. Progress has been slow. Exporting nations demand a gradual reduction in government protection of domestic producers, while farm groups in the EC and Japan resist these
demands. If the GATT negotiations are unsuccessful, increased emphasis will be placed on regional free-trade agreements like the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) between Canada, Mexico, and the United States. Agriculture is an important
component of these proposals, which seek to eliminate most barriers to trade over a span of 15 years. _^<N__^<N_ Agricultural Economics and the Developing Countries_^<N__^<N_Out of the post-World War II MARSHALL PLAN and distributions made from the
agricultural surpluses of the 1950s has emerged a series of programs of technical assistance and food aid addressed to the developing countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. These programs have helped to increase domestic capacity for both
agricultural production and distribution at many locations around the world. While food aid can be a constructive force for development, it can also foster dependency and lower incentives for local food production if overseas supplies of food
grains are allowed to disrupt local markets. Technical assistance to improve irrigation systems, develop new, pest-resistant varieties of seeds, support local programs of agricultural education, and improve all-weather roads and communication
systems have had positive effects. Food aid, used to pay workers who build new dams, roads, and rural infrastructure, has been an effective instrument of development. On the other hand, the dumping of surplus food grains from rich countries into
the urban markets of poor countries has been shown to slow the development process. _^<N__^<N_One of the great development successes of the second half of the 20th century has been the creation of the system of International Agricultural Research
Centers supported by the international aid organizations of the rich countries of the world and by the World Bank. The first center, the International Rice Research Institute in the Philippines, was established in 1962. There are now 18 of these
centers, each committed to developing new agricultural technology for a commodity or a class of agricultural problems. Agricultural economists helped to establish this system, and they work on marketing and distribution issues at each of the
centers. _^<N__^<N_If standards of living are to improve in the developing countries, markets for their output must be opened in the rich countries so that they may also benefit from specialization of production and trade. If the GATT negotiations
on agricultural products do not move forward, regional free trade zones like NAFTA may be the intermediate step required to allow developing economies to move further away from dependency into international competitiveness. _^<N__^<N_Bernard F.
Stanton _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Cochrane, W. W., The Development of American Agriculture (1979); Cramer, Gail L., and Jensen, C. W., Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness, 4th ed. (1988); Eicher, C. K., and Staatz, J. M., Agricultural Development
in the Third World (1990); Knutson, R. D., Penn, J. B., and Boehm, W. T., Agricultural and Food Policy, 2d ed. (1990); McCalla, Alex F., and Josling, T. E, Agricultural Policies and World Markets (1985); Robinson, K. L., Farm and Food Policies and
Their Consequences (1988). _^<N__^<N_See also: AGRIBUSINESS; FARMS AND FARMING; GREEN REVOLUTION.
-END-
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3735
CAT
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agricultural education
-T-
agricultural education_^<N__^<N_Agricultural education, as a field of formal study, instructs in the sciences and the arts of farming and in the processing and distribution of foods and other agricultural products. One of the newer major branches of
education, it extends through the high school, college, and graduate levels. Continuing education--often referred to as AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICES--is extensive; constantly revised best practices of production and management are provided to
farmers and others already formally educated. _^<N__^<N_Agricultural education in the United States began in the late 18th century with societies for the advancement of agriculture; these societies encouraged agricultural instruction in the public
schools and often published their own teaching materials. Agricultural schools began to flourish after the Morrill Act of 1862 established LAND-GRANT COLLEGES. In the United States and other developed nations the emphasis has shifted from technical
instruction to management during the latter half of the 20th century. _^<N__^<N_Agricultural education is far less available in the developing countries, but national governments and international organizations have recognized the need to invest in
schools that modernize farming. Since 1964 the World Bank has been lending funds for agricultural education, mostly for buildings and equipment. Many Asian countries emphasize the building of vocational agriculture schools at the high school level.
In 1970, 214,000 students were enrolled in 19 Asian countries, but only about 27,000 students were graduating annually at this level. Enrollments decreased as young people chose general education programs suitable for city jobs. Japan has 315
vocational agriculture schools, and India has 92 universities offering specialized agricultural instruction. Laos, Nepal, Afghanistan, Burma, Sri Lanka, and Malaysia have one agricultural school each. Enrollments for agricultural study are
increasing at the university level in Asia, except in Japan and Korea, the countries of the region that are industrializing the fastest. Graduates often go into technical jobs related to agriculture, rather than directly into farming. _^<N__^<N_The
bureaucratic organization of agricultural education and extension has often been cumbersome. In former British and French colonies in Asia and Africa the difficulties have been compounded by the overlapping and conflicting roles of ministries of
agriculture and ministries of education. In many countries the small number of highly trained educators cannot adequately instruct an enormous farm population not previously reached by agricultural educators or extension workers. Such countries as
India, however, have produced enough agricultural graduates to enable these countries to place many of them at the village level. Educational methods needed to communicate agricultural knowledge to peasant farmers vary according to the levels of
poverty and illiteracy in individual countries (see AGRICULTURE AND THE FOOD SUPPLY). Broadcasting, for instance, reached huge populations untouched by agricultural instruction in any previous generation. In Egypt, for example, each of 4,000
village cooperatives now has a television set receiving a 4-hour farming program every week. _^<N__^<N_E. L. Jones _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Axinn, George Harold, and Thorat, Sudhakar, Modernizing World Agriculture: A Comparative Study of
Agricultural Extension Education Systems (1972); FAO, World Conference on Agricultural Education and Training, Copenhagen, 1970 Report, 2 vols. (1971); Scott, Roy V., The Reluctant Farmer (1970); UNESCO, Agricultural Education in Asia (1971);
Williams, D. B., Agricultural Extension: Farm Extension Services in Australia, Britain and the U.S.A. (1968).
-END-
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731
CAT
-A-
agricultural extension service
-T-
agricultural extension service_^<N__^<N_Agricultural extension services worldwide provide education on farming techniques and management skills on a local or regional level (see AGRICULTURE AND THE FOOD SUPPLY). The Cooperative Extension Service of
the U.S. Department of Agriculture was established in 1914 to apply the results of agricultural research done in U.S. land-grant colleges. Operating through state and county extension agents, it helps U.S. farmers to learn and use new agricultural
techniques. Home-demonstration agents supply information and advice on food-preserving and cooking techniques and on farm economics and financing. The 4-H PROGRAMS train young people in agricultural, food-processing, and management techniques.
-END-
-C-
19295
CATO
4805
9586
14396
19225
-A-
agriculture, history of
-O-
000000|agriculture, history of
001959| Early Agriculture in the Old World
003749| Agriculture in Pre-Columbian America
005022| Early Greece and Rome
006188| Medieval Europe
007197| Enclosure and the Agricultural Revolution
009240| Colonial North America
010549| 18th- and 19th-Century North America
014067| 20th-Century United States
-T-
agriculture, history of_^<N__^<N_Agriculture involves raising deliberately bred crops and livestock (see ANIMAL HUSBANDRY) for food, fiber, and other materials. Although thousands of plant and animal species exist, only 200 plant and about 50 animal
species have been domesticated. About 12 or 13 plant crops are important staples, and almost all of these are GRAINS--especially wheat, rice, and maize (corn)--that were domesticated from wild GRASSES by deliberate cultivation of their seeds.
_^<N__^<N_During the PALEOLITHIC PERIOD--from at least 2.5 million years ago to about 8000 BC--people hunted, fished, or gathered their food (see PREHISTORIC HUMANS). From about 11,000 to 8000 BC flint-edged wooden sickles were used to gather wild
grains, which were stored in caves; about 9000 BC sheep were domesticated in the Near East. From approximately 8300 to 6500 BC, during the MESOLITHIC PERIOD, groups of people began to practice natural plant husbandry by simply broadcasting seeds
and waiting for the harvest. The only crude tool needed was a haft of bone, wood, or antler fitted with a microlith--a small, sharp blade of stone--for reaping grain. Dogs were the first animals to be tamed, usually to help in hunting. In the Near
East such herd animals as goats, sheep, and cattle were domesticated. _^<N__^<N_The practice of cultivating plants became established in the Near East and Europe about 6500-3500 BC, in southeast Asia about 6800-4000 BC, and in Mesoamerica and Peru
about 2500 BC. Most areas where cultivation began were located in river valleys having semiarid climates. The process of cultivation in the Old World (see NEOLITHIC PERIOD) involved preparing soil by harrowing--breaking down and smoothing with a
tree branch--and sowing choice seeds with a stick plow. In Mesoamerica, where no species of draft animal existed and where the chief grain-- maize--required individual planting, a plowless form of cultivation developed, whereby a digging stick was
used to make holes for the seeds. _^<N__^<N_ Early Agriculture in the Old World_^<N__^<N_The evolution from nomadic HUNTER-GATHERERS to cultivators allowed people to establish permanent villages because they had a reliable food supply close at
hand. More people were freed from providing food and were able to develop technologies and services that led to the shift from farming communities to towns; eventually, agriculture-based civilizations were formed. _^<N__^<N_In MESOPOTAMIA, the
region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in present-day Iraq (see FERTILE CRESCENT), cultivation began in the 9th millennium BC. The wheel was invented, pulleys were used to draw water from artificial canals, and complex IRRIGATION systems
were constructed. Mesopotamians raised wheat and other cereal grains; were skilled in gardening; and domesticated the camel, donkey, and horse. _^<N__^<N_Relying on the water and fertile silt of the Nile, Egyptians (see EGYPT, ANCIENT) irrigated
land to ensure large crops of wheat and barley, which, along with flax, provided the basis for their agriculture. Several types of palm trees were cultivated, and wild papyrus was harvested to make paper. In addition to oxen and horses, the
Egyptians kept poultry, sheep, goats, and swine. _^<N__^<N_The INDUS CIVILIZATION of northern India, which existed from about 2300 to 1750 BC, raised wheat, barley, and rice. These people grew such plants as cotton, sesame, tea, and sugarcane.
Chickens were domesticated from Indian jungle fowl, and the water buffalo and zebu cattle were used as draft animals. Farmers used plows, designed effective irrigation systems, and built large granaries. Among the river valleys of China, people
learned how to cultivate soybeans, oranges, peaches, pears, hemp, and tea. They kept livestock, practiced intensive gardening, and excelled at flower horticulture. _^<N__^<N_ Agriculture in Pre-Columbian America_^<N__^<N_In Mesoamerica--what is now
Mexico and Central America--gourds, peppers, avocados, and a grain, amaranth, were domesticated from 7000 to 5000 BC. The people of Mesoamerica were nomadic hunters and semiagriculturists, however, until 2500 BC, when maize was domesticated. The
Maya-Toltec-Aztec civilization flourished in Mexico and Central America from AD 250 to 1600 (see AZTEC; MAYA). These people hybridized corn to increase yields and also cultivated beans, squash, chili peppers, and avocados. They grew tobacco and
several species of cotton. They built irrigation canals and made artificial gardens that floated on water, such as those seen at XOCHIMILCO. Dry farming --cultivation of nonirrigated lands by moisture-retaining tillage--was practiced. _^<N__^<N_At
about AD 1200 the INCA were carving out an empire in the Andes amid a harsh environment. They used stone hoes and digging sticks with a foot rest for pushing the end into the soil. Terraces, irrigation, and drainage systems were constructed
skillfully; land was fertilized, and stone storehouses were built to preserve food. The Inca cultivated such foods as corn, white and sweet potatoes, and squash. They domesticated the llama as a beast of burden and kept alpacas for wool. _^<N__^<N_
Early Greece and Rome_^<N__^<N_From 2000 BC on the Greeks cultivated cereal grains--chiefly barley--raised olive and fig trees, and kept vineyards and livestock. The Greeks are credited with inventing a water wheel equipped with buckets to raise
water to a higher level. Farmers used wooden implements primarily, including a threshing sledge with rocks for teeth. _^<N__^<N_The Romans advanced farm technology in the Mediterranean world by making tools, including the plow, reaper, hoe, and
sickle, that had iron parts. They cultivated wheat, barley, and millet, kept vineyards, and raised livestock. Before 200 BC, Roman farmers were independent, each owning about 1.8 to 6.1 ha (4 to 15 acres). During the next 200 years the wealthy
acquired publicly owned lands until they each controlled hundreds or thousands of hectares, which were worked by slaves. _^<N__^<N_Throughout this period a series of agrarian laws were enacted to divide land held by the wealthy and distribute it to
small farmers. These attempts at land reform eventually failed, and by AD 200 many farmers were tenants on estates. By AD 400 the rights of these tenants were reduced until they became serfs, bound to the land. _^<N__^<N_ Medieval
Europe_^<N__^<N_Farmers who did own small holdings divided their land among their sons. The subsequent small holdings ensured poverty among independent farmers, and especially after the Roman Empire collapsed in AD 476, small farmers were forced to
surrender their lands to powerful nobles in return for protection. This arrangement evolved during the High Middle Ages (AD 1000-1300) into MANORIALISM, especially in England, France, and Germany. _^<N__^<N_Under manorialism, serfs lived in
villages near the lord's manor and farmed their own plots in open, commonly held fields as well as laboring on the lord's land, or demesne. Each serf farmed 5 to 12 ha (12 to 30 acres), which were divided into 0.4 -ha (1-acre) strips and scattered
throughout three fields among the holdings of other serfs. One field remained fallow for a year in order to rejuvenate its fertility. Such crops as wheat, barley, beans, oats, and rye were planted in the other fields. Similar manorial systems
developed in China, Japan, and India. _^<N__^<N_ Enclosure and the Agricultural Revolution_^<N__^<N_During the 15th century the owners of English landed estates began to enclose their lands with hedges (see ENCLOSURE). The first enclosure movement
(1485-1603) converted arable land to pasture for sheep. Enclosure movements of the 1600s and especially from 1750 to 1831 permitted holders to cultivate large sections of land with the same crop. This procedure was more efficient than farming
strips, eliminated the practice of letting land lie fallow, and allowed farmers to experiment with crop rotation and other agricultural technologies. Enclosure of lands, however, served to displace farmers, who either became tenants or landless
farm laborers or migrated into the growing cities (see INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION). Other European countries slowly began to enclose lands after 1800. _^<N__^<N_The invention of mechanical farm implements during the 17th and 18th centuries created an
agricultural revolution in England. The inventions included the REAPER of Joseph Boyce (1799) and the horse-drawn drill (1701), a mechanical seed planter, of Jethro TULL (1701). Charles, 2d Viscount TOWNSHEND, of Norfolk introduced crop rotation of
clover, wheat, turnips, and barley- -an alternation of grain crops with nitrogen-fixing legumes and grasses that put nutrients back into the soil. Such fertilizers as guano, lime, gypsum, and sandy clay, known as marl, were used to improve the
soil. The first agricultural society (founded 1793) included Arthur Young (1741-1820), an educator who spread English agricultural innovations to the rest of Europe and the United States. _^<N__^<N_With the age of colonialism the European powers
established plantations in Asia, the islands of the Pacific and the Caribbean, and Latin America. On these new holdings such cash crops as tea, coffee, bananas, sugar, and rubber were introduced and cultivated on a large scale, either by indigenous
laborers or--in the Americas--by slaves imported from Africa. The agricultural exploitation of Africa itself, however, began only in the 19th century. _^<N__^<N_ Colonial North America_^<N__^<N_Throughout the coastal colonies settlers were taught
by native Americans how to plant corn and other indigenous crops. In Canada during the 1700s mainly fur trappers and only a few farmers in Quebec occupied the land. Farmsteads along the St. Lawrence River were laid out in long strips, with one edge
along the river and the farm building along a road; agriculture was on a subsistence level because the land was relatively infertile and the growing season short. New England farms were small subsistence farms, yielding rye, corn, barley, oats, and
apples. Livestock was allowed to forage in woodlands. The larger farms of the middle colonies--New Jersey and Pennsylvania, for instance--originally grew New World crops because they were easier to plant and yielded more per hectare than Old World
crops. These larger farms later introduced wheat, however, a crop that could be sold to the European market and that allowed farmers to become more commercial. Southern plantations--which used slave labor--covered hundreds of hectares and usually
grew one crop intensively for commerce, particularly tobacco (introduced in 1614), rice (1696), indigo (mid-1700s), and cotton (1780s). Eli WHITNEY invented (1793) the cotton gin, which spurred Southern states to intensive cotton planting.
_^<N__^<N_ 18th- and 19th-Century North America_^<N__^<N_After the American Revolution the U.S. government began to develop land policies that would promote settlement of the West quickly and at low cost. The Land Ordnance of 1785 stipulated that
land be surveyed and sold in mile-square sections. The Northwest Ordnance encouraged settlement by providing for local self-government (see NORTHWEST TERRITORY). Federal expansion policies continued in the 1800s following the Louisiana Purchase
(1803), the acquisition of Texas (1845), the Oregon settlement (1846), and the Mexican Cession (1848). _^<N__^<N_Such improved transportation as canals (see ERIE CANAL), steamboats, and railroads allowed commercial crops to be shipped more easily
and quickly to market. Wars in Europe increased the demand for cotton, tobacco, and food. Such inventions as the reaper of Cyrus MCCORMICK (1831) and the steel plow of John DEERE (1837) allowed the heavy, rich soils of the prairie to be tilled,
opening new regions for the cultivation of wheat. The invention of barbed wire and the steel windmill made farming possible in what had been open range for Texas longhorn cattle. Food-processing techniques, such as canning, improved flour milling,
and refrigeration, were developed during the 1840s. Refrigeration was especially important in making it possible for such distant countries as Argentina (beef) and New Zealand (mutton, milk, butter, and cheese) to export food to Europe.
_^<N__^<N_In 1862, Abraham Lincoln signed the HOMESTEAD ACT, which allowed a settler 160 acres (64.7 ha) free after working it for five years. The U.S. Department of Agriculture was formed in 1862, which year also saw the passage into law of the
MORRILL ACT, which granted land to states for the establishment of agricultural colleges (see LAND-GRANT COLLEGES). In 1867 the National GRANGE, an organization for improving the economic and social condition of farmers, was created.
_^<N__^<N_During the 1870s wheat farmers and cattle ranchers flourished in the prairies. A specific variety of wheat--Turkey Red-- adapted particularly well to prairie soil, and wheat economy improved. Ranchers began to feed cattle grain, which
resulted in better-quality beef sold to urban markets. The development of steam power resulted in mechanized COMBINES, TRACTORS, and threshers, which further improved wheat farming. _^<N__^<N_Although Canada's expansion policies did not open up
prairie land until the 1870s, Thomas Douglas, 5th earl of SELKIRK, attempted to establish an experimental colony in Manitoba in 1812. He had received a land grant from the Hudson's Bay Company for the site where present-day Winnepeg exists and
brought Scotch and Irish settlers to work the land. Despite crop failure, the agricultural inexperience of the farmers, and hostilities of the neighboring metis (people of mixed French and Indian ancestry), this RED RIVER SETTLEMENT eventually
succeeded, especially after the introduction of an iron plow in 1824. Further colonization was minimal until legislation to section off land in squares and a homesteading act in 1870 encouraged immigration. _^<N__^<N_In 1887 the HATCH ACT, in the
United States, ensured federal funding to land-grant colleges in order to set up agricultural experiment stations. During this time the agricultural scientist George Washington CARVER developed soybean flour, 118 products from sweet potatoes, and
300 products from peanuts at his research station at Tuskegee Institute, Alabama, in an effort to spur economic growth in the South by developing new crop potentials. _^<N__^<N_ 20th-Century United States_^<N__^<N_By the 1890s the gasoline tractor
had been invented, providing power to do in minutes what took horses and farmers days. The theories of HEREDITY of Gregor Johann MENDEL came to light in the early 1900s, after which PLANT BREEDING became a science. By 1910 most of the arable land
in the United States had been settled, and with the foresight of conservationists, methods for prevention of soil erosion began to be developed (see CONSERVATION). In 1914 the SMITH-LEVER ACT provided funding for extension work (see AGRICULTURAL
EXTENSION SERVICE), which involves educators' traveling to instruct farmers and their families in farm management and home economics. _^<N__^<N_U.S. and Canadian farmers mobilized to provide food for Europe during World War I. As a result of
European postwar poverty and U.S. overproduction, however, farmers experienced a depression lasting from 1922 to 1927. Nevertheless, Clarence BIRDSEYE perfected (1920s) a method for freezing foods, and supermarkets were springing up, both of which
spurred farming of produce previously too perishable to be of commercial value. The Capper -Volstead Act (1922) allowed farmers to join COOPERATIVE organizations that controlled the marketing of their commodities, resulting in greater profits.
Despite the progress, farmers' incomes were lower than the national level; therefore, legislative efforts to aid farmers began (see AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS; PARITY). _^<N__^<N_In the early 1930s droughts and dust storms caused by poor tillage
practices devastated farms and ranches of the Great Plains (see DUST BOWL). Franklin D. Roosevelt's NEW DEAL sought to satisfy the demands of striking farmers by a series of acts that included the Agricultural Adjustment Act (1933; see AGRICULTURAL
ADJUSTMENT ADMINISTRATION)--by which the secretary of agriculture could control crop production and maintain fair produce prices--and acts to improve rural roads, introduce electricity, and promote soil conservation. The Agricultural Marketing Act
(1938) improved prices for producers of perishables and allowed the federal government to buy surpluses, which were donated to the poor and used in school- meal and food-stamp programs. During the 1930s more-powerful tractors were built, and
harvesters for root and vegetable crops were invented. Hybrid corn was planted, and the Santa Gertrudis and American Brahman cattle, which could tolerate hot weather, were bred. _^<N__^<N_By the 1960s farmers required a huge outlay of capital and
demanding marketing skills to deal with suppliers and food distributors in a network known as AGRIBUSINESS. High-powered machinery, feed, fertilizers, and pesticides began to be used, and poultry was raised in completely controlled environments
(see FACTORY FARMING and EGG PRODUCTION). At the same time, lobbies of migrant laborers, environmental groups, and consumers began to affect agricultural policy. Some farmers initiated organic farming--using nonpolluting, nontoxic methods of
cropping and animal breeding. The GREEN REVOLUTION of the 1960s, spearheaded by the plant geneticist Norman Ernest BORLAUG, was the result of crop improvement programs established to help small farmers of developing nations. These programs
continue, with emphasis now on breeding new crop varieties that need little fertilizer or irrigation. Once ignored plants such as soybeans, sunflowers, and sorghum have become major commercial crops, and research has encouraged the increasing
cultivation of such arid-land plants as JOJOBA and GUAYULE. Other exotic crops that are being grown as possible future commercial sources of food include AMARANTH and quinoa (cultivated for their nutritious seeds); triticale, a cross between wheat
and rye that has a high yield and a rich protein content; and various tropical fruits, roots, and vegetables. In addition, GENETIC ENGINEERING offers the possibility of increasing crop yields by genetically implanting desired traits --disease
resistance, for example--into agricultural plants or by synthesizing hormones that can be used to increase growth rate or milk production in farm animals. _^<N__^<N_The enormous increase in the production of basic foods has paradoxically created
problems of oversupply in Europe and the United States, whose governments buy and stockpile vast amounts of such staples as wheat, cheese, and butter in order to maintain prices that will keep farming profitable. _^<N__^<N_Reviewed by James H.
Shideler _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Beckett, J. V., The Agricultural Revolution (1990); Cohen, M. N., The Food Crisis in Prehistory (1979); Duby, Georges, Rural Economy and Country Life in the Medieval West (1968); Frayn, J., Subsistence Farming in
Roman Italy (1981); Gebauer, A. B., and Price, T. D., eds., Transitions to Agriculture in Prehistory (1992); Grigg, D., The Dynamics of Agricultural Change (1983); Heiser, Charles B., Jr., Seed to Civilization (1990); Rasmussen, W., ed.,
Agriculture in the United States, 4 vols. (1979); Renfrew, Jane, ed., New Light on Early Farming (1990); Rindos, D., The Origins of Agriculture: An Evolutionary Perspective (1984); Schafer, J., Social History of American Agriculture (1936; repr.
1970). _^<N__^<N_See also: AGRICULTURE AND THE FOOD SUPPLY; FARMS AND FARMING.
-END-
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2232
CAT
-A-
Agriculture, U.S. Department of
-T-
Agriculture, U.S. Department of_^<N__^<N_One of the largest departments of the federal government, the U.S. Department of Agriculture administers programs and services concerned with farmers and consumers. These include farm price-supports, food
stamps for low-income citizens, loans to farmers, soil conservation, biological research, the grading and inspection of meat and other products, crop forecasting, crop insurance, and negotiations with foreign governments for trade in agricultural
products. _^<N__^<N_Established in 1862, the department was given cabinet status in 1889. In the early 1990s the department was composed of some 20 agencies and employed over 100,000 people. Among its agencies, the Forest Service manages national
forests and national grasslands. The Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service works to stabilize farm prices for wheat, feed grains, cotton, rice, and other commodities by making loans, establishing acreage allotments, and purchasing
surplus crops. The Foreign Agricultural Service promotes export sales of farm products and analyzes and reports on agricultural production and trade in more than 100 countries. The Food and Nutrition Service makes low-cost food available to
people who need it through such channels as the FOOD STAMP PROGRAM, the National School Lunch Program, and the Food Distribution Program. The Science and Education Administration works to improve research, extension, and teaching services in the
food and agricultural sciences. It conducts research programs in animal and plant production and human nutrition. It also administers federal grant funds for research and cooperates with state and county governments in the Cooperative Extension
System, which assists in such areas as agricultural production, marketing, natural resources, home economics, food and nutrition, 4-H development, and community and rural development. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hurt, R. D., The Department of
Agriculture (1988); Rosenblum, John W., ed., Agriculture in the Twenty-First Century (1983); United States Department of Agriculture, A Century of Service: The First One Hundred Years of the Department of Agriculture (1963); Wanlass, W. L., The
United States Department of Agriculture (1982).
-END-
-C-
24999
CATO
4797
9554
14335
19138
23944
-A-
agriculture and the food supply
-O-
000000|agriculture and the food supply
001088| Supply and Population
001983| Effective Demand
003700| FACTORS AFFECTING FOOD SUPPLY
004985| Arable Land
006722| Water Supply
007229| Climate and Weather
008101| Fertilizer
008692| Pests
009547| Energy
010776| INCREASING FOOD PRODUCTION
010983| Land Reform
012339| Use of Machinery
015147| Genetic Technology
018786| Agricultural Education
020851| Cultivation of New Crops
022514| WORLD ORGANIZATIONS AND AGRICULTURAL AID
-T-
agriculture and the food supply_^<N__^<N_The supply of food depends on three factors: how much has been produced by agriculture and fishing (see FISHING INDUSTRY), how much has been consumed, and how much has been preserved by safe processing and
storage. The most important agricultural products for the world's food supply are cereals (GRAIN), pulse crops (see PULSE CROP), and, to a lesser extent, livestock (see ANIMAL HUSBANDRY). Cereals, such as wheat, rice, maize (corn), millet, and
sorghum, provide nearly all the food energy (calories) and up to 90 percent of all protein consumed by the world's people. Pigs are the chief meat animal worldwide, followed by poultry, beef cattle, and sheep. Pulses- -the seed parts of such
legumes as beans, soybeans, and peanuts (groundnuts)--are important sources of protein in the world food supply. Except for sugar and bananas, few of the other crops that are prominent in the world agriculture trade have nutritional significance in
the food supply. Many fruits, grains, and vegetables that are unfamiliar to Western agriculture, however, serve as important local food supplies. _^<N__^<N_ Supply and Population_^<N__^<N_About 90 percent of all grain produced is consumed in the
countries where it is grown. The 10 percent that enters world trade comes from the few countries--the United States, Canada, Australia, and Argentina--where the grain produced far exceeds domestic needs. Most countries depend to some extent--and
developing countries tend to depend heavily--on cereal imports to augment their own crops. _^<N__^<N_Some authorities predict that population growth will eventually surpass world food production and that massive famine will result--a theory first
proposed by the British social philosopher Thomas MALTHUS. Other authorities, who point to a recent decrease of population growth rates as well as to dramatic gains in agricultural production, insist that such a tragedy can be prevented by a
combination of appropriate governmental policies and appropriate research and technology. _^<N__^<N_ Effective Demand_^<N__^<N_Both high population growth and the effects of a minority of the world's people having the money to consume more than
they need can cause stresses in the food supply. Persistent poverty, however, is the underlying cause of the world's hunger problem because in many places the ability to obtain food is determined by income and purchasing power no matter how large
the supply may be. People or governments without enough purchasing power lack what is called effective demand for food in the marketplace. _^<N__^<N_Many governments find it necessary, therefore, to protect the nutritional needs of their own
low-income populations, and sometimes those of others, with special programs. The most extensive food-aid program undertaken is the Food for Peace program conducted since 1954 by the U.S. government. Through this program, U.S. surplus grain either
can be sold to developing countries at normal market prices with the aid of low-interest loans or can be distributed at no charge by such organizations as Catholic Relief Services or Cooperative for American Relief Everywhere (see CARE) to
developing countries faced with food emergencies. _^<N__^<N_Sometimes the laws of effective demand hurt the poor in unexpected ways when traditional agriculture in developing countries is modernized and brought into the international market system.
When India's farmers, for example, began to find wheat and rice production more profitable than before the GREEN REVOLUTION, they lost interest in traditional pulse production. As pulses became less plentiful in the local markets, their prices
rose. Malnutrition increased because the poorest could no longer afford to balance their incomplete grain-protein diet with pulses. _^<N__^<N_ FACTORS AFFECTING FOOD SUPPLY_^<N__^<N_Basic farming practices (see FARMS AND FARMING)--planting,
harvesting, and storage of crops--are generally similar everywhere, but various systems of farming exist. In many developing nations much of the cropland is currently devoted to subsistence agriculture, a food-production system characterized by
minimal mechanization, high reliance on human labor, and mostly on-farm consumption of what is grown. About 60 percent of the world's cropland is estimated to be in subsistence agriculture. Another form of food production, particularly in North
America, Europe, Central America, and Oceania, is commercial agriculture, which is large-scale, highly mechanized, and entirely market-oriented (see AGRIBUSINESS). COLLECTIVE FARMS and communes--once characteristic of the centrally planned
countries of eastern Europe and China--were very large, state-run enterprises designed to provide food for the nation as a whole. By the mid-1990s the Chinese government had ceded much of its control over agriculture back to the countryside and had
begun to allow its peasants to own land. In the republics of the former USSR, however, the transformation of collectivized agriculture into a more market-dominated system was proving to be a slow and painful process. _^<N__^<N_ Arable
Land_^<N__^<N_Agriculture depends ultimately on arable land--land that has the potential to produce a crop. Some 3.2 billion ha (7.9 billion acres) of arable land exist worldwide, which is about 24 percent of the total ice-free land. Currently,
less than half of the Earth's arable land is actually under cultivation. The largest reserves of unused arable land are located in Africa, where 72 percent of the arable land is not used for crops. Huge investments would be necessary to do the
clearing, leveling, disease control, and irrigating required for much of this land to become fully productive. _^<N__^<N_As demand for food has increased, land and SOIL mismanagement has occurred with alarming frequency. In the past 100 years in
parts of the American Midwest, more than 50 percent of the topsoil has been lost to wind and water EROSION through improper cropping and tillage practices. About 1 million ha (2.5 million acres) of cropland are lost each year in the developing
nations, due mostly to poor land management. Over grazing and deforestation of land have occurred in such areas as Mexico, Malaysia, and the Sahel. Arable land may be turned to DESERT by the combined effects of destroyed vegetation and erosion.
_^<N__^<N_Arable land in urban and suburban areas worldwide has also been lost by conversion for housing and business purposes. Such loss of prime agricultural land in North America--more than 600,000 ha (1,482,600 acres) a year--is especially
serious, and this land can only be replaced by bringing less productive, or more erosion-prone, land under cultivation. Efforts are now being made by a number of states in the United States and also by governments of other wealthy nations to
preserve their best remaining agricultural land. _^<N__^<N_ Water Supply_^<N__^<N_Many experts now believe that in the remaining years of the 20th century lack of water (see WATER RESOURCES) rather than lack of arable land will be the major
obstacle to expanded worldwide food production. As with land, the amount of water available for agricultural use cannot easily be increased, but it can be better used. Research is now being done in the areas of IRRIGATION and seawater DESALINATION
to improve water availability and thus increase the amount of land that can be farmed. _^<N__^<N_ Climate and Weather_^<N__^<N_Climate, the long-term atmospheric conditions of a region, determines the cropping possibilities in an area. Rice grows
in a wet, tropical climate, for instance, and corn grows in a humid subtropical or temperate climate. Weather is the daily expression of climate and can change greatly from day to day or seasonally. Weather patterns may occasionally set limits on
agricultural productivity, even in generally favorable climates. Famines in India and China can be traced to such erratic weather patterns as high (causing floods) and low (causing droughts) precipitation in climate zones that otherwise would be
expected to produce successful crop yields. Climates, although relatively stable, also change. In the Northern Hemisphere, for example, climatic patterns appear to be becoming more extreme, which may cause serious agricultural disruption.
_^<N__^<N_ Fertilizer_^<N__^<N_Because soils often lack the right kind and amount of plant nutrients for the best crop results, the farmer must supply such missing nutrients. In many parts of the world, fertility needs are met by the use of
inorganic chemical FERTILIZER. For developing nations, however, the cost of such fertilizer is often too high. Less than 20 percent of the world's inorganic fertilizer supply is used in these countries. Organic sources of plant nutrients are widely
used to increase soil fertility in the developing nations where inorganic chemical fertilizers are scarce or too costly. _^<N__^<N_ Pests_^<N__^<N_Once a crop has been established, the farmer is immediately threatened with crop losses from a
variety of pests. Annual losses due to pests amount to 20 percent-40 percent of potential production, and the crops destroyed by pests each year are worth about $30-80 billion worldwide. In developed nations, pests have been controlled by chemical
PESTICIDES and HERBICIDES. Chemical pesticides, however, can cause ecological damage and present hazards to human health. Increasingly, chemical pesticides and their hazardous potential are being introduced into developing regions of the world.
Appropriate pest-control strategies, however, can replace the exclusive use of chemicals; they include a combination of crop breeding for genetic resistance to specific pest problems and other management practices that create environments
unfavorable to pests. _^<N__^<N_ Energy_^<N__^<N_Increased food productivity is related to increased use of energy. In the developing world the major source of power for agriculture continues to be human labor and animal power. In developed
nations, power is supplied by agricultural machinery that is fueled largely by petroleum. Much energy is also consumed in irrigation, transportation, food processing, and the manufacture of agricultural chemicals and fertilizers. One effect of such
modernization is that fewer people can produce greater quantities of food. A point of diminishing returns can be reached, however, where adding more energy to agricultural processes becomes an inefficient use of that energy. In mechanized
agricultural systems, as much as 10 times more energy is used to produce food than is returned to society as food for consumption. In many developing nations, however, energy invested in agricultural production generally returns up to 20 times more
in food products than is expended during production. Nevertheless, developing nations, in order to most fully utilize their food potential, will have to apply much more energy than previously to agriculture, especially in the areas of improved
tillage, more fertilizer, and timely harvesting. _^<N__^<N_ INCREASING FOOD PRODUCTION_^<N__^<N_If standards of living in less developed countries (LDCs) are to be raised beyond subsistence level, increases in food production must exceed population
growth in those countries. _^<N__^<N_ Land Reform_^<N__^<N_In many parts of the world--particularly in Latin America--the distribution of land is grossly inequitable, with small minorities of wealthy landowners controlling major portions of the
best agricultural land. Often these landowners focus on the production of cash crops for the export market. Poor subsistence farmers are forced to farm small plots of marginally productive land to provide for their own needs. The need for reform of
land-tenure patterns is apparent in these situations, but land reform is a political issue; often those with the power to direct such land-reform policies are the very people who stand to lose land. Consequently, land-tenure patterns tend to change
slowly. _^<N__^<N_Governments of several nations--notably China, Cuba, Egypt, Iran, Kenya, Mexico, and Taiwan--have experienced some success with land-reform programs. Generally, these programs provide poor farmers with secure access to
agricultural land through such policies as rent control for tenant farmers or direct expropriation and redistribution of large land holdings. Increased employment opportunities in the rural sector of the economy, increased land productivity, and a
rise in the standard of living have resulted but are dependent on the small farmers' access to credit, education, and other government support services coupled with land reform itself. _^<N__^<N_ Use of Machinery_^<N__^<N_In the more affluent
nations, large-scale mechanization of agriculture has increased the amount of food that can be produced by each worker in agriculture and thus has reduced the need for labor and the number of on-the-farm jobs. In many LDCs, however, where labor is
plentiful and incomes often desperately low, governments now seek "appropriate" technologies that are scaled to the small size of typical farms and that are designed to improve labor efficiency but not to replace it. _^<N__^<N_Where modern
agricultural technologies--artificial fertilizers and pesticides, complex sophisticated machinery, large and expensive irrigation projects--have been applied in countries with "undeveloped" agricultures, the results often have been unsatisfactory.
Large dams may prove to have negative environmental impacts. Heavy machinery breaks down, needs expensive fuel, and affects fragile soils. New seeds prove to be unsuited to the climate, soil, or growing conditions of the new countries where they
are planted. _^<N__^<N_Trying to impose advanced techniques in areas that practice traditional agriculture may often do more harm than good. Recent attempts to improve traditional technologies seek to provide small-scale devices that are
inexpensive, easy to produce, and meet the needs of a specific region. Stoves, for example, may not seem vital to a village's well-being, but traditional ways of cooking, such as using open fires, are inefficient, consume firewood out of proportion
to the cooking heat they provide, and are the principal cause of deforestation in many undeveloped regions. Clay, stone, or scrap-iron stoves have been designed that are inexpensive to make and use less than half the fuel of open fires. Solar
stoves capture the Sun's heat to provide fire for cooking. Solar vegetable dryers can preserve a season's crop of fruits and vegetables. Improvements on the traditional granary storage baskets, the use of cement rather than tin to store
water--these and many other devices could lighten the burden of work in villages and preserve resources as well. _^<N__^<N_Improving the productivity of farm animals is another neglected area. Using specially designed scoops, a team of oxen can dig
out a pond to catch and hold underground rainwater. Although most animal-pulled plows require two draft animals, a special plow has been designed for farmers who own only one animal. _^<N__^<N_Other areas of small but important technological
advance include improving animal nutrition and soil fertility by growing nitrogenous food and fodder, such as cowpeas; using small gasoline-powered plows and other machinery that can be managed and operated by one person; increasing the use of
terraces in hilly regions to lower soil erosion; and building raised seedbeds to increase evaporation from waterlogged soils. _^<N__^<N_ Genetic Technology_^<N__^<N_PLANT BREEDING is modification of a plant's genetic makeup in a purposeful way. The
general goal of plant breeding is to assemble into single varieties the best possible combination of genes that control desirable traits. The traits of importance include yield, local environmental adaptation, uniformity, quality, disease or insect
resistance, and early maturity. Numerous plant-breeding methodologies can be used worldwide, but actual testing of experimental varieties must be done in the regions in which they are planned for use in order to ensure suitability. Because the raw
material for plant breeding is genetic diversity, gene banks--which have collections of seeds of wild relatives and unimproved and improved varieties of crops--have been organized to preserve the genetic resources of major food crops for future use
by plant breeders (see GENE BANK). _^<N__^<N_Efforts of agricultural research in the 1960s to find ways for farmers in developing countries to produce far more food on the same amount of land led to early successes popularly called the green
revolution, initiated by a plant scientist, Dr. Norman BORLAUG. Research centers in Asia, Africa, and Latin America conduct applied research on subsistence food crops and livestock problems of regional importance. The best-known centers are the
International Rice Research Institute in the Philippines--which developed hardy, short-stemmed rice--and the International Center for the Improvement of Corn and Wheat in Mexico, which developed high-protein corn and wheat adaptable to subtropical
regions. Nearly 50 percent of the world's wheat land was sown in the new wheats, and more than a quarter of all rice land was sown in the new rice by the mid-1970s. _^<N__^<N_Enthusiasm for the early success of the international research centers
has been tempered by a growing realization that agricultural change is much more complex than had originally been anticipated, and that high production levels with the new seeds require a costly package that includes, for instance, chemical
fertilizers and pesticides that are often unavailable to small farmers. _^<N__^<N_There are, however, many opportunities for countries to develop native plants into important food crops. Ethiopia, plagued by drought and famine in the 1980s,
provides a case in point. The Ethiopians grow a grain called t'ef, which, it is believed, has barely developed from its original wild form. Unlike other staple grains, t'ef needs little rain and grows well in high, cold regions. Its straw makes
excellent fodder, and its tiny grains are highly nutritious for humans. Breeding the right varieties of t'ef--that is, working with those seeds which presently grow on marginal land under arid, cold conditions-- could result in a grain that might
provide basic food needs for Ethiopia as well as for other mountainous African countries. _^<N__^<N_Ethiopia is one of the rare places in the world where many plant species that now grow in a host of different varieties around the world can still
be found in their primitive, uncultivated forms. Some of them offer great potential: there are many hundreds of wild pea varieties, for example. Oil plants such as the castor bean have yet to receive attention from researchers; coffee, whose wild
ancestors still flourish in Ethiopia, might become an important export crop for the country, which at present has none. _^<N__^<N_These, and many other plants that offer great genetic diversity, are collected and sent to gene banks, but their
existence on their native soil is threatened by the introduction of new, high-yielding foreign plants developed by plant breeders outside Ethiopia. _^<N__^<N_ Agricultural Education_^<N__^<N_New information and technology that can help farmers
increase their production must be communicated effectively if it is to achieve its purpose. Physical constraints, such as a poor road system, can handicap the spread of information, but various cultural constraints--including verbal or scientific
illiteracy among farmers or the communication gap between farmers and agricultural researchers and technicians created by such differences as economic class and cultural assumptions--may present an even greater challenge. _^<N__^<N_Effective
communications with small farmers varies in approach according to circumstances. In parts of Africa, for example, radios and puppet shows have been used to spread agricultural information quickly and effectively. In the Philippines, specially
trained agricultural agents provide assistance to farmers and spread information by demonstrating it in the farmers' fields. In China, agricultural communities often have one of their members responsible for spreading information about improved
practices. In each instance, the approach, although carried out by some institution, operates outside the formal educational channels. _^<N__^<N_India has developed a highly successful national agricultural management program called the Training
and Visit System. Village Extension Workers (VEWs) work in the fields as part of their training--unlike workers in other countries, who may be graduates of agricultural schools but know little about practical cultivation methods. VEWs make the same
circuit of visits every two weeks, appearing regularly to teach new technologies and methods to farmers, and to listen to their problems. They carry legitimate complaints back to research agriculturists, who attempt to find appropriate answers.
VEWs also work with village women, setting up nutrition programs and helping to create small cottage industries that will bring added cash into the village. _^<N__^<N_The techniques employed in India are now being tried in some 40 different
countries, with emphasis on Africa where small farms abound. _^<N__^<N_ Cultivation of New Crops_^<N__^<N_The discovery of the New World resulted in an increase of available foods both in Europe and in the colonized territories. Such new crops as
potatoes, tomatoes, corn, and green peppers became staples in countries throughout the world- - although in some cases, many years passed between the introduction of a new food and its acceptance into the national diet. _^<N__^<N_The world today is
still rich in foods that might well be adapted to cultivation in many countries, although they now grow only in a single area. Interest presently is focused on South America, where many indigenous crops were no longer cultivated after the Spanish
conquest, and where others still grow, but in regions so remote that few know about them. Among these are a wide range of potato varieties, each with different growth and keeping habits. Quinoa, a nutritious Andean grain is now being grown in small
quantities in the United States. Tarwi, an Andean legume, has nitrogen-fixing properties and thus enriches soil, while its seed equals soybean in protein and oil content. _^<N__^<N_AMARANTH, a protein-rich seed, flourishes throughout the warmer
areas of Latin America. Kiwicha, another grain, can be processed like corn or wheat. Oca, a bright yellow tuber that produces prolific crops, is already eaten in New Zealand, where it serves as a potato substitute. _^<N__^<N_Not every vegetable
grown in Latin America may be suitable for cultivation in other parts of the world, but the existence of so many unknown, untried foods represents a rich source for experiment and, with some possible modifications, for enlarging food outputs
wherever they may be capable of being cultivated. _^<N__^<N_ WORLD ORGANIZATIONS AND AGRICULTURAL AID_^<N__^<N_Agricultural assistance and adequate food supply have been issues of primary interest to the FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION, primarily
a fact gathering, research, and technological-aid group; to the WORLD BANK, 30 percent of whose loans have been for agricultural development over the years since 1944, when it was established; and to the United Nations Development Program, much of
whose technical assistance is devoted to developing irrigation systems, controlling erosion, and creating effective storage, transportation, and marketing systems for foods. The UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN'S FUND has among its many programs one in
which village women of developing nations are helped to produce and process food. _^<N__^<N_Until recently, relatively little consideration was given by governments to the politics or sociology of agriculture and economic development--how to
redistribute national income or to increase the income of the poor so that they can participate fully in the market for food, or how to give small farmers more incentives to produce for the market through land ownership, credit on reasonable terms,
or farming necessities at fair prices. A growing international consensus, however, is that food should be economically available to people having low income and that small farmers of developing nations need aid to produce more food in ways that fit
their circumstances. The underlying problem, according to this view, is not a lack of food, but rather the lack of enough political will to resolve food problems with the knowledge and resources that are available. _^<N__^<N_Patricia Kutzner and
David Sammons _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Arnon, I., Agricultural Research and Technology Transfer (1989); Barbus, Lisa, et al., Agricultural Issues of the 1990s (1991); Chazen, N., and Shaw, T. M., Coping with Africa's Food Crisis (1988); Glantz, M.
H., ed., Drought and Hunger in Africa: Denying Famine a Future (1987); Johnson, D. G., World Agriculture in Disarray, 2d ed. (1991); Kent, G., The Political Economy of Hunger (1984); Kutzner, P. L., Who's Involved with Hunger, rev. ed. (1976) and
World Hunger (1991); Lappe, F., and Collins, J., Food First (1979) and World Hunger: Ten Myths, enl. and upd. ed. (1986); Plucknett, D., et al., Gene Banks and the World's Food (1987); Seavoy, R., Famine in Peasant Societies (1986); World Bank,
Poverty and Hunger: Issues and Options for Food Security in Developing Countries (1986).
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Agrigento
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Agrigento_^<N__^<N_{ah-gree-jen'-toh} _^<N__^<N_Agrigento is the capital of Agrigento province in southwestern Sicily, Italy. It has a population of 56,372 (1990 est.), and the economy centers on agriculture, tourism, and sulfur and potash mining.
Founded by Greeks about 580 BC as the colony of Akragas, it became one of the largest and richest Greek cities of the classical world. In 480 BC an alliance between Akragas and SYRACUSE brought about a decisive victory over the Carthaginians and
put most of Sicily under Greek control for 70 years. This period of economic expansion--reflected in a prolific output of silver coinage--saw the rapid construction of at least ten temples, including the huge (113 x 56 m/372 x 184 ft) temple of
Zeus, one of the largest in the Greek world, and the organization of a grid of streets for a population of about 150,000 at its peak. _^<N__^<N_Akragas was destroyed by CARTHAGE in 406 BC and refounded by Syracuse after 338, but it suffered badly
during the PUNIC WARS, falling to Rome in 210 BC. Called Agrigentum by the Romans, the city was colonized by Saracens in 828 and was captured by the Norman rulers of Sicily in 1086. The ancient site, which has been partially excavated, includes a
row of well-preserved 5th-century BC temples. Agrigento is also the site of early Christian CATACOMBS and two medieval churches. The city's most notable modern son was the playwright Luigi PIRANDELLO. _^<N__^<N_John P. Oleson
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agrimony
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agrimony_^<N__^<N_{ag'-ruh-moh-nee} _^<N__^<N_The common name agrimony is used for two different plants in two different families. One plant, the genus Agrimonia in the rose (Rosaceae) family, is a widely distributed genus of perennial herbs that
includes agrimony, cocklebur, and harvest-lice. _^<N__^<N_A. eupatoria, bearing slender clusters of yellow flowers in the fall, has long been used as a mild astringent and to treat diarrhea and liver ailments. The plant contains a compound that
causes human skin to become light-sensitive, resulting in a sunburnlike rash after contact with the plant followed by exposure to sunlight. A yellow dye is produced from the rhizome of agrimony. _^<N__^<N_The other plant, a perennial herb known as
hemp agrimony (Eupatorium cannabinum in the Compositae family), is found in wet areas throughout Europe, northern Africa, and west and central Asia. _^<N__^<N_Robert C. Romans _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Fernald, M. L., Gray's Manual of Botany, 8th ed.
(1970).
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Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius
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Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius_^<N__^<N_{uh-grip'-uh, vip-say'-nee-uhs} _^<N__^<N_Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, c.63-12 BC, was a Roman general and trusted friend of Octavius (later Emperor AUGUSTUS). As consul he organized (37 BC) a fleet for Octavius that
won decisive victories over Sextus Pompeius at Mylae and Naulochus. Subsequently, his masterful deployment of the fleet in the Battle of ACTIUM (31 BC) was the principal cause of Mark ANTONY'S defeat. During Augustus' rule, Agrippa consolidated
Roman power in the east, in Gaul, and in Spain. He spent much of his personal fortune on public works for Rome, building the Pantheon and the first public baths. His third wife was Julia, Augustus' daughter. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Reinhold, Meyer,
Marcus Agrippa (1933); Syme, Sir Ronald, The Roman Revolution (1939).
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Agrippina II
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Agrippina II_^<N__^<N_{ag-ruh-pee'-nuh} _^<N__^<N_The Roman matron Julia Agrippina, b. AD 15, was the daughter of GERMANICUS CAESAR and Agrippina I and mother (by her first husband Ahenobarbus) of NERO. She held power during the reign of her brother
CALIGULA but was banished after plotting against him. Her uncle CLAUDIUS I recalled her to Rome and married her in 49. He allowed her ambitions full scope and favored Nero over his own son, Britannicus. Agrippina is thought to have poisoned
Claudius to make Nero emperor. Ruling with Nero for a time, she abused her power and quarreled with his supporters. In 59 he ordered her put to death.
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agronomy:
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agronomy:_^<N__^<N_see AGRICULTURE AND THE FOOD SUPPLY; FARMS AND FARMING.
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Aguascalientes (city)
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Aguascalientes (city)_^<N__^<N_{ah'-gwahs-kahl-yayn'-tays} _^<N__^<N_Aguascalientes is the capital of Aguascalientes state in central Mexico. The population is 440,425 (1990). The city lies at an altitude of about 1,890 m (6,200 ft) in a
mountainous area about 420 km (260 mi) northwest of Mexico City. Its mild climate and hot mineral springs have made Aguascalientes a popular health resort. The city is noted for its plazas, parks, and colonial architecture. It is also a textile
center and is famous for breeding fighting bulls. _^<N__^<N_The city was founded in 1575 as a fortified Spanish outpost on the trail from silver mines to Mexico City. In 1914 the Convention of Aguascalientes--an unsuccessful meeting of the
revolutionary leaders Emiliano Zapata, Pancho Villa, and Venustiano Carranza--was held here. Underneath the city are extensive tunnels, apparently built by an ancient Indian civilization.
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Aguascalientes (state)
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Aguascalientes (state)_^<N__^<N_Aguascalientes (1988 est. pop., 684,100) is a state in central Mexico on the Anahuac plateau, 900 to 3,050 m (3,000 to 10,000 ft) above sea level. The capital city is Aguascalientes. Climate is moderated by the high
elevation, and numerous thermal springs are in the region, whose Spanish name means "hot waters." Aguascalientes is a fertile agricultural region, much of which is irrigated. Crops include fruit, maize, and grapes (for wine). Livestock raising is
important, and zinc, silver, and gold are mined. First explored by the Spanish in the 16th century, Aguascalientes was the scene of heavy fighting during the revolution of 1910-20.
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Aguinaldo, Emilio
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Aguinaldo, Emilio_^<N__^<N_{ah-gee-nahl'-doh} _^<N__^<N_Emilio Aguinaldo, b. Mar. 29, 1869, d. Feb. 6, 1964, was a leader of the revolution to end Spanish rule of the Philippines. Becoming mayor (1895) of Kawit in his native province of Cavite,
he subsequently directed attacks against the Spanish military presence in Cavite, making it a focal point in the nationalist revolt and earning himself the title of general from his followers. _^<N__^<N_In 1897 he was elected president of the
revolutionary assembly at Tejeros, Cavite. Exiled to Hong Kong when the insurrection faltered, Aguinaldo was encouraged to return by the United States when the SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR that erupted in the Caribbean was extended to the Philippines.
Declaring the independence of his country from Spain on June 12, 1898, he became president of the first Philippine Republic on Jan. 23, 1899. The American defeat of Spain was followed in 1899 by war between the previously allied Filipinos and the
United States. Aguinaldo was captured in 1901, and when war ended (1901), he swore allegiance to the United States, which annexed the Philippines, and retired from public life. After World War II, he was charged with cooperating with the Japanese
but was never tried. The Philippines finally became independent in 1946. _^<N__^<N_Richard Butwell _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Quirino, Carlos, The Young Aguinaldo (1969); Welch, R. E., Jr., Response to Imperialism: The United States and the
Philippine-American War (1979; repr. 1987).
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Aguirre, Lope de
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Aguirre, Lope de_^<N__^<N_{ah-geer'-ray, loh'-pay day} _^<N__^<N_Lope de Aguirre, b. c.1518, d. Oct. 27, 1561, was a Spanish adventurer in South America. An infamous and treacherous explorer, he joined the expedition (1560) of Pedro de URSUA to find
Eldorado at the headwaters of the Amazon River in Brazil. He mutinied, killing Ursua and many others in the party. He was captured in Venezuela, after murdering his daughter and several priests, and was executed by the Spanish.
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Agulhas, Cape
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Agulhas, Cape_^<N__^<N_{uh-gul'-uhs} _^<N__^<N_Cape Agulhas is the extreme southern point of the African continent. Located in the Cape Province of South Africa, it is on the dividing line between the Atlantic and Indian oceans. Early sailors
erroneously believed the tip of Africa to be the Cape of GOOD HOPE, about 145 km (90 mi) to the northwest.
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Agulhas Current
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Agulhas Current_^<N__^<N_{uh-gul'-uhs} _^<N__^<N_The Agulhas Current is a warm (20 deg C/68 deg F) surface current that forms part of the large-scale counterclockwise circulation in the Indian Ocean. It flows westward with the Indian South
EQUATORIAL CURRENT, breaks southward along the east coast of Africa, and then turns eastward to join the West Wind Drift. About 100 km (60 mi) wide, it flows at 20-60 cm/sec (8-24 in/sec). Salinity is approximately 35 parts per 1,000.
_^<N__^<N_John B. Wheeler _^<N__^<N_See also: OCEAN CURRENTS.
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Ahab, King of Israel
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Ahab, King of Israel_^<N__^<N_{ay'-hab} _^<N__^<N_Ahab was a king of Israel, the northern kingdom of the Jews, in the 9th century BC. Under his leadership, Israel experienced constant warfare with neighboring Aram (Syria) and also accomplished
great building programs in such cities as Jericho. Ahab is perhaps best known for his political marriage to the Sidonian JEZEBEL. Her zealous worship of BAAL, and its influence on Ahab, clashed with the Israelite concept of worshiping the one God
Yahweh (1 Kings 16-22).
-END-
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28
CAT
-A-
Ahad ha-Am:
-T-
Ahad ha-Am:_^<N__^<N_see ACHAD HA-AM.
-END-
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637
CAT
-A-
Ahaz, King of Judah
-T-
Ahaz, King of Judah_^<N__^<N_{ay'-haz} _^<N__^<N_Ahaz was king (r. c.735-20 BC) of JUDAH, the southern kingdom of the Jews. He is described in 2 Kings 16 as worshiping BAAL and even sacrificing his own sons. When Judah was threatened by Aram (Syria)
and the northern kingdom of ISRAEL, Ahaz appealed to the Assyrian king, over the objections of the prophet ISAIAH. The Assyrians conquered the entire area and exercised a decisive political and religious influence. The altar at the Assyrian
headquarters in Damascus so impressed Ahaz that he copied it in Jerusalem. Ahaz's reputation sharply contrasts with the reform achieved under his son, King HEZEKIAH.
-END-
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275
CAT
-A-
Ahithophel
-T-
Ahithophel_^<N__^<N_{uh-hith'-oh-fel} _^<N__^<N_Ahithophel was a counselor of King DAVID who joined Absalom, David's son, in a revolt against the king. When the revolt failed, Ahithophel hanged himself (2 Sam. 15-17). The story was used by John
DRYDEN in his poem Absalom and Achitophel (1681).
-END-
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691
CAT
-A-
Ahlin, Lars
-T-
Ahlin, Lars_^<N__^<N_Lars Ahlin, b. Apr. 4, 1915, is an award-winning Swedish storyteller, aesthetician, and novelist. His unstable youth, including a mystical experience at the age of 18, resulted in two unpublished novels before his novel Tabb
with the Manifesto (1943) and his first story collection, No Eyes Await Me (1944), won acceptance. His work suggests both the social consciousness tradition in the proletarian novel and fervent Christian idealism. Critics have compared him with
both Fyodor Dostoyevsky and Thomas Mann. Among Ahlin's dozen other novels are If (1946) and Bark and Leaves (1961). An English translation of his novel Kanelbitan (1953) was published as Cinnamoncandy in 1992.
-END-
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1201
CAT
-A-
Ahmadabad
-T-
Ahmadabad_^<N__^<N_{ah'-mah-dah-bahd'} _^<N__^<N_Ahmadabad, a city in Gujarat state of western India, was founded in 1411 by a Gujarati king, Ahmad Shah. It is an industrial and cultural center lying 445 km (280 mi) north of Bombay and has a
population of 2,872,865 (1991). Ahmadabad is India's most important center for cotton textile manufacture. The city is also known for its dyeing and printing industries, handicrafts, and brass articles. _^<N__^<N_The old city, situated on the left
bank of the Sabarmati River, formerly had encircling walls; only fragments still remain. The old city is crowded and interspersed with busy shopping districts. The area on the right bank of the river is better planned and more functional. Gandhi
Ashram, located on a bluff of the river, is where Mahatma GANDHI spent a considerable part of his political career. Although 93 percent of the city's population adhere to the Muslim or Hindu faith, the proportion of adherents of Jainism is
significantly high compared to the national average. Historic mosques and tombs represent a fusion of Islamic, Hindu, and Jain traditions: Jami Masjid (Great Mosque), built in 1423, is one example. Hathi Singh Jain temple was built in 1848.
_^<N__^<N_Ashok K. Dutt
-END-
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906
CAT
-A-
Ahmed III, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire
-T-
Ahmed III, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire_^<N__^<N_Ahmed (or Ahmad) III, 1673-1736, ruled the Ottoman Empire from 1703 to 1730, when he was overthrown in a revolt of the JANISSARIES. After giving asylum to CHARLES XII of Sweden in 1709, Ahmed became
embroiled in war with Russia (1710-11). The Russians were defeated, however, and by the Treaty of Pruth (1711) gave up Azov to Turkey. Turkish seizure (1715) of the Peloponnesus from Venice provoked Austrian intervention. After numerous defeats by
EUGENE OF SAVOY, the Turks concluded the Treaty of Passarowitz (1718), by which they lost northern Serbia and Little Walachia to the Austrians. Ahmed was also involved in an unsuccessful war against NADER SHAH of Persia, who drove the Turks out of
Transcaucasia in 1730. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Rifa'at 'Ali Abou-El-Haj, Formation of the Modern State: The Ottoman Empire, 16th-18th Centuries (1992). _^<N__^<N_See also: RUSSO-TURKISH WARS.
-END-
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628
CAT
-A-
Ahmet Hasim
-T-
Ahmet Hasim_^<N__^<N_Ahmet Hasim, b. 1884, d. June 4, 1933, was an influential Turkish poet. His early work was written in classical Ottoman style, but after studying Baudelaire, Mallarme, and Rimbaud, he championed the cause of symbolism,
introducing into Turkish poetry the lush images, obscurity, and extreme moods characteristic of the French movement. He visited Paris twice, where in an article on Turkish literature for the Mercure de France (1924), he defined poetry as an
"intermediate language" between music and speech. This notion is evident in the rhythms of his famous collection Gol saatleri (The Hours of the Lake, 1921).
-END-
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318
CAT
-A-
Ahmose I, King of Egypt
-T-
Ahmose I, King of Egypt_^<N__^<N_{ah'-mos} _^<N__^<N_Ahmose I, king of Egypt (r. c.1570-1546 BC), was the founder of the 18th dynasty, one of the most outstanding in the history of ancient Egypt. His principal achievement was to weaken the HYKSOS,
who had dominated Egypt for some 300 years, by taking Avaris, their citadel in the north.
-END-
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592
CAT
-A-
Ahmose II, King of Egypt
-T-
Ahmose II, King of Egypt_^<N__^<N_Ahmose II was king of Egypt from about 570 to 526 BC, in the 26th dynasty. He came to power with the help of mercenary soldiers, overthrowing King Apries who had been blamed for the failure of an attack on Libya.
According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Ahmose II's reign was prosperous: he left many architectural monuments, developed relations with Greece, and married Ladice of Cyrene, a Greek. He may also have conquered Cyprus. A few months after his
death, however, his son Psammetichus III was deposed when the Persians under King CAMBYSES II invaded Egypt.
-END-
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379
CALT
-A-
Ahram, Al-
-T-
Ahram, Al-_^<N__^<N_{ul ah-rahm'} _^<N__^<N_The Egyptian daily newspaper Al-Ahram (The Pyramids), published in Cairo, is the world's largest Arabic paper. Its circulation is about 400,000. Founded in 1875, Al-Ahram was run by members of the Taqla
family until all Egyptian papers came under government control in 1952. Since then it has been the unofficial voice of the government. _^<N__^<N_John D. Mitchell
-END-
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28
CAT
-A-
Ahriman:
-T-
Ahriman:_^<N__^<N_see ZOROASTRIANISM.
-END-
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32
CAT
-A-
Ahura Mazda:
-T-
Ahura Mazda:_^<N__^<N_see ZOROASTRIANISM.
-END-
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42
CAT
-A-
AIA:
-T-
AIA:_^<N__^<N_see AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS.
-END-
-C-
61
CAT
-A-
AIAA:
-T-
AIAA:_^<N__^<N_see AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICS AND ASTRONAUTICS.
-END-
-C-
2590
CAT
-A-
Aida
-T-
Aida_^<N__^<N_{ah-ee'-duh} _^<N__^<N_Giuseppe VERDI's (1813-1901) Aida, among the most frequently performed of grand operas, received its world premiere at Cairo, Egypt, on Dec. 24, 1871. Negotiations with the composer had begun in 1869, initiated
by the Khedive of Egypt in connection with the opening of the Suez Canal and the building of a modern opera house in Cairo, the nation's capital. Verdi at first demurred--his new work would not have been ready, in any case, for the events of
1869--but he was spurred by receipt of a prose sketch based on an incident in Egypt's past, the work of a noted historian, Auguste MARIETTE. Verdi invited the French librettist Camille du Locle to expand this sketch into a prose scenario. Then he
summoned the poet Antonio Ghislanzoni to enlarge the concept and supply the necessary Italian verses, a project in which Verdi himself shared to a large extent. _^<N__^<N_The plot, a conflict between love and duty set in ancient THEBES, concerns a
young Egyptian warrior, Radames, chosen to lead his country's army against the enemy, Ethiopia (temple scene, Act I). Secretly, Radames loves Aida, an Ethiopian slave, and is loved in turn by the jealous Princess Amneris, the pharaoh's daughter.
_^<N__^<N_Radames returns victorious (triumphal scene, Act II) but is tricked into betraying military secrets to Aida's father, Amonasro, the defeated king of Ethiopia, who has been taken captive while in disguise (Nile scene, Act III). About to
flee with Aida, Radames is caught and sentenced to die in a sealed tomb beneath the Temple of Ptah. Somehow Aida manages to join him there, and as both bid farewell to Earth, Amneris--repentant of her jealousy--implores peace for their souls in
the temple above (tomb scene, Act IV). _^<N__^<N_From every standpoint--dramatic, vocal, orchestral, coloristic--this opera represents the composer in full creative maturity. Since 1871 almost every opera singer of note has appeared in Aida's
various rewarding roles. The opera is a staple of lyric theater repertoire. It was first performed in the United States at New York's Academy of Music on Nov. 26, 1873, with Mlle. Torriani in the role of Aida, Italo Campanini as Radames, Victor
Maurel as Amonasro, and Annie Louise Cary as Amneris. Many complete recordings of the opera are available. _^<N__^<N_Robert Lawrence _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Osborne, Charles, The Complete Operas of Verdi (1977); Toye, Francis, Giuseppe Verdi:
His Life and Works (1946, repr. 1972); Walker, Frank, The Man Verdi (1962); Weaver, William, Verdi: A Documentary Study (1977). _^<N__^<N_See also: OPERA; OPERA HOUSES; TRAVIATA, LA; TROVATORE, IL.
-END-
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21670
CATO
4782
9589
14397
19242
-A-
AIDS
-O-
000000|AIDS
001689| Definition of AIDS
002640| Historical Background
004504| The Nature of the Virus
005758| Modes of Transmission
007995| Clinical Signs
008591| Opportunistic Infections and Cancers
009943| Other HIV-Related Disorders and Cofactors
011578| Treatment of HIV
015502| Efforts at Prevention
017504| Costs
019287| Politics and AIDS
-T-
AIDS_^<N__^<N_Acquired immune deficiency syndrome, or AIDS, is a recently recognized disease. It is caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which attacks selected cells in the IMMUNE SYSTEM and produces defects in function.
These defects may not be apparent for years. They lead, however, to a severe suppression of the immune system's ability to resist harmful organisms. This leaves the body open to invasion by various infections, which are therefore called
opportunistic diseases, and to the development of unusual cancers. The virus also tends to reach certain brain cells. This leads to so- called neuropsychiatric abnormalities, or psychological disturbances caused by physical damage to nerve cells.
_^<N__^<N_Since the first AIDS cases were reported in 1981, through mid- 1993 more than 315,000 AIDS cases and more than 194,000 deaths have been reported in the United States alone. This is only the tip of the iceberg of HIV infection, however. It
is estimated that between 1 and 1.5 million Americans had been infected with the virus through the early 1990s but had not yet developed clinical symptoms. In addition, although the vast majority of documented cases have occurred in the United
States, AIDS cases have also been reported in 208 countries worldwide. Sub-Saharan Africa in particular appears to suffer a heavy burden of this illness. _^<N__^<N_No cure or vaccine now exists for AIDS. Many of those infected with HIV may not even
be aware that they carry and can spread the virus. Combating it is a major challenge to biomedical scientists and health-care providers. HIV infection and AIDS represent among the most pressing public-policy and public- health problems worldwide.
_^<N__^<N_ Definition of AIDS_^<N__^<N_The U.S. CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL has established criteria for defining cases of AIDS that are based on laboratory evidence such as T4 cell count, the presence of certain opportunistic diseases, and a range
of other conditions. The opportunistic diseases are generally the most prominent and life-threatening clinical manifestations of AIDS. It is now recognized, however, that neuropsychiatric manifestations of HIV infection of the brain are also
common. Other complications of HIV infection include fever, diarrhea, severe weight loss, and swollen lymph nodes (see LYMPHATIC SYSTEM). _^<N__^<N_When HIV-infected persons experience some of the above symptoms but do not meet full criteria for
AIDS, they are given the diagnosis of AIDS-related complex, or ARC. The growing feeling is that ARC and HIV infection without symptoms should not be viewed as distinct entities but, rather, as stages of an irreversible progression toward AIDS.
_^<N__^<N_ Historical Background_^<N__^<N_In the late 1970s, certain rare cancers and a variety of serious infections were recognized to be occurring in increasing numbers of previously healthy persons. Strikingly, these were disorders that would
hardly ever threaten persons with normally functioning immune systems. First formally described in 1981, AIDS was observed predominantly to be affecting homosexual and bisexual men. Soon thereafter, intravenous drug users, hemophiliacs, and
recipients of blood transfusions were recognized as being at increased risk for disease as well. It was also noted that sexual partners of persons with AIDS could contract the disease. _^<N__^<N_Further study of AIDS patients revealed marked
depletion of certain white BLOOD cells, called T4 lymphocytes. These cells play a crucial role in coordinating the body's immune defenses against invading organisms. It was presumed that this defect in AIDS patients was acquired in a common manner.
Then, in 1983, a virus that attacks T4 cells was separately discovered by Robert Gallo at the U.S. National Institutes of Health and Luc Montagnier at France's Pasteur Institute. The virus was at first given various names: human lymphotropic virus
(HTLV) III, lymphadenopathy-associated virus (LAV), and AIDS-associated retrovirus (ARV). It is now officially called human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and considerable evidence demonstrates that it is indeed the causative agent for AIDS. A
second strain that has been identified, HIV-2, is thus far relatively rare outside of Africa. _^<N__^<N_Little is known about the biological and geographical origins of HIV. Apparently, however, this is the first time in modern history that the
virus has spread widely among human beings. Related viruses have been observed in animal populations, such as certain African monkeys, but these do not appear to produce disease in humans. _^<N__^<N_ The Nature of the Virus_^<N__^<N_HIV is an RNA
RETROVIRUS. Viewed in an electron microscope, it has a dense cylindrical core that encases two molecules of viral RNA genetic material. A spherical outer envelope surrounds the core. _^<N__^<N_Like all retroviruses, HIV possesses a special enzyme,
called reverse transcriptase, that is able to make a DNA copy of the viral RNA. This enables the virus to reverse the normal flow of genetic information (see GENETIC CODE) and to incorporate its viral genes into the genetic material of its host.
The virus may then remain in a latent form for a variable and often lengthy period of time until it is reactivated. Further knowledge of the mechanisms and triggers of the activation process is important to the efforts being made to control HIV
infection. _^<N__^<N_A critical step in HIV infection is the binding of the virus to a receptor on the cell it attacks, enabling it to gain entrance. Studies have shown that a molecule called CD4, which occurs predominantly on the surface of the T4
cell, serves as this receptor. Although the T4 cell is a major HIV target, almost any other cell with the CD4 surface molecule can become infected with HIV. Thus blood cells known as monocytes and macrophages are very important additional targets.
_^<N__^<N_ Modes of Transmission_^<N__^<N_Researchers have isolated HIV from a number of body fluids, including blood, semen, saliva, tears, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, breast milk, and cervical and vaginal secretions. Strong evidence indicates,
however, that HIV is transmitted only through three primary routes: sexual intercourse, whether vaginal or anal, with an infected individual; exposure to infected blood or blood products; and from an infected mother to her child before or during
birth. _^<N__^<N_At least 97 percent of U.S. AIDS cases have been transmitted through one of these routes, with transmission between homosexual men accounting for about 60 percent of the cases. Heterosexual transmission in the United States
accounts for about 7 percent of cases but is on the increase; it is a significant mode of transmission in Africa and Asia. About 24 percent of AIDS cases occur in intravenous drug users exposed to HIV-infected blood through shared needles. Current
practices of screening blood donors and testing all donated blood and plasma for HIV antibodies have reduced the number of cumulative cases caused by transfusion to about 1 percent. _^<N__^<N_The number of new cases of AIDS in women of reproductive
age is increasing at an alarming rate. AIDS has become the leading cause of death for women between the ages of 20 and 40 in the major cities of North and South America, Western Europe, and sub-Saharan Africa. In the United States, AIDS has hit
hardest among black and Hispanic women, who represent 17 percent of the female population but make up 73 percent of women with AIDS. AIDS is also having a devastating impact on infant mortality, since over 80 percent of HIV-infected children under
the age of 13 acquired HIV from their infected mothers. Between 24 and 33 percent of children born to infected women will develop the disease. _^<N__^<N_No scientific evidence supports transmission of HIV through ordinary nonsexual contact. Careful
studies show that despite prolonged household contact with infected individuals, family members have not become infected--except through the routes described above. Health-care workers have been infected with HIV from exposure to contaminated blood
or by accidentally sticking themselves with contaminated needles. _^<N__^<N_ Clinical Signs_^<N__^<N_Following infection with HIV, an individual may show no symptoms at all or may develop an acute but transient mononucleosislike illness. The period
between initial infection and the development of AIDS is currently observed to vary from about 6 months to 11 years. Various estimates indicate that somewhere between 26 to 46 percent of the infected individuals will go on to develop full-blown
AIDS within a little more than seven years following infection. Once AIDS sets in, the clinical course generally follows a rapid decline; and most people with AIDS die within three years. _^<N__^<N_ Opportunistic Infections and
Cancers_^<N__^<N_Because the T4 cell is involved in almost all immune responses, its depletion renders the body highly susceptible to opportunistic infections and tumorous growths. The most predominant and threatening complication is Pneumocystis
carinii PNEUMONIA, which is frequently the first infection to occur and is the most common cause of death. Other infections include the parasites Toxoplasma gondii (see TOXOPLASMOSIS) and Cryptosporidiosis; fungi such as Candida (see CANDIDIASIS)
and Cryptococcus (see FUNGAL DISEASES); mycobacteria such as Mycobacterium avium, intracellulare, and tuberculosis (see TUBERCULOSIS); and viruses such as cytomegalovirus and herpes simplex and zoster (see HERPES). Increased susceptibility to
bacterial infection is noted particularly among children with AIDS. _^<N__^<N_Many AIDS patients develop CANCERS, including Kaposi's sarcoma (KS), non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, and HODGKIN'S DISEASE. KS occurs in patients who manifest hardly any evidence
of immunological impairment, indicating that other factors may also be at work. Among the non-Hodgkin's lymphomas are immunoblastic and Burkitt's-type as well as primary brain lymphomas. These tumors tend to be unusually aggressive and poorly
responsive to chemotherapy, particularly in AIDS patients who have already experienced opportunistic infections. _^<N__^<N_ Other HIV-Related Disorders and Cofactors_^<N__^<N_Neuropsychiatric manifestations occur in about 60 percent of HIV-infected
persons. It is now well established that HIV can exist and proliferate within the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. This results in a broad range of symptoms, including meningoencephalitis (see ENCEPHALITIS) and DEMENTIA. Evidence thus far
indicates that circulating HIV-infected blood cells of the kind called monocytes may be responsible for the initiation of infection in the brain. There is little evidence to support direct infection of neuron tissue by HIV. _^<N__^<N_Blood-cell
abnormalities of HIV patients include ANEMIA, reduced white-blood-cell counts, and platelet deficiencies. Researchers have also been able to show direct infection of bone-marrow cells--the precursors of circulating blood cells-- and the
proliferation of the virus within these cells. Thus bone marrow may represent an important reservoir of HIV in an infected person and provide a potential mechanism for spreading the virus through the body. Other HIV-related syndromes include
nephritis (see KIDNEY DISEASE), ARTHRITIS, and lung inflammation (pneumonitis). _^<N__^<N_Certain cofactors appear to play an important role in HIV infection and AIDS by increasing susceptibility to infection and by enhancing viral-disease
activity. Other sexually transmitted diseases appear to be of particular significance. Damage to genital skin and mucous membranes may facilitate transmission of the virus. In addition, laboratory studies show that certain other microbes frequently
found in AIDS patients, such as mycoplasmas, also probably act as cofactors. _^<N__^<N_ Treatment of HIV_^<N__^<N_Two major avenues are being pursued by biomedical scientists in the fight against HIV infection and AIDS. One strategy is to develop a
vaccine that can induce neutralizing antibodies against HIV and protect uninfected individuals if exposed to the virus itself. The second approach involves the discovery and development of therapeutic agents against HIV infection and AIDS.
_^<N__^<N_At present no vaccine exists to protect against infection, although recent advances have led some experts to predict that a vaccine should be available within the next ten years. Obstacles still remain, however, primarily because of the
variability of the virus itself. Many different strains of HIV exist, and even within a given individual's body the virus can undergo mutations rapidly and easily. A number of candidate vaccines were in the early phases of testing in human
volunteers by the early 1990s around the world. _^<N__^<N_Dramatic strides were also being made in the treatment of HIV infection and its complications. Efforts were being focused on two major areas: antiviral drugs with a direct effect against the
causative agent; and immunomodulators, or substances that act to reconstitute or enhance immune-system function. Efforts to develop and improve treatments of specific opportunistic infections and tumors are also being made. _^<N__^<N_Because of the
complex life cycle of HIV, however, the successful development of antiviral and immune-enhancement therapies represents an enormous scientific challenge. Unlike most known disease-producing microorganisms, HIV infects the very cells that are
intended to lead the immune system's attack against invaders. This makes it technically very hard to kill the virus without destroying the already threatened immune system. Furthermore, there may be several important reservoirs in the body for HIV
that will be difficult to deal with while not causing fundamental damage to the host cells involved. For example, macrophage cells can support HIV replication while harboring the virus from the body's immune surveillance. Circulating blood cells of
the kind called macrophages appear to play an important role in the propagation of HIV throughout the body, including the brain. _^<N__^<N_In seeking effective therapies, other important considerations are involved. Thus, since the brain is an
important target of HIV infection, an effective anti-HIV agent should be able to cross the blood-brain barrier (see BRAIN). It would also be desirable if therapies could be taken orally, since it is likely that AIDS drugs would have to be taken for
a long period and perhaps a lifetime. Dozens of agents have been tested in humans, but only two have been licensed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA): azidothymidine (AZT) and dideoxyinosine (DDI). AZT interferes with virus replication
and has been found to prolong life in some patients, but its ability to delay the onset of full-blown AIDS in persons with no symptoms has been questioned. AZT's potentially toxic side effects may preclude uses in many cases. DDI acts similarly but
is recommended for those who cannot tolerate AZT. Other drugs are in clinical trials. Some drugs are available to fight major opportunistic infections. Eye infections can be treated with ganciclovir or foscarnet, which also helps patients live
longer, while aerosolized pentamidine fights Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and protects the patient from AIDS dementia. _^<N__^<N_The slow process of FDA approval of new AIDS drugs has developed into a political issue. AIDS activists are demanding
that the government speed up authorization by postponing certain tests comparing efficacy and ability to prolong life until after the drug is on the market. While a faster approval rate may expose patients to unforeseen side effects, activists
argue that patients with life-threatening diseases who have no alternative therapy should still be entitled to choose these drugs. _^<N__^<N_ Efforts at Prevention_^<N__^<N_In the absence of an effective vaccine or therapy, education and risk
reduction remain the most powerful tools in the fight against AIDS. Because of the limited number of transmission routes, the further spread of AIDS could virtually be stopped by avoiding behaviors that place persons at risk. Education can help to
achieve this, through development and dissemination of materials by local community groups, statewide organizations, and national governments. In 1988, for example, the U.S. Public Health Service produced a simple, straightforward brochure
containing information about HIV infection and AIDS. The brochure was mailed to every household in the nation. Although behavior change is often very hard to achieve, studies have provided encouraging indications that such change is beginning to
occur. _^<N__^<N_In March 1983 the major U.S. blood-banking organizations instituted procedures to reduce the likelihood of HIV transmission by asking all individuals at increased risk of AIDS to stop donating blood. They expanded screening
procedures to exclude anyone with a history of risk behavior for AIDS or symptoms suggestive of AIDS. In early 1985 blood banks began using a test to screen blood directly for antibodies to HIV. The presence of antibodies, which generally takes
weeks or months to develop, means that a person has been infected by the virus. It does not indicate whether that individual has or will develop AIDS, although this is almost certain. _^<N__^<N_All blood intended for transfusion or the manufacture
of blood products is now tested for the antibody. The procedure involves the use of the ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) screening test, with confirmation of positive results with a more specific test known as the Western Blot. Blood that
tests positive is eliminated from the blood-donation pool. Tissue and organ banks use a similar process. The act of donating blood does not pose any risk of HIV infection, because sterile equipment is always used. _^<N__^<N_ Costs_^<N__^<N_The AIDS
epidemic is having a profound impact on many aspects of medicine and health care. The U.S. Public Health Service estimates that in 1993, the lifetime cost of treating a person with AIDS from infection to death is approximately $119,000. The Public
Health Service budget for AIDS research was $1.26 billion in 1992. Persons exposed to HIV are having difficulties in obtaining adequate health insurance coverage. Yearly AZT expenses, for example, can average approximately $6,000, although in 1989
the drug's maker did offer to distribute AZT freely to HIV-infected children. The yearly expense for DDI is somewhat less at $2,000. _^<N__^<N_The effects of the epidemic on society at large are increasingly evident. AIDS tests are now required in
the military services. Various proposals have been made for mandatory screening of other groups such as health-care workers, especially since a Florida dentist who died of AIDS in 1990 is believed to have infected six patients. A number of nations,
including the United States, have instituted stringent rules for testing long-term foreign visitors or potential immigrants for AIDS, as well as testing returning foreign nationals. In the United States one frequent phenomenon is the effort to keep
school-age children with AIDS isolated from their classmates, if not out of school altogether. Governmental and civil rights organizations have countered restrictive moves with a great deal of success. There is little doubt that the ultimate
physical toll of the AIDS epidemic will be high, as will be its economic costs, however the social issues are resolved. Concerted efforts are under way to address the problem at many levels, and they offer hope for successful strategies to combat
HIV-induced disease. _^<N__^<N_Margaret A. Hamburg, M.D. _^<N__^<N_ Politics and AIDS_^<N__^<N_In the United States, AIDS provoked a grass-roots political response, as well as government action. First evident in urban gay men, AIDS moved an already
politically organized gay community to create service, information, and political organizations, such as Gay Men's Health Crisis (GMHC) and AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power (ACT UP). Those groups have lobbied the federal government for funding and
favorable policies. ACT UP was formed in 1987 to urge speed in drug approval and to protest high prices for AIDS drugs. By successfully promoting reforms, ACT UP and other advocates have provided a model for other disease groups, particularly
breast cancer advocates. During the 1980s, AIDS groups accused the government of neglecting its duty in responding to AIDS. Critics cite government reluctance to promote condom use as a prevention method, and the fact that President Ronald Reagan
did not mention AIDS publicly until April 1987, six years after the epidemic began. _^<N__^<N_The epidemic's spread to people of color, often drug users and their intimates, introduced race into the politics of AIDS. Competition for funding and
influence arose between gay and minority groups. Disagreements emerged about prevention methods, in particular needle exchange programs. Many African- Americans and Hispanics viewed needle exchange as promoting drug use in their communities, while
others cited its role in curbing HIV transmission. _^<N__^<N_The AIDS activists have helped increase federal funding for AIDS from an initial $5.6 million in 1982, to over $2 billion in 1992. The 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act included
protection from discrimination for people with HIV; the Ryan White Comprehensive AIDS Resources Emergency Act was passed to provide funds to cities hard hit by AIDS. _^<N__^<N_Carisa Cunningham _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Alcamo, I. E., AIDS: The
Biological Basis (1993); Corea, G., The Invisible Epidemic: The Story of Women and AIDS (1992); DeVita, Vincent T., Jr., et al., eds., AIDS (1988); Feldman, W. H., et al., eds., The AIDS Directory (1993); Gostin, L. O., AIDS and the Healthcare
System (1990); Graubard, S. R., ed., Living with AIDS (1990); Hubley, J., The AIDS Handbook (1990); Mann, J., et al., eds., AIDS in the World, 1992 (1992); McKenzie, N. F., ed., The AIDS Reader (1991); Shilts, R., And The Band Played On (1993);
Walker, R. S., AIDS Today, Tomorrow (1991).
-END-
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2536
CAT
-A-
Aiken, Conrad
-T-
Aiken, Conrad_^<N__^<N_{ay'-ken} _^<N__^<N_Conrad Potter Aiken, b. Savannah, Ga., Aug. 5, 1889, d. Aug. 17, 1973, was an American poet, prose fiction writer, and critic who is best known for the musical quality of his poetry. He sought to divest
verse of its intellectual content and to achieve "absolute" poetry, in which the poet's intention is to employ emotion with the same detachment as a composer uses notes or chords. In some of Aiken's poetry, however, and much of his prose, he is
concerned with metaphysical matters and psychoanalytic insights. This tendency was probably fostered in part by finding, at the age of 10, that his father had fatally shot his mother and then committed suicide. _^<N__^<N_Aiken's early poetry,
which shows the influence of T. S. Eliot (who was his classmate at Harvard), John Masefield, Edgar Lee Masters, Edgar Allan Poe, and the imagists, is largely narrative verse, but these poems foreshadow the mature Aiken in the role of poet as
musician. This musicality is evident in his best-known lyric, "Morning Song from Senlin," contained in The Charnel Rose (1918). His Selected Poems (1929), which won the Pulitzer Prize for poetry, reflects both Aiken's attempt to create musical
structure with words and his exploration of the psyche. Similar emphasis appears in Collected Poems (1953) and throughout his often moody and dreamlike short stories and novels. Most of his stories date from the '20s and '30s and were published
as collections in 1950 and 1964. _^<N__^<N_As a critic, Aiken helped to establish Emily Dickinson's reputation by editing and writing an introduction for her Selected Poems (1924). His reviews were published as Collected Criticism in 1958. He
held the chair in poetry at the Library of Congress from 1950 to 1952 and received, among other prizes, the National Medal for Literature in 1969. Ushant: an Essay (1952; repr. 1971), Aiken's autobiography, is unique in that chronology and the
true identities of the characters are purposely obscured. _^<N__^<N_James Hart _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Aiken, Conrad, Collected Poems, 2d ed. (1970), Collected Short Stories, ed. by Mark Shorer (1960), and Selected Letters of Conrad Aiken, ed.
by Joseph Killorin (1978); Barrett, Gerald R., and Erskine, Thomas L., From Fiction to Film: Conrad Aiken's "Silent Snow, Secret Snow" (1972); Butscher, Edward, Conrad Aiken (1988); Hoffman, Frederick J., Conrad Aiken (1962); Lorenz, Clarissa
M., Lorelei Two: My Life with Conrad Aiken (1983); Martin Jay, Conrad Aiken (1962); Spivey, Ted R., The Writer as Shaman (1986).
-END-
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429
CAT
-A-
Aiken, George David
-T-
Aiken, George David_^<N__^<N_George David Aiken, b. Dummerston, Vt., Aug. 20, 1892, d. Nov. 19, 1984, was a U.S. senator from Vermont (1940-75). A progressive Republican, he opposed the policies of Sen. Joseph MCCARTHY in the 1950s, and in the 1960s
advocated U.S. withdrawal from Vietnam. He was governor of Vermont and held several other state offices before being elected to the Senate. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Aiken, George David, Aiken (1976).
-END-
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984
CAT
-A-
Aiken, Howard Hathaway
-T-
Aiken, Howard Hathaway_^<N__^<N_Howard Hathaway Aiken, b. Mar. 8, 1900, d. Mar. 14, 1973, was an American engineer who invented the first large-scale automatic COMPUTER. He also trained many persons who became outstanding in the field. After earning
a B.S. degree in electrical engineering in 1923, he worked for several years in private industry. He resumed his education at Harvard University in 1935, where he studied physics and received an M.A. degree in 1937 and a Ph.D. degree in 1939.
_^<N__^<N_By 1937 Aiken had developed the basic plan for a programmable mechanical computer, the Mark I. This computer was built by International Business Machines (IBM) between 1939 and 1944. Aiken designed three more computers, each more advanced
than its predecessor. The last, the Mark IV, was completed in 1952. Aiken taught at Harvard from 1939 to 1961. He founded the Harvard Computation Laboratory in 1947 and directed it until his retirement, after which he founded Aiken Industries.
_^<N__^<N_Kenneth Thibodeau
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433
CAT
-A-
Aiken, Joan
-T-
Aiken, Joan_^<N__^<N_Joan Delano Aiken, b. England, Sept. 4, 1924, the daughter of the American writer Conrad AIKEN, is a prolific author of fiction, and poetry, for children and adults. The age distinction is often difficult to discern, however:
for example, Night Fall (1969), a children's book, won the 1972 Poe Award, usually given to writers of adult mysteries. More recent books include Dido and Pa (1986) and If I Were You (1987).
-END-
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25
CAT
-A-
aikido:
-T-
aikido:_^<N__^<N_see MARTIAL ARTS.
-END-
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1000
CAT
-A-
ailanthus
-T-
ailanthus_^<N__^<N_{ay-lan'-thuhs} _^<N__^<N_The ailanthus is a handsome tree of southeastern Asia and northern Australia. It has been naturalized in temperate climates, where it is valued as a shade tree in cities and parks for its high tolerance
of air pollution. Because its seeds sprout rapidly in hot weather and cut-back trees may form thickets hard to destroy even with herbicides, the tree can be a pest. Male flowers have an unpleasant odor. The ailanthus has spreading limbs and can
grow as high as 20 m (65 ft) or more--hence its name, a Moluccan word meaning "tree of heaven." The leaves, up to 1 m (3 ft) long, are composed of from 11 to 35 oval, pointed leaflets with glands on the largest notches of their margins. The small,
greenish flowers grow in clusters on upper branches. In autumn the female flowers ripen into reddish-orange samara (winged fruit) that drop to the ground and are spread by winds. Ailanthus is a genus of the quassia family, Simaroubaceae. The most
common species is A. altissima.
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1401
CAT
-A-
Ailey, Alvin
-T-
Ailey, Alvin_^<N__^<N_{ay'-lee} _^<N__^<N_Alvin Ailey, b. Rogers, Texas, Jan. 5, 1931, d. Dec. 1, 1989, was America's foremost black choreographer and is generally considered the first modern dancer to have choreographed for a ballet company
(Feast of Ashes, for the Joffrey Ballet, 1962). His own troupe, the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater, was formed in 1958. _^<N__^<N_Ailey's highly theatrical and energetic dances were often drawn from the black heritage and experience. They
effectively blended styles derived from African ethnic, American black vernacular, and modern dance idioms. _^<N__^<N_Ailey began dancing with the Horton Dance Theatre in Los Angeles in 1950 and became its director in 1953. He also was a dancer on
Broadway and in films. In addition to works for his own company, he choreographed for several important ballet companies. Also, the American Dance Theatre mounted dances created by the troupe's members and other choreographers. In 1987, Ailey
arranged for the reconstruction and performance of 14 of anthropologist/choreographer Katherine DUNHAM's works. Following Ailey's death, dancer-choreographer Judith JAMISON was named director of Dance Theater. _^<N__^<N_Robert J. Pierce
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Cook, Susan, The Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater (1978); McDonagh, Don, Complete Guide to Modern Dance (1976); Mazod, Joseph H., Prime Movers: The Makers of Modern Dance in America (1977). _^<N__^<N_See also: DANCE.
-END-
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961
CAT
-A-
Ailly, Pierre d'
-T-
Ailly, Pierre d'_^<N__^<N_{dy-ee'} _^<N__^<N_The French philosopher and theologian Pierre d' Ailly, b. 1350, d. Aug. 9, 1420, became prominent in public life as a vigorous promoter of church unity and reform. He dominated the early sessions of
the Council of Constance (1414-18), which brought to an end the Great Schism, the period between 1378 and 1417 when Western Christendom was divided by the creation of antipopes. Educated at the University of Paris, he became successively its
chancellor, bishop of Cambrai (1397), and cardinal (1411). Of his numerous writings, the most famous was the geographical treatise Imago mundi, which Christopher Columbus read and annotated before embarking on his historic voyage.
_^<N__^<N_Francis Oakley _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Loomis, Louise R., The Council of Constance: The Unification of the Church (1961); McGowan, John P., Pierre d'Ailly and the Council of Constance (1936; repr. 1984); Oakley, Francis, Political
Thought of Pierre d'Ailly (1964).
-END-
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34
CAT
-A-
AIM:
-T-
AIM:_^<N__^<N_see AMERICAN INDIAN MOVEMENT.
-END-
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1034
CAT
-A-
Ain Hanech
-T-
Ain Hanech_^<N__^<N_{ine hah-nek'} _^<N__^<N_Ain Hanech is an important Lower Pleistocene site in Tunisia. It has been investigated by a number of French archaeologists, among them paleontologist Charles Arambourg. The site consists of a series of
streambeds of gravel and sand in which tools were found associated with numerous fossil animal bones. The fossil fauna is of the characteristic Lower Pleistocene type known as the Villafranchian, with distinctive extinct mammal forms, including a
five-toed horse. This helps assign the site to a period between 1.5 and 3 million years ago; a more precise date has not yet been obtained. _^<N__^<N_The Ain Hanech artifacts consist of crudely flaked pebbles and rocks shaped into polyhedral
artifacts and simple choppers. These artifacts bear some resemblance to early human artifacts of the OLDOWAN type found at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania and elsewhere. The site expands the distribution of the earliest human culture into northern
Africa. _^<N__^<N_Brian M. Fagan _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Clark, J. Desmond, Prehistory of Africa (1970).
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2215
CAT
-A-
Ainu
-T-
Ainu_^<N__^<N_The Ainu are an aboriginal people of the northern Pacific, who live principally on Hokkaido, the northernmost island of Japan, and in the southern part of the Soviet island of Sakhalin. Until recently, they also occupied the Soviet
Kuril Islands, where their population is now extinct. The Ainu population is rapidly dwindling as a result of intermarriage and cultural assimilation by the Japanese. Only a small percentage of the estimated 12,000 Ainu on Hokkaido and 600 on
Sakhalin are of unmixed descent. _^<N__^<N_Unlike other East Asian peoples, Ainu possess wavy brunette hair, light-skinned complexions, and abundant body hair. They also lack the epicanthic fold of skin over the upper eyelids, a Mongoloid racial
characteristic. Their language is unrelated to any known Asian linguistic family. _^<N__^<N_The Ainu, a hunting and gathering people, formerly lived throughout the Japanese archipelago but were gradually pushed north to their present location by
the invading Japanese. The men used the bow and arrow to hunt bear, deer, fox, otter, and other land animals during the winter; in summer they fished the sea and rivers. The women gathered wild foods such as roots, berries, mushrooms, and nuts
and also engaged in small-scale agriculture based on crop rotation. _^<N__^<N_Traditionally the Ainu traced their genealogical descent through both parents, and the family was the most important social and economic unit. The men were skilled
wood-carvers; women were experts in embroidering and weaving. They had many songs, games, epic tales, and riddles, and their chief musical instruments were the drum and flute. Their highly animistic religious beliefs included many gods of the
mountains, land, sky, and sea. Most important was the bear cult, which each year culminated in an elaborate ritual sacrifice of a captive bear raised from cubhood in the Ainu community. _^<N__^<N_Donn V. Hart _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hilger, M.
Inez, Together with the Ainu: A Vanishing People (1971); Munro, Neil Gordon, Ainu Creed and Cult (1962; repr. 1979); Ohnuki-Tierney, Emiko, The Ainu of the Northwest Coast of Southern Sakhalin (1974; repr. 1984); Takakura, Shin'ichiro, The
Ainu of Northern Japan, trans. by John A. Harrison (1960).
-END-
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2557
CAT
-A-
air
-T-
air_^<N__^<N_Air, a gas composed principally of nitrogen and oxygen (78% and 21% by volume), surrounds the Earth with a stable mass of about 1 kg/sq cm (14 lb/sq in) of Earth surface. Some of the other planets are thought to have had atmospheres
that they lost because of weak gravitational fields. Atmospheres that are not accelerated to more than 20% of escape velocity (the velocity that must be reached to escape a planet's gravitational pull) are considered stable. On Earth, where escape
velocity is 11 km/sec (7 mi/sec), no such accelerations occur, even during volcanic explosions. _^<N__^<N_The atmosphere is mixed as far as the STRATOSPHERE, with argon (0.93%) and carbon dioxide (0.03%) in addition to the principal gases as
constituents of dry air. Water vapor is present in variable amounts, mostly in the lower half of the atmosphere. It can make up from near zero to 4% of the mass of air; however, total precipitable water content (the amount of water vapor in an air
column) seldom exceeds 1 or 2 cm (about 0.5 in) at low temperatures and 6 cm (2.5 in) in a warm, humid atmosphere. Although the principal gases are nearly transparent to radiation, the tiny amounts of water vapor and carbon dioxide absorb and emit
long-wave radiation, resulting in the GREENHOUSE EFFECT. Hence the gradual increase of carbon dioxide observed in the air in recent years might affect CLIMATE. Ozone in the stratosphere, a trace gas measured in fractions of parts per million,
absorbs a large amount of ultraviolet light from the Sun, thus heating the stratosphere and protecting life on Earth from lethal SOLAR RADIATION. Because air is highly compressible, it is impossible to define a distinct upper boundary for the
atmosphere. Pressure decreases by a factor of 10 over an altitude of 16 km (10 mi); for example, pressure at sea level is 1 atmosphere, but it is only 0.1 atm at an altitude of 16 km and 0.01 atm at 32 km (20 mi). Density varies mostly with
pressure over large vertical distances; at constant height, pressure variation with temperature becomes important. In the low atmosphere, air is heavy, with a stable mass of roughly one kilogram per cubic meter (1 oz/cu ft). A room of 500 cu m (650
cu yd) thus contains 0.05 metric ton of air. At an altitude of 3 km (2 mi), however, density is 30% less than at sea level, causing initial breathing difficulties for many people from lowlands. The world's highest permanent settlements are at
altitudes of nearly 4 km (3 mi), and mountaineers climbing the highest peaks (up to 8,800 m/5 mi) carry oxygen. _^<N__^<N_Herbert Riehl
-END-
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4120
CAT
-A-
air-conditioning
-T-
air-conditioning_^<N__^<N_Air-conditioning is a method of providing clean air to an area at the proper temperature and humidity. The term usually describes a refrigeration system designed to cool the air within a space. In the process of removing
heat, the system also removes moisture, further increasing comfort levels. Auxiliary filters may also remove pollen, dust, and other pollutants from the air. Entire buildings are designed so that air temperature, humidity, and freshness are
controlled by a single, central air conditioner. The type with which most people are familiar, however, is the self-contained room conditioner that fits into a window. _^<N__^<N_The key element of the air conditioner is a refrigerant, most often a
fluorocarbon, that flows constantly through the conditioner's mechanisms, becoming a liquid and giving off heat when it is compressed, and becoming a gas and absorbing heat when the pressure is removed. The mechanisms that evaporate and
_^<N__^<N_compress the refrigerant are divided into two areas: those on the room side--an air filter, fan, and cooling coil--and those on the outside of the window--a compressor, condenser coil, and fan. _^<N__^<N_In the air-cooling cycle, warm,
humid air is drawn from the room through the filter and over the cooling coil, which contains a refrigerant fluid with a very low boiling point--that is, it will have evaporated at room temperature (see FLUOROCARBON; FREON). The warm air gives up
its heat to the refrigerant and, in the process, causes the refrigerant fluid to vaporize. Cooled, dehumidified air is blown back into the room. The vaporized refrigerant moves to the compressor, which pumps it under pressure to the condenser
coils. Here its heat is transferred by fan to the outside, and it is returned to the cooling coil as a liquid. Electric motors drive the compressor, blower, and fan. A thermostat controls the compressor motor, turning it off when room temperature
reaches the desired level and restarting it as the room air heats up. _^<N__^<N_Houses can be centrally air-conditioned if they have forced-air HEATING SYSTEMS, which use a blower fan and ducts to distribute heated air throughout the house in
winter. During summer months, these ducts can be used to carry cooled air. In most central air-conditioning units, the condenser and compressor are built into an enclosed housing outdoors, and the cooling coil is mounted in the main duct near the
blower fan. Insulated tubing carries refrigerant between the components. _^<N__^<N_A large building may have one or more cooling units mounted on its roof or placed beside it. In some units, a fresh-air intake mixes fresh outside air with inside
air. This mixture is pushed by fan through several filters that remove polluting airborne particles. The cleaned air is then cooled as it passes over the coils of a large cooling unit. Where the air is too dry and needs added moisture--as in the
arid areas of the U.S. Southwest--it may be forced through ducts containing a fine water spray. Finally, the cooled air passes into the rooms and halls of the building. _^<N__^<N_Primitive 19th-century air-conditioning systems used the evaporation
of blocks of ice to cool the air. Credit for the first practical conditioning system is generally given to American inventor Willis Carrier (see CARRIER, WILLIS), who designed a mechanical air conditioner in 1911 and began manufacturing
conditioners in 1915. It was not until the 1930s, however, that air-conditioning systems began to be installed in office buildings, hospitals, apartments, trains, and buses. By 1950, air-conditioning had also become an option in automobiles.
Today, few large buildings in North America are constructed without conditioning. Most large systems are controlled by computers to ensure efficient interaction between the environment and the conditioning and heating systems. _^<N__^<N_Evan
Powell _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Abrams, Donald, Low Energy Cooling (1986); Jones, W. P., Air Conditioning Applications and Design (1985); Pita, Edward G., Air Conditioning Principles and Systems, 2d ed. (1989); Powell, E., and Heyn, E., The Popular
Science Book of Home Heating and Cooling (1983).
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3782
CAT
-A-
air-cushion vehicle
-T-
air-cushion vehicle_^<N__^<N_The air-cushion vehicle (ACV), also known as a ground-effect machine and often popularly called a Hovercraft, is a conveyance that rides on a cushion of air at a pressure slightly above atmospheric. The difference
between atmospheric and air-cushion pressure is so small that a large ACV can be safely driven over a person lying prone. Air must be constantly pumped into the cushion, and this consumes at least as much power as is needed to propel the vehicle.
A great advantage of the ACV, however, is its versatility; it can be routed over water, ice, mud, quicksand, marsh, and many other surfaces that are inaccessible to traditional vehicles. _^<N__^<N_The basic idea of an air-cushion vehicle is a
century old, but the modern ACV stems from work done in the 1950s by the British electronics engineer Sir Christopher Cockerell. He constructed a model from two coffee tins and a hair dryer and measured its lift with kitchen scales. He obtained a
patent in 1955, and in 1959 the first full-scale ACV, the SR.N1, was successfully tested at Cowes, England. _^<N__^<N_The largest of today's ACVs is the SR.N4, a class of vehicle that is used for ferry service across the English Channel. When
originally built, the N4 class carried 34 cars and 174 passengers; the Super 4 type, with an extra section amidships, can transport 60 cars and 416 passengers. Powered by four 3,800 horsepower gas-turbine engines that drive four lift fans and
four swiveling air propellers, these big craft cruise smoothly at up to 77 knots, making them the fastest class of seaworthy water vehicles in the world. _^<N__^<N_Some purely marine ACVs have rigid sidewalls extending down into the water along
each side to help contain the air cushion. This reduces the power needed to keep the cushion inflated but increases drag (resistance to motion) because part of the vehicle is immersed in the water. Most ACVs have a flexible skirt of tough,
rubberized fabric around the underside. Ducts direct air inward and downward, which helps to contain the air cushion and replace air that escapes from the cushion. The lower part of the skirt is especially flexible, enabling the vehicle to move
smoothly over waves. In the SR.N4, the cushion height is 2.75 m (9 ft) so that the craft can pass over a projecting obstacle of that height. The skirted ACV is, in theory, fully amphibious; but the N4, with its beam of 28 m (92 ft), is too wide
to be driven over land areas containing obstructions, although it can cross deserts or ice floes. _^<N__^<N_Many ACVs are used by the military. They can be armed with missiles, guns, antisubmarine weapons, and other special equipment. In Vietnam,
British ACVs developed further by Bell Aerospace were used for patrolling various rivers and estuaries. Since they ride above the water, they are less vulnerable to torpedoes and undetectable by sonar. Many countries use small ACVs as high-speed
frontier or customs enforcement vehicles, and thousands are used as amphibious, sporting runabouts. _^<N__^<N_A special class of ACV is the tracked ACV (TACV), or hovertrain, which was pioneered in France. One experimental version, called the
Aerotrain, set a railroad speed record of 375 km/h (233 mph). They should prove to be relatively inexpensive, since the only track required would be a simple concrete ribbon. Problems with the skirt materials, however, remain to be solved. In
the late 1980s, research into hovertrains seemed to give way to experimentation with Maglev, or magnetic levitation, trains (see RAILROAD), which are lifted above the track and propelled forward by magnetic force. _^<N__^<N_Bill Gunston
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Gunston, William T., Hydrofoils and Hovercraft (1969); McLeavy, Roy, and Wood, John W., Hovercraft and Hydrofoils (1977); Jane's Surface Skimmers (annual).
-END-
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12989
CATO
4772
9602
-A-
air force
-O-
000000|air force
001558| DEVELOPMENT OF AIR FORCES
002783| First Air Fleets
004680| Separate Air Forces
008121| THE U.S. AIR FORCE
-T-
air force_^<N__^<N_An air force is the branch of a nation's armed forces that uses aircraft and missiles as its chief weapons. In peacetime, its primary mission is to deter or guard against an enemy attack. In wartime, it tries to destroy or
neutralize hostile forces and to defend friendly forces or territories. It seeks to gain and maintain general and local air supremacy, to destroy enemy targets or interdict supply lines, to support friendly ground and sea forces in battle and
provide them with supplies and transportation, and to carry out reconnaissance, rescue, and other aerial missions. In order to do these things, the air force organizes, trains, and equips combat and support units; develops, tests, and produces
AIRCRAFT, missiles, and associated weapons and communications systems; and establishes, maintains, and defends air bases and installations. _^<N__^<N_The United States and Russia maintain the world's largest air forces. They are the only powers
capable of carrying out intercontinental air and space warfare with powerful, long-range bombers and missiles. They also boast strong tactical and air-defense forces. Britain, France, and the People's Republic of China maintain shorter-range
strategic forces as well as tactical air units. Countries such as Vietnam, Cuba, North and South Korea, the former Communist states of Eastern Europe, Germany, Japan, Israel, and some other Middle Eastern nations have strong tactical air forces
but little or no strategic capability. The United States is the only country still possessing a strong naval air force. _^<N__^<N_ DEVELOPMENT OF AIR FORCES_^<N__^<N_Modern military aviation began with the development of the BALLOON at the end of
the 18th century. Successful balloon flights in France led to the establishment (1794) of what can be regarded as the world's first air force: the Aerostatic Corps, which briefly conducted aerial reconnaissance for the armies of revolutionary
France. _^<N__^<N_In the American Civil War the Balloon Corps of the Army of the Potomac constituted, in effect, the first American air force, although it did not outlast the war. In the decades that followed, several European armies developed
balloon corps, but not until 1892 was a balloon section established as part of the U.S. Army Signal Corps. _^<N__^<N_The introduction of powered flight by means of the dirigible, a cylindrical balloon driven by propellers, and more important, by
the first primitive airplanes gave impetus to the development of military air forces. In 1907, four years after the first flight of the Wright brothers, the U.S. Army established a small aeronautical division that in 1914 became the much larger
aviation section, still within the Signal Corps. Military aviation was finally removed from the Signal Corps in 1918 with the creation of the Army Air Service. _^<N__^<N_ First Air Fleets_^<N__^<N_The infant U.S. air organization saw only brief
service on the Mexican border in 1916, but organized military aviation came into its own in Europe during WORLD WAR I (1914-18). All the major participants had small air forces when the war began, but these were used at first primarily for
reconnaissance missions. As the war went on, opposing flyers began to shoot at one another with hand weapons and machine guns, and the development of a MACHINE GUN synchronized to fire through a plane's propeller opened the way for large-scale
aerial combat. Large air fleets soon appeared over the battlefields, employing elaborate aerial tactics. They not only fought one another for control of the skies but also bombed and strafed troops, equipment, and installations on the ground.
German air attacks on London, using both planes and dirigibles, constituted the first attempts at strategic bombing, although they were largely ineffectual. _^<N__^<N_The still relatively primitive state of World War I aircraft restricted the air
forces to short-range and somewhat unreliable auxiliary maneuvers, but the possibilities of air power were apparent to some military leaders, primarily airmen, who saw in the new aerial weapons the key to future victory in war. _^<N__^<N_The
emerging theories of airpower, characterized by the views of Giulio Douhet, an Italian, called for the establishment of separate air forces that by their own independent actions could bring about the defeat of an enemy. Freed of the necessity to
support ground and sea forces, air units would first drive hostile aircraft from the skies and then penetrate deep into rear areas to bomb at will, until the enemy was forced to surrender. Americans such as William ( "Billy" ) MITCHELL, Benjamin D.
Foulois, and Henry ("Hap" ) ARNOLD were passionate supporters of these views, as were England's Hugh M. Trenchard and other European airmen. _^<N__^<N_ Separate Air Forces_^<N__^<N_Despite strong opposition--and a persistent skepticism about the
feasibility and value of strategic bombing--the idea of a separate air force slowly took hold. England established (1918) a separate Royal Air Force (RAF), coequal with the army and navy, and Canada and Australia quickly followed suit. Italy
created a separate air force in 1923, France in 1934, and Germany in 1935; but the missions of the Regia Aeronautica, Armee de l'Air, and Luftwaffe were primarily tactical support of ground forces rather than strategic bombardment, and their
independence was in many ways more apparent than real. By the eve of World War II, only three major powers--the United States, the USSR, and Japan--lacked separate air forces. _^<N__^<N_In the United States the interwar years had seen a good deal
of progress toward an independent air force. In 1926, as a means of "strengthening the conception of military aviation as an offensive, striking arm rather than an auxiliary service," Congress had replaced the Air Service with the Army Air Corps.
Initial hopes of expansion had been frustrated by budgetary restrictions, but creation of the General Headquarters Air Force in 1935 to provide centralized command of combat air units gave the Air Corps increased autonomy. At the same time, the
development of a heavy bomber and of a strategic doctrine for its use lent additional weight to the arguments for a separate air force. Finally, on June 20, 1941, all army air elements were combined into the Army Air Forces (AAF), with Gen. Henry
Arnold as commander. Nominally a part of the army, the AAF soon gained equal status with the ground forces, and Arnold became a full and equal member of the newly created Joint Chiefs of Staff. _^<N__^<N_The United States and Great Britain fought
World War II with essentially separate air forces. The navies of both countries, however, maintained their own air arms, and U.S. naval aircraft carriers played a major role in the war in the Pacific. Other major air forces were closely tied to
support of ground or naval forces. The German Luftwaffe failed in its effort to mount a strategic bombing campaign against England largely because of its prewar concentration on tactical operations, and only the United States and Great Britain had
the organizational and technical means to carry out sustained long-range bombing attacks. _^<N__^<N_The dominant role of air power in World War II, enhanced by the introduction of nuclear weapons, made postwar organizational changes almost
inevitable. On September 18, 1947, the U.S. Air Force became a fully independent military force. Gen. Carl Spaatz, an outstanding wartime leader, became its first chief. Although the U.S. Navy continued to maintain its own air arm, the Air Force
quickly assumed responsibility for strategic bombing as well as tactical and logistical support of the ground forces. With the advent of long-range missiles, the Air Force also became responsible for the development and operation of land-based
strategic missiles. _^<N__^<N_In Great Britain, the Royal Air Force retained its independent status, while the USSR, the only other nation to remain a major air power, maintained an air force fragmented but nonetheless autonomous in many respects.
Elsewhere in the world, most nations followed the American example, although the independent status of many air forces remained somewhat weakened by their primary responsibility to support the ground forces. _^<N__^<N_ THE U.S. AIR
FORCE_^<N__^<N_The U.S. Air Force is one of three military departments, under civilian secretaries, within the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by a chief of staff, a four-star general whoreports to the secretary of the Air Force. The
Air Force chief of staff also serves as a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, together with the Army and Navy chiefs. _^<N__^<N_The service consists mainly of an air staff for planning, 9 major commands, and 36 separate field operating agencies.
Restructuring for the post-cold-war 1990s, the Air Force established a new Air Combat Command (Langley AFB, Va.), eliminating the old STRATEGIC AIR COMMAND (SAC) and Tactical Air Command. The Air Mobility Command (Scott AFB, Ill.) provides global
airlift and refueling for U.S. armed forces. An Air Force Materiel Command (Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio) oversees research, development, testing, and acquisition of weapon systems. The Air Force Space Command (Peterson AFB, Colo.) operates former
SAC strategic missile units and missile warning systems. The Air Education and Training Command (Randolph AFB, Tex.) took over all officer and enlisted individual training, unit formation, and higher professional education in Air Force schools,
including the Air University. The Air Force Intelligence Command (Kelly AFB, Tex.) provides direct intelligence on aerial threats, security, electronic combat data, and information on foreign technology support to national leaders. The Air Force
Special Operations Command (Hurlburt Field, Fla.) provides unconventional warfare air elements and reconnaissance services, mounts counterterrorist operations, and furnishes foreign internal defense support worldwide. Two forward-deployed commands,
Pacific Air Forces (Hickham AFB, Hawaii) and U.S. Air Forces, Europe (Ramstein AB, Germany), project U.S. air units overseas. _^<N__^<N_Field operating agencies perform technical functions, each under the control of a manager at the Headquarters,
U.S. Air Force level. The functions are indicated in the names of centers and agencies, such as the Air Force Audit Agency, the Legal Services Agency, and the Civil Engineering Support Agency. To handle the closure of bases being eliminated from
the active list, the service established the Air Force Base Disposal Agency in 1991. The Air Force Reserves and the Air National Guard are administered as field operating agencies. _^<N__^<N_The Air Force, even while reconfiguring to meet
less-than-global threats, retains strategic forces in the Minuteman II and III and Peacekeeper (MX) intercontinental ballistic missiles, almost 150 B-52G and B-52H Stratofortresses, nearly 100 B-1B Lancer bombers, and a projected 20 B-2A stealth
bombers. Fighter aircraft include the F-15 Eagle in air superiority variants and in two-seat, all-weather versions that proved themselves in the PERSIAN GULF WAR, along with F-16 Fighting Falcons, now equipped to launch precision guided munitions
against strategic or tactical targets. Similar capabilities are built into the older F-111 airframes. The radical F-117A stealth fighter, virtually radar-invisible and highly effective as a strategic strike aircraft, also made its combat debut in
the Persian Gulf War. A-10 Thunderbolt IIs are designed for ground attack and battlefield interdiction missions. Airlift is provided by C-5B Galaxy craft, the Air Force's largest transport, C-141A/B Starlifters, C-130 Hercules craft (in various
versions), and the newer C-17. The Air Force operated nearly 5,400 aircraft of all types in 1993, down from more than 7,200 in 1986; the Air National Guard and the Air Force Reserve added another 2,200. _^<N__^<N_Approximately 445,000 uniformed
members were serving in the active Air Force as of 1993, down from just over 600,000 in 1986. Reserve forces totaled 202,000 in 1993. With projected cutbacks the Air Force will have fewer than 110 major bases in l995. The demography of the Air
Force reflects social concerns of the Defense Department: some 15 percent of the force is female, a similar proportion African-American. Women represent 1 percent of the Air Force's general officers, black Americans 2 percent; women are admitted to
flight training with no restrictions on assignments to first-line aircraft thereafter. _^<N__^<N_Stanley L. Falk Reviewed by Center for Air Force History _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Craven, W. F., and Cate, J. L., eds., The Army Air Forces in World War
II, 7 vols. (1948-58); Frisbee, J. L., Makers of the U.S. Air Force (1987); Glines, C. V., Jr., The Compact History of the U.S. Air Force (1979); Hewish, M., et al., Air Forces of the World (1979); O'Leary, M., U.S. Spyplanes (1984); Polmar, N.,
Strategic Air Command (1979); Ravenstein, C. A., Organization and Lineage of the U.S. Air Force (1986); Taylor, M., Encyclopedia of the World's Air Forces (1988); Walters, A. W., All the U.S. Air Force's Airplanes, 1907-80 (1985).
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air law
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air law_^<N__^<N_Air law is the body of laws, regulations, and international agreements that apply to civil aviation. Each country has its own air laws and can choose to prevent foreign aircraft from entering, as the United States did in 1976 with
the French and British CONCORDE. The United States acted in conformance with the basic principle of international air law--first affirmed in 1919 at the Paris Convention on the Regulation of Aerial Navigation--that gives every state sovereignty
over the airspace above its territory. Subsequent to the Paris Convention other international meetings--principally, the Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation (1944)--established agreements covering such matters as liability for damage
to passengers and cargo on international flights, AIRPLANE HIJACKING, and sabotage. The Chicago Convention also established the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO, 1947), which is affiliated with the United Nations and is concerned
with problems of air law and with the improvement of navigation facilities. Membership in the ICAO includes every country whose planes fly internationally. _^<N__^<N_A national airspace is prohibited to another nation's military aircraft, and the
shooting down of a United States U-2 reconnaissance plane by the USSR in 1960 was not considered a violation of the law. Where civil aircraft are involved in unannounced intrusions, however, the issues become less clear. A Korean passenger liner
strayed into Soviet airspace over Siberia in 1978 and was forced to land in the USSR. In 1983 a Korean passenger plane was shot down in the same area. The USSR claimed that it had "used every opportunity under international rules" to force the
plane to land before shooting, but the claim was discredited when Russian president Boris Yeltsin, following the collapse of the Soviet Union, released the plane's recovered cockpit voice recorder in 1992. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Gesell, Lawrence
E., Aviation and the Law (1989); Wassenbergh, H. A., Public International Air Transportation Law in a New Era (1976).
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air lock:
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air lock:_^<N__^<N_see CAISSON.
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air mass
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air mass_^<N__^<N_An air mass is a body of air, of fairly uniform temperature and moisture, that extends over an area of at least 1,000 sq km (400 sq mi). Air masses are classified by temperature as tropical or polar. The former develop roughly
between latitudes 45 degrees N and S. The latter develop between those latitudes and either pole and may be subclassified as polar or arctic. Air masses are further characterized as maritime (high moisture) or continental (low moisture). They
usually extend upward no farther than about the middle troposphere of the ATMOSPHERE. A FRONT will develop where air masses meet. _^<N__^<N_Herbert Riehl
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air pollution:
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air pollution:_^<N__^<N_see POLLUTION, ENVIRONMENTAL.
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air rights
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air rights_^<N__^<N_Air rights are the rights to build in the space above a tract of land, most commonly over railroad tracks or above another building. The owner of the land has the legal right to lease or sell the airspace above the property. In
New York City, large buildings have been erected in the space above the New York Central Railroad tracks. In Chicago, the Merchandise Mart, one of the world's largest office buildings, makes use of airspace belonging to the Chicago and North
Western Railroad, and the 41-story Prudential Building stands above the tracks of the Illinois Central Gulf Railroad.
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airborne troops
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airborne troops_^<N__^<N_Airborne troops are soldiers trained and equipped to go into battle from the air, particularly by parachute. Units in which all members must be parachutists ("jump qualified," in American military parlance) are generally
considered airborne regardless of how they are deployed. Infantry units that conduct helicopter assaults are usually termed air assault units or air cavalry; units intended to be carried into action by powered transport aircraft are normally termed
air landing or air transportable units. _^<N__^<N_The heavy opening-shock and landing-impact of early parachutes severely restricted the paratrooper's load. In addition, the small doors of early transport aircraft forced the troopers to jump in
file, one at a time, resulting in considerable dispersion on the drop zones. Gliders partly solved these problems and were used extensively in World War II. Subsequent developments in parachutes and in techniques for air-dropping heavy loads
rendered them obsolete. _^<N__^<N_The main advantages of airborne operations are surprise, the ability to bypass ground defenses, and speed of movement from assembly areas to distant targets. Helicopter operations share all but the last of these
advantages, being limited by relatively short range and slow speed. All airborne units, however, are handicapped by the fact that the equipment they use in an assault--and afterward, until conventional resupply is established--must be light and
small enough to be dropped by parachute. _^<N__^<N_Germany perfected the first airborne striking force, which it employed with great effect during the invasion of the Low Countries in 1940. It subsequently captured Crete in its only all-airborne
campaign; following heavy losses there, the Germans abandoned large-scale airborne operations. British and American airborne forces were successfully used later in the war, particularly in the Normandy invasion. The French used parachute assault
extensively in Indochina in 1946-54, although mainly in relatively small, battalion-size drops. U.S. forces mounted only one mass drop in Korea. In their involvement (1964-73) in Vietnam, where they had large numbers of helicopters, the Americans
avoided large airborne operations. _^<N__^<N_Airborne troops have become an elite force of shock infantry. In recent years small numbers of airborne soldiers have also been used in rescue operations (French paratroops in Zaire, 1992, during an army
rebellion), and as peacekeeping forces (U.N. paratroops in Bosnia, Russian paratroops in Georgia). _^<N__^<N_John F. Guilmartin, Jr. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Brown, A. and Read, J., eds., The Airborne (1990); Devlin, G. M., Paratrooper! (1979);
Galvin, J., Air Assault (1969); Stainforth, P., Wings of the Wind (1986).
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Airborne Warning and Control System
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Airborne Warning and Control System_^<N__^<N_The Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS) is a U.S. Air Force plane designed to monitor all air and sea activities over a large area. Known as the E-3 Sentry, the AWACS plane is a greatly modified
Boeing 707 heavily outfitted with electronic equipment. Its most distinguishing feature is a 9-m (30-ft) rotating radome, resembling a giant mushroom, that houses its special antennas. The radars, sensors, computers, and high-speed communications
equipment that make up the AWACS payload can detect, identify, and track planes, missiles, and ships within its surveillance range during any kind of weather and over every kind of terrain, as well as over water. Among the most expensive aircraft
ever built for the U.S. Air Force, the AWACS is considered the ultimate battlefield management center. The U.S. Air Force completed acquisition of its fleet of 34 AWACS in 1984. Another 18 of the craft are operated by NATO. Russia has about 25
Ilyushin-76 planes, modified to carry AWACS equipment. _^<N__^<N_Paul Dickson
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airbrush
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airbrush_^<N__^<N_The airbrush is a device for applying liquid as a fine spray. It is commonly used by commercial artists to facilitate drawing, shading, and retouching artwork. It can also be used to retouch photographs. An industrial type is used
to apply various surface finishes, most commonly paint, but also ink, varnish, enamel, and lacquer. The liquid is fed into the nozzle of the airbrush by gravity or suction, or under pressure. A flow of compressed air atomizes the liquid (breaks up
the particles into a fine mist), which is then carried along with the airstream coming out of the nozzle. A paint spray gun is essentially an airbrush. The principle is similar to that of the common perfume atomizer and the automobile carburetor.
_^<N__^<N_The airbrush is designed so that normally only the supply of liquid is adjusted; the air supply and consequently the air flow from the nozzle remain constant. This design minimizes the spattering and dribbling of the pigment.
_^<N__^<N_Ian Bradley _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Gorringer, Roger, The Complete Airbrush Course (1989); Parramon, Jose M., The Big Book of Airbrush (1990).
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CATO
4803
9585
14350
19158
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aircraft
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000000|aircraft
002984| ANATOMY OF THE AIRPLANE
003164| Fuselage
003433| Wings
005280| Tail Surfaces
005943| Propulsion Systems
007388| Landing Gear
007823| Flying Controls
008523| UNCONVENTIONAL AIRCRAFT
009793| STOL Aircraft
010363| VTOL and V-STOL Aircraft
011246| Airships, or Blimps
011935| Supersonic and Hypersonic Planes
012743| Ultralight Aircraft
014434| AIRCRAFT NAVIGATION
017238| FLIGHT HAZARDS
019350| AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTATION
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aircraft_^<N__^<N_The development of the airplane and other heavier-than-air craft has had the most far-reaching effects of any 20th-century invention. Although many scientific disciplines are involved in the rapid advances in aviation technology,
none is as important as the aircraft itself. In this article the anatomy of an airplane is examined along with recent developments in such unconventional aircraft as helicopters. Basic principles of flight can be found in AERODYNAMICS; the
history of airplane development and a description of contemporary air transportation are the subjects of AVIATION and AIRPORT. Lighter-than-air craft are discussed in AIRSHIP. _^<N__^<N_The first powered, controllable aircraft, Orville and Wilbur
WRIGHT's flying machine, demonstrated in its structure the same basic principles of flight as do today's high-flying jets. The wings, or airfoils, of the original 1903 Wright Flyer resembled a box kite. A small pair of wings, called a canard, was
located forward of the main wings and provided control about the pitch axis, allowing the aircraft to climb or descend. The canard performed the same function as the elevators that are attached to the horizontal stabilizers on most modern aircraft
(and the device is increasingly used again today on small, experimental aircraft). Controlled, coordinated turns in the air were achieved through a method called "wing warping," which deflected the rear, or trailing, edges of the wing and rudder.
With no cockpit, the pilot lay prone over the wing in a cradle arrangement and moved his body from side to side to actuate the controls that effected wing warping and changed the plane's direction. _^<N__^<N_The Wright Flyer was an extremely
difficult aircraft to fly because it was statically unstable: it could not "fly by itself" but had to be constantly controlled by the pilot. European inventors believed that an aircraft should be inherently stable, and they soon improved upon the
Wright brothers' design by developing dynamically stable and controllable aircraft that were safer and easier to fly. The concept of static stability has carried over to virtually all aircraft designs--although recent developments in fighter
aircraft, such as the General Dynamics F-16, show that aerodynamically unstable aircraft have some advantages in maneuverability. _^<N__^<N_The success of any one of the thousands of different craft made since the Wright brothers' first flying
machine depended on the quality of research, design, engineering, and manufacturing used to produce it. By the time World War II began, the aviation industry had accumulated enough experience in aerodynamics, materials, and structures to ensure
uniformity in aircraft development. As a result, most modern aircraft exhibit many structural similarities. They are almost always monoplanes--single- rather than double-winged. They are made of metal, are powered by one to four jet or
reciprocating engines, and are supported on the ground by retractable landing gear. _^<N__^<N_ ANATOMY OF THE AIRPLANE_^<N__^<N_The main structural components of modern aircraft are the fuselage; wings; empennage, or tail surfaces; power plant;
and landing gear, or undercarriage. _^<N__^<N_ Fuselage_^<N__^<N_The fuselage is the main body structure to which the wings, tail, landing gear, and power plants are attached. It contains the cockpit or flight deck, passenger compartment, cargo
compartment, and--in the case of fighter aircraft--the engines and fuel tanks. _^<N__^<N_ Wings_^<N__^<N_The wing is the most important lift-producing element of an aircraft. Wing designs vary, depending on the aircraft type and purpose.
Propeller-driven aircraft normally have an all-metal straight wing with a thick camber, or curvature. Jet transports have swept-back wings of medium camber that lower aerodynamic drag and improve performance at high airspeeds. Both straight and
swept-wing aircraft normally have ailerons attached to the outermost trailing edges of the wing. These ailerons raise and lower in opposition to one another, to increase or decrease lift on their respective wing in order to facilitate turning the
aircraft. The wing also has flaps along the trailing edge, inboard of the ailerons. Flaps increase aerodynamic lift and drag and are used during takeoff and landing to increase lift at low speeds. Modern swept-wing transport aircraft also have
high lift devices called leading-edge slats, which extend in conjunction with the flaps to further increase the lifting capability of the wing. _^<N__^<N_An aircraft flies when the lift, or upward force generated by the wing, increases to a value
larger than the aircraft's total weight. The most critical element in a wing's ability to produce lift is its cross-sectional shape. Early aerodynamic research on kites and gliders indicated that a flat plate would produce lift, but even more
lift could be produced if the plate was inclined slightly into the wind. If the leading edge of the flat plate was rounded and the trailing edge tapered to streamline the wing, drag could be reduced. By increasing the camber of the top surface of
the wing, while flattening the lower surface, lift could be dramatically improved. Wind tunnels, which are used extensively in airfoil research, have facilitated the compilation of a large amount of data on airfoil types and design. _^<N__^<N_
Tail Surfaces_^<N__^<N_The tail, or empennage, provides stability and control for the aircraft and is mounted on the aft portion of the fuselage. It consists of two main parts: the vertical stabilizer, or fin, to which the rudder is attached;
and the horizontal stabilizer, to which the elevator is connected. The rudder is used in conjunction with the ailerons to make coordinated turns, while the elevator is used to climb or descend. The horizontal stabilizer is sometimes mounted high
on the vertical stabilizer, as is the case with the DC-9 and Boeing 727. The new Boeing 757 and 767 have the horizontal stabilizer attached to the rear section of the fuselage. _^<N__^<N_ Propulsion Systems_^<N__^<N_The many aircraft propulsion
systems include those which drive a PROPELLER, primarily reciprocating and turbine (turboprop) engines; and propellerless systems that use the energy of rapidly expanding gases as a propulsive force (see JET PROPULSION). The turbojet and the
turbofan--a turbojet modification--are the most widely used commercial jet engines, and the reciprocating engine is still used extensively in light general aviation aircraft. Jet engines are normally attached to the wing or aft fuselage on pylons,
but occasionally they are imbedded in the wing root next to the fuselage. On many fighter-bomber aircraft they are mounted in the fuselage in order to reduce aerodynamic drag and improve performance. _^<N__^<N_Engine-propeller combinations on
single-engine aircraft are usually located in the nose, or forward-most, section of the fuselage and pull the aircraft through the air. When two or more engine-propeller combinations are used, they are mounted on the wing, but forward of the
leading edge. "Pusher"-type aircraft have the engine mounted in the rear section of the fuselage. Several aircraft designs utilize two engines, one pushing and one pulling. _^<N__^<N_With respect to performance, turbojet engines operate most
efficiently at high altitudes (above 7,600 m/25,000 ft); turboprops at mid altitudes (4,500-7,600 m/15-25,000 ft); and reciprocating engines at low altitudes (sea level to 4,500 m/15,000 ft). _^<N__^<N_ Landing Gear_^<N__^<N_Fixed gear consists of
a simple design of struts, wheels, and brakes that is not retractable into the wings or fuselage. It is usually found on light aircraft of simple design. The static nature of fixed gear reduces the probability of landing gear problems, but it
creates increased drag on a plane in flight. Retractable gear is used on more complex aircraft. Since it reduces drag, it increases range significantly. _^<N__^<N_ Flying Controls_^<N__^<N_The relatively simple controls on a light, general
aviation airplane govern the speed of the craft and its direction, both on the ground and in the air. The control wheel at which the pilot sits may be pushed forward or pulled back to move the tail elevators; pushing forward causes the plane to
nose down. The control wheel also alters the position of the ailerons. The movements of the rudder are controlled from foot pedals in front of the pilot's seat; the pedals activate the wheel brakes when the plane is on the ground. Wing flap
controls are usually powered, either hydraulically or by electric motors. Engine thrust, and thus airplane speed, is controlled by a throttle. _^<N__^<N_ UNCONVENTIONAL AIRCRAFT_^<N__^<N_Many of today's new craft are heralded as innovations,
although some are old, reliable concepts wrapped in new packaging. Hang gliders, for example, operate on the same principles as the early gliders developed by such 19th-century aerodynamicists as Sir George Caley and Otto LILIENTHAL. The wood
frames and heavy fabric coverings of the original gliders have been replaced by lightweight aluminum, fiberglass, and synthetic fibers. Design of the modern hang glider was evolved from research at the National Aeronautics Space Administration
(NASA) into spacecraft reentry. _^<N__^<N_The GLIDER, or sailplane, has the same basic structure as other "heavier than air" machines but does not use a power plant. Instead, it is towed into the air by another aircraft and released at an altitude
that permits it to soar along the "thermals," the columns of warm air that help keep it aloft. Gliders normally have a thin fuselage and very long wings with a narrow width, or chord. Many of the aerodynamic characteristics of the glider have been
incorporated into high altitude reconnaissance aircraft, such as the U-2 and the RB-57 operated by the U.S. Air Force. Research into glider aerodynamics continues today at NASA and military test-flying programs. _^<N__^<N_ STOL
Aircraft_^<N__^<N_Short takeoff and landing aircraft (see STOL) have gained popularity in recent years as air transportation has changed its emphasis from speed to efficiency. De Havilland Aircraft in Britain has developed the DHC-7, a four-engine
STOL aircraft that requires only a very short runway for takeoff and landing. It utilizes advanced light-weight structural materials, new improved engines, and high lift devices to give it its STOL capability. An economical airplane to operate, it
is used by many small commuter and local service airlines around the world. _^<N__^<N_ VTOL and V-STOL Aircraft_^<N__^<N_Vertical takeoff and landing aircraft (see VTOL), which include HELICOPTERS, are still being developed for commercial and
military use. For many years the military has utilized helicopters with great success on a variety of missions: medical evacuation, supply, troop transport, reconnaissance, attack. Industrial helicopters transport materials and personnel to and
from areas where no landing strip is available to accommodate a fixed-wing aircraft. Some aircraft combine vertical and short takeoff and landing (V/STOL) capabilities. The propellers, the craft's power plants, or the wings themselves can tilt
upward for takeoff and landing, but reverse to a horizontal position for flight. The Harrier, a British fighter plane, achieves vertical takeoff by rotating the exhaust nozzles of its jet engines downward in what is called a deflected thrust.
_^<N__^<N_ Airships, or Blimps_^<N__^<N_The high price of aircraft fuel has inspired a new interest in lighter-than-air AIRSHIPS, which use relatively little fuel and offer the promise of great economy. Some analysts feel that 10 to 15 small,
effective airships could be built for the price of one jumbo jet. One of these craft might be capable of airlifting 1,000 tons of cargo or a passenger load greater than that of a jumbo jet, at speeds of up to 200 miles per hour. It could operate
at one-third the cost of a passenger liner and would not require a large airport for takeoff and landings. In addition, the airship is a quiet craft, and--unlike the jet--its exhausts are comparatively nonpolluting. _^<N__^<N_ Supersonic and
Hypersonic Planes_^<N__^<N_Supersonic transports, or SSTs, aircraft that can fly faster than the speed of sound, have been used by the military for many years. Commercial supersonic flight has been limited to the CONCORDE, built by the British and
French in 1976, which has proved to be a commercial failure in large part because of the vast amounts of fuel it consumes. The Russians have also built an SST, the TU-144, but it was not a successful design and was withdrawn from service after
several disastrous crashes. _^<N__^<N_Occasionally, aviation futurists speak of developing a hypersonic transport that would travel beyond the stratosphere at speeds in excess of 8,000 km/h (5,000 mph); given the price of fuel, however, it is
doubtful that this type of aircraft will be developed in the near future. _^<N__^<N_ Ultralight Aircraft_^<N__^<N_Small aircraft made from ultralight, superstrong materials are increasing the range of present-day aeronautical technology. The
current interest in ultralight planes began with the surge in popularity of the hang glider; a hang glider equipped with a small golf-cart engine and a propeller (1976) was the first member of this new generation of aircraft. The enthusiasm for
ultralights came originally from a few engineers who manufactured make-it-yourself kits for home builders, and from the kit buyers who found that they could make their own planes for a cost as low as a few thousand dollars. _^<N__^<N_Some of the
new ultralights resemble the earliest experimental aircraft. Others incorporate the most advanced aerodynamic shapes--achieved by computer modeling--and the newest materials: carbon fiber, kevlar, fiberglass-and-epoxy laminates, plastic foams.
Design innovations include the rebirth of the Wright brothers' canard, which now takes the form of a second wing and acts to maintain lift; "winglets," vertical fins on the wing ends that increase wing efficiency; and rear-mounted, or tail,
propellers that provide greater speed and stability. Ultralights range in cruising speed from 50 to upward of 320 km/h (30 to 200 mph). Some can reach altitudes of 4,300 m (14,000 feet). World records achieved by ultralights include the 1986
triumph of the Voyager, whose hollow plastic body holds four tons of fuel. With two pilots, the Voyager flew around the world nonstop in nine days. _^<N__^<N_Ultralight airplanes also figure in experiments with human powered-flight (see FLIGHT,
HUMAN-POWERED), first successfully achieved in 1977 by the 35-kg (77-lb) Gossamer Condor. _^<N__^<N_ AIRCRAFT NAVIGATION_^<N__^<N_Map reading and "dead reckoning"--manual speed and distance calculations--were the principal methods of navigation
during the pioneer days of aviation, when a sudden change in weather combined with inadequate charts or maps could result in a forced landing or crash. One of the first reliable radio navigation aids was the Non-Directional Beacon, a radio signal
that could be picked up by a cockpit device and used as a checkpoint to verify that the aircraft was on course. VOR (Very High Frequency Omni Directional Range) and TACAN (Tactical Air Navigation) were developed by the military and combined into
the present-day VORTAC system that provides the majority of checkpoints that mark today's airway system, although increased airway congestion will necessitate a modernization of these facilities. _^<N__^<N_Among the new navigation technologies that
are or will soon be used by commercial aviation, Area-Navigation, or R-Nav, is an on-plane system using computers, dopplers, and inertial navigation to produce a self-contained navigational system that needs no ground-based signals as reference
points. Omega, developed originally for ships, uses Very Low Frequency radio beam sent out by eight ground-based stations located across the globe. The signals can be picked up by any plane equipped with Omega receivers. The Global Positioning
Satellite system uses a number of earth-orbiting satellites to provide two- or three-dimensional fixes (including altitude). Although confined to military planes at present, GPS will be operational for civilian use in the near future and will
allow pinpoint navigational accuracy at any location in the sky. _^<N__^<N_All of these new systems permit the pilot to do his or her own navigation, so that navigation officers are no longer needed for most commercial and military flights.
_^<N__^<N_Fifty percent of all fatal air accidents occur during the approach and landing phase of flight, and it is imperative that the most precise navigational aids be utilized during this critical period. The ILS, or Instrument Landing System,
is the best navigational aid available. An airport ILS transmits several electronic signals to the pilot of an approaching plane. These define the approach course and glide slope--the angle of descent that must be used. The MLS, or Microwave
Landing System now being installed at many airports, is similar to the ILS but allows curved approaches to be flown to the runway, alleviating the noise and congestion problems that plague the modern jet airport. _^<N__^<N_RADAR is used by an
airport's Air Traffic Control to separate aircraft and vector them to the airport for landing. Aircraft may utilize radar as a navigation aid, and new radars now being used on some commercial aircraft also have the capability of detecting
turbulence. _^<N__^<N_ FLIGHT HAZARDS_^<N__^<N_Turbulence is an atmospheric problem with which aircraft have to deal at one time or another. Mild turbulence is common and usually produces little more than the discomfort of a bumpy flight. Violent
turbulence, however, is the cause of a large percentage of airplane crashes. It presents the further hazard of sometimes occurring in the invisible form known as clear air turbulence. It is this form of turbulence that some newer radar systems
are designed to identify, so that an aircraft can maneuver to avoid it if warned in time. _^<N__^<N_Clear air turbulence, which involves violent updrafts and downdrafts of air, may be produced at lower atmospheric levels in a number of ways from
variations in atmospheric temperature. It also takes place high in the atmosphere in the neighborhood of jet streams. WIND shear, one form of turbulence, is a rapid change in wind speed or direction or both. The change in direction is more or
less at right angles to the direction of the prevailing wind, so that an aircraft caught in such motions experiences a tearing effect. Other kinds of turbulence are observed in the vicinity of high mountains, where powerful rising or falling
currents of air are the rule. One particular form such turbulence may take downwind from high ranges is that of an eddy called a rotor. Likened to an invisible tornado lying on its side, it has caused planes caught in the eddy to flip sideways
and crash. _^<N__^<N_Under ordinary circumstances pilots are usually able to avoid such obvious visible sites of violent weather as massive thunderclouds, and they may also fly above other storms from which rain or snow is being precipitated.
Clouds and heavy precipitation are zones of violent turbulence, of course, and in addition they greatly reduce visibility. Icing is another problem of flight through precipitation at low temperatures, particularly for propeller-driven aircraft.
Ice increases drag and can cause an engine to shut down. Commercial jet aircraft usually can climb quickly enough to avoid severe icing, but their engines are otherwise also prone to such effects. _^<N__^<N_ AIRCRAFT
INSTRUMENTATION_^<N__^<N_Power, performance, and navigational instruments are used by the pilot to evaluate the well-being of the aircraft and to check its course. The power instruments check engine performance, power output, and airspeed. The
TACHOMETER is the basic power-indicating instrument. Jet aircraft use engine-pressure ratio gauges to determine thrust output. On piston-powered aircraft manifold pressure gauges measure the pressure under which the fuel-air mixture is supplied
to the engine. Turboprop aircraft measure power output on a torque gauge that monitors the power available at the prop shaft. All aircraft have instruments that check oil temperature and pressure and fuel flow. The electrical and hydraulic
systems are also monitored with gauges and caution lights. _^<N__^<N_Performance instruments show how well and at what altitude the aircraft is flying. They include the artificial horizon, a gyroscope-mounted device that shows the pilot the
plane's relation to the real horizon; the altimeter and vertical velocity gauges, which indicate height above mean sea level and the rate of climb or descent; and the airspeed indicator. A turn-and-bank indicator and an accelerometer, or G
meter, keep the pilot informed as to the direction of turn and the loading, or strain, on the aircraft. (On some military aircraft, accelerometers are also used in inertial guidance systems to detect flight-course deviations.) _^<N__^<N_The
location of all these instruments in the cockpit is vital to the pilot's ability to assess craft conditions quickly and accurately. Instrument design and location is a science in itself and is constantly undergoing study. The "electronic cockpit"
or EFIS (Electronic Flight Information System), a computerized instrumentation array that includes the presentation of flight information via television screens, is revolutionizing the way flight instruments are used. Its introduction has caused
some difficulty because it requires a change in habit patterns; in the long run, however, it will simplify cockpit design and enable the pilot to make better decisions in critical situations involving mechanical failure, weather avoidance, or
navigational problems. The new Boeing 757, the 767, and the European Airbus A-310 are all being equipped with the EFIS. _^<N__^<N_J. Michael Jobanek _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Anderson, John D., Jr., Introduction to Flight: Its Engineering and
History (1978); Bowers, Peter M., Unconventional Aircraft (1984); Coombs, Charles, Ultralights: The Flying Featherweights (1984); Jerram, M., Classic Aircraft (1981); Markowski, Michael A., Ultralight Aircraft (1981); Montgomery, M. R., A
Field Guide To Airplanes of North America (1984); Nayler, J. L., Aviation: Its Technical Development; (1965); Stinton, Darrol, The Anatomy of the Aeroplane (1980); Swanborough, Gordon, Civil Aircraft of the World, rev. ed. (1980); Taylor, J.
W. R., ed., Jane's All the World's Aircraft (annual).
-END-
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15033
CATO
4788
9626
14431
-A-
aircraft, military
-O-
000000|aircraft, military
000643| TYPES OF MILITARY AIRCRAFT
004313| HISTORY
004844| World War I
006762| Between the Wars
008361| World War II
010267| After World War II
012050| NEW TECHNOLOGIES
-T-
aircraft, military_^<N__^<N_The importance of aircraft designed specifically for use by the military was recognized within a decade of the initial controlled, power-driven airplane flights achieved by Orville and Wilbur Wright on Dec. 17, 1903.
Although zeppelins had been flown since 1900--and more than 100 were built by Germany for use in World War I (see AIRSHIP)--the smaller, faster, more maneuverable airplane quickly proved superior for warfare, and it is today the principal weapon of
military attack and defense. (See AIRCRAFT and AVIATION for the technology and development of planes. For the development of independent military air units, see AIR FORCE.) _^<N__^<N_ TYPES OF MILITARY AIRCRAFT_^<N__^<N_The military aircraft's
original function was large-scale reconnaissance. A scout plane equipped with bombs proved to be a weapon of unprecedented destructive potential; inevitably, the use of bomber aircraft led to the development of the fighter, an airplane capable of
intercepting and destroying bombers. In addition to its use above the battlefield, the fighter was used extensively against enemy aircraft for home defense, as a protective escort for bombers, and as a strike plane against such objectives as enemy
airports and railroads. _^<N__^<N_The introduction of the airplane provided a TORPEDO-launching device with several advantages over ships, particularly in speed of approach to a target. Torpedo-dropping experiments commenced early in the
development of aircraft and were soon followed by the production of specialized torpedo-bombers. _^<N__^<N_Mine-laying aircraft were used to inhibit enemy ship movements, and during World War II the airplane was also adapted to counter the magnetic
mine by exploding it electronically in the water after locating it. _^<N__^<N_Between the wars increasing attention was paid to the development of transport aircraft, in particular for the landing of troops and equipment and for the deployment of
both soldiers and arms by PARACHUTE (see AIRBORNE TROOPS). For a short time during World War II, GLIDERS were also used extensively. They were towed to their destination and then released to land with their cargoes. Since 1945, development has
been concentrated on the HELICOPTER as a transport vehicle, because it can take off and land vertically and can hover to provide support for ground troops. As early as 1942 the helicopter was also being tested as a combat craft, and it has now
been developed into a strike aircraft heavily armed with cannon, machine guns, rockets, torpedoes, and a variety of powerful missiles. It can be equipped to operate as an antisubmarine weapon as well. _^<N__^<N_The outstanding success of the
fighter in strike missions during World War II was responsible for the production after the war of an entirely new class of airplane, the attack aircraft, designed specifically for close support and strike functions but also able to intercept.
Emphasis in an attack aircraft is on flexibility and on bomb transport and targeting capacity, coupled with the ability to fly at low altitudes to evade RADAR detection, ground fire, and ground-to-air missiles. _^<N__^<N_The counterinsurgency
(COIN) aircraft has emerged as a distinct class of warplane since World War II, serving as a comparatively lightweight, low-cost, and simple strike plane for close support of ground forces in relatively elementary tactical operations. In many
cases obsolescent strike and trainer planes have been adapted to serve as COIN aircraft. _^<N__^<N_The serious threat to a nation's shipping posed by fleets of advanced nuclear submarines requires the maintenance of strong maritime patrol forces
and antisubmarine aircraft. With long ranges and advanced equipment and weapons, these types of aircraft have assumed a role of the utmost significance since 1945. _^<N__^<N_The need for immediate warning of approaching hostile aircraft has led to
the development of extremely sophisticated airplanes capable of extended patrol missions. A plane equipped with an AIRBORNE WARNING AND CONTROL SYSTEM (AWACS) is vastly more effective, and has much greater range, than a similar system based on the
ground or at sea. _^<N__^<N_Training aircraft have also assumed a vital role, and specialized airplanes have been developed to train crews for all categories of operational aircraft. Many of these training planes can be converted quickly into
warplanes. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY_^<N__^<N_The U.S. Army was the first armed service to acquire an airplane. On Dec. 23, 1907, Brig. Gen. James Allen, the chief signal officer, issued a specification for a military aircraft, and a contract was
placed with the Wright brothers on Feb. 10, 1908. Italy was the first country to use an airplane in war. On Oct. 23, 1911, during the Italo-Turkish War in North Africa, a plane was employed for reconnaissance. Soon after, Italian airplanes
dropped bombs and propaganda leaflets and photographed enemy positions. _^<N__^<N_ World War I_^<N__^<N_By the beginning of World War I, little progress had been made by the belligerents in formulating distinct policies for the use of aircraft.
Military airplanes were unarmed and were used primarily for visual and photographic reconnaissance over enemy lines. The opposing sides were quick to develop armament to protect their scouting aircraft from ground fire, and such armed aircraft
were soon developed into fighter planes that could be used to intercept roving reconnaissance planes. The latter, in turn, acquired escort fighters for their own protection. Combat between fighters began, and it continued with formations of
increasing size until the Armistice. Early in the war, bombing raids were made against the bases that sheltered German zeppelins which had been used in bomb attacks against Britain; specialized bombing airplanes were developed subsequently.
_^<N__^<N_By 1915 the value of the airplane in war had been recognized fully, and design, development, and production of aircraft were given the highest priority. The wood-and-fabric biplane predominated, but military forces also developed
monoplanes and triplanes, with single, twin, and multiple engines of rotary, radial, and in-line types, both air-cooled and water-cooled. The synchronization of machine-gun fire through the propeller arc without hitting the blades and the evolution
of bombsights proved of extreme importance, and many technical advances were made in airplanes themselves. Particular emphasis was laid on increasing speed, height, range, and load-carrying capacity, and during World War I the airplane evolved
into a highly effective weapon. Its potential was confirmed on Apr. 1, 1918, with the formation of Britain's Royal Air Force (RAF), the world's first independent air service. On June 6, 1918, the Independent Force was constituted within the RAF
for the strategic bombing of the German munitions industry. _^<N__^<N_ Between the Wars_^<N__^<N_Although the Armistice on Nov. 11, 1918, brought immediate disarmament and attendant financial constraint, the war had been a strong stimulus to the
development of military and naval aircraft. Nations able to retain air services encouraged their designers of airplanes, engines, and armaments to produce improved equipment. Three prominent advocates of air power were the U.S. brigadier general
Billy MITCHELL, the British general Hugh Montague Trenchard, and the Italian general Giulio Douhet, whose Command of the Air (1921) set forth theories--held in common by all three--that were to form the basis for the future development of military
airpower. Essentially, these theorists believed that the first function of an air force was to carry the attack beyond the battlefield into the heart of enemy country, to destroy the industries that support the opposing armies, and to sap the will
of the civilian population. _^<N__^<N_The biplane remained dominant for naval use until the 1930s. U.S. government sponsorship of monoplane designs, however, exerted such a great influence on airframe design and related engine, propeller, and fuel
developments that the monoplane eventually became the only type able to meet the incessant demand for increased aircraft performance. Significant innovations adopted during this period included retractable landing gear, flaps, the variable-pitch
propeller, and the supercharger. The wars in Ethiopia, Spain, and China during the 1930s enabled the Germans, Italians, Russians, and Japanese to evaluate their new warplanes under battle conditions. _^<N__^<N_ World War II_^<N__^<N_Before the
outbreak of World War II, each belligerent had equipped and trained its air arms to fulfill specific, clearly defined functions. In accordance with the prophetic doctrines of Mitchell, Trenchard, and Douhet, the United States, Great Britain, and
Italy had concentrated particularly on developing the long-range strategic bomber. Germany, the USSR, and Japan, however, had built air forces designed expressly to support army operations. Additionally, the United States and Japan had supplied
their navies with airplanes of the dive-bombing type. Being an island power, Japan had stressed the requirement that its navy be adequately equipped with torpedo bombers for action against enemy ships. _^<N__^<N_During the action in Europe, the
British Isles served as the main base for Allied strategic bombing operations against the Axis, with the U.S. Army Air Force engaged primarily in daylight attacks and the RAF conducting night raids. The AIRCRAFT CARRIER demonstrated its worth in
highly specialized actions in the war in the Pacific. Radar quickly assumed a role of paramount importance in detecting approaching raiders and as a navigational and bombing aid. Newly developed airplanes were equipped with advanced armament and
weapons, including new types of bombs, heavy-caliber cannon, and rocket projectiles. Rocket-propelled fighters were introduced by the Germans, and the Japanese used Kamikaze (suicide) aircraft in attacking Allied ships. Two innovations, however,
transcended all others: the turbojet engine and the ATOMIC BOMB. The first operational jet-propelled aircraft, and the only one of its type to see significant action in World War II, was Germany's Messerschmitt Me 262. About a year later, atomic
bombs were dropped by the U.S. Army Air Force on Hiroshima (Aug. 6, 1945) and on Nagasaki (Aug. 9, 1945), bringing World War II to an end on Aug. 14, 1945. _^<N__^<N_ After World War II_^<N__^<N_A new generation of advanced bombers with
unprecedented range and speed was developed to serve as vehicles for nuclear bombs, for conventional bombs, and for missiles. (Much of the engineering for this new generation of bombers was based on highly advanced German research carried out
during World War II.) The jet engine and rocket propulsion were developed further, along with numerous exterior design innovations, notably delta and swept-back wings. To enable airplanes to remain airborne for extended periods, refueling in
flight from tanker aircraft evolved. _^<N__^<N_The development of all categories of airplanes and associated weapons was accelerated by the Berlin Airlift and by the outbreak of wars in the Middle East, Korea, and Vietnam. Supersonic flight was
achieved and eventually became a necessity in the performance of fighters and bombers. The high speed of jet aircraft necessitated the development of a high-speed method of abandoning a plane in an emergency. The ejection seat, first tried in
1946, uses an explosive charge to catapult the entire seat unit clear of the plane. A parachute then opens automatically, floating the crew member to a safe landing. _^<N__^<N_A significant advance in fixed-wing aircraft design was the vertical
takeoff and landing craft (see VTOL), a British accomplishment that produced a fighter aircraft with reconnaissance and strike functions. In armament, the machine gun and cannon were augmented by the rapid-fire multibarrel cannon and an extensive
array of guided MISSILES. The dramatic increase in performance engendered by the jet engine was made possible by the concurrent development of a wide range of new materials for airframe construction, including light metal alloys, plastics,
fiberglass, and carbon-fiber. _^<N__^<N_ NEW TECHNOLOGIES_^<N__^<N_The most significant recent advances in military aviation technology have been made in the area of flight guidance and control--both of the planes themselves and their weaponry.
The pilotless plane, or drone, is a prime example. One of the first drones, the Firebee (originally produced in 1959), is launched and controlled from the ground or a plane; or, when fitted with a computer, it is capable of following a preset
course and returning. The present-day Firebee can fly at altitudes of up to 18,250 m (60,000 ft) at speeds approaching 800 km/h (500 mph). It is usually equipped with radar and camera systems and functions as a reconnaissance craft. The U.S.
Army is currently developing a 68-kg (150-lb) drone, the Aquila, that in addition to performing reconnaissance duties will also be capable of directing laser-guided missiles. _^<N__^<N_The technologies used in advanced drones-- sophisticated radar
systems that are capable of ground mapping, laser inertial navigation, computers that can control and target weapons systems--are also used in piloted military aircraft, which supplement these systems with sophisticated electronic display panels.
_^<N__^<N_The V/STOL plane is capable of taking off and landing either vertically or on very short runways. Some new craft are Some new craft are hybrid mixtures of helicopters and conventional airplanes, whose wings carry large-bladed propellers
that can be rotated parallel to the wing to lift the vehicle, or moved forward to allow it to cruise like a plane. Important advances have also been made in the area of RADAR avoidance. The materials and design used to construct the F-117A
STEALTH FIGHTER and the STEALTH BOMBER render them immune to detection by conventional radar. _^<N__^<N_Peter M. H. Lewis _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bruce, J. M., War Planes of the First World War, 5 vols. (1969-72); Campbell, C., Air Warfare
(1985); Ekmory, J. M., Source Book of World War II Aircraft (1987); Franks, N., Aircraft vs. Aircraft (1986); Green, W., Warplanes of the Third Reich (1970); Gunston, Bill, An Illustrated Guide to modern Fighters and Attack Aircraft, rev.
updated ed. (1987); Jackson, Robert, World Military Aircraft Since 1945 (1980); Jane's All the World's Aircraft (annual); Lewis, Peter, The British Fighter since 1912 (1974) and The British Bomber since 1914 (1974) and The British Fighter since
1912 (1974); Polmar, Norman, and Kennedy, Floyd, Military Helicopters of the World (1981); Wagner, William, Lightning Bugs and Other Reconnaissance Drones (1982); Waters, Andrew W., All the United States Air Force's Airplanes, 1907-80 (1982).
aircraft carrier_^<N__^<N_An aircraft carrier is a warship that contains a flight deck for launching and recovering AIRCRAFT and associated hangaring and support facilities. It is usually distinguished by a full- length flight deck and arresting
gear to halt landing aircraft in the limited space available. Recent years, however, have seen the development of cruiser-carrier hybrids, notably the Russian navy's Kiev, that carry a mixed complement of helicopters (see HELICOPTER) and VTOL
(vertical takeoff and landing) fighters. Specialized amphibious assault ships, or commando carriers that carry only helicopters, are operated by several navies, but these are distinct from true aircraft carriers. _^<N__^<N_Shipboard air operations
are complicated and difficult. Aircraft are catapulted off the deck and land over the stern, using the carrier's forward velocity to reduce the speed of approach to the carrier; the aircraft also use tailhooks to engage arresting cables stretched
across the flight deck. Large elevators are set into the flight deck and along its sides to transfer aircraft to and from the hangar deck below. Because the amount of space on a carrier is limited, aircraft must have folding wings and tails, and
helicopters are equipped with folding rotors. _^<N__^<N_High standards of teamwork, precision, and flying skill are required to operate aircraft safely from shipboard, particularly at night and in bad weather. Simply moving aircraft from the hangar
deck to the catapults and from the arresting cables to the correct spot below is an intricate and dangerous maneuver. _^<N__^<N_The aircraft carrier is basically a British, American, and Japanese development. Eugene Ely, an American aviator,
pioneered shipboard takeoffs and landings from improvised platforms in 1910-11. Britain converted the cruiser Furious into the first carrier in 1917; the Argus, which was the first carrier with a true flight deck, soon followed. The first American
carrier, the converted collier (coal cargo-ship) Langley, became operational in 1922, the year in which Japan's Hosho, the first ship specifically designed as a carrier, was launched. _^<N__^<N_By the onset of World War II both Japan and the United
States had powerful carrier forces. Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor by carrier-based aircraft, carriers dominated fleet engagements in the Pacific. British carrier deployment was more limited but still had major impact. The attack on
Taranto by carrier-based torpedo bombers in November 1940 crippled the Italian fleet, and the German battleship Bismarck was put out of action by carrier-based aircraft. British and American escort carriers played a major role in defeating German
submarines (see SUBMARINE). _^<N__^<N_After World War II, Britain pioneered the technical developments that made jet carrier operations practical--the steam catapult, visual approach aids, and the angled deck. The last refers to a deck that has the
landing section laid out at an angle to the takeoff section so that a plane approaching poorly can fly off the deck and make another attempt without danger of running into other planes. _^<N__^<N_American carriers were used effectively in Korea,
Vietnam, and the PERSIAN GULF WAR (1991). The U.S. Navy has 14 active carriers, the world's largest carrier fleet. The first nuclear carrier, the U.S.S. Enterprise, was launched in 1960. It was followed in 1972 by the Nimitz, the first in a class
that has since become the U.S. standard for aircraft carriers. _^<N__^<N_Slightly smaller and slower than the Enterprise, the Nimitz has only two nuclear reactors (the Enterprise has eight) and can operate--at a speed of 30 or more knots (55.5
km/h; 34.5 mph)-- for up to 1.6 million km (1 million mi) between refuelings. With a crew of 3,300 and an additional 3,000 personnel attached to its air wing, the carrier is capable of storing, fueling, and launching over 90 aircraft. It is
equipped both for attack (it carries three missile launchers) and for antisubmarine warfare. The U.S. Navy now operates six Nimitz-class carriers, with two more under construction, scheduled to be commissioned during the 1990s. Budget proposals
formulated in 1991 call for a reduction to 12 carriers by 1995. _^<N__^<N_Recent criticism of the aircraft carrier has been widespread, however, and has centered on its high cost and its vulnerability to missile attack. The Nimitz-class Theodore
Roosevelt, with its complement of aircraft and protective escort ships, cost an estimated $17 billion. Many strategists have now come to favor smaller, less expensive carriers, such as the fleet Britain built in the 1980s: each of its three
carriers houses a mixed fleet of about 20 V/STOL (vertical/short takeoff and landing) aircraft and helicopters. Argentina, Brazil, and India operate World War II carriers bought from Britain. France will launch two midsize nuclear- powered carriers
in the mid-1990s. Russia's Kuznetsov-class aircraft carriers are medium-size and conventionally powered. _^<N__^<N_John F. Guilmartin, Jr. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Chesneau, R., Aircraft Carriers of the World (1984); Hoyt, Edwin P., Carrier Wars:
Naval Aviation from World War II to the Persian Gulf (1989); Terzibaschitsch, Stefan, Aircraft Carriers of the U.S. Navy, 2d ed. (1989); Time-Life Books, eds., Carrier Warfare (1992); Winton, John, Air Power at Sea (1987).
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38
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aircraft instrumentation:
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aircraft instrumentation:_^<N__^<N_see AIRCRAFT
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860
CAT
-A-
Airedale terrier
-T-
Airedale terrier_^<N__^<N_{air'-dayl} _^<N__^<N_The Airedale terrier, the largest of the terriers, is a wiry- coated black-and-tan dog that has a muscular, compact body and a docked tail. It has a square muzzle, upright but folded ears, and keen,
intelligent eyes. It is classified a long-legged terrier. Males measure 58 cm (23 in) high at the shoulder, females are slightly smaller. It is a good swimmer and runner. _^<N__^<N_Dog breeders of Aire Valley, northern England, developed the
Airedale terrier in the mid-19th century from the otterhound and a now extinct breed of English fox terrier. During World War II, Airedale terriers were trained to carry messages between troops; now they are used as guard dogs and for hunting big
game in India and in Africa. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Edwards, Gladys, The New Complete Airedale, 3d ed. (1978); Freund, Jan L., Airedale Terrier Champions (1987). _^<N__^<N_
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745
CAT
-A-
airglow
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airglow_^<N__^<N_Airglow is a luminosity of the Earth's upper atmosphere that occurs day and night. Night airglow, which is twice as bright as all starlight, originates at altitudes of 100-190 km (62-118 mi). The light is emitted by atoms and
molecules excited by ultraviolet radiation and X rays and by collision with charged particles and X rays in the upper atmosphere. Airglow hampers astronomical observation of faint objects. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Chamberlain, J. W., Physics of
the Aurora and Airglow (1961); Corliss, William R., Lightning, Auroras, Nocturnal Lights, and Related Luminous Phenomena (1982); McCormac, B. M., Aurora and Airglow (1967); Roach, Franklin E., and Gordon, Janet L., The Light of the Night Sky
(1973). _^<N__^<N_See also: AURORAS.
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1822
CAT
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airmail
-T-
airmail_^<N__^<N_Airmail is the delivery of letters and other postal material by aircraft. Before World War I, experimental airmail flights were made in both England and the United States, but the world's first regularly scheduled airmail service
began in the United States on May 15, 1918, when the War Department started routes between New York, Philadelphia, and Washington, D.C. The Post Office Department continued airmail service after the war and in 1920 developed a coast-to-coast route
in conjunction with the railroads, which carried mail sacks during the nighttime segments of the transcontinental run. Four years later, a string of flashing beacons and emergency landing fields was established across the country to permit
around-the-clock operations, providing a 32-hour coast-to-coast airmail delivery that was at the time three days faster than railroad service. _^<N__^<N_Under the terms of the Air Mail Act of 1925 (the Kelly Bill), the Post Office Department
contracted for service with privately owned airlines. These early mail routes became the basis for major companies that currently serve the United States. Air express also began in the later 1920s, gradually developing into a significant aspect
of modern air transport. By the late 1930s, transoceanic routes carried passengers, freight, and mail across the Caribbean, Pacific, and Atlantic, completing the pattern of today's global air network. Depending on the distance involved, almost all
domestic first-class mail is currently delivered by air. _^<N__^<N_Roger E. Bilstein _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Davies, R. E. G., Airlines of the United States Since 1914 (1972); Jackson, Donald, Flying the Mail (1982); Leary, W. M., Aerial
Pioneers (1986); Shamburger, Page, Tracks Across the Sky: The Story of the Pioneers of the U.S. Air Mail (1964). _^<N__^<N_See also: POSTAL SERVICES.
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23
CAT
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airplane:
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airplane:_^<N__^<N_see AIRCRAFT.
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1788
CAT
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airplane hijacking
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airplane hijacking_^<N__^<N_Airplane hijacking is the forcible seizure of a commercial aircraft and the holding of its crew and passengers hostage against the acceptance of the hijackers' demands. Between 1948 and 1960 some 32 hijackings took
place; almost all were attempts by Eastern Europeans to escape from Communist countries to the West. In 1959 several planes carrying escapees from the Cuban Revolution were forcibly diverted to the United States and were welcomed by U.S.
authorities. The violence inherent in the act of hijacking became apparent to much of the world only in the early 1960s when U.S. jetliners were detoured at gunpoint to Cuba by Cubans seeking to return or by people with ideological or criminal
motives. A number of Arab terrorists have used hijacking since the 1960s and later to attempt to enforce political demands. _^<N__^<N_To counter the threat of hijacking, X-ray and other machines have been used to screen passengers and baggage at
airports. The Hague Convention of 1970 required its signers to prosecute or extradite hijackers who landed in their countries. Several of the nations that had offered a safe haven to hijackers did not sign the Convention; but since 1980--during a
period of resurgence in U.S. hijack attempts--Cuba began to jail or return hijackers almost as soon as they landed, and hijackers headed for Libya or Algeria could no longer assume a welcome there. Nevertheless, the crime has spread throughout
most of the world. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ashwood, Tom, Terror in the Skies (1987); Clyne, Peter, Anatomy of Skyjacking (1974); Haas, William, and Blair, Ed, Odyssey of Terror (1977); Hubbard, David G., Skyjacker: His Flights of Fancy, ed. by
Clement Alexandre (1971); Joyner, Nancy D., Aerial Hijacking As an International Crime (1974).
-END-
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17223
CATO
4756
9530
14323
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airport
-O-
000000|airport
000681| HISTORY
001495| Europe
002122| United States
003420| Overseas Flights
004047| TYPES OF AIRPORTS IN THE UNITED STATES
004423| Government Airports
004992| General-Aviation Airports
005808| Commercial Airports
007580| AIRPORT FACILITIES
008326| Traffic Control
011416| Noise
012780| Security
014509| The Effects of Airline Deregulation on Airports
-T-
airport_^<N__^<N_An airport is a facility for handling the arrival and departure of AIRCRAFT, passengers, and freight. Today's modern passenger airports, which are the nuclei of the world's most extensive and heavily used travel network, are shaped
by certain exacting requirements: sufficient space to accommodate the long runway needs of jumbo jets, as well as the hangars, terminals, parking lots, and cargo and accessory buildings necessary for efficient airport operation; sufficient
highways and public transportation to allow passengers access; and sufficient distance from residential areas so that adjacent neighborhoods will not be subjected to aircraft noise. (See also AVIATION.) _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY_^<N__^<N_Before World
War I any spot large and level enough for a pilot to take off and land was considered an airport. The brothers Orville and Wilbur WRIGHT made do with a level cow pasture. The first experimental flights in Canada were made from the frozen surface
of a lake. An old barn to house tools, a workshop, and some storage space were all that was required for early experiments in aviation. _^<N__^<N_Between 1909 and 1914 the airplane swiftly gained popularity. Well-publicized world records for
speed, altitude, and distance of flights were continually surpassed, and a number of national and international races were organized. Newspapers and other organizations put up substantial cash prizes for special events, which were usually staged
on racetracks with large, level fields for takeoffs and landings. _^<N__^<N_ Europe_^<N__^<N_The big bombers used in World War I had demonstrated a capability for carrying considerable loads and for operating at night, thus proving that air
passenger service was theoretically feasible. Shortly after the war, a few former British military pilots acquired some surplus warplanes and refitted them for passengers. By 1919 the first London-to-Paris passenger services were inaugurated, and
within the year scheduled passenger flights were offered to Amsterdam and to other cities on the Continent. By about 1928, scheduled commercial air routes crisscrossed all of Europe, and most cities had adequate airports. _^<N__^<N_ United
States_^<N__^<N_In the years after World War I, manufacturers left with large inventories of airplane parts from canceled war contracts began to produce planes for peacetime use. Small, short-hop airlines came into existence and vanished quickly;
few people were willing to risk a journey in the tiny, fragile planes of the time. Charles LINDBERGH's transatlantic flight of 1927, however, triggered a great upsurge in public interest and generated programs in aeronautical education and
research that eventually established the airplane as an effective means of mass transportation. _^<N__^<N_A string of small airports and emergency fields had been established from coast to coast to service AIRMAIL planes. During the early 1930s the
first transcontinental operations were inaugurated. The first long-distance airline schedules were begun in conjunction with the existing railroad systems. Airports were sited adjacent to railroad stations, and passengers flew by day and traveled
in railroad sleeping cars at night. Coast-to-coast travel time was about 48 hr by combined rail and flight. By 1932, light BEACONS and radio communication had been installed along the airways, making it possible for planes to fly through the
night. Travel time became about 33 hr, with 12 to 15 stops for fuel and food. _^<N__^<N_ Overseas Flights_^<N__^<N_In the late 1930s commercial overseas services to South America and Europe were started. The plane most widely used over water was
the flying boat (a large four-engine vehicle with a watertight body that acted as a hull, allowing the plane to float), operating out of harbors on the east and west coasts (see SEAPLANE). It was anticipated that the flying boat would be the
eventual solution for worldwide air commerce. By the end of World War II, however, further development and plans for future use of flying boats were totally abandoned, and today airport-seaport combinations are not in commercial use. _^<N__^<N_
TYPES OF AIRPORTS IN THE UNITED STATES_^<N__^<N_Three types of airports are now in common use: government airports, operated mostly for the military; public and private airports, primarily to serve general aviation; and commercial airports,
including those for domestic and foreign airline operations. Federal regulations govern their operational methods and set safety standards. _^<N__^<N_ Government Airports_^<N__^<N_Government airports serve the U.S. Air Force, Navy, and Marine
Corps, as well as NASA and various installations for research and development. They also support such special activities as the landing and recovery of space vehicles on 8-km (5-mi) desert runways. They furnish long-range jets and short-haul
helicopters for presidents and foreign dignitaries. General-aviation and commercial planes are usually prohibited from using U.S. government airports, except in emergencies or when a government facility is designated a "joint use" airport.
_^<N__^<N_ General-Aviation Airports_^<N__^<N_General-aviation activities--including private flying for recreation, instruction, and business--account for 80 percent of the air-hours flown, and it is anticipated that by the 1990s the number of
privately owned planes will double. Of more than 12,000 airports listed in the U.S. directories, the majority are available for general use, subject to FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION (FAA) rules and regulations. General-aviation airports are
often privately owned and are usually located near small cities and towns that are not along the routes of commercial airlines. In addition, most commercial airports designate specific areas for general aviation use and require all planes to be
subject to the same traffic control and regulations that are imposed on commercial airline traffic. _^<N__^<N_ Commercial Airports_^<N__^<N_Commercial airports are usually publicly owned, and operated by municipal, county, or other government
agencies. The location of many modern urban airports was originally determined largely on the basis of available real estate and local politics. Before World War II, airfields in such major cities as London and New York often occupied less than
202 ha (500 acres). (By contrast, the Dallas/Fort Worth Airport in Texas has an area of more than 7,080 ha/17,500 acres; and Montreal's Mirabel Airport has more than 35,600 ha/88,000 acres in reserve, although at present it uses only about
one-fifth of its total area.) As airline traffic increased in the 1950s and '60s, airports enlarged to accommodate it; the most important single change in aviation, however, was the introduction (1958) of jet planes, which made unprecedented
demands on the length and strength of runways, taxiways, and ground facilities of every kind. As a result, cities with major airports enlarged them greatly or moved them into nearby rural areas. _^<N__^<N_Despite the enlarging of airport
facilities, many hub airports--those in large cities which serve as major transfer points--find themselves increasingly short of space. Their problems are exacerbated by the growth of the suburban areas that were relatively empty when the airports
were first located there. Expanding an existing airport or building a new one is equally difficult because of population pressures, environmental issues, and the huge costs involved. In addition, at many hub airports one or two major airlines now
control most of the take-off and landing time slots and the departure gates. They have no wish to see their near-monopolies disappear, a probability when new or larger facilities are built. _^<N__^<N_ AIRPORT FACILITIES_^<N__^<N_The modern airport
consists of facilities for handling airplanes: runways and taxiing areas; hangars and machine shops for plane maintenance, repair, and fueling; and traffic control towers, whose personnel track aircraft and guide them through landings and
takeoffs. Passengers are received in the terminal buildings, which are connected to nearby highways and to parking facilities by access roads and which contain airline ticket counters and reception desks, baggage-handling facilities,
plane-boarding gates, security-inspection devices, and such ancillary services as restaurants. In addition, airports provide special buildings and services for air freight, a business that has grown substantially in recent years. _^<N__^<N_
Traffic Control_^<N__^<N_The most conspicuous and important structure at any airport is the TRAFFIC CONTROL tower. Located approximately in the center of the runway complex, it is high enough to permit a clear view of landing, takeoff, and loading
areas. It contains a complex of communications and electronic surveillance gear by which the airport controllers monitor and direct all plane movements on or near the field. _^<N__^<N_All commercial airlines, the military, and most
general-aviation flights operate according to flight plans. Prepared by pilots before their departure, flight plans are filed with the originating airport and transmitted to the airport of destination. Flights follow predetermined routes, and
reports on their progress are made from checkpoints along the airways. Control towers are advised of the estimated time of arrival (ETA) for all aircraft in their approach areas. The pilots are then given detailed landing instructions: approach
routes to be followed, rate of descent, proximity of other aircraft, weather conditions, and designated landing runways. For departures, procedures are reversed. Pilots are advised what taxiways to use, what runways are available, the traffic
conditions on and around the field, and the procedures to follow to reach their designated flight path at the predetermined altitude. This is particularly necessary in bad weather or at night, but such procedures are followed at all times, in the
interest of maximum flight safety. _^<N__^<N_In 1981 the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (PATCO), the union representing all nonmilitary air traffic controllers, called a strike over issues of pay and working conditions.
President Reagan declared the strike illegal and fired 11,500 controllers, replacing some of them with controllers borrowed from military airfields. At about the time of the strike, the FAA began working on plans for reducing air-traffic
facilities in the future by relying more heavily on new computer capabilities, new plane-borne radar signaling devices, and new automated control systems. If its plans are carried through by the year 2000, the number of major air-traffic control
centers will be reduced from 20 to 16, and of smaller flight service stations from nearly 300 to about 60. _^<N__^<N_In the meantime, however, concern about air safety has grown, along with statistics indicating a pattern of overcrowding and delays
on the ground and in the air at major airports, a rising number of near collisions, and a lowering of aircraft maintenance standards. In May 1986 the National Transportation Safety Board urgently recommended that the FAA reduce the number of
flights at the busiest airports during peak hours, in large part because of inadequate numbers of air-traffic controllers. _^<N__^<N_The FAA has also demonstrated a new computer, based in Washington, D. C., that can display the aircraft in the
skies above any part of the nation. The computer will allow traffic managers at FAA headquarters to alleviate crowding anywhere in the country by rerouting or slowing planes in the air, or by delaying flights. _^<N__^<N_ Noise_^<N__^<N_Aircraft
noise became a major issue in the early 1960s, when commercial jet aircraft first came into wide use. Although those who live and work near large airports have long complained of the extraordinary burden of noise they bear, the first widely
publicized controversy developed over the landing of the CONCORDE, the Anglo-French supersonic transport, at Kennedy International Airport in New York City on Oct. 19, 1977. Strenuous protests led to court hearings, delays, and, for a time,
restricted experimental service. Today Concorde landings are limited to a few airports, and the plane is not allowed to exceed the speed of sound when it flies over the continental United States. _^<N__^<N_In suits brought against airports by
nearby towns or citizens' groups, the courts have generally found airport operators primarily responsible for controlling noise. Since 1976 the FAA has funded noise studies at most large airports and has issued guidelines for reducing airport
noise--in addition to the existing regulations that limit the noise produced by aircraft. These guidelines recommend restrictions on airport acquisition of land and on the utilization of runways whose flight paths are over residential areas.
Compliance with the FAA regulations has proven costly in terms of both money and and the availability of suitable land for airport expansion. _^<N__^<N_ Security_^<N__^<N_AIRPLANE HIJACKING has been a problem since the 1950s, and the destruction of
aircraft in flight by hidden bombs has occurred several times. The December 1988 explosion over Lockerbie, Scotland, of a Pan Am passenger jet en route from London to New York City was caused by a bomb hidden in an audiocassette player. This and
other terrorist attacks in the late 1980s forced airports and airlines to adopt far more stringent security measures. _^<N__^<N_The demarcation of responsibility between airports and airlines is not precisely drawn. Airlines would seem to be
responsible for their own passengers; airports for the security of the area and for passenger traffic in general. Israel's El Al and Air India are said to have the most rigorous airline security. Although their passenger interrogations and
careful manual searches of luggage are carried out efficiently, they cause long delays and demonstrate that real security can be had only at great expense of money and time. Of airports, the Rome facility is usually ranked as the most secure.
Measures taken there include searches of suspicious persons at airport entrances; interrogation and luggage search of passengers selected at random; police guarding of parked planes; and the escorting by police of passengers and passenger buses
en route to the airplanes. _^<N__^<N_The X-ray machines used in U.S. airports can detect guns and other metal objects, but their screens cannot show plastic explosives. The new "thermal neutron analyzer" is capable of detecting many different
explosives, including those made of plastic. Its cost, however, is about $1 million per machine. Total costs for U.S. airport security improvements may eventually total $1 billion or more. _^<N__^<N_ The Effects of Airline Deregulation on
Airports_^<N__^<N_The Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 removed route-regulating authority from the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB), leaving each airline free to choose whatever routes seemed to promise the most success and to set its own fares
independent of the CAB. The years since deregulation have seen several new airlines come into existence and flourish because they offered cheaper fares or regular schedules to certain areas that had not been well served by the older, established
airlines. Some older airlines have faltered, however; Braniff, which extended its routes and its capital investment too far, declared bankruptcy in 1982. The effect of deregulation on U.S. airports has not been altogether beneficial. In their
scramble for the most popular routes, the airlines have overloaded the major airports--already laboring under the limitations produced by the PATCO strike--while leaving many secondary airports, once on mandatory CAB routes, without regular airline
service. The federal government provides incentive subsidies for such service, but they are being gradually removed. Some small cities have sought and obtained scheduled commuter service; yet, despite a federal subsidy program to encourage
small-city service, many communities are now shut out of the air-route network. _^<N__^<N_At the present time a hub airport may be unable to provide "slots" (landing rights) for every airline planning to use its facilities. Some airports have been
embroiled in legal actions when they attempted to restrict airport use. The use of congested hub airports by increasing numbers of private planes is also coming under question. _^<N__^<N_In the coming years, air traffic inevitably will increase,
and the problems of noise and lack of runway and terminal space will grow more pressing. In addition to the more obvious solutions, such as increasing the size of airports or building new ones, operators have suggested improved Instrument Flight
Rule (IFR) systems to permit reduced spacing between parallel runways and shorter distances between arriving or departing aircraft, and the construction of separate, shorter runways for commuter and business aircraft. _^<N__^<N_S. Paul Johnston
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ashford, Norman, et al., Airport Operations (1984); Amann, Dick, Airports: Today's Small Field, Tomorrow's Neighborhood Nightmare (1981); Gesell, L. E., The Administration of Public Airports, 2d ed. (1986); Hart, Walter,
Airport Terminal Design (1985); Horonjeff, Robert, The Planning and Design of Airports, 3d ed. (1983); Stratford, Alan H., Airports and the Environment (1974); Stroud, John, Airports of the World (1981); Voight, R. L., Airport Guide, 4th ed.
(1986).
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10605
CATO
4790
9625
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airship
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000000|airship
000437| TYPES OF AIRSHIP
000898| Rigid Airship
002318| Nonrigid Airship
003255| HISTORY OF RIGID AIRSHIPS
006206| HISTORY OF NONRIGID AIRSHIPS
008372| AIRSHIPS TODAY
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airship_^<N__^<N_An airship is a type of lighter-than-air AIRCRAFT with propulsion and steering systems; it is used to carry passengers and cargo. It obtains its buoyancy--as does a BALLOON--from the presence of a lighter-than-air gas such as
hydrogen or helium (see ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE). The first airship was developed by the French; called a ballon dirigible ("steerable balloon"), it could be steered and could also be flown against the wind. _^<N__^<N_ TYPES OF AIRSHIP_^<N__^<N_Two
basic types of airship have been developed: the rigid airship, the shape of which is fixed by its internal structure; and the nonrigid "blimp," which depends on the pressure created by a series of air diaphragms inside its gas space to maintain
the shape of its fabric hull. Inventors sought to combine the best features of these models in a semirigid type, but it met with only limited success. Today only the nonrigid airship is used. _^<N__^<N_ Rigid Airship_^<N__^<N_The rigid airship's
structure resembled a cage that enclosed a series of balloons called gas cells. These cells were tailored to fit the cylindrical space and were secured in place by a netting that transmitted the lifting force of their gas to the structure. Each
gas cell had two or more valves, which operated automatically to relieve pressure when the gas expanded with altitude; the valves could also be operated manually so that the pilot could release gas whenever desired. _^<N__^<N_Also on board was a
ballast system that used water as ballast. On the ground this ballast served to make the airship heavier than air. When part of it was released, the airship ascended to a cruising altitude where the engines supplied propulsion, and further ballast
could be released to gain more altitude. As fuel was consumed, the airship became lighter and tended to climb. This was countered in hydrogen-inflated airships by simply releasing gas into the atmosphere. _^<N__^<N_The method was uneconomical,
however, with helium-inflated airships, and they were therefore equipped with ballast generators, apparatuses that condensed moisture out of the engines' exhaust gases to compensate for fuel that was consumed. But this ballast-generating equipment
was expensive, complex, heavy, and difficult to maintain and was thus one of the most serious disadvantages of airships filled with the safer but more expensive helium. _^<N__^<N_ Nonrigid Airship_^<N__^<N_In contrast to the rigid airship, the
nonrigid blimp has no internal structure to maintain the shape of its hull envelope, which is made of two or three plies of cotton, nylon, or dacron impregnated with rubber for gas tightness. Inside the gas space of the hull are two or more air
diaphragms called ballonets that are kept under slight pressure, either by blowers or by air that is forced through scoops as a result of the forward motion (ram effect). The ballonets in turn exert pressure upon the gas, which fills the envelope,
and this pressure in turn serves to stiffen the shape of the envelope and create a smooth flying surface. On takeoff the ballonets are almost fully inflated, but as the airship gains altitude and the gas expands, air is bled from the ballonets
while a constant pressure is maintained throughout the envelope. When the gas contracts upon descent, air is pumped back into the ballonets. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY OF RIGID AIRSHIPS_^<N__^<N_The German company Luftschiffbau Zeppelin had the most
success in building rigid airships (see ZEPPELIN, FERDINAND, GRAF VON). The first Zeppelin was flown on July 2, 1900; it was 126 m (419 ft) long, 11.4 m (38 ft) in diameter, contained 9,583 cu m (338,410 cu ft) of hydrogen gas in 16 cells, and was
powered by two 16-hp engines. Its range and payload were negligible. The last Zeppelin was the Graf Zeppelin II, which was first flown on Sept. 14, 1938; it was 245 m (803 ft) long, 41 m (135 ft) at maximum diameter, contained 200,000 cu m
(7,062,100 cu ft) of hydrogen, and was powered by four 1,050-hp Daimler Benz diesel engines. It could carry loads of 30 tons over transoceanic distances. It was scrapped in May 1940. _^<N__^<N_A total of 119 Zeppelins were built, most of them
during World War I, when 103 airships were delivered to the military. The most famous Zeppelin was the original GRAF ZEPPELIN, which during 1928-37 made flights to the United States, the Arctic, the Middle East, and South America; it also made
one flight around the world. Another famous Zeppelin was the airliner HINDENBURG, which was destroyed by fire at Lakehurst, N.J., on May 6, 1937. _^<N__^<N_The British made intermittent efforts to develop the rigid airship; they built eight
during World War I and six shortly thereafter. The most noteworthy was the R-34, which in July 1919 made the first transatlantic round-trip flight. An effort to develop two airships of 141,000 cu m (5,000,000 cu ft) for intercontinental air
service came to grief in October 1930 when the R-101 crashed and burned in France. The R-100, which had made a successful flight to Canada earlier in the year, was subsequently scrapped. (See R-34 AND R-101.) In the United States, the development
of rigid airships was undertaken by the navy, and only five were operated. The navy-built ZR-1 SHENANDOAH made its first flight on Sept. 4, 1923, and was torn to pieces by a thunderstorm over southern Ohio on Sept. 3, 1925. The ZR-2 (British
R-38) was procured in England but crashed on Aug. 24, 1921, before it could be delivered to the United States. The ZR-3 Los Angeles, built in Germany by Luftschiffbau Zeppelin, made its transatlantic delivery flight during Oct. 11-15, 1924; it
was flown successfully until decommissioned in 1931 and was scrapped in early 1940. The ZRS4 and ZRS5 AKRON AND MACON were built by the Goodyear-Zeppelin Co. of Akron, Ohio. These 184,000-cu m (6,500,000-cu ft) sister ships were 239 m (785 ft)
long and 40 m (133 ft) at maximum diameter, and were powered by eight 560-hp Maybach engines. Their design was unique in that it provided for an internal space for five airplanes that could be launched and retrieved while the airships were in
flight. The Akron first flew on Sept. 23, 1931 and was lost in a storm over the Atlantic on Apr. 4, 1933; the Macon first flew on Apr. 21, 1933, and crashed in the Pacific on Feb. 12, 1935. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY OF NONRIGID AIRSHIPS_^<N__^<N_The
first successful nonrigid airships were built by the French. In 1852 Henri Giffard built an airship of 3,200 cu m (113,000 cu ft) powered by a steam engine. The brothers Albert and Gaston Tissandier constructed a 1,062-cu m (37,500-cu ft) airship
propelled by a battery-powered electric motor in 1883, and the following year Charles Renard and Arthur C. Krebs built the 1,869-cu m (66,000-cu ft) La France, which also used electric power. At the turn of the century the Brazilian aeronaut
Alberto SANTOS-DUMONT built and flew a series of small airships in France, all of which used gasoline engines. Blimps were effectively used by the British and French in World War I in maritime reconnaissance against German submarines. The term
blimp, a British slang expression of unknown origin, came into use about this time. _^<N__^<N_In World War II, the United States was the only power to use airships. The navy used them for minesweeping and antisubmarine patrols. Its more than 150
blimps were operated from bases on the east and west coasts, the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean, and as far south as Brazil. The workhorse of these forces was the K-type blimp, 76 m (253 ft) long, 18 m (60 ft) in diameter, containing 12,900 cu m
(456,000 cu ft) of gas, and powered by two 425-hp engines that gave a top speed of 80 km/h (50 mph). Blimps are not fast, but whereas an airplane can remain airborne for only a few hours, a K-ship could stay aloft for 60 hours. In 1944, six
K-ships flew across the Atlantic to Morocco, where they established a low-altitude antisubmarine barrier across the Strait of Gibraltar; later they operated from bases at Cuers, France, and Pisa, Italy. _^<N__^<N_After 1945 the navy continued to
use blimps in antisubmarine warfare, and some were equipped with extraordinarily large airborne radar sets for early offshore warning of bomber attacks against the United States. The largest of these airships was the ZPG-3W; it displaced 43,000
cu m (1,516,000 cu ft) and was 121 m (403 ft) long and 22.5 m (75 ft) at maximum diameter--the largest blimp type ever built. On Aug. 31, 1962, the navy terminated its use of blimps. _^<N__^<N_ AIRSHIPS TODAY_^<N__^<N_The most long-lasting use of
airships has been by the Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company. The Pony was built in 1919 and the Pilgrim in 1923. After 1928 the fleet was expanded with the Puritan, Volunteer, Mayflower, Vigilant, Defender, Reliance, Resolute, Enterprise, Ranger,
and Columbia. During the 1930s these airships were used for advertising, and they barnstormed all over the United States. During World War II, the fleet was used for reconnaissance by the U. S. Navy. Three Goodyear blimps still operate; the
newest, the Spirit of Akron, which was launched in 1989, was for a short time the world's largest operating airship: 62.6 m/205.5 ft, with a volume of 7,023 cu m/248,000 cu ft. _^<N__^<N_Goodyear no longer builds blimps, but other companies
continue to produce and operate the craft. Among new types are the smaller blimps, some remote-controlled, that are tethered inside stadiums and used to provide television audiences with bird's-eye views of sports events. _^<N__^<N_In 1991,
Westinghouse Airships launched the 68-m/220-ft long Sentinel 1000 (longer than the Spirit of Akron by 4.4 m/14.5 ft), the first in a projected series of blimps to be used by the U. S. Defense Department for a range of surveillance, communications,
and patrol duties. The envelope of the Sentinel 1000 is made of a mix of synthetic fibers that is impervious to weather and almost invisible to radar. _^<N__^<N_Data collected in flight tests will aid in the development of the much-larger Sentinal
5000. Twice the length of the Sentinal 1000, its envelope will be seven times larger, with a 70,700-cu m (2.5 million-cu ft) helium-gas capacity. It will carry an 11,300-kg (25,000-lb) payload, including a 3-story, pressurized gondola, a crew of
15, and extensive radar arrays and optical flight control systems. The craft will be refuelable while it is under way, with refueling lines carried to it by the ship-based helicopters. It will be launched in 1997. _^<N__^<N_Richard K. Smith
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ambers, H. J., The Dirigible and the Future, rev. ed. (1981); Deeson, A. F., An Illustrated History of Airships (1974); Dick, H. G., and Robinson, D. H., The Golden Age of the Great Passenger Airships (1985); Gerken,
Louis, Airships (1989).
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33
CAT
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airsickness:
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airsickness:_^<N__^<N_see MOTION SICKNESS.
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741
CAT
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Airy, Sir George Biddell
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Airy, Sir George Biddell_^<N__^<N_{air'-ee} _^<N__^<N_The English astronomer George Airy, b. July 27, 1801, d. Jan. 2, 1892, is best known for modernizing the Royal Greenwich Observatory during his 45 years as astronomer royal. A graduate of and
professor of astronomy at Cambridge, he exerted a considerable influence on British astronomy and played a controversial role in the famous priority dispute over the discovery of Neptune by delaying action on the prediction of J. C. ADAMS. Although
not himself a highly original scientist, Airy was an able organizer who used this talent to substantially improve the Greenwich Observatory. The AIRY DISK diffraction phenomenon is named after him. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Airy, G. B., Autobiography
of Sir George Airy (1896).
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561
CAT
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Airy disk
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Airy disk_^<N__^<N_{air'-ee} _^<N__^<N_The Airy disk, named for the British astronomer Sir George B. AIRY, is a small, disklike image produced by the DIFFRACTION of light when it passes through a telescope. Airy first calculated the size of the disk
and found that it depended both on the wavelength of the light and on the diameter of the objective lens or mirror; the larger the aperture (diameter) of the objective, the smaller the Airy disk. A telescope with an aperture of 25 cm (10 in)
produces an Airy disk that is 1 arc second in diameter for visible light. _^<N__^<N_James R. Houck
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289
CAT
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Aisha
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Aisha_^<N__^<N_{ah'-i-sha} _^<N__^<N_Aisha, b. 614, d. July 678, was the third and favorite wife of MUHAMMAD and daughter of the caliph ABU BAKR. After the Prophet's death in 632, she opposed the fourth caliph, ALI. When her army was defeated by him
in the "Battle of the Camel" (656), she retired to Medina.
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377
CAT
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Aisne River
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Aisne River_^<N__^<N_{ayn} _^<N__^<N_The Aisne River is in the northern part of France. It rises in the Meuse department and flows north past Vouziers and then west to Compiegne, where it joins the Oise River. It is about 265 km (165 mi) long, and
its main tributaries are the Aire and Vesle rivers. The major city is Soissons. The Aisne marked part of the front lines during much of World War I.
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490
CAT
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Aitken, Robert Grant
-T-
Aitken, Robert Grant_^<N__^<N_Robert Aitken, b. Jackson, Calif., Dec. 31, 1864, d. Oct. 29, 1951, was an American astronomer who devoted most of his life to the study of double stars. A graduate of Williams College, Aitken became assistant
astronomer (1895) at Lick Observatory in California and eventually rose to director (1930-35). His New General Catalogue of Double Stars within 120 deg of the North Pole (1932), still in use, includes more than 4,400 double stars that he himself
discovered.
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774
CAT
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Aix-en-Provence
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Aix-en-Provence_^<N__^<N_{eks-awn-proh-vawns'} _^<N__^<N_Aix-en-Provence is a city in the Bouches-du-Rhone department of Provence in southeastern France. It lies on the principal routes to Italy and the Alps. Aix has a population of 124,000 (1990)
and is an agricultural center, producing almonds, olives, and wine. Founded by the Romans in 123 BC near mineral springs, it is the site of Marius's defeat of the Teutons (102 BC). In succession, Visigoths, Franks, Lombards, and Moors invaded and
plundered the town. In the Middle Ages it was a center for the arts and Provencal literature, fostered by rulers such as RENE OF ANJOU. After Rene's death (1480), Aix was annexed (1486) by France. The city has long been a favorite spot for
artists, including Paul CEZANNE, who was born here.
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28
CAT
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Aix-la-Chapelle:
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Aix-la-Chapelle:_^<N__^<N_see AACHEN.
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1135
CAT
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Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaties of
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Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaties of_^<N__^<N_Two important treaties in European history were signed at Aix-la-Chapelle (now Aachen, West Germany). The first, signed on May 2, 1668, concluded the War of DEVOLUTION (1667-68) in which LOUIS XIV of France had
overrun the Spanish Netherlands. The treaty returned to Spain much of the territory won by France, including Franche-Comte, but France retained some border towns in the Spanish Netherlands. The second treaty, signed on Oct. 18, 1748, ended the War
of the AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION (1740-48), which had pitted the alliance of Austria, Britain, and the Dutch Republic against the alliance of France, Spain, Bavaria, and Prussia. The treaty essentially restored the prewar situation. In North America,
Britain returned Cape Breton Island, including the fortress of Louisbourg, to France, while in India, France returned Madras to Britain. The most important result was that Prussia's right to SILESIA was confirmed, enhancing Prussia's status as a
major power in central Europe. In 1818 the members of the QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE met at Aix-la-Chapelle (see CONGRESS SYSTEM). _^<N__^<N_See also: FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS.
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386
CAT
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Ajaccio
-T-
Ajaccio_^<N__^<N_{ah-yah'-choh} _^<N__^<N_Ajaccio (1990 pop., 55,279) is a city on the French island of Corsica, the capital of Corse-du-Sud department. It is located on the western coast of the island at the Mediterranean Sea. The main industry is
tourism. Napoleon Bonaparte's birthplace there is a museum. Ajaccio was the first Corsican town to revolt (1943) against Fascist occupation in World War II.
-END-
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1309
CAT
-A-
Ajanta
-T-
Ajanta_^<N__^<N_{uh-jahn'-tuh} _^<N__^<N_Ajanta is a village in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra state in western India. It is the site of famous rock-cut Buddhist sanctuaries dating from the 2d century BC to the 7th century. The Ajanta caves
contain extraordinary interior wall paintings. The 29 hollowed-out chambers pierce a crescent-shaped granite cliff north of the village. The caves, which served as a Buddhist monastery and a stopping place for pilgrims using the trade route through
western India, are of two types: monasteries (viharas) and vaulted temple halls (caityas) for worship. Intricately carved pillars and niches decorate the facades and interiors of the caves. On the walls and ceilings are frescolike paintings,
primarily depicting scenes from the life of the Buddha before his enlightenment. The exuberant paintings, although essentially religious in theme, convey much information about contemporary secular life. The finest date from the 4th to the 7th
century, and the style of their sensuously modeled human forms influenced later Buddhist art throughout Asia. With Buddhism's decline in India, the Ajanta caves were abandoned and forgotten until British soldiers rediscovered them in 1819.
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Singh, Madanjeet, India: Paintings from the Ajanta Caves (1954); Weiner, S. L., Ajanta (1977).
-END-
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1035
CAT
-A-
Ajax
-T-
Ajax_^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, Ajax (or Aias) was the name of two heroes, both of whom fought in the TROJAN WAR. Ajax of Salamis, sometimes called the Greater Ajax, was the son of King Telamon, an old comrade of HERCULES. Although characterized
by HOMER as slow-witted, Ajax of Salamis was nevertheless one of the best fighters among the Greeks and was famed for his steadfast courage in the face of adversity. After the death of ACHILLES, whose armor had been claimed by both Ajax and
ODYSSEUS and was finally awarded to Odysseus, Ajax's resentment drove him mad, and he eventually killed himself. _^<N__^<N_Ajax of Locris, or the Lesser Ajax, was also a good fighter, but his ill-mannered and violent behavior is frequently
mentioned by Homer. Shipwrecked on his way home to Greece after the war, Ajax of Locris managed to swim ashore with the aid of the sea-god POSEIDON. Later, however, he boasted that he had saved himself without divine assistance, and for this
impertinence Poseidon caused him to fall into the sea and drown. _^<N__^<N_C. Scott Littleton
-END-
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737
CAT
-A-
Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR
-T-
Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR_^<N__^<N_{ah-kah-dem-ee' dair vis'-en-shaft-en dair day-day-air'} _^<N__^<N_Until German reunification in 1990, the Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR (Academy of Sciences of the German Democratic Republic) in
East Berlin oversaw East German research and study in the natural and social sciences, technology, and medicine. It comprised 40 institutes, 6 research departments, and 12 scientific societies. The academy had a distinguished history. Founded in
1700 by Gottfried Wilhelm von LEIBNIZ, it was reformed many times as a Prussian and national institution. Following reunification it continues as a formal entity, but its functions have mainly been redistributed among academic and other groups.
_^<N__^<N_James E. McClellan
-END-
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769
CAT
-A-
Akan
-T-
Akan_^<N__^<N_{ay'-kuhn} _^<N__^<N_Akan is a group of AFRICAN LANGUAGES of the Kwa subfamily of the Niger-Congo stock, spoken by several peoples of Ghana and Ivory Coast. The word Akan also signifies speakers of these languages having other tribal
names, such as the ASHANTI and FANTI. _^<N__^<N_The Akan are subsistence farmers who produce such cash crops as cacao. They live mostly in compact villages and towns, with well-developed systems of local trade. Descent is matrilineal, and marriage
is polygynous. Most Akan societies were traditionally complex states with kings and a hierarchical organization of government, courts, slavery, and, in some tribes, human sacrifice. Akan peoples are also noted for their highly developed art forms,
in gold, silver, bronze, wood, and clay. _^<N__^<N_Phoebe Miller
-END-
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1828
CAT
-A-
Akbar, Mogul Emperor of India
-T-
Akbar, Mogul Emperor of India_^<N__^<N_{ak'-bahr} _^<N__^<N_Akbar (Akbar the Great), b. Oct. 15, 1542, d. Oct. 16, 1605, the third Mogul emperor of India, is considered one of the greatest Indian rulers. The son of Emperor HUMAYUN and
originally named Jalal ud-Din Muhammad, he ascended the throne of Delhi on Feb. 15, 1556, and ruled under a regency until 1560. His position was immediately confirmed by the defeat of the Afghan claimant to the throne at Panipat on Nov. 5, 1556,
which firmly reestablished the Mogul dynasty on the throne of Delhi. _^<N__^<N_Akbar set out to unite all India under Mogul rule. Akbar first set up his court at Agra and then in 1569 built the royal city of FATEHPUR-SIKRI, which was his capital
from 1570 to 1585. He began consolidating his power in northern India by annexing Malwa (1562), and by 1595 he had taken Gujarat, Bihar, part of Bengal, Kabul, Kashmir, Sind, and Baluchistan. He moved toward the south in 1596 with the occupation
of Berar. He took Khandesh and Ahmadnagar in 1600, but further conquests were thwarted by a rebellion led by his son, Salim. _^<N__^<N_Akbar moved his court to Lahore in 1585 and returned it to Agra in 1599. In his attempt to unite India, he took
Hindu chiefs (particularly the Rajputs) into his administration and otherwise sought to conciliate Hindu interests. He established a fair tax system and a uniform system of weights and measures, developed trade, and practiced religious tolerance.
Although illiterate himself, he surrounded himself with scholars and promulgated a new religion, the Din-i-ILahi (Divine Faith), a blend of Islam, Hinduism, and other traditions. He also kept a Jesuit mission at his court. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Lal, Muni, Akbar (1980); Smith, Vincent A., Akbar, the Great Mogul (1919; repr. 1966); Srivastava, A. L., Akbar the Great, 2 vols. (1962-67).
-END-
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534
CAT
-A-
akeake
-T-
akeake_^<N__^<N_{ah-kee-ah'-kee} _^<N__^<N_The akeake, Dodonaea viscosa in the family Sapindaceae, native to tropical and semitropical regions, is abundant in New Zealand and Australia and is found in the southwestern United States. It ranges in
size from a small shrub to a slender tree up to 9 m (30 ft) tall. Leaves and young branches secrete a resinous substance. The wood is extremely tough and durable, and New Zealand's Maoris have used akeake to fashion clubs and other weapons. (The
Maori name akeake means "forever and ever.") _^<N__^<N_Robert C. Romans
-END-
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354
CAT
-A-
Akenside, Mark
-T-
Akenside, Mark_^<N__^<N_{ay'-ken-syd} _^<N__^<N_Mark Akenside, b. Nov. 9, 1721, d. June 23, 1770, an English poet, also studied and practiced medicine. He published many odes and short poems, but his most important work is the blank-verse poem The
Pleasures of Imagination (1744), which is a didactic mixture of Whig politics, philosophy, and aesthetic theories. _^<N__^<N_Robin Buss
-END-
-C-
1586
CAT
-A-
Akhenaten
-T-
Akhenaten_^<N__^<N_{ah-kuh-nah'-tuhn} _^<N__^<N_The Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten, or Ikhanaton, was one of the earliest monotheists, but his religious reforms did not survive. He succeeded his father, AMENHOTEP III, in 1379 BC and immediately began
building a new type of roofless temple to the Aten ("Sun disk"). He soon forbade the worship of other gods, especially of the state god Amen, or AMON, of THEBES. In 1374 BC he changed his name from Amenhotep ("Amon is satisfied") to Akhenaten
("beneficial to Aten") and left Thebes for a new capital at Tell el-AMARNA. Living there with his queen NEFERTITI, six daughters, and possibly several sons, he fostered new styles in art and literature. _^<N__^<N_Akhenaten was a complex figure
whose historical significance is still debated. His physical abnormalities were exaggerated in contemporary art, and no evidence supports the charge of mental instability that is often leveled against him. He lost Egyptian-held territory in Syria
and Palestine but maintained Egypt's status as a great power. Within Egypt he combined religious reform and skillful tactics to strengthen absolute royal power over the bureaucracy and the army, but his monotheism was genuine and innovative. His
religious reforms were detested, however, and after his death in 1362 his successors restored traditional religion. The Aten temples were demolished, and Akhenaten came to be called "the Enemy." _^<N__^<N_David O'Connor _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Aldred, Cyril, Akhenaten, Pharaoh of Egypt: A New Study (1968); Giles, F. J., Ikhnaton: Legend and History (1970); Redford, D. B., Akhenaten (1984).
-END-
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32
CAT
-A-
Akhetaten:
-T-
Akhetaten:_^<N__^<N_see AMARNA, TELL EL-.
-END-
-C-
1955
CAT
-A-
Akhmatova, Anna
-T-
Akhmatova, Anna_^<N__^<N_{ahk'-mah-toh'-vuh} _^<N__^<N_Anna Akhmatova is the pseudonym of Anna Andreyevna Gorenko, b. June 23, 1889, d. Mar. 5, 1966. She is considered one of the foremost Russian poets of the 20th century. Together with her
first husband, Nikolai GUMILEV, and Osip MANDELSTAM, she founded (1910) the ACMEISTS, a Russian literary movement that opposed the mystical vagueness of symbolism. For more than 50 years she wrote polished and elegant yet emotionally charged verse
in the manner of PUSHKIN. _^<N__^<N_Akhmatova's poetry, as shown in her first volumes, Vecher (Evening, 1912) and Chiotki (The Rosary Beads, 1914), is intensely personal and frequently concerns her favorite themes--love, loneliness, and grief. Her
work after the Russian Revolution, published in such volumes as Belaya staya (The White Flock, 1917) and Anno Domini MCMXII (1922), is more patriotic but retains the basic grace and simplicity of the early poems. Nevertheless, her refusal to write
optimistic verse that glorified Soviet accomplishments led to frequent criticism of her work, and she was not allowed to publish again until 1940. In 1946 her poetry was branded as erotic and mystical, and she was expelled from the Soviet Writers'
Union. Requiem (1935-40; Eng. trans., 1976), a cycle of poems inspired by her son's arrest and exile to a Soviet concentration camp, has appeared only in fragments in the USSR. After Stalin's death (1953), Akhmatova's verse began to appear again,
and a collection of it, The Course of Time, was published in the USSR a year before her death. _^<N__^<N_Maurice Friedberg _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Akhmatova, Anna, Poems of Akhmatova, selected by Stanley Kunitz and Max Hayward (1973), and Requiem
and a Poem without a Hero, trans. by D. M. Thomas (1976); Haight, Amanda, Anna Akhmatova: A Poetic Pilgrimage (1976); Leiter, S., Akhmatova's Petersburg (1983); Reeder, Roberta, ed., The Complete Poems of Anna Akhmatova, trans. by Judith
Hemschemeyer (1990).
-END-
-C-
719
CAT
-A-
Akiba ben Joseph
-T-
Akiba ben Joseph_^<N__^<N_{ah-kee'-bah} _^<N__^<N_Akiba ben Joseph, AD 40-135, was a prominent Palestinian rabbi and master of the TALMUD. In his youth he was an untutored shepherd, but after a period of intensive study he became a man of deep
knowledge. He was the first to collect the interpretations of the Hebrew laws, arranging them in what later became known as the MISHNAH. His favorite book of the Bible was the Song of Songs, which he understood to refer, allegorically, to the love
between God and Israel. His maxim was "man is created in the image of God." He actively supported the anti-Roman rebellion of BAR KOCHBA and died a martyr. _^<N__^<N_Nahum N. Glatzer _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Finkelstein, L., Akiba: Scholar, Saint,
and Mart yr (1970).
-END-
-C-
1017
CAT
-A-
Akihito, Emperor of Japan
-T-
Akihito, Emperor of Japan_^<N__^<N_{ah-kee-hee'-toh} _^<N__^<N_Akihito, b. Dec. 23, 1933, the oldest son of the Japanese emperor HIROHITO, succeeded to the throne on Jan. 7, 1989. In 1952 he was formally declared heir to the throne, the 125th in
his dynasty. He was educated at the university for the nobility but studied English with an American, Elizabeth Gray Vining. He married Michiko Shoda, the daughter of a wealthy industrialist, in April 1959. She was the first commoner to marry an
heir apparent to the Japanese throne. As crown prince, Akihito visited many countries in Asia and the Western Hemisphere, including the United States. _^<N__^<N_Akihito and his wife have three children: Crown Prince Naruhito Hironomiya, born in
1960, Prince Fumihito Ayanomiya, born in 1965, and Princess Nori, born in 1969. Crown Prince Naruhito married Owada Masako, a Japanese diplomat and economist, on June 9, 1993. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Simon, Charlie May, The Sun and the Birch: The
Story of Crown Prince Akihito and Crown Princess Michiko (1960).
-END-
-C-
936
CAT
-A-
akita
-T-
akita_^<N__^<N_{ah-kee'-tah} _^<N__^<N_The akita, a working dog originally from Japan, has a large, sturdy body, a broad head with erect ears, and a curly tail. It measures 61-71 cm (24-28 in) high at the shoulder. The akita has a stiff topcoat of
fur and a soft, woolly undercoat, developed to withstand the harsh climate of northern Japan. It hunts large game and retrieves waterfowl by using its keen sight and smell as well as its strength, endurance, and speed. A litter usually contains
seven or eight puppies. _^<N__^<N_For centuries, only Japanese royalty and nobility were permitted to own this breed, but the akita is now used throughout the world as a guard dog. In July 1931 the Japanese government declared the breed a national
monument and a national treasure, and in 1972 the akita was recognized by the American Kennel Club. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Brearley, Joan M., The Book of the Akita (1985); Linderman, J. M., and Funk, V. B., The Complete Akita (1983).
-END-
-C-
934
CAT
-A-
Akiyoshi, Toshiko
-T-
Akiyoshi, Toshiko_^<N__^<N_The Japanese composer and pianist Toshiko Akiyoshi, b. Dec. 12, 1929, leads the all-male Toshiko Akiyoshi-Lew Tabackin Big Band, which is considered perhaps the most important contemporary jazz orchestra. Already
established as a leading jazz figure in Japan, Akiyoshi emigrated to the United States in 1956 to study at the Berklee College of Music in Boston. Her repertoire of jazz forms ranges from exuberant swing solos to an evocative, subtle intermingling
of jazz and Japanese musical traditions. Her major influence as an orchestral composer was Duke Ellington, whose work inspired her to draw freely from her heritage. She performed with alto saxophonist Charlie Mariano, briefly with Charlie Mingus
and J. J. Johnson, and intermittently with her own trios before forming (1972) a band with her husband, tenor saxophonist-flutist Lew Tabackin, b. Mar. 26, 1940. The band performs only Akiyoshi's compositions.
-END-
-C-
1767
CAT
-A-
Akkad
-T-
Akkad_^<N__^<N_{ak'-ahd} _^<N__^<N_Akkad was an early name for northern BABYLONIA, derived from the capital city of SARGON of Akkad (fl. c.2350 BC). For almost a century and a half Sargon and his successors dominated all of MESOPOTAMIA and at
times held tributary lands situated to the east and west. The principal ruler after Sargon was Naram Sin, possibly a grandson, who rivaled his ancestor as a conqueror; monuments and inscriptions of his reign have been found over a wide area.
Although the Akkadian dynasty finally collapsed as a result of invasions from the north about 2200 BC, the name Akkad continued to be applied to the country, and from about 2000 BC rulers of Babylonia often styled themselves kings of SUMER and
Akkad. _^<N__^<N_Sargon and his Akkadians were Semites. Their language (Old Akkadian) is the earliest written Semitic dialect known, and their religious and social institutions clearly set them apart from the people of Sumer to the south.
Nevertheless, the Akkadians borrowed and modified numerous cultural elements from the older and more complex civilization of the Sumerians. Among these were the cuneiform system of writing and some aspects of political organization. _^<N__^<N_The
Akkadian period was remembered by later generations as a golden age of unity and imperial greatness, and the Akkadian language took its place with Sumerian as one of the classic languages of Mesopotamian culture. It was still being used as a
literary language as late as the Neo-Assyrian period (8th-6th centuries BC). _^<N__^<N_Tom B. Jones _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Moorgart, Anton, The Art of Ancient Mesopotamia (1969); Oppenheim, A. Leo, Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead
Civilization, 2d rev. ed. (1977); Roux, Georges, Ancient Iraq (1976). _^<N__^<N_See also: MESOPOTAMIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE.
-END-
-C-
24
CAT
-A-
Akko (Israel):
-T-
Akko (Israel):_^<N__^<N_see ACRE.
-END-
-C-
1206
CAT
-A-
Akmak
-T-
Akmak_^<N__^<N_{ahk'-mahk} _^<N__^<N_Akmak is the name given to an early archaeological assemblage of stone artifacts from the northwest Alaskan site of Onion Portage, located on the Kobuk River about 200 km (125 mi) from its mouth. The site was
discovered (1941) by the American archaeologist J. Louis GIDDINGS. Excavations have brought to light one of the longest stratigraphic sequences of prehistoric tool industries yet found in the Americas. The oldest of these industries is the Akmak
(from the Alaskan Eskimo word for "hard chert"), estimated to date from 13,000 to 6000 BC. _^<N__^<N_The Akmak assemblage is composed of large and small tools, including tiny chipped flakes, or microliths. Its closest parallel is found in the
Siberian tool types associated with sites in the area of Lake Baikal. Although the artifacts are generally similar, clear differences in details suggest that Akmak culture developed independently after its isolation from Siberian influence. It
further appears that certain developments initiated in the Akmak tradition gave rise to the ESKIMO culture. _^<N__^<N_Hans-Georg Bandi _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Anderson, Douglas D., Akmak: An Early Archaeological Assemblage from Onion Portage,
Northwest Alaska (1970).
-END-
-C-
1065
CAT
-A-
Akron
-T-
Akron_^<N__^<N_Akron is a city in Ohio and the seat of Summit County. Known as the rubber capital of the world, it is situated on the Little Cuyahoga River in the northeastern part of the state, 56 km (35 mi) southeast of Cleveland. The city has a
population of 223,019 (1990 census). Akron experienced its first growth surge shortly after being founded in 1825; with the completion (1827) of the Ohio and Erie Canal, it became a trading and transportation center. Benjamin F. GOODRICH opened
Akron's first rubber factory in 1870, and the city's second period of growth began, accelerating sharply as automobile use grew in the early 20th century. After 1960, however, the city experienced a steady population decline. _^<N__^<N_Today
several hundred manufacturing plants are located in Akron, producing rubber, chemicals, plastics, aircraft equipment, heavy machinery, and trucks. The University of Akron was founded in 1870, and the city is also the home of the Jonathan Hale
Homestead, an authentic Western Reserve home, and the home where John BROWN lived from 1844 to 1847.
-END-
-C-
1058
CAT
-A-
Akron and Macon
-T-
Akron and Macon_^<N__^<N_The Akron was the second and the Macon the third (and last) of the rigid AIRSHIPS built in the United States, the first being the SHENANDOAH. They were the only "flying aircraft-carriers" ever constructed, being able to
launch and retrieve planes in midair. Built for the U.S. Navy, they were sister ships, 239 m (785 ft) long and 40 m (133 ft) in maximum diameter. They were rendered airborne by 184,000 cu m (6,500,000 cu ft) of helium gas, with a top speed of
about 129 km/h (80 mph). The Akron cost $4.5 million, the Macon $3.5 million, making them the most expensive aircraft built in the United States until after World War II. The Akron made its first flight on Sept. 25, 1931, and was wrecked in a
storm over the Atlantic on Apr. 4, 1933; only 3 of the 76 men on board survived. The wreckage was found off the New Jersey shore in 1986. The Macon made its first flight on Apr. 21, 1933, and was wrecked over the Pacific on Feb. 12, 1935; 81 of
its 83-man crew survived. The Macon's remains were found in 1990. _^<N__^<N_Richard K. Smith
-END-
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571
CAT
-A-
Aksakov, Konstantin Sergeyevich
-T-
Aksakov, Konstantin Sergeyevich_^<N__^<N_Konstantin Sergeyevich Aksakov, b. Mar. 29, 1817, d. Dec. 7, 1860, son of the writer S. T. AKSAKOV, was a Russian writer and patriot. With his brother Ivan, he was a leader of the so-called Slavophile
movement. In his criticism, historical plays, and poetry he emphasized traditional Russian values, Orthodox religion, and the peasant commune. He also wrote extensively about Russian linguistics. _^<N__^<N_Ralph E. Matlaw _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Chmielewski, Edward V., Tribune of the Slavophiles: Konstantin Aksakov (1962); Christoff, P. K., Aksakov (1982).
-END-
-C-
581
CAT
-A-
Aksakov, Sergei Timofeyevich
-T-
Aksakov, Sergei Timofeyevich_^<N__^<N_{ahk-sah'-kawf, sir-gay' teem-oh-fay'-e-vich} _^<N__^<N_Sergei Timofeyevich Aksakov, b. Sept. 20, 1791, d. Apr. 30, 1859, was a prominent Russian writer and literary figure. His early books on fishing and
hunting are masterpieces of observation and description. A Family Chronicle (1856; Eng. trans., 1917), a fictionalized account of his family and the founding of their estate, was followed by the more overtly autobiographical sequel Childhood Years
(1858; Eng. trans., 1917). His memoirs of GOGOL (1890) are basic to the study of that writer. _^<N__^<N_Ralph E. Matlaw
-END-
-C-
1550
CAT
-A-
Aksenov, Vasily Pavlovich
-T-
Aksenov, Vasily Pavlovich_^<N__^<N_{ahk-syohn'-awf} _^<N__^<N_Vasily Pavlovich Aksenov (also transliterated Aksyonov), b. Aug. 20, 1932, is an expatriate Soviet writer living in the United States. The son of parents who were exiled to Siberia--
his mother, Yevgenia Ginzburg, wrote two celebrated books (1967, 1970) describing her long ordeal in Soviet prisons and camps--Aksenov grew up in an orphanage for "children of enemies of the state." His early stories were conventional by Soviet
standards. Those he wrote during the 1960s, exemplified by his novel A Ticket to the Stars (1961; Eng. trans., 1962), did not overly offend the authorities, although they featured "materialistic" youth in rebellion against Soviet ideals, and
experimented with avant-garde prose techniques. Censorship grew more stringent, however, and by the 1970s almost none of Aksenov's writing was being published. In 1979 he and some 20 other writers published Metropol--a collection of works banned
in the USSR--in the United States. As a result, he lost his membership in the Union of Soviet Writers, was declared a "parasite" (since he had no other work), and was expelled from the USSR in 1980. _^<N__^<N_His greatest work to date, The Burn
(written 1969-75), was published in Russian and English in 1980 in the United States. In 1983 his fantasy, The Island of Crimea, was published in English. He has also written five film scripts and two grotesque dramatic satires, Always on Sale and
Your Murderer. In 1989 he published Say Cheese!, a mocking novel concerned with Soviet bureaucracy.
-END-
-C-
743
CAT
-A-
Aksenov, Vladimir
-T-
Aksenov, Vladimir_^<N__^<N_{ahks-yawn'-awf, vlahd-ee'-mir} _^<N__^<N_The Soviet cosmonaut Vladimir Aksenov, b. Feb. 1, 1935, was flight engineer on the 8-day Soyuz 22 photographic mission (Sept. 15-23, 1976) and on the first manned flight of the
Soyuz T spacecraft (June 5-9, 1980). Aksenov, an engineer in the Soviet space program, became a cosmonaut in 1973. He and Soyuz 22 commander Valery BYKOVSKY were the first SOYUZ cosmonauts to use a special East German multispectral camera (the
MKF-6), which was later installed on the Salyut 6 space station (see SALYUT). They took about 2,400 photographs of geological features of the Earth's surface. On the 4-day mission of Soyuz T2, Aksenov and commander Yuri Malyshev docked and entered
Salyut 6. _^<N__^<N_James E. Oberg
-END-
-C-
554
CAT
-A-
Aksum
-T-
Aksum_^<N__^<N_Aksum (Axum) is a town in Tigre province of northern Ethiopia, about 135 km (84 mi) south of Asmara. It is an agricultural market center, with a population of 21,595 (1980). As the ancient African commercial town of Axumis, it was the
capital of the Axumite kingdom, which during the first two centuries of the Christian Era included much of modern Ethiopia and Sudan. According to Coptic Christians, it is the traditional site of the ark of the covenant, supposedly brought from
Jerusalem by the descendants of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba.
-END-
-C-
869
CAT
-A-
Akutagawa Ryunosuke
-T-
Akutagawa Ryunosuke_^<N__^<N_Akutagawa Ryunosuke, b. Mar. 1, 1892, d. July 24, 1927, was one of Japan's greatest short-story writers. His mother's insanity and early death and his own poor physical and mental health cast a dark shadow over his work,
and he eventually committed suicide. He based his tales on a variety of literary sources and reshaped themes to fit his grotesque, psychological, and often humorous visions. "The Hell Screen" (1916; Eng. trans., 1948), "Rashomon" (1915; Eng.
trans., 1930), and the novella Kappa (1926-27; Eng. trans., 1947) are among the best illustrations of Akutagawa's preoccupation with madness, social contradictions, and the human search for the courage to live. Akira KUROSAWA's film Rashomon (1951)
is based on Akutagawa's story of the same title (1915; Eng. trans. 1930) and his "In a Grove" (1921; Eng. trans., 1952). _^<N__^<N_Edward B. Fowler
-END-
-C-
25
CAT
-A-
Al-Ahram:
-T-
Al-Ahram:_^<N__^<N_see AHRAM, AL-.
-END-
-C-
729
CAT
-A-
al-Azhar University
-T-
al-Azhar University_^<N__^<N_Located in Cairo, Egypt, al-Azhar University is a leading center of Arabic and Islamic learning and the oldest continuous educational site in the Islamic world. Its core is the al-Azhar mosque, completed in AD 972 as
the chief mosque of the FATIMID dynasty and established as a university site 16 years later. After the defeat of the Fatimids by Saladin in 1171, the university's prestige was not restored until 1266. Thereafter, it served as a mosque, theological
college, and school system. In 1961 al-Azhar was modernized and made coeducational and its programs greatly expanded. With supplementary campuses, the university now handles some 90,000 students, including an international exchange program.
-END-
-C-
20
CAT
-A-
al-Bayda:
-T-
al-Bayda:_^<N__^<N_see BEIDA.
-END-
-C-
805
CAT
-A-
al-Faiyum
-T-
al-Faiyum_^<N__^<N_Al-Faiyum (also El Fayium or El Fayum) is the capital of al-Faiyum governorate in northeastern Egypt. Located about 113 km (70 mi) south of Cairo, it lies below sea level in the Faiyum Depression, the bed of ancient Lake Moeris,
between the Nile River and Lake Qarun. It has a population of 227,300 (1986 est.). An irrigated oasis with a hot, dry climate, it is linked to the Nile by canals built in the 17th century BC. The local economy is based on cotton, cereal, and
sugarcane, which are processed in the city. Among the many archaeological sites near al-Faiyum are Setje (later Crocodilopolis), the ancient seat of crocodile worship, founded about 2300 BC, and the 4,600-year-old pyramid at Meidum. During the
Roman period the city was named Arsinoe for the wife-sister of Ptolemy II.
al-Minya_^<N__^<N_Al-Minya (El Minya) is a port and the capital city of the Minya governorate in north central Egypt. It has a population of 203,300 (1986 est.). Al-Minya lies on the left bank of the Nile about 225 km (140 mi) southwest of Cairo,
on the Cairo to Aswan railroad. The city is a trade center for the cotton and cereal crops grown in the area.
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20343
CATO
4771
9467
14215
19022
-A-
Alabama
-O-
000000|Alabama
000993| LAND AND RESOURCES
001317| Physiographic Regions
002574| Rivers and Lakes
003403| Climate
004026| Vegetation and Animal Life
004434| Mineral Resources
004765| PEOPLE
005710| Education
006590| Cultural Institutions
007177| Historical Sites
007887| Communications
008294| ECONOMY
008774| Agriculture
008995| Forestry and Fishing
009223| Mining
009499| Manufacturing
010002| Tourism
010352| Transportation
010879| Energy
011375| GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
012629| HISTORY
013207| European Exploration and Early Settlement
014340| Statehood
015093| The Civil War and Reconstruction
016682| Economic Recovery
017697| Civil Rights
-T-
Alabama_^<N__^<N_Alabama, one of the southern states of the United States, is largely rectangular in shape and is landlocked except for a short coastline along the Gulf of Mexico. It is bordered by Tennessee on the north, by Georgia on the east, by
the Florida panhandle on the south, and by Mississippi on the west. The state was visited by Spaniards in the early 16th century, but the first permanent white settlement (present-day MOBILE) was not established until 1711. Alabama became a state
in 1819, and during the Civil War it was a member of the Confederacy. The state was profoundly affected by the civil rights movement of the 1950s and '60s. Long a primarily agricultural area, Alabama in the late 1980s had a diversified economy,
dominated by manufacturing and service industries. The state is named for the Alabama River, whose name was derived from the Alabama Indians, a small Muskogean-speaking group that formerly lived on its banks. The word Alabama probably means "I
make a clearing." _^<N__^<N_ LAND AND RESOURCES_^<N__^<N_About two-thirds of Alabama is made up of a low-lying coastal plain, which merges, toward the northeast, into regions of medium-altitude hills and mountains. The highest point in the state
is Cheaha Mountain (733 m/2,405 ft), in the east, and the lowest elevation is sea level, along the Gulf of Mexico. _^<N__^<N_ Physiographic Regions_^<N__^<N_Alabama may be divided into four physiographic regions. A vast coastal plain covers the
southern half of the state and much of the northwest. The plain includes the famous Black Belt, an area of productive black-clay soils that forms a narrow east-west band across the middle of the state. The southeast also has good farmland, but
the soils of the rest of the coastal plain are generally deeply weathered and are of limited agricultural value. A second region, separated from the coastal plain by the FALL LINE, is the PIEDMONT PLATEAU, located in the east central part of the
state. It is rolling to hilly, with highly eroded red soils. _^<N__^<N_The Appalachian Region encompasses much of northeastern Alabama. The eastern portion of this region is an area of sandstone ridges, separated by fertile limestone valleys.
The western portion, a continuation of the CUMBERLAND PLATEAU, is a hilly, forested area of poor soils. The fourth region is the Highland Rim, a section of smooth, rolling plains located in the north, astride the TENNESSEE RIVER. Underlaid by
limestone, the Highland Rim, as well as the eastern Appalachian Region, has formed sinkholes and caverns as a result of the solution of the limestone in the humid climate. _^<N__^<N_ Rivers and Lakes_^<N__^<N_Alabama has several major rivers. The
main rivers flowing north to south are the Alabama River (507 km/315 mi long), formed by the confluence, near Montgomery, of the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers, and the TOMBIGBEE RIVER, which rises in Mississippi. The Alabama and Tombigbee meet in
the southwestern part of the state and then form the Mobile and Tensaw rivers, which continue south to Mobile Bay (an arm of the Gulf of Mexico). Other important rivers are the CHATTAHOOCHEE, which forms part of the eastern border of Alabama, and
the Tennessee, which flows west across nearly all of the northern part of the state. _^<N__^<N_Alabama has no large natural lakes. Dams on rivers, however, have created several extensive artificial lakes, the largest being Guntersville Lake (272
sq km/105 sq mi), on the Tennessee River. _^<N__^<N_ Climate_^<N__^<N_Alabama has a humid, subtropical climate. Summers are hot (average July temperature, 27 deg C/80 deg F) and humid, with frequent heavy thunderstorms. Winters are cool (average
January temperature, 7 deg C/45 deg F), with considerable precipitation, including some snow in the north. The amount of annual precipitation generally increases from north to south, ranging from 1,321 mm (52 in) at HUNTSVILLE to 1,600 mm (63 in)
at Mobile. Southern Alabama is occasionally affected by hurricanes in the late summer. Tornadoes, which are associated with cold fronts, are most common in the months of March and April. _^<N__^<N_ Vegetation and Animal Life_^<N__^<N_About
two-thirds of Alabama is covered by forests, largely made up of southern yellow pine, red cedar, and other conifers. The most common deciduous trees are hickory, sweet gum, and several species of oak. Alabama has a varied wildlife population with
numerous deer, foxes, bobcats, game birds, and other animals. Large numbers of migratory ducks and geese winter in the state. _^<N__^<N_ Mineral Resources_^<N__^<N_Alabama has significant deposits of several important minerals. Coal, iron ore, and
limestone--all used in the production of iron and steel--are found in the north central part of the state, notably around Birmingham. Major crude-petroleum fields are in the southwest, and bauxite deposits are in the southeast. _^<N__^<N_
PEOPLE_^<N__^<N_Alabama has a population of 4,040,587 (1990 resident census), giving the state an average population density of 30.7 persons per sq km (79.6 per sq mi). In the decade from 1980 to 1990, Alabama's rate of growth was 4.3%. In 1990
about 74% of the population were white, 25% were black, and there were small numbers of American Indians, Hispanics, and Asians. After several decades of considerable net out-migration (mainly a result of blacks leaving Alabama for better
opportunities elsewhere), the state had a modest net in-migration between 1970 and 1980. After an out-migration in the early 1980s, there was again an in-migration from 1985 to 1988. About two-thirds of the people live in areas defined as urban;
the largest cities are BIRMINGHAM, MOBILE, MONTGOMERY, HUNTSVILLE, and TUSCALOOSA. The great majority of all Alabamians were born in the United States of American parents. The majority of the people are Protestants. _^<N__^<N_
Education_^<N__^<N_Alabama established a statewide public school system in 1854, but schools received inadequate financial support until the 20th century. Almost all black and white children attended separate public schools until the 1960s. By
1980, slightly more than 55% of Alabama's residents of 25 years of age or more were high-school graduates. Alabama's more important institutions of higher education include Auburn University (founded 1856), main campus at Auburn University;
Jacksonville State University (1883), at Jacksonville; Samford University (1841), at Birmingham; Troy State University (1887), main campus at Troy; Tuskegee University (1881), at Tuskegee University; the University of Alabama (1831), campuses
at Tuscaloosa, Birmingham, and Huntsville; the University of North Alabama (1872), at Florence; and the University of South Alabama (1963), at Mobile. _^<N__^<N_ Cultural Institutions_^<N__^<N_Among the museums of the state are the University of
Alabama State Museum of Natural History, at Tuscaloosa; the Alabama Space and Rocket Center, at Huntsville; and the Birmingham Museum of Art. The decommissioned World War II battleship Alabama, now anchored in Mobile Bay, also contains a museum.
Large libraries include the University of Alabama Library (1,244,000 volumes), at Tuscaloosa, and the Birmingham Public and Jefferson County Free Library. Huntsville, Montgomery, and Birmingham have symphony orchestras, and Birmingham supports a
ballet company. _^<N__^<N_ Historical Sites_^<N__^<N_Russell Cave National Monument (at Bridgeport) contains archaeological records of human habitation dating from at least 7000 BC. At Mound State Monument (near Moundville) are several large
mounds of the Indian MOUND BUILDER culture, and Horseshoe Bend National Military Park (near Dadeville) was the site of a decisive defeat (1814) of the Creek Indian Confederacy by Andrew JACKSON. At Tuskegee Institute National Historic Site
(Tuskegee) are early buildings of the noted college founded (1881) for blacks. The first capitol (the present state capitol) and the first White House of the Confederacy are both in Montgomery. Alabama has many historic homes, some built before
the Civil War. _^<N__^<N_ Communications_^<N__^<N_Alabama has plentiful radio stations and a number of commercial and educational television stations. Cable television systems also are available. Among the more influential daily newspapers are
the Birmingham News, the Huntsville Times, and the Montgomery Advertiser. The state's earliest newspaper was the short-lived Mobile Centinel [sic], which is the Mobile Register, founded in 1813. _^<N__^<N_ ECONOMY_^<N__^<N_Until the late 19th
century, when iron and steel mills were established at Birmingham, Alabama's economy was mostly agricultural, and cotton was the only major cash crop. By the 1930s industrialization was well under way, and manufacturing eventually became the
dominant sector of the economy. By the 1990s manufacturing was still the single most dominant sector, but various service industries combined accounted for a greater portion of Alabama's gross state product. _^<N__^<N_ Agriculture_^<N__^<N_Among
Alabama's primary crops are soybeans, peanuts, hay, and cotton. Large numbers of hogs, cattle, and broiler chickens are raised for market, and many productive dairy farms operated throughout the state. _^<N__^<N_ Forestry and
Fishing_^<N__^<N_Alabama's extensive forests are used to produce much pulpwood and lumber. A small fishing industry operates mainly in the Gulf of Mexico, and the catch includes shrimp, croakers, red snappers, and catfish. _^<N__^<N_
Mining_^<N__^<N_Alabama's mineral output, valued at slightly more than $2 billion a year, consists mainly of bituminous coal, crude petroleum, natural gas, limestone, stone, sand and gravel, and bauxite. Until the 1960s considerable quantities of
iron ore were produced in the state. _^<N__^<N_ Manufacturing_^<N__^<N_Manufacturing firms in Alabama employ about one-fourth of the state's labor force, and the manufacturing sector accounts for about one-fourth of the gross state product.
Principal manufactures include paper, chemical, rubber, and plastic products; clothing and textiles; food products; and iron and steel products, long of importance to Alabama's economy. Important manufacturing centers in the state are in
GADSDEN, Birmingham, Anniston, Bessemer, Mobile, Montgomery, and Tuscaloosa. _^<N__^<N_ Tourism_^<N__^<N_Alabama has a substantial tourist industry. Many vacationers stay at beach resorts along the Gulf of Mexico, notably on Dauphin Island, at the
entrance to Mobile Bay. Hunters and anglers are attracted by the state's ample opportunities for such activity, and many tourists visit Alabama's historic sites, state parks, and national forests. _^<N__^<N_ Transportation_^<N__^<N_Extensive
transportation facilities exist in Alabama, with Birmingham the hub of the state's road and rail systems. Major interstate highways that intersect there include I-65, I-59, and I-20. The Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway, which opened in 1985,
provides a barge route partly through Alabama to Mobile, the state's only seaport, which also has easy access to the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway. The Alabama-Coosa and Black Warrior-Tombigbee river systems are also navigable through a system of
locks and dams. _^<N__^<N_ Energy_^<N__^<N_About half of Alabama's electrical capacity and production comes from private sources. The Alabama Power Company, a private utility, operates a number of hydroelectric projects on the Alabama, Black
Warrior, Coosa, and Tallapoosa rivers. Much of the remaining electric power comes from the federally owned TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY through its Guntersville, Wheeler, and Wilson dams. Nuclear power plants and coal-burning or other
fossil-fuel-burning plants also operate in the state. _^<N__^<N_ GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS_^<N__^<N_Alabama is governed under a 1901 constitution, as amended; previous constitutions had been adopted in 1819, 1861, 1865, 1868, and 1875. The chief
executive of the state is a governor, popularly elected to a 4-year term; a governor may not serve more than two consecutive terms. The state has a bicameral legislature, consisting of a 35-member Senate and a 106-member House of Representatives;
all legislators are elected to 4-year terms. The state's highest tribunal is the Supreme Court, made up of nine judges elected to 6-year terms. The 67 counties of Alabama are each governed by a board of commissioners. The state is represented in
the U.S. Congress by two senators and seven representatives. It has nine electoral votes in national presidential elections. _^<N__^<N_The Democratic party dominates Alabama politics at the state and local levels. In contests for U.S. president,
however, the Democrats after World War II lost their traditional firm hold on the state's electoral vote. Since 1948, the state's presidential electoral votes have often gone either to the Republicans or to minor-party candidates, as in 1968, when
Alabama governor George C. WALLACE carried the state as the American Independent party candidate. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY_^<N__^<N_Excavations of archaic Indian remains indicate that people lived in the region of Alabama at least as early as 7000 BC.
During the Mound Builder, or Mississippian, cultural period (AD 700-1700), large temple mounds were built along the major rivers of the state, notably around Moundville. By the early 16th century this remarkable culture was in a state of decline.
At that time, the principal Indian groups in the state were the CHICKASAW, in the northwest; the CHEROKEE, in the northeast; the CREEK, in the center and southeast; and the CHOCTAW, in the southwest. _^<N__^<N_ European Exploration and Early
Settlement_^<N__^<N_European contact with the Alabama area began when the Spanish navigator Alonso Alvarez de Pineda explored Mobile Bay in 1519. In 1540 another Spaniard, Hernando DE SOTO, led an army of about 500 men through Alabama; on Oct. 18,
1540, they crushed a large force of Choctaw under Chief Tuscaloosa. The Spanish failed to establish a firm foothold in Alabama, and the French founded (1711) the first permanent white settlement, at present-day Mobile. The French also established
large farms, and in 1719 the first black Africans arrived to work as slaves on the farms. _^<N__^<N_In 1763 France ceded Alabama to Great Britain, and in 1783 most of it became part of the United States. The region around Mobile had been taken by
the Spanish during the American Revolution, and it was captured by the United States in 1813, during the War of 1812. Also during that conflict, at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend (Mar. 27, 1814), the power of the Creek Indians was broken by U.S.
troops under Andrew Jackson. In the following 25 years nearly all of Alabama's Indians were removed to the western United States. _^<N__^<N_ Statehood_^<N__^<N_Alabama was organized as a separate territory in 1817, and on Dec. 14, 1819, it was
admitted to the Union as the 22d state. Huntsville was the first capital; the capital was moved to Cahaba in 1820, to Tuscaloosa in 1826, and, finally, to Montgomery in 1847. The state's population grew from 127,000 in 1820 to 964,000 (435,000 of
whom were slaves) in 1860. The economy was dominated by large plantations (mostly in the Black Belt) that produced cotton for export. The rivers were the prime means of transportation, although the state's first railroad began operations in 1832,
and by 1860 about 1,100 km (683 mi) of railroad track had been laid. The state was overwhelmingly rural; Mobile, a growing seaport, was the only sizable city. _^<N__^<N_ The Civil War and Reconstruction_^<N__^<N_Most white Alabamians viewed
slavery as an integral part of their economic and social systems, and they opposed attempts to abolish it. Soon after the election of President Abraham LINCOLN, perceived by Alabamians as a particularly strong opponent of slavery, Alabama seceded
(Jan. 11, 1861) from the Union, the fourth state to do so. In February 1861, the Confederate States of America was organized at Montgomery, and Jefferson DAVIS was inaugurated as its president at the Alabama state capitol. Montgomery remained the
Confederate capital until May 1861. Alabama contributed about 100,000 troops to the Confederacy, and perhaps 25% of them died during the Civil War. No major land battle was fought in the state, but the Union admiral David G. FARRAGUT won an
important naval engagement at Mobile Bay in August 1864. Union armies captured the Tennessee Valley in 1862 and took Montgomery in early 1865. _^<N__^<N_The Reconstruction period, which followed the Confederate surrender in April 1865, was one of
confusion in Alabama. Because it refused to ratify the 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, Alabama was placed under military rule in 1867. After the amendment was ratified, and blacks were assured citizenship, Alabama reentered (June 1868) the
Union. During the next few years black and white Republicans exercised considerable power, but by 1874 white Democrats, including numerous former supporters of the Confederacy, had regained control of the state. In the following years racial
segregation was written into many state and local laws. _^<N__^<N_ Economic Recovery_^<N__^<N_Although Alabama began large-scale industrialization in the late 19th century, the economy continued to be dominated by cotton culture. Cotton was grown
mainly by small farmers, largely tenants or sharecroppers, many of whom became debt-ridden because of the low prices paid for the crop. Alabama was fertile ground for agrarian reformers, and the POPULIST PARTY had numerous adherents in the state
during 1890s. _^<N__^<N_In the early 20th century cotton declined in importance, partly because boll weevil infestations made farming more precarious; many rural Alabamians left the state, especially for cities of the northern United States. The
state's economy was rejuvenated by the demands of the American effort during World War I; steelmaking boomed, and Mobile developed an important shipbuilding industry. The state was severely affected by the Depression of the 1930s; many banks
failed and unemployment increased drastically. World War II marked the beginning of a long-term economic upswing. _^<N__^<N_ Civil Rights_^<N__^<N_Race relations were a major issue in Alabama in the 1950s and 1960s, as civil rights advocates
worked to end racial segregation in the state. During 1955-56, Martin Luther KING, Jr., organized a black boycott that ended racially separate seating on municipal buses in Montgomery. In 1954 the U.S. Supreme Court had ruled racial segregation
in public schools to be unconstitutional, but white officials in Alabama avoided implementing the decision until 1963, when, after tense confrontations between Gov. George C. Wallace and federal officials, integration was begun. _^<N__^<N_In 1963
four black children were killed when a bomb destroyed part of their Birmingham church. The incident, widely deplored in the nation, helped create the atmosphere for passage of the landmark federal Civil Rights Act of 1964. In 1965 King led a
march from SELMA to Montgomery to protest discrimination in voter registration. The U.S. Congress responded with the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which helped add many blacks to the voting rolls in Alabama and thereby encouraged white politicians in
the state to moderate their views in order to attract black votes. _^<N__^<N_By the early 1970s most of Alabama's schools had been integrated. Progress continued for blacks through the 1970s and into the 1980s, and by 1984 Alabama had 25 black
mayors. Governor Wallace, whose tenure had spanned the civil rights movement, retired in 1987 after four (nonconsecutive) terms in office. His successor, Guy Hunt, was the state's first Republican governor in 112 years; Hunt was removed from
office in April 1993, after being convicted of a felony charge of violating an Alabama ethics law. Lt. Gov. Jim Folsom, Jr. took the oath of office as governor on Apr. 22, 1993. _^<N__^<N_David W. Icenogle _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Clayton, L. A.,
and Badger, R. R., Alabama and the Borderlands: From Prehistory to Statehood (1985); Dodd, D. B., Historical Atlas of Alabama (1974); Fleming, Walter L., Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama (1911; repr. 1978); Flynt, Wayne, Mine, Mill,
and Microchip: A Chronicle of Alabama Enterprise (1987); Hackney, Sheldon, Populism to Progressivism in Alabama (1969); Hamilton, Virginia Van der Veer, Alabama: A History (1984); Lineback, Neal G., ed., Atlas of Alabama (1973); Martin, David
L., Alabama's State and Local Governments, 2d ed. (1985); Peirce, Neal R., The Deep South States of America (1974); Richard, Jesse M., and McGraw, E. L., Geography of Alabama: Her Land and People (1975); Summersell, Charles G., Alabama History
for Schools (1975); Wiggins, Sarah W., comp., From Civil War to Civil Rights: Alabama, 1860-1960 (1987). _^<N__^<N_
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1187
CAT
-A-
Alabama (Indian tribe)
-T-
Alabama (Indian tribe)_^<N__^<N_The Alabama, a North American Indian tribe, lived near the junction of the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers (in present-day Alabama) early in the 18th century. A Muskogean-speaking people, they were members of the CREEK
confederacy and lived by hunting, fishing, and farming. They numbered 770 in 1715. From their base at Mobile, Ala., the French established relations with the Alabama early in the 18th century and erected (1714) Fort Toulouse in their midst. After
1763, when French territory in North America was ceded to England, the Alabama began to move west. They first settled (1764) at Bayou Manchac in Louisiana; by 1810 their settlements extended as far west as the Big Thicket region of East Texas.
In 1854 the state of Texas granted the tribe 518 ha (1,280 acres) of land in Polk County. Today the Alabama live with the Coushatta Indians on the reservation there. Together they number about 925 (1989), with 475 on the reservation.
_^<N__^<N_Daniel Jacobson _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hudson, Charles, The Southern Indians (1976); Jacobson, Daniel, et al., Alabama-Coushatta (Creek) Indians (1974); Phillips, J., The American Indian in Alabama and the Southwest (1986).
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1637
CAT
-A-
Alabama, state universities of
-T-
Alabama, state universities of_^<N__^<N_Each of ten coeducational state universities in Alabama offers a full range of undergraduate and graduate degrees. The University of Alabama at Tuscaloosa (1831; enrollment: 16,900; library: 1,000,000
volumes) includes schools of arts and sciences, law, social work, and library science. Additional campuses are located at Huntsville (1950; enrollment: 6,600; library: 276,000 volumes) and Birmingham (1966; enrollment: 14,250; library:
1,100,000 volumes), which has a school of medicine. Other universities are Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical (1875; enrollment: 3,800; library: 298,000 volumes), a land-grant school in Normal; Alabama State (1874; enrollment: 4,000;
library: 247,000 volumes) in Montgomery; the University of Montevallo (1896; enrollment: 2,600; library 180,000 volumes) at Montevallo; Jacksonville State (1883; enrollment: 7,000; library: 345,000 volumes) at Jacksonville; and Livingston
(1835; enrollment: 1,600; library: 108,000 volumes) at Livingston. another land-grant university is Auburn (1856; enrollment: 19,500; library: 1,400,000 volumes) at Auburn, with schools of arts and sciences, veterinary medicine, home
economics, and agriculture; a commuter campus is at Montgomery. The main campus of Troy State University (1887; enrollment: 3,600; library: 248,000 volumes) is at Troy; other campuses are at Dothan and Montgomery. The University of North
Alabama (1872; enrollment: 5,000; library: 228,000 volumes) is at Florence, and the University of South Alabama (1963; enrollment: 10,000; library: 296,000 volumes) is at Mobile.
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1277
CAT
-A-
Alabama Claims
-T-
Alabama Claims_^<N__^<N_The Alabama Claims were demands made by the United States after the Civil War that Great Britain pay for the wartime damage done to American merchant shipping by Confederate cruisers, notably the Alabama, that had been
constructed in British shipyards. After a period of bitter dispute, the two countries agreed (1871), in the Treaty of Washington, to submit the question to international arbitration. _^<N__^<N_The treaty laid down the following principles that
subsequently passed into international law. First, a neutral government should endeavor to prevent the outfitting of any vessel that it might believe to be intended to make war against another nation. Second, it should prevent a belligerent from
using its ports or waters as a base or supply source for naval operations. Third, it must exercise "due diligence" over all persons within its jurisdiction to prevent violation of these obligations. Acting in accordance with these principles, a
panel of American, British, Brazilian, Swiss, and Italian arbitrators met (1872) in Geneva and awarded the United States the sum of $15.5 million. _^<N__^<N_Robert H. Ferrell _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bernath, Stuart L., Squall Across the Atlantic:
Civil War Prize Cases and Diplomacy (1970); Smith, Goldwin A., Treaty of Washington (1941).
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457
CAT
-A-
Alabama River
-T-
Alabama River_^<N__^<N_The Alabama River is formed in south central Alabama by the junction of the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers near Montgomery. It drains 58,534 sq km (22,600 sq mi) of the state, flowing west to Selma and then south to join the
TOMBIGBEE RIVER and create the Mobile and Tensaw rivers, which enter the Gulf of Mexico at Mobile. Navigable throughout its length (512 km/318 mi), the river has been an artery for traffic in cotton, lumber, and textiles.
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22
CAT
-A-
alabaster:
-T-
alabaster:_^<N__^<N_see GYPSUM.
-END-
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896
CAT
-A-
Alaca Huyuk
-T-
Alaca Huyuk_^<N__^<N_{ahl'-ah-jah hoo-yook'} _^<N__^<N_The archaeological site of Alaca Huyuk, located 160 km (100 mi) east of Ankara, Turkey, was first investigated in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by scholars who concentrated on the still
partially visible HITTITE remains. This unidentified center of the second half of the 2d millennium BC is best known for its monumental stone gate with sphinx guardians and lateral reliefs depicting ritual scenes. Excavations begun in 1935 have
revealed considerable local wealth and achievement before the time of the Hittites, with the earliest occupation dating from the 4th millennium BC. Tombs of the 3d millennium BC feature metal vessels, jewelry, weapons, and pole finials, or
standards, of bulls, stags, and abstract forms often interpreted as solar symbols. Major finds from the site are displayed in the Ankara Archaeological Museum. _^<N__^<N_Louise Alpers Bordaz
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341
CAT
-A-
Aladdin
-T-
Aladdin_^<N__^<N_Aladdin, the idle, good-for-nothing boy hero of one of the most famous tales from The Thousand and One Nights (see ARABIAN NIGHTS), obtains a magic lamp that, when rubbed, has the power to summon a genie who will do his bidding.
With the lamp, after many narrow escapes, he gains wealth, power, and the hand of the sultan's daughter.
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654
CAT
-A-
Alain-Fournier
-T-
Alain-Fournier_^<N__^<N_{ah-lan-foorn-ee-ay'} _^<N__^<N_The French poet, journalist, and novelist Alain-Fournier, b. Oct. 3, 1886, d. Sept. 22, 1914, is remembered primarily for his masterly Le Grand Meaulnes (1913; trans. as The Wanderer c.
1928), a novel about the innocence of childhood and first love. Blending memory, dream, and reality, Alain-Fournier creates an idyllic landscape for his adolescent heroes. The novel influenced many 20th-century writers dissatisfied with REALISM
and NATURALISM. Alain-Fournier's verses and his correspondence with the critic Jacques Riviere are lyric and philosophic. The author was killed in World War I. _^<N__^<N_Joseph A. Reiter
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1024
CAT
-A-
Alalakh
-T-
Alalakh_^<N__^<N_{ahl'-ah-lahk} _^<N__^<N_The ancient city of Alalakh, modern Tell Atchana, is a mound site on the Amuq plain of southeastern Turkey. Sir Leonard WOOLLEY and others excavated the site in 1937-39 and 1946-49. Seventeen building
phases were discovered, including a monumental palace complex (level VII) dating from the first half of the 2d millennium BC. On the basis of cuneiform tablets found there, Alalakh has been identified as the center of the ancient kingdom of
Yamkhad. Destroyed by the expanding Old Hittite Empire, the site was later absorbed politically and culturally by the New Hittite Empire. Its final destruction (c.1200 BC) is attributed to the invaders referred to in Egyptian texts as the SEA
PEOPLES. Artifacts from the site reveal the influence of a variety of southwest Asian and early Aegean cultures. _^<N__^<N_Louise Alpers Bordaz _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Alkim, U. Bahadir, Anatolia I (1968); Wiseman, Donald, The Alalakh Tablets
(1953; repr. 1983); Wooley, Sir Leonard, A Forgotten Kingdom (1953; repr. 1968).
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570
CAT
-A-
Alamanni, Luigi
-T-
Alamanni, Luigi_^<N__^<N_{ah-lah-mahn'-ee, loo-ee'-jee} _^<N__^<N_Luigi Alamanni, b. Oct. 28, 1495, d. Apr. 18, 1556, was an Italian poet and dramatist and a friend of Niccolo MACHIAVELLI. After involvement in an unsuccessful conspiracy against
Cardinal Giulio de Medici (later Pope CLEMENT VII) in 1522, Alamanni fled Florence for France, where he became court poet to FRANCIS I. Alamanni's most important work is La coltivazione (On Cultivation, 1546), a didactic poem about rustic life. His
other works include a comedy, La Flora; a tragedy, Antigone; and many epigrams. _^<N__^<N_Sergio Pacifici
-END-
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306
CAT
-A-
Alameda
-T-
Alameda_^<N__^<N_Alameda (1990 census, 76,459) is a city in west central California, located on an island off the eastern shore of San Francisco Bay. First settled in the 1850s, it is now primarily a residential city, but its waterfront is
dominated by ship-service industries and by the Alameda Naval Air Station.
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1013
CAT
-A-
Alamein, El
-T-
Alamein, El_^<N__^<N_{al-uh-mayn'} _^<N__^<N_El Alamein was a decisive World War II battle in North Africa between the British Eighth Army under Gen. Bernard MONTGOMERY and German and Italian troops led by Gen. Erwin ROMMEL, the "Desert Fox," from
Oct. 23 to Nov. 5, 1942. Rommel's headlong advance had been halted at El Alamein, 112 km (70 mi) west of Alexandria. On Oct. 23, 1942, after a devastating artillery barrage, the British managed to break through the Italian-held center. Rommel
was forced to retreat to Tunisia with a loss of 30,000 Axis prisoners, 10,000 of them Germans. El Alamein was a turning point in the war. It saved the Suez Canal for the Allies and facilitated their landings in North Africa. _^<N__^<N_Louis L.
Snyder _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Carver, Michael, El Alamein (1962); Lucas, James, War in the Desert (1983); Montgomery, Bernard L., Al Alamein to the River Sangro (1949); Pitt, Barry, The Year of Alamein, 1942: The Crucible of War (1982; repr.
1990); Strawson, John, El Alamein: Desert Victory (1981).
-END-
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1321
CAT
-A-
Alamo, The
-T-
Alamo, The_^<N__^<N_The Alamo, site of a heroic battle of the TEXAS REVOLUTION, was founded in 1718 as a Spanish mission during the original settlement of San Antonio, Tex. Secularized in 1792, it fell into decay and was used variously as a
hospital and troop garrison. _^<N__^<N_When the Mexican dictator Antonio Lopez de SANTA ANNA invaded Texas during the Texas Revolution, the Texans withdrew into the crumbling walls of the mission's inner courtyard. There about 185-190 defenders
were besieged by an army of 5,000-6,000, sustaining almost continual cannonades for 12 days. On the 13th day--Mar. 6, 1836--the Mexicans broke through and massacred all the Texan men. A Mrs. Dickenson, her child, and possibly two servants were
the only non-Mexican survivors. Although a convention had declared the independence of Texas 4 days earlier, this was unknown to the Alamo martyrs. Thus they died fighting under the Mexican flag and defending the Mexican constitution of 1824,
which Santa Anna had abrogated. _^<N__^<N_Seymour V. Connor _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Baugh, Virgil E., Rendezvous at the Alamo (1985); Chariton, W.O., Exploring the Alamo Legends (1989); Lord, Walter, A Time to Stand (1978); Schoelwer, S. P.,
and Glaser, T. W., Alamo Images (1985); Tinkle, Lon, Thirteen Days to Glory (1958); Warren, Robert Penn, Remember the Alamo! (1958).
-END-
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559
CAT
-A-
Alamogordo
-T-
Alamogordo_^<N__^<N_{al-uh-muh-gohr'-doh} _^<N__^<N_Alamogordo (1990 census, 27,596), a city in south central New Mexico, is the seat of Otero County. A railroad shipping point for lumber from the Sacramento Mountains, which lie just to the west,
Alamogordo was settled in 1898 as a railroad shop center for the Southern Pacific line. The first atomic bomb was exploded (July 16, 1945) 97 km (60 mi) northwest of Alamogordo on what is now the WHITE SANDS MISSILE RANGE. Also nearby are
Holloman Air Force Base, White Sands National Monument, and Mescalero Indian Reservation.
-END-
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512
CAT
-A-
Alanbrooke, Alan Francis Brooke, 1st Viscount
-T-
Alanbrooke, Alan Francis Brooke, 1st Viscount_^<N__^<N_Alan Francis Brooke, b. July 23, 1883, d. June 17, 1963, was a British general who served (1941-46) as chief of the imperial general staff through most of World War II. At the beginning of the
war he commanded the British II Corps in France. As chief of staff he worked closely with Winston Churchill, and his personal records of that experience formed the basis of Sir Arthur Bryant's war history, The Turn of the Tide (1957). Brooke was
created a viscount in 1946.
-END-
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730
CAT
-A-
Alarcon, Pedro Antonio de
-T-
Alarcon, Pedro Antonio de_^<N__^<N_{ah-lahr-kohn', pay'-droh ahn-toh'-nee-oh day} _^<N__^<N_Pedro Antonio de Alarcon, b. Mar. 10, 1833, d. July 19, 1891, a major Spanish novelist, is best known for The Three-Cornered Hat (1874; Eng. trans., 1891), a
bedroom farce on which Manuel de Falla based his ballet music of the same name. Alarcon published his first novel, a romance in the manner of George Sand, at 18 years of age, and then served in the Spanish campaign in Morocco, the setting for his
incisive war memoirs, published in 1859. In Captain Venom (1881; Eng. trans., 1914) and in a longer novel, The Scandal (1875; Eng. trans., 1945), he demonstrated his wit and his skills as an observer. Alarcon was also a newspaper writer and
politician.
-END-
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920
CAT
-A-
Alaric I, King of the Visigoths
-T-
Alaric I, King of the Visigoths_^<N__^<N_{al'-uh-rik} _^<N__^<N_Alaric, c.370-410, was a Visigothic king whose capture of Rome in 410 signaled the final decline of the Roman Empire in the West. The leader of Visigothic mercenaries in the Roman army,
he rebelled (395) and was proclaimed king by his troops. He led his army toward Constantinople and then into Greece, where he took increasing advantage of the divisions between the eastern and western halves of the empire. In 397 the emperor in the
East, Arcadius, gave Alaric military command of Illyria, from which he staged (401) an invasion of Italy. Twice forced to withdraw (402, 403) by the general Flavius STILICHO, he returned after the execution of Stilicho in 408. His first two sieges
of Rome (408, 409) were ended by negotiation, but in 410 he stormed and devastated the city. He died while preparing to invade Africa. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Gordon, Colin D., The Age of Attila (1960).
-END-
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2581
CAT
-A-
alarm systems
-T-
alarm systems_^<N__^<N_Alarm systems are designed to detect undesirable events--the start of a fire, a burglary, a hazardous change in temperature or pressure--and to issue an alerting signal that will cause corrective action to be taken. Such
systems must incorporate a detector, which is designed to sense a particular problem, and an alerting agent, such as a bell or a signal light. _^<N__^<N_Detectors are sensor mechanisms that respond to changes in such factors as light, sound level,
pressure, and temperature. Burglar-alarm systems employ many of the types of detectors in current use. Such systems may utilize electric detectors, circuits whose contacts open when a door or window is opened, triggering an alarm. Electric
circuits may also be built into walls to signal if the wall is damaged. Optical detectors use photosensitive elements that are triggered when a light ray or infrared beam is interrupted by an intruder. When the light beam is amplified with
mirrors, large areas can be monitored. Acoustic detectors may be highly sensitive microphones that detect the smallest noise in a room, or ultrasonic detectors that constantly transmit an acoustic signal of a frequency that cannot usually be heard
by human ears. An intruder's movements disturb the signal and set off an alarm. Other types of detectors utilize electronic, thermal, microwave, or laser devices. _^<N__^<N_Modern tunnel-alarm systems are equally sophisticated. At low tunnel
entrances, for example, a signal cable may be stretched across the road at the maximum permissible height. When the cable is touched by the roof of a truck that is too high, a warning is transmitted to a signal room, and a red light at the tunnel
entrance is activated. When tunnel traffic slows down suddenly, an alarm may be triggered by signals emitted from line conductors laid in the road surface. Warnings of excessive carbon monoxide may be given by a detector that measures the opacity
of the light in the tunnel, determining exactly how much smoky exhaust is in the air. _^<N__^<N_Systems designed for FIRE PREVENTION AND CONTROL use SMOKE DETECTORS or heat detectors--temperature-sensitive devices that sound an alarm or release a
shower of water when smoke interrupts a beam of light or when the temperature rises above a preset point. More sophisticated light-sensing devices can instantaneously detect the changes that fire produces in the infrared spectrum. _^<N__^<N_David
B. Brown _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Healy, R. J., Design for Security, 2d ed. (1983); Traister, John E., Design and Application of Security-Fire-Alarm Systems, rev. ed. (1990).
-END-
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413
CAT
-A-
Alas, Leopoldo
-T-
Alas, Leopoldo_^<N__^<N_{ah'-lahs} _^<N__^<N_Leopoldo Alas y Urena, known as Clarin, b. Apr. 25, 1852, d. June 13, 1901, was a major literary critic and novelist of 19th-century Spain. His most famous novel, La regenta (The Professor's Wife, 1884),
is a naturalistic treatment of life in his native town of Oviedo. Alas's literary criticism was collected in the volumes Solos (1890-98) and Palique (Chitchat, 1893). _^<N__^<N_Daniel Eisenberg
-END-
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31865
CATO
4778
9595
14352
19102
23901
28755
-A-
Alaska
-O-
000000|Alaska
001274| LAND AND RESOURCES
002060| Physiographic Regions
004354| Rivers and Lakes
005546| Climate
007784| Vegetation and Animal Life
009236| Mineral Resources
009887| PEOPLE
011783| Education
012363| Cultural Institutions
013060| Historic Sites
013533| Communications
013957| GOVERNMENT
015425| THE ECONOMY
016195| Agriculture and Forestry
017178| Fishing
017581| Wild-Animal Products
017908| Mining
018747| Manufacturing
018965| Tourism
019669| Transportation
020559| Energy
021052| HISTORY
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Alaska_^<N__^<N_Alaska, the largest in area but one of the least populated U.S. states, lies astride the Arctic Circle, apart from the "Lower 48" conterminous states. It is bordered on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the Yukon
Territory, on the southeast by British Columbia, on the south by the Gulf of Alaska and the Pacific Ocean, and on the west by the Bering Sea, the Bering Strait, and the Chukchi Sea. Little Diomede Island, in the Bering Strait, is only 4 km (2.5
mi) from Russia's Big Diomede Island. _^<N__^<N_Initially inhabited by Eskimos, Aleuts, Athabascans, Tlingit, and Haida, Alaska was first visited by Europeans in the early 18th century. In 1867 the United States purchased Alaska from Russia for
only $7.2 million. Alaska's modern economic development was accelerated by World War II, when U.S. military bases were established here. Alaska became a state in 1959, and in 1968 great deposits of petroleum and natural gas were discovered in the
Arctic coastal plain, or North Slope; commercial oil production from these fields began in 1977. _^<N__^<N_The name Alaska comes from an Aleut word thought to mean "mainland" or "land that is not an island"; the name originally was restricted to
the Alaska Peninsula but by 1800 was used to denote all of present-day Alaska. _^<N__^<N_ LAND AND RESOURCES_^<N__^<N_Alaska has vast areas of unspoiled natural beauty, including rugged, snowcapped mountains; spectacular glaciers; and vast
expanses of rolling tundra. The state's highest peak is Mount MCKINLEY, or Denali (6,194 m/20,320 ft), the loftiest point in North America. The state contains the northernmost land point of the United States--Point Barrow--as well as the
country's westernmost point--on western Attu Island (one of the ALEUTIAN ISLANDS). The western tip of the Seward Peninsula of Alaska is only about 80 km (50 mi) from the Russian mainland. Alaska has 10,684 km (6,639 mi) of general coastline--or
54,718 km (34,000 mi), if all the small islands and coastal indentations are included. About 80% of Alaska's territory is owned by the federal government. _^<N__^<N_ Physiographic Regions_^<N__^<N_Alaska may be divided into four geographic
regions--the Pacific mountain system of the south, the central region of uplands and lowlands, the BROOKS RANGE (the northernmost extension of the Rocky Mountains), and the Arctic coastal plain, or North Slope. _^<N__^<N_The Pacific mountain system
is a complex region of high mountains, broad valleys, and many islands. The COAST RANGES dominate southeastern Alaska, a 644-km-long (400-mi) area known as the Alaska Panhandle. The ranges, many of which have large glaciers, rise to 5,489 m
(18,008 ft) at Mount Saint Elias, in the Saint Elias Mountains, and to 4,996 m (16,391 ft) at Mount Blackburn, in the Wrangell Mountains. Just off the southeast coast is the ALEXANDER ARCHIPELAGO--about 1,100 islands that are the exposed tops of a
submerged section of the Coast Ranges. These islands, separated by deep fjords, shelter the Inside Passage. The principal landform of south central Alaska is the Alaska Range, a great mountain arc that contains such lofty peaks as Mount McKinley
and Mount Foraker (5,304 m/17,400 ft). In extreme south central Alaska is an extensive area of lowlands, along the lower Susitna River and on the western Kenai Peninsula. Southwestern Alaska is made up of the Alaska Peninsula, the Aleutian
Islands, Kodiak Island, the Shumagin Islands, and several other islands. The Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutians are dominated by the volcanically active Aleutian Range. _^<N__^<N_Central Alaska, between the Alaska Range and the Brooks Range,
contains modestly elevated mountains and large lowland regions, especially along the Yukon River and near the Bering Sea, in the west. Higher elevations include West Point (1,788 m/5,865 ft) in the east and Mount Bendeleben (1,137 m/3,730 ft) in
the west on the Seward Peninsula. _^<N__^<N_In the north is the rugged Brooks Range, as well as the De Long, Baird, Schwatka, and Endicott mountains. Lofty points in the Brooks Range include Mount Isto (2,761 m/9,058 ft), Mount Chamberlin (2,749
m/9,019 ft), and Mount Michelson (2,699 m/8,855 ft), all situated in the northeast. _^<N__^<N_The Arctic coastal plain gradually slopes downward from the Brooks Range to the Arctic Ocean to the north. Permafrost lies under the surface of the
plain, as do great deposits of petroleum and natural gas. _^<N__^<N_ Rivers and Lakes_^<N__^<N_The chief river of Alaska is the YUKON, which flows westward across the central part of the state for 2,036 km (1,265 mi) before emptying into the Bering
Sea through a large delta. The Yukon's principal tributaries in Alaska are the Porcupine, Tanana, and Koyukuk rivers. Other major rivers in the state include the Kuskokwim, which flows westward to the Bering Sea; the Kobuk and Noatak, which empty
into an arm of Kotzebue Sound; the Kokolik, Meade, and Colville, which flow into the Arctic Ocean; the Copper, which empties into the Gulf of Alaska; and the Susitna and Matanuska, which flow into Cook Inlet. Most of the rivers of the interior
and the Arctic coastal plain carry much gravel and silt and display well-developed meander patterns. _^<N__^<N_Alaska has many lakes, the largest of which is Iliamna Lake (2,675 sq km/1,033 sq mi) in the south. Several big lakes, such as Becharof
Lake, Naknek Lake, and Kukaklek Lake, are on the Alaska Peninsula. Lakes in Alaska have a tendency to fill in with vegetation. Often this leads to freezing of the subsurface material with uplift in the center of the former lake bed, which creates
a hill known technically as a pingo. _^<N__^<N_ Climate_^<N__^<N_Southeastern Alaska and the flanks of the Coast Ranges in south central Alaska, as well as the Aleutians, are characterized by a maritime climate. Some areas have a mean annual
precipitation of more than 5,080 mm (200 in), with 1,651 mm (65 in) being normal for low-lying places. Temperatures are relatively mild in winter and usually are cool in summer. Juneau has average temperatures of -5 deg C (23 deg F) in January and
13 deg C (56 deg F) in July; the city receives about 1,016 mm (40 in) of moisture each year. _^<N__^<N_The lowlands along the lower Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers, the Cook Inlet area, the Copper River basin, and the southern Seward Peninsula have a
transitional climate, with warm summers, cool winters, and precipitation ranging from 305 to 762 mm (12 to 30 in) a year. Summer temperatures are highest in the Copper River basin and decline to the west because of the moderating influence of the
Bering Sea. Anchorage has a mean January temperature of -12 deg C (11 deg F) and an average July temperature of 14 deg C (58 deg F); its mean annual precipitation is 371 mm (15 in). _^<N__^<N_The interior of Alaska is shielded from marine
influences by the Alaska and Brooks ranges. Thus it receives only 254-610 mm (10-24 in) of precipitation a year and has long winters, with typical temperatures of -40 deg C (-40 deg F) and occasional periods of several weeks duration when
temperatures drop to -57 deg C (-70 deg F). Summers, however, usually are hot--temperatures reach 32 deg C (90 deg F), skies are clear, and sunlight lasts for twenty hours a day. Fairbanks has an average January temperature of -25 deg C (-13 deg
F) and a mean July temperature of 16 deg C (61 deg F); it receives about 287 mm (11 in) of precipitation yearly. Northern and northwestern Alaska have arctic climates. This is the region of long, dark winters and short, cool summers, with 24
hours of darkness during part of the winter and 24 hours of daylight during part of the summer. Annual precipitation is low, normally between 203 and 533 mm (8 and 21 in). Winter temperatures are not as low as in the interior, but wind speeds are
frequently high, causing extreme chill factors. The Beaufort Sea tends to moderate summer temperatures. _^<N__^<N_ Vegetation and Animal Life_^<N__^<N_About half of Alaska is covered with tundra vegetation, which mainly consists of small plants
(such as lichens, mosses, flowering plants, and grasses) and some high brush. Tundra is found on higher mountain slopes and covers most of western Alaska and all of Arctic Alaska. Almost one-third of the state is covered by forest. Southeastern
and south central Alaska have large forests composed mainly of hemlock and Sitka spruce, and the interior has extensive forests of black and white spruce, birch, aspen, and larch. About one-sixth of the forest land is within the state's two
national forests, Chugach National Forest, in south central Alaska, and Tongass National Forest, in the southeast. Common flowering plants in the state include roses, lilacs, lilies, peonies, and delphiniums. _^<N__^<N_Alaskan wildlife includes
numerous big animals. The southern part of the state has many bears (notably the Alaskan brown bear, the world's largest carnivorous land mammal) and deer; large herds of fur seals are found on the PRIBILOF ISLANDS. Alaska has herds of moose,
caribou, and reindeer, some domesticated musk-oxen, and mountain goats and sheep. Arctic Alaska has polar bears, caribou, and arctic foxes. The state's numerous streams are well stocked with trout, salmon, grayling, and other fish, and coastal
marine waters contain abundant salmon, halibut, cod, herring, pollack, shrimp, clams, and crabs as well as whales. _^<N__^<N_ Mineral Resources_^<N__^<N_The most valuable mineral deposits in Alaska are petroleum and natural gas, found in great
quantities in the Arctic coastal plain (especially around PRUDHOE BAY) and in lesser but significant amounts on the Kenai Peninsula and in Cook Inlet and the Gulf of Alaska. Gold is found in the central Yukon River basin, on the southern Seward
Peninsula, and in the Alaska Panhandle. Alaska contains one of North America's largest bituminous coal reserves, located in Cook Inlet, the Nenana area, along the Yukon, and in northwest Alaska. Other minerals include iron ore, copper,
molybdenum, antimony, silver, platinum, tin, and mercury. _^<N__^<N_ PEOPLE_^<N__^<N_Alaska's resident population in the 1990 census was 550,043. Alaska is one of the least populous of the U.S. states, but its population grew rapidly in the 1980s,
increasing more than 36%, or nearly four times the national increase, during that period. The growth resulted from a significant natural increase and from some in-migration. Large in-migration had occurred in the 1970s when many persons entered
the state to work in the petroleum industry or in jobs associated with oil production and transportation. Continuing into the 1980s, this trend abruptly halted in the mid-1980s--and actually reversed, with some regions experiencing a net outflow
of population because of the drop in oil revenues. _^<N__^<N_Only seven communities are of significant size--ANCHORAGE, FAIRBANKS, JUNEAU (the state capital), Kenai, Ketchikan, SITKA, and Kodiak. Some of these cities experienced a rapid pace of
growth in the 1970s, and all continued to grow during the 1980s. Some smaller places, such as BARROW, NOME, VALDEZ, Bethel, Petersburg, Seward, and Wrangell (most with fewer than 4,000 inhabitants in 1990), are regional economic centers. About
three-quarters of Alaska's inhabitants are white, and most were born in the United States of American parents. _^<N__^<N_The combined population of American Indian, ESKIMO, and ALEUT is 85,698 (1990). The majority of this number are Eskimo
(Inuit), most of whom live in the north and east and support themselves in part by catching fish and sea mammals and by herding reindeer. The principal American Indian groups are the Athabascan-speaking Indians of the interior and the HAIDA,
TLINGIT, and TSIMSHIAN of the southeast. The Aleut, closely related to the Eskimo, live on the Alaska Peninsula and on the Aleutian and Shumagin islands. Religious groups in Alaska include Roman Catholic, Orthodox, Presbyterian, Baptist,
Episcopalian, Methodist, and others. _^<N__^<N_ Education_^<N__^<N_The first schools in Alaska were established by Russians during the 1820s, but the school system did not expand significantly until the region was organized as a U.S. territory in
1912. Education in Alaska is largely state-funded (and thus local school districts suffer cutbacks when state oil royalties drop). _^<N__^<N_The University of Alaska (1917) has upper-level campuses at Anchorage, Fairbanks, and Juneau and a network
of branch campuses and education centers (see ALASKA, UNIVERSITY OF). Sheldon Jackson College (1878) was Alaska's first institution of higher learning. _^<N__^<N_ Cultural Institutions_^<N__^<N_Leading museums reflecting Alaska's native traditions
and history are found in Fairbanks (University of Alaska), Juneau (Alaska State Museum), and Sitka (Sheldon Jackson). Anchorage has a museum of fine arts and native crafts. Smaller museums are located throughout the state, including at Skagway
and Kotzebue. Major libraries include Rasmussen Library at the University of Alaska, Fairbanks; a growing library at the University of Alaska, Anchorage; and the Alaska Historical Library in Juneau. The state has several local drama and music
groups, and Cry of the Wild Ram, a popular play dealing with the period of Russian control, is presented each August at Kodiak. _^<N__^<N_ Historic Sites_^<N__^<N_Places of historic interest in Alaska include Klondike Gold Rush National Historical
Park, including buildings in Skagway associated with the Klondike gold rush of 1897-98; Sitka National Historical Park, encompassing the site of the 1804 battle in which Tlingit Indians were defeated by Russian colonizers; and several communities
in the Aleutian Islands and southern part of the state having Russian Orthodox churches dating from the early 19th century. _^<N__^<N_ Communications_^<N__^<N_Anchorage had Alaska's first radio station (1924) and first television stations (1953).
Today Alaskan communities are served by radio and television as well as newspapers. The most influential dailies include the Anchorage Daily News, the Fairbanks Daily News-Miner, and the Juneau Southeast Alaska Empire. The state's first
commercial newspaper was the Alaska Times, initially published at Sitka in 1868. _^<N__^<N_ GOVERNMENT_^<N__^<N_Alaska is governed under a constitution (as amended) that was adopted in 1956 and became effective in 1959. The capital of Alaska is
Juneau; voters in 1970 approved a plan to move the capital to Willow (near Anchorage), but in 1982 they voted against the expenditure. The state's chief executive is a governor, elected to a 4-year term; a governor may not serve more than two
consecutive terms. Alaska has a bicameral legislature made up of a senate (whose 20 members are elected to 4-year terms) and a house of representatives (whose 40 members are elected to 2-year terms). The principal tribunals in the state are the
5-member supreme court and the 29-member superior court; the justices of both courts are appointed by the governor to terms of 3 years, at the end of which they must be popularly elected to additional longer terms. _^<N__^<N_Alaska is not divided
into counties but rather into organized and the so-called unorganized borough. Organized boroughs are similar to counties, however, and each of the 11 such units are supervised by a small assembly. The unorganized borough includes more than 80%
of the state's area but less than 20% of its population. It is administered by the state government; for statistical purposes it is divided into 12 census divisions. _^<N__^<N_In Alaska, most local-government elected positions are contested on a
nonpartisan basis. In national presidential elections the Republican candidate has usually carried Alaska. _^<N__^<N_ THE ECONOMY_^<N__^<N_Concerted economic growth in Alaska began only during World War II, when the federal government established
several important military bases in the territory. The state now is the major employer in Alaska, and the state's income is based on taxes and royalties from petroleum production. The state suffered from the drop in world oil prices during the
mid- and later 1980s (it was estimated that the state lost $150 million in income for every $1 drop in the price of a barrel of crude oil). Alaska continues nonetheless to produce a very significant percentage of U.S. oil, and the oil industry is
crucial to the state's economy. Providing much less income than oil but also important are such traditional industries as lumbering, fishing, and tourism. _^<N__^<N_ Agriculture and Forestry_^<N__^<N_Alaska's annual cash income from farming is
usually the lowest among U.S. states. The chief farm products are milk, eggs, greenhouse crops, hay, and potatoes. The state has just a few hundred farms. The principal cropland is in the lower Matanuska River valley, near Anchorage. Crops are
also raised in the Tanana River valley, near Fairbanks; on the Kenai Peninsula; and in scattered areas of the southeast. The interior has considerable areas of potential farmland including particularly the Delta region of the upper Tanana River.
Reindeer are raised on the Seward Peninsula and in the Kotzebue area, producing goods for domestic use and export. Some sheep and cattle are raised, and Alaska has thousands of horses, many used as pack animals. Southeastern Alaska has an
important logging and paper-pulp industry centered largely in Ketchikan, Sitka, and Wrangell. Small lumber mills exist elsewhere, including the Fairbanks and Anchorage areas. _^<N__^<N_ Fishing_^<N__^<N_Alaska has an important fishing industry,
and the annual value of its catch generally leads all other U.S. states. Salmon account for the largest share of the annual fishing receipts; also valuable are king crabs, snow crabs, halibut, shrimp, cod, herring, scallops, and clams. The
principal fishing grounds are in the southeast, in the Gulf of Alaska, in the Kodiak area, and in Bristol Bay. _^<N__^<N_ Wild-Animal Products_^<N__^<N_The Pribilof Islands (controlled by the U.S. government until 1983) yield valuable pelts from
fur seals. Elsewhere, fur trapping on a small scale provides a significant source of income for some people. Harvesting of moose, caribou, seals, and whales is very important to the economy of native Alaskans. _^<N__^<N_ Mining_^<N__^<N_Petroleum
is the leading mineral produced in Alaska. The principal oil field is on the Arctic coastal plain, around Prudhoe Bay. Petroleum from this field is transported by the 1,287-km-long (800-mi) TRANS-ALASKA PIPELINE to Valdez, where it is transferred
to oceangoing tankers. The field began producing in mid-1977, when the pipeline was completed; during its first decade of operation, the pipeline delivered 5.5 billion barrels of petroleum. _^<N__^<N_Other major oil fields are on the Kenai
Peninsula and in Cook Inlet; these fields were first exploited in the late 1950s and eventually produced natural gas as well. _^<N__^<N_Other minerals recovered in Alaska include stone, sand and gravel, gold (mainly in the Yukon and Tanana river
valleys, the Seward Peninsula, and the southeast), coal, gemstones, lead, platinum, silver, and barite. _^<N__^<N_ Manufacturing_^<N__^<N_Alaska has a small manufacturing industry. The chief products were processed fish, paper, lumber, and refined
petroleum. The main manufacturing centers were Anchorage, Fairbanks, Juneau, and Ketchikan. _^<N__^<N_ Tourism_^<N__^<N_Alaska's splendid scenery, as well as its many opportunities for outdoor recreation, annually attract scores of thousands of
tourists, who spend a great deal of money in the state each year. National Park Service land--most of it set aside in 1978--totals about 21 million ha (51 million acres) and includes Denali (formerly Mount McKinley), Gates of the Arctic, Glacier
Bay, Katmai, Kenai Fjords, Kobuk Valley, Lake Clark, and Wrangell-Saint Elias national parks; Bering Land Bridge, Noatak, and Yukon-Charley Rivers national preserves; Aniachak and Cape Krusenstern national monuments; and Klondike Gold Rush and
Sitka national historical parks. The state also operates a system of parks. _^<N__^<N_ Transportation_^<N__^<N_Alaska has limited land transportation facilities. Perhaps the best-known road is the ALASKA HIGHWAY. Most of the several hundred
miles of railroad track is part of the Alaska Railroad, running from Seward (on the Kenai Peninsula) to Fairbanks via Anchorage. Another rail line runs from Skagway to Whitehorse, Yukon Territory. Small airplanes, operated by "bush pilots," carry
freight and passengers to remote communities. Major airports are situated at Anchorage, Fairbanks, and Juneau. _^<N__^<N_An excellent system of ferries links the insular communities of southeast Alaska with nearby mainland communities and with
Prince Rupert, British Columbia, and Seattle, Wash. Valdez, a terminus of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline, is a major port for shipping crude petroleum; other important ports in Alaska include Anchorage, Ketchikan, Seward, Sitka, Skagway, Whittier, and
Wrangell. _^<N__^<N_ Energy_^<N__^<N_In 1987, Alaska had an installed electricity-generating capacity of 1.7 million kW, and annual production totaled 4.1 billion kW h. The great bulk of the electricity was produced in thermal plants using coal,
natural gas, or refined petroleum. _^<N__^<N_The state's rivers, notably the Yukon and Susitna, have great potential for producing hydroelectricity, but only a few waterpower facilities had been constructed; among them are Eklutna Dam, near
Anchorage, and Snettisham Dam, near Juneau. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY_^<N__^<N_The first settlers of present-day Alaska migrated in successive waves from Asia across the BERING LAND BRIDGE; estimates of the date of the earliest such migration range from
about 30,000 to 10,000 years ago. When the region was first visited by Europeans, in the early 18th century, it was inhabited by Eskimo in the north, west, and Prince William Sound area; Aleuts in the southeast; Athabascans in the interior and
Cook Inlet area; and Tlingit and Tlairda in the southeast. _^<N__^<N_In 1728 the Danish navigator Vitus BERING, sailing for the Russian government, visited and named St. Lawrence Island, a part of modern Alaska situated in the Bering Sea. In
1741, Bering undertook a second voyage to Alaska, during which Mount Saint Elias was sighted and a party, under Aleksei Chirikov, landed at Kayak Island. Bering and many of his companions died during the trip, but some survivors returned to Russia
with sea-otter furs from Alaska. Soon Russian adventurers were trapping in the Aleutian Islands, and in 1784, Grigory SHELEKHOV founded the first permanent white settlement in Alaska, on Kodiak Island, near modern Kodiak. During the late 18th
century Capt. James COOK, the English explorer, as well as Spanish, French, and other English navigators, sailed along the coast of Alaska. _^<N__^<N_The early Russian trappers were disorganized and rapacious, depleting the stock of fur-bearing
animals in many areas and killing or enslaving large numbers of Aleuts. In an attempt to bring order to Russian America, Tsar Paul I in 1799 chartered the RUSSIAN-AMERICAN COMPANY, granting it monopoly trading rights. Under Aleksandr BARANOV, who
headed the company during 1800-17, the fur harvest was increased substantially, and several settlements were established. New Archangel (later renamed Sitka), founded in 1799, was destroyed by Tlingit Indians in 1802 but was rebuilt in 1804 as the
capital of Russian America. At the same time, many Aleuts were then converted to Russian Orthodoxy, notably by Father Innokenti Veniaminoff. _^<N__^<N_During the first half of the 19th century, the Hudson's Bay Company and American traders were
very active in Alaska. The rights of these traders and most of the current boundaries of Alaska were established by treaties between Russia and Great Britain and the United States (1824-25). _^<N__^<N_From 1820 onward, the Russian-American
Company, managed in large part by famous Russian admirals and scientists, did much to explore Alaska and assess its resources. The Russians built iron foundries and schools; developed coal mining, trading routes, farming, and sheep raising;
followed wildlife conservation methods to preserve the fur-seal population; and carried out smallpox inoculations. As a result of the Crimean War and contacts with American businessmen in San Francisco, the Russian government wished to sell
Alaska to the United States. The Russians feared losing Alaska to the British in the event of another war and were thus well disposed to the United States. _^<N__^<N_After the Civil War, U.S. secretary of state William H. SEWARD, an expansionist
who saw the region as having strategic importance, negotiated (1867) the purchase of Alaska. A treaty of cession was signed by Russia and the United States on Mar. 30, 1867, and, after the treaty was ratified by the U.S. Senate, Alaska was
formally transferred to the United States on Oct. 18, 1867. The United States paid $7.2 million for Russia's rights in Alaska after a long and bitter debate in Congress. Americans occupied Alaska before the money was paid and moved quickly to
take control of the assets of the Russian-American Company, to trade along the Yukon, and to exploit the profitable Pribilof fur-seal trade. _^<N__^<N_During the early years of U.S. control Alaska was called "Seward's Folly" because it was believed
to be useless. Although some economic development was undertaken, the region was generally neglected. It was administered successively by the U.S. War Department, Treasury Department, and Navy before civil government was established by the Organic
Act of 1884. The government had little control of Alaska, however, until further laws were enacted in the early 1900s. Fishing grew in importance after 1867, and in 1878 the first salmon cannery was opened. Fur seals were killed in such great
numbers that the federal government was obliged in 1910 to take control of the herds to prevent the animal's extermination. (With fur harvesting strictly limited, the number of fur seals increased from about 130,000 in 1910 to more than 2,500,000
in the 1970s.) During the late 19th century, large numbers of whales, sea otters, and walruses were killed. In order to increase the food supply, Sheldon JACKSON, a missionary and educator who established schools in Alaska, in 1891 introduced
reindeer (from Siberia) to the region. _^<N__^<N_The modern economic development of Alaska began in 1897-98 with the rush to the KLONDIKE gold fields in nearby Canada. Southeastern Alaska served as a gateway to the Klondike, and Skagway, Valdez,
and other Alaskan communities grew as way stations. In 1899 gold was found on the beach at Nome, and quickly an Alaskan gold rush was under way. By mid-1900 about 10,000 gold seekers were in Nome; they mostly lived in squalid conditions, with no
effective government or police force. Important gold discoveries were made around Fairbanks in 1902, in the Yellow and Iditarod river valleys (near the modern town of Flat) in 1906-10, and along the Yukon near Ruby in 1907-10. Much copper ore was
recovered in the Copper River basin near McCarthy from 1911 to 1938, when the main mine was exhausted. The number of whites in Alaska increased from about 4,000 in 1890 to 30,500 in 1900 and 36,400 in 1910. _^<N__^<N_Juneau was made the official
capital of Alaska in 1900, but government offices were not moved there from Sitka until 1906, the same year that Alaskans elected their first delegate (nonvoting) to the U.S. House of Representatives. In 1912, Alaska was constituted as a U.S.
territory, and Alaskans were able to elect a territorial legislature, whose decisions, however, were subject to veto by the federally appointed governor. In the 1920s and '30s the Alaskan economy grew slowly. In 1923 the Alaska Railroad, running
from Seward to Fairbanks, was completed. Also in the 1920s small airplanes, piloted by pioneer commercial aviators, such as Noel Wien, began to link remote areas with the territory's larger towns. An important step in increasing the territory's
farm output was taken in 1935, when the federal government set up an experimental agricultural colony in the Matanuska River valley. _^<N__^<N_World War II brought great changes to Alaska. In 1942 the Japanese bombed Dutch Harbor (on Amaknak
Island, near Unalaska Island) and occupied Attu and Kiska islands, in the Aleutians. Recognizing Alaska's strategic location near Asia, the United States countered by building a supply road, the Alaska Highway, in 1942; by retaking Attu and Kiska
in 1943; and by establishing several military bases in the territory. The military buildup, which carried over to the postwar period, fostered economic development in Alaska and was largely responsible for the territory's population growth from
72,524 persons in 1939 to 128,643 persons in 1950. _^<N__^<N_During the 1950s and '60s, Alaska's economy continued to expand as the tourist trade grew. Fishing fleets and canning and timber-processing facilities were enlarged and modernized
(partly through an influx of much Japanese capital); and an important petroleum industry was established soon after the discovery, in 1957, of major oil fields in the Kenai Peninsula-Cook Inlet region. As the population increased, so did
sentiment for statehood. In mid-1958 the U.S. Congress approved statehood for Alaska, and on Jan. 3, 1959, Alaska became the 49th state. Its first governor was William A. Egan, a Democrat, who served until 1966, when he was succeeded by Walter J.
Hickel, a Republican. Hickel resigned as governor in 1969 to become U.S. secretary of the interior. One of Alaska's initial U.S. senators was Ernest H. Gruening, a noted public official and an influential leader in the drive for statehood. In
1964 a powerful earthquake struck south central Alaska; Anchorage suffered extensive damage but was quickly rebuilt. _^<N__^<N_A new era in Alaska began in 1968 with the discovery of great petroleum and natural-gas deposits in the Arctic coastal
plain, or North Slope, around Prudhoe Bay. It was decided to send the oil by pipeline from the north coast through the interior to the ice-free port of Valdez, where it would be transferred to oceangoing tankers. Environmentalists objected to the
project, contending, among other things, that the ecological balance in the interior of Alaska would be upset, but after considerable debate the U.S. Congress gave its required approval in 1973. The Trans-Alaska Pipeline was completed in mid-1977
at a cost estimated at more than $10 billion. The government of Alaska gained large new revenues from taxes and other imposts levied on petroleum exploitation. Oil wealth spurred the state legislature in 1980 to eliminate the state income tax and
to distribute shares of Alaska's oil royalties to its citizens. Court challenges stalled implementation until 1982. Despite the oil depression of the mid-1980s, Alaskans continued to receive their annual dividends. _^<N__^<N_A major issue
confronting Alaskans during the 1970s concerned the status of its vast area. At statehood the government of Alaska had been promised eventual control over about 28% of the state, and the U.S. government retained authority over the rest. Under
national legislation passed in 1971, an additional 17.8 million ha (44 million acres) of federal holdings in the state were reserved for Alaska's Eskimo, Indians, and Aleuts. (A federal court in 1991 ruled that these lands could be considered
sovereign "Indian country," even though they were not reservations.) In 1980, Congress passed the controversial Alaska Lands Bill, restricting future development of more than 40 million ha (100 million acres). _^<N__^<N_In March 1989 the
supertanker Exxon Valdez spilled 11 million gallons of oil into Prince William Sound off Valdez. This catastrophe soiled several hundred kilometers of coastline and killed much wildlife. _^<N__^<N_Donald F. Lynch _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hunt,
William R., Alaska: A Bicentennial History (1976); McBeath, G. A., and Morehouse, T. A., eds., Alaska State Government and Politics (1987); McPhee, John, Coming into the Country (1977; repr. 1991); Morehouse, T. A., Alaska Resources Development
(1984); Naske, C. M., and Slotnick, Herman, Alaska, 2d ed. (1988); Schorr, A. E., ed., Alaska Place Names, 4th ed. (1991); Strohmeyer, John, Extreme Conditions: Big Oil and the Transformation of Alaska (1993). _^<N__^<N_
-END-
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299
CAT
-A-
Alaska, Gulf of
-T-
Alaska, Gulf of_^<N__^<N_The Gulf of Alaska is a semicircular inlet of the Pacific Ocean on the coast of southern Alaska. It has an area of about 1,533,280 sq km (592,000 sq mi), and its major ports are Anchorage, Valdez, and Seward. The main
current in the gulf is the warm, counterclockwise Alaska Current.
-END-
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378
CAT
-A-
Alaska, University of
-T-
Alaska, University of_^<N__^<N_The University of Alaska (1917; enrollment: 30,457; libraries: 1,264,583 volumes) is a land- and sea-grant institution with upper-division campuses at Anchorage, Fairbanks, and Juneau, as well as ten campuses and
education centers in other locations. Scientific institutes connected with the university include the Institute of Arctic Biology in Fairbanks.
-END-
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490
CAT
-A-
Alaska blackfish
-T-
Alaska blackfish_^<N__^<N_Alaska blackfish (family Umbridae, order Salmoniformes) are small, cylindrical fishes with large pectoral fins. Their dorsal and anal fins are set far back near the tail. Legend has it that they can survive being frozen,
swallowed, and regurgitated by husky dogs. Although that is unlikely, this species exhibits remarkable resistance to both extreme cold and low concentrations of oxygen under the ice. The Alaska blackfish is found only in Alaska and Siberia.
_^<N__^<N_A. R. Emery
-END-
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339
CAT
-A-
Alaska Current
-T-
Alaska Current_^<N__^<N_The Alaska Current, an offshoot of the ALEUTIAN CURRENT, is a surface current that is part of the counterclockwise flow in the Gulf of Alaska. Its water at 4 deg C (39 deg F) is warmer than the gulf water. Salinity is 32.6
parts/1,000 and average velocity 28 cm/sec (1 km/h/0.6 mph). _^<N__^<N_John Wheeler _^<N__^<N_See also: OCEAN CURRENTS.
-END-
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661
CAT
-A-
Alaska Highway
-T-
Alaska Highway_^<N__^<N_The Alaska (or Alcan) Highway was built by the U.S. Army during World War II to connect military posts in Alaska with the midcontinental United States. Completed in 1942, the highway extends 2,452 km (1,523 mi) from Dawson
Creek, British Columbia, to Fairbanks, Alaska. Several connecting highways link it with Alberta and Montana and with other points in Alaska. In 1946 the Canadian section was turned over to Canada, and in the following year the entire highway was
opened to the public. It had before that time been maintained as a military supply route. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Remley, David A., A Crooked Road: A History of the Alaska Highway (1976).
-END-
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912
CAT
-A-
Alaskan malamute
-T-
Alaskan malamute_^<N__^<N_{mal'-uh-myoot} _^<N__^<N_The Alaskan malamute, a working dog, originally pulled sleds for the Malamute (Mahlmut) Indians of northwestern Alaska. This dog is known for its endurance as a draft animal and for its
affectionate nature: it is especially good with children. _^<N__^<N_The malamute has a compact, powerfully built body and a broad head. It stands 58-63.5 cm (23-25 in) high at the shoulder and weighs about 35 kg (80 lb). The coat is double-layered
with wooly underhair and a coarse topcoat. The tail is bushy and loosely curled over the back. The paws are large and well padded with fur, enabling the dog to run now. The malamute's brown, almond-shaped eyes and its coat--gray to black with
white--give it a wolflike appearance. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Le Kernec, Bill, Alaskan Malamutes (1983); Riddle, Maxwell, and Seeley, Eva B., The Complete Alaskan Malamute (1976); Ross, Diane, Your Alaskan Malamute (1977).
Alavi, Bozorg_^<N__^<N_{ah-la-vee', boh'-zorg} _^<N__^<N_Bozorg Alavi, b. Feb. 2, 1908, is a radical Persian novelist. Educated in Iran and Berlin, he was imprisoned in 1937 for his leftist politics and in 1941 expelled from Iran. He later became
professor of Persian at Humboldt University, Berlin. _^<N__^<N_Although Alavi is important primarily as a short-story writer, his only novel, Chashmhayash, is among the best in contemporary Persian. Chamadan, his first collection of short stories,
contains masterful studies of character and human relations; like much of his work, these stories are also notable for their social criticism. _^<N__^<N_Marcia E. Maguire
-END-
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1226
CAT
-A-
Alba, Fernando Alvarez de Toledo y Pimentel, Duque de
-T-
Alba, Fernando Alvarez de Toledo y Pimentel, Duque de_^<N__^<N_The duque de Alba, or Alva, b. Oct. 29, 1507, was a leading Spanish general and statesman under KING PHILIP II. After serving Philip's father, Holy Roman Emperor CHARLES V, in many
campaigns, he was named chief of household for Philip and became the leader of a major political faction at his court. From 1555 to 1557 Alba served in Italy, where he distinguished himself for his subtlety and generalship in the war against Pope
Paul IV. _^<N__^<N_Alba helped negotiate the Treaty of CATEAU-CAMBRESIS (1559), ending the long war with France, and in 1567 he was dispatched to the Low Countries to quell the DUTCH REVOLT. There, his persecution of the Protestants and his exalted
conception of royal authority turned a rebellion into a war of independence. He was recalled in 1573. In 1579 Alba was imprisoned, ostensibly for permitting the marriage of his son without royal consent. He was released in 1580 to lead the Spanish
armies in the annexation of Portugal. He died In Portugal on Dec. 6, 1582. _^<N__^<N_William S. Maltby _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Cadoux, Cecil John, Philip of Spain and the Netherlands (1969); Grierson, Edward, The Fatal Inheritance: Philip II and
the Spanish Netherlands (1969).
-END-
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529
CAT
-A-
Alba Longa
-T-
Alba Longa_^<N__^<N_Alba Longa was an ancient Latin city about 19 km (12 mi) southeast of Rome, set in the Alban Hills. According to legend, it was founded (c.1152 BC) by Aeneas's son, Ascanius, and was the birthplace of ROMULUS AND REMUS. The
principal city of the LATINS, it retained its dominance until the 7th century BC, when it was probably destroyed by Rome. Excavations of its necropolis have revealed tombs dating from the 12th century BC. The site of Alba Longa is near the modern
Castel Gandolfo, summer residence of the popes.
-END-
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19
CAT
-A-
albacore:
-T-
albacore:_^<N__^<N_see TUNA.
-END-
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445
CAT
-A-
Alban, Saint
-T-
Alban, Saint_^<N__^<N_Saint Alban, d. 304?, was the first British martyr. According to tradition, he was baptized by a fugitive priest whom he sheltered during DIOCLETIAN's persecution. When the emperor's soldiers came to search his house, Alban,
disguised in the priest's cloak, was arrested and then beheaded. Verulamium (present-day Saint Albans, England) was the site of the martyrdom. Feast day: June 17 (Church of England); June 22 (other Western).
-END-
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530
CAT
-A-
Albanel, Charles
-T-
Albanel, Charles_^<N__^<N_Charles Albanel, b. 1616, d. Jan. 11, 1696, was a Jesuit missionary and explorer in Canada. Having come to Quebec from France in 1649, he worked for many years among the Montagnais Indians at Tadoussac. In 1671-72 he
traveled overland to Hudson Bay, probably the first European to do so. During a second journey (1673-74) to the bay, Albanel was seized by agents of the English Hudson's Bay Company and sent to England. He later returned (1676) to the Canadian
missions, serving at Green Bay and Sault Ste. Marie.
-END-
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595
CAT
-A-
Albanese, Licia
-T-
Albanese, Licia_^<N__^<N_{ahl-bah-nay'-zay, lee'-chah} _^<N__^<N_Licia Albanese, b. July 22, 1913, is an Italian-American singer who was for 25 years one of the leading sopranos of the Metropolitan Opera. She studied in Italy and made her debut in
Milan in 1934 as Madame Butterfly. After 1940, except for the war years, she sang almost exclusively at the Metropolitan, giving more than 1,000 performances. She was chosen by Arturo Toscanini to record La Boheme and La Traviata under his
leadership. In 1985 she was cast member of the concert revival of Stephen Sondheim's musical Follies, which was recorded.
-END-
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11938
CATO
4743
9489
-A-
Albania
-O-
000000|Albania
000636| LAND
001797| Climate
002407| Resources
002828| PEOPLE
004038| Demography
004576| Education and Health
005434| Cultural Activity
006400| ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
006617| Agriculture
006936| Industry
007330| GOVERNMENT
007914| HISTORY
-T-
Albania_^<N__^<N_Albania, one of Europe's smallest countries, is situated in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula. It has a 360-km (225-mi) coastline on the Adriatic and Ionian seas and is bounded on the north and east by Yugoslavia and on the
southeast by Greece. The Albanians' name for their country, Shqiperi, which means "eagles' land," aptly suggests Albania's isolated, rugged terrain and its strongly independent people. In 1990, after more than four decades of Communist rule,
Albania began the difficult process of moving from a one-party regime to a multiparty democracy, and from a centrally controlled economy to a free-market system. _^<N__^<N_ LAND_^<N__^<N_Albania is a predominantly mountainous country; approximately
three-fourths of its territory consists of highlands with elevations greater than 300 m (1,000 ft). The mountains, which form a generally north-south backbone, are a southern continuation of the Dinaric Alps. The North Albanian Alps, a glaciated
limestone range in the extreme north, are among the most rugged and inaccessible regions in the country. The highest peak, Korab (2,751 m/9,025 ft), is located on the eastern border with Yugoslavia. Much of the population inhabits the elevated
basins and plateaus of central Albania. _^<N__^<N_Along the coast is a narrow zone of generally fertile alluvial lowlands (with some marshes) that extend inland along some rivers, especially in the central coastal region. _^<N__^<N_Most of the
rivers in Albania rise in the interior highlands and flow generally westward, descending rapidly to the coast, many in narrow gorges. The longest river is the Drin, but except for the Buene none of the rivers is navigable. Most are nearly dry in
summer and become torrents in winter. The major lakes (all of which are divided by Albania's borders) are Ohrid, Shkoder, and Prespa. _^<N__^<N_ Climate_^<N__^<N_The coastal lowlands enjoy a typically Mediterranean climate: hot, dry summers and
mild, wet winters. At Durres, nearly 80 percent of the annual rainfall occurs between October and March, and the average daily minimum temperature in January is 6 degrees C (42 degrees F). The interior highlands are under the influence of a
continental climate and have severely cold winters and warm summers, although at the highest elevations summers are cool. Annual rainfall averages from 760 mm (30 in) in the southeastern highlands to 2,030 mm (80 in) in the northern coastal plain
to 1,070 mm (42 in) at Durres. _^<N__^<N_ Resources_^<N__^<N_Albania is relatively rich in minerals and is the world's fourth leading producer of chrome. Also present are significant deposits of oil, natural gas, bitumen, copper, iron, nickel, and
salt. The country's river systems, especially the Drin, are important sources of hydroelectric power. Forests of oak, chestnut, beech, pine, and fir adequately supply the needs of Albania's woodworking and paper industries. _^<N__^<N_
PEOPLE_^<N__^<N_For a Balkan state, Albania has an unusually homogeneous ethnic composition, with Albanians comprising 96 percent of the population. They are believed to be descendants of the ancient Illyrians, who were among the earliest
inhabitants of the Balkan Peninsula. Despite centuries of foreign domination, the Albanians managed to preserve their national identity and language. The Albanians comprise two major subgroups: the Ghegs (or Gegs) to the north of the Shkumbi River
and the Tosks to the south. The cultural and religious differences between the two groups have been largely eliminated by the current regime. Linguistic differences remain; however, the two dialects are mutually intelligible. The official language
is based largely on the Tosk dialect, reflecting the fact that Albania's Communist leader Enver Hoxha came from the southern part of the country. _^<N__^<N_From 1967 until 1990 all religious institutions were closed by the government. Before 1967,
approximately 70 percent of the population were Muslim (the result of centuries of Turkish rule), 20 percent were Orthodox Christians, and 10 percent were Roman Catholic. Government figures now designate 55 percent of the people as nonreligious.
_^<N__^<N_ Demography_^<N__^<N_Albania has the highest rate of natural population increase in Europe. Its birthrate, also higher than that of any other European nation, is closer to that of a Third World country. The urban population, although
small by European standards, has more than doubled since 1940, when only 15 percent of the people lived in cities. Major cities include TIRANE, the capital, DURRES (Durazzo), SHKODER (Scutari), Elbasan, VLORE (Valona), and Korce (Koritza), none of
which, except the capital, has a population greater than 100,000. _^<N__^<N_ Education and Health_^<N__^<N_Eight years of primary education (from ages 6 to 14) are free and compulsory in Albania. Secondary education consists of four-year technical
or professional courses. Secondary school students normally spend part of their time working on farms and in factories, or in military training. _^<N__^<N_Higher education is offered by Enver Hoxha University in Tirane (founded in 1957), three
teacher training schools, and two agricultural colleges. Fees are charged by higher educational institutions in accordance with the students' ability to pay. Illiteracy, widespread before World War II, has been virtually eliminated in the adult
population. _^<N__^<N_Albania has about 800 hospitals and more than 3,000 outpatient clinics serving all parts of the country. Medical care is free, and medication is supplied free of charge for children up to one year of age. _^<N__^<N_ Cultural
Activity_^<N__^<N_Albanian literature, which first appeared in the 15th and 16th centuries, remained primarily religious until the 19th century. Ottoman political authorities and the Greek Orthodox patriarch collaborated to discourage the use of
the Albanian language and the development of Albanian culture. By the 19th century, however, a number of writers had established a secular literature with nationalistic themes. _^<N__^<N_Albanian literature and culture began to flourish after the
achievement of independence in 1912. After 1945, cultural activity was subjected to rigid ideological controls; consequently, with the exception of folk music, the folk arts, and a few literary works. Albanian culture attracted little foreign
interest. In the 1960s, Albania experienced a cultural revolution similar to that of China, and Western works of art were thrown into official disfavor. All this began to change with the disintegration of the Communist system in the 1990s.
_^<N__^<N_ ECONOMIC ACTIVITY_^<N__^<N_Although Albania's Communist rulers sought to transform the country into a modern, self-sufficient, industrial-agricultural state, Albania remains the least economically developed country in Europe. _^<N__^<N_
Agriculture_^<N__^<N_In 1989 agriculture accounted for about one-third of the national income. Under the Communists all land was state owned and operated, either as state farms or cooperatives. When the government began to dismantle this system in
1991, the distribution network broke down, and a severe food shortage resulted. _^<N__^<N_ Industry_^<N__^<N_Industry in Albania has concentrated on the processing of the nation's mineral resources, especially chrome and petroleum. Hydroelectric
power is also being developed for export to neighboring countries. The upheaval of the early 1990s, however, caused a crisis in the state-run industrial sector, and the government appealed to the European Community for aid to prevent its collapse.
_^<N__^<N_ GOVERNMENT_^<N__^<N_Under the leadership of Communist party chief Enver HOXHA, who dominated Albania from 1944 until his death in 1985, the government was a tightly controlled dictatorship. Hoxha's system remained intact until 1990, when
his successor, Ramiz Alia, began to introduce reforms. In multiparty elections held in March 1991 the Communists won 68 percent of the vote; in June a coalition government was installed under a reformist prime minister, Ylli Bufi. Alia continued as
president. Bans on religion and foreign travel were ended, and a new democratic constitution was adopted. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY_^<N__^<N_From the 7th century BC the Greeks colonized the coastal areas of what is now Albania and in the following
centuries became a cultural influence on the Illyrians. In about 350 BC an independent kingdom, ILLYRIA, emerged in the region near Shkoder. Illyria and EPIRUS to the south were conquered by Rome in 168 BC. With the division of the Roman Empire in
the 4th century AD, Albania came under Byzantine rule. Actual Byzantine power in the area was weak, however, and in the succeeding centuries Albania was overrun by the Goths, Bulgars, Slavs, Serbs, and Normans (see BALKANS). _^<N__^<N_In the early
15th century the Turks began their conquest of the region. In 1443, Albanian resistance to the Turks was organized under the leadership of SKANDERBEG, who has become glorified as the national hero. Skanderbeg expelled the Turks and kept Albania
independent of Turkish rule for more than 20 years. Soon after his death in 1468, however, the Turks reasserted their power, and Albania became part of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE. During the nearly five centuries of Ottoman rule most Albanians converted to
Islam, and a substantial number immigrated to other Mediterranean regions. The country remained undeveloped and neglected. _^<N__^<N_Albanian nationalism revived in the early 19th century and spurred repeated revolts against Turkish domination. In
1912, in the First Balkan War, the Turks were driven from much of the Balkan Peninsula, and Albania declared its independence (see BALKAN WARS). _^<N__^<N_During World War I, Albania was a battleground for other Balkan powers and Italy. Albania's
sovereignty was upheld at the Paris Peace Conference (1919) through the efforts of the American president Woodrow Wilson. After a period of political instability, power was seized (1925) by Ahmed Zogu, a conservative northern tribal chief. In 1928
he proclaimed Albania a monarchy and became King ZOG. During his reign, Zog began the modernization of the country with Italian aid. Italian financial and military influence increased, and in 1939 Italy invaded Albania, forcing the king into exile.
_^<N__^<N_During World War II a power struggle developed between the Communist (National Liberation Front) and the non-Communist liberation forces. After the Germans withdrew in 1944, a Communist government was established under Enver Hox- ha.
Hoxha, a rigid Stalinist, broke with Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev in 1961 over the latter's partial repudiation of Stalin's legacy. Albania and the USSR severed diplomatic relations, and Soviet aid to Albania ended. During the 1960s and '70s the
country was alienated from its Communist neighbors in Europe but found an ally in China. After a dispute with Chinese leaders in 1978, Albania was completely isolated. _^<N__^<N_In the late 1980s, President Ramiz Alia took cautious steps toward
reestablishing diplomatic and trade contacts with other European countries. Influenced by the wave of democratization sweeping across Eastern Europe, he started to relax some of the government's stringent internal controls in 1990. As the Communist
system began to unravel during the following year, thousands of Albanians fled the country, crossing the Adriatic in boats to seek asylum in Italy. At home the country was gripped by lawlessness and unrest; about half the population was reported to
be unemployed. When new elections were held in March 1992, the Democratic party of opposition leader Sali Berisha emerged as the victor, capturing 92 of the 140 seats in the legislature. Berisha succeeded Alia as president in April and began the
difficult task of trying to restore Albania's economy and reform the political system. Meanwhile, the country had to rely on foreign assistance even for its food supply. _^<N__^<N_Nicholas C. Pano _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Biberaj, Elez, Albania: A
Socialist Maverick (1990); Hetzer, A., and Roman, V. S., Albania (1983); Marmullaku, R., Albania and the Albanians (1975); Pano, Nicholas C., Albania (1989); Pollo, S., and Puto, A., History of Albania (1980); Prifti, P. R., Socialist Albania since
1944 (1978). _^<N__^<N_
-END-
-C-
376
CAT
-A-
Albano, Lake
-T-
Albano, Lake_^<N__^<N_Lake Albano is a crater lake in the Alban Hills, southeast of Rome, Italy. At an altitude of 293 m (961 ft), it is 5 sq km(2 sq mi) in area and has a maximum depth of 170 m (558 ft). It is fed by underground springs and drained
by a tunnel built in the 4th century BC. Among the villas along its rocky shores is Castel Gandolfo, the summer residence of the popes.
-END-
-C-
441
CAT
-A-
Albany (Georgia)
-T-
Albany (Georgia)_^<N__^<N_Albany (1990 census, 78,122) is a city on the Flint River in southwestern Georgia and is the seat of Dougherty County. Crops from the surrounding area, processed in the city, include Spanish peanuts, cotton, and pecans.
Aircraft and pharmaceuticals are manufactured. Albany State College; Darton College, a two-year school; and a Marine Corps depot are located there. Founded in 1836, the city was named for Albany, N.Y.
-END-
-C-
1215
CAT
-A-
Albany (New York)
-T-
Albany (New York)_^<N__^<N_Albany, the capital of New York State, is located at the confluence of the HUDSON RIVER and the NEW YORK STATE BARGE CANAL system in the east central part of the state. It is a U.S. port of entry and also serves as the
seat of Albany County. It has a population of 101,082 (1990). _^<N__^<N_Located at the eastern terminal of the Erie Canal, Albany serves as an important port connecting shipping between the Great Lakes and Canada and Atlantic ports. Since the
opening (1932) of the Port of Albany, the city has been an important maritime center. Industrial development in the area is extensive and highly diversified, with the manufacture of chemicals, pharmaceuticals, steel, and paper. Operations of the
state government also adds substantially to the economy, and the city is a cultural center. _^<N__^<N_Although the Dutch established a temporary post (Fort Nassau) there in 1614, the first permanent settlement was in 1624, when a group of Walloon
families built Fort Orange. In 1652 it became Beverwyck, a Dutch colony until 1664 when the British assumed control. Albany was renamed in honor of the duke of York and Albany, later James II of England. Albany became the permanent state capital
in 1797.
-END-
-C-
75
CAT
-A-
Albany, State University of New York at:
-T-
Albany, State University of New York at:_^<N__^<N_see NEW YORK, STATE UNIVERSITY OF.
-END-
-C-
689
CAT
-A-
Albany Congress
-T-
Albany Congress_^<N__^<N_The Albany Congress was a meeting held at Albany, N.Y., in June-July 1754, attended by representatives of the colonies of New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire and of
the five Iroquois nations. Although its purpose was to cement ties between the colonies and the IROQUOIS in preparation for war with the French, it is chiefly remembered as the occasion when Benjamin FRANKLIN presented his Albany Plan of Union.
Franklin proposed that the colonies form a self-governing federation under the British crown. Even though the plan was not realized, in many respects it foreshadowed the later union of the American states.
-END-
-C-
30
CAT
-A-
Albategnius:
-T-
Albategnius:_^<N__^<N_see BATTANI, AL-.
-END-
-C-
1739
CAT
-A-
albatross
-T-
albatross_^<N__^<N_Albatross is the common name for large web-footed marine birds belonging to the family Diomedeidae, order Procellariiformes. Some of the 13 or 14 species also are known as mollymawks or gooney birds. Albatrosses are concentrated
in southern oceans but are also seen in warmer northern waters and may migrate farther north in the summer. Their narrow, graceful wings--wingspan may exceed 3.7 m (12 ft), more than any other living bird--make them superb gliders. Albatrosses
often travel great distances. Along with the related PETRELS and SHEARWATERS, albatrosses are the most marine of birds. They sleep on the ocean's surface, drink seawater, and subsist on squid and other small marine life. Some are scavengers,
trailing ships for their refuse. _^<N__^<N_Albatrosses range in length from 50 to 125 cm (20 to 50 in). Plumage varies from white through dark gray or gray-brown, with combinations of all three being common. The large hooked bill, covered with
horny plates, has characteristically prominent tubular nostrils. The three front toes are webbed, and the rear toe may be absent or vestigial. Albatrosses live on land only during the breeding season, usually nesting in colonies on the shores of
remote oceanic islands. Courtship displays are highly elaborate. Incubation of a single large white egg lasts two to three months. _^<N__^<N_Because of the albatross theme in Samuel Taylor Coleridge's Rime of the Ancient Mariner, the bird's name
has become a metaphor for a troublesome burden. _^<N__^<N_Gary D. Schnell _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Alexander, Wilfrid B., Birds of the Ocean, rev. ed. (1963); Line, Les, et al., The Audobon Society Book of Water Birds (1987); Van Tyne, Josselyn,
and Berger, Andrew J., Fundamentals of Ornithology (1976).
-END-
-C-
928
CAT
-A-
albedo
-T-
albedo_^<N__^<N_{al-bee'-doh} _^<N__^<N_Albedo is a measure of the reflecting power of an object or surface. It is mathematically defined as the ratio of the amount of light reflected from a surface to the amount that is incident upon it, often
expressed as a percentage. A surface that reflects half the light it receives has an albedo of 0.5 or 50%. The average value of the Earth's albedo is 35%, largely because of the high reflecting power of clouds, snow cover, and deserts. Planets
with cloudy atmospheres have a high value for the albedo: Venus, 76%; Jupiter, 51%; Saturn, 50%; Uranus, 66%; and Neptune, 62%. Rocky surfaces absorb most of the light they receive; hence, the Moon has an albedo of 7%, and Mercury of 6%.
The slightly higher albedo of Mars, 15%, is caused by the planet's thin atmosphere. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Mitton, Simon, ed., Cambridge Encyclopedia of Astronomy (1977); Pasachoff, Jay M., Astronomy, 2d ed. (1983).
-END-
-C-
1823
CAT
-A-
Albee, Edward
-T-
Albee, Edward_^<N__^<N_{al'-bee} _^<N__^<N_Edward Franklin Albee, b. Washington, D.C., Mar. 12, 1928, is one of the most important American playwrights of the 1960s and the one most closely identified with the THEATER OF THE ABSURD. His plays are
characterized by sharp dialogue, biting satire, often illogical confrontations between characters, and unconventional theatrical effects. _^<N__^<N_His first play, The ZOO STORY (1958), produced in West Berlin in 1959 and in New York City the next
year, is a short, ominous two-character play about how the failure of communication leads to violence. The Sandbox (1959) and The American Dream (1960) are closely related one-act plays that absurdly parody family life and the American dream of
success. The Death of Bessie Smith (1960) is a comment on racial prejudice and human cruelty. Albee attained popular and critical success with his first full-length Broadway play, WHO'S AFRAID OF VIRGINIA WOOLF? (1962; film, 1966). Here he shows
two couples tensely locked in a painful verbal and psychological duel that strips away all their illusions. It presents in mature form the concerns of Albee's early short plays. Tiny Alice (1964) is a complex, puzzling work about sex, morality, and
metaphysics, which proved to be less successful than his earlier plays. _^<N__^<N_Albee's other plays include two Pulitzer Prize winners, A Delicate Balance (1966) and Seascape (1975); the experimental Box and Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung
(Box-Mao-Box, 1968) and All Over (1971); and such adaptations as Ballad of the Sad Cafe (1963) from Carson McCullers's novella. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Amacher, Richard E., Edward Albee, rev. ed. (1982); Paolucci, Anne, From Tension to Tonic: The
Plays of Edward Albee (1972); Stenz, Anita M., Edward Albee: The Poet of Loss (1978); Wasserman, Julian N., et al., eds., Edward Albee (1983).
-END-
-C-
888
CAT
-A-
Albeniz, Isaac
-T-
Albeniz, Isaac_^<N__^<N_Albeniz, b. May 29, 1860, d. May 18, 1909, was a Spanish composer and piano virtuoso who gave his first public performance at the age of four. He left home at the age of 13 and traveled as far as Cuba and the United
States, supporting himself by concertizing. Like Enrique GRANADOS, Albeniz was a student of Felipe Pedrell, the father of the nationalistic movement in SPANISH MUSIC. In 1893 Albeniz settled in Paris, where he was influenced by the French
composers Paul DUKAS and Vincent d'INDY. Although he composed several operas, including Pepita Jimenez (1896), Albeniz excelled at writing for the piano. His most important work is Iberia (1906-09), a set of 12 piano pieces inspired by the music
and dance rhythms of Spain, especially that of Andalusia. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Powell, L. E., A History of Spanish Piano Music (1980). _^<N__^<N_See also: FLAMENCO; FRENCH MUSIC.
-END-
-C-
839
CAT
-A-
Alberdi, Juan Bautista
-T-
Alberdi, Juan Bautista_^<N__^<N_Juan Bautista Alberdi, b. Aug. 29, 1810, d. June 18, 1884, was an Argentinian political philosopher. In his most famous work, Bases y puntos de partida para la organizacion politica de la republica Argentina (Bases
and Starting Points for the Political Organization of the Argentine Republic, 1852), he set forth many of the fundamental principles that were incorporated into the Argentine constitution of 1853. He spent the years 1838-52 in exile as an opponent
of the dictator Juan Manuel de ROSAS. From 1852 to 1861 he served as a diplomat in Europe and the United States for President Justo Jose de URQUIZA. In his writings, Alberdi stressed the need for a strong federal system of government. He also
argued that economic development made it necessary to encourage immigration and the influx of foreign capital.
-END-
-C-
2232
CAT
-A-
Albers, Josef
-T-
Albers, Josef_^<N__^<N_The German-born American painter Josef Albers, b. Mar. 19, 1888, d. Mar. 25, 1976, contributed much to modern art through his investigation of color and light perception in nonfigurative PAINTING. _^<N__^<N_Albers taught
design at the BAUHAUS School in Dessau and Berlin from 1923 to 1933; his association with the constructivist movement (see CONSTRUCTIVISM) is derived from this background, although he was not concerned merely with formal abstraction. Albers's
experimentation related optics and the natural phenomena of color and light. His first creations at the Bauhaus were composed of glass shards that could not produce subtle gradations of tone, and his later painting demonstrated his proclivity for
flat geometry and pure, unmixed color. He is widely considered the father of HARD-EDGE abstract painting. _^<N__^<N_Albers arrived in the United States in 1933 to teach at Black Mountain College in North Carolina, where he taught (and occasionally
dismissed) many of today's avant-garde artists. He subsequently served as a visiting professor at various U.S. universities. From 1950 to 1960 he headed the Department of Design at Yale University. Yale published Albers's major theoretical
writings, including his monumental Interaction of Color (1963; rev. ed., 1975). The culmination of Albers's development is his famous "Homage to the Square" series, on which he worked from 1949 until his death. Typified by Homage to the Square:
Insert (1950, The National Collection of Fine Arts, Washington, D.C.), the corpus of his work is concerned not with emotional expression but with the physical fact and psychic effects of seeing. _^<N__^<N_Harry Rand _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Albers, Josef, Interaction of Color (1963), and Josef Albers: Formulation, Articulation (1972); Beneza, N. D., The Murals and Sculpture of Josef Albers (1983; repr. 1985); Bucher, Francois, Josef Albers: Despite Straight Lines (1961; rev.
ed. 1977); Gomringer, Eugen, Josef Albers, His Work As a Contribution to Visual Articulation in the Twentieth Century (1969); Spies, Werner, Albers, trans. by H. Plummer (1970); Weber, N. F., The Drawings of Josef Albers (1983); Wissman,
Fronia, et al., Albers (1978). _^<N__^<N_See also: ABSTRACT ART; MODERN ART.
-END-
-C-
323
CAT
-A-
Albert, Carl
-T-
Albert, Carl_^<N__^<N_Carl Bert Albert, b. McAlester, Okla., May 10, 1908, served as speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives from 1971 to 1977. A Democrat, he represented a rural district of his native Oklahoma in the House from 1947 to 1977,
when he retired. He had been a Rhodes scholar and a lawyer before entering politics.
-END-
-C-
627
CAT
-A-
Albert, Eugen d'
-T-
Albert, Eugen d'_^<N__^<N_Eugen d'Albert, b. Apr. 10, 1864, d. Mar. 3, 1932, was a French-born German pianist who also became a prominent composer, conductor, and editor. He was married six times and was notorious for his fiery temperament.
Franz LISZT was among his teachers. In addition to giving concerts , he conducted in Weimar and, from 1907 on, was director of the music conservatory in Berlin. He is remembered for his melodramatic opera Tiefland (1903), his performances of
BEETHOVEN, and his editions and arrangements of J.S. BACH. _^<N__^<N_F. E. Kirby _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Schonberg, Harold C., The Great Pianists, rev. ed. (1987).
-END-
-C-
526
CAT
-A-
Albert, Lake
-T-
Albert, Lake_^<N__^<N_Lake Albert (Bantu: Albert Nyanza) is located in east central Africa on the border of Zaire and Uganda. Cradled in the western branch of the Great Rift Valley, the shallow, saline lake lies at an altitude of about 610 m (2,000
ft) and is bordered by tall, forested cliffs in the west and east. Lake Albert is 160 km (100 mi) long and 35 km (22 mi) wide. It is fed by the Victoria Nile and the Semliki River and is drained by the Albert Nile into the White Nile. Sir Samuel
White BAKER discovered the lake in 1864.
-END-
-C-
974
CAT
-A-
Albert I, King of the Belgians
-T-
Albert I, King of the Belgians_^<N__^<N_Albert I, b. Apr. 8, 1875, d. Feb. 17, 1934, king of the Belgians (1909-34), is remembered especially for his strong leadership during World War I. He married (1900) Elizabeth, daughter of the duke of Bavaria,
and succeeded LEOPOLD II, his uncle, to the Belgian throne in 1909. In August 1914, when the German armies demanded right of passage through Belgium, Albert refused the ultimatum and assumed personal command of the Belgian armed forces in resisting
the German advance. He remained in the small, unoccupied area of Belgium throughout the war, and in September 1918 led Belgian and French troops in the final Allied offensive. _^<N__^<N_After the war, Albert promoted the economic reconstruction of
Belgium and helped introduce (1926) a new monetary system. His death in a mountain-climbing accident (1934) was deeply mourned. He was succeeded by his son, Leopold III. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Cammaerts, Emile, Albert of Belgium, Defender of Right
(1935).
-END-
-C-
776
CAT
-A-
Albert I, Margrave of Brandenburg (Albert the Bear)
-T-
Albert I, Margrave of Brandenburg (Albert the Bear)_^<N__^<N_Albert I, or Albert the Bear, b. c.1100, d. Nov. 18, 1170, founder of the state of BRANDENBURG, was one of the leaders of the 12th century German conquests in eastern Europe called the
DRANG NACH OSTEN. He inherited the Saxon estates of his father and, after services to Holy Roman Emperor LOTHAIR II, received (1134) the Saxon nordmark, lying east of the junction of the Elbe and Havel rivers. Although embroiled in rivalry with
the WELF dukes of Saxony, Albert campaigned successfully against the Slavic Wends. When their prince Pribislav died childless in 1150, Albert incorporated Pribislav's principality into his domain and took the title of margrave or Brandenburg. His
family, the Ascanians, ruled until 1320.
-END-
-C-
1305
CAT
-A-
Albert, Prince Consort of England
-T-
Albert, Prince Consort of England_^<N__^<N_Albert, called the Prince Consort, was the husband of Queen VICTORIA of Britain. The son of the Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, he was born on Aug. 26, 1819, near Coburg, Bavaria. He married the young
Victoria in 1840. As her closest advisor, Albert exercised a restraining influence on the impulsive queen, especially in political matters. Among the political leaders of the period, Albert worked well with Sir Robert PEEL but quarreled
frequently with Viscount PALMERSTON. In the TRENT AFFAIR of 1861 the prince actually moderated the hostility of Palmerston's government toward the United States. _^<N__^<N_Albert was a patron of the arts and sciences and one of the organizers of
the Great Exhibition of 1851. His zeal for public moralism in many ways set the tone of mid-Victorian England. Albert's death on Dec. 14, 1861, partly the result of overwork, deeply affected Victoria, who went into seclusion for several years.
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bennet, Daphne, King without a Crown: Albert Prince Consort of England, 1819-1861 (1977); Bolitho, Hector, Albert, Prince Consort, rev. ed. (1970); Phillips, John, ed., Prince Albert and the Victorian Age (1981);
Pound, Reginald, Albert: A Biography of the Prince Consort (1973); Richardson, Joanna, Victoria and Albert (1977).
-END-
-C-
1106
CAT
-A-
Albert I, King of Germany
-T-
Albert I, King of Germany_^<N__^<N_Albert I, b. c.1250, king of the Germans (1298-1308), was the son of RUDOLF I, the first HABSBURG to wear the German crown. In 1282 Rudolf granted Albert the duchies of Austria and Styria. When Rudolf died in
1291, however, the German princes, fearful of the growing Habsburg power, denied Albert the crown and instead elected Adolf of Nassau as king. Discontent with Adolf soon enabled Albert to win over the princes, who deposed Adolf in 1298 and elected
Albert king. The new king defeated the old at Gollheim (July 1298), where Adolf was slain. _^<N__^<N_As king, Albert attempted to add Holland and Zealand to the Habsburg domains. This unsuccessful effort, coupled with his alliance with the French
king PHILIP IV, provoked a revolt in the Rhineland that was backed by Pope BONIFACE VIII. The revolt was finally crushed in 1302, and the following year Albert secured papal confirmation of his election in return for an oath of obedience to the
pope. _^<N__^<N_Albert was assassinated on May 1, 1308, by accomplices of his nephew, John "Parracide" of Swabia. He was succeeded by HENRY VII.
-END-
-C-
338
CAT
-A-
Albert II, King of Germany
-T-
Albert II, King of Germany_^<N__^<N_Albert II, b. Aug. 10, 1397, d. Oct. 27, 1439, king of Germany (1438-39), succeeded his father-in-law, Holy Roman Emperor SIGISMUND, as king of Hungary and Bohemia as well as Germany. His brief reign was devoted
to suppressing a revolt in Bohemia and fighting the Turks in Hungary, where he died from dysentery.
-END-
-C-
336
CAT
-A-
Albert, First Duke of Prussia
-T-
Albert, First Duke of Prussia_^<N__^<N_Albert, b. May 17, 1490, d. Mar. 20, 1568, was the first duke of PRUSSIA. A member of the HOHENZOLLERN family, he was chosen (1511) grand master of the TEUTONIC KNIGHTS. On becoming a Protestant, however, he
secularized (1525) the lands of the knights, converting them into the hereditary duchy of Prussia.
-END-
-C-
14095
CATO
4743
9419
-A-
Alberta
-O-
000000|Alberta
000844| LAND AND RESOURCES
001967| Soils
002375| Lakes and Rivers
003270| Climate
004106| Vegetation and Animal Life
004916| Resources
005278| PEOPLE
005856| Education and Cultural Activity
006730| Places of Interest
007208| ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
007624| Manufacturing and Mining
008576| Agriculture and Forestry
009100| Tourism
009395| Transportation
009837| GOVERNMENT
010649| HISTORY
-T-
Alberta_^<N__^<N_Alberta is the westernmost of the Prairie Provinces of Canada. It stretches about 1,215 km (755 mi) north from Montana to the Northwest Territories. Alberta is the fourth largest province of Canada and the fourth most populous, with
one of the largest growth rates. Traditionally associated with wheat-growing and cattle ranching, Alberta is today especially important because of its fuel resources, the largest in Canada. _^<N__^<N_The first European explorer to penetrate the
region is thought to have been Anthony Henday, in 1754, and the first European settlement was a fur-trading post established in 1778 on the ATHABASCA RIVER in the northeastern part of today's province. In 1882, Alberta was made a district of the
former Northwest Territories and named for a daughter of Queen Victoria who was the wife of the then governor-general of Canada. _^<N__^<N_ LAND AND RESOURCES_^<N__^<N_The eastern three-fourths of Alberta's terrain is made up of plains, which rise
from less than 300 m (1,000 ft) in the northeast to more than 1,220 m (4,000 ft) in the southwest. The plains vary locally from very flat and extensive old lake bottoms to rolling landscapes with many lakes and depressions. These landforms reflect
the former presence of Pleistocene ice sheets, which, at maximum extent, covered all the province except for a few high pockets. In places, hilly or plateau areas (for example, Cypress Hills and Swan Hills) may rise to 600 m (2,000 ft) above the
general surface of the plain. _^<N__^<N_To the west of the plains, an area of foothill ridges of higher elevation is bordered by the abrupt east-facing rock wall of the ROCKY MOUNTAINS. The Rockies, with several peaks over 3,660 m (12,000 ft), make
up the other major physical region of the province. _^<N__^<N_Geologically the province includes almost a complete range in age, from the ancient Precambrian of the CANADIAN SHIELD in the extreme northeast corner through progressively younger
formations in the southwest, including Tertiary deposits. _^<N__^<N_ Soils_^<N__^<N_Soil types are arranged in concentric arcs from the southeastern part of Alberta and reflect the moisture and natural vegetation patterns. Brown prairie soils are
succeeded by rich black soils with a deep humus layer in the central parts of the province. However, more than two-thirds of Alberta, in the northern and western sectors, is marked by podzols, or gray-wooded soils, which are less fertile.
_^<N__^<N_ Lakes and Rivers_^<N__^<N_Most of southern and central Alberta drains eastward into Hudson Bay via the NELSON RIVER system, which in Alberta includes such major rivers as the North Saskatchewan and the South Saskatchewan. West central
and northern Alberta is drained into the Arctic Ocean by the MACKENZIE RIVER system, which includes such important rivers as the PEACE, Athabasca, and Hay. A small sector of the extreme south drains into the Milk River, which is part of the
Missouri-Mississippi system. Groundwater aids irrigation, as do diverted mountain-origin rivers in parts of southern Alberta. _^<N__^<N_Lakes are especially numerous in the central and northern parts of the province. Lake Claire and Lesser Slave
Lake are the two largest lakes wholly within Alberta. The western third of Lake ATHABASCA also lies within the province. Lake LOUISE in the Rocky Mountains is known for its beautiful scenery. _^<N__^<N_ Climate_^<N__^<N_Alberta has a continental
climate with long, cold winters and short, cool summers, although summers are longer and warmer in the southeastern quarter. At EDMONTON the average January temperature is - 20 degrees C (- 4 degrees F), and the July temperature is 23 degrees C (74
degrees F). Precipitation is moderate to light, with the southeast being particularly dry. The average annual precipitation for Edmonton is 440 mm (17 in), much of which falls as snow in the winter. The western foothills and mountains receive more
abundant precipitation (more than 500 mm/20 in). _^<N__^<N_A distinctive local feature that often moderates the winter temperatures of southern Alberta in the foothills and western plains is the CHINOOK, a warm westerly wind that descends the
eastern face of the Rockies and raises local temperatures dramatically. _^<N__^<N_ Vegetation and Animal Life_^<N__^<N_About 60 percent of Alberta is forested. The grasslands of the southeast reflect that region's warmer summers and sparser
precipitation. Most of Alberta's forest is a mixture of conifers (white spruce, jack pine) and deciduous trees (aspen, poplar, white birch). However, conifers become dominant in the northeast (the taiga, or boreal coniferous forest) and in the
foothills and lower mountains (subalpine forest). In the mountains, TUNDRA occurs above the tree line. _^<N__^<N_Surviving grassland animals include pronghorn antelope, ground squirrels, and coyotes. Fauna of the forested areas include a variety of
fur-bearing animals (bear, otter, ermine, and beaver) and big game animals (moose, caribou, elk, and deer), as well as the largest surviving herd of wild bison in North America. _^<N__^<N_ Resources_^<N__^<N_Alberta's major natural resources are
fuels, forests, and productive soils. The province's water resources, which include the source regions for parts of the continent's major river systems, are particularly important, especially to the other provinces to the east. Much of the mountain
and foothill zones are included in national or provincial parks. _^<N__^<N_ PEOPLE_^<N__^<N_Alberta experienced a dramatic increase in population from the mid-1970s to the early 1980s. Since then growth has continued but at a lesser rate. From 1986
to 1991 the population grew at a rate of 7.6 percent. Alberta has received many immigrants from other provinces and from abroad. _^<N__^<N_English is the native language of more than 80 percent of Alberta's population, followed by German,
Ukrainian, French, and various Scandinavian languages. Native Indians are a small population and include Plains Indians, such as the BLACKFOOT, and Woodlands Indians, such as the CREE. _^<N__^<N_ Education and Cultural Activity_^<N__^<N_Much of the
provincial income from oil and gas sales has been channeled to education and culture. Alberta has four provincial universities. The oldest and largest is the University of Alberta (1906), in Edmonton. The University of Calgary was established after
World War II as an affiliate of the University of Alberta but has been an independent institution since 1966. _^<N__^<N_Alberta enjoys a variety of cultural institutions. The major collections in the province are housed in the modern Provincial
Museum of Alberta in Edmonton and the Glenbow-Alberta Institute in CALGARY. Both Edmonton and Calgary have symphony orchestras and professional theater and opera companies. Edmonton has two ballet companies. The province is well served by
communications networks. Special radio-telephone service connects even the remote corners of the province. _^<N__^<N_ Places of Interest_^<N__^<N_Recreation and sports areas are spread throughout the province and include national parks and
provincial parks. Wood Buffalo National Park in northernmost Alberta is, at 44,807 sq km (17,300 sq mi), Canada's largest national park. Within its wilderness area, besides the buffalo, are the nesting grounds of the near-extinct whooping crane.
Resorts are popular in the mountains and the lake areas of central Alberta. The oldest and best-known resort is BANFF. _^<N__^<N_ ECONOMIC ACTIVITY_^<N__^<N_Since the early 1950s, when Alberta's economy was dominated by agriculture, mining and
manufacturing and service industries have grown so rapidly that they now greatly overshadow agricultural activities. Petroleum production is a crucial income source, but a 20-year-long oil boom ended with the worldwide oil glut of the 1980s. There
was a temporary boost from the Persian Gulf War in early 1991. _^<N__^<N_ Manufacturing and Mining_^<N__^<N_Alberta's manufacturing originally concentrated on processing food products. Food and beverage industries are still a very important
manufacturing group. Since the discovery (1947) of the Leduc oil fields near Edmonton, however, both the value and diversity of manufacturing have increased greatly. Over 80 percent of all Canadian oil production and about 85 percent of natural-gas
production occur in Alberta. Petroleum-product processing is now a dominant industrial activity, and it furnishes raw materials for a petrochemical industry. Exploitation of major oil-sand deposits in northern Alberta has begun, but immense
potential remains. _^<N__^<N_Alberta contains approximately half of Canada's huge minable coal reserves, with this resource underlying most of the southern area of the province. Although production almost ceased after the great petroleum
development, it began to prosper again in the 1970s through sales to Japan. _^<N__^<N_ Agriculture and Forestry_^<N__^<N_Cattle ranching, in the foothills and the drier south, is an important agricultural sector of the economy. Wheat and barley are
major grain crops. Irrigation farming, which is centered in Lethbridge, produces vegetables, sugar beets, and livestock feed. Central Alberta concentrates on mixed farming and dairying, with cash crops and seed production in the Peace River
district to the northwest. Sawmills, utilizing both hardwoods and softwoods, operate in the forested areas of the north and west. _^<N__^<N_ Tourism_^<N__^<N_Of the five national parks, three in the Rocky Mountains--Waterton Lakes, Banff, and
Jasper--draw visitors from all over the world. Local attractions, such as the numerous rodeos, Calgary Stampede, and Edmonton Klondike Days, as well as sport fishing and hunting, also attract tourists. _^<N__^<N_ Transportation_^<N__^<N_The
province is crossed by two transcontinental highway systems (the Trans-Canada Highway and the Yellowhead Highway) and by two transcontinental railroads (the Canadian Pacific Railway and the Canadian National Railways). Alberta is crisscrossed by a
network of oil and gas pipelines, the major focus of which is Edmonton. These include the interprovincial Pipe Line to Montreal and the Trans Mountain Pipe Line to Vancouver. _^<N__^<N_ GOVERNMENT_^<N__^<N_Alberta is a parliamentary democracy,
without a formal provincial constitution. It is governed by a Legislative Assembly comprising 83 members, with an Executive Council, or cabinet, made up of members drawn from the Assembly. The Executive Council is headed by the premier, who is the
leader of the majority party in the Assembly. The SOCIAL CREDIT PARTY dominated Alberta's government (1935-71). The Conservatives then won control, led by Peter Lougheed (1971-85) and Donald Getty (1985-92). Ralph Klein, who succeeded Getty in
1992, led the party to victory again in 1993. _^<N__^<N_Local government within the province is provided by 30 counties and 18 municipal districts. The sparsely settled areas are included in 22 improvement districts, administered by the provincial
department of municipal affairs. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY_^<N__^<N_Before European settlement two distinctive Indian groups lived in Alberta; each had a culture that corresponded to the natural vegetation patterns of the environment. In the grasslands of
the southeast were the Plains Indians, who depended mainly on buffalo hunting. They included the Blackfoot Confederacy--which comprised the Blood, Peigan, and North Blackfoot--and the Sarcee, Stoney, and Plains Cree. In the forested regions, with
their more varied hunting patterns, were the Woodland Cree, Beaver, and Chipewyan tribes. _^<N__^<N_For about 125 years after the visit (1754) of the first European, Alberta was mainly of interest as a fur-producing region. The few European
inhabitants were based in trading posts that were established on rivers in forested areas. Most such posts did not last long, although a few survived to become modern cities (for example, Edmonton). The Hudson's Bay Company administered the region
during this period. _^<N__^<N_For a few years after 1870, when the vast area of western Canada was sold by the Hudson's Bay Company to the Canadian government, whiskey traders from the United States moved into the southern parts of Alberta and
began selling illegal liquor to the Indians. To stop this practice and establish Canadian authority in the area, the North-West Mounted Police (now the Royal Canadian Mounted Police) was formed and in 1874 marched west to build small forts. Fort
Macleod (1874) was the first such fort in Alberta, and Calgary had its origin (1875) in a similar fort. With this security, and after treaties had been signed with the Indians, large ranches were established in the southern grasslands and foothills
region. _^<N__^<N_The arrival of the transcontinental Canadian Pacific Railway at Calgary in 1883, and the rapid construction of other railroad lines soon after, launched the large-scale settlement of Alberta. The settlement process was generally
peaceful and orderly. An interruption occurred in 1885 when unrest among Indians and metis (people of Indian and European ancestry) over land ownership flared briefly into the Riel Rebellion (see RIEL, LOUIS). On Sept. 1, 1905, the district of
Alberta, with some adjacent territory, was made a province of Canada. It remained a predominantly agricultural province until the development of the petroleum and natural-gas resources in the post-World War II period. _^<N__^<N_During the early
1980s strains between Alberta and the federal government developed over control of the province's energy resources. In 1980 the federal government announced a new National Energy Program designed to make Canada self-sufficient in energy and to
increase the federal share of revenues from exploitation. In protest, Alberta reduced its oil production in 1981, necessitating increased foreign oil imports. An accord was reached on oil prices in September 1981, but the oil and gas industries
then experienced recession because of low world prices. Effects of the recession lingered, although Albertans were cheered by playing host to the 1988 Winter Olympics at Calgary. _^<N__^<N_William C. Wonders _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Frederickson,
Olive, and East, Ben, The Silence of the North (1972); Hardy, W. G., ed., Alberta, a Natural History (1977); Kroetsch, R., Alberta (1968); MacGregor, J. G., A History of Alberta, 2d ed. (1981); Smith, P. J., ed., The Prairie Provinces (1972);
Warkentin, J., ed., Canada, a Geographical Interpretation (1968); Wonders, W. C., et al., Atlas of Alberta (1969). _^<N__^<N_
-END-
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501
CAT
-A-
Alberta, University of
-T-
Alberta, University of_^<N__^<N_Established in 1906, the University of Alberta (enrollment: 23,000; library: 2,800,000 volumes) is a coeducational institution in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. In 1966 it was reorganized and was separated from its
normal school, which became the University of Calgary. The University of Alberta grants undergraduate and graduate degrees and has several professional schools. It administers the Banff School of Fine Arts (1933) in Banff, Alberta, and three
theological schools.
-END-
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3174
CAT
-A-
Alberti, Leon Battista
-T-
Alberti, Leon Battista_^<N__^<N_Leon Battista Alberti, b. Genoa, Feb. 14, 1404, d. Apr. 25, 1472, was an Italian humanist, architect, painter, sculptor, and musician who contributed greatly to RENAISSANCE ART theory. He is called the father of
modern architectural theory, and is probably the first person to whom the term Renaissance man can be applied. _^<N__^<N_Alberti received his humanistic training at the University of Padua and studied law at Bologna. In 1428 he was an aide of the
papal legates to Burgundy and Germany. Between 1428 and 1443 Alberti wrote, in Latin and Italian, love poems and dialogues, a Latin comedy, fables, and treatises on virtue, sculpture, agriculture, the care of horses, law, and marriage. One of the
finest of these is Della tranquilita dell' animo (On Peace of Mind, 1442). In 1431 Alberti became papal secretary in Rome, where he began the study of ancient monuments. Three years later he moved to Florence, becoming a member of the inner
circle of humanists in Tuscany, among them the sculptor DONATELLO, and was recognized as an authority on art and classical literature. In Florence, Alberti became especially interested in the work of the sculptor-architect Filippo BRUNELLESCHI
(1377-1446), to whom he dedicated the Italian edition of On Painting (Della pittura, 1436), a treatise on the theory and technique of painting. The 1435 Latin edition is dedicated to Gian Francesco GONZAGA of Milan. _^<N__^<N_Sigismondo MALATESTA,
lord of Rimini, commissioned Alberti to redesign the exterior of the medieval church of San Francesco in Rimini as a shrine to the Malatesta court members and family; it is now known as the Temple Malatestiano and bears the date 1450. Alberti did
similar reconstruction on the churches of Santa Maria Novella (Florence, 1456) and San Sebastian (Mantua, 1460). His original architectural designs include the Palazzo Rucellai (Florence, 1446-51) and the Church of Sant' Andrea (Mantua, designed
1470). _^<N__^<N_Alberti returned to Rome in 1452 as a recorder of pagan monuments and papal consultant in remodeling medieval churches, including Old ST. PETER'S BASILICA. _^<N__^<N_Alberti's primary literary work is De re aedificatoria, a
10-book Latin treatise on architecture. To Alberti, beauty was the result of harmonious proportions, simplicity, and the skillful use of classical ornamentation. The treatise was completed about 1452 and published posthumously in 1485, although
it was probably known in manuscript to Alberti's contemporaries. The work is considered a major modern contribution to architecture and influenced the development of architectural style in the Renaissance. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Alberti, Leon
Battista, On Painting, trans. by John R. Spencer, rev. ed. (1966); and Ten Books on Architecture, ed. by Joseph Rykwert (1955); Gadol, Joan, Leon Battista Alberti: Universal Man of the Early Renaissance (1969); Stokes, Adrian D., Art and
Science: A Study of Alberti, Piero della Francesca, and Giorgione (1949); Westfall, Carroll W., In This Most Perfect Paradise: Alberti, Nicholas V, and the Invention of Conscious Urban Planning in Rome, 1447-55 (1974). _^<N__^<N_See also:
ARCHITECTURE; ITALIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE.
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1174
CAT
-A-
Alberti, Rafael
-T-
Alberti, Rafael_^<N__^<N_Rafael Alberti, b. Dec. 16, 1902, is a Spanish poet who abandoned his first career as a painter to write poetry. His first volume, Marinero en tierra (Sailor Ashore, 1925), won Spain's National Prize for literature for
1924-25. Other early works include Cal y canto (Quicklime and Song, 1927), which was influenced by the baroque poet Luis de GONGORA Y ARGOTE, and Concerning the Angels (1928; Eng. trans., 1967), an introspective work with elements of SURREALISM.
Alberti became a Communist about 1930, and since then his poetry has reflected his strong social and political concerns. He participated in the Spanish Civil War on the loyalist side and after the fall of the Republic in 1939 became an exile. He
lived for a while in France and Argentina and since 1964 has lived in Italy. Alberti has published several other volumes of poetry and an autobiography, The Lost Grove: Autobiography of a Spanish Poet in Exile (1959; Eng. trans., 1976).
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Alberti, Rafael, Selected Poems, ed. and trans. by Ben Belitt (1966); Bowra, C. M., The Creative Experiment (1949); Nantell, Judith, Rafael Alberti's Poems of the Thirties (1986).
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1269
CAT
-A-
Albertina
-T-
Albertina_^<N__^<N_The Albertina, in Vienna, is the state collection of GRAPHIC ARTS, the largest in the world, named after its founder, Duke Albert of Saxe-Teschen (1738-1822). This extraordinarily rich collection of prints, drawings, and
watercolors was amassed through Albert's purchases of a great many private European collections. After the fall of the Austrian monarchy, the archduke's collection was merged with the imperial HABSBURG court collections, to be officially named the
Albertina in 1920. Housed in Saxe-Teschen's splendid palace (1804) in the center of Vienna, the Albertina is primarily a huge and growing study collection of more than 40,000 drawings and more than 1 million prints. It encompasses the finest
achievements in European graphic arts from the 15th century to the present day. Unusually large holdings in works by DURER, MICHELANGELO, RAPHAEL, RUBENS, REMBRANDT, and many later masters of European art (works by American and by Oriental artists
were added in the 20th century) are particularly strong features of this famed collection. The Albertina's holdings also include superb miniature paintings and architectural drawings and a large reference library. _^<N__^<N_Stefanie Winkelbauer
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Koschatzky, Walter, The Albertina in Vienna (1969).
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1947
CAT
-A-
Albertus Magnus, Saint
-T-
Albertus Magnus, Saint_^<N__^<N_Albert, b. c.1200, d. Nov. 15, 1280, was a medieval German (Swabian) theologian, scholastic philosopher, and scientist who is best known as the teacher of Thomas AQUINAS. In his own day, however, Albertus had
greater renown than his illustrious pupil. Already called "the Great" (Magnus), Albertus was accepted as an authority equal to ARISTOTLE in philosophy and was known as "the universal doctor" for his work in natural science. _^<N__^<N_While
studying arts at Padua, he was received (1223) into the DOMINICAN Order and spent the next 18 years studying and teaching theology at Cologne and other Rhineland priories. He received his doctorate at the University of Paris in 1245 and taught
there for three years. His extraordinary abilities were recognized in 1248 when he was assigned to open the first great center of learning in Germany at Cologne, which eventually became the University of Cologne. Although Albert was provincial of
the Dominicans (1254-57), bishop of Regensburg (1260-62), and preacher of the Crusades (1263-64), his main work was paraphrasing and commenting on all of Aristotle's philosophy. In doing so, he added new areas of investigation. He staunchly
advocated the autonomy of human reason and natural experience in defense of the Christian faith. His collected writings on Scripture, philosophy, and natural science fill more than 40 volumes. His work on Aristotle is one of the cornerstones of
the Realist philosophy that constitutes the synthesis of Thomas Aquinas. _^<N__^<N_Albert was beatified by Gregory XV in 1622. On Dec. 16, 1931, Pope Pius XI declared him a saint and a DOCTOR OF THE CHURCH. Feast day: Nov. 15. _^<N__^<N_James
A. Weisheipl _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Albert, S. M., Albert the Great (1948); Kovach, F. J., and Shahan, R. W., eds., Albert the Great (1980); Madden, D. H., A Chapter in Medieval History (1969); Schwertner, Thomas M., Saint Albert the Great
(1932). _^<N__^<N_See also: SCHOLASTICISM.
-END-
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2523
CAT
-A-
Albigenses
-T-
Albigenses_^<N__^<N_{al-buh-jen'-seez} _^<N__^<N_The Albigenses were the members of a religious sect in southern France during the 12th and 13th centuries. Their name is derived from the French town of Albi, where they were centered. Similar groups
in other parts of Europe were called Cathari, meaning the pure ones. _^<N__^<N_Like the ancient Manichaeans (see MANICHAEISM), the Albigenses adhered to a strict DUALISM. They considered the material world as evil; redemption meant the liberation
of the soul from flesh. This led them to condemn marriage and sex. Meat, milk, eggs, and other animal products were forbidden. They also rejected the traditional teachings on hell, purgatory, and the sacraments because of the material elements
involved. Their own sacrament, the consolamentum, or baptism of the soul, was administered by laying on of hands. Only the "perfect" (perfecti) received it, and they were expected to live by a rigorous ethical code. The majority remained in the
state of "believers" (credentes) and lived less rigorously. The sect's efficient organization, with bishops and clergy supported by the local nobility, helped it to survive even when most of its congregations had been destroyed. _^<N__^<N_Official
countermeasures, such as the preaching efforts of the CISTERCIANS and DOMINICANS, or conciliar decrees of the church (Combers, 1165; Verona, 1184; Fourth Lateran Council, 1215) were only partly effective. When a papal legate was assassinated in
the territory of Count Raymond of Toulouse, Pope INNOCENT III called for a crusade that developed into the infamous Albigensian wars (1209-29). Simon de Montfort's massacre (1209) of the inhabitants of Beziers stands out as an example of the
crusaders' cruel conduct. Asked how to separate Christians from heretics, one leader is said to have replied: "Slay them all. God knows his own." The greatest benefit from the enterprise accrued to the French crown. With the taking of Montsegur
in 1244, the LANGUEDOC province could now be incorporated into the kingdom. Throughout the 13th century the remnants of the Albigenses, together with other Catharist groups and the WALDENSES, were the main target of the organized INQUISITION
throughout Europe. _^<N__^<N_Karlfried Froehlich _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ladurie, E. L., Montaillou, trans. by B. Bray (1975); Runciman, Steven, The Medieval Manichee, rev. ed. (1982); Setton, K. M., ed., A History of the Crusades, vol. 2,
2d ed. (1969); Wakefield, Walter L., Heresy, Crusade, and Inquisition in Southern France, 1100-1250 (1974).
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1539
CAT
-A-
albinism
-T-
albinism_^<N__^<N_{al'-buh-nizm} _^<N__^<N_Albinism is a group of genetic disorders affecting one out of every several thousand humans and other animals. It involves a deficiency of melanin, the dark brown pigment responsible for coloration. Eyes,
skin and hair, and other body parts may be affected. A totally albino animal has milky-white skin and white hair or feathers. The iris of the eyes is pink, and reflected light in the retina is red, because no color masks the blood vessels. The eyes
are light-sensitive and often astigmatic. Occasionally albinism is associated with mental or physical retardation. _^<N__^<N_Total albinism is rare in wild animals because few survive to reproductive age. They may lack protective coloration against
predators; be driven away by their fellow creatures; or be unable to bear exposure to needed sunlight. Partial albinism is less disabling and is characterized by the appearance of white spots on the skin or white patches in the hair. Vitiligo is
the absence of pigment in some body areas only. _^<N__^<N_Several independent defects can cause albinism: a complete lack of melanocytes, or pigment cells; interference in the migration of the cells to their proper location during embryo
development; failure of the cells to produce melanin because of lack of tyrosinase, the stimulating enzyme; or abnormalities within the cells. The gene involved in albinism is recessive and may appear in the offspring of normally pigmented parents
who are carriers of the trait. At present, no method for curing albinism is known. _^<N__^<N_Peter L. Petrakis
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874
CAT
-A-
Albinoni, Tommaso
-T-
Albinoni, Tommaso_^<N__^<N_{ahl-bee-noh'-nee} _^<N__^<N_Tommaso Albinoni, b. June 8, 1671, d. Jan. 17, 1750, was an Italian composer and violin virtuoso. He is now known mostly because Johann Sebastian Bach used his themes in three popular
compositions. A member of a wealthy family, Albinoni had no need to support himself, and his only appointment was as chamber musician to the duke of Mantua. Stylistically, his string music is a transition between that of Arcangelo CORELLI and
Antonio VIVALDI and the new courtly style of the classic era. His many operas tend toward the developing opera buffa. The popular "Adagio for Strings" is actually a posthumous concoction based on one of Albinoni's unfinished themes.
_^<N__^<N_Farley K. Hutchins _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Selfridge-Field, Eleanor, Instrumental Music from Gabrielli to Vivaldi (1975); Stoeving, Paul, The Violin: Its Famous Makers and Players (1970).
-END-
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21
CAT
-A-
albite:
-T-
albite:_^<N__^<N_see FELDSPAR.
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674
CAT
-A-
Albizu Campos, Pedro
-T-
Albizu Campos, Pedro_^<N__^<N_{ahl-bee'-soo kahm'-pohs} _^<N__^<N_Pedro Albizu Campos, b. 1891, d. Apr. 21, 1965, was a leader of the Puerto Rican independence movement. Heading the radical Nationalist party from the early 1930s, he was imprisoned
(1937-43) in Atlanta, Ga., for his revolutionary activities. In 1950, when Nationalists tried to assassinate President Harry S. Truman, Albizu Campos was charged with inciting the would-be assassins and jailed once again. In 1954 several party
members fired shots in the U.S. House of Representatives, wounding five congressmen, and Albizu Campos, who had been pardoned, was sentenced to life imprisonment. He was pardoned a second time in 1964.
-END-
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21
CAT
-A-
albizzia:
-T-
albizzia:_^<N__^<N_see MIMOSA.
-END-
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722
CAT
-A-
Alborg
-T-
Alborg_^<N__^<N_{awl'-bawr} _^<N__^<N_Alborg is the seat of Nordjylland County, in Jutland, Denmark, on the Lim Fjord. It is an important port and commercial center. The population is 113,650 (1986). Industry is diversified and includes
shipbuilding, cement, tobacco, and textiles. The city has several parks, and its historical landmarks include St. Botolph's Cathedral (c.1500), Alborghus Castle (1539), and the Jens Bang Stonehouse (1624). The city's several museums, with Viking
artifacts, attract many tourists. _^<N__^<N_Settled about 1000, Alborg was chartered in 1342. Steady growth followed, and the city was a prosperous commercial center by the 17th century. The Danish surrender during the Thirty Years' War occurred
there in 1627.
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597
CAT
-A-
Albrechtsberger, Johann Georg
-T-
Albrechtsberger, Johann Georg_^<N__^<N_Johann Georg Albrechtsberger, b. Feb. 3, 1736, d. Mar. 7, 1809, was a respected Austrian organist, teacher, theorist, and composer. After early training and experience in provincial monasteries and towns, among
them Melk, he moved to Vienna, where he eventually became (1792) director of music at St. Stephen's Cathedral. For a time Ludwig van BEETHOVEN was his pupil. He is known for his mastery of the art of COUNTERPOINT and for two treatises on music
theory. Most of his numerous compositions remain in manuscript. _^<N__^<N_F. E. Kirby _^<N__^<N_See also: GERMAN AND AUSTRIAN MUSIC.
-END-
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523
CAT
-A-
Albright, Ivan Le Lorraine
-T-
Albright, Ivan Le Lorraine_^<N__^<N_Ivan Le Lorraine Albright, b. North Harvey, Ill., Feb. 20, 1897, d. Nov 18, 1983 was a painter famous for his greatly detailed works reflecting the theme of life's decay. He painted very slowly and produced
relatively few works. His paintings include That Which I Should Have Done I Did Not Do (1941; Art Institute of Chicago) and the final horrifying portrait for the film The Picture of Dorian Gray (1943-44). _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Sweet, Frederick
A., Ivan Albright: A Retrospective Exhibition (1964).
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932
CAT
-A-
Albright, Jacob
-T-
Albright, Jacob_^<N__^<N_Jacob Albright, b. May 1, 1759, d. May 18, 1808, an American itinerant preacher, became the first bishop of the Evangelical Association. A Pennsylvania German brickmaker, he had no formal education. After converting from
Lutheranism to Methodism, he was licensed in 1796 to preach among the German-speaking people of the Shenandoah Valley. His followers, known at first as the Newly Formed Methodist Conference and after his death as the Evangelical Association,
gradually formed independent units. They declared Albright their ordained pastor in 1803 and a bishop in 1807. The association came to be known as the Evangelical Church in 1922. In 1946 the Evangelical joined with the United Brethren in Christ to
form the EVANGELICAL UNITED BRETHREN CHURCH. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Krueger, K. W., ed., The History of the Evangelical United Brethren Church (1979); Wilson, Robert, Jacob Albright: The Evangelical Pioneer (1940).
-END-
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809
CAT
-A-
albumen print
-T-
albumen print_^<N__^<N_An albumen print was a positive photographic print made on photographic printing paper coated with egg white, or albumen, which contained the light-sensitive chemical mixture that recorded the image. Developed in 1850 by
Louis Desiree BLANQUART-EVRARD, the albumen print had a finish that enhanced image detail by adding brightness to the highlights in the print. Although albumen paper was vulnerable to damp and required careful handling, it remained in general use
until about 1900, when more stable emulsions were developed. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Coe, Brian, The Birth of Photography (1977); Gernsheim, Helmut, The Rise of Photography, 1850 to 1880 (1989); Newhall, Beaumont, The History of Photography:
From 1839 to the Present Day, 5th ed. (1982). _^<N__^<N_See also: PHOTOGRAPHY, HISTORY AND ART OF.
-END-
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657
CAT
-A-
albumin
-T-
albumin_^<N__^<N_An albumin is a protein that is soluble in water and in half-saturated salt solutions, in contrast to a GLOBULIN, which is soluble only in dilute salt solutions. Albumins include ovalbumin from egg white, lactalbumin from milk, and
serum albumin from BLOOD serum. They make up about half of the protein in human serum, where their main functions are to maintain normal water balance between blood and tissues by osmotic mechanisms and to serve as transport proteins for less
soluble substances that can bind to them, such as amino acids. The detection of albumins in the urine is an indication of some types of KIDNEY dysfunction. _^<N__^<N_Laura V. Grobovsky
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1294
CAT
-A-
Albuquerque
-T-
Albuquerque_^<N__^<N_{al'-buh-kur-kee} _^<N__^<N_Albuquerque, the largest city in New Mexico, has a population of 384,736 (1990 census) in the city proper and 480,577 in the metropolitan area. It is located on the Rio Grande in the central part of
the state and is the seat of Bernalillo County. Low rainfall (200 mm/ 8 in) and mild temperatures (average 33 deg C /91 deg F in July and 8 deg C /46 deg F in January) make the city a health resort. The economy is based on the manufacture of truck
trailers, lumber, electronic equipment, clothing, gypsum products, and aerospace components. The city also serves as a center for mining, timber, and ranching operations. Numerous federal agencies have been established since the 1930s. After
World War II the development of nuclear and aerospace technology stimulated large population growth. _^<N__^<N_Founded in 1706 by the Spanish, the city was named for the duque of Alburquerque, then viceroy of New Spain. As the SANTA FE TRAIL
achieved importance in the 1800s, more settlers arrived. In 1846 the U.S. Army occupied the area and built a fort here. Although the city was captured by Confederate forces in 1862, it remained loyal to the United States. The arrival of the
railroad in 1880 spurred growth. The University of New Mexico (1889) is located in the city.
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1198
CAT
-A-
Albuquerque, Afonso de
-T-
Albuquerque, Afonso de_^<N__^<N_{ahl-boo-kair'-kuh} _^<N__^<N_Afonso de Albuquerque, b. 1453, d. Dec. 16, 1515, founded the Portuguese empire in the Indian Ocean, which lasted for more than a century. First sent to India in 1503, he built a fort
at Cochin. In 1506 he explored the coast of East Africa with Tristao da CUNHA and captured Socotra. The following year he took the island of Hormuz, which controlled the Persian Gulf. He arrived in India in 1508 with orders to replace Francisco
de ALMEIDA as viceroy, but Almeida did not yield to him until 1509. _^<N__^<N_As viceroy, Albuquerque captured (1510) Goa and made it the center of Portuguese power in the east. He then seized (1511) Malacca on the Malay Peninsula, where he built
a naval base. In 1515 he completed the capture of Hormuz, while other Portuguese established trading relations with Macao in China. With the acquisition of these bases, the Portuguese not only gained access to the rich SPICE TRADE of the East
Indies but were able to destroy their rivals, the Arab seafarers. _^<N__^<N_Daniel R. Headrick _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Boxer, Charles R., The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 1415-1825 (1969); Matthew, K.M., History of the Portuguese Navigation in
India (1987).
-END-
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725
CAT
-A-
Alcaeus
-T-
Alcaeus_^<N__^<N_{al-see'-uhs} _^<N__^<N_Alcaeus of Lesbos, Greek poet, b. c.620 BC, is, along with SAPPHO, the principal writer of archaic Aeolic lyrics. Of more than ten books that he wrote, only fragments survive. War, wine, travel, and the
turbulent politics of Lesbos were his main subjects. He once allegorized the shifting fortunes of Lesbos as a ship at sea. Intensely personal, energetic, rich in passion and detail, but sometimes reflective, his poems depict the life-style and the
social and political prejudices of a Levantine nobleman in the 7th century BC. He also wrote drinking songs, hymns, and mythological poems. A colloquial stylist, he experimented with various meters; one, the Alcaic stanza, bears his name.
_^<N__^<N_Charles Segal
-END-
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1155
CAT
-A-
Alcatraz
-T-
Alcatraz_^<N__^<N_Alcatraz is an island in San Francisco Bay, the site of the famous prison of the same name. The island was discovered by the Spanish in 1545, and named in 1775 for its pelicans (in Spanish, alcatraces). Owned by the U.S.
government since 1850, it was fortified and used as a military prison until 1933, when it became a federal prison. The prison was considered escape-proof because of its fortresslike structure and the strong, cold currents in the surrounding
waters. Closed in 1963, the structure stood empty until it was seized by a group of Indians in November 1969. They held it until June 1971 in an unsuccessful attempt to gain government recognition of their claim to the island. The island was
opened (1972) to the public as a part of the Golden Gate National Recreation Area. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Beyeler, Nevi, Alcatraz: The Rock (1987); Cameron, R. W., Alcatraz (1983); De Nevi, Donald P., Alcatraz '46: The Anatomy of a Classic
Prison Tragedy (1974); Heaney, R., and Machado, G., Inside the Walls of Alcatraz (1987); Mercer, John D. and Patricia, Island of the Pelicans: A Photographic Essay of the Island of Alcatraz (1976).
-END-
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459
CAT
-A-
Alcestis
-T-
Alcestis_^<N__^<N_{al-ses'-tis} _^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, Alcestis was the daughter of PELIAS and the devoted wife of Admetus. When Admetus lay dying, Apollo asked the FATES to spare him. It was agreed that he could live if a surrogate were
found. Only Alcestis volunteered. In one version of the myth, as Alcestis took her husband's place, Persephone, impressed by her devotion, rescued her from death. In another, HERCULES grappled with Hades for her life and rescued her.
-END-
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6293
CATO
4770
-A-
alchemy
-O-
000000|alchemy
001369| ASTROLOGY
002342| THE ARAB INFLUENCE
003799| MEDIEVAL PERIOD
-T-
alchemy_^<N__^<N_Alchemy is an ancient pseudoscience concerned with the transmutation of base metals, the more reactive metals, into gold (see TRANSMUTATION OF ELEMENTS) and with the discovery of both a single cure for all diseases and a way to
prolong life indefinitely. Alchemy emerged as a pseudoscience in China and in Egypt during the early centuries of this era. In China it was associated with Taoist philosophy and purported to transmute base metals into gold by use of a "medicine."
The gold so produced was thought to have the ability to cure diseases and to prolong life. The mystical element was always strong in alchemy and became dominant with time so that alchemy in China degenerated into a complex of superstitions.
_^<N__^<N_In Egypt, the methods of transmutation of metals were kept secret by temple priests. Those recipes became widely known (2d century) at the academy in Alexandria. Alchemy had its basis in the skills of Egyptian artisans, Eastern
mysticism, and Aristotelian theory of composition of matter. Aristotle taught that all matter was composed of four elements: water, earth, fire, and air. According to his theory, different materials found in nature had different ratios of these
four elements. Therefore, by proper treatment a base metal could be changed into gold. These ideas were further supported by astrological speculations from Mesopotamia. _^<N__^<N_ ASTROLOGY_^<N__^<N_Astrologers believed that celestial bodies--the
Sun, the Moon, and the stars--had a profound influence on the activities of humans. Thus, for alchemists to transmute metals effectively, the heavenly bodies had to be in a favorable configuration. Astrological influence led to ascribing each
metal to a heavenly body: for example, gold to the Sun, silver to the Moon, copper to Venus, and iron to Mars. Each metal was represented by the astrological sign of the appropriate celestial body. _^<N__^<N_As in China and later in Western
Europe, the alchemical writing in Alexandria became allegorical and confusing. At the end of the 4th century, the destruction of the academy and its library scattered the alchemists from Alexandria to Byzantium, Syria, and countries of the Near
East. There they were persecuted by governments and the church as practitioners of black magic. Their activity thus became limited to writing commentaries on the works of ancient alchemists. _^<N__^<N_ THE ARAB INFLUENCE_^<N__^<N_In the 5th
century, the Nestorians broke away from the official Orthodox church in Byzantium and immigrated to the Near East, where they taught Hellenistic philosophy and science (see NESTORIANISM). They translated Greek treatises, including those on
alchemy, into their own language, the Syriac. In the 8th and 9th centuries, the Nestorians came into contact with Arabs, particularly those in the court of the Caliph of Baghdad. As a result, the Alexandrine alchemical manuscripts were translated
from Syriac into Arabic. _^<N__^<N_The Arab alchemists modified the Aristotelian concept of four elements by postulating that all metals were composed of two immediate components: sulfur and mercury. They also adopted the Chinese alchemists'
concept of a "philosopher's stone"--a medicine that could turn a "sick" (base) metal into gold and also act as an elixir of life. _^<N__^<N_A number of alchemical treatises were attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan, or GEBER (fl. 8th century), the most
notable Arab alchemist and a member of the Ismailiya sect whose present leader is Aga Khan. These manuscripts contained much unintelligible mysticism, but they were popular during the Middle Ages. Other famous Arab alchemists were al-Razi
(886-925) and AVICENNA (980-1036), both important Persian physicians. Although their thinking was clouded with mysticism, Arabian alchemists discovered new chemicals such as the alkalies and such processes as distillation. _^<N__^<N_ MEDIEVAL
PERIOD_^<N__^<N_With the fall of Rome, Greek science and philosophy declined in Western Europe. However, close contact with Arabs in Spain and Sicily in the 11th and 12th centuries brought to Europe a new interest in Arabic philosophers,
physicians, and scientists. Indirectly through Syriac and Arabic, Greek manuscripts were translated into Latin and European languages. Alchemical explanation of the nature of matter was included in the treatises of such scholars as Arnold of
Villanova (1240-1313), Roger Bacon (1214-94), and Albertus Magnus (1193-1280). _^<N__^<N_The works of another Jabir, or Geber, a practicing Spanish alchemist of the 14th century, became the textbooks of alchemy. They contained not only mystical
theory but also important practical recipes. Arnold of Villanova described distillation of wine; Roger BACON gave a recipe for gunpowder and directions for constructing a telescope; ALBERTUS MAGNUS defined a flame as ignited smoke and postulated
that "like seeks like." The alchemist became a recognizable figure on the European scene, and kings and nobles often supported alchemists in the hope of increasing their resources. Frequently, however, alchemists who failed in their attempt to
produce the promised gold lost their lives. _^<N__^<N_In time, alchemy fell into disrepute because of the nefarious character of its practitioners. It is said that Frederick of Wurzburg maintained special gallows for hanging alchemists. From the
15th to the 17th century, alchemical symbolism and allegory became increasingly complex. Practical alchemists turned from attempting to make gold toward preparing medicinals. A leader in this movement was Philipus Aureolus PARACELSUS (1493-1531).
He was the first in Europe to mention zinc and to use the word alcohol to refer to the spirit of wine. _^<N__^<N_Classical scholarship in the 16th century shifted attention away from Aristotelian theory and toward Greek atomism. Interest in
transmutation was limited to astrologers and numerologists. The chemical facts that had been accumulated by alchemists as a by-product of their search for gold became the basis for modern chemistry. _^<N__^<N_John Turkevich _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
De Rola, Stanislas K., Alchemy: The Secret Art (1974); Doberer, Kurt K., The Goldmakers, trans. by E. W. Dickes (1948; repr. 1972); Grossinger, Richard, ed., The Alchemical Tradition in the Late Twentieth Century, 2d rev. ed. (1983);
Powell, Neil, Alchemy: The Ancient Science (1977). _^<N__^<N_See also: CHEMISTRY, HISTORY OF.
-END-
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1553
CAT
-A-
Alcibiades
-T-
Alcibiades_^<N__^<N_{al-suh-by'-uh-deez} _^<N__^<N_Alcibiades, c.450-404 BC, the nephew of PERICLES, was a charismatic Athenian political leader. Although he possessed high intelligence, remarkable physical beauty, and great capacity for leadership,
his career ended in disaster to himself and irreparable harm to his city. _^<N__^<N_Alcibiades felt a strong attraction to SOCRATES, but his energy and ambition found a more natural outlet in politics. By 420 BC he was a leading politician,
anti-Spartan and aggressive. In 415 he urged the conquest of SYRACUSE, the most powerful city in Sicily. Over the opposition of NICIAS, his conservative opponent, Athens equipped a mighty expedition with Alcibiades, Nicias, and Lamachus in command.
Shortly after it reached Sicily, however, Alcibiades was recalled to stand trial on a charge of impiety. He fled to SPARTA, and while the Syracusan expedition, deprived of his leadership, was ending disastrously, Alcibiades advised the Spartans on
how best to wage war against Athens. He changed sides again in 411. After considerable service to Athens, however, he fell under suspicion in 406, when a subordinate was responsible for a naval defeat off Notium. Alcibiades sought seclusion but was
murdered in Anatolia at the instigation of his enemies. _^<N__^<N_Charles W. Fornara _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Benson, Edward F., The Life of Alcibiades (1928); Bloedow, Edmund F., Alcibiades Reexamined (1973); Hammond, N. G. L., A History of Greece
to 322 B.C., 2d ed. (1967); Parry, Hugh, The Individual and His Society; Alcibiades: Greek Patriot or Traitor (1969).
-END-
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15
CAT
-A-
alcid:
-T-
alcid:_^<N__^<N_see AUK.
-END-
-C-
456
CAT
-A-
Alcmaeon
-T-
Alcmaeon_^<N__^<N_{alk'-mee-uhn} _^<N__^<N_In Greek legend, Alcmaeon led the Epigoni, sons of the SEVEN AGAINST THEBES. His father, Amphiaraus, was a part of the expedition. Alcmaeon learned that his mother, Eriphyle, had been bribed to urge the war
that brought death to his father, who, as he lay dying, exhorted Alcmaeon to avenge Eriphyle's deceit. Alcmaeon killed his mother, but in punishment he was driven mad by the FURIES. He was worshiped at Thebes after his death.
-END-
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391
CAT
-A-
Alcman
-T-
Alcman_^<N__^<N_{alk'-muhn} _^<N__^<N_Alcman was a Greek lyric poet active during the middle of the 7th century BC. Although Sardis is mentioned as his birthplace, his life and work are connected exclusively with SPARTA. His choral poetry included
parthenia ("songs for female choirs"). Alcman's lyrics reveal a rare side of Spartan nature in their graceful descriptions of local ceremonies and entertainments.
-END-
-C-
527
CAT
-A-
Alcock, Sir John William
-T-
Alcock, Sir John William_^<N__^<N_The English aviator J. W. Alcock, b. Nov. 6, 1892, d. Dec. 18, 1919, was the pilot of the first nonstop flight across the Atlantic Ocean. Alcock gained fame as a World War I flying ace. In June 1919 he and his
navigator, Lt. Arthur Whidden Brown, made their historic Newfoundland-to-Ireland transatlantic flight--a crossing of 16 hours 27 minutes. Both men were knighted for their accomplishment. Flying to Paris several months afterward, Alcock was killed
when his plane crashed on the Normandy coast.
-END-
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3924
CAT
-A-
alcohol
-T-
alcohol_^<N__^<N_The familiar grain alcohol (ethanol), contained in alcoholic beverages, wood alcohol (methanol), and rubbing alcohol (isopropanol) are among the hundreds of organic compounds that form the class known as alcohols. Alcohols are
characterized by a hydroxyl group (OH) bonded to a carbon atom. They may contain more than one hydroxyl group per molecule provided each group of hydrogen and oxygen atoms is attached to a different carbon atom. Such alcohols are called
polyhydric alcohols, or polyols. _^<N__^<N_Alcohols that are derived from a simple hydrocarbon are named by adding either ol or yl plus the word alcohol to the name of the parent hydrocarbon. For example, the monohydric alcohol derived from ethane
with one hydroxyl group may be called either ethanol or ETHYL ALCOHOL. Dihydric alcohols--those with two hydroxyl groups per molecule--may be named as GLYCOLS, as ethylene glycol, which is the major component of automotive antifreeze solutions.
More complex alcohols, such as CHOLESTEROL, are not named so systematically. _^<N__^<N_If the alcohol's chain has three carbon atoms, two ISOMERS (different structures) are possible; the number of isomers increases markedly with the number of
carbon atoms. Alcohols may be classified according to the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon with the hydroxyl group. If that carbon has two hydrogen atoms attached, the alcohol is primary; if it has one, it is secondary; and if it
has no hydrogen atoms, it is a tertiary alcohol. _^<N__^<N_Simple, low-molecular-weight alcohols are colorless, volatile, flammable liquids that are soluble in water. As the molecular weight increases, the boiling point, melting point, and
viscosity increase, while solubility in water decreases. Physical properties may be altered by the presence of other functional groups. Adding hydroxyl groups increases the boiling point and solubility in water and often produces sweetness.
Branching the carbon chain increases solubility in water and decreases the boiling point. _^<N__^<N_The important reactions of alcohols are chiefly those of the hydroxyl group. The hydrogen atom of the OH can be replaced by an active metal;
dehydration causes the production of unsaturated compounds or ethers; reaction with carboxylic acids forms esters, and the OH may be replaced by other functional groups. The product of oxidation depends on the class of the alcohol. Primary
alcohols oxidize to aldehydes, and secondary alcohols oxidize to ketones. Tertiary alcohols do not oxidize readily, and they give products containing fewer carbon atoms than the original compound. It is difficult to reduce alcohols to
hydrocarbons. _^<N__^<N_When ingested in moderate amounts, lower-molecular-weight alcohols act on the central nervous system and higher centers of the brain, lowering inhibitions and affecting judgment. Larger amounts may produce a loss of muscular
control, unconsciousness, and even death. METHYL ALCOHOL (methanol) is extremely toxic, affecting the optic nerve and causing blindness, and as little as 30 ml (1 oz) has caused death. Ethyl alcohol (ethanol) is the least toxic. Thereafter
toxicity increases with molecular weight until the compound is insoluble in water. Most of the lower-molecular-weight alcohols have commercial importance. They are used as solvents in the preparation of dyes, pharmaceuticals, antifreeze, esters,
and other compounds; and mixed with gasoline and used as motor fuels (see GASOHOL). _^<N__^<N_Elbert H. Hadley _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Monick, John A., Alcohols: Their Chemistry, Properties and Manufacture (1968); Morrison, Robert T., and Boyd,
Robert N., Organic Chemistry, 5th ed. (1987); Paul, J. K., ed., Ethyl Alcohol Production and Use as a Motor Fuel (1980); Rodd, E. H., ed., Chemistry of Carbon Compounds, vols. 1A-2D, 2d ed. (1965-70); Union Carbide, Alcohols (1969);
Wickson, Edward J., ed., Monohydric Alcohols: Manufacture, Applications, and Chemistry (1981).
-END-
-C-
7878
CATO
4834
-A-
alcohol consumption
-O-
000000|alcohol consumption
000748| Physical Effects of Alcohol
004751| Drinking Patterns
-T-
alcohol consumption_^<N__^<N_Alcohol, probably the oldest drug known, has been used at least since the earliest societies for which records exist. Of the numerous types of alcohol, ethyl alcohol is the type consumed in drinking. In its pure form
it is a clear substance with little odor. People drink alcohol in three main kinds of beverages: BEERS, which are made from grain through brewing and fermentation and contain from 3% to 8% alcohol; WINES, which are fermented from fruits such as
grapes and contain from 8% to 12% alcohol naturally, and up to 21% when fortified by adding alcohol; and distilled beverages (spirits) such as WHISKEY, GIN, and VODKA, which on the average contain from 40% to 50% alcohol. Drinkers may become
addicted to any of these beverages. _^<N__^<N_ Physical Effects of Alcohol_^<N__^<N_The effects of alcohol on the human body depend on the amount of alcohol in the blood (blood-alcohol concentration). This varies with the rate of consumption and
with the rate at which the drinker's physical system absorbs and metabolizes alcohol. The higher the alcohol content of the beverage consumed, the more alcohol will enter the bloodstream. The amount and type of food in the stomach also affect the
absorption rate. Drinking when the stomach is filled is less intoxicating than when it is empty; the foods in the stomach, which contain fat and protein, delay alcohol absorption. Body weight is also a factor; the heavier the person, the slower
the absorption of alcohol. _^<N__^<N_After alcohol passes through the stomach, it is rapidly absorbed through the walls of the intestines into the bloodstream and carried to the various organ systems of the body, where it is metabolized. Although
small amounts of alcohol are processed by the kidneys and secreted in the urine, and other small amounts are processed through the lungs and exhaled in the breath, most of the alcohol is metabolized by the liver. As the alcohol is metabolized, it
gives off heat. The body metabolizes alcohol at about the rate of three-fourths of an ounce to one ounce of whiskey an hour. Technically it is possible to drink at the same rate as the alcohol is being oxidized out of the body. Most people,
however, drink faster than this, and so the concentration of alcohol in the bloodstream keeps rising. _^<N__^<N_Alcohol begins to impair the brain's ability to function when the blood-alcohol concentration (BAC) reaches 0.05%, that is, 0.05 grams
of alcohol per 100 cubic centimeters of blood. Most state traffic laws in the United States presume that a driver with a BAC of 0.10% is intoxicated. With a concentration of 0.20% (a level obtained from drinking about 10 ounces of whiskey), a
person has difficulty controlling the emotions and may cry or laugh extensively. The person will experience a great deal of difficulty in attempting to walk and will want to lie down. When the blood-alcohol content reaches about 0.30%, which can
be attained when a person rapidly drinks about a pint of whiskey, the drinker will have trouble comprehending and may become unconscious. At levels from 0.35% to 0.50%, the brain centers that control breathing and heart action are affected;
concentrations above 0.50% may cause death, although a person generally becomes unconscious before absorbing a lethal dosage. _^<N__^<N_Moderate or temperate use of alcohol is not harmful, but excessive or heavy drinking is associated with
alcoholism and numerous other health problems. The effects of excessive drinking on major organ systems of the human body are cumulative and become evident after heavy, continuous drinking or after intermittent drinking over a period of time that
may range from 5 to 30 years. The parts of the body most affected by heavy drinking are the digestive and nervous systems. Digestive-system disorders that may be related to heavy drinking include cancer of the mouth, throat, and esophagus;
gastritis; ulcers; cirrhosis of the liver; and inflammation of the pancreas. Disorders of the nervous system can include neuritis, lapse of memory (blackouts), hallucinations, and extreme tremor as found in delirium tremens. Delirium tremens
("the DTs") may occur when a person stops drinking after a period of heavy, continuous imbibing. Permanent damage to the brain and central nervous system may also result, including Korsakoff psychosis and Wernicke's disease. Recent evidence
indicates that pregnant women who drink heavily may give birth to infants with the FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME, which is characterized by face and body abnormalities and, in some cases, impaired intellectual facilities. Additionally, the combination of
alcohol and drugs, such as commonly used sleeping pills, tranquilizers, antibiotics, and aspirin, can be fatal, even when both are taken in nonlethal doses. _^<N__^<N_ Drinking Patterns_^<N__^<N_Many studies have been made of attitudes toward
drinking in different societies. Every culture has its own general ethos or sense of decorum about the use and role of alcoholic beverages within its social structure. _^<N__^<N_In some cultures drinking is either forbidden or frowned upon. The
Koran contains prohibitions against drinking, and Muslims are forbidden to sell or serve alcoholic beverages. Hindus take a negative view of the use of alcohol; this is reflected in the constitution of India, which requires every state to work
toward the prohibition of alcohol except for medicinal purposes. Abstinence from alcohol has also been the goal of temperance movements in Europe and the United States. Some Christian religious groups strongly urge abstinence, including the
Christian Scientists, Mormons, Seventh-Day Adventists, Pentecostalists, and some Baptists and Methodists. _^<N__^<N_In some ambivalent cultures, such as the United States and Ireland, the values of those who believe in abstinence conflict with the
values of those who regard moderate drinking as a way of being hospitable and sociable. This accounts for the plethora of laws and regulations that restrict the buying of alcoholic beverages. Some psychologists say that this ambivalence in the
culture makes it harder for some people to develop a stable attitude toward drinking. _^<N__^<N_Some cultures have a permissive attitude toward drinking, including those of Spain, Portugal, Italy, Japan, and Israel. The proportion of Jews and
Italians who use alcohol is high, but the rates of alcoholism among them are lower than in Irish and Scandinavian groups. Some cultures may be said to look too favorably upon drinking, as do the French. In France the heavy consumption of alcohol
has been related to the fact that many people are engaged in viticulture and in the production and distribution of alcoholic beverages. _^<N__^<N_Various surveys indicate that subgroups within a society or culture do not all have the same attitudes
toward alcoholic beverages or the same drinking patterns. Drinking behavior differs significantly among groups of different age, sex, social class, racial status, ethnic background, occupational status, religious affiliation, and regional
location. _^<N__^<N_David J. Pittman _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Austin, G.A., Alcohol in Western Society from Antiquity to 1800 (1985); Barrows, Susanna, and Roam, Robin, eds., Drinking: Behavior and Belief in Modern History (1990); Birnbaum,
Isabel, and Parker, Elizabeth, Alcohol and Human Memory (1977); Goldstein, Dora B., Pharmacology of Alcohol (1983); Lender, Mark E., and Martin, James K., Drinking in America: A History (1982); Luks, Alan, and Barbato, Joseph, You Are What You
Drink (1989); Mendelson, Jack H., and Mello, Nancy K., Alcohol: Use and Abuse in America (1985); Plotkin, R.A., Intervention Handbook: The Legal Aspects of Serving Alcohol (1988); Royal College of Psychiatrists, Alcohol: Our Favorite Drug
(1986); Solomon, Joel, and Keeley, Kim, Alcohol and Drug Abuse: Similarities and Differences (1982); West, James R., Alcohol and Brain Development (1986).
-END-
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1580
CAT
-A-
Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms, Bureau of
-T-
Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms, Bureau of_^<N__^<N_Established in 1972 as a separate agency within the U.S. Treasury Department, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (ATF) administers and enforces the federal laws relating to firearms and
explosives, and to alcohol and tobacco products. Previously, these responsibilities were under the aegis of the Internal Revenue Service. Since the passage of the federal Anti-Arson Act in 1982, the ATF has also dealt with arson-for-profit
activities. The bureau currently operates on an annual budget of about $335 million, and employs some 4,100 people. _^<N__^<N_The ATF is divided into two sections. One, called Regulatory Enforcement, is charged with monitoring trade-practice
violations, issuing permits and licenses, and determining and collecting taxes on legal alcohol, tobacco, and firearms. The other, called Criminal Enforcement, is charged with suppressing illegal trafficking in the named products, as well as
investigating tax evasion and arson for profit. Other ATF tasks include assisting federal, state, and local revenue and law-enforcement agencies; inspecting and regulating storage facilities for explosives; and maintaining records so that firearms
and explosives used to commit crimes can be traced. _^<N__^<N_The ATF came under public scrutiny for its flawed raid on the compound of the Branch Davidians in Waco, Tex., on Feb. 28, 1993. Not only were four ATF agents and six cult members killed
in the initial raid, but the ensuing 51-day siege (conducted by the FBI) resulted in disaster. A Treasury Department report was highly critical.
-END-
-C-
1429
CAT
-A-
Alcoholics Anonymous
-T-
Alcoholics Anonymous_^<N__^<N_Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) is perhaps the best known and most successful alcoholism recovery program. Founded in the United States in 1935 by Dr. Robert Smith and Bill Wilson, by the 1990s the organization had grown to
more than 93,000 groups in 131 countries, with an estimated membership of over 2 million. AA functions as a fellowship organization whose members pay no dues and may attend meetings as often as they wish. _^<N__^<N_AA defines alcoholism as a
disease as well as a spiritual problem. The AA philosophy and program for recovery are stated in the 12 Steps to Recovery. The alcoholic must recognize his or her "powerlessness over alcohol" and seek help from a "higher power" in regaining
control of his or her life. Although alcoholism, according to the AA philosophy, can never be cured--that is, the alcoholic can never safely drink again--the alcoholic can "recover" to lead a productive and normal life as long as he or she remains
sober. _^<N__^<N_Since its inception the organization has also reduced popular misconceptions of alcoholics by educating both professionals and the public about the nature of alcoholism. The related organizations of Al-Anon and Al-Ateen provide
similar support to the families and children of alcoholics. Other organizations, such as Overeaters Anonymous, Narcotics Anonymous, Gamblers Anonymous, and Co-Dependents Anonymous have adopted the "12-Step" program for recovery.
-END-
-C-
10564
CATO
4817
9626
-A-
alcoholism
-O-
000000|alcoholism
002216| Symptoms and Causes
004994| Social Effects of Alcoholism
007277| Treatment
-T-
alcoholism_^<N__^<N_Alcoholism refers to the drinking of alcoholic beverages to such a degree that major aspects of an individual's life--such as work, school, family relationships, or personal safety and health--are seriously and repeatedly
interfered with. Alcoholism is considered a disease, meaning that it follows a characteristic course with known physical, psychological, and social symptoms. The alcoholic continues to consume alcohol despite the destructive consequences.
Alcoholism is serious, progressive, and irreversible. If not treated, it can be fatal. It is generally thought that once the disease has developed, the alcoholic will not drink normally again. An alcoholic who abstains from drinking, however,
can regain control over the aspects of life with which alcohol interfered. The alcoholic is then said to be "recovering," not "cured" of the disease. It is important to note that the particular symptoms and pattern of drinking problems may vary
with the individual. Alcoholism is, therefore, a very complex disorder, and this complexity has led some recent researchers to question the accuracy of the disease concept of alcoholism. _^<N__^<N_A person does not have to drink every day to be an
alcoholic. Moreover, someone who drinks frequently or sometimes gets drunk is not necessarily an alcoholic. It is possible to abuse alcohol for a short or contained period of time without developing alcoholism. For example, some people may drink
abusively during a personal crisis and then resume normal drinking. College students tend to drink more heavily than other age groups. It is often difficult to distinguish such heavy and abusive drinking from the early stages of alcoholism. How
well the person can tolerate giving up alcohol for an extended time, and the effect of the drinking on family, friends, work, and health, may indicate the extent of the alcohol problem. _^<N__^<N_More than 10 million Americans are estimated to be
alcoholic. Alcoholism is found among all age, sociocultural, and economic groups. An estimated 75 percent of alcoholics are male, 25 percent female. Alcoholism is a worldwide phenomenon, but it is most widespread in France, Ireland, Poland,
Scandinavia, the United States, and the USSR. _^<N__^<N_ Symptoms and Causes_^<N__^<N_Some common signs of alcoholism in the early stages are constant drinking for relief of personal problems, an increase in a person's tolerance for alcohol, onset
of memory lapses while drinking ("blackouts"), surreptitious drinking, and an urgent need for the first drink ("craving"). In the middle and late phases, dependence on drinking increases and memory blackouts become more frequent. A physical
dependence on alcohol first appears with early morning tremors and agitation that require a drink for relief. In the late stage, drinking bouts are usually very frequent. There is an acute withdrawal syndrome (delirium tremens, or DTs) when
drinking ceases. This includes agitation, tremor, hallucination, and possibly seizures. _^<N__^<N_Most likely, a combination of biological, psychological, and cultural factors contribute to the development of alcoholism in any individual.
Alcoholism often seems to run in families. Although there is no conclusive indication of how the alcoholism of family members is associated, studies show that 50 to 80 percent of all alcoholics have had a close alcoholic relative. Some researchers
therefore suggest that some alcoholics have an inherited physical predisposition to alcohol addiction. Studies of animals and of human twins lend support to the theory. A 1990 report also indicated that susceptibility to at least one form of
alcoholism may be linked in part to the presence of a particular gene on chromosome 11. The gene is apparently involved with the production of receptor sites, on BRAIN cells, of the NEUROTRANSMITTER dopamine. _^<N__^<N_Alcoholism can also be
related to underlying emotional problems. For example, alcoholism is sometimes associated with a family history of manic-depressive illness, and some alcoholics have been known to use alcohol unwittingly to "medicate" a biological depressive
order. In addition, like so many other drug abusers, alcoholics often tend to drown depressed or anxious feelings by drinking. Conversely, some drink to reduce strong inhibitions or guilt about expressing negative feelings. Psychologists
variously suggest that alcoholics have conflicts about dependency, sex roles, and family roles. It is important to note that while many alcoholics share experiences of loneliness, frustration, or anxiety, no one has identified a single personality
type that will become alcoholic. _^<N__^<N_Social and cultural factors may play a role in establishing drinking patterns and alcoholism. Among some cultures there is conflict between values of abstinence and the acceptance of alcohol as a usual
way to change moods or to be sociable. These conflicts within the culture may make it difficult for some people to develop their own stable attitudes and moderate patterns of drinking. _^<N__^<N_ Social Effects of Alcoholism_^<N__^<N_The effects of
alcoholism range from the direct physiological impact on the individual (see ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION) to a widespread effect on society. In the United States, one family in three is estimated to be affected in some way by a drinking problem.
_^<N__^<N_Children of alcoholics may be affected by a father's or mother's alcoholism in several ways. Having a problem-drinking parent increases the risk of becoming a problem drinker oneself. This may happen because of identification with or
imitation of the alcoholic parent, but also because the social and family conditions associated with alcoholism are among those believed to contribute to the development of alcoholism. These include family conflict, divorce, job insecurity, and
social stigma. _^<N__^<N_Other problems reported in children of alcoholic parents in the United States and in Europe include speech disorders, hyperactivity, psychosomatic complaints, school problems, antisocial behavior, and drug use. The type of
problem varies with the age and sex of the child. _^<N__^<N_While having an alcoholic parent may increase the child's risk of developing emotional or drinking problems later in life, it by no means makes becoming an alcoholic inevitable for the
child. In fact, some surveys of large communities suggest that two-thirds of adults whose parents were very heavy drinkers drink lightly themselves and have thus turned away from their parents' drinking style. _^<N__^<N_Alcoholism is an enormous
public health problem. The Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences estimates that alcoholism and alcohol abuse in the United States cost society from $40 to $60 billion annually, due to lost production, health and medical care,
motor vehicle accidents, violent crime, and social programs that respond to alcohol problems. One-half of all traffic fatalities and one-third of all traffic injuries are related to the abuse of alcohol. Also, one-third of all suicides and
one-third of all mental health disorders are estimated to be associated with serious alcohol abuse. Accidents and suicides associated with alcohol problems are especially prominent among teenagers. It has been estimated that there are over 3
million problem drinkers between the ages of 14 and 17 in the United States. _^<N__^<N_ Treatment_^<N__^<N_Alcoholism is a complex disorder for which a combination of treatments may be necessary for recovery. If the alcoholic is in the acute phase
of alcoholism and is suffering from complications such as delirium tremens or serious health problems, hospitalization may be necessary. Because alcoholism is a chronic condition, however, hospitalization is only a first step toward recovery.
Many alcoholics go through several brief hospitalizations for detoxification before they commit themselves to a program of recovery. A comprehensive treatment plan can incorporate various types of facilities, including hospitals, out-patient
clinics, half-way houses, individual or group psychotherapists, social centers, religious organizations, foster homes, and self-help groups. Some large corporations sponsor treatment programs for employees. An assessment of the patient's medical,
emotional, and social needs is important in making the proper referral. Not every type of facility is available in every community, but every community probably has access to a state- or city-wide system that provides for alcoholics and can help
make appropriate referrals. _^<N__^<N_No one can make an alcoholic commit himself or herself to recovery. Some therapists suggest, however, that family members may influence the alcoholic by not supporting drinking activities, by seeking therapy
for themselves, and by not joining in the alcoholic's denial of the problem. Because alcoholism is sometimes thought of as a family disease, the involvement of family members can aid the progress of the alcoholic's recovery. For the approximately
70 percent of alcoholics in the United States who remain married, living with families, and employed, the prognosis with treatment is good. For the fewer than 5 percent who fit the stereotype of the homeless, jobless, skid-row drunk, alcohol
worsens the deterioration of family, economic, and social resources. _^<N__^<N_Perhaps a minute percentage of alcoholics can return to moderate drinking. But no one knows how to identify these few out of some 10 million American alcoholics. For
the overwhelming majority, abstinence from alcohol is the one real hope of returning to a normal life. Once drinking has ceased, the alcoholic is free to cope with the psychological, family, social, legal, and medical problems that may be
associated with alcoholism. _^<N__^<N_Roberta Caplan _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: American Medical Association, AMA Handbook on Alcoholism (1987); Apthorp, Stephen P., Alcohol and Substance Abuse (1990); Campbell, Drusilla, and Graham, M.S., Drugs
and Alcohol in the Workplace (1988); Collins, R. Lorraine, et al., eds., Alcohol and the Family (1990); Daley, D.C., and Miller, Judy, A Parent's Guide to Alcoholism and Drug Abuse (1989); Denzin, N. K., The Recovering Alcoholic (1987);
Goedde, H.W. and Agarwal, Dharam P., Alcoholism: Biomedical and Genetic Aspects (1989); Kiianmaa K., et al., eds. Genetic Aspects of Alcoholism (1989); Kurtz, Ernest, AA: The Story (1987); Light, William, Psychodynamics of Alcoholism (1986);
Ludwig, A. M., Understanding the Alcoholic's Mind (1988); Metzger, Lawrence, From Denial to Recovery (1987); Pickens, Roy, Children of Alcoholics (1983); Vaillant, George E., The Natural History of Alcoholism (1983).
-END-
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380
CAT
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Alcott, Amy
-T-
Alcott, Amy_^<N__^<N_The professional golfer Amy Strum Alcott, b. Kansas City, Mo., Feb. 22, 1956, is one of the few Ladies Professional Golf Association members to have won more than $2 million in her career (1975- ). In 1980, Alcott won the U.
S. Women's Open and was awarded the annual Vare Trophy (for best average score per round). In all, she has won about 30 LPGA tournaments.
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681
CAT
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Alcott, Bronson
-T-
Alcott, Bronson_^<N__^<N_{awl'-kuht} _^<N__^<N_Amos Bronson Alcott, b. Wolcott, Conn., Nov. 29, 1799, d. Mar. 4, 1888, was an American transcendentalist philosopher and educator. Because his teaching methods were radically egalitarian, the
schools he established failed. He and his family were poor until his daughter Louisa May became a literary success. He was a reforming superintendent of the Concord, Mass., public schools from 1859 to 1865 and conducted the Concord School of
Philosophy from 1879 until his death. He was a vegetarian, an abolitionist, and an advocate of women's rights. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Shephard, Odell, Pedlar's Progress: The Life of Bronson Alcott (1937; repr. 1968).
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3002
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Alcott, Louisa May
-T-
Alcott, Louisa May_^<N__^<N_The American children's novelist Louisa May Alcott is best known for LITTLE WOMEN, her popular story of the development of four sisters into young women. She also wrote approximately 270 other works. _^<N__^<N_Alcott was
born Nov. 29, 1832, in Germantown, Pa., the second of four daughters born to Bronson and Abigail Alcott. Her father, a noted educator and transcendentalist, had been involved in a number of financially disastrous utopian schemes, including an
ill-fated experimental community called Fruitlands (1843-44) in Harvard, Mass. Although the family was continually in desperate need of money, Alcott's mother firmly believed in her husband's genius and convinced her daughters of it as well. The
experiences of the March girls in Little Women--Jo, Meg, Beth, and Amy--recall those of the young Alcott sisters. When the family moved to Concord, Mass., their neighbors and friends included Henry David THOREAU, Nathaniel HAWTHORNE, Margaret
FULLER, and Ralph Waldo EMERSON. Emerson in particular befriended Louisa and allowed her to use his extensive library. _^<N__^<N_To help her financially burdened family she worked as a seamstress, servant, and schoolteacher, finally turning to
writing in hope of earning more money. Alcott sold her first story in 1852, and other salable fiction, mostly sensational thrillers (collected and published in 1975 and 1976), rapidly followed. By 1860 she had published a book of fairy tales,
Flower Fables (1854), and was a regular contributor to the Atlantic Monthly. The poignant letters she wrote as a nurse in Washington, D.C., during the Civil War were published in Hospital Sketches (1863) and won her fame. Her first serious novel,
Moods, appeared the next year. _^<N__^<N_Alcott became a respected and financially successful novelist with her largely autobiographical Little Women (1868). Her work was now in demand, and sequels soon followed: Little Men (1871) and her next to
last book, Jo's Boys (1886). Also successful were An Old-Fashioned Girl (1870), Aunt Jo's Scrap Bag (6 vols., 1872-82), Eight Cousins (1875), and A Garland for Girls (1888). Her adult novels Work (1873) and A Modern Mephistopheles (1877) were
less popular. Throughout her life Alcott worked for the abolition of slavery. As her fame grew, she gave her support to the Temperance movement and to women's suffrage. Her last years were spent in sickness, but she continued to write until her
death on Mar. 6, 1888, the day of her father's funeral. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Alcott, Louisa May, Louisa May Alcott: Her Life, Letters, and Journals, ed. by E. D. Cheney (1888; repr. 1928); Anthony, Katharine, Louisa May Alcott (1938;
repr. 1977); Elbert, S., A Hunger for Home (1987); Myerson, Joel, and Shealy, Daniel, eds., The Selected Letters of Louisa May Alcott (1987); Shealy, Daniel, and Stern, Madeleine B., eds., The Journals of Louisa May Alcott (1989) and Louisa May
Alcuin_^<N__^<N_{al'-kwin} _^<N__^<N_The English scholar Alcuin, b. c.735, d. May 19, 804, was the leading figure in the Carolingian Renaissance. While head (from 778) of the cathedral school of York, he was invited by CHARLEMAGNE to establish a
palace school at Aachen. He taught there from 782 to 796 and was rewarded with the abbacy of St. Martin of Tours. _^<N__^<N_Alcuin's task was to introduce English scholastic methods to the Franks. He established the curriculum of the seven
liberal arts--grammar, rhetoric, dialectic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music theory--that became basic to medieval education, and he initiated the large-scale transcription and preservation of ancient texts. Alcuin himself wrote
voluminously--letters, school manuals, and theological treatises--and revised the liturgy of the Frankish church. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Allott, Stephen, Alcuin of York (1974); Duckett, Eleanor, Alcuin, Friend of Charlemagne: His World and His
Work (1951; repr. 1965); Wallach, Luitpold, Alcuin and Charlemagne: Studies in Carolingian History and Literature (1959); Wilmont-Buxton, E. M., Alcuin (1922; repr. 1982).
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1185
CAT
-A-
Alda, Alan
-T-
Alda, Alan_^<N__^<N_Best known for his role as Hawkeye Pierce in the television series M*A*S*H (1972-83)--for which he wrote and directed numerous episodes--Alan Alda, b. New York City, Jan. 28, 1936, is also an accomplished film screenwriter and
director. He studied English at Fordham University and acting at the Cleveland Playhouse, at times appearing on stage with his father, the actor Robert Alda (1914-86). In the late 1950s he appeared in off-Broadway and television productions, and
in 1961 he won the part of Charley Cotchipee in the play Purlie Victorious. Other Broadway and television roles followed, including a regular spot on the TV comedy series "That Was the Week That Was" (1964-65). Alda then began appearing in films,
including Paper Lion (1968), Same Time Next Year (1978), California Suite (1978), and The Seduction of Joe Tynan (1979), for which he also wrote the screen play. He brought together his talents as actor, director, and screenwriter with the films
The Four Seasons (1981), Sweet Liberty (1986), A New Life (1988), and Betsy's Wedding (1990). He also had acting roles in Woody Allen's Crimes and Misdemeanors (1989) and in the film Jake's Women (1992).
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1600
CAT
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Aldanov, M. A.
-T-
Aldanov, M. A._^<N__^<N_{ul-dah'-nawf} _^<N__^<N_Mark Aleksandrovich Aldanov, b. Oct. 26, 1886, d. Feb. 25, 1957, was a Russian writer who was also known as Landau-Aldanov. He originally studied chemistry, but his true interests were journalism and
literature. In 1919 he left Russia and settled in France; then in 1941, fleeing the Nazis, he went to the United States. _^<N__^<N_While in France, Aldanov wrote historical novels that emphasized the interaction of philosophy and history. His
tetralogy The Thinker consists of four historical novels--The Ninth Thermidor (1923; Eng. trans., 1926), The Devil's Bridge (1925; Eng. trans., 1928), The Conspiracy (1927), and St. Helena, Little Island (1923; Eng. trans., 1924)--and concerns the
philosophical problems of the French Revolution. The Tenth Symphony (1931) is a novel that draws a brilliant and detailed picture of life and society in Europe after the downfall of Napoleon. _^<N__^<N_Aldanov viewed the approach of World War II
with great anxiety and in The Fifth Seal (1939; Eng. trans., 1943) depicted the general disillusionment, pessimism, and feeling of helplessness that characterized prewar Europe. _^<N__^<N_In A Night at Ulm (1956) he further explored the
helplessness an individual feels when facing the dark forces of history. Aldanov never hesitated to identify the Soviet Union as one of those dark forces. His animosity toward the Bolshevik Revolution, first expressed in his portrait of Lenin in
1921, is a recurring theme in his novels and many journalistic and literary essays. _^<N__^<N_Laszlo M. Tikos _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Lee, C. Nicholas, The Novels of Mark Aleksandrovic Aldanov (1969).
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20
CAT
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Aldebaran:
-T-
Aldebaran:_^<N__^<N_see STAR.
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2869
CAT
-A-
aldehyde
-T-
aldehyde_^<N__^<N_An aldehyde is an organic compound that contains a carbonyl group (an oxygen atom doubly bonded to a carbon atom) and possesses at least one hydrogen atom covalently bonded to the carbonyl carbon. The structure of aldehydes is
often written as RCHO. R may be hydrogen or any organic group. Aldehydes are close relatives of KETONES, which are carbonyl compounds that possess two carbon groupings linked covalently to the carbonyl carbon. Aldehydes are so named because they
are obtainable by dehydrogenation of primary ALCOHOLS (alcohol dehydrogenated). The common names for specific aldehydes are derived from the CARBOXYLIC ACIDS to which they can be oxidized. Formaldehyde, HCHO, is readily oxidized to formic acid,
HCOOH; acetaldehyde to form acetic acid. The systematic names for aldehydes are derived from the name of the ALKANE having the same number of carbon atoms by appending the suffix al in place of the last letter of the hydrocarbon suffix ane.
Aldehydes are prepared in the laboratory by oxidizing primary alcohols with expensive reagents such as potassium permanganate or potassium dichromate. Commercially, aldehydes are made by catalytically removing two hydrogen atoms from a primary
alcohol, usually over a copper catalyst at 250 deg C (520 deg F) or by air oxidation. FORMALDEHYDE and ACETALDEHYDE are the two most widely used and industrially important aldehydes. Aldehydes are more reactive than ketones because their carbonyl
carbon-to-hydrogen bond is easily oxidized. Treatment of an aldehyde with a solution of silver nitrate in ammoniacal sodium hydroxide produces a silver mirror on the walls of the test tube. This reaction is known as Tollens's test and is used to
determine if an unknown substance is an aldehyde. Another type of reaction characteristic of carbonyl compounds involves addition of a reagent such as cyanide or bisulfite to the carbon-oxygen double bond. Aldehydes undergo this reaction more
readily than ketones. Cyanohydrin formation was developed by Heinrich Kiliani and used by Emil Fischer in his classic structure proofs of sugars through synthesis. In addition to being readily oxidized to form organic acids and reduced to form
alcohols, aldehydes can also undergo polymerization. The first commercially successful synthetic resin, BAKELITE, for example, is a polymerization product of formaldehyde and phenol, and Formica derives from formaldehyde and urea. Aldehydes are
used as intermediates in the production of resins, dyes, pharmaceuticals, and other products, and are employed as solvents and perfume ingredients. Biologically, various sugars and hormones found in the body contain the aldehyde structure.
_^<N__^<N_Herman E. Zieger _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Allinger, Norman L., et al., Organic Chemistry, 2d ed. (1976); Morrison, Robert T., and Boyd, Robert N., Organic Chemistry, 4th ed. (1983).
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495
CAT
-A-
Alden, John
-T-
Alden, John_^<N__^<N_John Alden, b. 1599?, d. Sept. 12, 1687, was one of the Pilgrim Fathers who came to America in the MAYFLOWER, signed the Mayflower Compact, and founded Plymouth Colony in 1620. Thereafter he held various public offices,
including that of deputy governor of Massachusetts (1664-65, 1667). The unfounded details of his wooing of fellow Pilgrim Priscilla Mullens (or Molines)--whom he did marry--were the subject of the Henry Wadsworth LONGFELLOW POEM "The Courtship of
Miles Standish."
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1485
CAT
-A-
alder
-T-
alder_^<N__^<N_The alders, Alnus, are deciduous hardwood TREES and SHRUBS that belong to the birch family, Betulaceae. About 30 species of alders are found in north temperate zones. Alders have smooth to scaly, usually gray bark. The deciduous
alternate leaves are short stalked, ovate, usually doubly saw-toothed, and often wavy on the edges. The fruits are small, hard, blackish cones, clustered and persistent, which in summer mature and release minute, usually winged nutlets. European
alders, Alnus glutinosa, were originally introduced into the United States for charcoal manufacture. They now have become naturalized and are planted as landscaping trees. The common streambank alder of the eastern United States and Canada is the
speckled alder, A. incana. The red alder, A. rubra, is the largest species of the genus and is the most important hardwood of the Pacific Northwest and coastal Alaska. Red alders grow in humid climates and are sometimes used as a "nurse crop" to
precede more valuable conifer species; nodules on the roots of the tree contain a nitrogen-fixing microorganism that increases the nitrogen content of the surrounding soil. Sitka alder, A. sinuata, is a shrub found mostly in the Pacific Northwest,
and only those near Alaska reach tree size. Thin-leaf alders, A. tenuifolia, are thin-leaf trees found at the heads of mountain streams, on boggy slopes, and in high meadows from Alaska and British Columbia through eastern Washington and Oregon.
_^<N__^<N_Charles L. Wilson
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719
CAT
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Alder, Kurt
-T-
Alder, Kurt_^<N__^<N_The German chemist Kurt Alder, b. July 10, 1902, d. June 20, 1958, was corecipient with Otto DIELS of the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1950 for his studies of diene reactions and synthesis. The key reaction, first published in
1928 and now called the Diels-Alder reaction, involves the synthesis of complex organic molecules from simpler ones. Specifically, a conjugated diene (a compound with two sets of double bonds separated by a single bond) reacts with an alkene, a
hydrocarbon such as ethylene. The new product always contains a six-membered carbon ring with a double bond. The reaction has a wide application in the synthesis of a variety of substances, including STEROIDS and TERPENES. _^<N__^<N_O. B. Ramsay
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530
CAT
-A-
alderfly
-T-
alderfly_^<N__^<N_Alderflies, family Sialidae, order Neuroptera, are dark-colored, soft-bodied INSECTS, about 25 mm (less than 1 in) in length. They have four membranous wings that are held rooflike over the body at rest. Alderflies are somewhat
like LACEWINGs in appearance. They are primarily found near water; the larvae are aquatic and mostly are found under stones in streams. These insects (especially the larvae) are an important food of fish, and some artificial flies are patterned
after them. _^<N__^<N_Donald J. Borror _^<N__^<N_See also: ANT LION.
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388
CAT
-A-
alderman
-T-
alderman_^<N__^<N_An alderman, in the United States, is an elected public official who represents a specific ward or district in the city legislature. In most U.S. cities, aldermen serve 2-year terms. _^<N__^<N_In England and Ireland, aldermen are
officers or magistrates chosen by the members of a city council or municipal corporation. They serve for six years. An alderman is called a bailie in Scotland.
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506
CAT
-A-
Aldington, Richard
-T-
Aldington, Richard_^<N__^<N_Richard Aldington, b. July 8, 1892, d. July 27, 1962, an English author, first established a reputation as an imagist poet with Images Old and New (1916). He married the American imagist poet Hilda DOOLITTLE ("H. D.") and
contributed to anthologies of the movement. His novels, attacking hypocrisy and pretense, include The Colonel's Daughter (1931). He also wrote criticism and controversial biographies of VOLTAIRE, D. H. LAWRENCE, and T. E. LAWRENCE ("Lawrence of
Arabia"). _^<N__^<N_Robin Buss
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573
CAT
-A-
Aldiss, Brian W.
-T-
Aldiss, Brian W._^<N__^<N_Brian W. Aldiss, b. Aug. 18, 1925, is an English writer and critic best known for his apocalyptic and sometimes humorous science fiction. He wrote about the elevation of psychology to a form of religion in Non-Stop
(1958), the postatomic holocaust world in Greybeard (1964), and the worship of science in Frankenstein Unbound (1973). The planet Helliconia, whose seasons each last hundreds of years, is the subject of a trilogy of novels (1982-85). The Billion
Year Spree (1973), Aldiss's critical history of science fiction, is also highly regarded.
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1113
CAT
-A-
Alexander, Jane
-T-
Alexander, Jane_^<N__^<N_Jane Alexander, b. Jane Quigley in Boston, Mass., Oct. 28, 1939, heads the National Endowment for the Arts. Educated at Sarah Lawrence College (1957-59) and the University of Edinburgh (1959-60), she began a long and
distinguished career as actress, producer, and author in the early 1960s. Her Broadway and regional theater roles in more than 100 plays include The Great White Hope (Tony Award, 1969), The Heiress (1976), and The Sisters Rosensweig (1992). In
film, she has received four Academy Award nominations, for The Great White Hope (1970), All the President's Men (1976), Kramer vs. Kramer (1979), and Testament (1983). Her portrayal of Eleanor Roosevelt in the TV film Eleanor and Franklin: The
White House Years won her the Television Critics Circle Award in 1977. Alexander has produced three films for TV, including the public television A Marriage: Georgia O'Keeffe and Alfred Steiglitz for the "American Playhouse" series. Alexander was
nominated by President Bill Clinton as the sixth chair of the National Endowment for the Arts in August 1993, and she was confirmed in September.
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1180
CAT
-A-
aldosterone
-T-
aldosterone_^<N__^<N_{al-doh'-stuh-rohn} _^<N__^<N_Aldosterone is a steroid HORMONE that promotes the conservation of sodium ions and water and the excretion of potassium ions by the KIDNEY. It is necessary for the maintenance of a proper balance
between these two electrolytes in the body. The secretion of aldosterone by the cortex of the ADRENAL GLAND is regulated by the kidney. When a loss of sodium ions occurs, the kidney produces renin, an enzyme that acts on a plasma protein to
manufacture the hormone angiotensin, which stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce aldosterone. Aldosterone then acts on the kidney to increase the excretion of potassium ions in place of sodium ions, with an accompanying retention of water.
Excessive production of aldosterone may result in edema and high blood pressure (hyperaldosteronism). Insufficient aldosterone results in dehydration. _^<N__^<N_Peter L. Petrakis _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Glaz, Edith, and Vecsei, Paul, Aldosterone
(1971); Muller, Jurg, Regulation of Aldosterone Synthesis (1971); Williams, Robert H., ed., Textbook of Endocrinology, 5th ed. (1974); Witzmann, Rupert F., Steroids (1981). _^<N__^<N_See also: ENDOCRINE SYSTEM, DISEASES OF THE; HYPERTENSION.
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1178
CAT
-A-
Aldrich, Nelson Wilmarth
-T-
Aldrich, Nelson Wilmarth_^<N__^<N_Nelson Wilmarth Aldrich, b. Nov. 5, 1841, d. Apr. 16, 1915, was an American businessman and politician. Starting in the wholesale grocery business in Providence, R.I., he further invested in sugar, rubber, street
railways, and utilities and became a multimillionaire. He served on the Providence city council (1869-74) and in the Rhode Island legislature (1875-76), the U.S. House of Representatives (1879-81), and the U.S. Senate (1881-1911). _^<N__^<N_In the
Senate, Aldrich wielded enormous power--especially after 1897--on behalf of the Republican majority. For a time he was the nemesis of President Theodore Roosevelt, with whom he clashed on foreign policy and railroad legislation. Aldrich advocated a
conservative social philosophy on such issues as currency and banking, the tariff, and business regulations. Interested in establishing a central bank in the United States, he became chairman of the National Monetary Commission in 1908. Its report,
the so-called Aldrich Plan (1911), served as the basis of the Federal Reserve Act of 1913. _^<N__^<N_Robert F. Wesser _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Stephenson, Nathaniel W., Nelson W. Aldrich, A Leader in American Politics (1930).
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686
CAT
-A-
Aldrich, Robert
-T-
Aldrich, Robert_^<N__^<N_Robert Aldrich, b. Cranston, R. I., Aug. 8, 1918, d. Dec. 5, 1983, was one of the most forceful American film directors to emerge in the 1950s. His first popular success was Vera Cruz (1954), which was followed by a
string of other successes including What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962), The Dirty Dozen (1967), and The Longest Yard (1974). His work's genuine if crude power is perhaps best seen in Kiss Me Deadly (1955) and Ulzana's Raid (1972). Such
later films as Hustle (1975) and The Choirboys (1977) met increasing critical hostility. _^<N__^<N_William S. Pechter _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Arnold, E. T., and Miller, E. L., The Films and Career of Robert Aldrich (1986).
-END-
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585
CAT
-A-
Aldrich, Thomas Bailey
-T-
Aldrich, Thomas Bailey_^<N__^<N_The American writer Thomas Bailey Aldrich, b. Nov. 11, 1836, d. Mar. 19, 1907, had an illustrious career both as an editor of the Atlantic Monthly, where he succeeded William Dean HOWELLS, and as a poet and novelist.
He is best remembered for his semiautobiographical novel The Story of a Bad Boy (1870), a work that resembles but predates by six years Mark TWAIN's TOM SAWYER. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Aldrich, Mrs. T. B., Crowding Memories (1920); Greenslet,
Ferris, The Life of Thomas Bailey Aldrich (1908; repr. 1965); Samuels, Charles E., Thomas Bailey Aldrich (1966).
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635
CAT
-A-
Aldridge, Ira
-T-
Aldridge, Ira_^<N__^<N_Ira Frederick Aldridge, b. July 24, 1804, d. Aug. 7, 1867, was the first great black American actor. His father was an ex-slave who became a lay preacher. Ira followed an acting company to London, where he made his debut in
1825 as the African prince Oroonoko in The Revolt of Surinam, or a Slave's Revenge. Hailed as the "African ROSCIUS," he was considered outstanding as Othello, Macbeth, Lear, and Aaron the Moor. He was especially popular on the German stage. He
became a naturalized British citizen in 1863. _^<N__^<N_Andrew Kelly _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Marshall, Herbert, and Stock, Mildred, Ira Aldridge, the Negro Tragedian (1958).
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1847
CAT
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Aldrin, Buzz
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Aldrin, Buzz_^<N__^<N_The American astronaut Buzz Aldrin, born on Jan. 20, 1930, in Glen Ridge, N.J., was the second man to walk on the Moon. In addition to his achievements as an astronaut, Aldrin's doctoral thesis on orbital mechanics and
rendezvous laid the foundation for flight techniques that made the lunar landing possible. Aldrin graduated third in his class from the U.S. Military Academy in 1951 and received his Air Force pilot's wings in 1952. During the Korean War he flew
66 combat missions. He earned a doctorate of science in astronautics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1963 and later that year was selected as an astronaut. _^<N__^<N_On his first flight in space (1966), Aldrin piloted GEMINI 12
with commander James LOVELL. During a 5 1/2-hour space walk, Aldrin helped to solve the exhaustion problem that had plagued earlier spacewalkers by using straps on the spacecraft as handholds and by pacing his efforts. He was then assigned as
lunar module pilot to what became the first lunar landing-mission (APOLLO 11) in July 1969. His responsibilities included monitoring lunar module systems while commander Neil ARMSTRONG concentrated on landing. After Aldrin joined Armstrong on the
Moon, they set up basic science experiments and collected samples of the Moon's surface. _^<N__^<N_After their return to Earth, Aldrin, Armstrong, and command module pilot Michael COLLINS appeared before a joint session of Congress and made a
round-the-world goodwill tour. Two years after the Moon landing, Aldrin left NASA to become commander of the Air Force Aerospace Research Pilots School. In 1972 he resigned from the Air Force with the rank of colonel and entered private business.
His autobiography, Return to Earth (1973), relates the pressures on the Apollo 11 crew and his subsequent nervous breakdown and recovery. _^<N__^<N_David Dooling
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36
CAT
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Aldus Manutius:
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Aldus Manutius:_^<N__^<N_see Manutius, Aldus.
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593
CAT
-A-
ale
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ale_^<N__^<N_Ale is brewed from the same basic ingredients as lager BEER; the difference in flavor is caused in part by a different strain of yeast. Ale yeast ferments at higher temperatures than lager and imparts a distinctive tang and a somewhat
higher alcohol content. Ale is also generally brewed with more hops than beer. Until lager beer was introduced to the United States in the mid-19th century, ale was the predominant beverage. Today, it is low in popularity in America. English
"bitter" refers to a highly hopped pale ale, which is aromatic, rather than bitter, to the taste. _^<N__^<N_John H. Porter
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1350
CAT
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aleatory music
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aleatory music_^<N__^<N_{ay'-lee-uh-tor-ee} _^<N__^<N_Aleatory music is any music that results from the application of chance processes. The term is derived from the Latin word alea ("dice"). An aleatory score may include a set of verbal
instructions for applying these processes to musical materials. Some typical aleatory devices are the following: dice throwing; random splattering of ink on music paper; drawing of cards; drawing of musical segments out of a hat; playing
musical segments printed on a large page in the order that the performer's eye happens to fall on them; improvising music suggested by a graphic design. _^<N__^<N_Some critics argue that aleatory music represents the composer's rejection of
traditional responsibilities. Others see it as an enhancement of the creative process. Contemporary composers who have used aleatory devices include Pierre BOULEZ, John CAGE, Karlheinz STOCKHAUSEN, Christian Wolff, Sylvano Bussotti, and Barney
Childs. Aleatory elements in music appeared as early as the 18th century, in so-called "musical dice games" where dice throws were used to determine some factor such as note sequence. _^<N__^<N_Dika Newlin _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Cage, John,
Silence (1961); Cope, David, New Directions in Music, 4th ed. (1984); Schwartz, Elliott, and Childs, Barney, eds., Contemporary Composers on Contemporary Music (1967; repr. 1978).
-END-
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768
CAT
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Alechinsky, Pierre
-T-
Alechinsky, Pierre_^<N__^<N_The French abstractionist Pierre Alechinsky, b. Brussels, Oct. 19, 1927, was one of the founders (1949) of the artists' group COBRA, for Copenhagen-Brussels-Amsterdam, which helped pioneer abstract expressionism in
Paris. His own painting was influenced by oriental and cartoon styles and took on the appearance of visual commentary and abstract calligraphy. Line is paramount in his work, which often acquires the dripped casualness of Jackson POLLOCK's work.
In 1977 Alechinsky won the newly activated Andrew W. Mellon Prize for excellence in contemporary art. _^<N__^<N_Phil Patton _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Alechinsky, Pierre, Paintings and Writings (1977); Bosquet, Alain, Alechinsky (1971); Gibson,
Michael, and Alechinsky, Pierre, Pierre Alechinsky (1987).
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521
CAT
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Alecsandri, Vasile
-T-
Alecsandri, Vasile_^<N__^<N_Vasile Alecsandri, b. c.1820, d. Aug. 22, 1890, studied in France and returned to his homeland to become the outstanding Romanian author of the mid-19th century. The Romanian theater depended greatly on his adaptations
and original plays. His collection of folk poems strongly influenced the work of other poets. His volume Pasteluri (Pastels, 1867-69) shows him at his best as a poet. His finest prose pieces are reminiscences. _^<N__^<N_Eric Tappe
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Cioranescu, Alexandre, Vasile Alecsandri (1974).
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582
CAT
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Alegria, Ciro
-T-
Alegria, Ciro_^<N__^<N_{ah-lay-gree'-ah} _^<N__^<N_Ciro Alegria, b. Nov. 4, 1909, d. Feb. 17, 1967, ranks as one of the principal Peruvian contributors to the development of the Indianist novel. His novels, The Golden Serpent (1935; Eng. trans.,
1943), Los perros hambrientos (The Hungry Dogs, 1938), and Broad and Alien Is the World (1941; Eng. trans., 1941), reflect his deep concern for the rural population of Peru. These works are presented from the point of view of the many Indian
characters who are exploited by authoritarian interests. Cesar VALLEJO was one of his early teachers. _^<N__^<N_Keith Ellis
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2536
CAT
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Aleichem, Sholem
-T-
Aleichem, Sholem_^<N__^<N_{ah-lay'-kem} _^<N__^<N_Sholem Aleichem (Hebrew, "Peace be with you") was the pen name of the supreme Yiddish humorist, Solomon Rabinowitz. Along with MENDELE MOKHER SFORIM and I. L. PERETZ, he is a member of Yiddish
literature's classical triumvirate. _^<N__^<N_Sholem Aleichem is best known for his fictional re-creations of the world of the Eastern European shtetl, or small Jewish town, and for his ragged, quaint characters who remain invincibly optimistic in
the face of poverty, persecution, and spiritual anguish. Among the characters exemplifying his "laughter through tears" philosophy are the impetuous, impractical Menachem Mendel; the quintessentially honest dairyman Tevye, whose unquestioning
faith in God's design remains unaffected by travails and pogroms; and the cheerful orphan boy Mottel, whose resilience and pranks bring to mind Mark Twain's HUCKLEBERRY FINN. _^<N__^<N_Born Mar. 3 (Feb. 18, O.S.), 1859, in the Ukraine, Sholem
Aleichem received a religious education and served for a time as a rabbi. He began publishing Yiddish sketches and short stories in 1883. Two novels, Stempenyu (1889) and Yosele Solovey (1890), appeared in Di Yidische Folksbibliotek, a literary
annual he founded and edited for two years and to which the best Yiddish writers contributed before its demise. For many years he attempted to combine writing and business but, after inheriting wealth, he soon lost it in the stock market. Years of
struggle and ill health after 1890 were capped in 1905 by a pogrom in Kiev, which led him to leave Russia. He spent a year in New York and then settled in Switzerland in 1907. From 1914 until his death on May 13, 1916, he lived in New York City.
_^<N__^<N_Sholem Aleichem wrote a prodigious number of short stories, novels, and plays. English-language collections of his stories include Wandering Star (1952); Adventures of Mottel, the Cantor's Son (1953); the autobiographical Great Fair,
Scenes from My Childhood (1955); Selected Stories (1956); Old Country Tales (1966); Tevye Stories (1966; retrans., 1988); Some Laughter, Some Tears (1968); Adventures of Menachem-Mendel (1969); and Stories and Satires (1970). His popularity,
always great, was further enhanced by the international success that greeted Fiddler on the Roof, a musical based on the stories of Tevye and his daughters. It appeared on the stage in 1964 and as a film in 1971. _^<N__^<N_Sol Liptzin
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Liptzin, Sol, History of Yiddish Literature (1972); Samuel, Maurice, The World of Sholom Aleichem (1965; repr. 1986).
-END-
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1116
CAT
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Aleijadinho
-T-
Aleijadinho_^<N__^<N_{al-lay-zhah-deen'-yoh} _^<N__^<N_Antonio Francisco Lisboa, b. 1738, d. 1814, known as "O Aleijadinho" ("Little Cripple"), was the most renowned sculptor and architect of the Brazilian rococo period. He was the illegitimate son
of the Portuguese architect Manuel Francisco Lisboa and a black slave called Isabel. At the age of 39 he contracted a disease that crippled him and left him without the use of his hands; thereafter he worked with a hammer and chisel strapped to his
arms. His best work was done in his maturity. As an architect he is most noted for the design of the church of Sao Francisco de Assis in Ouro Preto, for which he also carved most of the interior decoration. His sculptural masterpiece is the series
of 12 stone prophets and 6 polychromed wood scenes of the Passion of Christ, which he executed in 1800-05. These are installed in six chapels flanking the approach to the church of Bom Jesus de Matozinhos in Congonhas do Campo (Minas Gerais).
_^<N__^<N_Edward J. Sullivan _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Kelemen, P., Baroque and Rococo in Latin America (1951); Mann, G. and H., The 12 Prophets of Aleijandinho (1967).
-END-
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1387
CAT
-A-
Aleixandre, Vicente
-T-
Aleixandre, Vicente_^<N__^<N_{ah-layks-ahn'-dray} _^<N__^<N_The Spanish poet Vicente Aleixandre, b. Apr. 28, 1898, d. Dec. 13, 1984, won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1977. He spent his early childhood in Malaga and moved to Madrid in 1909.
He first suffered kidney tuberculosis in 1925, which left him an invalid throughout his life. Sickness left its mark on his poetry--desperate songs of his journey from annihilation, evasion, and darkness to an affirmation of life, love, and light.
A member of the "generation of 1927" to which Federico GARCIA LORCA belonged, Aleixandre won Spain's National Prize for literature in 1933 with La destruccion del amor (Destruction or Love), picturing a visionary world of erotic love where
unchained forces may prove fatal. In later collections Aleixandre portrays man as a being who suffers and dies within a temporal framework but nevertheless remains part of a vast cosmic reality. In Dialogos del conocimiento (Dialogues of
Knowledge, 1974), he sought to reconcile variety with unity and existential awareness with transcendental intuition. _^<N__^<N_Kessel Schwartz _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Aleixandre, Vicente, Shadow of Paradise, trans by H. A. Harter (1987);
Cabrera, V., and Boyer, Harriet, eds., Critical Views on Vicente Aleixandre's Poetry (1979); Morris, C. B., A Generation of Spanish Poets (1920-1936) (1969); Schwartz, Kessel, Vicente Aleixandre (1970).
-END-
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720
CAT
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Aleman, Mateo
-T-
Aleman, Mateo_^<N__^<N_{ah-lay-mahn', mah-tay'-oh} _^<N__^<N_Aleman, b. 1547, d. c.1614, was a Spanish novelist whose fame rests on his picaresque novel, The Rogue; or, The Life of Guzman de Alfarache (1599; part 2, 1604; Eng. trans., 1622). The
work, a narrative interspersed with moralizing digressions, presents a valuable picture of 16th-century Spain. Aleman viewed mankind as universally corrupt but able to achieve salvation through divine grace. After a troubled life--he was twice
jailed as a debtor--Aleman migrated (1608) to Mexico, where he spent his last years. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: McGrady, Donald, Mateo Aleman (1968); Parker, Alexander A., Literature and the Delinquent: The Picaresque Novel in Spain and Europe,
1599-1753 (1967).
-END-
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385
CAT
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Aleman Valdes, Miguel
-T-
Aleman Valdes, Miguel_^<N__^<N_{al-lay-mahn' vahl-dayz'} _^<N__^<N_Miguel Aleman Valdes, b. Sept. 29, 1902, d. May 14, 1983, was the second civilian president of Mexico. A lawyer who represented injured workers, he served as governor of Veracruz and
in 1940 became minister of the interior. As president (1946-52), Aleman encouraged U.S. capital investment and stimulated Mexico's industrial development.
-END-
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1482
CAT
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Alembert, Jean Le Rond d'
-T-
Alembert, Jean Le Rond d'_^<N__^<N_{dah-lahm-bair'} _^<N__^<N_Jean Le Rond d'Alembert, b. Nov. 17, 1717, d. Oct. 29, 1783, was a French mathematician and physicist who developed the early stages of CALCULUS, formalized the new science of mechanics,
and was the science editor of Diderot's Encyclopedie. With DIDEROT and VOLTAIRE, he was one of the leading figures of the ENLIGHTENMENT in France. _^<N__^<N_D'Alembert grew up in Paris. In 1741 he was admitted to the Paris Academy of Science, where
he worked for the rest of his life. _^<N__^<N_D'Alembert ranks with Daniel BERNOULLI, Alexis CLAIRAUT, and Leonhard EULER as one of the leading scientists of his time. He was one of the first to understand the importance of FUNCTIONS and the
concept of limits to the calculus, and he pioneered the use of DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS in physics. He also helped to resolve the controversy in physics over the conservation of kinetic energy by improving Newton's definition of force in his Traite
de dynamique (1742), which articulates d'Alembert's principle of mechanics. He also studied hydrodynamics, the mechanics of rigid bodies, and the three-body problem in astronomy. _^<N__^<N_R. Calinger _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Essar, Dennis F., The
Language Theory, Epistemology, and Aesthetics of Jean Lerond d'Alembert (1976); Grimskey, Ronald, Jean D'Alembert (1963); Hankins, Thomas L., Jean D'Alembert: Science and the Enlightenment (1970); Pappas, John N., Voltaire and D'Alembert (1962);
Van Treese, G. J., D'Alembert and Frederick the Great (1974).
-END-
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2590
CAT
-A-
Aleppo
-T-
Aleppo_^<N__^<N_{uh-lep'-oh} _^<N__^<N_Aleppo (Arabic: Halab, meaning "milk") is a city of northwestern Syria, the country's second largest, with a population of 1,445,000 (1992 est.). Abraham is supposed to have milked his flock there, hence the
Arabic name. An oasis town on the ancient trade route between Europe and Asia, Aleppo is situated at a height of 390 m (1,280 ft) on a plateau approximately 320 km (200 mi) north-northeast of Damascus. The elevation ensures moderate temperature.
The average annual precipitation of 400 mm (16 in), most of which falls in the winter, is too little for the city's needs, and water must be piped in from the Euphrates River, some 80 km (50 mi) to the east. _^<N__^<N_The people of Aleppo are
primarily Sunni Muslim Arabs, but there are sizable communities of Armenians and Turks in the newer sections. The city is a trade center where East meets West. Its location made it a stopping point for early caravans, and Aleppo is still famous for
its khans (combination warehouse and caravansary) and its suqs, marketplaces where artisans weave fine cloth. Modern Aleppo is Syria's leading industrial center. Manufactures include textiles and garments, cement, vegetable oils, flour, processed
foods, leather goods, and articles of gold and silver. Good highways connect Aleppo with Damascus, Baghdad, Mediterranean coastal cities, and Turkish cities to the north. A modern international airport handles both passengers and freight. Railroads
connect Aleppo with Damascus, and other Middle East cities. Aleppo is the site of a major university and a museum with Hittite, Assyrian, and Sumerian collections. _^<N__^<N_The old city is enclosed by a wall first built during Hellenistic times
and reconstructed in the Middle Ages. Among the most important buildings are the noted citadel and the Great Mosque (AD 715), said to contain the tomb of Zacharias, the father of John the Baptist. _^<N__^<N_In its 4,000-year history Aleppo has
witnessed much conflict and has been repeatedly captured by Egyptians, Turks, Arabs, and Mongols. Known as Halab by its earliest inhabitants, the city was renamed Beroea by the Persians, who conquered it in the 6th century BC. It was absorbed into
the Roman province of Syria in the 1st century BC and later flourished under Byzantine rule. When it was conquered by the Arabs in AD 637, the city reverted to the Semitic name of Halab. Aleppo rose to great prominence in the 10th century under the
Arab Hamdanid dynasty. Although never captured, it saw much action during the Crusades, and under Ottoman rule (1516-1920) it functioned as a provincial seat. _^<N__^<N_W. A. Bladen
-END-
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550
CAT
-A-
Alessandri, Arturo
-T-
Alessandri, Arturo_^<N__^<N_Arturo Alessandri, b. Dec. 20, 1868, d. Aug. 24, 1950, was president of Chile from 1920 to 1925 and again from 1932 to 1938. His first administration was noted for liberal reform. Briefly exiled (1924-25) by the military,
he agreed to resume office on the condition that the constitution be changed to provide for a stronger presidency and some political democracy. During his more conservative second term, he concentrated on economic recovery, especially of the
nitrate industry, and lost the support of the liberals and workers.
-END-
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853
CAT
-A-
Alessandria
-T-
Alessandria_^<N__^<N_Alessandria is the capital city of Alessandria province in the Piedmont region of northwest Italy and is located southeast of Turin. It has a population of 100,523 (1987 est.) and is an important agricultural and wine market
and a railroad center. The city was founded in 1168 by the Lombard League as a part of its defense of Lombardy against Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. First called Civitas Nova, it was renamed for Pope Alexander III. The Visconti dukes of Milan took
the free commune in 1348. Remains of the city's fortifications, the cathedral, and the Romanesque-Gothic Church of Sta. Maria di Castello date from the Middle Ages. The city was taken in 1707 by Prince Eugene and ceded to Savoy in 1713. In
1833, as a center of Piedmont's freedom movement, it was the scene of a pro-Giuseppe Mazzini conspiracy. _^<N__^<N_Daniel R. Lesnick
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817
CAT
-A-
Alessi, Galeazzo
-T-
Alessi, Galeazzo_^<N__^<N_{ah-les'-see, gah-lay-ahts'-soh} _^<N__^<N_Galeazzo Alessi, 1512-72, was an important High Renaissance architect, best known for his work in Genoa and Milan. After receiving (c.1536-42) his training in Rome, probably as a
pupil of MICHELANGELO, Alessi settled (c.1548) in Genoa. His most significant works include the domed church of Santa Maria di Carignano (begun c.1549, Genoa), with a centralized plan based on Donato BRAMANTE's designs for ST. PETER'S BASILICA in
Rome, and the Palazzo Marino (1553-58, Milan). Alessi's designs are distinguished by his combination of architectural simplicity with rich decorative detail. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hartt, Frederick, History of Italian Renaissance Art, 3d ed.
(1987); Keller, Harald, The Renaissance in Italy (1969); Murray, Linda, The High Renaissance (1967).
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668
CAT
-A-
Aletsch Glacier
-T-
Aletsch Glacier_^<N__^<N_{ah'-lech} _^<N__^<N_Aletsch Glacier is in the Bernese Alps in Valais canton of south central Switzerland. With an area of 171 sq km (66 sq mi), it is thought to be the largest alpine glacier. It is composed of three parts:
Great Aletsch (the main body) and Upper and Middle Aletsch (branches). Great Aletsch, 16 km (10 mi) long, is fed by streams of ice from the Aletschhorn and other mountains; it flows to the southwest toward the Rhone Valley. Upper Aletsch is at an
altitude of 2,643 m (8,672 ft). Alongside are mountain hotels. A small lake, Marjelensee, is to the east. The glacier can be viewed from the train station at Jungfraujoch (3,454 m/11,333 ft).
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1598
CAT
-A-
Aleut
-T-
Aleut_^<N__^<N_{uh-loot' or al'-ee-oot} _^<N__^<N_The people known as the Aleuts are the native inhabitants of the islands stretching for about 1,800 km (1,100 mi) southwestward from the Alaskan mainland and now called the Aleutian Islands. They
also inhabit part of western Alaska. The Russians first called these maritime hunters "Aleuts," the meaning of which is unknown; their name for themselves is unangan ("the people"). _^<N__^<N_Although racially and ethnically related to the ESKIMO,
the Aleuts have their own language and culture. Before contact with outsiders in the 18th century, they lived in scattered villages, each consisting of several semisubterranean houses, and had a class system that included nobles and slaves. They
practiced a form of bilateral descent and followed instructions of local SHAMANS regarding hunting taboos and coping with sickness. The Aleuts were adept at harvesting resources of the sea (sea lion, seals, whales, and fish) in their skin-covered
boats as well as those of the land (birds, eggs, and plants). Their hunting skills were exploited by Russian fur traders who came to the islands after about 1750 in search of sea otter, fur seals, and foxes. Over the next 100 years the Aleut
population declined because of sickness and harsh treatment. Today about 8,000 Aleuts remain; before contact with foreigners they had a population estimated at 12,000 to 25,000. _^<N__^<N_Charles C. Hughes _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Dumond, D. E.,
The Eskimos and Aleuts, rev. ed. (1987); Jones, Dorothy M., Aleuts in Transition (1976); Laughlin, William S., Aleuts: Survivors of the Bering Land Bridge (1981).
-END-
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471
CAT
-A-
Aleutian Current
-T-
Aleutian Current_^<N__^<N_{uh-loo'-shuhn} _^<N__^<N_The Aleutian, or Subarctic, Current is a surface current that flows eastward between the Aleutian Islands and latitude 42 deg N. It is formed from the KUROSHIO CURRENT and the OYASHIO CURRENT. As
it approaches the coast of North America, the Aleutian Current divides into the CALIFORNIA CURRENT and the ALASKA CURRENT. Surface temperature and salinity are reduced by cooling and heavy precipitation. _^<N__^<N_John Wheeler _^<N__^<N_See also:
OCEAN CURRENTS.
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1607
CAT
-A-
Aleutian Islands
-T-
Aleutian Islands_^<N__^<N_The Aleutian Islands are a chain of islands stretching west 1,800 km (1,100 mi) from the tip of the Alaska Peninsula and separating the Bering Sea on the north from the Pacific Ocean on the south. Part of the state of
Alaska, they include about 70 islands and scores of islets and have an area of 17,666 sq km (6,821 sq mi). The population is 11,942 (1990 census). _^<N__^<N_Five major island groups stretch from east to west: the Fox, Islands of the Four
Mountains, Andreanof, Rat, and Near. Partially submerged peaks of the volcanic Aleutian range, they rise sharply from the sea. The highest summit is Mount Shishaldin (2,856 m/9,387 ft) on Unimak Island. Virtually no trees grow on the islands, and
vegetation includes grasses, sedges, and low flowering plants. Cold air and currents of the Bering Sea meet the warmer influences of the Pacific and cause a year-round mixture of fog, rain, high winds, and relatively uniform temperatures (annual
average about 3 deg C/38 deg F). _^<N__^<N_Discovered in 1741 by Vitus Jonassen BERING and Aleksei Chirikov, the islands were claimed by Russia. The Russians exploited the fur resources (blue foxes, seals) and nearly eliminated the native Aleut
population. The islands were purchased along with Alaska from Russia by the United States in 1867. Unalaska (1760-70) is the oldest settlement. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Alaska Geographic Staff, eds., The Aleutian Islands (1980); Berkh, Vasilii
N., A Chronological History of the Aleutian Islands, trans. by Dmitri Krenov (1974); Collins, Henry B., et al., Aleutian Islands: Their People and Natural History (1945).
-END-
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38
CAT
-A-
Aleutian Trench:
-T-
Aleutian Trench:_^<N__^<N_see OCEANIC TRENCHES.
-END-
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1069
CAT
-A-
alewife
-T-
alewife_^<N__^<N_{ayl'-wyf} _^<N__^<N_The alewife, Alosa pseudoharengus, is a fish belonging to the herring family, Clupeidae in the order Clupeiformes. It is a close relative of the SHAD and leads a similar life. Both the young and adult fish--the
latter about 25 cm (10 in)--are found in coastal Atlantic Ocean waters from Canada to Florida. In spring, adults move into the estuaries to spawn. Spawning takes place at night; a pair of rapidly swimming fish rise upward in the water in a tight
spiral and release the eggs and sperm in a rush at the surface. The eggs drift for two or three days and then hatch, and by autumn the young move into the sea. First noted in Lake Ontario and then in Lake Erie in the early 1940s, the alewife
rapidly spread throughout the Great Lakes by 1954. Lake WHITEFISH populations were on the decline at that time, and it is unclear whether the alewife caused the decline or merely filled an available ecological niche. In the 1960s, SALMON and
steelhead were introduced into the Great Lakes, and these fish have thrived by eating the alewife. _^<N__^<N_Camm Swift
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346
CAT
-A-
alexander
-T-
alexander_^<N__^<N_The alexander is any of several perennial herbs that are members of the parsley family, Umbelliferae. Golden alexander, Zizia aurea, with small, golden clusters of flowers in the typical umbel shape of the family, is found in wet
meadows and along stream borders in the eastern United States. It blooms in May and June. _^<N__^<N_Robert C. Romans
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670
CAT
-A-
Alexander, Grover Cleveland
-T-
Alexander, Grover Cleveland_^<N__^<N_The right-handed American baseball pitcher Grover Cleveland "Pete" Alexander, b. Elba, Nebr., Feb. 26, 1887, d. Nov. 4, 1950, was with Christy Mathewson, one of the two 20th-century major leaguers to win 30
or more games in 3 consecutive years (1915-17). In his 20 big-league seasons (1911-30), all in the National League, "Alexander the Great" won 373 games, tied for 3d on the alltime list, while losing only 208. He led the National League in earned
run average 5 times (2d all time) and his 1916 season (with Philadelphia) was possible the greatest ever by a pitcher: a 33-12 record, 38 complete games, 16 shutouts, and a 1.55 ERA.
-END-
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809
CAT
-A-
Alexander, Harold George, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis
-T-
Alexander, Harold George, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis_^<N__^<N_Field Marshal Earl Alexander of Tunis, b. Dec. 10, 1891, d. June 16, 1969, was one of Britain's most successful generals in World War II. Commissioned into the Irish Guards, he was
decorated for his service in World War I. In World War II he withdrew (1942) British and Indian forces from Burma and then directed the great Allied offensive to Tunis in North Africa, followed by the invasion of Sicily and Italy. Alexander served
as governor-general of Canada (1946-52) and as minister of defense (1952-54) in Sir Winston Churchill's cabinet. He was made a viscount in 1946 and an earl in 1952. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Alexander of Tunis, Earl, The Alexander Memoirs, 1940-1945
(1962); Nicolson, Nigel, Alex: The Life of Field Marshal Earl Alexander of Tunis (1973).
-END-
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708
CAT
-A-
Alexander, Lloyd
-T-
Alexander, Lloyd_^<N__^<N_Lloyd Alexander, b. Philadelphia, Jan. 30, 1924, is an American writer and translator who wrote the contemporary children's classic Prydain Chronicles, which includes The Book of Three (1964), The Black Cauldron (1965),
The Castle of Llyr (1966); Taran Wanderer (1967), and The High King (1968). The last book won the 1969 Newbery Medal. The Chronicles were inspired by Arthurian legend and a collection of Welsh myths called the Mabinogion. They create a world
that contains both humor and the struggle between good and evil. The Marvelous Misadventures of Sebastian (1970) won a 1971 National Book Award. Other books include The Beggar Queen (1984) and The Jedera Adventure (1989).
-END-
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472
CAT
-A-
Alexander, Samuel
-T-
Alexander, Samuel_^<N__^<N_Samuel Alexander, b. Jan. 6, 1859, d. Sept. 9, 1939, was a British philosopher who taught at Manchester University (1893-1924) in England. Influenced by the theory of evolution, he viewed the world as a continuous process
of unfolding. In his major work, Space, Time, and Deity (1920), he held that everything--including minds and deity--evolved from space and time. Other works include Spinoza and Time (1921) and Beauty and Other Forms of Value (1933).
-END-
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601
CAT
-A-
Alexander Archipelago
-T-
Alexander Archipelago_^<N__^<N_The Alexander Archipelago is a group of about 1,100 islands stretching about 485 km (300 mi) along the southeastern coast of Alaska. Actually the tops of a submerged mountain range, the islands have irregular, steep
coasts and dense evergreen forests. The main industry is lumbering; fishing and canning are also important. The largest island is Prince of Wales (225 by 64 km/140 by 45 mi), and the largest towns are Ketchikan (1990 census, 8,263) on
Revillagigedo Island and Sitka (1990 census, 8,588) on Baranof Island. The islands were discovered by the Russians in 1741.
-END-
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9101
CAT
4887
-A-
Alexander the Great, King of Macedonia
-T-
Alexander the Great, King of Macedonia_^<N__^<N_Alexander III, king of Macedonia, the first king to be called "the Great," conquered the Persian empire and annexed it to Macedonia. The son of PHILIP II and OLYMPIAS, he was born in 356 BC and
brought up as crown prince. Taught for a time by ARISTOTLE, he acquired a love for HOMER and an infatuation with the heroic age. When Philip divorced Olympias to marry a younger princess, Alexander fled. Although allowed to return, he remained
isolated and insecure until Philip's mysterious assassination about June 336. _^<N__^<N_Alexander was at once presented to the army as king. Winning its support, he eliminated all potential rivals, gained the allegiance of the Macedonian nobles
and of the Greeks (after a rebellion, in which he destroyed THEBES), and defeated the neighboring barbarians. Then he took up Philip's war of aggression against Persia, adopting his slogan of a Hellenic Crusade against the barbarian. He defeated
the small force defending Anatolia, proclaimed freedom for the Greek cities there while keeping them under tight control, and, after a campaign through the Anatolian highlands (to impress the tribesmen), met and defeated the Persian army under
DARIUS III at Issus (near modern Iskenderun, Turkey). He occupied Syria and--after a long siege of TYRE--Phoenicia, then entered Egypt, where he was accepted as pharaoh. From there he visited the famous Libyan oracle of AMON (or Ammon, identified
by the Greeks with Zeus). The oracle certainly hailed him as Amon's son (two Greek oracles confirmed him as son of Zeus) and probably promised him that he would become a god. His faith in Amon kept increasing, and after his death he was portrayed
with the god's horns. _^<N__^<N_After organizing Egypt and founding ALEXANDRIA, Alexander crossed the Eastern Desert and the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, and in the autumn of 331 defeated Darius's grand army at Gaugamela (near modern Irbil, Iraq).
Darius fled to the mountain residence of ECBATANA, while Alexander occupied BABYLON, the imperial capital SUSA, and PERSEPOLIS. Henceforth, Alexander acted as legitimate king of Persia, and to win the support of the Iranian aristocracy he appointed
mainly Iranians as provincial governors. Yet a major uprising in Greece had him so deeply worried that he delayed at Persepolis until May 330 and then, before leaving, destroyed the great palace complex as a gesture to the Greeks. At Ecbatana,
after hearing that the rebellion had failed, he proclaimed the end of the Hellenic Crusade and discharged the Greek forces. He then pursued Darius, who had turned eastward. Darius was at once assassinated by Bessus, the satrap of Bactria, who
distrusted his will to keep fighting and proclaimed himself king. As a result, Alexander now faced years of guerrilla war in northeastern Iran and central Asia, which ended only when he married (327) ROXANA, the daughter of a local chieftain. The
whole area was fortified by a network of military settlements, some of which later developed into major cities. _^<N__^<N_During these years, Alexander's increasingly Oriental behavior led to trouble with Macedonian nobles and some Greeks.
PARMENION, Philip II's senior general, and his family originally had a stranglehold on the army, but Alexander gradually weakened its grip. Late in 330, Parmenion's oldest son, Philotas, commander of the cavalry and chief opponent of the king's
new policies, was eliminated in a carefully staged coup d'etat, and Parmenion was assassinated. Another old-fashioned noble, Cleitus, was killed by Alexander himself in a drunken brawl. (Heavy drinking was a cherished tradition at the Macedonian
court.) Alexander next demanded that Europeans follow the Oriental etiquette of prostrating themselves before the king--which he knew was regarded as an act of worship by Greeks. But resistance by Macedonian officers and by the Greek Callisthenes
(a nephew of Aristotle who had joined the expedition as the official historian of the crusade) defeated the attempt. Callisthenes was soon executed on a charge of conspiracy. _^<N__^<N_With discipline restored, Alexander invaded (327) the Punjab.
After conquering most of it, he was stopped from pressing on to the distant Ganges by a mutiny of the soldiers. Turning south, he marched down to the mouth of the Indus, engaging in some of the heaviest fighting and bloodiest massacres of the war.
He was nearly killed while assaulting a town. On reaching the Indian Ocean, he sent the Greek officer Nearchus with a fleet to explore the coastal route to Mesopotamia. Part of the army returned by a tolerable land route, while Alexander, with
the rest, marched back through the desert of southern Iran, chiefly to emulate various mythical figures said to have done this. He emerged to safety in the winter of 325-24, after the worst sufferings and losses of the entire campaign, to find his
personal control over the heart of the empire weakened by years of absence and rumors of his death. On his return, he executed several of his governors and senior officers and replaced others. _^<N__^<N_He also ordered the governors to dismiss
their mercenary armies, originally enrolled at his direction but now a cause of fear. Most of the mercenaries were exiled Greeks. The loss of their livelihood by tens of thousands of these men caused a grave social crisis. Alexander passed the
problem on to the Greek cities by arbitrarily commanding them to readmit all their exiles. One side effect was a move to offer him deification (which some Greeks in Anatolia had perhaps already begun to do) in order to obtain concessions. Though
the move was not due to his own initiative, this shows what he was thought to want. In Athens and perhaps elsewhere, the deification was passed after considerable resistance. _^<N__^<N_In the spring of 324, Alexander held a great victory
celebration at Susa. He and 80 close associates married Iranian noblewomen. In addition, he legitimized previous so-called marriages between soldiers and native women and gave them rich wedding gifts, no doubt to encourage such unions. When he
discharged the disabled Macedonian veterans a little later, after defeating a mutiny by the estranged and exasperated Macedonian army, they had to leave their wives and children with him. Because national prejudices had prevented the unification
of his empire, his aim was apparently to prepare a long-term solution (he was only 32) by breeding a new body of high nobles of mixed blood and also creating the core of a royal army attached only to himself. After his death, nearly all the noble
Susa marriages were dissolved. _^<N__^<N_In the autumn of 324, at Ecbatana, Alexander lost his boyhood friend Hephaestion, by then his grand vizier--probably the only person he had ever genuinely loved. The loss was irreparable. After deep
mourning, he embarked on a winter campaign in the mountains, then returned to Babylon, where he prepared an expedition for the conquest of Arabia. He died in June 323 without designating a successor. His death opened the anarchic age of the
DIADOCHI. _^<N__^<N_Alexander at once became a legend to the peoples that had seen him pass like a hurricane. Greek accounts from the start tended to blend almost incredible fact with pure fiction (for example, his meeting with the Queen of the
AMAZONS). In the Middle Ages, the Alexander Romance, developed from beginnings soon after his death, was favorite light reading. Modern scholars, ever since the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen (1808-84) used Philip II and Alexander to
embody his vision of the unification and expansion of Germany, have tended to make him a vehicle for their own dreams and ideals. The truth is difficult to disengage. The only clear features that emerge are Alexander's military genius and his
successful opportunism: his unequaled eye for a chance and his sense of timing in both war and politics. The only clear motive is the pursuit of glory: the urge to surpass the heroes of myth and to attain divinity. The success of his ambition,
at immense cost in human terms, spread a veneer of Greek culture far into central Asia, and some of it--supported and extended by the Hellenistic dynasties--lasted for a long time. It also led to an expansion of Greek horizons and to the
acceptance of the idea of a universal kingdom, which prepared the way for the Roman Empire. Moreover, it opened up the Greek world to new Oriental influences, which prepared the way for Christianity. _^<N__^<N_E. Badian _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Arrian, The Anabasis of Alexander, 2 vols., trans. by P. A. Blunt (1976-83); Borza, Eugene N., ed., The Impact of Alexander the Great (1976); Fox, Robin L. The Search for Alexander (1980); Green, Peter, Alexander the Great (1970); Griffith,
G. T., ed., Alexander the Great (1966); Hamilton, J. R., Alexander the Great (1973); Hammond, N. G. L., Three Historians of Alexander the Great (1984); Milns, R. D., Alexander the Great (1968); Tarn, W. W., Alexander the Great, 2 vols.
(1948); Wilcken, U., Alexander the Great, trans. by G. C. Richards, 2d ed., ed. by E. N. Borza (1967).
-END-
-C-
1092
CAT
-A-
Alexander Nevsky
-T-
Alexander Nevsky_^<N__^<N_Alexander Nevsky, b. c.1220, d. Nov. 14, 1263, was an outstanding Russian prince and military leader who earned his surname by defeating the Swedes at the mouth of the Neva River on July 15, 1240. He also won a famous
victory over the German order of Livonian Knights on the ice of Lake Peipus in 1242. Alexander was the son of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, prince of Novgorod. When his father became prince at Kiev in 1236, Alexander succeeded him as prince of Novgorod.
Alexander became grand prince of Vladimir in 1252. He pursued a policy of cooperation with the Mongol suzerains of Russia, who reciprocated by abandoning demands for Russian troops and by withdrawing tax collectors. Alexander was canonized
locally in Vladimir in 1380 and generally by the Russian Orthodox church in 1547. In 1942 the Soviet Military Order of Alexander Nevsky was reestablished. _^<N__^<N_Donald L. Layton _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Fennell, John, The Crisis of Medieval
Russia, 1200-1314 (1983); Grunwald, Constantin de, Saints of Russia (1960); Vernadsky, George, A History of Russia, rev. ed. (1961).
-END-
-C-
1572
CAT
-A-
Alexander v. Holmes County (Miss.) Board of Education
-T-
Alexander v. Holmes County (Miss.) Board of Education_^<N__^<N_In Alexander v. Holmes County (Miss.) Board of Education (1969) the Supreme Court held for the first time that the BROWN V. BOARD OF EDUCATION OF TOPEKA decision (1954), which
invalidated segregation in the public schools, was no longer to be enforced under the enunciated principle of "all deliberate speed." Instead, said the Court, "the obligation of every school district is to terminate dual school systems at once and
to operate now and hereafter only unitary schools." The case had reached the Supreme Court after a federal court of appeals had allowed 33 school districts in Mississippi additional time to integrate. _^<N__^<N_The Supreme Court declared that the
lower federal court had erred in granting a motion for additional time, since it had failed to realize that "all deliberate speed" was no longer "constitutionally permissible." The case appeared to emphasize the ruling in Green v. County School
Board of New Kent County (Virginia) in 1968, which had struck down a plan permitting all students to be assigned to the school of their choice. The Court had stated in the Green case that the school board must fashion steps that would realistically
convert promptly to a "system without a 'white' school and a 'Negro' school but just schools." Under the Court's initial ruling in the Brown case, the states had been ordered to abandon legally enforced segregation, but in Green and Alexander the
Court took the advanced position that the Constitution positively requires racially mixed schools. _^<N__^<N_Robert J. Steamer
-END-
-C-
756
CAT
-A-
Alexander of Hales
-T-
Alexander of Hales_^<N__^<N_Alexander of Hales, b. c.1186, d. Aug. 21, 1245, was an English scholastic philosopher and theologian. He began his formal training in arts, philosophy, and theology at the University of Paris when he was 15 years old and
became (c.1220) the first to lecture as a master on the Sentences of PETER LOMBARD. After a long and illustrious career, he became a FRANCISCAN friar in 1236 at the age of 50. With him came the right to a chair of theology at the University of
Paris, the first and only chair the Franciscans held. Under him the Franciscan John of la Rochelle became master and probably assembled the Summa Fratris Alexandri, which influenced the formation of a Franciscan school, notably through St.
Bonaventure. _^<N__^<N_James A. Weisheipl
-END-
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77
CAT
-A-
Alexander III, King of Macedonia:
-T-
Alexander III, King of Macedonia:_^<N__^<N_see ALEXANDER THE GREAT, KING OF MACEDONIA.
-END-
-C-
2418
CAT
-A-
Alexander I, Emperor of Russia
-T-
Alexander I, Emperor of Russia_^<N__^<N_Alexander I, b. Dec. 12, 1777, d. Nov. 19, 1825, became emperor of Russia on Mar. 12, 1801, following the murder of his father, PAUL I, by members of a conspiracy in which Alexander was indirectly
involved. Alexander had been taken from his parents at birth by his grandmother, CATHERINE II. Some historians see a key to his complex personality in the estrangement between his father and grandmother and in Alexander's feelings of guilt over
his father's assassination. _^<N__^<N_Intelligent and well-educated, Alexander was also vain, suspicious, and pedantic. He hoped to make Russia into a modern, efficient state, but his own uncertainty and irresolution barred the way to
comprehensive reform. Nevertheless, for nearly 20 years after coming to the throne, he toyed with one constitutional scheme after another and in 1815 was instrumental in the introduction of constitutions into Poland and the Grand Duchy of Finland.
_^<N__^<N_Alexander tended to rely upon favorites to formulate his reform projects. The earliest example was his Unofficial Committee, composed of four of his youthful companions. Subsequently, he turned to Mikhail Mikhailovich SPERANSKY, perhaps
one of the most gifted men of his age, and, following the defeat of NAPOLEON I, Aleksei Andreyevich Arakcheyev (1769-1834) became Alexander's most trusted servant. The results were few, and Alexander in his frustration turned to religious
mysticism, which strongly colored his domestic and foreign policies during the decade following 1812. The most notable example was his proposed HOLY ALLIANCE in 1815. _^<N__^<N_Alexander had some success, however. Although defeated by Napoleon at
Austerlitz (1805) and Friedland and forced to submit to the humiliating Treaty of Tilsit (1807), Russia endured Napoleon's invasion of 1812 and then played a leading role in the war of liberation and final defeat of the French. Europe's adulation
of Alexander as its liberator served to secure for him a place in history. Nevertheless, his failure to solve Russia's basic problems precipitated the DECEMBRIST revolt of 1825 and began the permanent disaffection of much of educated society.
_^<N__^<N_Forrestt A. Miller _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Almedingen, Edith, The Emperor Alexander I (1964); McConnell, Allen, Tsar Alexander I: Paternalistic Reformer (1970); Palmer, Alan, Alexander I: Tsar of War and Peace (1974); Troyat, Henri,
Alexander of Russia (1986).
-END-
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1954
CAT
-A-
Alexander II, Emperor of Russia
-T-
Alexander II, Emperor of Russia_^<N__^<N_Alexander II, b. Apr. 17, 1818, d. Mar. 1, 1881, emperor of Russia, emancipated the serfs by a proclamation of Feb. 19, 1861, and ushered in an era of reform. The changes included an overhaul of justice
and the courts, a tempering of censorship, autonomy for the universities, elected assemblies at the local and provincial levels, and universal military conscription. Alexander succeeded his father, NICHOLAS I, on Feb. 19, 1855, during the dark
days of the CRIMEAN WAR. The humiliating loss of that war and the national weaknesses it revealed undoubtedly played some role in Alexander's subsequent reform activity. Even so, a personal conviction that Russia had to modernize may have been at
least as important. _^<N__^<N_As an individual, Alexander II somewhat resembled his uncle, ALEXANDER I. Handsome, charming, and sentimental, he was also irresolute and often was persuaded by the last person to have his ear. Following attempts
upon his life, beginning in 1866, he lived in fear and closed himself off to all except a few favorites. Their influence gave a reactionary temper to the latter half of his reign. An assassin--a member of the People's Will, an extremist offshoot
of the NARODNIKI (populist movement)--finally succeeded in killing Alexander the same day that he signed a manifesto that would have created a national consultative assembly. The tragedy of Alexander's violent death was compounded by the failure
of his successor, ALEXANDER III, to implement this progressive act, thereby ending the moderate reforms that might have helped Russia avoid the revolutions of the 20th century. _^<N__^<N_Forrestt A. Miller _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Almedingen, E.
M., The Emperor Alexander II (1962); Field, Daniel, The End of Serfdom: Nobility and Bureaucracy in Russia, 1855-1861 (1976); Macey, David, Government and Peasants in Russia, 1861-1906 (1987); Morse, W. E., Alexander II and the Modernization of
Russia (1958).
-END-
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1378
CAT
-A-
Alexander III, Emperor of Russia
-T-
Alexander III, Emperor of Russia_^<N__^<N_Alexander III, b. Feb. 26, 1845, d. Oct. 20, 1894, emperor of Russia, was an ardent adherent of unfettered autocracy. Coming to the throne on Mar. 1, 1881, following the assassination of his father,
ALEXANDER II, he began his reign by repudiating the limited constitution his father had signed on the day of his death and by dismissing the more progressive ministers who had served his father. Blunt and unimaginative, Alexander acted more from
instinct than intellect. However, the influence of such persons as his former tutor, K. P. Pobedonostsev, and the publicist M. N. Katkov gave his actions both force and direction. _^<N__^<N_Much of Alexander's reign was spent in evading or undoing
the reforms of his father. A state of emergency, declared in August 1881 but lasting through the reign, circumvented the courts and gave imperial administrators arbitrary powers. Acts promulgated in 1889, 1890, and 1892 sharply circumscribed
autonomy at the provincial and municipal levels, and censorship prior to publication was reasserted in 1882. Conformity was enforced by a vigorous program of Russification that included considerable anti-Semitic legislation. Alexander's reign did
succeed in muting the voices of change, but the fundamental problems of Russian society remained unresolved and were more pressing than ever when he died. _^<N__^<N_Forrestt A. Miller
-END-
-C-
923
CAT
-A-
Alexander III, King of Scotland
-T-
Alexander III, King of Scotland_^<N__^<N_Alexander III, b. Sept. 4, 1241, d. Mar. 18-19, 1286, king of Scotland, succeeded his father, Alexander II, in 1249 while still a young boy. HENRY III of England took advantage of the situation by trying
to establish suzerainty (political control) over Scotland, but the bishop of St. Andrews, with help from the papacy, prevented it. In 1263 the Scottish king confronted Haakon IV of Norway concerning the possession of the Hebrides and defeated the
Norwegians in the Battle of Largs. Alexander established a united and economically prosperous Scotland. His sudden death, however--followed by that of his heir, Margaret, maid of Norway--opened the way for EDWARD I of England to intervene
drastically in Scottish affairs. _^<N__^<N_Charles H. Haws _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Barrow, G. W., Kingship and Unity: Scotland 1000-1306 (1981); Duncan, A. A. M., Scotland, the Making of the Kingdom (1975).
-END-
-C-
555
CAT
-A-
Alexander, King of Serbia
-T-
Alexander, King of Serbia_^<N__^<N_Alexander, b. Aug. 14, 1876, d. June 11, 1903, was the son of Milan Obrenovic, prince (1868-82) and then king (1882-89) of Serbia. On the abdication of his father, Alexander became king under a regency, but four
years later he proclaimed himself sole ruler. His marriage (1900) to Draga Masin, a widow, was unpopular and even more so was his pro-Austrian foreign policy. Alexander and Draga were assassinated by a group of pro-Russian officers. The Obrenovic
dynasty was eliminated and that of Karadjordjevic restored by PETER I.
-END-
-C-
841
CAT
-A-
Alexander, King of Yugoslavia
-T-
Alexander, King of Yugoslavia_^<N__^<N_Alexander, b. Dec. 16, 1888, first king of Yugoslavia, was the son of King PETER I of Serbia. In June 1914, Peter, being of poor health, appointed Alexander regent of Serbia. During World War I, Alexander was
the nominal commander in chief of the Serbian army. On his father's death (Aug. 16, 1921) he became king of the new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. Faced with great governmental instability caused mainly by discord between the Serbs and
Croats, Alexander abolished (Jan. 6, 1929) the constitution and instituted absolute rule, calling himself king of Yugoslavia. On Oct. 9, 1934, he was assassinated in Marseilles by a terrorist in the pay of a Croatian separatist group. He was
succeeded by his son PETER II. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Singleton, Fred, A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples (1985).
-END-
-C-
1366
CAT
-A-
Alexander III, Pope
-T-
Alexander III, Pope_^<N__^<N_Alexander III, b. c.1105, d. Aug. 30, 1181, was pope from Sept. 7, 1159, until his death. His name was Orlando Bandinelli. One of a continuing line of papal reformers in conflict with the German monarchy, he inherited a
war with FREDERICK I and was confronted with antipopes Victor IV, Paschal III, and Callistus III, who were created by Frederick. In these struggles with Frederick he obtained the support of HENRY II of England and Louis VII of France. Nonetheless,
he was forced to leave Rome in 1162 and go into exile in France, where the papal court settled at Sens from 1163 to 1165. He finally achieved a reconciliation with Frederick in 1177 owing to Frederick's defeats at the hands of the Italian communes.
During his pontificate he also had to moderate the quarrel between Thomas BECKET and Henry II of England. Alexander III was a recognized scholar. Earlier in his life, he had been a professor at Bologna, where he achieved a reputation for his
knowledge of THEOLOGY and CANON LAW. One of the great medieval popes, he fostered the scholastic revival of the 12th century. _^<N__^<N_David Harry Miller _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Baldwin, Marshall W., Alexander III and the Twelfth Century (1968);
Boso, Cardinal, Boso's Life of Alexander III, trans. by G. M. Ellis (1892; trans. 1973); Somerville, Robert, Pope Alexander III and the Council of Tours (1978).
-END-
-C-
1119
CAT
-A-
Alexander VI, Pope
-T-
Alexander VI, Pope_^<N__^<N_Alexander VI, b. c.1431, d. Aug. 18, 1503, was pope from 1492 to 1503. A Spaniard, his name was Rodrigo de Borja, rendered BORGIA in Italian. He was the nephew of Pope CALLISTUS III, who created him a cardinal in 1456;
his election to the papacy was accomplished largely through bribery. Alexander was denounced during his pontificate by the Florentine reformer Girolamo SAVONAROLA, who declared his election to the PAPACY invalid as a result of SIMONY. This led to
Savonarola's excommunication by Alexander in 1497 and to his execution as a heretic in 1498. _^<N__^<N_Of the RENAISSANCE popes, Alexander is the most notorious for political involvement in favor of his children and for the immorality of his
personal life. Some charges made against him are undoubtedly exaggerated, but even the most sympathetic historians have not been able to clear his name, which is almost synonymous with corruption in high ecclesiastical office. Although better
educated and more refined than CALLISTUS III, Alexander VI contributed comparatively little to the Renaissance as a patron of art and letters. _^<N__^<N_John W. O'Malley
-END-
-C-
991
CAT
-A-
Alexandra Fyodorovna, Empress of Russia
-T-
Alexandra Fyodorovna, Empress of Russia_^<N__^<N_{fyaw'-duh-rawv-nuh} _^<N__^<N_Alexandra Fyodorovna, empress of Russia, was the consort of NICHOLAS II, the last tsar. She was born on June 6, 1872, the daughter of the Grand Duke of Hesse-Darmstadt
and a granddaughter of Queen Victoria of Britain. Her original name, Alix, was changed before her marriage to Nicholas on Nov. 26, 1894. Alexandra was a determined, narrow-minded reactionary, with pretensions to mysticism, and she dominated her
irresolute husband. During World War I she became the virtual ruler of Russia, and the debauched monk Grigory Yefimovich RASPUTIN--who claimed healing power over the hemophiliac heir to the throne, Aleksei--was her chief advisor. After the
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION (1917), Alexandra with Nicholas and all their children were shot on the night of July 16-17, 1918, in Ekaterinburg (now Sverdlovsk). _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bird, Anthony, Empress Alexandra (1970); Massie, Robert K., Nicholas
and Alexandra (1967; repr. 1985).
-END-
-C-
635
CAT
-A-
Alexandrescu, Grigore
-T-
Alexandrescu, Grigore_^<N__^<N_{ul-ek-suhn-dres'-kue, gree-gor'-eh} _^<N__^<N_Grigore Alexandrescu, b. c.1812, d. Nov. 25 or 26, 1885, pioneered in the modernization of the Romanian language and in the renaissance of Romanian literature. In 1831 he
went to Bucharest to study and there he met other students having progressive ideas. Even though he was arrested for political activities, he later gained posts in the civil service. Much of his poetry is weak. More interesting are his fables
satirizing politics and society, published in Meditatii, elegii, epistole, satire si fabule (Meditations, Elegies, Letters, Satires, and Fables, 1863). _^<N__^<N_Eric Tappe
-END-
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3573
CATO
-A-
Alexandria (Egypt)
-O-
000000|Alexandria (Egypt)
001086| Contemporary City
001750| History
-T-
Alexandria (Egypt)_^<N__^<N_Alexandria (Arabic: al-Iskandariya) is the chief port and second largest city of Egypt. The population is 2,917,327 (1986). Alexandria is located on the west side of the Nile Delta on a strip of land between Lake
Maryut and the Mediterranean Sea. An isthmus about 1.5 km (1 mi) wide connects the former island of Pharos with the mainland, separating the East and West harbors. The West Harbor serves as the city's port and has modern facilities. The inner
harbor of the West Harbor is protected on three sides (by a breakwater, Pharos, and the isthmus) from Mediterranean storms. The West Harbor was joined to the Nile by a canal early in the 19th century. _^<N__^<N_Alexandria enjoys a Mediterranean
climate. Annual precipitation averages less than 250 mm (10 in), coming mostly during November, December, and January; little or no rain falls in the summer. January is the coolest month, with an average temperature of 18 deg C (64 deg F);
August is the warmest, with an average of 31 deg C (87 deg F). The pleasant climate and sandy beaches make Alexandria a favorite tourist spot. _^<N__^<N_ Contemporary City_^<N__^<N_Isthmian Alexandria is characteristically Egyptian. The European
quarter stands on the mainland south of the East Harbor. The city has numerous mosques, palaces, monuments, parks, and gardens. A suburb, al-Raml, with its fine beaches, is known as the Egyptian Riviera. The West Harbor is the commercial center
and has numerous warehouses for cotton, sugar, foodstuffs, grain, and wool. Industries in the city include oil refining, motor-vehicle assembly, food processing, and textile weaving. The bulk of Egypt's foreign trade passes through the port of
Alexandria. Excellent railroads and highways connect it with Cairo and other cities. _^<N__^<N_ History_^<N__^<N_For more than 2,000 years Alexandria was the largest city of Egypt. It was founded in 332 BC by Alexander the Great and was well
planned. About 6.5 km (4 mi) in length and 2-3 km (1-2 mi) in width, it had streets crossing at right angles. Two main avenues, the present-day Fuad and Nebi Daniel streets, were then as now the center of the commercial, cultural, and political
life of the city. A lighthouse, one of the SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD, was built on the island of Pharos in 280 BC. The island was later connected to the mainland by an isthmus, called the Heptastadium, enclosing the Port of Pharos, now the East
Harbor. _^<N__^<N_Famous buildings in the early city included the Temple of Serapis, the Temple of Poseidon, the Soma (mausoleum of Alexander the Great and the Ptolemies), a museum, a theater, an emporium, and the Alexandrian Library, founded by
PTOLEMY I. Under the Ptolemies, the city was the literary and scientific center of the Hellenistic world. Later, under the Romans, its location made it the center of world commerce. Many artifacts from the ancient city are displayed in the
Greco-Roman Museum. _^<N__^<N_Alexandria was captured by the Arabs in AD 642 and nearly destroyed by them. The lighthouse was devastated by an earthquake in 1324. The new lighthouse that took its place stands at Ras el-Tin, overlooking the West
Harbor. Napoleon Bonaparte held the city from 1798 to 1801. In 1882, Alexandria was bombarded and occupied by the British, and during World Wars I and II it served as a British naval base. Emigration of the once large foreign community since the
1950s has made Alexandria a more Egyptian city. _^<N__^<N_W. A. Bladen _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Forster, E.M., Alexandria: A History and Guide, 2d ed. (1938; repr. 1974); Fraser, P.M., Ptolemaic Alexandria, 2 vols. (1984).
-END-
-C-
463
CAT
-A-
Alexandria (Louisiana)
-T-
Alexandria (Louisiana)_^<N__^<N_Alexandria (1990 census, 49,188), a city in central Louisiana, is the seat of Rapides Parish. Settled in the 1760s, surveyed and named in 1805, and incorporated in 1819, the city became a cotton, sugarcane, and
cattle center. It was burned (1864) by Union forces during the Civil War. Recovery came with the arrival of the railroad and the reestablishment of forestry. Today, farm products and livestock complement the forestry industry.
-END-
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877
CAT
-A-
Alexandria (Virginia)
-T-
Alexandria (Virginia)_^<N__^<N_Alexandria is a city in northern Virginia, on the west bank of the Potomac River, 10 km (6 mi) south of Washington, D.C. It has a population of 111,183 (1990 census). A residential community and commercial center,
the city has many old buildings that make it a tourist attraction. The site was first settled in 1670; in 1732 Scottish merchants founded a village, which they named Belhaven. In 1749, by act of the Virginia House of Burgesses, the town was
established and renamed Alexandria. Although Alexandria was included in the boundaries of the District of Columbia in 1791, it was returned to Virginia in 1846 as an independent city, free of county affiliations (which it remains). The city was
occupied by Union troops throughout the Civil War. The estate of George WASHINGTON (who helped lay out Alexandria's streets) is 15 km (9 mi) south.
-END-
-C-
692
CAT
-A-
alexandrine
-T-
alexandrine_^<N__^<N_{al-ig-zan'-drin} _^<N__^<N_The alexandrine is a 12-syllable line of verse composed of 6 iambic feet. The term is probably derived from the late 12th-century poem Roman d'Alexandre and other elevated verse celebrating Alexander
the Great. The alexandrine has been a standard meter in French poetry since the 16th century, used in such classical works as the tragedies of RACINE. It is also an important feature of Dutch and German poetry. A celebrated example of the
alexandrine in English literature, where it is called iambic hexameter, is in SPENSER's The Faerie Queene (1590-96), where it concludes the last line of each stanza. _^<N__^<N_J. A. Cuddon _^<N__^<N_See also: FAERIE QUEENE, THE; VERSIFICATION.
-END-
-C-
672
CAT
-A-
Alexeyev, Vasily
-T-
Alexeyev, Vasily_^<N__^<N_{ah-lek-syay'-ef} _^<N__^<N_Vasily Alexeyev, b. Jan. 7, 1942, an extraordinary Soviet weight lifter, won the Olympic Games superheavyweight class in 1972 and again in 1976. He also won 8 consecutive world championships
(1970-77) and set 80 world records. At the time of his Olympic victory in Montreal (1976), Alexeyev, an engineer, weighed 156 kg (345 lb). He had a 162-cm (60-in) chest, 53-cm (21-in) biceps, and 86-cm (34-in) thighs. He set an Olympic record that
year by lifting a combined 440 kg (970 lb)--185.1 kg (408 lb) for the snatch and 254.9 kg (562 lb) for the clean-and-jerk. After a poor performance at the 1980 Moscow Olympics, he virtually retired.
-END-
-C-
962
CAT
-A-
Alexis, Tsar of Russia
-T-
Alexis, Tsar of Russia_^<N__^<N_Alexis, b. Mar. 10, 1629, d. Jan. 29, 1676, tsar of Russia (1645-76), was a religious and humane but authoritarian ruler. He was the son of Tsar MICHAEL, the first of the ROMANOV dynasty to rule Russia. Alexis's
reign was beset by popular revolts, the most serious being that of the DON COSSACKS under Stenka Razin. Alexis harshly suppressed this (1671) and other uprisings. Russian expansion continued under Alexis with the acquisition (1667) from Poland of
much territory, part of the later Ukraine. The religious reforms enacted by the patriarch NIKON, which led to the great schism within the Russian church, also occurred during Alexis's reign. Alexis was succeeded by his son Fyodor III, who was in
turn succeeded (1682) by his brothers Ivan V and PETER I under the regency of SOPHIA. _^<N__^<N_Donald L. Layton _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bergamini, John, The Tragic Dynasty: The History of Romanovs (1969); Fuhrman, J. T., Tsar Alexis (1981).
-END-
-C-
1069
CAT
-A-
Alexius I Comnenus, Byzantine emperor
-T-
Alexius I Comnenus, Byzantine emperor_^<N__^<N_{kuhm-nee'-nus} _^<N__^<N_Alexius I Comnenus, b. c.1048, d. Aug. 15, 1118, ruled the Byzantine Empire from 1081 to 1118. With the support of the army and his numerous relatives, he usurped the throne
from Nicephorus III. Alexius found the empire beset by foes: SELJUKS occupied the Asian provinces, PECHENEGS ravaged the Danubian regions, and NORMANS from southern Italy attacked Epirus. From 1081 to 1092 he was engaged in defeating the Normans
and Pechenegs. In 1097-98 he utilized the victories of the First CRUSADE over the Seljuk Turks at Nicaea and Dorylaeum to regain the coastal regions of Anatolia. From 1099 to 1104 he contended with BOHEMOND I for Antioch; then in 1107-08 he
overcame Bohemond's army in Epirus. Internally, Alexius reformed the monetary and taxation systems. Well educated himself, he vigorously repressed the unorthodox philosopher John Italus and the BOGOMIL heretics. After his death, he was succeeded by
his son, JOHN II. _^<N__^<N_C. M. Brand _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Comnena, Anna, The Alexiad, trans. by E. R. A. Sewter (1969).
-END-
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2808
CATO
-A-
alfalfa
-O-
000000|alfalfa
000822| The Plant
001747| Harvesting
002378| Uses
-T-
alfalfa_^<N__^<N_Alfalfa, Medicago sativa, a legume forage plant belonging to the pea family Leguminosae, has been an animal feed longer than any other forage crop. Alfalfa was planted in hot, dry regions of Mesopotamia before recorded history.
The seed was taken to South America by Spanish explorers during the 16th century. _^<N__^<N_The first attempts to produce alfalfa in North America were made in Georgia in 1736, but the crop did not become important until it was taken from Chile to
California, where it flourished in the favorable climate. Alfalfa now is grown throughout the world under extremely varied climatic conditions. The United States produces between 73,000 and 82,000 metric tons (80,000 and 90,000 U. S. tons)
annually. Leading producers include Wisconsin, California, Minnesota, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, and Nebraska. _^<N__^<N_ The Plant_^<N__^<N_Alfalfa is a perennial plant and will under normal conditions live for six or more years. Its shoots may
grow to stems of more than 1 m (3 ft). The plant produces compound leaves and yellow to purplish-blue flowers, and kidney-shaped seeds develop inside the curled pods. The roots are extraordinarily long, often extending more than 7 m (25 ft) deep,
which makes alfalfa an ideal crop for dry climates. It also enriches soil with nitrogen. _^<N__^<N_Alfalfa will grow in a wide variety of conditions, but it does best in deep, loamy, well-drained soils. It responds well to irrigation and to
fertilizers. Alfalfa seed is generally planted with grain drills--in the spring in cooler climates or in the fall if winter temperatures are moderate. Alfalfa can be sown with other grains, such as oats, to reduce weed growth. When sown for
pasture, it is sometimes mixed with rye, bromegrass, bluegrass, timothy, or fescue. _^<N__^<N_ Harvesting_^<N__^<N_Procedures used to harvest alfalfa depend on the yield, nutritional quality, and physical condition desired. The maximum yield
occurs when the plant is cut at full bloom, but other considerations such as stem size, moisture, and vitamin content may alter cutting time. Cuttings range from two to seven or eight a year, depending on environmental conditions.
_^<N__^<N_Harvesting procedures differ throughout the world. Generally, however, alfalfa is cut with a mowing machine and windrowed to permit drying. Modern, self-propelled combine cutters and choppers are used to collect the alfalfa for either
silage or dehydration. _^<N__^<N_ Uses_^<N__^<N_Extremely nutritious, alfalfa is valuable for feeding all kinds of livestock. It is used for pasture, soil building, for dehydration, as meal, or as silage. Dehydrated alfalfa is a common ingredient
of feedstuffs and supplies vitamins, protein, lipids, and minerals. Approximately 454,000 metric tons (500,000 U.S. tons) of alfalfa hay meal are used annually in mixed feed in the United States. _^<N__^<N_J. A. Shellenberger
-END-
-C-
1466
CAT
-A-
Alfieri, Vittorio
-T-
Alfieri, Vittorio_^<N__^<N_{ahl-feeay'-ree} _^<N__^<N_Vittorio Alfieri, b. Jan. 16, 1749, d. Oct. 8, 1803, a tragic poet, became the prophet of Italian political and cultural resurgence, or RISORGIMENTO. His nationalist sentiments inspired
later generations in the arduous task of Italian unification. A member of an aristocratic family in Asti, he achieved early success with a play, Cleopatra (1775). In 1777 he fell in love with the Louise Stolberg, countess of Albany, with whom he
lived after her separation from her husband, Charles Edward Stuart (Bonnie Prince Charlie), pretender to the English throne. Alfieri's works reflect both his reading of French philosophers (VOLTAIRE, ROUSSEAU) and the general tenor of the age.
They include classical dramas (Filippo, 1783; Saul, 1787); prose political works (Della tirannide, 1777; On Tyranny, 1961); and poetic political works (America libera, 1782-83; Parigi sbastigliata, 1789). His themes primarily concern the
struggle of heroic individuals for liberty and freedom against tyranny and oppression. In Il Misogallo (The French Hater, 1790-99), he inveighed against the French and voiced pro-Italian feelings. The Vita (1803; Memoirs, 2 vols., 1810; The
Life, 1949) offers many insights into the events of Alfieri's age and their effect on him. _^<N__^<N_Christopher Kleinhenz _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Megaro, Gaudens, Vittorio Alfieri, Forerunner of Italian Nationalism (1930; repr. 1971); Miller,
C., Alfieri, a Biography (1936).
-END-
-C-
687
CAT
-A-
Alfonsin, Raul
-T-
Alfonsin, Raul_^<N__^<N_{al-fon-seen'} _^<N__^<N_Raul Ricardo Alfonsin Foulkes, b. Mar. 12, 1927, was president of Argentina from 1983 to 1989. A lawyer, former congressman, and Radical party leader, he took office on Dec. 10, 1983, ending nearly
8 years of military rule. As president he successfully moved to prosecute high military officers responsible for the disappearance of at least 9,000 persons in the 1970s. Military pressure in 1987, however, forced him to to back an amnesty law
for most officers. Although Alfonsin took measures to improve Argentina's economy, economic problems persisted and eventually became severe. He was succeeded as president in 1989 by Carlos MENEM, a Peronista.
-END-
-C-
692
CAT
-A-
Alfonso V, King of Aragon (Alfonso the Magnanimous)
-T-
Alfonso V, King of Aragon (Alfonso the Magnanimous)_^<N__^<N_Alfonso V, b. 1396, d. June 27, 1458, king of Aragon and Sicily (1416-58), also acquired the kingdom of Naples. Queen Joan II of Naples (r. 1414-35) adopted him as her heir, but she
later changed her mind and offered Naples to Louis of Anjou. By 1442 Alfonso V had overcome all opposition and entered Naples in triumph. Thereafter he participated actively in Italian politics, to the neglect of the kingdom of Aragon. His
nickname was bestowed because he was a notable patron of Renaissance humanists. On his death he left Aragon and Sicily to his brother John II and Naples to his illegitimate son FERDINAND I. _^<N__^<N_Joseph F. O'Callaghan
-END-
-C-
689
CAT
-A-
Alfonso I, King of Portugal
-T-
Alfonso I, King of Portugal_^<N__^<N_Alfonso I, b. c.1109, d. 1185, was the first king of Portugal. The son of Henry of Burgundy (d. 1112), count of Portugal, and of Teresa, illegitimate daughter of Alfonso VI of Castile, Alfonso seized control of
Portugal from his mother in 1128. He resisted the domination of the neighboring Spanish kingdoms and attacked the Muslim lands south of Coimbra with the help of foreign crusaders. He conquered Santarem and Lisbon in 1147 and Evora in 1165. Though
Alfonso had claimed the title of king for 40 years, the papacy did not officially recognize him until 1179. By the time he died, he had firmly established the independence of Portugal. _^<N__^<N_Daniel R. Headrick
-END-
-C-
680
CAT
-A-
Alfonso II, King of Portugal
-T-
Alfonso II, King of Portugal_^<N__^<N_Alfonso II, b. c.1185, d. Mar. 25, 1223, king of Portugal from 1211, displayed deep concern with legal matters and clashed with the church. Succeeding his father, Sancho I, he helped Castile defeat the Moors in
the important victory of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212) and later (1217) captured Alcacer do Sal from the Moors. Alfonso was especially interested in the compilation of Portuguese law regarding personal and property rights. In an attempt to curtail the
power of the church, he investigated the legal titles of church properties and attacked various abuses by clergy and aristocrats. As a result he was excommunicated in 1220. _^<N__^<N_Daniel R. Headrick
-END-
-C-
821
CAT
-A-
Alfonso III, King of Portugal
-T-
Alfonso III, King of Portugal_^<N__^<N_Alfonso III, b. May 5, 1210, d. Feb. 16, 1279, king of Portugal, completed the reconquest of Portugal by winning the Algarve from the Moors. The younger son of ALFONSO II, he assumed powers as regent (1245)
when his brother, Sancho II, was deposed by the pope, and became king (1248) on Sancho's death. The conquest of the Algarve in 1249 provoked a quarrel with ALFONSO X of Castile, but this was eventually settled by a marriage alliance. Also embroiled
in conflict with the church over seizures of church lands, Alfonso broadened internal support for himself by summoning (1254) representatives of the towns to the Cortes (advisory council) for the first time. He also introduced administrative
reforms and promoted commercial and cultural development. He was succeeded by his son, DINIS.
-END-
-C-
652
CAT
-A-
Alfonso VI, King of Leon and Castile
-T-
Alfonso VI, King of Leon and Castile_^<N__^<N_Alfonso VI, d. 1109, Spanish king of Leon (1065-1109) and Castile (1072-1109), is best known for his capture of Toledo, the ancient Visigothic capital, from the Moors in 1085. With that victory he
advanced his frontier to the Tagus River and the center of the Iberian peninsula. French and papal influence were especially marked in his reign, as he welcomed the monks of Cluny and encouraged the adoption of the Roman liturgy in place of the
Mozarabic. The marriage of his two daughters to French nobles resulted in the establishment of the Burgundian dynasties in Leon, Castile, and Portugal. _^<N__^<N_Joseph F. O'Callaghan
-END-
-C-
898
CAT
-A-
Alfonso X, King of Castile (Alfonso the Wise)
-T-
Alfonso X, King of Castile (Alfonso the Wise)_^<N__^<N_Alfonso X, b. Nov. 23, 1221, d. Apr. 4, 1284, Spanish king of Castile and Leon (1252-84), won distinction as a scholar but failed as a statesman. Known as Alfonso the Wise, he set scholars to
work compiling a law code, the Siete Partidas, and a General History of Spain, as well as translating scientific texts from Arabic to Castilian. He also wrote poems, chiefly in honor of the Virgin Mary. In 1257 Alfonso was elected Holy Roman
emperor (in opposition to the English claimant, Richard, earl of Cornwall), and he spent great sums vainly trying to gain recognition. His attempts to impose legal uniformity and his increasing taxation, coupled with a dispute over the succession,
caused his son Sancho to rebel against him in 1282. Civil war ensued. At his death he was unreconciled with his son, who succeeded him as Sancho IV. _^<N__^<N_Joseph F. O'Callaghan
-END-
-C-
594
CAT
-A-
Alfonso XII, King of Spain
-T-
Alfonso XII, King of Spain_^<N__^<N_King Alfonso XII, b. Nov. 28, 1857, d. Nov. 25, 1885, is remembered for bringing peace to Spain after years of civil war. Exiled with his mother, Isabella II, in 1868 he returned as king in January 1875. His
second wife, Maria Cristina of Austria, bore him two daughters and a son (later ALFONSO XIII). Alfonso, a weak monarch, left politics to his premiers, especially Antonio Canovas del Castillo (1828-97). During his reign the constitution of 1876 was
enacted, the CARLISTS were defeated, and the TEN YEARS' WAR in Cuba ended (1878) in a truce. _^<N__^<N_Daniel R. Headrick
-END-
-C-
1567
CAT
-A-
Alfonso XIII, King of Spain
-T-
Alfonso XIII, King of Spain_^<N__^<N_Alfonso XIII, king of Spain from 1886 to 1931, lost his throne because he became too involved in politics. Born on May 17, 1886, a few months after his father, ALFONSO XII, had died, he was proclaimed king at
birth, with his mother Maria Cristina of Austria as regent. He grew up amid officers and learned to love the army. In 1906 he married Victoria Eugenia of Battenberg, a granddaughter of Queen Victoria of Britain. _^<N__^<N_At age 16 Alfonso began to
impose his views on his ministers. Because Spanish political life was unstable and corrupt, his influence was often decisive. During World War I he kept Spain strictly neutral. In 1921 he appointed his friend Gen. Fernandez Silvestre to a high
command in Morocco. When Silvestre was defeated at Anual (1922) by Moroccan rebels under ABD EL-KRIM, an investigation revealed that the king had encouraged his general to move rashly into the rebels' territory. To hide the scandal, Alfonso
supported the 1923 coup d'etat of Gen. Miguel PRIMO DE RIVERA and the dictatorship that followed. _^<N__^<N_After Primo de Rivera left Spain in 1930, Alfonso tried to remain king, but his popularity was damaged by his association with the dictator.
A republican landslide in municipal elections in 1931 convinced him that he should leave Spain. Alfonso died on Feb. 28, 1941, having abdicated his rights to his third son, Juan, whose son JUAN CARLOS was restored to the throne in 1975.
_^<N__^<N_Daniel R. Headrick _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Petrie, Charles, King Alfonso XIII and His Age (1963); Pilapil, Vincente R., Alfonso XIII (1969).
-END-
-C-
2252
CAT
-A-
Alfred, King of England
-T-
Alfred, King of England_^<N__^<N_Alfred, b. 849, d. Oct. 26, 899, succeeded his brother AEthelred as king of WESSEX in April 871. Both he and his brother were sons of King AEthelwulf. The only English king called "the Great," Alfred is renowned
both for his ability as a war leader and for his love of learning. He can be counted, with CHARLEMAGNE, as one of the two most outstanding rulers of the 9th century. _^<N__^<N_Alfred was the first English monarch to plan systematically for the
defense of his realm against the Danes, with whom he was almost constantly at war from 876 until the end of his life. He was also the first monarch of an English kingdom to become a symbol and focus of national unity. Although effective ruler only
of Wessex and English MERCIA, he was regarded as the protector of all the English living under Danish rule. His capture of London in 886, which marked the farthest extent of his essentially defensive territorial expansion, led to general English
recognition of his leadership. After his death, however, Wessex and Mercia were still unable to expel the Danes from England. _^<N__^<N_A learned layman, Alfred tried to ensure that his countrymen had the opportunity to become literate. To that
end, he relied upon the bishops of the Anglo-Saxon church both to teach and to seek out students. Alfred himself translated into Anglo-Saxon the Pastoral Care of Pope Gregory I, Orosius' Seven Books of History against the Pagans, Boethius'
Consolation of Philosophy, (possibly) the Ecclesiastical History of the Venerable Bede, and part of St. Augustine of Hippo's Soliloquies. To each of these except the fourth he added his own commentary. Alfred's military victories saved English
culture and national identity from destruction, and his intellectual activities began the education of his people in the Latin heritage. _^<N__^<N_James W. Alexander _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Duckett, Eleanor S., Alfred the Great (1956); Frantzen,
Allen, King Alfred (1986); Helm, P. J., Alfred the Great (1963); Loyn, Henry R., Alfred the Great (1967); Mapp, Alf Johnson, The Golden Dragon: Alfred the Great and His Time (1974); Stevenson, W. H., ed., Asser's Life of King Alfred (1904;
repr. 1959); Woodruff, Douglas, The Life and Times of Alfred the Great (1974).
-END-
-C-
895
CAT
-A-
Alfven, Hannes
-T-
Alfven, Hannes_^<N__^<N_{ahl-vayn', hah'-nes} _^<N__^<N_The Swedish astrophysicist Hannes Olof Alfven, b. May 30, 1908, shared the 1970 Nobel Prize in physics for his investigation of the properties of diffuse ionized gas, or PLASMA, in
interstellar space, and in particular for his discovery of fixed electromagnetic field lines within plasmas. Alfven received his Ph.D. from Uppsala University in Sweden in 1934, served as a researcher at the Nobel Physics Institute, and from 1940
to 1973 was professor at the Royal Swedish Institute. Since 1967 he has taught at the University of California at San Diego. At first relegated to little-known journals because of his unorthodox approach, Alfven's theories are now widely applied
in astronomy and thermonuclear reactors. _^<N__^<N_Michael Meo _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Lubkin, G. B., "Nobel Laureates for 1970: Hannes Alfven and Louis Neel," in Physics Today 23:61-63 (Dec. 1970).
-END-
-C-
39
CAT
-A-
Alfven waves:
-T-
Alfven waves:_^<N__^<N_see MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS.
-END-
-C-
13534
CATO
4810
9620
-A-
algae
-O-
000000|algae
001441| REPRODUCTION
003041| CLASSIFICATION
004785| Cyanophyta
006100| Euglenophyta
006785| Yellow-green and Golden-brown Algae
008085| Pyrrophyta
008733| Rhodophyta
009299| Chlorophyta
010678| Phaeophyta
011029| ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
012476| HARMFUL EFFECTS
-T-
algae_^<N__^<N_Algae are a diverse group of primarily aquatic, mostly plantlike organisms that occur in such dissimilar forms as microscopic single cells, loose, filmy conglomerations, matted or branched colonies, or giant seaweeds with rootlike
holdfasts and structures resembling stems and leaves. _^<N__^<N_Most of the algae have characteristics in common with plants, in that they have cell walls, contain the green pigment CHLOROPHYLL, and manufacture their own food through the process of
PHOTOSYNTHESIS. The chlorophyll may be masked by other pigments, giving the various types of algae predominantly different colors. Some types, more animallike, are motile (capable of moving about) and ingest organic food, although they may also
contain chlorophyll and conduct photosynthesis. Soft, even gelatinous cell surfaces are usual, but some types form shells or scales, and others produce stony, corallike, or calcareous, deposits. _^<N__^<N_Algae are worldwide in distribution,
thriving in all bodies of water, rocky coastlines, and terrestrial environments with ample moisture. Some species are adapted to such extremes of temperature as hot springs or arctic snows. Others survive in sandy soils or deserts. The habitats
of marine and coastal algae vary according to degree of wave action, height of tides, and the light intensity required for photosynthesis; the various algal types are found in distinct zones or layers in the oceans and on beaches and cliffs.
_^<N__^<N_ REPRODUCTION_^<N__^<N_Methods of reproduction in algae may be vegetative by division of a single cell or fragmentation of a colony, asexual by production of motile spores (zoospores) or thick-walled nonmotile spores, or sexual by union
of gametes (sex cells). The gametes may be identical (isogametes), differentiated into male and female (anisogametes), or markedly differentiated (heterogametes) into small, motile male cells and large, nonmotile female cells. Many species of
algae reproduce by an ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS, requiring separate asexual and sexual organisms to complete a life cycle. _^<N__^<N_Isogamy is the most common reproductive mode of the green algae and may have been present in the first plants that
evolved. The isogametes, that is, sex cells that are not distinguishably male or female, shed their cell walls and slowly fuse their cytoplasm and nuclei, forming a single cell with two sets of genes. The zygote (the first stage of a new organism)
develops a thick, protective wall and germinates when conditions are favorable, somewhat like a plant seed. The zygote divides to produce four new haploid cells (one set of genes in each cell), which are released into the surroundings. In some
algae, three of the haploid cells fail to develop in the zygote. The haploid stages of the life cycle predominate, because the only diploid stage (two sets of genes in a cell) is the zygote itself. In other algae, notably the complex seaweed, the
diploid generation is large with an extended phase, and the haploid generation is microscopic and brief. Many intermediate variations are found. _^<N__^<N_ CLASSIFICATION_^<N__^<N_Algae are differentiated mainly by cell structure, composition of
pigment, nature of the food reserve, and the presence, quantity, and structure of flagella. The following phyla, or divisions, are recognized: blue-green algae (Cyanophyta); euglenids (Euglenophyta); yellow-green and golden-brown algae
(Chrysophyta); dinoflagellates and similar types (Pyrrophyta); red algae (Rhodophyta); green algae (Chlorophyta); and brown algae (Phaeophyta). A rare class of Pyrrophyta, Cryptophyceae, are sometimes placed in a separate phylum, Cryptophyta.
_^<N__^<N_In systems that divide life into plant and animal kingdoms, algae have been traditionally classified as plants and placed, along with bacteria and fungi, in the subkingdom Thallophyta. A thallophyte is negatively defined by the plant
features that the cell or thallus (plant body) lacks: roots, stems, leaves, and embryo formation within a parent plant. Some motile algae that ingest food, such as euglenids, have been placed in the animal kingdom by zoologists. In systems that
divide life into several kingdoms, algae are divided among the kingdoms MONERA, PROTISTA, and Plantae according to their complexity of organization and their evolutionary relationships. Blue-green algae are placed with bacteria in the most
primitive kingdom, Monera, comprising single-celled organisms that have no cell nucleus. Single-celled free-living and colonial algae (euglenids, yellow-green and golden-brown, dinoflagellates) are placed in the kingdom Protista. Multicellular or
multinucleatic algae with characteristics more closely resembling higher plants (red, green, brown, and stoneworts) are placed in the kingdom Plantae in some schemes but are considered protists in others. _^<N__^<N_ Cyanophyta_^<N__^<N_Members of
the BLUE-GREEN ALGAE, Cyanophyta, offer classification difficulties and are placed by some biologists among the bacteria. They are somewhat larger than most bacteria but resemble them in structure and most functions. Unlike true algae they are
procaryotes, or one-celled organisms, lacking organelles such as a nucleus (although DNA is present in the cytoplasm) and chloroplasts (although photosynthetic pigments are present in some forms). Unlike bacteria, however, no Cyanophyta exhibit
sexual reproduction; nor do any have flagella, although a few forms are motile by unknown means. Cyanophyta also have chlorophyll a, which no photosynthetic bacterium possesses, and they produce gaseous oxygen as a waste product just as do all
other algae but no bacterium. Fossil masses of simple cells about 3.5 million years old, called STROMATOLITES, which strongly resemble Cyanophyta, are of great significance in having most probably been the major or original contributors to the
formation of the oxygen blanket that made possible the evolution of higher life forms. Some Cyanophyta are able to fix atmospheric nitrogen, which is of great ecological importance. Others are thermophiles ("heat-lovers") that represent a large
percentage of the life found in hot or boiling springs or pools. _^<N__^<N_ Euglenophyta_^<N__^<N_The Euglenophyta are free-swimming one-celled organisms of a wormlike shape; they lack cell walls and usually have one or two flagella and a red,
light-sensitive eye-spot. Most species are green but contain other pigments besides chlorophyll. Some subsist both by photosynthesis and by ingesting other organisms. Because of their ambiguous form, they have been claimed as animals by some
zoologists and as plants by some botanists. Reproduction is by diploid cell division following MITOSIS, in rare instances by sexual means. The best known and the most representative of the phylum is EUGLENA, found in ponds and frequently studied
in classrooms and laboratories. _^<N__^<N_ Yellow-green and Golden-brown Algae_^<N__^<N_The phylum Chrysophyta contains diverse marine and freshwater algae that are free-living, one-celled, or occasionally filamentous. Many form shells composed of
silica or lime. Most have one or two flagella. Chrysophyta are grouped mainly by color, ranging from yellowish-green through golden to golden-brown, depending on the proportion of chlorophyll to carotene and xanthophyll, yellow and brownish
pigments. Chlorophylls a and e have been reported, and many forms store oil rather than starch. Modes of reproduction vary. The best known are the biflagellate DIATOMS, the most abundant of the marine plankton. Sometimes called the "grass of the
sea," they produce more oxygen than all green land plants combined. Their glasslike, silica-impregnated walls are composed of two pieces that fit together like a box with its lid. Diatoms reproduce by simple cell division as well as by union of
gametes. In asexual reproduction the box and the lid separate, and each becomes the top of a new box. In most species the new cells that started as bottoms are always smaller than their parents; if this process continued indefinitely one cell
line would finally vanish. Sexual reproduction largely solves this problem by yielding new shells that are full-sized. _^<N__^<N_ Pyrrophyta_^<N__^<N_The phylum Pyrrophyta, commonly called dinoflagellates, are one-celled free-swimming
biflagellates abundant in tropical waters. They contain chlorophyll, carotene, and a large proportion of a golden-brown xanthophyll. One flagellum surrounds the organism and the other trails. Many have a cellulose wall arranged in two
interlocking plates; a few resemble AMOEBA and ingest organic food. Dinoflagellates are second in importance to diatoms as providers of oxygen and as a base in the food chain. Many generate light when disturbed (see BIOLUMINESCENCE) and glow at
night in tropical seas. Reproduction is usually by cell division. _^<N__^<N_ Rhodophyta_^<N__^<N_The red algae are multicellular branching filamentous seaweeds, abundant in warm coastal waters. Their color is primarily derived from the pigment
phycoerythrin, which enables them to utilize light for photosynthesis at much deeper ocean levels than any other marine algae. Most have gelatinous cell walls. Some species concentrate lime from seawater; their secretions and skeletons contribute
to the formation of coral reefs. Reproduction is various and can proceed in elaborate stages. The red algae are the only phylum that produce no motile cells. _^<N__^<N_ Chlorophyta_^<N__^<N_The green algae variously occur as single cells, as scum
or film, as filamentous branching, or matted colonies, or as multicellular marine forms with leaflike fronds. They are diverse in habitat and are the most conspicuous algal type, forming in ponds and streams, on rocks and trees and almost any damp
surfaces, including the hair and claws of certain animals and even the shells of turtles. They are also common in soils. The green algae, typically grass green in color, are characterized by their resemblance to the higher plants rather than to
other algae in pigment content (the same proportions of chlorophylls a and e and carotene), in food storage (starch), and in cell walls (true cellulose). This has suggested to scientists that the higher plants are directly descended from the
Chlorophyta. Reproduction can be arranged in an evolutionary fashion through the diverse groups, from simple cell fusion to highly differentiated cells functioning as sperm and egg in the Volvox. The most common algae found as a mat on rocks and
tree trunks is the genus Protococcus, which multiplies by cell division and may also combine with fungus as various lichens. The STONEWORTS, which are often covered with lime, differ from all other algae in having a multicellular reproductive
structure and are placed by some biologists in a separate division, Charophyta. _^<N__^<N_ Phaeophyta_^<N__^<N_The brown algae, Phaeophyta, possess the brown pigment fucoxanthin that masks the green color of chlorophyll. All are multicellular
seaweeds with differentiated parts that may superficially resemble true plants. Familiar types are the giant kelps and the genus Sargassum, which forms dense mats of surface vegetation in the Sargasso Sea. _^<N__^<N_ ECONOMIC
IMPORTANCE_^<N__^<N_It has been estimated that the marine algae account for more than 90 percent of the world's photosynthetic activity, making them the most important source of oxygen. Algae are also the main source of food for other aquatic
life. Seaweeds are used as food by many coastal peoples and are ground into livestock meal. The gelatinous substances carrageenan (from Irish moss, a red alga) and ALGIN (found in kelp and other brown seaweed) are used widely to impart a smooth
consistency to ice cream, puddings, processed cheeses, jams, light beers, and other food products. They are also used for finishing leathers. Algin is an ingredient in cosmetics, car polishes, paints, and insecticides. Agar, extracted from red
seaweed, is widespread in the Orient as a delicacy and is a familiar laboratory medium for culturing microorganisms. Fertilizers, detergents, polishes, and insulating and soundproofing materials often contain diatomaceous earth, composed primarily
of sedimentary shells of diatoms. Now being investigated is the use of unicellular green algae as food for humans and livestock. When grown under suitable conditions, certain types, such as the genus Chlorella, provide a good source of protein,
fats, and carbohydrates. Chlorella "farms" have been established on a small scale in various countries. In sewage treatment, green and blue-green algae are a source of oxygen for bacteria that decompose wastes. _^<N__^<N_ HARMFUL
EFFECTS_^<N__^<N_Algae can be harmful to both plants and animals. Parasitic algae are a cause of plant rust. A recurrent RED TIDE of certain dinoflagellates produces a potent nerve toxin that may kill millions of fish in temperate and subtropical
waters. In lakes and ponds over-rich in nutrients, blanketing growths of green and blue-green algae may smother fish and plant life (see NUTRIENT CYCLES). Shellfish feeding on the dinoflagellate Gonyaulax absorb large quantities of an alkaloid
toxin and may become poisonous. Lyngbya, a filamentous Cyanophyta, produces severe skin rashes in some human beings when it is handled. _^<N__^<N_Reviewed by Lawrence J. Crockett _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bold, Harold C., and Wynne, Michael J.,
Introduction to the Algae, 2d ed. (1985); Chapman, Valentine J., The Algae (1968); Jackson, Daniel F., ed., Algae and Man (1964); Lewis, Ralph A., Physiology and Biochemistry of the Algae (1962); Round, Frank E., The Biology of the Algae, 2d
ed. (1974), and The Ecology of Algae (1984). _^<N__^<N_See also: PLANKTON; PROTOZOA; SEAWEED.
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810
CAT
-A-
algal mat
-T-
algal mat_^<N__^<N_{al'-guhl} _^<N__^<N_Algal mats are composed of various green, red, and blue-green ALGAE, diatoms (single-celled plants), and animal-built tubes. Sedimentary particles are trapped in the mat, along with skeletal debris and minute
organisms such as sea worms, spiders, foraminifera, and micromollusks, to form a relatively stable organic film. Because of the presence of these organisms, the mat is a source of food for fish and other animals, especially snails, that browse on
the sandy seafloor. Normally the mats are found below water level, but they have been seen on the tops of sandbars exposed to low tide. The algal material is destroyed by burrowing organisms or by decaying processes; thus no ancient algal mats have
been preserved. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Round, F. E., The Biology of the Algal, 2d ed. (1974).
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1404
CAT
-A-
Algardi, Alessandro
-T-
Algardi, Alessandro_^<N__^<N_{ahl-gahr'-dee} _^<N__^<N_Alessandro Algardi, b. Nov. 27, 1595, d. 1654, was an Italian BAROQUE sculptor who trained in Bologna with Lodovico CARRACCI at the Carracci Academy. Algardi's influence lay in offering a more
conservative, academic ideal for patrons who disliked the innovations of his famous contemporary, Giovanni Lorenzo BERNINI. Algardi's early works in Rome include numerous portrait busts such as that of Cardinal Laudirio Zacchia, for which he was
well esteemed. When Bernini temporarily fell from favor on the accession of Pope Innocent X (1644), Algardi received such major commissions as the tomb of Pope Leo XI, (1634-52; St. Peter's Basilica, Rome) and the statue of St. Philip Neri (1640;
Santa Maria in Valicella, Rome). Other important works include the marble relief, The Meeting of Pope Leo I and Attila (1645-53; St. Peter's Basilica, Rome) and the Martyrdom of St. Paul (1647; San Paolo, Bologna). Algardi's classicized
interpretation of baroque art reached Northern Europe through the paintings of Nicolas POUSSIN and the sculptures of Francois DUQUESNOY, both of whom he befriended during their years of work in Rome. _^<N__^<N_Giulia Bartrum _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Pope-Hennessy, John, Italian High Renaissance and Baroque Sculpture (1963); Wittkower, Rudolf, Art and Architecture in Italy, 1600-1750 (1958). _^<N__^<N_See also: ITALIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE; ST. PETER'S BASILICA; SCULPTURE.
-END-
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8680
CATO
4483
-A-
algebra
-O-
000000|algebra
002327| PROPERTIES OF NUMBERS
004851| KINDS OF NUMBERS
006131| MATRICES
007609| GROUPS
-T-
algebra_^<N__^<N_The word algebra relates to procedures for solving EQUATIONS, and the original scope of algebra was confined to this topic. Gradually, however, the subject of algebra has been enlarged to include many more topics. It is an
indispensable tool in other branches of mathematics, such as CALCULUS, and in almost every part of applied mathematics. _^<N__^<N_As long ago as 2000 BC, the Babylonians and the Egyptians posed problems like those found in today's elementary
algebra texts. For example, in the Rhind papyrus, dating from about 1650 BC, problem 24 asks for the value of "heap" if heap and a seventh of heap is 19. In modern terminology and notation this problem could be formulated as "What number plus a
seventh of that number is 19?" A letter such as x could be used to represent the unknown number, and the equation could be written. x + 1/7x = 19 (Equation 1). In algebra, 1/7x means 1/7 times x.Finding a number x such that x + 1/7x = 19 is called
solving the equation. Learning how to use letters to write equations that describe problems in arithmetic, biology, chemistry, economics, engineering, geometry, and physics, and learning how to solve such equations are the primary concerns of
elementary algebra. _^<N__^<N_Here is an example of a problem that might occur in a chemistry laboratory: How many liters of water must be added to 2 liters of a 30% solution of acid to obtain a 20% solution? The reasoning in solving this problem
might be as follows: First, the beginning amount of acid equals the final amount of acid, since only water is to be added. Next, the number of liters of acid at the beginning is 30% of 2 liters, which is 0.30 X 2 = 0.60. Now if x is the number of
liters of water that need to be added, the total amount of liquid obtained after the water is added will be x + 2 liters, and, of this, only 20% is supposed to be acid. Therefore, the number of liters of acid at the end equals 20% of (x + 2), which
equals 0.20(x + 2). So the equation that needs to be solved is 0.60 = 0.20(x (Equation 2). Equations 1 and 2 are examples of LINEAR EQUATIONS in one variable; ways of solving such equations are an important topic in elementary algebra. More
complicated equations involving one variable (the x in the above equations) and sets of equations involving more than one variable are topics for further study. _^<N__^<N_ PROPERTIES OF NUMBERS_^<N__^<N_The procedures for solving equations or
systems of equations can become very complicated. All the procedures, however, are based on a fundamental set of properties of numbers. The following properties are needed to solve Equation 1. _^<N__^<N_(1) For any number x: _^<N__^<N_1 X x = x
(the multiplicative property of 1) _^<N__^<N_It is customary in algebra to use a centered dot rather than a multiplication sign (X) to indicate multiplication so as not to have X confused with x. (Due to technical limitations, however, the
multiplication sign-- X --will be used in this article.) _^<N__^<N_(2) For all numbers x, y, and z: _^<N__^<N_xz + yz = (x + y)z (the DISTRIBUTIVE LAW) _^<N__^<N_In algebra xz means x times z, yz means y times z, and _^<N__^<N_(x + y)z means (x +
y) times z. _^<N__^<N_(3) If x = y: _^<N__^<N_then zx = zy (a property of equality) _^<N__^<N_(4) For all numbers x, y, and z: _^<N__^<N_x(yz) = (xy)z (the ASSOCIATIVE LAW of multiplication) _^<N__^<N_These properties can be applied to solve
Equation 1 in the following manner. First, by property 1, the equation x + 1/7 x = 19 can be written as _^<N__^<N_1 times x + 1/7 x = 19 _^<N__^<N_Then, by property 2, (1 + 1/7)x = 19 _^<N__^<N_Because 1 + 1/7 = 8/7, _^<N__^<N_8/7 times x = 19
_^<N__^<N_so that _^<N__^<N_7/8 (8/7 times x) = 7/8 times 19--------{property 3} _^<N__^<N_(7/8 times 8/7)x = 7/8 times 19--------{pr 4} _^<N__^<N_1 times x = 133/8 _^<N__^<N_x = 133/8--------{pr 1} _^<N__^<N_Equation 2 can be solved as follows:
_^<N__^<N_0.20 = 0.20x + 0 _^<N__^<N_0.20 = 0.20x--------{pr 1, add} _^<N__^<N_1/0.20 X 0.20 = 1/0.20 (0.20x)--------{pr 3} _^<N__^<N_1/0.20 X 0.20 = (1/0.20 X 0.20)x--------{pr 4} _^<N__^<N_1 = 1 X x _^<N__^<N_1 = x--------{pr 1} _^<N__^<N_Thus 1
liter of water needs to be added to have the 2 liters of a 30% solution of acid become 3 liters of a 20% solution. _^<N__^<N_The notations and procedures used here to solve the ancient Egyptian problem were unknown to the Egyptians, who did not use
any symbols at all, except for numbers, and did not solve the problem by using properties of numbers. Instead they used the method of false position, or regula falsi--a procedure for approximating the roots of an equation. The development of
modern-day algebraic symbolism was a lengthy process. For example, the equals symbol (=) was first used in 1557 in the Whetstone of Witte, written by Robert Recorde (1510-58). Notation for EXPONENTS evolved gradually. Today one writes x superscript
2 (x-squared) for x times x, x superscript 3 for x times x times x, and so on, but early notation was much more cumbersome. _^<N__^<N_ KINDS OF NUMBERS_^<N__^<N_In addition to the numbers of ordinary ARITHMETIC (whole numbers and fractions),
algebra deals with negative numbers, IRRATIONAL NUMBERS, and COMPLEX NUMBERS. Negative numbers were first systematically developed by the Hindu mathematician Aryabhata in the 6th century and were used to solve such equations as x + 3 = 2 with its
solution the negative number -1. Irrational numbers, numbers such as the square root of 2 and pi that are not expressible as fractions, were first discovered by the Greeks in the 5th century BC. They were used extensively by mathematicians from
that time on, but were not analyzed carefully until the 19th century. Complex numbers, such as the solutions to the equation xx + 1 = 0, were developed in the 16th century but were not generally accepted until late in the 18th century.
_^<N__^<N_Whatever the kind of numbers or the notation used, algebra, until fairly recently, was done on a rather mechanical basis, with rules that worked but without much consideration given as to why they worked. It was not until the early 19th
century that such mathematicians as George Peacock (1791-1858) and George BOOLE (1815-64) began to investigate the basic properties of numbers, such as the distributive property, that underlie the subject of algebra. _^<N__^<N_
MATRICES_^<N__^<N_About the same time, other mathematicians began to investigate other kinds of algebraic systems in which the elements under consideration were no longer numbers and whose properties, although similar to those for numbers, were
somewhat different. For example, Arthur CAYLEY (1821-95) developed (mid-1800s) the algebra of matrices (the singular is MATRIX). _^<N__^<N_The operation of addition for matrices has properties similar to the properties of addition of numbers. For
example, if A and B are any 2 X 2 matrices, A + B = B + A (COMMUTATIVE LAW of addition for matrices); this corresponds to the equation a + b = b + a when a and b are numbers. If A, B, and C are any 2 X 2 matrices, A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
(associative property of addition for matrices), this corresponds to a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c when a, b, and c are numbers. _^<N__^<N_Matrix multiplication is not commutative. In other words, if A and B are 2 X 2 matrices, then it is not
necessarily true that A X B = B X A; on the contrary, for all numbers a and b, it is true that a X b = b X a. However, just as it is true that a X (b X c) = (a X b) X c, for all numbers a, b, and c, it is also true that A X (B X C) = (A X B) X C
for all matrices A, B, and C--the associative property of multiplication for matrices. _^<N__^<N_Matrices were first developed in connection with an abstract concept in mathematics (the theory of linear TRANSFORMATIONS), but they soon became an
indispensable aid in many applications of mathematics. _^<N__^<N_ GROUPS_^<N__^<N_Studying a set on which just one operation is defined led, at about the same time that matrices were developed, to another basic concept of the mathematics of
today--a group. Groups, like matrices, were first developed in connection with abstract concepts in mathematics, but GROUP THEORY soon found uses in other parts of mathematics and in such fields of applied mathematics as quantum mechanics.
_^<N__^<N_A group is a set on which there is an operation, X, such that _^<N__^<N_1. if a is in G and b is in G, then a X b is in G (closure property); _^<N__^<N_2. if a, b, and c are in G, then a X (b X c) = (a X b) X c (associative property);
_^<N__^<N_3. there is an element e in G, such that e X a = a X e = a for all a in G (existence of an identity; this is the element P(0) in the above example); _^<N__^<N_4. for every element a in G, there is an element b in G, such that a X b = b X
a = e (existence of inverses). _^<N__^<N_Roy Dubisch _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Barnett, Raymond A., Elementary Algebra: Structure and Use, 2d ed. (1975); Birkhoff, Garrett, and MacLane, Saunders, Survey of Modern Algebra, 4th ed. (1977).
-END-
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811
CAT
-A-
algebraic geometry
-T-
algebraic geometry_^<N__^<N_Algebraic geometry is the branch of mathematics that studies the figures, curves, and surfaces that represent equations in algebra. These figures, curves, and surfaces can be considered as sets of points defined by these
equations. The numbers involved may be real or complex. One of the main concerns of algebraic geometry is the study of properties that remain invariant, or unchanging, while the equations themselves undergo transformations. Another important aspect
is the study of the intersections of two or more algebraic curves. In many of its elementary aspects, algebraic geometry is similar to ANALYTIC GEOMETRY. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hartshorne, Robin, Algebraic Geometry (1977); Kendig, Keith,
Algeciras_^<N__^<N_{ahl-hay-thee'-rahs} _^<N__^<N_Algeciras, a port city in Cadiz province, Andalusia, is located in southern Spain on the Bay of Algeciras opposite Gibraltar. The port, with a population of 81,662 (1970), handles transatlantic
shipping and passengers bound by ferry to and from North Africa. Mild winters and nearby mineral springs combine to make it a resort. Fishing and tourism are the main industries. The town, taken by the Moors in 711, is probably built on the site of
the Roman colony of Portus Albus. Although the port was captured in 1344 by Alfonso XI of Castile, it was retaken in 1368 by the Moors, who then razed it. Charles III rebuilt the city in 1760. At a conference of European powers (ALGECIRAS
CONFERENCE) held in its city hall in 1906, France's right to colonize Morocco was recognized.
-END-
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506
CAT
-A-
Algeciras Conference
-T-
Algeciras Conference_^<N__^<N_Early in 1906 European diplomats met at Algeciras, Spain, to settle a dispute arising from the German challenge to the impending partition of Morocco by France and Spain. Although Germany declared its support for
Moroccan independence, its primary intention was to break up the Anglo-French Entente of 1904. The effect of the conference was to delay the partition of Morocco (to 1912, after a second international crisis), but Britain stood by France and thus
strengthened the entente.
-END-
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896
CAT
-A-
Alger, Horatio
-T-
Alger, Horatio_^<N__^<N_Although he was an ordained Unitarian minister, Horatio Alger, b. Jan. 13, 1834, d. July 19, 1899, is best known as the author of such juvenile novels as Ragged Dick (1867), Luck and Pluck; or, John Oakley's Inheritance
(1869), and Tattered Tom (1871). The Alger formula is always the same: a brave but poor youth performs a daring rescue that wins the gratitude and patronage of a wealthy benefactor. Mabel Parker, written in 1878 but published only in 1986, is
one of Alger's few novels for adults, but it shares with his works for children a clumsy plot and a multitude of stereotypes. Despite the essential mediocrity of his writings, however, more than 20 million of his books were sold during his
lifetime. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hoyt, Edwin P., Horatio's Boys: The Life and Works of Horatio Alger, Jr. (1974); Scharnhorst, G., The Lost Life of Horatio Alger, Jr. (1985).
-END-
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17356
CATO
4755
9459
14289
-A-
Algeria
-O-
000000|Algeria
000983| LAND AND RESOURCES
001995| Climate and Drainage
003242| Vegetation and Animal Life
003909| Resources
004155| PEOPLE
005147| Demography
005741| Education and Health
006368| ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
007294| Mining and Industry
007826| Agriculture
008587| Transportation and Trade
009392| GOVERNMENT
010280| HISTORY
-T-
Algeria_^<N__^<N_Algeria, in northwest Africa, is part of the region known as the MAGHRIB. The continent's second largest nation, after Sudan, Algeria borders Tunisia, Libya, Niger, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, and Western Sahara and stretches from
its 1,104-km (686-mi) Mediterranean coastline south through a varied topography to the vast desert region of the SAHARA. ALGIERS, the capital and leading port, is one of the largest and fastest-growing cities in Africa. _^<N__^<N_Given its
geographic location, Algeria has long interacted with African, Asian, and European cultures. The bitter ALGERIAN WAR (1954-62) that ended French colonial rule has significantly influenced Algeria's national identity. Since gaining independence,
Algeria has tried to liberate itself from the economic legacy of colonialism through ambitious development plans financed by the sale of petroleum and natural gas. Its prominent position among Third World nations has enabled it to play a major role
in international diplomacy. _^<N__^<N_ LAND AND RESOURCES_^<N__^<N_Algeria consists of a series of contrasting, approximately parallel east-west topographic zones. The narrow, discontinuous alluvial plains along the coast, which contain the most
fertile land, are separated from the Sahara by the ranges and plateaus of the ATLAS MOUNTAINS. The Tell Atlas, reaching heights of more than 2,300 m (7,550 ft), includes the Hodna range and the spectacular Djurdjura massif of Kabylia, in
northeastern Algeria. Separating the Tell Atlas from the Saharan Atlas is a semiarid plateau with an average elevation of 1,100 m (3,610 ft). In the east the plateau merges with the Aures Mountains, which include Mount Chelia (2,331 m/7,648 ft),
the highest peak in northern Algeria. South of the Saharan Atlas is the immense Sahara, with its gravel expanses, occasional plateaus, sand dunes (ergs), and the fantastic, lunarlike Ahaggar massif, where Mount Tahat, the nation's highest peak,
rises to 3,003 m (9,852 ft). Northern Algeria has a history of seismic disturbances. _^<N__^<N_ Climate and Drainage_^<N__^<N_Northern Algeria, in the temperate Mediterranean zone, has seasonal average temperatures ranging from 11 degrees C (52
degrees F) to 25 degrees C (77 degrees F). In the ranges and plateaus of the Atlas Mountains, mean temperatures range from 4 degrees C (39 degrees F) to 28 degrees C (82 degrees F). Temperatures in the Sahara often reach 50 degrees C (122 degrees
F) in summer but can drop to - 10 degrees C (14 degrees F). Extreme daily temperature variations are common when the scorching sirocco winds blow in from the desert. _^<N__^<N_Rainfall is abundant in the coastal region, although less rain falls in
the west (38 cm/15 in annually in Oran) than in the east (66 cm/26 in annually in Algiers). The Tell Atlas is also much drier in the west than it is in Kabylia, which receives about 102 cm (40 in) of rainfall a year. The interior plateau receives
about 30 cm (12 in) of rainfall annually, the Saharan Atlas about 25 cm (10 in), and the practically rainless Sahara less than 13 cm (5 in). _^<N__^<N_The Cheliff River in the coastal plain, the only significant stream, is unnavigable, but it
provides water for irrigation. In the interior there are seasonal streams called wadis and many shallow salt lakes called shatts (or chotts). _^<N__^<N_ Vegetation and Animal Life_^<N__^<N_Grapevines, fig trees, and indigenous olive and cork oak
trees flourish along the coast, and there are forests of pine, juniper, and cedar in the Tell Atlas. Vegetation in semiarid areas includes drinn and esparto grass, while acacia trees and date palms are found on Saharan oases. Since 1975 the
government has been erecting a "green wall" of vegetation across the northern edge of the Sahara to stem the desertification process. _^<N__^<N_Although the harsh environment limits the wildlife population, there are boars, antelopes, jackals,
hares, several endangered Barbary species (ape, red deer, hyena, leopard), and scorpions and other insects. _^<N__^<N_ Resources_^<N__^<N_Less than 20 percent of Algeria's land, mostly along the coast, is arable. The country has petroleum deposits
and the fourth largest natural gas reserves in the world. There are also deposits of iron ore, phosphates, mercury, and zinc. _^<N__^<N_ PEOPLE_^<N__^<N_Algerians are primarily of ARAB and BERBER descent. The French population, approximately 10
percent of the total in colonial times, has since fallen to about 1 percent. Many other Europeans and almost all of the 150,000 Jews in Algeria also left the country after independence. More than 1,000,000 Algerians live abroad, chiefly in France.
Arabic, the national language, is spoken by about 82 percent of the population. Berber dialects are also spoken, especially in Kabylia, where government efforts to reinforce national identity through an "Arabization" program have provoked outrage.
The Shawia of the Aures, the Mozabites centered in the city of Ghardaia, and the nomadic TUAREG speak their own dialects. Although French is now regarded as a foreign language, it is still spoken. Almost all Algerians are Sunni Muslims (see
SUNNITES). The emergence of a Muslim fundamentalist movement demanding a greater role for religion in this secular state created disturbances in the 1980s. _^<N__^<N_ Demography_^<N__^<N_More than 90 percent of the population live in the north, and
the large cities are located there. According to the 1987 census, the most populous cities in addition to Algiers are ORAN (590,000), CONSTANTINE (438,000), and Annaba (310,000). Algeria's birthrate is extremely high; 70 percent of the population
are under the age of 24. The government is hard- pressed to provide housing, consumer goods, services, and employment for the rapidly growing population; efforts to promote birth control and encourage people to resettle in less populated areas have
met with little success. _^<N__^<N_ Education and Health_^<N__^<N_The government has placed a high priority on education to produce technically trained managers and workers for its industries and to reduce illiteracy (90 percent at independence).
Nearly 30 percent of the budget is allocated to education. Arabic is the language of instruction in primary schools, attended by 84 percent of all Algerian children. French is often used in institutions of higher education. _^<N__^<N_Algerians have
been guaranteed free medical care since 1974, although the medical system is still handicapped by a lack of doctors and facilities. Particular emphasis is placed on preventive medicine. _^<N__^<N_ ECONOMIC ACTIVITY_^<N__^<N_During the colonial
period Algeria's major exports were wines and citrus fruits. The discovery of Saharan petroleum and natural gas in the mid-1950s accelerated French investment and initiated the ongoing transformation of the Algerian economy. Almost all foreign
enterprises were nationalized after independence, including (in 1971) French oil and natural-gas interests. The economy remains largely under state control, despite the return of some land and businesses to private hands in the 1980s, and Algeria
is dependent on oil and gas exports to finance internal development. Because state planning has generally been capital rather than labor intensive, there is severe under- and unemployment in some areas. Since 1980, however, increased attention has
been paid to agriculture, light industry, and the provision of human services. The 1984-89 Five-Year Plan encouraged private and foreign investment. _^<N__^<N_ Mining and Industry_^<N__^<N_Petroleum and natural gas provide 98 percent of Algeria's
export earnings, despite the decline of world energy prices in the 1980s. Initial development plans concentrated on the development of heavy industry, particularly the building of ultramodern petrochemical and gas liquification complexes to
complement Algeria's oil and natural-gas fields. There is a large steel works at Annaba, and trucks, textiles, cement, and paper are major manufactures. In 1986, Algeria produced 12.7 million kW h of electricity. _^<N__^<N_
Agriculture_^<N__^<N_Despite the proclaimed 1971 "Agrarian Revolution," agricultural production increased only 0.2 percent between 1970 and 1979, and Algeria must still import 60 percent of its food. To boost food production and reduce
unemployment, development plans since 1980 have invested heavily in agriculture and many state controls have been relaxed. _^<N__^<N_Wine remains an important export. The government, however, has uprooted many vineyards (a cultural contradiction
under Islam, which prohibits the consumption of alcohol) and replaced them with plantings of cereal crops. Other commercial crops are citrus fruits, vegetables, olives, figs, and dates. Livestock raising (mainly sheep and goats) provides a
livelihood for nomads in sparsely settled semiarid areas. _^<N__^<N_ Transportation and Trade_^<N__^<N_The French left an impressive infrastructure, which the Algerians have maintained and expanded. The excellent road system now includes a
Trans-Saharan highway connecting northern Algeria with the far south, and there are plans to increase the rail network. Air Algerie, the national airline, operates internationally. Major ports include Oran, Arzew, Bejaia, Skikda, and Annaba.
Algeria has a fleet of tankers and ferry service to France. _^<N__^<N_Although France remains the primary trading partner, Algeria has successfully diversified its markets. A trans-Mediterranean pipeline, completed in 1983, transports natural gas
to Italy and other European markets; pipelines to Libya and Morocco are to be built. Petroleum and natural gas are exported to the United States and other nations. _^<N__^<N_ GOVERNMENT_^<N__^<N_The National Liberation Front (FLN from its French
name) led Algeria to independence and was the country's only legal political party until 1989. The 1963 constitution was suspended following a military coup in 1965. A 1976 constitution provided for a unicameral National Assembly and a powerful
president. A new National Charter, approved in 1986, increased the role of the private sector and declared socialism and Islam the twin pillars of the state. In November 1988, after a wave of antigovernment protests, voters overwhelmingly approved
increasing the power of the prime minister, who was made responsible to the legislature, and reducing the role of the FLN. In February 1989 they approved a new constitution that paved the way for the July 1989 legalization of a multiparty system.
Local government is based on wilayat; each has a governor and an elected legislature. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY_^<N__^<N_Until the 1500s, Algeria's history was closely linked to that of neighboring Tunisia and Morocco. The region's earliest inhabitants
were the Berbers, whose neolithic hunting and herding activities are graphically depicted in cave drawings at TASSILI N'AJJER. Phoenician traders arrived on the Algerian coast in the 12th century BC. The Phoenician city of CARTHAGE, in present-day
Tunisia, eventually dominated the entire western Mediterranean, including the coast of what is now Algeria, which had become known as NUMIDIA. Northern Algeria was united under the Numidian tribal leader MASINISSA after he supported Rome in the
Second Punic War (218-201 BC). Carthage's destruction in 146 BC and the defeat of Numidia's King JUGURTHA in 105 BC left Rome in control of the Maghrib, although Berber tribes continued to control the interior. _^<N__^<N_The prosperity of northern
Algeria under Roman rule is evident from the ruins of thriving agricultural communities such as TIMGAD. Christianity flourished; Algerian-born Saint AUGUSTINE (AD 354-430), one of the most influential of all Christian thinkers, was bishop of Hippo
(now Annaba). Invasions by VANDALS ended Roman rule in the 5th century, although most of the area remained under Berber control. In the early 6th century the BYZANTINES extended their influence as far west as present-day Algiers. _^<N__^<N_The
Arabs forced the Byzantines from North Africa in the 7th and 8th centuries, and the Maghrib became part of the UMAYYAD caliphate. The Berbers converted to Islam but resisted Arab dominance. From the 10th to the 13th centuries, Algeria was ruled by
a series of Muslim dynasties that originated in the Maghrib, including the FATIMIDS, and ALMORAVIDS, and the ALMOHADS. The particularly prosperous Almohad period united North Africa and Spain under Muslim rule. _^<N__^<N_In the late 15th century
Christian Spain, having expelled the Muslims from the Iberian peninsula, captured several Algerian ports. They were forced off the coast with Turkish assistance, and Algeria became nominally part of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE in 1518. The local rulers of
the North African BARBARY STATES had a high degree of autonomy. Piracy against European shipping led to British and American intervention in the early 19th century. This was followed in 1830 by a French invasion and the deposition of the dey
(regent) of Algiers. _^<N__^<N_The French campaign to conquer northern Algeria ended in 1847 with the defeat of Algerian leader Abd al-Qadir (c.1807-83). The French gradually extended their influence southward, despite fierce local resistance,
until Algeria's current boundaries were drawn in 1902. _^<N__^<N_France had encouraged European colonization of Algeria from about 1834; the area was declared an integral part of France in 1848. The European settlers confiscated Muslim land and
created a flourishing colonial society removed from the Muslim majority. Muslims had almost no political rights and did not share in colonial prosperity. Organized Algerian nationalist movements arose after World War I under the leadership of
Messali Hadj, who desired complete independence, and the moderate Ferhat Abbas, who wanted France to live up to its assimilationist ideals. European settlers, however, bitterly resisted any efforts to grant political and economic equality to the
Muslims. _^<N__^<N_Algeria was under Vichy administration during the early years of World War II. After 1942, it served as a major base for the Allied North Africa campaign; Algiers was the capital of free France until the liberation of Paris. The
nationalist hopes aroused during the war were not met, and thousands of Muslims perished in bloody reprisals after 88 Frenchmen were massacred during a disorderly 1945 nationalist demonstration at Setif. Although the French government granted
Muslims the vote on a separate electoral roll in 1947, demands for full political equality and further reform were opposed by the European colonists. The nationalist movement gained support and became increasingly radicalized. _^<N__^<N_In 1954 the
FLN proclaimed a war of liberation, launching terrorist attacks against the French in both Algeria and France. The long Algerian War led to the fall of the Fourth Republic and the return to power of Charles DE GAULLE in 1958. On July 3, 1962, de
Gaulle finally proclaimed Algeria's independence. After a power struggle within the FLN, Ahmed BEN BELLA became Algeria's first president in 1963. _^<N__^<N_Confronting a society devastated by war and the subsequent flight of European capital and
skilled workers, ben Bella nationalized abandoned colonial holdings and announced his support of national liberation movements in other colonial lands. Conflict with Morocco, economic problems, and ben Bella's dictatorial personality provoked a
bloodless coup (1965) led by Houari BOUMEDIENNE. Boumedienne maintained Algeria's image as an avant-garde Third World state and began its support of Polisario demands for an independent WESTERN SAHARA. His nationalization of French oil and natural
gas concessions in 1971 symbolized Algeria's economic liberation, although his government still accepted French aid. _^<N__^<N_CHADLI BENJEDID, who became president in 1979 after the death of Boumedienne and was reelected in 1984 and 1988,
maintained Algeria's prominence as a speaker for the Third World and pursued Maghrib unity. He liberalized the economy somewhat, but high unemployment, inflation, and corruption sparked massive unrest in October 1988. Constitutional referendums in
November 1988 and February 1989 ended the commitment to socialism and the FLN's monopoly of power. _^<N__^<N_In the June 1990 local elections--the first multiparty elections since 1962--the fundamentalist Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) won almost 65
percent of the popular vote. Violence by fundamentalists demanding an Islamic state led to the imposition of a state of siege from June to September 1991. After the FIS won the first round of delayed legislative elections in December, Chadli
Benjedid was forced to step down (on Jan. 11, 1992). The army seized control, canceling the runoff elections, outlawing the FIS, and installing Mohammed Boudiaf as head of a new presidential council. Boudiaf was assassinated in June; it was
unclear whether fundamentalists or FLN hardliners were responsible. Public discontent mounted, and there were fears of civil war. Islamic fundamentalist extremists warned all foreigners to leave Algeria or risk death. In January 1994, the
military rulers abolished the council, naming Gen. Lamine Zeroual president. Zeroul was Algeria's fourth head of state in two years. _^<N__^<N_Phillip C. Naylor _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: American University, Algeria: A Country Study,, 4th ed.
(1983); Bennoune, M., The Making of Contemporary Algeria, 1830-1987 (1988); Entelis, J. P., Algeria: The Revolution Institutionalized (1986); Entelis, J. P., and Naylor, P. C., eds., State and Society in Algeria (1991; repr. 1992); Heggoy, A. A.,
The French Conquest of Algeria (1986); Lawless, R., Algeria, 2d rev. ed. (1990); Prochaska, D., Making Algeria French (1990); Wolf, J. B., The Barbary Coast (1979; repr. 1982). _^<N__^<N_
-END-
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3072
CAT
-A-
Algerian War
-T-
Algerian War_^<N__^<N_The Algerian War, fought from Nov. 1, 1954, until July 1, 1962, was a rebellion by Muslim Algerians against French rule that finally brought the creation of an independent Algeria. For France, the war was economically
debilitating, socially divisive, and politically disastrous, bringing the collapse of the Fourth Republic. Algeria was the last of the French holdings in North Africa to become independent, Tunisia and Morocco having achieved that status in 1956.
_^<N__^<N_French rule since 1830 had produced an Algeria combining ultramodern and archaic aspects. European-style cities stood alongside centuries-old villages; large-scale agricultural units existed next to hundreds of tiny farms. More than a
million European settlers (colons)--a majority of French origin--possessed the principal industrial, commercial, and agricultural enterprises. Most of the 8.5 million Muslims either pursued primitive economic activities or performed menial tasks in
the modern sector. Despite reforms over the previous 50 years and despite the fact that Algeria was technically not a colony but comprised three departments of France, the Muslims were politically disadvantaged as well. They had equality before the
law but little power to make or administer it. _^<N__^<N_Nationalist aspirations for liberation heightened Muslim discontent. A National Liberation Front (FLN, from its French name) was formed, and on Nov. 1, 1954, small FLN bands began to raid
French army installations and colons' holdings. The FLN also used terroristic and revolutionary war tactics to force adherence by the Muslims or to dissuade them from apathy or sympathy toward the French. Terror begat terror; the French Army
responded with traditional and counterrevolutionary military methods. But the French had little success. Neither the military efforts of the 500,000-man army nor sizable political concessions produced decisive defeat of the rebels or the firm
allegiance of the Muslim masses. By 1958 the Fourth Republic was at stalemate--and crisis. The colons and certain factions of the French army were alarmed by the ineffectiveness of the Paris government. On May 13, in Algiers, they rioted, overran
the government offices, and established an emergency Committee of Public Safety. In Paris, Premier Pierre Pflimlin's ministry was paralyzed, and Charles DE GAULLE was asked to become premier. He was granted emergency powers and the right to frame a
constitution for a Fifth Republic. _^<N__^<N_As president under the new constitution, de Gaulle moved to pacify the officers and colons, to woo the Muslim population, and to negotiate with the FLN, which established a provisional government in
1958. An accord was reached on Mar. 18, 1962, whereby the Algerians were to vote on their future status. On July 1, 1962, the Algerians adopted independence by a vote of 5,975,581 to 16,534. _^<N__^<N_Donald J. Harvey _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Harrison, A., Challenging De Gaulle (1989); Horne, A., A Savage War of Peace (1978; repr. 1987); Joly, D., The French Communist Party and the Algerian War (1991); Maran, R., Torture (1989).
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1881
CAT
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Algiers
-T-
Algiers_^<N__^<N_{al-jeerz} _^<N__^<N_Algiers (French: Alger; Arabic: al-Jazair) is the capital, largest city, and chief port of Algeria, in northern Africa. The city has 29 km (18 mi) of waterfront on the Bay of Algiers, an inlet of the
Mediterranean. On the west the Sahel Hills separate Algiers from the surrounding agricultural region, giving the city the appearance of a huge amphitheater facing the bay. The population is 1,507,241 (1987). In colonial times Algiers was
essentially a French city. Many structures were destroyed during the Algerian War, and thousands of Europeans left the city after independence. Today less than 2 percent of the population is non-Arab. Despite new suburbs, the construction of public
housing, and an international effort to restore the crumbling Casbah (the precolonial heart of the city), Algiers has a serious housing shortage. _^<N__^<N_Port activities are the mainstay of the economy. Products from the surrounding agricultural
region such as wine, fruits, and vegetables are exported along with iron ore; and the harbor serves as a refueling depot for large vessels. Cement, chemicals, and paper products are manufactured in the city. Algiers is the site of the University of
Algiers (1879). Notable buildings include the 11th-century Great Mosque and the national library. _^<N__^<N_Algiers was known to the Romans as Icosium. After being destroyed several times by invaders, the present site was settled in the 10th
century by the Berbers. Until the 18th century Algiers was a home base for Barbary pirates, who terrorized ships on the Mediterranean. In 1516, Algiers came under the control of the Turks. The French captured the city in 1830, and it became the
colonial headquarters of France until Algeria's independence in 1962. During World War II, Algiers served as a major headquarters for the Allies and for a brief period was the provisional capital of free France.
-END-
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308
CAT
-A-
algin
-T-
algin_^<N__^<N_{al'-jin} _^<N__^<N_Algin is a water-soluble, cream-colored powder, obtained from various kelps (seaweed) that is used as a thickener and emulsion stabilizer. In the manufacture of ice cream, it is added to ensure a creamy texture and
prevent the growth of ice crystals. Algin is the sodium salt of alginic acid.
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606
CAT
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ALGOL (algorithmic language)
-T-
ALGOL (algorithmic language)_^<N__^<N_{al'-gahl} _^<N__^<N_ALGOL, which stands for algorithmic language, is a COMPUTER LANGUAGE widely used for computer PROGRAMMING. It was developed in Europe in the early 1960s and had a profound influence on
subsequent programming languages, including PL/1, Pascal, and Simula 67. ALGOL introduced important control structures, such as the "if" statement, "begin" and "end" blocks for grouping statements into a unit, and more flexible rules for declaring
variables. Because of its simplicity, it is often used for communicating or publishing programs. _^<N__^<N_Elliott Organick and Susan Owicki
-END-
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1206
CAT
-A-
Algol (variable star)
-T-
Algol (variable star)_^<N__^<N_{al'-gahl} _^<N__^<N_Algol, also known as beta Persei, is a well-known VARIABLE STAR, as well as a BINARY STAR. Its light variations, explained by John Goodricke in 1783, are caused by mutual eclipses of two stars
moving in orbits around their common center of gravity, within a period of about 69 hours. When the dimmer star eclipses the brighter star, Algol fades to one-third of its original brightness, from magnitude 2.3 to 3.5, for about 10 hours. Only a
slight dimming is apparent when the brighter star eclipses the dimmer star. _^<N__^<N_The larger star of the Algol system (spectral type B8) has a mass of about 5 solar masses and a radius 3.1 times the solar radius; the other star (spectral type
gK0) has a mass about equal to that of the Sun and a radius 3.7 times the solar radius. The two stars are separated by 15 solar radii. A third, more distant star is also part of the Algol system, but it has no effect on the light variations.
_^<N__^<N_Many other eclipsing variables are broadly similar to Algol. In some the two stars appear to be essentially spherical; in others, known as W URSAE MAJORIS STARS, the stars are ellipsoidal, being distorted by their mutual tidal
attractions. _^<N__^<N_R. H. Garstang
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1740
CAT
-A-
Algonquin
-T-
Algonquin_^<N__^<N_{al-gahn'-kwin} _^<N__^<N_The Algonquin (or Algonkin), a North American Indian tribe, inhabited in the 17th century the upper St. Lawrence and the lower Ottawa River areas of present-day Quebec, Canada. Early French settlers
applied the name to a number of independent bands of hunting peoples whom they encountered in that region. These small foraging bands spoke closely related languages of the Algonquian (Algonkian) family and were similar in culture and social
organization. _^<N__^<N_Algonquian-speaking bands allied themselves with the French in their efforts to settle Canada and to block Five Nations IROQUOIS attempts to dominate the fur trade in the eastern interior of North America. Hard pressed by
Iroquois raids, however, the Algonquins were eventually forced to abandon their villages and hunting grounds. Some moved west to the Lake Huron region and may be ancestors of the peoples known as the OTTAWA and the Nipissing. Others moved north
and east out of range of Iroquois war parties. Some who later returned to the French colony aided the French in the FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS until the British conquest (1763) of New France. About 2,000 Indians regarded as descendants of the
original St. Lawrence-Ottawa River Algonquins today live on small reservations in Canada mainly in Ontario and Quebec. _^<N__^<N_James A. Clifton _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bailey, Alfred G., The Conflict of European and Eastern Algonkian Cultures,
1504-1700, 2d ed. (1969); Flannery, Regina, An Analysis of Coastal Algonquian Culture (1939; repr. 1983); MacNeish, June H., The Indians of the Subarctic: A Critical Bibliography (1976); Speck, Frank G., A Northern Algonquin Source book
(1985); Vastokas, Joan, and Romas, K., Sacred Art of the Algonkians (1973).
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725
CAT
-A-
algorithm
-T-
algorithm_^<N__^<N_An algorithm is a procedure for solving a usually complicated problem by carrying out a precisely determined sequence of simpler, unambiguous steps. Such procedures were originally used in mathematical calculations (the name is a
variant of algorism, which originally meant the Arabic numerals and then "arithmetic") but are now widely used in computer programs and in PROGRAMMED LEARNING. FLOWCHARTS are frequently used to facilitate understanding of the sequence of steps.
Because each step is followed mechanistically, value judgments and complex, nonquantitative situations are usually not susceptible of algorithmic treatment except in the form of greatly simplified models. _^<N__^<N_See also: COMPUTER PROGRAMMING.
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787
CAT
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Algren, Nelson
-T-
Algren, Nelson_^<N__^<N_The American writer Nelson Algren, b. Mar. 28, 1909, d. May 9, 1981, was best known for his novels of social protest, of which the most famous is The Man with the Golden Arm (1949; film, 1955), which won a 1950 National
Book Award. Like much of his work, the novel is set in the slums of Chicago, where Algren grew up. He also published several collections of short stories, including The Neon Wilderness (1947) and The Last Carousel (1973). His other novels
include A Walk on the Wild Side (1956; film, 1962) and the posthumously published The Devil's Stocking (1983). _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Cox, Martha H., and Chatterton, Wayne, Nelson Algren (1975); Donahue, H. E. F., Conversations with Nelson Algren
(1964); Drew, Bettina, Nelson Algren: A Life on the Wild Side (1989).
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1666
CAT
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Alhambra
-T-
Alhambra_^<N__^<N_The Alhambra is a Moorish fortified palace overlooking the southern Spanish city of Granada. Its name is derived from the Arabic Kalat-Alhamra, meaning "red castle." The severe brick walls, punctuated by square towers, extend for
more than 1.5 km (almost 1 mi) but give no hint of the rich variety of gardens, courts, and chambers within. In the 13th century the Alhambra became a royal residence of the last great Moorish dynasty in Spain, the Nasrid. Much of the existing
structure dates from the reigns of Yusuf I (1334-54) and Muhammad V (1354-91). Yusuf I built the imposing Court of the Myrtles and the lofty domed Hall of the Ambassadors. Muhammad V, in even richer style, created the Court of the Lions, with its
arcade set on delicate marble columns, and the Hall of the Two Sisters, which is crowned with intricate honeycomb vaulting. _^<N__^<N_After the Moors were expelled (1492) from Spain, the Alhambra became a Christian palace, and in the 1520s, King
Charles I (Holy Roman Emperor Charles V) began a Renaissance structure (never completed) adjoining the Court of the Myrtles. Spain's political life centered in Castile, and the Alhambra gradually fell into ruin. Now extensively restored, the
colorfully decorated palace and surrounding gardens give a vivid impression of the crafts and the artistry of the last flowering of Moorish civilization in Spain. _^<N__^<N_David W. Scott _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bargebuhr, F. P., The Alhambra: A
Cycle of Studies on the Eleventh Century in Moorish Spain (1968); Calvert, A. F., The Alhambra (1907); Grabar, Oleg, The Alhambra (1978); Irving, Washington, The Alhambra (1832; repr. 1986); Stewart, D. S., ed., The Alhambra (1974).
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943
CAT
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Ali
-T-
Ali_^<N__^<N_Ali (Ali ibn Abi Talib), b. c.600, d. Jan. 24, 661, fourth caliph of the Muslim community, is regarded by SHIITE Muslims as the only legitimate successor of the Prophet Muhammad. The first cousin of Muhammad and husband of the
Prophet's daughter FATIMA, Ali was passed over in the caliphal succession until 656, when he received the office after the murder of Uthman, the third caliph. He was immediately challenged by an aristocratic faction led by the prophet's widow,
AISHA, whom he defeated. Ali then became involved in a civil war with MUAWIYAH, governor of Syria, and at the same time a group known as the Kharijites ("seceders") created a schism among his own followers. When Ali was murdered by one of the
Kharijites, Muawiyah seized the caliphate and founded the first Muslim dynasty, the UMAYYADS. Ali's partisans, the Shiites, never recognized Muawiyah, claiming that only Ali's sons could rightfully have succeeded him.
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2261
CAT
-A-
Ali, Muhammad
-T-
Ali, Muhammad_^<N__^<N_The American boxer Muhammad Ali, b. Louisville, Ky., Jan. 17, 1942, was perhaps the most celebrated sports figure in the world during most of the 1960s and '70s. He was originally named Cassius Marcellus Clay, Jr., and fought
under that name until after he won his first world heavyweight championship. His rise to prominence may be attributed to a combination of circumstances--his role as a spokesman for, and idol of, blacks; his vivacious personality; his dramatic
conversion to the Black Muslim religion; and, most important, his staying power as an athlete. Ali first came to world attention in 1960, when he won the Olympic light-heavyweight championship. After his surprising victory over then heavyweight
champion Sonny Liston in 1964, he produced a steady stream of headlines. He was the first boxer to benefit from international (satellite) television, making him all the more visible. _^<N__^<N_Ali, then Clay, won a controversial championship bout
from Liston to gain the title. The fight was questioned because Ali seemed to be almost quitting before the bout was over. In his second fight with Liston, more controversy arose over the way Liston went down and stayed down in the initial round.
Ali, however, proved to be a "fighting champion," accepting the challenges of every heavyweight with ranking credentials. He was stripped of his title in 1967 for refusing military service on religious grounds during the Vietnam War but was allowed
to resume fighting in 1970 and had his appeal of conviction upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1971. Ali regained the championship in a 1974 bout with George Foreman. He lost the crown again in 1978 to Leon Spinks but regained it the same year,
thus becoming the first man to win the title three times. Other than Joe Frazier (in 1971) and Spinks, the only boxers to defeat Ali, who had a 55-5 record, were Ken Norton (1973), who later lost to Ali; Larry Holmes (1980), who foiled Ali's try
for a fourth heavyweight championship; and Trevor Berbick (1981), after which fight Ali retired. In later years Ali developed Parkinson's syndrome, caused by blows to the head from boxing. _^<N__^<N_Jim Benagh _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hauser,
Thomas, Muhammad Ali: His Life and Times (1992); Pacheco, Ferdie, Muhammad Ali (1992).
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468
CAT
-A-
Ali, Sabahattin
-T-
Ali, Sabahattin_^<N__^<N_{sah-bah-huh-teen'} _^<N__^<N_Sabahattin Ali, b. Feb. 25, 1907, d. Apr. 2, 1948, a Turkish writer of fiction, is remembered as a forerunner of socialist realism. His work was popular and influential for its crisp narration,
colorful dialogue, and concern for impoverished Turkish people. In his last years he wrote for left-wing newspapers and edited Markopasa, a satiric periodical. Ali was jailed several times because of his political views. _^<N__^<N_Talat Sait Halman
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520
CAT
-A-
Ali Baba
-T-
Ali Baba_^<N__^<N_Ali Baba, a woodcutter, is the protagonist of "Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves," one of the most popular tales from the collection known as the ARABIAN NIGHTS. When thieves stash their stolen treasures in a secret cave, Ali Baba
accidentally witnesses the act and learns their magic password, "Open Sesame," which he then uses to enter the cave and make off with the gold himself. The robbers' attempts to kill Ali Baba are subsequently foiled by his slave, Morgana, when she
finds the band hiding in giant jars.
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220
CAT
-A-
alias
-T-
alias_^<N__^<N_Alias (Latin, "otherwise") is used in law to connect the names of a person who has been called by a name other than his or her given name. In popular usage it means the name itself, for example, "He took an alias."
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453
CAT
-A-
Alicante
-T-
Alicante_^<N__^<N_{ah-lee-kahn'-tay} _^<N__^<N_Alicante, the capital of Alicante province, is a port city in southeastern Spain. Located on the Mediterranean Sea, 124 km (77 mi) south of Valencia, the city has a population of 261,255 (1991).
Industries include textiles, wine, tobacco, metalworking, and tourism. Settled during the 4th century BC, it later became the Roman port of Lucentum (201 BC). The city was captured by Moors in 713 and by James I of Aragon in 1265.
-END-
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439
CAT
-A-
Alice Springs
-T-
Alice Springs_^<N__^<N_Alice Springs, with a population of 22,000 (1984 est.), is the chief town of the interior of NORTHERN TERRITORY, Australia. It is the commercial center of the surrounding cattle-raising and mining region. Tourism is important
because of the long, warm winter (May to September). The northern terminus of the Central Australia Railway, Alice Springs is also accessible by air and the Stuart Highway. It was settled in 1871.
-END-
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992
CAT
-A-
Alice's Adventures in Wonderland
-T-
Alice's Adventures in Wonderland_^<N__^<N_Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1865), by Lewis CARROLL (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson), and its sequel, THROUGH THE LOOKING GLASS (1871), are usually considered the most famous children's books written in
English. The story is a dream in which Alice changes size, recites nonsensical parodies of moral verse, encounters such fantastic creatures as the Mad Hatter and the Cheshire Cat, and finally asserts herself against loud but empty threats of trial
and execution. Children probably enjoy Alice's triumph and the ingenious invention of the book, while adult readers and critics are engaged by the themes of growing up, death and extinction, and the arbitrariness of moral and social authority. The
story was made into an animated film by Walt Disney in 1951 and has been the subject of numerous plays. _^<N__^<N_Donald J. Gray _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Carroll, Lewis, The Annotated Alice, ed. by Mart in Gardner (1960; repr. 1970); Phillips,
Robert, ed., Aspects of Alice (1971).
-END-
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3004
CAT
-A-
alicyclic compounds
-T-
alicyclic compounds_^<N__^<N_{al-ih-sik'-lik} _^<N__^<N_Alicyclic compounds are members of a class of organic compounds that contain three or more atoms joined to form a closed ring. The ring may be composed of only carbon atoms (carbocyclic), or it
may contain one or more other atoms (heterocyclic). The more stable carbocyclic hydrocarbon members, which possess 5-carbon and 6-carbon rings, are found in crude petroleum from certain areas, particularly California, and are called naphthenes. The
alicyclic hydrocarbons are named using the prefix cyclo- followed by the name of the corresponding open-chain hydrocarbon that has the same number of carbon atoms--for example, cyclohexane. More complex molecules are usually given a trivial, or
nonchemical, name. _^<N__^<N_Compounds of commercial importance can be prepared by the cyclization (reformation) of the corresponding aliphatic compound or by adding hydrogen to, or reducing, an aromatic compound. In the laboratory they are
prepared by the cyclization of an open-chain hydrocarbon derivative. The 3-carbon and 4-carbon rings are the most difficult to form and are highly reactive; 5-, 6-, and 7-carbon rings are easy to synthesize and are the most stable. Larger rings are
difficult to form but are also stable. _^<N__^<N_Chemically, the alicyclic compounds resemble the open-chain ALIPHATIC COMPOUNDS rather than the AROMATICS, but the cyclic nature of alicyclics confers some special properties that can vary with the
size of the ring. The stability and ease of formation of the ring varies with its size. Cyclopropane and cyclobutane rings are easily broken to form the corresponding open-chain compound, but cyclopentane and cyclohexane rings, as well as larger
rings, are more resistant to such cleavage. _^<N__^<N_Polycyclic alicyclic hydrocarbons contain two or more rings that share common atoms. A variety of compounds of unusual shapes can be formed, but they are primarily of theoretical interest.
Bicyclic alicyclic compounds, those that have only one atom common to two rings, are known as spiranes. _^<N__^<N_Heterocyclic alicyclic compounds contain at least one atom other than carbon. The most common are oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur. A few
naturally occurring compounds containing oxygen or nitrogen have physiological activity. _^<N__^<N_Alicyclic compounds with certain functional groups attached are widespread in nature. These include the class of compounds known as PURINES (caffeine
and uric acid), STEROIDS (cholesterol, sex hormones, and bile acids), TERPENES (camphor, menthol, and pinene), and many others with physiological interest. Other alicyclic compounds have commercial application. These include cyclopropane
(anesthetic), hexachlorocyclohexane (insecticide), epoxides to prepare glycols and epoxy resins, cyclohexanol to prepare adipic acid, which, in turn, is used in making nylon, and cyclohexane and dioxane as solvents. _^<N__^<N_Elbert H. Hadley
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: McQuillin, F. J., Alicyclic Chemistry (1972); Morrison, Robert T., and Boyd, Robert N., Organic Chemistry, 3d ed. (1976).
-END-
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582
CAT
-A-
alidade
-T-
alidade_^<N__^<N_{al'-i-dayd} _^<N__^<N_An alidade is a sighting device used in optical instruments, such as the SEXTANT, THEODOLITE, and surveying TRANSIT, in order to measure angles. The line of sight is rotated about an axis to point at objects,
indicating their direction by the angle between a stationary mark and a mark that follows the line of sight along a calibrated circle. _^<N__^<N_With a straight edge and an alidade placed on a map and revolved about the observer's position, a line
can be drawn on the map representing the straight line from the observer to the object sighted. _^<N__^<N_Charles A. Herubin
-END-
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905
CAT
-A-
alien
-T-
alien_^<N__^<N_An alien is a foreign-born person who is not a citizen of the country in which he or she resides. Aliens are not entitled to all the rights of citizens, but in most countries aliens who enter legally are guaranteed the basic
protections of the laws. In the United States most legally admitted aliens have temporary status, such as visitors or students. Resident aliens are admitted permanently; they have the same rights under the law as U.S. citizens except that they
cannot vote or run for most public offices. Another category of aliens comprises political refugees. Large numbers of resident illegal aliens prompted Congress to pass the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986. This law established
penalties for employers of illegal aliens, but it also provided legal status for aliens living in the United States since Jan. 1, 1982. _^<N__^<N_See also: CITIZENSHIP; IMMIGRATION; NATURALIZATION.
-END-
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2025
CAT
-A-
Alien and Sedition Acts
-T-
Alien and Sedition Acts_^<N__^<N_Four acts passed by the U.S. Congress in 1798 came to be known collectively as the Alien and Sedition Acts. By this legislation the dominant Federalist party hoped to cripple its political enemies, the
Democratic-Republicans. The latter had attracted the support of many radical immigrants to the United States, especially from Ireland, and were critical of Federalist foreign policy. The Quasi-War with France following the XYZ AFFAIR convinced many
Federalists that this criticism was disloyal, and thus the legislation was pushed through Congress, despite the mixed feelings of President John Adams. _^<N__^<N_The Naturalization Act (June 18, 1798) raised the residence requirement for aliens
seeking citizenship from 5 to 14 years. The Alien Act (June 25, 1798), limited to two years' duration, empowered the president to deport any foreigner he regarded as dangerous "to the peace and safety of the United States." The Alien Enemies Act
(July 6, 1798), passed with some Republican support, gave the president broad powers to deal with enemy aliens during time of war. The Sedition Act (July 14, 1798), also of two years' duration, made it a crime to publish anything false or
scandalous against the government. The last act violated the spirit of the 1st Amendment, although it is notable for revising the concept of seditious libel to accept truth as a defense and to allow juries to rule on questions of law as well as
fact--both departures from common law. _^<N__^<N_As a result of the Republican victory of 1800, the Naturalization Act was repealed in 1802. The others were allowed to expire. With the steady growth of democratic practice in the 19th century, few
lingering Federalists publicly defended their wisdom or validity. _^<N__^<N_Morton Borden _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Levy, Leonard W., Legacy of Suppression: Freedom of Speech and Press in Early American History (1960); Miller, John C., Crisis in
Freedom: The Alien and Sedition Acts (1951; repr. 1964); Smith, James M., Freedom's Fetters: Alien and Sedition Laws (1956).
-END-
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38
CAT
-A-
Alien Registration Act:
-T-
Alien Registration Act:_^<N__^<N_see SMITH ACT.
-END-
-C-
5983
CATO
4795
-A-
alienation
-O-
000000|alienation
000760| Christian Concept
001849| Philosophical Views
003920| Modern Concept
-T-
alienation_^<N__^<N_Alienation is a term widely used to describe and explain a state of estrangement of the individual from the natural environment, social life, or the self. The causes of the separation may lie either within the individual or with
the external world of work, politics, social norms, or society as a whole. The concept is broadly and sometimes inconsistently used; whereas psychiatrists tend to see alienation as a symptom of an individual's maladjustment to society, some
sociologists and philosophers assert that a society can be "sick" or simply foreign and that alienation should not be taken as an indication of an individual's condition. Alienation was a major perspective of 19th-century thought, but its
antecedents date from the early Christian Era. _^<N__^<N_ Christian Concept_^<N__^<N_St. Paul taught that man, by his innately sinful nature, alienates himself from a loving father (God); this concept assumes a particular view of man's nature and
of a familial relationship between God and man. St. AUGUSTINE worried about man's reconciliation with God and disputed with the Pelagians (see PELAGIANISM), who denied that man's nature is essentially evil. From the time of Thomas AQUINAS until
the present century, God was no longer conceived of as a personal being but as all-powerful and requiring the intercession of others; alienation and reconciliation therefore declined as central theological concerns. _^<N__^<N_Western intellectual
traditions, however, continued to assume a condition of alienation long after theological disputes faded; the romantic movement in philosophy and literature (see ROMANTICISM) viewed civilization as corrupting and alienating man from nature.
Certain schools of contemporary psychology still hold this view and maintain that an integrated person could be discovered if the problems of role and authority did not interfere. _^<N__^<N_ Philosophical Views_^<N__^<N_Alienation occupies a
central place in Georg HEGEL's Phenomenology (1807), in which he asserts that man strives to attain actually what he is potentially, but that this realization is mediated by consciousness and will and manifested in physical objects, institutions,
and mores. According to Hegel, these impede man's full realization, that is, they are an alienation from self. For Hegel, alienation was exclusively an intellectual construct. One of Hegel's disciples, Bruno Bauer, following this line of
argument, popularized the term self-alienation when he proposed that religious beliefs cause a separation in man's consciousness between his received idea of the world and the world as he experiences it. _^<N__^<N_Ludwig FEUERBACH, a contemporary
of Bauer and another disciple of Hegel, taught that religion is a projection of man's inner nature and desire and is therefore alienating because it makes man locate his humanity in an external idea and subject himself to the forces and
superstitions of traditional organized religion. Feuerbach's concept, like Hegel's, influenced Karl MARX, who was developing a secular view of alienation. _^<N__^<N_In Marx's early writings (1846), alienation was discussed as an explicit social
phenomenon, empirically verifiable. He used the term to refer to the ways in which man's powers of perception, orientation, and creation become stunted and crippled by the very nature of the industrial organization and by the capitalist economic
system. Man is alienated from his work because he plays no role in deciding what to do or how to do it, alienated from the product of his work because he has no control over what he makes or what is done with it, and alienated from other people by
economic competition and class hostility. Marx felt that man suffers from alienation to the extent that he does not realize the full potential of his being. This aspect of Marxian thought had little impact on social and economic philosophy until
the middle of the 20th century; since then, it has been the focus of intense interest. _^<N__^<N_ Modern Concept_^<N__^<N_Alienation as a consequence of social organization and culture is a key generative concept of modern sociology; it underlies
the analyses of Emile DURKHEIM, Max WEBER, and Georg SIMMEL. Durkheim used the term anomie to describe the rootlessness (often resulting in suicide) that resulted from the breakdown of traditional community and religious mores. For Weber, the
increasing rationalization of bureaucratic life caused personal relationships and individual values to atrophy. Simmel used the concept to denote the tension within a person seeking to "preserve his autonomy and individuality in the face of
overwhelming social forces, of historical heritage, of external culture, and of the techniques of life." Few empirical studies have been done, however, and the term alienation is used to explain, among other things, both voter passivity in
political elections and student protest movements. _^<N__^<N_Alienation has been viewed as inherent in human nature by the theologians Martin BUBER and Paul TILLICH and by the EXISTENTIALISTS Jean Paul SARTRE and Albert CAMUS; they have argued
that some degree of dissociation of the self in thought and life is inescapable, for man is a stranger in the world. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Arendt, Hannah, The Human Condition (1958); Fromm, Erich, Escape from Freedom (1941) and The Sane Society
(1955); Hoffer, Eric, The True Believer (1951); Johnson, Frank, ed., Alienation: Concept, Term, and Meanings (1973); Josephson, Eric and Mary, Man Alone: Alienation in Modern Society (1962); Nisbet, Robert, The Sociological Tradition (1966);
Ollman, Bertell, Alienation, 2d ed. (1977); Shoham, S. Giora, ed., Alienation and Anomie Revisited (1982); Slater, Philip, The Pursuit of Loneliness (1970; rev. ed., 1976); Sykes, Gerald, Alienation: The Cultural Climate of Our Time (1964);
Torrance, John, Estrangement, Alienation, and Exploitation (1977); Warren, Donald I., The Radical Center: Middle Americans and the Politics of Alienation (1976); Weiskopf, Walter A., Alienation and Economics (1973).
-END-
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330
CAT
-A-
alienation of affections
-T-
alienation of affections_^<N__^<N_Alienation of affections is the act by a third party of intentionally taking away the affection of a husband or wife for the other marriage partner. A few U.S. states allow a damage suit for interference or
alienation of affections against third parties accused of breaking up a marriage or an engagement.
alimony_^<N__^<N_Alimony is the money allowance that a court awards to a marriage partner after legal separation or divorce. Temporary alimony may be allowed during litigation. Traditionally, alimony has been paid by the husband to the wife.
However, an independently wealthy wife or one whose job gives her a comfortable living may not be awarded alimony. In some cases, well-to-do wives may be ordered to support husbands who are unable to maintain themselves. _^<N__^<N_Alimony payments
may stop if the spouse receiving them remarries. Child-support payments, however, are covered by a separate agreement and usually remain in effect while the children are minors; these payments may include school or college expenses or medical
bills. Often a spouse who plans to remarry will accept a low alimony settlement in exchange for a generous child-support agreement.
-END-
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701
CAT
-A-
Alinsky, Saul
-T-
Alinsky, Saul_^<N__^<N_Saul David Alinsky, b. Chicago, Jan. 30, 1909, d. June 12, 1972, was a radical activist who organized communities of poor people to help them help themselves. In 1938, after having worked several years as a criminologist, he
organized a campaign of picketing, rent strikes, and boycotts among the slum dwellers in Chicago's Back-of-the-Yards district. One year later he founded the Chicago-based Industrial Areas Foundation, through which he did similar work in other
communities during the '40s, '50s, and '60s. One of Alinsky's best-known projects was The Woodlawn Organization (TWO), also in Chicago. His books include Reveille for Radicals (1946) and The Professional Radical (1970).
-END-
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3722
CAT
-A-
aliphatic compounds
-T-
aliphatic compounds_^<N__^<N_{al-i-fat'-ik} _^<N__^<N_An aliphatic compound is any of a major group of organic, or carbon compounds, characterized by a continuous or branched open-chain arrangement of the carbon atoms. The other major groups are
the ALICYCLIC COMPOUNDS (carbon atoms arranged in a ring), AROMATIC COMPOUNDS (involving the benzene-ring structure), and HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS (rings incorporating other atoms as well as carbon). _^<N__^<N_Most organic compounds can be considered
as hydrogen-carbon compounds (hydrocarbons), or as compounds in which other elements have substituted for the hydrogen. Aliphatic hydrocarbons comprise three subgroups: ALKANES (paraffin series), characterized by the existence of only single
bonds connecting the carbon atoms; ALKENES (olefins), which have at least one double bond; and ALKYNES (acetylenes), which have one or more triple bonds. On any one of these types of compound, one or more hydrogen atoms may be replaced by other
elements or groups of elements to produce the entire spectrum of aliphatic compounds. _^<N__^<N_Alkanes are relatively unreactive. They will burn, producing heat, carbon dioxide, and water; long chains can be pyrolyzed (heated without air),
producing either shorter chains or alkenes; and other atoms can substitute for hydrogen, primarily chlorine and bromine atoms. The last-named reactions are catalyzed by ultraviolet light. Alkenes and alkynes are much more reactive. They readily
add other molecules or form long chains of repeating molecular units (see POLYMERIZATION). _^<N__^<N_When a hydrogen atom of an aliphatic compound is removed, an alkyl RADICAL (R) is formed. Radicals often occur as intermediates in reactions but
do not exist independently except for short periods of time. The number of radicals that can form generally increases with the complexity of the compound. Higher molecular weight compounds form an increasing number of radicals.
_^<N__^<N_Functional groups added to the radicals give the other types of aliphatic compounds. When the hydrogen atom of an aliphatic compound is replaced by one or more hydroxyl groups (OH), ALCOHOLS (ROH) are formed. The important reactions of
the alcohols are those of the OH group. Either just the H or the entire OH group may be involved. Substitution by a halogen (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine) produces the alkyl halide (RX); such industrially important compounds do not
occur in nature. Two molecules of an alcohol may combine, with the loss of a molecule of water, to form an ETHER (ROR). Ethers are unreactive with most chemicals except at elevated temperatures. Alcohols can be oxidized to form the carbonyl
compounds, ALDEHYDES and KETONES. _^<N__^<N_An amino group, containing nitrogen, can be attached to the radical, forming an AMINE. Substituted amines can also be formed if the hydrogen atoms on the nitrogen atom are replaced by one or two alkyl
groups. The amines are unique in that they are the only common type of basic, or alkaline, organic compounds. They are all reactive and have a distinctive property--a disagreeable odor. _^<N__^<N_Controlled oxidation of aliphatic compounds,
except the saturated hydrocarbons, in which all possible positions are filled by hydrogen atoms, will produce a CARBOXYLIC ACID. ESTERS are produced by the reaction of a carboxylic acid with an alcohol. They are characterized by a pleasant odor;
many of these compounds occur in nature. _^<N__^<N_Other aliphatic compounds are the sulfur-containing mercaptan and the nitrogen-containing nitrile and nitro compounds. In addition, some derivatives contain two different such groups within the
molecule. _^<N__^<N_Elbert H. Hadley _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Chapman, N. B., Aliphatic Compounds (1975); Georgiev, V. St., Aliphatic Derivatives (1982).
-END-
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863
CAT
-A-
alizarin
-T-
alizarin_^<N__^<N_{ahl-i-zah'-rin} _^<N__^<N_Alizarin is the principal component in the natural dye MADDER and is obtained from the roots of the madder plant, Rubia tinctorum, grown in South India and Sri Lanka. Combined with a mordant, a material
that acts as a binder between dye and cloth and determines the end color, alizarin was used to produce shades of red, violet, brown, and black. It was synthesized in 1868 by two German scientists, Karl Graebe and Karl Lieberman. In 1869, Sir
William Perkin developed a practical process for manufacturing synthetic alizarin that proved to be less expensive and more consistent in color than the natural material. Today natural alizarin has little importance as a dyestuff, although it is
used as a chemical intermediate in the production of more sophisticated dyes and as a coloring material for artists' pigments. _^<N__^<N_Roderick H. Horning
-END-
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21
CAT
-A-
alkadiene:
-T-
alkadiene:_^<N__^<N_see DIENE.
-END-
-C-
505
CAT
-A-
alkali
-T-
alkali_^<N__^<N_{al'-kuh-ly} _^<N__^<N_In chemistry, alkali refers generally to any strongly basic compound (see ACIDS AND BASES). Alkalies are usually SALTS or hydroxides of sodium, potassium, lithium, or ammonia. Mineral deposits containing large
quantities of such compounds are also called alkali. _^<N__^<N_In a more specific sense, alkali is either potassium hydroxide (KOH) or sodium hydroxide (lye, NaOH). These two strong bases have such similar properties that chemists often specify
alkali when either compound may be used.
-END-
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1037
CAT
-A-
alkali metals
-T-
alkali metals_^<N__^<N_The alkali metals are the elements CESIUM, FRANCIUM, LITHIUM, POTASSIUM, RUBIDIUM, and SODIUM. These elements form group IA of the periodic table. The alkali metals react violently with water to form strong bases, called
alkalies. The alkali metals are monovalent, the outer electron shell consisting of a single electron. This electron is easily shed to form a stable cation--a positively charged ion--that has the electron configuration of an inert gas. The alkali
metals readily donate electrons to HALOGEN atoms to form stable salts. The reactivity of the alkali metals increases with atomic weight, or increasing atom radius, because the outer electron is held less strongly. Recent research has shown that
atoms of alkali metals can also gain an electron to form highly reactive anions. _^<N__^<N_Because of their high reactivity, alkali metals are never found in nature as free elements; instead they occur in compounds such as silicates or chlorides.
The alkali metals have low density, low melting point, and high ductility.
-END-
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1541
CAT
-A-
alkaline earth metals
-T-
alkaline earth metals_^<N__^<N_{al'-kuh-lyn} _^<N__^<N_The alkaline earth metals are BARIUM, CALCIUM, and STRONTIUM, all of which are members of group IIA of the periodic table. They form strong bases, or alkaline solutions, and are called earths
because of the incombustibility and insolubility of their oxides. Sometimes the other members of group IIA--BERYLLIUM, MAGNESIUM, and RADIUM--are included in the class. _^<N__^<N_Although none of the elements are found in nature in their pure
metallic state, compounds containing calcium and magnesium are found throughout nature. Taking these compounds into account, calcium is the fifth most abundant element (3.63%) in the Earth's crust, and magnesium, the eighth (2.09%). Limestone,
marble, and chalk are all forms of calcium carbonate. Seashells, pearls, bones, and teeth contain a large amount of calcium carbonate. Magnesium is found, not only in many minerals, including asbestos, but also in seawater. Compounds of calcium
and magnesium are also found in fresh water, where they are responsible for its hardness. _^<N__^<N_The other alkaline earth metals are less abundant. Radium, a radioactive element, is found in low concentrations in pitchblende, and is formed
during the radioactive disintegration of uranium-238. Alkaline earth metals are found in their +2 oxidation states in the compounds they form. The metals are usually purified by electrolysis of their molten chlorides. _^<N__^<N_Norman V. Duffy
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ruben, Samuel, Handbook of the Elements (1985); Sharpe, Alan G., Inorganic Chemistry, 2d ed. (1986).
-END-
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2531
CATO
-A-
alkaloid
-O-
000000|alkaloid
000493| Occurrence
001341| Function
001702| Uses
-T-
alkaloid_^<N__^<N_{al'-kuh-loyd} _^<N__^<N_An alkaloid is any of a class of nitrogen-containing natural products of plant origin that have an alkalilike, or basic, chemical nature (see ACIDS AND BASES). Some alkaloids are simple, monocyclic
(one-ring) AMINES (see CYCLIC COMPOUNDS), but many are very complex, polycyclic amines. Various family groupings are possible according to basic ring structure, such as pyridine or quinoline alkaloids. The term was coined in 1819 by a German
pharmacist, K. F. W. Meissner. _^<N__^<N_ Occurrence_^<N__^<N_More than 200 alkaloids are known. They are present in only about 10 to 15 percent of all vascular plants. Often found in the dicotyledon group of the angiosperms, or flowering
plants, they seldom occur in monocotyledons or in other plant groups, such as gymnosperms. The more complex alkaloids generally occur only in certain genera or families, but simpler ones may occur in many unrelated species. The most actively
growing parts of such plants usually contain the highest percentage of the compounds. Among the more familiar alkaloids are aconitine (from Monkshood), ATROPINE (from belladonna), CODEINE, MORPHINE, and papaverine (from opium poppy), NICOTINE
(from tobacco), QUINIDINE and QUININE (from cinchona bark), solanine (from potato and tomato), ricinine (from castor bean), and STRYCHNINE and brucine (from Nux vomica). _^<N__^<N_ Function_^<N__^<N_Why certain plants contain alkaloids remains a
mystery, although a number of theories have been formulated: that alkaloids are by-products of plant metabolism; that they are means of defense for plants against animal and insect attacks; or that they are reservoirs for protein synthesis,
regulators of growth and reproduction, or detoxifying agents. _^<N__^<N_ Uses_^<N__^<N_Alkaloids have various uses, but they are most widely employed for their physiological effects, which range from poisonous to sedative to hallucinogenic.
Socrates was killed by the alkaloid emetine (from POISON HEMLOCK). Vinblastine and vincristine (from Vinca rosea) are used in the treatment of Hodgkins' disease and acute leukemia, respectively; other examples could be given. Lysergic acid, an
ERGOT alkaloid, is a starting material in synthesizing lysergic acid diethylamide (see LSD), a powerful hallucinogen. Another hallucinogenic alkaloid is mescaline (from PEYOTE). _^<N__^<N_Ronald D. Johnson _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Cordell, G. A.,
Introduction to Alkaloids (1981); Glasby, J. S., Encyclopedia of the Alkaloids (1983); Mothes, K., et al., eds., Biochemistry of Alkaloids (1985); Pelletier, S. W., Alkaloids (1986).
-END-
-C-
821
CAT
-A-
alkalosis
-T-
alkalosis_^<N__^<N_{al-kuh-loh'-sis} _^<N__^<N_Alkalosis is a disturbed body condition in which the normal balance of acids and bases (alkalies) in body fluids is upset and alkalies predominate. It produces overexcitement of the nervous system and,
in severe cases, an onset of muscle spasms known as TETANY. The condition can be brought on by hyperventilation (overbreathing), which results in excess loss of carbon dioxide and hence a drop in the carbonic acid content of body fluids; slow,
shallow breathing may correct this. It may also be brought on by loss of gastric acids after severe vomiting or by the ingestion of more alkalies than the kidneys can process. The opposite condition is ACIDOSIS. _^<N__^<N_Carl J. Pfeiffer
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hand, C. W., Acid Base Chemistry (1986); Heisler, N., ed., Acid-Base Regulation in Animals (1986).
-END-
-C-
469
CAT
-A-
Alkan
-T-
Alkan_^<N__^<N_Alkan was the name adopted as a performer by the French pianist Charles Henri Valentin Morhange, b. Nov. 30, 1813, d. Mar. 19, 1888. A child prodigy, he became a recluse in his 20s and devoted his life to composing. The 24 piano
studies in op. 35 and 39, representing all the major and minor keys, are among his best works. Influenced by Chopin, Alkan was melodically weaker; his music incorporates classical structures but is often bold in its harmonies.
-END-
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1737
CAT
-A-
alkane
-T-
alkane_^<N__^<N_{al'-kayn} _^<N__^<N_Alkanes are a class of ALIPHATIC hydrocarbons characterized by open chains of carbon atoms with only single bonds between adjacent carbon atoms. The related ALICYCLIC COMPOUNDS contain closed chains, or rings.
_^<N__^<N_The carbon atoms may form continuous or branched chains; branching increases the number of possible ISOMERS, or structural differences, for any one empirical formula. There is only one methane compound but five compounds with 6 carbons
(hexane), 75 with 10 carbons (decane), and 366,319 with 20 carbons (eiconsane). _^<N__^<N_The number of alkane compounds is theoretically endless, but only a relatively few have been characterized. The homologous members, except for the first
four, are named using the Greek or Latin prefix for the number of carbon atoms in the chain; all members have the characteristic ending ane. _^<N__^<N_All alkanes are insoluble in water; other physical properties vary with molecular weight.
Members having 1 through 4 carbons are gases at room temperature and pressure; 5-carbon through 17-carbon members are liquids. Higher members are solids and are often called the paraffin hydrocarbons. The average increase in boiling point is 20
deg per additional carbon group. _^<N__^<N_The primary source of alkanes is natural gas and Pennsylvania and midcontinent crude petroleum. Cracking is an important refinery process in which the long chains are shortened to produce gasoline. The
major uses of alkanes include energy production from the combustion of natural gas and gasoline, lubrication by oil and grease, and the manufacture of chemicals such as alkenes and polymers. _^<N__^<N_Elbert H. Hadley _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Streitwieser, Andrew, and Heathcock, Clayton, Introduction to Organic Chemistry, 3d ed. (1985).
-END-
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457
CAT
-A-
alkanet
-T-
alkanet_^<N__^<N_{al'-kuh-net} _^<N__^<N_Alkanet, or bugloss, is any of several coarse, hairy, annual, biennial, or perennial PLANTS with freely branching stems. The alkanet belongs to the borage family, Boraginaceae. Often used as an ornamental in
perennial beds, it may reach a height of 1.5 m (5 ft). Leaves may be up to 15 cm (6 in) in length. The flowers are pink in the bud stage and bright blue in full bloom. A red dyestuff is obtained from the roots. _^<N__^<N_Robert C. Romans
-END-
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1859
CAT
-A-
alkene
-T-
alkene_^<N__^<N_An alkene is any of a group of organic compounds that contain a carbon-carbon double bond. The molecules of alkenes are composed only of carbon and hydrogen atoms but contain less hydrogen per carbon atom than the ALKANES, or
paraffins, to which they can be converted by the addition of hydrogen. The alkenes (often called olefins) are thus unsaturated hydrocarbons. _^<N__^<N_Ethene or ethylene is the simplest member of the series. Systematic names for alkenes are
derived by appending the suffix ene to the root name for the alkane with the same carbon content. Whereas carbon-carbon single bonds permit rotation of the atoms or groups of atoms linked to the carbons, double bonds between two atoms completely
restrict rotation about the double bond. As a result 2-butene can exist in two different configurations of its atoms, called GEOMETRIC ISOMERS; the two forms are cis-2-butene and trans-2-butene. These isomers possess the same number of atoms but
have different structures and different physical properties. _^<N__^<N_Alkene hydrocarbons are much more chemically reactive than the alkanes because the double bond is more susceptible to attack by other reagents. The double bond can readily be
oxidized or reduced, and a wide variety of reagents can be added to the alkene molecule at the double-bond site. _^<N__^<N_Ethylene, propylene, and related compounds are leading organic raw materials in the CHEMISTRY INDUSTRY; they are used in the
production of many other compounds, including various polymers. Butene (butylene) has played an important role in the rubber industry, but heavier alkenes are commercially insignificant. _^<N__^<N_Herman E. Zieger _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Morrison,
R. T., and Boyd, R. N., Organic Chemistry, 4th ed. (1983); Wittcoff, H. A., and Reuben, B. G., Industrial Organic Chemicals in Perspective (1983). _^<N__^<N_See also: DIENE; ETHYLENE; METHYLENE.
-END-
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773
CAT
-A-
Alkmaar
-T-
Alkmaar_^<N__^<N_Alkmaar is a town in the North Holland province of the western Netherlands. Located about 32 km (20 mi) northwest of Amsterdam, it lies on the North Holland Canal, some 10 km (6 mi) inland from the North Sea. Dating from the 12th
century, the town has a population of 83,892 (1984 est.); some 120,000 live in the metropolitan area. Alkmaar is famous for a cheese market, now a major tourist attraction, which operates much as it has since it opened in 1571. Alkmaar was the
first Dutch town to resist a Spanish siege led by the duque de Alba in 1573, thus paving the way to Dutch independence. Notable buildings include the Gothic-style Town Hall, housing the Municipal Museum; the late 15th-century St. Lawrence's
Church; and the 16th-century Weigh House.
-END-
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19
CAT
-A-
alkyd:
-T-
alkyd:_^<N__^<N_see PLASTICS
-END-
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218
CAT
-A-
alkyl group
-T-
alkyl group_^<N__^<N_An alkyl group is any one of a class of structural units present in the molecules of organic chemical compounds. These groups are composed only of carbon and hydrogen atoms. _^<N__^<N_See also: ALKANE; ARYL GROUP.
-END-
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2383
CAT
-A-
alkyne
-T-
alkyne_^<N__^<N_An alkyne is any of a class of organic compounds similar to the ALKENES but characterized by a triple bond between two carbon atoms. They are sometimes called the acetylene series because the simplest member of the alkyne family is
the colorless gas ACETYLENE. Names for the other alkynes are derived by adding the suffix yne to the root name for the ALKANE of the same carbon content. Alkynes, like alkenes, undergo addition reactions; that is, substances such as hydrogen,
bromine, and water can add to the molecule at the triple bond. Whereas a simple alkene can absorb only one mole of hydrogen during reduction to an alkane, an alkyne such as propyne can consume two moles of hydrogen during its stepwise conversion to
propene and then to propane. Terminal alkynes, those in which the triple bond is at the end of the carbon chain, are distinguished from other unsaturated hydrocarbons in that the hydrogen atom on the end carbon is weakly acidic and can be removed
by reaction with a strongly basic reagent such as sodium amide. Acetylene is the only member of the alkyne series produced commercially in large amounts. It is made from coal and limestone by the reaction of coke and lime, CaO, in an electric
furnace to produce calcium carbide. The calcium carbide reacts with water at room temperature. In recent years acetylene has been made from natural gas, which is mostly methane. When methane is heated to a high temperature (1,400-1,600 deg C) and
passed over a catalyst, acetylene is one of the products obtained in fairly high yield. Pure acetylene (bp-83 deg C) in liquid form decomposes explosively when compressed to several hundred grams per square centimeter. Consequently, when acetylene
is used for fuel in oxyacetylene torches, it is dissolved in acetone under pressure in a cylinder packed with an inert porous material. Almost half of the acetylene produced is used for the synthesis of other organic chemicals. The catalytic
addition of water to acetylene produces acetaldehyde, which is required for the manufacture of polymerization accelerators. Addition of hydrogen cyanide to acetylene produces acrylonitrile, which is used for the production of synthetic fibers and
rubber. Acetylene adds to itself to give vinylacetylene, which serves as a precursor to chloroprene and thence to neoprene, a solvent-resistant synthetic rubber. _^<N__^<N_Herman E. Zieger
-END-
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1081
CAT
-A-
All Quiet on the Western Front
-T-
All Quiet on the Western Front_^<N__^<N_All Quiet on the Western Front, first published in Germany under the title Im Westen nichts Neues in 1929 and translated into English the same year, was not only the finest novel of Erich Maria REMARQUE but
also one of the most influential pieces of fiction to appear in the period between the two world wars. Based on Remarque's firsthand experience of trench warfare in World War I, it realistically and compassionately chronicles the hardships and
embittering experiences endured by a group of young German soldiers, the most sensitive of whom is killed shortly before the armistice. By exposing the horror, cruelty, and uselessness of war, the novel quickly won worldwide acclaim and served as a
symbol to the post-World War I LOST GENERATION. Banned by the Nazi regime for its antimilitaristic sentiments, the novel remained a focus for the pacifism that played a powerful political role in the Western democracies until the outbreak of World
War II. An effective motion-picture version (directed by Lewis Milestone, 1930) became a film classic.
-END-
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275
CAT
-A-
All Saints' Day
-T-
All Saints' Day_^<N__^<N_In the Christian church, All Saints' Day is the feast of all known and unknown SAINTS. It is observed on November 1 in the West. During the Middle Ages, the feast was called All Hallows' Day, giving its name to HALLOWEEN
(All Hallows' Eve), the preceding day.
-END-
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330
CAT
-A-
All Souls' Day
-T-
All Souls' Day_^<N__^<N_In Roman Catholicism, All Souls' Day is the feast that commemorates all the dead; special prayers and masses are offered for souls in PURGATORY. It is celebrated on November 2, the day following ALL SAINTS' DAY. In Buddhism,
a similar observance is held as an expression of filial piety for deceased family members.
-END-
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694
CAT
-A-
All the King's Men
-T-
All the King's Men_^<N__^<N_All the King's Men (1946; film, 1949), a social novel by Robert Penn WARREN, traces the political career of Willie Stark, a Southern backwoods politician who begins by battling the special interests and ends his life
totally corrupted, the victim of an assassin's bullet. In general outline, though not in detail, the 1947 Pulitzer Prize-winning novel (see PULITZER PRIZE) parallels the life of the Louisiana politician Huey Long, whose career, said Warren,
supplied the "line of thinking and feeling" from which the book evolved. The novel is narrated from the point of view of Jack Burden, a young intellectual who wrestles with the moral implications of Stark's career.
-END-
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829
CAT
-A-
All the President's Men
-T-
All the President's Men_^<N__^<N_All the President's Men (1974; film, 1976), written almost in the form of a detective story, is an account by two young journalists, Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward (see BERNSTEIN, CARL, AND WOODWARD, BOB), of how
they uncovered the events behind the WATERGATE break-in of June 17, 1972. It tells how the authors, as city reporters for the WASHINGTON POST, pursued their story doggedly for months and, step by step, linked the Republican administration of
Richard Nixon (see NIXON, RICHARD) with the attempted burglary at the Democratic national headquarters. Their fast-paced narrative describes the techniques of investigative JOURNALISM. One result was a sharp increase in enrollments in journalism
schools in the 1970s as young persons sought careers as reporters dedicated to exposing corruption.
-END-
-C-
828
CAT
-A-
Allah
-T-
Allah_^<N__^<N_Allah is the proper name of God in ISLAM. He is one, unique and incomparable, and his unlimited sovereignty implies absolute freedom. But there is also a firm relationship between him, the Lord of Mercy, and all human beings, based on
his being the creator and sustainer and on his providing in nature and history abundant signs of his goodness, reflected specifically in his sending of messengers and prophets. The interrelated emphases on Allah's uniqueness and on the significance
of his revelatory act are expressed in the Islamic witness: "There is no God but Allah, and MUHAMMAD is his messenger." _^<N__^<N_Willem A. Bijlefeld _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Macdonald, D. B., "Allah," in Encyclopaedia of Islam (1913-38); Gardet,
L., "Allah," in Encyclopaedia of Islam, new ed. (1960- ); Ullah, Mohammed Z., The Islamic Concept of God (1984).
-END-
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1121
CAT
-A-
Allahabad
-T-
Allahabad_^<N__^<N_{a-lah-huh-bahd'} _^<N__^<N_Allahabad is a north central city of India, situated at the confluence of the Ganges and the Yamuna, two of the most sacred Hindu rivers. Located in Uttar Pradesh state, it is the seat of the Uttar
Pradesh High Court. The annual average temperature is 26 deg C (79 deg F), and rainfall averages 1,062 mm (40.3 in) annually. Allahabad, whose population is 806,447 (1991), is a center of light industry and food processing. Allahabad University
was established in 1887. _^<N__^<N_The Mogul emperor Akbar erected a fort here in 1583 and designated it Al-Ilahabad ("city of God"). The ancient name of the city was Prayag. The city was ceded to Britain in 1801 and was the scene of extensive
violence during the Indian Mutiny (1857). Before 1947 the city was a center for India's nationalist movement and was the headquarters of the All-India Congress Committee until 1948. On Feb. 12, 1948, the ashes of Mahatma Gandhi were placed in the
holy waters at Allahabad. Two important religious fairs--the annual Magh Mela and the Kumbha Mela, occurring every 12th year--are held in Allahabad. _^<N__^<N_Ashok K. Dutt
-END-
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344
CAT
-A-
Allegheny College
-T-
Allegheny College_^<N__^<N_{al-uh-gay'-nee} _^<N__^<N_Established in 1815 and affiliated with the United Methodist Church, Allegheny College (enrollment: 1,887 library: 380,000 volumes) is a 4-year coeducational liberal arts institution in
Meadville, Pa. It has cooperative programs with other schools in engineering, forestry, nursing, and medical technology.
-END-
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678
CAT
-A-
Allegheny Mountains
-T-
Allegheny Mountains_^<N__^<N_The Allegheny Mountains, extending more than 800 km (500 mi) from central Pennsylvania to central West Virginia and southwestern Virginia, mark the eastern edge of the high Allegheny Plateau, which is the western part of
the Appalachian mountain system. The highest peak is Spruce Knob in West Virginia (1,481 m/4,860 ft). The ridges are covered with forests of conifers and hardwoods, including oak, maple, and hickory. Huge deposits of coal are mined in West Virginia
and Pennsylvania. The barrier of the Alleghenies delayed westward expansion of the early North American coastal settlements, and the region was not occupied until late in the 18th century.
-END-
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746
CAT
-A-
Allegheny River
-T-
Allegheny River_^<N__^<N_The Allegheny River rises in north central Pennsylvania, flows north into New York, and then turns south and southwest through Pennsylvania to Pittsburgh. At Pittsburgh it joins the Monongahela River to form the Ohio River.
_^<N__^<N_The Allegheny is 523 km (325 mi) long, and it drains an area of 29,530 sq km (11,400 sq mi). It traverses a region once rich in petroleum and natural gas reserves that are now largely depleted. Industrial cities on its banks, in addition
to Pittsburgh, are Olean, N.Y., and Warren and Oil City, Pa. Before railroads were built, the river was a busy commercial artery. A system of dams on the river and on its main tributaries--the Kiskiminetas, Clarion, and Conemaugh rivers--is
important in flood control.
-END-
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591
CAT
-A-
allegiance
-T-
allegiance_^<N__^<N_Allegiance is the obligation to support and obey a leader or government in return for protection. In medieval times the vassals owed allegiance to their feudal lord, but now citizens owe allegiance to their government.
_^<N__^<N_Traditionally, a national of one country could not change allegiance without that government's consent, but in 1868 the U.S. Congress declared that any U.S. citizen had the right to change allegiance at will. Britain has allowed free
choice of allegiance since 1870. Countries in the Soviet bloc require official approval before a citizen can change allegiance.
-END-
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2957
CAT
-A-
allegory
-T-
allegory_^<N__^<N_An allegory, in poetry or prose, is a narrative in which the characters, events, and setting represent deeper truths or generalizations than those suggested by the surface story. Allegory can thus be understood on more than one
level. The more profound meaning, however--religious, moral, political, or personal--is usually of greater importance than the fiction itself. The meaning conveyed may be obvious, subtle, or virtually concealed by the writer. _^<N__^<N_John
Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress (1678) is probably the best example of allegory in all literature. In the surface story a hero named Christian travels toward the Celestial City through a landscape marked by the Slough of Despond, the Valley of the
Shadow of Death, and Vanity Fair, and he meets characters such as Faithful and Mr. Worldly Wisdom. The deeper story deals with individual salvation. _^<N__^<N_Like other symbolic literary forms, such as the BESTIARY, FABLE, and PARABLE, allegory
is an extended metaphor. It is distinguished from those simpler types chiefly by its greater length and complexity. _^<N__^<N_Many classical myths may be considered allegorical, and Plato's myth of the cave in the Republic is explicitly so. The
form became more common in the Hellenistic period, especially as a means of explaining psychological phenomena. The great age of allegory, however, was the medieval period, when it not only characterized much of the didactic literature of the
church but also played a fundamental role in the era's whole intellectual approach. Interpretation of Scripture in terms of its allegorical content flourished, inviting explanation of the literally sensuous Song of Solomon as representative of the
love of God for his people. Allegory was also central to the popular form of entertainment known as the morality play, which typically featured personages representing abstract concepts such as Everyman, Good Deeds, and Beauty. _^<N__^<N_Among the
more famous allegories are the 13th-century ROMAN DE LA ROSE, parts of Dante's DIVINE COMEDY (1310-14), Langland's PIERS PLOWMAN (1377), Spenser's FAERIE QUEENE (1590, 1596), Dryden's Absalom and Achitophel (1681), Jonathan Swift's GULLIVER'S
TRAVELS (1726), Samuel Butler's EREWHON (1872), and George Orwell's ANIMAL FARM (1945). _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bloomfield, Morton W., ed., Allegory, Myth, and Symbol (1982); Clifford, Gay, The Transformations of Allegory (1974); Fletcher,
Angus, Allegory: The Theory of a Symbolic Mode (1970; repr. 1982); Honig, Edwin, Dark Conceit: The Making of Allegory (1959); Lewis, C. S., The Allegory of Love (1936); McClennen, Joshua, On the Meaning and Function of Allegory in the
English Renaissance (1947; repr. 1974); Quilligan, Maureen, The Language of Allegory (1987); Tuve, Rosemond, Allegorical Imagery: Some Medieval Books and Their Posterity (1966); Whitman, Jon, Allegory (1987); Wimsatt, James I., Allegory and
Mirror: Tradition and Structure in Middle English Literature (1970).
-END-
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1411
CAT
-A-
Allen, Ethan
-T-
Allen, Ethan_^<N__^<N_Ethan Allen, American Revolutionary soldier and frontiersman, was born in Litchfield, Conn., on Jan. 10, 1738, and moved in 1769 to Vermont--a territory then claimed by both New Hampshire and New York. He became leader of the
Green Mountain Boys, a military force of Vermonters who fought against New York to protect their landholdings. When the American Revolution broke out, Allen's Green Mountain Boys helped to capture (May 10, 1775) Fort TICONDEROGA from the British.
On Sept. 25, 1775, during the invasion of Canada, he was taken prisoner. After his release (May 6, 1778) Allen received the brevet rank of colonel in the Continental Army, but he did not serve. Upon returning to Vermont, he was given command of
the militia with the rank of major general. _^<N__^<N_Vermont, although not recognized as independent by the Continental Congress, had declared itself a separate republic in 1777. Allen, along with his brother Ira (1751-1814), entered into
negotiations with the British from 1779 on to obtain a guarantee of Vermont's independence. After the Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the war, he continued to resist New York's claims. He did not live to see Vermont become a state. He died
in Burlington on Feb. 12, 1789. _^<N__^<N_George Athan Billias _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Allen, Ethan, Reason, the Only Oracle of Man (1784); Jellison, Charles A., Ethan Allen: Frontier Rebel (1969; repr. 1983).
-END-
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614
CAT
-A-
Allen, Fred
-T-
Allen, Fred_^<N__^<N_Fred Allen was the stage name of John F. Sullivan, b. May 31, 1894, d. Mar. 17, 1956, known as the "king of the quick quip." Allen, a native of Cambridge, Mass., was an American comedian famous for his topical wit delivered
in a dry, sad, singsong drawl. He first appeared as an inept juggler and then performed in Broadway musicals and in movies before achieving fame in the 1930s with the radio show "Town Hall Tonight." Allen wrote two autobiographies, Treadmill to
Oblivion (1954) and Much Ado about Me (1956). _^<N__^<N_Frank Manchel _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Taylor, Robert, Fred Allen: His Life and Wit (1989).
-END-
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789
CAT
-A-
Allen, Frederick Lewis
-T-
Allen, Frederick Lewis_^<N__^<N_Frederick Lewis Allen, b. Boston, July 5, 1890, d. Feb. 13, 1954, was a contemporary historian and magazine editor. His best-sellers Only Yesterday (1931) and Since Yesterday (1940) were informal histories of the
1920s and '30s. As associate editor (1931-41) and editor (1941-53) of Harper's Magazine, he wrote and edited articles that helped Americans understand contemporary social, political, and economic problems. Allen also wrote The Lords of Creation
(1935), an economic history of the United States in the 20th century, and a 1949 biography of J. Pierpont Morgan. He collaborated with his wife on several American history picture-and-text volumes. _^<N__^<N_Ernest C. Hynds
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Payne, Darwin, The Man of Only Yesterday: Frederick Lewis Allen (1975).
-END-
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35
CAT
-A-
Allen, Gracie:
-T-
Allen, Gracie:_^<N__^<N_see BURNS AND ALLEN.
-END-
-C-
419
CAT
-A-
Allen, Hervey
-T-
Allen, Hervey_^<N__^<N_William Hervey Allen, b. Pittsburgh, Pa., Dec. 8, 1889, d. Dec. 28, 1949, was an American novelist, critic, and poet. He is best known as the author of Anthony Adverse (1933), a popular novel set in the Napoleonic era.
His critical biography of Edgar Allan Poe, Israfel (1926), is still admired. He died in the midst of completing a 5-volume historical saga of western Pennsylvania, The Disinherited.
-END-
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875
CAT
-A-
Allen, James Edward, Jr.
-T-
Allen, James Edward, Jr._^<N__^<N_As New York State (1955-69) and then U.S. (1969-70) commissioner of education, James E. Allen, b. Elkins, W.Va., Apr. 25, 1911, d. Oct. 16, 1971, was a crusader for liberal, city-oriented reforms. He reversed
the suspension of six New York City teachers who had refused to inform on associates with past Communist affiliations, solved a dispute about the posting of the Ten Commandments in New Hyde Park schools by ordering their removal, and ordered
several school boards to devise racial-balance plans to end de facto segregation. His plan to decentralize New York City schools gave power to 15 locally elected boards, controlled in some cases by minority groups. President Nixon appointed Allen
U.S. commissioner of education, but Allen resigned in June 1970 over the administration's policies on school desegregation and the Vietnam War.
-END-
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1094
CAT
-A-
Allen, Marcus
-T-
Allen, Marcus_^<N__^<N_Football star Marcus Allen, b. San Diego, Calif., March 22, 1960, is one of the most versatile and productive running backs in the professional game. He was a quarterback in high school and has thrown the option pass as a
professional. At the University of Southern California, he set or tied 12 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) records, and won the Heisman Trophy as the nation's top college player. In 11 seasons with the Oakland (later Los Angeles)
Raiders, the 6-ft 2-in (1.88-m) Allen became one of the National Football League (NFL) leading rushers. In 1982 he ran for 697 yards, caught 38 passes, and was named NFL Rookie of the Year. He capped his very successful 1983-84 season with 191
yards rushing in Super Bowl XVIII, earning him the game's Most Valuable Player award. In 1985 he led the NFL in rushing with 1,759 yards and caught 67 passes for 555 yards, setting a NFL record for combined rushing and receiving yardage. Allen has
been slowed by knee injuries since 1986, but remains a fine player. He joined the Kansas City Chiefs for the 1993 season.
-END-
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1533
CAT
-A-
Allen, Richard
-T-
Allen, Richard_^<N__^<N_Richard Allen was the founder and first bishop of the African Methodist Episcopal Church. He was born to slave parents in Philadelphia, Pa., on Feb. 14, 1760. The first General Conference of METHODISM, held in 1784,
considered him a promising candidate for the ministry. Asked to preach occasionally at St. George's Methodist Church in Philadelphia, he began prayer meetings among his people. His work attracted large numbers of black people to St. George's, and
some white members began to object to their presence. One Sunday in 1787, some of the black worshipers were pulled from their knees during prayer and asked to leave. They withdrew peacefully and under Allen's leadership organized the Free African
Society. In 1793 this society became Bethel Church, an independent Methodist church. In 1799, Allen was ordained a deacon, the first black man regularly ordained to the ministry of the Methodist Church. In 1816 representatives of a number of black
Methodist churches organized the African Methodist Episcopal Church as the first national black denomination and chose Allen as bishop. During his ministry he involved the church in various social issues, including the antislavery movement. He died
in Philadelphia on Mar. 26, 1831. _^<N__^<N_John F. Piper, Jr. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Allen, Richard, The Life Experience and Gospel Labors of the Rt. Rev. Richard Allen (1793; repr. 1960); Dvorak, K. L., An African-American Exodus: The
Segregation of the Southern Churches (1991); George, Carol V. R., Segregated Sabbaths (1973).
-END-
-C-
523
CAT
-A-
Allen, Steve
-T-
Allen, Steve_^<N__^<N_Stephen Valentine Patrick Allen, b. New York City, Dec. 26, 1921, is an American humorist who specializes in low-key, informal comedy. He began as a disc jockey and songwriter and gained national fame as the creator and first
host of NBC's "Tonight Show" (1954-56). His other television shows include the award-winning "Meeting of Minds" (1977-81). Allen starred in the screen biography The Benny Goodman Story (1955) and has written several thousand songs and film scores
and more than 30 books. _^<N__^<N_Frank Manchel
-END-
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374
CAT
-A-
Allen, Viola
-T-
Allen, Viola_^<N__^<N_Viola Allen, b. Oct. 27, 1867, d. May 9, 1948, was a leading American actress admired by critics and the public for her restrained interpretations of harassed and suffering women. After her debut in 1882, she toured from 1891
to 1898 in many Shakespearean roles. She gave her last performance in 1916 as Mistress Ford in The Merry Wives of Windsor. _^<N__^<N_Andrew Kelly
-END-
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3167
CAT
-A-
Allen, Woody
-T-
Allen, Woody_^<N__^<N_The leading comic actor of his generation and one of America's most prolific, respected filmmakers, Allen Stewart Konigsberg, b. Brooklyn, N.Y., Dec. 1, 1935, adopted the stage name Woody Allen when, at 16, he began his career
as a gag writer for a public relations agency. He wrote gags for TV stars Sid Caesar and Garry Moore and in the early '60s performed his own material in nightclubs and on television. He made his film debut as an actor/screenwriter for What's New,
Pussycat? (1965). In 1969, Allen wrote, directed, and starred in Take the Money and Run, and--except for the rare occasions when he has acted in other people's films--he has claimed complete control of his work ever since. _^<N__^<N_Allen built his
early films as a showcase for his comic persona, the traditional schlemiel of Jewish humor and folklore. "Woody" is a nervous wreck, an urban neurotic overloaded with complexes and phobias, yet beneath his unprepossessing facade is a would-be
Romeo, a man aflame with sexual desire. Allen cast himself wildly against type: in Take the Money and Run he is a bank robber; in Bananas (1971) he becomes the dictator of a banana republic; in Sleeper (1973) he is a time traveler adrift in a loony
futuristic mise-en-scene; in Love and Death (1975) he is a 19th-century Russian peasant. Throughout these surreal dislocations Allen remains Woody, a nebbish who wisecracks his way through his misadventures. _^<N__^<N_Annie Hall (1977) inaugurated
Allen's Manhattan series. In these films, which include Manhattan (1979), Hannah and Her Sisters (1986), Crimes and Misdemeanors (1989), Alice (1991), and Husbands and Wives (1992), Allen has become the poet laureate of metropolitan mating dances,
a moralist who blends comedy with drama as he circles his favorite themes in a variety of moods, from the universal affirmations of Hannah to the sweeping uncertainties of Crimes, a work that is the equivalent of a metaphysical shrug. (Portions of
Husbands seem to recapitulate the domestic scandal that erupted in 1992 between Allen and his longtime lover, Mia Farrow.) _^<N__^<N_While Allen's Manhattan comedies have become increasingly sober and contemplative, he has not forsaken the comic
fantasy of his early work--A Midsummer Night's Sex Comedy (1982), Zelig (1983), and The Purple Rose of Cairo (1985) evince his ongoing delight in magical juxtapositions; Broadway Danny Rose (1984) and Radio Days (1987) are as genial as early Allen
farce. Interiors (1978), September (1987), and Another Woman (1988), however, are static, humorless tributes to Ingmar Bergman, a director Allen idolizes but whose work he imitates at a perilous cost to his own artistic integrity. _^<N__^<N_If
Allen's evident unwillingness to be "merely comic" has sometimes corroded his work, he is still capable of taking surprising turns that pay off, and he has continued to demonstrate visual virtuosity and an often exhilarating infatuation with the
act of making movies. _^<N__^<N_Foster Hirsch _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hirsch, F., Love, Sex, Death, and the Meaning of Life: The Films of Woody Allen (1981; upd. ed., 1990); Jacobs, D., But We Need the Eggs: The Magic of Woody Allen (1982); Pogel,
N., Woody Allen (1987).
-END-
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886
CAT
-A-
Allenby, Edmund Henry Hynman, 1st Viscount Allenby of Megiddo
-T-
Allenby, Edmund Henry Hynman, 1st Viscount Allenby of Megiddo_^<N__^<N_Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby, b. Apr. 23, 1861, d. May 14, 1936, was a British general who commanded the British forces in the Middle East during World War I. A cavalry officer,
he served (1899-1902) in the South African War. At the outbreak of World War I he went to France as commander of British cavalry and subsequently led (1915-17) the Third Army. Sent to Egypt, he began a systematic campaign to expel the Turks from
Palestine, capturing Jerusalem in December 1917. His victory at Megiddo (Sept. 18-21, 1918) began the offensive that pushed the Turks back through Syria. Created (1919) a viscount, Allenby was high commissioner for Egypt (1919-25).
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Gardner, Brian, Allenby of Arabia (1965); Wavell, Archibald P., Allenby, Soldier and Statesman (1948) and Allenby: A Study in Greatness, 2 vols. (1941-43).
-END-
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988
CAT
-A-
Allende, Isabel
-T-
Allende, Isabel_^<N__^<N_Chilean writer Isabel Allende, b. Aug. 2, 1942, a niece of Salvador Allende, the Marxist president of Chile who was overthrown in 1973, came to world attention with her first novel, The House of the Spirits (1982; Eng.
trans., 1985; film, 1994). Working in the tradition of magic realism made famous by Gabriel GARCIA MARQUEZ, Allende nevertheless produced in this ambitious work a unique vision of Latin American society based equally on memories of three
generations of her unusual family and on the political realities of her native land under the military dictatorship of General Augusto PINOCHET UGARTE. In her next novel, Of Love and Shadows (1984; Eng. trans., 1987), she blended feminism and
revolutionary politics with the dual personal histories of her two protagonists. Later works are the short-story collection The Stories of Eva Luna (1991) and The Infinite Plan: A Novel (1993). A refugee in Venezuela after 1975, Allende moved to
the United States in 1988.
-END-
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1573
CAT
-A-
Allende, Salvador
-T-
Allende, Salvador_^<N__^<N_{ahl-yen'-day} _^<N__^<N_Salvador Allende Gossens, president of Chile from 1970 to 1973, was the second Marxian socialist (after Cheddi JAGAN in British Guiana) elected to lead a country of the Western Hemisphere. Born on
July 26, 1908, into an upper-middle-class family, he became involved in radical politics while attending medical school at the University of Chile. Although expelled from the university and briefly jailed for his revolutionary activities, he
completed his medical degree in 1932. In 1933 he helped organize Chile's Socialist party. _^<N__^<N_After holding several government offices and after three unsuccessful campaigns for the presidency (1952, 1958, 1964), Allende was elected
president in 1970. His administration nationalized many industries (including the copper mines, in which U.S. business had a major investment) and accelerated land reform. These measures antagonized right-wing elements, and severe economic
problems, aggravated by strikes, resulted in more widespread disaffection, which was encouraged by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. Allende died on Sept. 11, 1973, during a military coup that overthrew his government. His successors declared
that he had committed suicide; his supporters claimed that he was murdered. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Boorstein, Edward, Allende's Chile: An Inside View (1987); Davis, Nathaniel, The Last Two Years of Salvador Allende (1985); Drake, Paul W.,
Socialism and Populism in Chile (1978); Protopapas, George, Chile: Allende and After (1975); Sobel, Lester A., ed., Chile and Allende (1975).
-END-
-C-
926
CAT
-A-
Allentown
-T-
Allentown_^<N__^<N_Located on the Lehigh River in the Pennsylvania Dutch country in eastern Pennsylvania, Allentown is a busy industrial city with a great variety of manufactures. It has a population of 105,090 (1990 census) and is the seat of
Lehigh County. It serves as the marketing, processing, and shipping center for the agricultural products of the fertile Lehigh Valley. Allentown is also an educational center, with Muhlenberg College, Lehigh County Community College, and other
colleges located there. _^<N__^<N_The area was settled in the early 1700s by Germans seeking religious freedom. The city itself was founded in 1762 by Pennsylvania Chief Justice William Allen. Originally called Northhamptontown, it was later
renamed (1838) in honor of its founder. Allentown's reconstructed Zion Reformed Church contains a replica of the Liberty Bell, which was concealed there in 1777-78 during the British occupation of Philadelphia.
-END-
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6081
CATO
4793
-A-
allergy
-O-
000000|allergy
001596| THE ALLERGIC REACTION
002898| TYPES OF ALLERGY
004152| DIAGNOSIS
004632| TREATMENT
-T-
allergy_^<N__^<N_Allergy is an abnormal reaction of the body to substances normally harmless, such as pollen, dust, certain foods, drugs, and insect stings. The term allergy is of Greek origin and means "abnormal response." An estimated 35 million
people in the United States suffer from various allergies, some of which are mistaken for the common cold. _^<N__^<N_The symptoms of allergy vary with the causative agent, which is called an allergen (or ANTIGEN), and with the part of the body
affected. The symptoms, or allergic reactions, may include sneezing, watery eyes, and nasal congestion, as in hay fever and allergic rhinitis; a rash, stomach upset, and itchy swellings on the skin (HIVES), as in some food or drug allergies; and
spasms within the lungs that interfere with breathing, as in ASTHMA. Rarely, a person may have an extreme allergic reaction to bee or wasp stings, penicillin or other drugs, or certain foods. This is called anaphylactic SHOCK. Characterized by
severe drop in blood pressure, an itchy rash or hives, trouble breathing, pain in the abdomen, swelling of the tongue or throat, and diarrhea, it can lead to asphyxiation and death. _^<N__^<N_Common allergens, in addition to those mentioned above,
include animal fur, feathers, cosmetics, textile dyes, smoke, bacteria, poison ivy and other plants, molds, chemical pollutants in the atmosphere, animal excretions, and blood serum received by transfusion, which may cause SERUM SICKNESS. Even
heat, cold, and light may cause allergy in susceptible people. Allergens may act following inhalation, injection, ingestion, or contact with the skin. _^<N__^<N_ THE ALLERGIC REACTION_^<N__^<N_An allergic reaction occurs when the immune system,
which is the body's normal defense against dangerous foreign substances, "mistakes" a normally harmless substance for an invader, such as a virus. No one knows why this abnormal reaction occurs in some people and not others. People who have this
type of unusual immune system are said to be hypersensitive, and medical scientists often use the term hypersensitivity instead of allergy. _^<N__^<N_The body's immune system reacts to an allergen in many different ways to cause the discomforting
symptoms of allergy. In many allergies, the process begins when the allergen stimulates the immune system to manufacture certain ANTIBODY molecules called immunoglobulin E (IgE). The antibody molecules then combine with the allergen molecules and
bind to certain cells called mast cells and basophils, causing the release of histamine (see ANTIHISTAMINE) and other active compounds. The histamine in turn affects the blood vessels and mucous membranes, leading to swelling, congestion, and
leakage. Typically, these physiological changes lead to a runny nose if the allergen is airborne and inhaled. Other cells and other constituents of the blood serum can cause other types of allergies, such as POISON IVY dermatitis and serum
sickness. _^<N__^<N_ TYPES OF ALLERGY_^<N__^<N_Allergies characteristically are not symptomatic with the first exposure to the allergen, and the symptoms occur only upon re-exposure to the same agent. A person is said to have been sensitized by
the first contact. That is, the immune system somehow "learns" to respond to the agent with an allergic reaction, but it reacts only at later contacts. Sensitization of this type occurs in a variety of infectious diseases, such as BRUCELLOSIS,
GLANDERS, SYPHILIS, and coccidioidomycosis, in which allergy develops to the infecting bacteria, fungi, or viruses. _^<N__^<N_In many persons, heredity is responsible for the tendency to be allergic to a variety of substances. Those persons with
such inherited tendencies are called atopic. The common atopies include hay fever; asthma; infantile ECZEMA, which is an itchy skin lesion;, contact DERMATITIS, which is a skin inflammation caused by poison ivy or a variety of chemicals that may
contact the skin; and perhaps some food or drug allergies. Numerous studies have shown that persons with one of these diseases are more likely to have other diseases of the group than is the general population. Many of these people have a family
history of allergic diseases, usually of the same group. _^<N__^<N_ DIAGNOSIS_^<N__^<N_Allergic disease is diagnosed from the patient's medical history; symptoms; and so-called skin, or patch, tests, which help to identify the allergen. Small
doses of many of the most common allergens are injected just below the skin in separate patches, and substances to which the patient is allergic usually cause redness and swelling at the injection site. Skin tests are often "false positive,"
however; they may indicate a sensitivity when in fact none exists. _^<N__^<N_ TREATMENT_^<N__^<N_If the allergens can be identified, treatment of allergy may be merely the avoidance of the offending agents. If they cannot be avoided, as with
house dust, pollen, insect stings, and perhaps animal fur, treatment may be of so-called hyposensitization, or desensitization. In desensitization, small amounts of the substance that causes the allergy are injected under the skin during repeated
visits to a physician. After many such injections, the body may "learn" not to react to the substance. With the determination in 1988 of the structure of the IgE receptors on mast cells, researchers hope to develop more direct means of blocking
allergic reactions. _^<N__^<N_The discomforting symptoms of allergy are sometimes relieved by three types of medication: antihistamines, which block release of the histamines that cause swelling and congestion of mucous membranes;
anti-inflammatory agents, such as corticosteroids; and decongestants, of short-term help but then counterproductive. _^<N__^<N_David S. Gordon, M. D. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Chiaramonte, L. T., and Schneider, A. T., Food Allergy (1988); Eaton,
Keith, et al., Allergy Therapeutics (1981); Frazier, C. A., Insect Allergy (1987); Lawlor, G. J., Jr., and Fischer, T. J., Manual of Allergy and Immunology, 2d ed. (1988); Middleton, Elliott, Jr., et al., Allergy, 3d ed., 2 vols. (1988);
Schlumberger, H. D., ed., Epidemiology of Allergic Diseases (1987). _^<N__^<N_See also: IMMUNITY; RHINITIS.
-END-
-C-
479
CAT
-A-
Alleyn, Edward
-T-
Alleyn, Edward_^<N__^<N_{al'-in} _^<N__^<N_Edward Alleyn, b. Sept. 1, 1566, d. Nov. 25, 1626, was one of the foremost English actors of his day, rivaling Richard BURBAGE. Chief interpreter of the plays of Christopher MARLOWE, Alleyn probably
played the leads in DOCTOR FAUSTUS, TAMBURLAINE THE GREAT, and THE JEW OF MALTA. He retired from the stage a wealthy man in 1604 and founded Dulwich College in 1617. _^<N__^<N_Andrew Kelly _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hosking, G. L., Life and Times
of Edward Alleyn (1970).
-END-
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1315
CAT
-A-
alliance
-T-
alliance_^<N__^<N_In international relations, an alliance is an agreement between two or more states to cooperate for certain political objectives, frequently for mutual defense against a common enemy. Present-day examples are the NORTH ATLANTIC
TREATY ORGANIZATION (NATO), comprising the United States, Canada, and 13 European countries, which is designed to defend Europe against attack from the east; and the WARSAW TREATY ORGANIZATION, comprising the USSR and its East European allies,
which counterbalances NATO. The United States has also formed alliances with Japan and with countries in Southeast Asia. _^<N__^<N_Historic alliances have included the QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE of 1814 between Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, which
crushed Napoleon; the TRIPLE ALLIANCE between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy before World War I; the TRIPLE ENTENTE between France, Britain, and Russia in the same period; and the alliance between the United States, Britain, and the USSR in
World War II. _^<N__^<N_The first U.S. alliance was that negotiated by Benjamin Franklin with France in 1778, by which the French aided the United States during the Revolutionary War. But Presidents Washington and Jefferson both warned against
"permanent" or "entangling" alliances, and the country refrained from entering further alliances until World War II.
-END-
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757
CAT
-A-
Alliance for Progress
-T-
Alliance for Progress_^<N__^<N_The Alliance for Progress was a $100 billion program for the economic and social development of Latin America in the 1960s. First proposed by President John F. KENNEDY, the alliance was formally inaugurated on Aug. 17,
1961, at Punta del Este, Uruguay, by a treaty between the United States and 19 Latin American countries, excluding Cuba. The original 10-year treaty was extended indefinitely in 1965, but operations ceased in 1974, when financial support was
discontinued. Although some accomplishments were achieved in health, education, housing, and economic growth, the program generally failed to meet its expectations. _^<N__^<N_Rita J. Immerman _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Scheman, L. Ronald, ed., The
Alliance for Progress: A Retrospective (1988).
-END-
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45
CAT
-A-
Allied Powers:
-T-
Allied Powers:_^<N__^<N_see WORLD WAR I; WORLD WAR II.
-END-
-C-
3654
CAT
-A-
alligator
-T-
alligator_^<N__^<N_An alligator is either of two large temperate-zone amphibious reptiles, the Chinese alligator (Alligator sinensis) or the American alligator (A. mississippiensis). Alligators are related to CROCODILES but have a broad snout and
lack the side notch that exposes the long fourth tooth of the lower jaw in crocodiles. In alligators the teeth of the upper jaw overlap those of the lower and hide them from view. _^<N__^<N_The smaller and less-known species, the Chinese
alligator, is now found only in the lower Yangtze River valley of eastern China. It seldom attains a length of more than 1.5 m (5 ft). The American alligator is much larger; an individual specimen 5.8 m (19 ft 2 in) long is on record. Most such
alligators have been killed by hunters, however, and a 3.6-m (12-ft) animal is now considered large. American alligators are found in lakes, swamps, and slow-moving streams of the eastern U.S. coastal plain from North Carolina to Texas. For both
species of alligators, individuals have been known to live for 50 years. _^<N__^<N_Alligators eat a wide variety of animals. Small ones feed on insects, crayfish, minnows, and frogs. Adults eat larger fish, water birds, turtles, and various small
mammals and occasionally consume larger mammals and such domestic animals as dogs and hogs. They rarely attack humans. _^<N__^<N_The American alligator's life history is better known than that of any other crocodilian. After mating in the spring,
the female prepares, on the bank of a pond, a nest of water plants and mud that may be 1.8 m (6 ft) in diameter and 0.9 m (3 ft) high. The female then digs a hole in the top of the nest, lays 30 to 80 eggs in it, and covers them with wet
vegetation and mud. The eggs are incubated by the heat of the sun and hatch in about 60 days. The young call when hatched, and the mother alligator, who has been nearby during the incubation period, then carries them in her mouth or leads them to
the pond, where they remain with her during their first year. _^<N__^<N_The bellow of male alligators is well known, but only recently has it been recognized that females also call. Alligators call not only during the breeding season but also at
other times of year, to announce their presence and perhaps to keep other alligators out of their home range. Young alligators call too, and a distress call by a youngster may bring an immediate response from a nearby adult. Charging adults can
run fairly rapidly, with body raised, for short distances. _^<N__^<N_Because the belly skin of alligators lacks the bony plates typical of crocodile and CAIMAN skin, it can be made into an excellent leather for shoes, handbags, and other items.
The alligator has therefore been a prime target for hide hunters, who greatly reduced alligator populations in the past. In the 1950s it was recognized that the species was likely to become extinct if the hunting continued. The American alligator
was placed under federal protection in 1969, and its numbers have since increased. In 1987 the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service declared the American alligator to be out of danger. _^<N__^<N_Alligators belong to the family Crocodylidae, order
Crocodylia. _^<N__^<N_H. B. Dowling _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Halliday, Tim, and Adler, Kraig, eds., The Encyclopedia of Reptiles and Amphibians (1986); Hartley, William and Ellen, The Alligator: King of the Wilderness (1977); Heatwole, Harold,
Reptile Ecology (1985); Hirschhorn, Howard H., Crocodilians of Florida and the Tropical Americas (1984); Neill, W. T., The Last of the Ruling Reptiles: Alligators, Crocodiles, and Their Kin (1971); Perrero, Laurie, Alligators and Crocodiles of
the World: The Disappearing Dragons (1975).
-END-
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750
CAT
-A-
Allingham, Margery
-T-
Allingham, Margery_^<N__^<N_Margery Allingham, b. May 20, 1904, d. June 30, 1966, an English writer, produced classics in two genres of the detective novel--the thriller and the problem story. Both feature her series hero, Albert Campion, whose
large glasses and indifferent manner mask a first-rate mind and enough physical prowess to deal with the demands of both types of plot. The earlier Campion stories, notably Mystery Mile (1930), abounded in hair-raising adventures and criminal
conspiracies. In the later novels, beginning with Death of a Ghost (1934), the problem to be solved turned on the interaction of the characters, usually sophisticated Londoners. The Tiger in the Smoke (1952), a gripping story of a police manhunt,
was filmed in 1956.
-END-
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596
CAT
-A-
Allis, Edward Phelps
-T-
Allis, Edward Phelps_^<N__^<N_Edward Phelps Allis, b. Cazenovia, N. Y. May 12, 1824, d. Apr. 1, 1889, founded one of the largest industrial machine plants in the Midwest. He began in the tannery business but in 1854 disposed of his holdings and
turned to banking and real estate. In 1861 he bought a small foundry, and in 1869 he gained the job of installing the Milwaukee water system. From then on, the business expanded rapidly. The Allis Company produced machinery for the roller
process used in flour mills, made sawmill and mining equipment, and manufactured heavy pumps and Corliss engines.
-END-
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36
CAT
-A-
alliteration:
-T-
alliteration:_^<N__^<N_see FIGURES OF SPEECH.
-END-
-C-
1170
CAT
-A-
Allosaurus
-T-
Allosaurus_^<N__^<N_{al'-oh-sohr-uhs} _^<N__^<N_Allosaurus (Greek: allos {"other"}; saurus, {"lizard"}), a large, carnivorous DINOSAUR of Late JURASSIC to the Early CRETACEOUS Period, ranged in length from 5 to 12 m (16 to 40 ft) and probably
weighed 4 metric tons (about 8,800 lb). Like all other theropods, Allosaurus walked on only two legs, using its long, heavy tail for balance. The short forelimbs bore three sharp, curved claws adapted for grasping prey. The hindlimbs were
powerful, with birdlike feet and less-curved claws. The head was large, nearly 1 m (3 ft) long, with long jaws armed with serrated, bladelike teeth suited to eating flesh. _^<N__^<N_Allosaurus apparently was the most common of the later Jurassic
theropods in North America (others included ORNITHOLESTES, Ceratosaurus, and Coelurus) and probably was the chief predator of such contemporaneous herbivores as BRONTOSAURUS, CAMPTOSAURUS, DIPLODOCUS, and STEGOSAURUS. _^<N__^<N_John H. Ostrom
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Colbert, E. H., Dinosaurs: An Illustrated History (1986); Czerkas, S. J., and Olson, E. c., Dinosaurs Past and Present (1987); Swinton, W. E., Dinosaurs, 5th ed. (1975). _^<N__^<N_See also: FOSSIL RECORD; MESOZOIC
ERA.
-END-
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828
CAT
-A-
allotrope
-T-
allotrope_^<N__^<N_{al'-oh-trohp} _^<N__^<N_Allotropes are the individual forms of an element that occur when more than one type of bonding between atoms of the element is possible. Elements that have allotropes include oxygen, carbon, sulfur,
phosphorus, iron, and tin, among others. Usually one allotrope is most abundant and indefinitely stable at ordinary temperature and pressure, and the others can be formed only in unusual conditions. No general explanation can be given for the
existence of more than one form; each case must be considered individually. Oxygen can exist in two allotropic forms: one is a familiar gas constituent of air, the other ozone, which is confined to the upper atmosphere. The allotropes of carbon,
which are diamond and graphite, have strikingly different crystal structures and physical properties. _^<N__^<N_George Gorin
-END-
-C-
578
CAT
-A-
Allouez, Claude Jean
-T-
Allouez, Claude Jean_^<N__^<N_{ahl-way'} _^<N__^<N_Claude Jean Allouez, b. June 6, 1622, d. Aug. 27, 1689, a French Jesuit missionary in North America, baptized more than 10,000 Indians in the Great Lakes region. Arriving in Canada in 1658, he was
appointed vicar general of the Northwest in 1663. He traveled in the territory west and south of the Great Lakes, working among the Potawatomi, the Miami, the Illinois, and other tribes. His reports, published in The Jesuit Relations (the Jesuits'
record of their activities in North America, 1632-1673), attracted attention to the Great Lakes area.
-END-
-C-
5227
CATO
4791
-A-
alloy
-O-
000000|alloy
000603| STRUCTURE OF ALLOYS
000856| Solid Solutions
001152| Intermetallic Compounds
001364| Multiphase Alloys
002551| Ion-Implantation Alloys
003017| PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS
-T-
alloy_^<N__^<N_An alloy is a mixture or solution of metals that may also include other chemical elements. Well-known alloys are BRASS, an alloy of copper and zinc; BRONZE, an alloy of copper and tin; and steel, an alloy of iron and carbon (see
IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY). Alloys consisting of metals alloyed with semimetals, such as arsenic or antimony, or with nonmetals, such as carbon or silicon, are widely used. Alloys are divided into two basic groups: ferrous alloys, containing iron
as the elemental metal, and nonferrous alloys, containing a metal other than iron, such as copper, aluminum, or titanium. _^<N__^<N_ STRUCTURE OF ALLOYS_^<N__^<N_Most components of alloys are partially miscible (capable of being mixed) or even
completely miscible in the liquid state. Different types of alloys can be distinguished, depending on the degree of homogenization in the solid state. _^<N__^<N_ Solid Solutions_^<N__^<N_These are alloys in which the atoms of the components are
randomly mixed throughout the crystals. Since the different kinds of atoms are of different sizes, stresses result in the crystal lattice of the alloy that hinder movement of dislocations, resulting in a harder material. _^<N__^<N_ Intermetallic
Compounds_^<N__^<N_In these alloys the atoms of the different compounds alternate regularly in the crystal lattice. Intermetallic alloys generally have extreme thermal stability, brittleness, and hardness. _^<N__^<N_ Multiphase Alloys_^<N__^<N_A
multiphase alloy consists of a mechanical mixture or mixed phase of two or more kinds of crystals with different composition. Its structure and properties depend markedly on the cooling rate of the molten mass and other circumstances during
cooling. If the cooling is very gradual, the heavier phase migrates to the bottom, and the lighter phase moves to the top. Rapid cooling (quenching) may produce a solid solution with no phase separation at all. This is not a stable situation,
and eventually separation takes place. If the cooling is somewhere between these two extremes, then partial separation occurs. The final structure of the alloy can be pictured as a granular structure of the most abundant component, with the other
component concentrated around the grain boundaries. Structures in which grains of the least abundant component lie embedded in a more or less homogeneous material are often encountered as well. The mechanical properties of the various structures
may differ greatly so that, by a judicious selection of cooling techniques, sometimes also followed by other heat treatments, a material with the desired properties can be obtained. _^<N__^<N_ Ion-Implantation Alloys_^<N__^<N_Metal surfaces can be
hardened and made more corrosion resistant by treating them with beams of selected ions, producing a surface alloy without changing the properties of the underlying material. A third substance can be spread on the metal and driven into the surface
as well, a process called ion-beam mixing. Ion beams can also be used to bond metals firmly with ceramic coatings by mixing the ceramic and metal atoms at the interface. _^<N__^<N_ PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS_^<N__^<N_A wide range of metal properties can
be controlled by alloying, such as mechanical strength, resistance to heat and corrosion, and electrical and magnetic characteristics. An example of the change achievable in mechanical properties by alloying is the AMALGAM used for dental work.
By dissolving metals, such as silver and tin, in liquid mercury, a solid compound is obtained. The first uses of alloys were to improve the mechanical strength of metals. The alloys bronze and brass are well-known examples. The tensile strength
of iron can be increased from 275 X 1 million to 1,000 X 1 million N/sq m (40,000 to 150,000 lb/sq in) by adding only a small amount of carbon. Iron alloyed with 0.03 to 1.7 percent carbon forms the important group of steels. STAINLESS STEEL is
an alloy of steel with chromium and nickel, with improved resistance to corrosion. _^<N__^<N_For aircraft and aerospace applications, titanium alloys have been developed with tensile strengths up to 1,400 X 1 million N/sq m (200,000 lb/sq in), and
with a weight of only 60 percent that of steel. Because of their high corrosion resistance and the absence of reactions with living tissues, titanium alloys are used in prosthetic devices and pacemakers. The development of jet engines, with their
high internal working temperatures, was made possible by the availability of superalloys. These alloys, based on nickel and cobalt, are used for the manufacture of turbine blades in jet engines, and offer great strength and resistance to corrosion
at temperatures as high as 1,100 deg C (2,000 deg F). _^<N__^<N_Alloys with low melting temperatures are used as fusible elements in automatic sprinkler systems. These alloys consist of lead, cadmium, bismuth, and other low-melting-temperature
metals, forming a eutectic alloy. Eutectic alloys are mixtures with melting points lower than any of their components; melting points as low as 50 deg C (120 deg F) can be achieved. Various metal and ceramic alloys are used as superconductors (see
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY). _^<N__^<N_Merle C. Nutt _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Donachie, M. J., Jr., ed., Superalloys (1983); Smith, W. F., Structure and Properties of Engineering Alloys (1980). _^<N__^<N_See also: METALLURGY.
-END-
-C-
669
CAT
-A-
Allport, Gordon W.
-T-
Allport, Gordon W._^<N__^<N_Gordon Willard Allport, b. Nov. 11, 1897, d. Oct. 9, 1967, was an American psychologist whose theory of PERSONALITY emphasized the uniqueness of the individual. Allport taught at Harvard (1924-26, 1930-67) and also
edited the Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology from 1937 to 1949. He maintained that motives were "functionally autonomous" and could not be said to be merely the search for pleasure and the avoidance of pain or derived from an individual's
past history. Among his works are Personality: A Psychological Interpretation (1937) and The Nature of Prejudice (1954). _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Evans, R. I., Dialogue with Gordon Allport (1981).
-END-
-C-
558
CAT
-A-
allspice
-T-
allspice_^<N__^<N_Allspice is the dried, nearly ripe, berry of the allspice tree, Pimenta dioica, of the MYRTLE family. The name is derived from its flavor, which suggests a mixture of cloves, cinnamon, and nutmeg. Allspice is native to the West
Indies and Central America but today is primarily cultivated in Jamaica. It is used whole or ground in pickling spices, mincemeat, roast meats, and baked goods. Its ESSENTIAL OIL is used in meat sauces, catsup, spice blends for pickles, and
sausages, as well as for reproducing certain fruit flavors. _^<N__^<N_Arthur O. Tucker
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1641
CAT
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Allston, Washington
-T-
Allston, Washington_^<N__^<N_Washington Allston, b. Georgetown, S. C., Nov. 5, 1779, d. July 9, 1843, was a pioneer in American landscape painting and the first important American romantic painter. After graduating from Harvard in 1800, he
studied (1801-03) with Benjamin WEST at the Royal Academy in London, learning the techniques of English painting. Allston also studied at the LOUVRE and then in Italy, where he became interested in the color techniques of the 16th-century Venetian
school and in the serene classicism of Nicolas POUSSIN. While in Italy (1804-08), Allston became a close friend of Samuel Taylor COLERIDGE, whose ideas strongly influenced him. An important early work is Rising of a Thunderstorm at Sea (1804;
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston), a dramatic expression of the power of nature. _^<N__^<N_Allston was a subjective artist who used art as a personal statement of the vision in his own mind, as he did in the introspective Moonlit Landscape (1819;
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston) and the huge Belshazzar's Feast (begun 1817, incomplete at the time of his death; Detroit Institute of Arts). Allston's use of color and light to create luminous, atmospheric effects had a great influence on American
landscape painting, especially on the HUDSON RIVER SCHOOL. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Flagg, J. B., The Life and Letters of Washington Allston (1892; repr. 1969); Gerdts, W. H., and Stebbins, T. E., Jr., A Man of Genius: The Art of Washington
Allston (1980); Richardson, E. P., Washington Allston: A Study of the Romantic Artist in America (1948; repr. 1967); Wright, Nathalia, ed., The Correspondence of Washington Allston (1991).
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45
CAT
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allusion:
-T-
allusion:_^<N__^<N_see NARRATIVE AND DRAMATIC DEVICES.
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2231
CAT
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alluvial fans
-T-
alluvial fans_^<N__^<N_An alluvial fan is a flat cone of soil and rock debris deposited by a stream at the mouth of a confining channel as the water spreads out and loses its carrying ability. Although they form under a wide range of climatic
conditions, fans are most common in closed desert basins bounded by mountain ranges. _^<N__^<N_A stream confined to a channel (a canyon, for example) flows rapidly because it is fairly deep and narrow; the cross-sectional perimeter that it drags
against is thus minimized. As it leaves its mountain channel, the stream tends to spread out. Its depth decreases and width increases, with a resultant increase in the cross-sectional perimeter along which drag can occur. With increased drag,
water flow decelerates, and the stream's ability to carry debris is reduced. The stream adjusts to progressively diminishing capacity and competence by depositing debris along its length. _^<N__^<N_The caliber of the debris becomes smaller and
smaller as the stream breaks up into distributary channels and its flow velocity slackens. Boulders are dumped at fan heads, but silt and clay may be carried beyond the fan margins. Deposition along any path of a fan decreases the slope along
that path. When this happens, adjacent steeper paths begin to draw stream discharge. In this manner, debris is spread evenly and radially away from the fan apex, a process that may take thousands of years to complete. _^<N__^<N_The surface of a
fan is commonly incised by entrenched distributary channels, particularly at the fan head. The shape of a fan depends on the materials and processes that formed it. MUDFLOWS create the steepest fans; boulder-sized debris forms steeper fans than
finer debris; and streams with high rates of discharge form flatter fans than streams with low rates. In long profile, the surfaces of most fans slope less than 5 deg and are straight to slightly concave upward. A series of coalesced fans is
referred to as a bajada (pronounced, and sometimes spelled, "bahada"). _^<N__^<N_Roger S. U. Smith _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Nilsen, Tor H., Modern and Ancient Alluvial Fan Deposits (1985); Rachocki, A., and Church, M., Alluvial Fans: A Field
Approach (1990). _^<N__^<N_See also: DESERT; EROSION AND SEDIMENTATION; RIVER AND STREAM.
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430
CAT
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Allyson, June
-T-
Allyson, June_^<N__^<N_June Allyson, b. New York City, Oct. 17, 1923, is an American film actress whose numerous screen appearances projected the wholesome image of the girl next door. She began her career as a dancer on Broadway and became an MGM
stock player in such musicals as Best Foot Forward (1943) and Two Girls and a Sailor (1944). Her dramatic roles include Little Women (1949) and The Glenn Miller Story (1954). _^<N__^<N_Leslie Halliwell
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890
CAT
-A-
Alma-Ata
-T-
Alma-Ata_^<N__^<N_{ahl-mah-ah-tah'} _^<N__^<N_Alma-Ata is the capital of Kazakhstan. It has a population of 1,128,000 (1989 est.). Built along a rectilinear street pattern, it is at the foot of the Trans-lli Mountains, a range of the Tian Shan
(Tien Shan). Situated in an area of apple orchards, the city takes its name from the Kazakh Almaty, meaning "apple place." _^<N__^<N_Kazahkstan was formerly part of the USSR, and Alma Ata still has a large Russian population. It is a diversified
manufacturing center (apparel, food products, machinery) and is the site of a university. Founded by the Russians in 1854 as a strongpoint on their advance into Central Asia, it was called Verny until the present Kazakh name was adopted in 1921.
When Kazakhstan achieved independence in 1991, the city emerged from relative obscurity and became a frequent stopping-off point for foreign diplomats and trade representatives.
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1165
CAT
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Alma-Tadema, Sir Lawrence
-T-
Alma-Tadema, Sir Lawrence_^<N__^<N_{al-muh-tad'-uh-mah} _^<N__^<N_Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema, b. Dronrijp, Netherlands, Jan. 8, 1836, d. June 25, 1912, achieved enormous success in his lifetime as a historical painter, specializing in elegant
scenes of everyday life in ancient Greece and Rome, as he imagined it. Carefully correct in their archaeological detail, Alma-Tadema's anecdotal canvases exhibit faultless, almost photographic technique and finish. This precision, and his
sentimental titles, worked against Alma-Tadema's reputation in the recent past, but the present-day reassessment of 19th-century academicism has rescued his works from oblivion. Such paintings as A Reading from Homer (c.1880-1885; Philadelphia
Museum of Art) and Spring (1894; Getty Museum, Malibu) are now regarded as exemplars of their period and tradition. An esteemed member of the Royal Academy, Alma-Tadema spent most of his career in London and was knighted in 1899.
Almagest_^<N__^<N_The Almagest ("The Greatest Compilation"), the earliest and most important work of the Greek astronomer PTOLEMY (AD 100-170), was the standard work on astronomy until the time of Copernicus. A compilation of the astronomical
knowledge of the past, as well as of Ptolemy's own research, the work is composed of 13 books, or chapters. In each, Ptolemy explains a specific aspect of his GEOCENTRIC WORLD SYSTEM, which places the Earth in the center of the universe. The first
two books present the general cosmology, based on ARISTOTLE, of the Sun, Moon, and planets rotating around the Earth and describe the trigonometry of the celestial sphere. Book 3 presents the theory of the motion of the Sun, derived from
HIPPARCHUS; books 4 and 5 detail a new and substantially improved lunar theory; book 6 deals with eclipses; and books 7 and 8 catalog the stars. The final books, 9 to 13, contain Ptolemy's most original contribution, a theory of planetary motion.
Ptolemy's explanatory mechanism for all of these models is a system of circles known as epicycles, which were meant to predict the positions of the Sun, Moon, and planets at any given time. In the chapters on planetary motion, Ptolemy introduced
the concept of uniform planetary motion around a point eccentric to the Earth, known as the equant point. This device was in part responsible for Copernicus's rejection in the 16th century of the geocentric world system and his proposal of a
HELIOCENTRIC WORLD SYSTEM. _^<N__^<N_Steven J. Dick _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Pannekoek, A., A History of Astronomy (1961); Toomer, G. J., ed., Ptolemy's Almagest (1984). _^<N__^<N_See also: ASTRONOMY, HISTORY OF.
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1285
CAT
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Almagro, Diego de
-T-
Almagro, Diego de_^<N__^<N_{ahl-mah'-groh} _^<N__^<N_Diego de Almagro, b. 1475, was a leader, with Francisco PIZARRO, in the Spanish conquest of Peru. He went to Panama in 1514 and joined Pizarro in the abortive 1524-25 expedition along the west
coast of South America. Almagro was also Pizarro's partner in the second expedition of 1526-28 and in the conquest of Peru (1533). Their friendship cooled when Pizarro was awarded a larger fief and Pizarro disputed Almagro's claim to Cuzco.
_^<N__^<N_In 1534 the king of Spain named Almagro leader of the expedition into what is now northern Argentina and Chile. He went as far as the valley of Copiapo (in present-day Chile) and fought intense battles with the Araucanians but found
little mineral wealth. In 1537 he returned to Peru, where he put down an Indian insurrection and fought against Pizarro's brothers, who had taken control of Cuzco. He defeated the brothers but was defeated in turn at Las Salinas. He was executed on
July 8, 1538, in Cuzco. His son continued the war with the Pizarros until 1542. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Kirkpatrick, Frederick A., The Spanish Conquistadores, 2d ed. (1946); Means, Philip A., Fall of the Inca Empire and Spanish Rule in Peru:
1530-1780 (1932; repr. 1964); Prescott, William H., History of the Conquest of Peru (1847; repr. 1931).
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1919
CAT
-A-
almanac
-T-
almanac_^<N__^<N_An almanac is a book or table comprising a calendar of the year. Today, almanacs also catalog miscellaneous events that occurred during the previous year and publish selected statistical data. Besides showing the days, weeks, and
months, early almanacs registered feast days and saints' days, recorded astronomical phenomena, and sometimes contained meteorologic and agricultural forecasts and miscellaneous advice. Although almanacs date from ancient times, the term may well
be derived from the Spanish-Arabic almanakh (manakh, "calendar"; manah, "sundial"). The term almanac was used in Roger Bacon's Opus majus (c.1267) to denote permanent tables showing the movements of the stars and planets. Among the earlier almanacs
were the "clog" almanacs of the Danes and Normans. These were blocks of wood on which days of the year were notched. The first printed almanac dates from 1457. Most English almanacs were published by the Stationers Company, the best known being the
Vox stellarum of Francis Moore, which was first issued about 1699. It survives as Old Moore's Almanac and still sells in vast numbers. The first American almanacs were printed in Cambridge, Mass., under the supervision of Harvard University, the
earliest being An Almanac for New England for the Year 1639. Many followed in the 18th century, including Benjamin Franklin's POOR RICHARD'S ALMANACK (1733) and the Astronomical Diary and Almanack (1723). The 18th-century almanac is considered the
forerunner of the modern magazine. Between 1700 and 1900 probably more than 2,000 almanacs were issued in the United States. Many, such as Robert Thomas Baily's The Old Farmer's Almanac, founded in 1793 and still published, were intended for use by
farmers and countrymen. _^<N__^<N_J. A. Cuddon _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Drake, Milton, comp., Almanacs of the United States, 2 vols. (1962); Franklin, Benjamin, ed., Poor Richard, an Almanack (1732-67; repr. 1976).
-END-
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22
CAT
-A-
almandine:
-T-
almandine:_^<N__^<N_see GARNET.
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996
CAT
-A-
Almeida, Francisco de
-T-
Almeida, Francisco de_^<N__^<N_{ahl-may'-thah} _^<N__^<N_Francisco de Almeida, b. c.1450, was the first viceroy of Portuguese India. He was appointed to that office in 1505 by King MANUEL I. At the time, Portugal had the best ships in the Indian
Ocean but lacked the manpower to conquer a land empire, and so Almeida concentrated on dominating the sea lanes. On his way to India in 1505, he captured Kilwa and Sofala and destroyed Mombasa on the East African coast. He then established himself
at Cochin in India. In 1508 Almeida's son was defeated and killed in a naval battle against the Arabs, but the following year Almeida destroyed the Arab fleets at Diu. In the meantime he had been replaced as viceroy by Afonso de ALBUQUERQUE, but
Almeida refused to accept his dismissal until 1509. On his way back to Europe, he was killed in an encounter with the Khoikhoin in South Africa on Mar. 1, 1510. _^<N__^<N_Daniel R. Headrick _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Whiteway, R. S., The Rise of
Portuguese Power in India, 1497-1550, 2d ed. (1967).
-END-
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771
CAT
-A-
Almeria
-T-
Almeria_^<N__^<N_Almeria is the capital of Almeria province in the Andalusian region of southeastern Spain. The city has a population of 140,946 (1981). An important Mediterranean seaport at the head of the Gulf of Almeria, it is an export point for
white grapes, oranges, and other fruits. Almeria's Costa del Sol beaches and its pleasant climate make it a tourist center. Landmarks include the cathedral (completed 1543) and the Moorish fort Alcazaba. Almeria was settled by Phoenicians about 238
BC. Subsequently it was the Roman city of Portus Magnus and then a Moorish seaport. The city was captured in 1147 by Alfonso VII of Castile but was retaken by the Moors, who held it until 1489 when it reverted to Spain. It was seriously damaged
during the Spanish Civil War (1937).
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958
CAT
-A-
Almohads
-T-
Almohads_^<N__^<N_{ahl'-moh-hadz} _^<N__^<N_The Almohads, an Islamic dynasty, ruled North Africa and Spain from 1130 to 1269. The dynasty originated in a mass movement of BERBER tribesmen initially led by Ibn Tumart, who proclaimed (c.1120) himself
the MAHDI, or messiah, come to purify Islam. His successor, Abd al-Mumin (d. 1163), defeated the ALMORAVIDS and made Marrakesh the Almohad capital in 1147. Subsequently, all the Muslim territory in Spain was occupied, and North Africa was conquered
as far as Tripoli by 1160. _^<N__^<N_The Almohad court was a splendid center of art and Arabic learning; yet the empire soon crumbled because of its great size, social divisions, and religious conservatism. Externally, the Almohads were confronted
by the Christian reconquest of Spain; their defeat at Las Navas de Tolosa (1212) resulted in their total withdrawal from Spain. In North Africa, the empire divided into local kingdoms, one of which captured Marrakesh in 1269. _^<N__^<N_Michael W.
Dols
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1411
CAT
-A-
almond
-T-
almond_^<N__^<N_The almond tree, Prunus amygdalus--known alternatively as Prunus dulcis--produces the oldest and most widely grown of all of the world's NUT crops. The tree is indigenous to western Asia and North Africa. Today it is grown in most
temperate regions. A member of the rose family and similar in appearance to the peach tree, the almond tree reaches a height of 3-7 m (9-22 ft) and has pink or white flowers that bloom in early spring. The dry, leathery almond fruit surrounds a
seed or kernel--the almond nut--which is harvested when the fruit dries and splits open. Of the two major types of almonds grown, the sweet almond, P. amygdalus dulcis, is cultivated for its edible nut. The bitter almond, P. amygdalus amara, is
inedible but contains an oil--also present in the sweet almond and in the ripe kernels of the apricot and peach--which, when combined with water, yields hydrocyanic (prussic) acid and benzaldehyde, the ESSENTIAL OIL of bitter almonds. The oil is
used in making flavoring extracts and in some sedative medicines. Almond trees require more than one variety for pollination. Trees are propagated primarily by budding, with bitter almond, almond, or peach seedlings used as rootstocks. Harvests
begin the fourth year after planting, and full production is reached by the seventh. In California, the largest American almond-producing state, some 100 varieties are grown. _^<N__^<N_Donald K. Ourecky
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848
CAT
-A-
Almoravids
-T-
Almoravids_^<N__^<N_{al-mor'-uh-vidz} _^<N__^<N_The Almoravids were an Islamic dynasty that ruled North Africa and Spain from 1056 to 1147. The dynasty originated in the western Sahara among the BERBERS who were united by religious revivalism and
reform. From the mouth of the Senegal River, warriors for the faith spread a simple, fundamentalist form of Islam; they moved northward into Morocco and conquered North Africa as far as Algiers. Marrakesh was founded as the capital about 1070.
_^<N__^<N_In 1086 the Almoravids crossed into Spain, defeated the Christian army of reconquest, and annexed the territories of Muslim Spain. These rugged Berber nomads were conquered in turn by the refined civilization of Spain and were unable to
defend their empire against the ALMOHADS, another Berber dynasty, who killed the last Almoravid ruler in Marrakesh in 1147. _^<N__^<N_Michael W. Dols
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978
CAT
-A-
Almqvist, Carl Jonas Love
-T-
Almqvist, Carl Jonas Love_^<N__^<N_{ahlm'-kvist} _^<N__^<N_Carl Jonas Love Almqvist, b. Nov. 28, 1793, a Swedish writer, studied at Uppsala University and then, influenced by the mystic Emanuel von SWEDENBORG, briefly attempted life as a farmer. He
later served as principal of an experimental secondary school in Stockholm and also became a clergyman. His novel Amorina (1821) is perhaps the foremost fantasy of Swedish romanticism. Between 1832 and 1851 he published Tornrosens Bok (The Book of
the Briar Rose), a collection of novels and poems of which Drottningens Juvelsmycke (The Queen's Diamond Ornament) and "Songes" (Dreams) are today the most interesting. Almqvist moved from romanticism to realism with Det Gar An (It Will Do), a
controversial novella about a common-law marriage. In 1839 he began writing for the liberal press. In 1851, in financial difficulties and suspected of murder, he fled to the United States, where he stayed for 14 years. He died in Germany on Sept.
26, 1866.
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701
CAT
-A-
aloe
-T-
aloe_^<N__^<N_{al'-oh} _^<N__^<N_Aloe is any of about 200 species and hybrids of perennial succulent PLANTS that belong to the lily family, Liliaceae. They are used as landscape plants in dry, frost-free areas and are sometimes grown as houseplants.
Their leaves are fleshy, stiff, and spiny along the edges and are often crowded together into a rosette. The flowers, which are mostly reddish, are produced on showy spikes that may extend 6 m (20 ft) above the ground; some species produce yellow,
orange, or whitish-green flowers. Water-aloe is sometimes designated Stratiotes aloides, or the water soldier. Juice from the leaves is used to treat burns. The plant is also a source of a purgative drug. _^<N__^<N_Charles L. Wilson
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1157
CAT
-A-
Alonso, Alicia
-T-
Alonso, Alicia_^<N__^<N_Alicia Alonso, born Martinez, in Havana, Cuba, on Dec. 21, 1921, is considered one of the outstanding international ballerinas. Alonso danced with the AMERICAN BALLET THEATRE intermittently from 1941 to 1960. Her rise was
plagued by recurring eye problems, involving several operations and lengthy periods of immobile recuperation. Alonso emerged to become one of the great interpreters of Adolphe ADAM's Giselle, as well as the first to dance the demanding ballerina
role in George BALANCHINE's Theme and Variations. With her husband, Fernando Alonso, she founded the Ballet Alicia Alonso (1948), renamed Ballet de Cuba (1955), which became in 1961 the National Ballet of Cuba. After the Cuban revolution (1959),
Alonso stopped performing in the United States in order to devote herself to her country and to the nurturing of her young ballet company. More recently, she has often returned, both to perform and to teach. _^<N__^<N_Michael Robertson
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: De Gamez, Tana, Alicia Alonso at Home and Abroad (1970); Payne, Charles, et al., The American Ballet Theatre (1978); Terry, Walter, Alicia and Her Ballet Nacional de Cuba (1981).
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687
CAT
-A-
Alonso, Damaso
-T-
Alonso, Damaso_^<N__^<N_Damaso Alonso, b. Madrid, Oct. 22, 1898, d. Jan 24, 1990, was a Spanish poet and literary critic whose translated edition of Gongora's Soledades in 1927 began a thoroughgoing reinterpretation of the Golden Age of Spanish
poetry. In subsequent studies of Gongora, St. John of the Cross, and contemporary poets, Alonso developed a critical method similar to the NEW CRITICISM used in the United Kingdom and the United States. His best poems are included in Hijos de la
ira (1944; Children of Wrath, 1970). _^<N__^<N_For many years professor of Romance philology at the University of Madrid, Alonso was a four-term director (1968-82) of the Royal Academy of the Spanish Language.
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1347
CAT
-A-
Alorese
-T-
Alorese_^<N__^<N_{al'-uh-reez} _^<N__^<N_The Alorese are an Indonesian people who inhabit the mountainous forest interior of Alor, an island located 32 km (20 mi) north of Timor, and the nearby island of Pantar. The present population of Alorese is
estimated at 100,000. They speak a language associated with the Malayo-Polynesian linguistic family (see MALAYO-POLYNESIAN LANGUAGES). _^<N__^<N_The Alorese live in settled villages and raise rice, corn, and various root crops. Their territory is
surrounded by narrow coastal lowlands where Indonesian Muslims live, but trade with the coastal villages is rare. The Alorese trace their genealogical descent through the male line. Polygamy is common, and a man's wives often live in separate
dwellings. An Alorese achieves social prestige by accumulating wealth in the form of metal kettledrums. _^<N__^<N_Traditional Alorese religion is animistic (see ANIMISM) and mainly concerned with honoring or appeasing environmental and guardian
spirits. In the center of a typical Alorese village is a plaza; its edges are marked by the graves of important deceased village members. On death, part of a person's soul is believed to linger in the village until a final memorial funeral feast
marks its departure to an uninhabited island in the afterworld. _^<N__^<N_Donn V. Hart _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Du Bois, Cora A., The People of Alor, 2 vols. (1944; repr. 1960).
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896
CAT
-A-
Alouette
-T-
Alouette_^<N__^<N_{al-oo-et'} _^<N__^<N_Alouette (French, "lark") was Canada's first artificial space SATELLITE. Developed to measure variations in the density of electrons in the ionosphere as a function of time of day and latitude, it was a
cooperative scientific effort in NASA's Topside Sounder program. Alouette was launched from the Western Test Range (Vandenberg Air Force Base, Calif.) by a Thor-Agena on Sept. 28, 1962. It achieved an orbit with an apogee of 1,027 km (638 mi) and a
perigee of 998 km (620 mi) and performed its mission successfully. _^<N__^<N_The satellite was an oblate spheroid 105 cm (42 in) in diameter, 86 cm (34 in) high, and weighing 144 kg (320 lb). Solar cells and nickel-cadmium batteries supplied power.
The primary scientific instrument was a swept-frequency transmitter and receiver. The satellite also had six charged-particle detectors. _^<N__^<N_Mitchell R. Sharpe _^<N__^<N_See also: SPACE EXPLORATION.
-END-
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442
CAT
-A-
alpaca
-T-
alpaca_^<N__^<N_{al-pak'-uh} _^<N__^<N_The alpaca is a domesticated LLAMA, L. pacos, bred in South America principally for its wool. Because its fleece is longer and more silky than that of other llama species, it was prized by the Incas, who wove
its hair into robes reserved for royalty. Today, alpaca is used to make soft, lustrous, pile-weave fabrics for coats. The alpaca requires about two years, spent high in the Andes, to produce a full growth of wool.
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769
CAT
-A-
Alp-Arslan
-T-
Alp-Arslan_^<N__^<N_Alp-Arslan, b. c. 1030, d. 1073, was the second sultan and real builder the Turkish Great SELJUK empire. Successfully fighting off the challenge of the Ghaznavids of Afghanistan and other dynasties that had arisen after the
decline of the Abbasid empire of Baghdad, Alp-Arslan restored unity to Iran and Iraq. He then undertook a series of expeditions into Anatolia, where he defeated (1071) the Byzantines at the Battle of MANZIKERT, and ravaged the Armenian and
Georgian territories in the Caucasus. His victorious campaigns opened the way to the subsequent occupation of Anatolia by the Turks. Aided by his minister NIZAM AL-MULK, Alp-Arslan also defended Sunnite Islam against the influence of the Shiite
Fatimid dynasty of Egypt. _^<N__^<N_Stanford J. Shaw
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25
CAT
-A-
Alpha Centauri:
-T-
Alpha Centauri:_^<N__^<N_see STAR.
-END-
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300
CAT
-A-
alpha particle
-T-
alpha particle_^<N__^<N_The alpha particle is a stable combination of two protons and two neutrons. It is emitted from the nuclei of many heavy radioactive atomic nuclei during decay. The alpha particle is also the nucleus of the atom of helium-4
and can acquire two electrons to become a neutral helium atom.
Alphonsus Liguori, Saint_^<N__^<N_{lee-gwaw'-ree} _^<N__^<N_St. Alphonsus Liguori, b. Sept. 27, 1696, d. Aug. 1, 1787, an Italian churchman, founded the Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer (the Redemptorists) in 1732. His original name was
Alfonso Maria de Liguori. He was ordained a priest in 1726 and served as bishop of Sant' Agata dei Goti from 1762 to 1775. In his writings on moral theology he developed a system of CASUISTRY tending toward a stricter interpretation of the law in
the application of ethical principles. Canonized May 26, 1839, he was made a Doctor of the Church in 1871 and patron of confessors and moralists in 1950. Feast day: Aug. 1 (formerly Aug. 2).
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585
CAT
-A-
alphorn
-T-
alphorn_^<N__^<N_The alphorn is a wooden, tubular instrument best known in its Swiss form, although it is commonly found in many parts of the world. It may be straight or curved and 1.5 to 4 m (3 to 10 ft) in length. The alphorn does not have valves
or finger holes and so can play only the pitches in the natural harmonic series. Swiss mountain herdsmen still use the instrument to summon their cows. Numerous composers have used the characteristic alphorn melodies in orchestral pieces but have
given them to traditional orchestral instruments. The German name is Alpenhorn. _^<N__^<N_Elwyn A. Wienandt
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4820
CATO
4768
-A-
Alps
-O-
000000|Alps
000605| Regional Cultures
001362| Topography
002637| Climate and Drainage
004040| Vegetation and Animal Life
-T-
Alps_^<N__^<N_The Alps constitute Europe's most extensive mountain system, encompassing parts of France, Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Austria, Slovenia, and most of Liechtenstein. Beginning along the Mediterranean, at the French-Italian border, as a
relatively narrow chain, the mountains gradually widen into a broad arc west of Vienna. More than 965 km (600 mi) long and 200 km (125 mi) wide, they cover an area of more than 207,200 sq km (80,000 sq mi). _^<N__^<N_Peaks average 1,800-2,400 m
(5,940-7,920 ft), and many rise above 3,050 m (10,000 ft). About 1,200 mountain glaciers cover an area of 3,900 sq km (1,500 sq mi). _^<N__^<N_ Regional Cultures_^<N__^<N_Throughout history, this extensive mountain system has acted as a barrier
between Mediterranean and northern cultures. Communication between civilizations has been continuous, aided in part by a series of mountain passes and longitudinal valleys. The term alps refers to a specific landscape feature, the high mountain
pastures. The idea of an alpine way of life is based on the economy and lifestyle developed within this region. _^<N__^<N_The cultural diversity of the region is apparent from the variety of languages: French, German, Italian, Slovene, and Romansh.
Population density varies with altitude. The Alpine forelands and broader longitudinal valleys are more densely populated than the narrower, more isolated valleys and summit areas. _^<N__^<N_ Topography_^<N__^<N_Europe's newest folded mountain
range, the Alps have not yet been worn down to old mountain stumps but retain instead a distinctly linear configuration. Three zones are recognized: a central zone of crystalline mountain rocks, surrounded by two zones of limestone, one to the
north and one to the south. The parallel chains of mountains are separated by longitudinal valleys in many places. Where major rivers have turned and broken through the limestone ranges, transverse valleys have formed. Alpine glaciers of the ICE
AGES filled these valleys and portions of the surrounding plains as well. When the glaciers retreated, they left dams of MORAINE, creating finger lakes such as Lake Como, Lake Maggiore, and Lake Geneva. _^<N__^<N_The Alps can be divided into the
western and eastern sections along a line from Lake Como north to the Italo-Swiss border, through Splugen Pass, and down the Rhine Valley to Lake Constance. The western Alps are higher and narrower, with more extensive glaciers and deeply incised
valleys. The longitudinal valleys of the eastern Alps are wider, and a number of important cities are located in them. Mont BLANC (4,807 m/15,771 ft) is the highest peak in the western Alps; Piz Bernina (4,048 m/13,281 ft) is the highest in the
eastern Alps. _^<N__^<N_ Climate and Drainage_^<N__^<N_Topographic influences such as degree of slope, slope exposure (sun or shade), and altitude give rise to a complex mosaic of microclimates. Major climatic forces, such as the extremes of
continentality to the northeast and the moderating influence of the Mediterranean to the south, also play a role. The mountains modify air masses, resulting in anticyclonic activities that become more pronounced toward the east. Precipitation
totals range from lows of 580 mm (23 in) for Sion (Rhone Valley) and Briancon (French Alps) to highs of more than 2,300 mm (90 in) in the mountain summit areas of the central Alps. Average temperatures and extremes in temperature decrease with
altitude. Innsbruck, at a higher altitude than Klagenfurt, has a January average of - 3 degrees C (26 degrees F) and a July average of 18 degrees C (64 degrees F). Klagenfurt, farther east, has a January average of - 7 degrees C (20 degrees F) and
a July average of 16 degrees C (60 degrees F). _^<N__^<N_Hydrologically, the Alps affect much of Europe, since runoff from snowmelt within the mountains feeds several major rivers or their tributaries. The Rhine and Rhone rise in the central Alps,
as do tributaries of the Po, such as the Ticino and the Oglio, and major Danube tributaries, such as the Inn, the Salzach, and the Enns. The Alps thus form a divide between Atlantic, Mediterranean, and Black Sea drainage. _^<N__^<N_ Vegetation and
Animal Life_^<N__^<N_Natural vegetation is zonal in character. The montaine, or lower level, has deciduous trees extending up to about 1,370 m (4,500 ft). Next is a zone of coniferous forests up to about 1,675 m (5,500 ft), then a zone of bare
rocks and grass slopes (alps), followed by the snow line, ranging from 2,440 m (8,000 ft) to 3,050 m (10,000 ft) depending on location. Numerous national parks and nature reserves supply a last refuge for endangered species such as ibex, chamois,
golden eagle, rock partridge, and black grouse. _^<N__^<N_Bruce L. La Rose _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Clark, Ronald, The Alps (1973); Collet, L. W., The Structure of the Alps (1974); Engel, C. E., The History of Mountaineering in the Alps (1950; repr.
1977); Spencer, Brian, Walking in the Alps (1986).
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3305
CAT
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Alsace-Lorraine
-T-
Alsace-Lorraine_^<N__^<N_{al-sas'-lohr-rayn'} _^<N__^<N_Alsace and Lorraine are two historic provinces in eastern France. Part of the HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE until 1648, Alsace was added to France by the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697. Lorraine was part of the
kingdom of LOTHARINGIA, which was divided (959) into the duchies of Lower and Upper Lorraine. The latter, which became modern Lorraine, was an independent but much-fought-over duchy until 1766. Between 1871 and 1918, Alsace (the departments of
Bas-Rhin and Haut-Rhin) and the eastern part of Lorraine (now the department of Moselle) were annexed to Germany. From 1919 to 1940, the area belonged to France; from 1940 to 1945, to Germany. It was returned to France in 1945. The three
departments of Meuse, Meurthe-et-Moselle, and Vosges remained French. _^<N__^<N_Geologically, western Lorraine is composed of clay vales separated by the north-south trending limestone ridges of the Cotes de Meuse and Cotes de Moselle. The heavy
soils of the vales support mixed farming--dairying, oats, and wheat. Crop yields are below the French average. The ridges are barriers to communication and invasion. METZ, NANCY, VERDUN, Thionville, and Toul are route centers and fortress cities
defending gaps in the ridges. The battle for Verdun was one of the bloodiest of World War I. Nancy (1982 pop., 99,000), the traditional capital and university center of Lorraine, is located on the Rhine-Marne canal, which follows the routeway from
Paris to STRASBOURG. _^<N__^<N_The Lorraine iron ore fields, about 110 km (70 mi) long and 20 km (12 mi) wide, run from Nancy northward to the primary iron and steel district around Longwy, Thionville, and Metz. Ore production exceeds 50 million
metric tons (55 million U.S. tons) a year, the second highest in Western Europe. The French part of the Saar coalfield lies 64 km (40 mi) to the east. Producing 10 million metric tons (11 million U.S. tons) of coal a year, it now has half the
French reserves in easily mechanized, thick seams. _^<N__^<N_Southeastward, Lorraine rises gradually to the summits of the Vosges. This sandstone massif has a granite core exposed in the south, where elevations exceed 1,200 m (4,000 ft). The
political and linguistic divide between French-speaking Lorraine and German-speaking Alsace runs along its crest. At the foot of the steep eastern slope of the Vosges is a famous vineyard region. An adjoining belt of fertile loess soils produces
cereals, fruit, tobacco, and vegetables. It also produces hops for Alsatian and German breweries. _^<N__^<N_Strasbourg (1982 pop., 252,000), a major port on the Rhine, is the traditional capital of Alsace. Its industries include oil refining,
brewing, printing, food processing, and metallurgy. Famous for its university and its pate, Strasbourg is headquarters of the Council of Europe. The Rhine-Rhone canal connects Strasbourg with Mulhouse, the Burgundy Gate, and Lyon. Mulhouse, with a
chemical industry based on substantial local potash deposits, and Colmar are centers of the textile industry of Alsace and eastern Lorraine. Temperatures in the region average 0.6 deg C (33 deg F) in January and 19 deg C (60 deg F) in July. Annual
rainfall ranges from 510 to 1,020 mm (20 to 40 in). _^<N__^<N_Timothy J. Rickard _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Silverman, Dan P., Reluctant Union: Alsace-Lorraine and Imperial Germany, 1871-1918 (1972).
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1022
CAT
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Alsop, Joseph and Stewart
-T-
Alsop, Joseph and Stewart_^<N__^<N_Joseph and Stewart Alsop, in collaboration and separately, became two of the best-known reporter-columnists in American journalism. In The Reporter's Trade (1958) they conveyed their belief that the columnist is
primarily a reporter. Joseph, b. Avon, Conn., Oct. 11, 1910, d. Washington, D.C., Aug. 28, 1989, was educated at Harvard University, and his brother Stewart, b. Avon, Conn., May 17, 1914, d. May 26, 1974, was educated at Yale University. Joseph
was co-writer with Robert Kintner of the column "The Capital Parade" from 1937 to 1940. The Alsop brothers later (1945-58) collaborated on the widely syndicated column "Matter of Fact." In tones of approaching doom, they wrote many exclusive
stories about ballistic missile developments in the 1950's. Joseph Alsop's memoirs, I've Seen the Best of It, were published posthumously in 1992. _^<N__^<N_Calder M. Pickett _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Alsop, Joseph, FDR: A Centenary Remembrance
(1982); Alsop, Stewart, Stay of Execution: A Sort of Memoir (1973).
-END-
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753
CAT
-A-
Alston, Walter
-T-
Alston, Walter_^<N__^<N_Walter Emmons Alston, b. Butler County, Ohio, Dec. 1, 1911, d. Oct. 1, 1984, was a surprise choice when named to manage the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1954, but he stayed 23 years to lead the baseball team (which moved to Los
Angeles in 1958) to its greatest successes. "Smokey" Alston made the majors as a player for the St. Louis Cardinals in 1936 but went to bat only one time. As a manager for the Dodgers' minor-league chain in the 1940s, he helped prepare some of the
first black players for their historic integration of major-league baseball. As a big-league manager, he won the World Series in 1955 and again in 1959, 1963, and 1965. He led the team to three other National League pennants and was named manager
of the year three times.
-END-
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1588
CAT
-A-
Altai Mountains
-T-
Altai Mountains_^<N__^<N_{al'-ty} _^<N__^<N_The Altai Mountains (from the Mongolian: Altain-ula, "mountains of gold" ) are an extensive mountain system of Central Asia located at the juncture of Russia, Kazakhstan, China, and Mongolia. They cover
about 1,600 km (1,000 mi). The range rises to a maximum elevation of 4,653 m (15,266 ft) in the Taban Bogdo Knot. The Altai comprises the SAYAN, the Katun, the Sailyugem, and the Tannu-Ola. The 1,450-km-long (900-mi) Mongolian Altai is the longest
range in the system. About 70% of the mountain territory is under dense forest. The range's mean elevation is about 1,500 m (5,000 ft), and steep, deeply eroded mountainsides are typical. _^<N__^<N_Formed by geological uplift 300 million years ago,
the Altai ranges have slowly been worn down to smooth contours. Glaciers, which still cover an area of almost 1,554 sq km (600 sq mi), deepened their valleys and fed many lakes and rivers. The Altai contain the source of the OB, the IRTYSH, and the
tributaries of the YENESEI. The region has a continental climate, with a long, dry winter and a rainy season during the brief summer. Precipitation varies from as much as 2,032 mm (80 in) annually in the west to less than 127 mm (5 in) in the
southeast. Silver, copper, lead, zinc, and mercury are mined in eastern Kazakhstan, where much of the range lies. _^<N__^<N_Tribal Altaic peoples (KAZAKHS, Mongolikhalks, and Oyrat), who raise cattle, sheep, and horses, were the original
inhabitants of the region. Exploitation of hydroelectric and mineral resources and new agricultural methods are drawing immigrants, especially in Russia.
Altamira_^<N__^<N_{ahl-tah-mee'-rah} _^<N__^<N_Altamira is the site of a cave near Santillana del Mar in the province of Santander, northeast Spain. Paleolithic cave paintings discovered there in 1879 by Don Marcelino de Sautuola are acknowledged as
one of the summits of PREHISTORIC ART. The painted ceiling near the entrance depicts, in color, large animals, mainly bison. Their vivid impact is enhanced by the artists' apparent incorporation of the natural protrusions and hollows of the surface
into the painted and engraved representations. In the rear of the cave are paintings of animals and symbols, outlined in black and red pigment, and many engravings, the finest being that of a group of hinds. The cave art is dated from the late
SOLUTREAN to the middle MAGDALENIAN periods. _^<N__^<N_Lya Dams _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Breuil, Henri, and Obermaier, Hugo, The Cave of Altamira at Santillana del Mar, Spain (1935); Sandars, N. K., Prehistoric Art in Europe, rev. ed. (1985).
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632
CAT
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Altamirano, Ignacio Manuel
-T-
Altamirano, Ignacio Manuel_^<N__^<N_{ahl-tah-mee-rah'-noh, eeg-nah'-see-oh mahn-wel'} _^<N__^<N_Ignacio Manuel Altamirano, b. Nov. 13, 1834, d. Feb. 13, 1893, was an outstanding Mexican-Indian writer whose fiction and poetry reflected strong
nationalistic sentiments. He was a firm ally of Benito JUAREZ and rose to literary prominence after 1860. El Renacimiento, a journal he established in 1869, contributed to the growth of an indigenous Mexican literature. His best novels are
Clemencia (1869), Christmas in the Mountains (1870; Eng. trans., 1961), and El Zarco (1901). _^<N__^<N_Keith Ellis _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Nacci, Chris N., Ignacio Manuel Altamirano (1970).
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2528
CAT
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altar
-T-
altar_^<N__^<N_An altar is a table or elevated platform intended for the offering of a religious SACRIFICE. In the religions of ancient times, altars sometimes were composed of the ashes of previous offerings compacted by time. More often, an altar
was constructed out of earth or stone. The size of an altar was determined by its specific use. Small altars were used for sacrifices such as the burning of incense; larger altars were required for the offering of animals. Altars were commonly
built outdoors, usually in a sacred enclosure in front of a temple. _^<N__^<N_In the Christian church, the altar is a tablelike structure that serves as the focal point of worship and on which the EUCHARIST is celebrated. Although the table, or
mensa, is the only essential part of an altar, other features were added through the centuries: a platform (predella), a canopy, a shelf (retable), a screen (reredos), and a tabernacle (receptacle) for storing the consecrated elements of the
Eucharist. _^<N__^<N_At first, altars were made of wood; later, stone was generally used. The earliest altars were simple in form, consisting of a slab resting on one or more legs. They were frequently adorned with finely embroidered cloths, often
of silk, and with gold and silver plate adorned with precious stones. _^<N__^<N_Traditionally, the altar stood at the east end of the church in the center of the sanctuary, and the altar's position determined the orientation of the building. The
altar was frequently built over a crypt containing the remains of a saint or martyr. Later, additional altars were sometimes installed along the side walls of a church or in chapels dedicated to saints. _^<N__^<N_During the Middle Ages, altars were
lavished with rich decorations by artists and sculptors. For example, the altar of the Capella della Nunziata at the cathedral of Pisa is famous for a cover worked in chased silver. The antique altar in SAINT MARK'S BASILICA in Venice is ornamented
with carved anchors and dolphins. The high altar of SAINT PETER'S BASILICA in the Vatican is highlighted by the baldachino of BERNINI, one of the most magnificent altar decorations in Christendom. Many of the best-known examples of Italian and
Flemish painting originally formed parts of altarpieces. _^<N__^<N_The altars in Roman Catholic churches now tend to be simple tablelike structures without decoration and detached from the wall. Many Protestant churches either have no altar or
prefer to refer to it as the Communion table. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Pocknee, Cyril E., The Christian Altar in History and Today (1962).
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1967
CAT
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Altdorfer, Albrecht
-T-
Altdorfer, Albrecht_^<N__^<N_{ahlt'-dorf-ur, ahl'-brekt} _^<N__^<N_Albrecht Altdorfer, b. 1480, d. Feb. 12, 1538, a German Renaissance painter, draftsman, printmaker, and architect is best known as the developer of pure landscape painting. He is
generally considered the greatest artist in the Danube School, which also included Lucas CRANACH the Elder, Wolfgang HUBER, Jorg Breu, and Jorg Kolderer. _^<N__^<N_Except for trips down the Danube to work in Vienna in 1511 and 1535, Altdorfer
resided primarily in Regensburg. He was probably born there, became a citizen in 1505, served as the town architect from 1526, and died there. He may have learned his precision in draftsmanship and landscape painting from his father, who was an
illuminator, and from his study of DURER's and Cranach's paintings and Michael PACHER's St. Wolfgang altarpiece. _^<N__^<N_Although the Emperor MAXIMILIAN I employed Altdorfer, along with such rivals as Durer and others, to make numerous woodcuts,
engravings, and illuminations, Altdorfer's style remained independent and personal. His constant concern with natural growth, his faultless depiction of foliage and trees, and his ability to integrate human moods and action with landscape are
evidenced in his St. Florian altarpiece (1509-18), since broken up and dispersed to museums in Nuremberg, Prague, and Florence. Altdorfer's interest in magic, ruins, fantastic landscape, and mysterious light are exemplified in his masterpiece of
large spatial organization, The Battle of Alexander (1529; Alte Pinakothek, Munich), commissioned by Duke William IV of Bavaria as part of a series of monumental classical battle paintings. _^<N__^<N_Alan P. Darr _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Benesch,
Otto, The Art of the Renaissance in Northern Europe, rev. ed. (1965); Burkhard, Arthur, The St. Florian Altar of Albrecht Altdorfer (1970); Hollstein, F. W. H., German Engravings, Etchings, and Woodcuts ca. 1400-1700 (1954); Waldman, Emil, ed.,
Albrecht Altdorfer: Catalogue of Engravings and Etchings (1923).
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448
CAT
-A-
Alter, David
-T-
Alter, David_^<N__^<N_The American physician, inventor, and physicist David Alter, b. Dec. 3, 1807, d. Sept. 18, 1881, pointed out in 1854 and 1855 that each chemical element has a characteristic SPECTRUM and that the elements present in
astronomical bodies could be ascertained through spectral analysis. In this he anticipated the work of Gustav KIRCHHOFF and Robert BUNSEN, who, in 1859, put spectroscopy on a firm scientific foundation. _^<N__^<N_Richard F. Hirsh
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1006
CAT
-A-
alteration, mineral
-T-
alteration, mineral_^<N__^<N_Alteration is the geologic process whereby natural chemical solutions react with rocks to form new minerals. The most common alteration minerals, precipitated from hot aqueous (water-based) solutions reacting with
GRANITE and other IGNEOUS ROCKS, are quartz, mica, clay, feldspar, and pyrite. They are usually distributed in regular patterns around ORE DEPOSITS and commonly occupy a larger volume of rock than the ore deposit itself. Modern prospectors use
alteration minerals as clues in searching for ore deposits by studying their abundance, type, and distribution. Those produced by the WEATHERING of ores form oxide deposits, or gossans, on or near the earth's surface, and these also serve as guides
to subsurface ore. _^<N__^<N_Alteration reactions may change the chemical characteristics of a mineral-forming solution so that ore minerals will precipitate; they may increase the PERMEABILITY of rock enough to permit ore-forming solutions to gain
entry. _^<N__^<N_Eric S. Cheney _^<N__^<N_See also: MINERAL.
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3414
CAT
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alternating current
-T-
alternating current_^<N__^<N_A direct current (DC) always flows through a conductor in one direction, but an alternating current (AC) constantly reverses itself as a result of reversing electromotive force. One complete reversal is a cycle, and the
number of cycles per second is the frequency of the alternating current. The standard frequency of alternating current in the United States and the rest of North America is 60 Hz (1 Hz, or hertz, equals 1 cycle per second); in Europe it is 50 Hz.
Originally, only direct current was generated for public use. The enormous advantages of alternating current were not realized until George Westinghouse developed the TRANSFORMER in the late 19th century. Buffalo, N.Y., was the first U.S. city
to be lighted using alternating current. _^<N__^<N_The transformer made it possible to change the voltage (and therefore the current) of AC by a simple, static device; this was not possible with DC. When electricity is transmitted, power loss is
minimized by stepping up the voltage from the generator, thus transmitting a high voltage, and stepping down the voltage at the user's end. When required, DC is easily obtained from an AC current with a RECTIFIER. Converting DC to AC requires an
inverter, which is a more complex device. AC motors and alternators (AC generators) have greater reliability than their DC counterparts, because they do not require commutators (metal slip-rings for picking up current). _^<N__^<N_If AC voltage is
plotted against time, the resulting curve is a sine wave. This characteristic is of interest to physicists and engineers; the physical characteristics of AC can then be deduced from the mathematical properties of a sine wave. The maximum value
that the voltage reaches is its peak value, but effective, or root-mean-square (rms), values are nearly always used in practice. The rms value of current or voltage has the same heating effect as an equal, steady-state DC current or voltage. By
calculation, it is 0.707 times the peak value. In most countries power is supplied at 240 volts (rms), which means that the voltage rises to a peak of 339 volts. Exceptions are United States and Canada, which supply 110 volts (a peak of 156 volts)
of electricity. _^<N__^<N_AC circuits obey OHM'S LAW, E=IR, when R consists of purely resistive elements. When reactive elements (see REACTANCE) are present in the circuit, Ohm's law becomes E=IZ, where Z is the IMPEDANCE. The waveforms of current
and voltage are usually displaced, reaching their peaks at different times. This difference is denoted by the phase angle designated by the lower-case Greek letter phi (a complete cycle is 360 deg). Thus the formula for power--which, in DC
circuits, is P=EI--becomes P=EI cos phi, and the term cos phi is known as the power factor. The value of phi depends upon the particular combination of capacitors, inductors, and resistors in the circuit. Numerous, simple electrical devices, such
as the light bulb and the heating element, work equally well on AC or DC, although their rates of power consumption may differ slightly. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Duff, John R. and Herman, S. L., Alternating Current Fundamentals, 3d ed. (1986);
Fiske, K. A., and Harter, J. H., Alternating Current Circuit Analysis through Experimentation, 4th ed. (1982); Zbar, Paul, Basic Electricity, 5th ed. (1982). _^<N__^<N_See also: CIRCUIT, ELECTRIC; ELECTRICITY; POWER, GENERATION AND
TRANSMISSION OF.
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1247
CAT
-A-
alternation of generations
-T-
alternation of generations_^<N__^<N_Alternation of generations is a biological term referring to the reproductive cycle in which a sexual stage alternates with an asexual stage. This is common in most plant groups, including some algae, ferns,
mosses, and seed plants. It is rare in the animal kingdom, coelentrates (jellyfish, sea anemones, hydra) being one notable exception. _^<N__^<N_The life cycle comprises two structurally distinct organisms, the gametophyte (sexual form) and the
sporophyte (asexual form). The gametophyte produces male and female gametes, or sex cells, that fuse to form a zygote, which develops into the embryo of the sporophyte, or asexual generation. The sporophyte gives rise to the gametophyte through
spore or somatic-cell production. _^<N__^<N_The evolutionary trend in vascular plants (those having stems, roots, and leaves) has been toward the reduction in size of the gametophyte stage. Extreme reduction has occurred in flowering plants in
which the sexual stage is represented by only a few cells retained in the flower. Thus the sporophyte has become the dominant generation, and the gametophyte is actually dependent on the sporophyte. In mosses, the gametophyte is dominant, and the
sporophyte is dependent during its entire existence.
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1776
CAT
-A-
alternative schools
-T-
alternative schools_^<N__^<N_In the United States, the term alternative schools commonly refers to nontraditional programs that give educational options to students and parents. Many of the first alternative schools were FREE SCHOOLS established
outside the public school system during the 1960s. During that decade, black parents in Boston and other cities set up community schools to escape and confront racism in the public schools. The New York Urban League established street academies
for dropouts, and private alternative schools were formed to assist students who had dropped out of public schools. Harlem Prep in New York City and CAM (Christian Action Ministry) Academy in Chicago were notable examples of black alternative
schools. _^<N__^<N_During the late 1960s and '70s some public school districts, especially those in urban areas, began to establish alternatives for their students. Philadelphia set up the Parkway Program to increase students' involvement in
settings away from classrooms. Other districts developed alternatives emphasizing the MONTESSORI METHOD, basic skills, informal learning, individualized settings, outdoor study, career exploration, and other approaches. By 1980 there may have
been some 2,500 U.S. alternative schools, but through the 1980s public-school reform overwhelmingly refocused on traditional academic requirements and testing. _^<N__^<N_James M. Wallace _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Arons, Stephen, Compelling Belief
(1986); Deal, Terrence, and Nolan, Robert, eds., Alternative Schools: Ideologies, Realities, Guidelines (1978); Dropkin, Ruth, and Tobier, Arthur, eds., Roots of Open Education in America (1976); Kozol, Jonathan, Alternative Schools (1982);
Swidler, Ann, Organization without Authority: Dilemmas of Social Control in Free Schools (1980).
-END-
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1193
CAT
-A-
Altgeld, John Peter
-T-
Altgeld, John Peter_^<N__^<N_John Peter Altgeld was a controversial governor (1892-96) of Illinois. Born in Germany on Dec. 30, 1847, he grew up on an Ohio farm. He was a Union soldier in the Civil War, became a teacher, then a lawyer, and first
held political office as a Democratic county attorney in Missouri. _^<N__^<N_Moving to Chicago, he found law unremunerative and became a wealthy builder. He was elected county judge (1886) and then governor of Illinois. _^<N__^<N_In 1893, Altgeld
caused a furor when he pardoned the anarchists convicted as a result of the HAYMARKET RIOT, citing an unfair trial. The next year he protested vehemently when President Grover CLEVELAND sent troops into Chicago during the PULLMAN STRIKE, because
the local authorities felt competent to handle the situation. Convinced that Cleveland represented corporate interests, Altgeld led the FREE SILVER forces in the Democratic party, wrested control of the 1896 national convention from Cleveland, and
wrote a platform that reshaped the party. Defeated for reelection, his wealth gone, he practiced law until his death on Mar. 12, 1902. _^<N__^<N_Fred Greenbaum _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Barnard, Harry, Eagle Forgotten: The Life of John Peter Altgeld
(1938).
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554
CAT
-A-
Althaea
-T-
Althaea_^<N__^<N_{al-thee'-uh} _^<N__^<N_Althaea is a genus of annual or perennial herbs that belong to the MALLOW family, Malvaceae. Marshmallow, A. officinalis, is native to northern Asia and Europe and has been naturalized in the eastern United
States. It has a fleshy underground stem, lobed leaves, and pale-rose flowers with five petals. Material from the root was once used in making the familiar marshmallows. The leaves are edible, and fiber from the stem is used to make paper.
HOLLYHOCK, A. rosea, a popular mallow ornamental, is grown worldwide. _^<N__^<N_Robert C. Roman
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963
CAT
-A-
altimeter
-T-
altimeter_^<N__^<N_An altimeter is an instrument that measures the height above a reference surface such as sea level or the ground surface. This measurement can be based on the variation of atmospheric pressure with changing height above the
Earth's surface. In essence, such an altimeter is an aneroid BAROMETER graduated in feet or meters instead of in millibars. This is the type used by mountaineers to ascertain their height above sea level. The instrument is set before climbing
commences to correspond with local air pressure, but it is reliable only if the pressure distribution remains constant during the climb. _^<N__^<N_An altimeter is a necessary part of an aircraft's equipment. A sophisticated radio altimeter, in
which a pulse of radio energy is beamed downward and the echo received on the aircraft, enables a pilot to judge the altitude. Signals from a radio altimeter are sometimes incorporated into a control system used for automatic landing.
_^<N__^<N_Charles H. Cotter
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654
CAT
-A-
altitude
-T-
altitude_^<N__^<N_In astronomy, navigation, and surveying, the altitude of a celestial object is its angular distance above or below the celestial horizon. The angular distance is measured along the vertical circle--the circle passing through both
the celestial object and the ZENITH, an imaginary point directly above the observer. A celestial object's altitude and AZIMUTH--the angular distance of its vertical circle from the north (or south) vertical circle, measuring eastward from that
circle--are used to give its position on the CELESTIAL SPHERE, as observed at a specific moment of time from a specific location. _^<N__^<N_See also: COORDINATE SYSTEMS (astronomy).
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1242
CAT
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Altman, Robert B.
-T-
Altman, Robert B._^<N__^<N_Robert B. Altman, b. Kansas City, Mo., Feb. 20, 1925, won widespread recognition as the trend-setting directorial stylist in American films of the 1970s. He did extensive work in television and directed four little-known
features before making M*A*S*H (1970), the film that first brought him critical and popular acclaim. McCabe & Mrs. Miller (1971), The Long Goodbye (1973), and California Split (1974) drew increasing attention for their textural richness,
multilayered soundtracks, and improvisatory flow. Prominent too was Altman's debunking of the myths of various film genres, from the Western to the private eye. With Nashville (1975) Altman had his second commercial success. Critics saw less
quality in such films as Buffalo Bill and the Indians (1976), 3 Women (1977), Quintet (1979), and Beyond Therapy (1987) but praised Thieves Like Us (1974), Health (1979), and The Player (1992). Other credits include Come Back to the 5 and Dime
Jimmy Dean, Jimmy Dean (stage and film, 1982), and the films Streamers (1983), Fool for Love (1985), and Vincent and Theo (1990). _^<N__^<N_William S. Pechter _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Keyssar, H., Robert Altman's America (1991); McGilligan, P.,
Robert Altman (1989); Plecki, G., Robert Altman (1985).
-END-
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20
CAT
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alto:
-T-
alto:_^<N__^<N_see CONTRALTO.
-END-
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794
CAT
-A-
Altoona
-T-
Altoona_^<N__^<N_Altoona is an industrial city in south central Pennsylvania, surrounded by the rugged Allegheny Mountains in a coal-mining region. The city has a population of 51,881 (1990 census) and the metropolitan area has a population of
130,542 (1990 census). It was founded in 1849 by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, which chose that site to begin the difficult span across the Alleghenies. Altoona is still an important railroad center, with extensive trackage and enormous
construction and repair shops. It also has many new diversified manufactures. To the northwest, Wopsononock Mountain, with a height of more than 780 m (2,580 ft), offers a view of six counties. The famous Horseshoe (railroad) Curve, which moves
through a central angle of 220 degrees, is 8 km (5 mi) to the west.
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654
CAT
-A-
altricial animal
-T-
altricial animal_^<N__^<N_{al-trish'-ul} _^<N__^<N_Mammals and birds that are helpless for a considerable period of time after birth are called altricial. Often blind, they cannot move about independently and in some cases cannot control their
body-temperature. Marsupial young, sheltered in the mother's pouch for months, are the most altricial of all animals. Others to which the term is mainly applied are birds, rabbits, carnivores, and most rodents. Human young may be considered
altricial because of the long period of care they require. The opposite of altricial is precocial, a term applied to animals that are relatively self-sufficient from birth. _^<N__^<N_Everett Sentman
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3566
CAT
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altruism
-T-
altruism_^<N__^<N_{al'-troo-izm} _^<N__^<N_Altruism is behavior that benefits others at some cost to the individual. As a philosophical concept, altruism was originally formulated by Auguste COMTE as an ethical antithesis to EGOISM. In recent years
social scientists and biologists have been especially interested in altruism, although the two groups approach the subject differently. _^<N__^<N_To most social scientists, altruism occurs when one individual consciously comes to the aid of
another, without expecting anything in return. Several things are believed to influence this behavior: empathy, an emotional response that results from being aware of another's emotions; group norms, society's expectation of how people "should"
behave toward others; social learning, the personal experiences one has with others; and immediate context, the actual situation at the time an altruistic act is called for (being in a good mood, considering oneself helpful and altruistic, being
with others rather than being alone). _^<N__^<N_Social scientists emphasize the importance of social experiences in producing altruistic behavior. By contrast, biologists, especially sociobiologists, take a different position. They view altruism as
any behavior that reduces the Darwinian fitness (reproductive success) of the altruist while increasing the fitness of another. Accordingly, the occurrence of altruism in nature is a biological puzzle, since genes whose effect is to make themselves
more rare in future generations should soon disappear altogether. Many examples of animal altruism, however, are known: worker bees, ants, and wasps are sterile but assist the queen to reproduce. It is common for animals to share food, help provide
for another's young, defend others against predators, and give alarm calls when a predator appears. All these acts enhance the fitness of others while often reducing that of the altruist (see SOCIOBIOLOGY). _^<N__^<N_Sociobiologists have several
explanations for the evolution of altruism. First, a behavior may only seem altruistic. It might actually contribute to one's reproductive success and thus be a selfish act after all. Second, apparent altruism could arise by natural selection if
the giver eventually receives comparable benefits from the getter. This reciprocity is actually selfish behavior, although both parties ultimately benefit. _^<N__^<N_Two mechanisms for the evolution of behavior that actually reduce the personal
fitness of the altruist are also recognized by sociobiologists: kin selection and group selection. Kin selection is actually genetic selfishness. Altruistic genes can prosper as long as they succeed in making enough copies of themselves in
relatives who are fitter because of the altruistic act. The notion of group selection is that altruism could theoretically be selected if altruists benefited others within the group so that the group as a whole did better than other groups that
lacked altruists. However, individual altruists would be at a disadvantage within each group. Therefore, group selection is considered less likely than kin selection as a mechanism for evolving altruism, although it is theoretically possible.
_^<N__^<N_David P. Barash _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Alexander, R., The Biology of Moral Systems (1987); Badcock, C., The Problem of Altruism (1986); Batson, C., The Altruism Question (1990); Eisenberg, N., Altruistic Emotion, Cognition, and Behavior
(1986); Frank, R., Passions within Reason (1988); Hunt, M., The Compassionate Beast (1990); Mansbridge, J., ed., Beyond Self-Interest (1990); Zahn-Waxler, C., et al., eds., Altruism and Aggression (1986).
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767
CAT
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Aluko, Timothy Mofolorunso
-T-
Aluko, Timothy Mofolorunso_^<N__^<N_{ah-loo'-koh, moh-fohl-oh-run'-soh} _^<N__^<N_Timothy Mofolorunso Aluko, b. June 14, 1918, is a Nigerian novelist who writes satirically about the problems of cultural change in West Africa. Although he began to
write when he was in his 20s, he worked for many years as a civil engineer before publishing his first novel, One Man, One Wife (1959). Aluko's characters are often stiff and his situations contrived, but at his best he writes with warm
understanding of a society trying to reconcile traditional African values and Western values. His other novels include One Man, One Matchet (1964), Kinsman and Foreman (1966), Chief, the Honourable Minister (1970), His Worshipful Majesty (1973),
and Wrong Ones in the Dock (1982). _^<N__^<N_Richard K. Priebe
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639
CAT
-A-
alum
-T-
alum_^<N__^<N_An alum is any of a group of compounds that contain the sulfates of two different metals--aluminum is often one of the metals--and water of hydration. Commercially, the most important alums are aluminum potassium alum, also known as
potassium alum, or potash alum; and aluminum ammonium alum. Other double sulfates known as alum include ferric ammonium sulfate (ferric alum), sodium aluminum sulfate (soda alum), and potassium chromium sulfate (chrome alum). _^<N__^<N_The alums
have many uses, particularly in paper manufacture, in textile dyeing, in fireproofing, in water purification, and in medicine--as astringents, styptics, and emetics.
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932
CAT
-A-
alumina
-T-
alumina_^<N__^<N_Alumina, or aluminum oxide, Al(2)O(3), is the compound from which commercial aluminum is produced. It occurs in nature as both corundum--and as ruby, sapphire, and several other gemstones--and as an important constituent of
BAUXITE, which is mined and refined to produce a purified, calcined alumina in the form of a fine white powder. This powder is smelted to manufacture aluminum products. _^<N__^<N_Alumina is also used to make abrasives and high-temperature
refractories, ceramics, and glass. Heated alumina has a porous structure that easily absorbs moisture and vapors and is therefore used to dehydrate liquids and gases. Aluminum sulfate, or activated alumina--the product of alumina, or clay, or
bauxite, with sulfuric acid--is important in paper manufacture as a color binder and a filler. Other alumina compounds produce ALUMS and are used for waterproofing fabrics and as the antiperspirant in commercial deodorants.
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18976
CATO
4742
9500
14299
-A-
aluminum
-O-
000000|aluminum
001295| PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
002091| Lightness and Strength
002745| Resistance to Corrosion
003315| Electrical and Thermal Conductivity
004087| Reflectivity and Emissivity
004816| Workability
005133| THE ALUMINUM INDUSTRY
005502| Bauxite, the Source of Aluminum
006870| Early History of Extraction Processes
009556| Bayer Process: Bauxite to Alumina
011079| Hall-Heroult Process: Alumina to Aluminum
013763| Alloys: Aluminum to Aluminum Products
016077| New Uses for Aluminum
017355| Production
-T-
aluminum_^<N__^<N_Aluminum is the third most abundant element (8 percent) in the Earth's crust, exceeded by oxygen (47 percent) and silicon (28 percent). _^<N__^<N_Earth scientists generally agree that aluminum, like most other elements, was formed
during the birth of our solar system through successive collisions of hydrogen atoms under conditions of high temperatures and pressures. Because of its strong affinity to oxygen, aluminum never occurs as a metal in nature but is found only in the
form of its compounds, such as alumina, Al(2)O(3). This strong affinity to oxygen also explains why it withstood all attempts to prepare it in its elemental form until well into the 19th century. _^<N__^<N_The metal's name is derived from alumen,
the Latin name for alum. In 1761 the French chemist Guyton de Morveau proposed the name alumine for the base in ALUM, and in 1787 Antoine LAVOISIER identified alumine as the oxide of a then- undiscovered metal. In 1807, Sir Humphry DAVY assigned
the name alumium to the metal and later agreed to change it to aluminum. Shortly thereafter, the name aluminium was adopted to conform with the -ium ending of most elements, and this spelling is now in general use throughout the world, except in
the United States (where the second i was dropped in 1925) and Italy (where alluminio is used). _^<N__^<N_ PHYSICAL PROPERTIES_^<N__^<N_Aluminum, symbol Al, is a silvery white metal in Group IIIA of the periodic table. Its atomic number is 13, its
atomic weight 26.9815. It is ductile, nonmagnetic, and an excellent conductor of heat and electricity. The density of aluminum at 20 deg C is 2.699 g/cu cm (0. 1 lb/cu in); it melts at 660.24 deg C and boils at 2,450 deg C. _^<N__^<N_The role
aluminum plays in human physiology is not known. Although the metal is ingested through food and water, most of it is believed to be excreted. Aluminum has been detected in the brain cells of patients with ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE, but it is not known
whether the metal's presence is a cause or an effect of the disease. _^<N__^<N_Aluminum is widely used in many kinds of products--its properties give it special advantages over other materials. _^<N__^<N_ Lightness and Strength_^<N__^<N_Perhaps the
best-known quality of aluminum is its light weight. Its specific gravity is only 2.7; it is thus only about one- third as dense as iron, copper, or zinc. Despite its light weight, it can easily be made strong enough to replace heavier and more
costly metals in thousands of applications. _^<N__^<N_Aluminum alloys (see ALLOY) have the highest strength-to-weight characteristics of any commercial metal. The strength of the various aluminum alloys increases, with little change in ductility,
as temperatures drop into the cryogenic range. At temperatures as high as 200 deg C (392 deg F), certain alloys remain remarkably strong. _^<N__^<N_ Resistance to Corrosion_^<N__^<N_Aluminum and its various alloys are highly resistant to corrosion.
When exposed to air, the metal develops a thin film of Al(2)O(3) almost immediately. The reaction then slows, however, because the film seals off oxygen, preventing further oxidation or chemical reaction. The film is colorless, tough, and
nonflaking. Few chemicals can dissolve it. Some aluminum alloys are better suited to certain corrosive environments than others. Many different alloys and claddings are available to meet the requirements of specific corrosive environments.
_^<N__^<N_ Electrical and Thermal Conductivity_^<N__^<N_Aluminum's electrical alloy has the highest conductivity per pound of any commercially sold conductor. Because aluminum is only one-third as dense as copper, it supplies about twice the
conductivity per pound. For this reason more than 90 percent of the transmission and distribution lines in the United States are made from aluminum. Aluminum is an excellent conductor of heat as well. It is about 1.8 times as thermally conductive
as copper by weight, depending on the alloy, and about 9 times as conductive as stainless steel. For this reason it is widely used in automobile radiators; cooling coils and fins; heat exchangers in the chemical, petroleum, and other industries;
and heater fins in baseboard and other types of heaters. _^<N__^<N_ Reflectivity and Emissivity_^<N__^<N_Aluminum is an excellent reflector of all forms of radiated energy. This characteristic is commonly put to work in building insulation,
including roofing materials. Because it reflects about 90 percent of radiated heat, aluminum is effective at keeping heat out or in. Aluminum foil can also be used to jam radar by reflecting it. _^<N__^<N_Aluminum gives off as radiant energy only a
small percentage (about 7 percent) of the heat that it does take on. It gives up most of its heat by conduction and convection. This characteristic, known as low emissivity, is especially valuable in installations where aluminum reflects most of
any radiant energy rather than absorbing it and radiating it into the interior. _^<N__^<N_ Workability_^<N__^<N_Aluminum has a face-centered cubic crystalline structure similar to that of tin and gold. As a consequence, it is very workable.
Aluminum is as weldable as steel, at twice the rate of steel. It is also highly amenable to BRAZING, soldering, and cold welding (pressure joining; see WELDING AND SOLDERING). _^<N__^<N_ THE ALUMINUM INDUSTRY_^<N__^<N_The aluminum industry, founded
in 1854, is the newest of the nonferrous metal industries. In the United States, commercial production began in 1859 at a cost of $17 for a pound. Not until the late 1880s was a method found to bring prices down and permit aluminum to be used in a
wide range of applications. The aluminum industry is now worldwide. _^<N__^<N_ Bauxite, the Source of Aluminum_^<N__^<N_Most aluminum produced today is made from BAUXITE. First discovered in 1821 near Les Baux, France (from which its name is
derived), bauxite is an ore rich in hydrated aluminum oxides, formed by the weathering of such siliceous aluminous rocks as feldspars, nepheline, and clays. During weathering the silicates are decomposed and leached out, leaving behind a residue of
ores rich in alumina, iron oxide, titanium oxide, and some silica. In general, economically attractive ores contain at least 45 percent alumina and no more than 5 percent to 6 percent silica. _^<N__^<N_Most of the large bauxite deposits are found
in tropical and subtropical climates, where heavy rainfall, warm temperatures, and good drainage combine to encourage the weathering process. Because bauxite is always found at or near the surface, it is mined by open-pit methods. It is then
crushed if necessary, screened, dried, milled, and shipped for processing. Australia, Guinea, Jamaica, Brazil, and India are leading bauxite producers. _^<N__^<N_Assuming that 4 tons of bauxite are required to produce 1 ton of aluminum, bauxite
reserves known today are large enough to supply the world with aluminum for several hundred years at current production levels. Other ores that might be used when the high-grade bauxite deposits are exhausted include kaolin, anorthosite, and
alunite. _^<N__^<N_ Early History of Extraction Processes_^<N__^<N_Although proof of the existence of aluminum as a metal did not exist until the 1800s, clays containing the metallic element were used in Iraq as long ago as 5300 BC to manufacture
high- quality pottery. Certain other aluminum compounds such as the "alums" were used widely by Egyptians and Babylonians as early as 2000 BC. Despite these early uses of the "metal of clay," however, it was almost 4,000 years before the metal was
freed from its compounds, which made it a commercially usable metal. _^<N__^<N_Credit for first separating aluminum metal from its oxide goes to the Danish physicist Hans Christian OERSTED. In 1825 he reported to the Royal Danish Academy that he
accomplished this by heating anhydrous aluminum chloride with potassium amalgam and distilling off the mercury. His product was so impure, however, that he did not succeed in determining its physical properties beyond observing a metallic luster.
_^<N__^<N_In 1845, after many years of experimentation, Friedrich WOHLER succeeded--by substituting potassium for the amalgam--in producing globules of aluminum large enough to allow the determination of some of its properties. _^<N__^<N_In 1854,
Henri Sainte-Claire Deville substituted sodium for the relatively expensive potassium and, by using sodium aluminum chloride instead of aluminum chloride, produced the first commercial quantities of aluminum in a small plant near Paris. Bars and
various objects made of this metal were shown at the Paris Exposition in 1855, and the ensuing publicity was in large measure responsible for launching the industry. Several plants using essentially the same process were subsequently built in
France and England, but none survived for long, in part because of the lack of an economic source of electricity. The invention of the dynamo in 1866 paved the way for the development of modern aluminum processing. _^<N__^<N_In 1886, Charles Martin
Hall of Oberlin, Ohio, and Paul L. T. Heroult of France, both 22 years old at the time, discovered and patented almost simultaneously the process by which alumina is dissolved in molten cryolite and decomposed electrolytically. This reduction
process, generally known as the Hall-Heroult process, has survived many attempts to supplant it; it remains the only method by which aluminum is produced in commercial quantities today. _^<N__^<N_Two years after Hall and Heroult made their
discovery, Karl Joseph Bayer, a German chemist, developed a process that improved the method for making alumina from bauxite ores low in silica content, a step necessary before the Hall-Heroult process could be applied. This achievement completed
the foundation for a commercially feasible aluminum industry. _^<N__^<N_ Bayer Process: Bauxite to Alumina_^<N__^<N_The Bayer Process of separating alumina from the bauxite ore was patented in 1888 and is still used today. The process begins when
bauxite is pulverized by being mixed with soda ash and lime in a ball mill. Water is added to turn the mixture into a slurry, which is drained from the ball mills into tanks or digesters. In these tanks, which are heated by the injection of live
steam, the alumina contained in the slurry is liquefied like sugar in ordinary water, then poured into settling tanks. Solids--largely sand, iron, and other elements that do not dissolve--move downward while a coffee-colored liquor remains on top.
_^<N__^<N_Cleared of all solids, the liquid is pumped into large, open- topped vats, or precipitators, up to six stories high. There the liquid is agitated, and minuscule alumina crystals begin to form. Agitation causes the crystals to adhere to
each other as they slowly sink to the bottom of the precipitators, and they become slightly larger than grains of sugar. They are then pumped into settling tanks and washed again to remove the soda ash and lime solution that was added at the
beginning of the process. _^<N__^<N_The final step is to drive off the remaining moisture by passing the alumina, which now resembles white mud, through kilns that heat it to more than 1,000 deg C (1,830 deg F). The sugarlike alumina, now dry and
about 99 percent pure, pours out of the lower end of the tilted kiln and is stored in silos, ready to go into the reduction cells to make the metal. _^<N__^<N_ Hall-Heroult Process: Alumina to Aluminum_^<N__^<N_Although the original concept of the
Hall-Heroult process has not changed, improvements have been made in a continuing effort to lower production costs in both equipment and materials. The electrolytic, or smelting, process (see ELECTROLYSIS) takes place in reduction cells or pots, of
which there may be 1,000 or more in a modern plant. Rectangular in shape, the reduction cells are made of steel with a carbon lining. Generally, two rows of carbon anodes, or electrodes, are suspended overhead from busbars, which carry the electric
power. _^<N__^<N_Cells are filled with molten cryolite maintained at a temperature of about 980 deg C (1,800 deg F). Direct electrical current is passed through the cryolite from the suspended carbon anodes to the cathodes, or bottoms of the carbon
lining of the cells, and on into the collector bars, or plates, that are embedded in the bottom of the carbon lining. The energy causes a crust to form over the top of the molten cryolite. Alumina is then added to the crust from supply bins above
the cells. The electric current passing through the crust drives off the oxygen atoms in the alumina, leaving the aluminum atoms in a molten state. They collect as molten aluminum at the bottoms of the cells. The oxygen atoms adhere to the carbon
anodes and gradually erode them. Spent anodes are removed and replaced on a regular schedule. _^<N__^<N_The process is kept operating continuously by periodically breaking the crusts and adding alumina to the cells. At regular intervals, the molten
aluminum is siphoned off from the cells into a crucible lined with high-refractory brick. It is then either transported to a holding furnace, from which are poured the various forms of ingots, or it may be alloyed before being poured into rolling
ingots. _^<N__^<N_Reduction cells are placed on long lines, called potlines, that are connected electrically. The cells operate on from four to six volts; electrical current loads range from 50,000 to 150,000 amperes. Since the process requires
direct current, reduction plants located in countries that produce alternating current must include rectifier stations to convert the alternating current to direct current. _^<N__^<N_A single reduction cell can produce about 900 kg (2,000 lb) of
99.5 percent-pure metal every 24 hours. The impurities consist of traces of silicon and iron not removed by the reduction process. A 99.99 percent-pure aluminum can be produced from the basic aluminum. The superpure metal is used in the petroleum,
electronics, and jewelry industries; however, most aluminum today is produced in alloy forms. The range of useful alloys is constantly being increased through research. _^<N__^<N_ Alloys: Aluminum to Aluminum Products_^<N__^<N_Although pure
aluminum has good working and forming properties and high ductility, it has low mechanical strength. Before being used in many applications, it must be strengthened by alloying, strain HARDENING (cold working), or precipitation hardening (heat
treatment). _^<N__^<N_Aluminum alloys are generally divided into two basic types, casting alloys and wrought alloys. Aluminum casting alloys most frequently contain silicon, magnesium, copper, zinc, or nickel, alone or in various combinations.
Silicon improves the fluidity and castability of molten aluminum; copper and zinc harden the alloy and increase its strength; magnesium improves corrosion resistance, strength, and machinability; and nickel improves dimensional stability and
high-temperature strength. The mechanical properties of aluminum casting alloys vary not only with composition but also as a function of casting conditions and subsequent heat treatment, if any. Heat-treated alloys are generally stronger and more
ductile than others. _^<N__^<N_Wrought alloys are alloys that have been mechanically worked after casting. Working operations include forging (see FORGE), rolling, drawing, and extruding. Alloying elements (magnesium, silicon, copper, and others)
usually make pure aluminum stronger and harder but also render it less ductile and more difficult to fabricate. Working and heat treatments change these alloys' structure, which in turn determines their corrosion resistance and mechanical
properties. _^<N__^<N_Wrought alloys are divided into two basic classes: non-heat- treatable and heat-treatable alloys. The former rely on the hardening effect of such alloying elements as manganese, silicon, iron, and magnesium for their initial
strength. They are further strengthened by various degrees of cold working. Heat-treatable alloys, containing such elements as copper, magnesium, zinc, and silicon, are strengthened by heat treatment and artificial aging, but they may also be cold
worked. _^<N__^<N_New alloys of aluminum and lithium are lighter in weight and stronger than older alloys. New materials include compounds of aluminum with epoxies and synthetic, stronger-than-steel aramid fibers. One-third lighter than aluminum,
but immensely stronger, these compounds can be rolled into thin sheets and shaped like aluminum. _^<N__^<N_ New Uses for Aluminum_^<N__^<N_Aluminum is increasingly used to conserve energy both in home heating and cooling and in the transportation
industry. Aluminum storm doors and windows, insulation backed with aluminum foil, and aluminum siding are excellent insulators. Because substituting aluminum for heavier metals in cars saves fuel, use of aluminum in the manufacture of a car has
increased dramatically. Engine parts, drive shafts, suspension parts, and wheels are among the car components made with aluminum. _^<N__^<N_The container and packaging industry is by far the largest user of aluminum, consuming about 30 percent of
total U.S. production. Most of the aluminum used by the industry has gone into the production of aluminum cans. Several new packaging concepts, however, have recently shown potential for replacing the standard can and other container forms. Milk
and other beverages can now be packaged in "aseptic" containers that are made of a paper-plastic film-aluminum foil lamination. Liquids in aseptic containers need not be refrigerated and can be kept for a considerable time without spoiling. The
retort pouch, originally developed for military field rations, is a flexible package made of an aluminum laminate. Its contents remain edible for years without refrigeration. _^<N__^<N_ Production_^<N__^<N_World production of primary aluminum in
the mid-1990s was about 18 million metric tons (20 million U.S. tons) annually. The United States is the world's largest aluminum producer, followed by Canada and Australia. (The figures for Russian production--which was the second highest in the
world during the era of the USSR--have not been published.) Annual U.S. consumption is also the world's highest--over 5 million metric tons (5.5 million U.S. tons). _^<N__^<N_The U.S. aluminum industry consumes 1 percent of the nation's energy,
largely in the form of electricity. The amount of electricity used per pound of metal in smelting, which accounts for about two-thirds of the industry's total energy consumption, has decreased steadily, and today the average is about 7 kW h.
Aluminum can be recycled for less than 5 percent of the energy required for producing virgin metal. U.S. aluminum-can recycling provides over half the aluminum used in making new cans, and recycling of aluminum scrap equals almost half of total
aluminum production. _^<N__^<N_H. D. Chambliss _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Burkin, A. R., Production of Aluminum and Alumina (1987); Gitelman, H. J., Aluminum and Health (1989); Graham, M. B., and Pruitt, B. H., R & D for Industry: A Century of
Technological Innovation at Alcoa (1990); King, F., Aluminum and Its Alloys (1987); King, R. G., Surface Treatment and Finishing of Aluminum (1988); Miller, R. K., and Rupnow, M. E., Aluminum Recycling (1991); Peck, M. J., ed., World Aluminum
Industry in a Changing Era (1988); Sheppard, T., ed., Aluminum Technology '86 (1986); Sinia, R. J., Aluminum in Packaging (1973).
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74
CAT
-A-
Alva, Duque de:
-T-
Alva, Duque de:_^<N__^<N_see ALBA, FERNANDO ALVAREZ DE TOLEDO Y PIMENTEL, DUQUE DE.
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626
CAT
-A-
Alvarado, Juan Bautista
-T-
Alvarado, Juan Bautista_^<N__^<N_Juan Bautista Alvarado, b. Feb. 14, 1809, d. July 13, 1882, was an important figure in California government and politics during the period of Mexican rule. A participant in governmental affairs from the age of 18,
he led a revolt against Mexico in 1836 and served as governor, even after he had made his peace with Mexico, until 1842. He was also a major backer of the revolution in 1844-45 that made Pio Pico governor and reduced Mexico's effective control of
California. While Alvarado was governor, the earliest American merchants and settlers, including John A. SUTTER, arrived there. _^<N__^<N_Elliott West
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1435
CAT
-A-
Alvarado, Pedro de
-T-
Alvarado, Pedro de_^<N__^<N_The Spanish explorer Pedro de Alvarado, b. c.1485, d. July 4, 1541, was one of the key figures in the Spanish conquest of Central America. _^<N__^<N_Reaching the New World with an expedition to the Yucatan in 1518,
Alvarado joined Hernan CORTES in the conquest of Mexico (1519-21), distinguished himself in battle, and became second in command. His harsh rule in TENOCHTITLAN (Mexico City) led to the Aztec revolt of 1520, which forced the Spanish to evacuate the
city temporarily. In 1523 Alvarado was sent on an expedition to conquer El Salvador and Guatemala, an area that then covered much of Central America. Upon the successful completion of this expedition in 1524, he became governor of Guatemala.
_^<N__^<N_In 1534 Alvarado led a force over the Andes to Quito, Ecuador, then held by Francisco PIZARRO. The latter, however, bought him off for a reputed 100,000 gold pesos, and Alvarado returned to Guatemala. Here he planned yet another
expedition--to the South Sea islands. Before he sailed, however, he stopped off in Mexico and was tempted to join the search for the legendary Seven Golden Cities of CIBOLA in northern Mexico. En route he participated in the Mixton War against the
Indians of Jalisco and was killed in a fall from his horse. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Kelly, John E., Pedro de Alvarado, Conquistador (1932; repr. 1971); Nicholson, Irene, The Conquest of Mexico (1968); Peterson, R., The Lost Cities of Cibola
(1985).
-END-
-C-
667
CAT
-A-
Alvarez, A.
-T-
Alvarez, A._^<N__^<N_Alfred Alvarez, b. Aug. 5, 1929, is an English poet and critic whose major work reflects his concern with extremist perceptions of contemporary life. His study of suicide, The Savage God (1971), sees the death of poet Sylvia
Plath as a paradigm of modern paranoia. Life after Marriage (1982) probes marital conditions in the society Alvarez inhabits. The Biggest Game in Town (1983) is about poker in Las Vegas, Offshore (1986) examines life on a sea-based oil rig, and
Feeding the Rat (1989) is about mountain climbing. Day of Atonement (1991) is a psychological thriller. Alvarez's poetry is collected in Autumn to Autumn, and Selected Poems, 1953-1976.
-END-
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1332
CAT
-A-
Alvarez, Luis Walter
-T-
Alvarez, Luis Walter_^<N__^<N_The physicist Luis Walter Alvarez, b. San Francisco, June 13, 1911, d. Sept. 1, 1988, is known for his work in high-energy physics, especially for his improvements of Donald Glaser's BUBBLE CHAMBER. For his discovery of
atomic particles with this device he received the 1968 Nobel Prize for physics. A graduate of the University of Chicago, Alvarez became professor of physics at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1945. His memoirs, Alvarez, were published in
1987. _^<N__^<N_Using tubular wave guides and resonant cavities, Alvarez developed (1946) the proton linear accelerator, known as LINEAC, in which 4 MeV protons from a VAN DE GRAAFF GENERATOR were ejected into a tank and accelerated to 32 MeV. In
1954 he developed the liquid-hydrogen bubble chamber and used it to identify many atomic particles, including tritium, that occur in high-energy nuclear collisions. He also discovered short-lived meson and baryon resonance particles, which can be
detected only through decay products. _^<N__^<N_In 1980, Alvarez and his son Walter aroused controversy when they and two other physicists published a theory suggesting that the EXTINCTION of the dinosaurs had been caused by a meteor collision with
the Earth. The theory, based on geochemical studies of rock strata, has since become widely accepted. _^<N__^<N_Raymond J. Seeger
-END-
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751
CAT
-A-
Alvarez Quintero, Serafin and Joaquin
-T-
Alvarez Quintero, Serafin and Joaquin_^<N__^<N_The Alvarez Quintero brothers, Serafin, b. Mar. 26, 1871, d. Apr. 12, 1938, and Joaquin, b. Jan. 20, 1873, d. June 14, 1944, were Spanish dramatists whose lifelong collaboration resulted in more than
200 plays. Most were light romantic farces set in the brothers' native Andalusia. Their warm-hearted and amusing works departed from the realistic drama then popular in Madrid, and they received acclaim for nearly 40 years. Among the brothers'
best-known works are the comedies The Flowers (1901), A Sunny Morning (1905), and The Merry Heart (1906), as well as the uncharacteristically serious Malvaloca (1912). _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Chandler, Richard E., and Schwartz, Kessel, A New
History of Spanish Literature (1961).
-END-
-C-
382
CAT
-A-
Alvaro, Corrado
-T-
Alvaro, Corrado_^<N__^<N_Corrado Alvaro, b. Apr. 15, 1895, d. June 11, 1956, was an Italian novelist and poet whose works continued the tradition of Giovanni VERGA's verismo. His best work, Revolt in Aspromonte (1930; Eng. trans., 1962), depicts the
hard life of Calabrian peasants. Alvaro's diary, Quasi una vita (Almost a Life, 1951), reflects his moral and literary concerns. _^<N__^<N_Louis Kibler
-END-
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20
CAT
-A-
alveolus:
-T-
alveolus:_^<N__^<N_see LUNGS.
-END-
-C-
699
CAT
-A-
Alyssum
-T-
Alyssum_^<N__^<N_{uh-lis'-uhm} _^<N__^<N_Alyssum is a genus of annual, biennial, and perennial herbs or subshrubs belonging to the mustard family, Cruciferae. Species of Alyssum are particularly suitable as edging plants for flower gardens. Foliage
is generally grayish and the flowers yellow or, sometimes, white. Some dwarf forms attain a height of less than 8 cm (about 3 in). One popular species is sweet alyssum, Lobularia maritima, a perennial that grows up to 23 cm (9 in) tall.
_^<N__^<N_The best-known species of Alyssum, Aurina saxatilis, is commonly called golden tuft, gold dust, or rock madwort; it is popular in rock gardens. Aurina murale, yellow tuft, is similar to saxatilis but flowers later. _^<N__^<N_Charles L.
Wilson
-END-
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3353
CAT
-A-
Alzheimer's disease
-T-
Alzheimer's disease_^<N__^<N_Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an incurable degenerative disease of the brain first described in 1906 by the German neuropathologist Alois Alzheimer. AD is a progressive dementing illness in which the core symptom is
memory loss. Other associated symptoms include impairments in language, abstract reasoning, and visual spatial abilities. Personality changes are common and range from apathy to restless agitation. Psychiatric symptoms, including depression,
delusions, and hallucinations, may also occur during the course of AD. AD is the most common cause of dementia in adults, and is estimated to affect more than 2 million men and women over the age of 65 in the United States. Symptoms worsen every
year, and death usually occurs within 10 years of initial onset. _^<N__^<N_The clinical manifestations of AD stem from dysfunction and death of neurons in the brain. The hallmarks of AD are fibrous structures, called neurofibrillary tangles, found
in dying neurons, and senile plaques composed of degenerating nerve-cell elements surrounding a core of amyloid protein. The parts of the brain that direct cognition are especially affected, whereas regions that primarily detect sensations and
control muscular movement are generally spared. Biochemical abnormalities associated with neuron failure include accumulation of aluminum in senile plaques and tangled neurons; deposition of amyloid protein in cerebral blood vessels and senile
plaques; disrupted nerve-cell-membrane phospholipid metabolism; and decreases in NEUROTRANSMITTER substances such as ACETYLCHOLINE, SEROTONIN, norepinephrine, and somatostatin. Definitive diagnosis of AD is only possible through autopsy, although
POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY has proven helpful as a diagnostic tool. _^<N__^<N_Although the cause of AD is not known, two risk factors have been identified: advanced age and genetic predisposition. The risk of developing AD is less than one
percent before the age of 50 years old, but increases steeply in each successive decade of life to reach 30 percent by the age of 90. In patients with familial AD, immediate-family relatives have a 50 percent chance of developing AD because the
tendency is transmitted as an autosomal dominant trait. In some familial AD cases, an abnormal gene site has been located on chromosome 21. Other genetic or environmental factors are likely to be discovered in the future. _^<N__^<N_Until the
cause of AD is determined, a cure will remain elusive. There are no treatments that reverse the primary cognitive impairments in AD, or that retard the course of illness. Most current experimental drug trials have sought to correct the defect in
acetylcholine neurotransmission. To date, such medicines have proven ineffective, but developing drugs to correct other biochemical abnormalities detected in brains of patients with AD may yet lead to useful treatments. The U. S. Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) approved a drug called tacrine in September 1993, which reputedly relieves some AD symptoms in certain patients. _^<N__^<N_John Growdon, M.D. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Glenner, C. C., and Wurtman, R. J., eds., Advancing
Frontiers in Alzheimer's Disease Research (1987); Trubo, Richard, "Closing in to Attack Alzheimer's," Medical World News, Feb. 22, 1988; Wurtman, R. J., et al., Alzheimer's Disease, vol. 51, Advances in Neurology (1990).
-END-
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29
CAT
-A-
AM:
-T-
AM:_^<N__^<N_see AMPLITUDE MODULATION.
-END-
-C-
38
CAT
-A-
AMA:
-T-
AMA:_^<N__^<N_see AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION.
-END-
-C-
710
CAT
-A-
Amadi, Elechi
-T-
Amadi, Elechi_^<N__^<N_{ah-mah'-dee} _^<N__^<N_Elechi Amadi, b. May 12, 1934, is a Nigerian novelist with a remarkable talent for re-creating the atmosphere of traditional African life before European colonization. An Ibo from eastern Nigeria, Amadi
studied physics in college, was commissioned in the Nigerian army, and resigned to take a teaching position. The Great Ponds (1969), generally regarded as his best work, examines the conflict between two villages in precolonial Nigeria. Although he
appears to have been influenced by his countryman Chinua ACHEBE, he is developing his own style and is emerging as one of Africa's most significant writers. He wrote the autobiographical Sunset in Biafra in 1973. _^<N__^<N_Richard K. Priebe
-END-
-C-
873
CAT
-A-
Amado, Jorge
-T-
Amado, Jorge_^<N__^<N_{ah-mah'-due, zhor'-zhee} _^<N__^<N_Brazilian novelist Jorge Amado, b. Aug. 10, 1912, was elected to the Brazilian Academy of Letters in 1961. Amado depicts life in his native state of Bahia at the beginning of the century,
when wealthy cacao planters dominated the land, as in Gabriela, Clove, and Cinnamon (1958; Eng. trans., 1962). In Dona Flor and Her Two Husbands (1966; Eng. trans., 1969) his characters gain greater individuality. A genuine sympathy for the
humble and the socially downtrodden pervades his writing. This, in addition to his lyricism, imagination, and warm sense of humor, has given him an enormous reputation in Brazil and abroad. Two early novels, Jubiaba (1935) and Sea of Death (1936),
were published in English translation in 1984, and several other works from the same period appeared in English translation in 1988. _^<N__^<N_Maria Isabel Abreu
-END-
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198
CAT
-A-
Amalekites
-T-
Amalekites_^<N__^<N_{am'-uh-lek-yts} _^<N__^<N_Constant enemies of Israel in the Bible, the Amalekites were a nomadic tribe finally defeated by DAVID. They are listed among the tribes descended from ESAU (Gen. 36:12).
-END-
-C-
795
CAT
-A-
Amalfi
-T-
Amalfi_^<N__^<N_{ah-mahl'-fee} _^<N__^<N_Amalfi is a town in Salerno province of southern Italy, southeast of Naples, with a population of 6,052 (1981). Built on the Gulf of Salerno and enjoying a mild climate and picturesque scenery, including that
of the spectacular Amalfi Drive, the town is a fishing port and one of Italy's most famous tourist areas. Its origins are unclear, but in the 9th century Amalfi became one of the early Italian maritime republics and rivaled the power of Pisa,
Genoa, and Venice. Although Amalfi rapidly declined from the 11th century on, its maritime code, the Tavola Amalfitana, remained influential in the Mediterranean area until the late 16th century. The town's most impressive monument is the cathedral
of Sant' Andrea, begun in the 9th century and subsequently much rebuilt.
-END-
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568
CAT
-A-
amalgam, metallic
-T-
amalgam, metallic_^<N__^<N_An amalgam is an ALLOY of mercury and one or more other metals. An amalgam can also be formed with nonmetals, such as tellurium and ammonium. Silver and gold amalgams occur in nature, but most amalgams are of artificial
origin. Amalgams are formed by dissolving metals in mercury. Copper, gold, and silver have to be dissolved in a solution of a mercury salt. Amalgams are used in dental work as fillings, and in the manufacture of mirrors. In the latter case an
amalgam of one part tin and three parts mercury is applied to glass. _^<N__^<N_Merle C. Nutt
-END-
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816
CAT
-A-
Amalgamated Clothing and Textile Workers Union
-T-
Amalgamated Clothing and Textile Workers Union_^<N__^<N_The Amalgamated Clothing and Textile Workers Union (ACTWU) is a labor union affiliated with the American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations. The union represents
workers who cut, sew, and measure cloth; its members also include laundry workers, dry cleaners, and some retail-store clerks. _^<N__^<N_The ACTWU was formed in 1976 by a merger of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America and the Textile
Workers Union of America. The Clothing Workers was founded in 1914, with Sidney HILLMAN as president. The Textile Workers was founded in 1939. Since 1978 one shoe and two millinery unions have been absorbed. The ACTWU had about 273,000 members
in 1990. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Day, Alan J., and Maolain, Claran O., eds., Trade Unions of the World (1987).
-END-
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3284
CAT
-A-
Amalienburg Pavilion
-T-
Amalienburg Pavilion_^<N__^<N_{ah-mahl'-yen-burg} _^<N__^<N_The Amalienburg is the most famous of three pleasure pavilions in the park of NYMPHENBURG PALACE, the summer residence of the Bavarian kings on the outskirts of Munich. The pavilion, a
sumptuous version of a hunting lodge, was built between 1734 and 1740 by the great ROCOCO architect Francois CUVILLIES (1695-1768) for Princess Amalie, wife of Elector Charles Albert of Bavaria (later Holy Roman Emperor CHARLES VII). _^<N__^<N_The
elegant and restrained exterior of the long, one-story building is of white marble, with symmetrical wings flanking a central domed bay whose protruding curve gives the facade a typical rococo undulation. The gilded, wrought-iron balustrade of the
circular shooting platform atop the dome gives the effect of a delicate coronet. The bay is further emphasized by a projecting GABLE roof whose PEDIMENT base is broken by a niche over the main entrance. Appropriately, the niche shelters a
sculptural group in high relief of DIANA, goddess of the hunt, and her dogs. _^<N__^<N_The doors below open into the circular Hall of Mirrors, which immediately establishes the aura of fantasy and glittering magnificence that pervades the
Amalienburg. The shallow cupola, from which hangs a four-tiered Venetian CHANDELIER of frosted crystal, seems to float on an undulating CORNICE. Supporting the cupola are 16 delicately arched panels framing the large mirrors and glass doors around
the perimeter of the room. The pale delphinium blue walls and ceiling are set off by elaborate carved silver decoration that rises from the floor and flows into the dome. _^<N__^<N_The effect of almost incorporeal splendor is reinforced by the
rooms glimpsed on either side. On the left is a bedroom with light, lemon-yellow walls and an overall web of silver ornamentation. The adjoining corner study repeats the blue-and-silver pattern of the domed hall. To its right is a retirade, or
lavatory, leading to a gun room painted to imitate blue-and-white DELFTWARE with gun cabinets above each of the nine arched dog kennels. _^<N__^<N_To the right of the Hall of Mirrors is a lavish dining room that repeats the yellow-and-silver decor
of the bedroom; the corner serving room is in blue and silver. On the left a large, functional kitchen, apparently intended for use by the royal family, is entirely decorated with multicolored Delft tile panels depicting huge flower-filled vases
and Chinese scenes. The Amalienburg was originally set in an octagonal parterre, or formal garden, of rare flowers, removed in the 19th century. _^<N__^<N_Executed with consummate taste and workmanship, the Amalienburg is a brilliant
interpretation of rococo architecture; it combines the expected enfilade (a suite of ceremonial rooms opening one into the next in a straight line) with the requirements of a hunting retreat. Amalienburg has, in the words of one architectural
historian, "an easy elegance and gossamer delicacy which makes it the supreme secular monument of the rococo." _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bazin, Germain, The Baroque (1968); Dynes, Wayne, Palaces of Europe (1968); Norberg-Schultz, Christian, Late
Baroque and Rococo Architecture (1974); Sitwell, Sacheverell, Great Houses of Europe (1961; repr. 1970). _^<N__^<N_See also: BAROQUE ART AND ARCHITECTURE; GERMAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE.
-END-
-C-
836
CAT
-A-
Amana Society
-T-
Amana Society_^<N__^<N_{uh-man'-uh} _^<N__^<N_The Amana Society is a religious group in east central Iowa, that is conservative in theology, pacifistic, and has a strong communal tradition. Its origins are to be found in German PIETISM of the early
1700s. Some 800 members of the group migrated to the United States in 1842, settling first in Ebenezer, N.Y., but moving later to Iowa. Initially the members held all property in common, but in 1932 they discarded many communal practices and
formed a business corporation to take over the group's farmland and other productive properties. The Amana Society continues as a religious organization, with about 900 members; the business corporation engages in farming and manufactures kitchen
appliances. _^<N__^<N_Conrad Wright _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Liffring-Zug, J., and Zug, J., The Amana Colonies, rev. 2d ed. (1988).
-END-
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1104
CAT
-A-
amaranth
-T-
amaranth_^<N__^<N_{am'-uh-ranth} _^<N__^<N_Amaranth is the common name for members of a family (Amaranthaceae) of warm-region herbs, trees, and vines, especially those of the genus Amaranthus, often characterized by reddish pigment in the stems and
leaves. Many species, including tumbleweed, A. alba, are troublesome weeds. Other species are flowering perennials and garden ornamentals, such as love-lies-bleeding, or tasselflower, A. caudatus, which has crimson, chenille-textured flower spikes,
and A. tricolor, with its green, yellow, scarlet, or multicolored leaves. _^<N__^<N_A. caudatus is thought to be the species that was cultivated in Mexico as a food plant until it was almost extirpated by the Spanish conquistadors, who associated
its use with Aztec blood rituals. in the Far East and India several amaranth species are cultivated today as green vegetables, or for their edible seeds, which contain more high-quality protein than wheat. Research holds out great promise for the
development of amaranth species that will be heavy grain producers, with the potential for cultivation in harsh climates and difficult soils.
-END-
-C-
775
CAT
-A-
Amaravati
-T-
Amaravati_^<N__^<N_{um-ur-ah-vuh'-tee} _^<N__^<N_Amaravati, an ancient city in Andhra Pradesh state, southeast India, was the site of an important Buddhist monastery established on the south bank of the Krishna River in the eastern reaches of the
Deccan Plateau. The city was a principal center of learning and Buddhist pilgrimage for more than a thousand years. Developed and sustained by generations of Andhra princes and their successors, it was the cultural and spiritual fountainhead for
an extensive network of Buddhist establishments in eastern India and Ceylon. Fragmentary sculptural remains of the era of its greatest magnificence, the 2d-3d centuries AD, are now in the Government Museum of Madras, the British Museum in London,
and other public collections. _^<N__^<N_Diran Kavork Dohanian
-END-
-C-
736
CAT
-A-
Amarillo
-T-
Amarillo_^<N__^<N_Amarillo (1990 census, 157,615) is the major metropolis of the windswept Texas Panhandle. Situated both in Randall and Potter counties (the seat of the latter), it is the center of a three-state area where beef and wheat are
raised; it is also rich in oil and natural gas. Amarillo is an important producer of helium gas, and although studded with oil refineries, zinc smelters, and heavy manufactures, it is modern and attractive--a glass and concrete oasis rising from
desolate plains. Its giant grain elevators and famous cattle auctions give it a Western character. The city was founded when two railroads crossed at that site in 1887. Its name, which is Spanish for "yellow," refers to the color of clay in the
area.
-END-
-C-
1560
CALT
-A-
Amarna, Tell el-
-T-
Amarna, Tell el-_^<N__^<N_Tell el-Amarna, on the east bank of the Nile about 306 km (190 mi) south of Cairo, was the capital of Egypt under the heretic King AKHENATEN (Amenhotep IV, c.1379-1362 BC). This 18th-dynasty ruler founded the city as the
center of his monotheistic religion dedicated to the worship of the sun god Aten. Tell el-Amarna is a misnomer, combining the name of the village Et-Tell with that of a tribe, the Beni Amran, who settled nearby approximately two centuries ago. Its
ancient name was Akhetaten, meaning "horizon of Aten." _^<N__^<N_Akhenaten chose the site for the city and planned its layout, a record of which was carved on 14 stelae marking its boundaries, three west of the Nile. The administrative offices, the
chief palace, and the great temple of Aten stood in the center of the city, flanking the main road. In this region most of the so-called Amarna tablets--diplomatic correspondence in CUNEIFORM script with rulers and vassals in western Asia--were
found by chance in 1887. The site was extensively excavated (1891-92) by Sir Flinders PETRIE and by later British and German expeditions. In the crescent-shaped rocks east of the city, the Egyptians constructed tombs of the courtiers, mostly
unfinished, and the tomb of the king. The tombs are famous for their lively wall reliefs, the scenes being executed in the so-called Amarna style, which radically departs from the expressive restraint of most EGYPTIAN ART. Early in his reign
Tutankhamen (c.1361-1351 BC) abandoned Tell el-Amarna and restored the capital to Thebes. _^<N__^<N_I. E. S. Edwards
-END-
-C-
595
CAT
-A-
Amaryllis
-T-
Amaryllis_^<N__^<N_Amaryllis is a genus of South African bulbous plants that bear large, lilylike flowers and belong to the Amaryllidaceae family. The only true species is the belladonna lily, A. belladonna, which is native to South Africa. Plant
breeders have produced varieties with white to red flowers, which are grown outdoors in some warm regions of the United States. _^<N__^<N_The more common Amaryllises of horticulture, however, are species of Hippeastrum. Most are hybrids of the
Peruvian H. vittatum. Single large flowers borne on 60-cm (2-ft) stems bloom in a wide variety of colors. _^<N__^<N_Charles L. Wilson
-END-
-C-
19
CAT
-A-
Amasis:
-T-
Amasis:_^<N__^<N_see AHMOSE.
-END-
-C-
502
CAT
-A-
Amaterasu
-T-
Amaterasu_^<N__^<N_{ah'-mah-tay-rah-soo} _^<N__^<N_In traditional Japanese mythology, Amaterasu was the sun goddess and the principal deity. According to the 8th-century Kojiki, the oldest Japanese book, she sprang from the left eye of Izanagi, the
male of the Heavenly Pair who created Japan. Through her grandson Ninigi, Amaterasu became the ancestor of the Japanese emperors. She created three goddesses who, with the five gods created by her brother, Susa-wo-no, became the ancestors of the
highest Japanese nobility.
-END-
-C-
771
CAT
-A-
Amateur Athletic Association
-T-
Amateur Athletic Association_^<N__^<N_The Amateur Athletic Association (AAA), with headquarters in London, is the official organizer and regulator of amateur track-and-field athletics in England and Wales. It was the first of such national
regulatory bodies. The organization sets standards for the training of amateurs, oversees all amateur meets, and conducts annual national and junior-national championships. The AAA represents Great Britain in the management of international
competition as a member of the International Amateur Athletic Federation. _^<N__^<N_The AAA was formed in 1880 when 40 groups were brought together to resolve a dispute regarding separate national athletic meets. The organization was instrumental
in rejecting upper-class origins as a condition of amateurism.
-END-
-C-
2067
CAT
-A-
Amateur Athletic Union of the United States
-T-
Amateur Athletic Union of the United States_^<N__^<N_The Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) was founded in 1888 to correct widespread problems of amateur athletes in the United States. Since 1889, it has been composed of district associations of clubs and
schools, which numbered 58 in the late 1970s. Those associations encompass 300,000 volunteer workers, 372,000 registered athletes, and approximately 15 million participants. A Junior Olympics program for athletes of ages 8 through 18 is one of the
AAU's most successful programs, but it also sponsors senior divisions in many sports. _^<N__^<N_With its national headquarters in Indianapolis, Ind., the AAU is the U.S. governing body for eight Olympic sports: track and field, aquatics (swimming,
diving, water polo), bobsled, boxing, judo, luge, weightlifting, and wrestling. The AAU also conducts developmental programs and national and international competition in basketball, baton twirling, gymnastics, handball, horseshoe pitching, karate,
powerlifting, physique, synchronized swimming, trampoline and tumbling, and volleyball. _^<N__^<N_The power of the AAU was somewhat reduced in the 1960s when federations backed by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) disputed the
AAU's authority over several individual sports. The controversy was carried all the way to the U.S. Senate, and Gen. Douglas MacArthur was named by President John F. Kennedy to mediate the dispute. The result was the lessening of some of the AAU's
control, but the organization remains the stronghold and supervisor for millions of American amateur athletes who seek competition. _^<N__^<N_Since 1930 the AAU has conducted the annual poll for the Sullivan Award, which is presented to the amateur
athlete who has done the most to "advance the cause of good sportsmanship." The award is given in memory of James E. Sullivan, a founder of the organization and later its secretary (1889-1906) and president (1906-14). Another prominent figure in
AAU history was Dan Ferris, who was an official or a high-ranking executive for more than 70 years until his death in 1977.
-END-
-C-
1665
CAT
-A-
Amati (family)
-T-
Amati (family)_^<N__^<N_{ah-mah'-tee} _^<N__^<N_Amati is the name of a family of violin makers in Cremona, Italy, in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. Together with the STRADIVARI and GUARNERI families, they brought violin making to its highest
levels. The Amatis were minor nobility and had long been famous for lutes, viols, and other instruments when they began to make VIOLINS, two generations before Andrea Guarneri and Antonio Stradivari, who learned their craft in the Amati workshop.
All members of the Amati family were born and died in Cremona. _^<N__^<N_Andrea, c.1520-c.1611, began making violins about 1564; a few of his violins and some of his violas and cellos survive. Some sources mention a brother Nicolo. It is
uncertain that he existed, although some bass viols carry his name. Andrea's sons Antonio, 1550-1638, and Girolamo (Geronimo), 1551-1635, were partners in the business and advanced the art of violin making to a high state. They are usually called
the Amati brothers; their violins are similar but can be distinguished by experts. Nicolo, b. Dec. 3, 1596, d. Apr. 12, 1684, the son of Girolamo, is considered the greatest craftsman of the family. His son Girolamo, b. Feb. 26, 1649, d.
Feb. 27, 1740, carried on the family tradition, but his violins are not equal to those of Guarneri and Stradivari, who were his contemporaries and fellow apprentices. _^<N__^<N_Virtually all surviving Amati instruments are known and catalogued;
so the possibility of finding an unknown example is extremely remote. Thousands of violins by lesser makers bear Amati labels. _^<N__^<N_Farley Hutchins _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Stoeving, Paul, Violin (1928). _^<N__^<N_See also: STRINGED
Amazon River_^<N__^<N_The Amazon, approximately 6,450 km (4,000 mi) in length, is, after the Nile, the second longest river in the world. Flowing eastward across Brazil in the broad equatorial part of South America, it has the world's largest
drainage basin, more than 7 million sq km (2.7 million sq mi) or nearly 5% of the world's total land area. It carries nearly 20% of the Earth's total water discharge to the ocean--more than the six next-largest rivers combined. The flow is so
powerful that it perceptibly dilutes the ocean water of the Atlantic 160 km (100 mi) beyond the coastline. _^<N__^<N_ The River's Course and Environment_^<N__^<N_The Amazon's headstreams form in the Peruvian Andes little more than 160 km (100 mi)
from the Pacific Ocean. In 1541 the Spanish explorer Francisco de ORELLANA began European exploration here, descending the river to the Atlantic. He is variously reported to have imagined, sighted, or been attacked by female warriors. In any
event, he gave the river its name, which refers to the AMAZONS of Greek mythology. Most of the river's drainage basin lies east of the Andes. It is composed of low plains less than 150 m (500 ft) above sea level, strips of floodplain alongside
the channels, and broken higher ground in the upper reaches of its many tributaries, to both the north and the south. _^<N__^<N_The Amazon's mouth is an estuary, 240 km (150 mi) wide at the coast and studded with low muddy islands. These represent
the beginnings of a delta formed 5,000 years ago when melting glaciers created an ocean level higher than it is today. A submerged delta built during periods of glacial maximum and low ocean level stands on the continental shelf. _^<N__^<N_The
estuary's tidal range reaches 5.7 m (18.7 ft), and a tidal bore, or wave, occurs from time to time. Ocean tides are felt as far as Obidos, 960 km (600 mi) inland, where the river's discharge is an average 180,000 cu m/sec (6,350,000 cu ft/sec) and
283,000 cu m/sec (about 10 million cu ft/sec) at bank-full stage. This enormous volume is a result of the humid tropical climate that characterizes most of the basin: the mean annual temperature is 26 deg C (79 deg F); precipitation, 2,000 mm
(79 in). The climate sustains the world's largest rain forest, or selvas, and promotes intensive land weathering. The suspended load of silt and clay is 350 million metric tons per year (385 million U.S. tons per year) and resembles that of the
mid-latitude Mississippi River. Ocean-going ships can travel as far as MANAUS, whereas vessels drawing 6 m (18 feet) can reach Iquitos in Peru, 3,700 km (2,300 mi) inland. Of the chief tributaries, the NEGRO, Japura, Putumayo, Napo, Ucayali,
Jurua, and Purus are also navigable for long distances. Rivers remain the chief means of transport, but airstrips and highways are opening the Amazon Basin to development. _^<N__^<N_ Resources and Development_^<N__^<N_The Amazon Basin is home to
more than 2 million insect species, 100,000 plants, 2,000 species of fish, and 600 mammals, many of which are found nowhere else in the world. The basin also has huge reserves of bauxite, gold, manganese, nickel, copper, tin, and timber, and a
vast hydroelectric potential. In 1978 the eight Amazon Basin nations signed the Treaty of Amazon Cooperation (Amazon Pact), agreeing to share in the region's resources. _^<N__^<N_In recent years thousands of landless Brazilian peasants have
flocked to the sparsely populated region to build homesteads, leading to clashes between farmers and ranchers, settlers and large-scale developers, and newcomers, and indigenous aboriginal groups (chiefly slash-and-burn cultivators and fishing
communities). Many scientists fear that unregulated exploitation of the Amazon Basin will have devastating effects on its fragile ecosystem. _^<N__^<N_George Dury _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Cousteau, Jacques-Yves, and Richards, M., Jacques
Cousteau's Amazon Journey (1984); Hecht, Susanna, and Cockburn, Alexander, The Fate of the Forest: Developers, Destroyers and Defenders of the Amazon (1989); Hemming, J., Amazon Frontier (1988); Kandell, J., Passage through El Dorado (1984);
Moran, E., Developing the Amazon (1981); Shoumatoff, A., The Rivers Amazon (1985); Revkin, Andrew, The Burning Season: The Murder of Chico Mendes and the Fight for the Amazon Rain Forest (1990); Stone, R., Dreams of Amazonia (1985); Werner,
D., Amazon Journey (1984).
-END-
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24
CAT
-A-
amazonite:
-T-
amazonite:_^<N__^<N_see FELDSPAR.
-END-
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967
CAT
-A-
Amazons
-T-
Amazons_^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, the Amazons were a race of women warriors who lived in Anatolia and fought with the Trojans against the Greeks in the TROJAN WAR. At that time, their queen was Penthesileia, who was eventually killed by the
Greek hero ACHILLES. Legend had it that the Amazons dealt with men for only two reasons, procreation and battle, and that they reared only their female young. A number of Greek heroes fought against the Amazons: HERCULES had to obtain the girdle
of Queen HIPPOLYTE as one of his Twelve Labors; THESEUS abducted Queen Hippolyte, who bore him a son, HIPPOLYTUS, and who led her tribe in an invasion of Attica; BELLEROPHON had to fight them and escaped with his life, presumably riding PEGASUS;
DIONYSUS conquered them as part of his exploits. The Amazons were frequently depicted by artists as being in battle with men. _^<N__^<N_Robert E. Wolverton _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Tyrrell, William Blake, Amazons: A Study in Athenian Mythmaking
(1984).
-END-
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919
CAT
-A-
Ambartsumian, Viktor Amazaspovich
-T-
Ambartsumian, Viktor Amazaspovich_^<N__^<N_{ahm-bart-soo-myahn', ah-mah-zahs'-poh-vich} _^<N__^<N_The Armenian astronomer Viktor Amazaspovich Ambartsumian, b. Sept. 18, 1908, is noted for his work on galactic and STELLAR EVOLUTION and for his
discovery of STELLAR ASSOCIATIONS. A graduate (1928) of the University of Leningrad, Ambartsumian taught there until 1944, when he left to become professor of astrophysics at Yerevan University. The following year he founded and became director
of the BYURAKAN ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY in Yerevan, Armenia. He advanced a widely accepted theory that the radio waves emitted by certain galaxies are caused by enormous explosions within the galaxies. Ambartsumian also contributed importantly
to scientific discussions of the possibility of communicating with extraterrestrial life. _^<N__^<N_Steven J. Dick _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ambartsumian, Viktor, Theoretical Astrophysics, trans. by J. B. Sykes (1958).
-END-
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1315
CAT
-A-
ambassador
-T-
ambassador_^<N__^<N_An ambassador is the highest-ranking diplomatic representative of one country to another. He or she is entitled to deal directly with the king, president, or other head of state. _^<N__^<N_The earliest ambassadors were
messengers sent by one monarch to another for some specific purpose. In 16th-century Europe the more important monarchs began to establish permanent embassies with one another. In recent times the general practice has been for governments to
exchange ambassadors, but ambassadors no longer have the discretionary powers they possessed in earlier times, when the slowness of communications prevented them from consulting with their governments. Today the post is largely ceremonial, and
decisions are made in the foreign offices or high councils of government. In the United States, ambassadorships are often given to wealthy supporters of the party in power or as rewards for political service. _^<N__^<N_After ambassador, the
next-ranking diplomatic agent is a minister plenipotentiary or envoy who, like the ambassador, is entitled to communicate directly with the head of state. A third rank consists of charges d'affaires, who are accredited to the foreign minister of
their host country. Diplomats of the same rank take precedence according to the length of time they have been in their posts.
-END-
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728
CAT
-A-
Ambassadors, The
-T-
Ambassadors, The_^<N__^<N_The Ambassadors (1903), Henry JAMES's favorite among his own novels, contrasts rigid New England morals with flexible French ones. A Massachusetts dowager orders her fiance, Lambert Strether, to rescue her son, Chad
Newsome, from a Parisian femme fatale. But the "ambassador" can only commend the woman for improving Chad's manners, and self-sacrificially he modifies his own philosophy. "Live all you can" becomes his creed, although the aging Strether's
pleasures are mostly vicarious ones. The Ambassadors illustrates James's celebrated "major phase" style: restricted point of view, knotty syntax, painterly impressionism, ornate imagery, and dramatic presentation of largely cerebral action.
_^<N__^<N_Robert L. Gale
-END-
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1175
CAT
-A-
amber
-T-
amber_^<N__^<N_Amber is a fossilized resin from trees that has lost its volatile components after millions of years of burial. One of the first substances used for decoration, it was an object of trade and barter for Baltic peoples. The ancient
Greeks saw amber as hardened tears or rays of sunset. _^<N__^<N_Amber occurs as irregular masses, nodules, or drops that are transparent to translucent and have a yellow color, sometimes tinted red, orange, or brown. It may be clouded by
innumerable minuscule air bubbles or contain fossilized insects or plants. HARDNESS is 2-3, LUSTER resinous, and SPECIFIC GRAVITY 1.05-1.09. Softening occurs at about 150 deg C and melting at 250 deg-350 deg C. It was called electrum or elektron by
the Greeks, who were aware of its ability to produce a static electrical charge. Of widespread occurrence, amber is particularly abundant along the shores of the Baltic Sea where it is mined extensively from TERTIARY glauconite sands that are from
40 million to 60 million years old. Amber is still popular in jewelry and as a decorative material. Sometimes small pieces are fused by compression to form amberoid, which is distinguishable by parallel flow lines.
-END-
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383
CAT
-A-
ambergris
-T-
ambergris_^<N__^<N_{am'-bur-gris} _^<N__^<N_Ambergris is formed in the intestines of sperm whales. When fresh, it is black, greasy, and malodorous, but after exposure to the air it hardens, turns gray, and develops a pleasant aroma. Ambergris was
used in ancient times as a perfume and for its purported medicinal properties. Today it is blended with other fragrances to make perfume. _^<N__^<N_Peter L. Petrakis
-END-
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820
CAT
-A-
Ambler, Eric
-T-
Ambler, Eric_^<N__^<N_The prolific English novelist Eric Ambler, b. June 28, 1909, an acknowledged master of the thriller, popularized the spy story featuring the disenchanted secret agent. Of more than 20 novels, A Coffin for Dimitrios (1939) is
still one of his best known. It features the typical Ambler hero: a man with no ambition for heroism, whose basic motive is survival in a sordid, dangerous world. Ambler has twice won the Edgar Allan Poe Award (1964 and 1975) and has written
more than 15 screenplays, including those for The Cruel Sea (1953) and Topkapi (1964), which was based on his 1963 novel The Light of Day. The Siege of the Villa Lipp (1977) and The Care of Time (1981) are among his other novels. Ambler's
autobiography Here Lies was published in 1986. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Lewis, Peter, Eric Ambler (1989).
-END-
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1257
CAT
-A-
Ambonese
-T-
Ambonese_^<N__^<N_{am'-buh-neez} _^<N__^<N_The Ambonese (Amboinese), also known as South Moluccans, live on the island of Ambon in the Moluccan Archipelago that is located east of Sulawesi (Celebes) and north of Timor in INDONESIA. Their island is
among the fabled Spice Islands that attracted Europeans to Southeast Asia in the 16th century. The Ambonese, who speak a MALAYO-POLYNESIAN LANGUAGE, are an ethnic mixture of Southeast Asians and Melanesian peoples of New Guinea. Their skin color is
generally a darker shade of brown than is typical of most Indonesians. _^<N__^<N_The Ambonese are known to have reached Ambon in the 15th century, probably coming from the island of Ceram. A typical Ambonese village includes about 1,500 people who
live in houses built on stone foundations with walls made of either woven sago leaves or plastered bamboo. Rice, sago, coconuts, bananas, and other fruits are grown on the steep hillsides. The major cash crops are cloves and nutmeg. _^<N__^<N_The
Ambonese have been heavily influenced by Islam and Christianity, and many indigenous customs have disappeared. Their island population, estimated at 80,000, is almost equally divided between Christians and Muslims. _^<N__^<N_Donn V. Hart
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Cooley, Frank L., Ambonese Adat: A General Description (1962).
-END-
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1000
CAT
-A-
Ambrose, Saint
-T-
Ambrose, Saint_^<N__^<N_Ambrose, c.339-97, bishop of Milan, was an outstanding pastor, administrator, and theologian. He is counted as one of the Doctors of the Church. Ambrose grew up in Rome and undertook a brilliant political career. While
governor of northern Italy and still a catechumen--one under instruction in Christian doctrine before baptism--he was chosen (374) bishop of Milan by both traditional Christians and the proponents of ARIANISM. Within one week, he was baptized a
Christian and ordained a priest and a bishop. _^<N__^<N_As bishop, Ambrose was admired for his learning and oratory, his compassion toward the needy, and his austere life-style. In defending the freedom and authority of the church, he admonished
imperial rulers who were guilty of injustice and violence. He baptized AUGUSTINE, future bishop of Hippo. Ambrose composed hymns and wrote on the Bible, doctrine, and asceticism. He is sometimes credited with the composition of the Athanasian
ambrosia_^<N__^<N_{am-broh'-zhuh} _^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, ambrosia was the food of the gods. Fragrant and pleasant tasting, it preserved their immortality and conferred the qualities of divinity--beauty and strength--upon mortals who ate it.
The drink of the gods was called nectar; but sometimes it was also called ambrosia.
-END-
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636
CAT
-A-
Ambrosian Library
-T-
Ambrosian Library_^<N__^<N_The Ambrosian Library (Biblioteca Ambrosiana) of Milan, the first public library in Italy, was founded by Cardinal Federico Borromeo, bishop of Milan, and named after the patron saint of the city, St. Ambrose. At its
opening on Dec. 8, 1609, it contained 30,000 printed books and 12,000 manuscripts. Its holdings now include 765,000 volumes, 35,000 manuscripts, and 3,000 incunabula. _^<N__^<N_Perhaps the library's single most famous treasure is the Codex
Atlanticus, a volume of the works of LEONARDO DA VINCI, containing 1,700 original drawings and manuscripts. The library is located in the old center of Milan. _^<N__^<N_Colin Steele
-END-
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385
CAT
-A-
ambrotype
-T-
ambrotype_^<N__^<N_An ambrotype is an underexposed glass-negative photograph that appears positive when set against a black background. Glass photo plates with collodion coatings (guncotton dissolved in alcohol or ether) were invented in 1851 by
Frederick Scott ARCHER, an Englishman, and were used mainly for portraiture. The FERROTYPE used collodion on varnished metal. _^<N__^<N_See also: PHOTOGRAPHY.
-END-
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2464
CAT
-A-
ambulance
-T-
ambulance_^<N__^<N_An ambulance is a vehicle designed to transport the critically sick or injured to a hospital or medical center. Originally horse-drawn carts used to evacuate wounded soldiers from the battlefield, ambulances for the civilian
population came into use only in the mid-18th century. Until the 1960s, they were minimally equipped, and ambulance personnel were trained to handle only relatively simple injuries. _^<N__^<N_In 1966 Congress created the National Highway Safety
Administration, which was charged with issuing guidelines for state emergency medical systems and formulating an emergency medical technician (EMT) training program. Professional requirements for EMTs were established, and their capabilities were
expanded well beyond the functions of earlier ambulance personnel. Today, emergency medical transport is largely the responsibility of community fire departments (several thousand EMT-PARAMEDIC programs are operated by local fire departments),
augmented by an increasing number of private ambulance and municipal health department services. _^<N__^<N_All ambulances are required by federal law to carry the following equipment: both a wheeled and a folding litter, airways for mouth-to-mouth
ventilation, portable artificial ventilation devices, oxygen, suction equipment to vacuum the windpipe and upper digestive tract, a spineboard to place under cardiac-arrest victims to furnish resistance for external compression, bandages,
dressings, splints, pillows, blankets, childbirth supplies, stethoscope, and intravenous kits. Ambulances staffed by EMT-paramedics may be provided with the additional technical equipment necessary to render emergency medical treatment to cardiac
and accident victims. These cardiac mobile units can maintain communication with an emergency-room physician by means of radio TELEMETRY (electrocardiogram data and other vital data are transmitted in this way), and their personnel are trained to
start intravenous solutions and administer drugs or cardiopulmonary resuscitation. To become a qualified EMT, a person must complete 110 hours of classroom and clinical instruction and pass written and practical examinations. The EMT-paramedic
must complete a further 700 to 1,000 hours of advance training, usually in a community-college or a hospital-based program. _^<N__^<N_Theresa Marousek _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Caroline, N. L., Emergency Medical Treatment, 2d ed. (1987);
Cole-Mackintosh, R., A Century of Service to Mankind (1987).
-END-
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1041
CAT
-A-
amebiasis
-T-
amebiasis_^<N__^<N_{ami-by'-uh-suhs} _^<N__^<N_Amebiasis is a general name for human infections caused by the amoeba Entamoeba histolytica. Intestinal infections alone are called amoebic DYSENTERY. Amebiasis occurs worldwide--nearly 3,000 cases
were reported in the United States in a recent year--but is most prevalent in tropical regions. In some areas more than half of the population is likely to develop amebiasis at some time. The parasite is usually ingested in encysted form in
contaminated food or water. Dysentery symptoms may take a week to a year or more to develop and may recur after long remissions; some people remain symptomless but act as carriers. Untreated amebiasis can lead to stomach ulcers and peritonitis,
and the amoeba may be carried in the blood to the liver and cause amebic hepatitis or ulcers. Abscesses may also develop in other organs or, rarely, the brain. Several drugs are effective against amebiasis, but liver and other complications may
require surgery. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Martinez-Palomo, A., ed., Amebiasis (1986).
-END-
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1040
CAT
-A-
Ameling, Elly
-T-
Ameling, Elly_^<N__^<N_{am'-uh-ling} _^<N__^<N_Elly Ameling, b. Feb. 8, 1938, a Dutch soprano, is world renowned for her recitals of German and French songs and for her superlative interpretive gifts. She is equally at home in chamber music,
orchestral concerts, operas, and oratorios. She made her U.S. recital debut at New York's Lincoln Center in 1968 and her opera debut in 1974 as Ilia in Mozart's Idomeneo in Washington, D.C. Contemporary works, particularly by her countrymen Bertus
van Lier and Robert Heppener, are also part of her large repertoire. Ameling has won many coveted recording prizes. For her services to music the Dutch government made her Ridder in de Orde van Oranje Nassau (Knight in the Order of Orange-Nassau).
_^<N__^<N_Ella A. Malin _^<N__^<N_Discography: Brahms, Johannes, Lieder (Philips); Mozart, W. A., Complete Songs (Philips) and Concert Arias (Philips); Poulenc, Francis, Songs (Philips); Schubert, Franz, Songs (Philips) and Vocal Quartet (Deutsche
Grammophon). Collections: German Romantic Songs (Philips) and International Songs (Columbia).
-END-
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515
CAT
-A-
Amenemhet I, King of Egypt
-T-
Amenemhet I, King of Egypt_^<N__^<N_{ah-men-em'-het} _^<N__^<N_The Egyptian king Amenemhet I, d. 1962 BC, overthrew the Theban rulers of Egypt to found the 12th Dynasty about 1991 BC. He moved his capital from Thebes to central Egypt and built many
architectural monuments. A text has been found claiming to record his instructions to his son Sesostris I. The name also appears as Ammenemes. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hayes, William C., "The Middle Kingdom in Egypt," in J .B. Bury, et al., eds.,
Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 1, 2d ed. (1961).
-END-
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296
CAT
-A-
Amenhotep I, King of Egypt
-T-
Amenhotep I, King of Egypt_^<N__^<N_{ah-men-hoh'-tep} _^<N__^<N_Amenhotep I, king of Egypt from 1546 to 1526 BC, was the son of AHMOSE I, founder of the 18th Dynasty. Amenhotep undertook military campaigns in Libya and Nubia (now Sudan), extending
the boundaries of his empire. The name also appears as Amenophis.
-END-
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328
CAT
-A-
Amenhotep II, King of Egypt
-T-
Amenhotep II, King of Egypt_^<N__^<N_Amenhotep II, the 7th king of the 18th dynasty, ruled Egypt from 1450 to 1425 BC. He continued the military exploits of his father THUTMOSE III, particularly in Syria, where he crushed an uprising and demanded
oaths of loyalty from local rulers. His mummy was discovered in the Valley of the Kings.
-END-
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677
CAT
-A-
Amenhotep III, King of Egypt
-T-
Amenhotep III, King of Egypt_^<N__^<N_The 18th-dynasty king Amenhotep III ruled (1417-1379 BC) Egypt at the height of its power. His extensive diplomatic contacts with other Near Eastern states, especially Mitanni and Babylonia, are revealed in the
AMARNA tablets. Of the great temple he built near Thebes, only two statues, the so-called colossi of MEMNON, remain. Amenhotep's wife Tiye, a woman of humble birth, was prominently associated with him during his long and peaceful reign.
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hayes, William C., "Egypt: Internal Affairs from Tuthmosis I to the Death of Amenhotep III," in Edwards, C. S., et al., eds., The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 2, 2d ed. (1962).
-END-
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28
CAT
-A-
Amenhotep IV:
-T-
Amenhotep IV:_^<N__^<N_see AKHENATEN.
-END-
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1162
CAT
-A-
amenorrhea
-T-
amenorrhea_^<N__^<N_{ay-men-uh-ree'-uh} _^<N__^<N_Amenorrhea is the absence of MENSTRUATION in a mature human female. The disorder is referred to as primary in a person who has never menstruated and as secondary in a person who has menstruated.
Primary amenorrhea is most often caused by disorders of the ENDOCRINE SYSTEM that result in inadequate stimulation of the ovary by the female hormone estrogen. Other causes include female pseudohermaphroditism, in which case the person has ovaries
but possesses both male and female physical characteristics; malnutrition; and emotional trauma. _^<N__^<N_Secondary amenorrhea is most often caused by pregnancy and its aftermath, puerperium; MENOPAUSE; adrenal-gland disorders; medication with
synthetic male hormones called progestigens; malnutrition; emotional trauma; and polycystic ovaries. _^<N__^<N_The treatment of amenorrhea depends on the cause. Lack of ovulation is treated medically in most cases, but surgery may sometimes be
required. Determining the cause and correcting the disorder at an early stage are essential, because in some patients the cause may be a tumor; in others, prolonged lack of menstruation can lead to cancer of the uterus.
-END-
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428
CAT
-A-
America
-T-
America_^<N__^<N_The name America applies to either continent of the Western Hemisphere (North America or South America) or to all the land masses in that hemisphere, covering a total area of approximately 42,961,000 sq km (16,586,000 sq mi).
America is also used as an abbreviated form of the United States of America. It is named for the Italian navigator Amerigo VESPUCCI and was first used on a map in 1507 by Martin Waldseemuller.
-END-
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712
CAT
-A-
American, The
-T-
American, The_^<N__^<N_The American (1877), an early novel by Henry JAMES, contrasts rich, unsophisticated Christopher Newman, the American, with aristocratic Madame de Bellegarde and her villainous son. Newman persuades her passive daughter Claire
to marry him, but her family finds his money, though tempting, too tainted by commercialism. His Yankee directness and decency are no match for Old World matriarchies, duels, convents, and duplicities. The outcome, a thwarted romance, is hardly
tragic, however; James once noted that his hero and heroine "would have made an impossible couple." Because it depicts a clash in cultural values, The American is often considered the first "international novel." _^<N__^<N_Robert L. Gale
-END-
-C-
581
CAT
-A-
American Academy of Arts and Letters
-T-
American Academy of Arts and Letters_^<N__^<N_The American Academy of Arts and Letters, located in New York City, was created in 1904 as a subdivision of the National Institute of Arts and Letters to further the progress of American literature,
music, and the arts. Its membership, limited to 50 persons at any one time, has included such notables as Aaron Copland, Ralph Ellison, Lillian Hellman, and Georgia O'Keeffe. In 1976 the academy, which granted numerous awards and scholarships,
merged with its parent organization to become the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters.
-END-
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655
CAT
-A-
American Academy of Arts and Sciences
-T-
American Academy of Arts and Sciences_^<N__^<N_After John ADAMS's suggestion in 1779 that a Boston-based society be formed for the "cultivation and promotion of Arts and Sciences" similar to Philadelphia's AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, the
Massachusetts legislature passed an act in 1780 incorporating the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Today, approximately 2,300 elected fellows grouped in four specialty classes pursue the same broad purposes as their Revolutionary-era
predecessors. The academy also conducts interdisciplinary studies of current social and intellectual issues, which are reported in the quarterly journal Daedalus. _^<N__^<N_Jeffrey L. Sturchio
-END-
-C-
301
CAT
-A-
American Academy of Dramatic Art
-T-
American Academy of Dramatic Art_^<N__^<N_Founded in 1884 in New York City by Franklin Sargent as the Lyceum School of Acting, the American Academy of Dramatic Art adopted its name in 1888. The course of study is divided into two 6-month terms--the
first devoted to training, the second to public performances.
-END-
-C-
41647
CATO
4819
9646
14462
19264
24020
28880
33710
38563
-A-
American art and architecture
-O-
000000|American art and architecture
001116| AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE
001946| Colonial Buildings
002756| Post-Revolutionary Architecture
004791| Revival Styles
006667| Cast-Iron Architecture
009322| Skyscraper Architecture
011015| Modern Architecture
012926| Postwar Architecture
013940| AMERICAN SCULPTURE
014497| 19th-Century Sculptors
017436| 20th-Century Sculptors
019446| AMERICAN PAINTING
020391| 18th-Century American Painters
021843| American Romantic Painters
023800| American Landscape and Genre Paintings
026712| American Art After the Civil War
030090| American Impressionism
033565| Development of 20th-Century Painting
035093| The Armory Show
037114| Abstract Expressionism
-T-
American art and architecture_^<N__^<N_Two opposite forces have coexisted in American art since the establishment of the first colonies. On the one hand, American artists have been aware of their European cultural heritage and of continuing
innovation in Europe; on the other hand, they have had to adapt European forms to the exigencies of their native situation. This interaction between rival forces is hardly unique to American art--all art grows within a tradition--but what
distinguishes the American experience is the ambivalent attitudes brought to that tradition. To many of the early settlers, the ambivalence was clear, since so many of them were religious and political exiles. Yet despite the pressures of
conscience and conviction, the European traditions persisted in memory, so that the first American art and architecture were adaptations of European styles and modes, modified to suit the colonists' urgent needs in a new and often hostile world.
The conflict, aroused by traditions at once alienating and indispensable, has served as the underlying dynamic for the rise and progress of art and architecture in the United States. _^<N__^<N_ AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE_^<N__^<N_In a virgin land the
art form that developed most rapidly was the one for which the need was most pressing--ARCHITECTURE. The earliest extant buildings are the dwellings, meeting houses, and churches that made up the nuclei of the first colonial settlements in Virginia
and Massachusetts. The dwellings, simple in plan and elevation, like the Adam Thoroughgood House, Princess Anne County, Va. (1936-40), resembled English houses of the late medieval or TUDOR STYLE. The most innovative in design were New England
meeting houses, because the separatists sought to avoid any associations with the established church in England. These handsome buildings, such as the Old Ship Meeting House, Hingham, Mass. (1681), were either square or rectangular in plan and
served as the focal center for northern towns. _^<N__^<N_ Colonial Buildings_^<N__^<N_As the colonies flourished, more and more elaborate structures were required. By the end of the 17th century, most American public buildings were derived from
Sir Christopher WREN's designs for the rebuilding of London after the Great Fire in 1666. The best were the so-called Wren Building (1695-1702) of the College of William and Mary and the Governor's Palace (1706-20), both at WILLIAMSBURG, Va. To
stay the random growth of cities, the concept of URBAN PLANNING was introduced, beginning with Thomas Holme's grid plan of 1682 for Philadelphia, then second in population to London within the English-speaking world. By the middle of the 18th
century, architects were designing churches, mansions, and public buildings in the current English GEORGIAN STYLE, named for King George I. _^<N__^<N_ Post-Revolutionary Architecture_^<N__^<N_After the Revolutionary War, the first attempt to create
a style expressive of the new republic was made by Thomas JEFFERSON. He based the design of the new capitol building at Richmond, Va., on that of a Roman temple, the MAISON CARREE at Nimes, France. In so doing he laid down an American precedent
of modifying an ancient building style for modern use. The Virginia State Capitol (1785-96), both building and symbol, was meant to house the kind of government envisioned by Jefferson, and the Maison Carree became a paradigm for American public
structures. _^<N__^<N_Jefferson was influential in setting forth the style of monumental NEOCLASSICISM that supplanted Georgian architecture with its taint of monarchy and colonialism. Monumental neoclassicism came to represent the new political
and social entity that was the United States of America. Architects committed to neoclassicism designed not only the new CAPITOL OF THE UNITED STATES in Washington, first designed (1792) by William Thornton and Stephen Hallet, and other government
buildings, but also factories, schools, banks, railroad stations, and hospitals, modernized by the frequent use of materials such as iron, concrete, and glass. The English-born Benjamin LATROBE, who began his American employment working with
Jefferson on the Richmond Capitol, brought American neoclassicism to maturity. Latrobe invented new formal configurations for buildings as varied in function as the Bank of Pennsylvania (1798-1800) and the Centre Square Pump House (1800; both in
Philadelphia and both destroyed) and Baltimore's Roman Catholic Cathedral (1806-21). Chosen in 1815 to supervise the rebuilding of the Washington Capitol, gutted by fire during the WAR OF 1812, Latrobe set about producing a truly monumental
American architecture. In 1817 he procured the assistance of Charles BULFINCH, who had just completed Boston's Massachusetts General Hospital. Together the two men completed plans for the first major building phase of the Capitol. _^<N__^<N_
Revival Styles_^<N__^<N_Latrobe and Bulfinch were the preeminent architects in the neoclassical mode. The generation following preferred Greek over Roman forms and produced the GREEK REVIVAL. A principal contribution of this style was a
modification of the Greek prostyle temple for domestic and public buildings; the style's sphere of influence was rapidly extended north, south, and west. Major surviving examples are William STRICKLAND's Philadelphia Merchants' Exchange (1832-34)
and Alexander Jackson DAVIS's La Grange (Lafayette) Terrace (1832-36) in New York. Up to the 1850s classical revival styles led to a homogeneity in American architecture that was never to prevail again. _^<N__^<N_Yet even before 1810, American
architects, following the lead of their English contemporaries, had begun to introduce a rival style of the American scene--the GOTHIC REVIVAL. It is appropriate that this movement, which originated with the rise of ROMANTICISM in England, should
have been taken over in a country where romanticism constituted the first intellectual flowering after the nation's founding. Not surprisingly, the style lent itself most naturally to church architecture. Richard UPJOHN, a prolific ecclesiastical
architect, made his Trinity Church (1839-46) in New York the prototype for Gothic Revival churches. The style was also widely applied to college buildings, thus identifying those institutions with the prestigious English universities of Oxford and
Cambridge. _^<N__^<N_Before the Civil War other revival styles such as the Romanesque, the Egyptian, and the Italian villa style were introduced, but with less applicability. More widespread was the cottage architecture for the middle class
advocated by Andrew Jackson DOWNING. Moderate in price and well constructed, these Downing designs exploited the possibilities of wood both as construction material and as decoration. _^<N__^<N_ Cast-Iron Architecture_^<N__^<N_An important
development was the proliferation of industrial and commercial structures requiring extensive use of iron. At first engineers rather than architects were responsible for buildings that demanded advanced technical planning. Because cast- and
wrought-iron columns replaced heavier masonry construction, it became possible to construct a lighter skeleton, use prefabricated modules, and introduce more glass into the facade. James BOGARDUS, an inventor and manufacturer of machinery, is
generally credited with the development of CAST-IRON ARCHITECTURE, as demonstrated in his "Cast Iron Building" (Laing Stores; 1848) in New York. In his proposed plan for the Industrial Palace of the New York World's Fair (1853), also called the
New York Crystal Palace, and his Wanamaker Department Store in New York (c.1859; destroyed), he pushed this type of engineered building to the limits then possible. _^<N__^<N_After the financial crash of 1857 and the Civil War, both of which had
temporarily halted building construction, Americans gravitated to a style that demonstrably symbolized the nation's rapidly increasing wealth. Mansions and government and civic buildings were designed in the Second Empire style, promoted in France
by Napoleon III to bolster his imperial ambitions and exemplified by John McArthur's massive Philadelphia City Hall (1874-1901). Also of great importance was the extension of the Gothic Revival into its Victorian phase. This movement, inspired by
the writings of John RUSKIN, emphasized craft and permitted the manipulation of architectural detail to create bold new effects. Two great architects, Frank FURNESS and Henry Hobson RICHARDSON, emerged from Victorian Gothic; Furness created works
of idiosyncratic originality, while Richardson created a new vision within a revival style. _^<N__^<N_Richardson, the most independent and imaginative architect since Latrobe, attained prominence when he gave a new Romanesque form to Boston's
Trinity Church (1872-77). Besides churches, Richardson designed numerous residences, libraries, railroad stations, civic and commercial buildings, and even a prison, achieving models of their kind for each type. He favored the Romanesque because
he believed it expressed the pervasive energy and dynamism of the American scene. But it was his Marshall Field Wholesale Store (1885-87) in Chicago that was to prove seminal. Its rusticated masonry and multistoried arrangement of arches,
reminiscent of Romanesque and expressive of Richardson's sense of ordering masses on a large scale, would be applied by his successors in Chicago to problems of skyscraper design. _^<N__^<N_ Skyscraper Architecture_^<N__^<N_The skyscraper, defined
here as a tall commercial structure, is America's original contribution to the history of architecture. Commercial buildings of several stories, constructed during the 1850s in Philadelphia, anticipated the skyscraper. But before it could become a
reality, architects had to incorporate the elevator into the structure. This was done, beginning in the '50s in New York. Chicago, however, was the city where skyscraper design soon attained a kind of canonical perfection. _^<N__^<N_Since many of
the city's commercial buildings needed to be replaced after the great fire of 1871, Chicago served as an excellent testing ground for architects. Preeminent among them was Louis SULLIVAN. He and others working in teams evolved the glass cage that
became the hallmark of the CHICAGO SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE. William HOLABIRD and Martin Roche's Tacoma Building, Daniel H. BURNHAM and John Wellborn ROOT's Reliance Building, and Sullivan's Gage Building are outstanding examples of the progressive
stages in the skyscraper's development. _^<N__^<N_Yet just at the time that an architecture of originality and daring was emerging in Chicago, the New York firm of MCKIM, MEAD, AND WHITE successfully introduced a monumental Beaux-Arts style for
impressive public buildings such as the Boston Public Library (1887-98). This preference for revival styles continued well into the 20th century, with interesting variations. When, for instance, New York began its campaign to raise the world's
tallest buildings, their decorative systems were adapted to revival styles, culminating in the best-known Gothic skyscraper, Cass GILBERT's Woolworth Building (1913) in New York. _^<N__^<N_ Modern Architecture_^<N__^<N_Far more significant than
revival styles to MODERN ARCHITECTURE was, on the one hand, the unfolding of the brilliant indigenous talent of Frank Lloyd WRIGHT and, on the other, the infusion of European modernism through the work of the BAUHAUS architects Walter GROPIUS,
Marcel BREUER, and Ludwig MIES VAN DER ROHE, and the independent work of Eric MENDELSOHN and Eliel SAARINEN. Wright, who early in his career worked for Sullivan in Chicago, believed that the West and Midwest embodied the "real American spirit."
Acting on this belief, he designed the houses that were to win him international renown. His "prairie houses" were horizontal, often of one story, with rooms merging in a continuous open space. Wright was a man of fertile imagination; before his
long career ended, he designed buildings as various as the Imperial Hotel (1916-22; destroyed) in Tokyo; the Johnson Wax Company Building (1936-39) in Racine, Wis.; and New York's GUGGENHEIM MUSEUM (1956-59). _^<N__^<N_Wright branded as
"un-American" the plans and models of the European INTERNATIONAL STYLE of architecture exhibited at New York's MUSEUM OF MODERN ART in 1932, although European modernists had admired and borrowed from Wright's work. Furthermore, they had studied
such American technical achievements as the BROOKLYN BRIDGE of John A. ROEBLING, Ernest Ransome's ferroconcrete cage construction for modern factories, and the midwestern multistory cylindrical grain elevators. Despite some native resistance, from
the 1930s on the presence of European modernists was felt in America's urban and industrial culture. After Gropius was appointed chairman of architecture at Harvard University's Graduate School of Design in 1938, many young Americans were trained
in the ideas of the German Bauhaus. After the hiatus in building produced by World War II, the influences of Wright and European modernists were balanced. _^<N__^<N_ Postwar Architecture_^<N__^<N_In architecture the stark, boxy forms of European
modernism by way of the Bauhaus dominated American cityscapes in the building boom following World War II. Of special importance was the use of glass curtain-wall construction for the design of large skyscrapers and other buildings, as in the
United Nations complex, erected in 1947-53 under the supervision of LE CORBUSIER and Wallace K. HARRISON, and the SEAGRAM BUILDING (1956-59) of Ludwig MIES VAN DER ROHE and Philip JOHNSON. _^<N__^<N_By the mid-1970s, the reaction against the plain,
unadorned "glass box" of the International Style was well underway, carried forth by Michael GRAVES, Robert A. M. STERN, and Robert VENTURI, and others, as well as by Philip Johnson. These architects returned once again to the use of color and
decoration and revived such once-spurned architectural devices as the column. POSTMODERN ARCHITECTURE may have produced a few extreme statements, but the movement also brought American architecture a new vitality. _^<N__^<N_ AMERICAN
SCULPTURE_^<N__^<N_Of the three arts, SCULPTURE was the least appreciated in the United States until the 19th century. Expensive to produce because of the materials involved, sculpture seemed a form of conspicuous display and therefore wasteful
for a democracy. Also, in attempting the nude in order to follow the outstanding European exemplars, American sculptors tended to run afoul of native Puritan attitudes. Sculptors also employed allegorical symbolism inherited from European humanist
tradition, so that their work at first was little understood. _^<N__^<N_ 19th-Century Sculptors_^<N__^<N_The first sculptor of note was the Philadelphian William RUSH. He started as a carver of ship figureheads, and his freestanding statues,
characterized by an archaic vigor, were also executed in wood. Foreign sculptors, however, made a more favorable impression at the time. Foremost among them was Jean Antoine HOUDON, who traveled to the United States in 1785 to execute portrait
busts of famous Americans, in particular George Washington. Other sculptors, such as the Italians Giuseppe and Carlo Franzoni, Giovanni Andrei, and Luigi Persico, seized the opportunity to provide the marble statues required for the Capitol
Building, under construction in Washington in the early 19th century. _^<N__^<N_Aspiring young Americans, wishing to work in marble and finding no one to train them at home, soon began traveling to Italy. Horatio GREENOUGH was first in a flood tide
that, between 1825 and 1875, included Hiram POWERS, Thomas CRAWFORD, William Wetmore STORY, and Harriet HOSMER, the group Henry James dubbed the "white marmorean flock." Some never returned from Italy; they worked primarily in the neoclassical
style and depended on Italian stonecutters to translate their clay models into marble. It was the American-based John ROGERS, however--the modeler of statuettes, called Rogers Groups, in realistic, sentimental genre scenes--who first made
sculpture appeal to a wide public, primarily through his large mail-order operation. _^<N__^<N_After 1855 the center of study shifted to Paris, where American sculptors observed that the French, under the Second Empire, received extensive
government support. Wishing to create the same situation at home, they trained at the ECOLE DES BEAUX-ARTS, then joined forces with those American architects executing the grandiose commissions, both private and governmental, of the day. Augustus
SAINT-GAUDENS and Daniel Chester FRENCH were the major practitioners, working in a style infused with the academic eclecticism of the Beaux-Arts tradition. The sculpture and architecture of the WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION OF 1893 in Chicago
epitomized the Beaux-Arts phase in the United States and set the style for public monuments for almost 40 years. _^<N__^<N_Four sculptors forged visions independent of academic eclecticism. Frederic REMINGTON managed to express the raw energy of
the American West in his bronze figures of cavalry charges, cowboys, and barroom brawls. Gutzon BORGLUM, realizing a failed dream of Michelangelo's, took on a mountain when he cut the giant heads of four presidents into Mount Rushmore. To George
Gray Barnard, Americans owe a special debt, not only for his sculpture but also for his assembly of a superb collection of medieval sculpture now housed at The Cloisters in New York. Finally, William RIMMER, isolated and unappreciated,
nevertheless worked with authority and daring to produce sculpture more like Auguste Rodin's than any American contemporary. _^<N__^<N_ 20th-Century Sculptors_^<N__^<N_The Armory Show, exhibiting sculptures by Constantin Brancusi, Henri Matisse,
and Pablo Picasso, brought American sculpture into the 20th century. From the 1920s on, the presence in the United States of such renowned European artists as Elie NADELMAN, Max ERNST, Naum GABO, and Jacques Lipschitz, and the activities of the
Museum of Modern Art, further altered the course of American sculpture. _^<N__^<N_Taking a variety of approaches to both representational and nonrepresentational forms, American sculptors invented new ways to integrate form with space: John
FLANNAGAN invested animal and human shapes with a primal, dynamic energy; Joseph CORNELL created miniature fantasies by arranging subtly related small objects in boxes; Alexander CALDER gave the world a new sculptural form, the mobile; Louise
NEVELSON created large, freestanding forms that restructured the experience of space; and David SMITH conceived large metal sculpture for landscape and architectural sites. The visions of these sculptors, although different from one another,
combined to create a significant and influential body of works. After World War II, with the emergence of younger sculptors such as Isamu NOGUCHI, Louise BOURGEOIS, and Tony SMITH, sculpture in the United States became equal to the other arts.
_^<N__^<N_Post-minimalism--an outgrowth of the postwar MINIMAL ART movement that involved such sculptors as Tony Smith, Mark DI SUVERO, and Dan FLAVIN--took sculpture off its pedestal and reduced the work to its barest statement: a tangle of wire,
a strewing of old bones. The movement also introduced the installation, a notion completely antithetical to conventional sculpture. In an installation, the work must be set up by the artist before it can be viewed and therefore lasts only as long
as the exhibition itself. Contemporary installed sculptures use any material that be be hung from a wall or ceiling or laid or propped on a floor, and have come to include music and projected images as well. _^<N__^<N_ AMERICAN
PAINTING_^<N__^<N_As architecture flourished first because it was needed, so PORTRAITURE, which was also early in demand, emerged as the first American art of PAINTING. Religious painting was unpopular in a land settled by Protestant sects, and
LANDSCAPE, STILL LIFE, and GENRE PAINTING seemed too frivolous to the colonists. But images of the living, ancestor portraits to the next generation, testified to humankind's presence as a civilizing force on a wild continent. The first
portraitists, working in a primitive version of the English Tudor style, were called LIMNERS (from the Old French word euminer, "to illuminate"). Limners, largely self-taught, borrowed heavily from English engravings. By 1729, however, when the
Scotsman John SMIBERT brought over his casts, copies, and engravings to establish himself as a portraitist and teacher in Boston, American artists were becoming aware that their provincialism required correction. _^<N__^<N_ 18th-Century American
Painters_^<N__^<N_The next generation produced the first major native talent in Boston's John Singleton COPLEY. His portraits, stressing surface detail and the solidity of forms, are a vivid record of such important Revolutionary figures as Paul
Revere and other prominent Boston citizens. In 1774 Copley traveled to London for further academic training. His fellow American Benjamin WEST, who had made the pilgrimage 14 years earlier, took Copley into his studio. West and Copley represent
American painting coming of age; they also established a precedent for later generations of artists by immigrating to Europe. _^<N__^<N_West became painter to King George III, president of the Royal Academy, and host to American artists seeking
training and sympathetic support in a foreign city. West's portraits and his historical and religious paintings do not rank with the best of his English contemporaries, but as a catalyst among personalities West was outstanding, and his success
enhanced the role of the artist in the eyes of Americans. _^<N__^<N_The third artist to achieve distinction before the 19th century was Charles Willson Peale. A moving force among artists, he helped launch America's first official painting
exhibition in 1795 and was one of the founders of the nation's oldest museum, the PENNSYLVANIA ACADEMY OF THE FINE ARTS (1805) in Philadelphia. In addition, he fathered a dynasty of artists, both men and women (see PEALE family). _^<N__^<N_
American Romantic Painters_^<N__^<N_After the turn of the century, a greater range of painting types was produced. Copley's and West's success with history paintings executed in England encouraged John TRUMBULL and John VANDERLYN to essay history
paintings for an American audience. Neither succeeded in capturing the public's favor, but theirs was an ambitious failure, for they opened the field for other kinds of paintings besides portraiture. Raphaelle Peale, although unrecognized in his
lifetime, persisted in the face of economic hardship as a sensitive painter of still life. Back from Europe, Washington ALLSTON executed highly original landscape and figure compositions that revealed a genuinely romantic imagination.
_^<N__^<N_Portraits, however, continued to be the artist's mainstay. Artists of lesser ability fanned out to the edges of the frontier, accepting commissions wherever they could find them. Gilbert STUART and Thomas SULLY returned from England,
where they had learned to paint with a lighter, unblended stroke, to become the fashionable portraitists of their day. But the most frequently painted face was that of the pater patriae, George WASHINGTON. The demand for his image continued long
after his death, with Gilbert Stuart duplicating his Atheneum version (1796; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston) some 70 times and Rembrandt Peale turning out 79 "porthole" portraits of Washington (the head framed by a painted stone "porthole" or oval
window). _^<N__^<N_Not long after the turn of the century the artist-actor-entrepreneur William DUNLAP was sufficiently impressed with the whole artistic enterprise to calculate that the public would welcome a book on the subject. Like Giorgio
VASARI in the Renaissance, he collected anecdotes about dead artists, solicited biographies of the living, added his own critical comments, and in 1834 published America's first art history, the History of the Rise and Progress of the Arts of
Design in the United States. _^<N__^<N_ American Landscape and Genre Paintings_^<N__^<N_Two significant trends were just beginning when Dunlap's opus appeared, one in landscape painting, the other in genre painting. Landscape emerged as the
subject for expressing themes of symbolic importance in a culture where the land itself was equated with the life of the people. Thomas COLE conceived great multicanvas cycles, The Course of Empire (1836; New York Historical Society) and The
Voyage of Life (1840; Munson-Williams-Proctor Institute, Utica, N.Y.), which served as sermons in paint. By the 1820s a generation of painters was forming whose vision of grandiose scenes untouched by the incursions of civilization remains as a
record of a lost past. Asher B. DURAND, Thomas DOUGHTY, Frederic CHURCH, John KENSETT, Sanford Gifford, and Cole all painted in the eastern mountainous regions of the Catskills and along the Hudson River valley--hence their designation as the
HUDSON RIVER SCHOOL. Martin HEADE and Fitz Hugh LANE, in works now called Luminist, depicted haunting seascapes and scenes along the coastal waters and marshes. Other artists, notably Karl DODMER and George CATLIN, set out for the West to paint
the terrain and the rapidly vanishing world of the Indian. _^<N__^<N_Genre painting began to grow in popularity and importance by the 1830s. Scenes of Long Island and New England life were portrayed by William Sidney MOUNT and Eastman JOHNSON.
The folkways of the Midwest river towns, to which Mark Twain would later give literary form, were charmingly preserved in the paintings of George Caleb BINGHAM. _^<N__^<N_By the 1840s genre artists such as Johnson and Bingham, as well as those
aspiring to history painting, such as Emanuel LEUTZE, were traveling to Dusseldorf for further training. That small Prussian town was the home of the DUSSELDORF AKADEMIE, where artists received a thorough grounding in figure drawing and
composition. It was in Dusseldorf, after the Revolution of 1848, that Leutze posed German friends for what was to become an American national icon, Washington Crossing the Delaware (1851; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York). There too, in
1848, the promising young genre painter Richard Caton WOODVILLE painted War News from Mexico (National Academy of Design, New York), a scene concerning America's recent victory over the Mexicans. _^<N__^<N_Painting at midcentury reflected the life
of the people and received broad-based support. Genre and landscape paintings captured the rural, optimistic, and essentially innocent spirit of the times. Still lifes gave evidence of nature's bounty. Portrait commissions continued to abound,
although artists had to compete with a new form of portraiture in the DAGUERREOTYPE, the first form of PHOTOGRAPHY introduced into America in 1839-40. Well-to-do businessmen felt it their patriotic duty to patronize the arts, and the American Art
Union distributed paintings by lottery to a wide public. _^<N__^<N_ American Art After the Civil War_^<N__^<N_The Civil War, in art as in so many other areas of American life, constituted a watershed. At war's end the earlier vision of America as
the new Eden had faded. Life in the teeming cities, the struggle to survive in the business world, and the accumulation of wealth in the hands of a few were the overriding realities. From the vulgarity of post-Civil War America, artists chose
different avenues of escape. Some determined upon a period of expatriation. Others, principally Thomas EAKINS, Winslow HOMER, and Albert Pinkham RYDER, withdrew from the urban environment. Homer, who had provided illustrations of the Civil War
for Harper's Weekly Magazine, in the 1870s favored genre scenes of a rural life that was becoming anachronistic, as depicted in The Country School (1871; Art Museum, St. Louis, Mo.). In the 1880s he turned to painting scenes of the sea, and until
the end of his life he took as his leitmotiv the survival of humans against the elements, as in The Wreck (1896; Carnegie Institute, Pittsburg, Pa.). Ryder, an introverted recluse, delved into his imagination to give expression to human isolation
when he painted Moonlight Marine (1890-99; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York) and The Race Track (Death on a Pale Horse) (1890-1910; Museum of Art, Cleveland, Ohio). He also found inspiration in Norse mythology. Eakins, following three years
of training at the ECOLE DES BEAUX-ARTS, returned full of hope to his native Philadelphia. But the work he intended as his masterpiece, The Gross Clinic (1875; Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia, Pa.), shocked Philadelphians; his use of a
stripped male model for teaching life drawing to young ladies outraged them and led to his dismissal from the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. Following a nervous breakdown, he resumed painting, mostly introspective portraits of friends,
usually gratis. Although Homer had the support of collectors, particularly successful businessmen, Eakins and Ryder became typical of the alienated American artist who worked beyond the pale of public sympathy and private patronage. _^<N__^<N_From
the time of Benjamin West, artists had traveled to Europe, but by the 1870s they interacted to a greater extent with the main line of European innovation. The centers of study shifted from London and Dusseldorf to Paris and Munich. In Paris,
Americans became aware, after a time lag, of realism, the revolutionary departure of Gustave COURBET from the idealizing styles then in vogue. Courbet's REALISM was an attempt to get on canvas a truthful rendition of the commonly observable facts
of contemporary life. Courbet and Edouard MANET were the pioneers of realism; of the artists of the past, Diego VELAZQUEZ was the most admired. William Merritt CHASE and Frank DUVENECK, studying in Munich with the German realists, learned to
paint with a loaded brush and a dark palette. John Singer SARGENT, a student of the Parisian society portraitist Emile Auguste Carolus-Durand, achieved his own facile version of realism, sometimes with remarkable success, as in his Daughters of
Edward Darley Boit (1882; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston). Even so independent a temperament as William HARNETT, the trompe l'oeil (illusionist) painter of the oddments of American life, spent four years in Munich, where he refined his realist
technique. _^<N__^<N_ American Impressionism_^<N__^<N_IMPRESSIONISM, which can be understood as the logical end result of realism, also was taken up, after a time lag, by Americans. In 1866, Mary CASSATT arrived in Paris and was invited by Edgar
DEGAS to exhibit with the impressionist circle in 1877. She formed a close friendship with Degas, and although she never became his equal as an artist, in her chosen subjects--the mother and child, or women together--she managed subtle
observations. Other Americans, in Cassatt's wake, learned to master the new impressionism. Childe HASSAM, John TWACHTMAN, Julian Alden WEIR, and Sargent created works that are distinguished by a lighter palette and unblended strokes. American
impressionists differ from the French in their unwillingness to dissolve objects in light so radically. _^<N__^<N_Of the artists who chose a period of expatriation, James A. McNeil WHISTLER is the most significant. Whistler was the one American
cognizant of French avant-grade developments as they were occurring. Courbet befriended the younger artist and introduced him to his creed of realism. Whistler's The White Girl (1862; National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.) was rejected by
the same Paris salon that rejected Manet's Dejeuner sur l'herbe (1863; Louvre, Paris) for similar reasons. In time Whistler regretted the realist influence on his art and, like Sargent, Cassatt, and the French impressionists, turned to the
Japanese print as a source of inspiration. By the end of his career Whistler himself constituted an avant-garde, when he publicly propounded a theory of art for art's sake. The importance of Whistler was not recognized by Americans. Whistler
created that American national icon, Arrangement in Gray and Black No. 1, The Artist's Mother (Whistler's Mother; 1872; Louvre, Paris); the French understood the work's significance and bought it for the Louvre. As a consequence of his neglect,
Whistler repudiated his native culture. Asked why he never visited the United States, he explained "It has been suggested many times, but you see I find art so absolutely irritating to the people that really, I hesitate before exasperating another
nation." _^<N__^<N_Whistler's stance toward the public was, of course, exceptional. Most artists painted to please and never more so than when they eschewed innovation to conform to the conservative tastes of the wealthy. Landscape painting
continued in popularity, and two artists, Albert BIERSTADT and George INNESS, arrived at highly successful landscape formulas. Bierstadt's preferred subject was the West, which he portrayed on huge canvases concentrating on dramatic effects
rendered with careful attention to detail, typified by Mount Corcoran (1875-77; Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.). Inness's canvases were smaller and intimate in conception, with romantic, often tree-shrouded scenes painted as though
perceived through a veil, as in his Peace and Plenty (1865; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York). William Morris HUNT and John LA FARGE, both members of the upper middle class, achieved styles that romanticized a modified realism. Hunt, who
studied with Jean Francois MILLET, introduced the BARBIZON SCHOOL of painting to Americans; La Farge, after he was commissioned by Richardson to decorate the interior of Boston's Trinity Church, became the premier interior designer of his time,
receiving numerous commissions for church interiors, private houses, murals, and stained glass windows. _^<N__^<N_ Development of 20th-Century Painting_^<N__^<N_By the end of the 19th century, American collectors and a limited segment of the
population were catching up with the understanding by some American artists of advanced trends in European painting. Mary Cassatt served the Havemeyer family with prescience when she advised them to buy impressionist works. A few Americans became
early and enthusiastic patrons of artists then unappreciated by the French; thus American museums later were bequeathed important holdings of impressionist paintings. This was also the period, however, when Americans looked nostalgically to the
past. Magnates amassed collections of old-master paintings; the moneyed class and the general public were one in admiring the works of French academicians and their American counterparts. _^<N__^<N_In reaction to an art of and for the middle and
upper middle classes, a group of Philadelphia artists arose who chronicled the activities of the masses. Robert HENRI, George LUKS, John SLOAN, and William GLACKENS began as artists trained to provide illustrations for newspapers and magazines.
Henri was their leader, and his loosely brushed, dark realist style, as in Laughing Child (1907; Whitney Museum of American Art, New York), was emulated by the others. These artists, who became known as the ASHCAN SCHOOL, were the first group in
America to make trenchant social comments in their work. But their adherence to a realist style placed them, by the second decade of the 20th century, in the aesthetic rear guard. _^<N__^<N_ The Armory Show_^<N__^<N_Innovation continued to be a
European preserve. In 1913 examples of Europe's most advanced painting and sculpture were introduced to the public by the painter Arthur B. DAVIES, who organized a large exhibition of avant-garde European and American art at the 69th Regiment
Armory. This, the epochal ARMORY SHOW, brought the public and the artists abreast of European modernism on native ground. Not surprisingly, some resisted the show. One critic spoke for many when he said at a press dinner, "It was a good show,
but don't do it again." Nevertheless, American artists, among them Arthur DOVE, Marsden HARTLEY, John MARIN, Alfred MAURER, Georgia O'KEEFFE, and Max WEBER incorporated modernist innovations in their art. Even before the Armory Show, Alfred
STIEGLITZ had exhibited these artists, together with the European modernists, at his Photo-Secession Gallery in New York. Gertrude STEIN and her circle in Paris served as another conduit for the latest European art. Finally, five important
European modernist collections, those of Albert Barnes, John Quinn, the sisters Claribel and Etta Cone, Walter Arensberg, and Lillie P. Bliss, were formed. In the 1920s and 1930s the dual currents of SOCIAL REALISM and European modernism continued
to flow through American cultural life. After the onset of the Depression, private patronage for artists declined alarmingly, and the federal government assumed that role under the aegis of the WORKS PROGRESS ADMINISTRATION (WPA). Artists
frequently depicted subjects of social concern, often in the form of murals for public buildings, for which work of the Mexican muralists Jose OROZCO and Diego RIVERA often provided inspiration. Another infusion of European culture came about with
the appearance of works by the eminent European surrealists Andre BRETON, Marcel DUCHAMP, and Max ERNST. Finally, European modernism became institutionalized with the founding of the Museum of Modern Art (1929) and the Guggenheim Museum (1937),
both in New York. _^<N__^<N_ Abstract Expressionism_^<N__^<N_The fall of Paris in 1940, the late critic Harold ROSENBERG wrote, shut down the laboratory of the 20th century. When experimentation started up again it was in New York and among a
group of artists whose work has come to be known collectively as abstract expressionism: the painters Willem DE KOONING, Adolf GOTTLIEB, Franz KLINE, Robert MOTHERWELL, Jackson POLLOCK, Mark ROTHKO, and Clyfford STILL and the sculptor David SMITH.
During the Depression many of these artists had been employed by the WPA to paint in the social realist mode. But coming to maturity in the Depression, they had a sense that their survival as artists was always in doubt. Having nothing to lose,
they felt free to make radical departures from previous art. "The situation was so bad that I know I felt free to try anything no matter how absurd it seemed," Gottlieb remembered. The abstract expressionists painted for each other. Some
experimented with pure color, and others needed the promptings of their subconscious. Some of their nonobjective, abstract paintings were large enough to become actual environments. _^<N__^<N_Elements of abstract expressionism had appeared in
earlier paintings, and SURREALISM had made the content of the subconscious the content of its art. What made abstract expressionism distinctly American was the emphasis on the energetic large gesture essential to the creative process, and the
disdain for conventional notions of beauty. By the 1950s the abstract expressionists had forged a distinctive style; for the first time since Whistler, American artists had international impact. More significantly, they achieved a new order of
creation that was neither imitation nor assimilation of European art--it was a new synthesis. _^<N__^<N_Abstract expressionism has been succeeded by a number of disparate movements, of which only minimal art and PHOTOREALISM, a late 1960s movement,
can be labeled as born in America. The POP ART of the 1950s erupted simultaneously in the United States and Britain. OP ART, in the 1960s, and NEOEXPRESSIONISM of the late 1970s were both international in birth and practice. In the 1980s and
early 1990s, a wide-ranging eclecticism, and a mixing of the idioms and materials of painting and sculpture, have characterized the work of American painting. _^<N__^<N_Phoebe Lloyd _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ashton, Dore, American Art Since Nineteen
Forty-five (1982); Auping, Michael, Abstract Expressionism (1987); Avery, Kevin, et al., eds., American Paradise: The World of the Hudson River School (1987); Baker, Kenneth, Minimalism (1988); Blumenson, J.C., Identifying American
Architecture: A Pictorial Guide to Styles and Terms, 1600-1945, rev. ed. (1990); Brown, Milton W., American Art to 1900: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture (1977) and American Painting from the Armory Show to the Depression (1955); Craven,
Wayne, Sculpture in America, 2d ed. (1984); Dunlap, William, A History of the Rise and Progress of the Arts of Design in the United States, 3 vols., rev. ed. (1965); Fitch, James Marston, American Building: The Historical Forces That Shaped
It, 2d ed. (1966), rev. and enlarged (1973); Gerdts, William, and Burke, Russell, American Still-Life Painting (1971); Green, Samuel M., American Art: An Historical Survey (1966); Handlin, David, American Architecture: A Critical History
(1985); Harris, Neil, The Artist in American Society: The Formative Years, 1790-1860 (1966; repr. 1982); Hitchcock, Henry-Russell, Architecture, Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (1958); Hunt, W.D., Jr., American Architecture: A Field Guide
to the Most Important Examples (1984); Kingsley, April, The Turning Point: The Abstract Expressionists and the Transformation of American Art (1992); Larkin, Oliver W., Art and Life in America, rev. and enlarged ed. (1960); McCoubrey, John
W., American Tradition in Painting (1963); Mendelowitz, Daniel M., A History of American Art, 2d ed. (1970); Nochlin, Linda, Realism (1971); Novak, B., American Painting of the Nineteenth Century (1969); Prown, J. D., American Painting: From
the Colonial Period to the Armory Show, vol. 1 (1987); Rose, Barbara, Readings in American Art 1900-1975 (1975); Sandler, Irving, American Art of the 1960's (1988); Scully, Vincent, Jr., American Architecture Urbanism, rev. ed. (1988);
Whiffen, M., and Koeper, F., American Architecture, 2 vols. (1983); Wilmerding, John, American Art (1976; repr. 1982); Wolfe, Tom, From Bauhaus to Our House (1981).
-END-
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697
CAT
-A-
American Association for the Advancement of Science
-T-
American Association for the Advancement of Science_^<N__^<N_Today the largest scientific organization representing all fields of science, the American Association for the Advancement of Science was founded in 1848 to further the work of scientists
and to foster scientific freedom and responsibility. Its headquarters is in Washington, D.C. With a membership of over 130,000 individuals and more than 290 scientific societies, the association promotes a range of scientific and educational
programs. It publishes the weekly magazine Science and--beginning in 1992--to speed news of successful new drugs and treatments, the first electronic medical journal, The Online Journal of Current Clinical Trials.
-END-
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450
CAT
-A-
American Association of Community and Junior Colleges
-T-
American Association of Community and Junior Colleges_^<N__^<N_Founded in 1920, the American Association of Community and Junior Colleges coordinates programs for persons interested in the growth, practice, and acceptance of community-college
education. Study programs are available in community, paralegal, and occupational education, and educational opportunities are provided for armed-forces personnel and veterans. Its headquarters is in Washington, D.C.
-END-
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304
CAT
-A-
American Association for Higher Education
-T-
American Association for Higher Education_^<N__^<N_The American Association for Higher Education was founded in 1870 to sponsor conferences, publications, and research projects about issues concerning higher education. Its headquarters is in
Washington, D.C. It publishes several bulletins and occasional reports.
-END-
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605
CAT
-A-
American Association of Retired Persons
-T-
American Association of Retired Persons_^<N__^<N_Founded in 1958, with headquarters in Washington, D.C., the American Association of Retired Persons (AARP) strives to improve all aspects of living for older persons. Eligible for membership is anyone
50 years of age or older, retired or not. The AARP lobbies for political goals and sponsors community-service programs such as crime prevention, defensive driving, and tax aid. The organization provides a group health insurance program and offers
discounts on various other services. In 1982 the National Retired Teachers Association became a division of the AARP.
-END-
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583
CAT
-A-
American Association of University Professors
-T-
American Association of University Professors_^<N__^<N_The American Association of University Professors, founded in 1915, is the professional organization of college and university teachers. Its headquarters is in Washington, D.C. The AAUP
Statement on Academic Freedom and Tenure has served in the United States as the established definition of what is meant by academic freedom. The organization investigates claims of egregious violations of freedom and maintains a list of censured
administrations. It has promoted job security, economic welfare, and intellectual freedom for professors.
-END-
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483
CAT
-A-
American Association of University Women
-T-
American Association of University Women_^<N__^<N_Established in 1881 in Boston, the American Association of University Women (AAUW) is a national organization of women graduates of regionally accredited colleges. The AAUW has worked for women's
suffrage, equality in pay, the election and appointment of women to public office, and equality and justice for women in all areas. Fellowships are granted for undergraduate and graduate work as well as for dissertation and postdoctoral research.
-END-
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488
CAT
-A-
American Astronomical Society
-T-
American Astronomical Society_^<N__^<N_The American Astronomical Society was founded in 1899 by Simon NEWCOMB to encourage the advancement of astronomy and closely related branches of science. Its headquarters is in Washington, D.C. The society has
specialized divisions in high energy astrophysics, solar physics, planetary sciences, dynamical astronomy, and historical astronomy. It publishes the semimonthly Astrophysical Journal and the quarterly Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society.
-END-
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505
CAT
-A-
American Automobile Association
-T-
American Automobile Association_^<N__^<N_The American Automobile Association (AAA) was founded in 1902 to coordinate the activities of various local organizations of motorists. It has become a federation of local automobile clubs, with all states
represented and a combined membership of about 34 million. Its headquarters is in Heathrow, Fla. The AAA promotes highway improvement and traffic safety and supplies travel information and assistance, insurance, and emergency road service for its
members. _^<N__^<N_John B. Rae
-END-
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1982
CAT
-A-
American Ballet Theatre
-T-
American Ballet Theatre_^<N__^<N_American Ballet Theatre (ABT) is one of the two classical ballet companies in the United States to have achieved worldwide renown, the other being New York City Ballet. ABT, which first performed in 1940--as Ballet
Theatre, its present name dating from 1957--was founded by Richard Pleasant and Lucia CHASE. Chase, the company's chief financial support and codirector, with scenic designer Oliver Smith, for more than 25 years, retired in 1980. She and Smith were
replaced by Mikhail BARYSHNIKOV, who resigned in 1989. Jane Hermann and Oliver Smith were codirectors of the company from 1990 to 1992, when Kevin McKenzie, a former ABT principal dancer, became artistic director. _^<N__^<N_From the beginning the
company has been a showcase for visiting artists, including distinguished choreographers as well as star dancers. The choreographer Antony TUDOR and the dancers Nora Kaye and John Kriza had long associations with ABT, but their loyalty was
exceptional. Consequently, the character of the company has remained both eclectic and unstable. Many of the outstanding original ballets in ABT's repertoire were created from 1942 to 1947: Tudor's Pillar of Fire (1942) and Romeo and Juliet (1943),
Jerome Robbins's Fancy Free (1944), and George Balanchine's Theme and Variations (1947). Beginning in the mid- 1960s the company focused on evening-length classics: La Sylphide (1965), Swan Lake (1967), Giselle (1968), Coppelia (1968), The Sleeping
Beauty (1976), and Cinderella (1984). Exceptions to this trend were Push Comes to Shove (1976) by Twyla Tharp and other ABT premieres by Clark Tippet and Mark Morris. Among notable dancers who have appeared with ABT are Alicia Alonso, Erik Bruhn,
Fernando Bujones, Anton Dolin, Carla Fracci, Cynthia Gregory, Gelsey Kirkland, Natalia Makarova, and Rudolf Nureyev. _^<N__^<N_Dale Harris _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Barnes, Clive, Inside American Ballet Theatre (1977; repr. 1983); Fraser, John, and
Arnold, Eve, Private View (1988; repr. 1992).
-END-
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675
CAT
-A-
American Bankers Association
-T-
American Bankers Association_^<N__^<N_Founded in 1875, the American Bankers Association, in Washington, D.C., endeavors to promote commercial banks as "preeminent providers of financial services. . . . " Through its commercial banks and trust
companies, the association serves as a spokesperson for the industry, disseminating to bankers the latest information on activities in their field. It publishes several journals and bulletins, conducts educational and training programs for bankers
and bank employees through 17 schools of banking and the American Institute of Banking, and sponsors symposia and conferences. Its membership includes about 95 percent of U.S. commercial banks.
-END-
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769
CAT
-A-
American Bar Association
-T-
American Bar Association_^<N__^<N_The American Bar Association (ABA), founded in 1878, is the largest professional association of U.S. lawyers, with members from all states. Along with promoting social and professional activities, the ABA helps to
maintain high standards within the legal profession. The ABA also seeks to improve the practice of law and the administration of justice. _^<N__^<N_The association has been influential in securing uniform laws and judicial decisions throughout the
50 states and in evaluating candidates for judicial posts. Much of its work is accomplished by its numerous committees on the legal aspects of a broad range of subjects such as legal education and maritime activity. The ABA has its headquarters in
Chicago, where it publishes the ABA Journal.
-END-
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47
CAT
-A-
American Book Awards:
-T-
American Book Awards:_^<N__^<N_see NATIONAL BOOK AWARDS.
-END-
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71
CAT
-A-
American Broadcasting Companies:
-T-
American Broadcasting Companies:_^<N__^<N_see RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING.
-END-
-C-
410
CAT
-A-
American Cancer Society
-T-
American Cancer Society_^<N__^<N_The American Cancer Society, founded in 1913, is a national voluntary agency of physicians and laypersons. It awards grants for cancer research, provides information to the public about detection, treatment, and
prevention of cancer, and provides special services to cancer patients. It raises millions of dollars through its public fund drives. It is headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia.
-END-
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369
CAT
-A-
American Chemical Society
-T-
American Chemical Society_^<N__^<N_The American Chemical Society, established in New York City in April 1876, is an educational and professional society for chemists and chemical engineers. With over 110,000 members, the ACS sponsors numerous
activities designed to foster the cultivation and diffusion of chemical knowledge in all areas of American society. _^<N__^<N_Jeffrey L. Sturchio
-END-
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1833
CAT
-A-
American Civil Liberties Union
-T-
American Civil Liberties Union_^<N__^<N_The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) is an organization dedicated to the protection of constitutional rights and liberties in the United States. It was founded in 1920 by a group of civil libertarians
including Jane Addams, Helen Keller, Norman Thomas, Morris Hillquit, and Roger Baldwin, who served as its executive director for 30 years. _^<N__^<N_The ACLU operates by providing legal counsel in cases involving civil liberties. It has been active
in cases relating to academic freedom, separation of church and state, the right to privacy, due process of law, freedom of speech, other freedoms guaranteed in the Bill of Rights, electoral reapportionment, and desegregation. It has opposed
capital punishment, censorship, and loyalty oaths. Many important civil rights or liberties cases arising in the United States since 1920 have involved the ACLU, either directly or through the filing of an amicus curiae brief. In addition to
engaging in litigation, the ACLU issues public statements, presents testimony before legislative committees, conducts educational programs, and publishes pamphlets and a monthly newspaper. _^<N__^<N_In its mission the ACLU has stirred
controversy--supporting unpopular causes (the right of American Nazis to demonstrate) or assailing widely accepted practices (municipally financed nativity scenes). _^<N__^<N_Rita J. Immerman _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Donohue, William A., The
Politics of the American Civil Liberties Union (1985); Gibson, J. L., and Bingham, R. D., Civil Liberties and Nazis (1985); Habenstreit, Barbara, Eternal Vigilance: The American Civil Liberties Union in Action (1971); Lamson, Peggy, Roger Baldwin,
Founder of the American Civil Liberties Union (1976); McIlhany, W. H., The ACLU on Trial (1976); Walker, Samuel E., In Defense of American Liberties: A History of the ACLU (1990).
-END-
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1009
CAT
-A-
American Colonization Society
-T-
American Colonization Society_^<N__^<N_The American Colonization Society, organized on Dec. 28, 1816, sought to settle free American blacks in Africa. In 1822 it established the colony of Liberia, to which 2,638 blacks migrated during the next
decade. The society won support from many clergy as well as from some leading free blacks who believed that blacks would never receive just treatment in America. Most free blacks, however, opposed the scheme because they believed that its promoters
were primarily interested in removing the threat posed to the institution of slavery by the presence of free blacks. They were also repelled by the society's racist arguments, which characterized them as an inferior, degraded class that should be
removed from the United States. The society continued its efforts into the 20th century, although it was never successful in convincing large numbers of blacks to emigrate to Africa. _^<N__^<N_Ronald L. Lewis _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Staudenraus,
Philip J., The African Colonization Movement (1961).
-END-
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470
CAT
-A-
American Council on Education
-T-
American Council on Education_^<N__^<N_The American Council on Education was founded in 1918 to coordinate the activities of U.S. postsecondary educational associations and institutions. It now has 1,790 member institutions. The headquarters is in
Washington, D.C. The council publishes a weekly bulletin and quarterly reports and is concerned with the development of leaders for educational institutions, support of education, and international communication among educators.
-END-
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477
CAT
-A-
American Council of Learned Societies
-T-
American Council of Learned Societies_^<N__^<N_The American Council of Learned Societies was founded in 1919 to promote research in humanistic studies. Its headquarters is in New York City. Comprising 52 national scholarly organizations in the
humanities and social sciences, it offers fellowships and grants for study and research and represents American scholars in the humanities at national and international meetings. It also promotes American studies and area studies programs.
-END-
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736
CAT
-A-
American Dance Festival
-T-
American Dance Festival_^<N__^<N_The American Dance Festival was founded in 1934 at Bennington College in Vermont as a school, a summer residence for modern-dance choreographers and their companies, and a performing outlet for new dances. Since its
inception the festival has presented premieres of several hundred American dances, some of them masterpieces, and its faculty over the years has included almost every important modern dancer. The festival was discontinued in 1942 because of World
War II, then reestablished at Connecticut College in 1948. In 1978 it was moved to Duke University in North Carolina where its scope was internationally expanded. _^<N__^<N_Robert J. Pierce _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Anderson, Jack, The American
Dance Festival (1987).
-END-
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506
CAT
-A-
American Dental Association
-T-
American Dental Association_^<N__^<N_The American Dental Association (ADA) is the major professional society of dentists in the United States. It was founded in 1859 to represent the dental profession, promote the art and science of dentistry, and
encourage public health. The association's headquarters is in Chicago. Fully privileged membership is restricted to licensed dentists who hold a doctorate or equivalent degree and who observe the association's principles of ethics. Membership in
1990 was 140,000.
-END-
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610
CAT
-A-
American Dream, An
-T-
American Dream, An_^<N__^<N_Norman MAILER's fourth full-length novel, An American Dream (1965), is considered a comic masterpiece by some critics; others are repelled by its perverse sexuality and obsession with violence. Through the experiences of
the hero, Stephen Rojack, Mailer explores sex, violence, and death in the United States, but any realism is quickly undercut by the author's powerful displays of fantasy and verbal magic. Mailer exploits cliches of a national ideal and archetypes
of the American hero in order to create a parodic and highly controversial allegory of contemporary life. _^<N__^<N_Eric J. Sundquist
-END-
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506
CAT
-A-
American Educational Theatre Association
-T-
American Educational Theatre Association_^<N__^<N_The American Theatre Association, so named since 1972, was founded in 1936 as the American Educational Theatre Association to promote educational theater programs in the United States. It develops
materials for use by children's, school, and community theaters; promotes touring groups, theater for the armed forces, and educational radio and television; and maintains a placement service for teachers and students of drama. The ATA is now based
in Washington, D.C.
-END-
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39
CAT
-A-
American English:
-T-
American English:_^<N__^<N_see ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
-END-
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502
CAT
-A-
American Enterprise Institute
-T-
American Enterprise Institute_^<N__^<N_The American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research (AEI) is a conservative although nonpartisan think tank that conducts and sponsors programs in economic, political, and social policy planning.
Founded in 1943 with headquarters in Washington, D. C., it is supported by corporations, foundations, and private individuals and overseen by scholars and an academic advisory board. It publishes the monthly Economist, bimonthly Pubic Opinion, and
occasional books.
-END-
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1368
CAT
-A-
American Farm Bureau Federation
-T-
American Farm Bureau Federation_^<N__^<N_The American Farm Bureau Federation is a federation of county farm organizations founded in 1919 to "promote, protect and represent the business, economic, social, and educational interests of the farmers of
the nation." It had about 3.3 million members in 1990. The federation developed from local farm bureaus formed in conjunction with the county agricultural agent plan. Farm Bureau agents, many of whom were employed by the Agricultural Extension
Service, had the task of demonstrating improved farming methods to farmers. Their efforts led to the growth of county farm bureaus. The first state federation of county farm bureaus was set up in Missouri in 1915; in 1920 the new national
organization opened an office in Washington, D.C., to lobby for the passage of legislation favorable to the federation. _^<N__^<N_The federation's policies have tended to be conservative. Leaders have favored flexible price supports and a minimum
of government interference and control. They have promoted soil and water conservation, rural electrification and roads, and rural education. For many years the federation has been prominent in urging the development of farmer cooperatives.
Membership is on a family basis. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Campbell, C., The Farm Bureau and the New Deal (1962); McConnell, G., The Decline of Agrarian Democracy (1969).
-END-
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74
CAT
-A-
American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Org.:
-T-
American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Org.:_^<N__^<N_see AFL-CIO.
-END-
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1091
CAT
-A-
American Federation of Musicians
-T-
American Federation of Musicians_^<N__^<N_The American Federation of Musicians (AFM) is a labor union of performing and recording musicians, affiliated with the American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations. It was founded
in 1896. Through much of its history the AFM has been faced with competition from other media that threatened its members' livelihood--from military bands and amateur musicians to radio broadcasting and the phonograph. The passing of vaudeville
and of silent movies, with their live-music accompaniment, put many theater musicians out of work. Under James C. Petrillo, its president from 1940 to 1958, the union tried to force radio stations to hire standby musicians when they used recorded
music, but was unsuccessful. Major strikes in 1944 and 1948 resulted in contracts with the film and record industries that allowed the union to collect royalties on recordings made by its members. In 1986 the AFM reported approximately 230,000
members in 530 local unions. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Leiter, Robert D., The Musicians and Petrillo (1953; repr. 1975).
-END-
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993
CAT
-A-
American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees
-T-
American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees_^<N__^<N_The American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees (AFSCME) is a labor union representing local and state government workers, as well as clerical workers in some
private institutions. Founded in 1936, it is affiliated with the AFL-CIO. Public-employee associations were formed in several states in the early 20th century. The Wisconsin State Administrative Employees Association was a forerunner of the
present union. It faced jurisdictional competition, however, from the American Federation of Government Employees. When the AFL granted the AFSCME its charter in 1936, the rivalry ended. The union experienced rapid growth after World War II, in a
period when other unions either stopped growing or lost members. It has worked to repeal state laws that restrict collective bargaining and prohibit strikes by government employees. In 1986 the AFSCME had approximately 1,200,000 members in 3,000
local unions.
-END-
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587
CAT
-A-
American Federation of Teachers
-T-
American Federation of Teachers_^<N__^<N_The American Federation of Teachers (AFT) is a teachers' union within the AFL-CIO. Founded in 1916 with the aid of the philosopher John Dewey, its headquarters are in Washington, D.C. It grew slowly at
first, with only 60,000 members in 1960. Growth accelerated in 1961 after an affiliate became the bargaining agent for New York City public school teachers. In the mid-1980s the union had 2,200 locals and approximately 610,000 members. The AFT
integrated its Southern locals in 1956, and in the late 1960s began organizing among college professors.
-END-
-C-
391
CAT
-A-
American Film Institute
-T-
American Film Institute_^<N__^<N_Founded in 1967 with combined federal and private support, the American Film Institute, located in Washington, D.C., attempts to collect and document, in collaboration with the Library of Congress, every film made in
America since 1893. It also supports young filmmakers. The institute's annual Life Achievement Award, honoring film greats, was established in 1973.
-END-
-C-
1091
CAT
-A-
American foxhound
-T-
American foxhound_^<N__^<N_The American foxhound is a medium-sized, short-coated breed of hound that stands 55-63 cm (21-25 in) at the shoulder and weighs 27-32 kg (60-70 lb). Its coat is usually black and tan on a white body, but any color is
permitted in breed contests. The breed is one of the rarest in the United States; only a few dozen are registered annually with the American Kennel Club. However, it is believed that large numbers of unregistered dogs are maintained in fox-hunting
packs. _^<N__^<N_The American breed has a distinguished history and can be traced to packs imported from England, France, and Ireland. The earliest known pack was brought to Maryland in 1650. These early imports were used to hunt the gray fox, but
to cope with the faster English red fox--introduced to the colonies in the early 1700s--American foxhounds were interbred with other hound strains imported from France and Ireland. George Washington was among the importers. _^<N__^<N_John
Mandeville _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hart, Ernest H., How to Raise and Train an American Foxhound (1967); Moore, Daphne, The Book of the Foxhound (1974).
-END-
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813
CAT
-A-
American Friends Service Committee
-T-
American Friends Service Committee_^<N__^<N_The American Friends Service Committee, a Quaker organization for social service, was formed in 1917 principally to carry out relief programs in war-ravaged areas of Europe and to arrange for its members
and other CONSCIENTIOUS OBJECTORS to replace their required military service with alternative contributions. Since World War I, the committee has participated in national and international humanitarian programs of all kinds and was particularly
active during the Korean and Vietnam wars. In 1947 it shared the Nobel Peace Prize with its English counterpart, the Service Council of the British Society of Friends. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Weisbord, Marion, Some Form of Peace: The Story of the
American Friends Service Committee at Home and Abroad (1966). _^<N__^<N_See also: FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF.
-END-
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1589
CAT
-A-
American Fur Company
-T-
American Fur Company_^<N__^<N_At the peak of its influence in the early 19th century, the American Fur Company was the wealthiest fur-trading firm in the United States. It contributed to the economic development of the West, and the MOUNTAIN MEN it
employed made important contributions to western exploration. Formed in 1808 by the German immigrant John Jacob Astor (see ASTOR family), the company founded the trading post of Astoria at the mouth of the Columbia River in 1811, and Astor's
employees developed an overland route to the Pacific. _^<N__^<N_Astor was forced to sell Astoria to the NORTH WEST COMPANY of Canada during the War of 1812. He then concentrated on the upper Mississippi River valley until the 1820s when he bought
out competitors, allied himself with the Columbia Fur Company, and directed his immense resources farther west. _^<N__^<N_Soon after founding Fort McKenzie among the Blackfoot Indians on the upper Missouri River, the company dominated the region
and then began a bitter competition with the Rocky Mountain Fur Company farther south. Astor sold out his interest in 1834. Within a few years much of the region's furs had been depleted. His successors operated mainly from trading posts on the
Great Plains until the American Fur Company sold out to the North Western Fur Company in 1864. _^<N__^<N_Elliott West _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Chittenden, Hiram M., The American Fur Trade of the Far West (1902; repr., 3 vols. 1986); Franchere,
Gabriel, Adventures at Astoria, Eighteen Ten to Eighteen Fourteen, trans. by Hoyt C. Franchere (1967); Lavender, David, The First in the Wilderness (1964).
-END-
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444
CAT
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American Geophysical Union
-T-
American Geophysical Union_^<N__^<N_The American Geophysical Union (AGU) was established in 1919 by the National Research Council as the U.S. National Committee for the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics. Today the 19,000-member AGU
promotes research in geodesy, geophysics, and related areas through a program of visiting scholars, professional prizes, and research journals such as the Journal of Geophysical Research. _^<N__^<N_Jeffrey L. Sturchio
-END-
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543
CAT
-A-
American Heart Association
-T-
American Heart Association_^<N__^<N_The American Heart Association (AHA) is a charitable organization established in 1924 to combat diseases of the heart and blood vessels, which are the leading causes of death in the United States. _^<N__^<N_The
association supports scientific investigations with research grants, promotes detection programs to identify persons who are at risk, and conducts educational programs for medical professionals and for the general public. The AHA is financed
entirely by contributions, obtained mainly through its Heart Fund drives.
-END-
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333
CAT
-A-
American Historical Association
-T-
American Historical Association_^<N__^<N_The American Historical Association, founded in 1884, is a society of approximately 13,000 academic historians and others interested in historical studies. The association holds an annual convention and
publishes the American Historical Review, a journal that contains scholarly articles and reviews.
-END-
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52
CAT
-A-
American history:
-T-
American history:_^<N__^<N_see UNITED STATES, HISTORY OF THE.
-END-
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1943
CAT
-A-
American Independent party
-T-
American Independent party_^<N__^<N_The American Independent party nominated George WALLACE as a third major candidate for president of the United States in 1968. Wallace, nationally known for his racist positions and anti-integration activities as
governor of Alabama, had widespread and enthusiastic support from white lower-middle-class voters in his presidential bid. _^<N__^<N_Wallace ran a populist campaign, proclaiming the superiority of the average man over the experts and intellectuals
and stressing states' rights, increased defense spending, Americanism, support for law enforcement agencies at all government levels, and decreased federal expenditures for many domestic programs. The party candidate for vice-president was the
retired Air Force general Curtis E. LeMay, who was personally selected by Wallace. _^<N__^<N_The American Independent party did not expect to win the election. It did hope, however, to get enough votes in the ELECTORAL COLLEGE to require one of
the major parties to make concessions to it in return for support. The party polled 9.9 million votes, or about 13.5 percent of the popular vote--the highest vote ever received by a third party--and won 45 electoral votes from Alabama, Arkansas,
Georgia, Louisiana, and Mississippi. This was not enough, however, to achieve the hoped-for deadlock in the electoral college, and the party thereafter lost momentum. _^<N__^<N_In 1969, Wallace supporters reorganized as the American party. In
1972, however, after Wallace ruled out a third-party race, John G. Schmitz ran for president, winning 1% of the popular vote. The party split in 1976; in 1980 it presented no political candidates. _^<N__^<N_Rita J. Immerman
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Canfield, J., A Case of Third Party Activism (1983); Mazmanian, D. A., Third Parties in Presidential Elections (1974); Schlesinger, Arthur Jr., ed., A History of U.S. Political Parties, 4 vols. (1973); White, Theodore
H., The Making of the President, 1968 (1969).
-END-
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1917
CAT
-A-
American Indian Movement
-T-
American Indian Movement_^<N__^<N_The American Indian Movement (AIM) is an activist Indian group concerned with the civil rights of American Indians. It was formed in 1968 in Minneapolis, Minn. The names of the actual founders of the organization
remain unknown, but Dennis Banks, Clyde Bellecourt, and George Miller (Ojibwa Indians) were prominent in its formation. The group was initially organized to deal with discriminatory practices of the police in the arrest of Indians in Minneapolis
and St. Paul. The appeal of the social movement quickly spread to other urban areas in the United States and Canada, where chapters of AIM were formed. In November 1972, AIM was instrumental in the week-long occupation by Indians of the Bureau of
Indian Affairs building in Washington, D.C. Early in 1973 the group's 10-week takeover of WOUNDED KNEE, an Oglala Sioux hamlet on the Pine Ridge reservation in South Dakota, attracted worldwide attention. Although largely an urban phenomenon that
arose in response to racist attitudes in urban ghettos, AIM has also become involved in tribal affairs on Indian reservations, where some chapters now operate. Many tribal peoples disclaim affiliation with the movement, which has been accused of
provoking confrontation and of usurping funds from church groups in its demands for reparations. AIM has established "survival schools" in urban areas. It has also sponsored international treaty conferences on several Lakota Sioux reservations,
resulting in the 1977 International Treaty Conference with the United Nations in Geneva, Switzerland. In addition to being a social activist movement, the group claims to be oriented toward native religion. Members are not considered bona fide
until they have participated in the SUN DANCE ritual on the Pine Ridge reservation, and AIM is often cited as a spiritual movement. AIM reported a membership of about 5,000 in the late 1980s. _^<N__^<N_Bea Medicine
-END-
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54
CAT
-A-
American Indian schools:
-T-
American Indian schools:_^<N__^<N_see INDIAN SCHOOLS, AMERICAN.
-END-
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40
CAT
-A-
American Indians:
-T-
American Indians:_^<N__^<N_see INDIANS, AMERICAN.
-END-
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529
CAT
-A-
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
-T-
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics_^<N__^<N_The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) is the main professional organization of aerospace engineers, scientists, and managers in the United States. It is the U.S.
representative to the International Astronautical Federation and publishes several technical journals. Formed in 1963 by the merger of the American Rocket Society and the Institute of Aerospace Sciences, the AIAA has 37,000 members. The
headquarters is located in New York City. DAVID DOOLING
-END-
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970
CAT
-A-
American Institute of Architects
-T-
American Institute of Architects_^<N__^<N_The American Institute of Architects (AIA) was founded in New York in 1857 as a club where architects could discuss the profession in a genteel atmosphere. Since 1898 the AIA has had its headquarters in
Washington, D.C. For many years it was housed in the Octagon, a historic building (1798-1800) designed by William Thornton, a doctor turned architect. The Octagon had served as a temporary WHITE HOUSE for James and Dolly MADISON in the winter of
1814-15. In 1973 the AIA moved to a new building designed by The Architects Collaborative. _^<N__^<N_The AIA, as a policy-making body, exists "to serve the needs of, and improve the capability of, the nation's architects and to be of service to the
safety and welfare of the public." The institute sponsors educational programs at all levels and presents annual awards for excellence of design and execution. _^<N__^<N_James M. Francis _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Saylor, Henry H., The A.I.A.'s First
Hundred Years (1957).
-END-
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674
CAT
-A-
American Institute of Biological Sciences
-T-
American Institute of Biological Sciences_^<N__^<N_The American Institute of Biological Sciences (AIBS), established in 1947, is a federation of scientific societies, professional associations, and science museums with interests in the life
sciences. The 6,900 members (1987) of the AIBS are concerned with coordinating efforts among investigators in the biological sciences and with promoting the relationships between biology and other areas of inquiry. The AIBS publishes the monthly
BioScience, provides advisory services to government agencies, and plays an active role in the improvement of biological science curricula in American educational institutions. _^<N__^<N_Jeffrey L. Sturchio
-END-
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442
CAT
-A-
American Institute of Chemists
-T-
American Institute of Chemists_^<N__^<N_The American Institute of Chemists was founded in 1923 by 33 professional chemists in the New York area to foster the professional interests of chemists and chemical engineers. Headquartered in Bethesda, Md.,
it had 5,000 members in 1987. The institute, which has 10 committees, holds annual conventions. It awards a gold medal and publishes a monthly journal, The Chemist, and an annual professional directory.
-END-
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578
CAT
-A-
American Institute of Physics
-T-
American Institute of Physics_^<N__^<N_The American Institute of Physics (AIP), founded in 1931, is a federation of nine national physical societies and affiliated organizations interested in physics. From its New York City headquarters, the AIP
administers educational and informational programs aimed at advancing and diffusing knowledge of physics and its applications. Among these activities are an active Center for the History of Physics and the publication of many journals, including
Journal of Chemical Physics, Journal of Applied Physics, and Physics Today. _^<N__^<N_Jeffrey L. Sturchio
-END-
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615
CAT
-A-
American Kennel Club
-T-
American Kennel Club_^<N__^<N_The American Kennel Club (AKC), founded in 1884, is a nonprofit organization established to aid in developing and maintaining purebred DOG bloodlines. As the principal agency in the United States for the registration of
individual, purebred dogs, the AKC maintains records--some dating from 1878--on the breeding of more than 21 million dogs. It registers more than 1 million dogs annually. In addition, the AKC has established, and enforces, the standards and rules
governing dog shows and obedience and field trials. The organization publishes (monthly) Pure-Bred Dogs and Stud Book Register.
-END-
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596
CAT
-A-
American Labor party
-T-
American Labor party_^<N__^<N_The American Labor party was founded in New York in 1936 to promote liberal, socialistic programs. Created as an alternative to the boss-ridden regular Democratic organization, it had strong backing from organized
labor. Its support was often critical to the election of both Democrats and progressive Republicans. By about 1940, the party's influence began to wane as disputes broke out between right- and left-wing factions. In 1944 the anti-Communist wing
broke away and formed the Liberal party. The American Labor party declined quickly after that and disbanded in 1956.
-END-
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1604
CAT
-A-
American Legion
-T-
American Legion_^<N__^<N_The American Legion is the largest U.S. veterans' organization; its members are drawn from the veterans of the two world wars and the wars in Korea and Vietnam. The legion was founded in Paris in 1919 and held its first
convention in St. Louis that same year. _^<N__^<N_In 1990 it had about 3 million male and female members organized in about 16,000 local posts. Basically concerned with the social and political interests of veterans, the Legion is also dedicated
to community affairs and sponsors patriotic and charitable programs. It has four major fields of activity: rehabilitation of veterans through medical and educational benefits; child welfare; national security; and Americanism. The legion
sponsors junior baseball leagues and Boy Scout troops, high school oratorical contests, and the study of government through its Boys' State and Nation groups. On the national level it has been a powerful lobby for military preparedness and
veterans' benefits. Its annual conventions are noted for their mammoth parades and for speeches by political leaders. _^<N__^<N_The legion's headquarters is in Indianapolis, Ind., and it has an office in Washington, D.C. An associated
organization is the American Legion Auxiliary, composed of women who are close relatives of Legionnaires or of deceased veterans, and of women who have served in the armed forces during peacetime. The auxiliary had approximately 1 million members
in 1990. The Sons of the American Legion, with a membership of about 107,000, includes male descendants, adopted sons, and stepsons of Legionnaires and deceased veterans.
-END-
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1584
CAT
-A-
American Library Association
-T-
American Library Association_^<N__^<N_The American Library Association (ALA), founded in 1876, is devoted to the advancement of library science and to the improvement and accessibility of library services. Its annual conference is the major
gathering of librarians in North America and attracts colleagues from around the world. _^<N__^<N_ALA activities cover such issues as library education, library publications, and the establishment of standards for libraries of all kinds. The
association encourages public access to library shelves through the use of open stacks; the increase of special services, such as those for children and the blind; the enrichment of rural libraries; and the establishment of national and
international interlibrary loan facilities. The organization also seeks to improve professional standards through the accreditation of library schools and through its many publications, the most widely known of which are the monthly American
Libraries and the book review journals Booklist and Choice. The many annual ALA awards include the two most prestigious awards for children's books, the CALDECOTT and the NEWBERY medals. _^<N__^<N_The ALA is headquartered in Chicago. It has a
membership of 40,000 and a staff of 250, with an additional voluntary staff serving on its divisions and committees. It sends representatives to international library meetings, promotes the exchange of librarians with other countries, aids in the
establishment and support of United States government libraries overseas, and gives advice to federal agencies on domestic library programs. _^<N__^<N_Colin Steele
-END-
-C-
35842
CATO
4845
9690
14503
19308
24160
28964
33799
-A-
American literature
-O-
000000|American literature
000806| COLONIAL LITERATURE
004813| REVOLUTIONARY LITERATURE
007901| EARLY NATIONAL LITERATURE
012306| AMERICAN RENAISSANCE
016895| POST-CIVIL WAR LITERATURE
023063| POST-WORLD WAR I LITERATURE
026319| THE 1930s
027911| LITERATURE SINCE WORLD WAR II
-T-
American literature_^<N__^<N_From its origins in colonial America to its present status internationally, American literature has stressed the diversity and uniqueness of the American character and experience. The Puritans attempted to demonstrate
that God had ordained their emigration and had intended that their communities stand as examples of holiness and right for the rest of the world. In Revolutionary times this idea of specialness came to include unique American types, such as the
Yankee, and a belief that the country was destined to produce a new literature. As it matured, American literature followed the major movements of Western literature in the 19th century--romanticism, realism, and naturalism. American writers,
however, concentrated on the American scene and sought to affirm a distinct national identity. _^<N__^<N_ COLONIAL LITERATURE_^<N__^<N_The colonial period extends from the Virginia and Massachusetts settlements of the 17th century through the Great
Awakening, a religious revival in the 1740s, and its aftermath. Although dominated by Puritan-Calvinistic doctrine, early American literature was not confined to religious subjects. The religious writings, as well as the more secular chronicles,
are the history of exceptional individuals who rose above the physically difficult and spiritually demanding environment of the New World. These early writers set the tone and the rhetoric and foreshadowed the major concerns of later American
writing. _^<N__^<N_The first generation of settlers wrote sermons, religious tracts, diaries, and histories of their undertakings. The leading religious controversialists were John COTTON, Anne HUTCHINSON, Roger WILLIAMS, and John WINTHROP.
Winthrop's Journal, originally printed as a History of New England from 1630 to 1649, remains a major historical source. It was followed by William BRADFORD's History of Plymouth Plantation (pub. 1856); Edward Johnson's History of New England
(1654); and Thomas MORTON's New English Canaan (1637), which stands out for its irreverence and hints of bawdiness. Histories of the South with enduring literary qualities were Capt. John SMITH's The Generall Historie of Virginia (1624) and, much
later, William BYRD's History of the Dividing Line (composed and reworked from 1728 but not published until 1841). _^<N__^<N_Puritan writers stressed religious and didactic themes. The first book published in America was the Bay Psalm Book: The
Whole Book of Psalmes Faithfully Translated into English Metre (1640). Michael WIGGLESWORTH continued in the Puritan vein, exhorting against sin in his popular poem, Day of Doom (1662). Meanwhile, poetry of genuine accomplishment and a less stern,
Puritan emphasis was written by Anne BRADSTREET in The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America (1650) and by Edward TAYLOR, whose poems were not discovered until 1939. More in accord with the Puritan temperament are the spiritual autobiographies,
which describe the Puritan experience of conversion. Thomas Shepard's The Sincere Convert (1640) is one of the first; Jonathan Edwards's "Personal Narrative," first published in 1765 in the Life of the Rev. J. Edwards by the theologian Samuel
Hopkins, is one of the last. _^<N__^<N_The memorable works of the colonial period depicted the conditions of life in the New World. The first and best-known narrative of captivity by Indians was Mary ROWLANDSON's Captivity and Restauration (1682).
Among diarists, Sarah Kemble Knight's account of her journey (1704) from Boston to New York on horseback and Samuel SEWALL's diaries (spanning 1673 to 1729) describe life in the colonies. _^<N__^<N_The Puritan literary ideal is best summed up in
the gargantuan ecclesiastical history by Cotton Mather, the Magnalia Christi Americana, or the Ecclesiastical History of New England from its First Planting in the New Year 1620, unto the Year of our Lord 1698 (1702). This compendium celebrates
America and its religious Puritan leaders in a rhetoric of magnificent extravagance. An equally intense piety pervades the writings of Jonathan EDWARDS early in the 18th century. Besides his spiritual autobiography, Edwards is known for A
Treatise Concerning Religious Affections (1746) and Freedom of the Will (1754), both of which try to incorporate the philosophy of John Locke, and for what is probably the most famous sermon of hellfire and brimstone ever preached, "Sinners in the
Hands of an Angry God" (1741). The young Benjamin FRANKLIN wrote during the same period as Edwards. Although his Poor Richard's Almanack (1732) anticipated a more rational moralism, it contained much of the proverbial wisdom that Franklin had
learned from works such as Cotton Mather's Bonifacius, or Essays To Do Good (1710). Similarly, Franklin's Autobiography reflected a concern for one's actions that was typical of the Puritan spiritual autobiographers. _^<N__^<N_ REVOLUTIONARY
LITERATURE_^<N__^<N_The American Revolutionary period extends from the first agitations by patriots in the early 1760s through the adoption of the Constitution in 1787. The ardor and disputatiousness characteristic of the Puritans was felt early
in this period in the sermons of Jonathan Mayhew and in the political tracts of the patriots. Prominent among the so-called pamphleteers were James OTIS, who wrote five controversial and often intemperate pamphlets; John DICKINSON, the author of
a series of letters widely printed in newspapers during 1767 and 1768 and signed "A Farmer in Pennsylvania"; and John ADAMS, the author of A Dissertation on Canon and Feudal Law (1765), the first of a long series of works more properly considered
philosophical literature than political pamphlets. It was, however, Thomas PAINE's pamphlet Common Sense, advocating American independence, that had the greatest revolutionary impact in the colonies and that received the most attention abroad.
_^<N__^<N_The Revolution itself fostered an outpouring of patriotic verse, much of it consisting of satirical attacks on the Loyalists. The most popular of the satires was John Trumbull's M'Fingal, a burlesque of Tory politics written in 1775 and
expanded in 1782. Trumbull was a leading figure among the Connecticut Wits, who wrote satires similar to his own. A common poetic subject of the Revolutionary period, the coming greatness of America, was expressed in the title of the Princeton
college commencement poem of 1771, On the Rising Glory of America (1772), written by Philip FRENEAU in collaboration with Hugh Henry Brackenridge. _^<N__^<N_American literature during this period continued to be expressed largely in histories,
journals, personal diaries, letters, and political writing conceived in the revolutionary spirit. An exception was the accomplishment of Phillis WHEATLEY, an African slave, who is now considered America's first important black writer. Her
derivative but finely wrought Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral was published in London in 1773. The diverse prose of the time included the Journal (1774) of John WOOLMAN, a Quaker; the Letters of an American Farmer (1782) by the
French-born Jean de CREVECOEUR; the Travels (1791) in the Floridas, Georgia, and the Carolinas of William Bartram; and the Revolutionary-period letters of Abigail ADAMS, the wife of John Adams. Probably the best-remembered works of the period
are the state papers, beginning with Thomas JEFFERSON's Declaration of Independence. In 1787 and 1788 Alexander HAMILTON, John JAY, and James MADISON collaborated in writing 85 essays defending the new Constitution and collected as The Federalist.
_^<N__^<N_The first American play, William Godfrey's The Prince of Parthia (1765), appeared during this period despite the moral censure accorded to theater in the colonies. A heroic tragedy in blank verse, it was first performed in 1767. It was
followed by the first stage comedy to be produced in the United States, Royall TYLER's The Contrast (1787), which introduced Jonathan, the first stage Yankee. _^<N__^<N_ EARLY NATIONAL LITERATURE_^<N__^<N_The years from the adoption of the
Constitution (1787) to the period of Jacksonian nationalism (1828-36) mark the emergence of a self-consciously national literature. The poet Joel BARLOW, who was, like John Trumbull, one of the Connecticut Wits, greeted the new United States with
his epic The Columbiad (1807), a reworking of his earlier The Vision of Columbus (1787). Philip Freneau wrote lyric poetry that fused the native scene and native expression. Other writers strove to develop an American literature but did not
concentrate on strictly American subjects, using instead the universal themes of romance, virtue, vice, and seduction that pervaded popular novels in England and on the Continent. William Hill Brown's The Power of Sympathy (1789), an imitation of
Goethe's Sorrows of Young Werther, is regarded by some as the first American novel. Susanna Rowson's sentimental and didactic tale of seduction, Charlotte Temple, published (1791) in London as Charlotte: A Tale of Truth, was extremely popular.
In contrast to the prevailing sentimental novel was Hugh Henry Brackenridge's massive Modern Chivalry (1792-1815), a picaresque novel with an underlying satire on bad government. The first professional novelist was Charles Brockden Brown, whose
gothic and philosophical romances, beginning with Wieland (1798), anticipated Edgar Allan Poe. _^<N__^<N_Early in the 19th century, Washington IRVING gained European recognition as America's first genuine man of letters. A History of New York
(1809) is a whimsical satire of pedantic historians and literary classics. His best-known tales, "Rip Van Winkle" and "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow," appeared in The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent, which was published serially in 1819-20.
William Cullen BRYANT emerged in the 1820s as a poet of international stature. His "Thanatopsis" (1817), influenced by the English GRAVEYARD POETS, linked American literature to the emerging English ROMANTICISM. Still, despite European influences,
American writers attempted to create a distinctive literature during a time of rising literary nationalism. Noah WEBSTER contributed An American Dictionary of the English Language (1828), in which he insisted that the country possessed its own
language. The nationalist theme was echoed by William Ellery CHANNING, Edward EVERETT, and most memorably by Ralph Waldo EMERSON in his Phi Beta Kappa address at Harvard, "The American Scholar" (1837), which Oliver Wendell HOLMES called "our
intellectual Declaration of Independence." _^<N__^<N_James Fenimore COOPER was the first important American novelist to succeed with subjects and settings that are largely American. Cooper achieved international prominence with his second novel,
The Spy (1821), a tale of the Revolution. His many novels blending history and romance resulted in his being called "the American {Sir Walter} Scott," a title that put him in the company of one of the period's most popular and respected authors.
Cooper became best known for his Leatherstocking Tales, five novels that run from The Pioneers (1823) to The Deerslayer (1841). Cooper's settings capture the American idea of nature, and his hero, Natty Bumppo, expresses the self-reliant,
pioneering spirit of America. _^<N__^<N_Much of Cooper's sense of America was caught by the Fireside Poets, who celebrated American history and a benign American nature. Henry Wadsworth LONGFELLOW displayed his skill at telling a story in verse in
Hiawatha (1855), The Courtship of Miles Standish (1858), and Evangeline (1847). But Longfellow and his contemporaries succeeded best in public poetry intended for recitation. Still powerful are Longfellow's The Midnight Ride of Paul Revere
(1863), John Greenleaf WHITTIER's "Barbara Freitchie" (1863), and Oliver Wendell Holmes's "Old Ironsides" (1830). _^<N__^<N_Edgar Allan POE stood apart from literary nationalism and represented a gloomier side of romanticism. As a reviewer, he was
a harsh critic of second-rate American writing, but he dabbled in many popular sensationalistic forms. His often technically complex poetry uses commonplace romantic themes but gives them a philosophical and mystical application. Many of his
short stories remain internationally famous, and he may be said to have invented the detective story. In "The Fall of the House of Usher" and "The Tell-Tale Heart," Poe perfected the tale of gothic horror. _^<N__^<N_ AMERICAN
RENAISSANCE_^<N__^<N_The American renaissance, also known as the American romantic movement, began with the maturing of American literature in the 1830s and 1840s and ended with its flowering in the 1850s. During the 1830s Ralph Waldo Emerson
established himself as the spokesman for TRANSCENDENTALISM, first set forth in his essay Nature (1836). The group known as the TRANSCENDENTALISTS that gathered around him in Concord, Mass., included Bronson ALCOTT, Margaret FULLER, Theodore
PARKER, and William Ellery Channing, who joined with Emerson in the publication of DIAL magazine (1840-44). They subscribed to Emerson's faith that all people are united in their communion with the oversoul, a postreligious equivalent of God.
Each individual, Emerson said, finds his or her own way to transcendence through self-knowledge, self-reliance, and the contemplation of nature. _^<N__^<N_Henry David THOREAU came closest to putting Emerson's ideas into practice. After two
intermittent years at Walden Pond in Concord, Mass., he wrote Walden or Life in the Woods (1854). In this book, Thoreau observes nature from the viewpoint of a naturalist-philosopher reflecting on the quiet desperation of humanity and the
transcendental solace of the natural world. No less consciously indebted to Emerson was WALT WHITMAN, who dedicated the first edition of his poetry, Leaves of Grass (1855), to him. Whitman celebrated an untrammeled communion with nature with
overtones of sensuality that appeared shocking even though his poetry expressed sound transcendental doctrine. Whitman also took seriously Emerson's appeal for American originality; he devised a loose, "natural" form of versification that seemed
unpoetic and jarring to his contemporaries. After the Civil War, Whitman gained wider acceptance with his elegy on the death of Lincoln, "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloomed," (1865). Whitman's prose works include Democratic Vistas (1871),
containing his philosophy of American democracy along with prophecies of its future greatness and the coming greatness of its literature, and Specimen Days (1882), an autobiographical account of his Civil War experiences as a voluntary nurse.
_^<N__^<N_Unknown to the public, another American innovative poet, Emily DICKINSON, was writing in Amherst, Mass. Her poems, written mostly from the late 1850s through the 1860s, were unconventional and deceptively simple lyrics concerned with
death, eternity, and the inner life. Few were published in her lifetime, but when her poems were rediscovered in the 1920s, Dickinson took her place as a major American poet. _^<N__^<N_Nathaniel HAWTHORNE represents American romanticism with its
roots firmly planted in the Puritan past. His stories were collected in Twice-Told Tales (1837), which established his importance as an American writer. Some were tales of the Puritans and of early American history; others used a mixture of
symbolism and allegory that, together with certain recurrent themes, were carried over into Hawthorne's novels. His masterpiece, the Scarlet Letter (1850), is a symbolic romance set in Puritan New England. Hawthorne had been attracted to
Emerson's thought but rejected its optimism both here and in The Blithedale Romance (1852), a novel based on the transcendentalists' utopian experiment, BROOK FARM. _^<N__^<N_Herman MELVILLE also rejected Emerson's philosophy. His first novel,
Typee: A Peep at Polynesian Life (1846), based on his own adventures after deserting his ship while on a whaling voyage, challenged the spiritual substance of Christianity. Melville continued to write of the sea and adventure, but now with
increasing philosophical complexity and a mixture of allegory and symbolism comparable to Hawthorne's. The culmination of his growth came in Moby Dick (1851). This philosophical adventure satisfied the age's aspiration for a great epic of nature
and America, yet its greatness was not recognized at the time. Certainly it came nowhere near the success of the great best-seller Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852) by Harriet Beecher STOWE. After the failure of Melville's next novel, Pierre (1852),
Melville continued to write, but he became increasingly discouraged with his inability to reach an audience. At his death in 1891 he was virtually unknown. He left behind poetry on Civil War themes, notably Battle Pieces and Aspects of the War
(1866) and the short, unfinished novel Billy Budd. These and other late manuscripts, neglected for many years, were rediscovered in the 1920s by critics and scholars, whose reassessments established Melville as a superior American writer.
_^<N__^<N_ POST-CIVIL WAR LITERATURE_^<N__^<N_The post-Civil War period is roughly the period from the rise of realism to the advent of naturalism, up to World War I. The Civil War itself affected literature less than did the industrial expansion
that came in its aftermath. Nevertheless, the war was the basis for poetry by Melville, Emerson, Lowell, and Whitman, and of significant autobiographical accounts by Thomas Wentworth HIGGINSON, Charles Francis ADAMS Jr., and Ulysses S. GRANT.
_^<N__^<N_Mark TWAIN led the movement away from the romanticism typical of the American renaissance to a worldly realism that dealt with actual places and situations. In his dialogue he produced equivalents of American speech never before
attempted. Twain drew extensively from his personal experiences: on his own travels for The Innocents Abroad (1869) and Roughing It (1872), on his days as a river boat pilot for Life on the Mississippi (1883), and on his youth for his boyhood
stories Tom Sawyer (1876) and the Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884). Huckleberry Finn is considered by many critics to be the first modern American novel; it is more than likely the best known and is undoubtedly one of the great American
literary achievements. _^<N__^<N_The choice of the pen name Mark Twain by Samuel Clemens followed a practice common among American humorists who wrote during the 19th century. After Augustus B. Longstreet's Georgia Scenes (1835), James Russell
Lowell wrote as Hosea Bigelow, Joel Chandler HARRIS as Uncle Remus, David Ross Locke as Petroleum V. Nasby, Charles Farrar Browne as Artemas WARD, and Finley Peter DUNNE as Mr. Dooley. _^<N__^<N_As novelists and critics, William Dean HOWELLS and
Henry JAMES contributed to the shift from romance to realism. Howells's The Rise of Silas Lapham (1885) concerns an ordinary farmer who becomes wealthy and moves to Boston but whose spiritual rise comes about only when he loses his wealth.
Despite a prolific output, Howells's significance rests mostly on his literary criticism and his opposition to provincialism in American literature. James departed even further from the provincial scene. He portrayed expatriate Americans in a
European setting in Daisy Miller (1879) and in his triumph of psychological realism, The Portrait of a Lady (1881). Conversely, James presented the reactions of Europeans to a New England background in The Europeans (1878). In The Bostonians
(1886) he satirized New England reformers and philanthropists. As prolific as Howells, James was also a self-conscious critic and an advocate of realism. In his last novels, notably The Golden Bowl (1904), James created a new, complex language
and symbolism for the novel that heralded the age of modernism. _^<N__^<N_Regionalism, the literature of particular sections of the country, flourished, however. Many authors who used this form of realistic local color were women, among them Willa
CATHER, Kate CHOPIN, Mary E. Wilkins FREEMAN, Ellen GLASGOW, Sarah Orne JEWETT, and Edith WHARTON. Other writers of the period who are thought of as regionalists are Ambrose BIERCE, Hamlin GARLAND, and Bret HARTE. Much of the literature of black
Americans was regional in setting, by force of circumstance. Charles CHESNUTT and William Wells Brown were early black novelists. In Lyrics of Lowly Life (1896), the poet and novelist Paul Lawrence DUNBAR used dialect and humble settings in a
blend of pathos and humor. Some of the most powerful writing by black Americans has been autobiographical; in the post-Civil War period, works depicting the experiences of black Americans include The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass,
an American Slave (1845), Up from Slavery (1901) by Booker T. WASHINGTON, the Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man (1912) by James Weldon JOHNSON, and The Souls of Black Folk (1903) by W. E. B. DU BOIS. _^<N__^<N_In the 1890s novels emphasizing a
harsher view of reality began to appear, marking the beginnings of American naturalism. Stephen CRANE's Maggie, A Girl of the Streets (1893) was little noticed, but his Red Badge of Courage (1895) was immediately recognized as a classic. Frank
NORRIS more nearly exhibited the features of naturalism than did Crane, especially in McTeague (1899), The Octopus (1901), and The Pit (1903). Norris's works, often concerned with the Darwinian struggle for survival, focus upon human greed,
depravity, and suffering. Theodore DREISER created the most striking naturalistic works, beginning with Sister Carrie (1900) and culminating in An American Tragedy (1925). Dreiser's works reflect compassion and an understanding of human
motivations. They analyze with dramatic insight the dilemma of the individual in contemporary society. _^<N__^<N_Social protest and utopianism went hand in hand with naturalism. Upton SINCLAIR exposed the deplorable conditions in the meat
industry in The Jungle (1906); Jack LONDON rejected society in his autobiographical novel Martin Eden (1909); and Jacob RIIS depicted the lives of poor immigrants in photographs and words in How the Other Half Lives (1890). Henry Adams, in The
Education of Henry Adams (1918), critically and ironically explored the quest for meaning in the face of social, historical, and economic change. _^<N__^<N_American poets in the early part of the 20th century led in developing literary modernism.
Vachel LINDSAY and Carl SANDBURG followed in the Whitman tradition of loose versification and the celebration of America, as, to some extent, did Edgar Lee MASTERS in his Spoon River Anthology (1915). More traditional in form yet more penetrating
in psychology were the works of Edwin Arlington ROBINSON and, particularly, Robert FROST. By the 1930s Frost had become America's best-known and most beloved native poet. Two American expatriates in London, Ezra POUND and T. S. ELIOT, became
leading poets of the century. Eliot's The Waste Land (1922) represents the extreme of complexity and profundity in modern poetry. Two of Eliot's contemporaries, Wallace STEVENS and William Carlos WILLIAMS, were possibly as influential as Eliot on
the rising young poets. Williams, in particular, extended into IMAGISM Whitman's exploration of American themes and rhythms. _^<N__^<N_ POST-WORLD WAR I LITERATURE_^<N__^<N_American literature of the 1920s was characterized by disillusionment with
ideals and even with civilization itself. The writers of the so-called lost generation reacted with disillusionment to the war and adopted the despairing tone of The Waste Land. The young poet e e CUMMINGS used his wartime experience as the basis
for a novel, The Enormous Room (1922), as did John DOS PASSOS and William FAULKNER. Ernest HEMINGWAY, however, captured the experience of war and the sense of loss most lucidly in his first novel, The Sun Also Rises (1926), which probes the
experience of a group of disillusioned expatriates in Paris, and in A Farewell to Arms (1929). American writers gathered in Paris during the 1920s, partly to escape what they regarded as the small-town morality and shallowness of American culture.
Among them, F. Scott FITZGERALD had the greatest success in the United States. His masterpiece, The Great Gatsby (1925), helped create the image of the Roaring Twenties, the age of the flapper, and the jazz age. _^<N__^<N_In the United States, a
group of writers chronicled their escape from small-town America and exposed its hypocrisies. Sherwood ANDERSON inspired the rest with Winesburg, Ohio (1919), based on Anderson's hometown of Clyde, Ohio. Sinclair Lewis attacked provincialism in
Main Street (1920) and added a word meaning "unthinking conformist" to the language with Babbitt (1922). H. L. MENCKEN took up the attack on the "booboisie" in his essays, as did Ring LARDNER in his sports stories and, at the end of the decade,
Thomas WOLFE in the autobiographical novel Look Homeward, Angel (1929). _^<N__^<N_The influence of European modernism reached the United States during this period. Gertrude STEIN's experiments with the sounds and speech patterns of the American
language, developed earlier in Paris, influenced Hemingway and many others. Marianne MOORE edited the Dial magazine and for several decades influenced American poetry with her disciplined, often unconventional verse. Hart CRANE attempted an
alternative to Eliot's less vernacular modernism with his American epic, The Bridge (1930). William Faulkner assimilated the technique of the STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS NOVEL from James Joyce's Ulysses and put it to use in The Sound and the Fury
(1929). The doctrines of modernism were championed in little magazines such as the Criterion, Dial, and Hound and Horn. Meanwhile, American literature began to be studied critically. D. H. LAWRENCE's Studies in Classic American Literature
(1923) was followed by William Carlos Williams's In the American Grain (1925) and V. L. PARRINGTON's Main Currents in American Thought (1927-30). _^<N__^<N_During this period the American drama flowered, primarily because of Eugene O'NEILL's
plays. With such brooding, symbolic, and intensely psychological works as The Emperor Jones (1920), Mourning Becomes Electra (1931), and his later, poetically autobiographical masterpiece Long Day's Journey into Night (1956), O'Neill set a new
standard for American playwrights. He was joined by a host of talented dramatists, including Maxwell ANDERSON, Philip BARRY, Lillian HELLMAN, Elmer RICE, Thornton WILDER, and later by Edward ALBEE, Arthur MILLER, and Tennessee WILLIAMS. _^<N__^<N_
THE 1930s_^<N__^<N_The depression and the rise of fascism in Europe dominated American literature during the 1930s. Proletarian literature consciously aimed at stimulating protest--and, in some cases, revolution--by the working class. John Dos
Passos chronicled the age in his trilogy U.S.A. (1930; 1932; 1936). James T. FARRELL supplied naturalistic detail in Studs Lonigan (1935), as did Meyer LEVIN in The Old Bunch (1937). The plays of Clifford ODETS and Sidney KINGSLEY and John
STEINBECK's immensely successful The Grapes of Wrath (1939) are better remembered today than are the more overtly political works of the time. _^<N__^<N_Concurrent with socially conscious literature, a detached school of literary criticism emerged.
The NEW CRITICISM was represented by Yvor WINTERS and Richard P. Blackmur and was dominated by the Southern critics Cleanth BROOKS, John Crowe RANSOM, Allen TATE, and Robert Penn WARREN. _^<N__^<N_Relatively untouched by the literary or political
developments of the period were such innovators as Henry MILLER and Nathanael WEST. _^<N__^<N_From the 1930s a great many American writers have used the short story as their principal means of expression. Notable exponents of this form were John
O'HARA and Katherine Anne PORTER, who were followed in the 1940s and '50s by Carson MCCULLERS, Eudora WELTY, and Flannery O'CONNOR. Such writers as Donald BARTHELME, and John UPDIKE continue to devote much of their energy to short fiction, as did
John CHEEVER. The detective short story and novel were also perfected in the 1930s by James M. CAIN, Raymond T. CHANDLER, and Dashiell HAMMETT. _^<N__^<N_ LITERATURE SINCE WORLD WAR II_^<N__^<N_Many of the new writers of the 1940s and '50s were
affected by World War II but did not always express their concern explicitly. James JONES, with From Here to Eternity (1951), and Norman MAILER, with The Naked and the Dead (1948), made their reputations as war novelists. The poets Randall
JARRELL, Robert LOWELL, and Karl SHAPIRO wrote of the war but later, like Delmore SCHWARTZ and Theodore ROETHKE, turned their attention to private events. _^<N__^<N_American drama began to flourish once again in the years after the war. Tennessee
Williams explored the themes of innocence and experience in The Glass Menagerie (1944) and A Streetcar Named Desire (1947). Arthur Miller's Death of a Salesman (1949) is a classic modern tragedy. Edward Albee introduced the tradition of the
THEATER OF THE ABSURD in The Zoo Story (1958) and Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (1962). _^<N__^<N_The appearance of Saul BELLOW's The Victim (1947) and Bernard MALAMUD's The Assistant (1957) seem, in retrospect, the first signs of what is
loosely described as a "Jewish movement." During the 1950s and '60s many Jewish writers emerged, including Herbert GOLD, Philip ROTH, and J. D. SALINGER. _^<N__^<N_The social movements of the 1960s--youth, counterculture, antiwar
protest--profoundly affected literature. The Vietnam War gave rise to journalism by Mary MCCARTHY, Susan SONTAG, and Frances Fitzgerald; the memoir Dispatches (1977), by Michael Herr; and novels by Robert Stone (Dog Soldiers, 1974) and Tim
O'Brien (Going after Cacciato, 1978). _^<N__^<N_The protest writing of the 1960s and '70s was influenced by earlier experiments in which fictional techniques were used for nonfiction writing. Truman CAPOTE's In Cold Blood (1965), an account of a
murder, and Norman Mailer's Armies of the Night (1968) and The Executioner's Song (1980) are examples of this mode. Tom WOLFE's exuberant, rhetorical prose in The Kandy-Kolored Tangerine-Flake Streamline Baby (1965) helped establish the "new
journalism" (see JOURNALISM). _^<N__^<N_From the 1960s a great many American writers aligned themselves with ethnic and feminist causes. Ralph ELLISON's INVISIBLE MAN (1952) kept within the mainstream of literary tradition. The poet Gwendolyn
BROOKS and the playwright Lorraine HANSBERRY (A Raisin in the Sun, 1959) also worked within established conventions, and James BALDWIN began as a writer of traditional prose. In The Fire Next Time (1963), however, Baldwin's work grew increasingly
committed to the black protest movement of the 1960s and '70s. He was followed by the angry writings of Imamu Amiri BARAKA (LeRoi Jones), Eldridge CLEAVER, and Ishmael REED, and as by the less strident work of Toni MORRISON, Nikki GIOVANNI, and
Alice WALKER. _^<N__^<N_Women writers, partly inspired by the example of Betty FRIEDAN's The Feminine Mystique (1963), also developed a distinct genre of writing that deals almost exclusively with feminine experience. Sylvia PLATH assumed great
importance for reasons that concerned her life as much as her poetry. Tillie OLSEN (Tell Me a Riddle, 1961) and Grace PALEY (The Little Disturbances of Man, 1959) produced humorous accounts of domestic life. The poets Denise LEVERTOV, Adrienne
RICH, and Anne SEXTON also took up feminist concerns in the 1960s. Joan DIDION (Play It as It Lays, 1970) described the contemporary situation of women in novels and essays. Joyce Carol OATES, writing in both traditional and experimental forms,
was the most prolific novelist of the period, whose women writers also include Elizabeth JANEWAY and Kate MILLETT. _^<N__^<N_Styles of contemporary American literature are as diverse as its subject matter, and whereas several novelists, such as
John HAWKES, have experimented radically with technique, others have worked within traditional narrative forms to produce work that draws on several modes of writing. Kurt VONNEGUT has used fantasy and science fiction; Bellow mingled philosophy
with the epistolary novel in HERZOG; Gore VIDAL has exploited the historical novel; and John BARTH, Joseph HELLER, and Thomas PYNCHON have written arcane, fantastic, but basically traditional narratives. Wright MORRIS, Walker PERCY, and Peter
TAYLOR have maintained the strong tradition of American regional writing, and the novel-of-manners tradition exemplified by Edith Wharton's works is continued in those of Louis AUCHINCLOSS. _^<N__^<N_Among the most influential innovators of this
period was the Russian-born Vladimir NABOKOV, who, after the publication of Lolita (1958) and Pale Fire (1962), became a best-selling U. S. novelist. The experiments of William S. BURROUGHS and William GADDIS are celebrated but less widely read.
John GARDNER, who began his career with ambitious attempts to create ironic, allegorical versions of myths, argued (in On Moral Fiction, 1979) in favor of what he called "moral," or socially responsible, fiction. _^<N__^<N_Among poets a diversity
of style and subject matter prohibits easy summary of the period. The publication of Robert Lowell's Life Studies (1959) is often thought to have inaugurated a "confessional" mode in the work of such poets as Plath, Sexton, Levertov, and W. D.
SNODGRASS. The work of Charles OLSON and the BLACK MOUNTAIN SCHOOL OF POETRY retained its importance to John ASHBERY, Robert BLY, James MERRILL, and James WRIGHT. W. S. MERWIN, one of the most respected poets of his time, has developed his own
distinctive manner from acquaintance with the styles of W. H. Auden, Robert Graves, and Ezra Pound. Allen GINSBERG, developing out of the BEAT GENERATION movement of the late 1950s, and Gary SNYDER emphasized Oriental and American Indian
spirituality. Two of the most notable poets of the 1960s and '70s, Elizabeth BISHOP and Richard WILBUR, seemed independent of influence or fashion, and they developed distinct and personal modes of utterance. The number of "little magazines" and
small presses increased during the 1970s and 1980s, creating an unprecedentedly large number of opportunities for the publication of poetry. _^<N__^<N_At the opening of the 1990s, American literature stood divided among special-interest groups and
opposed aesthetics, although its oldest traditions remained recognizable and its major practitioners continued to think of themselves as social critics. _^<N__^<N_Peter Shaw _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Barbour, J., and Quirk, T., eds., Writing the
American Classics (1990); Bercovitch, S., ed., Cambridge History of American Literature, 5 vols. (1991); Chase, Richard, The American Novel and Its Tradition (1957); Conn, Peter, Literature in America: An Illustrated History (1989); Cowley,
Malcolm, The Flower and the Leaf: A Contemporary Record of American Writing since 1941 (1985); Donoghue, Denis, Reading America: Essays on American Literature (1987); Elliott, Emory, ed., Columbia Literary History of the United States (1988);
Fiedler, Leslie, Love and Death in the American Novel, rev. ed. (1966); Gates, Henry Lewis, Jr., ed., The Schomburg Library of 19th-Century Black Women Writers (1988); Gilbert, Sandra M., and Gubar, Susan, No Man's Land: The Place of the Woman
Writer in the 20th Century, vols. 1 and 2 (1987, 1988); Hobson, Fred C., Tell about the South (1983); Hoffman, Daniel, ed., Harvard Guide to Contemporary American Writing (1979); Howard, Richard, Alone With America: Essays on the Art of Poetry
in the U.S. since 1950, rev. ed. (1980); Kazin, Alfred, On Native Grounds: An Interpretation of Modern American Prose Literature, rev. ed. (1972) and A Writer's America (1988); Lawrence, D. H., Studies in Classic American Literature (1928);
Marx, Leo, Machine in the Garden: Technology and the Pastoral Ideal in America (1967); Matthiessen, F. O., American Renaissance (1941; repr. 1968); Poirier, Richard, A World Elsewhere: The Place of Style in American Literature (1966).
_^<N__^<N_See also: BLACK AMERICAN LITERATURE; such genres as the NOVEL, STORY, SCIENCE FICTION, and WESTERN.
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American Medical Association
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American Medical Association_^<N__^<N_The American Medical Association (AMA), founded in 1847, is the largest medical organization in the world, with membership nearing 300,000 physicians. The AMA works to improve the professionalism of member
physicians by supervising standards at medical schools and other health education institutions and by sponsoring scientific meetings for continuing education. The organization promotes public health by developing and distributing information and by
advocating health-related rights, responsibilities, and issues. _^<N__^<N_The AMA is the world's largest publisher of medical information. In addition to the publication of medical research and review articles in its widely read weekly JOURNAL OF
THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION and in various speciality journals, the AMA also publishes a variety of consumer publications. _^<N__^<N_Policy for the AMA is set at the grass-roots level by physicians representing their state and specialty
society in the AMA House of Delegates. In the past the AMA was a strong opponent of government health care programs, but in recent years it has become a major advocate for MEDICAID and MEDICARE reform. The AMA has also taken policy positions on
other public-health issues, such as AIDS testing, tobacco advertising and promotion, professional liability, and animal research. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: American Medical Association, Cost Effectiveness Plan: 1984 and Beyond (1984); Campion,
Frank, The American Medical Association and U. S. Health Policy since 1940 (1984); Fishbein, Morris, History of the American Medical Association, 1847-1947 (1947).
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American Museum of Natural History
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American Museum of Natural History_^<N__^<N_The American Museum of Natural History, located in New York City, was founded by Albert Bickmore, Theodore Roosevelt, Sr., and others in 1869. One of the foremost museums of its kind in the world, it is
concerned primarily with research, exhibition, and education in the natural sciences. The museum has departments of anthropology, astronomy, entomology, fossil and living vertebrates, herpetology and ichthyology, mammalogy, mineralogy,
ornithology, and vertebrate paleontology. It maintains public exhibits in all of these areas. It operates the American Museum-Hayden Planetarium and includes among its publications the Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, American
Museum of Natural History Novitates, Curator, Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, Rotunda, and Natural History magazine.
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American music
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002944| THE 19TH CENTURY
011576| THE 20TH CENTURY
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American music_^<N__^<N_The history of American music may be roughly divided into three periods: (1) the colonial period (the 17th and 18th centuries), dominated by British influence; (2) the period from about 1800 to about 1930, when the United
States depended heavily for its musical culture on the importation of music and professional musicians from continental Europe; and (3) the period since about 1930 to the present, during which American music attained an international importance
equal to that of European music. _^<N__^<N_ COLONIAL PERIOD_^<N__^<N_Music had an important place in the life of the Puritan settlers in New England. They used metrical psalms (see HYMN) in their worship, a practice that emphasized text more than
music, but they must also have brought with them folk songs that remained unwritten and are therefore unknown today. The first generations to settle in the New World were not skilled in music, and the psalms were perpetuated by "lining out," in
which a leader recited or sang each line ahead of the congregation. During the 18th century itinerant singing masters taught the rudiments of music and created a market for the many collections of psalm tunes that reprinted English pieces but also
contained the music of American composers, including James Lyon's (1735-94) Urania in 1761. Except for William BILLINGS, whose ANTHEMS and fuging tunes expressed a rugged individual style, most music of American composers mirrored the styles that
were in vogue in England. _^<N__^<N_Religious vocal music touched all walks of life in the American colonies, but a taste for concerts and more sophisticated music developed early in the cities. Evidence indicates concerts in Boston in 1731, in
Charleston in 1732, in New York in 1736, and in Philadelphia in 1757. _^<N__^<N_The market for concert music attracted foreign musicians, many of them English, who were readily accepted after the Revolutionary War. As business prospered and cities
grew, the large number of first-generation urbanites demanded a semblance of the musical life they had known in their homelands. _^<N__^<N_Even so, the newly arrived musicians found it useful to have another means of livelihood, and from their
numbers came the early music-store owners and music publishers. They also taught music, repaired instruments, and organized performing groups. Alexander Reinagle (1756-1809), Benjamin Carr (1768-1831), James Hewitt (1770-1827), and Gottlieb
Graupner (1767-1836) were among the early composer-performer-teachers who established a cultured level of musical taste alongside the vernacular idiom. _^<N__^<N_A high level of musical creativity was reached in the 18th century by the Moravians in
Pennsylvania, Ohio, and North Carolina. They composed and performed CHORAL and instrumental music that can be compared to North German works of the late BAROQUE period. The Moravians kept apart from the life outside their communities, and their
music failed to influence the development of an American idiom. _^<N__^<N_ THE 19TH CENTURY_^<N__^<N_During the 19th century American-born composers, performers, critics, conductors, and educators brought the country within a respectable distance
of European practices, although for another century the United States was dependent on imported personnel and materials for its highest level of music. _^<N__^<N_Lowell MASON, an important figure in the early years of the Boston Handel and Haydn
Society, and a founder of the Boston Academy of Music (1832), influenced 19th-century musical life in a number of ways. He introduced much European choral music to the United States, pioneered in public-school music education, and sired a musical
dynasty that included publishers, organ and piano builders, teachers, and the composer Daniel Gregory Mason (1873-1953). He and his contemporaries, Thomas Hastings (1784-1872), William Bradbury (1816-68), and Isaac B. Woodbury (1819-58), wrote
many hymns that continued to be used in the 20th century. _^<N__^<N_Following the European REVOLUTION of 1848 many German musicians immigrated to the United States. Among them was the Germania Musical Society, an orchestra of about 25 players that
toured the country for several years, bringing concert music to places where it had never been known. Numerous teachers and performers, both vocal and instrumental, settled in the cities; concert artists arrived on tour to play in communities of
all sizes. The Austrian pianist Henri Herz, the Norwegian violinist Ole BULL, the Swedish soprano Jenny LIND, and the French conductor Louis Jullien attracted large audiences, only some of whom had any experience with musical performances.
Performers became show-business properties: P. T. BARNUM promoted the concerts of Jenny Lind; Jullien, engaged by Barnum, beguiled his audiences with stunts and showmanship that often overshadowed his music. The American-born pianist Louis
Moreau GOTTSCHALK returned from his European studies in 1853 and undertook concert tours rivaling those of the great European virtuosos. With few exceptions, however, the musical taste of Americans in the 19th century was dominated by German
traditions and taste. Only in the music that reached into the unsophisticated levels of life did American musicians find wide acceptance. _^<N__^<N_Vocal music had the most direct appeal to the majority, and singing families, probably patterned
after European folk-singing groups, became popular. The best known was the Hutchinson family, who associated their singing activities with social causes, especially temperance and abolition. _^<N__^<N_The minstrel shows that arose in the 1820s
combined song with the theater. These blackface song, dance, and comedy-skit shows remained popular for a century. At first they were entirely the domain of white performers in costume, but by the mid-1850s blacks also performed in them. The
minstrel show was probably begun by T. D. "Daddy" Rice (1808-60) and was popularized by Daniel Decatur Emmett (1815-1904), composer of "Dixie," and E. P. Christy (1815-62). It brought the music of Stephen Collins FOSTER to public attention,
and gave him fame if not a sufficient livelihood. His "Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair," "Old Folks at Home," and "Camptown Races" are among the most familiar of his more than 200 songs. Foster outshone all other American composers of the period
in popularity, and his works are known for their tunefulness and poetic interest. His contemporaries included the English-born Joseph P. Knight (1812-87) ("Rocked in the Cradle of the Deep") and Henry Russell (1812-1900) ("Woodman, Spare That
Tree") and the Americans Septimus Winner (1827-1902) ("Whispering Hope" and "Listen to the Mocking Bird") and John H. Hewitt (1801-90) ("All Quiet Along the Potomac"). The last, along with "Dixie" and "Tenting on the Old Camp Ground," was one of
the popular songs spawned by the Civil War. _^<N__^<N_New York City was the emerging center for the arts, and there the cry for American music by American composers was first raised. William Henry Fry's (1813-64) opera Leonora, performed in
Philadelphia in 1845, was the first by an American composer; George F. Bristow's (1825-98) Rip Van Winkle, performed in New York in 1855, was the first on an American subject. Both men wrote instrumental music also, but their work overall is
undistinguished. _^<N__^<N_Music spread westward before the middle of the 19th century, mainly to cities that had a large European-born population. St. Louis, Milwaukee, Cincinnati, and Chicago were early in establishing orchestras, opera
companies, and choral groups. Music societies were organized, and some became the nucleus of permanent performing organizations. The NEW YORK PHILHARMONIC was formed in 1842. A number of short-lived groups were organized in New York and
elsewhere, and the BOSTON SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA came into existence in 1881; the CHICAGO SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA was formed a decade later. New Orleans had an established opera house (1810) before any of those orchestras were founded. _^<N__^<N_The rise
of performing groups brought the need for competent conductors, and a number of men came forward to guide the course of those organizations. Theodore Thomas (1835-1905), who had played violin in Jullien's orchestra, organized his own group in
1864, and after 1869 toured the entire country with his musicians. He later conducted various established orchestras, including the New York Philharmonic, before organizing the Chicago Symphony in 1891. _^<N__^<N_BANDS were popular on the American
scene; one of the earliest known band concerts was given in Boston in 1771 by Josiah Flagg's (1737-95) 64th Regiment Band. Many 18th-century bands were attached to military units and were little more than small fife and drum corps, but they were
heard in public concert, and an enthusiasm for wind music was widespread. By the outbreak of the Civil War, there were more than 3,000 bands in the country; their place in concert life after the war was assured by Patrick Sarsfield Gilmore
(1829-92), composer of "When Johnny Comes Marching Home," and by John Philip SOUSA, composer of "The Stars and Stripes Forever," "El Capitan," and "the Washington Post" marches. Gilmore was bandmaster of the Union forces in Louisiana. At the
close of the war he remained in New Orleans and gave a concert that featured more than 500 bandsmen and 5,000 voices. Later, he organized his own band and toured widely. Sousa's impact was even stronger. He directed the U.S. Marine Band from
1880 to 1892, then formed his own group, hiring some of Gilmore's best musicians after the latter's death, and toured America and Europe to great acclaim. _^<N__^<N_Before the Civil War, a serious student of music had to study with European
masters, preferably German, since American conservatories were still in the planning stage. The emergence of native musicians and the rise of music schools went hand in hand: the former needed the latter as places to study in their youth and to
teach in their maturity. The United States now has a system of private and college-supported music schools, but it has been little more than a century since the teaching of music was first organized. The first conservatory of music was at OBERLIN
COLLEGE (1865), followed by the NEW ENGLAND CONSERVATORY OF MUSIC in Boston two years later. Schools were opened in Cincinnati and Chicago in that same year, and the first professor of music at Harvard was appointed in 1875. The country today has
hardly an educational institution without a program of music study. _^<N__^<N_Nevertheless, during the 19th century, music schools and conservatories in the United States served more as preparatory institutions than as finishing ones. Whenever
possible, hopeful performers and composers went to Europe to study with the masters at the famous conservatories of Berlin, Leipzig, and Munich. John Knowles PAINE prepared himself in that traditional manner. Arthur Foote (1853-1937), one of the
few who studied only in the United States, was Paine's student at Harvard. He, George Chadwick (1854-1931), and Horatio Parker (1863-1919), the so-called Boston Group, taught many composers and teachers of the next generation, including Daniel
Gregory Mason, Charles IVES, and Douglas MOORE. _^<N__^<N_A contemporary of the Boston Group, Edward MACDOWELL went directly to the conservatories of France and Germany after private instruction in New York. His work marked one of two main streams
in future American composition--imitation of the European practice in the larger forms. The other, the development of an American idiom employing Negro tunes and rhythms, was developed by his pupil, Henry F. Gilbert (1869-1928). _^<N__^<N_ THE
20TH CENTURY_^<N__^<N_The dependence on German training continued unabated until World War I, during and after which fascination with the German models for music diminished sharply. The postwar center for music study was Paris, but those who
remained at home found the American schools prepared to teach them at a high level of competence. Seeking a distinctive American idiom, a number of composers turned to folk sources and the country's unique musical utterance, JAZZ. _^<N__^<N_Rooted
in the RAGTIME of Scott JOPLIN's generation and developing through the addition of the BLUES style, jazz emerged at the close of World War I, spreading northward from the brothels of New Orleans to achieve respectability and wide acceptance in
night clubs and cafes. A host of specialized jazz artists, highly skilled in improvisation, developed, and jazz influenced European composers as well as Americans. Jazzmen of the stature of Louis "Satchmo" ARMSTRONG and Edward "Duke" ELLINGTON
were world figures. George GERSHWIN brought the jazz idiom to the attention of the concert world with his Rhapsody in Blue (1924) and An American in Paris (1928). His opera Porgy and Bess (1935) combines the Broadway musical and serious art.
_^<N__^<N_The most significant American composer of the early 20th century is Charles IVES, a businessman and part-time composer whose work was almost unknown until long after he had given up composing. Ives was an early experimenter with
DISSONANCE, polytonality, asymmetrical rhythms, and other advanced techniques; his quotations of traditional American hymns, folk tunes, patriotic songs, and ragtime were often set in this experimental context. _^<N__^<N_Some 20th-century American
composers set out along unique paths. Others were deeply indebted to the wave of Europeans who came to the United States during the 1930s, among them Arnold SCHOENBERG and Igor STRAVINSKY. Thus, contemporary American music is characterized by its
use of a wide variety of forms and sounds. Composers who have sought a musical Americanism, or who, like Ives, have merged American idioms with experimental sounds, include Walter PISTON, Virgil THOMSON, Roger SESSIONS, Roy HARRIS, Aaron COPLAND,
Elliott CARTER, Samuel BARBER, and William SCHUMAN, among the older generation of 20th-century composers. The list of important experimental composers must include Carl RUGGLES, Edgar VARESE, John J. Becker, Henry COWELL, John CAGE, Milton
BABBITT, George Crumb, and Charles WUORINEN. _^<N__^<N_Others particularly involved in the making of ELECTRONIC MUSIC include John Harbison, Jacob Druckman, Otto Luening, Gordon Mumma, Morton Subotnick, and Vladimir Ussachevsky. _^<N__^<N_In 1948
the city of Louisville, Ky., founded the Louisville Orchestra Commissioning Project, providing money for the commissioning of new works by contemporary American composers, to be premiered at concerts given by the Louisville Orchestra. Over a period
of 12 years the project commissioned some 120 orchestral works as well as several operas, both from established composers and from younger artists such as Ned ROREM and Lukas FOSS. It proved to be a generative force in the field of American music.
_^<N__^<N_Another important funding source has been the National Endowment for the Arts, which, since its inception in 1965, has provided grants of assistance to music groups of all kinds. As a result, many small professional groups--chamber
orchestras, for example--have been formed at universities or under the sponsorship of musical organizations or municipalities. These new groups have helped advance the role of contemporary American music for American audiences; such composers as
Gunther SCHULLER, John Corigliano, Andrew Imbrie, Leon Kirchner, and George Rochberg have benefited from their commissions and their performances of new works. _^<N__^<N_The field of opera once belonged exclusively to the Europeans; successful
American opera seemed to be confined to Gershwin's Porgy and Bess (which was not ranked as a true opera until the 1980s), the left-protest operas of Mark BLITZSTEIN, and, more recently, Gian Carlo MENOTTI's popular, Italianate works. More recent
decades, however, have witnessed a gratifying growth in successful operatic works by Americans, as well as the establishment of new opera companies and small opera groups. Numbered among American opera composers today are Dominick ARGENTO, Mario
DAVIDOVSKY, Norman DELLO JOIO, and Douglas Stuart MOORE. The group of notable opera composers who are women includes Libby Larsen, Joan Tower, Vivan Fine, and Pulitzer Prize winner Ellen Taaffe Zwilich. All of them, as well as John Adams and
Philip GLASS, work equally successfully in opera and other forms. _^<N__^<N_Of all forms of contemporary American music, musical comedy has proven the most successful. Beginning with Victor HERBERT and George M. COHAN, the musical theater has
nurtured a host of famous names: Jerome KERN, Cole PORTER, Irving BERLIN, George Gershwin, Richard RODGERS, Alan Jay LERNER, Stephen SONDHEIM, and Leonard BERNSTEIN, who is equally famous as a conductor and a composer of "serious" music.
_^<N__^<N_Even as American orchestras, opera companies, and other musical organizations flourish, the enthusiasm of U.S. audiences for American music remains lukewarm, at best. American listeners, by and large, prefer the European "classics." The
few American composers who have succeeded with American listeners--Ives, Gershwin, Thomson, Copland--have largely drawn on popular traditions. _^<N__^<N_Thus, in the United States, only popular music can support itself by means of the box office.
Since the advent of ROCK MUSIC, American popular music has become a major industry, capable of employing thousands of talented young musicians, and exercising a significant musical influence around the world. The easy accessibility of recordings,
radio, and television has made music a constant companion in American life and has exposed listeners to musical styles that have been drawn from around the world and used in music of every variety. This wide-ranging eclecticism--this willingness
to incorporate the musical languages of cultures as diverse as African Zulu or Irish Gaelic, or to explore obscure American idioms of the past--energizes and renews popular music. _^<N__^<N_A group of composers, among whom Philip Glass, Steve
REICH, and John Adams are the most widely known, have discovered attractive new languages for "serious" music. Their work may awaken American enthusiasm for contemporary composition. _^<N__^<N_Elwyn A. Weinandt _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Crawford,
Richard, A Historian's Introduction to Early American Music (1980); Davis, Ronald L., A History of Music in American Life, 3 vols. (1980-82); Ford, Ira W., Traditional Music in America (1940; repr. 1978); Gleason, H., and Becker, W., 20th
Century American Composers, 2d ed. (1980); Hitchcock, W. W., and Sadie, S., eds., The New Grove Dictionary of American Music, 4 vols. (1986); Jablonski, Edward, Encyclopedia of American Music (1981); Kingman, D., American Music: A Panorama,
2d ed. (1990); Nicholls, D., American Experimental Music, 1890-1940 (1989); Rockwell, J., All-American Music: Composition in the Late 20th Century (1983); Schuller, G., Musings: The Musical Worlds of Gunther Schuller (1986); Tawa, N., The
Way to Tin Pan Alley (1990); Thomson, Virgil, American Music since 1910 (1971); Tischler, B.L., An American Music: The Search for an American Musical Identity (1986); Ward, Ed, et al., Rock of Ages (1987); Wilk, M., They're Playing Our Song
(1986). _^<N__^<N_See also: BARBERSHOP QUARTET; BLUES; COUNTRY AND WESTERN MUSIC; GOSPEL MUSIC.
-END-
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777
CAT
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American National Theatre and Academy
-T-
American National Theatre and Academy_^<N__^<N_The American National Theatre and Academy (ANTA) is an organization established in 1935 by an Act of Congress to raise the standards of drama performance in the United States and to establish a national
theater group similar to those in many European countries. The latter goal was not achieved until 1983, when ANTA and the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts jointly founded the American National Theatre Company. ANTA has also sent American
productions, notably Porgy and Bess, on foreign tours. ANTA leaders have included Helen Hayes, Peggy Wood, Robert Breen, and Alfred de Liagre. The American National Theater Company, and ANTA-created repertory group, was active at the Kennedy
Center in Washington, D.C., from 1983 to 1986.
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470
CAT
-A-
American Newspaper Publishers Association
-T-
American Newspaper Publishers Association_^<N__^<N_The American Newspaper Publishers Association, formed in 1887, is the trade association of daily newspapers created by their publishers and business managers to represent the industry to the public
and in legislative lobbying. Major areas of interest have been technological research, labor union negotiations, newsprint prices, postal rates, and education for journalism. It has a membership of approximately 1,240. _^<N__^<N_EDWIN EMERY
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732
CAT
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American Philosophical Society
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American Philosophical Society_^<N__^<N_The American Philosophical Society for Promoting Useful Knowledge is the oldest learned society in the United States. Derived from an earlier group dating from 1743, the society was founded in Philadelphia in
1769. Benjamin FRANKLIN was its first president. Its early fame declined after the American Revolution. A chartered but private association, the society depended largely on members' dues until a bequest in 1931 revived its fortunes. The society,
which is still located in Philadelphia, is governed by committee and has a large and distinguished membership. It publishes Transactions and Proceedings, meets semiannually, and maintains a library and a wide program of grants. _^<N__^<N_James E.
McClellan
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503
CAT
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American Physical Society
-T-
American Physical Society_^<N__^<N_Since its establishment in 1899, the American Physical Society (APS), with more than 35,000 members, has promoted the advancement and diffusion of knowledge about physics, from cosmic phenomena to the realm of
elementary particles. The APS sponsors authoritative, scholarly journals, including Physical Review, Physical Review Letters, and Reviews of Modern Physics, and professional awards in such fields as nuclear, solid state, and mathematical physics.
_^<N__^<N_Jeffrey L. Sturchio
-END-
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663
CAT
-A-
American Psychiatric Association
-T-
American Psychiatric Association_^<N__^<N_Founded in 1844, the American Psychiatric Association (APA) is the oldest national medical association in the United States. In 1990 its membership had reached 36,000. At its inception the APA was an
organization geared toward the needs of medical superintendents of insane asylums. However, it gradually expanded its scope to include improving patient treatment, promoting research and professional education, advancing psychiatric standards, and
promoting the dissemination of psychiatric knowledge to other fields. The APA publishes the American Psychiatric Journal and DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS.
-END-
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42
CAT
-A-
American quarter horse:
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American quarter horse:_^<N__^<N_see QUARTER HORSE.
-END-
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56119
CATO
4814
9647
14508
19327
24145
28955
33794
38593
43399
48176
52980
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American Revolution
-O-
000000|American Revolution
001854| THE COLONIES IN 1763
008467| THE GROWING FERMENT
009248| Taxation Without Representation
012533| Resistance and Retaliation
015220| Lexington and Concord
016454| RESOURCES OF THE OPPONENTS
017309| American Advantages
019240| British Disadvantages
023708| COURSE OF THE WAR
024108| Clinton's Southern Expedition
024868| Invasion of Canada
025766| Britain's Northern Offensive of 1776
028574| Battles of Trenton and Princeton
029348| The Failure of Negotiation
030175| Saratoga Campaign
033190| British Capture of Philadelphia
034666| THE FRENCH ALLIANCE
036245| Valley Forge and the Battle of Monmouth
037781| War in the West
039974| War in the South
044388| Conclusion
045935| POLITICAL, SOCIAL, AND ECONOMIC EFFECTS
047729| Institutional Changes
049334| The Spirit of Progress
051206| Creation of the Constitution
-T-
American Revolution_^<N__^<N_The American Revolution, the conflict by which the American colonists won their independence from Great Britain and created the United States of America, was an upheaval of profound significance in world history. It
occurred in the second half of the 18th century, in an "Age of Democratic Revolution," when philosophers and political theorists in Europe were critically examining the institutions of their own societies and the notions that lay behind them. Yet
the American Revolution first put to the test ideas and theories that had seldom if ever been worked out in practice in the Old World--separation of church and state, sovereignty of the people, written constitutions, and effective checks and
balances in government. _^<N__^<N_A struggle to preserve and later to expand the dimensions of human freedom, the American Revolution was also an anticolonial movement, the first in modern history. Before then, countries had usually come into
existence through evolutionary processes, the result of tradition and history, geography and circumstance. The United States, on the other hand, had a birth date, 1776; it was "the first new nation," a republic born in revolution and war, a
pattern followed by scores of fledgling states since that time, especially in the so-called Third World areas of the globe since 1945. _^<N__^<N_For many nation-makers the American rebellion has been a relevant revolution, offering insights and
parallels that have aided them in their quest for self-determination. The revolutionists of 1776 themselves accurately predicted that the American Revolution would inspire men elsewhere to secure freedom and national identity in their own lands.
As Thomas Jefferson assured John Adams, "the Flames kindled on the fourth of July" had spread over too much of the globe ever to be extinguished by the forces of despotism and reaction. _^<N__^<N_ THE COLONIES IN 1763_^<N__^<N_No revolution, of
course, can be fully exported. A vast array of factors that include the political and social backgrounds of a people will shape the precise course of any and all revolutions. So it was in America, where the colonists were not an alien people with
a culture very different from that of the motherland. They were for the most part British in origin, English-speaking, Protestant, rural, and agrarian in their principal characteristics. They were proud of their Anglo-Saxon heritage and of the
empire of which they were a part--proud, too, of the role they had played in helping to seize Canada and to crush French power in North America in the FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR (known as the SEVEN YEARS' WAR in Europe), which ended in 1763.
_^<N__^<N_At that time the colonists gave little thought to cutting loose from their imperial moorings. They considered the British political system the best in Europe, noted for its equilibrium between King, Lords, and Commons assembled in
Parliament. They imported British books, furniture, and clothing; wealthy planters and merchants imitated the manners of the English aristocracy. Even with the restrictions imposed on their external trade by the NAVIGATION ACTS--or perhaps
because of them--they had prospered in their direct economic intercourse with Britain, the most industrialized country in Europe. Nor was their trade rigidly confined; they were also permitted to sell an assortment of valuable products such as
grain, flour, and rice on non-British markets in the West Indies and in southern Europe. _^<N__^<N_In 1763 the colonists were an expanding and maturing people; their numbers had reached a million and a half, and they were doubling every quarter of
a century--multiplying like rattlesnakes, as Benjamin Franklin said. If most provincials were sons of the soil, Americans could nonetheless boast of five urban centers, "cities in the wilderness"--Philadelphia, Boston, New York, Charleston, and
Newport. The cities served as filters through which new ideas of the European Enlightenment entered the colonies, helping to generate an inquisitive spirit about humankind and the total environment. Newspapers and colleges in the cities and towns
served as disseminators of the thought and culture of what was truly an Atlantic civilization. A new mobility, together with a receptivity to new ideas, was a hallmark of American society. It came about because of high wages, cheap land, and an
absence of legal privilege. Americans were--except for their African slaves--one of the freest people in the world. Another sign of that freedom was their almost complete control over their internal political and domestic affairs, exercised
largely through their popularly elected lower houses of assembly, which in turn served as nurturing ground for such future Revolutionary leaders as John ADAMS, John DICKINSON, Thomas JEFFERSON, and George WASHINGTON. _^<N__^<N_Although the
colonists had reached a high level of maturity, there was not at mid-century a meaningful American nationalism. The life and institutions of the parent state continued to provide the central focus of colonial culture. The word American appeared
infrequently; people were more likely to describe themselves as English or British, or as Virginians or Pennsylvanians. Nor did the provincials display a marked degree of intercolonial cooperation; their own rivalries and jealousies over
boundaries, western land claims, and military contributions in the imperial wars all tended to retard American national feeling, as may be seen in the rejection of the Plan of Union presented by Benjamin FRANKLIN to the ALBANY CONGRESS in 1754.
_^<N__^<N_Nothing, however, unites a people like a commonly perceived threat to their way of life; and after 1763 the colonists felt endangered within the empire. There is a real irony in the way the American Revolution began, for the very
elements that had wedded the colonists to the mother country--especially their political and economic freedoms--were viewed in London as signs that Britain had lost control of its transatlantic dominions, that the colonists were fast heading down
the road to full autonomy or absolute independence. Those sentiments, growing steadily in the 18th century, crystallized during the French and Indian War when British officials complained that Americans cooperated poorly in raising men and
supplies and in providing quarters for British troops, to say nothing of trading illegally with the enemy and generating friction with western Indians over land and trade goods. _^<N__^<N_Whatever the truth of these charges--and they were partly
true, if exaggerated--it was not unreasonable after 1763 for Britain to ask more of its prosperous dependencies. Britain's heavy national debt and concurrent tax burdens stemmed partly at least from a series of 18th-century wars that were fought
to some extent for the defense of the colonies. Nor was it wrong to argue that a measure of reorganization in American administration would lead to greater economy and efficiency in imperial management. But Britain embarked upon this course with
a lack of sensitivity, ignoring the concerns of its maturing subjects, who were scarcely the children they had once been. _^<N__^<N_In short, Britain's state of mind (meaning that of its rulers and the parliamentary majority) corresponded to its
lofty status as the superpower of Europe in 1763. It was said that the Pax Romana would pale in comparison with the Pax Britannica, which would bring a "prosperity and glory unknown to any former age." Britain no longer felt a need for its former
allies in Europe. For what nation could now threaten it? It no longer required the goodwill of its colonies, for France had ceased to be a threat to the thirteen colonies, whose men and other resources--although Britain scarcely admitted it--had
in fact aided the British victory in 1763. _^<N__^<N_Britain's was a mentality unable to appreciate the aims and aspirations of its colonial people. Superpowers, all too often, are not much given to introspection, to questioning their values and
assumptions. And it had been a long time since the British themselves had felt their liberties threatened, either by a foreign danger or by internal menace from a tyrannical ruler. Thus, when Britain adopted a new imperial program, the colonists
were never meaningfully consulted. Furthermore, Britain's tactics could hardly avoid arousing the Americans. Having left the colonies virtually alone for decades with a de facto attitude of "salutary neglect," the London government now attempted
too much too quickly. _^<N__^<N_ THE GROWING FERMENT_^<N__^<N_Even before the termination of the French and Indian War, visible indications had appeared of a new direction in colonial affairs. Beginning in 1759, small-scale disputes broke out
between Britain and the colonies over disallowance of measures passed by the popular assemblies, over writs of assistance empowering the royal customs officials to break into homes and stores, and over judicial tenure in the colonial courts.
Subsequent decisions made in London forbade "for the time being" western settlement beyond the Appalachian divide (the Proclamation of 1763), eliminated provincial paper currency as legal tender, bolstered the customs department, and enlarged the
authority of the vice-admiralty courts in relation to enforcement of the Navigation Acts. _^<N__^<N_ Taxation Without Representation_^<N__^<N_When these unpopular measures were followed almost immediately by Parliament's placing taxes on Americans
for the first time in their history, the result was an explosion that shook the empire to its foundations. George GRENVILLE, chief minister from 1763 to 1765, did not father the idea of American taxation; it had been "in the air" for several
years. But it was he who pushed the controversial bills through Parliament in 1764 and 1765. The Sugar Act of 1764, actually a downward revision of an earlier Molasses Act, cut the duty on imported foreign molasses from sixpence to threepence a
gallon; but it was to be vigorously enforced, and it was now called a revenue measure rather than a law designed merely to regulate trade. The next year Grenville secured passage of the so-called STAMP ACT, placing taxes on all legal documents and
on newspapers, almanacs, and other items. Soon afterward came a third law, the Quartering Act, a form of indirect taxation that required American assemblies to provide British troops passing through their colonies with temporary housing and an
assortment of provisions. _^<N__^<N_"Taxation without representation" was the central issue in the imperial rupture. It raised a fundamental question concerning the limits of parliamentary power that was debated throughout the dozen or so years
before the declaration of American independence. Although Americans complained about the stream of British acts and regulations after 1759, they now agreed that the constitutional issue of taxation posed the gravest threat of all to their freedom
as individuals. If it was legal to take a man's property without his consent, as the philosopher John LOCKE wrote in defense of the GLORIOUS REVOLUTION of 1688 in England, then a man could scarcely have any liberty remaining, since property gave
one a stake in society and enabled one to vote. Americans felt confident that Locke would have approved when they wrote in almost countless documents and petitions that Englishmen--in England, in Virginia, or anywhere else--could be taxed only by
their own directly elected representatives. _^<N__^<N_When Parliament retreated in 1766, reducing the Sugar Act to the level of a trade duty and repealing the Stamp Act, it was responding to retaliatory colonial boycotts on British trade goods, not
to the justness of American constitutional pronouncements. In 1767, Chancellor of the Exchequer Charles Townshend persuaded a Parliament already antagonistic toward the colonies to pass the TOWNSHEND ACTS. These levied new and different taxes on
the American colonists: duties to be collected at the ports on incoming lead, paper, tea, paint, and glass. Besides meeting other imperial expenses such as the upkeep of the army in America, these Townshend duties might go to pay the salaries of
royal governors and other crown officials who previously had been paid by the colonial assemblies, which had used this power of the purse to make the king's appointees somewhat responsive to their wishes. A final Townshend scheme reorganized the
customs service in America, establishing its headquarters in Boston, where mounting friction between collectors and townspeople led to the dispatch of regular troops to the city to keep order in 1768. _^<N__^<N_ Resistance and
Retaliation_^<N__^<N_The new tensions subsided into a three-year period of calm beginning in 1770, but only because a second round of American reprisals against English trade prompted the removal of all the Townshend duties save the one on tea,
which was retained to show symbolically that Parliament had not renounced its right to tax America. Additionally, the British troops, popularly known as "redcoats," had been withdrawn from Boston following the embarrassing and unplanned BOSTON
MASSACRE (1770). Unfortunately for the empire, those years were not used to bring about permanent agreements between Americans and Britons on such subjects as the constitutional relationship between the colonies and the mother country and what
might be a reasonable way for the provinces to share the costs of imperial administration. In an atmosphere of continuing suspicion and distrust, each side looked for the worst from the other. Instead of rescinding the remaining Townshend tax and
exploring inoffensive methods of aiding the financially troubled British East India Company, Parliament enacted the Tea Act of 1773, designed to allow the company to bypass middlemen and sell directly to American retailers. It was hardly a plot to
persuade Americans to drink taxed tea at a low price, but the colonists interpreted it in that fashion. Everywhere there was opposition to landing the dutied brew, and in the Massachusetts capital the famous BOSTON TEA PARTY resulted in the
destruction by patriots of 340 tea chests on ships in the harbor. _^<N__^<N_Parliament's retaliation against Massachusetts was swift and severe: the so-called INTOLERABLE ACTS closed the port of Boston, altered town and provincial government,
permitted royal officials and functionaries to go to Britain for trial for any alleged crimes, and provided for the quartering of troops once again in Boston. The other colonies rallied to the defense of Massachusetts in a CONTINENTAL CONGRESS
that met in Philadelphia in September 1774 and denounced the acts. Already some colonial leaders were arguing that the old federal conception of the empire would no longer protect American rights and liberties, for Britain had demonstrated its
unwillingness to let the colonists manage their own internal, domestic affairs. Now, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and other writers claimed that the empire should properly be viewed as one in which each colony was the equal of England in all
respects, that the only tie with Britain was through the king. Here, in sum, was the COMMONWEALTH idea of the 20th century, which now unites such nations as New Zealand, Canada, and Australia with Britain, an idea then rejected by England.
_^<N__^<N_ Lexington and Concord_^<N__^<N_War clouds were gathering rapidly. The sending of more than 3,000 British army regulars under Maj. Gen. Thomas GAGE to Boston further exacerbated the imperial rift. When a column of these troops under
Lt. Col. Francis Smith moved into the countryside to collect arms and munitions gathered by the patriot militia, hostilities erupted at Lexington and Concord on Apr. 19, 1775. Soon afterward militia contingents from places throughout New
England took up positions outside Boston, putting the city under siege. Forts TICONDEROGA and CROWN POINT in upstate New York fell to other rebel parties. The misnamed Battle of Bunker Hill was fought on Breed's Hill across from Boston (June 17,
1775). Although Gage's units dislodged the rebels from their advanced positions threatening the city, the British casualties came to 42 percent of the 2,500 redcoats engaged, their heaviest losses of the war. The Second Continental Congress, then
meeting at Philadelphia, took control of the New England forces opposing Gage. The lawmakers chose as commander of this "Continental Army" George Washington, a 43-year-old delegate from Virginia, a planter and a ranking militia officer in the
French and Indian Wars. _^<N__^<N_ RESOURCES OF THE OPPONENTS_^<N__^<N_Britain seemingly had enormous advantages in a war against its colonies. It possessed a well-established government, a sizable treasury, a competent army, the most powerful
navy in the world, and a large LOYALIST population in the colonies. By contrast, the American rebels had no chief executive such as the king, nor a cabinet whose members had assigned responsibilities. In fact, the Americans had no separate or
independent departments of government such as war, treasury, and foreign affairs until near the end of the conflict. The Continental Congress itself had as its rivals the 13 state legislatures, which often chose not to cooperate with their
delegates in Philadelphia. Indeed, Congress was an extralegal body, existing at the pleasure of the states before the Articles of Confederation were ratified in 1781. _^<N__^<N_ American Advantages_^<N__^<N_The Americans, however, were not without
their own advantages. A vast reservoir of manpower could be drawn upon. For the most part, men preferred short-term enlistments--and many who served came out for a few weeks or months--but they did serve: the best estimates are that over 200,000
participated on the patriot side. General Washington was often short of shoes and powder, but rarely were he and other commanders without men when they needed them most, although at times American leaders had to take into the army slaves, pardoned
criminals, British deserters, and prisoners of war. Moreover, Americans owned guns, and they knew how to use them. If the Continental Army won few fixed battles, it normally fought reasonably well; it extracted a heavy toll on the enemy, who
usually could not easily obtain reinforcements. Although only Washington and Maj. Gen. Nathanael GREENE were outstanding commanders, many others were steady and reliable, including Henry KNOX, Benjamin LINCOLN, Anthony WAYNE, Daniel MORGAN,
Baron von STEUBEN, the Marquis de LAFAYETTE, and Benedict ARNOLD, before he defected to the enemy in 1780. _^<N__^<N_The Americans also were fighting on their own soil and consequently could be more flexible in their military operations than their
opponents. Washington and other Continental Army commanders usually followed the principle of concentration, that is, meeting the enemy in force wherever British armies appeared. In the interior, however, against bands of Loyalists and isolated
British outposts and supply trains, the American militia not infrequently employed guerrilla or partisan tactics with striking successes. The major contribution of the militia was to control the home front against the Revolution's internal
enemies--whether Indians or Loyalists--while the Continental Army contended with British armies in the eastern or coastal regions in more formalized warfare. _^<N__^<N_ British Disadvantages_^<N__^<N_British advantages were steadily negated by the
vastness of the struggle, by waging war 3,000 miles from Europe against an armed population spread over hundreds of miles, from the Atlantic to the Mississippi, from Maine to Georgia. The land was forested, ravined, swampy, and interlaced by
myriad streams and rivers. It was discouraging to win battle after battle and see Britain's armies bled of men and supplies in the process, while the beaten rebels always bounced back. It was equally frustrating to seize at one time or another
every American urban center and yet have nothing more to show for it than the mere possession of territory, since the Americans had no single vital strategic center. _^<N__^<N_To the British it seemed to take forever--6 to 12 weeks--for word of
campaign strategies to pass from London to commanders in the field, for provisions to arrive, and for naval squadrons to appear in time for cooperation with land forces. The scope of the contest also reduced the Royal Navy's effectiveness in
blockading the long American coastline. Stores could be landed at too many rivers, bays, and inlets. Nor could the British employ their fast frigates and formidable ships of the line (battleships of the 18th century) against an American fleet.
The patriots took to the sea in single ships, either privateers or vessels commissioned by Congress. Consequently, the British-American naval war can be told largely as a story of individual ship duels. The triumph of John Paul JONES in the
Bonhomme Richard over H.M.S. Serapis in the North Sea in 1779 was the most famous of these encounters. _^<N__^<N_Britain faced a further problem with the nature of its leadership, both civilian and military. King GEORGE III was a conscientious
but supremely obstinate monarch whose reluctance to countenance the loss of the colonies probably resulted in a prolongation of the war. However, responsibility for the conduct of the war was not in his hands but in those of his compliant chief
minister, Lord NORTH. North, a dull, unimaginative politician, headed a ministry of undistinguished men. Into the leadership vacuum left by North's weakness stepped Lord George GERMAIN, who increasingly assumed the direction of military
operations in the colonies. Germain, the colonial secretary, was himself a veteran soldier, intelligent and able; he was also, however, an unappealing man, sharp-tongued and aloof, hardly the minister capable of unifying the country and playing a
symbolic role as the popular William PITT the Elder had done in the Seven Years' War. _^<N__^<N_Unfortunately for Britain, its generals in the field were much like the political leaders at home, possessed of average talents at best. John BURGOYNE,
Guy CARLETON, Sir Henry CLINTON, Charles CORNWALLIS, William HOWE, and Thomas Gage were probably reasonably endowed to fight conventional wars on the plains of western Europe, where orthodox linear formations were in order. Eighteenth-century
European generals, however, were scarcely professionals in a modern sense. Military education was apprenticeship training in the field rather than schooling at such institutions as the Royal Military Academy at Sandhurst or its U.S. equivalent at
West Point, which were created later. Officers lacked a body of strategic doctrine from which to choose between alternatives for practical application. The British generals revealed themselves grossly inept at improvisation in a unique struggle
in America that demanded rapid movement, original tactics, winter campaigning, and--most important--contending with a people in arms. Moreover, some British commanders, notably the Howe brothers, were deliberately slow in prosecuting the war
because they favored a political reconciliation with the rebels. _^<N__^<N_For all these reasons American generals, even with amateurish militia backgrounds, were not at so serious a disadvantage as they might have been in a subsequent period of
history. American officers who had fought with the British army in the French and Indian Wars, observing its procedures and reading the standard military treatises, found in the Revolution that the pattern of warfare as practiced by the so-called
experts had hardly changed at all. Washington and his comrades lacked experience in directing massive formations and planning campaigns; but, for that matter, British generals--and admirals too--had themselves been subordinate officers in the
last war with France. _^<N__^<N_ COURSE OF THE WAR_^<N__^<N_Britain was slow to take the offensive in the opening rounds of the war, since most of its troops in America were at Boston, which continued under siege. Unable to break out of their
entrenchments, and threatened by Washington's artillery on Dorchester Heights, British troops evacuated the city by sea in March 1776 and established themselves temporarily at Halifax, Nova Scotia. _^<N__^<N_ Clinton's Southern
Expedition_^<N__^<N_That same spring a small British expedition under Sir Henry Clinton sailed along the coast of the southern colonies in the hope of arousing the Loyalists against the newly established American governments in the Carolinas and
Georgia. Reaching the Cape Fear River in North Carolina, Clinton learned that a Loyalist uprising had been smashed by the patriots at the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge near Wilmington (Feb. 27, 1776). Then, continuing southward, Clinton's fleet
bombarded the harbor fortifications at Charleston, S.C., perhaps seeking to establish a coastal base for local Loyalists. In any case, the expedition was beaten off (June 28, 1776), terminating important British activity in the South for over two
years. _^<N__^<N_ Invasion of Canada_^<N__^<N_At best, both sides might consider the first year of conflict a draw. Although the king's regiments had withdrawn from New England, the colonists in turn had failed to capture the former French
province of Quebec. The Americans had hoped to persuade the French inhabitants to join their cause, since they feared that Canada might become a staging area for an invasion of the thirteen colonies. An American army under Brig. Gen. Richard
MONTGOMERY advanced from upper New York and seized Montreal (Nov. 10, 1775), while Col. Benedict Arnold led a second force northward through the Maine wilderness. Uniting before the city of Quebec, they attacked the walled capital but were
beaten back, and Montgomery was killed (December 30). Although the Americans continued to blockade the city until May 1776, the only serious American threat to Canada in the war had been ended. _^<N__^<N_ Britain's Northern Offensive of
1776_^<N__^<N_From the summer of 1776 the strategic initiative was taken by the British, who believed that the real core of the insurrection was in the northern tier of colonies, especially in New England. To bring the war to an end in 1776,
British planners sent reinforcements to Maj. Gen. Guy Carleton, governor of Quebec, who had already defeated Arnold and Montgomery. Carleton should push the Americans from their remaining toeholds in Canada and pursue them down the Lake
Champlain-Hudson River trough, which might be a means of cutting the colonies in half. Simultaneously, a much larger army headed by Maj. Gen. William Howe, who had replaced Gage as supreme commander, should capture New York City and its splendid
harbor, a strategic base from which it could advance up the Hudson, unite with Carleton, and overrun New England. But Carleton, after driving his opponents back, was delayed by problems of supply and the difficulties of wilderness campaigning.
Then, near Valcour Island on Lake Champlain, his naval complement was checkmated by a tiny American fleet hastily assembled by Benedict Arnold. Time was always of the essence in fall campaigning, and the lateness of the season now prompted
Carleton to return to Canada for the winter. _^<N__^<N_Howe's chances of completing his part of the two-pronged offensive seemed more promising than Carleton's. Howe launched his campaign with the largest force he or any other British general had
at his disposal during the war: 32,000 soldiers, together with 400 transports and 73 warships under his brother, Vice Admiral Richard, Earl HOWE, with whom he shared the American supreme command. From a military viewpoint, Washington should not
have attempted to retain New York City, with its hard-to-defend islands, rivers, bays, and inlets, although Congress saw strong psychological reasons for holding a major city whose loss might dispirit patriots everywhere. As it was, Washington
suffered a defeat on Long Island (Aug. 27, 1776). Fortunately for him, Howe did not attempt to follow up his victory quickly. The explanation may be that the Howe brothers, who were also peace commissioners, hoped to convince the Americans to
lay down their arms, apparently in the belief that leniency might encourage the rebels to do so. If that was their theory, it failed. Washington fought a series of rearguard actions with Howe on Manhattan Island, with the result that it took the
sluggish Howe from August to November to clear his opponents from New York City and the surrounding area. Howe, like Carleton, never made his move along the Hudson, but contented himself with pursuing the retreating Washington across New Jersey
until the Americans managed to escape over the Delaware River into Pennsylvania (Dec. 7, 1776). _^<N__^<N_ Battles of Trenton and Princeton_^<N__^<N_With the Revolution seemingly at its nadir and desperately in need of a lift, Washington
unexpectedly struck back, showing a determination and a persistence that were to be his hallmarks during a war that lasted eight and a half years, the longest in American history before Vietnam. Washington noted that Howe, in characteristic
European fashion, preferred to avoid winter campaigning and had divided his army between New York City and various New Jersey towns. Collecting scattered regulars and militiamen, the Virginian returned to New Jersey and in a little more than a
week of dazzling maneuvers captured the garrison of German mercenaries at Trenton (Dec. 26, 1776) and routed another enemy contingent at Princeton (Jan. 3, 1777). _^<N__^<N_ The Failure of Negotiation_^<N__^<N_Just as the Howe brothers had failed
in 1776 to crush the rebellion, so also had they failed in their efforts as peace commissioners. They had little with which to negotiate, except the vague assertion that Americans should lay down their arms and trust to the good will of Parliament
to remove objectionable laws. Even had they possessed meaningful bargaining powers, the possibility for a reconciliation was probably a thing of the past, since the Americans had already chosen to sever permanently their imperial ties. Fortified
by the arguments in the highly influential pamphlet Common Sense by Thomas PAINE, the Continental Congress had voted on July 4, 1776, to separate the American colonies from Britain, adopting the immortal words of Thomas Jefferson in the DECLARATION
OF INDEPENDENCE. _^<N__^<N_ Saratoga Campaign_^<N__^<N_Once again in 1777, British campaign planning focused on the northern states. Once again, too, the Canadian-based army and Howe's forces were to mount offensives. This time the Canadian
troops, now commanded by Maj. Gen. John Burgoyne, were numerically much stronger, but they had no promise of cooperation from General Howe as they proceeded down the Lake Champlain-Hudson River course. For his part, Howe appeared uncertain for
several months about his own course of action. Possibly he still longed for a negotiated peace; perhaps he was becoming doubtful of Britain's ability to win an exhausting land war. Finally, Howe resolved not to march north in support of Burgoyne
but rather to leave a garrison under Sir Henry Clinton in New York City and to transport his army by sea for a strike against Philadelphia. Incredibly, neither Howe nor Burgoyne had corresponded with each other about the campaign--each would
handle his own affairs. Even so, the greatest fault lay with Lord George Germain, who had approved the campaign but failed to give it a unifying concept. _^<N__^<N_Burgoyne's operation began well, as was true of most British campaigning during the
Revolution. The American Northern army, plagued by shortages and internal divisions, initially offered slight opposition. So confident was Burgoyne that he permitted officers to bring wives and mistresses, sanctioned elaborate dinner parties and
heavy drinking bouts, and behaved generally--as did his officers--as if war were romantic and glamorous, as indeed it was for European aristocrats of that age. Events were to show that Burgoyne suffered from overconfidence, which actually
increased when he recaptured Fort Ticonderoga (July 5, 1777) at the juncture of Lakes Champlain and George. His leisurely pace allowed the Americans precious time to regroup and to make an ally of the dense wilderness of upper New York. They
destroyed his only road south, felling trees to block his progress, and sent out guerrilla bands to harass his flanks and lines of communication. _^<N__^<N_In mid-August Burgoyne learned that one of his units commanded by Lt. Col. Barry ST.
LEGER had been mauled by American militia under Nicholas HERKIMER while laying siege to Fort Stanwix in the Mohawk Valley, and that St. Leger had returned to Canada. More bad news came from Bennington, Vt., where a contingent of his German troops
in search of packhorses and provisions had been routed by the militia of Brig. Gen. John STARK. At length, Burgoyne reached the rugged Bemis Heights on the west bank of the Hudson, where he collided with a well-entrenched and much-revitalized
Northern army under Gen. Horatio GATES, ably supported by Maj. Gen. Benedict Arnold and Col. Daniel Morgan. Twice--on September 19 and October 7--Burgoyne lunged at the American lines, and both times was driven back with heavy losses. With his
southward progress blocked and no help forthcoming from Clinton in New York, he surrendered at Saratoga (Oct. 17, 1777). _^<N__^<N_ British Capture of Philadelphia_^<N__^<N_Howe, meanwhile, was winning victories in Pennsylvania, although their
long-term value was more illusory than real. He was faulted, from the very beginning of the campaign, by Sir Henry Clinton for not advancing up the Hudson to aid Burgoyne or at least marching on Philadelphia by land in order to remain in touch
with the Canadian army. Instead of debarking at Delaware Bay near his objective, he landed on upper Chesapeake Bay, 92 km (57 mi) from Philadelphia. _^<N__^<N_Washington, amazed at Howe's desertion of Burgoyne, hurried south from Morristown, N.J.,
and positioned his army astride Brandywine Creek to parry his opponent's obvious thrust at Philadelphia. But on September 11, in several hours of furious fighting, Washington's right flank collapsed, and he hastily withdrew. _^<N__^<N_Soon after
the British commander entered the patriot capital, causing Congress to flee, Washington made a night assault on the enemy's advance base at Germantown, Pa., but his plan was probably too complicated for his troops, who nonetheless fought well until
they were forced to retire (October 4). _^<N__^<N_The year 1777 had seen another British failure to crush the rebellion. While one army had been lost, another had occupied Philadelphia. However, the city itself was hardly a staggering loss for
the Americans, whose armies were still intact. Howe, too, had paid a heavy price in casualties, whereas the patriots were able to replenish their own depleted ranks. _^<N__^<N_ THE FRENCH ALLIANCE_^<N__^<N_The new year, 1778, was a time of
transition in the Revolutionary War because of Britain's inability to win in the northern colonies and because of the increasing part played by France. The French foreign minister, the Comte de Vergennes, eager to settle an old score with Britain,
convinced his royal master Louis XVI to permit France to funnel secret aid to the patriots in 1776 and 1777. That aid took the form of the government's handing over munitions, arms, and clothing to the playwright Caron de BEAUMARCHAIS and his fake
"Hortalez and Company," which in turn arranged with Benjamin Franklin and other patriot commissioners in Paris to have them shipped across the Atlantic. _^<N__^<N_Vergennes, however, was not willing to risk war with Britain until he was sure that
the Americans had the ability to continue the fight and the commitment to eschew reconciliation with George III. Gates's victory at Saratoga, combined with rumors that Britain would offer America major concessions in return for peace, finally
pushed France over the brink. Formal treaties of commerce and alliance were signed by American and French diplomats on Feb. 6, 1778. France became the first nation to recognize the infant country; it renounced all claims to North America east
of the Mississippi River and agreed with the United States that neither would lay down its arms until American independence was guaranteed. Already Spain, a French ally, was giving America modest aid. It declared war on Britain in 1779, but
without joining the United States in a formal alliance. _^<N__^<N_ Valley Forge and the Battle of Monmouth_^<N__^<N_The winter of the signing of the French alliance was also the Continental Army's time of cruel suffering at VALLEY FORGE, although
it was actually not the worst winter of the war. Spring brought Washington not only new recruits, but also an army better trained than ever before, due in considerable part to the labors of the Prussian general Baron von Steuben in drilling the
troops at Valley Forge. _^<N__^<N_Spring meant, furthermore, additional pressure on British forces in the New World now that France was entering the struggle. Accordingly, Sir Henry Clinton, who became the new commander in chief when the Howes
resigned (May 1778) and returned to England, now received important orders: evacuate his army from Philadelphia, concentrate his forces at New York City, and send men to guard against French threats against British islands in the Caribbean.
_^<N__^<N_Washington, his confidence up, pursued Clinton on his cross-country march through New Jersey, and at Monmouth Courthouse the two armies clashed (June 28, 1778). For the Continentals, who traded volley for volley with the finest soldiers
in Europe, it was a moral victory, although the outcome itself was indecisive. In three years of fighting, Britain had little to show for its exertions to regain America, and so it would remain in the northern states, where the heavy campaigning
was at an end. Washington, who followed Clinton northward after Monmouth, spent the next three years observing the British from lines outside New York City. _^<N__^<N_ War in the West_^<N__^<N_In one sense, the struggle on the western frontier
paralleled the fighting to the east, in that neither side managed to get the upper hand. To be sure, most Indian tribes that involved themselves in the fray did so in the cause of the "great white father," George III. They had long nourished
grievances against the colonists, who had cheated them in land transactions and trade. But it is not clear that the aid of the tribesmen was a positive influence for Britain; their ferocious tactics may well have alienated many colonists who had
been neutral or apathetic. Furthermore, because they demanded food in winter and a great variety of other goods and supplies, the Indians were a great financial and administrative burden for British frontier leaders. _^<N__^<N_Although Kentucky
settlers were threatened periodically, in 1778 the young George Rogers CLARK weakened Britain's hold on the interior by overrunning enemy-controlled villages in present-day Illinois and Indiana. He also captured the controversial lieutenant
governor of Detroit, Henry Hamilton, the alleged "hair-buyer." Less significant was the role of the Kentuckian Daniel BOONE, a steady if unspectacular leader. Elsewhere in the West the contest seesawed back and forth. In the lower South the
Cherokee proved to be the most formidable of Britain's warrior allies; although the patriot militia handed them a series of stinging defeats in 1776, the Cherokee continued to be troublesome, if not a serious threat. To check the devastating
raids of the Iroquois on the New York-Pennsylvania frontier, Washington sent a striking force headed by Maj. Gen. John SULLIVAN into western New York, where the Americans laid waste to many tribal towns. _^<N__^<N_Even so, Sullivan, Clark, and
the American commanders of the Western Department at Fort Pitt (Pittsburgh) could not eliminate all the anchor points of British power in the interior. Loyalist and Indian parties based in Detroit and Niagara continued to harass the frontier
communities along the Ohio and in the valleys of western New York even after the conclusion of the war, thus contributing to the renewal of war between Britain and the United States in 1812. _^<N__^<N_ War in the South_^<N__^<N_In the South, a
region long neglected by Britain, the war reached its conclusion. Because of the British inability to prevail in the North, London's strategists gradually shifted their attention to the South, beginning in late 1778. They felt that section
contained a higher percentage of Loyalists than any other part of America. Then, too, if choices had to be made after France's entry into the war had stretched British resources tissue thin, England preferred to save the South above all other
areas. Its raw materials were the most valuable of all American commodities in the mother country's mercantile scheme. _^<N__^<N_Britain, as usual, opened a new theater of campaigning with a string of triumphs. In December 1778 small British
expeditions from New York and Florida subdued Georgia. Fighting in 1779 was inconclusive along the Georgia-South Carolina border, and a combined Franco-American assault on British-held Savannah was beaten off. In February 1780 Britain greatly
expanded its southern beachhead when Sir Henry Clinton arrived in South Carolina from New York with 8,700 additional troops. He soon laid siege to Charleston, where on May 12 American Maj. Gen. Benjamin Lincoln surrendered the city and its more
than 5,000 defenders. A second, hastily assembled American Southern army under Horatio Gates was crushed at Camden in upper South Carolina (Aug. 16, 1780) by Lord Cornwallis, whom Clinton had left in command when he returned to New York.
_^<N__^<N_These English victories did not extinguish the flames of rebellion. Britain found pacification of the back country difficult. Rebel small-unit operations continued under such local, legendary guerrilla leaders as Francis MARION and
Thomas SUMTER. And a body of patriot frontiersmen, mainly from the Watauga settlements in present-day eastern Tennessee, wiped out a 1,000-man contingent of Loyalist troops at King's Mountain on the border of the Carolinas (Oct. 7, 1780).
_^<N__^<N_As the guerrillas tied down Cornwallis, still a third American army formed in the South under Maj. Gen. Nathanael Greene, who then launched the most effective military campaign of the war. Greene's basic plan was to keep his
numerically superior antagonist, Cornwallis, off balance by a series of rapid movements and by cooperating with the South Carolina guerrilla leaders. Greene audaciously divided his small army, sending Brig. Gen. Daniel Morgan into western South
Carolina, where he destroyed Lt. Col. Banastre Tarleton's Tory Legion at Cowpens (Jan. 17, 1781). When Cornwallis pursued Morgan, Greene united his army, led Cornwallis on an exhausting chase into North Carolina, and finally fought him to a
draw at Guilford Courthouse (Mar. 15, 1781). While the British general limped eastward and then northward to the Virginia coast, the resourceful Greene returned to South Carolina, and between April and July picked off, one by one, every British
post save Charleston and Savannah, where the enemy remained isolated and impotent until peace came. _^<N__^<N_Cornwallis, meanwhile, was sealing his own fate in Virginia, where he united with a raiding expedition under Benedict Arnold (now in
British service), already in that state, and erected a base at the port of Yorktown. Both his superior, Clinton, in New York and General Washington recognized that Cornwallis was vulnerable to a land-and-sea blockade on a Virginia peninsula. But
Cornwallis refused to leave, arguing the doubtful proposition that Britain would have to capture Virginia in order to have lasting success in the lower South. _^<N__^<N_At this point, Franco-American army and naval operations, hitherto
disappointing in their results, now determined the fate of Cornwallis. Adding to his forces the French troops of the Comte de ROCHAMBEAU in Rhode Island, Washington raced southward and opened siege operations before Yorktown on October 6, while a
French fleet under the Comte de GRASSE sealed off a sea escape. Clinton hastened a naval squadron from New York to the Chesapeake, but it was repulsed by de Grasse. After suffering through an intensive artillery bombardment, Cornwallis, on Oct.
19, 1781, surrendered his nearly 8,000 troops to the 17,000-man allied force. The British failed in the South for several reasons, including an exaggerated estimate of Loyalist support, an inadequate program of pacification, and a failure to
recognize the significance of sea power. _^<N__^<N_ Conclusion_^<N__^<N_The war in America rapidly ground to a halt after Yorktown, a war in which neither side had seemingly the energy or the resources to obtain a total victory. Certainly British
leaders had lost all enthusiasm for subduing America, although Britain and its European enemies, France and Spain, continued to duel on far-flung battlefronts until the conclusion of peace in 1783. _^<N__^<N_The struggle had been so unusual that
contemporary military thinkers believed that no European nation would ever have to engage in the kind of conflict that Britain had confronted in America between 1775 and 1783. England had dispatched 60,000 soldiers across an ocean to fight a
prolonged war in an alien environment against a people who were numerous and armed. It was a task never paralleled in the past. _^<N__^<N_As for the Americans, if they won no clear-cut military victory, if they could not drive out the British
completely, if Clinton's forces continued after Yorktown to occupy important cities and interior posts, they nonetheless scored a decisive triumph at the peace conference in Paris. Taking advantage of suspicions between the European rivals and
sensing England's desire to be generous in order to pry America out of the French orbit, John JAY and Benjamin Franklin secured not only British recognition of American independence but also the entire region from the Appalachians to the
Mississippi River as part of the United States. The final Treaty of Paris was signed on Sept. 3, 1783, and ratified by the Continental Congress on Jan. 14, 1784. _^<N__^<N_ POLITICAL, SOCIAL, AND ECONOMIC EFFECTS_^<N__^<N_The Revolution involved
more than battles and diplomacy. If those were the most crucial and immediate objectives, more important long-term goals and purposes were to be met; for this was a constructive, not a negative revolution. If Americans broke a relationship
characterized by colonialism and monarchy, that was about the extent of their destructive activity. They still respected British institutions, which they felt had been abused and corrupted by politicians around George III. Consequently, in
fashioning their own state institutions--a process that began in the summer of 1776--they usually employed familiar British-American bricks and mortar. _^<N__^<N_The British constitution was unwritten, but the Americans spelled out the
responsibilities and limits of government in written charters. Since their governments rested totally on the consent of the people, they were designated as republican in character. Basic liberties could not be abrogated by government under any
pretext. They were defined in bills of rights, which included freedom of the press, right of petition, trial by jury, habeas corpus, and other procedures that came to be known as due process of law. _^<N__^<N_The direct involvement of the people
in government was increased in other ways. Governors were elected, not appointed; both branches of the legislatures were elected directly or indirectly by the citizens. Obviously, special privilege had no place in a republic. Consequently,
several states forbade the passage of any office from one man to another by ties of blood. North Carolina's constitution echoed words found in other political parchments when it proclaimed that "no hereditary emoluments, privileges or honors ought
to be granted or conferred by this state." _^<N__^<N_ Institutional Changes_^<N__^<N_The Americans were primarily about a political revolution when they cast off their imperial links and tailored independent governments. Moreover, a revolution
coupled with a foreign war is hardly a time for thoughtful social experimentation, especially when--in the case of the Americans--men believed that they already lived in a remarkably free and open society. Some Americans, however--filled with such
Enlightenment ideas as that society's institutions should be judged critically in terms of their usefulness to mankind--stirred somewhat uneasily. They acknowledged certain contradictions between their revolutionary theories and their practices.
_^<N__^<N_To be sure, some institutional inequities, such as anachronistic inheritance laws and established churches that received preferential treatment, had been eroded or undermined by the degree of liberty and opportunity that existed
everywhere in the twilight years of the colonial era. But during the Revolution, Americans took specific action that resulted in the abolition of primogeniture and entail; in the South the Anglican church lost its already weakened privileged
status, as did the Congregational church in New England some years later. Virginia, as was so often true in the Revolution, led the way with its famous Statute of Religious Freedom (1786). An outstanding document of the age, it proclaimed that
"no man shall be compelled to frequent or support any religious worship" nor "suffer on account of his religious opinions or belief," nor would his "civil capacities" be affected by any "matters of religion." _^<N__^<N_ The Spirit of
Progress_^<N__^<N_If Americans of the Revolutionary generation did not level the social order, or did not create democracy in its present form, they laid the basic groundwork. Furthermore, the revolutionists elevated the American spirit. They
conveyed to their fellow citizens the notion that the country would grow and expand. In opening new lands in the West, they shaped an orderly process by which frontier territories would move from colonial status to statehood; moreover, the infant
states would not be inferior to the original states, as had been true of the earlier relationship between the thirteen colonies and Great Britain. Freed from the mercantilism of the old colonial system, Americans found fresh outlets for trade and
commerce and devised improved methods of banking and corporate organization. They set up new educational institutions, and they advanced the controversial idea that the state had a responsibility for the education of its citizens, an obligation
that had traditionally been the preserve of the church. _^<N__^<N_From all these accomplishments two additional American goals developed. First, a sense of mission--of uniqueness and special purpose--was present in the Revolutionary experience. It
was to make America a kind of showcase that would enable people everywhere to see what free people were capable of achieving. The sense of mission was later a powerful catalyst for continuing change, for living up to the principles of the
Declaration of Independence. The second goal, relating to self-purification and setting one's own house in order, was the appeal for a distinct American culture. Although such a development occurred only in a limited sense--for Americans have
always been a part of Western civilization--it did trigger a new and at least partially fruitful quest for attainments in music, the arts, and literature. _^<N__^<N_ Creation of the Constitution_^<N__^<N_One final accomplishment of the
Revolutionary generation was the creation of a viable national government. Without it, all other gains of the period might have amounted to little. Since that achievement had not taken place by 1783, the leaders of the time felt that the Treaty
of Paris did not mean the end of the American Revolution. As the poet Joel BARLOW explained, "The revolution is but half completed. Independence and government were the two objects contended for; and but one is yet obtained." _^<N__^<N_The task
of preparing a constitution for the new nation had begun in 1776 in the Continental Congress, when that body worked to define the relations of the states to one another and to the nation. In doing so, Congress found that the old colonial
jealousies still existed, as did the suspicions of remote, centralized authority that had led the colonists to criticize and break their ties with the king and Parliament. _^<N__^<N_Consequently, the first national constitution, the ARTICLES OF
CONFEDERATION, was not completed until 1777 and not ratified by all the states until 1781, and it provided for a government of limited national jurisdiction. It was an instrument of one branch, Congress, which now was given legal authority to do
what it was already doing in large part in attempting to direct the war effort. Congress was to have exclusive authority over foreign relations, war and peace, weights and measures, admiralty cases, Indian relations outside the boundaries of
individual states, and postal services. Congress was crippled in crucial ways, however, especially in obtaining revenues; for it could not tax or levy duties on external commerce, nor did it have legal ways to enforce its legitimate authority if
the states chose to disregard its laws. _^<N__^<N_As the war approached its end, the states displayed less willingness to cooperate with Congress and to support its acts, a trend that grew ominous after the treaty of peace. It was especially
depressing to those who had become ardent nationalists through their wartime experiences to see the states ignore the Articles of Confederation by making treaties with the Indians and building state navies, or by failing to send representatives to
Congress and neglecting to contribute sums for the support of the Confederation government. To nationalists such as Washington, Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, Henry Knox, and others, a new political system altogether was needed, particularly
because all efforts to amend the articles had failed. To that end, the CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION, which met at Philadelphia in 1787, decided to try a different form of government--one that would ensure the rights of the states and at the same time
provide the country with a central government capable of maintaining domestic tranquillity, preserving individual liberty, providing for the common defense, and raising the status of America in the family of nations. _^<N__^<N_The result was the
federal CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES, which was approved by the states in ratifying conventions in 1788, despite the cries of opponents that such a powerful government would tyrannize the states and their citizens. The new constitution was
federal, in that powers were separated and divided between the national and state governments, both with their own jurisdictions. By turning to federalism the 55 men at Philadelphia solved what had been the central problem of American political
history in the quarter century since the end of the French and Indian War, namely, how governmental power should be allocated. First, the question was between Parliament and the colonial assemblies; later, between Congress under the Articles of
Confederation and the state legislatures. The American Revolution reached its culmination when the Constitution was adopted in 1788. _^<N__^<N_Don Higginbotham _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Alden, John R., A History of the American Revolution (1969);
Bailyn, Bernard, Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (1967); Bemis, Samuel Flagg, The Diplomacy of the American Revolution (1957; repr. 1983); Dupuy, Richard E., The American Revolution, a Global War (1977); Higginbotham, Don, War of
American Independence (1971); Langguth, A. J., Patriots (1988); Morgan, Edmund S., Birth of the Republic, 2d ed. (1977); Morris, Richard B., The American Revolution: A Short History (1979) and The Forging of the Union 1781-1789 (1987); Shy,
John, A People Numerous and Armed (1976); Stokesbury, James L., A Short History of the American Revolution (1991); Tuchman, Barbara, The First Salute (1988); Wood, Gordon, Creation of the American Republic (1969). _^<N__^<N_See also: BRANDYWINE,
BATTLE OF THE; BUNKER HILL, BATTLE OF; COWPENS, BATTLE OF; LEXINGTON AND CONCORD, BATTLES OF; LONG ISLAND, BATTLE OF; MONMOUTH, BATTLE OF; PARIS, TREATIES OF; SARATOGA, BATTLES OF; TRENTON, BATTLE OF; YORKTOWN CAMPAIGN.
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810
CAT
-A-
American saddle horse
-T-
American saddle horse_^<N__^<N_The American saddle horse, also called the saddlebred, the saddler, the Kentucky saddle horse, and the gaited horse, is a fashionable light HORSE popular in the show ring. An animal of kingly bearing, it has a
well-formed head with a long and arched neck and a short, strong back; the tail is uplifted. The horse stands about 150-160 cm (60-64 in) high and weighs about 450 kg (1,000 lb); the coat is a dark, solid color, often with white markings on head
and legs. The breed was developed from the THOROUGHBRED and the MORGAN. Three-gaited American saddle horses do a brisk and lively walk, a showy trot, and a slow, rocking-chair canter. The five-gaited horse also performs a slow (stepping pace) and
fast gait (rack) in which only one foot touches the ground at a time. _^<N__^<N_Everett Sentman
-END-
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1781
CAT
-A-
American Samoa
-T-
American Samoa_^<N__^<N_American Samoa is an island group in the south central Pacific Ocean about 2,576 km (1,600 mi) northeast of New Zealand. An unincorporated territory of the United States, it consists of seven islands: Aunu'u, Ofu, Olosega,
Rose, Swain's, Tau (or Ta'u), and Tutuila. The last is the main island. The total area is 199 sq km (77 sq mi). The population is 46,773 (1990), and the capital and major city is PAGO PAGO. American Samoa was created by an 1899 treaty among
Great Britain, Germany, and the United States. _^<N__^<N_The islands are eroded remnants of volcanic landmasses. The climate is tropical, with temperatures ranging from about 20 deg C (70 deg F) to about 30 deg C (90 deg F). The rainy season
extends from November to April, and hurricanes are prevalent from May to November. Natural resources are limited. The majority of the population is of Polynesian descent, and both Samoan and English are spoken. Village life is communal, based on
a complicated social system headed by the matais, or chiefs. Education is compulsory for children 6 to 18 years of age, and the islands have a community college. The main industry is tuna canning. Executive power is held by a governor, elected
by popular vote since 1977. The legislature--the Fono--was established by the constitution of 1960. _^<N__^<N_The Samoan islands were first visited by Europeans in the 18th century but were not settled until 1830. The Samoan kingdom, established
in 1889, was dissolved by the 1899 treaty. From 1900 to 1951 the territory was administered by the Department of the Navy and since then by the Department of the Interior, under which the islands have received significant aid. A new airport was
built, and industry and tourism were stimulated. _^<N__^<N_See also: SAMOA; WESTERN SAMOA.
-END-
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350
CAT
-A-
American Scholar
-T-
American Scholar_^<N__^<N_The American Scholar, founded in 1932 and published quarterly by Phi Beta Kappa, is a magazine edited in Washington, D.C., for the general reader. Although the writers are authorities, the articles, reviews, and opinion
pieces are nontechnical and cover many fields. It had approximately 25,600 subscribers in 1991. _^<N__^<N_Warren G. Bovee
-END-
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655
CAT
-A-
American Scholar, The
-T-
American Scholar, The_^<N__^<N_Ralph Waldo EMERSON's "American Scholar," originally delivered as an address to Harvard's Phi Beta Kappa Society in 1837, the same year of its publication, was called by Oliver Wendell HOLMES "America's intellectual
Declaration of Independence." In the address Emerson proposed a uniquely American intellectual view drawn from the experience of the New World, one rooted in an understanding of nature as well as of the literary and intellectual achievements of the
past. Although he did not totally reject the European experience, Emerson called upon the American academic community to free itself from its strictures and prejudices.
-END-
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388
CAT
-A-
American Scientist
-T-
American Scientist_^<N__^<N_American Scientist, published six times a year in Research Triangle Park, N. C., is the official publication of Sigma Xi, a scientific honorary society. It presents recent findings in the earth, physical, life, computer,
and behavioral sciences as well as in mathematics and engineering. Established in 1913, it now has a circulation of about 112,000. _^<N__^<N_Warren G. Bovee
-END-
-C-
500
CAT
-A-
American shorthair cat
-T-
American shorthair cat_^<N__^<N_The American shorthair cat, also called the domestic shorthair, was brought to North America from England in early colonial times. An excellent rodent killer and an intelligent, affectionate pet, it has been
selectively bred to take top awards at cat shows. It has a large head, well-developed shoulders and chest, and powerful, rippling muscles. The tail is medium long, the coat thick and even. Popular colors include silver tabby, brown tabby, and red
tabby. _^<N__^<N_Everett Sentman
-END-
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490
CAT
-A-
American Society of Newspaper Editors
-T-
American Society of Newspaper Editors_^<N__^<N_The American Society of Newspaper Editors was organized in 1922 to promote professional ideals and provide a forum for debating news and editorial problems at its annual spring meeting. Among its some
1,000 members are editors in chief, editorial page editors, and managing editors of U.S. dailies with circulations of more than 20,000. The society's publications include the ASNE Bulletin (9 per year) and Editors' Exchange (11 per year).
_^<N__^<N_Edwin Emery
-END-
-C-
1029
CAT
-A-
American Staffordshire terrier
-T-
American Staffordshire terrier_^<N__^<N_The American Staffordshire terrier is a strongly built breed of dog, with a broad head, large cheek muscles, powerful jaws, thick neck, and forelegs set fairly wide apart. It is 43-48 cm (17-19 in) at the
shoulder and weighs 15.9-22.7 kg (35-50 lb). The short, stiff coat may be any of the usual dog colors. Uncropped ears are preferable and are held erect; the short tail is carried low. The Staffordshire has been bred in the United States since the
mid-19th century but was not recognized by the American Kennel Club until 1935, under the name of Staffordshire terrier. The breed's name was officially changed to American Staffordshire terrier on Jan. 1, 1972, in part to distinguish the breed
from the smaller STAFFORDSHIRE BULL TERRIER of England. The two breeds are closely related, both having a common background of cross between bulldog and terrier. They were bred as pit, or fighting, dogs, but today's Staffordshires have stable
temperaments and make good household pets. _^<N__^<N_John Mandeville
-END-
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968
CAT
-A-
American Tragedy, An
-T-
American Tragedy, An_^<N__^<N_Theodore DREISER's massive novel An American Tragedy caused a public outcry and was banned in Boston when it was published in 1925. At once satiric and sentimental, the novel is based on an actual murder trial of 1906.
Clyde Griffiths, a small-town American youth, dreams of wealth. Although he seduces a young factory worker named Roberta Alden, he hopes to marry the wealthy heiress Sondra Finchly. Unable to free himself from Roberta, he plots to drown her, but at
the last moment his nerve fails him. Their boat capsizes accidentally, however, and Clyde makes no attempt to rescue Roberta. Arrested for murder, he becomes the focus of a circus trial. Dreiser felt that the story contained all the elements of
American national life: "Politics, society, religion, business, sex." The novel was twice translated into film, first in 1931 and, under the title A Place in the Sun, again in 1951. _^<N__^<N_Charlotte D. Solomon _^<N__^<N_See also: AMERICAN
LITERATURE.
-END-
-C-
331
CAT
-A-
American University
-T-
American University_^<N__^<N_Incorporated by an Act of Congress in 1893 and affiliated with the United Methodist Church, The American University (enrollment: 11,425; library: 767,299 volumes) is in Washington, D.C. It has colleges of liberal
arts, business administration, and law and school of international service and public affairs.
-END-
-C-
937
CAT
-A-
American University of Beirut
-T-
American University of Beirut_^<N__^<N_Founded in 1866 as the Syrian Protestant College by the American Board Mission and given its present name in 1920, the American University of Beirut (enrollment: 5,600; library: 500,000 volumes) is a private
coeducational school in Beirut, Lebanon. The university has faculties of arts and sciences, health sciences, engineering and architecture, and agriculture. In 1978 it received an endowment to establish a school of business and management studies.
Authority for its degrees is derived from the Board of Regents of the State of New York. _^<N__^<N_Although located in Beirut, the university itself escaped serious physical damage from the civil strife of the 1970s and 1980s. The university's
leadership, however, fell victim to the conflict: its acting president, David S. Dodge, was abducted in 1982 and later released. In January 1984 his successor, Malcolm Kerr, was slain near his university office.
-END-
-C-
1088
CAT
-A-
American water spaniel
-T-
American water spaniel_^<N__^<N_The American water spaniel is a sporting breed of dog that stands 38-46 cm (15-18 in) at the shoulder and weighs 11.3-20.4 kg (25-45 lb). The dense, tightly curled coat is dark liver or chocolate, and a little white
on the chest or toes is accepted in the show ring. The long, drooping ears are wide, and the slightly curved tail is carried a bit below the level of the back. _^<N__^<N_The dog is one of only a few breeds developed in the United States. Its
origins are unknown, but its appearance suggests that the Irish water spaniel, curly coated retriever, and early spaniel types were crossed to develop the breed. Prior to its recognition by the American Kennel Club in 1940, the breed had been used
exclusively for hunting, principally in the Midwest. Its qualities in the field are outstanding: it springs rather than points game, is able to note the location of four or five dropped animals and retrieve them all, and is an excellent water
retriever, even in rough water. Although mainly popular as a hunting dog, it makes a good household companion. _^<N__^<N_John Mandeville
-END-
-C-
1262
CAT
-A-
Americans for Democratic Action
-T-
Americans for Democratic Action_^<N__^<N_Americans for Democratic Action (ADA) is a Washington, D.C.-based political action organization dedicated to the advancement of liberal causes. It was created in 1947 by prominent leaders in government,
organized labor, academia, politics, and journalism, among whom were Marquis CHILDS, David DUBINSKY, Hubert H. HUMPHREY, Jr., Walter REUTHER, Eleanor ROOSEVELT, Arthur M. SCHLESINGER, Jr., Leon Henderson, and Joseph L. Rauh, Jr. Its stated
objective was to "map a campaign for restoring the influence of liberalism in the national and international policies of the United States," stressing also that the campaign was to be "free of totalitarian influence from either the Left or the
Right." The ADA is formally nonpartisan, but in practice it has mainly endorsed Democratic party candidates, and it is closely identified with the liberal wing of the Democratic party. Besides endorsing candidates, the ADA publishes a yearly
appraisal of the performance of members of Congress on important issues. It also formulates comprehensive liberal positions on national issues; publishes books, pamphlets, and a newspaper; and proposes legislation. _^<N__^<N_Rita J. Immerman
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Brock, Clifton, Americans for Democratic Action (1962).
-END-
-C-
1969
CAT
-A-
America's Cup
-T-
America's Cup_^<N__^<N_The America's Cup is competitive yachting's most prestigious prize. From 1851 to 1980 the best yachtsmen in the world tried unsuccessfully to wrest the trophy from American sailors. In 1983 the Australians succeeded, but a
U. S. yacht regained the cup in 1987. _^<N__^<N_The competition originated when the New York Yacht Club sent the schooner America to England in 1851 to challenge for the Royal Yacht Squadron's Hundred Guinea Cup. The America defeated 17 British
opponents in a 93-km (58-mi) race around the Isle of Wight and won the cup. In 1857 the America's owners presented the cup to the New York Yacht Club, which renamed it America's Cup and began to sponsor challenges for possession. The competition
was expanded in 1876 to the best of 3 races, in 1893 to the best of 5, and in 1930 to the best of 7. From 1930 to 1983 the cup races were held off Newport, R. I.; in 1987 they were held off Perth, Australia, and in 1988 and 1992 off San Diego,
Calif. _^<N__^<N_From 1958 to 1987 the contest was between vessels of the 12-Meter Class. In 1988, New Zealand sued successfully in court for the right to challenge in a different vessel, overturning several other conventions as well. The New
Zealand, a 40.5-m (133-ft) monohull was handily beaten by a U.S. catamaran skippered by Dennis Connor. Connor was also the U. S. captain in 1980, 1983, and 1987. In March 1989, a New York state supreme court judge ruled that the San Diego club
had unfairly won, and that the America's Cup must be handed over to New Zealand. On Apr. 26, 1990, however, the New York court of appeals upheld a decision of Sept. 19, 1989, that New Zealand had to return the trophy to the San Diego club. On May
16, 1992, America3, sponsored by a syndicate headed by Bill Koch, won against the Italian challenger, Il Moro di Venezia. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Coat, Tom, A Cup of Controversy (1988); Thompson, Winfield M., and Lawson, Thomas W., The Lawson
History of the America's Cup (1986).
-END-
-C-
746
CAT
-A-
americium
-T-
americium_^<N__^<N_{am-uh-ris'-ee-uhm} _^<N__^<N_Americium is a TRANSURANIUM ELEMENT, a radioactive metal of the ACTINIDE SERIES. Its symbol is Am, its atomic number is 95, and the atomic weight of its stablest isotope is 243. Americium does not
occur naturally. It was synthesized for the first time in 1944, when scientists bombarded plutonium-239 with helium ions and obtained the isotope (Am-241). The known isotopes of americium, whose mass numbers range from 237 to 246, are
radioactive. The stablest isotope, Am-243, has a half-life of 7,370 years. Usable amounts of Am-241 are obtained by bombardment of plutonium-241 in nuclear reactors. Because it emits strong gamma radiation, Am-241 is used in various types of
measuring devices and in radiography.
-END-
-C-
865
CAT
-A-
AmeriCorps
-T-
AmeriCorps_^<N__^<N_Authorized in 1993 by the National Service Trust Act, which created the Corporation for National and Community Service, AmeriCorps combines new and long-standing federal volunteer programs in support of education, public safety,
human needs, and the environment. Locally recruited, AmeriCorps volunteers participate in part- and full-time programs formerly under the direction of ACTION--VISTA, the Foster Grandparent Program, the Senior Companion Program, and the Retired
Senior Volunteer Program--as well as full-time programs of the new National Civilian Community Corps (NCCC), whose 16- to 24-year old recruits live and train together on military bases while serving local communities' environmental needs.
AmeriCorps volunteers are paid an allowance, and those in youth service programs generally are provided higher-education financial assistance.
-END-
-C-
819
CAT
-A-
amethyst
-T-
amethyst_^<N__^<N_{am'-uh-thist} _^<N__^<N_Amethyst, a violet, crystalline variety of quartz, is the birthstone for February. When transparent and of good color, it is valued as a semiprecious gem and is usually step-cut or intaglio-carved. The
color, thought to be caused by impurities of iron, manganese, or hydrocarbons, is changed to citrine yellow by heating the stone; most commercial citrine is heat-treated amethyst. The mineral occurs in cavities in many rock types and is found in
the Ural Mountains, Brazil, Sri Lanka, and the United States. _^<N__^<N_The ancient Greeks attributed various powers to amethyst, notably that of protecting against drunkenness and passion, but also those of controlling evil thoughts and enhancing
shrewdness. The ancients probably applied the name to purple corundum and garnet as well as to true amethyst.
-END-
-C-
1437
CAT
-A-
Amhara
-T-
Amhara_^<N__^<N_{am-hahr'-uh} _^<N__^<N_The Amhara are a people of the central highlands of Ethiopia. Numbering about 20 million in the early 1990s, they are descended from mixed Hamito-Semitic groups that entered the highlands from southern Arabia
between the 6th century BC and the 1st century AD. The Amhara are dark skinned but without Negroid features. Since their establishment of the Solomonid dynasty in the 13th century, they have dominated the history of Ethiopia. _^<N__^<N_The Amharic
language, originally a court language, is the official tongue of Ethiopia. It is a Semitic language closely related to Ge'ez, the sacred literary language of the Ethiopian Orthodox church. Together with the Tigre to the north of them, the Amhara
consider themselves the only true Christians. They are identified closely with their church--formerly headed by the Ethiopian emperors--and still adhere to MONOPHYSITISM. _^<N__^<N_The Amhara place great emphasis on land ownership. Descent (traced
through the male line) is important among them, but their society is organized primarily around a system of patron-client relationships based on landholding. Traditional Amhara dress resembles a toga under which men wear trousers and women wear a
gown. Westernization of traditional Amhara culture accelerated from the mid-1970s. _^<N__^<N_Brian Spooner _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Clapham, C., Change and Continuity in Revolutionary Ethiopia (1988; repr. 1990); Ullendorff, E., The Ethiopians, 3d
ed. (1973).
-END-
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948
CAT
-A-
Amherst, Jeffrey, Baron Amherst
-T-
Amherst, Jeffrey, Baron Amherst_^<N__^<N_Lord Amherst, b. Jan. 29, 1717, d. Aug. 3, 1797, was an able British general who conquered Canada during the FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR (1754-63). After serving in Europe in the War of the Austrian Succession
(1740-48), he was ordered to America to command the expedition against the seemingly impregnable French fortress at LOUISBOURG. As a result of his careful planning, the fortress fell on July 26, 1758. _^<N__^<N_Appointed commander in chief in
British North America in 1759, Amherst captured the forts at TICONDEROGA and CROWN POINT. With his forces converging on Montreal from three directions, he captured that city on Sept. 8, 1760, and thus won control of Canada. Amherst was appointed
governor-general of British North America and governor of Virginia. Returning to England, he was created a baron in 1776 and made a field marshal in 1796. _^<N__^<N_George Athan Billias _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Long, John C., Lord Jeffrey Amherst
(1933).
-END-
-C-
390
CAT
-A-
Amherst College
-T-
Amherst College_^<N__^<N_Established in 1821, Amherst College (enrollment: 1,577; library: 716,409 volumes) is a private 4-year liberal arts college in Amherst, Mass. Cooperative programs with Hampshire, Mount Holyoke, and Smith colleges and the
University of Massachusetts make libraries and certain courses mutually available. Amherst administers the Folger Shakespeare Library in Washington, D.C.
-END-
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305
CAT
-A-
Amherst (Massachusetts)
-T-
Amherst (Massachusetts)_^<N__^<N_Amherst (1990 census, 35,228) is a town in the Connecticut River valley of west central Massachusetts. Settled in 1703, it developed an economy based on farming. Today Amherst is a college town, the site of the
University of Massachusetts, Amherst College, and Hampshire College.
-END-
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295
CAT
-A-
Amherst (Nova Scotia)
-T-
Amherst (Nova Scotia)_^<N__^<N_Amherst (1991 pop., 9,742) is located in northern Nova Scotia, near the Cumberland Basin. It overlooks the Tantramar Marshes. Its economic activities include dairy farming, tourism, and some light industry. Settled by
the French, it was renamed in 1759 for Jeffrey Amherst.
-END-
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682
CAT
-A-
Amichai, Yehuda
-T-
Amichai, Yehuda_^<N__^<N_{ah-mee-ky'} _^<N__^<N_Yehuda Amichai, b. Germany, May 3, 1924, is perhaps the best-known contemporary Israeli poet. An adolescent emigrant (1936) to Israel, Amichai has long struggled with the issues of identity and of
reconciling the present with the horrendous Jewish past--issues most directly addressed in his novel Not of This Time, Not of This Place (1963; Eng. trans., 1968) and The World Is a Room and Other Short Stories (1984). His poetry has been praised
for the intense lyricism he creates using an idiom that is colloquial and concrete. It includes, in English translation, Amen (1977), Great Tranquility (1983), Love Poems (1981), and Poems of Jerusalem (1988).
-END-
-C-
346
CAT
-A-
amicus curiae
-T-
amicus curiae_^<N__^<N_{uh-mee'-kuhs koo'-ree-y} _^<N__^<N_The legal term amicus curiae (Latin, "friend of the court") means a person who enters a BRIEF in a lawsuit in which he or she is not a party. Organizations and groups often offer arguments
or evidence in cases that concern them, particularly in the higher courts, after obtaining permission from the court.
-END-
-C-
2088
CAT
-A-
amide
-T-
amide_^<N__^<N_{am'-yd} _^<N__^<N_Amides are a class of organic compounds related to ammonia and commonly found in nature. PROTEINS and PEPTIDES, compounds fundamental to life, are made up of amides. The chemistry of amides is therefore important
to an understanding of many biochemical processes. _^<N__^<N_Amides may be considered either as substituted ammonia compounds, in which an organic acid radical replaces a hydrogen atom, or as nitrogen derivatives or carboxylic acids (RCOOH).
Because of the combination of an acidic group with a basic group, amides in solution are essentially neutral, although they will react with very strong acids or bases. In general, amides have higher melting points and boiling points and are less
soluble in water than are their component acids and AMINES. These properties may vary, however, depending on the presence of other groups in the molecule. Amides may be prepared in many ways, and they undergo a range of chemical reactions.
_^<N__^<N_Molecules that have two amide groups are diamides; molecular chains formed from repeating linkages are called polyamides. The simplest naturally occurring amide is UREA, a diamide that is excreted in the urine of many mammals as a
product of protein metabolism. Urea is of some commercial importance as starting material in the manufacture of certain polymers. Proteins are a class of high-molecular-weight polyamides formed by the combination of AMINO ACIDS with one another.
Other nonprotenoid amides include penicillin G; niacinamide; piperine, found in black pepper; and other compounds, many with physiological activity. NYLON is a synthetic polyamide made from a dicarboxylic acid and a diamine to form a long-chain
polymer. _^<N__^<N_Some amides exist in ring structure. Among these are riboflavin and some other B vitamins, DNA, RNA, caffeine, uric acid, and barbiturates. Still other amides contain a sulfonyl group. This group, known as sulfonamides, includes
sulfonanilamide and other sulfa drugs. A cyclic example is saccharin. _^<N__^<N_Ronald F. Brown _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Zabicky, Jacob, and Patai, Saul, eds., Chemistry of the Amides (1970).
-END-
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1359
CAT
-A-
Amiens
-T-
Amiens_^<N__^<N_{ah-mee-en'} _^<N__^<N_Amiens is the capital of Somme department, in Picardy in northern France, about 120 km (75 mi) north of Paris. Located on the Somme River, the city is an important rail junction and is known historically for
its textile manufacturing. The population is 136,358 (1990). Other than textiles, manufactured products include chemicals, machinery, and tires. In addition, Amiens is a trade center for the surrounding agricultural region. Amiens Cathedral, begun
in 1220 and on which work continued into the 16th century, is among th most famous High Gothic cathedrals (see GOTHIC ART AND ARCHITECTURE). The cathedral is 145 m (476 ft) long, and its vault is more than 42 m (138 ft) high. Its three west
portals, completed in 1236, constitute a stunning High Gothic sculptural group. Amiens is also the site of the University of Picardy (1965) and the Picardy Museum. _^<N__^<N_Amiens was originally the capital of the Ambiani tribe and was under Roman
rule when Christianity was introduced in the 4th century. Under French rule from 1185, the city passed to the Burgundians in 1435. It came under French rule again in 1477. The city was the site of the Peace of Amiens (1802) during the Napoleonic
Wars. It fell to the Prussians in 1870 and was occupied by the Germans in both world wars, during which it suffered much damage. It has been largely rebuilt.
-END-
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468
CAT
-A-
Amiens, Treaty of
-T-
Amiens, Treaty of_^<N__^<N_The Treaty of Amiens, signed by Britain and by France, Spain, and the Batavian Republic (Holland) in March 1802, marked the end of the FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS. Britain, which was forced by the treaty to relinquish most
of its acquisitions in the preceding conflict, resumed war with France in May 1803. The hostilities between France and coalitions of European powers, including Britain, from 1803 to 1815, are generally called the NAPOLEONIC WARS.
-END-
-C-
1342
CAT
-A-
Amiens Cathedral
-T-
Amiens Cathedral_^<N__^<N_AMIENS is the site of the largest of the three most famous High Gothic cathedrals, the others being at CHARTRES and REIMS cathedrals. Amiens Cathedral was begun in 1220 at the west or entrance end of the NAVE. The first
building campaign, supervised by Robert de Luzarches, lasted until about 1233, producing the nave and TRANSEPT. Thomas de Cormont, successor to de Luzarches, oversaw the construction of the lower parts of the choir and APSE at the east end until
1241. His son Renaud de Cormont completed the east end in the RAYONNANT STYLE (late Gothic) in 1269. The huge church is 145 m (476 ft) long; its vault is 42.3 m (138 ft) high; the building covers 7,700 sq m (89,875 sq ft), making it the largest
French Gothic cathedral ever built. Its plan and design closely follow that of Reims, but in the third building campaign a striking change was made: a glazed triforium (the gallery between the nave arcade and the CLERESTORY), modeled on that of
the church of SAINT-DENIS (1130-44) in Paris, was introduced. In stylistic terms, its three west portals, finished in 1236, constitute one of the most stunning and unified High Gothic sculptural groups. _^<N__^<N_Ronald E. Malmstrom
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bony, Jean, French Gothic Architecture of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries (1982); Jantzen, Hans, High Gothic (1984).
-END-
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957
CAT
-A-
Amin Dada, Idi
-T-
Amin Dada, Idi_^<N__^<N_{ah-meen' dah-dah, ee'-dee} _^<N__^<N_Idi Amin Dada, b. Koboko, Uganda, c.1925, was president of Uganda from 1971 to 1979. During his years of brutal and erratic rule, some 300,000 Ugandans are said to have died, and the
nation's economic and social structure was shattered. A Muslim and a member of the Kakwa tribe, Amin served in the British army and later helped Prime Minister Milton OBOTE overthrow (1966) Kabaka Mutesa II, president of the federation of Uganda.
In 1971 Amin ousted Obote, proclaiming himself field marshal in 1975 and president-for-life in 1976. The excesses of his dictatorship led to his overthrow by Tanzanian regular troops and Ugandan exiles in April 1979. He went into exile, first in
Libya and later in Saudi Arabia. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Avirgan, Tony, and Honey, Martha, War in Uganda: The Legacy of Idi Amin (1982); Melady, Thomas, Idi Amin Dada (1977); Omara-Ottunnu, A., Politics and the Military in Uganda, 1890-1985 (1987).
-END-
-C-
1489
CAT
-A-
amine
-T-
amine_^<N__^<N_{uh-meen'} _^<N__^<N_Amines are a class of organic compounds that are important in the formation of proteins and are present in great numbers in living organisms. Many have pronounced physiological effects. Among the physiologically
active amines are spermine, all of the sulfonamides, most enzymes, serotonin, ephedrine, dopamine, amphetamine, insulin, and adrenaline. _^<N__^<N_In amines, one, two, or three of the hydrogen atoms of AMMONIA, are replaced by hydrocarbon groups,
symbolized by R. Like ammonia, amines are bases and easily react with an acid to form a SALT. If R has a low molecular weight, the corresponding amines are gaseous (like ammonia) or are low-boiling liquids, and are soluble in water. As the
molecular weight of R increases, water solubility declines; even so, the salts remain soluble. _^<N__^<N_Amines may be synthesized in the laboratory by a variety of methods. Amines undergo many reactions, most of which are initiated by the lone
(unbonded) pair of electrons on the nitrogen. One such reaction is the formation of a quarternary salt. If the nitrogen atom is part of a ring, the characteristic properties still apply. _^<N__^<N_AROMATIC amines, exemplified by aniline (which is
present in coal tar), undergo reactions of their own, and have been so widely used in the preparation of synthetic DYES that such dyes are called coal or aniline dyes. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Marmor, Solomon, Organic Chemistry (1987); Morrison,
Robert T., and Boyd, Robert N., Organic Chemistry, 4th ed. (1983).
-END-
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3765
CAT
-A-
amino acid
-T-
amino acid_^<N__^<N_{uh-meen'-oh} _^<N__^<N_Amino acids are organic compounds that are the building blocks of PROTEINS. In most animal metabolisms, a number of amino acids play an essential role. The GENETIC CODE, which determines the assembly of
amino acids into body proteins, is mediated by the nucleic acids. _^<N__^<N_In terms of structure, each amino acid has at least one carboxyl (COOH) group, which is basic. (The name of the acids comes from the stem word AMINE, meaning "derived from
ammonia.") Amino acids join together in long chains, the amino group of one amino acid linking with the carboxyl group of another. The linkage is known as a PEPTIDE bond, and a chain of amino acids is known as a polypeptide. Proteins are large,
naturally-occurring polypeptides. Many different amino acids are found, about 20 of which are the main constituents of proteins; only about half of these are classified as essential nutrients, that is, necessary in the human diet.
_^<N__^<N_Although all amino acids have amino and carboxyl groups, they all differ in the rest of the molecule. Some have an additional amino or carboxyl group, and others have water-repelling (hydrophobic) groups. The shape and overall
properties of a protein are dependent upon its constituent amino acids. In some proteins, a change in just one amino acid in the polymer chain, out of a total of perhaps 250 amino acids, or even a change in its position, can cause the protein to
become nonfunctional, if it is an ENZYME, or to perform its function differently, if it is not an enzyme. Chemists are currently trying to relate the role of each of these amino acids to the way in which the protein works. _^<N__^<N_Proteins are
an essential substance in the diets of humans and most animals because of their constituent amino acids. Nutritionally, complete proteins are those which contain the right concentrations of the amino acids that humans cannot synthesize from other
amino acids or nitrogenous sources. An adequate diet, however, may be achieved by consuming a correct mixture of proteins, some of which might be deficient in one amino acid but rich in another. _^<N__^<N_A first step in the digestion of proteins
is their cleavage by proteolytic (protein-splitting) enzymes into smaller chains of amino acids, or PEPTIDES. These initial peptides are then cleaved into smaller and smaller peptides until free amino acids are available. The amino acids are
absorbed from the intestine by a complete biochemical process and are circulated by the blood to the tissues that utilize them. Some of the amino acids are used directly as the building blocks in the synthesis of new proteins unique to the
species. Others may be used to supply energy, and still others, particularly when large amounts of proteins are consumed, may be excreted in the urine. Individual amino acids and most small peptides frequently have a bad or even bitter taste,
although the same amino acids in a small protein would most likely be tasteless. _^<N__^<N_In addition to the 20 common amino acids, others occur in proteins. Analysis of many proteins from plant and animal sources has shown that all are made up
of about 25 to 30 amino acids. In addition, more than 50 amino acids, not combined in proteins, have been found in plants. Some of these are simple derivatives of the common amino acids; others, usually found in plants and microorganisms, have
more complicated structures. _^<N__^<N_Robert E. Feeney _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Barrett, Graham, ed., Chemistry and Biochemistry of the Amino Acids (1985); Chaney, Margaret S., and Ross, Margaret L., Nutrition, 9th ed. (1979); Lehninger, Albert
L., Biochemistry, (1982); Weinstein, Boris, ed., Chemistry and Biochemistry of Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins, 7 vols. (1974-83). _^<N__^<N_See also: GENETIC CODE; NUCLEIC ACID.
-END-
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1037
CAT
-A-
Amis, Kingsley
-T-
Amis, Kingsley_^<N__^<N_{ay'-mis} _^<N__^<N_An English novelist, poet, critic, and teacher, Kingsley Amis, b. Apr. 16, 1922, came to prominence as one of England's ANGRY YOUNG MEN with the publication of his first novel, Lucky Jim (1954; film,
1957), a sharp satire on education and the establishment. His succeeding novels--whether their mode is fantasy, science fiction, or contemporary-realistic--can be described, like Lucky Jim, as acerbic comedies of manners. They include That
Uncertain Feeling (1955; film, 1962), Take a Girl Like You (1960; film, 1962), The Green Man (1969), The Alteration (1977), Jake's Thing (1978), and Stanley and the Women (1985). Amis has also written thriller and mystery novels, notably Colonel
Sun (1968) and The Riverside Villas Murder (1973). Rudyard Kipling and His World (1975) and The Golden Age of Science Fiction (1981) are among his nonfiction works. Amis edited The New Oxford Book of Light Verse in 1978. His novel The Old Devils
(1987) won the Booker Prize, Britain's most prestigious literary award.
-END-
-C-
1114
CAT
-A-
Amis, Martin
-T-
Amis, Martin_^<N__^<N_British novelist Martin Louis Amis, b. Aug. 25, 1949, has exhibited a formidable satiric talent and brilliance with words that have led critics to compare him with Rabelais, Swift, and Nabokov. The son of novelist Kingsley
Amis, he graduated from Oxford University in 1971. His first novel, The Rachel Papers (1973), satirized teenage sex among a group of thoroughly nasty characters. The substitution of sex and drugs for traditional values among privileged youth was
the target of Dead Babies (1976), while Success (1978) was seen as a parable of the replacement of the old order in England by the reign of louts. In Other People: A Mystery Story (1981), Amis experimented with "a way of looking at the world that
presupposes nothing." More successful were Money: A Suicide Note (1984), a satire on contemporary materialism, and London Fields (1989), which deals with the threat of nuclear annihilation, environmental deterioration, and the decline of
civilization. More problematically, Time's Arrow or the Nature of the Offense (1991) tells a Holocaust horror story in reverse chronological order.
-END-
-C-
22
CAT
-A-
Amish:
-T-
Amish:_^<N__^<N_see MENNONITES.
-END-
-C-
740
CAT
-A-
Amistad Case
-T-
Amistad Case_^<N__^<N_In the Amistad Case (1841) the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the principle that people escaping illegal slavery had the right to fight to regain their freedom. The case concerned a group of Africans being illegally shipped as
slaves between Havana and another Cuban port aboard the Amistad; on July 1, 1839, they seized the ship, killing several crew members. The Amistad was captured by a U.S. warship off Long Island in August 1839. A federal court in Connecticut denied
extradition claims and acquitted the Africans of murder. This decision was sustained by the Supreme Court, before which the Africans were represented by John Quincy Adams. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Cable, Mary, Black Odyssey: The Case of the Slave
Ship "Amistad" (1971).
-END-
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1452
CAT
-A-
Amman
-T-
Amman_^<N__^<N_{ahm-mahn'} _^<N__^<N_Amman, the capital and largest city of Jordan, is located about 40 km (25 mi) northeast of the Dead Sea. A small town until it became the capital of Transjordan in 1921, it now has a population of 1,213,300 (1990
est.), about one-third of which are Palestinians. Amman is located on a steppe at an altitude of 821 m (2,692 ft). The city itself lies in a narrow valley with the newer sections built on the surrounding slopes to the nearby plateau. A commercial
as well as administrative center, Amman exports phosphates mined nearby at El Hasa. Manufactured products include textiles and leather goods. Amman is the site of the Jordan Archaeological Museum and also the University of Jordan (1962).
_^<N__^<N_Amman may have been settled as early as the 17th century BC; it was the biblical city Rabbah (Ammon) and the main city and capital of the Ammonites. As the ancient Greek city Philadelphia, southernmost of the ten cities of the Decapolis,
it prospered under the leadership of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (r. 285-246 BC) and later under the Roman Empire. The city assumed its current name in the 7th century. _^<N__^<N_Ruins of Ammonite tombs, a Roman theater seating 6,000, an odeon (a
small, roofed theater), a citadel, and an acropolis remain, although many of the city's ancient buildings have been destroyed by earthquakes. Amman was further damaged during the civil fighting between Palestinian guerrillas and the Jordanian Army
in 1970 and 1971.
-END-
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1208
CAT
-A-
Ammanati, Bartolommeo
-T-
Ammanati, Bartolommeo_^<N__^<N_{ah-mah-nah'-tee, bahr-toh-loh-may'-oh} _^<N__^<N_Bartolommeo Ammanati, b. June 18, 1511, d. Apr. 13, 1592, was a leading Florentine sculptor and architect of the Italian Renaissance. He appears to have studied
with the sculptor Baccio Bandinelli, after which he worked in Venice with Jacopo Sansovino; in nearby Padua he designed, under Sansovino's influence, the monumental arch (1544) of the Benavides Palace and the Benavides Tomb (1546) in the Church of
the Eremitani. Arriving in Rome in 1550, the same year he married the poet Laura Battiferri, he collaborated with Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola and Giorgio Vasari on the Villa Giulia (1552-55) and executed the Del Monte family tombs (1550-53) in the
church of San Pietro in Montorio. _^<N__^<N_After 1555 Ammanati resided in Florence and was responsible for some of the most important projects of the day: the Santa Trinita Bridge (1567-70; destroyed 1944, rebuilt 1957); the grandiose courtyard
(1558-70) of the PITTI PALACE; and the Neptune Fountain (1563-75) in the Piazza della Signoria, with its colossal marble statue of the sea god contrasting with graceful, attenuated bronze figures of other sea deities around the basin.
_^<N__^<N_Mark J. Zucker
-END-
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1144
CAT
-A-
Ammann, Othmar Hermann
-T-
Ammann, Othmar Hermann_^<N__^<N_{ahm'-mahn} _^<N__^<N_The Swiss-born engineer Othmar Hermann Ammann, b. Mar. 26, 1879, d. Sept. 22, 1965, designed many of the most famous bridges in the United States, the Lincoln Tunnel under the Hudson River,
Dulles International Airport in Washington, D.C., and other major projects. He was also involved in the design and construction of New York City's Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts. After studying in Zurich, Ammann immigrated to the United
States in 1904. Ammann was named chief engineer for the Port of New York Authority in 1927, and in the succeeding years he designed three of the world's longest suspension bridges: the George Washington Bridge in New York (1,067 m/3,500 ft),
completed in 1931; San Francisco's Golden Gate Bridge (1,280 m/4,200 ft), completed in 1937; and the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge (1,298 m/4,260 ft), connecting Brooklyn and Staten Island, completed in 1964. In addition, he was involved in the design
and construction of six other major New York bridges as well as the 1957 addition of a second deck to the George Washington Bridge, for which he had made provision in his original plan.
-END-
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29
CAT
-A-
Ammenemes I:
-T-
Ammenemes I:_^<N__^<N_see AMENEMHET I.
-END-
-C-
889
CAT
-A-
ammeter
-T-
ammeter_^<N__^<N_{am'-meet-ur} _^<N__^<N_An ammeter measures the flow of current by converting electrical energy to mechanical energy. Most ammeters measure direct current (DC) and make use of D'Arsonval's classic GALVANOMETER principle, in which
the magnetic field of a current-bearing coil opposes that of a fixed magnet. Because a very small current will cause full-scale deflection of the coil, the ammeter must be modified to measure larger currents. If a low-resistant path, or shunt, is
attached to the two ends of the coil in a DC ammeter, a part of the current bypasses the meter movement. The true amperage of the current is obtained by multiplying the amperage indicated on the meter by the quantity of one plus the ratio of the
coil resistance to the shunt resistance. The introduction of more-sophisticated digital measuring devices has somewhat decreased the wide use of ammeters. _^<N__^<N_Leslie W. Lee
-END-
-C-
1178
CAT
-A-
ammonia
-T-
ammonia_^<N__^<N_Ammonia is a colorless, poisonous gas distinguished by its characteristic irritating odor. It is extremely soluble in water as a result of a chemical reaction yielding ammonium hydroxide. Ammonium hydroxide, which can only exist in
aqueous solution, is alkaline (see ACIDS AND BASES). The ammonia commonly sold as a household cleanser and disinfectant is a dilute solution of ammonium hydroxide. _^<N__^<N_Ammonia is manufactured directly from its elements, hydrogen and nitrogen,
by the HABER-BOSCH PROCESS. The ammonia is then stored either in pressurized cylinders or as an aqueous solution. Large quantities are used in manufacturing nitric acid and ammonium salts, and ammonia and its compounds are the principal nitrogen
sources in fertilizer. In the laboratory, ammonia may be prepared by heating an ammonium salt with sodium hydroxide (lye, NaOH). _^<N__^<N_Ammonia is easily liquefied (bp -33.4 deg C, mp -78 deg C) and thus is widely used as a refrigerant. It is
especially useful for this purpose, since it has low density, high stability, low corrosiveness, and a high heat of vaporization. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Cotton, F. A., and Wilkinson, Geoffrey, Basic Inorganic Chemistry (1976).
-END-
-C-
2382
CAT
-A-
ammonite
-T-
ammonite_^<N__^<N_{am'-uh-nyt} _^<N__^<N_Ammonites are an extinct group of marine mollusks of the CEPHALOPOD class, which includes the OCTOPUS, SQUID, and CUTTLEFISH. Prized as ornaments for the past several hundred years, they are also sought
after by geologists, who find them useful for correlating rock strata of one area with those of another. They are found preserved in many different types of SEDIMENTARY ROCK. Because the univalve (one-piece) shells changed rapidly in size and
shape during the 325-million-year history of the order Ammonoidea, they are excellent for dating rock strata as well. Paleontologists tend to reserve the term "ammonite" for the forms that appeared in the last two geological eras of the order's
existence, calling the earlier forms ammonoids. _^<N__^<N_Ammonites were, at least in part, coiled and also chambered. They appear to have formed thin plates, or septa, to wall off the part of the shell that was no longer used, as does the modern
NAUTILUS. A thin cord of tissue extending from the living animal to the initial chamber of the shell ran along either the lower (ventral) or upper (dorsal) shell margin. The edges of the septa made a wavy, often intricate pattern on the outer
shell surface. This pattern distinguishes ammonite shells from nautilus shells, which have only slightly wavy margins. Shell diameters range from 5 to 15 cm (2 to 6 in) in some species, up to as much as 2.7 m (9 ft) in others. _^<N__^<N_Ammonites
appear to have lived in open ocean, or at least in saline waters. Many were nektic (free-swimming), with some species benthonic (bottom-dwelling) during adulthood; others were planktic (drifting or floating). Ammonites came close to extinction
several times. In the PALEOZOIC ERA they appeared early in the Devonian Period and diversified rapidly. They declined markedly in the Late Devonian, showed a marked resurgence later in the era, then came close to extinction by its end. One group
developed and declined in the Triassic Period of the MESOZOIC ERA. Widespread and diverse in the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, ammonites died out as the era ended, apparently because of swift, shell-crushing predators such as modern bony fishes
and marine reptiles. _^<N__^<N_William B. N. Berry _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Boardman, R. S., et al., eds., Fossil Invertebrates (1985); Ward, Peter, "The Extinction of the Ammonites," Scientific American, October 1983.
-END-
-C-
419
CAT
-A-
Ammons, A. R.
-T-
Ammons, A. R._^<N__^<N_{am'-uhnz} _^<N__^<N_American poet Archie Randolph Ammons, b. Whiteville, N.C., Feb. 18, 1926, moved from short lyric forms to complex poetic speculations about perception and language. Ommateum, his first book, was
published in 1955. Collected Poems 1951-71 received a National Book Award (1973), and Ammons himself won the Bollingen Prize in 1975. An expanded edition of Selected Poems was published in 1987.
-END-
-C-
6102
CATO
4761
-A-
ammunition
-O-
000000|ammunition
000616| Primer
001220| Propellant
002029| Small-Arms Projectiles and Cartridge Assemblies
003893| Artillery Projectiles
-T-
ammunition_^<N__^<N_Ammunition includes a variety of devices used to deliver an explosive, chemical, or pyrotechnic charge to a target. Military ammunition includes the aerial BOMB, the MINE, the TORPEDO, ROCKETS AND MISSILES, and a broad spectrum
of EXPLOSIVE and nonexplosive projectiles. Common usage limits the term to devices designed to be ejected from a FIREARM, CANNON, or MORTAR. _^<N__^<N_Ammunition consists of three basic elements: the primer (detonator), the propellant, and the
projectile. Most ammunition also has a casing, or cartridge, that encapsulates the primer and propellant and often grips some portion of the projectile. _^<N__^<N_ Primer_^<N__^<N_Early ammunition was assembled as needed. A fine black powder served
as the primer charge to detonate the propellant charge, a coarser powder. Matchlocks, wheel locks, and flintlocks were used to ignite the primer charge. A new method of ignition, the percussion cap, was introduced in the early 19th century. This
was a soft copper cup filled with a sensitive explosive and placed over a nipple with a small hole leading to the propellant. A hammer struck the cap and fired the weapon. Percussion caps survive in the form of primers located in the center or the
rim of the base of the cartridge. _^<N__^<N_ Propellant_^<N__^<N_From the late 13th century to the late 19th century, the sole propellant was black powder, or GUNPOWDER. Its composition has varied little in seven centuries, the traditional recipe
being 10 percent sulfur, 15 percent charcoal, and 75 percent saltpeter (potassium nitrate). Although it was unchanged for centuries, black powder has its drawbacks. It produces a large cloud of smoke and fouls the bores of firearms after relatively
few shots. Black powder also readily attracts moisture, hence the admonition "keep your powder dry." Nitrocellulose-base smokeless powders, of which GUNCOTTON was the first, began to replace black powder in the late 1880s; within 20 years, they
were being used almost exclusively. The new propellants overcame black powder's deficiencies and were much more powerful. _^<N__^<N_ Small-Arms Projectiles and Cartridge Assemblies_^<N__^<N_Until the early 19th century, small-arms projectiles
consisted of round lead-alloy or iron balls of fractionally smaller diameter than the weapon's smooth bore. Later, spiral-grooved (rifled) bores, designed to make the projectile spin, became prevalent, although smooth-bore shotguns of limited range
still exist. Modern projectiles generally have pointed or rounded noses and are clad with copper or brass. The diameter, or caliber, of a projectile is expressed in fractions of an inch or in millimeters. With the advent of the more powerful
smokeless powders, the caliber of military shoulder weapons has undergone a drastic reduction. The last U.S. military black- powder rifle round was .45 caliber (0.45 in); a.30 caliber round replaced it; today the caliber is.223, or 5.66 mm.
_^<N__^<N_Paper cartridges, incorporating the powder and projectile into a paper casing, were introduced in Europe during the 16th century. The entire assembly was rammed down the bore. The first successful metallic cartridge to incorporate
projectile, propellant, and primer was invented in 1836. Experimentation during the next 50 years resulted in small-arms ammunition as we know it today. _^<N__^<N_Modern ammunition can be categorized by its degree of preassembly. In fixed
ammunition, all the components are held together by a cartridge case. Semifixed ammunition features a projectile that is not firmly held by the cartridge case and is inserted just before firing, allowing adjustments to be made to the propellant.
Separated ammunition is similar to semifixed, but the cartridge case comes sealed and is loaded after the projectile. Separate-loading ammunition has no cartridge case, the propellant being packed in combustible bags. Small-arms ammunition is
typically fixed, whereas larger types of ammunition are usually separate-loading. _^<N__^<N_ Artillery Projectiles_^<N__^<N_ARTILLERY projectiles traditionally have been the subject of much research. Exploding, hollow-cast rounds were in use in the
16th century. Bar and chain shot (two balls fastened together) were used against ship's rigging. Grapeshot and canister were used to cut down massed troop formations with large quantities of lead balls. _^<N__^<N_Modern artillery projectiles are
highly specialized to defeat a number of diverse targets. Fuses are available that detonate the projectile when it is a certain selected distance from its target (proximity fuse), at a predetermined point in its trajectory (variable time fuse),
upon impact (quick and superquick fuse), and after impact (delay fuse). _^<N__^<N_Projectiles inflict damage in a variety of ways. Jagged fragments produced by the projectile's bursting charge are effective against troops and lightly armored
equipment. Antipersonnel flechette rounds expel thousands of tiny steel darts before reaching the target. Shaped charge rounds are used to defeat armored vehicles and bunkers by burning a small hole with a high-velocity jet of superhot gases. Other
artillery projectiles can supply illumination and produce smoke. _^<N__^<N_Artillery shells are designed to carry poison gas, to scatter mines, or to loft barrages of antiaircraft flak. Antitank shells form an important segment of artillery
ordnance, and research continues into their design and capabilities--as well as into corresponding efforts to build artillery-resistant tanks (see ARMORED VEHICLE). Nuclear-armed howitzer shells have been available since the 1950s. Advances in
artillery ammunition include rocket-assisted projectiles and guided projectiles--notably, a projectile that homes in on a target that is illuminated by laser. _^<N__^<N_Russell J. Parkinson _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ammunition & Explosive Standards
(1991); Ammunition Handbook (1991); Briggs, Doug, The Writer's Complete Guide to Firearms (1993); Gander, Terry, and Hogg, I. V., eds., Jane's Ammunition Handbook 1993-94 (1992); Goad, K. J., and Halsey, D. H., Ammunition, Grenades and Mines
(1982); Long, Duncan, Combat Ammo of the Twenty-first Century (1991) and Combat Ammunition (1987); Woodman, Harry, Early Aircraft Armament (1990).
-END-
-C-
830
CAT
-A-
amnesia
-T-
amnesia_^<N__^<N_Amnesia is the inability to remember past experiences. It occurs normally during infancy because the brain has not yet developed the myelin needed to wrap and insulate neurons; thus the ability to retain messages in sequence is
impaired. Amnesia also may occur as the result of severe head injury, shock, or certain drugs. Retrograde amnesia involves impaired memory of events that occurred before the trauma that caused the condition, whereas anterograde amnesia affects
events that follow. Broca's amnesia, or APHASIA, is a loss of the ability to use either written or spoken language; verbal amnesia is loss of memory for words; visual amnesia is the inability to recall objects that have been seen; and lacunar
amnesia is the inability to remember isolated events rather than a total loss of memory. _^<N__^<N_A. W. Dudley, M.D.
-END-
-C-
1268
CAT
-A-
amnesty
-T-
amnesty_^<N__^<N_An amnesty is an exemption from prosecution for criminal acts, usually issued by a government after a time of crisis such as a war or revolution. The amnesty may be for acts such as rebellion, treason, desertion, or draft evasion.
It is usually granted to groups of citizens on condition that they abide by the law in the future. In extending an amnesty, the government does not forgive or approve what was done. It simply says it will not take any action even though it would be
within the law to do so. In this respect an amnesty differs from a PARDON, which is normally granted to a person convicted of a crime. Many amnesties are partial. President Andrew Johnson, after the Civil War, excluded the leaders of the
Confederacy when he extended amnesty to former rebels who would support the federal government. The end of the Vietnam conflict in 1973 produced the most controversial amnesty question in U.S. history. Presidents Nixon, Ford, and Carter denied
amnesty to deserters and draft evaders of that period, but Ford offered clemency to those who were willing to do public service work, and Carter pardoned most draft evaders. Also controversial was the 1986 immigration act amnestying illegal aliens
who were U.S. residents since before Jan. 1, 1982.
-END-
-C-
1182
CAT
-A-
Amnesty International
-T-
Amnesty International_^<N__^<N_Amnesty International, based in London, is an organization devoted to helping people imprisoned for their political or religious beliefs, provided that they have not used or advocated violence. It was awarded the Nobel
Peace Prize for 1977 for its contribution to "securing the ground for freedom, for justice, and thereby also for peace in the world." In the early 1990s, it had national sections in 51 countries, local groups in 70 countries, and a worldwide
membership of more than 1,100,000 individuals. _^<N__^<N_The organization grew out of an appeal launched in May 1961 by Peter Benenson, a British lawyer, on behalf of prisoners of conscience. Within a month Benenson had received more than a
thousand offers to help by collecting information on prisoners, publicizing cases, and approaching governments to seek their release. Amnesty International opposes the use of torture and the death penalty, and it issues reports on human rights
conditions throughout the world. It calls for observance of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and other international human rights agreements.
-END-
-C-
2825
CATO
-A-
amniocentesis
-O-
000000|amniocentesis
000660| Chromosome Abnormalities
001212| Biochemical Disorders
001572| Sex-Linked Disorders
002069| Congenital Malformations
-T-
amniocentesis_^<N__^<N_{am-nee-oh-sen-tee'-sis} _^<N__^<N_A diagnostic procedure in medical genetics, amniocentesis is a technique in which a sample of the amniotic fluid that bathes the human fetus is removed from the pregnant uterus by suction
with a very fine needle. Fetal cells suspended in the fluid can then be grown in the laboratory and studied to detect various genetic disorders in the unborn child. _^<N__^<N_Diagnostic amniocentesis is usually performed during the second trimester
of pregnancy, thus giving ample time to complete the appropriate studies, and, if necessary, permit therapeutic ABORTION when it is still relatively safe. _^<N__^<N_Amniocentesis may be advised in several situations: _^<N__^<N_ Chromosome
Abnormalities_^<N__^<N_The risk of DOWN'S SYNDROME (a mental deficiency associated with an extra chromosome 21 in the cells) and other chromosomal disorders increases with the age of the mother and with a history of previously affected offspring.
_^<N__^<N_The risk of bearing a child with Down's syndrome is roughly 1 in 1,500 women in their 20s, 1 in 300 women in their 30s, and 1 in 40 women in their 40s. Therefore, amniocentesis has been advised for women over the age of 35 and for those
who previously have been found to have chromosomal abnormalities. _^<N__^<N_ Biochemical Disorders_^<N__^<N_Frequently, a child of apparently normal parents is born with an inherited biochemical disorder. Genetic testing of the parents may indicate
the possibility of a significant recurrent risk in future offspring, and in many cases amniocentesis can then be performed in later pregnancies to determine whether the developing fetus is normal. _^<N__^<N_ Sex-Linked Disorders_^<N__^<N_Many
sex-linked disorders exist--for example, HEMOPHILIA, a blood-coagulation deficiency, and the Duchenne form of MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY, both of which affect only males, and FRAGILE X SYNDROME, which primarily and more severely affects males. Until
recently, the genetic defects that cause these disorders were unknown, so that amniocentesis could be used only to learn the sex of the developing fetus. Now, however, direct genetic analysis of sex-linked disorders is possible. _^<N__^<N_
Congenital Malformations_^<N__^<N_Such congenital malformations of the brain and spinal cord as anencephaly and meningomyelocele are associated with increased levels of alpha-fetoprotein, a substance in the amniotic fluid. Since the risk of
recurrent congenital malformations is higher in some families than in the general population, a woman who has given birth to an affected child might seek prenatal diagnosis. _^<N__^<N_Reviewed by Oliver W. Jones, M.D. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Gelehrter, T. D., and Collins, Francis S., Principles of Medical Genetics (1990); Milunsky, Aubrey, ed., Genetic Disorders and the Fetus, 3d ed. (1992); Thompson, Margaret M. W., et al., eds., Genetics in Medicine, 5th ed. (1991). _^<N__^<N_See
also: GENETIC DISEASES; GENETICS; PREGNANCY AND BIRTH.
-END-
-C-
51
CAT
-A-
amniotic sac:
-T-
amniotic sac:_^<N__^<N_see DEVELOPMENT; PREGNANCY AND BIRTH.
-END-
-C-
1689
CAT
-A-
amoeba
-T-
amoeba_^<N__^<N_{uh-mee'-buh} _^<N__^<N_An amoeba is any of several microscopic, one-celled PROTOZOAN organisms commonly found in fresh and salt water, in soil, and as animal parasites; some specialized forms are found in plants. _^<N__^<N_Amoeba
usually refers to members of the order Amoebida in the class RHIZOPODA. Amoebas move in a creeping or gliding fashion by extending their protoplasm; the projections are called pseudopodia (false feet). The pseudopod is also extended to surround
other organisms or food particles and draw them into the body. The characteristic movement by extension is called amoeboid movement and is a common form of locomotion in other cells. _^<N__^<N_Despite constantly varying shapes, amoebas are
identified by basic form and their distinct type of locomotion. Amoebas vary in size from 0.01 mm (0.0004 in) to 1 mm (0.04 in). They have a contractile vacuole that empties any excess water that has been drawn into the cell. Some amoebas resist
unfavorable conditions such as drying or lack of food by secreting a resistant body covering in a process called encystment. Others have permanent shells into which they can withdraw. _^<N__^<N_The amoeba commonly used in classrooms for
demonstrating basic cell function and as a research tool is Amoeba proteus, which reproduces by nuclear division followed by binary fission, or splitting into two. Of the six or seven amoebas found in humans, only one, Entamoeba histolytica, is
harmful. It causes amoebic DYSENTERY, an inflammation of the intestine that if unchecked can lead to abscesses of the liver and brain and to eventual death. _^<N__^<N_J. F. McClellan _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Kudo, Richard R., Protozoology, 5th ed.
(1977). _^<N__^<N_See also: PARASITIC DISEASES.
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901
CAT
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Amon-Re
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Amon-Re_^<N__^<N_{ah'-muhn-ray'} _^<N__^<N_Amon-Re was the supreme god of the Egyptian religion during the New Kingdom period (1570-1085 BC). Amon and Re were originally two separate deities. Re (or Ra) was a Sun god whose cult at Heliopolis (On)
in Lower Egypt was promoted by the Egyptian kings beginning with the 5th dynasty (c. 2494-2345 BC). Represented in art with a man's body and a falcon's head surmounted by a solar disk, Re was believed to sail across the sky in a boat each day and
under the world at night. At Heliopolis he was associated with the god Horakhty, but during the Middle Kingdom (c. 2040-1786 BC) he became identified with Amon (or Amun), a god worshiped at Thebes in Upper Egypt. The Amon-Re of the New Kingdom
took on the characteristics of a national deity, served by a wealthy and powerful priesthood. His temple at KARNAK is one of the chief architectural monuments of ancient Egypt.
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186
CAT
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Amorites
-T-
Amorites_^<N__^<N_{am'-uh-ryts} _^<N__^<N_Frequently mentioned in the Old Testament, the Amorites were a Semitic people who flourished 2000-1600 BC. Their rule extended from ancient CANAAN as far as Egypt.
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900
CAT
-A-
amortization
-T-
amortization_^<N__^<N_Amortization, in finance, is the gradual reduction of a debt over a period of time. A familiar amortization plan is a home mortgage, payable in monthly installments, usually of equal amount, that cover both principal and
interest. As the interest on the unpaid balance decreases each month, the payment on the principal increases by a like amount. The longer the amortization period, the larger the total interest on the debt, but this stretching-out process does
reduce the amount of each installment. _^<N__^<N_Amortization, in accounting, is the gradual reduction of an amount by periodic accounting entries. When applied to fixed assets such as plant and equipment, it is called depreciation. For example, a
$10,000 machine with an expected useful life of 10 years may be depreciated at $1,000 a year. Other methods of depreciation allow for varying the amounts written off in different years.
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806
CAT
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Amos, Book of
-T-
Amos, Book of_^<N__^<N_Amos, a book of the Old Testament, is the third book of the Minor Prophets. It takes its name from the prophet Amos who lived c.750 BC as a shepherd at Tekoa in the southern kingdom of Judah. It was to the northern kingdom of
Israel, however, that his prophetic message was addressed. Writing during a time of prosperity, when a sharp contrast existed between the luxurious life of the nation's leaders and the oppression of the poor, Amos preached the urgency of social
justice and the threat of impending divine judgment. The structure of the book falls into nine parts, each dominated by a negative message containing threats of darkness, famine, and destruction. Amos is the oldest of the prophetic books of the
Bible. _^<N__^<N_George W. Coats _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Mays, J. L., Amos, A Commentary (1969).
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1359
CAT
-A-
Amos 'n' Andy
-T-
Amos 'n' Andy_^<N__^<N_Amos 'n' Andy were the American radio comedy team of Freeman Fisher Gosden (Amos), b. May 5, 1899, d. Dec. 10, 1982, and Charles Correll (Andy), b. Feb. 2, 1890, d. Sept. 26, 1972. The "Amos 'n' Andy" show, first aired on Mar.
19, 1928, presented a caricature of two young black men, played by Gosden and Correll, who were both white. The premise was that they came north to make their fortune and went into business as the "Fresh-Air Taxicab Company of America." Until 1943,
Gosden and Correll wrote most of the scripts and played all 550 male parts. For a time excerpts were run as a newspaper comic strip. At its peak in the 1930s the show attracted an estimated 40 million listeners among whites and blacks. Over the
years it drew increasingly strong criticism from civil-rights organizations. Gosden and Correll retired in 1961 after about 10,350 shows. A television series based on the radio show was begun in 1951. Although it featured an all-black cast, the
stereotypical characters and situations that has marked the original series seemed even more offensive on the TV screen, and--except for later reruns--the television Amos 'n' Andy ended in 1953. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Correll, Charles, and Gosden,
Freeman F., All about Amos 'n' Andy (1930); Dunning, John, Tune In Yesterday: The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Old-Time Radio, 1925-1976 (1976).
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17
CAT
-A-
Amoy:
-T-
Amoy:_^<N__^<N_see XIAMEN.
-END-
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2093
CAT
-A-
Ampere, Andre Marie
-T-
Ampere, Andre Marie_^<N__^<N_{ahm-pair'} _^<N__^<N_Andre Ampere, b. Jan. 10, 1775, d. June 10, 1836, was a French physicist who laid the foundations for the science of electrodynamics through his demonstration that electric currents produce
magnetic fields, and through his subsequent investigation into the relationship between these two phenomena. _^<N__^<N_The son of a well-to-do merchant, Ampere educated himself through diligent reading in the family library. He survived the French
Revolution to become a science teacher, first in Lyons and then in Bourg. He later took a post at the Ecole Polytechnique, and in 1808 became inspector general of the university system in Paris. Beginning in 1824, he also taught physics at the
College de France and philosophy at the Faculte des Lettres, pursuing diverse scientific interests in the midst of personal tragedy. He was greatly affected by his father's execution by guillotine during the Revolution and, after his first wife's
early death, had a catastrophic second marriage. _^<N__^<N_Ampere's most notable achievements were his independent determination (1814) of Avogadro's law and his work from 1820 to 1827 based on OERSTED'S discovery, announced in 1820, that a
magnetic needle moves in the vicinity of an electric current. Ampere succeeded in explaining the latter phenomenon by assuming that an electric current is capable of exciting a magnetic field. He further demonstrated that the direction of the
magnetic field is determined by the direction of the current. He developed a quantitative relationship for the strength of a magnetic field in relation to an electric current (Ampere's theorem) and propounded a theory as to how iron becomes
magnetized. Ampere also devised a rule governing the mutual interaction of current-carrying wires (Ampere's law) and produced a definition of the unit of measurement of current flow, now known as the AMPERE. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ampere, Andre,
Correspondence, 3 vols. (1936-43); Bordeau, Sanford P., Volts to Hertz: The Rise of Electricity (1982); Williams, L.P., "Andre-Marie Ampere," Scientific American, January 1989.
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758
CAT
-A-
ampere
-T-
ampere_^<N__^<N_{am'-pir} _^<N__^<N_The ampere is the unit for measuring electric current. As more accurate procedures have been devised, the definition of the quantity has been changed. The most modern definition is based on the ability of a
specified current to deposit a precise amount of a substance on an electrode during ELECTROLYSIS. Formerly, the definition involved the force that was produced between parallel wires carrying a current; still earlier, the ampere was defined as a
flow of one COULOMB per second, where the coulomb (a quantity of electrical charge) was taken as the basic unit. The ampere is named for the French physicist and mathematician Andre AMPERE, and its symbol is A. _^<N__^<N_A. G. Englehardt and M.
amphetamine_^<N__^<N_{am-fet'-uh-meen} _^<N__^<N_Amphetamines are a class of synthetic DRUGS that are strong STIMULANTS of the central nervous system, increasing the heart rate and raising blood pressure. Administered in capsule or tablet form,
they increase alertness and reduce hunger. They are used for these purposes and for treating some forms of DEPRESSION and the SLEEP disorder called narcolepsy. They also have been prescribed for HYPERACTIVITY, but this use has caused controversy.
Derivatives of chemicals related to the hormone adrenaline, they act by increasing the effects of NORADRENALINE, a NEUROTRANSMITTER. The three kinds (methamphetamines, dextro amphetamines, and certain salts) differ somewhat in potency and side
effects. They are sold under such trade names as Benzedrine, Dexedrine, and Methedrine, among others. _^<N__^<N_The first amphetamine was made in 1887, but medical uses were discovered only in the 1920s. Amphetamines came to be widely prescribed
in following decades and, in World War II, were issued to soldiers of various armies. At the same time, they found increasing nonmedical use as "pep pills" or "uppers" for staying awake. They also gained popularity as recreational drugs (see DRUG
ABUSE), since large doses produce an exhilaration like that from cocaine but more prolonged. _^<N__^<N_Abuse became an increasingly serious problem after the early 1950s, as the drugs began to be injected intravenously. Amphetamine-heroin mixtures,
called "speedballs" after earlier cocaine-heroin mixtures, gave rise to the name "speed" for injections of amphetamine alone. Prolonged abuse leads to states of extreme irritability, paranoid delusions, and hallucinations, during which an
individual is prone to violence. The abuser is also likely to experience profound depression and thoughts of suicide during periods of withdrawal. Drug overdoses can be fatal for persons with high blood pressure or cardiac problems, and for
athletes overtaxing their hearts because the drug masks their fatigue. _^<N__^<N_Later manifestations of amphetamine abuse include "ecstasy," a combination of methamphetamine with a synthetic psychedelic drug (see MDMA), and a smokable form of
crystalline methamphetamine called "ice." The latter is extremely potent and has been the cause of long-lasting psychological damage and severe lung and kidney disorders. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Caldwell, John, Amphetamines and Related Stimulants
(1980); Lukas, S. E., Amphetamines (1985).
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14033
CATO
4801
9629
-A-
amphibians
-O-
000000|amphibians
003536| HABITAT AND DISTRIBUTION
005306| CLASSIFICATION
007634| STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
010370| LIFE CYCLE AND BEHAVIOR
-T-
amphibians_^<N__^<N_Amphibians are members of the class Amphibia, subphylum Vertebrata, phylum Chordata. The class Amphibia includes frogs, toads, salamanders, newts, and caecilians. Amphibians are characterized by a glandular skin without
external scales, by gills during development (and in adulthood in some), and by eggs that may have jelly coats but develop without formation of extra-embryonic membranes such as the amnion. Most amphibians also have four limbs. Limbs and lungs
are adaptations for life on land; the limbs evolved from the ancestral fishes' lobed fins. The scales and amniote egg evolved by reptiles, which distinguish them from amphibians, are adaptations for greater terrestriality than amphibians possess.
_^<N__^<N_The class Amphibia comprises three living orders and several extinct ones. The living members of the class include those forms that have been mentioned above. Amphibians are thought to have arisen from lobe-finned crossopterygian
fishes. These fish had fins supported by bones, a well-ossified skeleton, lungs, and, in some species, internal openings to nasal passages. Considerable conjecture exists, however, as to whether amphibians actually arose from several lineages.
Swedish experts tend to favor separate lineage for each of the modern orders; certain British and American scientists support the idea of two lineages, one giving rise to frogs, the other to salamanders and caecilians. The characteristics of
vertebrae, teeth, and skull bones form the basis for these hypotheses. Further developmental and variational data are necessary to support these ideas. _^<N__^<N_Two major subclasses of extinct amphibians are found in the fossil record. They are
the Labyrinthodontia and the Lepospondyli. The amphibians of the Labyrinthodontia, which lived during the late Devonian through Triassic periods (345 to 190 million years ago), include the most primitive amphibians represented by the genus
Ichthyostega. They were fresh-water carnivorous animals, with tail fins, small scales, and a fishlike vertebral column. Their skulls had many bones, as did those of their presumed crossopterygian ancestor. The Labyrinthodontia, according to the
American paleontologist Alfred S. Romer, include three extinct orders: the Ichthyostegalia, the Temnospondyli, and the Anthracosauria. The Anthracosauria are thought to be the ancestors of reptiles and hence of modern birds and mammals. The
Temnospondyli are thought by some scientists to be the ancestors of the modern frogs. _^<N__^<N_The amphibians of the subclass Lepospondyli, which lived during the Mississippian through lower Permian periods (340 to 270 million years ago), include
the extinct orders Nectridea, Aistopoda, and Microsauria. Members of the latter two orders were elongate. Some had limbs, some had reduced limbs, and some had no limbs. Many scientists suggest that the ancestors of modern salamanders and
caecilians are among the lepospondyls. _^<N__^<N_The modern, extant orders of the Amphibia are placed in the subclass Lissamphibia. The superorder Salientia includes extinct froglike forms, and the extant order Anura consists of the frogs and
toads. The order Caudata includes the salamanders. The order Gymnophiona includes the limbless caecilians. These three groups are allied in the Lissamphibia by characteristics of tooth, skin, and fat body structure. Vertebral and skull
structure, as well as other characteristics, differ markedly among the three groups. This suggests to many scientists separate origins for each of the three modern orders. _^<N__^<N_ HABITAT AND DISTRIBUTION_^<N__^<N_The distribution of amphibians
is worldwide, except in Antarctica and Greenland. They are found on landmasses and in fresh water. Frogs are the most widespread of the three groups, occurring on all major landmasses inhabited by amphibians. They live in a great variety of
habitats, ranging from deserts to rain forests, permanent ponds to high mountain meadows. With only a few exceptions, an aquatic situation is required for breeding and tadpole development. _^<N__^<N_Salamanders are primarily a north temperate
group, occurring in North America, Europe, and Asia. Some species are found in Africa north of the Sahara, and one group of some 200 species has had an extensive adaptive radiation in the New World tropics in Central and South America to northern
Argentina. Salamanders occupy a variety of terrestrial and aquatic habitats; those found in dry environments, such as the Mexican plateau, usually live in ponds. When on land, they are often found in moist leaf litter and under rocks and logs.
In northern areas several species are found in ponds, streams, or rivers. Many species require water for breeding and development, but many other species breed on land and forgo the larval stage. _^<N__^<N_The caecilians are tropical in
distribution. They occur in the New World from southern Mexico to northern Argentina, in tropical Africa, and in Southeast Asia. These limbless animals are usually burrowers. They are found in stream banks, under debris, and along root channels
from sea level to 3,000 m (9,840 ft). One family of South America is aquatic and lives in streams, especially in the drainage basin of the Amazon River. The larvae of certain species in Southeast Asia and South America, and probably Africa, also
inhabit streams. _^<N__^<N_ CLASSIFICATION_^<N__^<N_The order Anura or Salientia, the frogs and toads, includes 12 to 18 families, according to the characteristics that are stressed in classification. Familiar species are the leopard and the grass
frog (genus Rana), which is used in many biology laboratory exercises; the brown, warty-skinned, drier-adapted toads (genus Bufo); and the aquatic, tongueless African clawed frog (genus Xenopus). This frog was once used in pregnancy tests and is
now used in research on genetics and development. Several species are found in the eastern United States. Breeding choruses after the spring rains may include the following: two species of toads; leopard frogs, green frogs, pig frogs, and gopher
frogs (Rana); woods tree frogs, green tree frogs, squirrel tree frogs, barking tree frogs, and little grass frogs (Hyla); cricket frogs (Acris); and eastern narrow-mouthed toads (Microhyla). Among the more bizarre frogs are the following: the
giant frog of Africa (Conraua or Giganturana goliath), which may reach 1 m (39 in) in body length; Sminthillus, the smallest frog, at 12 mm (0.5 in) in body length, which lays one egg a year; Centrolene of Central America, whose skin is
translucent and whose bones are green; and Pseudis paradoxicus, whose tadpoles are larger than the adult frogs into which they metamorphose. _^<N__^<N_Experts usually list from 7 to 10 families in the order Caudata or Urodela, the salamanders and
newts. Among the best known genera are the Eastern North American red eft (Notophthalmus); the European newts (Triturus); and the Spanish Pleurodeles, used in developmental studies. Many species are found in the Appalachian Mountains of the
southeastern United States, where salamander communities have been analyzed. The largest salamander is the Japanese giant salamander (Andrias), which extends up to 135 cm (53 in) in length; the smallest is the tropical genus Thorius, at 16 mm
(0.6 in). _^<N__^<N_The order Gymnophiona or Apoda includes the little-known caecilians--the limbless, elongate, tropical amphibians that burrow or swim. These are considered to look wormlike because of their body shape and the presence of many
rings, which resemble the segments of worms. The smallest caecilians (Idiocranium) are mature at 90 mm (3.6 in); the largest (Caecilia) are more than 1,300 mm (52 in). _^<N__^<N_ STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION_^<N__^<N_The three orders of amphibians are
allied by structure of their TEETH and their SKINS particularly. Their teeth have two parts--an upper crown and a pedicel (a thin extension) that is attached to the jaws. The skin is smooth and contains numerous mucous and toxic glands, giving
the animals a moist feeling. The outer layer of the skin is keratinized but does not form the epidermal scales seen in reptile skin. In fact, amphibians lack scales except for some species of caecilians that have fishlike scales embedded in the
skin. The organ systems of amphibians modify the typical vertebrate plan. They have a relatively straight digestive system with a short intestine, and they have a three-chambered heart; they respire by lungs and sometimes skin as adults and by
gills as larvae. Their digestive, excretory, and reproductive systems empty into a common terminal chamber, the cloaca. Their nervous systems are complex and have attributes to facilitate both aquatic and terrestrial life. Larvae and some
aquatic adults have multidirectional sensory systems. All amphibians hear. Frogs and salamanders (except those that live in permanently dark locations) have good vision. Vision is nearly lost in caecilians, whose eyes are covered by skin and
sometimes bone. They perceive by chemical cues, using their unique tentacles to conduct stimuli to olfactory centers. _^<N__^<N_Voice production is largely an attribute of frogs. Salamanders and caecilians produce noises, coughs, and grunts, but
apparently not for communication. Frogs have complex sound production and perception systems, with species-specific warning, defensive, and breeding communications. _^<N__^<N_Amphibians are poikilotherms, cold-blooded organisms; their BODY
TEMPERATURE is slightly higher than that of the environment. They are active at optimal temperatures and withdraw from more extreme heat or cold. _^<N__^<N_Mode of locomotion varies greatly among amphibians. Limbless caecilians burrow, using
their heads like shovels and gaining thrust through contraction of muscles to force the body against the soil. The caecilians that swim, and most swimming salamanders, are like eels, using body muscle contraction to propel themselves through the
water. Salamanders use their limbs very little in swimming. On land, the limbs give considerable propulsion to the body, and several salamander gaits have been described. The limbs are sprawled out from the body, and the middle of the trunk
usually rests on the ground--in contrast to the faster lizards, whose legs are under the body and raise it above the ground. Frogs make use of their long hind-limbs to effect several kinds of locomotion--jumping, hopping, swimming, burrowing, and
climbing. _^<N__^<N_ LIFE CYCLE AND BEHAVIOR_^<N__^<N_Breeding in most amphibians is seasonal, usually correlated with temperature and moisture optima. Frogs court by using sounds or actions as attractants; salamanders depend primarily on visual
and tactile cues. It is not known how male and female caecilians find each other. The modes of FERTILIZATION vary. Almost all frogs practice external fertilization, the females laying eggs in water and the males spraying sperm over them.
Primitive salamanders have external fertilization, but most have internal fertilization, with the female taking up the male's spermatophore. All caecilians have internal fertilization, and the male deposits sperm in the cloaca of the female by
using the end of his cloaca as an intromittent organ. _^<N__^<N_Other trends in amphibian reproductive biology include the following: (1) Many frogs lay large numbers of eggs. Few salamanders and fewer caecilians do. (2) Most frog species have
tadpoles, a free-living larval stage; few have direct development or retain developing young in the body of the female. (3) Many salamander species have larvae; several have direct development. Only a few retain the young. (4) Few caecilians
have larvae; some have direct development. Several have a mode of VIVIPARITY in which the female nourishes her developing young by oviductal secretions, and they are born after metamorphosis. (5) A number of species of salamanders and caecilians
brood their egg clutches. Few frogs do, but some carry eggs on their backs, legs, or vocal sacs until hatching or metamorphosis. (6) The species that have direct development, brooding, or maternal retention have reduced litter sizes compared to
those that lay eggs and abandon them. The larvae of the three orders are morphologically very different, although all are free-living, foraging animals. _^<N__^<N_Protective behaviors of amphibians include hiding or staying still in the presence of
danger and having coloration matching the environment so that the animal is not obvious. Frogs have warning calls that alert other members of the population. Some salamanders and frogs, when disturbed, arch their backs, stiffen, and rock on their
bellies. Other salamanders and frogs have flash colors that warn predators away. Several species of each kind of amphibian have toxic skins; predators learn to avoid them. Some nontoxic species mimic the coloration of toxic species so that they
too are not consumed. Some species of salamanders have tails that break off when they are attacked. As the predator pursues the twitching tail, the salamander quietly escapes. _^<N__^<N_The importance of amphibians is evident throughout the world.
They are major components of their ecosystem, both predator and prey. They are food for several human cultures. Interest in them ranges from their aesthetic appeal to their use as a source of arrow poison. They are of considerable importance to
science, furnishing material for study of cell function, genetics, and development. As laboratory specimens they are used in the study of anatomy, behavior, ecology, and evolution. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Duellman, W. E., Biology of Amphibians
(1985); Goin, C. J., et al., Introduction to Herpetology, 3d ed. (1978); Halliday, Tim, and Adler, Kraig, eds., The Encyclopedia of Reptiles and Amphibians (1986); Minelli, G., Amphibians (1987); Noble, G. K., Biology of the Amphibia (1931);
Porter, K. R., Herpetology (1972); Sergeev, B. F., World of Amphibians (1986). _^<N__^<N_See also: ANIMAL COURTSHIP AND MATING; AXOLOTL; CLASSIFICATION, BIOLOGICAL; COLORATION, BIOLOGICAL; DEVELOPMENT; FOSSIL RECORD; FROG; MIMICRY;
SALAMANDER AND NEWT; TOAD.
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3641
CATO
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amphibious warfare
-O-
000000|amphibious warfare
002254| Special Equipment
-T-
amphibious warfare_^<N__^<N_Amphibious warfare is a military operation that is launched from the sea by naval and landing forces and involves a landing on a hostile shore. _^<N__^<N_An amphibious assault, the primary form of a combined sea-and-land
operation, is conducted to establish a force ashore. A classic reason is to gain a foothold or beachhead as a necessary preliminary to further operations ashore. The Normandy landings in World War II and the Inchon landing in the Korean War are
examples of amphibious assaults that made second fronts possible; these fronts, in turn, changed the strategic direction of the wars. Where land masses are more limited or restricted, amphibious assaults tend to be seizures, either for use of the
land as an advance base or for denial of such use to the enemy. Tarawa, Peleliu, and Iwo Jima are notable World War II examples of seizures. _^<N__^<N_Raids, demonstrations, and withdrawals are additional types of amphibious operations, each
different from the assault in important ways. _^<N__^<N_In an amphibious raid the objective area is occupied only briefly, followed by a planned withdrawal. Such raids are conducted to damage the enemy, gain information, or carry out rescues.
British commando raids in World War II, culminating in the Dieppe raid, were typical amphibious raids that depended on surprise and stealth for success. The U. S. freighter Mayaguez, captured by Cambodian Khmer Rouge guerrillas in 1975, was
retaken in a lightning raid using amphibious forces. _^<N__^<N_An amphibious demonstration is a show of force that stops short of an actual landing. Demonstrations are conducted to deceive the enemy or, in situations short of hostilities, to
signal presence and intent. During the CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS of 1962, large U.S. amphibious forces were conspicuously moved to the Caribbean, posing the threat of an invasion. _^<N__^<N_An amphibious withdrawal is essentially an amphibious assault
conducted in reverse. The removal of Allied troops from DUNKERQUE, France, in World War II is often cited as the supreme example of an amphibious withdrawal. The evacuation of U.S.-South Korean forces from Hungnam in 1950, however, rivaled
Dunkerque in magnitude and was much more successful, probably because the Americans had uncontested control of the air. _^<N__^<N_ Special Equipment_^<N__^<N_The slow massing of troops and equipment on a beachhead is a technique that can no longer
be utilized in conflicts where rapid deployment is a necessity. Modern amphibious warfare must be fast and flexible. It uses all forms of troop transport, from helicopters to troop-carrying aircraft and landing craft (see ARMORED VEHICLE).
Planes, helicopters, and landing craft are carried aboard several different types of ship: amphibious command ships that serve as the control centers of combined land-sea-air operations; amphibious assault ships specialized in launching attack
planes and helicopters; and transport docking ships, which also have docking wells for small landing craft (see also NAVAL VESSELS). _^<N__^<N_The U. S. invasion of Grenada in 1983 centered on the USS Guam, an amphibious assault ship carrying
Marines and Army Rangers (see SPECIAL FORCES), their artillery, and other equipment. Men and machines were landed on Grenada via helicopter and--once the airfield had been captured--by airplane. _^<N__^<N_Brig. Gen. Edwin H. Simmons, USMC
(Ret.) _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force, Doctrine for Amphibious Operations (1967); Isely, Jeter A., and Crowl, Philip A., The U.S. Marines and Amphibious War (1951); Simmons, Edwin H., The United States
amphibole_^<N__^<N_{am'-fuh-bohl} _^<N__^<N_Amphibole is the general name of an important group of rock-forming SILICATE MINERALS that are characterized by a particular arrangement of atoms and by similar optical, physical, and chemical properties.
Their composition can vary widely, however, which gives them their name--from the Greek word for "ambiguous." They occur as both major and minor constituents of a wide variety of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks (see PETROLOGY).
Hornblende is the most common amphibole. Fibrous varieties--anthophyllite, actinolite, and riebeckite (crocidolite)--are important sources of ASBESTOS fiber; nephrite JADE, a dense, compact aggregate of actinolite fibers, is used for ornamental
carving. _^<N__^<N_ Structure and Chemistry_^<N__^<N_The basic building unit of the silicate minerals is a tetrahedron consists of a silicon (Si) atom bonded to four oxygen (O) atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement. Tetrahedra may share two corners
with adjacent tetrahedra to form single, infinite chains characteristic of the PYROXENE structure. These chains of tetrahedra sometimes join by sharing corners to form double chains that are characteristic of the amphibole structure. _^<N__^<N_The
complex chemistry of the amphibole group results from the great flexibility of the CRYSTAL structure, which will accommodate a wide range of cations (positively charged atoms). All the major ones--among them aluminum (Al), boron (B), calcium (Ca),
iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), and sodium (Na)--fall within the range of the average composition of the Earth's crust; this accounts for the widespread occurrence of the amphibole minerals. _^<N__^<N_ Mineralogy and Occurrence_^<N__^<N_The similarity
in crystal structure throughout the group results in physical properties that are nearly uniform. HARDNESS is 5 to 6, CLEAVAGE is perfect in two directions, and the SPECIFIC GRAVITY is 2.9 to 3.5, depending on iron content. Crystal development
varies from stubby prisms to long prismatic needles to silky fibers; irregularly shaped grains are the most common, however. Gedrite and anthophyllite crystallize in the ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM; otherwise, virtually all amphiboles belong to the
MONOCLINIC SYSTEM. Amphiboles may be colorless, white, gray, violet, blue, green, brown, or black; color is to some extent diagnostic of chemical composition. _^<N__^<N_The group comprises four main subdivisions: iron-magnesium-manganese, calcic,
sodic-calcic, and sodic. Iron-magnesium-manganese amphiboles are generally confined to METAMORPHIC ROCKS. Calcic amphiboles, the most abundant and widespread of the amphiboles, occur in many geologic environments, ranging from metamorphic to
IGNEOUS ROCKS. Hornblende, for example, is found in basic and intermediate igneous rocks. The sodic-calcic amphiboles are commonly found in MARBLES, alkalic igneous rocks, and altered GNEISSES. _^<N__^<N_Frank Hawthorne _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Jones, M. P., Practical Mineralogy (1986); Ribbe, P. H., ed., Feldspar Mineralogy, 2d ed. (1983); Veblen, D. R., and Ribbe, P. H., eds., Amphiboles (1982).
-END-
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643
CAT
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amphidromic point
-T-
amphidromic point_^<N__^<N_{am-fi-drahm'-ik} _^<N__^<N_An amphidromic point is a place near the center of an ocean basin where the range of TIDES is zero. The tidal range increases from this point outward toward the perimeter of the basin. The
reason is that astronomical tides in ocean basins and in partially enclosed seas tend to propagate as waves around such basins--counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere--under the influence of the CORIOLIS
EFFECT and the constraint of the enclosing landmasses. _^<N__^<N_Robert E. Wilson _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Pugh, D. T., Tides, Surges, and Mean Sea Level (1987). _^<N__^<N_See also: OCEAN AND SEAS.
-END-
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1597
CAT
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amphioxus
-T-
amphioxus_^<N__^<N_{am-fee-ahk'-suhs} _^<N__^<N_An amphioxus, or lancelet, is any of about 30 species of primitive CHORDATES that live in coastal waters of temperate and tropical oceans. The name lancelet refers to the animal's lance-shaped tail on
a semitransparent, streamlined body that is usually 4-7 cm (1.5-3 in) long. It is eyeless and earless and has no distinct head, but below the pointed front end is an oral cavity ringed with long, slender cilia. A low fin runs down the back, around
the tail, and partly up the lower surface. The flattened body sides are marked with forward-pointing, V-shaped muscle segments. The lancelet swims strongly at night and in the breeding season but spends its days buried in sand or fine gravel with
only the mouth free. It draws in water, which is filtered for organic fragments and plankton before it passes out through the many gill slits that line the large pharynx. Mucus carries food into the intestine. _^<N__^<N_An inconspicuous animal, the
lancelet is of little economic importance but of considerable scientific interest. It is conjectured to be a descendant of the kind of primitive chordate from which all vertebrates began to evolve about 500 million years ago. The lancelet retains
its simple, rodlike backbone, or notochord, throughout its life, and a hollow nerve cord extends the length of the body above the notochord. These structures develop embryonically in the same way that they do in vertebrates. Lancelets are
classified in the single genus, Branchiostoma (formerly Amphioxus), that constitutes the subphylum Cephalochordata, phylum Chordata. _^<N__^<N_J. H. Bushnell
-END-
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1197
CAT
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amphipod
-T-
amphipod_^<N__^<N_{am'-fuh-pahd} _^<N__^<N_Amphipods are tiny animals, usually no more than 12 mm (0.47 in) long, that belong to the order Amphipoda of crustaceans. The order encompasses about 3,800 species of mostly marine, shrimplike creatures,
including the common sand or beach flea family, Talitridae; a sand flea can hurl itself many times its own length with its taillike telson. Amphipods usually are flattened laterally, they lack a carapace, and their long legs are unsuited for
walking. Numerous species that scavenge in the Antarctic are a primary source of food for many fish. The largest and most important group of amphipods is the suborder Gammaridea, which includes about 300 species in Siberia's Lake Baikal alone, the
blind "well shrimps" (Niphargus) that live in caves and in wells, and about 600 species that live in fresh water or moist land environments. All members of the family Cyamidae are parasites of whales and dolphins, clinging to the skin of their
hosts and eating the surface layers. Members of the suborder Caprellidea are known as skeleton shrimp because of their extremely slender bodies. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bousfield, E. L., Shallow-Water Gammaridean Amphipoda of New England (1973).
-END-
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29
CAT
-A-
amphisbaena:
-T-
amphisbaena:_^<N__^<N_see WORM LIZARD.
-END-
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484
CAT
-A-
Amphitryon
-T-
Amphitryon_^<N__^<N_{am-fi'-tree-ahn} _^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, Amphitryon was the son of Alcaeus, king of Tiryns. His wife, Alcmene, asked him to avenge the death of her eight brothers. While Amphitryon was away on this mission, ZEUS, disguised
as Amphitryon, visited Alcmene and made her pregnant. When Amphitryon returned, he also made Alcmene pregnant. She gave birth to twin sons--Iphicles, the son of Amphitryon, and HERCULES, the son of Zeus. PLAUTUS based the comedy Amphitruo on this
theme.
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565
CAT
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amphoteric compounds
-T-
amphoteric compounds_^<N__^<N_{am-fuh-tair'-ik} _^<N__^<N_In chemistry, an amphoteric compound is a compound that is capable of reacting in solution, either as an acid or a base, by donating hydrogen ions to a stronger base or by accepting hydrogen
ions from a stronger acid. _^<N__^<N_The oxides and hydroxides of a number of metallic elements are amphoteric. They can react with acids (act as bases) to produce normal salts, or with bases (act as acids) to produce salts in which the metal ion
is incorporated into a negatively charged complex ion (see ACIDS AND BASES). _^<N__^<N_Charles F. Baes, Jr.
-END-
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32
CAT
-A-
amphotericin B:
-T-
amphotericin B:_^<N__^<N_see ANTIBIOTICS.
-END-
-C-
28
CAT
-A-
ampicillin:
-T-
ampicillin:_^<N__^<N_see ANTIBIOTICS.
-END-
-C-
6268
CATO
4792
-A-
amplifier
-O-
000000|amplifier
001079| Operation of Amplifiers
003268| Kinds of Amplifiers
-T-
amplifier_^<N__^<N_Any device or circuit that receives a signal, amplifies it--that is, makes it stronger, ideally without changing the signal in any other way--and sends the signal out again may be called an amplifier. The term usually refers to
amplifiers of electronic signals, used in such familiar systems as radios, television sets, tape recorders, record players, and other electronic equipment. In most high fidelity sound systems, the amplifier is combined with a preamplifier, a
device that includes controls for regulating volume and tone as well as for selecting sound source--radio, record, CD, or tape. This combination is called an integrated amplifier. In many cases a radio tuner is also included, and this
three-in-one combined device is called a receiver (see SOUND RECORDING AND REPRODUCTION). _^<N__^<N_Electronic amplifiers can be based on ELECTRON TUBES or SEMICONDUCTOR devices. The simplest electron tube that can perform amplification is the
TRIODE. However, in most modern devices, electron tubes have been replaced by semiconducting circuit elements, such as the TRANSISTOR. _^<N__^<N_ Operation of Amplifiers_^<N__^<N_In a basic transistor amplifier, the transistors act as sources of
current or voltage whose output value is larger than but controlled by a current or voltage related to the signal. When the smaller current flows, so does the larger one, in proportion to the power of the smaller current. As the input modulates,
so does the output. The ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage is called the voltage gain of the amplifier. In general, this gain is made greater than unity. Other gains that are sometimes considered are the current gain, which is the
ratio of output current to input current, and the power gain, the ratio of power output to power input. _^<N__^<N_In order to increase the amplification, amplifiers are often designed by connecting several stages in cascade. This means that the
output of the first stage supplies the input signal to a second stage; the output of the second stage is connected to the input of a third stage, and so on. The overall gain of such a multistage amplifier can be determined from the basic
definition of gain, or it can be found as the product of the gains of the individual stages. In modern equipment, such amplifiers are usually manufactured on a tiny square silicon wafer, about 2 mm (0.08 in) along each edge, and can have gains of
10,000 to 100,000. _^<N__^<N_Transistors, whether bipolar or field-effect, have three internal elements. Since external input and output circuits have two pairs of connections, it is necessary to choose one internal element to be connected in
common to an input and output terminal. Thus three basic circuits are possible for each form of transistor; the choice of the common element determines the performance of the amplifier. _^<N__^<N_In order to obtain the required gain and to
improve the matching of the input and output impedances, two circuits may be combined in cascade. It is also possible to use three-stage connections. This is especially advantageous when the circuit is in monolithic form on a single silicon chip,
since all circuits and connections are fabricated in the same operation, and increased complexity of the circuit does not appreciably raise the manufacturing cost. _^<N__^<N_ Kinds of Amplifiers_^<N__^<N_Amplifiers can be classified according to
the frequency range that they are designed to handle. For example, an audio amplifier is for the range from zero to about 100,000 cycles per second, or hertz; an intermediate-frequency (IF) amplifier is for 400 kilohertz (kHz) to 5 megahertz
(MHz); a radio-frequency (RF) amplifier handles signal frequencies up to several hundred MHz; and an ultrahigh-frequency (UHF) amplifier employs specialized electronic devices that enable it to operate above 100 MHz. _^<N__^<N_The response or
gain of an amplifier varies with the signal frequency. The gain may be held constant down to zero frequency or that of a steady input, but inevitably, at some high frequency, the gain will start to drop. This is because it takes a finite time for
internal storage elements to become fully charged. At very high frequencies, this time becomes comparable to the period (time for a complete cycle) of the signal wave. It is possible to design circuitry so that uniform, or flat, response is
obtained over most of the frequency range of the signal. _^<N__^<N_Amplifiers can also be distinguished by the fraction of the cycle during which there is an output current. Some amplifiers are designed to handle large power outputs; they can be
provided with means of cooling--such as cooling fins, forced air, and liquid cooling--to remove the heat that is generated. Another approach, however, is to reduce such heat losses by reducing the time of current conduction per signal cycle. In
Class A amplifiers, the current conduction is continuous and distortion is low. Power efficiency is about 25 to 45%. In Class B amplifiers there is an output current for about half the input cycle. Efficiency can exceed 60%, but distortion is
higher. The distortion can be decreased, however, by having push-pull connections with a pair of transistors. Class C amplifiers have current conduction in pulses that last for less than half the input cycle. Efficiency can reach 85%, but
distortion is very high; such amplifiers are used only for radio-frequency signals. Class D amplifiers employ constant-amplitude current pulses; here it is the duration of the pulse that varies with the modulating signal. The signal is
recovered by averaging the pulses. Efficiency approaches 100%. _^<N__^<N_A special, monolithic form of amplifier has positive and negative inputs, giving an output controlled by the difference of the input signals, and is called a differential
amplifier. This amplifier discriminates against noise and other inputs common to the two terminals. It is often used with various feedback circuits and is then called an OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (op-amp), because it was originally used for
mathematical operations on signals, such as summation, differentiation, and integration. _^<N__^<N_J. D. Ryder _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Kahn, Michael, The Versatile Op-Amp (1970); Morrison, Ralph, DC Amplifiers in Instrumentation (1970); Schwartz,
Martin, Radio Electronics Made Simple (1982).
-END-
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719
CAT
-A-
amplitude
-T-
amplitude_^<N__^<N_In physics, the maximum displacement of a particle executing a periodic motion from the equilibrium position is known as the amplitude of the motion. For example, the farthest distance a pendulum swings away from the vertical
position is its amplitude. For a ripple in water, the maximum height of the wave above the surface is the amplitude of the water wave. The amplitude of a periodic motion is related to its energy, which is proportional to the square of the
amplitude. When the system in motion loses energy, the amplitude decreases; as long as the system gains energy, the amplitude increases, becoming extremely large during the phenomenon of resonance. _^<N__^<N_S. Bhattacharya _^<N__^<N_See also:
RESONANCE (physics).
-END-
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2222
CAT
-A-
amplitude modulation
-T-
amplitude modulation_^<N__^<N_Amplitude modulation is a technique for varying the height, or amplitude, of a wave in order to transmit information. Much of radio broadcasting uses amplitude modulation (AM), although other types of MODULATION are
possible. A convenient and efficient means of transmitting information is by the propagation of waves of ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION (see WAVES AND WAVE MOTION). Sound waves in the audible range, such as speech and music, have a frequency that is too
low for efficient transmission through the air for significant distances. By the process of modulation, however, this low-frequency audio information--the signal--can be impressed on a carrier wave that has a much higher frequency and can propagate
through space for great distances. The transmitter at a radio station generates a carrier wave having constant characteristics, such as amplitude and frequency. The signal containing the desired information is then used to modulate the carrier;
that is, the signal produces a variation in the form of a certain characteristic of the carrier wave. This new wave, called the modulated wave, will contain the information of the signal. _^<N__^<N_In AM, it is the amplitude of the carrier wave
that is made to vary so that it will contain the information of the signal. When the modulated wave reaches a radio receiver tuned to the proper frequency, it is demodulated, "revealing" the wave that was carried. (Demodulation is the process of
reconstructing the original signal from the modulated wave; it is essentially the opposite of modulation.) The signal can then reproduce the desired sound by using a loudspeaker. AM radio is still a popular form of radio broadcasting, but it does
have a number of shortcomings. The quality of reproduction is relatively poor because of inherent limitations in the technique and because of interference from other stations and other electrical signals, such as those produced by lightning or by
electronic devices. When the frequency, rather than the amplitude, of the carrier wave is modulated, the process is called FREQUENCY MODULATION or FM. _^<N__^<N_Forrest M. Mims, III _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Taub, Herbert, and Schilling, Donald,
Principles of Communication Systems (1971).
-END-
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682
CAT
-A-
amputation
-T-
amputation_^<N__^<N_Amputation is the surgical removal of part or all of an appendage, such as a limb or a breast. It is usually done for life-saving reasons when gangrene infection, massive injury, cancer, or impaired blood flow occurs. Many
amputations are performed on older people, mainly because of the higher incidence of vascular diseases that restrict blood circulation in the limbs. The most common reason for amputations among younger people is massive injury to limbs from
automobile and motorcycle accidents. An estimated 425,000 persons in the United States have had amputations; approximately 70 percent of these have lost one or both legs. _^<N__^<N_Peter L. Petrakis _^<N__^<N_See also: SURGERY.
-END-
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1987
CAT
-A-
Amritsar
-T-
Amritsar_^<N__^<N_{um-rit'-sur} _^<N__^<N_Amritsar, district headquarters for Punjab state, is a city in northwestern India with a population of 709,456 (1991). It is located about 48 km (30 mi) from the Pakistan border in a semiarid region. The
annual average temperature is 22 deg C (71 deg F), and the rainfall is 500-1,000 mm (20-40 in) annually. The city is an important regional market center for agricultural goods and the center for border security in the northwest. Manufacturing
products include textiles, particularly carpets, silks, and brocades. _^<N__^<N_Amritsar is the most important religious center of the Sikhs, who make up about one-third of the city's inhabitants. The city was founded in 1577 by Ram Das, the
fourth Sikh guru, on land furnished by the Mogul emperor Akbar. Ram Das also began construction of the Amrita Saras ("Pool of Immortality"), an artificial lake from which the city takes its name. On an island in the lake is the most important
Sikh shrine, the Golden Temple, so called because of its copper roof covered with gold foil. In its present form the temple, which contains the most sacred texts of the Sikhs, the Granth Sahib, dates from the reign (1792-1839) of the Sikh ruler
Ranjit Singh. _^<N__^<N_In the Amritsar Massacre (Apr. 13, 1919) troops commanded by the British general Reginald Dyer fired on an Indian crowd peacefully demonstrating against the Rowlatt Acts, by which the British administration had recently
given itself emergency powers. Casualties were officially estimated at 379 deaths and some 1,200 wounded. The site of the massacre, an open area called the Jallianwallah Bagh, is now a national shrine. _^<N__^<N_In 1982, Sikh extremists launched
a terrorist campaign to force the Indian government to grant Sikhs greater autonomy. They used the Golden Temple as a sanctuary, turning it into a fortified base. As a result, the temple was stormed by Indian troops in 1984, and again in 1986.
_^<N__^<N_Ashok K. Dutt _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Tully, M., and Satish, J., Amritsar (1986).
-END-
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4589
CATO
-A-
Amsterdam
-O-
000000|Amsterdam
001259| The Contemporary City
003100| History
-T-
Amsterdam_^<N__^<N_Amsterdam is the chief city and nominal capital of the Kingdom of the Netherlands (The Hague is the seat of government). It lies where the little IJ River flows into the IJSSELMEER (formerly the Zuiderzee). Its name is derived
from a dam once built on the Amstel, which flows into the IJ at this point. Amsterdam has 675,579 (1985 est.) inhabitants, making it the largest city in the country. Its urban agglomeration population is 936,410 (1983 est.) _^<N__^<N_The city lies
below sea level and is built on piles into the soft alluvial clay. By the late 16th century Amsterdam had become the chief Dutch port; for a century it was Europe's most important port and commercial center. Much of the building in the inner
city dates from this period. The Old City consists of a series of concentric roads and canals on each side of the Amstel near its junction with the IJ. The docks, which lie along the IJ River, were formerly approached from the Zuiderzee, but in
1876 the NORTH SEA CANAL was opened from the city westward to the coast at IJmuiden. _^<N__^<N_Amsterdam has a climate that is cool in summer--July averages 18 deg C (64 deg F); cold in winter--January averages 3 deg C (37 deg F); and humid at
all times, with an average annual rainfall of 660 mm (26 in). _^<N__^<N_ The Contemporary City_^<N__^<N_The population is mainly Dutch, the majority of whom belong to the Dutch Reformed or Calvinist church. The city also has a large Jewish
community and a significant Indonesian minority. _^<N__^<N_Amsterdam is primarily a commercial and financial center. Its industries have developed from its role as a port trading with the East. The processing of oil seeds, tobacco, coffee, tea,
and other imported goods is important, as are engineering and shipbuilding. Diamond cutting and polishing is a major industry, and there is a large trade in timber. The port of Amsterdam tends to concentrate on light cargoes, leaving the handling
of bulk cargoes to its neighbor to the south, Rotterdam. _^<N__^<N_Waterborne communications are important, and a network of canals links the city with the rest of the Netherlands and with the Rhine River. Even within the city, water
transportation continues to be much used. Amsterdam has an excellent railroad service with the rest of the Netherlands as well as with Western and Central Europe, and it is served by Schiphol Airport, 8 km (5 mi) to the southwest, one of the most
modern in Europe. _^<N__^<N_Amsterdam is the chief educational and cultural center in the Netherlands. It has two universities and is noted for its museums, including the RIJKSMUSEUM (State Museum; 1876-85). This contains a large collection of
paintings by the Dutch masters, including Rembrandt, whose house is also preserved as a museum. The Concert Hall is the home of the famous CONCERTGEBOUW ORCHESTRA. The architecture of the Old City, made up mainly of merchants' houses of the 16th
and 17th centuries, helps attract visitors and has made Amsterdam a center of tourism. Near the city center are the Royal Palace (1648-65), the Oude Kerk ("Old Church"; early 14th century), and fragments of the city's medieval defenses.
_^<N__^<N_ History_^<N__^<N_Amsterdam developed in the Middle Ages as a small fishing port and commercial center. It was greatly expanded during the 14th century by the counts of Holland; joining the HANSEATIC LEAGUE in 1369, its merchants opened
up trade with the Baltic. In the late 16th century, with the decline of Antwerp, Amsterdam became the chief port of northwestern Europe. The city experienced rapid growth and extensive rebuilding, and its defensive canals were successively
extended to enclose an ever greater area. Amsterdam welcomed political and religious refugees, including Flemings from the Spanish Netherlands, Jews from the Iberian Peninsula, and Huguenots from France. This was the city's golden age. In the
18th century a gradual silting of the Zuiderzee occurred and Amsterdam suffered a decline. The larger ships of the day had difficulty reaching the city, and much of the Rhineland trade passed to Rotterdam. The city was revitalized by the opening
of the North Sea Canal in 1876, and in the late 19th century it again developed as the chief port for the domestic trade of the Netherlands. During World War II Amsterdam's port was largely destroyed by the occupying Germans. It was subsequently
rebuilt. _^<N__^<N_Norman J. G. Pounds _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Kroon, Ben, and Van Der Heyden, A. A., The Glory of Amsterdam (1975); Leitch, Michael, Slow Walks in Amsterdam (1991); Regin, Deric, Traders, Artists, Burghers: A Cultural History
of Amsterdam in the 17th Century (1976).
-END-
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52
CAT
-A-
Amsterdam, University of:
-T-
Amsterdam, University of:_^<N__^<N_see EUROPEAN UNIVERSITIES.
-END-
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2745
CATO
-A-
Amtrak
-O-
000000|Amtrak
000441| Postwar Decline in Rail Service
001377| Amtrak Service
-T-
Amtrak_^<N__^<N_Amtrak is the semipublic corporation, created by the Rail Passenger Service Act of 1970, that has provided most of the intercity rail passenger service in the United States since May 1, 1971. The legislation of 1970 instructed the
secretary of transportation to establish a reduced but basic rail passenger service for the United States, financed by payments made by the participating railroads and by federal grants and guaranteed loans. _^<N__^<N_ Postwar Decline in Rail
Service_^<N__^<N_The establishment of Amtrak followed several years of public concern over the continuing decrease in the number of passenger trains and a long period of ever-increasing deficits for passenger service. During World War II,
passenger rail traffic was profitable. In 1944 more than 75% of all commercial intercity travel was by rail. In the postwar years, however, rail travel rapidly declined. Passenger traffic dropped from 157.7 billion km (98 billion mi) in 1944 to
17.7 billion km (11 billion mi) in 1950, 21 billion in 1960, and only 11 billion in 1970. As rail travel declined, that by air and private automobile boomed, and by 1970 only 7% of all intercity passenger travel was accomplished by rail. Railroad
companies, which had been losing up to $600 million yearly on passenger service, dropped so many routes that passenger trains used only about one-quarter of the national rail network. _^<N__^<N_ Amtrak Service_^<N__^<N_When Amtrak went into
operation in 1971, 18 of the 22 large passenger railroads joined the corporation. Amtrak reduced routes and service by roughly half, to a total of 21 routes serving 340 U.S. cities on about 32,000 km (20,000 mi) of track. The 4 remaining
passenger lines came into the system later--the last, the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad, only in 1983. With the exception of commuter lines connecting major cities with their suburbs, all intercity passenger rail service today is supplied
by Amtrak, which now serves almost 500 stations. At the same time, the corporation has eliminated routes it judges to be uneconomic. _^<N__^<N_Federal funds spent on rehabilitating stations and maintenance facilities, purchasing new rolling stock,
improving the computerized communications system, and rebuilding the heavily used Boston-Washington corridor have led to greater efficiencies and a significant rise in passenger use. In the early 1990s only about 30% of Amtrak's expenditures came
from federal funds. The 1988 restoration and reopening of Washington, D.C.'s once-abandoned Union Station were seen as positive omens of Amtrak's future. _^<N__^<N_John F. Stover _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Carper, R. S., America's New Railroads
(1980); Dorin, Patrick C., Amtrak Trains and Travel (1980); Thomas, William E., Reprieve for the Iron Horse: Amtrak (1974).
-END-
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785
CAT
-A-
Amu Darya
-T-
Amu Darya_^<N__^<N_{ah-moo dahr'-yah} _^<N__^<N_The Amu Darya is a major river of Central Asia. Originating at the confluence of the Pyandzh and Vakhsh rivers on the border between Tajikistan and Afghanistan, it flows west and north for 2,540 km
(1,578 mi) through Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan to the ARAL SEA, where it forms a marshy delta. The river carries little traffic but supplies much of the area's hydroelectric power. Its drainage basin extends about 965 km (600 mi) from north to
south, more than 1,450 km (900 mi) from east to west. Much of the Amu's water is drawn off for desert irrigation (KARA KUM canal system) or is lost to drainage or evaporation before reaching the sea. In ancient times the Amu Darya was known as the
Oxus, and the region east of the river was called Transoxiana.
-END-
-C-
1208
CAT
-A-
amulet
-T-
amulet_^<N__^<N_An amulet is an object used as a charm, either to protect against harm or to promote good fortune. It is usually worn or carried on the person but may be attached to animals, houses, automobiles, or other property. Examples of
amulets include the scarab of ancient Egypt, the horseshoe and other iron objects used against witchcraft in early European tradition, the blue beads used in some Islamic countries to guard against the EVIL EYE, and charms for good luck, such as
the rabbit's foot. Stones, horns, bones, figurines, coins and medallions, and many other objects are used as amulets in a great range of cultures. Persons especially vulnerable, such as children or the sick, are often thought to need amulets.
Some amulets bear religious images or texts; others have astrological significance. The source of power attributed to amulets may be defined within a particular belief system or may remain an obscure supernatural influence. _^<N__^<N_Christian
Clerk _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bonner, Campbell, Studies in Magical Amulets (1950); Budge, E. A. Wallis, Amulets and Superstitions (1930; repr. 1978 as Amulets and Talismans); Gonzalez-Whippler, M. G., Complete Book of Amulets and Talismans
(1991).
-END-
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1641
CAT
-A-
Amundsen, Roald
-T-
Amundsen, Roald_^<N__^<N_(ah'-mun-suhn, roh'-ahl} _^<N__^<N_Roald Engelbregt Grauning Amundsen, a Norwegian, explored the ARCTIC ice cap and ANTARCTICA and led the expedition that first reached the SOUTH POLE. Born near Oslo on July 16, 1872, he
left medical school in 1897 to go to the Antarctic with a Belgian expedition, the first group to spend a winter there. Between 1903 and 1906 he passed from east to west across the Arctic Ocean above North America, the so-called NORTHWEST PASSAGE.
He was mounting an expedition to the North Pole when he learned that an American, Robert PEARY, had already reached the pole (1909). _^<N__^<N_In June 1910 he sailed from Norway, intending to be the first to reach the South Pole. He knew of a
similar expedition being launched by the British under the direction of Robert Falcon SCOTT. The race of the two expeditions captured the imagination of Europe. _^<N__^<N_Amundsen, with a shorter overland route and a disciplined plan involving the
use of dogs to pull the sleds and provide food for the return journey, arrived at the pole with four men on Dec. 14, 1911, one month ahead of the British. Amundsen left a sympathetic note to Scott at the pole. It was found with the frozen bodies of
Scott and his men, who died on the way back to their base camp. Amundsen's victory failed to win the fame and money he thought it deserved. Instead, Scott was remembered as the hero. Amundsen died on June 18, 1928, while flying to the Arctic to
rescue an Italian explorer, Umberto Nobile, from a dirigible crash. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Amundsen, Roald, My Life as an Explorer (1927); Turley, Charles, Roald Amundsen, Explorer (1935). _^<N__^<N_See also: EXPLORATION.
-END-
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1234
CAT
-A-
Amur River
-T-
Amur River_^<N__^<N_{uh-moor'} _^<N__^<N_The Amur River (Chinese: Heilong Jiang) is located in eastern Asia and forms part of the Russian-Chinese border. It flows 2,825 km (1,755 mi) from the confluence of the Shilka and Argun rivers, north of
Inner Mongolia, eastward to its mouth at the Tatar Strait, which separates Siberia from the Sakhalin Islands. The Amur is the longest river in eastern Russia, and from May to November, when it is navigable, it is an important trade route. It also
supplies water for irrigation and supports a large fish population. _^<N__^<N_The river is divided into three parts. The upper Amur is the portion in the mountains, the middle part flows through the Zeya-Bureya Depression and plains, and the lower
part flows through marshes, where it is joined by numerous other streams. The principal city along the river is Khabarovsk. The population of the surrounding region is composed of Russians as well as the original tribal population (including the
YAKUT and the BURYAT) in the north and Chinese, Mongolians, and Manchurians in the south. The Amur is rain-fed, and its basin has a monsoon climate. As a result, flooding is common along much of its course from May to October; water may rise 7.5
m (25 ft) above normal.
-END-
-C-
1316
CAT
-A-
amusement park
-T-
amusement park_^<N__^<N_An amusement park is a recreational area devoted to such entertainments as the FERRIS WHEEL and roller coaster, shooting galleries, fun houses, sideshows, and dance bands. Amusement parks are an outgrowth of CARNIVALS AND
FAIRS. In the United States, these parks were first built at popular beaches in the 1800s. Usually a roller coaster, originally called the "sliding hill," was the major attraction. _^<N__^<N_Walt DISNEY created the first "theme" park, DISNEYLAND,
in Anaheim, Calif., in 1955. Its phenomenal success promoted the building of other theme parks throughout the United States and abroad, including Disneylands in Tokyo (1983) and near Paris (1992). Walt Disney World (1971), near Orlando, Fla., is
the largest U. S. Park and attracts the most visitors. Others are Six Flags over Texas in Arlington, Tex., which has an American-history theme; Opryland, USA, in Nashville, Tenn., which has a country-music theme; and Astroworld in Houston, Tex.
Six Flags Great Adventure in Jackson, N.J., and the many Lion Country Safari parks combine traditional amusements with spacious open zoos, where animals freely roam. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Adams, Judith, and Perkins, Edwin, The American Amusement
Park Industry (1991); Dunning, Glenna, The American Amusement Park: An Annotated Bibliography (1985).
-END-
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551
CAT
-A-
Amvets
-T-
Amvets_^<N__^<N_Amvets, or American Veterans of World War II, Korea, and Vietnam, was founded in 1944 by veterans of World War II. Membership is open to anyone who has served in the armed forces of the United States or any U.S. citizen who has
served in the forces of an allied nation during these wars. Amvets is active in veterans' rehabilitation, legislative affairs, employment of the handicapped, and visiting hospitalized veterans. In 1978 the organization had 150,000 members in 1,100
local groups. It publishes a bimonthly magazine, the National AMVET.
-END-
-C-
392
CAT
-A-
amyl nitrite
-T-
amyl nitrite_^<N__^<N_{am'-ul ny'-tryt} _^<N__^<N_Amyl nitrite is a volatile drug used to relax spasms of arteries, control convulsions, and relieve asthmatic paroxysms. Administered by inhalation in 3- to 5-drop doses, it furnishes immediate relief
by widening constricted blood vessels. Popularly known as "poppers," amyl nitrite is also reputed by illicit users to be an effective mood elevator or stimulant.
-END-
-C-
1283
CAT
-A-
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
-T-
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis_^<N__^<N_Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a degenerative disease of the nervous system, affecting the motor neurons that carry impulses from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles. Degeneration of these neurons
causes muscle weakness, spasticity, and atrophy, usually starting in the hands and arms and then spreading to other parts of the body. Difficulty with speaking, swallowing, and breathing ensues, and death usually follows within 3 to 10 years.
Onset commonly occurs between the ages of 50 and 60, slightly more frequently in men than in women. ALS is also called Lou Gehrig's disease after the baseball star who died of it. _^<N__^<N_The most common form of motor neuron disease (see NERVOUS
SYSTEM, DISEASES OF THE), ALS strikes an estimated 2 to 7 out of every 100,000 persons in the United States. Research thus far has failed to establish any definite cause, although slow-acting viruses have been suspected and, in a small percentage
of cases, a genetic link might be involved. No specific treatment yet exists, and patients can be aided only by supportive therapy. _^<N__^<N_William A. Check _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hopkins, Harold, "A.L.S.," FDA Consumer, Dec. 1983-Jan. 1984;
Kaye, Donald, and Rose, Louis F., eds., Fundamentals of Internal Medicine (1983);
-END-
-C-
12
CAT
-A-
An:
-T-
An:_^<N__^<N_see ANU.
-END-
-C-
20
CAT
-A-
An-shan:
-T-
An-shan:_^<N__^<N_see ANSHAN.
-END-
-C-
334
CAT
-A-
Anabaena
-T-
Anabaena_^<N__^<N_{an-uh-bee'-nuh} _^<N__^<N_Anabaena is a genus of BLUE-GREEN ALGAE usually found on moist soil or floating on shallow water as solitary forms or gelatinous colonies, sometimes producing flowerlike blooms during the summer in
northern regions. The algae produce a toxin fatal to animals that ingest sufficient amounts in drinking water.
-END-
-C-
2377
CAT
-A-
Anabaptists
-T-
Anabaptists_^<N__^<N_Anabaptists, or rebaptizers, were members of a variety of 16th-century religious groups that rejected infant BAPTISM. Since they believed that only after an adult had come to faith in Christ should he or she be baptized, they
taught that converts who had been baptized in infancy must be rebaptized. _^<N__^<N_Anabaptists held the church to be the congregation of true saints who should separate themselves from the sinful world. Their theology was highly eschatological
(see ESCHATOLOGY), and they claimed direct inspiration by the Holy Spirit. The Anabaptists refused to take oaths, opposed capital punishment, and rejected military service. Their beliefs made them appear subversive and provoked persecution. Many of
the Reformers disclaimed them, regarding them as fundamentally opposed to the ideas of the REFORMATION. _^<N__^<N_In Zurich, Conrad Grebel performed the first adult baptism on Jan. 21, 1525, when he rebaptized Georg Blaurock in the house of Felix
Manz. Anabaptism spread to southwest Germany, Austria, Moravia, along the Danube, and down the Rhine to the Netherlands. Numbering less than 1 percent of the population, the Anabaptists were for the most part of humble social origin. Among their
leaders were Balthasar Hubmaier, Hans Denck, Jacob Hutter, and Hans Hut. _^<N__^<N_In 1534, militant Anabaptists, inspired by radical Melchior Hofmann, seized control of the city of Munster. Led by Bernt Knipperdollinck, Jan Mathijs, and Jan
Beuckelson, better known as John of Leiden (c.1509-36), they drove out all Protestants and Roman Catholics. John set up a theocracy, became king, and established polygamy and communal property. After a 16-month siege, the bishop of Munster
recaptured the city and executed the rebels. MENNO SIMONS, a Dutchman, restored the reputation of the Anabaptists through his moderate and inspired leadership. His followers have survived and are known as MENNONITES. The HUTTERIAN BRETHREN are
descendants of the group led by Hutter. _^<N__^<N_Lewis W. Spitz _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Clasen, Claus P., Anabaptism: A Social History, 1525-1618 (1972); Estep, William, The Anabaptist Story (1975); Hershberger, Guy F., ed., The Recovery of the
Anabaptist Vision (1957); Littell, Franklin H., Origins of Sectarian Protestantism (1964); Williams, George H., The Radical Reformation (1962); Williams, George H., and Mergal, Angel, eds., Spiritual and Anabaptist Writers (1957).
-END-
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45
CAT
-A-
anabatic wind:
-T-
anabatic wind:_^<N__^<N_see MOUNTAIN AND VALLEY WINDS.
-END-
-C-
485
CAT
-A-
Anaconda
-T-
Anaconda_^<N__^<N_Anaconda (1990 census, 10,278) is a city in southwestern Montana. Formerly the county seat of Deer Lodge County, in 1977 it was consolidated with that county to form a single administrative unit. The city was founded in 1883 by
Marcus DALY as a smelting center for ores from his copper mine. Originally named Copperopolis, it was incorporated in 1888 and renamed Anaconda after Daly's mine. Anaconda's smelter, which had been one of the world's largest, was closed in 1980.
-END-
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689
CAT
-A-
anaconda (snake)
-T-
anaconda (snake)_^<N__^<N_The anaconda, Eunectes murinus, a semiaquatic SNAKE of the BOA family, Boidae is found in Central America and tropical South America. The largest boa in the Western Hemisphere, it can reach a length of 7.6 m (25 ft). Both
the young, which are born alive in large broods, and the adults are dark green with round black markings. A smaller species, E. notaeus, the yellow anaconda, is found in rivers of southern South America. It is yellowish green in color with
irregular dark blotches. Although not venomous, anacondas can defend themselves by inflicting severe bites. They are strong constrictors and feed on birds and small animals. _^<N__^<N_Peter L. Petrakis _^<N__^<N_See also: REPTILE.
-END-
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417
CAT
-A-
Anacreon
-T-
Anacreon_^<N__^<N_{uh-nak'-ree-ahn} _^<N__^<N_Anacreon, c.570-478 BC, was a notable Greek lyric poet. He composed imaginative verses for solo voice about love, friendship, and wine. Although a number of serious epigrams and hymns are also attributed
to him, he gained fame for the graceful style of his verse. The Anacreontea, a collection of poems written in imitation of Anacreon's style and metrics, influenced writers for centuries.
-END-
-C-
756
CAT
-A-
anaerobe
-T-
anaerobe_^<N__^<N_{an'-uh-rohb} _^<N__^<N_An anaerobe is an organism that obtains all the energy it needs from food without the use of oxygen by a method called FERMENTATION. Certain BACTERIA that cannot use oxygen and are even poisoned by it are
called obligate anaerobes; they produce gases such as methane or hydrogen sulfide from organic compounds that do not contain oxygen. Other bacteria and YEAST are facultative anaerobes; they may or may not use oxygen and can survive either way.
Plants and animals can also obtain energy by fermentation, but they are obligate aerobes in that they must always have oxygen to survive--with the exception of some internal parasites. The anaerobe METHANOGEN is believed to be related to the
earliest life forms. _^<N__^<N_See also: METABOLISM.
-END-
-C-
1395
CAT
-A-
anagram
-T-
anagram_^<N__^<N_An anagram is a word or phrase formed by transposing the letters of another word or phrase. In the popular word game anagrams, one player forms a list of words belonging to a selected category, then scrambles the letters. For
example, in the category flowers, the player could write allics ("lilacs") and pulits ("tulips"). The object is for the other players to reconstruct the original words. Each is given the category and the list of scrambled letters. The first to
reconstruct the original list correctly is the winner. _^<N__^<N_"Jumble," a syndicated newspaper feature originated by Henri Arnold and Bob Lee, is a popular form of anagrams. This version consists of a cryptic clue and four scrambled words to be
reconstructed by the reader. Certain letters in the deciphered words form yet another anagram that, when solved, answers the cryptic clue. _^<N__^<N_The anagram dates back to ancient times and often, when formed from names, was considered a
mystical clue to a person's character or fate. A palindrome, in a sense, is an anagram that reads the same either forward or backward, such as "Madam, I'm Adam," or the word radar. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Borgman, Dmitri A., Language on Vacation
(1965); Chamberlain, P. D., Anagrams (1984); Espy, Willard R., The Game of Words (1972); Hunter, Samuel D., The Dictionary of Anagrams (1982); Pewters, C. R., et al., eds., Chambers Anagrams (1987).
-END-
-C-
773
CAT
-A-
Anaheim
-T-
Anaheim_^<N__^<N_{an'-uh-hym} _^<N__^<N_Anaheim, a suburban city in the Santa Ana River valley in southern California, lies 40 km (25 mi) southeast of Los Angeles. Its growth has been extremely rapid as industries and housing replaced the citrus
groves and vineyards planted by the early settlers. Since 1950, when the population was less than 15,000, Anaheim has grown to a city of 266,406 (1990 census). _^<N__^<N_Anaheim is the site of DISNEYLAND amusement park, Anaheim Stadium (home of
the California Angels baseball team), and the Anaheim Convention Center. Industries produce aerospace systems, electronic equipment, paper converters, greeting cards, and processed foods. _^<N__^<N_The city was founded by German immigrants in 1857
as an experiment in communal living. Its name means "home on the Ana."
-END-
-C-
23
CAT
-A-
analcime:
-T-
analcime:_^<N__^<N_see ZEOLITES.
-END-
-C-
3697
CAT
-A-
analgesic
-T-
analgesic_^<N__^<N_{an-ul-jee'-zik} _^<N__^<N_Analgesic drugs and techniques diminish the perception of pain while causing minimal loss of sensibility to other stimuli. Analgesic drugs include ASPIRIN, ACETAMINOPHEN, IBUPROFEN, MORPHINE and other
narcotics, general anesthetics in low doses, and local anesthetics (see ANESTHESIA). Analgesic techniques include ACUPUNCTURE, BIOFEEDBACK, HYPNOSIS, electrical stimulation of the affected area, and surgical separation of nerve fibers.
_^<N__^<N_Treatment of acute PAIN is necessary after surgery, dental procedures, muscular strains and sprains, or trauma. Chronic pain requiring therapy may arise following infection, with malignancies, or with nerve irritation or compression, for
example, a pinched nerve. Pain may be a symptom of an underlying problem, and proper treatment may require more than pain relief. _^<N__^<N_Some of the drugs most often used as analgesics are acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin), the drug most commonly
taken for the relief of mild pain; phenacetin and acetaminophen (Tylenol), which are comparable to aspirin in reducing pain and fever but are much less effective in alleviating inflammation; and propoxyphene (DARVON), which is effective in
relieving mild pain and has been used in the treatment of narcotic addiction. Narcotic analgesics are used only for the treatment of severe pain. OPIUM, derived from the juice of the poppyseed capsule, has been in use for centuries; CODEINE,
HEROIN, and morphine are derivatives. _^<N__^<N_Small amounts of general anesthetics can be used for pain relief without producing unconsciousness. Topical local anesthetics, such as benzocaine (ethylaminobenzoate), are widely used for blocking
the transmission of pain signals to the brain from the affected area. A local anesthetic can be injected near nerve fibers to block pain sensation in an entire area of the body. This procedure is useful for analgesia in treatment of chronic pain
and during localized surgery. _^<N__^<N_Electrical stimulation of large fibers by the replacement of electrodes on the skin, in specific nerves, or within the spinal cord has produced analgesia. Hypnosis is a proven method for achieving pain
relief in both acute and chronic disorders in some susceptible patients, but the effectiveness of this technique cannot be predicted. ACUPUNCTURE, a technique derived from Chinese medicine and involving the insertion of needles into the skin at
certain points on the body, is also sometimes successful in producing adequate analgesia for major surgical procedures and for the relief of chronic pain. BIOFEEDBACK control has been useful in relieving some forms of chronic pain. With this
technique the patient learns to modify his or her response to stress through concentration and relaxation. _^<N__^<N_The PLACEBO effect--by which patients given a sugar pill experience the same lessening in pain as when given an analgesic--must be
considered whenever analgesics are compared. Studies have shown that up to 30 percent of a group of patients will experience some relief of pain when only a dummy pill has been administered. _^<N__^<N_In the early 1970s it was discovered that
opiates bind to specific receptors in the brain. Subsequently, naturally occurring compounds called encephalins and endorphins, which bind to the OPIATE RECEPTORS, were isolated from animal brain tissue. As more is learned about these compounds,
artificial regulation of their levels may produce effective analgesia. _^<N__^<N_Gerald F. Lefever and Harry Wollman _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bonica, J.J., ed., Management of Pain, 2 vols., 2d ed. (1990); Corssen, Guenter, et al., Intravenous
Anesthesia and Analgesia (1987); Fields, H.L., Pain (1987); Kuhar, M.J., and Pasternak, G.W., eds., Analgesics (1984).
-END-
-C-
6746
CATO
4822
-A-
analog devices
-O-
000000|analog devices
001205| ANALOG COMPUTERS
004468| ANALOG VERSUS DIGITAL
-T-
analog devices_^<N__^<N_An analog device is an apparatus that uses a continuously variable physical phenomenon to describe, imitate, or reproduce another dynamic phenomenon. An example is a mercury thermometer, in which a rising or falling
(expanding or contracting) column of mercury represents a rising or falling temperature. Other examples of analog devices are standard rotary clocks, rotary automobile speedometers, and phonograph records. Since the time of Isaac Newton it has
been understood that phenomena are properly analogous when mathematical analysis reveals similar underlying formulas. Analog devices can be contrasted with digital devices (see DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY), which employ a limited number of discrete bits of
information to approximate continuous phenomena. _^<N__^<N_Many early measurement instruments were analog devices. In the sun dial, the movement of a shadow represented the passage of time (actually the rotation of the Earth). On a springweight
scale, an old device still in use, a stretched spring, along with a pointing device and an analog scale, indicates the weight of a suspended object. A SLIDE RULE, which performs mathematical calculations using analog scales, is a simple analog
computer. _^<N__^<N_ ANALOG COMPUTERS_^<N__^<N_An analog computer is an apparatus that employs continuously variable physical phenomena, such as mechanical motions, flows of fluids, or currents of electricity, to make computations. It may be
contrasted with the digital computer ( see COMPUTER), which makes use of digital, or discrete, elements to make computations. A primitive example of an analog computer is the immersion of an object of irregular shape in water contained in a
graduated vessel to determine the volume of the irregular object. The displaced volume of water is equal to the volume of the object. This example uses continuously variable magnitudes as input data, as well as throughout the computational
process and even to convey the outcome. _^<N__^<N_Addition and subtraction of continuously variable magnitudes may easily be done using sliding mechanical displacements. The logarithmic slide rule, invented about 1620 and still used, adds or
subtracts two input lengths by straight-line sliding of one part relative to another so that the output length equals their sum or difference. The two inputs are set in according to logarithmic scales, and the output read from a logarithmic scale,
so that what is read is equivalent to multiplication of division of numbers. Such displacements and measurements, applied to more-complicated scales and graphed curves, brought about a branch of computational mathematics known as nomography (see
NOMOGRAM). In mechanical form, these techniques gave rise to a class of analog computing devices known as computing linkages. _^<N__^<N_The two basic operations of calculus (differentiation and integration) can be viewed as finding the tangent to
a curve at each point, and as finding the area under a curve y=f(x) From a to b, where a and b are two values of x. Integration can be performed by a simple and elegant mechanism, known since about 1800, called a disk-and-wheel integrator, which
acts like a transmission having a continuously variable ratio. The independent variable x turns a shaft carrying a disk much like a phonograph turntable. A small follower wheel is maintained at disk radius equal to the variable y and is turned by
friction contact with the disk at that radius, so that if the wheel is of unit radius, it turns y times as much as the x shaft and thus turns in proportion to the area. _^<N__^<N_Many varieties of the disk-and-wheel integrator have been developed,
the simplest being manually operable on graphed curves; they are called planimeters. Apparatuses involving several such devices in combination with other mechanisms were developed to perform harmonic (Fourier) analysis and also to solve
differential equations automatically. These are called DIFFERENTIAL ANALYZERS of the Kelvin and Bush types and were used during World War II to calculate ballistic trajectories; disk integrators were also used in gunfire directors and in airborne
bombsights. Electric, and most recently electronic, analog computers have supplanted the earlier mechanical machines. The most widely used analog computer, the domestic electric watt-hour meter, computes the sum over time of the product of two
continuously variable vectors--current and voltage; this quantity, which is the definite integral of power, is the energy consumed. _^<N__^<N_ ANALOG VERSUS DIGITAL_^<N__^<N_Today many analog devices have been replaced by digital devices, manly
because digital instruments can better deal with the problem of unwanted information, or noise. This is illustrated by the technologies employed in recording sound on disc and reproducing it. on a phonograph record, sounds are encoded in a groove
that varies continuously in width and shape. when a stylus passes along the groove, the analog information is picked up and then electronically amplified in order to reproduce the original sounds. Any number of minor imperfections in the record
will be translated by the player into additional sounds, or noise. In the digital technology of the COMPACT DISC, sounds are translated into binary code, and recorded on the disc as discrete pits. Noise is less of a problem because most noise
will not be encoded initially, and noise that does get encoded is easily recognized and eliminated during the retranslation process. A digital process has one drawback, however, in that it cannot be expected to reproduce every single aspect of a
continuous phenomenon. An analog device, although subject to noise propagation, will produce a more complete, or truer, rendering of a continuous phenomenon. _^<N__^<N_In the field of computer processing, electronic analog computers continue to be
used in certain applications, although the major data-processing tasks of modern technologies are met by electronic digital computers. As the limits placed on the powers of ordinary digital computers by the physical aspects of microcircuitry begin
to be reached, computer designers are now exploring and employing the techniques of PARALLEL PROCESSING, in which numerous processors operate in tandem. _^<N__^<N_Reviewed by Robert Swanson _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Barnaal, Dennis, Analog and
Digital Electronics for Scientific Application (1982); Beards, P. H., Analog and Digital Electronics: A First Course (1987); Needler, Marvin, and Baker, Don, Digital and Analog Controls (1985); Sinema, William, and McGovern, Thomas, Digital,
Analog and Data Communications (1982); Soclof, Sidney, Applications of Analog Integrated Devices (1985); Watson, J., Analog and Switching Circuit Design (1984). _^<N__^<N_See also: HYBRID COMPUTER; SOUND RECORDING AND REPRODUCTION.
-END-
-C-
1424
CAT
-A-
analog-to-digital converter
-T-
analog-to-digital converter_^<N__^<N_The analog-to-digital, or A/D, converter is a device that converts analog signals to numerically equivalent form for input to a digital computer. The analog signals are electrical voltage levels produced by
transducers that measure such continually varying physical properties as temperature and pressure, whereas a digital computer can only handle discrete bits of information. The A/D converter thus allows a physical system to be directed by digital
computer control. _^<N__^<N_A typical A/D converter is made from a register that can hold a digital value, an operational amplifier, and a voltage comparator. The register outputs are electrically summed to produce an electric current proportional
to the digital value of the register. This current causes a proportional voltage gain at the amplifier output. The amplified voltage is compared to the unknown input analog signal. As long as there is a discernible difference, the comparator
allows the register value to change one step at a time until there is no difference. The register holds the digital value equivalent to the analog input. _^<N__^<N_Analog-to-digital converters are common computer INPUT-OUTPUT DEVICES for control
applications. Computer-produced control signals may require the complementary conversion to analog by using DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERTERS. _^<N__^<N_Edward W. Davis _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Analog-Digital Conversion Handbook, 3d ed. (1986).
-END-
-C-
6923
CAT
4817
-A-
analytic and linguistic philosophy
-T-
analytic and linguistic philosophy_^<N__^<N_The analytic and linguistic movements, which have strongly influenced 20th-century British and American philosophy, have focused on the need to clarify statements about reality. _^<N__^<N_The analytic
movement began about the turn of the century with Bertrand RUSSELL and G. E. MOORE, both of Cambridge University, as its cofounders. At first, Russell and Moore seemed to be working along the same lines, for both reacted against the neo-Hegelian
idealism of F. H. BRADLEY, which held that the world one experiences is only appearance, not reality. But whereas Russell rejected idealist metaphysics in favor of a metaphysics of his own, which he came to call "logical atomism," Moore
abandoned metaphysical speculation altogether. Moore embodied the respect for common sense that became characteristic of much subsequent analytic and linguistic philosophy, a respect that Russell never shared. _^<N__^<N_In "On Denoting," a paper
of 1905, Russell first put forward his theory of descriptions, suggesting that philosophical analysis should investigate the underlying logical forms of propositions, which might be quite different from their surface grammatical forms. Such
analysis would reveal exactly what is affirmed by the proposition. The theory of descriptions shows, for example, that making a meaningful statement about "the greatest prime number" does not by itself commit one to belief in the existence of such
a number. The fewer different kinds of things one admits exist, the more systematic and secure knowledge becomes. So analysis, and its converse, logical construction, seemed to promise a new, more scientific approach to metaphysical and
epistemological questions: what things ultimately exist, and how secure is our knowledge of them? _^<N__^<N_Russell's greatest analytic achievement was his reduction of mathematics to logic by the development of a new system of symbolic LOGIC, a
far more precise logical system than the Aristotelian syllogistic one previously in use. Russell and Alfred North WHITEHEAD's monumental Principia Mathematica came out in three volumes from 1910 to 1913. By accounting for the distinctive
character of mathematical truths without recourse to problematic metaphysical assumptions, Russell opened the way for a new, logically sophisticated version of EMPIRICISM, for which he was a leading spokesperson. _^<N__^<N_Russell thought of the
new logic as the bare bones of an ideal language, a language in which the wording of all propositions would reveal their true logical forms. One of Russell's pupils, the Austrian Ludwig WITTGENSTEIN, argued that language's capacity to represent
the world depended on their sharing a common structure, the structure of logic. Thus what Russell saw as an ideal, Wittgenstein saw as already hidden in language, waiting to be uncovered by analysis. According to Wittgenstein, any meaningful
statement not belonging to logic or pure mathematics was a statement of fact. Moreover, all statements of fact had to be analyzable into "elementary propositions" that were, in a technical sense, "logical pictures" of possible facts. _^<N__^<N_The
adherents of LOGICAL POSITIVISM, who were strongly influenced by Wittgenstein's ideas, held that any significant proposition that was not a tautology had to be observationally verifiable. Propositions that did not meet this condition--for example,
those belonging to ethics, religion, and, above all, traditional metaphysics--might have a certain emotional significance, they said, but were literal nonsense. For the logical positivists, then, philosophical analysis became the clarification of
statements belonging to science: in particular, making clear the relation between various kinds of theoretical claims and the observational evidence by which they could be verified or refuted. _^<N__^<N_Beginning in the 1930s and coming to
fruition in the 1940s and '50s, however, there was a reaction against the Russellian and positivist conceptions of analysis; this reaction led eventually to the emergence of ordinary-language philosophy. The leading figures in this reaction were
Wittgenstein and John WISDOM at Cambridge and Gilbert RYLE and J. L. AUSTIN at Oxford. _^<N__^<N_Russell and the early Wittgenstein had a general program for reforming or uncovering the logical structure of language. The positivists had a
general program for relating scientific statements to their observational bases. The ordinary-language philosophers, however, saw no need for a general program of analysis. Rather, propositions needed to be clarified only if they were already a
source of philosophical perplexity. Moreover, clarification came to be seen, most notably in the work of Austin and the later Wittgenstein, as showing how statements that have generated philosophical conundrums function in ordinary concrete
contexts and not as revealing some hidden logical structure. Philosophy came to be seen as descriptive more than theoretical, its aim being the elimination or "dissolving" of problems rather than their theoretical solution. This "linguistic
philosophy" should not be confused with philosophy of language--a branch of philosophical inquiry dealing with problems about language itself. _^<N__^<N_Russell's heir in analytic philosophy is the American philosopher Willard Van Orman QUINE.
Like Russell, Quine attempts to clarify and reduce the ontological commitments of language, or at least that fragment of it adequate for mathematics and natural science, though he calls his procedure "regimentation," not analysis. And although
Quine sees himself as an empiricist of sorts, he is a trenchant critic of the kind of empiricism espoused by Russell and the logical positivists. Indeed, ironically, his epistemological holism, according to which beliefs are tested against
experience as a body, not one at a time, is reminiscent of some of the idealist views Russell reacted against when the analytic movement began. _^<N__^<N_Although the philosophy taught and practiced in major British and American universities today
is by and large the outgrowth of the analytic and linguistic movements, it must be recognized that even philosophers willing to be described as analytic or linguistic question or reject outright most of the theoretical presuppositions of analytic
and linguistic philosophy as it was originally formulated. In calling themselves analytic philosophers, they mean to indicate their continuing interest in the problems that the analytic tradition addressed and their respect for the standards of
clarity and rigor in argument that are its legacy. _^<N__^<N_Michael Williams _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ayer, A. J., Russell and Moore: The Analytical Heritage (1971); Cocchiarella, Nino, Logical Studies in Analytic Philosophy (1987); Hacking,
Ian, Why Does Language Matter to Philosophy? (1975); Mehta, Ved, The Fly in the Fly Bottle (1968); Pears, David, Wittgenstein (1969); Urmson, J. O., Philosophical Analysis (1956).
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7572
CATO
4800
-A-
analytic geometry
-O-
000000|analytic geometry
001065| HISTORY
002069| PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
006304| SOLID ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
-T-
analytic geometry_^<N__^<N_Analytic geometry, also known as coordinate geometry, is a branch of mathematics in which geometric investigations are carried out by algebraic procedures. Although originally designed to investigate problems in plane
geometry (geometry in a two-dimensional plane), analytic geometry can also be used to explore spaces of higher dimensions. Plane analytic geometry includes the systematic study of CONIC SECTIONS. Analytic geometry of three dimensions is called
solid analytic geometry and includes the study of quadric surfaces. _^<N__^<N_In analytic geometry, positions of points are specified by means of suitable sets of numbers (coordinates) so that geometrical relationships between the points are
equivalent to algebraic relationships between their coordinates. Because of this correspondence between algebra and geometry, it is often possible to prove propositions concerning geometric relationships by means of algebraic calculations. Such
algebraic techniques have proved so effective that they have practically eliminated purely synthetic geometric methods. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY_^<N__^<N_The invention of analytic geometry is generally credited to the French philosopher and mathematician
Rene DESCARTES (1595-1650). Descartes enunciated the fundamental principles of analytic geometry in his Discours de la methode (1637), a significant work on the history of philosophy that was published anonymously to avoid a dispute with the
church. Pierre de FERMAT (1601-65) had also worked out the methods of analytic geometry at the same time, but his treatise on the subject was not published until 1679. The subject in its present form was developed later by Leonhard EULER
(1707-83). The birth of the methods of coordinate geometry and the consequent growth of the methods of the CALCULUS characterize the transition from classical mathematics to a new era in the history of mathematics (see MATHEMATICS, HISTORY OF).
Thus, the creation of analytic geometry was an important step toward the generalization of the classical geometry of the Greeks, which was based on the use of axioms. _^<N__^<N_ PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY_^<N__^<N_Two perpendicular lines--the
coordinate axes--are needed to fix the position of a point in a plane. The point of intersection of these axes is called the origin and is denoted by 0. Usually the x-axis is a horizontal line, and the y-axis is the vertical line at the origin.
The positive x-axis is the part to the right of the origin, and the positive y-axis is the part above the origin. The axes divide the plane into four quarters, called quadrants: the upper right is the first quadrant, the upper left is the second,
the lower left is the third, and the lower right is the fourth quadrant. _^<N__^<N_The x-coordinate of any point P on the plane is the perpendicular distance of P from the y-axis; it is taken to be positive if P is to the right of the y-axis (in
the first or fourth quadrant), zero if P is on the y-axis, and negative if P is to the left of the y-axis. Similarly, the y-coordinate of P is the perpendicular distance of P from the x-axis and can also be positive, zero, or negative.
_^<N__^<N_If the x-coordinate of P is x and the y-coordinate of P is y, then the ordered pair (x,y) represents the Cartesian coordinates (named in honor of Descartes) of P with respect to the fixed coordinate axes. For example, (3,-5) represents
the Cartesian coordinates of a point P in the fourth quadrant situated 3 units to the right of the y-axis and 5 units below the x-axis. Every ordered pair (x,y) of real numbers represents a unique point on the plane and vice versa. The origin is
the point (0,0). The point P with coordinates (x,y) is symbolically represented as P(x,y). _^<N__^<N_The COORDINATE SYSTEM thus described is known as a rectangular Cartesian coordinate system. Oblique coordinate systems, in which the two axes are
not perpendicular, are not considered in this article. _^<N__^<N_If l is the distance between two points P(a,b) and Q(c,d), then the distance formula ll = (a - c) (a - c) + (b - d) (b - d) expressing the relation between the distance l and the
coordinates of the two points, is the analytic (algebraic) version of the celebrated theorem of PYTHAGORAS on right triangles (see PYTHAGORAS, THEOREM OF). _^<N__^<N_A polar coordinate system is determined by a fixed point O, called the origin, or
pole, and a fixed axis through the point, called the polar axis or polar line. A point P on the plane can be located by specifying two quantities: (1) the angle A through which the polar axis must be rotated counterclockwise so that it will pass
through P, and (2) the positive distance r of the point P from the origin. The angle determines a line by specifying its rotation about the fixed axis, and the distance r indicates how far along the line to proceed from the origin to reach P. The
point P in polar coordinates is represented as P (r,A). _^<N__^<N_It is always possible to convert from one Cartesian coordinate system into another and also from one Cartesian system to a polar system and vice versa (see TRANSFORMATION and
TRANSLATION). _^<N__^<N_The path traced by a moving point P(x,y) in the plane is a CURVE. An EQUATION in two variables x and y that is satisfied by those points on the curve and by no other points is called the equation of the curve. Once the
coordinate system has been fixed, a curve has a unique equation, and each equation represents a unique curve--once again bringing out the connection between algebra and geometry that is supplied by analytic geometry. Any first-degree equation of
the form ax + by + c = 0 (where a, b, and c are constants) is the equation of a straight LINE, or a LINEAR EQUATION. _^<N__^<N_The equation of a CIRCLE with its center at the origin and radius r is xx + yy = rr. A conic section is a plane curve
that can be represented by a second-degree equation in x and y. The general equation of second degree is axx + bxy + cyy + dx + ey + f = 0, where a through f are constants. Basic conics are the ELLIPSE, HYPERBOLA, PARABOLA, and circle.
_^<N__^<N_Two lines ax + by + c = 0 and a'x + b'y + ' = 0 are parallel if and only if ab' - a'b = 0, and they are perpendicular if and only if aa' + bb' = 0. Elimination of either x or y between the equations of a line and a conic produces a
quadratic equation whose two ROOTS will be equal if and only if the line is a tangent to the conic. _^<N__^<N_ SOLID ANALYTIC GEOMETRY_^<N__^<N_The concepts outlined above can be easily generalized to a space of three dimensions. Through an
arbitrary point 0 (the origin), three mutually perpendicular coordinate axes are drawn (the x-axis, the y-axis, and the z-axis), dividing the space into eight parts, or octants. The plane determined by the x-axis and the y-axis is known as the
xy-plane; the xz-plane and yz-plane are similarly defined. These three planes are called the coordinate planes. The x-coordinate of a point P is the perpendicular distance from P to the yz-plane. The other two coordinates are defined similarly.
The ordered triple (x,y,z) represents the point P with coordinates x, y, and z. If P is in the first octant, all the coordinates of P are nonnegative (positive or zero). Such a coordinate system is a rectangular Cartesian system. For every point
there corresponds uniquely a triple of real numbers, and, conversely, to every triple of real numbers there corresponds a unique point of space. There are two kinds of extensions of plane polar coordinates: spherical coordinates and cylindrical
coordinates. _^<N__^<N_V. K. Balakrishnan _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Leithold, Louis, Before Calculus (1985); Riddle, D. F., Analytic Geometry, 4th ed. (1987).
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3261
CAT
-A-
analytical chemistry
-T-
analytical chemistry_^<N__^<N_Analytical CHEMISTRY is a branch of chemistry principally concerned with determining the chemical composition of materials, which may be solids, liquids, or gases; pure elements or compounds; or complex mixtures. In
addition, chemical analysis can characterize materials by determining their molecular structures and measuring such physical properties as pH, color, and solubility. _^<N__^<N_Wet analysis involves substances that have been put into solution, and
microanalysis simply means that extremely small amounts of the substances being analyzed are all that are needed for accurate determinations. QUALITATIVE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS is used to detect and identify one or more constituents of a sample, and
QUANTITATIVE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS is used to determine the amounts of those constituents. The greater part of work in analytical chemistry, and usually the more difficult, is quantitative. _^<N__^<N_Methods of chemical analysis are frequently
classified as classical and instrumental, depending on the techniques and equipment used. Many of the methods currently used are of relatively recent origin (since 1950) and employ sophisticated instruments to measure physical properties of
molecules, atoms, and ions. Such instruments have been made possible by spectacular advances in electronics, including computer and microprocessor development. Instrumental measurements can sometimes be carried out without separating the
constituent of interest from the rest of the sample, but often the instrumental measurement is the final step following separation of the sample's components, frequently by means of one or another type of CHROMATOGRAPHY. Some of the instrumental
methods used are various types of SPECTROSCOPY; decomposition, in the case of hydrocarbons, with extremely high temperatures and subsequent computerized analysis; and observation through an ELECTRON MICROSCOPE. Despite these techniques, such
classical chemical procedures as gravimetric analysis--determination of components by their weight--and volumetric analysis--determination by volume as in TITRATIONS--as still practical and reliable means of analyzing or characterizing many
samples. _^<N__^<N_Analytical chemistry has widespread useful applications. For example, the problem of ascertaining the extent of pollution in the air or water involves qualitative and quantitative chemical analysis to identify contaminants and to
determine their concentrations. Diagnosing human health problems in a clinical chemistry laboratory is facilitated by quantitative analyses carried out on samples of the patient's blood and other fluids. Modern industrial chemical plants rely
heavily on quantitative analyses of raw materials, intermediates, and final products to ensure product quality and provide information for process control. In addition, chemical analyses are essential to research in all areas of chemistry as well
as such related sciences as biology and geology. _^<N__^<N_Laurance A. Knecht _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Christian, Gary D., Analytical Chemistry, 2d ed. (1977); Laitinen, Herbert A., and Harris, Walter E., Chemical Analysis, 2d ed. (1975); Lee,
Leslie W., Elementary Principles of Laboratory Instruments, 4th ed. (1978); Skoog, Douglas A., and West, Donald M., Analytical Chemistry, 3d ed. (1979).
-END-
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38
CAT
-A-
analytical psychology:
-T-
analytical psychology:_^<N__^<N_see JUNG, CARL.
-END-
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1350
CAT
-A-
anamorphosis
-T-
anamorphosis_^<N__^<N_{an-uh-mor'-fuh-sis} _^<N__^<N_Anamorphosis, an optical illusion, is a curiosity or game in art that began in the RENAISSANCE, with the rediscovery of perspective. The term itself appeared in the 17th century. By distorting
perspective a drawing or painting could be made that would appear meaningless until viewed from a particular angle, when the image would appear normal. LEONARDO DA VINCI made anamorphic drawings in the 1470s, although he was probably not the first
to experiment with anamorphosis. The most famous example of an anamorphic object in a painting is in Hans HOLBEIN, THE YOUNGER's The Ambassadors (1533; National Gallery, London). Between the two men in this double portrait is what seems to be a
blurred image that, when viewed from close up and to one side of the painting, appears to be a skull. This is probably a pictorial pun, for the name Holbein translates into English as "hollow bone." The only known practical application of
anamorphosis is in baroque architecture and stage scenery, in which anamorphic distortion creates the illusion of depth within a small space. _^<N__^<N_E. M. Plunkett _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Baltrusaitis, Jurgis, Anamorphic Art (1977); Leeman,
Fred, Hidden Images (1976). _^<N__^<N_See also: BAROQUE ART AND ARCHITECTURE; GALLI DA BIBIENA (family); PERSPECTIVE (art); SERLIO, SEBASTIANO; THEATER ARCHITECTURE AND STAGING.
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27
CAT
-A-
anapest:
-T-
anapest:_^<N__^<N_see VERSIFICATION.
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1891
CAT
-A-
anaphylaxis
-T-
anaphylaxis_^<N__^<N_{an-uh-fuh-lak'-sis} _^<N__^<N_Anaphylaxis is an extreme allergic reaction to a foreign substance. Subsequent exposure can produce an overwhelming body reaction called anaphylactic shock. Symptoms of an anaphylactic reaction
include severe itching, muscle spasms, facial swelling, obstruction of respiration from swelling in the larynx, and a drastic fall in BLOOD PRESSURE caused by widespread dilation of blood capillaries. The drop in pressure can lead to circulatory
collapse and death. _^<N__^<N_In some individuals hypersensitive to bee or wasp venom, death from anaphylaxis can occur within an hour of a sting. Anaphylaxis can also occur in patients receiving serum therapy, which is still administered for such
diseases as botulism and tetanus and for the prevention of rabies after exposure to an infected animal. Such serums are prepared by injecting animals with a specific antigen to produce antibodies in the serum. The animal serum is then injected into
a patient to neutralize the same antigen. Because the injected serum is foreign, however, patients can produce antibodies against it. Repeated injections may then cause an allergic reaction called SERUM SICKNESS, which can range from a mild
reaction to anaphylaxis. Serum therapy has been discontinued for most infectious diseases since the development of antimicrobial drugs, but these drugs can also produce anaphylaxis in some individuals. _^<N__^<N_Anaphylaxis is treated by injecting
powerful stimulants to restore blood circulation and using ANTIHISTAMINES to combat the allergic reaction. _^<N__^<N_Peter L. Petrakis _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Amos, Harry, Allergic Drug Reactions (1976); Belanti, Joseph, Immunology (1971); Graedon,
Joe, The People's Pharmacy (1976); Sell, Stewart, Immunology, Immunopathology, and Immunity (1972); Thompson, William, Black's Medical Dictionary, 31st ed. (1976); Wilson, David, Body and Antibody (1971). _^<N__^<N_See also: ALLERGY.
-END-
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6578
CATO
4822
-A-
anarchism
-O-
000000|anarchism
000539| Anarchist Thought
003018| Anarchism in Practice
-T-
anarchism_^<N__^<N_Anarchism is an ideology that regards abolition of government as the necessary precondition for a free and just society. The term itself comes from the Greek words meaning "without a ruler." Anarchism rejects all forms of
hierarchical authority, social and economic as well as political. What distinguishes it from other ideologies, however, is the central importance it attaches to the state. To anarchists, the state is a wholly artificial and illegitimate
institution, the bastion of privilege and exploitation in the modern world. _^<N__^<N_ Anarchist Thought_^<N__^<N_Although the roots of anarchist thought can be traced at least as far back as the 18th-century English writer William GODWIN,
anarchism as a revolutionary movement arose in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Its immediate objective was annihilation of the state and of all authority imposed "from above downward." Once liberated from political oppression, society
would spontaneously rebuild itself "from below upward." A multitude of grass-roots organizations would spring up to produce and distribute economic goods and to satisfy other social needs. Where necessary, these primary associations would form
regional and even nation-wide federations. The state, with its impersonal laws and coercive bureaucracies, would be supplanted by a dense web of self-governing associations and free federations. _^<N__^<N_Like other radical ideologies of its time,
anarchism intended to complete the "unfinished business" of the French Revolution. It placed special emphasis on the third of the values expressed in the rallying cry "liberty, equality, and fraternity." Anarchists had an enduring faith in the
natural solidarity and social harmony of human beings. They believed that the creation of the future society should be entrusted to the free play of popular instincts, and any attempt by anarchists themselves to offer more than technical
assistance would impose a new form of authority. They tended to concentrate, therefore, on the task of demolishing the existing state order rather than on social blueprints of the future. _^<N__^<N_While battling the established order, anarchists
also battled the alternatives proposed by liberalism and socialism. Like Marxism, anarchism was anticapitalist and scorned liberalism's dedication to political liberty on the grounds that only the propertied classes could afford to enjoy it. They
rejected with equal vehemence, however, the Marxist "dictatorship of the proletariat," the idea of capturing and using the capitalist state to achieve a classless society. Political institutions were seen as inherently corrupting, and even the
most selfless revolutionaries would inevitably succumb to the joys of power and privilege. Instead of the state "withering away," as the Marxists anticipated, it would simply perpetuate a new bureaucratic elite. This disagreement led to a bitter
conflict between Marx and the Russian anarchist Michael BAKUNIN in the early 1870s, after which Marxism and anarchism went their separate ways. _^<N__^<N_ Anarchism in Practice_^<N__^<N_Anarchism attracted a following mainly in the countries of
eastern and southern Europe, where the state's repressiveness was especially pronounced and communal traditions remained strong. There were some exceptions: the ideas of the French anarchist Pierre-Joseph PROUDHON left a permanent mark on the
French industrial labor movement, and Bakunin's views found adherents among the watchmakers of Switzerland's Jura region. Anarchism had its greatest impact in Russia, where numerous anarchist groups participated in the revolutionary movement both
before and during 1917. The two outstanding anarchist theorists also were Russians: Bakunin, whose advocacy of popular revolution had considerable influence, and Prince Peter KROPOTKIN, whose writing spelled out some of the constructive sides of
the anarchist social vision. Spain and Italy also had vigorous anarchist movements. In only two instances did anarchists have a real opportunity to put their social ideals into practice. During the Russian civil war of 1917-21, (see RUSSIAN
REVOLUTIONS OF 1917), the peasant partisan movement led by Nestor Makhno in the Ukraine tried to implement anarchist principles, and in the SPANISH CIVIL WAR of 1936-39 anarchism was a significant force in the regions of Catalonia and Andalusia.
The results of these experiments were limited and inconclusive. In the United States, anarchism's influence was confined largely to some of the European immigrant communities, but it did produce a striking representative of American radicalism in
the person of Emma GOLDMAN. _^<N__^<N_Because anarchism regarded doctrinal and organizational discipline as contradictions of its principles, it gave rise to a wide variety of interpretations. Anarchist-communists shared many of the collectivist
principles of socialism but sought to realize them in autonomous local communities. Anarcho-SYNDICALISM was an adaptation of anarchist ideas to modern industrial conditions. It advocated the running of factories by the workers themselves rather
than by owners or managers, with trade unions (in French, syndicats) forming the building blocks of a regenerated society. The novelist Leo Tolstoi formulated a kind of Christian anarchism that rejected the state on religious grounds, and there
were anarchist-individualists who proclaimed the sovereignty of the individual personality. _^<N__^<N_Contrary to widespread belief, terrorism was never an integral part of anarchist theory or practice. Some anarchists, however, did engage in what
they called "propaganda by the deed," acts of terror and assassination against state officials and property owners. _^<N__^<N_Except in Spain, anarchism as an organized movement virtually ceased to exist after the Russian Revolutions. Anarchist
ideas, however, have had a longer life. In the 1960s and 1970s, currents of the New left rediscovered anarchist theory, particularly the writings of Kropotkin, and drew from it inspiration for some of their communitarian and antibureaucratic
impulses. They also found new merit in the anarchist critique of Marxian socialism. At least some elements of the outlook proved to have a surprising vitality and contemporary relevance. _^<N__^<N_Marshall S. Shatz _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Avrich, Paul, Anarchist Portraits (1988) and The Russian Anarchists (1967; repr. 1980); Guillet de Monthoux, Pierre, Action and Existence (1983); Joll, James, the Anarchists (1964); Shatz, Marshall S., ed., The Essential Works of Anarchism
007018| ANASAZI RUINS IN NATIONAL PARKS AND MONUMENTS
-T-
Anasazi_^<N__^<N_Anasazi (from a NAVAJO Indian word meaning "the ancient ones") is the term archaeologists use to denote the cultures of the prehistoric Basket Makers and the PUEBLO Indians of North America. Anasazi culture has been divided into
eight periods, as follows: (1) Archaic (5500-100 BC), (2) Basket Maker II (100 BC to AD 400), (3) Basket Maker III (400-700), (4) Pueblo I (700-900), (5) Pueblo II (900-1100), (6) Pueblo III (1100-1300), (7) Pueblo IV (1300-1600), and (8) Pueblo V
(1600 to present). _^<N__^<N_The Anasazi built the numerous communal dwellings, or pueblos, many now in ruins, on the high plateau of the Southwestern United States. The oldest remains are in the Four Corners region, where the states of Arizona,
Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah adjoin. At the time of its greatest extent, the Anasazi culture was spread over most of New Mexico, northern Arizona, southwestern Colorado, and much of Utah. This is a region comparable in size to modern France,
but great stretches of uninhabited land lay between the villages, which were located where water was available. _^<N__^<N_ Origins_^<N__^<N_The Anasazi culture is believed to have gradually evolved out of a nonagricultural base of the ancient
Desert culture, once widespread in western North America, although precise evidence of the transition has not yet been discovered. It may have been in part derived from the Mogollon culture, an older tradition of settled agriculturalists and
ceramics producers who flourished from c.100 BC to AD 1400 in the mountain areas of east central Arizona and west central New Mexico. There are many evidences of trade and cultural interchange between the Mogollon and the Anasazi. _^<N__^<N_ The
Basket Makers_^<N__^<N_Although direct evidence is as yet lacking, archaeologists have postulated an initial phase of Anasazi culture, formerly designated as Basket Maker I, but now called Archaic. This would have been a preagricultural,
nonceramic stage during which the Basket Makers were nomadic hunter-gatherers. _^<N__^<N_Although Basket Maker I remains hypothetical, Basket Maker II is fairly well known. The Basket Makers were given their name because of the profusion of
skillfully woven baskets discovered in sites associated with their culture. Many of the baskets have been well preserved by the exceedingly dry conditions in the shallow caves where the Basket Makers stored their belongings. Numerous other
perishable items have also withstood the ravages of time, including bags, sandals, and nets of yucca fiber. Clothing was scanty, consisting of woven G-strings for the men and short skirts of fiber for the women. The seminomadic Basket Makers of
this period had no bows and arrows, but in hunting deer and small game relied upon light spears and darts, propelled by spear-throwers--flexible sticks that give additional force to the throw. Animals were also caught by the Basket Makers with a
variety of ingenious nets and snares. _^<N__^<N_The Basket Makers had begun by this time to cultivate squash and a type of maize. They lived in simple shelters of perishable materials or in shallow caves or rock shelters. At least some of them
made more substantial houses of logs and mud over saucer-shaped depressions. To supplement their meager harvests of farm crops, they roamed over the country periodically on hunting and gathering expeditions. During their absence, treasured
articles and reserve supplies of food were cached in storage pits or cists, excavated in the dry floors of caves. The cists were used not only for storage, but also as sepulchers, in which the dead were buried with accompanying mortuary offerings.
In some of the cists the unintentionally mummified bodies of Basket Makers have been found, with hair and dehydrated flesh adhering to the bones. _^<N__^<N_Basket Maker III (AD 400-700) witnessed the expansion of Basket Maker territory and the
introduction of several new and important cultural items, including pit houses, erected over shallow excavations, and pottery. With the addition of beans and new varieties of maize, agriculture became more important to Basket Maker subsistence.
The greater reliance on farming made it possible for the Basket Makers to begin a sedentary mode of life in villages. Toward the end of the period, the spear was replaced by the bow and arrow. _^<N__^<N_ The Pueblo People_^<N__^<N_Pueblo culture
developed directly out of that of the Basket Makers and continued the same basic mode of life, elaborated with inventions and innovations, and enriched also by diffusion from alien cultures. The Pueblo I and II periods (700-1100) represented a
time of territorial expansion and transition to the later cultural climax of the Anasazi tradition. Among the important developments were the introduction of cotton cloth, the building of above-ground houses of stone and adobe masonry, and the
improvement of pottery. The Pueblo people were experimenting at this time in the building of houses, but the trend was toward single-story, multiroom pueblos of stone and adobe masonry. The old pit houses persisted in some districts, and in other
places they survived as ceremonial chambers called KIVAS. Villages were usually located on the tops of mesas or at the edges of canyons. Pottery was of two general types: culinary wares in which the coils were pinched to produce a corrugated
effect, and decorated wares with black designs in elaborate patterns on a white background. _^<N__^<N_The climax of Pueblo development was reached during the Pueblo III period (1100-1300). Anasazi achievements in art and architecture were then at
their height. The finest styles of black-on-white and corrugated pottery date from Pueblo III, and polychrome wares appeared with black-and-white designs on orange or red backgrounds. During this period were constructed the spectacular cliff
dwellings at Mesa Verde in southwest Colorado, huge apartment houses of stone and adobe masonry built on ledges in the cliffs. _^<N__^<N_Despite the cultural culmination achieved during Pueblo III (and during Pueblo IV to a more limited extent),
the ultimate decline of the Anasazi was forecast. Toward the end of the period, and continuing into Pueblo IV (1300-1600), there was marked contraction of Pueblo territory, with a gradual abandonment of the outlying areas. This may have been due
in part to raids by marauding nomads, in part to factional quarrels among the Pueblo, and in part to a prolonged drought between 1276 and 1299 that caused famine. The people were obliged to migrate to places with a better water supply to the south
and east, particularly to the drainage area of the Rio Grande in New Mexico, to the HOPI country in northeastern Arizona, and to the ZUNI country of western New Mexico. Pueblo V (c.1600 on) marks the start of the historic period, which dates from
the time of the arrival of the first Spanish colonists in the Southwest. The Hopi, Zuni, and Rio Grande Pueblo peoples of today are the direct descendants of the prehistoric Anasazi, although the Zuni have merged with the Mogollon descendants.
_^<N__^<N_Reviewed by Linda S. Cordell _^<N__^<N_ ANASAZI RUINS IN NATIONAL PARKS AND MONUMENTS_^<N__^<N_Aztec Ruins National Monument. In northwest New Mexico, near the town of Aztec. Established 1923; 11 ha (27 acres). An excavated pueblo,
built in AD 1100-25 (Pueblo III period), and a completely restored kiva. _^<N__^<N_Bandelier National Monument. In northern New Mexico, near Los Alamos. Established 1916; 11,864 ha (29,661 acres). Cliff dwellings and open sites of the Pueblo
III period (1100-1300), located in Frijoles Canyon. _^<N__^<N_Canyon de Chelly National Monument. In northeast Arizona on the Navajo Indian Reservation, near the town of Chinle. Established 1931; 33,140 ha (83,849 acres). Several Anasazi ruins,
ranging from Basket Maker II (1st century AD-450) to the Pueblo III period (1100-1300), including the White House cliff dwelling. _^<N__^<N_Chaco Culture National Historic Park. In northwest New Mexico, 101 km (64 mi) north of Thoreau and 101 km
(64 mi) south of Aztec. Established in 1907; 8,604 ha (21,509 acres). A major center of Anasazi culture, ranging from Basket Maker sites through huge communal buildings of the Pueblo III period (1100-1300), which include the Pueblo Bonito and
Chetro Ketl. _^<N__^<N_Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument. In western New Mexico, north of Silver City. Established 1907; 215 ha (533 acres). Cliff dwellings of mixed Anasazi-Mogollon derivation. _^<N__^<N_Kinishba National Historic
Landmark. In east central Arizona on the Fort Apache Indian Reservation. An excavated and partially restored pueblo of the period 1000-1400. _^<N__^<N_Mesa Verde National Park. In southwest Colorado, near Cortez. Established 1906; 20,830 ha
(52,074 acres). Numerous, massive cliff dwellings and open pueblos of the Pueblo III period (1100-1300). _^<N__^<N_Navajo National Monument. In northeastern Arizona, 217 km (135 mi) north of Flagstaff. Established 1909; 146 ha (360 acres).
Large cliff dwellings of the 13th century (Pueblo III). _^<N__^<N_Pecos National Monument. In northern New Mexico, 16 km (25 mi) southeast of Santa Fe. Established 1965; 138 ha (341 acres). Ruins of a great pueblo of the Pueblo IV period
(1300-1600), which was occupied as late as 1838, and of a Spanish mission. _^<N__^<N_Salinas National Monument. In central New Mexico, 40 km (25 mi) south of Mountainair. Established 1909; 247 ha (611 acres). Ruins of a pueblo of Pueblo IV
period (1300-1600) and a Spanish mission. _^<N__^<N_Walnut Canyon National Monument. In northern Arizona, near Flagstaff. Established 1915; 761 ha (1,879 acres). Anasazi and Sinagua ruins, including pit houses and pueblos of the period
1100-1300. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ambler, J. R., Anasazi: Prehistoric People of the Four Corners Region, 3d ed. (1983); Ferguson, W. M., and Rohn, A. H., Anasazi Ruins of the Southwest in Color (1987); Frazier, Kendrick, People of Chaco
(1986); Lister, Robert and Florence, Those Who Came Before (1983); Jones, DeWitt, and Cordell, Linda S., Anasazi World (1985); Longacre, W. A., ed., Reconstructing Prehistoric Pueblo Societies (1970); Pike, Donald G., Anasazi: Ancient People
of the Rock (1976); Terrell, J. V., Pueblos, Gods, and Spaniards (1973); Watson, Don, Indians of the Mesa Verde (1961); Wormington, H. M., Prehistoric Indians of the Southwest (1964). _^<N__^<N_See also: CLIFF DWELLERS; HOHOKAM CULTURE;
INDIANS, AMERICAN; NORTH AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY.
-END-
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6060
CATO
4801
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Anatolia, ancient
-O-
000000|Anatolia, ancient
001317| The Hittites
003230| Political Fragmentation
-T-
Anatolia, ancient_^<N__^<N_{an-uh-toh'-lee-uh} _^<N__^<N_Anatolia is the Asiatic portion of contemporary Turkey, extending from the Bosporus and Aegean coast eastward to the borders of Georgia, Armenia, Iran, and Iraq. The Greeks and Romans called
western Anatolia "Asia."Later the name "Asia Minor," or "Little Asia," was used to distinguish Anatolia from the land mass of the greater Asian continent. _^<N__^<N_Already in late prehistoric times, occupation by cave dwellers in various
subregions set the stage for Anatolia's emergence as a center of the agricultural revolution identified with the Neolithic Period. Villages and towns of this era appear at Siirt, Diyerbakir, and Urfa (southeastern Anatolia); Tarsus and Mersin in
the Cilician Plain; the Amuq Plain; CATALHUYUK (southeast of Konya); Hacilar (southwestern Anatolia); and Suberde (southwest of Konya). The 13-ha (32-acre) site at Catal Huyuk (c.7000-5600 BC) has produced outstanding artifacts revealing it as a
metalworking, specialized-craft, and religious center. Individual city-states abound during the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze ages (3d to early 2d millennium BC). Between 1940 and 1780 BC, Old Assyrian merchants from Mesopotamia peacefully
established a score of trading colonies in central and eastern Anatolian cities, thereby drawing the region into wider politico-economic focus. _^<N__^<N_ The Hittites_^<N__^<N_Enduring political unification of Anatolia was achieved by the
HITTITES, an Indo-European confederation that subdued the kingdoms of the central plateau about 1750 BC. They established the Old Hittite Kingdom, eventually ruling from BOGAZKOY (Hattusa). The confederation, whose chief members were Luwians,
Palaites, and Neshites, entered Anatolia from Europe well before 2000 BC. For its first century and a half, the Old Hittite Kingdom was internally strong and militarily secure. Under Hattusilis I (fl. c.1650 BC) the Hittite kingdom began to expand
into northwest Syria. His adopted son, Mursilis I (fl. c.1620 BC), raided down the Euphrates Valley and defeated Babylon (c.1600 BC). Thereafter the kingdom suffered internal strife until stability was reestablished by Telepinus I (c.1525 BC).
About 70 years later came the second major phase of Hittite political and military power. _^<N__^<N_The Hittite Empire period was inaugurated by Tudhaliyas I (fl. c.1460 BC), but its chief architect was Suppiluliumas I (r. c.1380-1346 BC), who
reconquered much of central Anatolia and dominated Syria and the state of Mitanni in eastern Anatolia. Hittite successes made them major players in the international intrigues of the day and brought them into deadly rivalry with the Egyptian empire
to the south for control of Syria and Palestine. A major battle between the Hittites under Muwattalis (r. c.1315-1296 BC) and the Egyptian king Ramses II was fought at Kadesh on the Orontes River c.1300 BC, victory going to the Hittites. A peace
treaty between the two powers was concluded between RAMSES II and Hattusilis III (r. c.1289-1265). Thereafter, serious disruptions occurred in Anatolia, and the Hittites' vassals and allies in the west attempted to gain independence. Finally,
invasions of SEA PEOPLES from the Aegean and attacks by mountainous Gashga peoples destroyed Hittite power in Anatolia c.1200 BC. _^<N__^<N_ Political Fragmentation_^<N__^<N_After the Hittite state's collapse, Anatolia had no political centrality
or cohesion for nearly half a millennium. Archaeological evidence suggests the reestablishment of small principalities in the area. Textual evidence is sparse. Assyrian records recount an invasion (c.1160 BC) of Assyria's western borders by a large
force of "Mushki," perhaps ancestors of the later Phrygians. In reaction, Assyrian armies sought first to move into southeastern Anatolia, and thereafter beyond the Euphrates, where they encountered the Neo-Hittite (Syro-Hittite) kingdoms, some 16
of which occupied the region between the Taurus Mountains and the Euphrates. Monuments from these states reveal a dialect written in "Hittite hieroglyphics," which suggests a clear cultural and population connection with Hittite Anatolia.
Incursions of Aramaean nomads into Syria, and inevitable Assyrian reaction to these, spelled the demise of the Syro-Hittite kingdoms as independent states by the 8th century BC. _^<N__^<N_In mountainous eastern Anatolia the state of URARTU, in its
turn, was defeated by the Assyrians in 743 BC. In western Anatolia, Phrygians had arrived from southeastern Europe perhaps earlier than the Trojan War (c.1190 BC). By the 8th century BC they had created a state (PHRYGIA) with its capital at
GORDION, southwest of modern Ankara. On Anatolia's western coast, Lycians, Carians, and Mysians, probably descendants of peoples known to the classical Hittites, inhabited defined areas. By the 6th century BC, LYDIA had emerged as the region's
dominant state. The fall of Assyria in 612 BC, and of Babylon in 539 BC, left the field open to the Persians who, after Cyrus the Great's victory over CROESUS of Lydia in 546 BC, incorporated Anatolia into their empire. _^<N__^<N_After the Persians
crushed rebellious Ionian (Greek) cities in western Anatolia (494 BC), they launched two unsuccessful invasions of Greece. During the 5th and 4th centuries BC, Persia meddled in Greek affairs from its bases in Anatolia. The rise of Philip II of
Macedonia and his son, ALEXANDER THE GREAT (mid-4th century BC), initiated a victorious Pan-Hellenic crusade that destroyed the Persian Empire. After Alexander's death a number of independent states emerged in Anatolia--among them BITHYNIA,
CAPPADOCIA, PERGAMUM, and PONTUS--all of which were eventually absorbed by the Roman Empire in the 1st century BC. Out of Pergamum, the Romans formed the province of Asia, which included LYCIA, Caria, Mysia, and Phrygia. For the later history of
the area, see BYZANTINE EMPIRE, OTTOMAN EMPIRE, and TURKEY. _^<N__^<N_Louis L. Orlin _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Gurney, O. R., The Hittites (1975); Lloyd, Seton, Early Anatolia (1956); Magie, David, Roman Rule in Asia Minor, 2 vols. (1950; repr.
1975); Orlin, Louis L., Assyrian Colonies in Cappadocia (1970).
anatomy_^<N__^<N_Anatomy is the branch of biology involving the structure of plants, animals, and other forms of biological organisms. It is related to morphology, which is concerned with the description of organisms, and MORPHOGENESIS, concerned
with their development. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY is concerned with the difference in structure of animal forms. _^<N__^<N_Anatomy is divided into several subdisciplines. Gross anatomy involves studies on structures that can be seen with the naked eye.
HISTOLOGY is the study of tissue structure and CYTOLOGY that of cell structure; because histological and cytological studies require the use of a microscope, they are known together as microscopic anatomy. When the word functional is placed
before any of these words, as in "functional anatomy," reference is being made to the subject of PHYSIOLOGY. Often anatomy cannot be discussed properly without introducing some physiology, and physiology can almost never be discussed properly
without an anatomical background. _^<N__^<N_Two other divisions of anatomy are EMBRYOLOGY and paleoanatomy. Embryology is commonly called developmental anatomy because it is concerned with the genesis and development of a fully differentiated
tissue, organ, or organism. Paleoanatomy is the study of the structure of extinct organisms. _^<N__^<N_ EARLY HISTORY OF ANATOMY_^<N__^<N_ Aristotle_^<N__^<N_The first recorded attempts to study anatomy were made by ARISTOTLE (384-22 BC), although
hieroglyphics and papyruses produced from 3000 to 1600 BC indicate that some interest was taken in certain anatomical aspects, or appearances, in mummies. Aristotle, the founder of biological science, dissected plants and animals, although neither
he nor HIPPOCRATES (460-374 BC), the father of MEDICINE, dissected the human body. Both believed that the HEART is the seat of thought and of the soul. _^<N__^<N_ Herophilus and Erasistratus_^<N__^<N_Soon after the death of Aristotle the
Ptolemies, kings of Egypt, encouraged dissections. Herophilus (335-280 BC) and his contemporary ERASISTRATUS (310-250 BC) were perhaps the most active practitioners. _^<N__^<N_Herophilus dissected about 600 human bodies and wrote more than one
treatise on anatomy, another on the eyes, and a handbook for midwives. His greatest contribution was to dispel the earlier erroneous notions of Aristotle and Hippocrates about the mind, proving that the BRAIN is the center of the NERVOUS SYSTEM
and the seat of intelligence by tracing nerves from the brain to the spinal cord and classifying them as voluntary and involuntary. _^<N__^<N_Erasistratus observed lymph carrying fat toward the heart, described the function of the epiglottis in
closing the larynx, identified the tricuspid valve of the heart, and was able to distinguish sensory nerves from motor nerves. He studied the CIRCULATORY SYSTEM intensively, but, like his predecessors, he held that the arteries contain air. This
was a common belief, since the veins normally contain about 60 percent of the total BLOOD, and on death the arteries empty out into the capillary beds and veins. _^<N__^<N_ Galen_^<N__^<N_Despite many incorrect observations by the ancients, perhaps
as many principles were known by the end of Cleopatra's reign (around 30 BC) as were to be discovered during the next 1,000 years. Shortly after Cleopatra's death, Alexandria became a Roman city and one of the main centers of the Christian church.
Its leaders then began to discourage dissections. Leaders in other parts of the world, except Arabia, also denounced them. The fervor for achievement of anatomical knowledge did not die immediately, however, in spite of these difficulties.
_^<N__^<N_Most notable among those who strove to advance anatomical understanding was Claudius GALEN (AD 131-200), physician to the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius. Known historically as the founder of experimental physiology, Galen showed that
urine is formed in the KIDNEYS, not in the bladder, and that sectioning of the spinal cord results in paralysis to that part of the body below the cut. His monumental work, On the Use of the Parts of the Human Body, served as the standard medical
text for 1,400 years. _^<N__^<N_Despite some excellent contributions to experimental medicine, however, Galen may have delayed anatomical progress. Because of religious prejudice and superstition, he was not permitted to dissect human bodies, and
many of his conclusions were based on dissections of oxen, dogs, swine, and apes. More important, he perpetuated false beliefs established by his predecessors and contemporaries--that cosmic life is taken into the body with each breath (pneuma)
and that three separate spirits dwell in the body: a "natural" spirit in the LIVER, a "vital" spirit in the heart, and an "animal" spirit in the brain. The first of these beliefs gained further credence in that it was established on Galen's
experimental approaches. Although Galen's beliefs suited and pleased the leaders of both church and state, they served to misinform the concerned portion of the populace who, although wishing to know the truth, had to accept a fallacious
presentation until William HARVEY would prove it wrong in the 17th century. _^<N__^<N_Galen's view of the circulatory system was also incorrect. Like his predecessors, and despite numerous studies on his own, Galen traced the passage of blood from
the liver--where, he maintained, it was formed--to the heart, where supposedly a breath of air was injected into it as a gaseous material from the LUNGS. One important contribution of his is that the arteries carry blood, not air. According to
Galen, the blood then travels to the rest of the body rather than first going to the lungs and back into the heart. This view of the circulatory passage as one-way was also maintained as scientific thought until the 17th century. _^<N__^<N_
Avicenna and the Arabs_^<N__^<N_Meanwhile, faced with increasing religious antipathy, anatomical pursuit was virtually abandoned, except for what work was done by the Arabs. Unfortunately, their studies were based on Aristotle's and Galen's works,
which the Arabs had translated into their language. AVICENNA (AD 980-1037) was perhaps the most famous of the Arab anatomists. His Canon of Medicine, published in AD 1000, contained information based on observations derived from studies on
humans, apes, dogs, and other animals. Neither he nor his peers, however, carried out systematic studies. Dissections were sometimes performed, mainly in an attempt to learn the causes of death, and occasionally public authorities permitted
physicians to dissect executed criminals. _^<N__^<N_ Vesalius_^<N__^<N_Gradually, as the Renaissance became established, some individuals began to circumvent authoritarian restrictions, and the number of anatomists increased rapidly. Perhaps the
most important of these was Andreas VESALIUS (1514-64), who ushered in the modern era of anatomy. Rather than accept many of the incorrect observations of Galen and pursue the study of the topic through metaphysical dialectic, he took a
straightforward scientific experimental approach. He compared the anatomy of various animals with humans and noted the fallacy of extrapolating from one to the other. His work culminated in On the Structure of the Human Body, which was published
the same year (1543) as Copernicus's On the Revolution of Celestial Bodies. Vesalius's work was most significant in that it was the first to contain accurate depictions of the inner structure of the human body. Successors and contemporaries of
Vesalius added important details to the basework he had created, and in less than a century they had completed much of the basic studies on gross anatomy. _^<N__^<N_ Harvey_^<N__^<N_This basic work culminated in the accomplishments of William
Harvey (1578-1657), an English physician who was the first to postulate that the blood moves in a circle from left heart to arteries to veins to right heart. He also postulated the existence of thousands of miles of microscopic blood capillaries,
a theory that was proved correct after microscopes became available. At about this time anatomy began to become established as a full-fledged science. Scientific societies were formed, textbooks and atlases began to appear, schools were
established, and laws were enacted regulating the acquisition of human bodies for dissection and study. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY OF MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY_^<N__^<N_Rapid strides were made as microscopic anatomy began to be established and, together with
gross anatomy, merged with comparative and developmental anatomy. Marcello MALPIGHI (1628-94), a young contemporary of the elderly William Harvey, demonstrated that blood went through capillaries in the lungs before reaching the left heart. He
described many other important histological features, such as the germinal layer at the base of the outer layer (epidermis) of SKIN and the structure of the functional units of the kidney (nephrons) through which blood is filtered in producing
urine. _^<N__^<N_Robert HOOKE (1635-1703) also was an outstanding physicist. In 1665 he reported in Micrographia his observations on plant anatomy. Based on his microscopic observations of cork, he coined the word cell. His observations later
helped other investigators advance the concept that cells are the unit structures of tissues. In particular, about a century later, Caspar Friedrich WOLFF (1733-94), as a result of intensive study in embryology, hinted that cells are the building
blocks of organs. Later, Robert Brown (1773-1858) discovered the cell nucleus, probably because staining techniques became available. Still later, M. J. Schleiden (1804-81) and Theodor SCHWANN (1810-82) in 1840 advanced the theory that all
tissues, including bone, tendon, and ligament, are composed of cells. In doing so, they brought cytology into existence as a separate, although interrelated, field of inquiry. This field now comprises the subspecialties of cytochemistry and
cytogenetics. _^<N__^<N_Two other investigators figured prominently as contemporaries of Malpighi and Hooke. Anton van LEEUWENHOEK (1632-1723) was the first to observe and describe bacteria, protozoa, and other microorganisms, as well as sperm and
the cross striations of skeletal and cardiac MUSCLE. In addition, he provided visual proof that William Harvey's theory on blood circulation was indeed correct. The other notable microanatomist, Jan SWAMMERDAM (1637-80), is famous for his
remarkable work on the developmental anatomy of various insects and is considered the first person to observe and describe (1658) red blood cells. _^<N__^<N_Near the end of the 17th century, histology emerged as a distinct discipline of study. Its
development went hand in hand with advances in the microscope itself, the invention of instruments (microtomes) for cutting thin sections of plant and animal tissues, and the introduction of staining procedures. The major advances in each of these
technological fields were especially prominent in the 19th century. Long before this, however, Xavier Bichat (1771-1802) distinguished himself as an animal histologist by pointing out the similarities that exist between certain tissues widespread
in the body and by classifying these tissues as muscle, nerve, and connective. Today, these tissues, together with epithelial tissues, are recognized as the four principal tissues of animals. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY OF COMPARATIVE
ANATOMY_^<N__^<N_Comparative anatomy is the science that concerns evolutionary advances in animal structure and the anatomical and physiological adaptations animals have made in response to environmental demands. As a discipline with these
objectives, it may be said to have begun with Aristotle, who dissected numerous animals in an attempt to develop theories on animal classification and evolution. Galen also involved himself with comparative anatomy, although his objective was to
obtain a better understanding of human anatomy. Other anatomists, beginning especially in the Renaissance, dissected and described certain anatomical aspects of fish and other animals, but Georges BUFFON (1707-88) was the first to attempt a major
compilation of data. The results were published in the first 15 volumes of his 44-volume Natural History, General and Particular (1749-1804; Eng. trans., 20 vol., 1781-1812), a monumental work that took 53 years to complete. _^<N__^<N_Buffon's
accomplishments paved the way for Georges Baron CUVIER (1769-1832), the first to attempt the synthesis of comparative anatomy into a framework of principles. Instead of trying to fit fact to preconceived theory, as was commonly done, Cuvier
attempted to establish new theories based on the available facts. In his 9-volume work Le Regne animal distribue d'apres son organisation (The Animal Kingdom Distributed According to Its Organization, 1817-30), he included the results of all his
research on the structure of extant and fossil animals. _^<N__^<N_Many anatomists followed Cuvier's lead, but none contributed as much as Richard Owen (1804-92), who originated the concept of homology. This concept concerns the anatomical
structures in terms of their embryology and evolutionary origin. The wings of a bat, for example, are homologous to the arms of a man, since each pair of these structures is derived from the same germinal centers in the embryo. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY
OF DEVELOPMENTAL ANATOMY_^<N__^<N_In the 17th century, embryological studies were conducted by Swammerdam (on invertebrates) and Malpighi (on chicks), but it was not until the 19th century that this science gained considerable momentum. Among the
most famous embryologists are E. R. Lankester (1847-1929), Oscar Hertwig (1849-1922), and Richard Hertwig (1850-1937), all of whom worked on the development of body cavities. Equally important were F. M. Balfour (1851-82), who published a
2-volume Treatise of Comparative Embryology (1880-81), the first volume on invertebrates and the second on vertebrates; and Ernest HAECKEL (1834-1919), who advanced the useful concept that in the development of an advanced organism, such as a
mammal, the embryo proceeds progressively through the stages of its forebears, including fishes and amphibians. This concept is usually summarized as "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny." It is not strictly correct, although some embryonic
developments relate closely to it, such as the events associated with the acquisition of the mammalian jaws, eardrum, thymus, and parathyroid glands. _^<N__^<N_ MODERN WORK_^<N__^<N_Anatomical studies today are characterized by their
interdisciplinary nature and their emphasis on function, or physiology. At the whole-body level, anatomists with training in physics are attempting to learn the anatomical bases of speed in the locomotion of such animals as cheetahs and horses; of
power in digging animals, such as moles; of flight in such diverse animals as bats and birds; and of swimming in animals as different from each other as whales and salmon. In the study of specific organs, neurobiologists are attempting to map
out brains in order to correlate complex functions, such as behavior, with networks of neuronal circuitry. Histologists are exploring problems relating to the origin of hormones, the occurrence of enzymes, and the storage depots of trace elements;
histochemical procedures, combined with immunoradiography, are commonly employed. Cytologists use a wide variety of approaches, including electron microscopy, ultracentrifugal separation of subcellular organs (organelles), cytochemistry, and
biochemistry. Anatomy as a whole has advanced in the course of two millennia from an area of absolute ignorance to a sound science that is integrated with all other biological sciences. _^<N__^<N_Roy Hartenstein _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Cole, F.
J., A History of Comparative Anatomy (1944; repr. 1975); Green, John, Medical History for Students (1968); Long, Esmond, a History of Pathology (1928); Lund, Fred, Greek Medicine (1936); Persaud, T. V., Early History of Human Anatomy (1984);
Singer, Charles, Short History of Anatomy and Physiology (1957); Stenn, Frederick, ed., The Growth of Medicine (1967); Thorwald, Jurgen, Science and Secrets of Early Medicine (1962).
-END-
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993
CAT
-A-
Anatomy of Melancholy, The
-T-
Anatomy of Melancholy, The_^<N__^<N_The Anatomy of Melancholy by Robert BURTON, first published in 1621 under the pseudonym Democritus Junior and often revised and expanded, is a learned and highly idiosyncratic study of the symptomatology of
emotional illness as it was understood in the late Renaissance. In the humors theory of physiology, melancholy is produced by an excess of black bile (one of the four bodily fluids or humors). There are elaborate and sympathetic discussions of
scholars' and nuns' melancholy, with many playful explorations, such as the celebrated "Digression on Air." Burton's work is a good example of the then-new copious style, bursting with odd bits of scientific knowledge and lore and extensive
quotation of authorities, often in Latin. _^<N__^<N_Maurice Charney _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Babb, Lawrence, Sanity in Bedlam: A Study of Robert Burton's Anatomy of Melancholy (1960); Mueller, William R., Anatomy of Robert Burton's England
(1952); O'Connell, Michael, Robert Burton (1986).
-END-
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809
CAT
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Anawratha
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Anawratha_^<N__^<N_{an-uh-rath'-uh} _^<N__^<N_Anawratha, d. 1077, was a Burmese ruler who united BURMA politically for the first time in history. Becoming king of PAGAN in 1044, he merged into his realm most of Burma proper, including northern
Arakan and Lower Burma, home of the Mon people. Mon culture thereafter became predominant at the court of Pagan. Theravada BUDDHISM, which came to be a powerful unifying factor in Burmese national life, attained its position because Anawratha
obtained copies of the Pali canon, with its Buddhist ethics, from the conquered Mon capital of Thaton. Anawratha's conquest of the Mon gave Burma control of the Irrawaddy delta and an outlet to the sea. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Aung, Maung Htin,
Burmese History before 1287 (1970) and A History of Burma (1967); Aung-Thwin, Michael, Pagan (1985).
-END-
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1700
CAT
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Anaxagoras
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Anaxagoras_^<N__^<N_{an-ak-sag'-uh-ruhs} _^<N__^<N_The philosopher Anaxagoras, b. Clazomenae, in Anatolia (present-day Turkey), c.500 BC, d. Lampsacus, 428, went to Athens to teach at the invitation of PERICLES, taking with him new ideas of
science and philosophy from Anatolia. Anaxagoras seems to have anticipated the principles of contemporary PROCESS PHILOSOPHY. He described the cosmos as a continuous field in which different qualities flow and mix together. He maintained,
however, that the motion of the world originated with Mind (Nous), which ordered the natural world but did not mix with it. _^<N__^<N_Anaxagoras thought that other worlds exist besides our own and that "they have men on them, and these have houses
and canals just as we do." _^<N__^<N_The Athenian public disliked the new science. It seemed to them irreligious to say that the Sun and Moon are not gods but rather hot stones revolving around the Earth; and it seemed equally irreligious to them
to say that the divine mind in this system does not have a human body. When Pericles fell out of favor, his political opponents accused Anaxagoras of impiety, and he left Athens without standing trial. _^<N__^<N_Anaxagoras appears to have had no
patience with young admirers: DEMOCRITUS went to Athens but did not see him; SOCRATES knew his writing and studied with a student of his but apparently never met him. In his dialogue The Phaedo, PLATO has Socrates give an account of his encounter
with the new Ionian science and of the influence Anaxagoras' writing had on him. _^<N__^<N_Robert S. Brumbaugh _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Allen, R. E., Greek Philosophy, 2d ed. (1985); Ring, Merrill, Beginning with the Pre-Socratics (1987);
Schofield, Malcolm, An Essay on Anaxagoras (1980).
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1671
CAT
-A-
Anaximander
-T-
Anaximander_^<N__^<N_{an-ak'-suh-man-dur} _^<N__^<N_Anaximander of Miletus, c.610-545 BC, is the earliest Greek thinker about whom much is known. Called a pupil of THALES, he wrote a comprehensive history of the universe. His bold use of
nonmythological explanatory hypotheses radically distinguishes his work from the earlier literary cosmologies. _^<N__^<N_Anaximander challenged Thales's view that a single element can be the origin of all. He argued that known elements are
constantly opposing and changing into one another, and that therefore something different from these elements must underlie and cause changes. He postulated the apeiron ("boundless," or "indefinite") as the originative and sustaining substance.
The one surviving quotation from his book uses a legal metaphor to describe the balanced reciprocal changes of the elements: they perish into the things from which they came, "as is fitting and due: for they pay penalty and make retribution to
each other for their injustice, according to the ordering of time." _^<N__^<N_Anaximander believed that the universe is symmetrical, the Earth remaining stable at the center because it has no reason to move one way rather than another. He was
apparently the first philosopher to use an argument from sufficient reason. He also drew the first Greek world map and boldly speculated about the marine origins of animal life. He is sometimes called the founder of astronomy. _^<N__^<N_Martha C.
Nussbaum _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Furley, D. J., and Allen, R. E., eds., Studies in Presocratic Philosophy, vol. 1 (1970); Kahn, C. H., Anaximander and the Origins of Greek Cosmology (1960); Kirk, G. S., et al., The Presocratic Philosophers,
2d ed. (1984).
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611
CAT
-A-
Anaximenes
-T-
Anaximenes_^<N__^<N_{an-ak-sim'-uh-neez} _^<N__^<N_The Greek philosopher Anaximenes flourished in Miletus c.545 BC and was the last of the MILESIAN SCHOOL founded by THALES. Anaximenes' primary concern was the origin and structure of the universe.
He maintained that the primary substance is air (Greek, aer); everything else in the world, including the gods, is no more than rarefied or condensed air. He believed that by rarefaction air grew hot and became fire; this formed the Sun and
heavenly bodies. By condensation air grew cold and became wind, water, and earth. Anaximenes' writings, except for a few fragments, are lost.
-END-
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1184
CAT
-A-
ancestor worship
-T-
ancestor worship_^<N__^<N_Ancestor worship refers to the rites conducted in honor of deceased relatives by their descendants. Related to ANIMISM, such worship is based on the idea that the dead continue to influence the world of the living. Ancestor
worship has been the most popular ritual in China and is also widespread in Korea, Japan, India, and sub-Saharan Africa. In China it began as a practice of a fertility cult, which used the phallus as an ancestral symbol. In the Shang dynasty
(1558-1027 BC) and the Zhou (Chou) dynasty (1027-256 BC), only royal ancestors were worshiped. But beginning with the Han dynasty (206 BC-AD 230), the preceding four generations of ancestors of all classes were honored. Chinese villages and towns
had ancestral halls where ancestors of the same paternal lineages were worshiped. _^<N__^<N_David C. Yu _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ahern, Emily M., Cult of the Dead in a Chinese Village (1973); Frazer, J. G., The Belief in Immortality and the Worship
of the Dead, 3 vols. (1913-14; repr. 1968); Newell, William H., ed., Ancestors (1976); Smith, Robert J., Ancestor Worship in Contemporary Japan (1974); Thompson, L., Chinese Religion, 4th ed. (1989). _^<N__^<N_See also: PHALLIC WORSHIP.
-END-
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404
CAT
-A-
Anchieta, Jose de
-T-
Anchieta, Jose de_^<N__^<N_{ahn-shee-ay'-tah} _^<N__^<N_Jose de Anchieta, b. Mar. 19, 1534, d. June 9, 1597, was a Portuguese Jesuit writer who spent his life in Brazil as a missionary. His writings reveal religious devotion and include sacramental
verse plays, poems, descriptive prose, and the first Iupi Indian grammar (1595). _^<N__^<N_Maria Isabel Abreu _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Diffie, B. W., History of Colonial Brazil, 1500-1792 (1987).
-END-
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839
CAT
-A-
Anchisaurus
-T-
Anchisaurus_^<N__^<N_{ang'-ki-sohr'-uhs} _^<N__^<N_Anchisaurus (Greek for "near lizard"), a DINOSAUR of early JURASSIC time, was among the first of the dinosaurs recognized (1885) in North America. Most of what is known about it comes from skeletons
found in Connecticut and South Africa. Of modest proportions (length about 270 cm/106 in) and relatively slender build, the body was intermediate in form between the distantly related carnivorous saurischian dinosaurs, such as TYRANNOSAURUS and
Antrodemus, and the huge Jurassic and Cretaceous sauropod dinosaurs, such as DIPLODOCUS and Camarasaurus--descendants of the prosauropods. The animal was herbivorous, and although basically quadrupedal, it could also stand on its hind feet.
_^<N__^<N_Wann Langston, Jr. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Lambert, David, The Ultimate Dinosaur Book (1993). _^<N__^<N_See also: FOSSIL RECORD; MESOZOIC ERA.
-END-
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390
CAT
-A-
Anchises
-T-
Anchises_^<N__^<N_{an-ky'-seez} _^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, Anchises was the father of AENEAS, whose descendants founded Rome. A handsome young man, Anchises was seduced by APHRODITE who, disguised as a shepherdess, bore his son Aeneas. During the
TROJAN WAR, Aeneas carried the aged Anchises to safety; they were refugees first in Carthage, then in Italy. Their adventures are described in Virgil's AENEID.
-END-
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1272
CAT
-A-
anchor
-T-
anchor_^<N__^<N_An anchor is a device designed to hold a buoy, boat, or ship in a stationary position by digging into the seabed or by its own weight. It is attached with a heavy cable or chain and is usually in the shape of a double or triple hook.
_^<N__^<N_Early anchors were relatively simple in design. They were sometimes simply baskets of rocks or lead-weighted logs, or they were made of three or four long poles lashed together with wooden hooks secured at the bottom end. The poles formed
the shank, and the hooks were called the crown. At the top of the shank was a fixed crosspiece, the stock, which served to tilt the anchor against the sea bottom so that one of the hooks would catch and hold. _^<N__^<N_Later iron anchors had
U-shaped hooks, or flukes, and removable stocks. Modern anchors for large ships are generally stockless, so that they may be drawn up into the opening for the anchor cable, called a hawsehole. Stockless anchors have pivoting crowns that tilt to dig
into the bottom when the anchor shaft lies flat. A large ship may use several anchors. _^<N__^<N_Grapnels--light anchors with four or five flukes--are used to anchor small boats. A sea anchor, a floating metal and cloth device, is used when the
ship is under way in order to slow it or to keep it pointing into the waves.
-END-
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948
CAT
-A-
Anchorage
-T-
Anchorage_^<N__^<N_Anchorage is the most populous city in Alaska, with a population of 226,338 (1990), and one of the country's largest in terms of area. Located at the head of Cook Inlet, a bay of the Pacific Ocean, it was founded in 1914 as a
construction base for the Alaska Railroad. It developed as a railroad town, vital to the coal, gold, and fishing industries. Construction of the immense Fort Richardson and Elmendorf Air Force Base during World War II made the city an important
transportation and defense center. The international airport services domestic, European, and Asian flights. Discoveries of oil nearby made Anchorage a focus of the state's rapidly expanding oil, coal, and natural gas industries. The seaport is
equipped to handle oil shipments year-round. In 1964 a severe earthquake damaged much of the city, necessitating a major urban-renewal program. Alaska Pacific University and the University of Alaska at Anchorage are there.
-END-
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996
CAT
-A-
anchovy
-T-
anchovy_^<N__^<N_{an'-choh-vee} _^<N__^<N_The anchovy is a herringlike member of the fish family Engraulidae. Many of the 20 genera and more than 100 species are distributed throughout the temperate and tropical seas of the world. A few species of
anchovy are confined to fresh waters. The common anchovy, Anchoa mitchilli, also called white bait, is a small, almost translucent fish, with a silvery stripe on the side of its body and a large mouth. It grows to a maximum length of about 10 cm (4
in) and runs in extensive schools in inshore waters from Cape Cod to Yucatan. Spawning takes place from May to August. The principal food of the common anchovy is small, shrimplike animals. The fish themselves are the prey of seabirds. _^<N__^<N_A
Mediterranean species of anchovy is used as human food. Others are processed into fish meal, fertilizer, or oil. Peru's important anchovy industry is periodically affected by changes in offshore current patterns that deplete the anchovy population
(see EL NINO). _^<N__^<N_Alfred Perlmutter
-END-
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49
CAT
-A-
Ancient Mariner:
-T-
Ancient Mariner:_^<N__^<N_see RIME OF THE ANCIENT MARINER.
-END-
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1055
CAT
-A-
Ancona
-T-
Ancona_^<N__^<N_{ang-koh'-nah} _^<N__^<N_Ancona, situated on a promontory in the Adriatic Sea in central Italy, is the capital of Ancona province and Marche administrative region. Its population is 103,268 (1991 est.). A rail and sea transportation
hub and market center, Ancona is active in the trading of grains and pharmaceuticals. The city's industries manufacture chemicals, ships, foodstuffs, furniture, and bricks. Metalworking and fishing are also of value to the economy. Ancona has been
the seat of an archbishopric since the Middle Ages. _^<N__^<N_Settled about 390 BC by Greeks from Syracuse, Ancona was taken by Rome during the 2d century BC and became a flourishing port after the harbor was enlarged under Emperor Trajan. Ancona
was under papal rule from 1532 until 1860, except for a relatively brief period of French control (1797-1816). In 1860 it became part of Italy. The city was severely damaged by Allied bombing during World War II. Notable landmarks that have been
restored are the marble Arch of Trajan (AD 115) and the 12th-century Cathedral of San Ciriaco.
-END-
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2199
CAT
-A-
Andalusia
-T-
Andalusia_^<N__^<N_{ahn-dah-loo-see'-uh} _^<N__^<N_Andalusia (Spanish: Andalucia) is an autonomous region of Spain lying in the extreme south of the country. SEVILLE is its capital. The largest of Spain's 17 regions, Andalusia includes the country's
eight southernmost provinces and covers 87,268 sq km (33,694 sq mi); it has a population of 6,859,958 (1991). Its name is derived from al-Andalus, the Moorish name for the Iberian Peninsula. _^<N__^<N_The chief topographical feature of Andalusia is
the wide, fertile plain of the GUADALQUIVIR RIVER, which flows west across the region. In the extreme south, the SIERRA NEVADA, the highest mountain range in Spain, reaches 3,482 m (11,423 ft) at the Mulhacen. Andalusia has both an Atlantic and a
Mediterranean coast. Summers are hot and dry, and winters are mild. At Seville, the average temperature in July is 28 degrees C (82 degrees F) and in January, 10 degrees C (50 degrees F). Annual rainfall averages 560 mm (22 in) but is greater in
the mountains. _^<N__^<N_Andalusia is primarily an agricultural region. Grapes and other fruits, olives, tomatoes, wheat, and barley are grown. With extensive pastureland, Andalusia is famous for its horses, bulls (for bullfighting), and sheep. The
region is also highly urbanized, and manufacturing has expanded in the cities. Sherry, textiles, leather, and cork are leading manufactures. Fishing, especially for sardines and tunny, is important along the coast. Seville, the chief city of
Andalusia, has a busy inland port; other major cities are MALAGA, GRANADA, and CADIZ. The population is Spanish, but traditional Moorish influence is still strong. _^<N__^<N_Andalusia was settled in turn by Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians,
Romans, and Visigoths. It was conquered by the Moors in 711. The independent Moorish caliphate of Andalusia, with its capital at CORDOBA, was the center of culture and learning in Europe. Three successive dynasties, the UMAYYADS, ALMORAVIDS, and
ALMOHADS, ruled until the Christians finished conquering Andalusia in 1492. _^<N__^<N_Norman J. G. Pounds _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Gilmore, David, The People of the Plain (1980); Maddox, Richard, El Castillo: The Politics of Tradition in an
Andalusian Town (1993); Totton, Robin, Andalusia (1991).
-END-
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665
CAT
-A-
andalusite
-T-
andalusite_^<N__^<N_{an-duh-loo'-syt} _^<N__^<N_Andalusite is an aluminum SILICATE MINERAL used in the manufacture of spark-plug porcelain and other refractories. Specimens of the variety chiastolite, when cut in cross section and polished, display
a cross of black, carbonaceous impurities against a grayish ground. Andalusite commonly forms elongated, red to reddish-brown, prismatic crystals (ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM), some displaying pleochroism, and granular or columnar masses. HARDNESS is 7.5,
LUSTER vitreous, and SPECIFIC GRAVITY 3.2. Small amounts occur in many contact METAMORPHIC ROCKS, particularly altered sediments, and pebbles of the mineral are found in some gem gravels.
-END-
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1096
CAT
-A-
Andaman Islands
-T-
Andaman Islands_^<N__^<N_{an'-duh-muhn} _^<N__^<N_The Andaman Islands are more than 200 islands in the eastern Bay of Bengal, about 480 km (300 mi) southwest of Rangoon (Yangon). Together with the Nicobar Islands to the south, the Andamans form a
union territory of India. The area of the Andamans is 6,408 sq km (2,474 sq mi). The territory has a total population of 279,111 (1991). Most of the Andamans are hilly and forested. Saddle Peak on North Andaman, which rises to 732 m (2,402 ft), is
the highest point. The Andamans are separated from the Nicobars by the Ten Degree Channel. Port Blair, the territorial capital, is the only sizable town. _^<N__^<N_The first British settlement was in 1798. From 1858 to 1945 the Andamans served as a
British penal colony, and many Indian and Burmese inhabitants are descended from guards or convicts. Indigenous ANDAMESE, a NEGRITO people, number in the hundreds. Rice, coconuts, and especially timber are economic staples. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Dass, F. A., The Andaman Islands (1937; repr. 1988); Malhotra, R., The Indian Islanders (1989); Vaidya, S., Islands of the Marigold Sea (1960).
-END-
-C-
348
CAT
-A-
Andaman Sea
-T-
Andaman Sea_^<N__^<N_The Andaman Sea is an extension of the Indian Ocean bounded on the west by the Andaman and Nicobar islands; on the north and east by Burma, Thailand, and the Malay Peninsula; and on the south by the Strait of Malacca and
Sumatra. About 1,200 km (750 mi) long and 650 km (400 mi) wide, it covers an area of 798,000 sq km (308,000 sq mi).
-END-
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1529
CAT
-A-
Andamanese
-T-
Andamanese_^<N__^<N_The Andamanese are the indigenous inhabitants of several of the more than 200 islands known as the Andamans, located in the Bay of Bengal. Their name may have come from Angaman, first used by Marco Polo in 1292 to refer to the
islands. Ethnically related to the NEGRITO peoples of Malaysia and the Philippines, the Andamanese have dark brown skin and tightly curled black hair. They speak a language not identified as related to any linguistic family. _^<N__^<N_Before the
arrival of the Europeans from the mid-19th century onward, the Andamanese reportedly had no knowledge of agriculture or fire, used tools made of stone, and lacked domesticated animals. The dog was introduced in the 19th century. As food gatherers
and hunters, the Andamanese collect wild fruits, roots, and nuts, hunt wild pigs with the bow and arrow, and, in outrigger canoes, obtain turtles, fish, and shellfish with nets and harpoons. _^<N__^<N_The Andamanese are believed to trace
genealogical descent through both parents. The nuclear family is the most important social and economic group, and divorce is rare. The powers of the leaders rarely extend beyond their communities. Andamanese religion is animistic and includes
ceremonies held to honor or placate environmental and ancestral spirits. Alfred R. RADCLIFFE-BROWN conducted fieldwork among the Andamanese in 1906-08. _^<N__^<N_Donn V. Hart _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Cipriani, Lidio, The Andaman Islanders, ed. and
trans. by D. Tayler Cox (1966); Radcliffe-Brown, Alfred R., The Andaman Islanders, 2d ed. (1948; repr. 1964).
-END-
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1621
CAT
-A-
Andean civilization
-T-
Andean civilization_^<N__^<N_Andean civilization--along with that of MESOAMERICA--was one of the two most technologically advanced and politically sophisticated of American Indian societies. Named for the Andes Mountains of South America, the
Andean culture zone coincides roughly with the territory of the INCA empire of the 15th and 16th centuries. It is centered in the western portions of present-day Peru and Bolivia, its outlying areas extending north into Ecuador and Colombia and
south into the northern highlands of Chile and Argentina. Andean cultures included the Chavin and PARACAS (c. 900-200 BC), NAZCA (c. 200 BC-AD 600), MOCHICA (c. 100 BC-AD 700), HUARI (C. 600-900), CHIMU (c. 1000-1450), and Inca (c. 1400-1532).
_^<N__^<N_With an agricultural and pastoral economy based on the cultivation of maize and tubers and the breeding of llamas and alpacas, the Andean cultures developed extremely efficient farming techniques involving the use of irrigation canals and
terracing, and had excellent food-storage facilities. They built an extensive system of roads, established well-organized, religiously supported political structures that controlled the production and distribution of essential goods, and produced
textiles, pottery, and metal work of the highest quality. _^<N__^<N_Andean civilization was destroyed by the Spanish conquest of the 16th century, but its influence survives in the contemporary Indian cultures of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, and
Colombia. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Haas, Jonathan, et al., eds., Origins and Development of the Andean State (1987). _^<N__^<N_See also: INDIANS, AMERICAN; PRE-COLUMBIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE.
-END-
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245
CAT
-A-
Andean Common Market
-T-
Andean Common Market_^<N__^<N_The Andean Common Market (ANCOM), founded in 1969 with headquarters in Lima, Peru, is a treaty organization that facilitates economic integration among its five member-states: Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and
Venezuela.
-END-
-C-
896
CAT
-A-
Anders, William Alison
-T-
Anders, William Alison_^<N__^<N_The American astronaut William A. Anders, b. Hong Kong, Oct. 17, 1933, flew on the first manned mission around the Moon. Anders was a U.S. Air Force interceptor pilot and, after receiving a master's degree in
nuclear engineering, served at the Air Force Weapons Laboratory. He was selected as an astronaut in 1963. _^<N__^<N_His only flight in space was as the LUNAR EXCURSION MODULE pilot of Apollo 8, the first manned mission around the Moon, with Frank
BORMAN and James LOVELL. (See APOLLO PROGRAM.) He, Lovell, and Borman read from Genesis as part of a Christmas greeting to the world from the Moon. During 1969-73 he served as executive secretary of the National Aeronautics and Space Council. He
later served as commissioner of the Atomic Energy Commission and U.S. ambassador to Norway and as an officer of General Electric, Textron, and General Dynamics. _^<N__^<N_David Dooling
-END-
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2825
CAT
-A-
Andersen, Hans Christian
-T-
Andersen, Hans Christian_^<N__^<N_The Danish writer Hans Christian Andersen, b. Apr. 2, 1805, d. Aug. 4, 1875, is renowned for his fairy tales, which combine childlike fantasy with a penetrating wisdom. Between 1835 and 1872 he wrote 168 such
tales, as well as poetry, novels, plays, travel sketches, and memoirs. _^<N__^<N_Andersen was the son of a poor cobbler and a superstitious, illiterate mother. At the age of 14 he left his home in Odense for Copenhagen, where he worked for a time
as an actor with the Royal Theater with little success. Largely through the help of Jonas Collin, a director of the theater, Andersen entered grammar school at Slagelse, where he endured harsh treatment from a malicious schoolmaster. Again with
Collin's help, he attended Copenhagen University in 1827-28. His poetry and prose, which began to appear soon afterward, exhibited the romantic influence of Sir Walter SCOTT and of such German writers of fantasy as E. T. A. HOFFMANN. During the
1830s, Andersen traveled throughout Europe and the Mediterranean, briefly settling in Italy. He described these travels in A Poet's Bazaar (1842; Eng. trans. 1846) and other travel books. _^<N__^<N_In 1835, Andersen published The Improvisatore
(1835; Eng. trans., 1845), the first and most successful of his six autobiographical novels. During that year he also published Tales Told for Children, which contained his first four fairy tales: "The Tinderbox," "Little Claus and Big Claus,"
"The Princess and the Pea," and "Little Ida's Flowers." Most of Andersen's subsequent tales, which were translated into other languages during his lifetime, appeared in sets of four. They include the memorable classics "The Emperor's New Clothes,"
"The Ugly Duckling," "The Snow Queen," "The Nightingale," "The Red Shoes," "The Little Fir Tree," "The Little Match Girl," and "The Constant Tin Soldier." _^<N__^<N_Now translated into more than 100 languages, his tales rely heavily on elements of
fantasy and folklore. Yet they also reveal a deep, often pessimistic insight into human nature. Andersen used his own difficult life as the basis for many of his tales. In 1855 he published the autobiographical Fairy Tale of My Life (Eng.
trans., 1954). Several English-language editions of his collected tales have appeared since the first in 1869-71. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Book, Fredrik, Hans Christian Andersen (1938; Eng. trans., 1962); Conroy, Patricia, and Rossel, Sven H.,
eds., The Diaries of Hans Christian Andersen (1990); Dahl, Svend, and Topsoe-Jensen, H. G., eds., A Book on the Danish Writer Hans Christian Andersen: His Life and Work (Eng. trans., 1955); Godden, Rumer, Hans Christian Andersen (1955); Lederer,
Wolfgang, The Kiss of the Snow Queen: Hans Christian Andersen and Man's Redemption by Woman (1986; repr. 1990); Stirling, Monica, The Wild Swan (1965).
-END-
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50
CAT
-A-
Andersen-Nexo, Martin:
-T-
Andersen-Nexo, Martin:_^<N__^<N_see NEXO, MARTIN ANDERSEN-.
-END-
-C-
673
CAT
-A-
Anderson, Carl David
-T-
Anderson, Carl David_^<N__^<N_The American physicist Carl David Anderson, b. New York City, Sept. 3, 1905, d. Jan. 11, 1991, won the 1936 Nobel Prize for physics for his work on COSMIC RAYS. In his CLOUD CHAMBER studies, Anderson found decisive
proof of the existence of the POSITRON, a positively charged electron. In 1938 he and Seth H. Neddermeyer announced the discovery of the MESON, a type of subatomic particle whose existence had earlier been predicted by Hideki YUKAWA. In 1948,
Cecil POWELL found that in reality another meson, called the pi-meson, or pion, had the properties of Yukawa's model and decayed to the known meson discovered by Anderson. _^<N__^<N_James A. Booth
-END-
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751
CAT
-A-
Anderson, Judith
-T-
Anderson, Judith_^<N__^<N_Judith Anderson, b. Adelaide, Australia, Feb. 10, 1898, d. Jan. 3, 1992, was an actress noted for her powerful portrayals of tragic characters. She made her debut in Sydney in 1915 and went to the United States three years
later. Her first major New York success was in Cobra (1924), but she is equally remembered for her parts in Luigi PIRANDELLO's As You Desire Me (1930-31) and Eugene O'NEILL's Mourning Becomes Electra (1932). In 1936 Anderson appeared in Hamlet
opposite John GIELGUD and in 1937 as Lady Macbeth opposite Laurence OLIVIER. Her riveting portrayal of Medea in 1947 is often considered her best performance. She also appeared in films, notably as the formidable Mrs. Danvers in Rebecca (1940),
and on television.
-END-
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945
CAT
-A-
Anderson, Jack
-T-
Anderson, Jack_^<N__^<N_Jack Northman Anderson, b. Long Beach, Calif., Oct. 19, 1922, is an American newspaper columnist and investigative reporter. He was a Mormon missionary in the South (1941-44), briefly worked as a war correspondent (1945),
and in 1947 joined the staff of Drew Pearson's influential muckraking column "Washington Merry-Go-Round." The Two journalists collaborated on The Case Against Congress (1968). Anderson took over the column after Pearson's death in 1969 and won a
1972 Pulitzer Prize for national reporting after exposing U. S. political intervention in the India-Pakistan War. Anderson's reports on the Watergate affair were lauded, but his treatment of incidents in the personal life of Sen. Thomas
Eagleton, the initial choice of Sen. George McGovern as a candidate for the vice-presidency in 1972, drew criticism. His own books include The Anderson Papers (1973) and Alice in Blunderland (1983). _^<N__^<N_Calder M. Pickett
-END-
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827
CAT
-A-
Anderson, John
-T-
Anderson, John_^<N__^<N_John Bayard Anderson, b. Rockford, Ill., Feb. 15, 1922, represented Illinois as a Republican in the U. S. House of Representatives from 1961 to 1981 and ran unsuccessfully for U. S. president in 1980. Trained in law at
the University of Illinois and Harvard University, Anderson entered the foreign service in 1952 and state politics in 1956. Elected to Congress in 1960, he served as chairman of the House Republican Conference from 1969 until 1979, when he
declared his presidential candidacy and withdrew from reelection to the House. Defeated by Ronald Reagan for the Republican nomination, Anderson campaigned as an independent, winning about 7 percent of the popular vote. His published writings
include Between Two Worlds: A Congressman's Choice (1970) and Vision and Betrayal in America (1975).
-END-
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925
CAT
-A-
Anderson, Margaret
-T-
Anderson, Margaret_^<N__^<N_The American publisher Margaret Anderson, b. Indianapolis, Ind., c.1890, d. Oct. 18, 1973, introduced works by such important literary figures as T. S. Eliot, Ernest Hemingway, and James Joyce in The Little Review, which
she founded in Chicago in 1914 and edited with Jane Heap. Anderson, with the encouragement of Ezra Pound, foreign editor from 1917 to 1919, supported all modernist literary movements. She became involved in a celebrated obscenity case when she
published Joyce's novel Ulysses in installments, beginning in 1918. The book was held to be obscene and was ruled legally inadmissible to the United States. Anderson described her life and literary acquaintances in a 3-volume autobiography--My
Thirty Years' War (1930), The Fiery Fountains (1951), and The Strange Necessity (1969). All three volumes were published as a set in 1970 along with the anthology The Little Review. _^<N__^<N_Ernest C. Hynds
-END-
-C-
1400
CAT
-A-
Anderson, Marian
-T-
Anderson, Marian_^<N__^<N_Marian Anderson, b. Philadelphia, Feb. 17, 1902, d. Apr. 8, 1993, was the first black singer to perform at the Metropolitan Opera House in New York City. Anderson, who was a contralto, made her debut (1955) as Ulrica in
Giuseppe Verdi's Un Ballo in Maschera. She was, however, primarily a concert artist and was particularly acclaimed for her singing of spirituals. Anderson first sang in church choirs. Because of her race she had to overcome great difficulties to
obtain the training necessary for a career. In 1935 she sang for Arturo Toscanini, who said she had "a voice that comes once in a hundred years." In 1939 the Daughters of the American Revolution denied her access to Washington's Constitution Hall
for a concert; Eleanor Roosevelt then arranged her concert on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial before an audience of 75,000. Anderson was named by the government as an alternate United Nations delegate in 1958. She sang at the inaugural balls of
Presidents Eisenhower (1957) and Kennedy (1961). Anderson made many recordings and was noted for the warm, deep timbre and for the style of her oratorio singing. She retired after a successful concert tour in 1965. In 1978 she was one of five
recipients of the first Kennedy Center Honors. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Anderson, Marian, My Lord, What a Morning: An Autobiography (1956); Vehanen, Kosti, Marian Anderson (1941; repr. 1970).
-END-
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1254
CAT
-A-
Anderson, Maxwell
-T-
Anderson, Maxwell_^<N__^<N_James Maxwell Anderson, b. Atlantic, Pa., Dec. 15, 1888, d. Feb. 28, 1959, was one of the most admired American playwrights of his time. His reputation reached its peak when he wrote such colorful historical verse
plays as Elizabeth the Queen (1930), Mary of Scotland (1933), Valley Forge (1934), and Winterset (1935), a tragedy set in modern times. Today, however, these and Anderson's many other verse plays have fallen from favor as critics have come to
complain about their unrealistic plots and clumsy poetry. His most durable work is the prose play What Price Glory? (1924), a collaboration with Laurence Stallings (1895-1968) about American soldiers in France during World War I. The comedy Both
Your Houses (1933), a satire on congressional corruption, won Anderson the Pulitzer Prize. Other works include Key Largo (1939) and the musicals on which he collaborated with composer Kurt Weill, Knickerbocker Holiday (1938) and Lost in the Stars
(1949), which was based on Alan Paton's novel Cry, the Beloved Country. _^<N__^<N_Malcolm Goldstein _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Anderson, Maxwell, Dramatist in America: Letters of Maxwell Anderson, 1912-1958, ed. by Laurence G. Avery (1977);
Shivers, Alfred S., The Life of Maxwell Anderson (1982).
-END-
-C-
619
CAT
-A-
Anderson, Philip Warren
-T-
Anderson, Philip Warren_^<N__^<N_The American physicist Philip Warren Anderson, b. Indianapolis, Ind., Dec. 13, 1923, shared with Sir Nevill Mott and J. H. Van Vleck the 1977 Nobel Prize for physics for their development of basic theories of
magnetism and conduction as applied to electronic solid-state circuitry. This work made possible the use of economical materials, such as silicon, in computers. Anderson served on the technical staff of Bell Laboratories from 1949 to 1984, was a
visiting professor of theoretical physics at Cambridge University from 1967 to 1975, and became a professor of physics at Princeton in 1975.
-END-
-C-
661
CAT
-A-
Anderson, Robert Woodruff
-T-
Anderson, Robert Woodruff_^<N__^<N_Robert Anderson, b. New York City, Apr. 28, 1917, American playwright and screenwriter, is best known for Tea and Sympathy (1956), a drama about a sexually insecure prep school boy who is rescued by a sympathetic
faculty wife. Anderson taught playwriting at the American Theatre Wing (1946-50) before launching his own professional career with Love Revisited (1951), followed by Silent Night, Lonely Night (1959), You Know I Can't Hear You When the Water's
Running (a group of one-act plays, 1967), and I Never Sang for My Father (1968). His screen credits include adaptations of his plays and original scripts for film and television.
-END-
-C-
2384
CAT
-A-
Anderson, Sherwood
-T-
Anderson, Sherwood_^<N__^<N_The prolific American novelist, short-story writer, and critic Sherwood Anderson, b. Sept. 13, 1876, d. Mar. 8, 1941, is best known for his sensitive portrayals of the lives of small-town midwesterners. Born in
Camden, Ohio, and raised in nearby Clyde, Anderson served in the Spanish-American War, became a copywriter in Chicago, then managed a paint plant in Elyria, Ohio, before taking up writing as a career in 1913. _^<N__^<N_Anderson's first novel, set
in a small town in Iowa, was Windy McPherson's Son (1916); this was followed the next year by Marching Men. He achieved fame with WINESBURG, OHIO (1919), a group of interconnected stories about small-town people whose frustrations and shattered
dreams turn them into what he called "grotesques." This remained a primary focus in Anderson's work, the means by which he illustrated the effects of industrialization on the life of the individual. The theme found further expression in the novels
Poor White (1920), Many Marriages (1923), and Dark Laughter (1925). _^<N__^<N_Anderson permanently influenced the short story, concentrating on mood and psychological insight rather than on plot. Three collections, The Triumph of the Egg (1921),
Horses and Men (1923), and Death in the Woods (1933), show his mastery of the genre. Some of his finest writing appears in his autobiographical works: A Story Teller's Story (1924); Tar: A Midwest Childhood (1926); and Sherwood Anderson's
Memoirs (1942). _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Anderson, David, Sherwood Anderson: An Introduction and Interpretation (1967); Anderson, S., Selected Letters, ed. by C. E. Modlin (1984); Burbank, Rex, Sherwood Anderson (1964); Campbell, H. H.,
ed., The Sherwood Anderson Diaries, 1936-41 (1987); Campbell, H. H., and Modlin, C. E., eds., Sherwood Anderson: Centennial Studies (1976); chase, Cleveland B., Sherwood Anderson (1927; repr. 1980); Howe, Irving, Sherwood Anderson: A
Biographical and Critical Study (1951; repr. 1966); Rideout, W. B., ed., Sherwood Anderson: A collection of Critical Essays (1974); Rogers, Douglas, Sherwood Anderson: A Selective, Annotated Bibliography (1976); Sutton, William A., The Road
to Winesburg (1972); Taylor, Welford D., Sherwood Anderson (1977); Townsend, Kim, Sherwood Anderson: A Biography (1987); White, Ray L., ed., The Achievement of Sherwood Anderson: Essays in Criticism (1966).
-END-
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322
CAT
-A-
Andersonville Prison
-T-
Andersonville Prison_^<N__^<N_Andersonville Prison, near Americus, Ga., was a Confederate stockade for Union prisoners during the Civil War. The inmates suffered from overcrowding, starvation, and the cruelty of the superintendent; about 13,000
died. The prison is now a historic site that includes Andersonville National Cemetery.
-END-
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530
CAT
-A-
Andersson, Dan
-T-
Andersson, Dan_^<N__^<N_Dan Andersson, b. Apr. 6, 1888, d. Sept. 16, 1920, was one of the earliest Swedish working-class authors and is still the most popular. In Kolarhistorier (Charcoal Burners' Tales, 1914) and Charcoal Burner's Ballad and Other
Poems (1915; Eng. trans., 1943) he described men's lonely toil in the Swedish wilderness in musical prose and poetry, skillfully blending mysticism and naturalism. A number of Andersson's poems have been set to music. He died accidentally from gas
poisoning in a Stockholm hotel. _^<N__^<N_Virpi Zuck
-END-
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785
CAT
-A-
Andersson, Johan Gunnar
-T-
Andersson, Johan Gunnar_^<N__^<N_Johan Gunnar Andersson, b. July 3, 1874, d. Oct. 29, 1960, was a Swedish geologist and archaeologist who laid the foundations of Chinese prehistoric studies in the 1920s. Employed by the Chinese government in 1914 as
a geological advisor, he became increasingly interested in paleontology and prehistory. In 1921, through his discovery of an occupation site at Yang-shao T'sun in Honan, he showed the existence of Chinese Neolithic culture. This site gave its name
to the Yang-shao culture. He was also responsible for the first excavations at CHOU-K'OU-TIEN, where skeletal evidence of PEKING MAN, a variety of Homo erectus, was subsequently found. He published an account of his own career in Children of the
Yellow Earth: Studies in Prehistoric China (1934).
-END-
-C-
6564
CATO
4835
-A-
Andes
-O-
000000|Andes
001252| TOPOGRAPHY
003604| CLIMATE, VEGETATION, AND FAUNA
005253| PEOPLE AND ECONOMY
-T-
Andes_^<N__^<N_The Andes (Spanish: Los Andes, or Cordillera de los Andes, the latter for "Andes Mountain Range") constitute one of the world's major mountain systems and form the backbone of South America. Paralleling the Pacific coast of the
continent, they extend north about 7,250 km (4,500 mi) from Cape Horn at the tip of Tierra del Fuego to the Caribbean coast of Colombia and Venezuela. Although the Andes have a relatively narrow width--generally less than 325 km (200 mi) except in
Bolivia, where this figure doubles--they form one of the longest uninterrupted high barriers of the world. More than 40 peaks exceed 6,100 m (20,000 ft). The Andes are not a single high range, however, but a complex series of ranges (cordilleras)
separated by plateaus and elevated basins. _^<N__^<N_The geological evolution of the Andes began with the folding and uplift that took place in the Cretaceous Period (140 to 65 million years ago). The development of the modern Andes, however,
stems from mountain-building activity that began in the Pliocene Epoch (6 to 2 million years ago). Disturbances of the Earth's crust continue in the form of volcanic activity and earthquakes. These are especially prevalent in the western ranges
from southern Colombia to northern Chile. _^<N__^<N_ TOPOGRAPHY_^<N__^<N_From Tierra del Fuego north to 40 deg south latitude, the Andes form a single dominant range, with a mean elevation less than 2,000 m (6,600 ft) but with occasional higher
peaks. Extensive glaciation has left many glacier-fed lakes, including Argentino, Buenos Aires, and Llanquihue on the eastern flanks, and many islands and fjords on the western. North to 27 deg south latitude, the single range, with a mean
elevation of 3,960 m (13,000 ft), contains ACONCAGUA (6,960 m/22,834 ft), the highest peak in the Western Hemisphere. It then splits into three ranges. Two of these continue north into Bolivia as the Cordilleras Occidental (western) and Oriental
(eastern). Between them is the Altiplano, a string of high intermontane basins. Lake TITICACA, the largest South American lake and the highest large lake in the world, occupies the northernmost basin. Major peaks include Ollague (5,875 m/19,250
ft), Sajama (6,520 m/21,390 ft), Illimani (6,460 m/21,200 ft), and Illampu (6,400 m/21,000 ft). The Cordillera Oriental veers northwest, as the Cordillera Real, at 17 deg south latitude, the point at which the Andes is the widest. _^<N__^<N_In
Peru the Andes extend northwest to Ecuador (lat. 5 deg S) as a high plateau with a mean elevation that declines from 4,575 to 3,050 m (15,000 to 10,000 ft). Above this surface rise mountains to heights exceeding 6,400 m (21,000 ft), including
HUASCARAN (6,775 m/22,200 ft). Tributaries of the Amazon have cut deep gorges into this surface. In Ecuador, where the Andes narrow to less than 115 km (70 mi), the Cordilleras Oriental and Occidental overlook an intercordilleran depression
divided into 15 distinct basins. This two-cordillera pattern continues northward into Colombia, where the Andes fan out into three major northeast-trending ranges: the Occidental, Central, and Oriental, separated by the Cauca and Magdalena river
valleys. Major peaks include Cristobal Colon (5,775 m/18,950 ft), Huila (5,150 m/16,900 ft), and Tolima (5,600 m/18,425 ft). The Cordillera Oriental forks north of Bogota. One branch continues north as the Sierra de Perija to form the west edge
of the Maracaibo Basin. The other extends northeast to Barquisimeto as the Sierra de Merida. It continues east as the Central Highlands, a double row of lower ranges, the Sierra de Cumana and the Paria Peninsula. _^<N__^<N_ CLIMATE, VEGETATION,
AND FAUNA_^<N__^<N_The wide latitudinal range of the Andes results in a series of climates resembling those along the western edge of North America from Panama to southern Alaska. Annual precipitation exceeds 2,540 mm (100 in) on the Pacific
slopes of Colombia and southern Chile and on those facing the Amazon Basin, but it drops below 250 mm (10 in) in the zone that extends from southern Ecuador to central Chile and includes highland Bolivia. _^<N__^<N_About two-thirds of the Andes lie
within the tropics. More significant, however, is the vertical zonation of climates caused by changes in elevation. The tierra caliente ("hot land"), extending from sea level to 900 m (3,000 ft), has a mean temperature of 26 deg C (79 deg F),
abundant rainfall, and tropical rain forest vegetation. The tierra templada ("temperate land"), extending to 1,800 m (6,000 ft), is cooler and humid, with a mean temperature of 21 deg C (70 deg F) and subtropical forest vegetation. The tierra
fria ("cold land"), extending to 3,000 m (10,000 ft), has a mean temperature of 15 deg C (59 deg F). Above the tierra fria, the paramo extends to the snow line. The paramo is humid, cloudy, and too cold for trees, which are replaced by bunch
grass and tundralike vegetation. The snow line is at about 4,500 m (15,000 ft) on mountains near the equator. _^<N__^<N_The distribution of animal life is also determined by elevation. At low and intermediate elevations, Andean bird life is rich,
and mammals include the cougar, ocelot, opossum, and coatimundi. The llama, alpaca, guanaco, and vicuna are found in the Altiplano. The now rare condor inhabits higher elevations. _^<N__^<N_ PEOPLE AND ECONOMY_^<N__^<N_Spanish invaders settled
the intermontane basins within the tierra templada and tierra fria, which had long been occupied by Indians, including the INCAS in Peru and the CHIBCHAS in Colombia (see ANDEAN CIVILIZATIONS). About 60% of the Andean inhabitants reside in these
basins. The Pan American Highway extends through the highlands from Venezuela to Peru and then along the coast to southern Chile. _^<N__^<N_Subsistence agriculture based on corn, wheat, potatoes, and grazing predominates in the tierra fria, and
subtropical crops--sugar, rice, and, in Colombia especially, coffee--in the tierra templada. Industry, although of increasing importance, focuses primarily on supplying basic manufactures for local consumption. The heavily mineralized Andes, long
mined for gold and silver, are now more valued for copper and tin, along with smaller amounts of lead, zinc, and antimony. Colombia and Peru produce small amounts of coal for local use. Snow-capped peaks are an additional source of irrigation
water and are scenic attractions for a growing tourist industry. _^<N__^<N_David G. Basile _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Kazami, Takehide, The Andes (1972); Means, Philip A., Ancient Civilizations of the Andes (1931; repr. 1964); Pitcher, W. S., et
al., Magmatism at a Plate Edge: The Peruvian Andes (1985).
-END-
-C-
23
CAT
-A-
andesine:
-T-
andesine:_^<N__^<N_see FELDSPAR.
-END-
-C-
1188
CAT
-A-
andesite
-T-
andesite_^<N__^<N_{an'-duh-zyt} _^<N__^<N_Andesite is a fine-grained, gray-to-black, volcanic IGNEOUS ROCK. Andesite PORPHYRY contains PHENOCRYSTS of plagioclase FELDSPAR and other SILICATE MINERALS (olivine, pyroxene, hornblende, or biotite) in a
matrix of plagioclase, dark minerals, and natural glass. Magnetite, apatite, and ilmenite occur in lesser amounts. Glass predominates in andesitic OBSIDIAN. Andesite is often difficult to distinguish from BASALT, but petrographic analysis of
feldspar in the matrix reveals a higher albite content than in basalt, while chemical analysis reveals more silica (50-65%), soda, and potassium oxide, and less total iron, magnesia, and lime than in basalt. _^<N__^<N_Andesite commonly occurs as
LAVA flows and DIKES in zones of continental plate convergence (the Pacific RING OF FIRE, including VOLCANOES of the Andes--from where the name "andesite" is derived--and the Cascades, Aleutians, Siberia, Japan, Southeast Asia; the Caribbean; and
the north edge of the Mediterranean). Some andesite may form by differentiation of basaltic MAGMA, but much probably results from partial melting of deeply buried crustal rocks. _^<N__^<N_William D. Romey _^<N__^<N_See also: PETROGRAPHY; PLATE
TECTONICS.
-END-
-C-
1033
CAT
-A-
Andhra Pradesh
-T-
Andhra Pradesh_^<N__^<N_{an'-druh pruh-daysh'} _^<N__^<N_Andhra Pradesh is a state in southeast India, bounded by the Bay of Bengal on the east and the state of Tamil Nadu on the south. It covers 275,068 sq km (106,204 sq mi) and has a population of
66,354,559 (1991). The state capital and largest city is HYDERABAD (1991 pop., 3,005,496). The region is bisected by the Eastern Ghats, which divide the coastal plain from the arid Deccan Plateau to the west. The major economic activity is
agriculture; cotton, rice, corn, wheat, tobacco, and sugarcane are the main crops. Light industry is concentrated in Hyderabad, Vishkapatnam, and Vijayawada. _^<N__^<N_The Buddhist Andhra dynasty, from which the state derives its name, ruled there
from c.230 BC to AD 230. In the 14th to the 16th century the Vijayanagar empire ruled, but by the early 19th century most of the area was under British colonial rule. Formed in 1956 from the Telugu-speaking districts of Madras and Hyderabad states,
Andhra Pradesh was the first Indian state organized for a linguistic group.
-END-
-C-
30
CAT
-A-
Ando Hiroshige:
-T-
Ando Hiroshige:_^<N__^<N_see HIROSHIGE.
-END-
-C-
3189
CATO
-A-
Andorra
-O-
000000|Andorra
000274| THE LAND AND PEOPLE
001046| ECONOMY
002325| GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY
-T-
Andorra_^<N__^<N_{an-dohr'-uh} _^<N__^<N_Andorra is a tiny state of 453 sq km (175 sq mi), located on the border of France and Spain and surrounded by them. The capital city is Andorra-la-Vella. Long governed under a system inherited from the
Middle Ages, it adopted a modern constitution in 1993. _^<N__^<N_ THE LAND AND PEOPLE_^<N__^<N_Set in the eastern PYRENEES, Andorra is a contrast of high mountains and deep valleys. The Valira River drains the area. Temperatures in the valleys can
reach 32 deg C (90 deg F) in the summer, but the winters are cold (average January temperature is about 0 deg C/32 deg F), with an abundance of snow. One major highway connects Andorra with France and Spain, and other roads make the whole area
accessible by automobile. The country has no railroad and no airline. _^<N__^<N_More than 80% of Andorra's citizens are non-natives, about half of whom are Spanish; 8% are French. The language of the Andorran people is Catalan, but Spanish and
French are spoken widely. Roman Catholicism is the official religion, and about 90% of the population is Catholic. _^<N__^<N_ ECONOMY_^<N__^<N_Only 4% of Andorra's land is arable, so that the country must import food from France and Spain.
Tobacco, potatoes, rye, and buckwheat are grown in the lower valleys, where a few vineyards and olive groves are also located. Large flocks of sheep are brought from France and Spain each summer to graze on the abundant mountain pastures. Small
quantities of iron, lead, silver, and alum are mined. Three major hydroelectric plants enable Andorra to export electricity to Spain. _^<N__^<N_For many centuries Andorra's most profitable, although unofficial, industry was smuggling between Spain
and France. This remains a profitable sideline for some, but in recent years tourism has become by far the nation's largest industry. Tourism and rapid growth were spurred in the 1960s when Andorra established itself as a duty-free area. Excellent
skiing in the winter, hunting and fishing, and the many folk festivals in the summer, as well as the mineral baths at Les Escaldes, have generated a tourist flow of more than 6 million visitors a year. Andorra has no sales tax, and both French and
Spanish currency are recognized as legal tender (it has none of its own). Its postal system is free, being totally supported by the sale of Andorran stamps to collectors around the world. _^<N__^<N_ GOVERNMENT AND HISTORY_^<N__^<N_In 1278 the
feudal state of Andorra was placed under the joint rule of the Spanish bishop of Urgel and the French count of Foix (later replaced by the president of France) and the bishop of the nearby Spanish diocese of Urgel. The bishop and the French
president (known as the "co-princes") still function jointly as heads of state, but with strictly limited powers. The Andorran constitution approved in a March 1993 referendum established a parliamentary system of government with separate
executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Political parties and labor unions were legalized for the first time. Voting rights are restricted to native Andorrans. _^<N__^<N_Paul C. Helmreich _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Carter, Youngman, On to
Andorra (1964); Deane, Shirley, The Road to Andorra (1964); Morgan, Bryan, Andorra: The Country in Between (1964). _^<N__^<N_
-END-
-C-
320
CAT
-A-
Andover Newton Theological School
-T-
Andover Newton Theological School_^<N__^<N_Founded in 1807, Andover Newton (enrollment: 459; library: 216,232 volumes) is a private, independent Protestant theological seminary for men and women in Newton Centre, Mass. It grants graduate divinity
degrees and, in cooperation with Boston College, the Ph.D. in Theological Studies.
-END-
-C-
567
CAT
-A-
Andrada e Silva, Jose Bonifacio de
-T-
Andrada e Silva, Jose Bonifacio de_^<N__^<N_{ahn-drah'-thah ay sil'-vah, hoh-say' boh-nee-fah'-see-oh day} Jose Bonifacio de Andrada e Silva, b. June 13, 1763, d. Apr. 6, 1838, was a Brazilian political leader and an internationally known geologist.
He led the movement that persuaded PEDRO I to declare Brazil an empire independent of Portugal in 1822. Bonifacio served as prime minister until Pedro dismissed him in 1823 for seeking a liberal constitution. Vindicated by the adoption of the 1824
constitution, which incorporated many of his ideas, he later tutored PEDRO II.
-END-
-C-
603
CAT
-A-
Andrade, Mario de
-T-
Andrade, Mario de_^<N__^<N_{ahn-drah'-day} _^<N__^<N_A novelist, poet, literary and art critic, musicologist, and teacher, Mario Raul de Morais Andrade, b. Sept. 9, 1893, d. Feb. 25, 1945, was a leading cultural figure in the modernist movement in
Brazil. His book of poetry, Hallucinated City (1922; Eng. trans., 1968), can be considered a manifesto of a literary trend toward popularizing art. His dynamic leadership and his enormous influence led Andrade to be called the "Pope of Modernism."
Several of his short stories and Macunaima (1928), his most famous prose work, are considered masterpieces. _^<N__^<N_Maria Isabel Abreu
-END-
-C-
22
CAT
-A-
andradite:
-T-
andradite:_^<N__^<N_see GARNET.
-END-
-C-
1210
CAT
-A-
Andrassy, Gyula, Count
-T-
Andrassy, Gyula, Count_^<N__^<N_{awn'-drah-shee, dyu'-luh} _^<N__^<N_The Hungarian statesman Count Andrassy, b. Mar. 3, 1823, d. Feb. 18, 1890, played a key role in European diplomacy in the late 19th century. He took part in the unsuccessful
Revolution of 1848 in Hungary and afterward lived in exile until 1857. Andrassy worked with Ferenc DEAK to arrange the Compromise of 1867, which created the Dual Monarchy of AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. He then served (1867-71) as prime minister of Hungary
before becoming foreign minister (1871-79) of the Dual Monarchy. _^<N__^<N_As foreign minister Andrassy sought closer alignment with Germany. He first agreed (1872) to an alliance with both Russia and Germany--the so-called Three Emperors'
League--but, distrusting Russia's ambitions in the Balkans, he concluded (1879) the Dual Alliance with Germany. This was expanded into the TRIPLE ALLIANCE when Italy joined in 1882. In 1878, Andrassy represented his country at the Congress of
Berlin (see BERLIN, CONGRESS OF), where he secured for Austria-Hungary the right to occupy BOSNIA AND HERCEGOVINA. _^<N__^<N_His son, also named Count Gyula Andrassy, b. June 30, 1860, d. June 11, 1929, was foreign minister of the Dual Monarchy at
the end of World War I (1918).
-END-
-C-
963
CAT
-A-
Andre, Carl
-T-
Andre, Carl_^<N__^<N_The artist Carl Andre, b. Quincy, Mass., Sept. 16, 1935, is one of the chief proponents of the MINIMAL ART movement that developed in New York during the early 1960s. Influenced by the sculpture of Constantin BRANCUSI, Andre
began his career in the late 1950s by making objects composed of notched, weathered wood. He experimented with new forms and techniques in 1960-64, during which time he earned a living by working as a freight brakeman and conductor for the
Pennsylvania Railroad. In 1965 he began to produce his best-known works, composed of a variety of preexisting standardized materials, such as unrelated, repetitive blocks, usually placed in a line on a floor. Defining sculpture as
"form-structure-place," Andre attempts to make the space for which his structures are designed a component in what he terms his "primary objects." _^<N__^<N_Barbara Cavaliere _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Katz, Robert, Naked by the Window (1990);
Waldman, Diane, Carl Andre (1970).
-END-
-C-
611
CAT
-A-
Andre, John
-T-
Andre, John_^<N__^<N_John Andre, b. May 2, 1750, was a British officer involved in the treason of the American revolutionary general Benedict ARNOLD. In the summer of 1780, Arnold, commander of West Point, contacted Major Andre in New York City and
offered to surrender his post to the British. Andre met Arnold secretly near West Point on September 21 but was captured by the Americans while on his way back to New York. Because he was in civilian clothes and was carrying incriminating papers,
he was condemned to death as a spy and hanged on Oct. 2, 1780, at Tappan, N.Y. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bailey, A., Major Andre (1987).
-END-
-C-
2858
CAT
-A-
Andrea del Castagno
-T-
Andrea del Castagno_^<N__^<N_{ahn-dray'-ah del kahs-tahn'-yoh} _^<N__^<N_Andrea del Castagno, b. c.1421, d. Aug. 19, 1457, one of the most forceful painters of the Early Renaissance, was recognized even in his own time as a master of DRAWING and
PERSPECTIVE, startling his contemporaries with vivid images that seemed to jut out of his paintings. The jealousy of lesser talents also spawned the rumor that he had murdered his fellow artist Domenico Veneziano. Giorgio VASARI, in his biographies
of artists, perpetuated these slanders, and it remained for 20th-century scholars to restore Castagno's good name. _^<N__^<N_The earliest record of his artistic activity refers to frescoes he painted with Francesco de Faenza in Venice in 1442.
Before that, however, he had achieved recognition in Florence for a representation on the facade of the Palazzo del Podesta (Bargello) of hanged men who had been traitors to Florence during the Battle of Anghiari in 1440. For this work he earned
the sobriquet Andreino degli Impicatti ( "Little Andrew of the Hanged Men" ). Upon his return from Venice, Castagno worked at the Florence Duomo (cathedral), where he supplied the cartoon for the stained-glass window depicting the deposition of
Christ. The full scope of his genius and his masterly technique are best seen in his many mural paintings. Many of his frescoes were detached from their original locations, revealing Castagno's superb sinopia, or preparatory drawings, on the
plaster beneath them. The frescoes and their sinopia are displayed in the refectory of the Monastery of Sant'Apollonia, Florence. This refectory, now the Castagno Museum, is also the site of one of Castagno's largest and most important frescoes,
Last Supper (1447). _^<N__^<N_Little is known of Castagno's earliest training. His figure drawing indicates that he was strongly affected by the works of Masaccio. Domenico Veneziano, Donatello, Ghiberti, and Piero della Francesca were also
influential in his development. Even in his earliest works, however, the figures are stamped with an unmistakable personal quality, monumental and strong, with a sculptural grandeur. _^<N__^<N_Castagno frequently manipulated perspective to
underscore the expression and content of a painting, as in the extreme foreshortening of the image of the Holy Trinity in the fresco Trinity with St. Jerome and Two Holy Women (c.1453; Santissima Annunziata, Florence). In his later works the
elements of movement and vigorous action are increasingly accentuated. _^<N__^<N_Castagno's paintings and drawings exerted a powerful influence on such artists as the young Michelangelo, Antonio and Piero Pollaiuolo, and Andrea del Verrocchio. His
early Venetian works were important models for the development of 15th-century Venetian painting. _^<N__^<N_Julia Keydel _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Richter, George, Andrea del Castagno (1943); Spenser, John, Andrea del Castagno and His Patrons (1991).
-END-
-C-
3079
CAT
-A-
Andrea del Sarto
-T-
Andrea del Sarto_^<N__^<N_{ahn-dray'-ah del sahr'-toh} _^<N__^<N_Andrea del Sarto, b. July 14, 1486, was a major painter in the classical tradition during the Florentine High Renaissance and Mannerist periods. Even so, he was overshadowed by
LEONARDO DA VINCI, MICHELANGELO, and RAPHAEL before they left Florence in 1508-09. _^<N__^<N_Giorgio VASARI, who studied in Sarto's studio, characterized Sarto's paintings as "faultless" but called his personality "weak," since he usually deferred
to his domineering wife, Lucrezia del Fede. Essays, operas, a poem by Robert BROWNING, and a psychoanalytic discussion by Ernest Jones have suggested that the lack of excitement in Sarto's personal life led him to depict figures lacking emotional
depth. Two recent monographs, however, one by Sydney Freedberg and the other by John Shearman, have purged these romantic biographical theories from Sarto studies and have supplied the necessary positive reassessment of his career. _^<N__^<N_At the
age of seven Sarto was apprenticed to a goldsmith. Between 1498 and 1508 he was apprenticed to the painter PIERO DI COSIMO and possibly also to Raffaellino del Garbo. By 1508 he shared a workshop with Franciabigio. Sarto's early (1510) S. Filippo
Benizzi fresco series in the atrium of Santissima Annunziata in Florence owe their fantastic landscapes to the conservative style of Piero di Cosimo. _^<N__^<N_After 1511 Sarto developed new classical interests, made greater use of sfumato
(extremely subtle shading), and painted psychologically animated portraits such as the Annunciation (1512; Pitti Palace), his grisaille (monochromatic) frescoes in the Chiostro dello Scalzo (1511-26), and his fresco cycle for the cloisters of
Santissima Annuniziata, as in Birth of the Virgin (1514). _^<N__^<N_Sarto established this mature style through his contact with Leonardo, Fra BARTOLOMMEO, Raphael's paintings, contemporary sculpture (especially that of Jacopo SANSOVINO, with whom
he collaborated), and the prints of DURER. The Madonna of the Harpies altarpiece (1517; Uffizi, Florence) is the most famous of his popular dark-eyed madonnas. It does not evoke the Mannerist forebodings of contemporary Raphael altarpieces but
displays instead Sarto's characteristic classical formal harmony, deep colors, and noble sweetness. These features characterized all his subsequent works. He died on Sept. 28 or 29, 1530, during one of the frequent Florentine plagues.
_^<N__^<N_Although Sarto traveled briefly to France in 1518, the crucial influences on his last 12 years were Raphael and the Roman High Renaissance. Sarto's late style became more heroic and controlled, as in the Last Supper (1522-27; San Salvi
refectory). Some of his late compositions, such as The Sacrifice of Isaac (1529; Dresden), either seem protobaroque or else suggest the Mannerist experiments that his famous pupils--PONTORMO, ROSSO FIORENTINO, and Vasari--were then undertaking.
_^<N__^<N_Alan P. Darr _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Freedberg, Sydney, Andrea del Sarto, 2 vols. (1963); Shearman, John, Andrea del Sarto, 2 vols. (1965). _^<N__^<N_See also: ITALIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE; MANNERISM; RENAISSANCE ART AND ARCHITECTURE.
-END-
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883
CAT
-A-
Andretti, Mario
-T-
Andretti, Mario_^<N__^<N_Mario Andretti, b. Montona, Trieste, Italy, Feb. 28, 1940, is an American auto racer known for a hard-driving style that enabled him to win the championship on the international Formula One Grand Prix circuit in 1978. He was
only the second American, and the first since 1961, to win racing's most prestigious title. He went to the United States with his family at the age of 15, but only after he had begun to idolize the great Italian drivers. One of the most versatile
drivers ever, Andretti won with stock, Indy, and Grand Prix cars. He was U.S. Auto Club champion three times (1965, 1966, 1969). He won the Daytona 500 stock-car title in 1967, the Indianapolis 500 title in 1969 (finishing second in 1981 and 1985),
and the Grand Prix in 1978, becoming the only driver ever to win all three events. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Andretti, Mario, What's It Like Out There (1970).
-END-
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916
CAT
-A-
Andrew, Duke of York
-T-
Andrew, Duke of York_^<N__^<N_Andrew, Duke of York, b. Feb. 19, 1960, in Buckingham Palace, London, is the third child and second son of Queen ELIZABETH II and Prince Philip as well as the first child born to a reigning monarch since 1857. Andrew
is now fourth in succession to the throne, following Prince CHARLES and his sons, William and Henry. In 1979 he volunteered for a 12-year commission in the Royal Navy, after receiving his military training at the Britannia Royal Naval College at
Dartmouth. In April 1982, Andrew piloted helicopters during Argentina's invasion of the FALKLAND ISLANDS, a British dependent territory. On July 23, 1986, Andrew married Sarah Ferguson, an editor at a London publishing house and the daughter of
Prince Charles's polo manager. The couple separated in March 1992, following the publication of photographs of the duchess in the British media that suggested an extramarital affair.
-END-
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362
CAT
-A-
Andrew, Saint
-T-
Andrew, Saint_^<N__^<N_St. Andrew was a fisherman whom Jesus called to be an APOSTLE (Matt. 4:19). He was also the brother of Simon Peter. According to a popular but mistaken tradition, Andrew was crucified on an X-shaped cross. The crossed bars of
the Scottish flag are derived from this belief. St. Andrew is the patron saint of Scotland and Russia. Feast day: Nov. 30.
-END-
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764
CAT
-A-
Andrew II, King of Hungary
-T-
Andrew II, King of Hungary_^<N__^<N_Andrew II, b. 1176?, d. Sept. 21, 1235, was one of the better-known, although not highly regarded, kings of Hungary (1205-35). He was the son of Bela III (r. 1173-96) and brother of Imre (r. 1196-1204), whose son
Ladislas III Andrew deposed (1205). Andrew's reign was characterized by a series of foreign misadventures (including a costly crusade to the Holy Land in 1217) and by a growing conflict between the king and the powerful magnates, as well as by a
struggle between the latter and the emerging lower nobility. To protect their social and economic position, the lower nobility forced the king to issue a Golden Bull (1222)--the Hungarian Magna Carta--which became the foundation stone of Hungarian
constitutionalism. _^<N__^<N_S. B. Vardy
-END-
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1143
CAT
-A-
Andrewes, Lancelot
-T-
Andrewes, Lancelot_^<N__^<N_Lancelot Andrewes, b. 1555, d. Sept. 26, 1626, was the leading theologian of the High Church party in the Church of England during the 17th century. Educated at Cambridge, he had a command of biblical languages and
early church history. He was bishop successively of Chichester, Ely, and Winchester. _^<N__^<N_As a result of his participation in the Hampton Court Conference of 1604, convened to consider English church reforms requested by the Puritans,
Andrewes helped prepare the King James Version of the Bible. His sermons were always finely done; after his death they were edited by William Laud. Andrewes's Private Devotions (1648) became known as a spiritual classic. He was firmly in the
Anglican tradition of the church, midway between Roman Catholicism and Puritanism. This position led him into controversy with St. Robert BELLARMINE during Andrewes's defense of the Stuart Oath of Allegiance, which Bellarmine had attacked.
_^<N__^<N_Frederick A. Norwood _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Davies, Horton, Like Angels from a Cloud: The English Metaphysical Preachers, 1588-1645 (1986); Welsby, Paul A., Lancelot Andrewes, 1555-1626 (1958).
-END-
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747
CAT
-A-
Andrews, Charles McLean
-T-
Andrews, Charles McLean_^<N__^<N_Charles McLean Andrews, b. Feb. 22, 1863, d. Sept. 9, 1943, Farnam professor of American history (1910-31) at Yale University, was a leader of the school of historians who maintained that the American colonies should
be studied not in isolation but as dependent components of the British Empire. He introduced his "imperial" viewpoint in The Colonial Period (1912). Andrews took the same approach in his Colonial Background to the American Revolution (1924). He won
a 1935 Pulitzer Prize for the first volume of his 4-volume Colonial Period of American History (1934-38), largely a study of political institutions. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Eisenstadt, Abraham S., Charles McLean Andrews: A Study in American
Historical Writing (1956).
-END-
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705
CAT
-A-
Andrews, Julie
-T-
Andrews, Julie_^<N__^<N_Julie Andrews is the stage name of Julia Elizabeth Wells, b. Walton-on-Thames, England, Oct. 1, 1935, an actress and singer who created the Broadway roles of Eliza Doolittle in My Fair Lady (1956) and Guinevere in Camelot
(1960). She is best known for her performances in the films Mary Poppins (1964), for which she won an Academy Award, and The Sound of Music (1965). Among the attempts to change her saccharine image are the Hollywood farce S.O.B. (1981),
Victor/Victoria (1982), in which she plays a woman masquerading as a homosexual female impersonator, and That's Life!, about a woman facing the possibility of cancer. These films were all directed by her husband, Blake Edwards.
-END-
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1316
CAT
-A-
Andrews, Roy Chapman
-T-
Andrews, Roy Chapman_^<N__^<N_Roy Chapman Andrews, b. Beloit, Wis., Jan 26, 1884, d. Mar. 11, 1960, was an American explorer and naturalist who made many important contributions to paleontology and zoology. Andrews joined the staff of the
American Museum of Natural History in 1906 and later, from 1935 to 1942, served as its director. Traveling on whaling expeditions to Alaska and the waters off Korea, he helped build the museum's collection of aquatic mammals into one of the world's
foremost. His early land expeditions led him to Korea and China. From 1921 to 1930 Andrews led expeditions to central Asia, where he discovered the first dinosaur eggs known to science; found the first traces of dinosaurs north of the Himalayas;
made important finds about now-extinct mammals, including the largest known land mammal, Baluchitherium; and found evidence of early Stone Age humans in Central Asia. A prolific author, he detailed the scientific reports of his Asian travels in
the multivolume Natural History of Central Asia. He also wrote On the Trail of Ancient Man (1926), The New Conquest of Central Asia (1932), This Amazing Planet (1940), Heart of Asia (1951), and an autobiography, Under a Lucky Star (1943).
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Archer, Jules, From Whales to Dinosaurs: The Story of Roy Chapman Andrews (1976).
-END-
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358
CAT
-A-
Andrews, Thomas
-T-
Andrews, Thomas_^<N__^<N_The Irish chemist and physicist Thomas Andrews, b. Dec. 19, 1813, d. Nov. 26, 1885, studied the liquefaction of gases and established the concepts of critical temperature and critical pressure. He was vice-president of
Queens College, Belfast, from 1845 and served as professor of chemistry from 1849 until his retirement in 1879. _^<N__^<N_Ralph Gable
-END-
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1423
CAT
-A-
Andreyev, Leonid Nikolayevich
-T-
Andreyev, Leonid Nikolayevich_^<N__^<N_{ahn-dray'-yef, leh-uh-need nik-uh-ly'-uh-vich} _^<N__^<N_Leonid Andreyev, b. June 18 (N.S.), 1871, d. Sept. 12, 1919, became famous for his short stories and novels, many of which dealt in an exaggerated
fashion with sex, crime, and death. He consciously imitated Leo TOLSTOI, especially Tolstoi's moralistic tales, and was also influenced by Fyodor DOSTOYEVSKY and Arthur SCHOPENHAUER. Andreyev is best remembered for his stories The Red Laughter
(1904), King Hunger (1908), and The Seven That Were Hanged (1908), and for his plays Life of a Man (1906) and the more important He Who Gets Slapped (1916). These allegorical and satirical dramas are now being regarded with renewed interest. An
agnostic and pessimist, Andreyev saw death and sex as the only realities of life and denounced everything else as idealistic illusions. His nihilistic attitude was taken by many as the best expression of the mood of intellectuals after Russia's
defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1905 and the failure of the revolution that followed. His close friendship with Maxim GORKY ended when Andreyev refused to accept the Bolshevik Revolution. In 1919 he appealed to the Western powers to intervene
in the Russian Civil War. He emigrated to Finland, where he died. _^<N__^<N_Laszlo M. Tikos _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Andreyev, L. N., Visions, trans. by O. and H. Carlisle (1987); Newcombe, Josephine, Leonid Andreyev (1973).
-END-
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892
CAT
-A-
Andric, Ivo
-T-
Andric, Ivo_^<N__^<N_{ahn'-drich, ee'-voh} _^<N__^<N_Ivo Andric, b. Oct. 10, 1892, d. Mar. 13, 1975, was a Yugoslavian writer who won the 1961 Nobel Prize for literature. In his novels, short stories, poems, and essays he portrayed the various
nationalities, religions, and creeds of his native Bosnia. He often used local color while dealing with universal concerns and themes. His major novel, The Bridge on the Drina (1945; Eng. trans., 1959), is set at the crossroads of the East and the
West, symbolically connected by a stone bridge; in it he depicts the centuries-old struggle of his people against various invaders. Bosnian Story (1945; Eng. trans., 1959) concerns the Turkish occupation, and The Devil's Yard (1954; Eng. trans.,
1962) extols the victory of human dignity over the lust for power. Andric's style is characterized by a lyrical realism and a fine psychological insight. _^<N__^<N_Vasa D. Mihailovich
-END-
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343
CAT
-A-
Androcles
-T-
Androcles_^<N__^<N_{an'-droh-kleez} _^<N__^<N_Androcles was a Roman slave, the hero of a 1st-century story by Aulus Gellius. One day he saw a lion in pain and removed the thorn embedded in its paw. When Androcles was later sentenced to die in the
arena, the lion recognized him and refused to harm him. The story was the subject of a play by George Bernard SHAW.
-END-
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36
CAT
-A-
androgen:
-T-
androgen:_^<N__^<N_see SEX HORMONES; STEROID.
-END-
-C-
571
CAT
-A-
Andromache
-T-
Andromache_^<N__^<N_{an-drahm'-uh-kee} _^<N__^<N_In Greek legend, Andromache was the wife of HECTOR, the Trojan hero killed during the TROJAN WAR. When Andromache learned that Hector was dead, she tried to throw herself down from the city walls in
grief. She was taken captive, however, and made the concubine of NEOPTOLEMUS, one of the victorious Greek warriors. Andromache is one of the great tragic figures of literature and art. She is the subject of plays by EURIPIDES and RACINE; the
farewell scene between Andromache and Hector in the ILIAD has been frequently depicted in paintings.
-END-
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681
CAT
-A-
Andromeda (astronomy)
-T-
Andromeda (astronomy)_^<N__^<N_{an-drahm'-uh-duh} _^<N__^<N_Andromeda, named for a princess in Greek mythology, is a constellation most prominent during autumn in the Northern Hemisphere. Situated between the constellations Cassiopeia and Pegasus,
Andromeda's brightest star, Alpheratz, forms one corner of the square of Pegasus. Andromeda contains the famous ANDROMEDA GALAXY, M 31, located more than 2.2 million light years from the Earth, and the planetary nebula NGC 7662, located within our
galaxy at a distance of about 5,000 light-years. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Burnham, Robert, Burnham's Celestial Handbook, 3 vols., rev. ed. (1980); Menzel, Donald, A Field Guide to the Stars and Planets (1975).
-END-
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723
CAT
-A-
Andromeda (mythology)
-T-
Andromeda (mythology)_^<N__^<N_{an-drahm'-uh-duh} _^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, Andromeda was an Ethiopian princess, daughter of King Cepheus and Queen Cassiopeia. When Cassiopeia boasted that Andromeda was more beautiful than the sea-goddesses
called Nereids, POSEIDON, god of the sea and father of the Nereids, sent a sea monster to ravage Ethiopia. Only the sacrifice of Andromeda could persuade Poseidon to call off the monster, so Andromeda was chained naked to a sea cliff. The hero
PERSEUS saw her plight, rescued her, and killed the monster. Thereupon, Poseidon turned the dead monster into the sea's first coral. Perseus married Andromeda, and they eventually became king and queen of the Greek city of Tiryns.
_^<N__^<N_Robert E. Wolverton
-END-
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751
CAT
-A-
Andromeda galaxy
-T-
Andromeda galaxy_^<N__^<N_{an-drahm'-uh-duh} _^<N__^<N_The Andromeda galaxy is the nearest spiral galaxy beyond the Milky Way, but, at a distance of 2.2 million light years, it is also the most distant celestial object visible to the naked eye. It
is listed in astronomical catalogs as M 31 or NGC 224. The Andromeda galaxy has an estimated mass of 300 billion solar masses and a diameter of 130,000 light years, about 1.3 times that of our galaxy. Like our galaxy, the Andromeda galaxy has
globular CLUSTERS, open clusters, and NEBULAE of gas and dust. It is sometimes erroneously referred to as the Andromeda Nebula because it was believed to be a nebula when first discovered. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hodge, Paul W., Atlas of the
Andromeda Galaxy (1981) and Galaxies (1986).
-END-
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2322
CAT
-A-
Andropov, Yuri V.
-T-
Andropov, Yuri V._^<N__^<N_{an-droh'-pawf} _^<N__^<N_Yuri Vladimirovich Andropov, b. June 15 (N.S.), 1914, d. Feb. 9, 1984, served as general secretary of the Soviet Communist party and thus leader of the USSR from November 1982 until his death.
Andropov, who had succeeded Leonid Brezhnev, also held the title of president of the USSR. A native of the Stavropol region of the northern Caucasus, where his father was employed as a railroad worker, Andropov graduated from a water transport
technical institute and began service on the Volga River system in 1936. Active in the Communist Youth League (Komsomol), he rose in 1938 to be first secretary of the Yaroslavl region group and soon became a full-time party activist.
_^<N__^<N_Andropov distinguished himself organizing guerrilla activity against the Germans during World War II. Intelligent and hardworking, he advanced rapidly. In 1947 he became second secretary of the regional party committee in the
Karelo-Finnish SSR, and in 1951 he was transferred to the central committee apparatus in Moscow. Appointed ambassador to Hungary in 1953, he impressed his superiors with his handling of the anti-Soviet Hungarian Revolution of 1956 and was brought
back to Moscow to help coordinate diplomatic affairs for the central committee. He became a member of that important body in 1961 and a secretary in late 1962. _^<N__^<N_In May 1967, Andropov was named head of the KGB, the political police and
intelligence agency. Tough, shrewd, and a skillful administrator, he made serious efforts to understand the nature of Soviet dissidence, even while overseeing its repression. In 1973 he became a full member of the politburo, the party's chief
executive organ. _^<N__^<N_Assuming power on the death of Brezhnev, Andropov made it his principal task to revitalize the Soviet economy. Surprise visits to factories and tough-minded speeches heralded a campaign against inefficiency and waste.
His efforts were soon slowed, however, by bad health. In foreign affairs, he generally continued the policies of his predecessor. Upon his death, Andropov was succeeded by Konstantin CHERNENKO. _^<N__^<N_William G. Rosenberg
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Abraham, Eric, and Steele, Jonathan, Andropov in Power (1983); Beichman, Arnold, and Bernstam, Mikhail S., Andropov: New Challenge to the West (1983); Medvedev, Zhores, Andropov (1983).
-END-
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1464
CAT
-A-
Andros, Sir Edmund
-T-
Andros, Sir Edmund_^<N__^<N_Sir Edmund Andros, b. Dec. 6, 1637, d. Feb. 27, 1714, was a colonial governor in the expanding British empire in America. As deputy of the duke of York (later King James II), Andros accepted the final Dutch surrender of
New York (1674) and became governor of the province. He had frequent disputes with the colonists and with neighboring colonies over his aggressive assertion of the duke's rights as proprietor and was recalled (1681) when charges of profiteering
were made against him. _^<N__^<N_When James became king, he appointed (1686) Andros governor of the Dominion of New England, which consolidated the New England colonies and, subsequently, New York and New Jersey into one viceroyalty. Andros and his
appointed council were given enormous powers, and his unpopular measures convinced the New England Puritans that his regime subverted their institutions and way of life. When Boston learned of the overthrow of James in England (the GLORIOUS
REVOLUTION), it rebelled in April 1689. The Dominion government collapsed, and Andros was sent back to England. _^<N__^<N_Andros later served as governor of Virginia, where his administration (1692-97) was regarded as more successful and popular.
His last governorship was of his native island of Guernsey (1704-06). Andros was an able, efficient, but abrasive administrator. _^<N__^<N_Oscar Zeichner _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Barnes, V. F., Dominion of New England (1923); Lovejoy, D. S., The
Glorious Revolution in America (1972).
-END-
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874
CAT
-A-
Andrzejewski, Jerzy
-T-
Andrzejewski, Jerzy_^<N__^<N_{ahn-zheh-yef'-skee, _^<N__^<N_jeh-zhee'} _^<N__^<N_The Polish writer Jerzy Andrzejewski, b. Aug. 19, 1909, d. Apr. 20, 1983, is best known as the author of Ashes and Diamonds (1948; Eng. trans., 1956; film, 1958), a
novel concerning the difficult moral problems and political choices his nation faced after World War II. He is also noted for the title short story in his collection The Golden Fox (1955), which contributed to Poland's turn away from Stalinism in
1956. Andrzejewski had long been a vocal critic of Poland's Communist government. His novel The Inquisitors (1957; Eng. trans., 1960), in which he depicted the Spanish Inquisition, was taken as an allegory for the modern totalitarian state.
Andrzejewski was not allowed to publish during the 1960s and later because of his political activism, but he managed to smuggle manuscripts abroad to be published.
-END-
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45
CAT
-A-
anecdote:
-T-
anecdote:_^<N__^<N_see NARRATIVE AND DRAMATIC DEVICES.
-END-
-C-
1949
CAT
-A-
anemia
-T-
anemia_^<N__^<N_{uh-nee'-mee-uh} _^<N__^<N_Anemia is the loss of the oxygen-carrying capacity of the BLOOD resulting from a deficiency in quantity or quality of red blood cells or the hemoglobin in the blood. Symptoms of anemia include pale skin,
weakness, fatigue, and dizziness. Severe anemia may result in difficulty in breathing and heart abnormalities. _^<N__^<N_The most common type of anemia is iron deficiency anemia, which most often results from chronic blood loss and also from lack
of iron in the diet, impaired absorption of iron from the intestine, or increased need for iron, as in pregnancy. Iron is an essential component of the hemoglobin, which carries oxygen to the tissues in chemical combination with its iron atoms.
Pernicious anemia is a chronic inherited disease of middle-aged and older people in which the stomach fails to produce a factor needed for the absorption of vitamin B(12), which is essential for mature red blood cells. The disease can be treated
by lifelong injections of the vitamin. Aplastic anemia is the result of the failure of bone marrow cells to manufacture mature red cells. It is usually caused by toxic chemicals (for example, benzene) or by radiation. Treatment includes
preventing further exposure of the patient to the causative agent, eliminating any remaining toxic substance from the body, stimulating the proliferation of remaining bone-marrow cells, and preventing infection, while keeping the patient alive with
blood transfusions. Erythropoietin (EPO), a kidney hormone that promotes formation of red blood cells, is now being produced by biotechnology and is proving useful in the treatment of anemia induced by dialysis. It may eventually also be used for
treating other anemia-related ailments. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Callender, S. J., Blood Disorders (1986); Pollitt, Ernesto, and Leibel, Rudolph, eds., Iron Deficiency (1982); Steinberg, David, Anemia (1981). _^<N__^<N_See also: COOLEY'S ANEMIA;
SICKLE-CELL DISEASE.
-END-
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1004
CAT
-A-
anemometer
-T-
anemometer_^<N__^<N_{an-uh-mah'-muh-tur} _^<N__^<N_The anemometer is an instrument designed to measure wind speed. The earliest wind-speed indicator was the pressure anemometer, in which the displacement of a hanging plate indicated wind speed. A
modern version measures the displacement of a standing column of water in a FLOWMETER called a Pitot tube. The rotation anemometer may consist of a windmill or propellor or, more often, of three or more semiconical cups rotating on a pivot attached
to an electric generator. The hot-wire anemometer measures the amount of electric current required to keep a hot wire at a constant temperature as the wind blows past. The acoustic anemometer, which dates from about 1950, works on the principle
that wind affects the speed of a sound signal. _^<N__^<N_Pressure anemometers are no longer widely used, with the exception of the Pitot tube. Rotation anemometers are standard in most weather stations, and the hot-wire and acoustic types are
mainly used for research. _^<N__^<N_Willem Van Der Bijl
-END-
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537
CAT
-A-
anemone
-T-
anemone_^<N__^<N_{uh-nem'-uh-nee} _^<N__^<N_Anemone, or windflower, is any of the perennial flowering herbaceous PLANTS belonging to the genus Anemone in the buttercup family. They produce cup-shaped yellowish, white, purple, violet, or red flowers
that make attractive additions to perennial flower gardens. Among the most popular are the autumn-flowering Japanese anemone, A. hupehensis, and the spring-flowering, tuberous-rooted poppy anemone, A. coronaria. The poppy anemone is often grown for
its red, white, and blue range of color. _^<N__^<N_Charles L. Wilson
-END-
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9683
CATO
4792
9606
-A-
anesthetics
-O-
000000|anesthetics
000793| HISTORY
001607| GENERAL ANESTHESIA
001959| Inhaled Anesthetics
003468| Intravenous Drugs
005980| Anesthetic Action
007128| REGIONAL OR LOCAL ANESTHESIA
009054| OTHER TECHNIQUES
-T-
anesthetics_^<N__^<N_{an-es-thet'-iks} _^<N__^<N_Anesthetics are substances or procedures that produce insensibility to pain. They are usually administered for performance of SURGERY. Anesthesia, the state of insensibility to pain, may include
loss of consciousness. Anesthesiology is the medical specialty practiced by anesthesiologists, the doctors who administer anesthetics. It also includes the management of the physiologic problems occurring during and after operations and the
diagnosis and treatment of pain. Anesthetics also may be administered by anesthetists, who are specially trained nurses working under the supervision of a physician. Modern anesthetic techniques permit complex surgical procedures to be performed
with safety and comfort for the patient, although problems and side effects can occur. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY_^<N__^<N_Before the discovery of anesthetics, operations were performed infrequently and in haste because of the pain and shock experienced by
unanesthetized patients. A number of partially effective substances were used, including alcohol, OPIUM, hashish, COCAINE (applied to the skin), direct pressure, and cold (applied to nerve trunks). A dramatic breakthrough occurred in 1846 at the
Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, when William MORTON, a dentist, administered diethyl ETHER to a patient allowing Dr. John C. Warren painlessly to remove a tumor from the unconscious patient's jaw. (A Georgia physician, Crawford W. Long,
had administered ether anesthesia since 1842 but did not publish his results until 1849.) Within two years general anesthesia was used throughout the United States and Europe. _^<N__^<N_ GENERAL ANESTHESIA_^<N__^<N_During general anesthesia, drugs
(see DRUG) primarily affecting the brain produce unconsciousness, insensibility to pain, and complete amnesia in the patient. Reflex responses to pain, including increases in heart rate or blood pressure, are also decreased. The patient awakens
only when the administration of the drug is stopped. _^<N__^<N_ Inhaled Anesthetics_^<N__^<N_Some general anesthetics are inhaled by the patients. These can be gases, which are mixed with oxygen in measured concentrations, or liquids converted to
gases and mixed with oxygen in precise concentrations by vaporizers. Four inhalational anesthetics enjoy widespread use: nitrous oxide, halothane, enflurane, and isoflurane. Nitrous oxide, also known as laughing gas, was discovered in 1799 by
the British chemist Sir Humphry DAVY. Not potent enough to produce a complete state of anesthesia by itself, it is often used with other anesthetics. Halothane (Fluothane), introduced in 1956, is more potent and can be used alone, but it may
decrease the patient's blood pressure at concentrations required for general anesthesia. Rarely, halothane has been associated with liver toxicity (halothane hepatitis), which can be fatal. Enflurane (Ethrane), first available in 1972, is similar
to halothane in its properties. It has been known to cause convulsions but not liver toxicity. Isoflurane (Forane), available since 1981, has properties similar to those of halothane and enflurane, without some of the undesirable side effects.
It is rapidly eliminated from the body, so the patient awakes promptly from the anesthesia, making it a very popular anesthetic. Sevoflurane and desflurane are new inhalational anesthetics in the late stages of development. Desflurane has the
advantage of very rapid onset and elimination and may be widely used for operations of short duration. _^<N__^<N_ Intravenous Drugs_^<N__^<N_Some general anesthetics can also be administered intravenously. A BARBITURATE such as thiopental
(Pentothal), thiamylal (Surital), and methohexital (Brevital) are used because onset of anesthesia is rapid (30 to 60 seconds). However, duration is brief, so these drugs are used only for brief operations or to induce the anesthetic state, which
is then maintained with other drugs. Barbiturates combined with nitrous oxide, narcotics, and muscle relaxants produce anesthesia sufficient for many types of surgery. Propofol (Diprivan), not a barbiturate, also produces brief anesthesia.
_^<N__^<N_A TRANQUILIZER such as diazepam (VALIUM) or midazolam (Versed) can produce anesthesia if given intravenously in large doses. They are longer acting, with less effect on the heart and respiration than barbiturates. In doses below the
level needed to produce anesthesia, both drugs can induce amnesia and decrease anxiety of patients going into the operating room or those undergoing local or regional anesthesia. While not a general anesthetic, intravenous ketamine has many
anesthetic properties and is useful for short operations. Its main drawback is that 10 to 15 percent of adults given ketamine have vivid, often unpleasant dreams. _^<N__^<N_Two other groups of drugs are important in modern anesthesiology. A
narcotic ANALGESIC (pain reliever) such as morphine, meperidine (DEMEROL), fentanyl, sufentanil, and alfentanil adds to the effects of anesthetic agents. Muscle relaxants such as succinylcholine, curare, pancuronium, and recently introduced
short-acting drugs such as atracurium, vecuronium, and mivacurium interfere with the transmission of impulses from nerve to muscle. The resulting paralysis is transitory but guarantees that involuntary movement by the anesthetized patient will not
interfere with surgery. _^<N__^<N_Usually, a group of drugs with different properties are used to provide general anesthesia. These combinations allow for smoother entry into the anesthetic state, better control of the intensity of anesthesia
during the operation, and faster reversal of the anesthetic, while minimizing undesirable side effects on blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing (the vital signs) that might occur if larger doses of a single drug were used. During anesthesia
there must be continuous monitoring of vital signs, blood oxygen levels, surgical blood loss, and intensity of surgical stimulation, so that the level of anesthesia can be continuously altered to match the changing situation. _^<N__^<N_ Anesthetic
Action_^<N__^<N_There are a number of theories explaining how general anesthetics work, but all are incomplete or unsatisfactory because of the diverse effects of anesthetic drugs and the complexity of the central NERVOUS SYSTEM. The primary site
of action is believed to be the neuron, the nerve cell that makes up the brain, spinal cord, and nervous system. According to neurophysiological theories, anesthetics work by decreasing transmission across the neural synapse, the gap between nerve
cells. Biochemical theories hypothesize that anesthetics decrease energy production within the nerve cell, thus decreasing the ability to produce nerve impulses. A recent combination of these two theories states that the decrease in energy
production shifts metabolic pathways and allows an increase in the production of certain compounds that decrease synaptic transmission. Several other theories propose that anesthetic molecules dissolve into the cell membrane, interfering with
nerve-impulse conduction. The brain contains specific binding sites (receptors) for some anesthetic drugs, which act by activating or inhibiting these receptors. _^<N__^<N_ REGIONAL OR LOCAL ANESTHESIA_^<N__^<N_Unlike general anesthesia, regional
anesthesia affects only part of the body. The patient is awake, but does not feel pain. Anesthetic drugs used to produce regional anesthesia are called local anesthetics, including procaine (Novocain), lidocaine, mepivacaine, and bupivacaine.
_^<N__^<N_There are five major types of local anesthesia. Topical anesthesia is produced by the absorption of a local anesthetic through mucous membranes, producing numbness of the mouth, throat, or nose. In infiltration anesthesia, a local
anesthetic is injected into the surgical area. Nerve-block anesthesia is produced by injection of the local anesthetic near specific nerves that innervate the area of operation. This technique is often used by dentists prior to tooth extraction or
by anesthesiologists for operations on the hand or arm. In spinal anesthesia, a small amount of local anesthetic is introduced into the subarachnoid space of the vertebral canal. It spreads through the cerebrospinal fluid and anesthetizes the
nerve roots coming out of the spinal cord. This technique can be used for surgery on any part of the lower half of the body. Epidural and caudal anesthesia involve depositing anesthetic into the epidural space of the vertebral canal. With this
technique the dose of anesthetic can be controlled so that the intensity of effect can range from only enough to provide pain relief to a level intensive enough to perform surgery. The duration of the anesthetic can be maintained for a long time,
making these techniques popular for labor and delivery. _^<N__^<N_Complications can occur with local anesthetics. By blocking normal control of blood vessels, spinal and epidural anesthesia can decrease blood pressure. High blood concentrations
of local anesthetic, obtained by inadvertent intravenous injection or excessive drug dosage, produce effects on the brain ranging from dizziness to seizures. _^<N__^<N_ OTHER TECHNIQUES_^<N__^<N_Anesthesia can also be produced by nonchemical means.
HYPNOSIS is used, but few patients can achieve trances profound enough for more than minor operations. The traditional Chinese medical art of ACUPUNCTURE has been reported to produce surgical anesthesia, but its success has been unpredictable.
_^<N__^<N_David S. Smith, M.D., and Frank L. Murphy, M.D. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Barash, P. G., and Cullen, B. F., et al., eds., Clinical Anesthesia (1989); Longnecker, D. E., and Murphy, F. L., eds., Dripps, Eckenhoff, Vandam Introduction to
Anesthesia, 8th ed. (1992); Miller, R. D., ed., Anesthesia, 3d ed. (1990).
-END-
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1799
CAT
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aneurysm
-T-
aneurysm_^<N__^<N_{an'-yur-izm} _^<N__^<N_An aneurysm is a widening or dilation of a blood vessel caused by thinning of the vessel wall. A potentially lethal complication is the rupture of the vessel with resultant massive hemorrhage. Aneurysms
usually occur in arteries but may also be seen in the heart after local damage, or in veins. _^<N__^<N_Arterial aneurysms are more common than venous, occurring most often in elderly, diabetic, or hypertensive persons. They may be caused by
congenital thinning of the muscular portions of the artery, during atherosclerotic degeneration of the aorta or of the carotid or basilar arteries, by trauma to a vessel wall, by infectious injury, or by degeneration from other causes. The
likelihood of rupture is increased by high blood pressure. Defects in arteries of the eye may result in miliary (small, multiple) aneurysms of the retina. _^<N__^<N_Myocardial infarction (death of heart cells) provokes a reaction by white blood
cells that secrete digestive enzymes in an effort to clean up dead tissue. This begins about three days after the damage and continues for several weeks. Scar tissue forms a patch for the weak tissue but does not begin to be significantly
protective until the 10th to 14th day. Hence, spontaneous rupture of a ventricular aneurysm tends to occur between the 5th and 10th days of a person's recovery. _^<N__^<N_Treatment of a person with a ruptured aneurysm may include reduction of
blood pressure, bed rest for two weeks, replacement of the weakened vessel by a graft or encasement in plastic, or mechanically stopping blood flow to or through the aneurysm. _^<N__^<N_Alden W. Dudley _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bergan, J. J., and
Yao, James, eds., Aneurysms (1981); Horwitz, Orville, et al., eds., Diseases of Blood Vessels (1985); Weir, Bruce, Aneurysms Affecting the Nervous System (1987).
-END-
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372
CAT
-A-
Anfinsen, Christian Boehmer
-T-
Anfinsen, Christian Boehmer_^<N__^<N_{an'-fin-sen} _^<N__^<N_The American biochemist Christian Boehmer Anfinsen, b. Monessen, Pa., Mar. 26, 1916, shared the 1972 Nobel Prize for chemistry with Stanford MOORE and William H. STEIN for fundamental
contributions to the chemistry of enzymes. Anfinsen was cited for his research into the way in which the enzyme ribonuclease is produced in cells.
-END-
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206
CAT
-A-
Angara River
-T-
Angara River_^<N__^<N_{an-gar'-uh} _^<N__^<N_The Angara River in Siberia flows generally northwest from Lake BAIKAL to join the Yenisei River at Strelka. Most of its 1,779 km (1,105 mi) are navigable. Irkutsk is a major port.
-END-
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1667
CAT
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angel
-T-
angel_^<N__^<N_An angel (Greek: angelos, "messenger") is a celestial being believed to function as a messenger or agent of God in CHRISTIANITY, ISLAM, JUDAISM, and ZOROASTRIANISM. In the Near Eastern antecedents to Judaism, angels were often
understood to be gods or lesser divinities. Their existence was taken for granted by the biblical authors. The use of the word angel may have been a way of describing what was believed to be an appearance of God himself in human form. _^<N__^<N_In
the Old Testament, angels are called "messengers," "men," "powers," "princes," "sons of God," and the "heavenly host." They either have no body or one that is only apparent. They come as God's messengers to aid or punish, are assigned to individual
persons or nations, and often have a name (Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, Uriel). New Testament statements about angels reflect Jewish views of these beings. Angels, for example, announced Christ's birth (Luke 2) and resurrection (Matt. 28).
_^<N__^<N_Ancient and medieval peoples widely accepted the influence of good spirits, or angels, and evil spirits, or fallen angels (see DEMON; SATAN). During the Middle Ages, theologians developed a hierarchy of angels. They were classified in the
following nine ranks (beginning with the lowest): angels, archangels, principalities, powers, virtues, dominations, thrones, cherubim, and seraphim. Angels are a popular subject in folklore, literature, and art. _^<N__^<N_Anthony J. Saldarini
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Davidson, Gustav, A Dictionary of Angels (1967); Field, M. J., Angels and Ministers of Grace (1972); Heidt, W. G., Angelology of the Old Testament (1949); Regamey, Raymond, What Is an Angel?, trans. by Mark Pontifex (1960).
-END-
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678
CAT
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angel dust
-T-
angel dust_^<N__^<N_Angel dust is the common name for a dangerous drug whose illicit use has been spreading rapidly among teenagers since 1975. Known also as PCP (phencyclidine hydrochloride), the substance was developed in the 1950s as a potential
anesthetic for human use, but tests showed that it caused hallucinations, convulsions, and violent behavior. Controlled dosages, however, have been found useful in limited circum- _^<N__^<N_stances to tranquilize or stupefy animals. The National
Institute of Drug Abuse issued warnings that when angel dust is smoked or ingested in various ways by humans it has unpredictable psychic effects. Psychoses, deaths, and even murders have been reported.
-END-
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447
CAT
-A-
Angel Falls
-T-
Angel Falls_^<N__^<N_Angel Falls (Spanish: Salto Angel) is the highest waterfall in the world. It is located within Canaima National Park, in Bolivar state in southeastern Venezuela, about 258 km (160 mi) southeast of Ciudad Bolivar, where the Rio
Churun falls from the flat mountain plateau of Auyan-Tepui in the Guiana Highlands. The greatest uninterrupted drop is 800 m (2,640 ft). James Angel, a U.S. explorer and aviator, discovered the falls in 1935.
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1313
CAT
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angelfish
-T-
angelfish_^<N__^<N_The angelfish, in the family Chaetodontidae, are among the showiest denizens of the sea. Most species exhibit brilliant colors, some with irregular patterns that serve as camouflage. Often the young are differently colored than
the adults. At night when these diurnal fish enter a state of torpor, their colors may change. The angelfish inhabit warm seas and are abundant in coral reefs. They usually swim singly or in pairs. The five Atlantic species are the blue angel,
Holacanthus isabelita; the rock beauty, H. tricolor; the queen, H. ciliaris; the gray, Pomacanthus arcuatus; and the French, P. paru. _^<N__^<N_Angelfish have deep, thinly compressed bodies and a strong, backwardly directed spine on the corner of
each preopercle, the lower part of the cheekbone. The mouth is small and protractile with fine bristlelike teeth in narrow bands in the jaws. They feed primarily on sponges, tunicates, zoantherians, and algae. Some species act as cleaners, picking
external parasites and necrotic tissue from the surface of other fish. Most individuals are less than 43 cm (17 in) long. Fish of the genus Pterophyllum, family Cichlidae, also called angelfish, are popular in home aquariums. _^<N__^<N_C. P. Idyll
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Migdalski, Edward C., and Fichter, George S., Fresh and Salt Water Fishes of the World (1976).
-END-
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752
CAT
-A-
angelica tree
-T-
angelica tree_^<N__^<N_The angelica tree, Aralia spinosa, also commonly known as devil's-walking-stick, prickly ash, or Hercules'-club, is a shrubby plant belonging to the aralia, or GINSENG, family, Araliaceae. The angelica tree sometimes grows to
a height of 13.7 m (45 ft). The trunk and twigs are spiny, and the prickly leaf stalks bear compound leaves. An ornamental that produces large clusters of small, white flowers, it grows from western New York to Iowa and south to the Gulf Coast. The
fruit was once used as a hair dye; both bark and roots may cause a rash when handled. _^<N__^<N_The plant species known simply as angelica, genus Angelica, belong to the carrot family, Umbelliferae, and are native to the Northern Hemisphere and New
Zealand. _^<N__^<N_Robert C. Roman
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3425
CAT
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Angelico, Fra
-T-
Angelico, Fra_^<N__^<N_Fra Angelico was one of the most prolific and beloved painters of the Italian Renaissance. In a letter written in 1438, DOMENICO VENEZIANO called Fra Angelico and Fra Filippo LIPPI the two most important Italian painters of
the day. Each continued, in parallel directions, the heritage of MASACCIO, generally considered the father of Florentine Renaissance painting. Together with Veneziano, ANDREA DEL CASTAGNO, PIERO DELLA FRANCESCA, and Paolo UCCELLO, they developed
a second Florentine painting style that flourished from the 1430s through the 1450s. _^<N__^<N_It has been determined recently that Fra Angelico was born about 1400 (not 1387, as Giorgio VASARI records) and given the name Guido di Pietro.
Documents prove that he received payment as a layman for an altarpiece in 1418. In June 1423 he was mentioned as Fra Giovanni da Fiesole, the name by which he was known to his contemporaries. His nickname Angelico first appeared in 1469, 14 years
after his death, and he is also known in Italian as Beato ("Blessed One"). _^<N__^<N_The chronology of his early life is controversial; yet he seems to have been trained as an illuminator and, between 1418 and 1421, to have become a member of the
Dominican order. Angelico became the artistic spokesman for the Dominicans, as Masaccio was for the Carmelites, and always remained a professional artist in touch with contemporary advancements in Florentine painting. _^<N__^<N_Although a large
number of paintings are associated with his early period, one of the finest, and one that has had great influence, is the Cortona Annunciation panel (1432-38; Diocesan Museum). The monumental figures on the Linaiuoli Triptych (Museum of San Marco,
Florence), commissioned in 1433 for the Linen Drapers Guild, reflect Angelico's awareness of contemporary sculpture by DONATELLO and Lorenzo GHIBERTI for Or San Michele, the Florentine grain market. _^<N__^<N_In 1436, Cosimo de' Medici and Pope
Eugene IV requisitioned the decaying convent of San Marco and invited the Dominicans to build and decorate a new monastery. In collaboration with the architect MICHELOZZO, Angelico and his assistants frescoed various scenes from the life of Christ
in the 44 monks' dormitory cells and connecting corridors. Each of these clearly-drawn frescoes, such as the San Marco Annunciation, embellishes the contemplative, religious setting. Angelico's San Marco altarpiece, Madonna and Saints in a Sacred
Conversation (1438-39; Museum of San Marco)--he created the form called Sacra Conversazione--although now overcleaned, is a masterpiece remarkable for its rendering of the human figure and its use of natural light and Leon Battista ALBERTI's
systematic perspective. _^<N__^<N_About 1445, Angelico was called to Rome, where he continued to paint. All the buildings he worked on there have been destroyed, except for the private chapel of Pope Nicholas V in the Vatican, which contains
Angelico's frescoes of scenes from the lives of St. Stephen and St. Lawrence. _^<N__^<N_When Angelico died in Rome on Feb. 18, 1455, he was considered the most influential of all contemporary Florentine painters. Although his art was
sentimentalized by the 19th-century NAZARENES and PRE-RAPHAELITES, it has always been admired, imitated, and widely reproduced. _^<N__^<N_Alan P. Darr _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Guillaud, Jacqueline and Maurice, Fra Angelico: The Light of the Soul
(1986); Pope-Hennessy, J. W., Fra Angelico, 2d ed. (1974; repr. 1989).
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1196
CAT
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Angell (family)
-T-
Angell (family)_^<N__^<N_James Burrill Angell, b. Jan. 7, 1829, d. Apr. 1, 1916, and James Rowland Angell, b. May 8, 1869, d. Mar. 4, 1949, father and son, were innovative American university presidents. James Burrill Angell was a professor
of modern languages and literature at Brown University from 1853 to 1860. He was president of the University of Vermont from 1866 to 1871 and president of the University of Michigan for the next 38 years. At Michigan he introduced the nation's
first medical school requirements and the first chair in the art and science of teaching. Angell edited the Providence Journal during the Civil War, and he also interrupted his academic career to serve as U.S. minister to China (1880-81) and to
Turkey (1897-98). _^<N__^<N_James Rowland Angell taught psychology at the University of Chicago for 25 years and was a leader of the functionalist school of psychology, which seeks to study the mind as it functions to fit the organism to its
environment. From 1921 to 1937 he was president of Yale University, where he established new departments and directed new construction. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Angell, James Burrill, Reminiscences and Selected Addresses (1912; repr. 1971).
-END-
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1018
CAT
-A-
Angelou, Maya
-T-
Angelou, Maya_^<N__^<N_{an'-juh-loh, mah'-yah} _^<N__^<N_Maya Angelou, b. St. Louis, Mo., Apr. 4, 1928, is a black American writer, stage performer, and composer. Her widely acclaimed autobiography, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (1970), is a
moving and often humorous account of her childhood in segregated Arkansas. In addition to the autobiographical sequels Gather Together in My Name (1974), Singin' & Swingin' & Gettin' Merry Like Christmas (1976), The Heart of a Woman (1981), and
All God's Children Need Traveling Shoes (1986), she has written plays and screenplays and composed songs and musical scores. Her several books of poetry include And Still I Rise (1976), Shaker, Why Don't You Sing? (1983), Now Sheeba Sings the
Song (1987), and I Shall Not Be Moved (1990). Angelou read "On the Pulse of Morning," a poem written for the occasion, as part of President Bill Clinton's inauguration ceremony on Jan. 20, 1993. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: McPherson, Dolly A., Order
out of Chaos: The Autobiographical Works of Maya Angelou (1992).
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19
CAT
-A-
anger:
-T-
anger:_^<N__^<N_see EMOTION.
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659
CAT
-A-
Angers
-T-
Angers_^<N__^<N_{ahn-zhay'} _^<N__^<N_Angers, the capital of Maine-et-Loire department in western France, is situated on the Maine River about 560 km (160 mi) southwest of Paris. The population is 141,404 (1990). The city is known for its black
slate quarries. Other industries include electronics, textiles, and paper products. Tourists are attracted by the 12th-century Cathedral of Saint-Maurice and the Museum of Tapestry housed in the walled chateau, built 1230-40. The University of
Angers dates from 1875. First a Gaulish settlement and then the Roman city of Juliomagus, Angers became the seat of the counts of Anjou in 870. It was taken by the Huguenots in 1585.
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1082
CAT
-A-
Angevins (dynasties)
-T-
Angevins (dynasties)_^<N__^<N_{an'-juh-vinz} _^<N__^<N_The two Angevin dynasties in medieval Europe originated from the French countship of ANJOU. In 1131, Fulk V, count of Anjou, became king of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, which his descendants
ruled until 1186. Fulk's eldest son, Geoffrey Plantagenet, married (1128) MATILDA, queen of England, and their son HENRY II became (1154) the first Angevin, or Plantagenet, king of England. This house ruled England until Richard II was overthrown
(1399) by Henry IV of Lancaster. _^<N__^<N_A second Angevin dynasty came into being after King Louis IX of France gave (1246) Anjou to his brother, who became (1266) CHARLES I of Naples. The latter's son, CHARLES II of Naples, had seven children.
They, with their descendants, created a tangled dynastic situation for Naples, involving the royal houses of both France and Aragon. One grandson became (1308) king of Hungary as CHARLES I, but the Angevin line in eastern Europe ended on the death
(1382) of his son, LOUIS I, king of Hungary and Poland. _^<N__^<N_See also: JERUSALEM, LATIN KINGDOM OF; NAPLES, KINGDOM OF.
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26
CAT
-A-
angina:
-T-
angina:_^<N__^<N_see HEART DISEASE.
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1473
CAT
-A-
angioplasty
-T-
angioplasty_^<N__^<N_The medical technique known as percutaneous transluminal angioplasty, or PTA, is used in the treatment of coronary HEART DISEASES. PTA involves the widening of coronary arteries that have been dangerously narrowed by the
buildup of deposits called plaque on their interior walls (see ATHEROSCLEROSIS). A flexible tube, or catheter, is first inserted percutaneously (through a skin incision) into an artery. The catheter is manipulated transluminally (through the
arterial system) until it reaches the constriction site. A small balloon at the end of the catheter is then inflated, compressing the plaque and widening the passage. _^<N__^<N_Since its introduction in the late 1970s, PTA has come to rival the
much more traumatic surgical technique called coronary bypass, and angioplasty of peripheral vessels is now fairly common. Clogged arteries remain hard to clear by PTA alone, however, and in about 30 percent of cases new obstructions arise.
Various complementary techniques and drugs are being developed to enhance PTA outcome. PTA is now being adapted to treat other parts of the body, including blocked fallopian tubes, which may be a cause of infertility. _^<N__^<N_Reviewed by Aaron
D. Freedman, M.D. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Purcell, Julia A., Angioplasty (1986); Kron, Jack, and Morton, Mark J., eds. Complications of Cardiac Catheterization and Angiography (1989); Vlietstra, R.E., and Holmes, D.R., Jr., PTCA: Percutaneous
Transluminal Coronary Angioplasty (1987).
-END-
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2211
CAT
-A-
angiosperm
-T-
angiosperm_^<N__^<N_{an'-jee-oh-spurm} _^<N__^<N_Angiosperms are the most highly evolved PLANTS, constituting diverse flowering species, from garden-variety flowers and such grains as corn and wheat to flowering trees, shrubs, and vines. They
inhabit almost all regions except the open ocean. _^<N__^<N_Angiosperms constitute the class Angiospermae in the plant phylum TRACHEOPHYTA (vascular plants). The SEEDS of these plants are developed and retained within an ovary, which, after seed
formation, expands into a fruit. The two distinct subclasses of Angiospermae are Dicotyledonae, or dicots and Monocotyledonae or monocots (see COTYLEDON). The FLOWER and the fruit that develops from it, most readily distinguish angiosperms from
other vascular plants. Four types of floral whorls exist: calyx, consisting of sepals; corolla, the petals; androecium, composed of stamens; and gynoecium, or pistil, consisting of stigma, style, and ovary. Of most biological importance to the
plant are the stamens and pistil. One or both of these structures constitute a flower. _^<N__^<N_POLLINATION occurs by introduction of the male gametophyte--POLLEN from anthers of stamens--to the stigma of the pistil by wind, water currents,
animal bodies, or the mechanics of the flower itself. If chemically compatible, the male gametophyte germinates and grows a pollen tube down the style, through the ovary to the ovule, and into the embryo sac (female gametophyte), where it releases
its two sperms to fuse with two endosperm nuclei and the egg nucleus (see FERTILIZATION). One nuclear pair becomes the zygote, and the trinuclear association becomes endosperm. Various developments follow pollination and fertilization: the
zygote becomes the embryonic plant; endosperm becomes stored food for the embryo; the ovule, containing endosperm and embryo, becomes the seed, and its integuments become seed coat; and the ovary, stimulated by the hormonal effects of the
germinated male gametophyte, matures into the fruit (see FRUITS AND FRUIT CULTIVATION). _^<N__^<N_Carl D. Finstad _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Heywood, V. H., ed., Flowering Plants of the World (1978); Rudall, P., Anatomy of Flowering Plants (1987).
Angkor_^<N__^<N_{ang'-kor} _^<N__^<N_Angkor, north of Tonle Sap in northwest Cambodia, was the great capital city of the KHMER empire from the city's founding in about AD 880 until about 1225. Lost in the jungle for centuries, it was discovered by
French missionaries in the 1860s. Its immense temple complexes, which are larger in scale than the Egyptian pyramids, are ranked among the masterpieces of world architecture. _^<N__^<N_ Temple City_^<N__^<N_Angkor was both a sacred temple city and
the center of a vast irrigation system. Its Hindu temple architecture, inspired perhaps by the monuments at BOROBUDUR, was built by successive kings and their families on an increasingly vast scale. Standing amid a grid of reservoirs and canals,
the temples symbolized the royal function of metaphysical mediation between the divine source of life-giving water and the human population. _^<N__^<N_The early temples were built of brick; the later, beginning with the Ta Keo (c.1020), of stone.
All these so-called temple mountains were elaborately ornamented and filled with stonecut images. The central icon represented the monarch in the guise of his patron deity. The two earliest surviving structures, built during the reign of
Yasovarman I (889-900), are the Bakong (881) and the Bakheng (893), which had 108 tower-shrines around its central sanctuary. The Pre Rup (961) was the first temple intended as a dwelling for the deified spirit of a dead king. _^<N__^<N_ Angkor
Wat_^<N__^<N_The greatest temple designed for this purpose is the huge Angkor Wat ("Angkor Temple") of the early 12th century. Built under Suryavarman II (r. 1113-50), the compound at Angkor Wat covers an area of 1,500 by 1,300 m (4,920 by 4,265
ft) and is surrounded by a vast moat 180 m (590 ft) wide. Along the causeway leading to the enormous entrance gate are balustrades shaped as giant serpents, emblems of cosmic fertility. _^<N__^<N_The temple proper consists of a towering complex of
terraces and cloisters arranged in a series of three diminishing stories and surmounted by five towers, in which were contained the principal icons. The roofed and unroofed enclosures are superbly articulated with bands of finely carved foliage.
Rows of shrines line the galleries, the walls of which are covered with elaborate carved reliefs that illustrate Hindu mythology, principally scenes relating to the god VISHNU, to whom the temple was dedicated. _^<N__^<N_ Angkor
Thom_^<N__^<N_Following the sack of Angkor by the Chams in 1177, Angkor Wat was abandoned. In the early 13th century Jayavarman VII (1181-c.1281) established a new capital and sacred precinct, Angkor Thom ("Great Angkor"). The four gateways into
the city bear huge masks of its new patron, the Buddhist deity Lokesvara, Lord of the Universe. Avenues leading to the central temple, Bayon, were lined by rows of over 50 colossal towers, some 45 m (150 ft) high, decorated with multiple heads
generally thought to represent the king. After the destruction of Angkor by Thai forces in 1431, the Khmer capital was moved to Phnom Penh, and the site fell into ruin. _^<N__^<N_Philip Rawson _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Audric, John, Angkor and the
Khmer Empire (1972); Coedes, Georges, Angkor: An Introduction, ed. and trans. by Emily f. Gardner (1986); Giteau, Madeleine, Khmer Sculpture and the Angkor Civilization (1965); Groslier, Bernard, and Arthaud, Jacques, The Arts and
Civilization of Angkor, rev. ed. (1966). _^<N__^<N_See also: SOUTHEAST ASIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE.
-END-
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1244
CAT
-A-
angle
-T-
angle_^<N__^<N_A plane angle is the measure of the amount of rotation when a line segment rotates in a plane about a fixed point. By convention, a counterclockwise rotation is positive, and a clockwise rotation is negative. The Babylonians divided
a complete rotation using units of 60 (a sexagesimal system) in the following manner: 1 revolution = 360 degrees (360 deg); 1 degree = 60 minutes (60'); 1 minute = 60 seconds (60''). An angle equal to the angle between the horizontal (horizon)
and vertical (upright) directions is equal to 90 deg and is called a right angle. In advanced mathematics the usual unit is the radian (1 revolution = 2(pi) radians). _^<N__^<N_A solid angle is generated by an infinite set of line segments having
a common vertex and passing through a simple closed curve. The solid angle subtended at P by the surface S is measured by the area U, which is the portion of the spherical surface with center P, and radius 1, lying within the solid angle. The unit
solid angle is the steradian, the largest solid angle being 4 (pi) steradians. If the steradian is defined by the solid angle at the vertex of a right circular cone, opposite generating lines of the cone will make an angle of approximately 65 deg
32'. _^<N__^<N_Alaric Millington
-END-
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2589
CAT
-A-
anglerfish
-T-
anglerfish_^<N__^<N_Anglerfish is the common name for more than 200 species of marine fish families Lophiidae (anglerfish), Antennariidae (frogfish), and Ogcocephalidae (batfish) in the order Lophiiformes. Anglerfish are named for their method of
fishing for prey, using a specialized spiny ray above the snout that serves as rod and lure. The ray is a modified portion of the dorsal fin and is tipped with a baitlike plug of flesh. The old name for anglerfish is Pediculati, or "small foot,"
which refers to the footlike pectoral fins. The frogfish are camouflaged for seabed life with a variety of bumps, knobs, and flaps of skin, so that the fish resemble surrounding seaweed. Anglerfish are found at all depths of tropical and temperate
seas and are classified in two broad groups, anglerfish and deep-sea anglers. _^<N__^<N_The frogfish has the habit of lying among rocks or seaweed or moving slowly across the bottom. When lying motionless on the bottom, the angler dangles and
wiggles its lure until prey is attracted. When the lure is touched, the enormous mouth gapes, creating a vacuum that sucks the prey within range of its back-pointing teeth; these stoke the food into the belly. _^<N__^<N_The goosefish, or fishing
frog, Lophius piscatorius, is a bizarre, short-bodied fish with a large flattened head, an enormous mouth, dorsally situated jaws, and eyes on the top of its head. Its large mouth and expandable stomach allow it to swallow fish as big as itself.
_^<N__^<N_The goosefish is common in cold, shallow waters of Europe and North America. It is often 1 m (3 ft) long and can be as long as 1.5 m (5 ft) and weigh up to 23 kg (51 lb). The transparent eggs are laid in masses of jelly 60-90 cm (24-35
in) broad and up to 10 m (33 ft) long. _^<N__^<N_Deep-sea anglers, family Ceratiidae, are small inhabitants of the middle depths of the ocean (500-2,000 m/1,640-6,560 ft). The females rarely grow larger than a man's fist; the males are much
smaller. Most of them are jet black or dark brown. These anglers cruise slowly in the dark, cold waters, glowing with lighted lures in front of them. The light in the lure is supplied by luminous bacteria shining through skin that has lost its
pigment. In some species the lure is complexly branched and filamented. _^<N__^<N_Shortly after hatching, the male seeks out a female anglerfish and clamps onto her body with his teeth. He retains this hold for the remainder of his life, his mouth
becoming surrounded by the tissue of the female. His sustenance is supplied by his mate through vascular connections. The parasitic male is commonly one-tenth as long as the female. _^<N__^<N_C. P. Idyll
-END-
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22
CAT
-A-
Anglesey:
-T-
Anglesey:_^<N__^<N_see GWYNEDD.
-END-
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588
CAT
-A-
anglesite
-T-
anglesite_^<N__^<N_{ang'-gul-syt} _^<N__^<N_Anglesite, a lead SULFATE MINERAL, is a minor ore of lead. It forms prismatic, tabular, or pyramidal crystals (ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM), as well as granular to compact masses that are white to grayish or
yellowish and have an adamantine to vitreous luster. HARDNESS is 2.5 - 3, STREAK white, and SPECIFIC GRAVITY 6.2-6.4. A common WEATHERING product of GALENA, anglesite is found with CERUSSITE and other secondary minerals in the oxidized zone of
sulfide ORE DEPOSITS; galena crystals often have an earthy concentric coating of anglesite. _^<N__^<N_See also: SULFIDE MINERALS.
-END-
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1852
CAT
-A-
Anglican Communion
-T-
Anglican Communion_^<N__^<N_The Anglican Communion is a worldwide fellowship of independent churches derived from the Church of England. The communion has 70 provinces, located on every continent, with some 430 dioceses, and approximately 27
million members. Although independent, the member churches acknowledge a common heritage including the BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER, the THIRTY-NINE ARTICLES, and the threefold ministry of BISHOPS, PRIESTS, and DEACONS. The bishops meet every ten years,
at the invitation of the archbishop of Canterbury, in the Lambeth Conference. Cooperation between the member churches is facilitated by the Anglican Consultative Council, with its secretary general and with the archbishop of Canterbury as
president. Regional councils link provinces within specific geographical regions. _^<N__^<N_The Anglican Communion is committed to the reunion of all Christian churches. In 1888 the Lambeth Conference adopted as its basis for reunion a
Quadrilateral, by which it defined those things essential to any church: (1) "The Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments, as 'containing all things necessary to salvation,' and as being the rule and ultimate standard of faith"; (2) "The
Apostles' Creed, as the Baptismal Symbol; and the Nicene Creed, as the sufficient statement of the Christian faith"; (3) "The two Sacraments ordained by Christ Himself--Baptism and the Supper of the Lord--ministered with unfailing use of Christ's
words of Institution, and of the elements ordained by Him"; (4) "The Historic Episcopate, locally adapted in the methods of its administration to the varying needs of the nations and peoples called of God into the Unity of His Church."
_^<N__^<N_John E. Booty _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Marshall, Michael, The Anglican Church Today and Tomorrow (1984); Neill, Stephen, Anglicanism, 4th ed. (1977). _^<N__^<N_See also: ENGLAND, CHURCH OF
-END-
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725
CAT
-A-
Anglo-Australian Telescope
-T-
Anglo-Australian Telescope_^<N__^<N_The Anglo-Australian Telescope, a reflecting telescope with a mirror 3.9 m (153 in) in diameter, is located with other Australian and British instruments at Siding Spring Observatory in the Warrumbungle Range near
Coonabarabran, New South Wales, 400 km (250 mi) northwest of Sydney. The observatory, which opened in 1974, is a major astronomical research center in the Southern Hemisphere. It sits at an altitude of 1,160 m (3,800 ft). The United Kingdom Schmidt
telescope is a near-twin of the 48-in (122-cm) Schmidt at Palomar Mountain, Calif., and has been used to complete an important reference survey by photographing all the sky that is too far south to be seen from Palomar. _^<N__^<N_Norman Sperling
-END-
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1812
CAT
-A-
Anglo-Dutch Wars
-T-
Anglo-Dutch Wars_^<N__^<N_England and the Dutch Republic fought four wars (called the Dutch Wars by the English and the English Wars by the Dutch) between 1652 and 1784. The principal issue was the maritime and commercial rivalry between the two
countries, sharpened by conflicts over the ties between the House of ORANGE and the British ruling family. _^<N__^<N_The First Anglo-Dutch War (1652-54) pitted England under Oliver CROMWELL against the Dutch Republic during its first period of
government without a stadholder. At first, success in the war swung between the two sides, but by 1653 the English had the clear advantage, and in 1654 the Dutch had to accept the humiliating first Peace of Westminster. The Second Anglo-Dutch War
(1665-67) reflected both English merchants' resentment of Dutch mercantile success and the hatred of the English king CHARLES II for the Dutch republicans. The Dutch navy, rebuilt by the grand pensionary Johan de WITT, defeated the English fleet
in battle (June 1666) and then destroyed it at anchor in the Medway (1667). The war ended in the Peace of Breda (1667). Charles sought his revenge in the Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672-74), which he waged in alliance with LOUIS XIV of France. Dutch
naval victories and English popular opposition compelled Charles to make a separate peace at Westminster (1674). The Fourth Anglo-Dutch War (1780-84) resulted from a desperate Dutch attempt to break English interference with their trade during the
American Revolution. The Dutch were defeated and compelled to accept English conditions in the Peace of Paris (1784). _^<N__^<N_Herbert H. Rowen _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Israel, Jonathan, The Dutch Republic and the Hispanic World 1606-1661 (1986);
Trevelyan, Mary C., William III and the Defense of Holland, 1672-74 (1930); Wilson, Charles, Profit and Power (1957).
-END-
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817
CAT
-A-
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, The
-T-
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, The_^<N__^<N_The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a compilation of writings begun in the 9th century, still serves as the principal contemporary source for the history of Britain before the Norman Conquest. Although the chronicle was
kept erratically by monks before his reign, Alfred the Great (848-99) is generally credited with establishing it as a continuous register of national events. The work is especially valuable as a record of his times. Seven manuscript versions of the
text are extant, the latest of which extends to the accession of Henry II in 1154. As a literary work, the chronicle is often considered the first great book of English prose. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Garmonsway, George N., ed., The Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle (1975); Harrison, Kenneth, The Framework of Anglo-Saxon History to A.D. 900 (1976).
-END-
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47
CAT
-A-
Anglo-Saxon literature:
-T-
Anglo-Saxon literature:_^<N__^<N_see ENGLISH LITERATURE.
-END-
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2371
CAT
-A-
Anglo-Saxons
-T-
Anglo-Saxons_^<N__^<N_When the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes--coming from areas in and around what is now Denmark--invaded Britain in the second half of the 5th century, they were taking part in a great series of incursions by mostly Germanic peoples
into a steadily weakening Roman Empire. By AD 600 they were well established in Britain, having driven the Romanized Celtic Britons westward into Wales and Cornwall. By the end of the 7th century these tall, blond, blue-eyed pagans had been
converted to Christianity by St. AUGUSTINE OF CANTERBURY and other missionaries from the continent. _^<N__^<N_First called Saxons, the German invaders were later referred to as Angles, and in 601 the pope called AETHELBERT of Kent rex Anglorum
("king of the Angles"). The West Germanic language of the invaders, on the other hand, was apparently always referred to as English, whether spoken by Angles, Saxons, or Jutes (and perhaps some Frisians). About AD 890 the name Engla lande ("the
land of the Angles") was used. The term Anglo-Saxon was also used before the Norman Conquest (1066); it was revived in the 16th century. _^<N__^<N_Early Anglo-Saxon society was organized around families and clans, or tribes, and centered on the
warrior and a system of reciprocity called comitatus. The lord (ealdormann or eorl) expected martial service and loyalty from his thegns, or thanes (similar to the later KNIGHT), who on their part expected protection and rewards from the lord.
From the 7th to the 11th century a rich Anglo-Saxon culture flourished, and the tribal system gradually gave way to larger kingdoms, most importantly MERCIA, NORTHUMBRIA, and WESSEX. Eventually (by 959), all England was rather loosely united under
the kings of Wessex, the greatest of whom was the scholar-king ALFRED (r. 871-899). The Wessex line of kings was interrupted (1016) by the conquest of the Danish king CANUTE, culminating a centuries-long series of Danish, or VIKING, raids on
England. Anglo-Saxon kings (St. EDWARD THE CONFESSOR and HAROLD II) ruled again briefly (1042-66) before the so-called Anglo-Saxon period of English history ended in conquest by the NORMANS under WILLIAM I. _^<N__^<N_Edward J. Milowicki
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Blair, Peter Hunter, An Introduction to Anglo-Saxon England, 2d ed. (1977); Hooke, D., ed., Anglo-Saxon Settlements (1988); Woods, J. D., and Petteret, D. A., eds., The Anglo-Saxons (1986).
-END-
-C-
8818
CATO
4743
-A-
Angola
-O-
000000|Angola
000941| LAND AND RESOURCES
002002| PEOPLE
003392| ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
004551| HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT
-T-
Angola_^<N__^<N_Angola, the second largest country in Africa south of the Sahara, is situated on the Atlantic Ocean. It is bordered to the north by Congo and Zaire, to the east by Zambia, and to the south by Namibia (formerly South West Africa) and
includes the mineral-rich enclave of CABINDA. Angola gained its independence from Portugal in November 1975 after a 14-year guerrilla war and a brutal civil war. Intervention by the United States, the USSR, Cuba, and South Africa supported a
prolonged civil war, which drained the country of its resources and prevented development of a basic infrastructure. On May 1, 1991, the contending forces signed an agreement to end the 16-year-long strife and to hold the nation's first free
elections. By 1993, however, the Angolan government declared that the nation had returned to a state of war, since elections had failed to bring a reconciliation between the government and those forces that oppose it. _^<N__^<N_ LAND AND
RESOURCES_^<N__^<N_Two-thirds of Angola is a north-south running plateau with altitudes ranging from 1,300 to 2,000 m (4,265 to 6,560 ft). The highest point in the country is Mount Moko (2,620 m/8,596 ft). The terrain varies from heavily wooded
hills and jungle-covered mountains in the north to flat, dry bush and barren desert in the south. The plateau is separated from the Atlantic coastline by lowlands ranging in width from 50 to 160 km (30 to 100 mi). _^<N__^<N_Most of the country's
major rivers originate in the central plateau and empty into the Atlantic Ocean. The Zambezi, Cuando, and Cubango rivers, however, rise in the highlands and run eastward to the Indian Ocean. _^<N__^<N_Located between the equator and the tropic of
Capricorn, Angola has a tropical climate, moderated by the Benguela Current. The dry season extends from May to August, and the rainy season is from September to April. _^<N__^<N_Angola is a rich country, endowed with water, fertile agricultural
lands, an minerals, but it lacks the economic resources and political stability to exploit its wealth. _^<N__^<N_ PEOPLE_^<N__^<N_Angola has three major ethnic groups: the OVIMBUNDU, who constitute about 37% of the population and live in the
central highlands and the southern part of the country; the MBUNDU (25%), who live in the Luanda area and eastward; and the Kongo (13%), who live in the north. Before independence Portuguese numbered about 400,000; today they are fewer than
80,000. Mesticos, people of mixed ancestry, number about 180,000. Portuguese is the administrative language. Almost 60% of the population describe themselves as Christian--46% Roman Catholic and 12% Protestant. The remaining 42% practice
traditional religions. _^<N__^<N_Traditionally, 80% of the population has lived in rural areas, but years of civil war caused hundreds of thousands to flee to urban areas. Half the urban population is thought to be destitute. The population of
LUANDA, the capital, has swelled from several hundred thousand to nearly two million, with thousands of refugees living in squalid, overcrowded conditions. HUAMBO, the second largest city, has an estimated 350,000 people living in an area that
housed 50,000 in 1975. Other major cities are Lobito and BENGUELA, on the Atlantic coast. _^<N__^<N_Health facilities, never well developed, today are almost nonexistent. The infant mortality rate is now among the highest in the world.
Educational facilities receive only 10% of the budget, and literacy is low. _^<N__^<N_ ECONOMIC ACTIVITY_^<N__^<N_The mass exodus of skilled people at independence, years of civil war, and the government's socialist economic policies (modified in
1988 and later abandoned in favor of free-market policies) crippled the economy, and the task of economic rebuilding is expected to be long and arduous. _^<N__^<N_Angola once exported coffee, cotton, sugarcane, bananas, citrus fruits, and corn, but
agricultural production was severely disrupted by the war. Bie and Huambo provinces, once the breadbasket of the nation, now produce less than half of the country's food needs, and food must be imported. To encourage production, the government
has liberalized marketing practices and broken up the collective farms. _^<N__^<N_Angola is rich in mineral resources: oil, diamonds, and iron ore. Nearly all mining except oil production (in Cabinda) was halted by the war and the destruction of
the infrastructure. The rail network, especially the important Benguela railway that connects mines in Zaire and Zambia with Atlantic ports, is being rebuilt. Many Roads are impassable because of land mines, electric power is not dependable; in
many areas, the water is not potable. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT_^<N__^<N_Present-day Angola was originally inhabited by Khoisan hunters and gatherers. In the 13th century, Bantus migrating from West Africa pushed the Khoisan to the less
productive areas. Several powerful Bantu kingships evolved, including the Kongo (see KONGO, KINGDOM OF), Loango, and Mbundu in western Angola. LUNDA traders settled in the northeast, and to the south were the Ovimbundu and other small kingdoms.
_^<N__^<N_Portuguese explorers first reached Angola in 1583. The colonial economy revolved around the slave trade until the late 1840s. The Portuguese lived in coastal cities, only gradually gaining enough control of the interior to claim Angola
as a "sphere of influence." Following World War II (until about 1960) the Portuguese population increased. _^<N__^<N_After World War II, two African resistance groups were formed in Angola: the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA),
centered in Luanda and consisting mainly of Mbundu, and the Union of North Angolan Peoples, later the Union of Angolan Peoples (UPA). In 1961, Portugal dispatched thousands of troops to quell an African insurrection, killing nearly 50,000 Angolans
and forcing the nationalists into exile. The exiled UPA merged with another group and became known as the national Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA). The FNLA, led by Holden Roberto, was recognized by the Organization of African Unity and
received covert funding from the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. Jonas SAVIMBI, the FNLA foreign minister, split with Roberto in 1964 and two years later formed the Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). In Brazzaville, Congo,
Agostinho NETO revived the MPLA. _^<N__^<N_The three nationalist groups carried out low-level guerrilla activities, but internecine rivalries often inflicted more casualties than the Portuguese forces did. Suddenly, after a coup by the Portuguese
military, Portugal decided in 1974 to liberate its colonies. Angola's liberation groups could not put aside their differences, however, and involvement by outside countries also increased. China and the United States supported the FNLA; the USSR
and Cuba backed the MPLA; and South Africa aided UNITA. In 1975 the war intensified as the MPLA pushed southward and South African troops crossed the Angola-Namibia border. Cuba sent in thousands of combat troops to support the MPLA. Despite
the absence of elections, the MPLA became the nominal governing party when Portugal withdrew in November 1975. Neto, the first president, died in 1979 and was succeeded by Jose Eduardo dos SANTOS. _^<N__^<N_The FNLA faded, and the contest for
control fell to the MPLA and UNITA. In 1986 the United States began funding and supplying UNITA. In late 1987, South African troops moved into southern Angola in support of UNITA. Cuba sent in additional troops and, with its superior air power,
forced South Africa to withdraw. In December 1988, Angola, Cuba, and South Africa signed accords setting forth timetables for the withdrawal of Cuban troops from Angola (completed in May 1991), an end to South African involvement there, and
independence for neighboring Namibia (achieved in 1990). _^<N__^<N_The MPLA accepted the idea of multiparty democracy in 1990 and abandoned Marxism-Leninism in 1991. On May 1, 1991, the MPLA and UNITA signed a peace accord calling for a
UN-monitored cease-fire. In September 1992 multiparty elections the MPLA won a legislative majority. Dos Santos won 49.6% of the presidential vote and Savimbi 40.1%, requiring a runoff election. Savimbi, charging electoral fraud, threatened to
renew the civil war, and fighting escalated in 1993. _^<N__^<N_Virginia Curtin Knight _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bender, G. J., Angola under the Portuguese (1978); Henderson, Lawrence W., Angola (1979); James, W. M., A Political History of the
Civil War in Angola (1991); Kapuscinski, Ryszard, Another Day of Life (1987); Kitchen, H., ed., Angola, Mozambique, and the West (1987); Marcum, John, The Angolan Revolution, 2 vols. (1969-78); Miller, J. C., Way of Death (1989); Seiler, John,
ed., Southern Africa Since the Portuguese Coup (1980); Somerville, K., Angola: Politics, Economy, and Society (1986); U. S. Committee for Refugees, Uprooted Angolans: From Crisis to Catastrophe (1987). _^<N__^<N_
-END-
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768
CAT
-A-
angora
-T-
angora_^<N__^<N_{ang-gohr'-uh} _^<N__^<N_Angora is the long, silky hair from either the Angora goat or the Angora rabbit. Angora goat hair, alone or blended with other fibers, is used to make mohair, a soft, luxurious, and expensive fabric. Mohair
yarn is also blended with WOOL or synthetic fibers in a pile for coatings, draperies, and upholstery, or combined with cotton, wool, or rayon and woven into a shiny, stiff clothing material. _^<N__^<N_The Angora goat is bred and raised commercially
in the United States, South Africa, and Turkey. The goat is named for the Turkish province of Angora, the historic name for ANKARA. _^<N__^<N_Dorothy Lyle _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Joseph, M. L., Introductory Textile Science (1966); Stout, E. E.,
Introduction to Textiles (1970). _^<N__^<N_See also: GOAT; TEXTILE INDUSTRY; WEAVING.
-END-
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510
CAT
-A-
Angora cat
-T-
Angora cat_^<N__^<N_The term Angora cat once referred to a particular breed of long-haired cat thought to have originated in Turkey. By the 19th century, however, specific Angora characteristics had disappeared as Angoras were interbred with
Persian cats. Persian then was used as the nomenclature for all long-haired cats. The Turkish Angora, a relatively new breed in the West, has been imported from Turkey and bred since 1953. It has a wedge-shaped head, silky white hair, and blue or
amber eyes. _^<N__^<N_Everett Sentman
-END-
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725
CAT
-A-
Angouleme
-T-
Angouleme_^<N__^<N_{ahn-goo-lem'} _^<N__^<N_Angouleme is the capital of Charente department in western France. Situated on the Charente River, it is about 100 km (60 mi) northeast of Bordeaux. Its population is 46,194 (1990). Angouleme
manufactures a wide variety of goods, such as bricks, tiles, refrigerators, felt, alternators, gears, and paper products. It is also a center for the wine trade. _^<N__^<N_The city has many Romanesque buildings, including the Cathedral of St.
Pierre (built 1105-28), with a facade of 75 statues. Angouleme was taken by CLOVIS, king of the Franks, in AD 507 and became the seat of the counts of ANGOUMOIS in the 9th century. The city was much fought over and damaged during the Wars of
Religion of the 16th century.
-END-
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578
CAT
-A-
Angoumois
-T-
Angoumois_^<N__^<N_{ahn-goom-wah'} _^<N__^<N_Angoumois was a medieval province of France that occupied most of the area of the present department of Charente. Located in the northern part of the Aquitaine Basin in western France, this fertile,
well-watered area is known for its brandy, produced in the region of Cognac in western Angoumois. Historically, Angoumois comprised the possessions of the counts of Angouleme. Under English control from 1360 to 1373, it became a province of France
when Francois, comte d'Angouleme, succeeded to the French throne as Francis I in 1515. _^<N__^<N_Timothy J. Rickard
-END-
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887
CAT
-A-
Angry Young Men
-T-
Angry Young Men_^<N__^<N_The Angry Young Men were a group of British novelists and playwrights active in the 1950s whose literature was a protest against middle-class manners and rigid class distinctions. They championed and sympathized with the
lower class, from which some of them came. Most representative of the group are Kingsley AMIS, John OSBORNE, Alan SILLITOE, Keith WATERHOUSE, Colin WILSON, John Braine, and Shelagh Delaney. The term is taken from the title of Leslie Allen Paul's
autobiography, Angry Young Man (1951), but is often associated with Osborne's popular play Look Back in Anger (1956). Its brooding, volatile anti-hero, Jimmy Porter, best depicted the mood of the group. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Allsop, Kenneth, The
Angry Decade (1958); Brown, John Russell, ed., Modern British Dramatists (1968); Morrison, Blake, The Movement (1986); Taylor, John Russell, The Angry Theatre (1969).
-END-
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710
CAT
-A-
angstrom
-T-
angstrom_^<N__^<N_{ang'-struhm} _^<N__^<N_The angstrom is a unit of length used principally for expressing the wavelengths of radiation in the optical range. It is also used for smaller distances, such as those involving atoms and molecules. The
unit was named for Anders Jonas ANGSTROM of Sweden, who in 1868 first attempted to measure the wavelengths of light in metric units. _^<N__^<N_One angstrom unit is equal to one ten-billionth meter, approximately the diameter of a hydrogen atom.
Visible light is radiation that has wavelengths within the range of about 4000 to 7000 angstroms. Current terminology favors the use of the nanometer (nm) instead of the angstrom. One nanometer equals (10 to the power of- 9) meter, or 10 angstroms.
-END-
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810
CAT
-A-
Angstrom, Anders Jonas
-T-
Angstrom, Anders Jonas_^<N__^<N_{awng'-strurm} _^<N__^<N_The Swedish physicist Anders Jonas Angstrom, b. Aug. 13, 1814, d. June 21, 1874, was one of the founders of spectroscopy. He was appointed (1843) assistant professor of astronomy at Uppsala
Observatory and was (1858-74) professor of physics at the University of Uppsala. He proposed in 1853 the relationship between emission and absorption spectra of chemical elements, which was more clearly articulated by Gustav Kirchhoff in 1859. In
1861, Angstrom discovered hydrogen lines in the solar spectrum and subsequently confirmed the likely existence of other elements in the Sun. In 1867 he initiated spectral studies of auroras and, a year later, published an authoritative map of the
Sun's spectral lines, whose wavelengths he expressed in angstrom units. _^<N__^<N_Richard F. Hirsh
-END-
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1438
CAT
-A-
Anguier brothers
-T-
Anguier brothers_^<N__^<N_{ahn-gee-ay'} _^<N__^<N_The French sculptors Francois and Michel Anguier are credited with introducing the Roman baroque style into France. This style provided an alternative to the academic classicism that dominated French
sculpture during the first half of the 17th century. Francois, b. c.1604, d. Aug. 9, 1669, traveled in France, England, and Italy before settling in Paris in 1643. Michel, b. c.1613, d. July 11, 1686, went to Italy with his brother in 1641 and
remained there until 1651. He then returned to France to join Francois, already at work on the Montmorency tomb in Moulins (1649-52). _^<N__^<N_The style of the Montmorency tomb combines baroque exuberance in the ornamentation and in details of the
figures, derived from earlier contact with Alessandro Algardi's studio in Rome, with an overall French classical sense of order and restraint in the composition. This synthesis characterizes most of Francois's works, such as the sculptures for the
Souvre tomb (before 1667) and the Longueville monument (1663-69; both Louvre, Paris). Michel's works are generally more classical, yet they also reveal a dual influence. This is seen in a comparison of Michel's two late works (both in Paris), the
reliefs (1662-67) for Francois Mansart's church of Val-de-Grace, which are serenely classical, and the active, baroque Nativity (1665) in Saint Roch. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Blunt, Anthony, Art and Architecture in France, 1500-1700 (1954).
-END-
-C-
1048
CAT
-A-
Anguilla
-T-
Anguilla_^<N__^<N_{ang-gwil'-uh} _^<N__^<N_Anguilla is a small British dependency located at the northern end of the Leeward Islands in the Caribbean Sea. It is a low-lying, semiarid coral island with an area of 91 sq km (35 sq mi) and a maximum
elevation of 61 m (200 ft). Its dry climate and thin soil hamper commercial agricultural development. Anguilla has a number of scenic beaches, and tourism and British aid are important to the economy. Most residents are involved in fishing and
subsistence farming, raising such crops as pigeon peas, sweet potatoes, Indian corn, and beans. Anguilla has a population of 6,875 (1988 est.), which is predominantly black. _^<N__^<N_Discovered by Christopher Columbus in 1493, Anguilla was made a
British colony in 1650. It was governed as part of Saint Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla from the early 18th century. Rebellion and secession occurred in 1967; following British intervention in 1969, Anguilla became a separate dependency with internal
self-government. This status was formalized by the Anguilla Act of 1980. _^<N__^<N_Thomas D. Boswel
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436
CAT
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Anguissola, Sofonisba
-T-
Anguissola, Sofonisba_^<N__^<N_{ahng-gwee-soh'-lah, soh-fawn-eez'-bah} _^<N__^<N_Sofonisba Anguissola, b. 1532?, d. Nov. 16, 1625, was one of the first prominent Italian women artists. The daughter of a Piedmontese nobleman, she left numerous
self-portraits in which she emphasized her high social standing and education. Among Anguissola's best-known works is a family group portrait depicting her sisters playing chess (Muzeum Narodowe, Poznan, Poland).
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40
CAT
-A-
angular frequency:
-T-
angular frequency:_^<N__^<N_see MOTION, CIRCULAR.
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1889
CAT
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angular momentum
-T-
angular momentum_^<N__^<N_Angular momentum is a measure of the energy of a rotating object or system of objects, such as a PLANETARY SYSTEM. The amount of angular momentum depends on the speed of rotation, mass, and mass distribution of the object
or system. Mass distribution is known as the MOMENT OF INERTIA. _^<N__^<N_The significance of angular momentum is that it is a conserved quantity, as are matter and energy (see CONSERVATION, LAWS OF). Not only the magnitude but also the direction
of angular momentum of an isolated system is conserved. Spinning skaters, for example, can control their rotation speed by raising or lowering their arms. Lowering outstretched arms decreases the moment of inertia, which causes an increase in the
rate of rotation. Similarly, the astronomical objects known as pulsars are believed to be rapidly rotating collapsed stars. As they shrink, they spin faster, going from one turn in several weeks to several turns a second. Thus the angular
momentum of the skaters and the stars remains constant. _^<N__^<N_The Earth and Moon serve as a good example of how angular momentum is conserved in a system. They revolve about a common center of gravity, and each turns on its own axis. The
Earth's spin is gradually slowing down as a result of the influence of the tides. The loss of angular momentum from the Earth's rotation is transferred to the Moon's orbit and causes the Moon to slowly recede from the Earth. _^<N__^<N_Spinning
tops and GYROSCOPES remain upright because the direction of angular momentum is conserved. Thus they resist the outside forces, such as gravity, that tend to topple them (see PRECESSION). _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Halliday, David, and Resnick,
Robert, Fundamentals of Physics, 3d ed. (1988); Hancock, Ralph, Understanding Movement (1985); Walker, Jearl, Roundabout _^<N__^<N_See also: CORIOLIS EFFECT; MOTION, CIRCULAR; NUCLEAR PHYSICS; QUANTUM MECHANICS; TORQUE.
-END-
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39
CAT
-A-
angular velocity:
-T-
angular velocity:_^<N__^<N_see MOTION, CIRCULAR.
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719
CAT
-A-
Angus
-T-
Angus_^<N__^<N_Angus, previously called Forfarshire, was a county in eastern Scotland until 1975, when it was incorporated into the Tayside administrative region. Angus was bounded by the North Sea on the east and the Firth of Tay on the south.
Forfar was the county town. DUNDEE (1991 pop., 165,548) is the largest city and major port in the area. Cattle and sheep are raised in the glens and upland areas, and the fertile lowlands produce cereal grains, sugar beets, and seed potatoes.
Industries include linen and jute mills, fishing, shipbuilding, and engineering. Occupied by the Picts during the Roman period, Angus began to prosper during the 12th century when Flemish immigrants introduced the wool and linen industries.
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44
CAT
-A-
Angus cattle:
-T-
Angus cattle:_^<N__^<N_see CATTLE AND CATTLE RAISING.
-END-
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844
CAT
-A-
anhinga
-T-
anhinga_^<N__^<N_{an-hing'-guh} _^<N__^<N_The anhinga is a large (88 cm/35 in), long-necked diving bird of the family Anhingidae. It inhabits forest lakes and waterways of the warm and temperate areas of the world, and the New World species, Anhinga
anhinga, ranges north to the southeastern United States. The long-bodied anhinga resembles the CORMORANT but has a longer, sharp-pointed bill, long tail, and extensive white markings on the black wings and back. It is also called "darter" for its
swift dives to spear fish, which it then tosses into the air and gulps down, and "snakebird" because it swims submerged with only its head and snakelike neck above water. Like the cormorants, anhingas lack water-repellent plumage oil and spend much
time perched with wings outstretched to dry. Darter is the common name for the Old World species. _^<N__^<N_William F. Sandford
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967
CAT
-A-
Anhui (Anhwei)
-T-
Anhui (Anhwei)_^<N__^<N_{ahn'-hway} _^<N__^<N_Anhui (Anhwei) is a province in east central China along the Chang Jiang (Yangtze) River. Covering 140,000 sq km (54,000 sq mi), it is bounded by the provinces of Jiangsu (Kiangsu) on the north and
east, Zhejiang (Chekiang) on the south, and Henan (Honan) on the west. Its capital is HEFEI (Hofei), and its population is 45,665,724 (1982). In the drier and cooler northern half of Anhui, wheat, millet, soybeans, and cotton are cultivated. In
the hilly sections of southern Anhui, in the Chang Jiang basin, tea, rice, and silkworms are grown. Iron ore, coal, lead, and zinc are mined, and refined near the cities of Ma'anshan (Ma-an-shan), Hefei, and Anqing (An-ch'ing). Textiles,
chemicals, paper, and machinery are manufactured in those cities. Anhui was ruled by the Ming dynasty from the 14th to the 17th century as part of the province of Jiangnan (Kiangnan). It was made a separate province under the Qing (1644-1911)
dynasty.
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18
CAT
-A-
Anhwei:
-T-
Anhwei:_^<N__^<N_see ANHUI.
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728
CAT
-A-
anhydride
-T-
anhydride_^<N__^<N_{an-hy'-dryd} _^<N__^<N_In chemistry, an anhydride is a compound produced by removing water or the elements of water from an acid or a base. Acid anhydrides are usually oxides of the nonmetallic elements. For example, phosphorous
pentoxide is the anhydride of phosphoric acid and sulfur trioxide is the anhydride of sulfuric acid. Basic anhydrides are usually oxides of the metallic elements. For example, sodium oxide is the anhydride of sodium hydroxide, and calcium oxide or
lime, is the anhydride of calcium hydroxide, or slaked lime. Organic acid anhydrides are an important class of compounds. The addition of water to an organic anhydride generates the two carboxylic acid molecules RCOOH and R'COOH. _^<N__^<N_Charles
F. Baes, Jr.
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632
CAT
-A-
anhydrite
-T-
anhydrite_^<N__^<N_{an-hy'-dryt} _^<N__^<N_Anhydrite is a calcium sulfate mineral that, unlike the other common calcium sulfate mineral, GYPSUM, has no water in its chemical makeup. It usually forms pearly white masses showing cubic cleavage and is
often associated with gypsum, to which it alters by hydration. Its hardness is 3-3.5; it streaks grayish and has a specific gravity of 2.9-3.0. Anhydrite is found most frequently in sedimentary beds, where it occurs with halite, gypsum, and other
evaporites. In the absence of other sources, it has been used to produce sulfuric acid; it is also used as a soil conditioner and as an additive to cement.
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960
CAT
-A-
ani
-T-
ani_^<N__^<N_{ah-nee'} _^<N__^<N_Ani is the common name for three species of tropical American birds that make up the genus Crotophaga in the cuckoo family, Cuculidae. Dull to iridescent black, anis resemble grackles but have longer, heavier tails
and somewhat parrotlike bills. The smooth-billed ani, C. ani, occurs from southern Florida to Argentina. It nests in colonies, and several females often lay their eggs in a common nest. Up to 30 eggs may be laid in layers, and only the upper layers
hatch, although two or more females at a time may incubate them. About 30 cm (12 in) in length, the slightly smaller groove-billed ani, C. sulcirostris, is resident from southern Texas to Argentina; the greater ani, C. major, is found from Panama
southward. Anis prefer farm country and feed on a wide variety of seeds, fruits, and insects. They have short wings and a weak, flapping flight, and they habitually flip their loosely hinged tails in all directions. _^<N__^<N_William F. Sandford
-END-
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792
CAT
-A-
aniline
-T-
aniline_^<N__^<N_{an'-uh-lin} _^<N__^<N_Aniline is an oily, toxic liquid that is colorless when pure and has a peculiar aroma. It boils at 184 deg-186 deg C and solidifies at -6 deg C. Aniline is the simplest member of the class of aromatic amino
compounds, which are related to both benzene and ammonia. It is prepared by the chemical reduction of nitrobenzene or by the treatment of chlorobenzene with ammonia at high temperatures and pressure. Aniline is manufactured on a large scale;
thousands of tons are produced each year. It is used to make a wide variety of other organic chemical compounds, particularly substances that accelerate the vulcanization of rubber and that protect rubber from attack by oxygen. Aniline also is
converted into pharmaceuticals, photographic chemicals, and dye intermediates.
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10145
CATO
4802
9592
-A-
animal
-O-
000000|animal
000777| CLASSIFICATION
002204| Radiata
003187| Bilateria
007431| CHORDATE ANIMALS
008631| INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS
-T-
animal_^<N__^<N_Animals are members of the kingdom Animalia, which comprises all multicellular organisms whose cells are bound only by a plasma membrane and not by a cell wall of cellulose. They obtain energy by acquiring and ingesting their food,
unlike plants, which use photosynthesis to manufacture their nutrients. In animals, the cells are organized into tissues and specialized tissue systems that permit them to move freely in search of food or allow nonmotile, or fixed, animals to draw
food toward themselves. A developed nervous system with sensory and motor nerves enables animals to receive environmental stimuli and to respond with specialized movements. In contrast with plants, most animals have a limited growth pattern and
mature to reach a well-defined shape and size. _^<N__^<N_ CLASSIFICATION_^<N__^<N_The differences between plants and animals led to a division of all life into the two kingdoms Plantae and Animalia. On investigation of microorganisms, however, it
was found that some were clearly plantlike while others, PROTOZOA, resembled animals in that they had locomotion by means of flagella, or pseudopodia, and digested food. Initially protozoa were placed in a subkingdom of Animalia. This
classification still presented problems: some forms showed mixed characteristics, and some groups had members that were plantlike with close relatives that were animallike. Eventually a five-kingdom system came into use, in which Plantae and
Animalia are more restricted in definition and protozoan groups are assigned to the kingdom PROTISTA (see CLASSIFICATION, BIOLOGICAL). _^<N__^<N_The kingdom Animalia can be subdivided into two subkingdoms. The subkingdom Parazoa comprises SPONGES,
phylum Porifera. Their nutritional needs are met through ingestion by individual cells that are located along internal water canals that open to the outside of the body. They are nonmotile organisms. The tissue is the highest organizational level
obtained. The larger subkingdom is Eumetazoa, which means "advanced multicellular animals." These animals can be classified into the two groups, Radiata and Bilateria, according to the type of body symmetry of the animal, whose organizational
level goes beyond that of tissue. _^<N__^<N_ Radiata_^<N__^<N_The Radiata comprise two phyla, Coelenterata and Ctenophora, which are radially symmetrical. The COELENTERATES include the commonly known CORALS, HYDRAS, JELLYFISHES, and SEA ANEMONES.
Their mouths are encircled by tentacles. Present within these tentacles and elsewhere in the body are nematocysts--harpoonlike structures that are discharged from specialized cells (cnidocytes) in which they are cocked when not in use. The
nematocytes are used to stun prey, and the tentacles serve to bring the prey into the mouth. Coelenterates have a "two-layered" body. The ectoderm is the outer layer, and the endoderm is the inner layer. The two layers surround the digestive
cavity, the coelenteron, which has only one opening. Thus the highest level of complexity in Radiata is the organ. The Ctenophora, known commonly as COMB JELLIES, are similar to the Coelenterata but have two tentacles and eight rows of hairlike
structures (cilia), each row resembling a comb (cteno). _^<N__^<N_ Bilateria_^<N__^<N_The Bilateria are bilaterally symmetrical. The body plan is organized along a longitudinal axis, and one half is a mirror image of the other. The organ system
is the highest level of complexity reached. Bilateria can be divided into three groups--Acoelomata, Pseudocoelomata, and Coelomata. _^<N__^<N_The Acoelomata lack a true body cavity, the COELOM. They have a "three-layered" body. The space between
the ectoderm and endoderm is occupied entirely by the mesoderm. The FLATWORMS, Platyhelminthes, and RIBBON WORMS, Nemertia, are members of Acoelomata. The best known of the flatworms is the PLANARIAN, whose muscle cells and principle organ
systems are of mesodermal origin, as in higher animals. Although they have a digestive cavity, or gut, with only one opening, like coelenterates, an excretory system is present. _^<N__^<N_The Pseudocoelomata differ from the Acoelomata in that the
mesodermal layer does not completely occupy the region between the ectoderm and endoderm. The free space is a body cavity, in this case a "pseudo," or false, body cavity. The cavity is present only because the germinal tissue (meso), which
ordinarily gives rise to a coelom, does not develop as extensively as in acoelomata. Thus this cavity is not formed within tissues that appear in this region in the course of embryonic development. The most familiar animals in this group are
roundworms, or nematodes. The tubular gut has openings to a mouth and an anus. _^<N__^<N_The Coelomata constitute the remaining Bilateria. The mesoderm comes to form two sublayers, one along the ectoderm and the other along the endoderm. The
space between is the coelom, a true body cavity, enclosed entirely with mesoderm with a membrane lining, the peritoneum. _^<N__^<N_The development of a true body cavity is of great evolutionary significance. Space in the mesoderm means that organ
systems have the flexibility to bend or twist, and functional space can be increased; an example is the 6 m (20 ft) or more of coiled human intestine. Also, organs can more easily fill and empty. Evolutionary development to higher animals is
evidenced by the earthworm. Its segmented body is modified in higher animal forms. Mesenteries (connective tissue) support the gut, as they support organ systems in advanced animals. The mesoderm provides musculature of the gut so that
contractions (peristalsis) can move the food along, again as in advanced animals. _^<N__^<N_The Coelomata are subdivided depending on where the mouth is formed during embryonic development. The two subdivisions are protosomes and deuterosomes. In
protosomes, the mouth develops where the blastopore is present. When an egg cell has been fertilized by a sperm cell, a hollow sphere of cells, or blastula, forms. The blastopore is an opening on the outer space of the blastula and leads directly
into the gut. Commonly known protosomes are ANNELIDS, such as EARTHWORMS; ARTHROPODS, such as INSECTS and LOBSTERS; and MOLLUSKS, such as CLAMS and SNAILS. BRACHIOPODS, BRYOZOANS, PHORONIDS, sipunculids, and echiuroids are lesser-known members of
this group. The Acoelomatas and Pseudocoelomatas are also protosomes. _^<N__^<N_In deuterosomes, the mouth develops in a region diametrically opposite to where the blastopore is present. In a sense it is a second mouth. The first mouth--the
blastopore--seals off at the hind region of the embryo after the primitive gut has been formed. The SEA URCHINS, STARFISHES, and all vertebrates are commonly known deuterosomes. Acorn worms, HEMICHORDATES, and ARROWWORMS, Chaetognatha, are
lesser-known members. _^<N__^<N_The Coelomata are also subdivided into three superphyla, depending on the method by which the coelom arises in the embryo. In LOPHOPHORATES the coeloms form in several unique ways. In schizocoelomates, the coelom
arises when the original mesoderm layer splits into outer and inner layers. This group, as well as the lophophorates, includes the protosome Coelomata. The enterocoelomates are the remaining Coelomata and are deuterostomes. Their coeloms form as
paired pouches growing out of the endoderm. Later the pouches lose their connection with the endoderm and become independent mesoderm sacs enclosing coelomic spaces. Included in the group is the phylum Chordata. _^<N__^<N_ CHORDATE
ANIMALS_^<N__^<N_To be classified as a CHORDATE, an animal must have, at some time in its development, a notochord, a hollow dorsal nerve cord (spinal cord), and a slitted pharyngeal cavity (gill slits). Urochordates (TUNICATES), a subgroup of
Chordata, have these features in their larval stage of development. In metamorphosing into adults they retain the pharynx but lose the notochord and nerve cord. A second subgroup of Chordata, the CEPHALOCHORDATA (AMPHIOXUS), retain all three
chordate features throughout life. Members of the only other subgroup of Chordata, the Vertebrata, are distinguished by a vertebral column. This anatomical structure is formed from cartilage or bony tissue, or both. In some vertebrates,
especially the HAGFISH and LAMPREYS, it appears only in an incipient form, which is scarcely discernible. _^<N__^<N_The notochord is a stiff, rodlike structure that appears in the embryo along the median line of the back. It is retained throughout
life in only a few chordates, such as in a group of wormlike marine species collectively known as amphioxus. In these animals, as well as in all other chordates, the notochord induces the formation of the hollow dorsal nerve cord. _^<N__^<N_
INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS_^<N__^<N_Before the evolutionary relationship between urochordates and cephalochordates to vertebrate chordates was understood, the word INVERTEBRATE was coined for animals that lack a vertebral column. Today it is customary
to think of nonchordate animals as invertebrates; although it is technically correct to think of urochordates and cephalochordates as being invertebrates, in practice it is the vertebrate biologist who is most concerned with these two groups of
chordates because of their direct evolutionary linkage to vertebrates. _^<N__^<N_Review by Lawrence J. Crockett _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Alexander, R. M., Encyclopedia of Animal Biology (1987); Anderson, O. R., Comparative Protozoology (1988);
Barnes, Robert D., Invertebrate Zoology, 5th ed. (1987); Bright, Michael, The Living World (1989); Brusca, Richard C. and Gary J., Invertebrates (1990); Buchsbaum, Ralph, et al., Animals without Backbones, 3d ed. (1987); Colbert, Edwin H.,
Evolution of the Vertebrates, 3d ed. (1980); Dettlaff, T.A., and Kassetzky, S.G., eds., Vertebrates (1990); Hanson, Earl D., The Origin and Early Evolution of Animals (1977); Hickman, Cleveland P., et al., Biology of Animals, 4th ed. (1985);
Jameson, E. W., Jr., Patterns of Vertebrate Biology (1981); Losito, Linda, et al., Simple Animals (1989); Pough, F. H., et al., Vertebrate Life, 3d ed. (1989); Walker, Ernest P., Mammals of the World, 2 vols., 4th ed. (1983); Willson, M.
F., Vertebrate Natural History (1984). _^<N__^<N_See also: ZOOLOGY.
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29682
CATO
4806
9622
14487
19333
24201
29046
-A-
animal behavior
-O-
000000|animal behavior
003900| CATEGORIES OF BEHAVIOR
004587| Closed Instincts
005316| Open Instincts
009930| GENETICS OF BEHAVIOR
012509| THE PHYSIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR
017424| THE ADAPTIVE SIGNIFICANCE OF BEHAVIOR
024508| THE EVOLUTION OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR
-T-
animal behavior_^<N__^<N_Behavior is a fundamental characteristic of animal life. All behavior is a reaction to a stimulus, simple or complex. The nature of the stimulus can be innate or automatically programmed; or it can be learned or modified
by the environment. The distinction between what is innately or environmentally acquired is the subject of much debate. The nature-versus-nurture controversy no longer primarily centers on whether behavior is inherited or learned, however, but
rather on the interaction between the two factors. The study of animal behavior was at one time left primarily to psychologists. Recently it has become an integral part of biology. ETHOLOGY is the biological study of animal behavior.
_^<N__^<N_Charles DARWIN founded the scientific study of behavior. He was a superb naturalist whose behavioral studies are still considered significant. His greatest contribution was the theory of NATURAL SELECTION, which served as a conceptual
framework for all modern biology. He realized that evolution occurs if members of a species differ in the number of surviving offspring they produce. Traits that promote individual reproductive success tend to survive in populations, and traits
associated with reproductive failure tend to disappear. _^<N__^<N_Early in the 20th century, observation of animal behavior was influenced by John B. WATSON, whose major work, Behaviorism, was published in 1924. His proponents, mostly American
experimental psychologists, were called behaviorists. Around the same time another prominent school, directed by Jakob von Uexkull and O. Heinroth, came into being in Europe. _^<N__^<N_The foundation for the discipline of ethology, established
between 1930 and 1950 by Konrad LORENZ, Nikolaas TINBERGEN, and others, is the idea that behavioral adaptations should help individuals reproduce successfully. These biologists recognized that species of birds, fish, and insects in their natural
environments each possess a well-defined repertoire of behavior patterns. To explain why species differ behaviorally, the scientists developed two different avenues of research. Their first goal was to determine the adaptive, or reproductive,
significance of each species' behavior pattern. A kittiwake gull builds an elaborate nest with a deep cup on a narrow cliff ledge; a black-headed gull constructs a casual, shallow nest of grass stems on the ground. This difference appears to have
adaptive significance, since the cup-shaped nest prevents the kittiwake's eggs from rolling off the cliff and thus enhances its reproductive success, whereas the ground-nesting gull has no adaptive gain from the extra effort of carefully building a
nest. _^<N__^<N_The second avenue of research was to understand how the genetic-physiological mechanisms within an individual produce its behavior patterns. The ethologists found evidence that the nervous systems of many species have components
designed to detect and respond to simple cues, or sign stimuli. A European robin will violently attack a tuft of red feathers tied to a limb in its territory, just as if it were a male intruder. The red feathers act as a sign stimulus that
activates a brain mechanism and triggers a programmed response, or fixed action pattern, to the releasing cue. _^<N__^<N_These two kinds of research--one focusing on the adaptive or evolutionary properties of behavior and the other on the
underlying mechanisms of behavior--continue to be the major concerns of ethology. _^<N__^<N_In 1973, Lorenz, Tinbergen, and Karl von FRISCH were awarded the Nobel Prize for physiology or medicine, high recognition of the scientific contribution of
ethology. Because ethology is linked to genetics, physiology, ecology, and evolutionary biology, it has improved the understanding of these diverse subjects. It has also raised the hope that knowledge gained from a study of other animals may lead
to a better understanding of the behavior of humans. _^<N__^<N_ CATEGORIES OF BEHAVIOR_^<N__^<N_Partly as a result of work on the genetic and physiological bases of behavior, many scientists are no longer willing to accept a division of behavior
patterns into just two categories--instincts and learning. Behavior geneticists have shown that no behavior is purely "genetically determined" or purely "environmentally determined." Instead, they claim that all behavioral traits have both a
genetic and an environmental foundation. This does not mean that all behavioral patterns are fundamentally the same. Physiological work has demonstrated that many different kinds of neural and hormonal mechanisms are responsible for the different
abilities of animals. _^<N__^<N_ Closed Instincts_^<N__^<N_One of the many possible categories of behavior could be called closed instincts--behavior patterns that are produced in complete and functional form the first time they are given and that
cannot be altered by experiences associated with their performance. Many animal courtship displays and signals may belong in this category. For example, in one species of grasshopper the male courts the female with a complex sequence of
leg-rubbing movements, head rocking, antenna waving, and intense stridulation; the activities and the sequence in which these activities are performed never vary. The animal appears to have a "motor tape" that is resistant to modification and
that can be played back over and over. _^<N__^<N_ Open Instincts_^<N__^<N_Some innate responses are open to change. Open instincts may be altered as a result of the rewarding or punishing consequences of these behaviors. Presumably, the
underlying neural circuitry can store information about the effects of the behavior and modify it so that the animal achieves rewards more often and punishments less often. A jackdaw has an innate tendency to collect materials when building its
nest for the first time, but it may return to its nest site with ice cubes or light bulbs. When the bird attempts to shove unsuitable objects into the mound of nest material, it cannot do so, but when it brings back twigs, it can. Jackdaws store
information gained by trying to fit different things into a nest mound; this modifies their original response. Eventually, the bird will collect only those twigs which result in the construction of a strong and stable platform for the eggs and
young. _^<N__^<N_Closely related to open instincts are cases of restricted learning. In some animals a behavior pattern may develop fully only if the individual is exposed to a special learning experience. A classic example is IMPRINTING.
Shortly after hatching, ducklings follow their mother from the nest and form an attachment that endures during their dependent period. As they follow their mother about, they learn the visual traits that characterize all females of their species.
The males will use this acquired information many months later to recognize females for courtship and mating. If very young male ducks or geese are experimentally removed from their mother and permitted to follow a chicken or even a human being,
they will attempt to court and copulate with members of these species when they are mature. _^<N__^<N_Another highly specialized form of learning that occurs during a relatively short but critical period of a bird's early life is song learning.
The white-crowned sparrow has been the subject of a series of brilliant experiments in this area. The results have shown that the young male can learn only the territorial song that is peculiar to his species and that the song can be learned only
during the first eight weeks of his life. Isolated white-crowned sparrows that hear another bird species' song, but not a white-crown song, will never sing their species' typical song. This also holds true if they are not exposed to their
species' song until late in the first year of life or if they are held in complete auditory isolation. _^<N__^<N_Young humans are also remarkably adept at imitating human language sounds and extracting the grammatical rules that organize a
language. For example, English-speaking children learn at a young age that adding ed to a verb indicates that the action took place in the past. They use this rule to create novel words, such as teached. Therefore, human language learning,
although much more open than white-crowned sparrow song learning, may also depend upon a selective neural mechanism for information storage and speech development. _^<N__^<N_Other kinds of learning are even more open than language learning. For
example, a wide variety of animals have the ability to store information about visual landmarks and other cues that are associated with their home range. In addition to exploratory learning, CONDITIONING (or trial-and-error learning) falls into
the category of flexible learning. Many animals can be conditioned through reward or punishment to associate certain cues with any of a broad variety of actions. Thus, laboratory rats can quickly learn to vacate a room when a light comes on if a
shock regularly follows the light. A pigeon can be trained to dance around in circles if it receives food only upon performance of this maneuver. It has even been shown that conditioning procedures can be used to train humans to lower their heart
rate or alter their brain waves. _^<N__^<N_Researchers interested in the adaptive significance of behavior have suggested that the variety of behavior types (and the variety of underlying neural and hormonal mechanisms associated with the
behaviors) have evolved because different behaviors solve different kinds of problems. For example, if females copulate only with males that give clear and unambiguous signals that they belong to the same species, closed instincts for male
courtship-display may be superior to any learned behavior. Many escape responses fall into this category because the avoidance of enemies is usually best accomplished by a single, innate reaction. flexible learning may permit an animal to acquire
information that will enable it to respond to unpredictable situations. _^<N__^<N_ GENETICS OF BEHAVIOR_^<N__^<N_All behavioral abilities--whether the territorial instinct of a robin or the human ability to learn a language--depend upon underlying
genetic mechanisms. Animal behavior is the product of nerve cells and muscles. The development of these tissues is dependent upon the genetic information in the cells of the developing animal. Genes contain information that is used to make key
protein molecules (enzymes) that regulate the biochemical reactions within cells and thereby control their developmental destiny. A greylag goose can roll a displaced egg back into her nest because her neural networks enable her to detect the egg
and maneuver it into the nest with her bill. These networks could not have developed without specific enzymes, and these in turn required genetic information for their manufacture. _^<N__^<N_The degree to which specific genes or batteries of genes
are responsible for the control of individual behavior patterns is an unresolved issue being explored in the discipline of BEHAVIORAL GENETICS. Already, behavioral geneticists have succeeded in demonstrating that a manipulation of genetic factors
influences the development of specific behavioral abilities. They have discovered that behavioral differences among some individuals may be a result of a single genetic difference. Examples are fruit flies that copulate for much longer than
average, mice that have abnormal patterns of locomotion, and honeybees that fail to uncap a brood cell to remove a diseased pupa from the hive. In each case these behavioral variants occur because of the alteration of a single gene. These results
do not show that only one gene exists for each behavior pattern or ability but rather that the molecular product of one gene can be so important to the development of muscles or elements of the nervous system that if it is altered the development
of the foundation for a behavioral ability will be changed. _^<N__^<N_Although genes are important for behavioral development, the environment also plays a role in this process. Scientists interested in the role of the environment in behavioral
development have also shown that certain kinds of experience may be influential. For example, social interactions in young monkeys and apes have a strong effect on their capacity to exhibit normal social behavior later in life. An integrated
interaction of genetic and environmental factors is required for the development of functional nervous and endocrine systems in an animal. These systems in turn are responsible for the behavior patterns of the individual. _^<N__^<N_ THE PHYSIOLOGY
OF BEHAVIOR_^<N__^<N_Behavioral geneticists are just beginning to explore the relationship between specific genes and the development of the physiological mechanisms for behavior. In the past, physiologists have shown how some neural and hormonal
mechanisms control certain behavior patterns. They have found specialized sensory neurons in a variety of animals that react preferentially to biologically important stimuli. Thus, in the retina of the leopard frog's eye are cells that produce many
impulses when a small, dark, rounded object passes erratically through the visual field of the frog. Since bugs have such properties, these cells have been labeled bug detectors. They make a major contribution to the leopard frog's ability to
detect and capture flying insects, which are a prime component of the frog's diet. The male silk moth's antennae have many sensory cells that send impulses ("fire") only when air containing the chemical sex attractant, or sex PHEROMONE, of female
silk moths passes over the antennae. Only males that detect the pheromone (which may be present in the air in minute amounts hundreds of meters from a dispensing female) are able to find a mate and reproduce. Noctuid moths have bat-detector neurons
in their ears. These neurons are activated by the ultrasonic cries of predatory bats, their deadly enemies, and help the moth avoid them. _^<N__^<N_Animals not only perceive biologically significant objects in their environment, they react
appropriately to their perceptions. The frog's bug detectors are linked to neural components that activate orientation, mouth opening, and tongue flipping. When a male silk moth's pheromone detectors fire, they send messages to regions of the
brain; this causes the moth to fly upwind toward the source of the pheromone. When a bat's ultrasonic cries strongly stimulate the ear of a noctuid moth, signals are sent that block the activity of the wing muscles of the insect. It stops flying
and dives downward, sometimes reaching protective vegetation before the bat can snatch it. _^<N__^<N_A special neural foundation is the basis for the fixed action patterns of lower animals and also for the learned behavior of humans and other
species. Neurophysiologists have found well-defined regions of the human cerebral cortex that contribute to language learning. One region is involved in storing information about the sounds associated with words; this source contributes to the
recognition of word meaning. Another portion of the brain plays a key role in extracting the right words from the language memory bank and putting them together in a grammatical order so that they will make sense to a listener. Damage to the first
region results in the loss of the ability to produce meaningful sentences, and the person can no longer understand spoken or written language. Damage to the second region of the cortex leads to the loss of the ability to speak fluently and
grammatically, although the person can still read and understand spoken language. _^<N__^<N_The brains of animals appear to have special batteries of nerve cells responsible for detecting certain stimuli and performing biologically correct
responses to them. Moreover, animals are able to decide which of their behavior patterns to employ at a given moment, even though they may be receiving sensory information from various objects that could trigger contradictory activities, such as
flying to a mate and avoiding an onrushing bat. The neural networks responsible for different behavior patterns are organized according to a schedule of priorities. For example, escape behavior usually takes precedence over attempts to find a mate.
As a result, animals rarely try to do several things at once. _^<N__^<N_The hierarchy of priorities need not be constant. A frog that has just eaten a great deal no longer responds to stimuli that would have activated a response when it was
hungry. Feeding may or may not have priority over other activities, depending upon the internal condition of the animal. Individuals have sensors to detect changing conditions and to alter their behavioral tendencies accordingly. Of special
interest are the annual cycles of behavior characteristic of many species. These are often regulated by changing patterns of hormonal releases. For example, increasing day-length in the spring is usually an important cue for migratory birds. This
environmental change triggers multiple hormonal effects, leading to fat deposition and migratory restlessness. After the birds migrate, new patterns of hormone release cause the development of the gonads, territoriality in males, courtship, and
then incubation of the eggs and feeding of the young. If any element of behavior were to occur out of phase, the result would be reproductive failure. The carefully regulated order of hormone production and the integration of neural and endocrine
activity promotes reproductive success. _^<N__^<N_ THE ADAPTIVE SIGNIFICANCE OF BEHAVIOR_^<N__^<N_The evolutionary reasons for the diversity of behavior patterns are only one concern of researchers interested in the adaptive significance of
behavior. Following the lead of early ethologists, many workers have explored the relation between behavior patterns, the environment, and the reproductive success of the individual. A key technique to determine the function of a behavioral trait
is to compare animal species. If unrelated animals exhibit behavioral similarities and if they also share a similar ecological pressure, the behavior may have evolved because it solved the shared ecological problem. For example, in langurs, females
and their offspring form groups that live and forage together. A male that can join a band will have many more progeny than males that cannot. As a result, male langurs compete fiercely. If an outsider succeeds in ousting a resident male, he
tries to kill the infant members of the band, despite the attempts of the females to protect their offspring. Although this was once thought to be pathological behavior, the infanticidal male is behaving in a way that probably maximizes his
reproductive success. By killing his competitor's progeny he is lowering the reproductive output of another individual and thereby raising his own success relative to that male. In addition, the females that lose their infants become receptive
again, ovulate, and are fertilized by the new male. If they had not lost their offspring, they would not have become receptive for several years. Thus, the infant-killer gains more opportunities to pass on his genes. This behavior can plausibly
be interpreted as the product of natural selection. Selection, it should be noted, favors traits that help one individual to have more offspring than another, whether or not this is in the best interests of the species as a whole. _^<N__^<N_This
process also occurs in totally unrelated species that are subject to similar ecological conditions. Female lions form groups (prides) that are the object of aggressive competition among males. Lion males or small groups of males that claim a
pride exclude other males from it, sometimes assaulting and even killing competitors. If intruders succeed in driving out the former leaders of the pride, they often systematically search out and kill the infants sired by the deposed males.
_^<N__^<N_Although the imprint of natural selection is evident most strongly in reproductive behavior itself, the evolved function of other categories of behavior also enhances the reproductive success of individuals. Researchers have identified
many behavior patterns associated with selecting a place to live, avoiding predators, and finding food that have a positive effect on individual reproductive output. For example, habitat selection by the desert wood rat has been shown to be
closely tied to the presence of cholla cactus in its environment. This cactus produces sausagelike limbs that easily break off and fall to the ground or attach themselves tenaciously to a passing animal. A wood rat will gingerly use pieces of
cactus for construction of a home nest--a mound of sticks covered with cholla joints. The cacti help make the rat's home safe against its many predators. Other species that have dangerous enemies may also protect their homesites with natural
products. The red-cockaded woodpecker, a hole-nesting bird, circles its nest entrance with the resins of pine trees. These substances contain materials that are toxic to the woodpecker's major predator, the gray rat snake. _^<N__^<N_Researchers
feel that the importance of safe and productive living space is seen in the number of species that will defend a home area against intruders. Territoriality evolves in species living in an area that is small enough to be economically defensible
and that contains valuable resources that are in limited supply and are important for reproductive success. Individuals are often territorial when a relatively small area contains a nest site or a high concentration of food items; males will
often defend such a territory if it is inhabited by females of the species. In a number of nectar-feeding birds, measurements have been made on the calories expended to defend a territory containing the flowers. Results have shown that sunbirds
and hummingbirds are territorial only when the calories gained exceed the calories expended in defense. The social system of these species is flexible, with individuals establishing and abandoning territories as nectar production and the number of
intruders varies. This flexibility enables birds to maximize energy gained from feeding and so, presumably, to maximize the number of offspring they produce. _^<N__^<N_Another indication of the value of a living space is reflected in the homing
abilities of migratory species. Migration is associated with the exploitation of resources in two geographically separate areas. Green sea turtles feed in one region, where marine vegetation is abundant, and lay their eggs in a site that may be
thousands of miles away but contains beaches especially well suited for the survival of the offspring. The remarkable navigational abilities of this and other migratory animals enables them to relocate particular sites where they have successfully
fed or reproduced previously. _^<N__^<N_The importance of feeding behavior has resulted in the evolution of many unusual adaptations. For example, certain predatory fireflies wait in the vegetation for a light-flashing male of another species to
pass by. When the passing male gives his species-specific courtship signals, the predator responds with the "come hither" light flash that is normally given by a female of his species. Males that alight and hurry to the calling predator are
killed. _^<N__^<N_Prey species are not helpless in the face of predation but have evolved many effective antipredator adaptations. Solitary species, such as wood rats, have their special defensive patterns. Social species exhibit different kinds
of adaptations, often taking advantage of group cooperation for mutual defense, as in the defensive circle formed by attacked musk-oxen. Group defense reaches extreme complexity in the insect societies. In ant and termite colonies, members of a
soldier caste may employ elaborate communication systems (including alarm pheromones) for alerting each other when danger threatens. Groups of defenders converge on the intruders and dispatch them with crushing jaws or chemical sprays or in one
case by hurling themselves at the enemy while bursting open their bodies and spilling entangling glue from a ruptured abdominal gland on their foe. Cases in which individuals commit suicide pose a special problem for evolutionary theorists because
such behavior would appear to eliminate the very genes that contribute to the development of the behavior. But suicidal ant workers are, in the first place, sterile; their ALTRUISM, or self-sacrificing behavior, indirectly helps propagate their
own genes by protecting reproducing relatives that share the same genes. _^<N__^<N_ THE EVOLUTION OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR_^<N__^<N_Ever since Darwin's time, applying evolutionary theory to human beings and human behavior has been controversial. Edward
O. Wilson's Sociobiology touched off an academic firestorm in 1975 because of a final chapter that claimed that human behavior has been designed by natural selection to promote the genetic success of individuals (see SOCIOBIOLOGY). In part this
controversy stemmed from fears by some that evolutionary analyses are easily misunderstood and easy to misuse. Thus, although evolutionary biologists such as Wilson have not concluded that human behavior is a collection of closed instincts nor
that it is morally correct to try to have as many offspring as possible, critics of human sociobiology fear that the evolutionary approach may foster the belief that all human behaviors, including AGGRESSION and sexism, cannot be changed and should
not be changed because they are supposedly adaptive. _^<N__^<N_Proponents of human sociobiology claim that their goal is simply to test evolutionary hypotheses for human attributes. For example, it is well known that humans generally find bitter
substances repellent and sweet-tasting foods pleasing. This preference is controlled by neural networks in the brain that could not have developed without special genetic information possessed by humans. Evolutionary biologists have asked why
current human taste perceptions might have increased an individual's chances of producing surviving offspring in the past. One hypothesis is that the human brain "encourages" the consumption of foods that contain valuable calories, while
discouraging ingestion of life-threatening substances. This hypothesis leads to the prediction that sweet-tasting foods are edible and nutritious whereas extremely bitter-tasting materials are toxic, which is generally the case. Thus,
evolutionary explanations about human traits can be subjected to rigorous tests. _^<N__^<N_Attempts to test ideas about the reproductive significance of human behavior have now been made on a wide spectrum of human activities. For example, it is
clear that parental behavior is a costly exercise in the sense of requiring much energetic effort and exposing parents to risks that might shorten their adult lives. The evolutionary return for an expensive investment in parenting may be an
increased chance of survival of the children the the parents help. This increase can advance the genetic interests of the parent only if the children are the genetic offspring of the parent. Therefore, evolutionary biologists have hypothesized
that all parental species, humans included, should have evolved psychological mechanisms that engender discriminating child care only for their own offspring. _^<N__^<N_This hypothesis leads to the prediction that males everywhere will be highly
concerned about the paternity of the offspring of their wives and will often react with rage and withdrawal of parental support if they discover or suspect that their wives have committed adultery, and this is apparently the case in most societies.
Another prediction that flows from the evolutionary analysis of parental care is that child abuse will occur more frequently in households with two biological parents. Various studies have supported this prediction decisively. Evolutionary
biologists do not claim that excessive sexual jealousy or child abuse is adaptive behavior per se. Instead their point is that if our psychological mechanisms have evolved as a result of past differences in individual reproductive success, the
mechanisms can be expected to bias human behavior in predictable ways that would usually, but not always, raise individual reproductive success. _^<N__^<N_Much remains to be learned about both the mechanisms and the adaptive significance of the
behavior of humans and other animals. Little is known about how genes regulate the development of a nervous system, and only a few complete studies have been done showing how neural and hormonal systems control even a single behavior pattern.
Future research will surely focus on the links between genetic information, physiological design, and behavioral traits. Improved knowledge of these relationships will aid in understanding how natural selection can shape the evolution of behavior
by affecting the transmission of genes from one generation to the next. The realization that behavior evolves because individuals differ in their gene-copying success continues to revolutionize the interpretation of the function of behavior, from
the feeding response of the amoeba to the interlocking social adaptations of complex societies. _^<N__^<N_John Alcock _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Alcock, John, Animal Behavior, 4th ed. (1989); Daly, M., and Wilson, M., Homicide (1988); Dawkins, R.,
The Selfish Gene (1976); Slater, P. J., Encyclopedia of Animal Behavior (1987); Symons, D., The Evolution of Human Sexuality (1979); Tinbergen, Niko, Curious Naturalists (1958); Williams, G. C., Adaptation and Natural Selection (1966); Wilson,
animal communication_^<N__^<N_Communication in animals has been defined most broadly as any behavior on the part of one organism that affects the behavior of another and, more specifically, as the exchange of information between individuals. In
practice, the term is usually restricted to the exchange of species-typical signals that perform a communicative function. Because communication is an interaction, the signals are specialized on the part of both the sender and the receiver.
Verifying the communicative signal is sometimes difficult, however, because the responsive behavior may be internal or delayed, or may take the form of not carrying out an intended act. _^<N__^<N_All social interactions, from a one-celled animal
finding a mate to a baboon leading other troop members to food, are based on the ability of two or more individuals to coordinate their activities. Communication is the means by which such coordination is accomplished. _^<N__^<N_ FUNCTIONS OF
SIGNALS_^<N__^<N_The function of a signal and the fact of its being a signal at all must be inferred from the circumstances under which it is given and the way other animals respond to it. The function of a signal may be different in different
contexts, including the context of previous behavior, and the recipients' responses may vary according to their situations. For example, the territorial song of a male bird may attract females but repel other males. _^<N__^<N_One way to try to
understand the "meanings" of the signals is to analyze the kind of information they make available--what can be learned or predicted on the basis of the signal. This can range from information about the age, sex, location, or breeding condition of
the sender to information about the presence of food or predators, or the conditions of the external environment. One must also study the behavior of the recipient, since there is no guarantee that the recipient can extract all the information
made available by the signal; even more important, it is only by looking at the response that the function of the signal can be understood. _^<N__^<N_ SIGNAL CHANNELS_^<N__^<N_Signals can be sent through any of the available sensory channels:
chemical (taste, smell), photic (vision), mechanical (touch, hearing), and even electrical (as in the case of certain fish). The use of chemical signals, called pheromones, is probably the most primitive means of communication and is employed by
species at all levels of complexity. The most important attribute of chemical signals is their long duration. Thus, chemical signals are ideally suited for marking territories and trails and for long-term influence of behavior. Protozoa such as
paramecium, for instance, influence one another's behavior through chemical exudates. Higher invertebrates produce more specific and specialized substances--for example, the trail-marking odors produced by ants. Ant trails are composed of a
series of scent spots produced when the abdomen of the worker ant touches the ground. An attacked ant secretes a pheromone from an anal gland to warn or alert other members of the colony. Female silkworm moths release a sex attractant so powerful
that it draws males to a single female from a distance of 3 km (2 mi) or more. _^<N__^<N_One of the more elegant population control systems is found in the chemical influence of the honey BEE. The scent of a mated laying queen inhibits the
production of new queens, but when the colony becomes too large, she cannot disseminate her scent to all workers. Workers not exposed to this chemical for 48 hours begin the production of new queens. The emergence of a new queen signals the
former queen that it is time to form a new colony, which she does by leaving the hive with a swarm of workers that remain attached to her by scent. _^<N__^<N_Pheromones are also found among many species of vertebrates. Some fish secrete chemicals
that attract mates and stimulate courtship behavior, and odors involved in social and sexual behavior are well known among many species of mammals. Territory-marking behavior in male dogs is a form of chemical communication. _^<N__^<N_Visual
communication may consist of such bodily gestures as the courtship flights of butterflies, aggressive movements of Siamese fighting fish, the prancing of peacocks, and the brilliant colors of the genital areas in certain apes and monkeys. The
fluttering of the colorful fins of a male guppy indicates that it is a male and is ready for mating. The male stickleback fish is normally grayish-brown, but at mating time its eyes turn blue and its belly bright red, signals that attract the
female. One limitation to visual signals is the line-of-sight requirement. _^<N__^<N_Sounds, like visual signals, are also complex and may convey a variety of messages. They are more suitable for communication over distances or in dense
vegetation, since these become lesser obstacles to identifying the source and receiving the stimuli. Rapid fading is an advantage against predators. In the common house cricket, rhythmic patterns of the chirps differentiate signals for courtship,
aggression, or territorial defense. Each tern has an individual "fish call" when returning to its young with a meal of fish. The young are unresponsive to the fish calls of other members of the colony; they respond only to the returning parent.
Songbirds, with their complex musical sounds, appear to have attained some higher forms of communication, but the various complexities still serve primarily for species, sex, and individual recognition; and the songs still indicate such things as
readiness to breed, aggression, alarm, and the presence of food. _^<N__^<N_Language is believed to be a communication system unique to the human species. Present knowledge indicates that no other communication system is capable of conveying
information about events remote in time and space (although this is a question of degree) or of conveying information about the system itself. _^<N__^<N_ DEVELOPMENT_^<N__^<N_The development of communication in individuals of different species
exhibits different kinds and degrees of dependence on previous experience. The production of pheromones in social insects and the sound signals of crickets and cicadas, for example, do not depend directly on contacts the young animals have with
other members of the species. In many songbirds, on the other hand, exposure of the young to the sounds of their own species is essential for developing a normal species-typical song pattern. In many mammals, social and psychological conditions
play a large role in communication development. A monkey raised apart from other monkeys usually does not develop any social behavior or communication skill, yet chimpanzees reared by humans can learn forms of communication so complex that some
would consider it language. _^<N__^<N_ CURRENT RESEARCH_^<N__^<N_Project Washoe (1966-70) was the first successful attempt to teach a nonhuman primate to use symbols in communicating. Researchers taught a young chimpanzee more than 130 hand-signs
of the American language of the deaf. Since then studies of language use among a variety of nonhuman primates indicate that these animals are capable of using sounds as symbols to exchange information regarding objects in their natural
environment. _^<N__^<N_Some animal communications researchers are studying the physical structure of primate sounds. For example, in observing the screams of infant rhesus monkeys, scientists classified the screams based on the acoustic structure
of the sounds. The scientists thereby found that a rhesus adult can tell what is happening to its infant by the quality of such screams. Researchers have also found that some monkeys produce sounds in much the same way as humans speak.
_^<N__^<N_Advances are being made in studying communications among many other kinds of animals, as well. In 1985, for example, scientists discovered that some elephant vocalizations, like those of some whales (see WHALE), lie below the range of
human hearing. More generally, the behavior of social animals--invertebrates as well as vertebrates--has led many scientists to believe that all such animals may be using sophisticated systems of communication that are not yet recognized for what
they are. Besides their pherome communications already mentioned, for example, honeybees have been receiving the attention of scientists for a number of years because of their so-called "dance language." Researchers in the late 1980s managed to
develop a computerized robot bee that was accepted by members of the hive and could communicate messages to them, opening up new vistas of research in this field. _^<N__^<N_William N. Tavolga _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bright, M., Animal Language
(1985); Griffin, D. R., Animal Thinking (1984); Lindauer, Martin, Communication among Social Bees, rev. ed. (1971); Mery, Fernand, Animal Languages (1975); Sebeok, Thomas A., ed., How Animals Communicate (1977); Shorey, H. H., Animal
Communication by Pheromones (1976); Terrace, H. S., Nim: A Chimpanzee Who Learned Sign Language (1986); Weiss, Rick, "New Dancer in the Hive," Science News, Oct. 28, 1989. _^<N__^<N_See also: ANT; BIRDSONG; DOLPHIN; WHALE.
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4043
CATO
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animal courtship and mating
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000000|animal courtship and mating
000975| Visual Cues, Odors, and Sounds
001841| Role of Territory
002721| Mating
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animal courtship and mating_^<N__^<N_Courtship in animals is any behavior whereby sexually mature individuals of a species become mating pairs. Precise descriptions of the processes in all animals are impossible because courtship habits vary widely.
Some behaviors, however, are common to many species. For example, two animals may be brought together at the proper moment for mating by pheromones (see PHEROMONE), the secretion of odorous chemicals; by mating calls such as the special croaking of
the male frog; by such elaborate displays as the mating dances of the scorpion or of certain fish; or by the male peacock flaunting his brilliant plumage. Most animal courtship patterns appear to be inherited or instinctive and to have evolved to
promote the survival of the species through efficient reproductive behavior. Among humans, however, courtship consists more of learned behavior than of instinctive acts. Thus, no justifiable inferences about human behavior can be drawn solely from
animal behavior. _^<N__^<N_ Visual Cues, Odors, and Sounds_^<N__^<N_Visual cues identify and attract members of the opposite sex. The male spider, for example, may wave its legs to distinguish itself from animals on which the female normally preys.
The various species of fiddler crab differ in the pattern and speed of claw movement, and this helps the sexes to find each other. In monkeys a swelling and change in coloration in the genital area of the female occurs during estrus. The sound of a
male pigeon's cooing may stimulate ovulation in a female. _^<N__^<N_The female cockroach secretes pheromones that attract males from considerable distances. Among mammals, many males have scent glands that secrete odorous substances that attract
females. For example, deer rub their hind legs, which contain scent glands, against trees. Other animals, including female dogs, have sexual attractants in their urine. _^<N__^<N_ Role of Territory_^<N__^<N_Many animals form territories or social
relationships that reduce competition and serve as mating or nesting sites. The male bowerbirds of Australia build elaborate houses, or bowers, which attract females. The male stickleback fish builds a nest on its territory and then lures the
female to the nest with a zigzag dance pattern. Some male mammals, including the sea lion, reduce competition by establishing a harem of females on their territory. This ensures mating with the strongest and most fit males. Strictly monogamous
pair-bonds are not common, but they do occur in many birds and animals that have altricial offspring--those born helpless, like humans. Mallard ducks form monogamous pairs in the fall of the year and remain together until after hatching occurs in
the spring. Then the adults separate until they form new pair-bonds the following fall. _^<N__^<N_ Mating_^<N__^<N_After a mate has been found, courtship may arouse sexual interest and synchronize the behavior of each individual so that actual
mating, or copulation, can take place. In many animals postural adjustments are required for copulation to take place. In the rat, for example, the female must remain motionless and raise her hindquarters--a position called lordosis--for the male
to successfully mount her. _^<N__^<N_Mating habits have also evolved to aid the animals in adapting to their modes of life and habitats. Mating in such herbivores as antelope, deer, and Uganda kob occurs very quickly, with minimal physical contact,
because these animals live on the open plains in sight of predators. These species tend to move quickly at all times, and the young develop rapidly. Such carnivores as bears, lions, dogs, and cats often require extended periods of copulation. These
animals tend to be comparatively slow in other behaviors, and the young take longer to develop. _^<N__^<N_Terry F. Pettijohn _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bateson, Patrick, ed., Mate Choice (1983); Batten, Mary, Sexual Strategies: How Females Choose
Their Mates (1992); Dunbar, R. I., Reproductive Decisions (1984); Windybank, Susan, Wild Sex: All You Want to Know about the Birds and the Bees (1992). _^<N__^<N_See also: ANIMAL BEHAVIOR; ANIMAL COMMUNICATION.
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4220
CAT
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animal experimentation
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animal experimentation_^<N__^<N_Animal experimentation is the scientific study of life processes in animals to advance biological knowledge. It is used primarily in research and teaching in such areas as product safety and effectiveness, disease
states and possible cures, and anatomy and physiology. The animals commonly used in testing are mice, rats, hamsters, guinea pigs, rabbits, cats, dogs, frogs, and turtles, but many other species are also used. _^<N__^<N_The number of animals used
each year in experiments is not known with any certainty--records of rats and mice used, for example, are often not kept--but it probably exceeds 100 million. In the health-care field, extensive animal experimentation is done annually to meet the
strict safety requirements of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for new products, and to find new uses for established products. Drugs, cosmetics, chemicals, and medical devices are tested on animals for toxicity, the presence of
irritants, and usefulness. Animals are used in vitamin studies to test symptoms of deficiency. They are also used to test life-support systems in spacecraft. Nonhuman primates are valuable for studies on the eye and blood and on atherosclerosis;
the rhesus monkey is extensively used for experimental surgical techniques. _^<N__^<N_Studies are also conducted using animals to test the effects of long-term exposure to toxic agents (including pesticides), smoking, marijuana, and drugs. Rabbits
are widely used in toxicology and to help develop oral contraceptives. Through many years of use in controlled situations, they have furnished extensive data on which researchers can confidently rely. For example, the rate of human metabolism for a
new drug can be determined, within limits, by experimentation with a given species of animal, the metabolic rate of which has been established over a long period of time. It is advantageous if several generations of offspring can be observed. In
mice five generations can be obtained within a year. Sometimes animals are selected because of their unique susceptibility to disease organisms. Certain animals are also more susceptible to metabolic diseases (chickens and gout); skin diseases
(primates and balding); respiratory diseases (horses and emphysema); and eye diseases (cocker spaniels and glaucoma). The first use of the cotton rat, Sigmodon hispidus, in the laboratory was for polio research. Enough information was gained
thereby about polio to be able to plan tests for control. The first use of hamsters was to study kala-azar, or leishmaniasis, a disease of children in the Mediterranean area and in Asia. Only the Syrian hamster proved to be satisfactory for this
experiment. _^<N__^<N_Animal experimentation has become increasingly controversial, as the ANIMAL RIGHTS movement has grown. The term VIVISECTION also is applied to any experimentation using live animals. For several years various groups have
conducted antivivisection campaigns to obtain more humane treatment for laboratory animals and to do away with such experimentation altogether. Some radical opponents have broken into research facilities and released animals. In reaction to these
efforts, such U.S. legislation as the Animal Welfare Act of 1966 (amended in 1970, 1976, and 1985) has been passed. Researchers are seeking alternatives to animal experimentation, using techniques such as cell and tissue culture, computer modeling,
and nonliving replicas. In order to obtain government funding, proposed research projects must adhere to strict guidelines. Groups such as the American Association for Laboratory Animal Care and the Institute for Laboratory Animal Resources (a
division of the National Academy of Sciences) are also helping to improve laboratory standards. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Davis, H., and Balfour, D., eds., The Inevitable Bond: Examining Scientist-Animal Interactions (1992); Hendriksen, C. F., and
Koeter, H. B., eds., Animals in Biomedical Research (1991); Orlans, Barbara, In the Name of Science: Issues in Responsible Animal Experimentation (1993); Universities Federation for Animal Welfare, UFAW Handbook on the Care and Management of
Animal Farm_^<N__^<N_Animal Farm (1945), by George ORWELL, is a parable of the utopian roots of the Russian Revolution and the totalitarian state that followed. Written in the form of a FABLE, it is a story about the rebellion of domestic animals
against their human oppressors. At first the victorious animals are animated by a spirit of equality and shared hardship, but soon the pigs, the cleverest of the beasts, take over the farm. Their now- famous slogan is "All animals are equal, but
some animals are more equal than others." In a parody of post-revolutionary Russia, the pigs institute a dictatorship and eventually become even more oppressive than their former masters. In the end the pigs invite their human neighbors to a feast
of reconciliation, leading the other animals to realize that they have merely exchanged one tyranny for another. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Williams, Raymond, George Orwell (1981).
-END-
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13806
CATO
4782
9553
-A-
animal husbandry
-O-
000000|animal husbandry
001508| DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS
004490| MODERN LIVESTOCK
004507| Horses
005645| Pig
006150| Llamas and Camels
006898| Yak, Water Buffalo
007650| Goats
008389| Sheep
009120| Cattle
010082| Reindeer
010317| Other Types of Livestock
010963| INCREASING LIVESTOCK NUMBERS
-T-
animal husbandry_^<N__^<N_Animal husbandry is the art and science of the care, management, and improvement of domestic animals and their products. The manipulation of animals for the benefit of human beings is an integral part of the story of
civilization. Animal production in different areas and cultures of the world reflects the importance of domestic animals as sources of food, power, fiber, hides, and skins. _^<N__^<N_A large proportion of the world's land area is unsuitable for
crop production because of topography, climate, and deficiencies in soil fertility or rainfall. In many such areas, the use of grazing animals is the only feasible way economically to convert the natural materials of plant growth into products of
use to people. Even where grains or food crops are cultivated intensively, only selected parts of the plants can be eaten, because the human ability to digest fibrous materials is limited. Using animals, however, such crop residues positively
contribute to the human food supply. _^<N__^<N_Of the total edible protein produced in the world, it is estimated that 30% comes from animal products. Half of the remaining 70% is derived from cereals. The relative contribution of animal protein
to total protein intake varies from about 23% in the East to about 70% in North America. _^<N__^<N_The traditional curriculum for the study of animal husbandry deals with the technology of CATTLE, HORSE, PIG or swine, and SHEEP production. In the
United States, specialized dairy and POULTRY production are separate areas of study. _^<N__^<N_ DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS_^<N__^<N_Domestication involves producing, from the wild animal, a tame variety that can breed in captivity and that is
incapable of living in a wild state. The process had been largely accomplished before the era of recorded history. It is now believed that domestication took place only after settled communities had been established and a reliable supply of food
sustained--vegetables and fish, supplemented by hunting for meat. By the NEOLITHIC PERIOD, the process was probably already well advanced. Domestication of many farm animals may have occurred independently, at different times, and in several
regions. The original motives for domestication may not necessarily have been utilitarian; some animals may first have been bred as pets, for sport, or for ritual purposes. Nevertheless, early in the process it was discovered that some species
could be selectively mated to achieve certain desirable physical and temperamental characteristics. _^<N__^<N_The DOG was apparently the first animal to be domesticated, perhaps 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. Sheep and goats (see GOAT), the first
ruminants to be domesticated, were bred from wild species in the Middle East and Central Asia, possibly as early as 7000 BC. Archaeological evidence puts the first domesticated cattle in South Asia, the Middle East, and Europe by the 4th
millennium BC. The humped ZEBU, thought to have originated in India, eventually spread into the Middle East and Africa. Pigs, domesticated about the same time as cattle, probably originated from only two wild species. The CAMEL, REINDEER, the
DONKEY, and the HORSE were among the last animals to be domesticated in Europe and Asia. The last farm animal to be domesticated, and one that is still important as a food animal in Europe, was the rabbit. About the 6th century AD, French monks
domesticated it from a wild European species. _^<N__^<N_New World domestication was restricted to the few native animals that were suitable: the ALPACA, LLAMA, DUCK, TURKEY, and dog. Since human settlement occurred there long after it had taken
place in the Old World, animal domestication was also a later development. _^<N__^<N_During the more or less 10,000 years since the beginnings of animal domestication, the basic characteristics of the tamed species have changed. Changes in
appearance--size, shape, and coloration--are the most obvious, but even more striking are the alterations in characteristics for which the animals were bred: a modern milk cow yields a volume of milk thousands of times greater than its wild
ancestor; the egg production of hens has increased by a factor of perhaps 100 over that of the first domesticated fowl; sheep's wool is heavier, finer, and more uniform than that of the original wild sheep. A fundamental change involves the
reproductive cycle. The ancestors of domesticated animals could reproduce only during a limited season, whereas many types of domesticated livestock can be bred during most of the year. _^<N__^<N_ MODERN LIVESTOCK_^<N__^<N_ Horses_^<N__^<N_The two
important domesticated species of the genus Equus are horses and ponies (E. caballus) and asses (E. asinus). They and their cross, the mule, have been an intimate part of human history. The horse was apparently domesticated in Central Asia and
North Africa. The Arabian breed, dating back to about 500 BC, has contributed to most of the improved breeds of horses subsequently developed. Spanish horses were introduced to the Americas during the 15th century; some of them escaped
domestication to become the mustang herds of western states. _^<N__^<N_China is the world's leading horse producing country. Others include the United States, Mexico, Brazil, and Russia. From the standpoint of size and use, the major subdivisions
are draft horses, which are large and heavily muscled; light, or riding, horses; and ponies. The use of the horse or mule as a source of power has declined in economically developed countries since tractors and mechanical power sources were
introduced. In the United States the number of draft horses peaked in the 1920s and then steadily declined, although today numbers are slowly increasing. _^<N__^<N_ Pig_^<N__^<N_The pig, Sus scrofa, is the only domesticated species from the genus
Sus. Pigs are raised worldwide; they find a place in the economy of developing countries because they can be fed on scraps and gleanings and because they can convert high-energy feeds efficiently. The leading countries in pig production are
China, Russia, the United States, Brazil, Poland, and Germany. In the West, the development of large-scale feedlot rearing in recent years has led to farms specializing in pig production. _^<N__^<N_ Llamas and Camels_^<N__^<N_The Lama genus of the
Camelidae, or camel family, includes the GUANACO, alpaca, and Llama. The first remains wild; the latter two are domesticated. All are native to the high elevations of the Andes. They serve as beasts of burden and contribute to the economy of
the area through the production of fiber used in making wool textiles. About 10 million kg (more than 22 million lb) of this fiber are produced annually. _^<N__^<N_The Camelus genus includes the single-humped dromedary, native to North Africa, and
the double-humped Bactrian camel of Asia. Both serve as beasts of burden and as a source of meat, milk, hides, and wool. Somalia (with some 5.5 million), the Sudan, India, Ethiopia, and Pakistan possess the largest herds. _^<N__^<N_ Yak, Water
Buffalo_^<N__^<N_Both the YAK, and the water BUFFALO belong to the family Bovidae. Yak and yak-cattle crosses are found only in the higher elevations of the Himalayas. In an area where perhaps less than 5 percent of the land can be cultivated,
yak are a source of food, power, fuel, and fiber. _^<N__^<N_Domestic buffalo constitute only one genus, Bubalus, the Asiatic water buffalo. More than 90 percent are found in the Far East, with large populations also in South Asia. Domestic
buffalo have traditionally been kept as triple-purpose animals--for work, milk, and meat. They are noted for hard work in hot, humid, marshy, flood-prone environments and for the ability to thrive on low-quality forage. Special types have been
bred for milk production. _^<N__^<N_ Goats_^<N__^<N_Goats belong to the genus Capra. They are found in all countries of the world and have long been an important domestic animal. Large numbers are raised in Central and North Africa, the Middle
East, South Asia, and China. Only a few of the 60 or more recognized breeds in the world are important in the United States, although U.S. herds of ANGORA goats--raised primarily for their hair--account for about 50 percent of the world's mohair
production. The goat's small size, efficiency of milk production, and fertility are advantages in converting scarce plant resources into food. In semiarid regions, however, overgrazing has led to the destruction of plant cover and, in areas like
Africa's Sahel, to gradual desertification. _^<N__^<N_ Sheep_^<N__^<N_Sheep belong to the genus Ovis. Raised throughout the world, they are the main source of wool and in many areas are major providers of meat, milk, and cheese. The principal
sheep-producing countries are Australia, Russia, China, New Zealand, India, and Turkey. About 3 million metric tons (3.3 million U.S. tons) of wool are produced annually, with Australia and New Zealand accounting for most of the wool moving in
world trade. The sheep industry in the United States has declined in recent years; about 10 million sheep were in the inventory in the late 1980s. In the western states sheep are primarily a range industry devoted to wool production. In other
regions, farm flocks are used for spring lamb production. _^<N__^<N_ Cattle_^<N__^<N_Two species make up the population of beef- and milk-producing cattle: Bos taurus is predominant in temperate climates, although it may be found in countries from
the fringes of the tropics to the Arctic; B. indicus, or Zebu cattle, originating in India, are now native in the tropics around the globe. Variations of these species and their crosses have served humankind in many ways. Cattle supply milk and
meat; oxen (castrated cattle) make useful draft animals; cattle are a primary source of some 300 biological materials, including their hides, which are used for clothing, shelter, and equipment, and their dung, which is used for fuel and
fertilizer. In some countries, they are a medium of exchange and an indicator of wealth. _^<N__^<N_India is by far the largest cattle-raising country, followed by Brazil, Russia, the United States, China, and Argentina. About 10 percent of the
approximately 100 million U.S. cattle are used in dairy production. _^<N__^<N_ Reindeer_^<N__^<N_Reindeer, domesticated caribou, are general-purpose animals of the Arctic, furnishing meat, skins, and milk, as well as pulling loads and carrying
packs. They have long been important in the economies of Lapland and Siberia. _^<N__^<N_ Other Types of Livestock_^<N__^<N_In addition to the animals that have proven suitable for domestication in the West, many other indigenous species thrive
under domestication in other parts of the world. In South America, two rodent species are successfully bred and reared: the giant capybara in Venezuela and the guinea pig in Peru. In Africa south of the Sahara, native herbivores have only
recently been reared or ranched. They include antelopes such as the eland, oryx, and impala; the grasscutter (or cane rat), a large rodent; and the ostrich. Other newly domesticated animals include deer and, in the United States, the bison and
alligator. _^<N__^<N_ INCREASING LIVESTOCK NUMBERS_^<N__^<N_In the less prosperous regions of the world, where nomadic herding is still practiced or where the use of modern husbandry science is not possible, livestock producers are subject to a
host of natural conditions--weather, the prevalence of livestock diseases, the availability of water or forage--that have a telling effect on the growth or shrinkage of livestock numbers. In developed areas, however, the factors influencing the
efficiency of livestock production are almost all within control of the producer. They include intensive rearing (see FACTORY FARMING); feeding programs to ensure rapid weight gain or increased milk production; and breeding programs using the
newest techniques in biotechnology and GENETIC ENGINEERING. Since World War II these methods have resulted in a near-doubling of the amount of milk produced per dairy cow in the United States, and have caused increases in the rate and quality of
livestock growth. Future gains, however, will probably depend on the use of sophisticated breeding techniques. _^<N__^<N_In addition to ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION, which has been used effectively since the 1930s, basic breeding techniques include
various manipulations of egg and embryo. Typically, a prize dairy cow will be injected with a hormone that causes it to produce as many as 20 mature eggs during ovulation, rather than the usual one or two. The eggs are fertilized via artificial
insemination, and the embryos flushed out within a week. Transferred into a surrogate-mother cow, an embryo will develop into a calf with the desirable characteristics of its genetic parents and its surrogate dam as well. Other techniques involve
the cloning of embryos and the freezing of both eggs and embryos for storage or shipment. _^<N__^<N_The use of gene manipulation to produce more commercially useful animals may prove to be the most important breeding technique. An animal and its
offspring can be programmed for a specific trait by adding a foreign gene to its embryo. To date there have been few viable transgenic farm animals, animals created with foreign gene components. Perhaps the first practical success in the field
has been the development of the cow hormone, bovine somatotropin, which can be produced in quantity by genetically modified bacteria, and which increases milk production when given to cows. _^<N__^<N_C. J. Brown _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Blakely,
J., and Bade, D. H., The Science of Animal Husbandry, 4th ed. (1985); Briggs, M. M., Modern Breeds of Livestock, 3d ed. (1969); Currie, W. Bruce, Structure and Function of Domestic Animals (1988); Hart, B. L., The Behavior of Domestic Animals
(1985); Mason, I. L., Evolution of Domesticated Animals (1984); Sainsbury, D., Farm Animal Welfare (1986); Taylor, R. E., and Bogart, R., Scientific Farm Animal Production, 3d ed. (1988).
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11867
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9568
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animal migration
-O-
000000|animal migration
001874| EXAMPLES OF MIGRATION
002191| Insects
003572| Reptiles
004492| Birds
005269| Fish
006412| Marine Mammals
007278| Land Mammals
008787| MECHANISMS OF MIGRATION
008967| Energy Needs
009848| Modes of Navigation
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animal migration_^<N__^<N_Migrations are periodic movements of animals from one place to another. In a general sense these movements follow similar routes and return the animals to the same locality each time they occur; if the animals that return
are a new generation of that species, the term remigration is also used. Movements from one locality to a different one are also called emigrations. _^<N__^<N_Migrations occur because some animals need to exploit a variety of environments in order
to reproduce successfully. Migrational periodicity is usually the result of the Earth's seasonal changes, which are associated with climatic changes and resulting alterations in the growth and production of plants. These variations in climate and
food availability cause animals to move from areas less suitable for feeding or for raising young, or both, to more suitable regions. Thus the extent to which animals are migratory depends, in large part, upon the foods that they eat, their
requirements for reproduction, and the degree of seasonal climatic change in their environments. Migrations are sometimes the result of the animal reaching a particular stage in life. Some species of salmon, for example, spend most of their lives
in salt water, although they are born, reproduce, and die in the freshwater streams of the continents. After hatching, pink salmon journey from the rivers of Canada and Alaska into the Pacific and may spend most of their lives along the coasts of
North Korea, 5,600 km (3,500 mi) away. Upon reaching sexual maturity, however, they return to the exact stream of their birth. _^<N__^<N_The timing as well as the routing of migratory movements may be quite predictable. Many animals key their
migrations to seasonal changes in the position of celestial bodies as well as to more immediate climatic changes. Some species arrive and depart on their migration with great regularity. _^<N__^<N_ EXAMPLES OF MIGRATION_^<N__^<N_The phenomenon of
migration is perhaps best known in birds, but it occurs in a variety of forms of animal life, ranging from various invertebrates to humans. Most of these share the capacity for long-distance movement as well as the need to exploit different
environments in their life cycles. _^<N__^<N_ Insects_^<N__^<N_Among the insects, the locusts of North Africa and the Middle East are well known for their large-scale movements that may cover 2,200-3,200 km (1,400-2,000 mi). The migrations seem to
be a dispersal of young adult locusts from areas where their extremely dense populations sometimes cause severe damage to crops and grazing lands. Locusts generally move from dry areas toward regions of somewhat greater rainfall. Over North
Africa and the Middle East, winds from the north meet those from the south, influencing locust movements, which are to some extent wind-borne. _^<N__^<N_The migrations of the monarch butterfly of North America are similar to those of birds. The
monarch exploits a single food source, milkweed, which occurs throughout North America from Mexico to southern Canada. During the temperate summer, monarchs are spread across California, the Great Basin, and western plains and, in the east, are
found north of the Great Lakes and in New England and Ontario. When temperatures drop in autumn, however, monarchs migrate to concentration areas, where hundreds of thousands of them settle in specific tree groves to spend the winter. They remain
in these groves in a semitorpid state until the following spring, when at least some of them return to their warm-season feeding areas. In the course of these flights they may cover 130 km (80 mi) or more a day. _^<N__^<N_ Reptiles_^<N__^<N_In the
life cycle of the green sea turtle, only egg laying, incubation, and hatching are strictly terrestrial processes; all other important life-events take place in the seas of the world. Upon hatching, young turtles immediately head for the water and
apparently return to their hatching site only when they themselves engage in reproduction. These hatching sites are frequently small, and sometimes isolated, islands, such as Ascension Island in the Atlantic or the Galapagos in the Pacific.
Long-distance migratory movements to and from these mating and nesting sites take place every 2 or 3 years in the life of the adult turtle. For example, it appears that turtles hatched on Ascension Island in the Atlantic journey 2,200 km (1,400
mi) to the coasts of South America, where they remain browsing turtle grass, which grows in shallow tropical waters, until their reproductive motivation is triggered. _^<N__^<N_ Birds_^<N__^<N_Terrestrial birds that fly over oceans must frequently
cover vast distances without rest or food. For example, Pacific golden plovers fly from northern Alaska, Canada, or Siberia to Hawaii in the autumn, a distance of more than 3,200 km (2,000 mi), and their Atlantic counterparts fly over water from
Labrador to the latitude of Brazil--4,000 km (2,500 mi) without a landfall. The Arctic tern is the long-distance migratory champion of the animal world, although its migratory flights are partially along coastlines. It nests in the far north of
Europe, Asia, and North America and spends the northern winter along the shores of Antarctica. To make this journey of as much as 19,000 km (12,000 mi) twice a year requires the bird to spend about 8 months on migration. _^<N__^<N_
Fish_^<N__^<N_Many fish migrate between fresh water and salt water at various times in their lives, especially fish in the genus Salmo, which includes some salmon and trout. Many other types of fish never inhabit fresh water but undertake long
migrations at sea. These include tuna and bonito, among others. _^<N__^<N_In contrast to the salmon, which lives at sea and breeds in fresh water, the European eel spends most of its life in fresh water but breeds, spawns, and hatches in the
mid-Atlantic, in the region of the Sargasso Sea. Mature eels spawn in the Sargasso in spring. _^<N__^<N_The young eels spend their first 3 years moving slowly northeast, possibly drifting with the currents, so that they arrive on the coasts of
Europe in their third summer. There they assume the configuration of adult eels, then enter estuaries and make their way upriver. They mature and live in freshwater streams until the males reach 8 to 14 years of age and the females 10 to 14, at
which time some begin their return journey to the sea. This migratory journey, like that of the salmon, requires a physiological shift in kidney function to accomplish the move to salt water. _^<N__^<N_ Marine Mammals_^<N__^<N_Marine mammals also
undertake long migratory journeys. For example, northern fur seals migrate annually. For a period of about 6 months, from May to October, the North Pacific island breeding grounds are occupied at progressive intervals by adult males, adult
females and young, and recently matured young. Bad weather sends the fur seals to Asiatic waters off the coasts of Japan and as far south as Mexico on the American side of the Pacific. _^<N__^<N_The migratory movements of whales seem keyed both to
reproductive behavior and to the location of food resources such as krill or plankton. The availability of plankton is much greater near the poles, so baleen whales such as the blue and humpback whale spend the temperate summers in polar oceans.
In winter, they retreat to tropical waters. In some whales this is the period when the young are born. _^<N__^<N_ Land Mammals_^<N__^<N_Few terrestrial mammals undertake the lengthy movements of the marine mammals. The migrations of large
ungulates (hoofed mammals), however, are among the most spectacular sights in nature. In the past, the North American bison and the springbok of South Africa probably were the most numerous ungulates. Today this distinction very likely belongs to
the wildebeest of the Serengeti Plain in East Africa, where the entire population of 300,000 animals makes a concerted annual migration between the short-grassed Masai Steppe and the savanna woodland region near Lake Victoria. The wildebeests,
along with less numerous zebras and gazelles, make these migrations in direct response to food availability. As the Serengeti dry season progresses, they withdraw to the woodlands until the rains begin again--or, if the rains are delayed too long,
die of starvation. _^<N__^<N_Far to the north another ungulate, the Barren Ground caribou of Alaska and Canada, spends the brief Arctic summer on the tundra, where continuous daylight causes rapid plant growth and supplies the animal with food.
Cold weather and deep winter snow drive the caribou south into the borders of the boreal forest. Through the long polar winter the caribou depend upon lichens as their only reliable food source. As with the wildebeest, a fine balance exists
between survival and starvation for the caribou. An unusually short summer or long winter will almost certainly result in death to some and, possibly, many individuals. _^<N__^<N_ MECHANISMS OF MIGRATION_^<N__^<N_At least two prerequisites must be
met for successful migration: the strength and stamina to make the journey and the ability to find the way to the goal. _^<N__^<N_ Energy Needs_^<N__^<N_Long-distance movements may demand a tremendous expenditure of energy. Among some
long-distance migrants, special physiological adaptations help prepare the animals. The energy requirements and physiological adaptations for migration in passerine birds have been studied in detail. It has been found that the energy expended in
flight may be up to 12 times as great as the standard metabolic rate. This means that birds must continuously replenish their energy resources while migrating or else have large prior reserves of energy. In some passerines the physiological
system alters metabolism in a way that causes the birds to eat large amounts of food and accumulate heavy fat depositions before migration; the bodies of some songbirds may be 40 percent fat prior to their migratory flight. During migration these
fat stores are metabolized to supply energy. _^<N__^<N_ Modes of Navigation_^<N__^<N_Navigation, the means by which animals locate themselves in space and determine their heading and progress, has been studied most extensively for birds. The
studies have identified a diversity of senses that may be used by different birds or by the same bird under different circumstances. Many birds seem capable of sensing location and heading by the position of the Sun. Celestial navigation, using
the stars, also appears quite common. On partially clouded nights the ability to navigate with only partial glimpses of the stars is probably crucial, and sophisticated planetarium experiments have demonstrated that, indeed, large blocks of the
sky may be obscured and navigation can still be effective. In addition, recent experiments indicate an ability on the part of some birds to sense magnetic fields and use these in navigation. Some species appear to use visual landmarks in addition
to other means of navigation, and a current hypothesis is that many birds have redundant sets of navigational senses that may function together or alone, depending upon prevailing environmental conditions. _^<N__^<N_Considerable information has
also been obtained on how fish, particularly salmon, find their ancestral rivers and streams upon return from the ocean. Although fish, like birds, may use a variety of senses in navigation, their olfactory sense is critically important. It has
been shown that salmon can detect miniscule levels of molecules dissolved in water through their olfactory senses. Thus they may be able to identify their home river, or a small branch thereof, merely by its odor. _^<N__^<N_J. E. Ellis
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Anderson, E. W., Animals as Navigators (1983); Baker, Robin, ed., The Mystery of Migration (1980); Jarman, Catherine, Atlas of Animal Migration (1972); McKeown, B. A., Fish Migration (1985); Mead, C., Bird Migration
(1983); Orr, Robert T., Animals in Migration (1970); Street, Philip, Animal Migration and Navigation (1976). _^<N__^<N_See also: BIOLOGICAL CLOCK.
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CAT
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animal rights
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animal rights_^<N__^<N_The concept of animal rights has come to play an important role in several areas of concern over human treatment of other animals. These areas range from the hunting and trapping of animals, to obvious cases of mistreatment
of work or sport animals or pets, to less apparent but widely accepted practices of ANIMAL EXPERIMENTATION and FACTORY FARMING, and on to broad ecological issues of human responsibility for the Earth's environment and the threat of extinction to
many ENDANGERED SPECIES. _^<N__^<N_The question of whether or not animals have any inherent rights has often been raised in religion and philosophy. The cultural history of the relationship between humans and animals is complex, but a basic
contrast might be made between cultural attitudes that have emphasized the unity of being and those that have placed humanity at the center of creation. In a religion such as JAINISM, for example, all forms of life are considered sacred and not to
be injured, whereas the predominant trend of thought in the Western world has been to consider other forms of life as subservient to human needs and desires. With the advent of modern technology and the explosive growth of human populations, this
attitude has come under serious attack by a number of persons active in the area of animal rights, for practical as well as ethical reasons. _^<N__^<N_The view of animals as nonfeeling creatures of reflex, as exemplified by Rene DESCARTES'
philosophy of science in the 17th century, has long since been undercut by other philosophical approaches and by better understanding of evolution and animal behavior. Its effects are still observable, however, in some of the ways in which animals
are used today, despite the efforts of numerous humane organizations such as the SOCIETY FOR THE PREVENTION OF CRUELTY TO ANIMALS. Animal-rights activists in the 20th century have sought, with some success, to obtain better control over the use of
animals in laboratories for scientific research and the testing of products (see VIVISECTION). A number of activists would eventually ban such use altogether and would also promote the practice of VEGETARIANISM. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Fox, M.
W., Returning to Eden: Animal Rights and Human Responsibility (1980; repr. 1986); Jasper, James M., and Nelkin, Dorothy, The Animal Rights Crusade: The Growth of a Moral Protest (1992); Klaits, Joseph and Barrie, eds., Animals and Man in
Historical Perspective (1974); Regan, Tom, The Case for Animal Rights (1983); Rowan, A. N., Of Mice, Models, and Men (1984); Singer, Peter, In Defense of Animals (1986).
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6544
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4868
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animation
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000000|animation
000727| ANIMATION TECHNIQUES
003355| HISTORY OF ANIMATION
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animation_^<N__^<N_Film animation applies techniques of cinematography to the graphic and plastic arts in order to give the illusion of life and movement to cartoons, drawings, paintings, puppets, and three-dimensional objects. Beginning with crude
and simple methods, animation has become a highly sophisticated form of filmmaking, involving the use of automation, computer, and even laser technology to achieve its effects. Some animation techniques overlap with those used to produce special
effects in live-action cinematography. In watching such films as 2001--A Space Odyssey (1968) and Star Wars (1977), a person often finds it difficult to tell whether a certain result has been achieved through animation or through special effects.
_^<N__^<N_ ANIMATION TECHNIQUES_^<N__^<N_Basic graphic animation is produced by a technique called stop-frame cinematography. The camera records, frame by frame, a sequence or succession of drawings or paintings that differ only fractionally from
one another. The illusion of progressive movement is created by projecting the series of frames through a camera at the normal rate for sound film (24 frames a second). The same method is used in puppet or object animation; the position of the
figures or objects is changed very slightly prior to each exposure. In graphic animation, the drawings may vary from the simplest outlines, as in such traditional animated films as Felix the Cat, to elaborately modeled and colored paintings, such
as those produced in Walt DISNEY's studios during the 1930s. _^<N__^<N_The first animated cartoons were produced before 1910 by pioneers such as Emile Cohl of France and Winsor McCay of the United States, whose Sinking of the Lusitania (1918) has
been called the first animated feature film. In these early productions, a simple drawing of a mobile figure was photographed against an equally simple background, and a new drawing was required for each exposure. Relief from the labor of drawing
hundreds of pictures for each minute of action came only when the figures could be made momentarily static. The evolution of cel (for celluloid) animation after 1913 enabled animators to use a single, more elaborate background for each shot or
scene in the action. The mobile figures in the foreground were inked in black silhouette on transparent celluloid sheets and then superimposed in series on the background. With the introduction of color filming early in the 1930s, animators began
to use opaque paints in place of black ink. Greater efficiency was achieved when artists began to specialize in particular figures or other mobile elements of cartoons. Such teams of animators collectively created drawings for feature-length
films, for example, Walt Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937) and Fantasia (1940). _^<N__^<N_Most animated films are recorded by an automated rostrum camera. The many improvements made in this camera since the 1950s have contributed to
the increased technical capabilities of the medium. The adjustable camera is suspended above the horizontal table on which the combination of cels, one upon the other, have been superimposed on the background and locked or pegged into position.
The cels are then successively photographed to produce a precision image offering a faultless illusion of movement. Such cinematic effects as tracking, panning, and zooming may also be achieved. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY OF ANIMATION_^<N__^<N_Since the
early, popular shorts involving such animals as Felix the Cat and Mickey Mouse, the international history of animation has been characterized by the almost constant introduction of ever more complex forms. Many advances were made in Europe: Lotte
Reiniger employed mobile silhouettes; Oskar FISCHINGER and Len Lye experimented with abstract designs choreographed to music; and George Pal of Holland created techniques of puppet animation. Since World War II, animation was increasingly used in
instructional films and in television and cinema commercials. Advanced forms of graphic design, both in black and white and in color, and new methods of puppet and object animation have been developed. From the 1940s until the early 1980s, Norman
MCLAREN, one of the versatile of all animators, experimented with three-dimensional animation and with other innovations as drawing images directly on film. _^<N__^<N_Beginning in the 1960s, films showing abstract color designs in motion were
programmed by means of computers that calculate intricate movements with amazing precision. Today, computer animation has achieved the ability to create moving images and backgrounds of great complexity. The basic tool, usually called a PAINTBOX,
is an electronic surface on which the artist draws figures and backgrounds and selects colors. Other devices manipulate the figures and change the backgrounds. The work is reproduced on a TV monitor and stored on a computer disk. Computerized
animation is widely used in television commercials, titles, and in making music videos (see VIDEO, MUSIC), and provides many of the special effects in the films of directors like George Lucas (see COMPUTER GRAPHICS, VIDEO ART). _^<N__^<N_Old-style
cel animation continues to be the sole technique by which quality animators, such as Disney Productions, create their characters. Backgrounds, and the movement of objects within a scene, however, are often computer-generated. _^<N__^<N_Television,
with its insatiable need for new material, introduced a type of semianimation in its cartoon programs for children. Compared with traditional animation, on television the movement of characters is primitive in its rendition, colors are limited,
and detail is stripped down to bare essentials. Costs of TV animation are a minute fraction of the cost for quality movie animation. For the cartoon-and-live-character film Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988), the Walt Disney Company spent $250,000
per minute to make one hour of animation. _^<N__^<N_Roger Manvell _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Culhane, S., Animation from Script to Screen (1988); Feild, Robert Durant, The Art of Walt Disney (1942); Fox, D., and Waite, M., Computer Animation Primer
(1984); Halas, John, ed., Computer Animation (1974); Halas, John, and Manvell, Roger, Art in Movement: New Directions in Animation (1970), Design in Motion (1962), and The Technique of Film Animation, 3d ed. (1971); Rubin, S., Animation: The
Art and the Industry (1984); Schneider, S.,That's All, Folks! (1988); Stephenson, Ralph, Animation in the Cinema (1967); Thomas, F., and Johnstone, O., Disney Animation: The Illusion of Life (1981). _^<N__^<N_See also: FILM, HISTORY OF.
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animism
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animism_^<N__^<N_{an'-uh-mizm} _^<N__^<N_Animism is the belief that a spirit or divinity resides within every object, controlling its existence and influencing human life and events in the natural world. Animistic religious beliefs are widespread
among PRIMITIVE SOCIETIES, particularly among those in which many different spiritual beings are believed to control different aspects of the natural and social environment. _^<N__^<N_The British anthropologist Sir Edward B. TYLOR developed the
concept of animism in the late 19th century. Tylor regarded animism as the most primitive stage in the evolution of religion. He suggested that the contemplation of dreams and trances and the observation of death led primitive peoples to conceive
of the SOUL and of human spirits, and that these spiritual conceptions were then projected onto the natural world. Although he developed no fixed evolutionary sequence, Tylor postulated that a belief in animism led to the definition of more
generalized deities and, eventually, to the worship of a single god. This evolutionary view of religion has been rejected by many 20th-century anthropologists, who tend to stress the collective, social aspects of PRIMITIVE RELIGION.
_^<N__^<N_Christian Clerk _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Frazer, J. G., The Golden Bough, 3d ed. (1935; repr. 1966); Lowie, R. H., Primitive Religion (1948; repr. 1970); Tylor, E. B., Primitive Culture (1871; repr. 1970). _^<N__^<N_See also: FETISH;
SHAMAN; TOTEM.
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466
CAT
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anion
-T-
anion_^<N__^<N_{an'-y-uhn} _^<N__^<N_An anion is an atom group or molecule that has taken on one or more additional electrons and thus attained a negative charge. Substances that dissolve in water and conduct an electric current form positively and
negatively charged atoms, or ions. During ELECTROLYSIS the negatively charged ions migrate to the positive electrode (the anode), and for this reason they were named anions by Michael FARADAY. _^<N__^<N_See also: CATION; DISSOCIATION; IONIZATION.
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590
CAT
-A-
anise
-T-
anise_^<N__^<N_{an'-is} _^<N__^<N_Anise, Pimpinella anisum, is an annual herb of the CARROT family, cultivated for aniseed, its small, fragrant fruits. Aniseed is used as a flavoring in baked goods. Its ESSENTIAL OIL is used to flavor licorice
candies, cough drops, liqueurs such as absinthe and anisette, and some tobacco blends. Anise is native to the eastern Mediterranean but is cultivated today in southern Europe and North and South America. _^<N__^<N_Chinese star anise is the dried
fruit of Illicium verum (family Illiciaceae). It is native to southeastern Asia and is also used as a flavoring. _^<N__^<N_Arthur O. Tucker
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1560
CAT
-A-
Anjou
-T-
Anjou_^<N__^<N_{ahn-zhoo'} _^<N__^<N_Anjou is a former province of western France. Straddling the Loire Valley, it is bordered on the west by Brittany and on the east by Touraine. Its name is derived from the Andes or Andecavi, a Celtic tribe
conquered by the Romans. The ANGEVIN or Plantagenet line of English kings originated in 1154, when the count of Anjou ascended the English throne as HENRY II. English kings ruled Anjou for the next 50 years. The county of Anjou was finally added to
the French crown in 1480. In 1790, Anjou was divided into Maine-et-Loire and parts of adjacent departments with its administrative center at Angers, the former provincial capital. _^<N__^<N_The north of Anjou is geologically part of the Armorican
Massif of Brittany. It is a plateau of Precambrian schists, and the characteristic Breton landscape of hedgerows and small fields prevails. The climate of Anjou is slightly milder and less rainy than that of Brittany. The principal agricultural
products are wheat, fodder crops, and beef. Here the rivers Mayenne and Sarthe converge to form the Maine River, which flows into the Loire. _^<N__^<N_Vegetables, flowers, fruit, and vineyards are important in the sheltered Loire Valley. The
vineyards extend southward over the rolling sedimentary plateau of southern Anjou. High-quality rose wines and the sparkling wines of Saumur have the widest reputations of a great variety of wines produced in the region. Angers (1990 pop., 146,163)
on the Maine and Saumur on the Loire in the east of Anjou are market centers for wines and other produce. _^<N__^<N_Timothy J. Rickard
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2225
CAT
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Ankara
-T-
Ankara_^<N__^<N_{ang'-kuh-ruh} _^<N__^<N_Ankara (formerly Angora) is the capital and second largest city of Turkey. It has a population of 2,559,471 (1990). Located in north central Anatolia, about 360 km (225 mi) east-southeast of Istanbul, Ankara
lies on the Ankara River in a broad, rolling steppe basin at an elevation of 975 m (3,200 ft). _^<N__^<N_Ankara is the governmental and commercial center of Anatolia and an important market for a variety of agricultural products and consumer goods.
The Angora goat, from which a fine grade of mohair is obtained, is raised in the surrounding area. Cement, tiles, beer, leather goods, and chemicals are manufactured in the city, and metalworking is also done. Excellent roads and railroads and
modern airline facilities connect Ankara with other cities of Turkey and with neighboring countries. _^<N__^<N_A modern, planned city, European in appearance, Ankara is the only large urban center in interior Turkey. Fine buildings line Ataturk
Boulevard, a principal thoroughfare. The mausoleum of Kemal ATATURK, founder of the Republic of Turkey, occupies one of the highest hills in the city. Nearby are the ruins of a temple erected in the 1st or 2d century BC, an ancient citadel, and the
University of Ankara (1946). Broad avenues, public gardens, museums--among them the Hittite and archaeological museums--and government buildings add to the city's attractiveness. Modern hotels furnish excellent accommodations. _^<N__^<N_Ankara has
been an important commercial city since early times. The HITTITES occupied the site about 2000 BC, and the Phrygians took over about a thousand years later. It was captured by ALEXANDER THE GREAT in 333 BC. As Angora, the city was the capital of
the Celtic kingdom of GALATIA in the 3d century BC and of the Roman province of the same name after 25 BC. It was subsequently conquered by Persians, Arabs, Seljuk Turks, European Crusaders, Mongols, and Ottoman Turks and became part of the Ottoman
Empire in 1431. Turkish nationalists established a provisional government in the city in 1920, and when the Republic of Turkey was proclaimed in 1923, it became the capital. The name was changed from Angora to Ankara in 1930. Since World War II the
population has increased rapidly. _^<N__^<N_W. A. Bladen
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21
CAT
-A-
ankh
-T-
ankh_^<N__^<N_ankh: see CROSS.
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684
CAT
-A-
ankylosaur
-T-
ankylosaur_^<N__^<N_Ankylosaurs were a widespread group of heavily armored plant-eating DINOSAURS, suborder Ankylosauria, order Ornithischia, that lived throughout the Cretaceous period until the great dinosaur extinction 65 million years ago. They
replaced the less successful stegosaurs (see STEGOSAURUS), with whom they may have shared an ancestor. Ankylosaurs had weak, tiny teeth and broad bodies and heads covered by a mosaic of bony plates. Many species also bore large spikes on the
sides and tail or had a clublike, bony mass on the tail. The hips stood higher than the front legs, and all four feet were short and broad. The animals ranged up to about 4.5 m (15 feet) in length.
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406
CAT
-A-
Ann Arbor
-T-
Ann Arbor_^<N__^<N_Ann Arbor (1990 census, 109,592), the seat of Washtenaw County in southeastern Michigan, was founded in 1824. A railroad connection to Detroit in 1839 spurred its growth as a leading agricultural center, and the University of
Michigan was established there in 1817. Ann Arbor is Michigan's leading medical center and an aeronautical, space, nuclear, chemical, and metallurgical research center.
-END-
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1315
CAT
-A-
Anna, Empress of Russia
-T-
Anna, Empress of Russia_^<N__^<N_Anna Ivanovna, b. Jan. 28, 1693, d. Oct. 17, 1740, reigned as empress of Russia from 1730 to 1740. The niece of Emperor PETER I (Peter the Great), she was married (1710) to the duke of Courland, whose Baltic
principality she controlled after his death (1711). On the death of Peter II (Peter the Great's grandson) in 1730, the leading Russian bureaucrats sought a weak ruler whom they could control, and they invited Anna to become empress under agreements
that limited her authority. She and her advisor, Ernst Johann Biron (1690-1772), accepted the agreements and then overthrew the limitations. _^<N__^<N_Anna's reign is considered one of strong German influences--as Baltic nobles took positions in
the Russian government--and of growing aristocratic control over the peasantry. In her reign also, Russia extended its influence in Poland (by the War of the POLISH SUCCESSION) and against Turkey (by the RUSSO-TURKISH WAR of 1736-39). Her death in
1740 precipitated a series of crises from which her cousin ELIZABETH emerged as empress in 1741. _^<N__^<N_L. Jay Oliva _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Curtiss, Mina, Forgotten Empress: Anna Ivanovna and Her Era, 1730-1740 (1974); Longworth, Philip,
Three Empresses: Catherine I, Anne, and Elizabeth of Russia (1972); Meehan-Waters, Brenda, Autocracy and Aristocracy (1982).
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442
CAT
-A-
Anna Comnena
-T-
Anna Comnena_^<N__^<N_{kuhm-nee'-nuh} _^<N__^<N_The historian Anna Comnena, b. Dec 1, 1083, d. after 1148, wrote the Alexiad, a partial but valuable account of the reign of her father, the Byzantine emperor ALEXIUS I. Having failed to persuade her
father to disinherit his son John in favor of her husband, Nicephorus Bryennius, Anna conspired against her brother after he became emperor (1118) as JOHN II. She retired to a convent, where she wrote the Alexiad.
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1216
CAT
-A-
Anna Karenina
-T-
Anna Karenina_^<N__^<N_{kah-ray'-nee-nah} _^<N__^<N_One of the great works of European fiction, Leo TOLSTOI's novel Anna Karenina (first published serially, 1875-77) centers on the adulterous love of an unhappily married woman for a dashing young
officer, Count Vronsky. She leaves her husband and child for the sake of Vronsky but cannot choose between son and lover. After increasingly self-destructive behavior, Anna is led finally to suicide; yet she is portrayed with so much humanity
and sympathy that the reader is irresistibly drawn to her. Anna's love for Vronsky, which is dominated by sexual passion, is contrasted throughout with the calm, family-centered love between two other characters, Konstantin Levin and Kitty, who
represent the author's humanistic ideal. Through Levin, the liberal Russian landowner, Tolstoi expressed his views on a variety of subjects, including his attachment to the land. _^<N__^<N_Edward Wasiolek _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Leavis, F. R.,
Anna Karenina and Other Essays (1967); Lubbock, Percy, The Craft of Fiction (1921; repr. 1957); Matlaw, Ralph, ed., Tolstoy: A Collection of Critical Essays (1967); Thorlby, Anthony, Tolstoy: Anna Karenina (1987); Wasiolek, Edward, Tolstoy's
Major Fiction (1978).
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419
CAT
-A-
annals
-T-
annals_^<N__^<N_Annals (Latin: "year books") originally were literary accounts of events, briefer than chronicles, which were recorded yearly or under yearly headings, frequently long after the events occurred. TACITUS wrote Roman history in the
form of annals, and churches kept Easter annals during the Middle Ages. In modern times, annals are simply records, especially the records of scholarly societies. _^<N__^<N_Jane Colville Betts
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1213
CAT
-A-
Annam
-T-
Annam_^<N__^<N_{an-nam'} _^<N__^<N_Annam is a former kingdom and French protectorate located on the central coast of what is now VIETNAM. The region was conquered by the Chinese in the 3d century BC. It was a kingdom under Chinese rule until 939
when the Annamese formed an independent state. A dynastic division in the 16th century created two domains, TONKIN on the north and COCHIN CHINA on the south. Following the dissolution of the dynasties in the late 18th century, Annam was reunited,
with French assistance, as an empire in 1802. French influence increased until 1883 when Annam was established as a French protectorate. In 1887 Annam joined the Union of INDOCHINA. _^<N__^<N_After World War II, Annam became part of Vietnam, and in
1954 was partitioned between North and South Vietnam. The last emperor of Annam, BAO DAI, abdicated in 1945, only to be returned as a French puppet. He was finally deposed in 1955 by South Vietnamese president NGO DINH DIEM. _^<N__^<N_The
population is predominantly Annamese (about 85%), and the indigenous Moi (10%) inhabit the highlands. The Annamese people can be traced to a Chinese culture of the Yuan River valley in Tonkin that existed before the Chinese conquest of the 3d
century BC. _^<N__^<N_Richard Butwell
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1123
CAT
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Annapolis
-T-
Annapolis_^<N__^<N_{an-ap'-oh-lis} _^<N__^<N_Annapolis is the capital of Maryland and the county seat of Anne Arundel County. It has a population of 33,187 (1990 census). First settled as the town of Providence in 1649, Annapolis is located 3 km
(2 mi) from the Chesapeake Bay on the Severn River. It is the site of the UNITED STATES NAVAL ACADEMY and of ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE. There is some commercial fishing and shellfishing (crabs and oysters), and numerous small boatyards service the
pleasure and commercial vessels that use the city's protected harbor. The downtown area is not radically different from its colonial plan. Narrow streets radiate from Church Circle and from State Circle, site of the historic statehouse where
George Washington resigned (1783) as commander of the Continental Army and where, a few weeks later, Congress ratified the Paris Peace Treaty. In 1786 the city hosted the Annapolis Convention, which led to the Constitutional Convention in 1787.
The city was named in honor of Princess (later to become Queen) Anne in 1694 when the colonial capital of Maryland was moved to Annapolis from St. Mary's City.
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774
CAT
-A-
Annapolis Convention
-T-
Annapolis Convention_^<N__^<N_The Annapolis Convention, a meeting of delegates from New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Pennsylvania, and Virginia in Annapolis, Md., on Sept. 11-14, 1786, was a precursor of the CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION. Too few states
were represented to carry out the original purpose of the meeting--to discuss the regulation of interstate commerce--but informal debate yielded agreement that there was a larger question at issue, namely, the inadequacy of the ARTICLES OF
CONFEDERATION. Accordingly, Alexander HAMILTON successfully proposed that the states be invited to send delegates to Philadelphia to "render the constitution of the Federal Government adequate to the exigencies of the Union." As a result, the
Constitutional Convention was convened in May 1787.
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553
CAT
-A-
Annapolis Royal
-T-
Annapolis Royal_^<N__^<N_Annapolis Royal, a Canadian town (1986 pop., 631) in southwestern Nova Scotia, is located at the mouth of the Annapolis River on the Bay of Fundy. Samuel de Champlain and Pierre du Gua de Monts, constructed Port Royal
Habitation there in 1605, making it one of the oldest colonies in North America and Canada's oldest settlement. Port Royal was the seat of the French government in ACADIA until it was captured by the British in 1710, when it took its present name
in honor of Queen Anne. It was the provincial capital from 1710 to 1749.
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542
CAT
-A-
Annapurna
-T-
Annapurna_^<N__^<N_{an-uh-poor'-nuh} _^<N__^<N_Annapurna is a 48-km-long (30-mi) massif in the Himalayas of north central Nepal. Its highest peak (Annapurna I) is at the western end and rises to 8,078 m (26,504 ft). Annapurna II, at the eastern end,
is 7,937 m (26,041 ft) high. Annapurna III (7,577 m/24,858 ft) and Annapurna IV (7,525 m/24,688 ft) lie between them. Called the Goddess of the Harvests by the Nepalese, Annapurna I was first climbed in 1950 by Maurice Herzog and his party; it was
the first mountain peak above 7,925 m (26,000 ft) to be scaled.
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638
CAT
-A-
annatto tree
-T-
annatto tree_^<N__^<N_{uh-naht'-oh} _^<N__^<N_The annatto tree (Bixa orellana) is a small, ornamental, evergreen tree of the Bixaceae family. Native to the West Indies, it is sometimes called the lipstick tree because of its use by the Indians in
making body paint. Annatto trees grow 6-9 m (20-30 ft) tall and have broad, smooth, heart-shaped leaves up to 18 cm (7 in) long. The flowers are pink to white, and the seed pods are often used in dried arrangements. The pods split in half,
disclosing many round, red seeds. The powdery material that covers the seeds is a source of annatto dye, often used to color butter, cheese, and margarine. _^<N__^<N_Charles Wilson
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503
CAT
-A-
Anne, Saint
-T-
Anne, Saint_^<N__^<N_Saint Anne is the name traditionally given to the mother of the Virgin MARY. She is not mentioned in the Bible, but her name and the legend of her life are given in the 2d-century nonbiblical Gospel of James, one of the writings
of the APOCRYPHAL NEW TESTAMENT. Artistic representations of Anne with Mary and the infant Jesus were popular during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. She is the patron saint of Brittany and of Quebec province. Feast day: July 26 (Western); July
25 (Eastern).
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2049
CAT
-A-
Anne, Queen of England, Scotland, and Ireland
-T-
Anne, Queen of England, Scotland, and Ireland_^<N__^<N_Queen Anne, b. Feb. 6, 1665, was the last English monarch to preside over cabinets and veto parliamentary legislation. The daughter of JAMES II, she remained devoted to the Church of England
despite her father's conversion to Roman Catholicism. To uphold the Anglican church, she unhesitatingly joined her brother-in-law, WILLIAM III, when he invaded (1688) England and forced her father into exile. During William's reign, Anne became
great friends with the strong-minded Sarah Churchill, later duchess of MARLBOROUGH, whom she called "Mrs. Freeman." When Anne came to the throne in 1702, she gave Sarah the highest court appointments and made her husband, the duke of MARLBOROUGH,
commander in chief in the War of the SPANISH SUCCESSION. _^<N__^<N_Anne had a mind of her own. After seven years of the war against France, she realized her subjects were tiring of it. In 1710, therefore, she employed her influence to overthrow
the Whig government, which was committed to an uncompromising peace treaty, and instituted a Tory government instead. Like her, the Tories staunchly supported the Church of England and favored an immediate peace. Anne ruthlessly broke with the
Churchills, turning for comfort to other women friends and to her chief minister, Robert HARLEY, who concluded the Peace of Utrecht (1713). _^<N__^<N_Anne adored her husband, Prince George of Denmark. Despite frequent pregnancies, however, none of
her children survived childhood. Suffering from constant ill health, she enjoyed cards and gossip as distractions. Through overeating she grew fat and finally had to be hoisted into her coach. Patriotic and conscious of her rights, she aimed at
improving her people's welfare, and they loved her. She died on Aug. 1, 1714, as members of her privy council jostled for power around her deathbed. She was succeeded by the Hanoverian GEORGE I. _^<N__^<N_Maurice Ashley _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Curtis, Gila, Life and Times of Queen Anne (1972); Green, David B., Queen Anne (1970); Gregg, Edward, Queen Anne (1984).
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808
CAT
-A-
Anne of Austria
-T-
Anne of Austria_^<N__^<N_Anne of Austria, b. Sept. 22, 1601, d. Jan. 20, 1666, was the wife of LOUIS XIII of France and, after his death (1643), regent during the boyhood of her son LOUIS XIV. The daughter of PHILIP III of Spain, she went to France
upon her marriage in 1615. In 1637 she was found by the principal minister, Cardinal RICHELIEU, to be secretly corresponding with the rulers of Spain, with whom France was at war. As regent, however, she continued Richelieu's anti-Spanish policy,
relying upon his successor, Cardinal MAZARIN. Her support for Mazarin enabled him to survive the revolts of the FRONDE (1648-53), and they governed France together until the minister's death in 1661. _^<N__^<N_J. H. M. Salmon
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Anthony, Evelyn, The Cardinal and the Queen (1968); Kleinman, Ruth, Anne of Austria (1986).
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541
CAT
-A-
Anne of Brittany
-T-
Anne of Brittany_^<N__^<N_Anne of Brittany, b. Jan. 25, 1477, d. Jan. 9, 1514, inherited the French duchy of Brittany in 1488 and took care to preserve its autonomy in her two marriages to kings of France: CHARLES VIII (1491) and LOUIS XII (1499).
An earlier proxy marriage (1490) to Maximilian of Austria (later Holy Roman Emperor MAXIMILIAN I) was broken off when Charles VIII attacked Brittany. Anne's daughter by Louis, Claude, married the future FRANCIS I of France in 1514, and Brittany was
finally incorporated into the French kingdom in 1532.
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438
CAT
-A-
Anne of Cleves
-T-
Anne of Cleves_^<N__^<N_Anne of Cleves, b. Sept. 22, 1515, d. July 16, 1557, was the fourth wife of HENRY VIII of England. The marriage was arranged to secure an alliance between Henry and Anne's brother, the duke of Cleves, a powerful German
Protestant prince. Henry tired of Anne, and the marriage was annulled after only six months--January to July 1540. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Barnes, M. C., Lady of Cleves (1972); Watson, Julia, Anne of Cleves (1972).
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3166
CAT
-A-
annealing
-T-
annealing_^<N__^<N_{uh-nee'-ling} _^<N__^<N_Annealing is a method of heating and cooling a metal, alloy, or glass under precise controls to remove internal stresses and make the material more ductile and less brittle. The method is applied after a
metal has been shaped by forging, extruding, rolling, or drawing, at temperatures where softening does not occur (cold-working). At this point the metal tends to resist further working, and a condition known as work-hardening occurs. If the metal
is worked after HARDENING, it will crack or break. Annealing returns the metal to its original state so that it can be worked further. _^<N__^<N_The process of annealing can be best explained by reference to the microscopic structure of metallic
crystals, since the arrangement of atoms in a metal is extremely important in determining its properties. The atoms in a crystal normally form a regular pattern; a metal, in turn, is made up of many crystals whose tops are all aligned in planes,
called slip planes, similar to the arrangement of cards in a deck. A deck of cards placed on a table can be spread sideways or endwise and can be lengthened in either direction without entirely separating the cards; a similar phenomenon occurs in
metals. As force is applied to a single grain of metal, the grain distorts along the slip planes, expanding like the deck of cards. Metals in this condition are said to be ductile and easily worked. As cold-work is applied to the metal, however,
the crystalline structure changes. The original grain slips, distorts, and reorients so that instead of having a single grain with all the slip planes parallel, the structure is now composed of grain fragments. The slip planes within all these
grain fragments are oriented in different directions, destroying the continuity of the individual slip planes in the original grain. The fragmented or broken grain structure increases the hardness of the metal and its resistance to further working.
_^<N__^<N_Heating affects cold-worked metal in two stages, recovery and recrystallization. Recovery occurs as the temperature of the cold-worked metal is gradually raised. Internal stresses are relieved as the atoms in the metal rearrange
themselves into the positions that they occupied in the preworked state. Recrystallization occurs as the temperature of the metal is raised further and nuclei for the growth of new, stress-free crystals begin to form. The higher the temperature,
the more nuclei are precipitated. As these nuclei form in cold-worked metal, the stress-free crystals exhibit most of the original physical properties of the metal. _^<N__^<N_The degree of softening resulting from an annealing treatment depends on
the temperature to which a metal is heated as well as the length of time for which it is heated. The time and temperature of heating are inversely related. Different metals require different annealing times and temperatures, which are carefully
regulated to gain the optimum structure development. _^<N__^<N_Phillip W. Morton and John F. Kane _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Cottrell, A. H., Introduction to Metallurgy, 2d ed. (1975); Van Laarhoven, P. J., and Aarts, E. H., Simulated Annealing
annelid_^<N__^<N_{an'-uh-lid} _^<N__^<N_Annelids, including the familiar EARTHWORM and LEECH, are a phylum, Annelida, of about 8,700 or more species of segmented worms found in almost every variety of moist habitat. Diverse in appearance, habitat,
and mode of living, all are divided into externally visible segments. Such segmentation is thought to have evolved as an adaptation for burrowing, but marine and freshwater species may also swim freely or wander on the bottom, and some leeches live
entirely as parasites. Annelids are important because they aerate the soil; they also serve as food and bait, and leeches have been used medicinally. _^<N__^<N_The segments reflect the annelid's internal structure. In general, each segment contains
a similar arrangement of connected nerves and blood vessels and pairs of excretory organs. The body cavity, or COELOM, between the gut and the muscular body wall is also segmented into membranous partitions (septa) and is filled with an
incompressible fluid that functions as a skeleton when the body wall muscles contract, allowing rapid movement. In more specialized annelids, some segments may be greatly modified for different functions; for example, they may bear gills. Annelids
have eyespots (light-sensitive cells) or eyes; a few marine worms have eyes similar in complexity of structure to the human eye. Reproduction ranges from asexual budding to hermaphrodism to true sexual differentiation. _^<N__^<N_Annelids probably
evolved from the FLATWORMS and are thought to have given rise to the ARTHROPODS. The three classes of annelids are the POLYCHAETES (marine worms, usually bearing bristles, or setae, and lateral appendages called parapodia); Oligochaeta (earthworms
and many freshwater worms, usually without setae); and Hirudinea (the leeches). Sometimes marine worms are split into two further classes: Archiannelida (primitive forms without parapodia) and Myzostomaria (parasitic forms with sucker mouths).
_^<N__^<N_Stephen C. Reingold _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Edwards, C. A., and Lofty, J. R., Biology of Earthworms, 2d ed. (1977); Klemm, D. J., A Guide to the Freshwater Annelida (1985).
-END-
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2556
CAT
-A-
Annenberg (family)
-T-
Annenberg (family)_^<N__^<N_Moses Annenberg was the founder--and his son Walter his successor and the present head--of Triangle Publications, until recent years one of the world's largest publishing conglomerates. Moses Louis Annenberg, b. East
Prussia, Feb. 11, 1878, d. July 20, 1942, immigrated with his family to Chicago in 1885. The young Annenberg began his publishing career by soliciting newspaper subscriptions for the Hearst Evening American and quickly demonstrated a talent for
the often ruthless business of circulation building: by 1920 he was head of circulation for all Hearst publications. In 1922 he began building his own communications empire with the purchase of the Daily Racing Form. At the peak of his power, in
the late 1930s, he controlled several racing newspapers and most of the wire services that transmitted race results to illegal betting parlors; he had also bought (1936) the Philadelphia Inquirer, a languishing newspaper whose circulation soon
soared under Annenberg, although his aggressive sales techniques and the extreme politicization of the paper made him many enemies. A federal investigation of his wire-service monopoly led to its dissolution in 1939. The same year, Annenberg was
found guilty of income-tax evasion and served almost two years in prison before his death. _^<N__^<N_Walter Hubert Annenberg, the son of Moses Annenberg, b. Milwaukee, Wis., Mar. 13, 1908, made several successful additions to the properties of
Triangle Publications, the corporation that controls the Annenberg holdings. Most notably, he founded the magazines Seventeen (1944) and TV Guide (1953). Annenberg was named ambassador to Great Britain by President Richard Nixon in 1969 (at which
point he sold the Inquirer), and he served for four years. Known for his philanthropies, he established several charitable trusts and founded the Annenberg School of Communications at the University of Pennsylvania. In March 1991, Annenberg
announced that he would bequeath his vast art collection, reputedly worth $1 billion or more, to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. The renowned collection includes works by Renoir, Monet, van Gogh, and Picasso. In June 1993,
Annenberg announced that he was donating a total of $365 million to the University of Southern California, the University of Pennsylvania, Harvard University, and the Peddie School in New Jersey, a private preparatory school that Annenberg had
attended. The donation was the largest single gift ever made to private education in the history of the United States.
-END-
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867
CAT
-A-
annexation
-T-
annexation_^<N__^<N_In international law, annexation is the act by which a state unilaterally declares its sovereignty over territory outside its borders. Annexation effected by the threat or use of military force is not recognized as legitimate in
international law, and the Charter of the United Nations holds that self-determination by the inhabitants of a territory is the only legitimate means of transferring territory. Forcible annexations have often been made to appear acceptable to the
inhabitants of the annexed territory, as in the German annexation of Austria (the Anschluss) in 1938 or the Indian annexation of Sikkim in 1974-75. _^<N__^<N_Within a state, the term annexation refers to the act by which municipal governments
assert jurisdiction over adjacent unincorporated areas. This generally, but not always, requires formal approval by the voters of the annexed area.
-END-
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1641
CAT
-A-
annihilation
-T-
annihilation_^<N__^<N_In physics, annihilation is a process in which a particle and an antiparticle combine and release their rest energy. This released energy can appear in the form of MESONS and PHOTONS. The annihilation of particles was first
observed when a positron and an electron collided and "disappeared," releasing energy in the form of gamma rays. Conversely, the production of a particle-antiparticle pair by gamma rays of sufficient energy is called creation. Annihilation can
occur when particles and antiparticles are moving with respect to each other at a significant velocity (annihilation "in flight"), or when the two particles--with opposite electric charges--form a temporary atomlike liaison (annihilation "at
rest"). The electron-positron bound system thus formed is called positronium and is one of the most thoroughly investigated systems. The lowest energy level of this system comprises two states, so-called orthopositronium, with electron-positron
spins parallel, and parapositronium, with spins opposite or antiparallel. These two states have markedly different properties: parapositronium normally annihilates into two photons; orthopositronium, into three photons. The three-photon process
(approximately (10 to the power of - 7) sec) is some 1,000 times slower than the two-photon one and is slow enough to be readily observed. The annihilation of antiprotons and protons (or neutrons and antineutrons) is a much more complex and less
thoroughly understood process. The most frequent products are pions (charged and neutral); the productions of kaons and gamma rays are less probable. _^<N__^<N_See also: FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES.
-END-
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630
CAT
-A-
annuity
-T-
annuity_^<N__^<N_An annuity is, in its strict sense, a payment made every year; but it has come to mean payments made at other regular intervals. Thus an annuity is a contract to pay someone a regular income. For example, a person retiring at the
age of 65 may purchase an annuity from an insurance company, guaranteeing a monthly income for a fixed number of years or for life. Life insurance policies often have a provision that at the age of retirement the cash value of the insurance may be
used to purchase an annuity. Purchasers of annuities are, in effect, pooling their funds to insure themselves against "outliving" their incomes.
anodizing_^<N__^<N_{an'-oh-dyz-ing} _^<N__^<N_Anodizing is a process in which the surface of a metal, usually aluminum, is converted by electrolytic oxidation into a coating. Anodizing can be thought of as the opposite of ELECTROPLATING, in which a
metallic coating is deposited on the surface of the metal. During anodizing, the coating grows inward from the surface of the metal. Because the coating is actually the converted surface of the aluminum, it has excellent adherence and is said to
be integral with the aluminum. The aluminum serves as the anode, and another metal, or carbon, serves as the cathode during anodizing. The electrolyte into which the aluminum is placed is an acid, usually sulfuric or chromic. An electric current
is applied to the cell, converting the aluminum surface into a coating of aluminum oxide. Coloring can also be incorporated into the anodizing process. Anodized aluminum is widely used for structural and decorative material in buildings, for
transportation and automotive parts, for consumer products, and for lighting fixtures and electrical applications. _^<N__^<N_Phillip W. Morton and John F. Kane _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Brown, D. V., Metallurgy Basics (1983).
-END-
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839
CAT
-A-
anointing of the sick
-T-
anointing of the sick_^<N__^<N_Anointing of the sick is a rite of Christian healing recognized as a SACRAMENT by the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches. Its biblical basis is found in Mark 6:13 and James 5:14-15. The sacrament is intended for the
seriously ill but is not restricted to those at the point of death; for that reason it is no longer known as "extreme unction." It consists of a laying on of hands by a priest, a prayer of faith, and an anointing with holy oil. It is believed that
the sacrament grants forgiveness of sins, effects strength of soul, and even restores health to the body should that be God's will. Anointing of the sick is included in the Episcopal Book of Common Prayer as a sacramental rite for the healing of
spirit, mind, and body. It is also used by other Christians as part of a healing ministry. _^<N__^<N_L. L. Mitchell
-END-
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676
CAT
-A-
Anoplura
-T-
Anoplura_^<N__^<N_{an-oh-plur'-uh} _^<N__^<N_Anoplura is an INSECT order containing about 250 species of sucking (in contrast to biting) lice that feed on the blood of mammals. They are wingless, flat, and almost blind. Their claws are adapted for
clinging to the host's body hair. Lice that are parasitic on the human head and body can transmit TYPHUS. _^<N__^<N_The following are the four families of sucking lice in the United States: Echinophthiriidae (parasites of marine mammals);
Haematopinidae (parasites of domestic and wild livestock); Phthiriidae (human pubic lice); and Pediculidae (human head and body lice). The last two are often grouped together in the family Pediculidae. _^<N__^<N_See also: LOUSE.
-END-
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2029
CAT
-A-
anorexia nervosa
-T-
anorexia nervosa_^<N__^<N_{an-uh-rek'-see-uh nair-voh'-suh} _^<N__^<N_Anorexia nervosa is a psychosomatic disorder typified by self-starvation. It occurs most commonly among adolescent females but is also observed in older women and in men. For
reasons that are not known, in recent years anorexia nervosa has become more common, and the incidence among young women in the United States may be as high as 1 percent. _^<N__^<N_The disorder may appear when a young woman leaves home, or it may
develop in connection with mental depression, peer pressure to lose weight, sexual temptation, the use of psychedelic drugs, or the discontinuance of oral contraceptives. _^<N__^<N_At the outset the patient either stops menstruating or simply
refuses to eat. In the first case, the patient later stops eating; in the second, her menstrual periods eventually cease. In either case, she may lose weight to the point of life-threatening exhaustion. The patient sleeps poorly but, despite
weight loss, remains physically active and believes she is much fatter than she actually is. Her body temperature may be low. In an associated condition called BULIMIA, the patient repeatedly gorges herself but then expels the food through
self-induced vomiting. _^<N__^<N_The symptoms suggest that anorexia nervosa may sometimes be associated with a disorder of the hypothalamus, a region of the brain that regulates menstruation, eating, body temperature, and sleep. About half of all
anorexic patients recover permanently. About 10 percent die of self-starvation, and the rest have repeated relapses. _^<N__^<N_Herbert Weiner, M.D. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Abraham, Suzanne, and Llewellyn-Jones, Derek, Eating Disorders: The Facts
(1985); Bruch, Hilde, Conversations With Anorexics,(1988), Eating Disorders (1979); Dally, Peter, and Gomez, Joan, Anorexia Nervosa (1980); Lawrence, Marilyn, The Anorexic Experience (1985); Michell, J. E., ed., Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia:
DiaEgnosis and Treatment (1985); Romeo, F. P., Understanding AnRorexia Nervosa (1986); Squire, Susan, The Slender Balance (1983).
-END-
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24
CAT
-A-
anorthite:
-T-
anorthite:_^<N__^<N_see FELDSPAR.
-END-
-C-
30
CAT
-A-
anorthosite:
-T-
anorthosite:_^<N__^<N_see IGNEOUS ROCK.
-END-
-C-
628
CAT
-A-
Another Country
-T-
Another Country_^<N__^<N_Another Country (1962), James BALDWIN's third novel, is a powerful study of love and sexuality among several blacks and whites living in New York City. The politics of the racial situation in America are reflected in these
relationships, some tender, some sadistic. The individuals in the novel can only rarely and briefly transcend the political realities in their personal encounters. Another Country has been faulted for its anger, but most critics consider anger a
valid emotional tone for the novel's theme, a disturbing revelation of the frustration and desperation of American blacks. _^<N__^<N_Charlotte D. Solomon
-END-
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2064
CAT
-A-
Anouilh, Jean
-T-
Anouilh, Jean_^<N__^<N_{ah-noo-ee'} _^<N__^<N_One of the most popular French dramatists since World War II, Jean Anouilh, b. June 23, 1910, d. Oct. 3, 1987, was sometimes called a mere entertainer. Choreography and music are often integrated
into his plots; yet a seriousness and an underlying pessimistic view of life lies beneath his farce and caricature. His protagonists usually reject compromise--and thus life. The result is either death or a retreat into illusion that becomes
untenable. Happy resolutions are patently like fairy tales. His lovers are usually confronted by insurmountable money problems because one is poor and the other wealthy. _^<N__^<N_Anouilh's collected works are color titled after the dominant mood
of each. His two collections of pieces noires, or black plays, include Eurydice (1941), which is a modernization of the ORPHEUS legend, and Antigone (1944), an immensely popular and frequently performed modernization of Sophocles' play set in
World War II France. It stresses the grim choice between practical compromise and unbending idealism. The best of the pink, or lighter, plays are Thieves' Carnival (1938; Eng. trans., 1952) and Time Remembered (1939; Eng. trans., 1955). The
witty pieces brillantes, or glittering plays, include Ring Round the Moon (1947; Eng. trans., 1950), Colombe (1951; Eng. trans., 1952), and The Rehearsal (1950; Eng. trans., 1961). The pieces grincantes, or grating plays, return to the
caustic earlier mood and include four devastating comedies: Ardele (1949; Eng. trans., 1959), The Waltz of the Toreadors (1952; Eng. trans., 1956), Ornifle (1955; Eng. trans., 1970), and Poor Bitos, or The Masked Dinner (1956; Eng. trans.,
1963). _^<N__^<N_Of Anouilh's pieces costumees, or history plays, the most important are The Lark (1953; Eng. trans., 1955), about Joan of Arc, and Becket, or The Honor of God (1959; Eng. trans., 1962). _^<N__^<N_Myron Matlaw
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Archer, Marguerite, Jean Anouilh (1971); McIntyre, H. G., The Theatre of Jean Anouilh (1981); Pronko, Leonard C., The World of Jean Anouilh (1961).
-END-
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297
CAT
-A-
Ansari
-T-
Ansari_^<N__^<N_{ahn-sahr'-ee} _^<N__^<N_Ansari, b. May 4, 1006, d. 1089, was a Persian mystic, poet, and theologian of great eminence and lasting influence. He wrote a number of works in both Arabic and Persian, but his most famous is the Munajat,
a collection of mystical prayers in rhymed prose. _^<N__^<N_Jerome W. Clinton
-END-
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3452
CAT
-A-
Anselm, Saint
-T-
Anselm, Saint_^<N__^<N_Saint Anselm, b. c.1033, d. Apr. 21, 1109, was an Italian-born archbishop of Canterbury and philosopher, considered the father of SCHOLASTICISM. He crossed the Alps into France at the age of 23 in search of learning. By 1059
he had reached the Benedictine school directed by LANFRANC at Bec in Normandy, where he became a monk. _^<N__^<N_Following the Norman conquest of England (1066), Lanfranc was installed (1070) as archbishop of Canterbury, and a large community of
Benedictine monks accompanied him. After Lanfranc's death in 1089, the see of Canterbury remained vacant until King WILLIAM II, gravely ill, nominated Anselm in 1093. With great reluctance Anselm consented and was consecrated archbishop of
Canterbury on Dec. 4, 1093. But when William recovered, a 13-year struggle began between Anselm and the kings of England concerning the rights of the church over English sees, revenues, lay investiture (see INVESTITURE CONTROVERSY), property, and
the primacy of the pope in the English church. Twice Anselm was exiled by successive kings. During these years of church-state struggle, Anselm wrote his greatest theological work, Cur Deus Homo (Why God Became Man, 1098), in which theology as
"faith seeking understanding" reached exceptional heights in the form of a dialogue that all could easily grasp. _^<N__^<N_Perhaps no other medieval writing has received as much philosophical attention as Anselm's Proslogion. The argument presented
there has come to be called the ontological proof for the existence of GOD. Simply expressed, the argument holds that even one who denies the existence of God knows what is meant by the term, namely, "a being greater than which none can be
conceived." Such a notion cannot exist only in the mind, however, for to exist in the mind and in reality is greater than to exist only in the mind. Therefore, there must necessarily be in reality a being greater than which none can be conceived.
For Anselm this definition constituted the ultimate ground for all that is believed and taught about God, namely, his unity, his Trinity, his incarnation, and his redemption of humankind from sin. Although many philosophers since Anselm have
accepted this ontological argument, others have rejected it as an illicit inference from the mental to the physical order of existence. _^<N__^<N_Although Anselm was called blessed by his successor, Theobald, and was venerated as a holy man by the
monks, it was a later successor, Saint Thomas BECKET, who initiated the cause of Anselm's canonization. Although he was never formally canonized, a calendar of Christ Church, Canterbury, dating before the martyrdom of Becket (Dec. 29, 1170),
twice refers to Anselm as saint. For more than four centuries he has been honored as a doctor of the church. Both as theologian and philosopher, Anselm is credited as having the most luminous and penetrating intellect between Saint AUGUSTINE,
whom he closely followed, and Saint Thomas AQUINAS. Feast day: Apr. 21. _^<N__^<N_James A. Weisheipl _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Charlesworth, M. J., St. Anselm's Proslogion (1965); Evans, G. R., Anselm and a New Generation (1980); Evans, R.,
Anselm (1989); Hopkins, Jasper, Companion to the Study of St. Anselm (1972) and a New Interpretive Translation of St. Anselm's Monologion and Proslogian (1986); Jaspers, Karl, Anselm and Nicholas of Cusa, ed. by Hannah Arendt, trans. by Ralph
Mannheim (1974); Southern, R. W., Saint Anselm and His Biographer (1963).
-END-
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1601
CAT
-A-
Ansermet, Ernest
-T-
Ansermet, Ernest_^<N__^<N_{ahn-sair-may'} _^<N__^<N_Ernest Ansermet, b. Nov. 11, 1883, d. Feb. 20, 1969, was an outstanding Swiss conductor and musical scholar. His principal importance was as the founder, in 1918, of the notable Orchestre de la
Suisse Romande in Geneva, which he conducted until his retirement in 1967, as well as his brilliant interpretative advocacy of such composers as Claude Debussy, Sergei Prokofiev, Maurice Ravel, and Igor Stravinsky. _^<N__^<N_A trained
mathematician, Ansermet also studied music in Switzerland and Paris. An early meeting with Stravinsky led to his important collaboration with the BALLETS RUSSES DE SERGE DIAGHILEV. He toured Europe and both Americas frequently as a conductor.
_^<N__^<N_Ansermet composed and orchestrated various works and wrote numerous articles and books; his most important book is Les fondements de la musique dans la conscience humaine (The Foundations of Music in the Human Consciousness; 2 vols.,
1961). _^<N__^<N_Leonard Pearlman _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Heyworth, Peter, "Standard-bearer for Stravinsky," Music and Musicians, April 1969; Sargeant, Winthrop, "Ernest Ansermet," Opera News 33, no. 29 (April 5, 1969); Schonberg, Harold C., The
Great Conductors (1967). _^<N__^<N_Discography: Bartok, Bela, Concerto for Orchestra and Music for Strings, Percussion, and Celesta; Beethoven, Ludwig van, Symphonies Nos. 1-9; Brahms, Johannes, Symphonies Nos. 1-4; Debussy, Claude, La Mer,
Nocturnes; Franck, Cesar, Symphony in D Minor; Haydn, Joseph, Symphonies Nos. 82-87; Stravinsky, Igor, Apollo, Firebird, Les Noces, Petrouchka, The Rite of Spring, Symphonies of Wind Instruments, Symphony of Psalms.
-END-
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955
CAT
-A-
Anshan (An-shan)
-T-
Anshan (An-shan)_^<N__^<N_{ahn'-shahn'} _^<N__^<N_Anshan (An-shan) is a city in Liaoning province, southern Manchuria, China. Located about 90 km (55 m) southwest of Shenyang (Mukden), it has a population of 1,330,000 (1988 est.). The site of
China's largest iron and steel complex, Anshan's manufactures include farm machinery, building materials, chemicals, textiles, porcelain, and electrical appliances. _^<N__^<N_The city was first settled in 1387. After extensive destruction during
the Boxer Rebellion, it was rebuilt in 1909 as an industrial city. In 1917-18 the Japanese established steelworks there. In 1945 invading Soviet forces dismantled the factories, but they were rebuilt after 1949 and played a major role in the
First Five-Year Plan (1953-58). The blast furnaces were damaged again in 1967 during the Cultural Revolution but have since been rebuilt. Its places of interest include a 10th-century Buddhist hermitage and the nearby Tanggangzi Hot Springs Park.
-END-
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982
CAT
-A-
Ansky, Shloime
-T-
Ansky, Shloime_^<N__^<N_{an'-skee, shloy'-may} _^<N__^<N_A Yiddish folklorist, dramatist, and author of numerous Hasidic tales and Jewish legends, Shloime Ansky, b. 1863, d. Nov. 8, 1920, attained fame among the Jewish people of his native Russia
with his hymn "Di Shvue" (The Oath). It was composed for the Bund, the Jewish socialist movement founded in 1897. He rose to international fame with his tragedy The Dybbuk (1919), which has enjoyed thousands of performances in many languages since
its Yiddish premiere in Vilna, Lithuania, in 1920. It was first filmed in 1934, has often been shown on television since 1960, was set as an opera in 1963, and was choreographed as a ballet in 1974. The dybbuk is a demon who takes possession of a
young woman until exorcised. The play, with its tender love story, gives insight into the world of HASIDISM with its joy, its longing for saintliness, and its faith in divine justice. _^<N__^<N_Sol Liptzin _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Landis, Joseph C.,
The Great Jewish Plays (1972).
-END-
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644
CAT
-A-
Anson, George Anson, Baron
-T-
Anson, George Anson, Baron_^<N__^<N_Lord Anson, b. Shugborough, Staffordshire, England, Apr. 23, 1697, d. June 6, 1762, was a British admiral best known for his account of his world journey (1740-44), published as Voyage round the World (1748).
The voyage, for the purpose of interfering with Spanish shipping in the Pacific, began with six ships, but various mishaps finally left only the Centurion. With that ship in 1743, Anson captured a Spanish galleon, recovering a treasure worth about
500,000 pounds sterling. Lord Anson, who twice served as first lord of the Admiralty (1751-56, 1757-62), was active in the reorganization of the Royal Navy.
-END-
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11981
CATO
4797
9584
-A-
ant
-O-
000000|ant
000755| FORM AND FUNCTION
004405| SPECIALIZED COLONIES
004426| Army Ants
005270| Fungus-Growing Ants
005932| Harvester Ants
006522| Gatherers and Herders
007524| Parasitic and Slave-Making Ants
008488| ANTS AND HUMANS
009155| CLASSIFICATION AND ORIGIN
-T-
ant_^<N__^<N_Ants are no doubt the most successful of all the social insects of the HYMENOPTERA, an order that also includes the social WASPS and BEES. Ants are colony makers and have inhabited the warmer environments of the Earth for at least 100
million years. Their numbers are prodigious: it has been estimated that at any one time there are at least 1 quadrillion living ants on the Earth--a number so large that it is almost meaningless. These individuals are members of some 5,000, or
perhaps as many as 10,000, species. Ants are remarkably adaptive and are found almost everywhere. In their feeding habits they range from species that specialize in feeding exclusively on ARTHROPOD eggs to those that feed indiscriminately on any
living or dead animal. _^<N__^<N_ FORM AND FUNCTION_^<N__^<N_Ant colonies may contain from a few to upward of 20 million individuals. They consist of two or more castes and subcastes of females, and males that are winged and appear only
periodically in the life of the colony. The males are produced, as in all other Hymenoptera, from unfertilized eggs, and serve only to fertilize the queens. The females, on the other hand, develop from fertilized eggs and are the functional
mainstay of the colony. Most are wingless, nonreproductive workers and perform the life-maintaining tasks of the colony. Some are queens, usually winged; once inseminated, they produce large numbers of eggs from which the LARVAE hatch. These
immature ants are fed and cared for by the workers. In polymorphic species--those in which the workers vary in size--worker subcastes are sometimes distinguishable. This is especially true for the largest, or major, workers, which are often
referred to as soldiers. In such species a division of labor correlated with worker size may be evident. Small, or minima, workers may, for instance, tend the larvae, while the larger workers, called media or majors, forage for food.
_^<N__^<N_The body of an ant is divided into three major parts: a head, with elbowed or geniculate ANTENNAE and variable mandibles; an alitrunk, or mesosoma, which is part thorax and part abdomen and to which the wings (when present) and legs are
attached; and a viscera-containing gaster, which is attached to the alitrunk by a one- or two-segmented waist. In addition to the unique metapleural glands, the queens and workers possess a crop that, when dammed by the proventriculus, serves as a
storage tank for liquids. This storage capability makes it possible for these ants to regurgitate food for larvae and for other adults. _^<N__^<N_When new males and queens emerge from a colony, they usually engage in a nuptial flight, during which
fertilization occurs. The male dies soon after the flight, but the female drops to the ground, sheds her wings, and either is adopted by an existing colony or sequesters herself in a cavity, where she founds a new colony. _^<N__^<N_Ants pass
through a developmental sequence that includes the egg, larva, pupa, and adult. Whether an egg will eventually develop into a worker or a queen depends mainly on the amount and kind of food fed to the larvae. As a colony matures, it eventually
contains overlapping generations in which adults care for the young. _^<N__^<N_Ants have an elaborate system of communication, which includes visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory signals. Gustatory interaction is accomplished through
the oral exchange of food, or trophallaxis, a behavior pattern of critical importance to social organization in ants. Olfactory communication is achieved through the release of chemicals called PHEROMONES, which permit ants to signal alarm, lay
trails, and attract sister workers to new food sources. _^<N__^<N_Ants usually live in nests excavated in the soil or wood or housed in a variety of natural cavities. However, some army ants form temporary nests, or bivouacs, that consist entirely
of the ants themselves, suspended from one another and a supporting object. The nest is a living ball or cylinder of ants. Other ants construct carton nests of macerated plant tissue, and some, such as the African weaver ant, make their nests of
living leaves held in place by larval silk. When fashioning the nest, the workers of this species carry the larvae about. Still other ants, of the genus Pseudomyrmex, reside in the swollen thorns of acacia trees and feed on the trees, but also
protect them from leaf-eating insects and competitive vegetation. _^<N__^<N_ SPECIALIZED COLONIES_^<N__^<N_ Army Ants_^<N__^<N_Many ant species have specialized ways of obtaining food. Among the more dramatic is army ant behavior, which includes
group predation and nomadism. The former involves both group raiding and group retrieval of prey. Because the workers forage en masse for food, they are able to overcome and capture other social insects and large ARTHROPODS. The colonies
frequently migrate to new nesting sites where food is abundant. New World species of Eciton and Neivamyrmex have alternating stationary and nomadic phases. During the stationary phase, the colony remains at one nest site for two or three weeks
while the queen, which never possesses wings, lays a batch of eggs. During the nomadic phase, the colony changes its nest site every day for about three weeks. In the Old World, the army ants include the notorious driver ants. _^<N__^<N_
Fungus-Growing Ants_^<N__^<N_Ants of the New World tribe Attini are highly specialized HERBIVORES that cultivate subterranean fungus gardens on fecal or plant-derived substrates. This fungus serves as the sole food of these ants. Attines of the
genus Atta are called "leaf cutters" because they gather green leaves, which they masticate and on which they grow their fungus. Atta workers fertilize their gardens with fecal fluid, which contains amino acids and enzymes that help the fungus
break down leaf proteins. Because the ants cannot digest the cellulose in these macerated leaves, and the fungus can, the ants gain access to the cellulose by eating the fungus. _^<N__^<N_ Harvester Ants_^<N__^<N_Many ants feed on seeds. Some,
called harvesters, live in arid environments and depend almost totally on seeds. They belong to the subfamily Myrmicinae. Most harvesters, such as Pogonomyrmex, construct elaborate subterranean nests that reach depths of 2 m (6 ft) or more. The
nests contain some chambers devoted entirely to the storage of seeds and are sometimes topped by a mound of gravel and sand. Workers clear all vegetation from a circular space around the nest some 1 to 10 m (3 to 33 ft) wide. Harvesters generally
husk the collected seeds before storing them. _^<N__^<N_ Gatherers and Herders_^<N__^<N_Some ants gather plant liquids directly from wounds and nectaries. Still others, mainly of the subfamilies Dolichoderinae and Formicinae, collect honeydew--a
substance excreted by insects such as APHIDS and TREEHOPPERS. These insects, of the order HOMOPTERA, feed on plant juices (they have piercing-sucking mouthparts that enable them to obtain juices). Although the nutrient-rich juices first pass
through the homopteran's digestive tract, the honeydew excreted through the anus still contains many nutrients. Some ants simply lick fallen honeydew, whereas others actively solicit it and directly imbibe the droplets as they form at the anal
opening. The homopterans are protected from predators by the ants, which may even construct shelters over their "cows." In some ant species, certain workers called repletes store plant liquids in their crops. Suspended from the ceilings of the
nest chambers, these immobilized, swollen repletes become living casks for other ants. _^<N__^<N_ Parasitic and Slave-Making Ants_^<N__^<N_Some ants have entered into parasitic relations with other ants. Two or more species may form compound
nests, in which the broods are maintained separately and the parasitic species obtains food from the host species. Although compound nests may be nonparasitic, another category, called mixed colonies, almost always results from social parasitism.
In these the broods of the involved species are mixed and cared for as one. Some parasitic ants are permanent residents of the host colony and are so specialized that they have lost the worker caste. Slave making also results in mixed colonies.
Slave-making species raid other colonies and steal worker pupae that they enslave to carry out the work of their colonies. Some species, such as the Amazon ants of the genus Polyergus, are so specialized for capturing slaves that they can neither
forage for themselves nor care for their young; without slaves they quickly perish. _^<N__^<N_ ANTS AND HUMANS_^<N__^<N_Ants can be both harmful and beneficial to humans. Pest species include ants that harbor and protect homopterans that in turn
damage plants; Atta leaf cutters that defoliate entire trees and pose a threat to tropical agriculture; harvesters that can strip rangeland of vegetation and thus promote erosion; carpenter ants that can damage wooden structures; and the red
fire ant, which not only inflicts a painful sting but also causes millions of dollars in crop losses and pest control expenses. On the other hand, some ant species are used to protect certain crops, such as cotton, sugarcane, and mandarin orange
trees, from other insect pests. _^<N__^<N_ CLASSIFICATION AND ORIGIN_^<N__^<N_Ants form a single family, the Formicidae, in the order Hymenoptera. They differ from other Hymenoptera in possessing a pair of metapleural glands. Although the
function of these thoracic glands remains unclear, it has been suggested that they produce an odor that distinguishes one colony from another. The Formicidae are usually divided into the following ten subfamilies: _^<N__^<N_1. Sphecomyrminae: an
extinct subfamily, this group is evidenced by two fossilized specimens of a single species. _^<N__^<N_2. Myrmeciinae: restricted to Australia, these "bulldog" ants are among the most primitive of living ants. _^<N__^<N_3. Pseudomyrmecinae: many
of these pugnacious, stinging ants have evolved a mutually beneficial relationship with the acacia tree. _^<N__^<N_4. Dolichoderinae: rather uniform in appearance and behavior, these stingless ants produce volatile defensive secretions whose odor
is sometimes compared to rancid butter or rotten coconuts. _^<N__^<N_5. Formicinae: common, stingless ants, this group includes the larger carpenter ants of the genus Camponotus. _^<N__^<N_6. Ponerinae: primitive ants, this group includes the
largest workers. _^<N__^<N_7. Cerapachyinae: a small group of primitive ants, now classified by some authorities with the ponerines; the members behave much like army ants. _^<N__^<N_8. Dorylinae: called army ants, these nomadic predators are
well known in the tropics for their spectacular hunting raids. _^<N__^<N_9. Leptanillinae: a small, mysterious group of ants, generally thought to be related to army ants. _^<N__^<N_10. Myrmicinae: the largest and very diverse ant subfamily.
These ants exhibit great diversity in appearance and behavior. _^<N__^<N_Ants probably evolved from wasps resembling the present-day family Tiphiidae. The structure and behavior of some living ants and wasps suggest this relationship. In the fossil
record, ants are known almost exclusively from Tertiary fossils, the oldest of which is of the Eocene Epoch (approximately 53 to 37 million years ago). These fossil ants are similar to contemporary ants. Indeed, 56 percent of the genera represented
among the extensive Baltic amber fossils are living today. But a clear affinity with the wasps was revealed by the discovery in 1967 of a fossil ant species of the Cretaceous Period, called Sphecomyrma freyi. This find also demonstrated that social
life in the ants is at least 100 million years old. _^<N__^<N_William H. Gotwald, Jr. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Crompton, J., Ways of the Ant (1988); Holldobler, Bert, and Wilson, Edward O., The Ants (1990); Lofgren, Clifford S., and Vander-Meer,
Robert K., Fire Ants and Leaf Cutting Ants (1985); Sudd, John H., and Franks, N. R., The Behavioral Ecology of Ants (1987); Wheeler, William M., Ants: Their Structure, Development, and Behavior (1910; repr. 1960). _^<N__^<N_See also: ANIMAL
BEHAVIOR; ANIMAL COMMUNICATION; SOCIOBIOLOGY.
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ant lion
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ant lion_^<N__^<N_Ant lion is the common name for any member of the insect genus Myrmeleon in the family Myrmeleontidae, order Neuroptera, and is also applied to some other genera of the family. The adults resemble damselflies but are softer bodied
and have long, knobbed antennae. Their wingspan ranges from 2 to 16 cm (0.8 to 6.3 in). The larvae, called doodlebugs, have long, sicklelike jaws and move backward more easily than forward. They build a conical pit (as much as 50 mm / 2 in deep)
in sandy soils by tossing up the sand with their heads, then remain at the bottom with jaws above the surface and wait for ants (hence their name) or other insects to fall in. The pits may be as much as 50 mm (2 in) deep. Ant lions are widely
distributed in sandy areas, particularly those of the southern United States. _^<N__^<N_Donald J. Borror
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ANTA:
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ANTA:_^<N__^<N_see AMERICAN NATIONAL THEATER AND ACADEMY.
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antacid
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antacid_^<N__^<N_Antacids are substances that reduce the degree of acidity in the stomach and upper digestive tract. They are among the most commonly used nonprescription drugs and are taken by persons feeling the distress of acid indigestion, sour
stomach, and the esophagal pain known as heartburn. In strong doses, many of the same chemicals are used by physicians in the treatment of peptic ULCER. _^<N__^<N_All common antacids contain a weak base (see ACIDS AND BASES). Antacids containing
easily absorbable CATIONS, or positively charged ions, are called systemic. Sodium bicarbonate is the most familiar of these. Most antacids, however, are nonsystemic, in that only a small portion of the cation is absorbed. Calcium carbonate,
which is fast-acting and continues to act for some time, is an example. Magnesium carbonate produces comparable effects, but less of the cation is absorbed. Like most other magnesium compounds, it has a cathartic effect. Antacids containing
aluminum act slowly but also are of long duration. A more recently developed antacid, CIMETIDINE, operates by blocking histamine receptors that stimulate gastric-acid secretion. _^<N__^<N_Antacids in themselves are not harmful to persons in good
health. Their repeated use, however, can have harmful side effects. For example, excessive sodium (in bicarbonate) can contribute to hypertension, and excessive bicarbonate itself may lead to kidney stones and urinary-tract infections. Apparent
gastric discomforts may also be symptoms of more severe problems that should be addressed instead of masking them by using antacids. Antacids should never be used for more than a short period of time. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Consumer Reports, The
Medicine Show (1989).
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Antaeus
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Antaeus_^<N__^<N_{an-tee'-uhs} _^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, Antaeus was a giant whose strength was renewed by contact with the earth. He was invincible until HERCULES discovered that he could overcome Antaeus by lifting him off the ground.
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Antakya:
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Antakya:_^<N__^<N_see ANTIOCH.
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Antananarivo
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Antananarivo_^<N__^<N_{an-tuh-nan-uh-ree'-voh} _^<N__^<N_Antananarivo (Tananarive) is the capital and largest city (1990 est. pop., 802,390) of Madagascar, the island state off the southeast coast of Africa. It is the country's commercial,
industrial, and manufacturing center and is connected by rail to the Indian Ocean port of Toamasina (Tamatave). The city is located in the central highlands on a rocky promontory (elevation: 1,431 m/4,696 ft). _^<N__^<N_Godfrey N. Uzoigwe
Antarctic Peninsula_^<N__^<N_The Antarctic Peninsula (formerly called Palmer Land and Graham Land) is a 1,300-km-long (800-mi) extension of the Antarctic continent and lies 960 km (600 mi) from the tip of South America. Its highest point is Mount
Andrew Jackson (4,189 m/13,743 ft).
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Antarctica
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000000|Antarctica
003444| TOPOGRAPHY
007326| GEOLOGY
009651| CLIMATE
011643| ANTARCTIC LIFE
015228| EXPLORATION AND TERRITORIAL CLAIMS
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Antarctica_^<N__^<N_Antarctica is the fifth-largest and southernmost continent. Its position at the South Pole, together with its elevation and ice -and-snow cover, generates the coldest climate on Earth. Its enormous ice sheet covers all but 2 to 3
percent of Antarctica and extends over the encircling ocean. If released by melting, this amount of water would cause the sea level to rise more than 60 m (200 ft) worldwide. _^<N__^<N_The summer population is several thousand, but only a few
hundred scientists and support personnel stay during the winter. They live in semipermanent bases, the largest of which is the U. S. base at McMurdo, Ross Island. _^<N__^<N_The continent is more than half again as large as the United States and
covers about 14,245,000 sq km (5,500,000 sq mi), including 1,640,000 sq km (633,000 sq mi) of floating ice shelves. At least a third of the coastline (about 30,000 km/18,600 mi) is hidden beneath perennial ice. _^<N__^<N_Most of the continent lies
within the Antarctic Circle (lat. 66 degrees 30 min S). It is completely isolated by the Antarctic Ocean. The South Shetland Islands adjoin the Antarctic Peninsula. Other islands in the Antarctic region, but removed from the continent itself,
include South Georgia, South Sandwich, South Orkney, Bouvet, Heard, Balleny, Scott, and Peter. These lie within the Antarctic Convergence, the fluctuating zone between about 48 degrees and 60 degrees south latitude where cold Antarctic surface
waters descend below the warmer waters of the South Pacific, South Atlantic, and Indian oceans. Islands such as the Kerguelen Islands that lie north of the Antarctic Convergence contain glaciers and are considered loosely within the Antarctic
region. Because seasonal or perennial sea ice is found along all coasts, protected harbors are not available to ships much of the year. _^<N__^<N_The continent may be subdivided into two major parts on the basis of topography and geology: west
Antarctica, which is south of South America, and east Antarctica, in the Eastern Hemisphere. The boundary between them roughly follows the 0 degrees to 180 degrees meridian, from the east side of the RonneFilchner Ice Shelf in the WEDDELL SEA to
the west side of the ROSS ICE SHELF in the Ross Sea. These enormous floating masses of PACK ICE are derived mostly from glaciers discharging from the continent; the Ronne-Filchner Ice Shelf encompasses about 500,000 sq km (193,050 sq mi), and the
Ross Ice Shelf about 538,720 sq km (208,000 sq mi). The Ross Ice Shelf alone is about equal to the area of Texas. Probably an additional 600,880 sq km (232,000 sq mi) of ice shelves fringe the coast of the continent. _^<N__^<N_In striking
contrast to the ice cover are the "dry valley" areas of the continent, especially in Victoria Land, which receive little precipitation and do not have a continuous snow cover. The Transantarctic Mountains (2,000 to 4,572 m/6,562 to 15,000 ft)
extend from Victoria Land southward along the west side of the Ross Sea to the Weddell Sea on the opposite side of the continent. Coal, uranium, and a variety of metallic minerals have been found on land but are not considered economically
exploitable. Offshore petroleum and natural gas have more economic potential. Fishing boats take whales, seal, and krill (small protein-rich crustaceans) from the surrounding ocean. Growing controversy surrounding the issues of environmental
protection and resource development in Antarctica was fueled by oil spills there in 1989. _^<N__^<N_ TOPOGRAPHY_^<N__^<N_Antarctica has two topographies--one of perennial snow and ice (about 2 km/1.24 mi thick) and one of land. The snow-and-ice
surface in east Antarctica is an irregularly shaped elliptical dome that rises to a maximum elevation of more than 4,267 m (14,000 ft). A deep bay in the margin of the continent at the Amery Ice Shelf and Lambert Glacier produces a topographic sag
in the ice almost to the center of the dome. Broad topographic highs rise above both sides of it. In Queen Maud Land rugged mountains retain a high ice surface inland. The ice surface of the dome rises more gently from the coast south of New
Zealand and Australia. _^<N__^<N_The surface of the ice sheet in west Antarctica is much more irregular. A broad ice ridge (2,000 to 3,000 m/6,562 to 9,842 ft) extends from the center of the ice dome in east Antarctica past the South Pole and into
the center of west Antarctica at the Ellsworth Mountains. Major ice flow is diverted to the Ronne-Filchner and Ross ice shelves on opposite sides of the ridge, and long shallow troughs follow that drainage. _^<N__^<N_In west Antarctica the only
other large area of ice surface above 2,000 m (6,562 ft) is that in the Executive Committee Range near the coast between the Amundsen Sea and the Ross Sea. A broad saddle with ice elevations between 1,800 and 2,000 m (5,906 and 6,562 ft) connects
the Executive Committee Range and the ridge near the Ellsworth Mountains. A smaller area of ice slightly higher than 2,000 m (6,562 ft) lies at the base of the Antarctic Peninsula. _^<N__^<N_Most of Antarctica's bedrock topography is known only
indirectly. The first drill hole to penetrate to rock--that at Byrd Station (elevation 1,530 m/5,020 ft)--was successful on Jan. 29, 1968, at 2,164 m (7,106 ft). The first measurements (1951-52) of ice thickness, in Queen Maud Land, were by G. de
Q. Robin, who used seismic reflection and refraction methods. Today, airborne radio-echo soundings can penetrate the ice and produce continuous records of the rock surface. _^<N__^<N_The data collected thus far indicate an elongate basin, named the
Wilkes Subglacial Basin, several hundred meters below sea level and parallel to and west of the Transantarctic Mountains of Victoria Land, in east Antarctica. The Polar Basin extends from the South Pole toward Queen Maud Land. In Wilkes Land, deep
embayments with small rises penetrate from the coast at longitude 145 degrees and 115 degrees. In those embayments preglacial shorelines would have extended many hundreds of kilometers into the present continent. A bedrock high above 3,000 m (9,842
ft) is centered at the Gamburtsev Mountains, near the Pole of Inaccessibility. In the rest of east Antarctica the bedrock topography ranges from about 1,000 m (3,280 ft) above to slightly below sea level. _^<N__^<N_In contrast, much of the bedrock
surface of west Antarctica is between sea level and -1,000 m (-3,280 ft), and depressions almost 3,000 m (9,840 ft) below sea level are known. In ranges where rock-surface elevations are between 1,000 and 3,000 m (3,281 and 9,842 ft), mountain
peaks protrude above the ice surface. Most notable are the ranges in Marie Byrd Land and Eights Coast and the irregular ridge that extends from the Horlick Mountains through the Ellsworth Mountains to the Antarctic Peninsula. The highest point in
Antarctica is Vinson Massif (5,140 m/16,863 ft) in the Sentinel Range. _^<N__^<N_The weight of ice has depressed the land by an average of 560 m (1,838 ft), roughly 0.28 times the average thickness of ice (2,000 m/6,562 ft). If the ice were
removed, the land would rise until most of east Antarctica was above sea level, but west Antarctica would consist largely of a shallow sea. _^<N__^<N_By the time (1957-58) of the INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL YEAR (IGY) many regions were still unknown.
Now all major areas of rock outcrop have been seen or photographed from the air, if not actually studied on the ground. _^<N__^<N_ GEOLOGY_^<N__^<N_A vast Precambrian continental shield makes up east Antarctica. High-grade metamorphic rocks
dominate the coast. The Ross mobile belt includes the Transantarctic Mountains. An inner belt of sedimentary and volcanic rocks of the Gondwana System are Devonian to Jurassic in age; an outer belt is Precambrian to Cambrian in age. Cenozoic
volcanic rocks are present on the west side of the Ross Sea. _^<N__^<N_In west Antarctica the Antarctic Peninsula and the coastal area to Marie Byrd Land make up the Andean mobile belt, of upper Paleozoic to Mesozoic rocks. The Ellsworth mobile
belt (of mostly late Precambrian to late Paleozoic age) includes the Ellsworth and Whitmore mountains and a broad arc that swings out to the Filchner Ice Shelf. _^<N__^<N_Most plant and animal fossils are found in the sedimentary beds in the
Transantarctic Mountains or in the low-grade metamorphic rocks of the Antarctic Peninsula. Fossils in rock structures of known age permit correlation of Antarctica with other continents believed to have been united in the ancestral continent of
GONDWANALAND. The discovery in 1982 of the fossil remains of the first land mammal found in Antarctica supports this theory. Other fossil evidence (including dinosaur remains, first found in 1986) indicates that Antarctica once had a climate milder
than its present one. _^<N__^<N_The Kukri peneplain, an erosional surface on the Precambrian and lower Paleozoic basement rocks, has been identified throughout the Transantarctic Mountains. A Tertiary peneplain has been interpreted at several
places in the Antarctic Peninsula and Pensacola, Shackleton, and Prince Charles mountains. Active volcanoes are confined to Victoria Land, Marie Byrd Land, and the South Shetland Islands. Block-faulted mountains are mostly in the Transantarctic
Mountains, Queen Maud Land, and Antarctic Peninsula. _^<N__^<N_Soils in Antarctica are limited to the ice-free areas, only 2 percent to 3 percent of the continent, and are patchy even there. They are thin, commonly alkaline, and have little humus,
although they have many soil-forming bacteria. A "desert pavement" of rock fragments is common. Under patches of lichens and mosses or penguin rookeries, organic acids play a discernible role in soil formation. Polygonal patterned ground, produced
by growth of ice or sand wedges, develops on most soils. _^<N__^<N_ CLIMATE_^<N__^<N_The Antarctic POLAR-CLIMATE boundary (10 degrees C/50 degrees F isotherm for the warmest month) encompasses about 12 percent of the surface of the globe, an area
twice as large as that of the Arctic. It includes all of the Antarctic continent except the extreme northern tip of the Antarctic Peninsula. The vast area of snow and ice reflects about three-fourths of the incoming radiation. Vostok at 78 degrees
28 ft south latitude and 3,505 m (11,500 ft) elevation has an average temperature for the warmest month of only -33 degrees C (-27 degrees F ), an absolute minimum of -88.3 degrees C (-126.9 degrees F), and an absolute maximum of -21 degrees C (-
5.8 degrees F). The absolute minimum figure is the lowest temperature ever recorded on Earth. Coastal areas are much warmer, with annual mean temperatures of -15 degrees to -10 degrees C (5 degrees to 14 degrees F). _^<N__^<N_Most precipitation
falls as snow. This amounts to only 50 mm (2 in) in the interior but is highly variable, from 500 to more than 1,000 mm (20 to 40 in), on the coast. The bulk of the precipitation comes from the cyclonic storms that diverge into the interior from
the ocean. The continent has the strongest sustained westerly winds on Earth. _^<N__^<N_In the mid-1980s atmospheric studies showed that an ozone "hole"--a dramatic drop in ozone concentration in an area of the ozone layer above the continent--was
appearing and then disappearing each Antarctic spring. Studies of past records revealed that this had been occurring for several years. The hole is believed to result from human activities, and by the early 1990s it had worsened significantly.
_^<N__^<N_Scientists are also studying the Antarctic ice and ice flow, in an attempt to determine whether the GREENHOUSE EFFECT, a global warming trend caused by rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, is changing conditions in the Antarctic,
such as the thickness of the ice cap and the movement of Antarctic ocean currents, which help cool the Earth. _^<N__^<N_Robert F. Black _^<N__^<N_ ANTARCTIC LIFE_^<N__^<N_Most of the life on and around the Antarctic continent is supported by the
sea, because the continent itself is barren. The life consists primarily of a few species of lichens and mosses; some small floating plants called phytoplankton, which occur in certain freshwater lakes in ice-free desert areas; and a few
arthropods, the most numerous of which are several groups of mites. The sea, on the other hand, is extremely rich because in many areas water movement is vertical and brings nutrients from the bottom to the surface. These areas of upwelling supply
nutrients for phytoplankton, which multiply quickly during the summer (October through February) and become food for small floating animals called zooplankton. Several species of zooplankton are important to the Antarctic marine ecosystem; however,
the krill is usually recognized as the key. These shrimplike organisms feed directly on various small plants and are in turn an important food source for many fish, birds, and mammals. Due to the exploitation of certain Antarctic species, several
agreements to conserve Antarctica's living resources have been signed. _^<N__^<N_A fairly large number of fish species are found in the Antarctic, but they are small in size or few in number. At present knowledge about the population dynamics and
life history of the Antarctic fish is limited, and, hence, experts are uncertain about their general role in the ecosystem. Certain species are known to be primary users of krill; many others use food sources such as other species of zooplankton.
Some are predatory on species of fish and squid. The cephalopods, which include the squid and the octopus, are relatively abundant in Antarctica and are known to be important in the diets of certain whales, seals, penguins, flying birds, and fish.
_^<N__^<N_The birds of the Antarctic ecosystem include penguins, albatrosses, and petrels. Seven species of penguins are confined to the pack ice region; they constitute more than 80 percent of the birds in the Antarctic region. The most common
penguin is the Adelie, which nests in ice-free areas mostly on offshore islands around the Antarctic continent. The emperor penguin is considered typically Antarctic. The emperors are well known and nest much of their life on sea ice close to the
continent but lay eggs and raise their young on land. Other species of penguin common in the Antarctic pack ice region are gentoo, chin strap, and king penguin. Flying birds, such as albatrosses and petrels, nest on various offshore islands and on
rock outcroppings. _^<N__^<N_Antarctic marine mammals include the seal and the whale. The whales can be classified into two groups, the baleen and tooth whales. Four species of large baleen whales--the blue whale, fin whale, sei whale, and humpback
whale--inhabit Antarctic waters regularly; occasional inhabitants are the minke whale and southern right whale, two other species of baleen whales. Ten species of toothed whales are found in Antarctic waters. The two species considered most
important are the large sperm whale, the only large-toothed whale to occupy the region, and the killer whale. _^<N__^<N_The following four species of seals are found in the pack ice region: the crabeater, the Weddell, the leopard seal, and Ross's
seal. The crabeater seal is by far the most abundant and has been estimated to number around 20 million. Typically, the southern fur seal and the southern elephant seal are found farther north than the four species of true Antarctic seal, and they
occupy sub-Antarctic islands during the pupping and breeding season. _^<N__^<N_Donald B. Siniff _^<N__^<N_ EXPLORATION AND TERRITORIAL CLAIMS_^<N__^<N_Although recent cartographic studies suggest that the broad outlines of the continent may have
been known before the mid- 16th century, it is generally thought that James COOK, on Jan. 16, 1773, was the first to cross the Antarctic Circle, and Adm. Fabian von BELLINGSHAUSEN and M. P. Lazarev, on Jan. 28, 1820, were probably the first to
sight land in the Antarctic. John Davis, captain of the American sealer Huron, was the first to land, at Hughes Bay on the Antarctic Peninsula, on Feb. 7, 1821. On Jan. 23, 1895, Leonard Kristensen and Carsten BORCHGREVINK landed near Cape Adare,
and they were thus the first to set foot on the main part of the continent. _^<N__^<N_In 1898, Borchgrevink led the first expedition to spend a winter on the continent, also at Cape Adare. Their stay ushered in the "heroic phase" of exploration by
parties that wintered over for scientific purposes. Several such expeditions were launched during the next decade. Otto Nordenskjold explored the east coast of the Antarctic Peninsula (1901-04). Robert F. SCOTT and Ernest H. SHACKLETON led
three scientific parties (1901-04, 1907-09, and 1910-13) from bases on Ross Island and made major advances in geology, meteorology, and oceanography. In 1908, T. W. E. David of Scott's party ascended Mount EREBUS (3,795 m/12,450 ft), and later
reached the South Magnetic Pole (lat. 72 degrees 25 min S, long. 155 degrees 16 min E) at an altitude of more than 2,130 m (7,000 ft). The pole has since moved to the Adelie Coast. In 1909, Shackleton traversed the Ross Ice Shelf, ascended the
Beardmore Glacier, and reached 88 degrees 23 min south latitude on the polar ice sheet. _^<N__^<N_On Oct. 20, 1911, Roald AMUNDSEN of Norway left from the Bay of Whales, on the east side of the Ross Ice Shelf, with four companions on skis and with
dogsleds. They reached the South Pole (altitude 2,804 m/9,200 ft) on Dec. 14, 1911, via the Axel Heiberg Glacier. Scott started from Ross Island on Oct. 24, 1911, and followed Shackleton's route of 1909. Scott, Wilson, Bowers, Oates, and Evans
man-hauled one sledge to the South Pole on Jan. 17, 1912; all perished on the return. _^<N__^<N_In 1911-14, Sir Douglas MAWSON explored the Adelie Coast and Queen Mary Land. On Nov. 16, 1928, C. B. Eielson and Sir Hubert WILKINS made the first
airplane flight in Antarctica. Between 1926 and 1937, Lars Christensen made aerial surveys and mapped the coastal area from the Weddell Sea to the Shackleton Ice Shelf. Adm. Richard E. BYRD used aircraft extensively during four expeditions:
1928-30, 1933-35, 1939-41, and 1946-47. From a base at Little America, Byrd, Bernt Balchen, A. C. McKinley, and Harold June flew to the South Pole and back on Nov. 28-29, 1929. Between 1933 and 1939, Lincoln ELLSWORTH made four expeditions to
Antarctica. In 1935 he flew from the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula to the Bay of Whales in the Ross Sea, landing four times during 12 days. In 1934-37 a British expedition used planes, boats, and dogs to study much of the Antarctic Peninsula, and
in 1939 a German group photographed a large area in Queen Maud Land. In 1946-48, Comdr. Finn Ronne and a group, his wife among them, mapped a large area from the Antarctic Peninsula to the Filchner Ice Shelf. The Norwegian- British-Swedish
expedition of 1949-52 conducted major scientific traverses into the interior and laid the foundation for the IGY. _^<N__^<N_During the IGY, 12 nations manned over 50 wintering-over stations in Antarctica. The Pole of Inaccessibility (lat. 82
degrees 06 min S, long. 54 degrees 58 min E) was reached on Dec. 14, 1958, by a Soviet IGY tractor train. Between Nov. 24, 1957, and Mar. 2, 1958, the party of Sir Vivian FUCHS crossed the continent from the Weddell Sea to the Ross Sea. In 1982,
British explorers Sir Ranulph Fiennes and Charles Burton completed the first crossing of both poles in a single circumnavigation of the Earth. _^<N__^<N_The Special Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR), set up in 1957, now coordinates all
Antarctic research. Emphasis today is on long-term investigations of such large-scale phenomena as ocean currents, under-ice topography, and the relationship of the Antarctic ice sheet to global climate. _^<N__^<N_The United States and Russia
recognize no territorial claims in Antarctica and make none, although reserving the right to do so. The Antarctic Treaty was ratified on June 23, 1961, by the 12 IGY nations referred to above--Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand,
Norway, and the United Kingdom (all of which claim parts of the continent), plus Belgium, Japan, South Africa, the USSR (later Russia), and the United States. Brazil, China, India, Poland, Uruguay, Italy, and Germany later became voting
signatories; other nations not conducting major scientific activity in Antarctica have signed the document but do not have voting rights. The Antarctic Treaty states specifically that Antarctica shall be used for peaceful purposes only and supports
the freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation. As part of the treaty, all territorial claims were frozen until a 1991 review. In 1988 an agreement to regulate the future exploitation of Antarctic mineral resources was negotiated but was
widely criticized by environmentalists and by developing nations demanding that the continent's resources be shared under United Nations supervision. This agreement fell apart in 1989 when Australia and France refused to sign it. In 1991 delegates
drafted a new agreement to ban Antarctic mining for 50 years. _^<N__^<N_Robert F. Black _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Campbell, D. G., The Crystal Desert (1992); Cook, G., ed., The Future of Antarctica (1991); Galimberti, D., Antarctica: An Introductory
Guide (1991); Joyner, C. C., Antarctica and the Law of the Sea (1992); Kerry, K. R., and Hempel, G., eds., Antarctic Ecosystems (1990); Neider, C., ed., Antarctica: Accounts from Journals of Numerous Explorers (1990); Sahurie, E. J., The
International Law of Antarctica (1992); Steger, W., and Bowermaster, J., Crossing Antarctica (1991); Stewart, J., Antarctica: An Encyclopedia (1990); Suter, K. D., Antarctica (1991); Tingey, R. J., ed., The Geology of Antarctica (1992).
-END-
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18
CAT
-A-
Antares:
-T-
Antares:_^<N__^<N_see STAR.
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739
CAT
-A-
antbird
-T-
antbird_^<N__^<N_Antbird is the common name for the more than 220 species of birds constituting the family Formicariidae. Also known as ant pittas, ant thrushes, ant vireos, and antwrens, they range from southern Mexico to central Argentina.
Insectivorous, they are named for the habit in some species of following ant armies and feeding on insects flushed out by the ants. Their bodies are from about 100 to 370 cm (4 to 14.5 in) long, and their plumage is black, gray, or brown, with
various markings. Usually solitary or paired, they build cuplike nests in low trees or bushes or on the ground; normally they lay two eggs. The birds are weak fliers. Antbirds are classified in the suborder Furnarii, order Passeriformes.
_^<N__^<N_George J. Wallace
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1018
CAT
-A-
anteater
-T-
anteater_^<N__^<N_Anteaters are toothless MAMMALS that feed mainly on ants. They belong to the family Myrmecophagidae, order Edentata ("without teeth"). The anteaters are the only edentates entirely lacking in teeth, the others (SLOTHS and
ARMADILLOS) having cheek teeth. Anteaters are found from Mexico to northern Argentina. Three genera exist, each with a single species. The giant anteater, or ant bear (Myramacophaga tridactyla), measures 183 cm (6 ft) from the long, cylindrical
snout to the end of the bushy, cascading tail, and weighs up to 23 kg (50 lb). The powerful claws on the forefeet and the long, (58-cm/23-in), extensible tongue are used to uncover and feed on ants, termites, and beetle larvae. The collared
anteater, Tamandua tetradactyla, is about 56 cm (22 in) long, and its naked prehensile tail is as long again or longer. Chiefly nocturnal, it lives in trees and eats bees and ants. The two-toed pygmy anteater, Cyclopes didactylus, is 17 cm (6.5 in)
long and feeds in treetops at night. _^<N__^<N_Everett Sentman
-END-
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1171
CAT
-A-
Antelami, Benedetto
-T-
Antelami, Benedetto_^<N__^<N_{ahn-tay-lah'-mee} _^<N__^<N_Benedetto Antelami, b. c.1150, d. c.1230, a north Italian architect and sculptor whose work bridges the ROMANESQUE and GOTHIC periods, is best known as the architect of the Parma Baptistery
(begun 1196) and as the creator of its elaborate sculptural decorations. His name is derived from the "Magistri Antelami," a guild of master builders with whom he trained. He spent part of his formative years in southern France, and both his
architecture and sculpture have stylistic and iconographic parallels with Provencal Romanesque art. He may also have visited other regions of France at some point in his career, for some of his work also recalls the early Gothic sculpture of
CHARTRES CATHEDRAL and the architecture of Laon Cathedral. Aside from his work at Parma, the Cathedral of Borgo San Donnino (1179-1218; now Fidenza) and the abbey of San Andrea (1219-27) at Vercelli are generally ascribed to Antelami.
_^<N__^<N_Eric G. Carlson _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Stoddard, W. S., The Facade of Saint-Gilles-du-G ard (1973); Watkins, Ben P., "Antelami," McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of World Art, rev. ed., vol. 1 (1968). _^<N__^<N_See also: ITALIAN ART AND
ARCHITECTURE.
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3809
CATO
-A-
antelope
-O-
000000|antelope
000652| Characteristics
002370| Classification
-T-
antelope_^<N__^<N_Antelope are any of several hoofed, ruminant mammals, belonging to the family Bovidae, order Artiodactyla. This family also includes BISON, BUFFALO, CATTLE, GOATS, and SHEEP. Although antelope resemble DEER, they are much more
closely related to cattle. Africa is the home of most antelope, although a few species survive in Asia and a close relative, the MOUNTAIN GOAT, lives in North America. The numbers of antelope are sharply declining because of overhunting and
habitat destruction. Habitats most common to antelope are grasslands, dry plains, and forests. Some antelope live in swamplands, on hot deserts, or at high mountain elevations. _^<N__^<N_ Characteristics_^<N__^<N_Antelope are ruminants, or cud
chewers. They lack incisors, or biting teeth, in the upper front jaw, and thus must tear off grass stems by exerting pressure with the lower teeth against the upper gum pad. This food is swallowed mainly unchewed and is later regurgitated from
the stomach in small wads, or cuds, for thorough chewing with the molars. _^<N__^<N_Antelope have slender legs, with two-hoofed toes on each foot. Many of them have taller rumps than forequarters, with powerful rear-leg muscles to facilitate
running and leaping. Some can attain speeds of about 60 km/h (35 mph). The rigid structure of the backbone enables them to run this fast and to jump high without injury to themselves. Their senses of smell and hearing are well developed, their
vision less so. _^<N__^<N_These animals vary greatly in size. The largest, the giant ELAND of West Africa, may grow to a weight of more than 545 kg (1,200 lb) and a shoulder height of 1.8 m (6 ft). The smallest, the royal antelope of Africa's
western coastal regions, weighs about 6.8 kg (15 lb) and stands 25 cm (10 in) tall at the shoulder. _^<N__^<N_Horns of spectacular beauty adorn the heads of most antelope. Many horns are long and curved; some are ringed, and many are spiral,
S-shaped, or lyre-shaped. The male four-horned antelope of Burma and India has two pairs of horns, one atop its head and the other on its forehead. Horns range in length from those of the royal antelope, which protrude less than 2.5 cm (1 in), to
the corkscrew-shaped 1.5-m (5-ft) horns of the kudu of eastern and southern Africa. Antelope horns are nonbranching and have a bony core. They are not shed periodically, as are the antlers of deer but are permanent structures. _^<N__^<N_
Classification_^<N__^<N_Although authorities sometimes disagree on what animals to include in the antelope group, it is generally agreed that it comprises about 50 genera and more than 100 species, including the GAZELLES. Among the largest and
best-known antelopes are the ORYX, gnus (WILDEBEESTS), elands, kudus, hartebeests, sable antelope, and roan antelope of the African plains. The BONGO is a large antelope of African forests. Medium-sized antelope include the black buck of India
and the African IMPALA and SPRINGBOK. The North American PRONGHORN, often called pronghorn antelope, is not a true antelope. _^<N__^<N_The antelope was one of the last of the artiodactyls to develop. Primitive antelope appeared in Eurasia in the
late Miocene Epoch, about 12 million years ago. Humanlike apes, which evolved at about the same time, may have hunted antelope. Fossil remains found in East Africa give evidence that hominids hunted antelopes for food at least 2 million years ago.
Today farmers in sub-Saharan Africa manage herds of elands for milk production. _^<N__^<N_Everett Sentman _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bere, Rennie, Antelopes (1971); Dorst, Jean, and Dandelot, Pierre, A Field Guide to the Larger Mammals of Africa
(1970); Mochi, Ugo, and Carter, T. D., Hoofed Mammals of the World (1971); Nowak, R. M., and Pardiso, J. L., eds., Walker's Mammals of the World, 2 vols., 4th ed. (1983); Riney, Thane, Study and Management of Large Mammals (1982).
-END-
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1928
CAT
-A-
antenna (biology)
-T-
antenna (biology)_^<N__^<N_Antennae are the foremost pair of appendages on the heads of insects, myriapods, crustaceans, and onychophorans. Although their evolutionary origin from other body structures may vary, antennae are primarily organs of
sensation. They appear in many shapes. _^<N__^<N_Antennal structure and function are probably best understood among the insects. Insect antennae may be long and threadlike, featherlike, clubbed, or elbowed, like a string of beads. They are
typically composed of a basal scape that articulates with the head, a middle segment called the pedicel, and a comparatively long flagellum at the top. _^<N__^<N_Antennae sometimes are different in males and females. In male mosquitoes they are
featherlike; in females, threadlike. Antennae are typically covered with sensory hairs and pits (sensilla) involved especially with touch, smell, and taste. Sensilla enabling insects to perceive temperature and moisture differences may also occur
on antennae. A highly developed sense organ (Johnston's organ) found in the basal region of nearly all adult insect antennae senses movement of the flagellum, functioning in certain flies as a flight speed indicator, in male mosquitoes as a sound
receiver helping them orient to female wing-beat sound, in aquatic whirligig beetles as a sensor of surface ripples, and in aquatic bugs as an aid in body orientation. Smell and taste sensilla help perceive stimuli involved with location of mates,
hosts, food, egg-deposition sites, and the like. Antennae may play other than a sensory role; for example, larval water scavenger beetles capture and hold prey with short, toothed antennae. Some springtails and fleas use the antennae as holding
organs during mating. _^<N__^<N_W. S. Romoser _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Borror, D. J., DeLong, D. M., and Triplehorn, C. A., An Introduction to the Study of Insects, 4th ed. (1976); Elzinga, Richard L., Fundamentals of Entomology, 3rd ed.
(1987).
-END-
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5164
CATO
4769
-A-
antenna (electronics)
-O-
000000|antenna (electronics)
000403| Propagation of Signals
001408| Antenna Types
001918| Transmitting Antennas
003795| Receiving Antennas
-T-
antenna (electronics)_^<N__^<N_An antenna, or aerial, is a device used in the transmission of ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION carrying some form of information. The principle by which it operates is based on James Clerk MAXWELL's theoretical discovery
(1865) and its practical verification (1887) by Heinrich HERTZ that a moving electric charge generates electromagnetic radiation that propagates through space with the velocity of light. _^<N__^<N_ Propagation of Signals_^<N__^<N_Various forms of
COMMUNICATION use this propagation--for example, radio, television, radar, and communications satellites. All such systems require antennas to transmit and receive the radiation through space. (Electrical signals can, however, be transmitted
directly through electrical conductors without antennas, as in the telegraph and telephone.) The radio is a good example of the functioning of antennas. Each radio station transmits its own program material. The program is first converted into
electrical signals by a MICROPHONE or some other device (or it may already be in that form, for example, from a phonograph or tape recorder). Then the transmitting antenna converts these signals into an electromagnetic wave, which spreads out from
the transmitter in all directions. Each radio has a receiving antenna that can pick up the signal by intercepting the wave and reconverting it back into electrical signals, which are used to reconstruct the original program. _^<N__^<N_ Antenna
Types_^<N__^<N_Many types of antenna exist; each type is designed to transmit or receive a specific type of radiation in a specific manner. The simplest type is a single wire called a monopole antenna. Guglielmo MARCONI used this type during his
early research on radio. Another relatively simple form of antenna is the dipole, or doublet, which is similar to the antenna first used by Hertz in his experiments on the propagation of radiation. It comprises two plates or rods connected by two
straight wires. _^<N__^<N_ Transmitting Antennas_^<N__^<N_An important characteristic of transmitting antennas is the amount of radiation that they can transmit. The distribution and direction of that radiation throughout space are also important.
In antennas of relatively simple structure, the relative magnitude of the field strength at a point is proportional to the distance of the point from the center of the antenna. When antennas are near the Earth, however, the effect of ground
reflections may considerably modify radiation patterns. _^<N__^<N_In many uses of radio it is desirable that the radiation transmitted or received be directional, or stronger in some directions than in others. Directional transmitting antennas are
especially valuable with point-to-point communications, because they reduce interference and decrease the power required. Directivity of radio waves can be increased by adding certain reflecting surfaces to the antenna. _^<N__^<N_The form of an
antenna depends largely on the type of communication that is desired and the frequency used. For amplitude-modulated (AM) broadcasting, an omnidirectional antenna (one that transmits in all directions) is normally used. It comprises a vertical
wire whose height is made about one-quarter of the wavelength being transmitted. Such an antenna radiates vertically polarized waves, or waves in which the direction of the electric field is vertical. Frequency-modulated (FM) antennas differ
considerably from those used with amplitude MODULATION. Their frequency is about 100 times as great, and their waves are horizontally polarized. For very high (VHF) and ultra high (UHF) frequencies a parabolic reflector is used. Such a reflector
has the shape of a paraboloid, with the property that if a radiator is placed at the focus of the paraboloid, then the radiation directed back into the dish will be reflected and will emerge in a narrow beam. _^<N__^<N_ Receiving
Antennas_^<N__^<N_Although in theory the two types are the same, receiving antennas and transmitting antennas differ considerably in their operating conditions. The power handled by receiving antennas is generally a minute fraction of the
transmitted power; a fundamental goal of antenna design is to obtain maximum signal voltage at the receiving antenna. _^<N__^<N_Since the advent of portable radios with miniaturized circuitry, AM receiving antennas have been designed in the form
of tuning coils wound over a ferrite rod inside the radio. The rod concentrates the magnetic component of the radiation field, and the signal picked up is a maximum when the axis of the rod is parallel to this component. Hence the reception
varies with the orientation of the radio, and the quality of the reception is better when the radio is facing certain directions. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Blake, L. J., Antennas (1966); Brown, R. G., et al., Lines, Waves, and Antennas: The
Transmission of Electric Energy, 2d ed. (1973); Cunningham, John E., The Complete Broadcast Antenna Book (1977); King, Ronold, and Harrison, Charles, Antennas and Waves: A Modern Approach (1970); Lee, K. F., Principles of Antenna Theory
(1984); Milligan, T., Modern Antenna Design (1984); Walt, J. R., Introduction to Antennas and Propagation (1986). _^<N__^<N_See also: TELEVISION TRANSMISSION.
-END-
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853
CAT
-A-
Antheil, George
-T-
Antheil, George_^<N__^<N_{an'-tyl} _^<N__^<N_George Antheil, b. Trenton, N.J., July 8, 1900, d. Feb. 12, 1959, was an American composer and writer who first attracted public notice with his bizarre musical compositions (for example, Airplane
Sonata) and his piano concerts in Europe during the 1920s. Antheil settled in Hollywood in 1936, where he became best known for his many film scores. His creative output included seven operas and five ballets. He incorporated jazz elements and
unconventional sounds--doorbells, sirens, airplane motors--into his music. He also wrote a murder mystery, a forecast of World War II, and an autobiography, Bad Boy of Music (1945). _^<N__^<N_Robert L. Parker _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Antheil,
George, Bad Boy of Music (1945); Chase, Gilbert, America's Music, 2d ed. (1966); Whitesitt, Linda, The Life and Music of George Antheil, 1900-1959 (1983).
-END-
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841
CAT
-A-
anthelmintic drugs
-T-
anthelmintic drugs_^<N__^<N_{ant-hel-min'-tik} _^<N__^<N_Anthelmintic drugs, also called vermifuges, are used to rid a host animal or person of parasitic worms, particularly those found in the intestines. These drugs belong in several different
chemical classes. They either inhibit the parasite's ability to use nutrients it needs for survival or paralyze its neuromuscular system, which makes it unable to maintain its location. Anthelmintic drugs are more effective against tapeworms,
pinworms, and roundworms in the gastrointestinal tract than they are against worms in other locations (for example, filaria or schistosomes in blood vessels and trichinae in muscles). Among the most effective of these drugs are thiabendazole,
niclosamide, pyrvinium, pyrantel, ivermectin, and antimony compounds. _^<N__^<N_Richard H. Runsern, M.D. _^<N__^<N_See also: PARASITIC DISEASES.
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1819
CAT
-A-
anthem
-T-
anthem_^<N__^<N_The anthem was developed in the Anglican church, as the English-language counterpart of the Roman Catholic Latin MOTET, a polyphonic choral work without accompaniment. During the English REFORMATION, composers adapted Latin pieces
to syllabic English texts, keeping the original music. Thomas TALLIS was among the first to turn from adaptations to original compositions, writing full anthems unadorned by solos or instrumental accompaniment. Verse anthems, employing solo
voices and instrumental accompaniment, appeared in the 16th century in the compositions of William BYRD, and became widely used in cathedral practice, where a choir of men and boys served. In the late 17th century, cantata-anthems added dance
rhythms imported from France and the theatrical devices of RECITATIVE and ARIA. The form reached its peak with the works of Henry PURCELL. By the 18th century, the growth of parish-church choirs had resulted in a need for simpler pieces, and
brevity again came to mark the form. _^<N__^<N_Early American tune books, whose contents were imported from England, contained some anthems. Native composers imitated their style, and the works of William BILLINGS were especially noteworthy.
Imitation of European models developed greater variety and improved quality. A strong American market developed for anthems, so that several publishers concentrated solely on that product. _^<N__^<N_Today the term anthem includes any brief choral
piece used in a religious service. It is also applied to the principal patriotic song of a nation. _^<N__^<N_Elwyn A. Wienandt _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Daniel, Ralph, The Anthem in New England before 1800 (1966); Wienandt, Elwyn A., and Young,
Robert H., The Anthem in England and America (1970); Young, Percy M., The Choral Tradition, rev. ed. (1981). _^<N__^<N_See also: CHORAL MUSIC; CHURCH MUSIC.
-END-
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1840
CAT
-A-
Anthemius of Tralles
-T-
Anthemius of Tralles_^<N__^<N_Anthemius of Tralles, d. 534, was a Greek architect, mathematician, and engineer. Anthemius, with Isidorus of Miletus, built the great church of HAGIA SOPHIA (Holy Wisdom) in Constantinople (now Istanbul) for the
Byzantine emperor Justinian I in the remarkably brief span of five years (532-37). Although Anthemius was not an architect or master mason by training, he wrote a treatise on the geometry of conical sections, had a knowledge of projective
geometry, and was familiar with the mechanical inventions of Archimedes. According to Procopius, Justinian's court historian, Anthemius designed Hagia Sophia and organized the enormous work force needed for its construction. The immense church,
still standing and still one of the most astonishing buildings in architectural history, incorporates a number of daring engineering and structural innovations. The shallow DOME, 34 m (112 ft) in diameter with windows piercing its base, is
supported on four huge arches, with PENDENTIVES in the four corners rounding out the walls to meet the dome. The weight of this soaring structure is borne by four gigantic exterior piers concealed behind the pendentives. Although descriptions and
analyses of Anthemius's statics have been made for centuries, investigation continues, in an attempt to discover the secrets Anthenius locked in the construction of Hagia Sophia. _^<N__^<N_John Stephens Crawford _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Huxley,
George L., Anthemius of Tralles, A Study of Later Greek Geometry (1959); Krautheimer, Richard, Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture, 2d ed. (1975); Mango, C. A., Byzantine Architecture (1976; repr. 1985); Procopius, Buildings, trans.
by Henry B. Dewing (1961). _^<N__^<N_See also: ARCH AND VAULT; BYZANTINE ART AND ARCHITECTURE; EARLY CHRISTIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE; ISLAMIC ART AND ARCHITECTURE.
-END-
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955
CAT
-A-
anthology
-T-
anthology_^<N__^<N_An anthology (Greek, "collection of flowers") is primarily a collection of selected poetry or prose by various authors. The earliest anthology to survive in full is the so-called Palatine Anthology, compiled by a 10th-century
Byzantine scholar and based on collections of epigrams and poetry dating back to the Hellenistic period. With the publication of Richard Tottel's Songs and Sonnets (1557), popularly called Tottel's Miscellany, the anthology became a popular
literary form. The poems of SIDNEY, SHAKESPEARE, and SPENSER were included in England's Helicon (1600), and the best of 18th-century verse appeared in Percy's Reliques (1765). In the 19th century, Francis Palgrave's Golden Treasury of English Songs
and Lyrics (1861) set the style for such modern anthologies as the Oxford series of English and American literature. Today, anthologies include such diverse genres as humor, drama, criticism, and even music and film. _^<N__^<N_J. A. Cuddon
-END-
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1098
CAT
-A-
Anthony, Saint
-T-
Anthony, Saint_^<N__^<N_Saint Anthony, c.251-355, was an Egyptian hermit who became the father of Christian MONASTICISM. The son of well-to-do parents, he was orphaned as a child. At the age of 20 he gave away his inheritance and joined a group of
ascetics near his village. Desiring greater solitude, he advanced by stages ever further into the desert. Nevertheless, disciples flocked to him and formed colonies of hermits, which he organized into the first communities of Christian monks.
People sought him in the desert to receive his advice and help. _^<N__^<N_Seven letters attributed to him are probably authentic. His biography, written by St. ATHANASIUS in the 4th century, is the main source of information about his life and
teaching. During the Middle Ages, St. Anthony was invoked against several types of inflammations of the skin known as "St. Anthony's Fire." Feast day: Jan. 17. _^<N__^<N_Cyprian Davis, O. S. B. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Anthony, Saint, The Letters of
St. Anthony the Great, trans. and ed. by Derwas J. Chitty (1977); Athanasius, Saint, The Life of Saint Anthony, trans. and ed. by Robert T. Meyer (1950).
-END-
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2068
CAT
-A-
Anthony, Susan B.
-T-
Anthony, Susan B._^<N__^<N_Susan Brownell Anthony, b. Adams, Mass., Feb. 15, 1820, d. Mar. 13, 1906, was an American pioneer of women's rights. She was the daughter of a Quaker abolitionist. After completing her education in New York, she accepted
employment as a teacher. Dissatisfaction with this endeavor induced her to accept the position of assistant manager of the family farm in upstate New York. Her work proved rewarding, for it afforded her the opportunity to meet and to discuss with
some of her father's guests the nature of American reform. Exposure to the views of such men as William Lloyd Garrison, Wendell Phillips, and Frederick Douglass convinced her that she, too, could become an advocate of reform. Her initial efforts in
this area, however, as an agent for the Daughters of Temperance and for the American Anti-Slavery Society, were disappointing, for she encountered discrimination as a woman. _^<N__^<N_Anthony's friendship with Elizabeth Cady STANTON proved crucial
both for herself and for the feminist crusade. Influenced by Stanton's vigorous defense of women's rights, Anthony helped to found (1866) the American Equal Rights Association in order to work for women's suffrage (see SUFFRAGE, WOMEN'S). For the
remainder of her life she was devoted to this cause. She helped establish (1869) the National Woman Suffrage Association and in 1872 was arrested for attempting to vote, claiming that the provisions of the 14th and 15th Amendments applied to all
citizens, male and female. _^<N__^<N_From 1892 to 1900, Anthony was president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association. With Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Matilda Jocelyn Gage, and Ida Husted Harper, she compiled and edited the first four
volumes of The History of Woman Suffrage (1881-1902). Anthony's ceaseless work and travel made women's suffrage a recognized cause in both America and Europe. _^<N__^<N_Loretta Ellen Zimmerman _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Barry, K., Susan B. Anthony
(1988); Harper, I. H., The Life and Work of Susan B. Anthony, 3 vols. (1898-1908; repr. 1993); Lutz, Alma, Susan B. Anthony (1959; repr. 1976).
-END-
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563
CAT
-A-
Anthony of Padua, Saint
-T-
Anthony of Padua, Saint_^<N__^<N_Saint Anthony of Padua, b. Aug. 15, 1195, d. June 13, 1231, a Portuguese Franciscan theologian, had a reputation as a miracle worker. He is best known today as the patron saint invoked to find lost articles.
After serving as a missionary in Morocco, he returned to Europe, where he became distinguished as a biblical scholar and preacher. In art, he is sometimes depicted with a book, symbolizing his great erudition. He was canonized in 1232 and
declared a Doctor of the Church in 1946. His tomb is in Padua. Feast day: June 13.
-END-
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37
CAT
-A-
anthracite:
-T-
anthracite:_^<N__^<N_see COAL AND COAL MINING.
-END-
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33
CAT
-A-
anthracnose:
-T-
anthracnose:_^<N__^<N_see DISEASES, PLANT.
-END-
-C-
1280
CAT
-A-
anthrax
-T-
anthrax_^<N__^<N_Anthrax is an infectious and often fatal disease caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis. It occurs in humans but is more common in such animals as cattle, goats, horses, sheep, and buffalo. Human infections usually result from
the handling of animal hides, wool, and hair contaminated with anthrax spores. The bacterium typically enters through the skin and causes a swollen, pustular area, often with a black center, called a malignant pustule. General symptoms include
fever and malaise. From the skin pustule the bacterium may invade the bloodstream and rapidly cause a fatal septicemia. Inhalation of spores may cause infection of the lungs, and the resultant pneumonia, called woolsorters' disease, is usually
fatal. Anthrax spores may continue to be infectious for many years, even in articles made from infected animal products. Pasteur developed an anthrax vaccine in 1881; new vaccines are now available for those at special risk. Treatment consists of
administering large doses of antibiotics. _^<N__^<N_In 1979 over 1,000 people were reported to have died from anthrax, after an explosion at a plant in the Russian city of Sverdlovsk. The plant is believed to have been manufacturing biological
weapons (see CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL WARFARE. _^<N__^<N_J. Michael S. Dixon , M.D.
-END-
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CATO
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anthropological linguistics
-O-
000000|anthropological linguistics
000880| Early Studies
001975| Later Developments
003756| The Twentieth Century
-T-
anthropological linguistics_^<N__^<N_Anthropological linguistics is the study of natural human languages--whether written or unwritten, contemporary or historical--as an intrinsic part of the general study of human culture and society. A
traditional branch of ANTHROPOLOGY, it also includes three subareas: PSYCHOLINGUISTICS, ethnolinguistics, and SOCIOLINGUISTICS. Unlike the formal and deductive approaches to the study of Language in general inaugurated by Noam CHOMSKY,
anthropological study of languages primarily describes the observable behaviors of speech communities from an inductive approach. Anthropological linguists also investigate primate systems of communication, sign languages of the deaf, language
acquisition by children, pidgin and creole languages, the creation of national languages, bilingualism and dialects, oral literature of preliterate peoples, and ethnographic texts of all kinds. _^<N__^<N_ Early Studies_^<N__^<N_Colonial expansion
in the 19th century resulted in an interest in describing all that was found in lands new to white Europeans, whether in Russian-occupied Asia, Spanish Colonial America, or American-occupied North America. The interest in mapping and understanding
the unfamiliar territories included an attempt to describe the peoples encountered there, particularly their cultures and languages. _^<N__^<N_Until 100 years ago anthropological linguistics in the United States and Russia was, strictly speaking, a
branch of ETHNOGRAPHY and ANTHROPOLOGY. The foundations for modern anthropological linguistics were, however, being established. The attempt to discover general truths about people--their psychologies, native views of the world, and
languages--became the concern of scholars in a variety of fields, including anthropology and linguistics. They hoped to account for the diversity of human beings in all their cultural types. They hoped also to amplify the understanding of
humanity by concentrating scientific attention on that supremely human ability--articulate speech. _^<N__^<N_ Later Developments_^<N__^<N_Anthropologists had studied language competence and speech behavior with emphasis on these abilities as part
of the science of humankind. Anthropological linguists focused on the way in which the various forms of human language behavior dramatically reflect both human diversity and commonality in order to explore the range of potentialities and
variations within the species. Attention continued to be concentrated upon the languages of peoples maximally different from the Europeans. Emphasis was on the mental qualities and psychological variation reflected in the unwritten languages of
the peoples in newly settled lands--a significant study because most of the languages of the world were unwritten. _^<N__^<N_Distinguished Russian linguists such as Roman JAKOBSON and Nikolai Trubetskoy began by studying the ethnography and
literature of non-Russians living within the tsarist Russian empire. In the United States, the Geological Survey, at first part of the government's attempt to map the newly acquired territories of the Louisiana Purchase and the West, collected
word lists of the languages of the indigenous population. _^<N__^<N_After the Civil War in the United States, a significant contribution was made by John Wesley POWELL at the Bureau of American Ethnology. He developed a classification of the
languages of all North America north of Mexico, showing that, of the hundreds of languages and dialects, only 55 language families, each descendant from a common parent language, existed north of Mexico. This classification was essentially
correct, although later studies have shown additional genetic relationships. Most scholars now believe that ten large language families existed there, as well as a number of individual languages of unknown ancestry. _^<N__^<N_ The Twentieth
Century_^<N__^<N_Like Powell, Americans such as Franz BOAS (the father of American anthropology) and his student Edward SAPIR undertook the study of customs, folklore, speech behavior, and language categories. They examined the grammatical
structures and historical relationships of the native languages of the United States, including traditional oral literatures that were transmitted by native speakers from memory. One significant result of the studies of American Indian languages
was the hypothesis developed by Benjamin Lee WHORF in association with Sapir. This theory states that language structures affect the speakers' perceptions and that grammar and ideas are therefore interrelated. _^<N__^<N_In the 20th century,
anthropological linguists began to employ the results of earlier studies in an attempt to discover shared, universal, invariant characteristics of human thought and language by studying the unwritten languages of decreasing populations before their
languages became extinct. The objective was to record, and thus preserve, the languages of these hundreds of societies, lest their unusual testimony to the range of human variation and commonality be lost. _^<N__^<N_Since the turn of the century,
the methods of anthropological linguists have been further developed and expanded. The range of the studies has been extended to include languages in other areas of the world, and the techniques and theories used have greatly profited from the
advances in general linguistics. Outstanding anthropological linguists such as Leonard BLOOMFIELD and Sapir combined their knowledge of general linguistics--a science based on centuries of study of written languages--with the anthropological view
that unwritten languages are equally significant. This combination of expertise, derived from philological studies of written languages plus the view of language as a part of culture, forms the intellectual basis for the anthropological view in
linguistic studies. This view of language as part of culture and separable from the rest of culture, in the way it can be studied, is uniquely anthropological. _^<N__^<N_General linguistic studies of recent decades have been concentrated mostly on
the supposedly genetically inherited human ability for language and on the mental rules shared by members of a speech community, called "competence." Studies in linguistic anthropology have, on the other hand, been concentrated rather on the
"performances," speech acts that manifest that supposedly innate competence. The result has been the broadening of anthropological studies to serve as a check on theory by confronting theories with diverse behavioral data. Anthropological
linguists have also, as a result, come to stress language functions in contrast to the exclusive study of structure. Structuralist-derived models (see STRUCTURALISM), however, are now used in the interpretation of ethnographic materials and
literary texts and in other SEMIOTIC investigations. _^<N__^<N_Harvey Pitkin _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bloomfield, L., Language (1963; repr. 1984); Bolinger, D., and Sears, D. A., Aspects of Language (1981); Burling, R., Man's Many Voices (1970);
Carroll, J. B., Language and Thought (1964); Fishman, J. A., Sociolinguistics (1970); Hoijer, H., ed., Language in Culture (1954); Hymes, D., ed., Language in Culture and Society (1964); Sapir, E., Selected Writings, ed. by D. G.
Mandelbaum (1949; repr. 1985).
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20372
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14366
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anthropology
-O-
000000|anthropology
000286| NATURE AND SCOPE OF ANTHROPOLOGY
002813| CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
004087| Subfields
005634| Methodology
006381| Relationship to Other Disciplines
008396| PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
011639| HISTORY OF ANTHROPOLOGY
012816| Development of Anthropological Theory
014642| Social Anthropology in Britain
015687| American Traditions
016861| New Developments
-T-
anthropology_^<N__^<N_Anthropology is the study of human differences, cultural and biological, against a background of the nature all humans share. Most anthropologists study human social life and CULTURE. Some, in the highly technical subfield of
physical anthropology, study human evolutionary biology. _^<N__^<N_ NATURE AND SCOPE OF ANTHROPOLOGY_^<N__^<N_Historically, anthropologists have looked primarily at non-Western peoples. This study of "exotic" people and places, particularly of
so-called primitive peoples (a term usually avoided now), has distinguished anthropology from other academic disciplines. Anthropology began as a kind of natural history, a study of the peoples encountered along the frontiers of European
expansion, and anthropologists have continued to use this approach. They record customs and collect artifacts in order to reconstruct the history of cultures. _^<N__^<N_Since the 1930s, however, anthropology has been considered more directly
related to the social sciences. Anthropologists analyze and compare societies and their ways of life in search of theoretical generalizations, regularities of process, and patterns of causal connection and covariation. Thus, an anthropologist
might look for connections between a people's political organization and the kinds of supernatural beings they posit; he or she might examine beliefs in sorcery and particular kinds of family structure to see if they are correlated; the
anthropologist might also try to determine whether the status of women in a society is related to the part they play in a subsistence economy. Such searches for regularities and connections in turn shed light on human differences and, through
them, on human nature and universals that underlie diversity. _^<N__^<N_Anthropology differs from sociology, psychology, and the other social sciences in certain key respects. Until World War II anthropologists mainly studied tribal
peoples--American Indians, Africans, Pacific Islanders, and Australian Aborigines. By living among such peoples and by studying and participating in their ways of life, anthropologists developed their particular concepts, theories, and methods.
By contrast, the theories and methods of the other social sciences were primarily developed in Western societies. Since World War II, anthropologists have increasingly studied peasant communities, in Latin America, Asia, and Europe; and many now
study urban settings in the Third World and in Western countries. During the same period, many sociologists, political scientists, economists, and psychologists have made studies in the Third World. Despite this convergence of interest,
anthropological perspectives remain at least partly distinctive in their continuing concern with cultural differences and local ties of KINSHIP and community and in their style and method of research. _^<N__^<N_ CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY_^<N__^<N_The
comparative study of social and cultural systems is commonly (especially in the United States) referred to as cultural anthropology. This branch of anthropology is sometimes also called ethnology. In anthropology the term culture denotes a
people's heritage of custom and belief. A culture is a system of ideas that have been transmitted down through the generations--assumptions about the world, rules and ways to act, goals and ways of achieving them. The cultural heritage of a
people--their ideas about ways to live--shapes the ways they actually do live: for example, the ways they garden, herd, or hunt and the ways they organize their communities. The way in which cultural ideas are worked out in practice is also
governed by the nature of the ecosystem in which people live, their diseases and diet, and the populations around them. _^<N__^<N_The organization of a people's communities--kinship and marriage networks, family structures, systems of property
rights and political order--constitutes their SOCIAL STRUCTURE. Many anthropologists, particularly those trained in the British tradition, are concerned primarily with the comparative study of social structure; they consider themselves social
anthropologists (see SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY). _^<N__^<N_ Subfields_^<N__^<N_Cultural anthropology is a broad category that sometimes includes anthropological LINGUISTICS, or the study of language in non-Western cultural settings, and prehistoric
ARCHAEOLOGY, the study of the human past before written records. The narrow core of cultural anthropology, however, includes a number of subfields. These include human ecology, the comparative study of human adaptation to ecosystems; political
anthropology, the comparative study of political institutions and processes; economic anthropology, the comparative study of systems of production and exchange; structural-symbolist anthropology, the study of the ways the mind imposes order on
experience and organizes knowledge, particularly as expressed in ritual and myth; psychological anthropology, the study of psychological experience (especially in childhood) and thought in non-Western societies; legal anthropology, the
comparative study of social control, dispute settlement, and legal processes; URBAN ANTHROPOLOGY, the study of human experience and social relations in urban settings; and applied anthropology, the applications of anthropology to practical
problems (for example, the promotion of community reorganization and of bilingual and bicultural education). _^<N__^<N_As new interests crystallize, other subfields emerge in and outside anthropology. In recent years an anthropology of women, a
comparative study of women's experience and status, has become prominent, as has medical anthropology--the comparative study of health, disease, and medicine. _^<N__^<N_ Methodology_^<N__^<N_The core of the anthropological method is fieldwork:
long residence in a community and close participation in its daily life. The observer usually records detailed information on kinship, marriage, social organization, and subsistence activities, even though the main focus may be on legal processes
or religious ritual. Such analysis and documentation through fieldwork is called ETHNOGRAPHY. _^<N__^<N_Where possible and appropriate, anthropologists use the methods of the other social sciences--surveys, interviews, and computer analyses of
data to discover statistical patterns. Often, however, methods (such as questionnaires) that work in Western settings are unfeasible or inappropriate in the communities that anthropologists study. _^<N__^<N_ Relationship to Other
Disciplines_^<N__^<N_Cultural anthropology has been a synthesizing discipline rather than a highly specialized one. This results partly from the nature of what anthropologists study: in small-scale societies, religion, politics, and economics are
intertwined and cannot be studied in isolation from one another. It also results from the broad perspectives of the discipline: anthropology is concerned with human origins, the growth and development of cultures, and wide ranges of contemporary
variation. In addition, because anthropology is grounded in both the social sciences and the biological sciences, one of its major focuses has been the interplay of biological and sociocultural influences. _^<N__^<N_Historically, anthropologists
have taken a somewhat negative stance in relation to the social sciences, generally pointing out that a proposed theory of human nature, society, economy, or psychology did not hold true in a particular tribe. In recent decades, however,
traditional boundaries between disciplines have been breaking down, and anthropologists have attempted to play a more positive role. Problems of ecological crisis, population explosion, underdevelopment, urban disintegration, poverty, and disease
call for a range of expertise and a breadth of understanding no single discipline commands. Anthropological understanding of the fabric of social life in communities and the nature of cultural tradition contributes to the needed perspective.
_^<N__^<N_Cultural anthropology has close ties with the humanities as well as with the social sciences. Anthropological studies of symbolism, art, myth and ritual, and religion not only require ethnographic research by trained scientists but also
often demand the skills of a literary critic, an art historian, and a philosopher. A culture incorporates a distinctive philosophy of life, a view of the world, and a system of values; the findings of anthropology are therefore an important
resource both for philosophy and for the social sciences. _^<N__^<N_ PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY_^<N__^<N_Physical anthropology is the specialized study of the evolutionary biology of our species, Homo sapiens. A central task in physical anthropology
has been to document the sequence whereby the human line (the hominids) evolved from early primate ancestors. The detective work that led to the discovery of the NEANDERTHALERS in Ice Age Europe, then to the HOMO ERECTUS fossils in Java and China,
and finally to the much older AUSTRALOPITHECUS finds of Africa--pushing human origins successively back in time--is one of the exciting scientific adventure stories. (See MAN, EARLY.) _^<N__^<N_Reconstructing the evolution of the human lineage is
an ongoing process of discovery; important new finds are made almost every year. Evidence from mineralized bones (fossils) is augmented by atomic age technology to establish the age of ancient deposits and to compare the biochemistry of the
PRIMATES, which include humans, apes, and monkeys. A more recent concern is the study of nonhuman primates--their behavior in the wild and in laboratories, their ability to learn and use communication systems taught by humans, and the organization
of their social groups. _^<N__^<N_Physical anthropology is also concerned with the more recent evolutionary diversification of modern humans. The GENETICS of human populations and their adaptations to environmental pressures have been a main focus
of modern studies. Traditional physical anthropology relied heavily on ANTHROPOMETRY, the measuring of skull shape, stature, and other physical characteristics. In the 1950s, emphasis shifted to genetic characteristics--blood groups, abnormal
hemoglobin types, and other markers that have known genetic bases. By studying the genetics of human populations, anthropologists can gain information about their local histories of movement, intermarriage, and diversification. _^<N__^<N_Hopes
that a comparison of genetic markers of the world's populations would demonstrate ancient origins and connections have not been borne out; the picture that has emerged is complicated, and it is obscured by the rapid change in gene frequencies in a
population that sometimes takes place through NATURAL SELECTION. Some physical anthropologists have returned to the use of body measurement to study relationships between populations, but this time armed with computers and sophisticated
statistical methods. In their studies of modern populations, they attempt to chart physical adaptations to environmental pressures--altitude, solar radiation, heat, cold, disease--through natural selection. _^<N__^<N_Populations of the same animal
species that have diverged through adaptation to different local environments are called races. Physical anthropologists use the term RACE cautiously, if at all, in referring to humans. Sometimes populations that are very different genetically
and have complex local evolutionary histories have been classed together as a race on the basis of external characteristics such as skin color or hair type. Modern evolutionary biologists are more concerned with process than with typology; some
anthropologists believe that classing humans into races not only invites oversimplified typologies but encourages unfounded assertions about human inequality. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY OF ANTHROPOLOGY_^<N__^<N_Anthropology of a kind probably goes back to
the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Central America, where peoples living on the periphery, often farmers or nomadic groups, were subdued and administered by the empire. By the time of the Greeks and Romans, serious
observations of "primitive" peoples at the margins of civilization had been recorded. The history of Western anthropology goes back more directly to the European thought of the Enlightenment and to philosopher-scholars, notably Jean Jacques
ROUSSEAU, who used fragmentary reports of exotic peoples to reflect on human nature, civilization, and society. _^<N__^<N_European expansion into the New World produced more substantial reports, which remain anthropological classics. The Spanish
conquest of Mexico produced, amid destruction, superb ethnographic accounts of Aztec culture. Early Jesuits in North America recorded rich and often sympathetic accounts of Indian cultures. As European penetration of the hitherto unknown world
accelerated, reports of alien peoples and customs--produced by explorers, but more often by missionary scholars--gradually accumulated. _^<N__^<N_ Development of Anthropological Theory_^<N__^<N_In the second half of the 19th century, the growing
body of information on so-called primitive peoples became increasingly incorporated into comparative theoretical schemes, partly because of sweeping theories in social philosophy and biology. The major theme was EVOLUTION: reconstructing the
development of human cultures from the earliest "savage" state of primitive promiscuity, through the progressive evolution of "barbarism," and finally to "civilization." _^<N__^<N_Highly speculative schemes were advanced to explain reported customs
of marriage and descent and to organize them into a single developmental sequence. Amid the speculation, profound scholarship emerged, notably in the brilliant interpretations of E. B. TYLOR, in the comparative studies of the English jurist Sir
Henry Maine (1822-88), and in the penetrating analyses of ancient Greece and Rome by N. D. Fustel de Coulanges. In the United States, Lewis Henry MORGAN laid the foundations for a century of comparative study of kinship and the family.
_^<N__^<N_By the turn of the century three developments--in England, in the United States, and on the Continent--had shaped the direction of things to come. In England W. H. R. RIVERS' published research on the South Pacific pioneered field
study of systems of kinship, descent, and marriage. His work was a kind of comparative sociology. In the United States, the work of Franz BOAS among the Eskimo had established a pattern of painstaking research on culture, language, and biology
that dampened the quest for sweeping theories. In France, Emile DURKHEIM, Marcel MAUSS, and their colleagues had used the reports from the tribal frontier to interpret the interrelationships between the structure of society and the thought-worlds
humans create in religion and ritual. _^<N__^<N_ Social Anthropology in Britain_^<N__^<N_In Britain, A. R. RADCLIFFE-BROWN brought together the insights of Rivers on kinship and marriage and those of Durkheim on ritual. His important synthesis
emphasized the systematic integration of society and the functions of ritual in reinforcing this cohesion. His vision of a scientific comparative sociology and his brilliance as a teacher stimulated a generation of theoretically minded
researchers. _^<N__^<N_A second force in British anthropology was the influence of Bronislaw MALINOWSKI, a Polish scholar whose field studies of the Trobriand Islands (in Papua New Guinea), magnetic manner, and forceful writing inspired a tradition
of superb field studies. The so-called functionalism of Malinowski, which stressed the needs of individuals, and that of Radcliffe-Brown, which stressed the integration of groups, were brought together by a generation of anthropologists (notably
E. E. EVANS-PRITCHARD and Meyer FORTES) who documented African tribal societies with meticulous fieldwork and sociological insight. _^<N__^<N_ American Traditions_^<N__^<N_In the United States, Boas founded the Department of Anthropology at
Columbia University and trained or inspired the pioneers of American anthropology, including Ruth BENEDICT, A. L. KROEBER, Ralph LINTON, Robert LOWIE, Margaret MEAD, and Edward SAPIR. The cultural anthropology they developed in different ways
stressed the overwhelming importance of culture in shaping human behavior and explored disciplinary borders with psychology and linguistics. It dominated the American scene through the 1950s. During the 1940s and '50s, American anthropology was
influenced by psychoanalytic theory. Anthropologists began to look for relationships among culturally patterned childhood experience, adult personality, and cultural beliefs and customs. Another distinctly American contribution to anthropology has
been the compiling of data on hundreds of peoples worldwide. This information has been used to test statistical associations between forms of social organization, modes of subsistence, religious beliefs and practices, and other customs. This
so-called comparative method had first been envisioned by the English anthropologist E. B. Tylor. _^<N__^<N_ New Developments_^<N__^<N_The gap between the British tradition of social anthropology and the American tradition of cultural
anthropology has been partly bridged since World War II. An international anthropological community has emerged, greatly expanded in numbers and moving freely around the world for field research and study. _^<N__^<N_A concern with meaning and
symbolism has been a unifying theme in modern anthropology, with the work of Edmund LEACH, Victor Turner (1920- ), and Mary Douglas (1921- ) in the British tradition and Clifford GEERTZ and David Schneider (1918- ) in the American being widely
influential. The French anthropologist Claude LEVI-STRAUSS, intellectual heir to Mauss, has advanced brilliant theories of how the structures of mind are spun out in the designs of culture. Anthropology has also become more genuinely
international as the discipline has developed in the Third World. Japanese, Indian, Nigerian, Mexican, Brazilian, and Indonesian anthropologists--to mention a few--have made important contributions. _^<N__^<N_The strands of modern anthropological
theory are too numerous and diverse to characterize easily. Some of them have been stimulated by the changes in the tribal world studied by earlier anthropologists--the decolonization of the Third World; the transformation of tribal peoples into
peasants, wage laborers, and urbanites; and the processes of development. Evolutionary views of culture have reemerged in more sophisticated form in the studies of cultural adaptations to ecosystems, of the interplay of biology and culture, and of
human social organization in the light of new findings on nonhuman primates. In the tradition of Boas, Americans have continued to explore the relationship between language and culture, particularly with the emergence in the 1960s of a cognitive
anthropology that has sought to map the structure of cultures as systems of knowledge. _^<N__^<N_Anthropologists have become increasingly involved with other social science disciplines and with classic issues in social theory in recent decades.
For instance, a serious application of Marxist ideas about "precapitalist modes of production" tied anthropology into the running controversies of social theory. Another development is a searching reexamination of the impact anthropologists have
upon the groups that they study, and of the historic links between anthropology and colonialism. This development has been accompanied by a critical reassessment of the relationships between Western scholars and the societies of the Third World.
_^<N__^<N_Roger M. Keesing _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Alland, A., Jr., To Be Human: An Introduction to Cultural Anthropology (1981); Ember, C. R. and M., Anthropology, 5th ed. (1988); Evans-Pritchard, E., A History of Anthropological Thought
(1981); Geertz, C., Works and Lives: The Anthropologist as Author (1988); Harris, M., Culture, People, Nature: An Introduction to General Anthropology, 5th ed. (1988); Hatch, J., Theories of Man and Culture (1973); Keesing, R. M., Cultural
Anthropology: A Contemporary Perspective (1976); Kluckhohn, C., Mirror for Man: The Relation of Anthropology to Modern Life (1949; repr; 1985); Lewis, I. M., Social Anthropology in Perspective, 2d ed. (1986); Mair, L., An Introduction to
Social Anthropology, 2d ed. (1972); Montagu, A., Frontiers of Anthropology (1974); Penniman, T. K., A Hundred Years of Anthropology, 3d ed. (1965; repr. 1974); Pfieffer, J., The Emergence of Man (1972). _^<N__^<N_See also: PREHISTORIC HUMANS.
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anthropometry
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anthropometry_^<N__^<N_{an-throh-pahm'-uh-tree} _^<N__^<N_Anthropometry is the study of human body measurements, often for comparative purposes. Important to the field of ERGONOMICS, anthropometric measurements aid designers and manufacturers in
the production of safe, efficient consumer goods that are comfortable to use. Anthropometric measurement of bones has proven especially useful to Paleoanthropologists concerned with the study of PREHISTORIC HUMANS. _^<N__^<N_Anthropometry had its
roots in efforts to quantify differences in the various RACES of humankind. Dutch anatomist Petrus Camper (1722-89) originated a method for measuring facial angles and developed a classification system based on his measurements. Cranial
measurements, called craniometry, became an important discipline in the 19th century. American physician and naturalist Samuel George Morton (1799-1851), among others, attempted comparative analyses of the races by measuring the cranial volume of
hundreds of skulls. Other researchers, notably French surgeon and physical anthropologist Paul BROCA, augmented cranial data with measurements of the size and weight of actual brains. _^<N__^<N_Following the lead of the evolutionists,
practitioners of anthropometry attempted to formulate a hierarchy of races, with white northern Europeans as the most advance and intelligent race. Other researchers tried to demonstrate through anthropometric measurements that men were superior
to women and even that the upper socioeconomic class was superior to the lower class. Italian criminologist Cesare LOMBROSO proposed that criminals could be recognized by certain physical traits. _^<N__^<N_All such classification attempts have
been completely discredited. Modern-day physical anthropologists (see ANTHROPOLOGY) and anatomists have proven that within each racial group there are a wide variety of anatomical differences among members, rendering most systematization attempts
useless. It has also been proven overwhelmingly that human brain size within normal parameters has little or no relation to human intelligence. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Easterly, Ronald, et al., Anthropometry and Biomechanics (1982); Gould,
Stephen Jay, The Mismeasure of Man (1981); Pheasant, Stephen, Bodyspace: Anthropometry, Ergonomics and Design (1986).
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anthropomorphism
-T-
anthropomorphism_^<N__^<N_Anthropomorphism is the assigning of human characteristics to animals, natural phenomena, inanimate objects, or abstract ideas. In literature, it takes several forms. In the FIGURE OF SPEECH called personification, an
object or abstraction is endowed with human qualities or feelings. The literary strategy of ALLEGORY often employs anthropomorphic personages: in The Pilgrim's Progress, for example, abstract ideas take human form--thus Death, Piety, and
Fellowship are human companions of the hero, Christian. In the beast FABLE, animals speak and evince human behavior and characteristics. George ORWELL's Animal farm (1945) is a modern example, as are animated cartoons. The pathetic fallacy, a
speciality of sentimental poetry, endows natural phenomena and objects with human emotions. _^<N__^<N_In religion, anthropomorphism occurs when a divinity is described as having a human body (the hand of God, out of God's mouth), or exhibits human
behavior (Jove's wrath).
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antiaircraft systems
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antiaircraft systems_^<N__^<N_Antiaircraft systems are intended to destroy or neutralize attacking enemy aircraft and ballistic or guided missiles before they can reach and damage their intended targets. The history of these systems parallels the
development of aviation. During World War I, belligerents used 75-mm and 105-mm artillery and machine guns against the low-flying, slow-moving aircraft prevalent at the time. Between the wars, aircraft improved faster than antiaircraft systems. A
major innovation, introduced about 1940, was the director system of fire control; this system used a device to continuously compute the target's future position and to determine the gun and fuse settings necessary to fire. The system also had a
height finder to determine target altitude, a telescope for the battery commander, and, for night defense, a sound locater, which controlled a searchlight beamed at the target. Another important and possibly decisive improvement was the electric
detector (1943), which could use data from a RADAR system to aim heavy antiaircraft weapons such as the Allied 90-mm and 120 -mm guns. _^<N__^<N_The great increase in aircraft speed since the end of World War II prompted a search for alternatives
to gun systems. SURFACE- TO-AIR MISSILES have evolved from command-guided devices to sophisticated missiles capable of tracking an enemy plane with heat-seeking sensors, such as the shoulder-launched Stinger, or by radar (for example, the Patriot
and the Hawk). The FOG-M missile transmits a TV picture from a camera in its nose to the gunner, who controls it from the ground.
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antiballistic missile
-T-
antiballistic missile_^<N__^<N_The antiballistic missile (ABM) is a defensive weapon designed to intercept attacking BALLISTIC MISSILES. The SALT treaty of 1972 limited the United States and the USSR to no more than 100 ABMs apiece, with each side
agreeing to deploy its missiles around only one site (see ARMS CONTROL). The Soviet (now Russian) system, a mixture of 100 Galosh and Gazelle missiles, is deployed around Moscow. The U.S. Safeguard system was deactivated in 1976. The design of both
systems includes nuclear-armed warheads, large acquisition radars, and tracking radars, as well as relying on early-warning radar networks to warn of enemy missile launches (see BMEWS; MILITARY WARNING AND DETECTION SYSTEMS). Galosh missiles are
designed to intercept attacking weapons above the Earth's atmosphere, whereas the short-range Gazelle attacks incoming reentry vehicles within the atmosphere. The Safeguard system utilized a high-speed, short-range missile, the Sprint, that could
intercept an attacking missile as it descended to its target. Spartan, the long-range ABM of the Safeguard system, had a reaction time of about 30 seconds and could intercept targets at ranges of up to 725 km (450 mi) at heights of about 565 km
(350 mi). _^<N__^<N_In the mid-1980s the development of the land-based ABM gave way to plans for a missile defense system based in space (see STRATEGIC DEFENSE INITIATIVE). A land-based ABM system is still considered essential, however. In 1991,
Congress passed legislation supporting the development of a treaty-compliant system of 100 nonnuclear, land-based interceptors at the old Safeguard site in North Dakota. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Barkenbus, J. N., and Weinberg, A. M., eds., Stability
and Strategic Defenses (1989); Frelk, J. J., Defending against Ballistic Missile Attacks (1990); Luongo, K. W., and Wander, W. T., eds., The Search for Security in Space (1989). _^<N__^<N_See also: NUCLEAR STRATEGY; ROCKETS AND MISSILES.
-END-
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22692
CATO
4820
9590
14348
19129
-A-
antibiotics
-O-
000000|antibiotics
001613| DISCOVERY OF PENICILLIN
005327| CLASSIFICATION OF ANTIBIOTICS
006228| Bactericidal and Bacteriostatic Effects
006810| Spectrum of Activity
007712| BACTERIAL SENSITIVITY
009148| RESISTANCE TO ANTIBIOTICS
010974| SELECTION OF AN ANTIBIOTIC
012534| PREVENTIVE USES
013846| COMMONLY USED ANTIBIOTICS
017107| Cephalosporins
018005| Macrolides
019263| Aminoglycosides
020313| Tetracyclines
021281| Chloramphenicol
-T-
antibiotics_^<N__^<N_An antibiotic is a substance derived from living organisms, usually BACTERIA or molds, that kills microorganisms or inhibits their growth. Some antibiotics also interfere with life processes in higher organisms, but the term
usually applies only to substances that act against microorganisms. Synthetic drugs also used to treat bacterial, fungal, or other parasitic infections may be called antibiotics, but strictly speaking the term is reserved for substances derived
from living agents. The more general term might be antibacterials or antimicrobials. _^<N__^<N_The use of moldy and fermented substances from dung and soybean curd to treat wounds and superficial swellings is described in the earliest medical
records from China, Egypt, and Mesopotamia and dates back to at least 1500 BC. For more than 3,000 years moderately effective methods for treating superficial infections were known, but ignorance of the causes of INFECTIOUS DISEASE precluded
understanding of antibiosis. _^<N__^<N_In 1874, William Roberts (1830-99) of Manchester, England, noted that the growth of fungi was often antagonistic to that of bacteria, and vice versa. He specifically observed that a mold, Penicillium glaucum,
was immune to bacterial infection. Shortly thereafter, Louis PASTEUR and Jules Francois Joubert (1834-1910) noted that anthrax bacilli failed to grow if cultures became contaminated with airborne molds, and they suggested that this observation
might have significant therapeutic implications. For about half a century, however, research on infectious diseases centered on immune serums, vaccines, and the use of chemical agents. _^<N__^<N_ DISCOVERY OF PENICILLIN_^<N__^<N_In 1928, Alexander
FLEMING noticed that growth of the pus-producing bacterium, Staphylococcus aureus, had stopped around an area in which an airborne mold contaminant, Penicillium notatum, had begun to grow. Fleming determined that a chemical substance had diffused
from the mold, and named it PENICILLIN. The small, impure amounts he initially extracted lacked potency, yielding disappointing results in early attempts to treat human infections with penicillin. In 1939, Ernst Boris CHAIN, Howard Walter FLOREY,
and Edward Penley Abraham at Oxford University began to study the possibility that purer, more stable penicillin preparations might be effective. In 1941 the partially purified material was administered to a policeman suffering from osteomyelitis.
Dramatic improvement ensued, but the supply was exhausted before a cure could be effected, and the patient died. Nonetheless, the matter obviously deserved further exploration, and the outbreak of World War II added an element of urgency. The war,
however, interfered with attempts to make penicillin in England on a large scale. Chain therefore hand-carried a vial of the mold to the United States, where the necessary industrial capacity was available for mass production. Application of
beer-brewing technology yielded large amounts of mold liquor, from which partially purified penicillin could be laboriously recovered for clinical use. The first batches became available for military use in 1943. The material was so scarce that
patients' urine was collected and the excreted penicillin recrystallized to be used again. _^<N__^<N_Meanwhile, Rene DUBOS at the Rockefeller Institute had been pursuing Pasteur's original train of thought. Observing that microbial populations in
soil held one another in check, he isolated and purified an antibiotic from a soil bacterium in 1939. It and similar substances subsequently isolated were effective when applied to superficial wounds but proved too toxic for systemic
administration. By 1944, Selman Abraham WAKSMAN and his colleagues had isolated streptomycin from a soil microbe and proved its effectiveness against the tubercle bacillus. Between 1945 and 1960, a systematic search was carried on for antibiotics
derived from bacteria and molds found all over the world. Many hundreds of antibiotics were discovered, and dozens were screened for antibiotic activity and toxicity. Many were eventually marketed, and prescription use accounted for hundreds of
tons annually. _^<N__^<N_In 1957, penicillin was synthesized in the laboratory. Complete synthesis of penicillins proved prohibitively expensive, but harvesting the basic molecules of penicillin from Penicillium molds and then tacking on diverse
molecules proved feasible and led to a large number of tailor-made penicillin variants. The 1960s witnessed a veritable explosion of so-called semisynthetic (part mold-made, part synthetic) penicillins, each designed to deal with the increasing
problem of penicillin-resistant bacteria, to achieve better absorption and higher concentrations in the body, or to broaden the penicillins' effective antimicrobial spectrum. _^<N__^<N_The history of streptomycin and other major antibiotics is
similar. The period from 1960 to the present has witnessed an enormous proliferation of laboratory-designed variations of the basic bacteria and molds isolated from nature, and a search through soil molds has yielded such recent classes of
antibiotics as the broad-spectrum carbapenems and, in the 1980s, the monobactams, which may prove particularly useful in dealing with hospital-derived infections. Synthetic antibacterials such as the quinolones are finding a similar application
(see also BIOPHARMACEUTICALS). _^<N__^<N_ CLASSIFICATION OF ANTIBIOTICS_^<N__^<N_The most common classification is based on mechanism of action. Antibiotics that inhibit the growth of the bacterial cell wall include the commonly used penicillin and
cephalothin groups and such less-often-used antibiotics as vancomycin and bacitracin. Antibiotics that act like detergents on the cell membrane--and therefore disrupt the passage of nutrients into the bacterial cell--include the antibacterials
polymyxin and colistin, and the antifungals mycostatin and amphotericin. Antibiotics that interfere with protein synthesis in the bacterial cell include the tetracyclines, the aminoglycosides (streptomycin, kanamycin, neomycin, gentamicin, and
amikacin), and the macrolide group comprising erythromycin, lincomycin, and clindamycin. Antibacterials that disrupt bacterial-gene replication include the antifungal griseofulvin and the synthetic quinolone drugs. _^<N__^<N_ Bactericidal and
Bacteriostatic Effects_^<N__^<N_Another classification system is based on whether an antibiotic kills microorganisms (bactericidal effect) or merely inhibits growth (bacteriostatic effect). Penicillins, aminoglycosides, vancomycin, bacitracin, the
polymyxins, and colistin are bactericidal. Tetracycline, on the other hand, is bacteriostatic. When susceptible bacteria are exposed to tetracycline, growth will cease temporarily and then resume. Chloramphenicol and the macrolides are also
bacteriostatic. Lethal infectious diseases will respond only to bactericidal agents. _^<N__^<N_ Spectrum of Activity_^<N__^<N_A further classification system rests on the effective target range (activity spectrum) of an antibiotic, as defined by
two criteria: (1) the species of susceptible microorganisms (for example, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, E. coli, and so on), and (2) whether the species are gram-positive or gram-negative. Bacteria retaining a blue stain despite treatment with
iodine and acid alcohol are called gram-positive, and those losing it are gram-negative. The penicillins are effective against most gram-positive bacteria, whereas aminoglycosides are chiefly effective against gram-negative bacteria. These two
groups of antibiotics are therefore termed narrow-spectrum agents. Tetracyclines and chloramphenicol are effective against a broad range of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, rickettsia, and other microorganisms and are therefore called
broad-spectrum antibiotics. _^<N__^<N_ BACTERIAL SENSITIVITY_^<N__^<N_The susceptibility of a given bacterial species to an antibiotic is usually determined either from laboratory tests or from the result of treating an established infection.
_^<N__^<N_In laboratory tests bacteria isolated from an infected patient are inoculated into tubes containing a liquid culture medium enriched with graded concentrations of an antibiotic agent. The lowest concentration of antibiotic that inhibits
microbial growth is termed the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC). When this is compared with concentrations attainable in the body, one can judge whether the bacteria are sensitive, partly sensitive, or resistant to the antibiotic.
Alternatively, the surface of a semisolid growth medium can be inoculated with bacteria, and antibiotic-impregnated filter-paper disks placed on that surface. The antibiotics leave clear zones around disks where growth of susceptible bacteria has
been inhibited. The diameter of the inhibitory zones can be measured accurately and the results precisely interpreted. _^<N__^<N_Occasionally such tests do not correlate with clinical results, particularly when a person has a malignant disease,
immune-system impairment, severe injury, or is receiving drugs that reduce resistance to infection. Outcome may also be unpredictable because of failure to absorb the antibiotic, deterioration of the antibiotic during storage, or its inactivation
by simultaneously administered drugs. _^<N__^<N_ RESISTANCE TO ANTIBIOTICS_^<N__^<N_Innate properties and acquired mechanisms account for microbial resistance to antibiotics. Innate resistance depends on the mechanism of action of an antibiotic.
Thus, penicillin may not be able to reach the cell wall of resistant gram-negative bacteria because the cells are protected by a slimy coating. Such resistance can be overcome if the penicillin molecule can be modified to penetrate the coating.
_^<N__^<N_Resistance may be acquired by mutation or by the transfer of resistance genes from other bacteria. A mutation in the genetic apparatus of a bacterial cell may enable that cell to bypass the metabolic step blocked by an antibiotic or
eliminate a receptor within a microorganism required for the antibiotic to exert its effects. Mutants are usually disadvantaged for survival in nature, but if a mutation occurs while the bacterial population is under pressure from an antibiotic,
then the resistant mutant survivors may propagate. Thus, for example, resistant bacteria readily accumulate in hospitals where antibiotics are used freely. When an antibiotic is later banned from use in the hospital, the natural,
antibiotic-sensitive (wild) strains will gradually displace the resistant variants. _^<N__^<N_Sensitive bacteria can also acquire genes from resistant bacteria that code for the production of antibiotic-destroying enzymes. These genes, called
resistance transfer factors, are frequently acquired in groups, and previously sensitive bacteria may suddenly become resistant to a broad variety of antibiotics. The extrachromosal genes are contained in packages (plasmids) that replicate in
synchrony with bacterial-cell replication but independently of the chromosomal genes. Plasmids are used in recombinant DNA technology to alter the genetic makeup of bacterial cells (see GENETIC ENGINEERING). _^<N__^<N_ SELECTION OF AN
ANTIBIOTIC_^<N__^<N_An exact diagnosis of an infection can be established only by the demonstration of causative agents in a person's body fluids or tissues, or through the specific traces left by an infection in the antibody composition of the
blood. If the diagnosis of an infectious disease has been proved by laboratory tests or is strongly suspected, the physician must still decide whether available antibiotics can be used effectively to treat the infection and whether the potential
benefits of treatment outweigh the risks and costs involved. _^<N__^<N_If a patient is so ill that the 24 to 48 hours required for diagnostic tests would probably result in further deterioration or even death, the physician immediately prescribes
an antibiotic based on estimates of the most likely source of the infection. The physician first obtains specimens of blood, other body fluids, and any collections of infected material and sends them to the laboratory together with the available
clinical information. The laboratory is thus guided to isolate and cultivate the most probable infectious agents and to perform antibiotic sensitivity tests. The physician can then make necessary adjustments in the antibiotic regimen. _^<N__^<N_If
the risk entailed by delaying antibiotic therapy appears small, the physician can obtain all necessary specimens and suspend therapy until the infectious agent is identified. The delay may protect the patient from unnecessary exposure to toxic or
allergy-causing antibiotics, overgrowth by resistant microorganisms, and unnecessary expense. _^<N__^<N_ PREVENTIVE USES_^<N__^<N_Antibiotics have long been used in attempts to protect healthy persons against infection by specific bacteria to which
they may be exposed, to reduce the risk of infection in people with chronic illnesses, and to limit or prevent infection in patients with traumatic or surgical wounds. _^<N__^<N_In the first case, prophylaxis, or prevention, usually succeeds when a
single antibiotic will block infection by a specific microorganism or eradicate it shortly after it becomes established. Failure is common in other circumstances, since the objective is to prevent infection by any and all microorganisms, with
neither targets nor weapons sharply defined. Misguided attempts at prophylaxis frequently result in an increased incidence of infections, with antibiotic-resistant microorganisms. Specialists estimate that at least 90 percent of antibiotic
prescriptions are unnecessary or inappropriate. _^<N__^<N_Antibiotics are also added to commercial animal feed in minute quantities, both for prophylaxis and because growth in animals is markedly increased, but the practice raises the possibility
of resistant strains being developed. This problem has been indicated in recent years by SALMONELLA outbreaks in human populations. Many countries restrict use of antibiotics in feed to those not prescribed to humans. _^<N__^<N_ COMMONLY USED
ANTIBIOTICS_^<N__^<N_Penicillin G, the first modern antibiotic to come into widespread use, is still the safest, most effective, and cheapest antibiotic. The ratio between toxic and clinically effective doses is several hundred to a thousandfold
except in newborn infants and persons with poor kidney function, or when the antibiotic is applied directly to brain tissue. When administered by mouth, its absorption is limited, and it may be destroyed by the acid in the stomach, but it is
injectable into muscle or vein. Allergic sensitization frequently follows application to the skin and mucus membranes; therefore it is not recommended for topical use. _^<N__^<N_Penicillin G is a bactericidal, narrow-spectrum antibiotic that is
highly effective against gram-positive bacteria, especially staphylococci, which cause boils, osteomyelitis, wound infections, and infections of the heart and blood vessels; streptococci, which cause "strep" throat, predispose to rheumatic fever
and acute glomerulonephritis, infect abrasions and wounds, and cause blood poisoning and childbed fever; pneumococci, which cause the most common form of bacterial pneumonia; and against the bacteria that cause syphilis, gonorrhea, and common forms
of bacterial meningitis. _^<N__^<N_Nevertheless, penicillin G has several shortcomings. It is destroyed by stomach acid and by enzymes (penicillinases) produced by several microorganisms, its spectrum of activity is limited, and it frequently
causes allergic reactions. _^<N__^<N_The phenoxy-penicillins (such as penicillin V) resist degradation by stomach acid and can therefore be taken by mouth. Antibacterial spectrum is roughly similar to that of penicillin G, and penicillin V is also
destroyed by penicillinases. _^<N__^<N_Ampicillin is effective against a wider bacterial spectrum that includes some gram-negative bacteria, especially the typhoid bacillus and a Hemophilus influenzae, which causes the most common form of bacterial
meningitis in infants between six months and three years of age, and many of the bacteria involved in urinary tract infections. Probably no more toxic than penicillin G, it does appear to be twice as likely to cause allergic skin rashes, and it
often causes diarrhea. It is also destroyed by penicillinases. Amoxicillin is a very similar agent that is better absorbed and less likely to cause diarrhea. _^<N__^<N_Methicillin (Staphcillin) resists penicillinase destruction and must be given by
injection. It was the first penicillin effective against resistant "hospital staphylococcus," its only clinical indication. Methicillin first demonstrated that penicillins could be toxic to the kidneys. Oxacillin, cloxacillin, dicloxacillin, and
nafcillin are similar in that they resist destruction by penicillinase and can be given by mouth. _^<N__^<N_Carbenicillin extends the antibacterial spectrum of the penicillins to cover Pseudomonas strains, its only clinical indication. These
gram-negative bacteria cause serious infections in hospitalized and debilitated patients. _^<N__^<N_Mezlocillin, piperacillin, and ticarcillin are other extended-spectrum penicillins. Their main use is in treating Pseudomonas infection and as
prophylaxis in immunocompromised patients, such as cancer patients, who are at serious risk of developing a gram-negative infection. _^<N__^<N_ Cephalosporins_^<N__^<N_Cephalosporins are semisynthetic derivatives of cephalosporin C, which is
produced by Cephalosporium acremonium, a fungus. They are very similar to penicillins in structure and activity and, in general, are active against many gram-positive, gram-negative, and some anaerobic bacteria. _^<N__^<N_First-generation
cephalosporins were first available in the 1970s and, like penicillin G, are used against gram-positive organisms. Second-generation cephalosporins are generally active against organisms susceptible to first-generation agents, but their activity is
expanded to include some gram-negative organisms. Third-generation agents have little activity against gram-positive organisms but are more active than second-generation agents against gram-negative organisms. Available only in the injectable form,
they are used in hospitalized patients such as those with Pseudomonas infections. _^<N__^<N_ Macrolides_^<N__^<N_Erythromycin is one of the safest antibiotics and rarely causes toxic reactions other than gastrointestinal irritation. The rare
allergic reactions are usually limited to mild skin rashes, fever, and some changes in the cellular components of the blood. If the dosage is increased more than twofold beyond standard amounts, or if the chemical structure is altered to improve
absorption, severe liver damage may occur. The principal use for erythromycin is in the treatment of mild to moderately severe gram-positive bacterial infections in patients allergic to penicillin, for the prevention of streptococcal infections in
penicillin-allergic patients with a history of acute rheumatic fever, and for the treatment of pneumonia due to Mycoplasma. All macrolides are bacteriostatic and tend to penetrate poorly into the cerebrospinal fluid. They are therefore not used for
treating meningitis. _^<N__^<N_Clindamycin, clinically similar to macrolides but chemically different, is effective against ANAEROBES that often cause wound infections following abdominal trauma or surgery. It has been known to cause massive
diarrhea and colitis, in as many as 15 to 20 percent of treated patients, and is therefore reserved for treating severe, anaerobic infections. _^<N__^<N_ Aminoglycosides_^<N__^<N_The aminoglycosides--streptomycin, neomycin, gentamicin, tobramycin,
amikacin, netilmicin, and kanamycin--are second only to the penicillins in importance. The oldest member of the group, streptomycin, was the second antibiotic to come into widespread clinical usage and the first to demonstrate significant
effectiveness against the tubercle bacillus. Bactericidal, narrow-spectrum antibiotics, aminoglycosides are highly effective against most gram-negative bacteria. They are largely ineffective against gram-positive bacteria, with the exception of
staphylococci, and they are ineffective against other forms of microbial life. All aminoglycosides are toxic to the auditory apparatus (the organs responsible for maintaining equilibrium) and the kidneys. All can cause allergic reactions, including
fever, skin rashes, changes in the cellular composition of the blood, and--rarely--sudden death. The rapidity with which bacteria acquire resistance to these antibiotics has necessitated a continuing search for new aminoglycosides. _^<N__^<N_
Tetracyclines_^<N__^<N_First discovered in the late 1940s, the tetracyclines are highly effective, broad-spectrum, bacteriostatic antibiotics. They are effective against a wide variety of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, rickettsia, and
the large viruslike agents that cause trachoma and related diseases, and are partly effective against some biologically more complex protozoan parasites. The broad-spectrum activity of these agents results in eliminating much of the patient's
normal microbial population, with consequent overgrowth of resistant remnants that are normally harmless. This has caused black, hairy tongue and fungal infections of the perineal area, the underarm area, and the gastrointestinal tract. A sore, red
mouth may occur, probably due to vitamin deficiencies induced by elimination of the normal, vitamin-producing members of the host's microbial population. Tetracyclines are administered orally, usually for acne or urinary tract infections.
_^<N__^<N_ Chloramphenicol_^<N__^<N_Chloramphenicol is a highly effective, broad-spectrum bacteriostatic antibiotic with principal activity against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria and rickettsia. One of the safest antibiotics, it has
acquired a bad reputation because a few treated patients developed severe depression of bone marrow function (impaired red blood cell, white blood cell, and platelet production). Since substitutes exist for almost every indication where
chloramphenicol might be considered, treatment with chloramphenicol can only be justified on the basis of demonstrated and documented need. Such can be found in the treatment of typhoid fever where the infecting bacteria have been shown resistant
to ampicillin and sensitive to chloramphenicol. Another indication is in the treatment of bacterial meningitis; penetration of chloramphenicol into the cerebrospinal fluid space is better than with any other antibiotic, and it displays the
necessary spectrum of activity to deal with most bacterial causes of meningitis. _^<N__^<N_Harold J. Simon, M.D. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Conte, J. E., Jr., and Barriere, S. L., Manual of Antibiotics and Infectious Diseases, 6th ed (1988); Egorov,
N. S., Antibiotics (1985); Grayson, Martin, ed., Antibiotics, Chemotherapeutics, and Antibacterial Agents (1983); Hold, K. L., Antibiotics and Adverse Effects (1987); Parascondola, John, ed., The History of Antibiotics (1980).
-END-
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6289
CATO
4795
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antibody
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000000|antibody
001334| Antibody Production
002281| Antibody Action
003271| Allergy and Autoimmunity
004738| Monoclonal Antibodies
-T-
antibody_^<N__^<N_Antibodies are proteins present in the blood that can combine specifically with foreign substances (ANTIGENS) and assist in their removal from the body. The production of antibodies is part of the immune response against pathogens
and is important in recovery from INFECTIOUS DISEASE caused by BACTERIA or a VIRUS. _^<N__^<N_The continued presence of antibody molecules in the blood after an infection is one reason for the long-lasting IMMUNITY to many such diseases. Individual
antibody molecules are specific and have a high affinity for one particular antigen. The body is able to produce many millions of different antibodies and thus combat almost any foreign substance. _^<N__^<N_Another defensive function of antibodies
is the protection of the newborn from infection. The fetus receives antibodies from the mother, which pass across the placenta and enter the fetal circulation. The newborn infant is exposed for the first time to bacteria in the environment, and
maternal antibodies supply it with the necessary protection until it develops its own antibodies. Antibodies are also present in the mother's milk and can be absorbed by the BREAST FEEDING infant. In such animals as sheep, cows, pigs, and horses,
placental transfer does not occur; milk is the only source of maternal antibodies. In humans, milk is of secondary importance. _^<N__^<N_ Antibody Production_^<N__^<N_Antibodies are secreted by specialized lymphoid cells (called plasma cells) in
lymph nodes and in spleen and intestinal lymphoid tissue. They are divided according to their molecular structure into five major classes, called IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE, and IgD (Ig stands for immunoglobulin). The total antibody level of human serum is
about 15 mg/ml, of which about 75% is IgG, 20% is IgA, and 5% is IgM. IgE and IgD are present in minute amounts only. _^<N__^<N_The basic structure of all antibody molecules is the same, and for determining that structure Rodney Porter and Gerald
Edelman received a Nobel Prize for physiology and medicine in 1972. As seen in the electron microscope, the structure is Y-shaped, with the antigen-combining sites located at the tips of the branches of the Y. The branches vary from one antibody to
another. These branches are always attached to the same molecular handle, however, that is, to the leg of the Y. _^<N__^<N_ Antibody Action_^<N__^<N_An antibody acts by first binding to the antigen with its specific combining sites, at least two of
which are present on each antibody molecule. For example, if the antigen is a harmful molecule (toxin) produced by a bacterium, as in diphtheria or tetanus infections, binding by antibody neutralizes the toxic effect. Similarly, viruses such as
those causing INFLUENZA are directly neutralized by antibodies, which combine with them and prevent them from entering tissue cells. _^<N__^<N_In the case of infection with such bacteria as streptococci or staphylococci, however, antibodies act in
cooperation with other defensive cells of the BLOOD called phagocytic white blood cells (polymorphonuclear leucocytes and monocytes). The coating of these bacteria by antibodies enables the white cells to engulf and destroy them. Antibodies that
perform this important role are called opsonins. They require another plasma-protein system called complement to assist them in this function. _^<N__^<N_ Allergy and Autoimmunity_^<N__^<N_Antibodies are not always beneficial, however. Some are
responsible for such allergic reactions as hay fever, asthma, and drug ALLERGY. Sometimes antibodies are produced against the body's own proteins or cells (autoantibodies) and cause AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE. _^<N__^<N_Antibodies can also be troublesome
in blood transfusion. All individuals, except those of blood group AB, possess natural antibodies against the red blood cell (ABO) antigens other than their own type. These antibodies destroy red cells not of the individual's own ABO type. Great
care is therefore taken to match transfused blood with that of the patient. A serious disease involving antibodies to red blood cells is haemolytic disease of the newborn (Rhesus disease). Rhesus (RH FACTOR) is an antigen present in red cells.
If an Rh-positive fetus is carried by an Rh-negative mother, she may produce antibodies against the Rh factor in fetal red cells. The antibodies cross the placenta, destroy fetal red cells, and cause life threatening anemia and jaundice.
_^<N__^<N_Antibodies are detected by their ability to precipitate antigens from solution, agglutinate (clump together) bacteria or red cells, or activate the plasma complement system. In clinical laboratory tests, antibodies are used in typing
blood for transfusion and in such diagnostic tests as the Wassermann test for SYPHILIS, the Widal test for TYPHOID FEVER, and the Paul-Bunnell test for infectious MONONUCLEOSIS. _^<N__^<N_ Monoclonal Antibodies_^<N__^<N_Production of a pure, single
antibody in significant amounts for research and medicine had long been difficult. In 1975, however, British biologists Cesar Milstein and Georges Kohler announced the development of a method for CLONING antibodies by using myeloma cells, which
keep secreting immunoglobulin of a single kind. (Multiple myeloma is a cancer of antibody producing cells.) By fusing a myeloma cell with an antibody producing cell of a desired type, large quantities of specific, monoclonal antibodies can be
produced. Hybrid mouse-human antibodies increase the range of available types, as well. New techniques are enabling drugs to be delivered to specific disease sites by monoclonal antibodies, which are also demonstrating their potential as
catalytic agents that can speed up protein reactions in the body. Their uses in medicine and biology are expanding rapidly, from the diagnosis of infectious diseases to the detection, isolation, and analysis of biological materials. The genetic
engineering of antibodies designed for very specific purposes, in fact, holds open the promise of their wide application as tailor-made enzymes in chemistry and other fields of technology. Catalytic antibodies, or "abzymes," are undergoing
intensive research. _^<N__^<N_Michael J. Taussig _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Catty, D., Antibodies, 2 vols. (1988-89); Goding, J.W., Monoclonal Antibodies, 2d ed. (1987); Schultz, P.G., et al., "Catalytic Antibodies," Chemical & Engineering News,
May 28, 1990; Skal, D. J., Antibodies (1988);
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1026
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Antichrist
-T-
Antichrist_^<N__^<N_Antichrist is the designation for a cosmic power that opposes JESUS CHRIST. The Antichrist, an eschatological figure, is expected to come at the end of the world to deceive and lead many followers of Christ astray. According to
Christian literature, he will be defeated in the final conflict between good and evil at the SECOND COMING OF CHRIST. _^<N__^<N_The term "Antichrist" is used in only two New Testament books, 1 John (2:18, 22; 4:3) and 2 John (7). These texts state
that the Antichrist has come and is active in those who deny "that Jesus is the Christ." In other parts of Scripture the concept is applied to a cosmic reality in conflict with the resurrected Christ or to a historical representative of such a
power who will be in ascendance before the end of time. _^<N__^<N_Although the term "Antichrist" is strictly Christian, similar concepts are expressed in ancient Persian and Babylonian mythology. The earliest Jewish antecedent is the reference to
GOG AND MAGOG in Ezekiel 38-39. _^<N__^<N_Douglas Ezell _^<N__^<N_See also: ESCHATOLOGY.
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995
CAT
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anticoagulant
-T-
anticoagulant_^<N__^<N_Anticoagulants inhibit the formation or action of one or more of the clotting factors involved in the sequence of reactions that causes BLOOD to coagulate. Most anticoagulants are essentially prophylactic, which means they
are used in the treatment of existing thrombosis (clot, or thrombus, formation) only to inhibit further clotting. Thrombolytic drugs relieve clots that have already formed. _^<N__^<N_HEPARIN and the oral anticoagulants warfarin and dicumarol are
equally effective in treating venous thromboembolisms, but only heparin is useful in treating arterial thrombosis. Thrombolytics developed in the 1980s include streptokinase, an enzyme that can be injected into the coronary artery to stop a heart
attack; and tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a blood protein now available in large quantities through recombinant DNA techniques. The ongoing development of such drugs has been aided by the 1987 isolation of the body protein that initiates
the blood-clotting process.
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57
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Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith:
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Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith:_^<N__^<N_see B'NAI B'RITH.
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1782
CAT
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antidepressants
-T-
antidepressants_^<N__^<N_Antidepressants are a class of drugs used to treat patients who have the disorder called DEPRESSION, the symptoms of which include insomnia, listlessness, loss of appetite, and a dispirited or despondent emotional state.
Some evidence indicates that chronic depressive states are caused by a deficiency in the neurotransmitter called norepinephrine, a natural stimulant of the central NERVOUS SYSTEM that is secreted at nerve endings and diffused to target organs, thus
transmitting impulses. One group of antidepressant drugs, the monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors, lessen the effect of one of the enzymes responsible for degrading natural stimulants, among them norepinephrine. An example of this group of
inhibitors in tranylcypromine (trade name Parnate). The other group is called tricyclics, so named for three rings in their chemical formula. These drugs appear to act by diminishing the absorption of norepinephrine at nerve endings, thus
maintaining proper blood levels of this stimulant. Examples of the tricyclic group of drugs are imipramine (trade name Tofranil) and amitriptyline (trade name Elavil). Drowsiness is an unexplained common side effect of these drugs. Since the
resulting effect of using either group of drugs is a net increase in the amount of norepinephrine, it is dangerous to use both simultaneously. Irregular heartbeat and increased blood pressure may occur. Patients receiving MAO inhibitors must also
avoid wine or aged cheese because these products contain tyramine, an autonomic nervous-system stimulant that may cause similar adverse effects. _^<N__^<N_Richard H. Runser, M.D. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Barnhart, E., ed., Physician's Desk
Reference, 42d ed. (1988); Silverman, H., and Simon, G. I., The Pill Book, 3d rev. ed. (1986).
-END-
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833
CAT
-A-
antidiuretic hormone
-T-
antidiuretic hormone_^<N__^<N_{an'-ti-dy-oo-ret'-ik} _^<N__^<N_Antidiuretic HORMONE, or vasopressin, is a chemical that controls the volume of urine. It is produced in the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitary gland. Its release into
the bloodstream is controlled by sensitive changes in the osmotic pressure of plasma and the volume of extracellular fluid, which may be caused by pain, emotions, and certain drugs. The hormone acts to increase the permeability of the collecting
ducts of the kidney so the urine becomes more concentrated and decreases in volume. Damage to the hypothalamus or posterior pituitary can result in diabetes insipidus, a disease characterized by excessive urine production and constant thirst.
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Kannan, C. R., Essential Endocrinology (1986); Norman, A. W., and Litwack, G., Hormones (1987).
-END-
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1289
CAT
-A-
Antietam, Battle of
-T-
Antietam, Battle of_^<N__^<N_{an-tee'-tuhm} _^<N__^<N_The Battle of Antietam, in the U.S. CIVIL WAR, was fought on Sept. 17, 1862, between the U.S. Army of the Potomac under Gen. George B. MCCLELLAN and the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia
under Gen. Robert E. LEE. Lee's first invasion of the North culminated in the worst day of fighting to that time at Sharpsburg, Md., along Antietam Creek. McClellan concentrated near Sharpsburg after a rapid march from Washington. Lee, having
dispersed his army for mopping-up operations from Harper's Ferry to Martinsburg, Va., also concentrated at Sharpsburg. Lee narrowly escaped defeat. Although McClellan's casualties were heavier (12,000 men), Lee's loss of 10,000 men forced a
Confederate retreat to Virginia. _^<N__^<N_Frank E. Vandiver _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Frassanito, William A., Antietam: The Photographic Legacy of America's Bloodiest Day (1978; repr. 1982); Gallagher, Gary W., ed., Antietam: Essays on the 1862
Maryland Campaign (1989); Luvass, Jay, and Nelson, Harold W., The U.S. Army War College Guide to the Battle of Antietam (1988); Priest, John M., Antietam: The Soldiers' Battle (1989); Schildt, John W., Drums Along the Antietam (1972); Sears,
Stephen, Landscape Turned Red (1983; repr. 1993). Wheeler, Richard: Lee's Terrible Swift Sword (1992).
-END-
-C-
800
CAT
-A-
Anti-Federalists
-T-
Anti-Federalists_^<N__^<N_In U.S. history, the Anti-Federalists were those who opposed the ratification of the U.S. CONSTITUTION in 1787-88. Led by George CLINTON, George MASON, Patrick HENRY, and Elbridge GERRY, they argued that the proposed
Constitution gave excessive power to the federal government. The BILL OF RIGHTS was adopted partly to assuage their fears that individual liberties would be endangered. After the Constitution was ratified, the Anti-Federalists formed an
opposition party in Congress, eventually fusing with the Jeffersonian Republicans in the Democratic-Republican party (see DEMOCRATIC PARTY). _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Borden, Morton, ed., The Antifederalist Papers (1965); Kenyon, Cecelia M., ed.,
The Antifederalists (1966; repr. 1985); Ketcham, Ralph, Antifederalist Papers (1986).
-END-
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1492
CAT
-A-
antifreeze
-T-
antifreeze_^<N__^<N_Antifreeze is a substance that has the ability to lower the freezing point of any liquid to which it is added. It is added to the cooling system of many automobile engines to prevent the cooling liquid from freezing in cold
weather. (See COOLING SYSTEM, ENGINE.) In a cooling system, a liquid, called the coolant, circulates through the engine block and carries off heat, thus cooling the engine. Pure water is an excellent coolant, except that it expands when it
freezes. If the temperature falls below freezing, the water will freeze and expand. This expansion can crack the engine block and damage the radiator or other parts of the cooling system. _^<N__^<N_ETHYL ALCOHOL and METHYL ALCOHOL are common
constituents of antifreeze. When they are added to water, they lower the FREEZING POINT of the mixture by interfering with the formation of the solid state--crystals of ice. The more antifreeze is added to an engine, the lower the freezing
temperature will be. A disadvantage of ethyl and methyl alcohol is that they evaporate in water solution. For this reason, this type of antifreeze must be replaced each year. Permanent antifreeze, which usually contains ethylene GLYCOL, does not
evaporate and so can retain its effectiveness through several seasons. Most antifreezes also contain various additives, such as rust inhibitors to protect the metal parts of the engine's cooling system and lubricants for the water pump.
Antifreezes are also used in refrigeration systems.
-END-
-C-
1876
CAT
-A-
antigen
-T-
antigen_^<N__^<N_{an'-ti-jen} _^<N__^<N_Antigens are substances capable of stimulating immune responses in living organisms. The essential property of an antigen is that it is a foreign material, usually a protein or polysaccharide, in an organism
that stimulates the production of ANTIBODIES, substances that combine with the specific invading material and inactivate it. Antigens are present in invading bacteria and viruses and are generally unique to the specific organism. Moreover, many
organic molecules in the environment are antigenic. At least a million different substances may provoke immune responses. _^<N__^<N_Bacterial and viral antigens are useful in the identification and classification of these microorganisms and may be
the very substances that cause disease (for example, the Vi antigen of SALMONELLA). In humans, antigens are present in red blood cells and tissue cells and cause problems in blood transfusion and transplantation. The major red-cell antigens are
called the ABO antigens, and different individuals carry either the group A antigen, the group B antigen, both (group AB), or neither (group O). The existence of these strong antigenic differences means that, with certain exceptions, it is only
possible to transfuse blood between individuals of the same blood group. _^<N__^<N_Individuals also differ in their tissue antigens (called histocompatiblity, or HLA antigens). Because of these antigens, grafted organs such as kidneys usually fail
to survive in the recipient unless donor and recipient are closely related, and thus have similar tissue types, or unless the immune response is suppressed by drugs. _^<N__^<N_Michael J. Taussig _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Arehart-Treichel, Joan,
Immunity: How Our Bodies Resist Disease (1976); Schmeck, Harold M., Jr., Immunology: The Many-Edged Sword (1974); Sela, M., The Antigens, 6 vols. (1974-82). _^<N__^<N_See also: ANTIBODY; IMMUNITY (biology).
-END-
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1704
CAT
-A-
Antigone
-T-
Antigone_^<N__^<N_{an-tig'-uh-nee} _^<N__^<N_Antigone, the daughter of OEDIPUS, king of Thebes in Greek legend, was also the heroine of one of SOPHOCLES' greatest dramas. According to the legend, when Oedipus blinded himself after his marriage to
his mother was revealed to him, Antigone shared her father's exile near Athens. After his death, she returned to Thebes and attempted, with her sister Ismene, to reconcile her quarreling brothers Eteocles and Polynices. Both brothers were killed,
but her uncle Creon, now king, forbade the burial of Polynices because he had betrayed Thebes. When Antigone secretly buried her brother against the edict of her uncle, she was executed. According to another version of the legend, she escaped and
married Haemon, the son of Creon. _^<N__^<N_Sophocles used the plot and characters of this legend in his tragedy Antigone (440 BC). The plot revolves around Antigone's devotion to her brother and her defiance of Creon's edict in order to obey a
higher law of devotion. As the play opens, her two brothers, Polynices and Eteocles, have just killed each other as the result of Polynices' rebellion against Eteocles, the successor king of Thebes. Creon, the new king, forbids Polynices' corpse
to be buried. Antigone conducts a funeral service despite the ban and is then imprisoned by Creon in a vault, where she hangs herself before Creon undergoes a change of heart. The play has often been interpreted as a justification for civil
disobedience and as a vindication of the unwritten laws of conscience. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Gross, N. P., Sophocles' Antigone (1988); O'Brien, Joan, A Guide to Sophocles' Antigone (1977); Whitman, Cedric H., Sophocles: A Study of Heroic
Humanism (1951).
-END-
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1200
CAT
-A-
Antigonus I Monophthalmus, Macedonian king
-T-
Antigonus I Monophthalmus, Macedonian king_^<N__^<N_{an-tig'-uh-nuhs, mahn-uhf-thal'-muhs} _^<N__^<N_The Macedonian Antigonus I, b. c.382 BC, was one of the successors (Diadochi) of ALEXANDER THE GREAT. He was governor of Phrygia under Alexander.
After Alexander's death (323), he joined the alliance against PERDICCAS, killed EUMENES after a long war, and by 316 controlled the eastern provinces of the empire. Trying to conquer the western portion, he was opposed by the other Diadochi,
although they were generally disunited. After a naval victory over PTOLEMY I by his son DEMETRIUS I POLIORCETES, he and Demetrius proclaimed themselves kings (307). Their opponents also assumed royal titles, thus ending the nominal unity of the
empire. Successful in the field, Antigonus was unsuccessful in his diplomatic efforts to keep his enemies isolated. Their alliance defeated and killed him at Ipsus in Anatolia in 301. _^<N__^<N_E. Badian _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bevan, Edwyn
Robert, The House of Seleucus, 2 vols. (1902); Grimal, Pierre, ed., Hellenism and the Rise of Rome (1969); Hammond, N. G., and Walbank, F. W., A History of Macedonia, Vol. 3, 366-167 BC (1988); Tarn, W. W., Hellenistic Civilization, 3d ed.
(1952).
-END-
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358
CAT
-A-
Antigonus II Gonatas, Macedonian king
-T-
Antigonus II Gonatas, Macedonian king_^<N__^<N_{goh-nah'-tuhs} _^<N__^<N_Antigonus II, 319-239 BC, king of Macedonia, succeeded his father DEMETRIUS I POLIORCETES in 283 but did not win possession of his kingdom until 276. Thereafter he maintained
Macedonian control of Greece, despite several wars, and patronized the arts. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Tarn, W. W., Antigonos Gonatas (1913).
-END-
-C-
356
CAT
-A-
Antigonus III Doson, Macedonian king
-T-
Antigonus III Doson, Macedonian king_^<N__^<N_{doh'-suhn} _^<N__^<N_Antigonus III, c.263-220 BC, king of Macedonia, served as regent for the future PHILIP V before proclaiming himself king in 227. At the request of members of the Achaean League,
Antigonus joined in defeating CLEOMENES III of Sparta at Sellasia in 222. He then occupied Corinth. He was succeeded by Philip V.
-END-
-C-
442
CAT
-A-
Antigua (city in Guatemala)
-T-
Antigua (city in Guatemala)_^<N__^<N_{ahn-tee'-gwah} _^<N__^<N_Antigua (1976 pop., 26,631) is the capital city of Sacatepequez department of south central Guatemala. Formerly the capital (1542-1776) of Guatemala, it is located in a fertile valley
near several volcanoes. Coffee plantations are the mainstay of the economy. Antigua's Spanish colonial architecture, particularly churches, is a major tourist attraction. A major earthquake struck the city in 1976.
-END-
-C-
1794
CAT
-A-
Antigua and Barbuda
-T-
Antigua and Barbuda_^<N__^<N_Antigua and Barbuda, two of the Leeward Islands, together with the uninhabited islet of Redonda, became an independent state on Nov. 1, 1981. Southeast of Puerto Rico in the Caribbean Sea, it had been a self-governing
associated state of the United Kingdom since 1967. SAINT JOHN'S, a deepwater port on Antigua, is the capital. _^<N__^<N_Largely deforested, Antigua is a partly volcanic and partly limestone coral island. Although generally low-lying, it rises to
a maximum elevation of 405 m (1,330 ft) at Boggy Peak. It has a pleasant tropical semiarid climate. Barbuda is a low flat coral island. The country has a water shortage problem. Dams have been built to control surface drainage, and a
desalination plant is in operation. Cotton and sugarcane are the principal products. _^<N__^<N_Christopher Columbus discovered Antigua in 1493. The island was colonized by the British in the early 17th century. A successful sugarcane industry
developed, but with the abolition of slavery in 1834 plantation agriculture became less profitable and the economy fell into decline. Antigua has had a bicameral parliament since ending its status as a British colony in 1967. The country has long
been a popular tourist resort. The cultivation of fruits and vegetables, light industry, offshore banking, and fishing are also important to the economy. _^<N__^<N_The constitution that came into force at independence established the British
monarch, represented by a governor-general, as the ceremonial head of state. The Antigua Labor party, headed by Prime Minister Vere C. Bird, dominated the government since independence. The Labour party won a fifth consecutive term of office in a
general election in March 1994; Lester Bird was elected prime minister, succeeding his father. _^<N__^<N_Thomas D. Boswell _^<N__^<N_
-END-
-C-
1128
CAT
-A-
anti-hero
-T-
anti-hero_^<N__^<N_An anti-hero is the central character in a drama, film, or prose work who lacks traditional heroic qualities such as strength, bravery, resourcefulness, handsome appearance, and gallantry. He is often a seriocomic, graceless
figure and an honorable failure. Antecedents of the anti-hero can be found in folk literature and in such picaresque novels as Don Quixote (1605, 1615). After World War II, the anti-hero became a commonplace figure in fiction and drama, embodying
an attitude of anguish, self-doubt, and distrust of societal structures. Notable examples are Meursault in Albert CAMUS's absurdist novel The STRANGER (1942), Willy Loman in Arthur MILLER's tragic drama of the common man DEATH OF A SALESMAN (1949),
and Yossarian in Joseph HELLER's satiric novel CATCH-22 (1961). _^<N__^<N_J. A. Cuddon _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Galloway, David, The Absurd Hero in American Fiction, 2d ed. (1981); Miller, James E., Jr., Quests Surd and Absurd: Essays in American
Literature (1967); Olderman, Raymond, Beyond the Waste Land: The American Novel in the Nineteen-Sixties (1972); Wisse, R. W., The Schlemiel as Modern Hero (1980).
-END-
-C-
1881
CAT
-A-
antihistamine
-T-
antihistamine_^<N__^<N_{an-ti-his'-tuh-meen} _^<N__^<N_Antihistamines are members of a varied group of drugs antagonistic to the effects of histamine, a chemical substance released at a tissue site or into the circulatory system as the result of
tissue injury or in reaction to an antigen. Ragweed pollen is a common antigen; it causes the histamine reaction called hay fever. Histamine causes large blood vessels to constrict and smaller blood vessels, including capillaries, to dilate, or
open; it increases the permeability of capillaries, permitting the fluid part, or plasma, of the blood to escape and cause swelling; and it constricts small air passages, or bronchioles, in the lungs. Symptoms of histamine activity may include
flushing, hives, headache, wheezing, facial puffiness, and lowered blood pressure. _^<N__^<N_Antihistamines act by blocking or displacing histamine at the H(1) receptor sites found in most tissues and organs, but particularly in the blood vessels,
skin, uterus, and bronchioles. By means of this action, the drugs prevent, reverse, or minimize the effects of the naturally occurring histamine. The effectiveness of antihistamines is rarely complete because of the existence of other chemicals,
such as serotonin, that have the same action as histamine. These chemicals have their own specific receptor sites, not blocked by antihistamines. _^<N__^<N_Another effect of histamines is the increased production of acid by specialized cells in
the stomachs of mammals. The histamine action is on a different group of receptors, called H2, and is not affected by standard antihistamines. Some newer drugs, called H2 receptor antagonists, can modify histamine at these sites. Antihistamines
are used in treating motion sickness and as a mild sedative. _^<N__^<N_Richard H. Runser, M.D. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Griffith, H. Winter, The Complete Guide to Prescription and Non-Prescription Drugs (1986).
-END-
-C-
412
CAT
-A-
Antilles, Greater and Lesser
-T-
Antilles, Greater and Lesser_^<N__^<N_{an-til'-eez} _^<N__^<N_The Antilles are a group of islands making up all of the WEST INDIES except the Bahamas. They extend about 4,000 km (2,500 mi) from Florida to Venezuela, forming a natural breakwater
between the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. They are divided into the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico) and the Lesser Antilles (all the remaining islands).
-END-
-C-
688
CAT
-A-
Anti-Masonic party
-T-
Anti-Masonic party_^<N__^<N_The first third party in U.S. history, the Anti-Masonic party was formed in 1827 to counter the alleged subversion of public institutions by the Freemasons. Hostility toward the Masons erupted following the disappearance
and suspected murder (1826) in upstate New York of William Morgan, the author of a purported expose of the Masons. _^<N__^<N_The party rapidly gained followers, and in 1831 it held a national nominating convention in Baltimore--the first time that
practice was followed. However, its presidential candidate, William Wirt, carried only one state (Vermont) in 1832, while Andrew Jackson, a Mason, won overwhelmingly. The party merged with the Whigs after 1838.
-END-
-C-
3491
CAT
-A-
antimatter
-T-
antimatter_^<N__^<N_Antimatter is a form of matter in which each of the particles that compose ordinary matter--the proton, neutron, and electron--is replaced by its corresponding antiparticle, that is, the antiproton, antineutron, and POSITRON,
respectively (see FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES). Antiparticles have the same mass and spin as their respective particles, but they have opposite values of such electromagnetic properties as CHARGE and MAGNETIC MOMENT. _^<N__^<N_The existence of
antiparticles was first predicted by the British physicist Paul DIRAC in 1930, on the basis of his mathematical description of electrons in a manner consistent with both quantum theory and special relativity theory. His prediction was verified in
1932 by the U.S. physicist Carl ANDERSON, who observed a particle with positive charge but the mass of an electron. Physicists later showed that any particle description consistent with special relativity and quantum theory necessarily implies the
existence of antiparticles. For every type of subatomic particle that carries a property such as electric charge, there is a corresponding type of antiparticle. _^<N__^<N_Antiparticles can be produced in pairs with particles when enough energy is
available. For example, when two protons with a total energy many times greater than the rest energy of a proton collide, a substantial probability exists that the collision products will contain a proton and antiproton in addition to the original
protons. Antiprotons and antineutrons were produced in this way at high-energy accelerators starting in the 1950s. In the reverse process, when a particle and its corresponding antiparticle come near to one another, they annihilate rapidly and
produce either lighter particles or radiation. As a result, matter and antimatter cannot coexist for any length of time under ordinary conditions. Small amounts of antimatter, however, have been stored for long periods in accelerator facilities by
confining them through the use of magnetic forces. _^<N__^<N_Many properties of particles and their antiparticles are identical. This symmetry extends to composite structures such as antinuclei. Antideuterons formed of antiprotons and antineutrons
have been produced, and researchers are attempting to produce entire antiatoms. _^<N__^<N_Although antimatter can be created and even briefly maintained under special laboratory conditions on Earth, astronomical observations indicate that little or
no antimatter exists naturally in the universe. In 1964 the discovery was made that small differences exist between some properties of unstable particles and of their antiparticles, such as the rates at which they decay into specific combinations
of lighter particles. These small differences play an important role in suggested explanations of the excess of matter over antimatter in the universe. It is now thought that in the very first moments of the universe, particles and antiparticles
were present in equal numbers. Particle production, decay, and annihilation processes that subsequently took place led to a small difference in these numbers, because of the asymmetry in decay rates. At a later time, all of the antiparticles and
most of the particles annihilated, leaving only a small excess of particles to form all of the material structures that the universe now contains (see COSMOLOGY). _^<N__^<N_Gerald Feinberg _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Feinberg, Gerald, What Is the World
Made Of? (1977); Hanson, Norwood, The Concept of the Positron (1963); Pagels, Heinz, Perfect Symmetry (1985).
-END-
-C-
2740
CAT
-A-
antimony
-T-
antimony_^<N__^<N_{an'-ti-moh-nee} _^<N__^<N_The chemical element antimony is a brittle silver-white metal in Group VA of the periodic table. Its chemical symbol is Sb, atomic number 51, and atomic weight 121.75. The chemical symbol Sb is derived
from stibium, the Latin name for stibnite. The term antimonium first appeared in the 13th-century works of Geber. The abundance of antimony in the Earth's crust is 0.0001 percent. The principal minerals, stibnite and senarmontite, are often
associated with lead-, silver-, and copper-ore deposits. Antimony is obtained by roasting stibnite in air to form senarmontite. The metal is then recovered by reducing the oxide with carbon. _^<N__^<N_Metallic antimony melts at 630.5 deg C and
boils at 1,380 deg C; its density is 6.69 g/ml. Its electrical conductivity is only 3.76 percent as great as silver. The three less stable allotropes (see ALLOTROPE) are yellow, black, and the unusual so-called explosive antimony. The yellow
nonmetallic form is produced by oxidizing stibine with chlorine or bromine at low temperature. It comprises 4-atom molecules and converts spontaneously to the metal above - 90 deg C. Black antimony is an unstable amorphous material formed by
rapidly quenching high -temperature antimony vapor. Explosive antimony is a noncrystalline solid prepared by the electrolytic reduction of antimony trichloride in hydrochloric acid. It transforms explosively to the metal upon mechanical shock.
_^<N__^<N_Antimony forms stable compounds in the + 3 and + 5 oxidation states. The metal is unreactive to moist air, since it combines with water or oxygen only at high temperature. Hot nitric acid converts the metal to a hydrated Sb(V) oxide, and
hot sulfuric acid yields antimony sulfate. _^<N__^<N_Most of the antimony metal produced is used to form various alloys; antimony compounds are relatively unimportant. Addition of antimony to a soft metal such as lead produces an alloy of increased
hardness and stiffness that is mostly used in the manufacture of grids for lead storage batteries. Another important alloy is type metal, which comprises variable amounts of antimony, tin, and lead, often with a trace of copper. Molten-type metal
expands slightly on solidifying to give sharp reproduction in a mold or casting. High-purity antimony is used to make semiconducting materials. _^<N__^<N_The toxicity of different antimony compounds varies. The metal is inert, and substances such
as antimony potassium tartrate (tartar emetic) have been used medicinally for centuries, but the volatile stibine is extremely toxic. _^<N__^<N_Philip C. Keller _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Heiserman, D. L., Exploring Chemical Elements and Their
Compounds (1991); Roche, L., The Chemical Elements (1992); Trifonov, D. N., Chemical Elements: How They Were Discovered (1985).
-END-
-C-
995
CAT
-A-
antinomianism
-T-
antinomianism_^<N__^<N_{an-ti-noh'-mee-uhn-izm} _^<N__^<N_Antinomianism is the belief that Christians are liberated from the observance of moral laws when God's grace is active. The belief was first attributed to Saint Paul, who declared that his
opponents "slanderously" had charged him with saying "And why not do evil that good may come?" (Rom. 3:8). Some proponents of early GNOSTICISM adopted a form of antinomianism in sexual matters, holding that people are accountable only in matters of
the spirit. At the time of the Reformation a few followers of Martin Luther took his concept of justification by faith alone to mean that the law had no bearing on the life of a Christian. In colonial America charges of antinomianism were brought
against Anne HUTCHINSON, who was banished from Massachusetts because of her beliefs. _^<N__^<N_Mark A. Noll _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Battis, Emery, Saints and Sectaries: Anne Hutchinson and the Antinomian Controversy (1962); Stoever, W. K., A Faire
and Easie Way to Heaven (1978; repr. 1988).
-END-
-C-
1177
CAT
-A-
Antioch
-T-
Antioch_^<N__^<N_{an'-tee-ahk} _^<N__^<N_Antioch (Antakya) is a city in Hatay province in southern Turkey. Situated on the banks of the Orontes River about 22 km (14 mi) from the Mediterranean, Antioch has a population of 124,443 (1990). Its economy
depends on olives and tobacco. _^<N__^<N_Of major importance in the ancient world, Antioch was established as the western capital of the SELEUCID kingdom in 300 BC by SELEUCUS I NICATOR, who named it in memory of his father, Antiochus. Colonists
were brought in from Athens and Macedonia, and the city remained the Seleucid capital until 64 BC, when it was taken over by the Romans. Eventually it became the third-largest city in the Roman Empire (after Rome and Alexandria). One of the
earliest centers of Christianity, Antioch was the site of Saint Paul's first mission to the Gentiles; Saint Peter also preached there. The city was destroyed by earthquakes in AD 526 and 528. In 1517 it was taken by Selim I for the Ottoman Empire.
Ancient ruins and buildings abound in Antioch and include a well-preserved Greek theater, Trajan's aqueduct, a fortress on Mount Silipius, and the Ulu Cami mosque. Ancient artifacts are in the Hatay Archaeological Museum.
-END-
-C-
653
CAT
-A-
Antioch College
-T-
Antioch College_^<N__^<N_Established in 1852, Antioch College (enrollment: 659; library: 267,000 volumes) is a private institution in Yellow Springs, Ohio. Its baccalaureate curriculum is a 4-year work-study program, and the government of the school
is shared by students and faculty. The college is part of Antioch University (estab. 1978; enrollment: 3,337, including Antioch College), which also comprises the centers Antioch Seattle; Antioch New England Graduate School, Keene, N.H.; Antioch
Southern California in Los Angeles and Santa Barbara; and the School for Adult and Experiential Learning in Yellow Springs. Antioch's first president was Horace MANN.
-END-
-C-
2068
CAT
-A-
Antiochus III, Seleucid King, Antiochus the Great
-T-
Antiochus III, Seleucid King, Antiochus the Great_^<N__^<N_{an-ty'-uh-kuhs, suh-loo'-sid} _^<N__^<N_Antiochus III, c.242-187 BC, succeeded to the throne of the SELEUCIDS in 223, when the kingdom was controlled by a powerful minister and rebellion
was spreading in Iran. He defeated the rebels, rid himself of the minister, and conquered much of Phoenicia, Syria, and Palestine from the Ptolemies of Egypt. He had to withdraw, however, after losing the Battle of Raphia (217). _^<N__^<N_During
the next few years Antiochus regained much of Anatolia, where a relative, Achaeus, had proclaimed himself king. In 213, Achaeus was captured in a dramatic plot and executed. Antiochus then embarked on a major expedition (212-206) to reconquer the
lost eastern provinces, ruled by independent dynasties. Marching with little fighting as far as India, he received the nominal homage of the eastern rulers without imposing firm control. _^<N__^<N_Compared by flatterers to Alexander the Great,
Antiochus set himself to regain all the land held by Seleucus I. After the death (205) of Ptolemy IV, he retook what he had lost at Raphia, then advanced as a self-styled liberator through Anatolia and crossed to Thrace, where he rebuilt (196) the
old capital of Lysimachus. The Roman general Titus Quinctius FLAMININUS, who had just defeated Philip V of Macedonia, then proclaimed the "freedom of all the Greeks" as a propaganda weapon against Antiochus. After a cold war, in which both sides
claimed to defend Greek freedom while negotiating for a realistic diplomatic solution, Antiochus was forced by the Aetolians to occupy a fortress in Thessaly, which they had seized against Rome. He was defeated by Roman forces in Greece in 191 and
in Anatolia in 190. According to the peace agreement he had to give up Anatolia (most of it to Eumenes II of Pergamum) and to accept humiliating terms. Rebellion in the east found him without resources, and he died while trying to seize a temple
treasure. _^<N__^<N_E. Badian _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Badian, E., Studies in Greek and Roman History (1964); Green, Peter, From Alexander to Actium (1990).
-END-
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595
CAT
-A-
Antiochus IV Epiphanes, Seleucid King
-T-
Antiochus IV Epiphanes, Seleucid King_^<N__^<N_{an-ty'-uh-kuhs, ee-pif'-uh-neez} _^<N__^<N_Antiochus IV, c.215-163 BC, was the SELEUCID king whose attempts to introduce pagan rites in Jerusalem led to the revolt (167) of the MACCABEES and the
creation of a Jewish state. The son of Antiochus III, he had to defeat the usurper Heliodorus before taking power in 175. In 171 he invaded Egypt, but he was later driven out by the Romans. Antiochus also campaigned against the Parthians.
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bar Kochva, B., Judas Maccabeus (1989); Gruen, Erich S., The Hellenistic World and the Coming of Rome, 2 vols. (1984).
-END-
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606
CAT
-A-
Antiope
-T-
Antiope_^<N__^<N_{an-ty'-oh-pee} _^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, Antiope, a Theban princess, was seduced by the god ZEUS, in the form of a SATYR. Fleeing to Sicyon to escape the wrath of her father, she bore twin sons, Amphion and Zethus, both of whom
were to become rulers of THEBES. Amphion was a master musician who built the wall around Thebes by charming the heavy stones into place with his lyre playing. Zethus was renowned as a warrior and married Thebe, for whom Thebes was named.
_^<N__^<N_A second Antiope was a queen of the AMAZONS who was abducted by the hero THESEUS and became the mother of HIPPOLYTUS. _^<N__^<N_Robert E. Wolverton
-END-
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1640
CAT
-A-
antioxidants
-T-
antioxidants_^<N__^<N_Antioxidants are compounds that inhibit chemical reactions with oxygen. These reactions, which occur in many contexts, include oxidation reactions that cause cell damage in humans and other animals, as well as degradation of
fatty foods, resulting in undesirable color changes or rancidity. Oxidation reactions may involve highly reactive molecules called free radicals; metals often catalyze reactions with oxygen. Antioxidants inhibit these changes by reacting with the
free radicals before they can react with oxygen (free radical scavenging) or by reacting with the metals. Naturally occurring antioxidants may also work by interacting directly with oxygen. _^<N__^<N_Naturally occurring antioxidants include
retinoids (vitamin A) and tocopherols (vitamin E), found in many animals and plants; ascorbic acid (vitamin C), found in citrus and other fruits and vegetables; and beta carotene, found in deep orange and dark green vegetables. These may play a
significant role in cancer, heart disease, immune-deficiency diseases, and aging. Synthetic antioxidants include butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), and propyl gallate. _^<N__^<N_Natural and synthetic antioxidants are
added to food to prevent undesirable deterioration. Foods preserved with antioxidants include vegetable oils, bread, and cheese. Antioxidants are also frequently applied to the packaging materials of cereals and nuts. Although approved by the U.S.
Food and Drug Administration, the safety of BHA and BHT is being researched. _^<N__^<N_Nina L. Marable and Noelle Kehrberg _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hui, Y. H., ed., Encyclopedia of Food Science and Technology (1991).
-END-
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829
CAT
-A-
Antipater
-T-
Antipater_^<N__^<N_{an-tip'-uh-tur} _^<N__^<N_The Macedonian Antipater, b. c.400, d. 319, BC, was prominent in war and diplomacy under PHILIP II of Macedonia, helped secure the succession of ALEXANDER THE GREAT, and served as the latter's viceroy in
Europe, supporting friendly regimes and defeating a Spartan-led rising. Deposed by Alexander in 324, he was too strong to be dislodged and retained his province after Alexander's death (323). _^<N__^<N_In 322, Antipater defeated a Greek rebellion
and had some anti-Macedonians (notably DEMOSTHENES) executed. Taking part in the attack on PERDICCAS, he was appointed regent after Perdiccas's death (321). He took the joint kings Philip III and Alexander IV back from Asia to Macedonia, where he
died. He was the last regent to be recognized by all the Diadochi, or successors of Alexander the Great. _^<N__^<N_E. Badian
-END-
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1308
CAT
-A-
antiphon
-T-
antiphon_^<N__^<N_{an'-tuh-fahn} _^<N__^<N_Several types of Gregorian PLAINSONG are called antiphons. The principal type, among more than 1,200 examples in the plainsong repertory, is sung before and after psalms and canticles. Traditionally, only a
fragment is sung before, the entire antiphon being reserved for the end, but on greater feast days the entire antiphon is performed both before and after. Antiphons for the psalms, syllabic and limited in range, are simpler than those for the
canticles. _^<N__^<N_The four traditional Marian antiphons, sung after Compline, the last of the canonical or daily hours of the Catholic liturgy, are not true antiphons. More melodic than the principal type, they have been given numerous
polyphonic settings (see POLYPHONY). The term is also applied to the introit, offertory, and Communion chants of the proper of the Mass. _^<N__^<N_The custom of reciting alternate half-verses of psalms, followed in many churches today, is a
reflection of the early Christian way of singing the psalms, from which the term antiphon derives. Antiphonal singing, or the performance of music by two alternating choirs that may be stationed at a distance from each other in the church, is the
common feature of all types of antiphon. _^<N__^<N_Elwyn A. Wienandt _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Wienandt, Elwyn A., Choral Music of the Church (1965).
-END-
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443
CAT
-A-
Antipodes Islands
-T-
Antipodes Islands_^<N__^<N_{an-tip'-uh-deez} _^<N__^<N_The Antipodes Islands are a group of uninhabited rocky islands in the South Pacific Ocean, 564 km (350 mi) southeast of South Island, New Zealand. The islands, which belong to New Zealand, were
discovered in 1800 by the British sea captain Henry Waterhouse during a voyage on the Reliance. They are named for their antipodal relationship (on diametrically opposite sides of the Earth) to GREENWICH, England.
-END-
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13491
CATO
4816
9645
-A-
antique collecting
-O-
000000|antique collecting
000821| COLLECTORS AND COLLECTING
004259| Glass
005254| Clocks
005808| Ceramics
007604| Metalwork
008805| Furniture
010697| FASHIONS IN COLLECTING
-T-
antique collecting_^<N__^<N_Antique collecting has been a significant pastime since the early part of the 19th century, when old objects began to be venerated for their beauty as well as for their historical importance. Before 1966, U.S. customs law
defined an antique as an object made before 1830. The Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Materials Act of 1966, however, permitted the importation, duty free, of "antiques made prior to 100 years before their date of entry," a definition that is
also found in British customs law. _^<N__^<N_Canada requires that an antique must have been made before 1847 to be duty free. The term antique was originally used to describe the cultures of ancient Greece and Rome, and their time was and still is
known as antiquity. As a noun, however, antique is loosely used to describe any object at least 100 years old. _^<N__^<N_ COLLECTORS AND COLLECTING_^<N__^<N_Modern collectors are a large and varied group who seek an extensive, disparate array of
ostensibly utilitarian objects that are not currently made and that have decorative value. Antique collectors usually favor such objects over more conventional art objects--paintings and sculpture--although some notable collectors are interested in
all the arts. For collectors, an antique may be prehistoric or only a few years old. It may have been made as a purely utilitarian object, such as a century-old cobbler's bench that now serves as a coffee table or a decorative accessory. The fact
that an object is old inspires many collectors, and they usually favor objects that bear signs of wear in texture and color. Although the quality of design is a prime consideration for some collectors, others specialize in objects that arouse
nostalgia. _^<N__^<N_More obvious as antiques are masterpieces of the decorative arts--furniture, metalwork, ceramics, and glass--made in past centuries, objects whose design is a crucial consideration for serious collectors. They usually prefer
objects made in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. The exceptions are objects in such distinctive recent styles as turn-of-the-century ART NOUVEAU and ART DECO of the 1920s and '30s. These objects, however, as well as older artifacts of high
quality, are too expensive for the casual collector because the styles are recognized, the objects are relatively rare, and they are coveted by a knowledgeable group of enthusiasts. _^<N__^<N_At the most popular level antiques form a broad spectrum
of out-of-date materials that can be used for decoration. Old bottles, tools, furniture, plumbing fixtures, and cracker boxes may be considered antiques, along with products of the more conventional decorative arts. Some are appealing because they
are well designed; others are ugly but amusing reminders of life in the past. Such artifacts are offered for sale in small shops and fairs in most Western countries; they appeal to people who like antiques but who lack the resources and the
consuming passion that characterize the avid collectors. _^<N__^<N_The latter dedicated group is concerned with specific styles or with such specific media as JEWELRY, glass, metalwork, ceramics, and furniture, all of which is meticulously
classified by type within each category. The most desirable objects are readily identifiable to these collectors and, if they are rare examples, familiar to specialists. American and English wares are the most well known in the United States, but
French and Spanish goods are also significant to serious collectors. Specialists also concentrate on the products of Oriental, African, Middle Eastern, and primitive cultures. Of necessity, serious collectors must patronize the more prestigious
antiques shops and auction houses, since the objects they seek are becoming increasingly scarce, costly, and sought after. _^<N__^<N_Since originality or authenticity is essential, the antique collector must be able to distinguish the real antique
from later imitations, which can be either reproductions or fakes. Reproductions are later copies of objects made as exactly as possible without any intent to deceive. Fakes are copies made to look as old as the original in an attempt to fool the
viewer. In some cases revivals of early styles have inspired reproductions that have confused collectors because the reproductions acquired signs of age after a century. _^<N__^<N_ Glass_^<N__^<N_Among collectors who concentrate on a single medium,
glass is the most popular (see GLASSWARE, DECORATIVE). This is so for several reasons: the quality of the material, its transparency, its color, and its texture, which change only slightly through the years. The working of early glass is
distinctive, but, since glass shows little signs of wear, it is admired regardless of its age. Glass produced in 19th-century America has attracted the greatest attention; most valued from this period is pattern glass, or pressed glass of high
quality, mass-produced in molds between about 1860 and 1910. Earlier American glass is also popular, as is ancient glass. In recent years, turn-of-the-century glass by master glassmakers has become particularly popular, rare, and expensive. Emile
GALLE and the Daum brothers of France, Thomas Webb of England, and Louis Comfort TIFFANY of the United States produced fine wares that are now more valuable than many of the best Roman or Venetian examples. _^<N__^<N_ Clocks_^<N__^<N_The second
most popular object, in terms of the number of active collectors, is the clock (see CLOCKS AND WATCHES), the most numerous of which are the 19th-century mass-produced Connecticut examples. Made between about 1830 and 1870, many have cases in the
EMPIRE STYLE that make them look older than they are. More highly valued are 17th- and 18th- century examples that represent the height of fine machine work and cabinetmaking. Clocks from the 16th century are also available, but they seem to have a
more limited appeal than later examples. _^<N__^<N_ Ceramics_^<N__^<N_Ceramics (see POTTERY AND PORCELAIN) appeal to a diverse audience. Ancient and primitive wares are favorites of archaeology and anthropology buffs, but antique collectors usually
concentrate on products made after 1500. Local wares made at small-scale potteries between about 1600 and 1850 are now classed as FOLK ART and are popular with collectors. These ceramics are earthenwares made of a thick body simply glazed and
decorated with designs scratched into the glaze, called GRAFFITI, or with patterns added in slip, a thin outer coat of liquid clay added before final firing. More refined, thinner wares were introduced somewhat later, and these are also sought
after. Exotic porcelains from the Orient were acquired in the West as early as the 13th and 14th centuries, and old as well as contemporary examples have been sought by Western collectors ever since. In recent years collectors have shown an
increased interest in the variety of Occidental porcelains that have been produced since about 1710. The 18th- century examples are highly prized, but more recent wares are also valued. One group of collectors has come to concentrate on the work of
the artist potters of the ARTS AND CRAFTS MOVEMENT, which began after 1860. The huge output of England's Staffordshire region in the 18th and 19th centuries consists of mass-produced wares in a variety of improved earthenware bodies. Stoneware,
creamware, pearl ware, and ironstone, collectively called STAFFORDSHIRE WARE, have all been collected since the late 19th century. Among ceramic collectors, a division exists between those who admire early or late simple wares and those who prefer
the more sophisticated products; that is, collectors tend to favor either porcelain or pottery but rarely collect both types of ceramics. _^<N__^<N_ Metalwork_^<N__^<N_Although ceramics and glass collectors sometimes ignore the date of a piece,
fashion and age are of great importance in metalwork (see METALWORK, DECORATIVE). In copper, brass, pewter, and other base metals, production techniques changed radically after c.1800, and most collectors prefer the work done before this time. GOLD
AND SILVER WORK designs, including jewelry, also reflect a combination of changing fashion and technique; in the later work, designs tend to be more complex and intricate as handwork gave way to machine production. Plated silver, introduced in the
18th century and particularly popular after 1870, is beginning to attract attention because it represents a curious popular expression and because it is inexpensive. Gold is rare and difficult to collect because the metal was too valuable to be
left in forms that went out of fashion. Silver made in London in the 18th century is the most popular field for serious collecting, although interest has been increasing in the more spectacular efforts of 19th-century silversmiths. French examples
include the more elaborate, costly rococo conceptions of the 18th century. American antique silver is increasingly popular. _^<N__^<N_ Furniture_^<N__^<N_FURNITURE is one of the prime fields for antique collectors, with the emphasis on work done
before 1830, when factory production became widespread. Today, design of the 18th century is usually favored over work done earlier because the scale is more suitable to conventional interiors, although the large, high-ceilinged rooms in some
modern houses could effectively display Renaissance furniture, which was popular in the last century. Nineteenth-century furniture has increasingly attracted collectors: they admire the bold scale and complex patterns of Victorian design (an
admiration that extends today to residential architecture, with its recent accretions of gingerbread trim, cupolas, arched windows, and other romantic Victorian additions). _^<N__^<N_Innovative styles of the late 19th century, such as ART NOUVEAU
and Mission--a type of heavy, unpolished oak furniture derived from the simple handmade pieces in Mexican and Californian missions--continue to attract interest, as do the ART DECO and BAUHAUS designs of the 1920s and 1930s. Although much of this
furniture--Mission in particular--was factory made, many 19th-century pieces are the product of individual craftsmen who used traditional furniture-making techniques. _^<N__^<N_Condition is an important consideration for furniture collectors.
Purists insist on work that has been left untouched, meaning that surfaces have been cleaned without refinishing and that essential elements have not been replaced. In the 19th century many early examples were remodeled to suit changes in taste. In
the early 20th century, cabinetmakers often transformed Victorian pieces into 18th-century examples. Reproductions began to be made before 1870, and, although the scale of the reproductions is generally different from that of originals, beginning
collectors sometimes have difficulty distinguishing between an original and a reproduction. _^<N__^<N_ FASHIONS IN COLLECTING_^<N__^<N_Fashions in collecting shift focus from time to time, reflecting the taste of the period. In recent years the
increasing interest in simple design has led many collectors to concentrate on folk art. The unadorned, simple lines of Shaker chairs and chests, for example, attract many collectors. Ceramics, metal-work, glassware, and handwoven textiles were the
major media for folk artists of the past (see FOLK ART). Today's collectible pieces are more often the product of trained artists (see CRAFT). _^<N__^<N_Antique collecting has a wide appeal today. It is enjoyed on many different levels, some
determined by the amounts people are willing to spend, others by individual taste. Quality of design and the popularity of a particular style determine values more than age, but a whole range of curiosities, sometimes called collectibles, have
their enthusiasts. Old beverage bottles, insulators, and barbed wire are among the objects that have inspired various groups of collectors. _^<N__^<N_Although it is tempting to consider antique collecting a relatively modern phenomenon, documents
prove that beautiful old objects have always been of interest. In ancient Rome new and old decorative wares were put on the auction block at the same sales. In the Renaissance, collections of curiosities included venerated objects, mainly valued
because they were owned by important or famous people, but fine examples of the various DECORATIVE ARTS also found their way into princely collections. Art dealers of the 17th century offered paintings, sculpture, and precious silver objects that
were both old and new, a tradition that continued for centuries. Shops advertising antiques are found listed in New York City directories as early as the 1840s. A dealer named Sypher sold old and new furniture at a time when the rococo and
Renaissance revivals were just being introduced. The early interest in antique furniture was not restricted to American cities; it was based on the appreciation of the design of early pieces rather than on their associational value. The first books
on antique collecting began to appear in the 1870s; since then, collecting has been characterized by a continuing refinement of interests and knowledge and a broadening of public participation. _^<N__^<N_Marvin D. Schwartz _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Atterbury, Paul, ed., Antiques (1980); Bennett, Raymond, Collecting for Pleasure: A Practical Guide to Small Antiques (1971); Coombs, David, ed., Guide to Antique Collecting for Pleasure (1981); Drury, Elizabeth, Antiques (1986); Kovel, Ralph and
Terry, Know Your Antiques (1967); Phipps, Frances, Collector's Complete Dictionary of American Antiques (1974); Ridgway, Alan, An Illustrated Guide to Antique Collecting (1977); Watson, Lucille, Understanding Antiques (1987).
-END-
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688
CAT
-A-
Antirent War
-T-
Antirent War_^<N__^<N_The Antirent War (1839-46) was a series of violent protests by tenant farmers in New York State against the semimanorial system of land tenure on the great Hudson Valley estates. The violence began when the heirs of Stephen Van
Rensselaer, a major landlord, tried to collect $400,000 in back rent. The tenants refused to pay and, disguised as Indians, resisted attempts to foreclose on their farms. The protests spread, and in 1845, after the death of a sheriff's deputy, Gov.
Silas Wright of New York called out the militia. More than 50 men were arrested. Public opinion was on the side of the farmers, however, and in 1846 a new state constitution banned "feudal tenures."
-END-
-C-
5354
CAT
4824
-A-
anti-Semitism
-T-
anti-Semitism_^<N__^<N_Anti-Semitism refers to prejudice against JEWS. The term is inexact since it does not refer to all SEMITES, which would include the Arabs, but designates opposition only to Jews. Anti-Semitism has manifested itself in many
ways: hostile popular sentiment; discriminatory legislation; expulsion; and, in Nazi Germany, deliberate extermination. _^<N__^<N_From the beginning, their claim to be a chosen people, their refusal to worship other gods, and their insistence on
special religious laws placed Jews in a vulnerable position. In the ancient Roman Empire, very few Jews were admitted to Roman citizenship. Early Christians held the Jews responsible for the crucifixion of Christ, an allegation that became the
justification of anti-Semitism for many centuries, spreading with the domination of Christianity in the West. _^<N__^<N_The Middle Ages were characterized by repeated efforts to identify church and state. In such a view of society, only Christians
had a real place. Periodic persecutions of Jews occurred. A large-scale persecution opened in Spain during the 13th century when Alfonso X of Castile (r. 1252-64) issued Las Siete Partidas (Seven Sets), a code of law echoing the official church
attitude toward Jews and excluding them from public office. In 1278, a bill of Pope Nicholas III decreed that missionary efforts be directed to all European Jews. By the end of the 15th century, the INQUISITION put to trial Jews and other
nonconformists in Spain, culminating in the expulsion of Jews from the country. A number of Jews became Christians in order to remain in Spain, but they continued to practice Judaism secretly. They were referred to as Marranos by other Spaniards, a
pejorative title meaning "pig." At about the same time, similar oppressive measures were enforced in England, France, and Germany. _^<N__^<N_Jews were also forced to live in walled ghettos (see GHETTO). Their segregation seems to have been
motivated by fear of their influence on Christians and by the desire of merchants and the craft guilds to restrict their economic activity. Outside the gates, they were obliged to wear an identifying badge. This forced segregation was abolished
only in the 19th century. _^<N__^<N_The settlement of Jews in eastern Europe began during the Crusades (from 1096 on); another wave of settlement occurred after the outbreak of the BLACK DEATH (1348) when it was rumored that Jews had poisoned
wells. They were given internal autonomy at first, but in 1648 persecutions began during a power struggle between the Polish Roman Catholics and the Ukrainian Orthodox. With the partitions of Poland (1772, 1793, 1795), masses of Jews were added to
Russia. The tsarist government established the "PALE of Settlement," a large territory in the western provinces, and decreed military service for children. The pogroms (see POGROM), or attacks on Jews, beginning in 1881 caused a mass emigration to
the United States and the establishment of colonies in Palestine (see ZIONISM). In western Europe, the era of Enlightenment in the 18th century and the French Revolution created sentiment for the separation of church and state that led to the
emancipation of Jews, giving them equal legal status and religious freedom. _^<N__^<N_During the 19th century, anti-Semitism again gained strength by appeals to (1) nationalistic motives, especially where a Jewish minority was strong, as in eastern
Europe; and (2) racial motives, supported by pseudo-scientific investigations and allegations. The theory of the French ethnologist J. A. GOBINEAU on the superiority of the Aryan race and the ideas of the Anglo-German political philosopher H. S.
CHAMBERLAIN on racial purity, exercised a great influence on subsequent racist policies. In Germany, anti-Semitism became an organized movement during the late 19th century. Later, NAZISM turned anti-Semitism into an official government policy that
within a decade led to the systematic extermination of nearly 6 million Jews (see HOLOCAUST). _^<N__^<N_In the United States and Western Europe, anti-Semitism waned after the defeat of Hitler and the creation of the national Jewish state of Israel.
At its meeting in New Delhi in 1961, the World Council of Churches condemned anti-Semitism as incompatible with the teachings of Christ. In 1965 the Second Vatican Council formally repudiated the charge that all Jews are responsible for the death
of Christ and condemned racism as un-Christian. Although anti-Semitism was officially disavowed in Communist countries, it long remained a political factor in the USSR, which sought to remove Jews from government and scientific positions and to
keep them from emigrating to Israel. _^<N__^<N_Erich Rosenthal _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Almog, Shmuel, Antisemitism through the Ages (1988); Arendt, Hannah, The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951; repr. 1983); Curtis, Michael, ed., Anti-Semitism in
the Contemporary World (1985); Dinnerstein, Leonard, Antisemitism in America (1994); Gager, J. G., The Origins of Anti-Semitism (1983); Gerber, D. A., ed., Anti-Semitism in American History (1986); Jaher, Frederic Cople, A Scapegoat in the New
Wilderness: The Origins and Rise of Anti-Semitism in America (1994); Katz, Jacob, From Prejudice to Destruction (1980); Poliakov, Leon, The History of Anti-Semitism, 4 vols., trans. by R. Howard (1974-81). _^<N__^<N_See also: CONCENTRATION CAMP;
DREYFUS AFFAIR; PROTOCOLS OF THE ELDERS OF ZION.
-END-
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1733
CAT
-A-
antiseptic
-T-
antiseptic_^<N__^<N_Antiseptics are chemicals applied to body surfaces to reduce the infectious growth of bacteria, viruses, and fungi. The broader term disinfectant includes chemicals applied to nonliving objects for this purpose. In a sense,
antisepsis was recognized in the ancient world, in that wine or vinegar was sometimes placed on wounds. This was done, however, without awareness of the existence of microorganisms. Such awareness came only in the 19th century with the work of
Louis PASTEUR, and modern antisepsis arose from the pioneering efforts of such practitioners as Ignaz SEMMELWEIS and Joseph LISTER (see MEDICINE, HISTORY OF). _^<N__^<N_Doctors routinely employ antiseptics in preparing a body area for surgery,
blood withdrawal, or the injection of medicine. Common antiseptics include isopropyl alcohol, phenol (carbolic acid) and some derivatives, and certain compounds of chlorine and iodine. Silver nitrate is also still used to protect the eyes of
newborn infants against gonorrheal infection. For home use isopropyl alcohol is the most effective antiseptic, being applied around superficial wounds after they are thoroughly cleaned. Other over-the-counter chemicals are less useful; some, such
as hexachlorophene, are no longer permitted at effective concentrations because of their toxicity. No antiseptic can kill all microorganisms in any case, even if this were desirable, and many can cause increasingly severe reactions and tissue
damage with increasing concentrations. For deeper wounds and for systemic protection against infection, ANTIBIOTICS are used. A number of local antibiotics are also available. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: American Pharmaceutical Association, Handbook
of Nonprescription Drugs, 8th ed. (1986).
-END-
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766
CAT
-A-
Antisthenes
-T-
Antisthenes_^<N__^<N_{an-tis'-thuh-neez} _^<N__^<N_The Greek philosopher Antisthenes, 455-365 BC, was a student and friend of SOCRATES. His version of Socrates' teaching was a major influence on the later CYNIC school, but only fragments of his
work exist today. Antisthenes, like Socrates, taught that happiness depends solely on one's own moral virtue, not on the possession of material goods. He considered virtue the highest value in life, since it flows from the knowledge of what is
good. However, whereas Socrates advocated temperance and self-control, Antisthenes urged harsh and ascetic self-denial. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Dudley, Donald R., History of Cynicism: From Diogenes to the 6th Century A.D. (1937; repr. 1980);
Rankin, H. D., Sophists, Socratics, and Cynics (1983).
-END-
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1325
CAT
-A-
antitoxin
-T-
antitoxin_^<N__^<N_Antitoxins are ANTIBODIES found in the gamma globulin in blood protein. They are formed to inactivate poisons, or toxins, caused by infecting bacteria or other living organisms. In TETANUS, for example, tetanus antitoxin can
neutralize the toxin that causes muscle spasms and convulsions before it is bound to nerve cells. Antitoxins can be obtained from the blood of a human who has survived the disease, from the blood of animals (usually horses) that have been injected
with either the bacterium or the toxin, and from the injection of toxoid, a bacterial culture that has been rendered noninfective but that retains enough characteristics to be antigenic, or capable of stimulating antibody production. In acute
disease, antitoxin production is too slow after toxoid use, and an antitoxin is injected, as in tetanus or botulism. Injections of toxoids that prevent diphtheria and tetanus are usually given in the early years of life, with "boosters" at
appropriate intervals, thus avoiding the need for antitoxin (see DISEASES, CHILDHOOD; VACCINATION). _^<N__^<N_Richard H. Runser, M.D. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary, 27th ed. (1988); Madigan, Michael T., and
Brock, Thomas D., Biology of Microorganisms, 5th ed. (1988); Steward, M. W., Antibodies: Their Structure and Function (1984).
-END-
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242
CAT
-A-
antitrust laws
-T-
antitrust laws_^<N__^<N_Antitrust laws are laws designed to prevent monopoly and unfair practices by businesses. U.S. laws include the SHERMAN ANTI-TRUST ACT, the CLAYTON ANTI-TRUST ACT, and the ROBINSON-PATMAN ACT. _^<N__^<N_See also: MONOPOLY AND
COMPETITION.
-END-
-C-
1000
CAT
-A-
Antofagasta
-T-
Antofagasta_^<N__^<N_{ahn-toh-fah-gahs'-tah} _^<N__^<N_Antofagasta is the capital of Antofagasta province and the most important city and seaport of Chile's desert north. It is also landlocked Bolivia's main outlet to the sea. The city has a
population of 221,200 (1991 est.). Built on a terrace at the base of the coastal escarpment at Moreno Bay (Bahia Moreno), Antofagasta is about 1,045 km (650 mi) north of Valparaiso. Minerals--chiefly copper, sulfur, and borax--and fishmeal are the
principal exports. The city is the site of a mining school (1918). _^<N__^<N_Antofagasta was founded in 1866 on Bolivian territory to supply the Chilean nitrate mines; it was given its official name in 1870 when it boomed after a silver discovery.
Most of Bolivia's trade, primarily tin, has passed through Antofagasta since rail service was opened (1879) to Oruro. Bolivia ceded Antofagasta province to Chile after the War of the Pacific (1879-82). In 1948 a railroad provided a link to Salta
and the Argentine northwest. _^<N__^<N_Neale J. Pearson
-END-
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1736
CAT
-A-
Antoine, Andre
-T-
Antoine, Andre_^<N__^<N_The French theater director Andre Antoine, b. Jan. 31, 1858, d. Oct. 19, 1943, revolutionized French staging, introduced the early masters of modern drama to the French public, and discovered most of the first generation of
20th-century French playwrights. In 1887 he reorganized an amateur group, the Cercle Gaulois, into the Theatre-Libre, dedicated to the production of new plays. Most of Antoine's great successes--the plays of such native dramatists as Eugene BRIEUX,
Georges de Porto-Riche, and Francois de Curel and such foreign contemporaries as Gerhart HAUPTMANN, Henrik IBSEN, and Leo TOLSTOI--were strongly naturalistic. The Theatre-Libre developed a realistic style in acting and design unique for its time.
More natural lighting replaced traditional footlights, and realistic three-dimensional settings replaced painted flats. Actors were encouraged to live their parts, speaking and moving in a natural manner and treating the proscenium as a fourth
wall, to which they could even turn their backs. Inspired by the German Saxe-Meiningen company (see SAXE-MEININGEN, GEORGE II, DUKE OF), Antoine also introduced new realism and power to crowd scenes. Antoine gave up the Theatre-Libre in 1894,
founded the Theatre Antoine in 1897, and from 1906 to 1913 directed the state-subsidized Odeon Theater. A pioneer of the French film industry, Antoine was a director from 1914 to 1924, while remaining a major theater figure and a literary critic
until his death. _^<N__^<N_Marvin A. Carlson _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Antoine, Andre, Memories of the Theatre-Libre (1921; Eng. trans., 1964); Waxman, Samuel, Antoine and the Theatre-Libre (1926). _^<N__^<N_See also: NATURALISM (literature); REALISM
(literature); SAXE-MEININGEN, GEORGE II, DUKE OF.
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2844
CAT
-A-
Antonello da Messina
-T-
Antonello da Messina_^<N__^<N_{ahn-toh-nel'-loh dah mes-see'-nah} _^<N__^<N_Antonello da Messina, one of the major artists of the Renaissance, was born in Messina, Sicily, c.1430, and spent most of his life there. He was apprenticed to the painter
Colantonio del Riore (c.1352-1442) in Naples, the nearest cosmopolitan center, where Spanish and French rule virtually guaranteed exposure to the works of Flemish artists. One of Antonello's earliest pictures, St. Jerome in His Study (c.1460;
National Gallery, London), may have been inspired by a lost van Eyck panel of the same subject, known to have been in Naples in 1456. Of a similarly obvious Netherlandish cast is Antonello's earliest signed work, Salvator Mundi (1465; National
Gallery, London). The Crucifixion (1475; Musee Royale des Beaux-Arts, Antwerp) is a further indication of the influence on Antonello of Netherlandish painting, this time in landscape. _^<N__^<N_For a period in 1475-76, Antonello was in Venice,
where he painted the altarpiece Madonna and Saints, usually known as the San Cassiano Altarpiece, for the church of that name. Known today only through three fragments of the original (Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna), enough may be seen to
determine the altarpiece's fundamental importance for the subsequent development of painting in Venice. With its figures assembled symmetrically around the elevated throne of the Madonna, all placed within a large-scale architectural setting,
Antonello's painting was emulated well into the 16th century by such artists as Giovanni BELLINI, Lorenzo LOTTO, and GIORGIONE. Antonello, in turn, was sensitive to characteristically Venetian treatments of certain themes, as in his St. Sebastian
(1475-76; Gemaldegalerie, Dresden) and Pieta (1475-76; Correr Museum, Venice). _^<N__^<N_Antonello is particularly noted for his portraits, of which the Portrait of a Man (c.1475; National Gallery, London), perhaps a self-portrait, is an excellent
example. He died in Messina sometime between Feb. 14 and 25, 1479. _^<N__^<N_Since the Renaissance, the myth has existed that the Flemish painter Jan van EYCK invented oil painting in Bruges and that Antonello, having learned the technique there,
carried it back to Italy. Van Eyck did not invent oil painting, and Antonello, in all likelihood, never left Italy. It is true, however, that Antonello's paintings reflect a more profound understanding of Flemish technique and aesthetics than do
the works of any other contemporaneous Italian painter. _^<N__^<N_William Hood _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bottari, Stefano, Antonello da Messina (1955); Gilbert, Creighton E., Italian Art, 1400 to 1500 (1980); Hartt, Frederick, History of Italian
Renaissance Art, 3d ed. (1988); Vigni, Giorgio, All the Paintings of Antonello da Messina (1952; trans. 1963). _^<N__^<N_See also: FLEMISH ART AND ARCHITECTURE; PAINTING; PAINTING TECHNIQUES; RENAISSANCE ART AND ARCHITECTURE.
-END-
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534
CAT
-A-
Antonescu, Ion
-T-
Antonescu, Ion_^<N__^<N_{ahn-toh-nes'-koo, yawn} _^<N__^<N_Ion Antonescu, b. June 15, 1882, was dictator of Romania during World War II. Chief of the army general staff, he was appointed (Sept. 5, 1940) premier by King CAROL II under German
pressure. Supported by the fascist IRON GUARD, he immediately forced Carol's abdication in favor of Carol's son Michael and allied (November 1940) Romania with the Axis powers. On Aug. 23, 1944, with Soviet armies about to overrun the country, King
Michael imprisoned Antonescu, and he was executed June 1, 1946.
-END-
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1266
CAT
-A-
Antonine Wall
-T-
Antonine Wall_^<N__^<N_{an'-tuh-nyn} _^<N__^<N_The Antonine Wall, built across Scotland from the Firth of Clyde to the Firth of Forth during the reign of ANTONINUS PIUS, for a short time marked the northernmost boundary of the Roman Empire. Under
the command of the governor Quintus Lollius Urbicus, garrisons from the three Roman legions stationed in Britain moved 160 km (100 mi) north of HADRIAN's WALL in AD 139-42 to strategic positions partially fortified by the governor Gnaeus Julius
AGRICOLA 60 years earlier. Their goal was to protect the peaceful lowland tribes and provide a reservoir of manpower for conscription. _^<N__^<N_By AD 142 a turf wall on a low, rubble platform (about 4.5 m/15 ft high, 4.2 m/14 ft thick), protected
by a ditch (about 12 m/35 ft wide, 3.6 m/12 ft deep), extended across the isthmus (59 km/37 mi wide). Garrison posts and signal-beacon platforms behind the wall were connected by a military road, and coastal forts protected the flanks. The new
frontier was abandoned in 155-58, during a revolt of tribes to the south, and Caledonian pressure forced a final withdrawal to HADRIAN'S WALL by the end of the 2d century. _^<N__^<N_John P. Oleson _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Breeze, David, The
Northern Frontiers of Roman Britain (1982); Robertson, Anne S., The Antonine Wall (1970).
-END-
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603
CAT
-A-
Antoninus Pius, Roman Emperor
-T-
Antoninus Pius, Roman Emperor_^<N__^<N_Antoninus Pius, b. Sept. 19, 86, d. Mar. 7, 161, was Roman emperor from 138 to 161. After serving ably as proconsul in Asia, he was adopted (138) by HADRIAN, whom he succeeded as emperor. He consolidated and
stabilized the government, deferring to a generally approving Senate, and brought economic prosperity to Rome and its provinces. In addition to governing well, he endowed Italy with a grand array of public buildings. Antoninus Pius adopted his
wife's nephew, MARCUS AURELIUS, who peacefully succeeded him. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hammond, Mason, The Antonine Monarchy (1959).
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1586
CAT
-A-
Antonioni, Michelangelo
-T-
Antonioni, Michelangelo_^<N__^<N_{ahn-toh-nee-oh'-nee, mee-kel-ahn'-jel-oh} _^<N__^<N_Michelangelo Antonioni, b. Sept. 29, 1912, is an Italian director best known for a trilogy of films begun in 1959 that created a sense of despair through the
juxtaposition of haunting visual imagery, elliptical, mysterious plots, and the portrayal of neurotic, empty lives. He began his career in the cinema as a film critic and scriptwriter and, after working with Roberto Rossellini and Marcel Carne,
made his debut as a director in 1943 with the documentary Gente del Po (The People of the Po Valley). Cronaca di un Amore (Chronicle of a Love, 1950), his first feature, represented a break with the neorealist tradition. Two later films, Le Amiche
(The Friends, 1955) and Il Grido (The Cry, 1957), were slow-paced and deliberately obscure in narrative structure. Antonioni's distinctive style reached its highest expression in the trilogy L'Avventura (The Adventure, 1959), La Notte (Night,
1960), and L'Eclisse (The Eclipse, 1962). In these films, and in the machine-dominated Deserto Rosso (Red Desert, 1964), his first color film, mystery and eroticism merge in landscapes of compelling beauty. Antonioni's subsequent English-language
films, Blow-Up (1966), Zabriskie Point (1970), The Passenger (1975), and Identification Of A Woman (1982) had less success with the critics despite their stylistic interest. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Antonioni, M., That Bowling Alley on the Tiber,
trans by W. Arrowsmith (1986); Cameron, Ian, and Wood, Robin, Antonioni (1969); Sarris, Andrew, ed., Interviews with Film Directors (1968).
-END-
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2713
CAT
-A-
Antony, Mark
-T-
Antony, Mark_^<N__^<N_Mark Antony, or Marcus Antonius, was triumvir in Rome with Octavian (later Emperor AUGUSTUS) and Marcus Aemilius LEPIDUS after the murder of Julius CAESAR. He is famous in literature for his liaison with the Egyptian queen
CLEOPATRA, the subject of William Shakespeare's ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA. He also figures prominently in Shakespeare's JULIUS CAESAR. A cousin of Julius Caesar through his mother, Antony was born c.83 BC. He first gained notice as a Roman cavalry
officer in Palestine and Egypt (57-54) and then joined Caesar briefly in Gaul (54-53). Elected quaestor at Rome, he returned to Gaul for two years (52-50). A tribune in 49, he later commanded Caesar's left wing at Pharsalus (48). After being master
of the horse (magister equitum) in 47, however, Antony suffered eclipse until chosen Caesar's co-consul for 44 BC. After Caesar's assassination, Antony avoided further bloodshed by restraining Lepidus and conciliating the conspirators.
Nevertheless, efforts to strengthen his own position against both rival Caesarians and the republicans eventually caused leaders in each group, such as Octavian and CICERO, to join forces against him. Shortly, however, Antony and Octavian were
reconciled, and they united with Lepidus to form the Second Triumvirate (November 43). Cicero and many others perished in the subsequent proscriptions. Antony then defeated CASSIUS LONGINUS and BRUTUS at Philippi (42 BC) and set out to reorganize
the eastern provinces. Antony's relationship with Octavian soon become strained, as each sought supremacy at Rome. Reconciliations were arranged: at Brundisium (40), with Antony's marriage to Octavian's sister, Octavia; at Misenum (39); and at
Tarentum (37), with a 5-year extension of the Triumvirate. Antony, however, soon abandoned his wife, Octavia, for the Egyptian queen Cleopatra. The failure of his invasion of PARTHIA (36) made him more dependent upon Cleopatra's support, and his
relationship with her led to an open breach with Octavian. In 32 BC, Antony divorced Octavia, and Octavian obtained the annulment of Antony's powers as triumvir along with a declaration of war against Cleopatra. Battle was joined in September 31 BC
at Actium. Antony was defeated and fled with Cleopatra to Alexandria, where he committed suicide in August 30 BC. Although he failed to gain supremacy at Rome, he became--through his two daughters by Octavia--an ancestor of the emperors CALIGULA,
CLAUDIUS, and NERO. _^<N__^<N_Allen M. Ward _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ferrero, Guglielmo, Characters and Events of Roman History (1909); Gelzer, Matthias, Caesar: Politician and Statesman, trans. by Peter Needham (1968); Huzar, E., Mark Antony
(1986); Syme, Ronald, The Roman Revolution (1939).
-END-
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1121
CAT
-A-
Antony and Cleopatra
-T-
Antony and Cleopatra_^<N__^<N_Shakespeare's tragedy Antony and Cleopatra (c.1607) is esteemed more for its panoramic setting and the characterization of the principal figures than it is for its plot, based on Sir Thomas North's translation of
PLUTARCH'S LIVES. The symbolic worlds of Rome and Egypt are settings for contrasting scenes and conflicting values in the play. Marc Antony is tragically torn between his roles as Roman triumvir and as lover of Cleopatra, the enigmatic queen of
Egypt, who is simultaneously a temptress, a political opportunist, and an emotionally vulnerable woman. The actions of the two lovers both degrade and ennoble them; both move inexorably through tragic conflicts to suicide. _^<N__^<N_Maurice
Charney _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Lamb, Margaret, Antony and Cleopatra on the English Stage (1980); Lee, Robin, Shakespeare: Antony and Cleopatra (1974); Rose, Mark, ed., Twentieth Century Interpretations of Anthony and Cleopatra (1977);
Sirianni, F. A., Antony and Cleopatra: The Reality behind the Myth (1988); Traci, Philip J., Love Play of Antony and Cleopatra: A Critical Study of Shakespeare's Play (1970).
-END-
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592
CAT
-A-
Antrim
-T-
Antrim_^<N__^<N_Antrim is a former county in northeastern Northern Ireland, on the North Channel. The area is a basaltic tableland, level at the coast, where the famous GIANT'S CAUSEWAY is located, and rising to 554 m (1,817 ft) at Trostan. Flax,
potatoes, and oats are grown, and cattle and sheep are raised. Linen, cement, and ships are manufactured, and fishing, especially for salmon, is important. Evidence of human settlement dates from 6000 BC. The population grew when English farmers
immigrated after 1603. In 1973 the county was divided into several districts, one of which is called Antrim.
-END-
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2871
CATO
-A-
Antwerp
-O-
000000|Antwerp
000486| The Contemporary City
001819| History
-T-
Antwerp_^<N__^<N_Antwerp is the second largest city and chief port of Belgium and one of Europe's busiest seaports. It lies on the SCHELDT RIVER 89 km (55 mi) from the North Sea. The population of the city is 479,748 (1987 est.). Located in the
Flemish-speaking region of Belgium, it is known in Flemish as Antwerpen and in French as Anvers. Antwerp is linked by the Albert Canal with the Meuse River at Liege and also with the Rhine, thus enabling the port to serve a large industrialized
region. _^<N__^<N_ The Contemporary City_^<N__^<N_The old city contains a large market square (Groote Markt) surrounded by Renaissance guild houses and dominated by the 122-m (400-ft) spire of the late medieval (begun 14th century) Gothic cathedral
of Notre Dame. In it are some of the finest paintings of Peter Paul RUBENS, who spent much of his life in Antwerp. _^<N__^<N_The docks lie to the north of the old city. The first basins were constructed about 1800, after the French had conquered
the Low Countries and opened (1792) the Scheldt to seaborne commerce. In 1830, Belgium became an independent state, and the rapid expansion of manufacturing that followed led to the growth of Antwerp's docks. They now extend for several
kilometers north of the city, along the Scheldt River and are accessible to all except the largest seagoing ships. Although second in Europe to Rotterdam in its volume of shipping, Antwerp handles a great deal of the transit traffic from France
and Germany as well as much of the seaborne trade of Belgium. _^<N__^<N_The growth of Antwerp's commerce led to the expansion of manufacturing industries close to the docks, especially oil refining, petrochemical production, the assembly of
automobiles from imported parts, processing of imported foodstuffs, and shipbuilding. An industrial suburb has also grown up beyond the Scheldt to the west. _^<N__^<N_ History_^<N__^<N_Antwerp was a walled city by the 11th century. It later
became a member of the HANSEATIC LEAGUE, specializing in the grain trade. The city rose to prominence in the 15th century as the chief port of FLANDERS, replacing Bruges, whose access to the sea was becoming difficult because of silting. Growing
rapidly, Antwerp soon became the chief banking and financial center in northern Europe. It welcomed Jews expelled from Spain and Portugal, who brought with them the diamond-cutting industry that has remained important ever since. The city and its
commerce suffered severely during the Dutch Revolt of the late 16th century, and in 1576 Antwerp was partially destroyed by mutinous Spanish soldiers. When the war ended, the independent Netherlands held the Scheldt estuary and denied seaborne
ships the right to sail up the river to Antwerp. The port languished until the Scheldt was reopened by the French in 1792. The city and port subsequently grew steadily, despite considerable damage in both world wars. _^<N__^<N_Norman J. G. Pounds
-END-
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311
CAT
-A-
Anu
-T-
Anu_^<N__^<N_{ay'-noo} _^<N__^<N_In Sumerian, Akkadian, and Babylonian mythology, Anu was the god of the heavens and the king of the gods. The Babylonians associated him with the trinity that also included Enlil (MARDUK), the earth god, and Enki
(EA), the water god. The Babylonian king was considered his representative on Earth.
-END-
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163
CAT
-A-
Anubis
-T-
Anubis_^<N__^<N_{uh-noo'-bis} _^<N__^<N_In Egyptian mythology, Anubis was the jackal-headed god who took the souls of the dead to be weighed before the judge of the infernal regions.
-END-
-C-
1281
CAT
-A-
Anuradhapura
-T-
Anuradhapura_^<N__^<N_{uh-noo'-rahd-uh-poo'-ruh} _^<N__^<N_Anuradhapura, the capital of North Central province, Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon), was the royal city of the Sinhalese kings of ancient Lanka for more than a millennium. Traditionally thought
to have been founded in the 5th century BC and named after the constellation Anuradha, it became, after the establishment of Buddhism as the national religion in the 3d century, one of the major centers of Buddhism in Asia. It remained so until the
city was abandoned after its destruction (AD 992) by the armies of the South Indian Chola dynasty. _^<N__^<N_For centuries, Anuradhapura was a vast urban complex, sustained by satellite villages and towns and by extensive irrigation works. Its
ruins, discovered by the British in the 19th century, are principally religious, and many of these are still held in active veneration. The gigantic STUPAS of the mother monasteries of the major Buddhist sects dominate the landscape. Other
architectural remains include the foundations of complex monastic structures, traces of secular buildings, and the restored shrine of the Bodhi, or Bo tree, supposed originally to have been miraculously transported to Anuradhapura (c.245 BC) in the
form of a branch of the sacred tree at BODH GAYA, India. _^<N__^<N_Diran Kavork Dohanian
-END-
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38
CAT
-A-
anus:
-T-
anus:_^<N__^<N_see DIGESTIVE SYSTEM; INTESTINE.
-END-
-C-
630
CAT
-A-
Anuszkiewicz, Richard
-T-
Anuszkiewicz, Richard_^<N__^<N_{ah-nuhs'-ke-vich} _^<N__^<N_The American painter Richard Anuszkiewicz, b. Erie, Pa., May 23, 1930, is a leading practitioner of OP ART. A student at Yale (1953-55) under Josef ALBERS, who stressed the importance of
color interaction, Anuszkiewicz has since worked with combinations of often dazzling colors in HARD-EDGED geometrical shapes. In his work he creates illusions of movement and AFTERIMAGES through the use of alternating patterns and oscillating
vibrations of color. _^<N__^<N_Diana Kurz _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Battcock, Gregory, ed., Minimal Art (1968); Weller, Allen S., The Joys and Sorrows of Recent American Art (1968).
-END-
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4577
CATO
-A-
anxiety
-O-
000000|anxiety
001348| Psychoanalytic Theory
002363| Learning Theory
003013| Cognitive Theory
003533| Physiological Theory
-T-
anxiety_^<N__^<N_Anxiety is an unpleasant emotion characterized by a feeling of vague, unspecified harm. Like FEAR, it can cause a state of physical disturbance; unlike fear, it is characterized by the absence of an apparent cause--the circumstance
that precipitates anxiety is hidden and unknown to the person. When the cause for anxiety becomes known but the feeling of apprehension remains, it is called worry. _^<N__^<N_Anxiety has many symptoms, most of which masquerade as genuine physical
ailments. Included are rapid or pounding heartbeat, difficult breathing or breathlessness, tremulousness, sweating, dry mouth, tightness in the chest, sweaty palms, dizziness, weakness, nausea, diarrhea, cramps, insomnia, fatigue, headache, loss
of appetite, and sexual disturbances. In addition to the uncomfortable bodily sensations associated with fear, anxiety results in a narrowing of one's time perspective so that only the present matters; it also results in an inability to attend to
more than one task at a time or to organize thoughts and plans effectively. Anxiety lowers one's ability to perform most tasks. Low levels of anxiety may temporarily increase a person's ability to do a simple task, due to the greater vigilance
and narrowing of one's ATTENTION associated with anxiety, but as anxiety increases, behavior becomes more disorganized and ineffective. _^<N__^<N_ Psychoanalytic Theory_^<N__^<N_Two types of anxiety are recognized in psychoanalysis. The first
type, traumatic anxiety, results from overstimulation. Events happen faster than the mind can comprehend them; this produces a feeling of crisis. Sigmund FREUD believed that this feeling has a physical basis in the capacity of the nervous system
and that birth throws every child into a state of traumatic anxiety. In his view, this birth trauma becomes the model for later episodes of anxiety. _^<N__^<N_The second type of anxiety in psychoanalysis, signal anxiety, is believed to arise from
a person's need to guard against the disorganization of traumatic anxiety. The EGO appraises its own ability to cope with both external demands and the push of internal drives and wishes. When normal methods of coping with these pressures
threaten to fail, the ego responds with anxiety, which then mobilizes the person to take new action. The small-scale discomfort of signal anxiety helps to avoid a larger, more devastating experience. _^<N__^<N_ Learning Theory_^<N__^<N_In LEARNING
THEORY, anxiety is seen both as a response to learned cues and as a drive, or motivator, of behavior. Most learning theorists maintain that anxiety is derived from reaction to PAIN. Anxiety can thus be reduced by removing or avoiding the source
or sources of the situations that have produced pain. Avoidance may become firmly established and lead to constricted or bizarre behavior (see PHOBIA). A better way to reduce anxiety is to pair a strong, positive reinforcer such as food with the
frightening situation so that the stimulus that formerly elicited anxious responses becomes associated with positive feelings. _^<N__^<N_ Cognitive Theory_^<N__^<N_In the control of anxiety, psychologists have recently focused on the role of
cognition as the origin of anxiety (see COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY). Cognitive theories emphasize the process of appraisal and the often unnoticed internal dialogue that amplifies emotional response. Experiments have shown that the interpretation of a
situation determines whether a person feels anxiety or some other emotion. Learning to substitute benign reappraisals for unrealistically negative "self-talk" reduces anxiety. _^<N__^<N_ Physiological Theory_^<N__^<N_Evidence exists that some
persons may be biochemically vulnerable to an extreme form of anxiety known as "panic attacks." Some medications relieve the panic, leading to the hope that anxiety can be understood physiologically, but the metabolic pathways are unknown and may
be quite complex. A combination of medication and therapies, including relaxation training, provides the best treatment for panic attacks. _^<N__^<N_John M. Dyckman _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Beck, A. T., Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional
Disorders (1976); Berger, J. G., ed., Antianxiety Agents (1986); Costello, Charles G., Anxiety and Depression (1976); Dollard, John, and Miller, Neal, Personality and Psychotherapy (1950); Freud, Sigmund, The Problem of Anxiety (repr. 1966);
Gittelman, Rachel, ed., Anxiety Disorders of Childhood (1986); Goodwin, D. W., Anxiety (1986); May, Rollo, The Meaning of Anxiety (1977); Spielberger, Charles, ed., Anxiety and Behavior (1966); Zuckerman, M., and Spielberger, Charles D., eds.,
Emotions and Anxiety (1976).
-END-
-C-
1233
CAT
-A-
Anyang
-T-
Anyang_^<N__^<N_{ahn'-yahng} _^<N__^<N_Anyang (1982 pop., 250,000), a city in Henan (Honan) province, north China, was the site of an important center of early Chinese civilization. From c.1400 BC, it was the last capital of the SHANG dynasty
(c.1600-1027 BC). Shang culture was known only through documentary accounts and was considered mythical by some scholars until remains of the ancient center were discovered beneath the modern city in 1928. _^<N__^<N_One of the most extensively
excavated sites in China, Anyang is still the richest repository of artifacts of the Bronze Age culture of Shang yet discovered. Enormous royal tombs contained grave goods and the skeletons of wives, servants, and guards sacrificed for the service
of the king in the next world. Archaeologists also found ORACLE BONES, on which appear the earliest form of Chinese writing, and stone sculptures far older than any previously known in China. Anyang was first excavated (1928-37) under the
direction of the archaeologist Li Ji (Li Chi); since 1950, work has frequently been resumed at the site. _^<N__^<N_Robert E. Dewar _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Chang, K. C., The Great Bronze Age of China (1983); Shang Civilization (1980); and
Studies of Shang Archaeology (1986); Li Chi, An-yang (1977).
-END-
-C-
1161
CAT
-A-
Anza, Juan Bautista de
-T-
Anza, Juan Bautista de_^<N__^<N_{ahn-zah', hwahn bow-tees'-tah day} _^<N__^<N_Juan Bautista de Anza, b. 1736, d. Dec. 19, 1788, was a Spanish explorer in the American West. Born in Mexico, he joined the army in 1752 and served on the northern
frontier of Sonora. In 1774, Anza led an expedition from the presidio at Tubac (now in Arizona) to the mission at Monterey, Calif., proving that supplies could be transported overland to Upper California. The following year Anza set out from
Tubac on a second California expedition during which he explored (March 1776) the San Francisco Bay region. Here he chose the general location for the first European settlement, which was established later that year by Jose Joaquin Moraga. Anza
returned to Mexico and later served (1777-87) as governor of New Mexico. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bolton, Herbert E., ed., Anza's California Expeditions, 5 vols. (1930; repr. 1991); Bowman, J. N., and Chapman, Charles E., The Founding of Spanish
California: The Northwestward Expansion of New Spain, 1687-1783 (1916; repr. 1991); Heizer, R. F., Anza and the Northwest Frontier of New Spain (1971); Pourade, Richard F., Anza Conquers the Desert (1971).
-END-
-C-
890
CAT
-A-
Anzio
-T-
Anzio_^<N__^<N_Anzio is a town on the Tyrrhenian Sea in Roma province of the Lazio (Latium) region in central Italy. It is a seaside resort about 48 km (30 mi) south of Rome, with a population of 27,094 (1981); its main industry is fishing. Older
than Rome, by which it was conquered (c.340 BC), Anzio became a year-round resort for wealthy Romans. Emperors Nero and Caligula were born here. Among the extensive Roman ruins is Nero's villa, in which was found the famous Greek statue of Apollo
Belvedere. The city was abandoned in the early Middle Ages after being destroyed by the Saracens and was not revitalized until Pope Innocent XII ordered the construction of a new port in 1698. In World War II, American and British troops seriously
damaged most of the old town when they landed at Anzio beach on Jan. 22, 1944, as part of their successful effort to break through to Rome. _^<N__^<N_Daniel R. Lesnick
-END-
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630
CAT
-A-
Anzus Treaty
-T-
Anzus Treaty_^<N__^<N_Signed on Sept. 1, 1951, the Anzus Treaty is a mutual defense agreement between Australia, New Zealand, and the United States. The acronym Anzus is formed by the initial letters of the countries' names. The members' foreign
ministers constitute the Anzus Council, which meets annually to discuss problems of defense in the Pacific area. In 1986 the United States suspended its security obligations to New Zealand under Anzus after that country banned visits by
nuclear-powered or nuclear-armed ships. Australia remained within Anzus and maintained bilateral defense links with New Zealand outside the Anzus framework.
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2152
CAT
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aorta
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aorta_^<N__^<N_{ay-ohrt'-uh} _^<N__^<N_The aorta is the largest ARTERY in the human body and the primary vessel carrying blood from the HEART to the rest of the CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. The aorta arises from the base of the left ventricle of the heart.
Blood is prevented from reentering the ventricle from the aorta by the aortic valve, which is located at the juncture of the aorta with the ventricle. The aorta then arches over and backward to the left front side of the vertebral column, or
spine. It passes downward along the spine to the level of the fourth lumbar vertebra. There it divides into the common iliac arteries, which supply blood to the extremities. _^<N__^<N_For descriptive purposes, the aorta is usually divided into
the ascending aorta, the aortic arch, the thoracic descending aorta, and the abdominal aorta. Major branches serving the upper part of the body arise from the aortic arch. The renal arteries, mesenteric arteries, and many other branches arise
from the abdominal aorta. _^<N__^<N_The walls of the aorta are quite thick and consist primarily of strong, elastic connective tissue. The distensibility of the aorta and its major branches is such that this central reservoir acts as a second
heart pump. The small amount of smooth muscle in these large vessels is of minor importance to their function. _^<N__^<N_The rise of aortic blood pressure is associated with the ejection of blood from the heart. The pressure remains constant when
the ejection rate equals the rate of drainoff through the tissues. Following this, the heart relaxes to the point where pressure is greater in the aorta than in the ventricle, and the aortic valve closes. The following gradual decrease of
pressure, the diastolic phase, is caused by the drainage of blood from the central reservoir through the tissues of the body. _^<N__^<N_The pressure PULSE is transmitted down the arterial tree as a pressure front. Since the tubes are distensible,
the velocity of transmission of the pulse is relatively slow, about 5 m/sec (more than 16 ft/sec) in the aorta. The physics of pulse transmission and blood flow in the aorta is of great interest to physiologists and bioengineers. _^<N__^<N_Ralph
W. Stacy
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2961
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Apache
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Apache_^<N__^<N_{uh-pach'-ee} _^<N__^<N_The Apache (from a Zuni word meaning "enemy") are a North American Indian people of the Southwest. Their name for themselves is Inde, or Nde ("the people"). Together with the NAVAJO, they are classified as
belonging to the Southern Athapascan linguistic family. The Apache were composed of six regional groups: the Western Apache, Chiricahua, Mescalero, Jicarilla, Lipan, and Kiowa Apache. Each group was made up of numerous localized bands.
_^<N__^<N_On marriage, men customarily took up residence with their wives' kin. Maternal clans existed among the Western Apache, who depended more on cultivation than did other groups. All Apache relied primarily on hunting of wild game and
gathering of cactus fruits and other wild plant foods. The Western Apache (Coyotero) traditionally occupied most of eastern Arizona and included the White Mountain, Cibuecue, San Carlos, and Northern and Southern Tonto bands. The Chiricahua
occupied southwestern New Mexico, southeastern Arizona, and adjacent Mexican states of Chihuahua and Sonora. The Mescalero (Faraon) lived east of the Rio Grande in southern New Mexico, with the Pecos River as their eastern border. The Jicarilla
(Tinde) ranged over southeastern Colorado, northern New Mexico, and northwest Texas, with the Lipan occupying territory directly to the east of the Jicarilla. By 1750, Comanche pressure forced the Jicarilla and Lipan south toward the Rio Grande.
The Kiowa Apache (Gataka), long associated with the KIOWA, a Plains people, ranged over the southern plains of Colorado, Oklahoma, and Texas. _^<N__^<N_By 1688 the Apache groups customarily supplemented their hunting and cultivating economies with
raids on settlements of the Spanish and, later, on the westward-migrating American settlers. They attained their greatest fame as guerrilla fighters defending their mountainous homelands under the Chiricahua leaders COCHISE, GERONIMO, MANGAS
COLORADAS, Victorio, and Juh. The surrender of Geronimo and Juh in 1886 marked the end of Apache resistance. Today the Apache occupy reservations in New Mexico and Arizona, with some Chiricahua, Lipan, and Kiowa Apache in Oklahoma. In 1680 the
Apache population was estimated at 5,000; in 1989 it was estimated at about 30,000, of whom most lived on reservations. While accommodating to changed economic conditions, the Apache on reservations have maintained much of their traditional
social and ritual activities. _^<N__^<N_Fred W. Voget _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Burlison, Irene, Yesterday and Today in the Life of the Apaches (1973); Comfort, Will L., Apache (1986); Cremony, J. C., Life among the Apaches (1983); Forbes, Jack
D., Apache, Navaho, and Spaniard (1960); Opler, Morris E., An Apache Life-Way (1941; repr. 1965); Schroeder, Albert H., A Study of the Apache Indians, 4 vols. (1974); Terrell, John U., The Plains Apache (1975); Thrapp, Dan L., The Conquest
of Apacheria (1967; repr. 1976); Worcester, Donald G., The Apaches (1979).
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1398
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Apalachee
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Apalachee_^<N__^<N_{ap-uh-lach'-ee} _^<N__^<N_The Apalachee were a tribe of North American Indians who inhabited the area around Apalachee Bay in northwest Florida; the tribe is now extinct. A Muskogean-speaking people, they raised maize, beans,
and pumpkins. The Spanish explorer Panfilo de NARVAEZ visited their prosperous farming communities in 1528, and Hernando DE SOTO lived among them in 1539. Missionaries followed the explorers, and the Apalachee towns became centers of a major
Spanish missionary effort in Florida. By 1655, when the Apalachee were estimated to number 7,000, eight Franciscan missions were established at their settlements near present-day Tallahassee, Fla. _^<N__^<N_Beginning about 1700 the CREEK conducted
raids against the Apalachee at the instigation of the English. In 1703 an English-Creek force destroyed their towns and missions, killing the Spanish garrison and more than 200 Apalachee warriors and taking 1,400 townspeople as slaves. About 400
Apalachee escaped to the French community at Mobile, Ala.; others fled to the Savannah River in Georgia. After Spain ceded Florida to England in 1763, most remaining Apalachee moved to Louisiana, where their numbers had drastically declined by
the early 1800s. _^<N__^<N_Daniel Jacobson _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Burt, Jesse, and Ferguson, Robert B., Indians of the Southeast: Then and Now (1973); Hann, J. H., Apalachee: The Land between the Rivers (1988).
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3228
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apartheid
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apartheid_^<N__^<N_{uh-pahr'-tayt} _^<N__^<N_Apartheid (Afrikaans, "apartness") is the name given to the former South African policy of "separate development," a rigid system of racial segregation designed to maintain white supremacy. The policy
officially came into effect when South Africa's NATIONAL PARTY came to power in 1948. It officially classified the South African population into whites, constituting about 13 percent; Africans, 77 percent; Coloureds (of mixed descent), 8 percent;
and Asians, 2 percent. In accordance with the theory of separate development, the government set aside certain areas as homelands for each of the officially recognized African ethnolinguistic groups. The government contended that these groups were
as culturally distinct from one another as from the white, Coloured, and Asian communities (and the Africans, thus broken up, ceased to form a majority). Four of the ten homelands were declared independent, although this independence was recognized
only by the South African government. Strict residential segregation and many other restrictions were imposed on the majority of blacks who worked in white areas. The implementation of apartheid over the years involved massive resettlement of
peoples and great hardship, and the policy was widely condemned by the international community. _^<N__^<N_During the late 1970s and 1980s the government relaxed the apartheid laws slightly, lifting some occupational restrictions, desegregating
certain public facilities, and repealing (1985) the 1948 law prohibiting intermarriage. The pass laws requiring blacks in white areas to have a permit were repealed in 1986. The Constitution of 1983 gave Coloureds and Asians, but not blacks,
limited representation in the formerly all-white national parliament. _^<N__^<N_In 1990, President F. W. DE KLERK committed himself to the abolition of apartheid and said that the homelands would be reincorporated into South Africa. The Group Areas
Act of 1966 and the Land Acts of 1913 and 1936, which had enforced residential segregation and reserved 87 percent of the land for whites, were repealed in June 1991. The Population Registration Act of 1950, which had required all South Africans to
record their race with the government, was repealed that same month. Economic power was still in white hands, however, and much de facto segregation remained. Negotiations to devise a new constitution that would enfranchise all South Africans while
protecting white interests began in 1990. In late 1991, the de Klerk government enacted measures to design a new constitutional order and to work toward the creation of a nonracial democracy. South African whites endorsed these measures in a
referendum in March 1992, and in March 1993, the government and the African National Congress (ANC) agreed on a transitional government of national unity. South Africa's first universal suffrage elections, held Apr. 26-29, 1994, resulted in a
resounding victory for the ANC and confirmed the end of the apartheid era. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Lapping, B., Apartheid (1988); Lewis, S., The Economics of Apartheid (1989); Meredith, M., In the Name of Apartheid (1989); Sparks, A., The Mind of
South Africa (1990); Thompson, L., The Political Mythology of Apartheid (1985).
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642
CAT
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apatite
-T-
apatite_^<N__^<N_{ap'-uh-tyt} _^<N__^<N_The very widely distributed calcium PHOSPHATE MINERAL apatite is used as a mineral fertilizer and occasionally as a gemstone. Gem apatite occurs in sea-green to bluish or violet prismatic crystals (SEE
HEXAGONAL SYSTEM) that have a vitreous luster. Hardness is 5 (soft for most gemstones); STREAK is white; and specific gravity is 3.1-3.2. Minute crystals of apatite are common as an accessory rock-forming mineral; gem crystals form in PEGMATITE
dikes. Collophane, a softer, whitish, massive variety, is the principal component of fossil bone and PHOSPHORITE, millions of tons of which are mined annually for fertilizer.
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2534
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Apatosaurus
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Apatosaurus_^<N__^<N_{uh-pa-tuh-sawr'-uhs} _^<N__^<N_Apatosaurus was one of a number of giant, plant-eating DINOSAURS that roamed western North America during the Late JURASSIC PERIOD, more than 140 million years ago. The animal probably will
remain better known for some time under the name Brontosaurus, because this name has been used in many books and films about dinosaurs. Paleontologists use the name Apatosaurus, however, because the first fossil fragment of the animal was so
labeled, and by scientific convention the first name given is the one accepted. Apatosaurus and other giants such as BRACHIOSAURUS, DIPLODOCUS, and Camarasaurus constitute the suborder Sauropoda. These five-toed, long-necked dinosaurs were the
dominant herbivores of their time. Their fossils occur in abundance in rock formations in Utah, Colorado, and Wyoming. _^<N__^<N_Apatosaurus had an enormous, barrel-like body supported by thick, heavy legs. Its tail and neck were long and stout.
More than 25 m (82 ft) in total length, it weighed from 18-32 metric tons (20-35 U.S. tons). The skull was elongated and had short but pointed teeth. Apatosaurus skeletons are usually headless when they are found, however, because of fragile
skull and neck connections. When the American paleontologist O. C. MARSH uncovered the first such skeleton, in 1879, he paired it with a wrong skull found nearby--that of the dinosaur now known as Camarasaurus. As a result, Apatosaurus was
depicted as having a snub-nosed head with peglike teeth until the late 1970s, when the error was corrected. _^<N__^<N_Traditionally, paleontologists have regarded Apatosaurus as semiaquatic, feeding and wallowing in lakes, swamps, and rivers,
because they believed that the animal's enormous weight was too great for the legs to bear and that it therefore needed to live in water to support its weight. Using this line of reasoning, some scientists suggested that the animal's long neck
permitted it to breathe while at depths of 6-8 m (20-25 ft). This theory is flawed, however, because water pressures at depths of only a few meters would have been too great to permit the animal to breathe. More recently it has been suggested
that all of the sauropods lived on land, using their long necks to reach and browse on treetop foliage. _^<N__^<N_John H. Ostrom _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Alexander, R. McNeill, The Dynamics of Dinosaurs and Other Extinct Giants (1989); Dixon,
Donald, et al., The Macmillan Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals (1988); Lambert, David, The Dinosaur Data Book (1990).
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6575
CATO
4801
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ape
-O-
000000|ape
002029| Evolutionary Relationships
003400| Comparative Appearance and Behavior
-T-
ape_^<N__^<N_Apes are the closest living relatives of humans. Together with humans they constitute the superfamily Hominoidea of the mammalian order primates (see PRIMATE). The two extant families of apes are the Pongidae (pongid or great apes) and
the Hylobatidae (hylobatid or lesser apes). Baboons (see BABOON) and other monkeys (see MONKEY) should not be called apes, and apes should not be called monkeys. _^<N__^<N_The great apes include the GORILLA, Pan (Gorilla) gorilla; CHIMPANZEE, Pan
troglodytes; bonobo, Pan paniscus; and ORANGUTAN, Pongo pygmaeus. Gorillas are divided into three subspecies: the western gorilla, P. gorilla gorilla; Grauer's gorilla, P. gorilla graueri; and the mountain gorilla, P. gorilla beringei. There are
also three chimpanzee subspecies: Upper Guinea or masked, P. troglodytes verus; Lower Guinea or western, P. troglodytes troglodytes; and long-haired or eastern, P. troglodytes schweinfurthi. Bornean (Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus) and Sumatran (P.
pygmaeus abelii) orangutans may be different subspecies. The lesser apes include 9 species and about 16 subspecies of gibbons (see GIBBON), which are grouped into four subgenera--Hylobates, Symphalangus (see SIAMANG), Nomascus, Bunopithecus--of the
genus Hylobates. _^<N__^<N_The ecologically versatile chimpanzees live in a variety of forest and woodland habitats, from far western tropical Africa to western Uganda and northwestern Tanzania. Bonobos, sometimes called pygmy chimpanzees, are
restricted to tropical rain forests in central Zaire, and gorillas to two widely separated areas of tropical Africa: one in West Africa, the other in northeastern Central Africa and southwestern Uganda. Orangutans, the only extant Asian great ape,
live in rapidly shrinking forest enclaves on Borneo and northern Sumatra. Gibbons, the most numerous apes, inhabit diminishing forests in Asia and Indonesia from Bangladesh to southern China. Gibbons and orangutans share the same habitat, as do
chimpanzees and gorillas in some areas, but bonobos do not share habitats with other apes. _^<N__^<N_ Evolutionary Relationships_^<N__^<N_Apes and humans are classified together because they are more similar to each other anatomically,
physiologically, and genetically than they are to the monkeys. All have broad, flat chests, recurved ribs, shoulder blades on the back of the rib cages, long collarbones, highly mobile shoulder and elbow joints, short and stiff lower backs,
taillessness, vermiform appendices, attachment of abdominal organs, relatively large brains, number and kinds of teeth, and arrangement of lower molar cusps. Many traits of torso and forelimbs were once attributed to a common ancestral stage of
brachiation--swinging among branches using successive handholds. To explain such traits experts now favor an evolutionary phase of vertical climbing on trees and vines, agile maneuvering in forest canopy, and feeding while hanging.
_^<N__^<N_Genetically, chimpanzees, bonobos, and gorillas are remarkably close to humans, the genes of humans and chimpanzees differing by only one percent. Orangutans are genetically somewhat more distant, and gibbons still more. In the absence of
solid fossil evidence, molecular "clocks" (see EVOLUTION) are used to estimate the times of divergence of ape and human lineages. According to these, African apes and humans diverged 5 to 10 million years ago, orangutans 12 to 20 million years ago,
and gibbons 16 to 23 million years ago. _^<N__^<N_ Comparative Appearance and Behavior_^<N__^<N_Gorillas are the largest living apes and, like orangutans, among the most sexually dimorphic mammals. That is, females of both species are only about
half as heavy as males and have smaller canine teeth and less elaborately crested skulls. Adult male gorillas are easily identified by a large patch of light hair on their backs. Adult male orangutans sport large cheek pads and inflatable throat
sacs. Chimpanzees and bonobos are less sexually dimorphic, except for the male canine teeth. Gibbons show no sexual distinctions in appearance, except for three species. _^<N__^<N_Ape hair is similar to that of a wide range of people, except that
no ape has tightly coiled hair. The coats of African apes range from dark brown to black, and those of orangutans from orange to maroon and dark brown. Skin colors are also highly variable. Gorillas are pink-skinned at birth and blacken during
childhood, but adult chimpanzees and orangutans range from white to dark brown. Gorillas, bonobos, and orangutans have small ears lying close to the head; chimpanzees have prominent ears. Great apes have long forelimbs and short hind limbs, whereas
gibbons have both elongate forelimbs and hind limbs relative to their torsos. _^<N__^<N_Gibbons are the only exclusively arboreal apes, but orangutans do not often venture to the ground. Asian apes travel regularly by means of brachiation, whereas
African apes have hands specially adapted for knuckle-walking and can travel efficiently on the forest floor. Gorillas are the most terrestrial of all. Great apes at night recline in nests constructed daily in trees or (only among gorillas) on the
ground. They prefer fruit and succulent plant parts, supplemented with leaves, nuts, and arthropods, but drink infrequently. Only chimpanzees andbonobos are notable eaters of small animals. _^<N__^<N_Apes usually bear single offspring. Mated pairs
of gibbons live monogamously with one to four youngsters. Orangutans are solitary after childhood, and adult males emit lionlike calls to attract females for mating. Gorillas live closely in harems organized around an adult male. Chimpanzees and
bonobos live more promiscuously in groups of 20 to 120 individuals. Whereas coalitions of adult males are notable among chimpanzees, relationships among females and between females and adult males are more important among bonobos. _^<N__^<N_Great
apes are about equally good at solving laboratory problems; gibbons are less successful. Captive great apes are all handy with objects, but in the wild only chimpanzees are clever tool users. Great apes have learned to communicate with human
trainers using symbolic systems. Captive bonobos have a remarkable capacity to understand human speech, but thus far no apes have talked back--perhaps because they lack humanoid brains or vocal tracts. _^<N__^<N_Russell H. Tuttle
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Berger, G., Monkeys and Apes (1984); Premack, D. and A. J., The Mind of an Ape (1983); Savage-Rambaugh, E. Sue, Ape Language: From Conditioned Response to Symbol (1986); Tuttle, R. H., Apes of the World (1987); Yerkes, R.
M., The Great Apes (1929; repr. 1971); Zuckerman, S., The Social Life of Monkeys and Apes, 2d ed. (1981).
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1382
CAT
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Apelles
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Apelles_^<N__^<N_{uh-pel'-eez} _^<N__^<N_Apelles, who was active from about 350 to 300 BC, was considered the greatest Greek painter by PLINY THE ELDER and others. He was court painter to and a friend of ALEXANDER THE GREAT and Alexander's father,
the Macedonian king, PHILIP II. Alexander refused to let any other painter portray him. As a theoretician who produced volumes of criticism, Apelles was generous to his contemporaries. He established the reputation of Protogenes of Rhodes, a great
but unappreciated artist, by paying high prices for his work. _^<N__^<N_Apelles' style was noted for graceful figures and composition, spatial depth, fine line quality, and avoidance of excessive detail. He was much praised for his realism,
although he used only four earth colors--white, black, yellow, and red. His two most praised works were an equestrian portrait, Antigonus the One-Eyed, and Artemis Mingling with a Group of Virgins. _^<N__^<N_All of Apelles' works are lost, but in
the Renaissance the Florentine painter Sandro BOTTICELLI tried to recreate two of them as described by Pliny and Lucian. Botticelli's versions are called Birth of Venus and Calumny of Apelles, both in the UFFIZI in Florence. _^<N__^<N_John Stephens
Crawford _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Jex-Blake, Katherine, and Sellers, Eugenie, The Elder Pliny's Chapters on the History of Art (1977); Pollitt, J. J., The Art of Greece, 1400-31 BC (1965). _^<N__^<N_See also: GREEK ART.
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1069
CAT
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Apennines
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Apennines_^<N__^<N_{ap'-uh-nynz} _^<N__^<N_The Apennine Range in central Italy is part of the greater Alpine mountain system. The range is a spur of the Ligurian Alps that extends 1,400 km (870 mi) along the Italian peninsula. Bordered by narrow
coastal plains, it is between 40 and 201 km (25 and 125 mi) wide. The highest point, Monte Corno, is 2,914 m (9,560 ft) high. _^<N__^<N_The Apennines formed during the latter part of the PALEOZOIC ERA. Erosion caused by the numerous rivers (among
them the Tiber, Arno, Reno, and Volurno) has also shaped the contours of the Apennines. Precipitation is heavier in the north and on the Tyrrhenian slopes than on the eastern slopes. The climate is continental. _^<N__^<N_Cultivation of olives,
grapes, citrus fruits, and vegetables is common in the southern section. In the north, hardwood and pine forests predominate. There are some minerals and deposits of natural gas. Scenic highways and numerous railroads traverse the mountains. Home
of the Italic peoples since prehistoric times, the Apennines have recently lost population to industrial sections of Europe.
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1843
CAT
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aperture
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aperture_^<N__^<N_The aperture of a LENS, or other optical system or instrument, is the opening through which light is admitted. The size of the aperture is limited by the size of the lens mount. It is often desirable to be able to adjust the amount
of light passing through the lens or device. This can be done by placing in the path of the light rays a diaphragm, which has a hole whose size can be varied. The hole in the diaphragm then limits the size of the aperture and, hence, is called the
limiting aperture or aperture stop. _^<N__^<N_A more useful quantity is the effective aperture, which is the diameter of the widest pencil of rays that can enter the lens. If the aperture stop is in front of the lens, then the effective aperture is
the same as the limiting aperture. But if the aperture stop is placed between the lens elements, the effective aperture may differ from the limiting aperture. It is the effective aperture that determines how much light can enter the lens.
_^<N__^<N_In photography a more widely used term is relative aperture, also known as f-number. It is the ratio of the focal length of the lens to the diameter of the effective aperture and is a measure of the light-gathering power of the lens, and
thus the exposure necessary. For example, a relative aperture of f/2, f2, or 1:2 would mean that the effective aperture was half of the focal length. If a lens of focal length 50 mm is used at a relative aperture (f-number) of f/2, then the
effective aperture is 25 mm. _^<N__^<N_Increasing the f-number, that is, going from f/4 to f/8, reduces the amount of light entering the camera. A wide aperture (small f-number) lets in more light and thus favors the use of slow film (giving fine
grain), dim light, or brief exposures, but greatly reduces the DEPTH OF FIELD. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Asher, Harry, Photographic Principles and Practices, 2d ed. (1975).
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1343
CAT
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aperture synthesis
-T-
aperture synthesis_^<N__^<N_Aperture synthesis is a method in RADIO ASTRONOMY that utilizes several telescopes simultaneously to create images of cosmic radio sources. This results in much better resolution than can be achieved by the individual
telescopes. The technique requires that one move a number of small radio telescopes around the "aperture" of a much larger hypothetical radio telescope. The intensity and precise time of arrival of the radio signals are recorded at each radio
telescope, and the recorded signals are combined mathematically to simulate what would have been observed had the signals been received all over the aperture simultaneously. The result is high-resolution images at very low cost. _^<N__^<N_The idea
of aperture synthesis was proposed by the late Joseph Pawsey, and the theory and actual practice of the method were developed by Sir Martin RYLE, who received the 1974 Nobel Prize for physics for this feat. At present the largest such system is
the Very Large Array (VLA) built by the NATIONAL RADIO ASTRONOMY OBSERVATORY on the plains of San Augustin near Socorro, N.Mex. In this system, 27 antennas, after about 12 hours of Earth rotation, synthesize an aperture equivalent to an antenna
over 30 km (some 20 mi) in diameter. Resolutions as good as those of the best optical telescopes can be achieved. _^<N__^<N_Frank D. Drake
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856
CAT
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aphasia
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aphasia_^<N__^<N_{uh-fay'-zhuh} _^<N__^<N_Aphasia is the loss or impairment of the ability to use spoken and written words. The disorder may follow damage to the dominant hemisphere of the BRAIN, which, in right-handed persons, is almost always the
left hemisphere. The two broad classifications of aphasia are Broca's and Wernicke's. In Broca's aphasia--also known as expressive, motor, nonfluent, or telegrammatic aphasia--patients understand speech reasonably well but have difficulty in
retrieving words and hence in naming objects or expressing themselves. In Wernicke's aphasia--also known as receptive, sensory, fluent, or jargon aphasia--patients produce fluent but nonsensical speech, or jargon, and comprehend poorly the speech
of others. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Agranowitz, Aleen, and McKeown, Milfred R., Aphasia Handbook (1975); Darley, Frederick L., Aphasia (1982).
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293
CAT
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aphelandra
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aphelandra_^<N__^<N_Aphelandra, known as the zebra plant, Aphelandra squarrosa, is an evergreen shrub belonging to the ACANTHUS family, Acanthaceae. It has shiny, large, dark-green leaves with creamy-white stripes along the leaf veins. Yellow
flowers grow at the top of the main stem. _^<N__^<N_Charles L. Wilson
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31
CAT
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aphelion:
-T-
aphelion:_^<N__^<N_see ORBITAL ELEMENTS.
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1867
CAT
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aphid
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aphid_^<N__^<N_Aphids are of several families of the order HOMOPTERA. The most common aphids are plant lice. They are small (usually less than 5 mm/0.2 in long), somewhat pear-shaped insects that feed on the sap of many kinds of plants. To
procure their food, they pierce stems and leaves with their thin, tubelike mouthparts. Aphids secrete a sugary substance, called honeydew, which attracts ANTS and other insects. Some ants regularly tend aphids for their honeydew, which they
receive after tickling the aphid's posterior to stimulate release of honeydew droplets. The ants protect aphids from predatory insects. (Among predators, some LACEWING larvae escape ant detection by disguising themselves as aphids). Ants may
even take aphids off plants and shelter them during bad weather. _^<N__^<N_Among some aphids, females during most of summer do not require males to reproduce (see PARTHENOGENESIS). Such aphids often have no egg stage but give birth to live young.
In autumn, these aphids usually produce winged forms of both sexes, which mate. The females' eggs overwinter on twigs and hatch in the spring. _^<N__^<N_Many aphids produce chemicals called alarm PHEROMONES in response to an attack by a predator.
An aphid that is injured by a lady beetle or a lacewing discharges a droplet of pheromone, which evaporates into the air. Nearby aphids react by fleeing from the pheromone source. Because of their predilection for sap and their ability to
reproduce rapidly in huge numbers, aphids become pests to a variety of crop and ornamental plants. Aphids also transmit serious plant diseases. The insects may be controlled biologically or with pesticides. Lady beetles, lacewings, and parasitic
wasps have been used in biological control of aphids. _^<N__^<N_David J. Horn _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Davidson, R. H., and Lyon, W. F., Insect Pests of Farm, Garden and Orchard, 8th ed. (1986).
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1219
CAT
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aphorism, maxim, and proverb
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aphorism, maxim, and proverb_^<N__^<N_Aphorisms, maxims, and proverbs express general truths in pithy, concise, and memorable forms. Aphorisms are frequently of known authorship and imply a certain distinction of content or style, as in the medical
Aphorisms of Hippocrates, from whom the word is derived. Via trita via tuta ("the beaten path is the safe one") is a familiar aphorism. _^<N__^<N_Maxims originally were synonymous with AXIOMS--basic propositions that could be assumed as first
principles in reasoning, especially in philosophy or science. Maxims now generally express accepted rules or precepts of conduct. _^<N__^<N_Proverbs are often homely, witty, and colorful statements of general truth and wisdom, especially of a
moral nature. They are often stated in an alliterative or rhymed form, as in Ben Franklin's "Early to bed, early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise." _^<N__^<N_Maurice Charney _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Auden, W. H., and Kronenberger,
Louis, eds., Viking Book of Aphorisms (1966; repr. 1981); Gross, J. comp., The Oxford Book of Aphorisms (1987); Kronenberger, Louis, The Last Word: Portraits of Fourteen Master Aphorists (1972); Stevenson, R., The Macmillan Book of Proverbs,
Maxims, and Famous Phrases (1987).
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1824
CAT
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aphrodisiac
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aphrodisiac_^<N__^<N_{af-roh-dee'-zee-ak} _^<N__^<N_Aphrodisiacs are agents reputed to stimulate or excite sexual desire. Although it is plausible that brain centers controlling sexual responses could be influenced by drugs, only inhibitory
activity has been substantiated up to the present, and most claims regarding aphrodisiacs have been dismissed as folklore. However, the psychological impact of endowing certain substances with aphrodisiac properties may result in some actual
sexual stimulation. Throughout the ages many foods have been considered sexual stimulants. Similar claims have been made for alcohol, amphetamines, cocaine, LSD, marijuana, morphine, opium, and mescaline. These substances break down inhibitions,
the cause of much sexual malfunctioning; but if taken in large enough quantities, they diminish rather than enhance sexual capacity. Cantharides (Spanish fly) and yohimbine are also considered aphrodisiacs. The former, by irritating the
genitourinary tract and concomitantly dilating the associated blood vessels, does produce a certain stimulation of the genitals, and yohimbine stimulates the spine nerve centers that control erection. Nevertheless, claims for their aphrodisiac
effects are not substantiated. Amyl nitrite ("poppers"), a chemical used to dilate blood vessels, is reputed to intensify orgasmic pleasure; again, valid data for aphrodisiac effects are not available. Androgens, male hormones produced by both
sexes, are the only substances known to increase sexual interest, drive, and performance in both sexes. Where deficiency exists, physicians may prescribe androgen therapy to increase desire and performance without causing other behavioral changes.
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Stark, Raymond, The Book of Aphrodisiacs (1981); Taberner, Peter, Aphrodisiacs: The Science and the Myth (1985).
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571
CAT
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Aphrodisias
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Aphrodisias_^<N__^<N_Aphrodisias was the name of several ancient cities dedicated to the goddess Aphrodite; the most important was in Caria, near present Denizli in southwestern Turkey. Founded in the 5th century BC, the city flourished under the
Roman Empire (1st century BC--5th century AD), when it was a center for the production of sculpture carved from the local Carian marble. Abandoned in the 13th century, the site was systematically excavated beginning in 1961 and has yielded a wealth
of art treasures to archaeologists. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Erim, Kenan, Aphrodisias (1986).
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1360
CAT
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Aphrodite
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Aphrodite_^<N__^<N_{af-roh-dy'-tee} _^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, Aphrodite was the beautiful and voluptuous goddess of love; she was known to the Romans as VENUS. Aphrodite is variously described as being the daughter of ZEUS and Dione and as
having been born from the foam of the sea. She had many lovers, among them ADONIS and the war-god ARES, but she was the wife of the smith-god HEPHAESTUS, who was both ugly and lame. She was the mother of EROS, who became her male counterpart.
_^<N__^<N_One important myth in which Aphrodite plays a major role is the so-called Judgment of PARIS, in which the young Trojan prince was asked to choose the fairest of the goddesses. He selected Aphrodite and, in doing so, infuriated the other
two contestants, the regal HERA, wife of the chief god Zeus, and the warlike ATHENA. Aphrodite rewarded Paris by helping him abduct HELEN OF TROY, the action that provoked the TROJAN WAR. As the war neared its end, Aphrodite managed to rescue
Paris from the grasp of MENELAUS. She also did what she could to assist the escape of her son AENEAS, whose father ANCHISES had been another of her lovers. _^<N__^<N_The myrtle was Aphrodite's sacred tree, and the dove her sacred bird. Among the
most famous representations of Aphrodite are the statue known as the Aphrodite of Melos or Venus de Milo, and Botticelli's painting The Birth of Venus. _^<N__^<N_C. Scott Littleton
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350
CAT
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Apia
-T-
Apia_^<N__^<N_Apia (1991 pop., 32,859) is the capital and only city of Western Samoa, an independent state in the South Pacific. Located near Mount Vaea on the northern coast of Upolu Island, the city is set on an open harbor, once an international
naval port. Bananas, cacao, coffee, and copra are exported. Robert Louis STEVENSON is buried outside the city.
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27
CAT
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apiculture:
-T-
apiculture:_^<N__^<N_see BEEKEEPING.
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232
CAT
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Apis
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Apis_^<N__^<N_In Egyptian mythology, Apis was the sacred bull of Memphis, believed to have been conceived by lightning on a moonbeam and to incarnate the soul of either OSIRIS or PTAH. Apis was worshiped as SERAPIS by the Greeks and Romans.
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727
CAT
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APL
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APL_^<N__^<N_APL, an acronym for A Programming Language, is a computer language developed by Kenneth Iverson and Adin Falkoff of IBM. It was released in 1962. Many computational operations are built into APL; they are designated by special symbols
or combinations of symbols that require a unique keyboard. APL is able to state complex operations in compact form. One drawback is that it is difficult to read, due to the specialized symbols and to the fact that it is read right-to-left.
Another drawback is the nonstandard keyboard. APL uses more computer memory space than other common languages, such as BASIC and FORTRAN, and was, until the mid-1980s, restricted somewhat to very large computers. _^<N__^<N_See also: COMPUTER
LANGUAGES.
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650
CAT
-A-
aplasia
-T-
aplasia_^<N__^<N_{uh-play'-zhuh} _^<N__^<N_Aplasia is the failure of a tissue or an organ to develop. Related terms are hypoplasia (underdevelopment) and hyperplasia (overdevelopment). A birth defect such as a missing limb or organ is a form of
aplasia. Another common form is aplasia of the bone marrow, responsible for the disease called aplastic anemia. In this type of anemia, the stem cells in the bone marrow that normally divide to produce white and red blood cells are missing. The
disorder may be congenital, or it may be caused by exposure to toxic chemicals or radiation; however, in about half of the persons affected the cause is unknown. _^<N__^<N_Peter L. Petrakis
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1782
CAT
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apnea
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apnea_^<N__^<N_{ap'-nee-uh} _^<N__^<N_Apnea, in medicine, is a temporary cessation of breathing. When periods of apnea alternate with periods of hyperpnea (increased rate and depth of inspiration), the syndrome is known as Cheyne-Stokes respiration.
_^<N__^<N_The rate and depth of inspiration are controlled by the relative levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood. If the level of carbon dioxide becomes too high, the level of oxygen falls too low (anoxia), and apnea or Cheyne-Stokes
breathing can result. Apneic spells may also arise from interferences with the respiratory centers of the brain. Such interferences include physical trauma, diabetic coma, intoxication (with alcohol, tranquilizers, or barbiturates), and the
effects of metabolic toxins arising from liver or kidney damage or from congestive heart failure. Researchers think that respiratory-center lapses are also involved in obstructive sleep apnea, a recently recognized condition in which the upper air
passages in the throat are blocked by soft tissues during inspiration. These blockages lead to loud snoring and from 30 to several hundred apneic spells per night. Patients complain of insomnia and daytime sleepiness and sometimes fall asleep
suddenly during conversations or while at work. Treatment consists of weight loss or of surgery to correct abnormalities in the soft tissues. _^<N__^<N_Apneic spells may also be part of the sudden infant death syndrome (see CRIB DEATH), although
their origin is not yet understood. Infants may be fitted with so-called apnea monitors, which sound an alarm when children stop breathing for longer than a preset time. The effectiveness of these devices is a matter of controversy.
_^<N__^<N_William A. Check _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Fishman, A. P., Pulmonary Diseases and Disorders, 3 vols., 2d ed. (1988).
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1797
CAT
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apocalyptic literature
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apocalyptic literature_^<N__^<N_Apocalyptic literature consists of those parts of the BIBLE and other Jewish and Christian books that embody an apocalypse, or revelation, given through a symbolic vision of the future. Apocalyptic literature concerns
the final period of world history, and depicts the final confrontation between God and the powers of evil. The conflict frequently culminates in a world catastrophe; sometimes a messianic figure is responsible for the triumph over evil.
_^<N__^<N_Frequently the authors recount history up to their own time in symbolic form (as in Dan. 7:1-8) and then give a vision of the future salvation to be brought by God at the end of the present world. Classic examples are the books of
DANIEL and REVELATION. Passages such as Isaiah 24-27, Zechariah 9-14, and Mark 13 belong to this type of literature. Other examples are Enoch, Jubilees, and the Apocalypse of Baruch in the Jewish PSEUDEPIGRAPHA, as well as the Apocalypse of Peter
in the APOCRYPHAL NEW TESTAMENT. _^<N__^<N_Apocalyptic literature is usually pseudonymous, written under the name of a famous person. Books such as Daniel and Enoch are examples. But St. John, the author of Revelation in the New Testament,
apparently wrote in his own name. Sometimes apocalypses, especially the Apocalypse of Adam and others in the literature of GNOSTICISM, contain elements drawn from Greek MYTHOLOGY as well as from the Bible and from Jewish tradition.
_^<N__^<N_Sherman E. Johnson _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hanson, Paul D., The Dawn of Apocalyptic (1979) and Old Testament Apocalyptic (1987); Koch, Klaus, The Rediscovery of Apocalyptic (1970); Nickelsburg, George, Jewish Literature between the
Bible and the Mishnah (1981); Schmithals, Walter, The Apocalyptic Movement: Introduction and Interpretation, trans. by John E. Steely (1975).
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1428
CAT
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Apocrypha
-T-
Apocrypha_^<N__^<N_The Apocrypha are books of the Old Testament included in Roman Catholic and Orthodox Bibles as deuterocanonical (added to the earlier canon), but excluded from the Hebrew Bible and from most Protestant Bibles. It is not certain
why the term apocrypha (hidden things) was originally applied to them, but they were considered less authoritative than the other biblical books because of their relatively late origin (c. 300 BC-AD 100). Except for 2 Esdras, which was in Latin,
they were part of the SEPTUAGINT. The other books placed after the Old Testament in the Revised Standard Version are the following: 1 and 2 Esdras, TOBIT, JUDITH, Additions to the Book of ESTHER, WISDOM, SIRACH, BARUCH and the Letter of Jeremiah,
Additions to DANIEL, the Prayer of Manasseh, and 1 and 2 MACCABEES. Roman Catholic Bibles also list 1 and 2 Esdras and the Prayer of Manasseh as apocryphal. The Greek Orthodox Bible omits 2 Esdras but adds 3 Maccabees and Psalm 151, with 4
Maccabees as an appendix. The Apocrypha are important sources for Jewish history and religious developments in the 1st and 2d centuries BC. _^<N__^<N_Sherman E. Johnson _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Metzger, B. M., An Introduction to the Apocrypha
(1957); Mack, Burton L. Wisdom and the Hebrew Epic: Ben Sira's Hymn in Praise of the Fathers (1986); Pfeiffer, R. H., History of New Testament Times, with an Introduction to the Apocrypha (1949). _^<N__^<N_See also: PSEUDEPIGRAPHA.
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1451
CAT
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Apocryphal New Testament
-T-
Apocryphal New Testament_^<N__^<N_The Apocryphal New Testament is an undefined group of early Christian writings similar in general form to the biblical books but not included in the canon of the Bible. Some, such as the gospels according to the
Hebrews, Nazarenes, and Egyptians (lost, except for fragments), were at one time used in certain churches as Scripture. The Infancy Gospel of James has influenced Christian tradition and art. There are acts of apostles attributed to Peter, Paul,
and James, and apocalypses, or books of revelations, such as that of Peter. Those attributed to Paul (3 Corinthians and Laodiceans) and other apostles are obvious forgeries. _^<N__^<N_Many of the Coptic works discovered in recent years were
products of GNOSTICISM. Few of these, except for the Coptic Gospel of Thomas, contain valuable traditions about Jesus' teaching, but the apocryphal works throw some light on the history of early Christianity, especially in its popular and
heretical forms. The writings of the APOSTOLIC FATHERS do not properly belong to the Apocryphal New Testament. _^<N__^<N_Sherman E. Johnson _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Cameron, R., ed., The Other Gospels (1982); Jeremias, Joachim, Unknown Sayings of
Jesus, 2d ed. (1974); Hennecke, Edgar, and Schneemelcher, Wilhelm, New Testament Apocrypha, vol. I (2d ed., 1968) and vol. II (1964). Haardt, Robert, Gnosis: Character and Testimony, trans. by J. F. Hendry (1971); Pagels, Elaine, The
Gnostic Gospels (1981).
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2500
CAT
-A-
Apollinaire, Guillaume
-T-
Apollinaire, Guillaume_^<N__^<N_{ah-pawl-ee-nayr'} _^<N__^<N_Guillaume Apollinaire, b. Rome, Aug. 26, 1880, d. Nov. 9, 1918, was an art critic and poet who had a significant influence on the French avant-garde of the early 20th century. An
important modernist figure, he is frequently linked with such diverse movements as CUBISM and FUTURISM and is said to have coined the terms ORPHISM and SURREALISM. _^<N__^<N_Apollinaire was the son of a Polish aristocrat and an Italian army officer
and was originally named Wilhelm Apollinaris de Kostrowitzki. Raised and educated in Monte Carlo, he eventually moved to Paris. After working (1901-02) as a tutor in the Rhineland, where he had an unhappy love affair with an English governess,
Annie Playden, he returned to Paris. There he published art criticism and poetry for such journals as La Plume and Les Soirees de Paris. _^<N__^<N_Apollinaire's close association with scores of Parisian painters, including BRAQUE, DELAUNAY,
DERAIN, DUFY, PICASSO, and Henri ROUSSEAU, aided him in writing numerous influential essays, culminating in The Cubist Painters: Aesthetic Meditations (1913; Eng. trans., 1944; rev. ed., 1949). The book helped to define the style of cubism
and eventually made Apollinaire a critic of international renown. _^<N__^<N_In 1913 he published a collection of poems, Alcools (Eng. trans., 1964), in which he radically blended traditional rhyme schemes with unpunctuated free verse. The volume
contains two of Apollinaire's best poems, "Zone" and "La chanson du mal-aime." This work was considered his poetic masterpiece. It was followed by Calligrammes (1918; Eng. trans., 1970), in which the visual shape of the poem corresponds to its
subject matter: rain streams down a page; a fountain spurts up. He also wrote fiction, including The Poet Assassinated (1916; Eng. trans., 1923), and such surrealistic plays as The Breasts of Tiresias (1918; Eng. trans., 1966).
_^<N__^<N_Apollinaire volunteered for the French army during World War I and received a head wound in 1916. Never fully recovering, he contracted Spanish influenza and died just before the Armistice. _^<N__^<N_Mary Ann Caws _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Adema, Marcel, Apollinaire (1954); Apollinaire, Guillaume, Apollinaire on Art, ed. by LeRoy C. Breunig (1972); Bates, Scott, Guillaume Apollinaire (1967); Buckley, Harry E., Guillaume Apollinaire as an Art Critic (1981); Davies, Margaret,
Apollinaire (1964); Mathews, T., Reading Apollinaire (1988); Steegmuller, Francis, Apollinaire: Poet among the Painters (1963).
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687
CAT
-A-
Apollinarianism
-T-
Apollinarianism_^<N__^<N_Apollinarianism was a 4th-century explanation of the nature of Jesus Christ that was rejected by the Christian church. Its author, Apollinaris of Laodicea (310-90), trying to arrive at a formula that would explain how Jesus
could be both human and divine, taught that human beings were composed of body, soul, and spirit, and that in Jesus the human spirit was replaced by the LOGOS, or the second person of the TRINITY. This teaching was opposed by ATHANASIUS, BASIL THE
GREAT, GREGORY OF NAZIANZUS, and GREGORY OF NYSSA because they thought it implied that Christ was not fully human. Apollinarianism was declared a heresy by the First Council of Constantinople in 381.
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1793
CAT
-A-
Apollo
-T-
Apollo_^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, Apollo and his twin sister, ARTEMIS, were the children of ZEUS and LETO and were born on the island of DELOS. Hence, Apollo was often called the Delian god, and Delos long remained a center of his worship. He was
also identified closely with DELPHI, in central Greece, where he killed the serpent PYTHON and founded the most renowned center for prophecy in the ancient world, the shrine of the Delphic Oracle. Areas of special concern to Apollo were prophecy,
medicine, the fine arts, archery, beauty, flocks and herds, law, courage, and wisdom. Associated with him were the tripod, omphalos (a beehive-shaped stone at Delphi, designating that spot as the center or navel of the Earth), lyre, bow and arrows,
laurel wreath, palm tree, wolf, hawk, crow, and fawn. Although Apollo was not Greek in origin, he became, next to Zeus, the god most revered by the Greeks and the god who best embodied the Greek spirit. Later he became confused with the sun-god
HELIOS and was considered the god of light. Of Apollo's many loves, one of the best known was DAPHNE, who fled his embraces and was turned into his tree, the laurel. From that time on, Apollo wore a laurel wreath. Laurel wreaths became the prize
awarded in athletic and musical competitions. ASCLEPIUS, a son of Apollo, became the god of medicine; another son, Linus, was a renowned music teacher. In Roman mythology, Apollo represented the literary and fine arts, culture, and the law.
Augustus (r. 31 BC-AD 14) built a magnificent temple to him and included in it two public libraries, one for Greek works and another for Latin works. Apollo was a favorite subject for artists of every medium. The walls of his temple at Delphi bore
two Greek maxims, "Know Thyself" and "Nothing in Excess." _^<N__^<N_Robert E. Wolverton
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11590
CATO
4787
9618
-A-
Apollo program
-O-
000000|Apollo program
001890| THE APOLLO SPACECRAFT
003092| MANNED APOLLO FLIGHTS
005648| First Lunar Landing
007152| Scientific Exploration
-T-
Apollo program_^<N__^<N_The Apollo program was the successful conclusion of the U.S. effort to achieve, within the decade, the goal--set by President John F. Kennedy on May 25, 1961--of landing a man on the MOON and returning him safely to Earth.
It followed the GEMINI manned-flight program conducted in 1966-67 to develop the necessary techniques of orbiting, docking, and extravehicular activity (EVA). The main elements of the Apollo project were the three-man Apollo spacecraft; the
two-man LUNAR EXCURSION MODULE (LEM), or Lunar Module (LM); and the SATURN family of rockets, consisting of the Saturn 1, the Saturn 1B, and the Saturn 5. These units made up the first manned, interplanetary transportation system. Using this
system, astronauts landed on the Moon, where they explored and collected samples at six sites on the near side between July 1969 and the end of December 1972. The total cost of developing and operating the Apollo-Saturn transportation system in
the lunar program was $25 billion. _^<N__^<N_Between October 1968, when the Apollo-Saturn transportation system underwent its first full space test, and July 1975, when it was used for the last time, the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) launched 15 manned Apollo-Saturn flights. Eleven of these were missions in the lunar landing program, including two test flights in low Earth orbit, two test flights in lunar orbit, six landings, and one circumlunar flight,
during which the planned landing was aborted. During the testing period three fatalities occurred on the launchpad at the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, but none in actual flight. _^<N__^<N_After completion of the lunar landing program, four
flights were carried out: three were missions that ferried astronauts to and from the SKYLAB experimental space station in 1973-74, and one was a joint flight with Soviet cosmonauts in the APOLLO-SOYUZ TEST PROJECT in 1975. _^<N__^<N_ THE APOLLO
SPACECRAFT_^<N__^<N_Developed from Mercury and Gemini technology, the Apollo spacecraft itself consisted of the combined Command and Service Module (CSM). It was 10.4 m (34 ft) long and 3 m (10 ft) in diameter at the blunt end. A major advance
over earlier spacecraft was the inertial guidance system developed by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. _^<N__^<N_The CSM was actually two modules. The crew rode in the Command Module (CM), which contained three couches and was
pressurized with oxygen at 0.35 kg/sq cm (5 lb/sq in). For reentry, the CM separated from the Service Module; a heat shield protected it during reentry. During the first stage of the descent, the CM was stabilized by its own reaction control
system. During the last stage it employed a drogue and three main parachutes. _^<N__^<N_Behind the CM was the Service Module (SM), which housed the main engine, of 9,670-kg (21,500-lb) thrust, the reaction control system, fuel cell batteries,
oxygen and hydrogen tanks, and environmental control system. The main engine was used for course corrections and major changes in orbit, including the injection of the vehicle into lunar orbit and its escape from lunar orbit for return to Earth.
_^<N__^<N_ MANNED APOLLO FLIGHTS_^<N__^<N_The manned Apollo flights were preceded by testing, which began on May 28, 1964. Tragedy struck the program on Jan. 27, 1967, when fire erupted in the Apollo 1 Command Module while a crew was performing a
flight simulation. Dense fumes from burning plastics fatally suffocated Col. Virgil I. ("Gus") GRISSOM, Lt. Col. Edward H. WHITE II, and Navy Lt. Comdr. Roger B. CHAFFEE. Investigation revealed that the fire was caused by the electrical
arcing of a short circuit in the cabin. The arcing ignited normally fire-resistant plastics that became flammable in the pure oxygen atmosphere of the cabin. _^<N__^<N_On Oct. 11, 1968, Apollo 7, the first manned Apollo flight, was boosted by a
Saturn 1B into low Earth orbit from the Kennedy Space Center. Aboard were Navy Capt. Walter M. SCHIRRA, Jr., Air Force Maj. Donn F. EISELE, and Walter CUNNINGHAM, a civilian test pilot. During the 11-day mission the three crewmen suffered from
head colds, and friction over the work load developed with Mission Control at Houston. The Apollo CSM functioned with only minor problems. The flight demonstrated that the vehicle was spaceworthy for the duration of a lunar mission. _^<N__^<N_On
the second manned Apollo-Saturn flight, Apollo 8, Col. Frank BORMAN, Lt. Col. William A. ANDERS, and Navy Capt. James A. LOVELL flew ten orbits of the Moon on Dec. 24, 1968. The crewmen took turns reading aloud from the Book of Genesis, and
their words were broadcast worldwide over the NASA communications network. The eight-day mission (Dec. 21-28) served as a reconnaissance for landing sites. _^<N__^<N_On Apollo 9 (Mar. 3-13, 1969), Col. James A. MCDIVITT, Col. David R. SCOTT,
and a civilian pilot, Russell L. SCHWEICKART, tested the Lunar Module in Earth orbit and practiced docking with it. The Lunar Module was then tested in lunar orbit on the Apollo 10 flight (May 18-26). Col. Thomas P. STAFFORD and Navy Comdr.
Eugene A. CERNAN piloted the Lunar Module to within 15,000 m (50,000 ft) of the lunar surface on May 22, while Navy Comdr. John W. YOUNG remained in the orbiting Apollo CSM. Stafford and Cernan jettisoned the Lunar Module's descent stage and
burned the ascent stage engine to rejoin the Apollo mother ship. An informal practice of using names to distinguish the Lunar Module from the Apollo when they were separated was begun during the Apollo 9 and 10 tests and was formalized during the
landing missions. The Apollo 9 CSM was called Gumdrop and the LM, Spider; the Apollo 10 CSM was Charlie Brown and the LM, Snoopy. _^<N__^<N_ First Lunar Landing_^<N__^<N_Launched July 16, 1969, Apollo 11 made the first manned lunar landing on
July 20. As Lt. Col. Michael COLLINS orbited the Moon in the mother ship Columbia, Neil ARMSTRONG and Col. Edwin E. ALDRIN, Jr., touched down on the basaltic regolith of Mare Tranquillitatis (Sea of Tranquility) in the Lunar Module Eagle at
4:17:42 PM Eastern Daylight Time, with the historic report: "Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed." Armstrong was the first out: he stepped on the surface at 10:56 PM that day. Dropping the last meter from the ladder, he said:
"That's one small step for {a} man, one giant leap for mankind" (NASA later reported that the word a had been lost in transmission). _^<N__^<N_On the Moon, Armstrong and Aldrin erected the American flag and set up scientific instruments, including
a laser beam reflector, a seismometer that later transmitted evidence of a moonquake, and a sheet of aluminum foil to trap SOLAR WIND particles. The astronauts took soil and rock photographs and collected 24.4 kg (53.61 lb) of rock and dirt
samples. Armstrong, the first out and the last back into the Lunar Module, spent 2 hours and 13 minutes outside. After Armstrong and Aldrin returned to Columbia in the ascent stage of the Eagle, Collins fired the Apollo main engine and at 12:56 AM
EDT on July 22 lifted the vessel out of lunar orbit for the return to Earth. The ascent stage of the Eagle was left in lunar orbit. The crew landed in the Pacific Ocean on July 24, 1969. _^<N__^<N_ Scientific Exploration_^<N__^<N_Detailed
scientific exploration began with the flight of Apollo 12, Nov. 14-24, 1969. Comdr. Charles Conrad, Jr., and Comdr. Alan L. BEAN landed (on Nov. 19) in the Lunar Module Intrepid in Oceanus Procellarum (Ocean of Storms), while Comdr. Richard
F. GORDON, Jr., cruised in orbit in the CSM Yankee Clipper. Conrad and Bean made two sorties of extravehicular activity (or EVA) on the surface, totaling 7 hours and 50 minutes. They unpacked the first Apollo Lunar Scientific Package (ALSEP),
consisting of an array of scientific instruments, on the first EVA. On the second, they hiked almost a kilometer (a half mile) to inspect the SURVEYOR 3 spacecraft, and took 11 kg (25 lb) of its parts for analysis of the effect of the lunar
environment on metal and glass. They brought back 33.9 kg (74.7 lb) of rocks and soil. _^<N__^<N_Two days after Apollo 13 was launched on Apr. 11, 1970, an oxygen tank exploded in the Service Module and crippled the vessel's power and
life-support systems so badly that a planned landing in the Fra Mauro formation of the Moon was canceled. Navy Capt. James A. Lovell, Jr., and civilians Fred W. HAISE, Jr., and John L. SWIGERT, Jr., used the descent engine of the LM Aquarius to
accelerate the crippled CSM Odyssey around the Moon and back to Earth. Using Aquarius as a lifeboat, they returned to the vicinity of Earth, entered the Command Module, and landed it safely on April 17. Investigation showed that a thermostatically
controlled switch had failed and allowed the oxygen tank to overheat. _^<N__^<N_Apollo 14 (Jan. 31-Feb. 9, 1971) reached the Fra Mauro uplands. Navy Capt. Alan B. SHEPARD, Jr., and Comdr. Edgar Dean MITCHELL landed in the LM Antares while
Maj. Stuart A. ROOSA cruised overhead in the CSM Kitty Hawk. After deploying ALSEP instruments, including a second laser reflector, Shepard and Mitchell towed a rickshalike, two-wheeled cart containing tools and instruments to the edge of a
crater. They collected 42.9 kg (94.3 lb) of rocks and soil and spent 9 hours and 9 minutes outside on two EVAs. Quarantining returned lunar astronauts at Houston for 14 days after their departure from the Moon was terminated after this mission.
_^<N__^<N_Apollo 15 (July 26-Aug. 7, 1971) brought the first manned surface vehicle--the Lunar Rover--to the Moon. It was carried with its wheels folded, in the descent stage of the LM Falcon. While Maj. Alfred M. WORDEN orbited the Moon in the
CSM Endeavor, Col. David R. Scott and Lt. Col. James B. IRWIN landed the Falcon on the Apennine mountain front, near the Hadley Rille. They spent 18.5 hours roaming for more than 30 km (18.6 mi) on the surface in the Rover, setting up
experiments, taking measurements, and collecting 77 kg (170 lb) of soil and rocks. A sub-satellite containing instruments for measuring gamma- and X-radiation from the surface was deployed in lunar orbit for the first time by Worden. _^<N__^<N_The
last two missions penetrated the lunar highlands. Apollo 16 (Apr. 16-27, 1972) was targeted for the Descartes highlands in the Southern Hemisphere. Navy Capt. John W. Young and Lt. Col. Charles M. DUKE, Jr., landed April 20 in the LM Casper
while Lt. Col. Thomas K. MATTINGLY II cruised in orbit in the CSM Orion. The explorers covered 27 km (16.8 mi) in their Rover and collected 95.8 kg (210.8 lb) of samples, in EVAs totaling 20 hours and 14 minutes. _^<N__^<N_Apollo 17 (Dec.
7-19, 1972) took the first geologist, Harrison H. SCHMITT, to the Moon. He and Navy Capt. Eugene A. Cernan landed in the Taurus Mountains, near the Littrow crater, on December 11, in the LM Challenger. Comdr. Ronald E. EVANS made
observations from orbit in the CSM America. Cernan and Schmitt spent 22 hours outside in three EVAs and brought back 110 kg (242 lb) of rocks and soil cores, having traversed 35 km (22 mi) in their Rover. This was the final mission in the Apollo
lunar landing program. _^<N__^<N_Richard S. Lewis _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Booker, P. J., et al., Project Apollo (1969); Collins, Michael, Carrying the Fire: An Astronaut's Journey (1975); Goldstein, S. H., Reaching for the Stars (1987); Lewis,
Richard S., Appointment on the Moon, rev. ed. (1969) and The Voyages of Apollo (1974); Murray, Charles, and Cox, Catherine Bly, Apollo: The Race to the Moon (1989); Wilford, John, We Reach the Moon (1969). _^<N__^<N_See also: SPACE
EXPLORATION; separate biographies on each of the Apollo astronauts.
-END-
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2382
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Apollo-Soyuz Test Project
-T-
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project_^<N__^<N_{sah-yooz'} _^<N__^<N_The APOLLO PROGRAM, which started during a time of intense competition between the United States and the USSR, ended in a demonstration of detente in space: a joint orbital flight of the
Apollo and SOYUZ spaceships, known as the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP). Technically, the joint mission in low Earth orbit demonstrated intership crew transfer and space rescue. The project had been initiated by the United States in 1969 but
did not gain Soviet approval until the Nixon-Kosygin summit conference in Moscow in 1972. _^<N__^<N_The docking of two space vessels of different design and manufacture required the construction of a universal docking module. This hardware was
fabricated by Rockwell International, and compatible systems were installed in both Apollo and Soyuz spacecraft. For the first time, Americans were allowed to tour a portion of the Soviet BAIKONUR COSMODROME, and Western news correspondents were
permitted inside the flight-control center at Kaliningrad. _^<N__^<N_The total cost to NASA of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) was $250 million. The Apollo crew consisted of Air Force Brig. Gen. Thomas P. STAFFORD; Vance D. BRAND, a
civilian; and D. K. SLAYTON, a civilian and one of the original seven Project Mercury astronauts. Aboard the smaller, two-man Soyuz 19 were the pilot, Col. Aleksei LEONOV, and the engineer, Valery N. KUBASOV. _^<N__^<N_Soyuz 19 was launched
from Baikonur at 8:20 AM Eastern Daylight Time, on July 15, 1975, and Apollo was launched 71/2 hours later from Florida. Because Apollo had the more powerful propulsion system, it carried the docking module to orbit. The vessels docked over a
spot in the Atlantic Ocean some 1,030 km (640 mi) west of Portugal on July 17 at 12:09 PM Eastern Daylight Time. During the next two days, the crews made four transfers between the two ships and completed five planned experiments. _^<N__^<N_The
vessels separated July 19. Soyuz landed in Kazakh SSR on July 21, and Apollo in the Pacific Ocean on July 24. During their descent, the Apollo crew suffered discomfort from inhaling nitrogen tetroxide fumes, which entered the cabin as the result
of a landing-procedure error. The nine-day mission was the last one of the Apollo program. _^<N__^<N_Richard S. Lewis _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Baker, David, The History of Manned Space Flight (1981); Lewis, Richard S., From Vinland to Mars
(1976).
-END-
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1498
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Apollodorus of Damascus
-T-
Apollodorus of Damascus_^<N__^<N_{uh-pahl-uh-dor'-uhs} _^<N__^<N_Apollodorus of Damascus was the chief architect for the Roman emperor TRAJAN (r. AD 98-117). He was skilled as a military architect and engineer and also as an urban planner. Trajan
employed Apollodorus in Dacia to build a bridge across the Danube (pictured on Trajan's Column) consisting of 20 stone masonry piers 45 m (150 ft) high, 18 m (60 ft) wide, and 52 m (170 ft) apart; the superstructure was wooden. The succeeding
emperor, Hadrian, dismantled the superstructure, fearing that the bridge might be used to invade Roman territory. _^<N__^<N_Apollodorus's masterpieces--Trajan's Forum and Column, the Basilica Ulpia, and Trajan's Markets--formed a vast ensemble in
Rome. The many buildings integrated perfectly with the street pattern and the other forums, but they required the removal of a hill reputedly as high as Trajan's Column. Trajan's Markets survive virtually intact as a marvel of ingenious URBAN
PLANNING. _^<N__^<N_Apollodorus seems to have ridiculed, in Trajan's presence, some architectural plans of Hadrian, who was also an architect. Later he criticized Hadrian's plans for the Temple of Venus and Rome. According to one account, when
Hadrian became emperor, he contrived Apollodorus's exile in AD 130 and later had him executed. _^<N__^<N_John Stephens Crawford _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Boethius, Axel, and Ward-Perkins, J. B., Etruscan and Roman Architecture (1970); Hanfmann,
George, Roman Art (1975); MacDonald, William, The Architecture of the Roman Empire (1965).
-END-
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617
CAT
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Apollonius of Perga
-T-
Apollonius of Perga_^<N__^<N_Apollonius of Perga, a Greek mathematician of the 3d and early 2d centuries BC, was known as the Great Geometer. In his Conics, an investigation of the mathematical properties of CONIC SECTIONS, Apollonius introduced
the terms ELLIPSE, HYPERBOLA, and PARABOLA. He was also an important founder of Greek mathematical astronomy, which applied geometrical models to planetary theory. _^<N__^<N_Janice A. Henderson _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Boyer, Carl B., The History
of Analytic Geometry (1956); Heath, Thomas L., Manual of Greek Mathematics (1921; repr. 1981); Van der Waerden, Bartel L., Science Awakening (1961).
-END-
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571
CAT
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Apollonius of Rhodes
-T-
Apollonius of Rhodes_^<N__^<N_{ap-uh-loh'-nee-uhs, rohdz} _^<N__^<N_A Greek poet-scholar of the 3d century BC, Apollonius wrote the epic poem Argonautica, the story of Jason, Medea, and the quest for the Golden Fleece. The epics of HOMER were his
models, but the poem shows an Alexandrian penchant for pedantry, allusiveness, and self-conscious contrivance. VERGIL's epic poem AENEID reflects the influence of Apollonius. _^<N__^<N_Charles Rowan Beye _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Beye, Charles R.,
Epic and Romance in the "Argonautica" of Apollonius (1982); Duckworth, G. E., Foreshadowing and Suspense (1970).
-END-
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1155
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Apology
-T-
Apology_^<N__^<N_The Apology is the account by PLATO of the defense by SOCRATES when he was on trial for his life before an Athenian jury in 399 BC. The title is derived from the Greek word for "defense." Accused of impiety and corrupting the youth
of Athens, Socrates declares his complete innocence of the charges against him, claiming that his accusers are motivated by resentment caused by his deflation of their pretended wisdom. His own wisdom, he says, consists of knowing that he is not
wise, and his relentless questioning of people's assumptions is prompted by an inner voice, or daimon, which must be obeyed, regardless of the consequences. Rather than being punished by the state, he should be rewarded for acting as its "gadfly."
The unexamined life, he says, is not worth living. The Apology concludes with Socrates' famous discourses on death and the possibility of an afterlife. XENOPHON offers a different account of the defense in his Apology of Socrates.
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Brickhouse, T. C., and Smith, N. D., Socrates on Trial (1989); Reeve, C. D., Socrates in the Apology (1990); West, T. G., and West, G. S., Four Texts on Socrates (1984).
-END-
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1113
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apostle
-T-
apostle_^<N__^<N_{uh-pahs'-uhl} _^<N__^<N_In the Bible, apostle is a title conferred on one sent with a message. The term is applied primarily to the original Twelve called by Jesus to accompany him during his ministry (Matt. 10:2-4; Mark 3:16-19;
Luke 6:13-16). In the Gospels, other followers are called disciples. The title was gradually extended to others such as PAUL and BARNABAS (Acts 14:14; Rom. 9:1, 11:13); when this occurred, the Twelve were distinguished from all the apostles,
as in 1 Corinthians 15:5-7. Most of the Twelve were from the laboring class, with the exception of MATTHEW, a tax collector. None was from the religious sector of Jewish society. PETER, JAMES (the Greater), and JOHN formed an inner circle
closest to Jesus; JUDAS ISCARIOT betrayed him, and MATTHIAS was selected to replace Judas (Acts 1:16). The others were ANDREW, PHILIP, BARTHOLOMEW, THOMAS, JAMES (the Lesser), SIMON, and THADDEUS (JUDE). _^<N__^<N_Douglas Ezell
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Brownrigg, R., The Twelve Apostles (1974); Guthrie, D., The Apostles (1974); Huxhold, H. N., Twelve Who Followed (1987); Ruffin, C. B., The Twelve (1984).
-END-
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27
CAT
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Apostles' Creed:
-T-
Apostles' Creed:_^<N__^<N_see CREED.
-END-
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1039
CAT
-A-
Apostolic Fathers
-T-
Apostolic Fathers_^<N__^<N_{ap-uhs-tahl'-ik} _^<N__^<N_The Apostolic Fathers were authors of nonbiblical church writings of the 1st and early 2d centuries. These works are important because their authors presumably knew the Apostles (see APOSTLE)
or their associates. The first list of the Apostolic Fathers was made by 17th-century scholars; it comprised CLEMENT I, HERMAS, IGNATIUS OF ANTIOCH, POLYCARP, and the author of the Epistle of Barnabas. Later, other writers such as PAPIAS OF
HIERAPOLIS and the authors of the Epistle to Diognetus and of the DIDACHE were also considered Apostolic Fathers. Expressing pastoral concern, their writings are similar in style to the New Testament. Some of their writings, in fact, were
venerated as Scripture before the official canon was decided. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Holmes, Michael W., ed, The Apostolic Fathers, 2d ed. (1990); Staniforth, Maxwell, trans., Early Christian Writings: The Apostolic Fathers (1975); Willis,
John R., A History of Christian Thought: From Apostolic Times to Saint Augustine (1976).
-END-
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1216
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apostolic succession
-T-
apostolic succession_^<N__^<N_In its strict sense, apostolic succession refers to the doctrine by which the validity and authority of the Christian ministry is derived from the APOSTLES. Churches of the Catholic tradition hold that bishops form the
necessary link in an unbroken chain of successors to the office of the apostles. The outward sign by which this connection is both symbolized and effected is the laying on of hands by the BISHOP at ordination. _^<N__^<N_In its broader sense,
apostolic succession refers to the relationship between the Christian church today and the apostolic church of New Testament times. Thus, apostolic succession refers to the whole church insofar as it is faithful to the word, the witness, and the
service of the apostolic communities. Understood in this way, the church is not simply a collectivity of individual churches; instead, it is a communion of churches whose validity is derived from the apostolic message that it professes and from
the apostolic witness that it lives. _^<N__^<N_Richard P. McBrien _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ehrhardt, Arnold, The Apostolic Succession in the First Two Centuries of the Church (1953); Kung, Hans, Papal Ministry in the Church (1971) and ed.,
Apostolic Succession (1968).
-END-
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2528
CAT
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apothecary
-T-
apothecary_^<N__^<N_{uh-pahth'-uh-kair-ee} _^<N__^<N_The term apothecary, derived from the Latin apotheca (a storage room for spices and drugs), refers to a person who sells spices and drugs. It is an old-fashioned term for pharmacist (see
PHARMACY) that originated in Europe in the late 13th century, when such merchants began to be called apothecaries to distinguish them from the merchants who sold many other kinds of domestic goods as well as drugs. This distinction is preserved in
Germany, where a pharmacist is called an Apotheker, whereas a Drogist sells cosmetics, dietetic aids, toiletries, candy, and those drugs and remedies not restricted to pharmacies. _^<N__^<N_In Britain the term has come to refer to a medical
practitioner. As early as the late 16th century, the apothecary became a combination medical and PHARMACY practitioner. During the Great Plague in London (1665-66), apothecaries cared for the sick when most of the physicians who survived had fled
the city. The apothecaries continued to devote more time to their medical practice than to pharmacy until 1841, when the board of examiners of the Society of Apothecaries noted that the term apothecary did not reflect the duties they performed and
suggested instead that apothecaries should be referred to as general practitioners of medicine. In the same year, when the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain was founded to elevate the profession of pharmacy, a new class of practitioners of
pharmacy was developed: the chemists and druggists, or pharmacists. _^<N__^<N_In colonial America a pharmacy operated by an apothecary or pharmacist was called an apothecary shop to distinguish it from a doctor's shop, a pharmacy operated by a
medical practitioner. The term apothecary was recognized by the Continental Congress in 1775, when it established a medical department headed by a director-general and chief physician with a staff of four surgeons, one apothecary, and others. Two
years later the duties of the apothecary were restricted to pharmaceutical tasks for the first time in America. _^<N__^<N_In the United States today, the term pharmacist denotes one who is licensed to practice pharmacy. Some community pharmacists,
however, have adopted the term apothecary to indicate that their pharmacies sell only pharmaceuticals and health service items, unlike other pharmacies that sell a wide variety of merchandise in addition to pharmaceuticals. This meaning dates from
1940, the year that the American College of Apothecaries was organized. _^<N__^<N_See also: PHARMACOLOGY; PHARMACOPOEIA.
-END-
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1621
CAT
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Appalachia
-T-
Appalachia_^<N__^<N_{a-puh-lay'-chuh} _^<N__^<N_Appalachia is a region in the eastern United States that takes its name from the APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS cutting through much of it. The region includes (often fairly isolated) parts of 12 states:
Alabama, Georgia, Kentucky, Maryland, Ohio, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia. The term Appalachia, which came into common use in the 1960s, relates to economics and sociology as well as
geography--it refers to economic deprivation and also to distinctive cultural aspects like arts and crafts. _^<N__^<N_John F. Kennedy drew attention to the region in 1960 when, campaigning for the presidency in West Virginia, he promised to attack
the critical problems there--chronic unemployment, population loss, and industrial shutdowns. Federal efforts to aid Appalachia culminated under President Lyndon Johnson in March 1965 with the Appalachian Regional Development Act. The act
provided $1.1 billion in federal funds for an economic development plan, to be directed by a joint federal-state agency, the Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC). Nearly 80% of the funds went to highways to stimulate commerce, industry, and
tourism; the rest was for health centers, mining-area restoration, vocational training, and other programs. Subsequently, Congress regularly funded the ARC (20 Mississippi counties were added in 1969), although in the late 1980s legislators
acknowledged that it would be phased out gradually. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Jones, Loyal, ed., Reshaping the Image of Appalachia (1986); Raitz, K. B., and Ulack, Richard, Appalachia (1985).
-END-
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3100
CAT
-A-
Appalachian Mountains
-T-
Appalachian Mountains_^<N__^<N_{ap-uh-lay'-chuhn} _^<N__^<N_The Appalachian Mountains, formed about 250 million years ago, are an extensive and relatively narrow mountain system that parallels the eastern seacoast of North America for approximately
1,950 km (1,212 mi) from Newfoundland to Alabama. In Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia its width exceeds 320 km (199 mi), although in most places it rarely exceeds 160 km (99 mi). Rising out of coastal plains and separated from them by the
FALL LINE, the Appalachian Mountains are made up of a broken chain of mountains, ridges, and dissected plateaus. The region is bordered on the western side by the Interior Low Plateau, the Central Lowlands, and the St. Lawrence Lowlands, and a
marked elevational difference usually indicates this separation. Large portions of the region are still covered with dense deciduous forests. The highest peak, Mount Mitchell (2,037 m/6,684 ft), is in the BLACK MOUNTAINS in North Carolina.
_^<N__^<N_Several prominent mountain ranges are in the system. The GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS of Tennessee and North Carolina have peaks in excess of 1,830 m (6,004 ft). The BLUE RIDGE, which is the backbone of the whole system, extends from Georgia
to Pennsylvania. Other ranges are the Lehigh, Allegheny, and Pocono mountains of Pennsylvania; the CATSKILLS of New York; the BERKSHIRES, GREEN, WHITE, and Taconic mountains of New England; the Notre Dame and Shickshock mountains of Quebec; and
the Long Range Mountains of Newfoundland. The Appalachians can be viewed as five divisions: the PIEDMONT PLATEAU, the Blue Ridge, the Ridge and Valley, the Appalachian Plateaus, and the New England provinces. None of the boundaries is clearly
definable, but each division has distinctive characteristics. _^<N__^<N_The Piedmont, which abuts the Coastal Plain at the fall line, is an upland region that slopes toward the higher Blue Ridge. It is composed mainly of igneous and metamorphic
rocks of Precambrian and early Paleozoic age. The Blue Ridge includes many of the highest peaks and a bold east-facing frontal scarp. It is composed of folded metamorphic rocks with igneous intrusions and of early Paleozoic sedimentary rocks. The
Ridge and Valley province is an extensive area of heavily dissected anticlinal and synclinal structures. The ridges are formed on the more resistant sedimentary sandstone layers; the valleys usually overlie the more easily erodible limestone
strata. The age of the rock varies from early to late Paleozoic. The Appalachian Plateaus comprise two main areas, the southern portion being the CUMBERLAND PLATEAU, and the northern, the Allegheny Plateau. Both are characterized as heavily
dissected sedimentary layers of horizontal strata of the late Paleozoic Era. Bituminous coal is mined from these dissected plateaus. The New England upland is a continuation of these divisions, but its characteristics are not as clearly defined in
the glacially subdued northern province. _^<N__^<N_Allen R. Smith _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Brooks, Maurice Graham, The Appalachians (1965; repr. 1986); Doolittle, Jerry, The Southern Appalachians (1976).
-END-
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874
CAT
-A-
Appalachian Trail
-T-
Appalachian Trail_^<N__^<N_The Appalachian Trail is a mountain-hiking footpath along the crests of the Appalachian Mountains in the eastern United States. It extends about 3,449 km (2,143 mi) from Mount Katahdin in north central Maine to Springer
Mountain in northern Georgia. The trail passes through 14 states and reaches its highest elevation (2,022 m/6,634 ft) on Clingmans Dome in the Great Smoky Mountains. The trail was completed, except for minor alterations, in 1937. In 1968 it was
designated a national scenic trail. The trail is marked and maintained by hiking groups under the supervision of the Appalachian Trail Conference, whose headquarters is in Harpers Ferry, W. Va. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Chazin, D., ed., Appalachian
Trail Data Book, 10th rev. ed. (1988); Fortunato, D. J., Two Thousand Miles on the Appalachian Trail (1984); Warren, M., Appalachian Trail (1985).
-END-
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566
CAT
-A-
Appaloosa
-T-
Appaloosa_^<N__^<N_{ap-uh-loo'-suh} _^<N__^<N_The Appaloosa is a breed of horse developed by the NEZ PERCE Indians. In October 1877, Chief Joseph and his Nez Perce band surrendered to the U.S. Army and were exiled to Oklahoma, taking with them 1,100
of their carefully bred Appaloosa horses. These beautiful spotted horses almost became extinct in the following years, surviving largely because their spectacular appearance made them popular for circuses and Wild West shows. The Appaloosa is 14-15
hands (142-152 cm/56-60 in) high and weighs 431-533 kg (950-1,175 lb). _^<N__^<N_Everett Sentman
-END-
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1581
CAT
-A-
appeal
-T-
appeal_^<N__^<N_An appeal, in law, is the procedure in which a higher court is asked to review a decision of a lower court. In a civil suit, either party may appeal a court verdict; in a criminal case, only a convicted defendant has the right of
appeal. _^<N__^<N_An appeal is usually based on grounds that the trial court erred in matters of law--for instance, by allowing or disallowing certain evidence or by giving prejudicial instructions to the jury. The discovery of new evidence is
another basis for appeal. The interpretation of evidence--deciding whether the judge or jury drew the wrong conclusions from the evidence presented--is not ordinarily a basis for appeal. _^<N__^<N_The higher (appellate) court (see COURT OF
APPEALS) may affirm or reverse the lower (trial) court decision, or it may remand--that is, send back--the case to the trial court for additional findings of fact and conclusions of law or, sometimes, for the taking of additional testimony. In
remanding the case to a lower court, the higher court will state specifically whether it retains jurisdiction. In handing down rulings over the years, appellate courts build up a body of precedents, or judge-made law, that trial courts are obliged
to follow. _^<N__^<N_After the highest appeals court in a state has ruled, an appeal may be carried to the U.S. federal courts only if it can be argued that federal law has been violated or constitutional rights denied. The court of last resort
is the SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES, which grants review by permission only and deals primarily with legal, rather than factual, questions.
-END-
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717
CAT
-A-
Appel, Karel
-T-
Appel, Karel_^<N__^<N_Karel Appel, b. Amsterdam, Apr. 25, 1921, is one of Europe's leading abstract expressionist painters. He is one of the founders of the avant-garde artists' group COBRA, whose members were born in Copenhagen, Brussels, and
Amsterdam. Often mentioned with Willem DE KOONING as an exponent of Nordic ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM, Appel reaches back toward primitive mythic and biomorphic forms in his painting. His canvases, to which the paint is very thickly applied, have a
rough, expressionistic appearance and look as if the paint had been sculpted. Appel's works are found in the collections of most major museums of contemporary art. _^<N__^<N_Phil Patton _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Restany, P., et al., Karen Appel
(1985).
-END-
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38
CAT
-A-
appellate court:
-T-
appellate court:_^<N__^<N_see COURT OF APPEALS.
-END-
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1075
CAT
-A-
appendix
-T-
appendix_^<N__^<N_The appendix is a slender projection opening from the pouchlike portion of the large INTESTINE called the cecum. Located near the point where the ileum, or lower portion of the small intestine, empties into the large intestine, it
is called the vermiform appendix, from the Latin vermiform meaning "wormlike," which describes its shape. It is 2-20 cm (1-8 in) long, about as thick as a pencil, and hollow; the free end is closed. _^<N__^<N_The human appendix consists mostly of
lymphoid tissue, like the tonsils and adenoids, and is easily invaded by microorganisms. One out of every 15 people develops appendicitis, the inflammation of an infected appendix. This is a medical emergency that usually requires surgical removal
of the appendix. Long regarded as a vestigial organ with no function in the human body, the appendix is now thought to be one of the sites where immune responses are initiated. Herbivorous animals have an extended cecum that resembles the
appendix but is as long as the large intestine; it probably serves a digestive function. _^<N__^<N_Roy Hartenstein
-END-
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987
CAT
-A-
Appert, Nicolas
-T-
Appert, Nicolas_^<N__^<N_{ah-pair'} _^<N__^<N_Nicolas Francois Appert, b. Nov. 17, 1749, d. June 3, 1814, the inventor of the process of FOOD PRESERVATION now called CANNING, was a cook and confectioner in Paris when he devised a method for heating
foods and sealing them in glass bottles. He believed that his process destroyed the substance, which he called ferment, that causes food to spoil. Appert's products were used on ships of the French navy and by 1809 had won such recognition that
Napoleon I gave him a reward of 12,000 francs. Appert wrote a book describing his method, The Art of Preserving All Kinds of Animal and Vegetable Substances for Several Years (Eng. trans., 1811), and opened a factory near Paris. But scientists
disputed his theories, the factory was destroyed when France was invaded in 1814, and Appert died in poverty. His methods eventually received scientific confirmation, however, and the canning process based on his techniques became a principal means
of preserving food.
-END-
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1695
CAT
-A-
Appia, Adolphe
-T-
Appia, Adolphe_^<N__^<N_{ahp'-eeah, ah-dawlf'} _^<N__^<N_Adolphe Appia, b. Sept. 1, 1862, d. Feb. 29, 1928, a Swiss scenic designer and theorist of stage lighting, helped lay the foundations of modern staging. Born in Geneva, he studied music in
Leipzig, Dresden, and Vienna and became fascinated with the staging of operas, particularly those of Richard WAGNER. In his first book, La Mise en scene du drame Wagnerien (The Staging of Wagnerian Drama, 1895), Appia rejected painted,
illusionistic scenery and called for a revolutionary new staging based on neutral, three-dimensional forms and the play of light. These ideas were more fully developed in Music and the Art of the Theater (1899; Eng. trans., 1962), his best-known
and most influential work. Its illustrations fired the imagination of designers throughout Europe. In 1903, Appia began to test his ideas by staging operatic scenes at a private theater in Paris. His interest in music and space attracted him to the
experiments of Emile Jacques DALCROZE, who devised a system of eurythmics to develop his students' rhythmic sensitivity and control. Between 1906 and 1916, Appia and Dalcroze worked closely together, Appia creating environments for a number of
Dalcroze's productions. The fruit of this collaboration was Appia's The Work of Living Art (1921; Eng. trans., 1960), a mystic exaltation of the body in space. Major exhibitions of his work, along with his designs for Wagner's Tristan and Isolde
(1923), spread Appia's fame. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Beacham, R. C., Adolphe Appia (1987); Bonifas, H. C., Adolphe Appia (1929); Simonson, Lee, The Stage Is Set (1932); Volbach, Walther, Adolphe Appia, Prophet of the Modern Theatre: A
Profile (1968).
-END-
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28
CAT
-A-
Appian Way:
-T-
Appian Way:_^<N__^<N_see ROMAN ROADS.
-END-
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3527
CAT
-A-
apple
-T-
apple_^<N__^<N_The most widely cultivated of all fruit trees, the apple (genus Malus of the family Rosaceae) is second only to the grape in its importance as a temperate-zone fruit. The apple is one of the oldest of cultivated fruits. Varieties have
been recognized and propagated for at least 2,000 years in Europe alone. Today about 7,500 varieties are grown worldwide, and about 2,500 can be found in the United States. _^<N__^<N_Apples grown for commercial use are generally classified as CIDER
apples, grown chiefly for their juice; as cooking apples; or as eating (dessert) apples. Size, sweetness, aroma, and crispness vary greatly from one variety to another, and color ranges from shades of red to yellow or green. The several smaller
CRAB APPLE species of the genus Malus may also be eaten. _^<N__^<N_Trees are propagated by grafting or budding. A 2-year-old tree, transplanted from nursery to orchard, may take up to 8 years to produce a commercial crop. Although traditional
orchards have full-grown trees, a newer trend is to graft branches bearing full-size fruit onto dwarf trees and train the branches against a trellis (see ESPALIER). This method allows more trees to be planted per hectare. Apple trees require
careful pruning during the first 5 years of growth and seasonal protection from pests and parasites. Chemicals are used to thin out young fruit, to prevent ripe fruits from dropping before they are harvested, and to control the numerous insects and
fungus diseases that attack apple trees. Because not every variety is self-fruitful, several varieties are usually planted together to ensure cross-pollination. The apple tree requires a period of dormancy and does not produce well in regions where
winter temperatures average higher than 9 degrees C (48 degrees F). The blossoms are easily damaged by frost. These trees do best when planted on slopes and hilltops, where cold air moves down the incline before the blossoms or the young fruit can
freeze. _^<N__^<N_Apples are usually harvested when fully ripe, because immature apples ripen poorly after picking. Fruit stored at low temperatures and in high humidity, however, will remain fresh up to 10 months. Modern large-scale storage
techniques enable some apple growers to maintain a year-round market for their produce. The United States, Germany, Italy, and France harvest the largest apple crops, and Europe as a whole produces more apples than any other region. Turkey, Iran,
Japan, and Argentina are also important producers, and such warm-climate countries as Mexico and Iraq grow sizable crops on their uplands. _^<N__^<N_Washington, Michigan, and New York produce most of the U.S. apples. About half the crop is eaten as
fresh fruit; the remainder is canned as sauce or pie filling or is made into cider, cider vinegar, juice, jelly, or apple butter. In Europe, much of the crop is pressed for cider or is fermented to make brandy or wine. Many of the important North
American apple varieties are the product of 19th-century seedling trees. McIntosh was discovered by John McIntosh in Ontario in 1796, Delicious came from a seedling found in Iowa in 1895, and Stayman came from the seed of a Kansas Winesap apple in
1866. Natural mutations have been responsible for many other varieties. Among the important types developed horticulturally are the Cortland and Macoun. _^<N__^<N_Richard H. Merritt _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Comfort, J., and Chute, C., Apples,
Apples, Apples (1987); Wynne, P., Apples: History, Folklore, Horticulture, and Gastronomy (1975); Stilphen, George A., The Apples of Maine (1993).
-END-
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37
CAT
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Appleseed, Johnny:
-T-
Appleseed, Johnny:_^<N__^<N_see CHAPMAN, JOHN.
-END-
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296
CAT
-A-
Appleton
-T-
Appleton_^<N__^<N_Appleton (1990 pop., 65,695), a city on the Fox River in east central Wisconsin, is the seat of Outagamie County. It is a manufacturing center for paper and related products and was named for Samuel Appleton, father-in-law of Amos
Lawrence, who founded Lawrence University there in 1847.
-END-
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713
CAT
-A-
Appleton, Sir Edward Victor
-T-
Appleton, Sir Edward Victor_^<N__^<N_The British physicist Sir Edward Victor Appleton, b. Sept. 6, 1892, d. Apr. 21, 1965, won the 1947 Nobel Prize for physics for his discovery that the upper layer of the ionosphere, called the F-region or Appleton
layer, reflects radio waves. The discovery established the possibility of radio communication over long distances. Appleton served as a professor (1924-36) of physics at King's College, University of London, taught (1936-39) at Cambridge
University, and, while serving (1939-49) in the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, aided in the development of radar and the atomic bomb. He was knighted in 1941. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Clark, Ronald, Sir Edward Appleton (1972).
-END-
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811
CAT
-A-
Appleton, Nathan
-T-
Appleton, Nathan_^<N__^<N_Nathan Appleton, b. New Ipswich, NH., Oct. 6, 1779, d. July 14, 1861, played a prominent role in the development of the U.S. textile industry. A successful Boston merchant, he supported Francis C. Lowell in his effort
to introduce the power loom and build a cotton mill in Waltham, Mass. The mill, completed in 1814, was the first in the country to perform all the operations necessary to turn raw cotton into cloth. Appleton served (1831-32 and 1841-42) in
Congress, where he advocated protective duties that would enable the fledgling industry to develop without being threatened by cheaper imports. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Gregory, Frances W., Nathan Appelton: Merchant and Entrepreneur, 1779-1861
(1976); Winthrop, Robert C., Memoir of the Hon. Nathan Appleton, LL.D. (1861; repr. 1969).
-END-
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1651
CAT
-A-
Applications Technology Satellite
-T-
Applications Technology Satellite_^<N__^<N_The Applications Technology Satellite (ATS) was a series of six SATELLITES developed for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to test advanced techniques, control systems, and components
for future communications, navigational, and meteorological satellites. They also gathered scientific data on the orbital environment and the ionosphere. The five first-generation satellites of the series, which was an outgrowth of project
SYNCOM, were launched between 1966 and 1969; the more advanced ATS 6 was launched in May 1974. Only ATS 1, 3, and 6 were completely successful, and a proposed ATS 7 was canceled before it could be completed. _^<N__^<N_ATS 1 was launched on Dec.
6, 1966, into a nearly circular geosynchronous orbit. Instrumentation consisted of two communications experiments (microwave repeaters), two meteorological experiments (a camera and a data relay), three experimental devices for controlling
satellites in orbit, and sensors to measure environmental parameters such as ions, magnetic fields, and the effects of space radiation on solar cells. ATS 3, launched Nov. 5, 1967, transmitted pictures in black-and-white of the Earth's disk.
_^<N__^<N_The advanced model ATS 6, launched May 30, 1974, carried instrumentation for 20 different experiments in communications, space environment, and spacecraft control. Between August 1975 and July 1976, ATS 6 participated in the Satellite
Instructional Television Experiment with India. Educational television programs were relayed to sets in 2,400 remote villages of that nation as well as to remote areas in the United States. _^<N__^<N_Mitchell R. Sharpe
-END-
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9178
CATO
4799
-A-
applied linguistics
-O-
000000|applied linguistics
001732| Language Teaching
004257| The Learning Environment
005201| The Psychology of Language
006080| Policy and Planning
007224| Specialized Language
008037| Language Malfunctions
-T-
applied linguistics_^<N__^<N_The contemporary world is marked by problems relating directly to language. The 20th century has been called the Age of the Refugee because large numbers of people have been displaced from their homes by war,
revolution, and other disasters. Since the mid-1950s, new nations have emerged from former colonial empires; they have had to select languages for government, education, and trade. In the great urban centers, there are multilingual populations;
as a response to multilingualism, law courts, police, social agencies, employers, schools, and churches have needed to become concerned about language issues. Applied linguistics is the academic discipline that studies such problems and devises
solutions to the human questions rooted in language. _^<N__^<N_Linguistics is the study of language; applied linguistics is the study of human and social problems connected with language, language learning, and language use. A familiar example is
the difficulty experienced by a Spanish-speaking minority in an English-speaking country such as the United States. How can the Hispanic community preserve its own linguistic and cultural heritage, and at the same time enable its children to find
a place in American society? In an attempt to resolve this problem, bilingual education was introduced into the American school system. Drawing on psychology, sociology, learning theory, and other disciplines, applied linguists can evaluate the
effectiveness of such programs. _^<N__^<N_Applied linguistics has a number of areas of concern. Among them are the teaching of language, the learning environment, the psychology of language, the preparation of grammars and dictionaries, the study
of specialized languages, and language rehabilitation. _^<N__^<N_ Language Teaching_^<N__^<N_In learning languages, a distinction is usually made between mother tongues, second languages, and foreign languages. A mother tongue is the first
language or languages one learns as a child. When immigrants come to a new country and learn the language of that country, they are learning a second language. On the other hand, when English speaking students in the United States learn French or
Spanish in school, they are usually learning a foreign language. _^<N__^<N_There are many approaches to the teaching of secondary and foreign languages. The grammar-translation method, for example, is based on the discipline of philology and
approaches language from the viewpoint of comparison with a classical language such as Latin. In classical languages, the vocabulary and grammar are limited because no mother-tongue speakers are living, and the literature serves primarily to give
access to the thought and art of a dead civilization. Therefore, rote memorization is the mode of teaching commonly employed in the grammar-translation method. _^<N__^<N_The audio-lingual approach, which was very popular from the 1940s through the
1960s, is based in structural linguistics, which places heavy emphasis on spoken rather than written language, and on the grammar of particular languages, stressing habit formation as a mode of learning (see STRUCTURALISM). _^<N__^<N_Beginning in
the 1950s, Noam CHOMSKY and his followers challenged previous assumptions about language structure and language learning, taking the position that language is creative (not memorized), and rule governed (not based on habit), and that universal
phenomena of the human mind underlie all language. This "Chomskian revolution" initially gave rise to eclecticism in teaching, but it has more recently led to two main branches of teaching approaches: the humanistic approaches based on the
charismatic teaching of one person, and content-based communicative approaches, which try to incorporate what has been learned in recent years about the need for active learner participation, about appropriate language input, and about
communication as a human activity. Most recently, there has been a significant shift toward greater attention to reading and writing, based on a new awareness of significant differences between spoken and written languages, and on the notion that
dealing with language involves an interaction between the text on the one hand, and the culturally-based world knowledge and experientially-based learning of the receiver on the other. _^<N__^<N_ The Learning Environment_^<N__^<N_Learning and
teaching are not the only concerns of applied linguistics; it is also concerned about the environment in which learning occurs and about the social interaction of learners with each other, with teachers, and with society more broadly defined.
Among multilingual populations, it investigates such questions as who speaks which language to what other persons, and to accomplish what objectives. In this sense, applied linguistics overlaps with SOCIOLINGUISTICS, except that the applied
linguist is not interested in merely describing the situation and understanding its causes, but also in ways to mediate the situation to increase mutual communication and decrease stress. These general concerns are grouped under the heading of
sociology of language, and to the extent that these concerns invoke political action, policy and planning, they become the concerns of language policy and language planning. _^<N__^<N_ The Psychology of Language_^<N__^<N_Additionally, applied
linguists are concerned about what goes on in the mind of the learner when language is being learned--indeed, when language is being used. At this point, applied linguistics overlaps with PSYCHOLINGUISTICS. A great deal of research in recent
years has been conducted in second-language acquisition, and a teaching method known as the natural approach has been designed based on the notion of the natural processes of child-language acquisition, on the assumption that mother-tongue
(first-language) and second-language acquisition are analogous. Research in the psychology of language has also played a major role in ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE studies, that is, in the attempts to design computers that can actually process natural
language and in the problems of how language is stored in memory in the mind and in the computer. _^<N__^<N_ Policy and Planning_^<N__^<N_Concern with language policy and planning has resulted in a two-fold division of the planning activity into
status planning and corpus planning. Status planning deals with the political and social areas of language use and falls under the area of sociolinguistics and the sociology of language addressed above. Corpus planning, on the other hand, deals
with the language itself. Any natural language is so complex that it would be impossible to capture all of its manifestations in a single volume called a grammar or in a single dictionary, even one as large as the Oxford English Dictionary.
Applied linguists are, then, of necessity concerned with writing descriptive grammars--ones which try to describe the general rules of a given language--or pedagogical grammars--ones that try to deal with that fraction of a language which can
reasonably be taught either to mother-tongue or to second-language learners. They also compile dictionaries (LEXICOLOGY AND LEXICOGRAPHY), both general dictionaries, and specialist dictionaries dealing with the usages of particular professions
such as law, medicine, or engineering. _^<N__^<N_ Specialized Language_^<N__^<N_The study of language for specific purposes goes well beyond listing the specialized jargon of a profession in a dictionary. It also includes studies of the functions
of particular grammatical forms (for example, the passive voice can be used in English to achieve objectivity and to distance its user from the subject under discussion). This area of interest has, in turn, led to elaborate studies of the special
sociolinguistic uses of language in the different professions. The most detailed studies have looked at the language interaction between doctors and their patients in various settings, at the various uses of language in courtrooms, and at the uses
of language by governments, by politicians, and by advertisers--all of which attempt to cause people to behave in certain ways. _^<N__^<N_ Language Malfunctions_^<N__^<N_The concern with the relationship between language and mind--with what happens
in the mind when language is learned and when language is used--brings applied linguistics into contact with neurolinguistics. This includes not only the biology and physiology of language functions but also aberrant language functions--that is,
the study of malfunctions in the uses of language. Various kinds of aphasias, for example, have been examined in the search for more effective treatment modes. Applied linguists have also been interested in the way in which alternative languages
are acquired by individuals who for some reason lack either hearing (the deaf) or sight (the blind) or speech (the mute), and particularly interesting work has been done on the acquisition of sign language. _^<N__^<N_Robert B. Kaplan
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Corder, S., Introducing Applied Linguistics (1973); Crystal, David, Directions in Applied Linguistics (1981); Kaplan, Robert B., On the Scope of Applied Linguistics (1980); Widdowson, H. G., Explorations in Applied
Linguistics (1979) and Explorations in Applied Linguistics Two (1984).
-END-
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303
CAT
-A-
applied psychology
-T-
applied psychology_^<N__^<N_Applied psychology is a field of PSYCHOLOGY concerned with the problems of daily life. Its major specialties are CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY; COMMUNITY MENTAL HEALTH; EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY; HUMAN FACTORS ENGINEERING;
INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY; MENTAL HEALTH; and PSYCHOLOGICAL MEASUREMENT.
-END-
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1050
CAT
-A-
applique
-T-
applique_^<N__^<N_{ahp-lee-kay'} _^<N__^<N_Applique is a type of decorative fabric work in which pieces of material are attached to a background material to form a pattern or a picture. In onlay applique, the pattern piece is attached on top of the
background fabric; in inlay work, the background is cut out to match the shape of the pattern piece, which is then patched in. _^<N__^<N_The art of applique has a long history. It was used by the ancient Egyptians, Persians, Indians, and Greeks
as a substitute for more elaborate and costly EMBROIDERY. Lavish applique work was popular during the Middle Ages, when it was used on heraldic and ecclesiastical banners and on ceremonial clothing. Modern applique forms range from the
elaborately worked Mola fabrics made by the CUNA Indians of Central America, to a variety of mass-produced, machine-applied applique designs. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Andirs, Nedda C., Applique Old and New, Including Patchwork and Embroidery
(1976); Avery, Virginia, The Big Book of Applique (1982); Puls, Herta, The Art of Cutwork and Applique (1978).
-END-
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938
CAT
-A-
Appomattox Court House
-T-
Appomattox Court House_^<N__^<N_{ap-uh-mat'-uhks} _^<N__^<N_Appomattox Court House, a town in Virginia 40 km (25 mi) east of Lynchburg, was the site of the surrender by Gen. Robert E. LEE of his Confederate Army of Northern Virginia on Apr. 9,
1865. Lee's forces, cut to barely 9,000 effective troops, were virtually surrounded by the Army of the Potomac under Gen. George MEADE. After a morning of heavy skirmishing, which revealed growing Union strength, Lee met Gen. Ulysses S. GRANT,
commanding the Union armies, and surrendered his army. Pressed to surrender all Confederate armies, over which he held nominal command, Lee refused. However, surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia in itself was enough to spell the end of the
Confederacy and of the U.S. CIVIL WAR. Appomattox Court House is now a national historical park. _^<N__^<N_Frank E. Vandiver _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Davis, Burke, To Appomattox (1959); Stern, Philip Van Doren, An End to Valor (1958).
-END-
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1496
CAT
-A-
apportionment
-T-
apportionment_^<N__^<N_Apportionment is the system by which representation in a legislature or other body is distributed. Political scientists distinguish five principal methods of apportionment: (1) on the basis of population, as in the U.S. House
of Representatives, which operates on the principle of the larger the state, the greater its representation; (2) on the basis of governmental or geographical units, as in the U.S. Senate, where two senators represent each state, regardless of its
size; (3) on the basis of occupational, ethnic, or social groups (at one time, a businessman with an office in the City of London was entitled to vote there even though he also voted at his place of residence elsewhere); (4) on the basis of wealth,
as in the early years of the United States when states had property requirements for voting; and (5) on the basis of party voting strength (see PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION). _^<N__^<N_The U.S. Constitution requires that a census be taken every ten
years to determine how many seats each state is entitled to in the House of Representatives. It says nothing about the apportionment of districts within the states, however. In BAKER V. CARR (1962) the Supreme Court required the states to redraw
the boundaries of Congressional districts to ensure equality among them on the basis of population. IN REYNOLDS V. SIMS (1964) and other cases it also required them to apportion the seats in their legislative districts in the same way, on the
principle of "one man, one vote."
-END-
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994
CAT
-A-
appraisal
-T-
appraisal_^<N__^<N_An appraisal is an estimate of the value of real property; it is an expression of opinion on the property's value for a specific purpose on a given date under particular conditions. The most common method of determining the value
of a single-family home is to estimate its market value. This is done by studying the prices of comparable properties that have recently been sold. When a house is to be purchased as an investment, the appraiser calculates the rental income that
the house will yield; subtracts the costs of repairs, maintenance, taxes, and mortgage payments to obtain the net operating income; and sets a price that will assure the desired return on the capital invested in the house. More elaborate appraisal
methods are used to determine the value of industrial property and to determine what a governmental authority should pay for property acquired through its power of eminent domain. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Boyce, B. N., and Kinnard, W. N., Appraising
Real Property (1984).
-END-
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1308
CAT
-A-
apprenticeship
-T-
apprenticeship_^<N__^<N_Apprenticeship is a method of training in which the learner works for a master craftsperson. The master profits from the labor of someone interested in the craft, and the apprentice receives both the training and a small
income. Medieval craft GUILDS established apprenticeship programs, customarily lasting seven years, in which apprentices lived with the master in a quasi-familial relationship. At the completion of this period the apprentice became a journeyman: he
was no longer tied to a master, but worked for a day's wage. _^<N__^<N_Trade unions have developed similar programs in which a young worker is employed at low pay while learning a craft. Like the medieval guilds, union programs often accept only
relatives and friends of their members; the relationship between master and apprentice is limited, however, to job training. The National Apprenticeship Act of 1937 (the Fitzgerald Act) authorized federal coordination of programs in the United
States. Apprenticeship programs must allow equality of opportunity. Training is done in phases, with examinations and pay increases marking the transitions from phase to phase. Facilities and supervision must be adequate. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Rorabaugh, W. J., The Craft Apprentice (1986); Shanahan, W. F. Guide to Apprenticeship Programs (1983).
-END-
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961
CAT
-A-
apraxia
-T-
apraxia_^<N__^<N_{ay-prak'-see-uh} _^<N__^<N_Apraxia is the inability to perform purposeful movements, despite normal muscular power and coordination. The term also refers to the inability to use objects for purposes intended by the individual's
will. Apraxias are due to a malfunction in the brain itself rather than damage to peripheral nerves. A stroke involving the motor cortex, for example, causes motor apraxia, an inability to make purposeful movement. In ideomotor apraxia, simple
tasks may be performed, but complicated acts cannot be accomplished because the idea cannot get around or through the area of damage or because the command cannot be remembered long enough (amnestic). In functional apraxia a patient may recognize
an object such as a cigarette lighter, for example, but then no longer know that it is used to light cigarettes. _^<N__^<N_A. W. Dudley, M.D. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Brown, Jason W., Aphasia, Apraxia and Agnosia (1974); Gubbay, Sasson S., The
Clumsy Child (1975).
-END-
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1165
CAT
-A-
apricot
-T-
apricot_^<N__^<N_The apricot tree bears a fruit, the apricot, classified as a drupe--a fleshy, one-seeded fruit that does not split open of itself and has a seed enclosed in a stony endocarp called a pit. The botanical name for the apricot, Prunus
armeniaca, suggests that it originated in Armenia, but it probably came from western China. _^<N__^<N_The apricot is cultivated in the temperate zones, but the tree has special requirements. Because it blooms early in the season, commercial
production is practical only in areas free from serious spring frost, but winter chilling is required to induce dormancy. California produces about 95 percent of the U.S. apricot crop. The apricot is also produced in quantity in Europe (France,
Hungary, Italy, Spain), Iran, Australia, Africa, and South America (Argentina and Chile). _^<N__^<N_The apricot is propagated by GRAFTING onto apricot or peach seedling rootstock. Apricot fruits develop rapidly and ripen early in the summer. The
principal commercial varieties are Royal, Blenheim, Tilton, Moorpark, and Goldcot. Plum curculio is the major insect pest, and brown rot and bacterial leaf spot the more serious apricot diseases. _^<N__^<N_Jerome Hull
-END-
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1468
CAT
-A-
apse
-T-
apse_^<N__^<N_{aps} _^<N__^<N_In architecture, an apse is a projecting space, usually semicircular or polygonal in plan, in a religious or secular building. A common feature of Early Christian and medieval churches, the apse is usually located
behind the choir at the east end of a church. It may also be placed at either end of the TRANSEPT, and it is often topped by a half dome. _^<N__^<N_The apse first appeared in pre-Christian Roman architecture. It frequently took the form of a deep
niche in a temple where the monumental statue of a deity was placed. The form was also used in the Roman BASILICA, usually to terminate the central aisle. This usage was adopted in Early Christian churches. In the earliest examples the clergy
sat in the apse, separated from the body of the church by the altar, which stood just before it. Later, the seats of the clergy were moved forward into the choir, and the altar was placed in the apse. _^<N__^<N_As the place where the liturgical
services were performed, the apse was the central focus and the most sacred part of the church. It was often richly decorated with marble, mosaic, or paintings. In the Gothic period small chapels, called apsidal chapels, were sometimes placed at
the rear of the apse. _^<N__^<N_In secular architecture--particularly in the 18th century, when Roman forms were imitated--apses were often used as terminations of long passages or as locations for statuary. The British architect Robert ADAM
incorporated apses in many of his designs.
-END-
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30
CAT
-A-
apsides:
-T-
apsides:_^<N__^<N_see ORBITAL ELEMENTS.
-END-
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25
CAT
-A-
apteryx (bird):
-T-
apteryx (bird):_^<N__^<N_see KIWI.
-END-
-C-
56
CAT
-A-
aptitude tests:
-T-
aptitude tests:_^<N__^<N_see EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENT AND TESTING.
-END-
-C-
946
CAT
-A-
Apuleius
-T-
Apuleius_^<N__^<N_{ap-oo-lay'-uhs} _^<N__^<N_Lucius Apuleius, AD 123-50, was a Latin philosopher who wrote the novel Metamorphoses (Transformations), known popularly as THE GOLDEN ASS. He was born at Madauros (North Africa), educated in Carthage
and Athens, and traveled and lectured widely. When he married a wealthy widow in Tripoli, her relatives accused him of witchcraft. The speech he delivered in his own defense in court, Apologia or De magia, tells much about occult science in the
ancient world. Apuleius was acquitted and returned to Carthage, where he taught philosophy and rhetoric. _^<N__^<N_In addition to The Golden Ass, the only complete novel in Latin still in existence, Apuleius's works include the Platonic essays De
Deo Socratis (On Socrates' Personal God) and Florida (purple passages from his declamations). _^<N__^<N_Georg Luck _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Haight, Elizabeth H., Apuleius and His Influence (1927; repr. 1983; Tatum, J., Apuleius and the Golden Ass
(1979).
-END-
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985
CAT
-A-
Apulia
-T-
Apulia_^<N__^<N_{uh-pool'-eeuh} _^<N__^<N_Apulia (Italian: Puglia) is a region of southern Italy bordered by the Adriatic Sea in the east, the Fortore River in the northwest, and the Strait of Otranto and Gulf of Taranto in the south. It has an
area of 19,347 sq km (7,470 sq mi) and a population of 4,059,309 (1989 est.). It comprises the provinces of Bari, Brindisi, Foggia, Lecce, and Taranto, and its southern portion forms the heel of the Italian peninsula's boot shape. _^<N__^<N_Mostly
a plain, Apulia also includes the Gargano and Apennine mountains in the north. Farming is the chief occupation in the region. There is also some fishing, and petroleum products, chemicals, plastics, fertilizer, and wines are manufactured.
_^<N__^<N_First settled by Greeks and various Italic peoples, the region, which lies at the crossroads of the Mediterranean, was held by Romans, Goths, Lombards, Byzantines, Normans, Germans, French, Spanish, Austrians, Neapolitans, and Bourbons.
It became part of united Italy in 1860.
-END-
-C-
509
CAT
-A-
Aqaba
-T-
Aqaba_^<N__^<N_{ah'-kah-bah} _^<N__^<N_Aqaba (1990 est. pop., 45,000), Jordan's only port, is located at the head of the Gulf of Aqaba, an arm of the Red Sea. Settled in ancient times, Aqaba experienced rapid growth in the 1980s, when it became the
leading port for Iraqi imports. Phosphates and foodstuffs are exported. Aqaba and nearby Elat, in Israel, are also popular tourist resorts. Aqaba's economy was devastated by the 1990-91 PERSIAN GULF WAR crisis, when ships headed there were
delayed or rerouted by Allied navies.
-END-
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631
CAT
-A-
Aqaba, Gulf of
-T-
Aqaba, Gulf of_^<N__^<N_{ah'-kah-bah} _^<N__^<N_The Gulf of Aqaba is a narrow arm of the Red Sea extending northeast between Saudi Arabia and the Sinai Peninsula. It is approximately 160 km (100 mi) long and 19-27 km (12-17 mi) wide. At the head
of the gulf are Aqaba and ELAT. Aqaba is Jordan's only seaport, and Elat is Israel's only outlet to the Red Sea. After Iraq's August 1990 invasion of Kuwait, the United States began a naval blockade of Iraq's outlets to the sea. The government
of Jordan was notified that the blockade would include the port of Aqaba if Jordan allowed goods to move to or from Iraq from that port via land transport.
-END-
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227
CAT
-A-
aqua regia
-T-
aqua regia_^<N__^<N_Aqua regia--the term is Latin for "royal water"-- is a mixture of three parts hydrochloric acid and one part nitric acid. This mixture was known to the alchemists for its power to dissolve gold, the "king" of metals.
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22
CAT
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aquamarine:
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aquamarine:_^<N__^<N_see BERYL.
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3939
CATO
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aquarium
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000000|aquarium
000239| Home Aquariums
002415| Public Aquariums
-T-
aquarium_^<N__^<N_An aquarium is a container for maintaining aquatic organisms for display or research. Aquarium facilities range from the relatively simple tanks kept by amateur enthusiasts to huge oceanariums, where undersea environments are
reproduced. _^<N__^<N_ Home Aquariums_^<N__^<N_Because of their attractiveness and easy maintenance, glass aquariums with capacities of up to 200 l (50 gal) are the most frequently used. The basic components of most modern home aquariums include,
in addition to the tank, a heater to keep the water at the proper temperature (usually between 22 deg and 27 deg C/ 72 deg and 80 deg F, depending on the type of fish) and an air pump and filter combination that add oxygen and remove some of the
impurities in the water. Some aquarists establish balanced tank communities in which little aeration and filtration are required. In these systems, the number of fish, the amount of food supplied, and the plant life are carefully balanced to
achieve a simple ecological cycle. Wastes from the fish are converted to nutrients and harmless debris by bacteria. The plants take up the nutrients and produce enough oxygen for the needs of the fish. _^<N__^<N_The chlorine used to purify water
for human consumption is lethal to fish. For this reason, aquarists do not replenish their tanks directly from a faucet, but allow the water to stand for a day or two until the chlorine dissipates. Water drawn from new copper plumbing may also be
toxic. _^<N__^<N_Outbreaks of bacterial diseases, fungal infections, or parasites can result in the death of aquarium fish. The danger of disease is minimized by keeping the filters operating efficiently, by preventing the buildup of waste
materials (snails and small scavenger fish are often used to supplement the filtration system), and by keeping fish numbers down to prevent overcrowding. Several reference books are available for identifying fish diseases and the antibiotics and
other therapeutic substances useful in treating them. _^<N__^<N_In recent decades, the development of material that allows amateur aquarists to duplicate seawater synthetically has made it possible to raise saltwater organisms in a home tank.
Colorful reef fishes are among the most popular, followed by a wide variety of invertebrates such as anemones, sea cucumbers, starfish, hermit crabs, and mollusks. Although marine fish are usually more expensive than freshwater species, they pose
few special maintenance problems. _^<N__^<N_ Public Aquariums_^<N__^<N_The first aquarium for publicly displaying fish was opened in 1853 at Regent's Park, England. Today there are about 500 public and commercial aquariums worldwide for displaying
fish or for research. Notable research institutions with aquariums include the Scripps Institute of Oceanography in San Diego, Calif., l'Institut Oceanographique in Monaco, and the Marine Biological Station in Plymouth, England. _^<N__^<N_Display
aquariums once comprised numerous small tanks, each holding an individual species of freshwater fish. Modern aquariums may have both freshwater and marine tanks, with capacities of up to 4 million l (1 million gal). These huge tanks may hold a
large number of different fish and invertebrate species as well as marine reptiles and birds. Some aquariums have tanks in which tides are simulated so that estuarine animals can also be maintained. _^<N__^<N_The newest type of aquarium, the
oceanarium, often maintains large tanks or holding areas directly on the ocean, stocked with some of the largest marine forms, such as dolphins or sharks. Visitors watch the spectacle of ocean life through glassed areas on the tank walls, and from
overhead walkways. _^<N__^<N_Robert Carline _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Clark, J. R. and R. L., eds., Sea-water Systems for Experimental Aquariums (1972); Innes, William T., Exotic Aquarium Fishes (1966); Stephens, Cleo, and Dunton, Darlene, The
Complete Home Aquarium Handbook: Saltwater and Freshwater (1976); Zukeran, K., et al., Directory of the Public Aquaria of the World (1970).
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905
CAT
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Aquarius
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Aquarius_^<N__^<N_Aquarius the Water Bearer, or Water Carrier, is one of the CONSTELLATIONS of the ZODIAC, the band of sky through which the Sun, Moon, and planets appear to move. Most prominent during the autumn months in the Northern Hemisphere,
Aquarius contains the globular cluster M 2, the planetary nebula NGC 7009, also known as the Saturn nebula, and NGC 7293, known as the Helix nebula. The Aquarid meteor showers appear to radiate from the constellation in early May and late July.
_^<N__^<N_In ASTROLOGY, Aquarius governs the period between January 20 and February 18. Because of the precession of the equinoxes, the point where the Sun passes from the south to north of the celestial equator (the spring equinox) will move into
Aquarius about AD 2200, giving rise to the phrase "the dawning of the age of Aquarius." _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Burnham, Robert, Burnham's Celestial Handbook, 2 vols. (1966; repr. 1978).
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1311
CAT
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aquatint
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aquatint_^<N__^<N_Aquatint is an intaglio ETCHING technique used by printmakers to create variations in tone similar to the wash effects of watercolors. It is achieved by applying a layer of resin to a copperplate, which is heated to fuse the
grains to the plate's surface. When the plate is exposed to an acid solution, the unprotected metal between the fused grains is eaten away, and thousands of tiny cavities are formed. These hold the ink and print a variety of tones, depending on
the depth of the acid "bite," which will vary according to the size of the grains and the length of time the plate is exposed to the acid. _^<N__^<N_In his Los Caprichos (1796-98), Francisco de GOYA demonstrated a mastery of aquatint, creating a
series of dynamic scenes that achieve their effects through infinite gradations of shading. Goya occasionally employed DRYPOINT to sketch in details, but he often used no hard lines at all, instead defining the shapes of figures through the soft
impressions of the aquatint itself. Later notable aquatint artists include Thomas ROWLANDSON, George ROUAULT, and Pablo PICASSO. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Griffiths, A., Prints and Printmaking (1981); Mayor, A. Hyatt, Prints and People (1971);
Zigrosser, Carl, Prints and Their Creators, 2d rev. ed. (1974). _^<N__^<N_See also: ENGRAVING; GRAPHIC ARTS; LITHOGRAPH.
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3288
CAT
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aqueduct
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aqueduct_^<N__^<N_An aqueduct is a structure built to carry water from a source to a distant destination. Its name comes from the Latin aqua ("water") and ducere ("to lead"). The modern aqueduct may involve a complex system of canals, tunnels, and
pipelines, and it almost always uses pressure to force the water along some part of its route. The aqueducts of ancient times--some of which are still in use in southern Europe and North Africa--were, however, less complicated structures and
usually employed only the force of gravity to move the water. _^<N__^<N_In 691 BC, Sennacherib, king of Assyria, built a conduit to transport water from a river about 55 km (34 mi) distant to his fields and gardens in Nineveh. A gently sloping
masonry channel was constructed, and where it passed over a valley, an arched bridge 9 m (30 ft) high was built to support it. This was one of the earliest known aqueducts--although evidence indicates that aqueducts had been built in the Middle
East as early as the 10th century BC--and it furnished a model for the Greek engineer EUPALINUS when he built his aqueduct on the island of Samos in 530 BC. The Samos structure ran partially underground, through a 1.6-km-long (1-mi) tunnel more
than 2 m (8 ft) in diameter. _^<N__^<N_Although elevated structures with arches, like those which still traverse valleys and gorges in southern Europe, formed a part of most ancient aqueducts, underground conduits were used in hilly or mountainous
regions to tap GROUNDWATER supplies. Called qanats in the Near East, these tunnels sloped downward underground, pierced at regular intervals by vertical shafts to the surface and marked aboveground by piles of excavated material. In the city of
Aleppo, in Syria, drinking water still comes from such a qanat--water that originates in a spring more than 12 km (7 mi) away. _^<N__^<N_The most extensive ancient aqueduct system was that built by the city of Rome. It is described in detail by
Frontinus, a Roman water commissioner, in his De aquis urbis Romae (Concerning the Waters of the City of Rome; about AD 100). Rome's 11 aqueducts totaled 479 km (298 mi) in length and carried water from as far away as 90 km (56 mi). The first, the
Aqua Appia, was built in 312 BC. Of its total 16-km (10-mi) length, only about 0.2 m (0.7 ft) ran aboveground, although most of the rest was simply a stone-lined ditch. The Aqua Marcia (140 BC) was the first long, high-level aqueduct and was built
completely of stone. By 125 BC, when the Aqua Tepula was built, poured concrete had become the basic building material. Pipes made of stone, clay, lead, or wood channeled the water underground, and many of them employed the siphon principle used in
modern conduits. _^<N__^<N_Modern aqueducts use pipes that can carry water under high pressure, and pressure tunnels--built far underground, where the surrounding rock supplies pressure resistance--to handle even larger, faster water flows. The
diameter of these tunnels can be quite large, 6 to 8 m (20 to 26 ft), whereas the average Roman conduit had a diameter of 1.5 m (5 ft). Pumping stations now lift great volumes of water up hundreds of meters. The length of some newer aqueducts is
now measured in hundreds of kilometers; the California Aqueduct, when completed, will extend about 725 km (450 mi). _^<N__^<N_See also: WATER SUPPLY.
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772
CAT
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aquifer
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aquifer_^<N__^<N_{ak'-wi-fur} _^<N__^<N_An aquifer is any natural material that contains water recoverable in useful amounts by means of wells. Aquifers may be fractured zones in otherwise solid rock, layers of solid but porous rock, or loose
sedimentary materials. Some of the most productive aquifers are thick beds of sandstone, geologically young limestones and basalts, and stream sands and gravels. Except in favored areas, most geologic materials are not aquifers. Clay and shale
contain water, but, unless the beds are fractured, pore openings are too small to allow water movement. Many other rocks, such as granite, lack either pack spaces or channelways and contain virtually no water. _^<N__^<N_Stanley N. Davis
_^<N__^<N_See also: GROUNDWATER; HYDROLOGIC CYCLE; PERMEABILITY, ROCK; WATER RESOURCES.
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431
CAT
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Aquila
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Aquila_^<N__^<N_{ak'-wil-uh} _^<N__^<N_Aquila the Eagle is a CONSTELLATION of stars prominent in the summer sky in the Northern Hemisphere. It contains the bright star Altair (alpha Aquilae), of visual magnitude 0.77 and spectral type A7. The
so-called summer triangle is composed of Altair and the stars Vega in Lyra and Deneb in Cygnus. The Milky Way passes through Aquila and, because of dust clouds, appears to divide into two parts in this area.
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6404
CATO
4807
-A-
Aquinas, Saint Thomas
-O-
000000|Aquinas, Saint Thomas
000268| Life
001878| Thought
005039| Influence
-T-
Aquinas, Saint Thomas_^<N__^<N_Saint Thomas Aquinas, a Dominican theologian, met the challenge posed to Christian faith by the philosophical achievements of the Greeks and Arabs. He effected a philosophical synthesis of faith and reason that is one
of the greatest achievements of medieval times. _^<N__^<N_ Life_^<N__^<N_Thomas d'Aquino, the son of a count, was born in his family's castle at Roccasecca, central Italy, in 1224. At about the age of five, Thomas was placed by his parents in the
Benedictine monastery at Monte Cassino. His uncle had been abbot of the monastery, and his family had similar ambitions for Thomas. When Monte Cassino became the scene of a battle between papal and imperial troops, however, Thomas withdrew and
enrolled at the University of Naples. There he came into contact with members of the Dominican order and, against the violent opposition of his family, became a Dominican friar in 1244. He then went north to study (1245-52) at Paris and Cologne
under ALBERTUS MAGNUS. _^<N__^<N_The rest of Thomas's life can be divided roughly into four parts. From 1252 to 1259, Thomas taught at the Dominican studium generale (house of studies) in Paris; he was named a master of theology in 1256. From
1259 to 1269 he was in Italy, attached to the papal court. A second Parisian period, 1269-72, was followed by his assignment to Naples to head the Dominican studium generale there. In 1274, going north again to attend the Council of Lyon, Thomas
fell ill and died in the Cistercian abbey of Fossanova on March 7. His Summa contra Gentiles was written in 1258-60, and his greatest work, the SUMMA THEOLOGIAE, occupied him from 1267 to 1273. Thomas also wrote a series of commentaries on
ARISTOTLE and the BIBLE. Unlike many theologians, he welcomed the Latin translation of Aristotle's complete writings, although he opposed the radical advocates of Aristotelianism, the so-called Latin Averroists. _^<N__^<N_ Thought_^<N__^<N_Thomas's
thought embodied the conviction that Christian revelation and human knowledge are facets of a single truth and cannot be in conflict with one another. _^<N__^<N_Humans know something when its truth is either immediately evident to them or can be
made evident by appeal to immediately evident truths. They believe something when they accept its truth on authority. Religious faith is the acceptance of truths on the authority of God's REVELATION of them. Despite the fact that this seems to
make knowledge and faith two utterly distinct realms, Thomas held that some of the things God has revealed are in fact knowable. He called these "preambles of faith," including among them the existence of God and certain of his attributes, the
immortality of the human soul, and some moral principles. The rest of what has been revealed he called "mysteries of faith," for example, the Trinity, the incarnation of God in Jesus Christ, the resurrection, and so on. He then argued that, if
some of the things God has revealed can be known to be true, it is reasonable to accept the mysteries as true. _^<N__^<N_Thomas's conviction that truth is ultimately one because it has its source in God explains the confidence with which he
approached the writings of non-Christian thinkers: ARISTOTLE, the Muslim Aristotelians AVERROES and AVICENNA, and the Jewish philosopher MAIMONIDES. He strongly opposed the Latin Averroists who claimed that something can be true in natural
knowledge and false for belief and vice versa. _^<N__^<N_Thomas was critical of the Platonic conception of humans as rational souls inhabiting powerless, material bodies that had been incorporated into the traditional Augustinianism. Like
Aristotle, he saw the human being as a complete union of soul and body. Thus, in addition to the survival of the soul after death, the resurrection of the body seemed philosophically appropriate as well as religiously true to Thomas. His
Aristotelianism also led to his defense of sense perception and the view that intellectual knowledge is derived by way of abstraction (concept formation) from sense data. The doctrine of Forms, or Ideas, of PLATO, had become part of a traditional
REALISM with regard to UNIVERSALS, part of a theory of knowledge that held that humans have direct knowledge of immaterial entities. Thomas reinterpreted Ideas as divine creative patterns and Saint Augustine's theory of illumination (see
AUGUSTINE, SAINT), or the attainment of knowledge of the immaterial through intellectual insight, as a version of the Aristotelian active intellect, which he understood as the faculty of abstracting universal meanings from particular empirical
data. Thomas argued that the existence of God can be proved by such reasoning from sense data. He further argued that human concepts and language can be extrapolated, by way of analogy, to speak of God's nature. This, however, is a difficult
task, and it is fitting that revelation provides humans with that knowledge. Thomas also held that there are first principles of moral reasoning (NATURAL LAW) that all humans grasp; many of them, however, have been revealed in the Ten
Commandments. _^<N__^<N_ Influence_^<N__^<N_Thomas's synthesis of natural and revealed knowledge, a goal sought by many other medieval thinkers, did not meet with wholehearted acceptance. In 1277 a number of Thomistic tenets were condemned by the
bishop of Paris. Thomas met with a warmer reception in his own order, and in 1309 his doctrine was prescribed for the Dominicans. In 1323, Thomas was canonized, and since that time his thought has become more or less the official doctrine of the
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. He was declared a Doctor of the Church in 1567. In the 19th century, under Pope Leo XIII, the modern revival of Thomism began. Although uninspired adaptations of his thought have brought it into disrepute with many
thinkers, Thomas himself continues to be held in high esteem. _^<N__^<N_Ralph McInerny _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bourke, V. J., Aquinas' Search for Wisdom (1965); Burrell, D., Knowing the Unknowable God (1986); Chenu, M. D., Toward Understanding
Saint Thomas (1964); Copleston, F. C., Aquinas (1955); McInerny, Ralph, Ethica Thomistica (1982), Saint Thomas Aquinas (1977; repr. 1982) and, as ed., Thomism in an Age of Renewal (1966); Maritain, Jacques, The Angelic Doctor, rev. ed. (1958);
Pieper, Josef, Guide to Saint Thomas Aquinas (1962; repr. 1987); Woznicki, A. N., Being and Order: The Metaphysics of Thomas Aquinas in Historical Perspective (1989).
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1742
CAT
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Aquino, Benigno S.
-T-
Aquino, Benigno S._^<N__^<N_The Philippine political opposition leader Benigno Simeon Aquino, b. Nov. 27, 1932, d. Aug. 21, 1983, was assassinated while disembarking a plane upon his return to the Philippines from three years of self-imposed exile
in the United States. Massive demonstrations followed by groups that alleged government complicity in the assassination. Philippine president Ferdinand MARCOS denied the allegations, but government actions to investigate the killing did not allay
suspicions of official involvement. A civilian commission investigating the assassination reported in October 1984 that Aquino's death was planned and executed by the Philippine military. In 1985, however, the Philippine Supreme Court acquitted the
military personnel implicated in the slaying (including armed forces chief of staff Gen. Fabian Ver). After Marcos left the country in 1986 and Aquino's widow, Corazon, became president, there were calls for a reopening of the assassination
investigation. (see AQUINO, CORAZON) _^<N__^<N_Aquino, a member of a wealthy and politically powerful family, rose quickly in Philippine politics: mayor of Concepcion (1955), vice-governor of Tarlac province (1959), governor (1961), secretary
general of the Liberal party (1966), and senator (1967). Labeled a communist by Marcos, Aquino was arrested and imprisoned following the imposition of martial law in 1972 and sentenced to death in 1977. When his death sentence was commuted in 1980,
Aquino was allowed to go to the United States for medical treatment. Although Aquino did not live to see democracy restored to the Philippines, his assassination was the event that mobilized the opposition to Marcos and a major factor in the end of
the Marcos regime on Feb. 25, 1986.
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1484
CAT
-A-
Aquino, Corazon
-T-
Aquino, Corazon_^<N__^<N_Corazon Cojuangco Aquino, b. Jan. 25, 1933, the widow of Philippine opposition leader Benigno S. Aquino, Jr., was president of the Philippines from 1986 to 1992. She served as her husband's link to the outside world during
his eight years of imprisonment (1972-80) for opposition to President Ferdinand MARCOS and accompanied him into exile in the United States in 1980. After his assassination when he returned to the Philippines on Aug. 21, 1983, she became the
rallying point for the fragmented opposition. _^<N__^<N_In late 1985, when Marcos called for early presidential elections, she reluctantly agreed to head the opposition ticket. The National Assembly proclaimed Marcos the winner of the Feb. 7,
1986, elections. Aquino, charging that she had been deprived victory by fraud and intimidation, mounted a campaign of nonviolent resistance to force Marcos from office. Marcos and Aquino held rival inaugurations on February 25. Later that day,
with Marcos en route to exile in the United States, Aquino assumed de facto control of the government; on March 25 she assumed transitional legislative powers. Despite problems of poverty and a Communist insurgency, Aquino's popularity was
evident in the results of the 1987 referendum on a new constitution that confirmed her in office until June 30, 1992. She survived several coup attempts and was succeeded in office as president by her close ally, Fidel RAMOS. _^<N__^<N_Nicholas
Aquitaine_^<N__^<N_{ak'-wi-tayn} _^<N__^<N_Aquitaine (Latin: Aquitania), an area roughly corresponding to the southwestern third of France, was one of the three divisions of ancient GAUL. After 500 years of Roman rule, it fell to the Visigoths in
the 5th century and then to the Franks when they defeated the Visigoths in 507. The Franks rarely maintained strong control over Aquitaine, and in about 725 it was raided by the Muslim conquerors of Spain. The Frankish leader CHARLES MARTEL
crushed these invaders in 733, and Aquitaine became part of the Carolingian empire. _^<N__^<N_In the 9th century the leading counts and other nobility gradually freed themselves of royal control. Bernard Plantevelue (r. 868-86) and his son,
William I (r. 886-918), whose power was based in Auvergne, called themselves dukes of Aquitaine, but their state disintegrated. William V (r. 995-1030) founded a new duchy of Aquitaine based in Poitou. It reached its zenith under William VIII (r.
1058-86). When William X died (1137), his daughter ELEANOR OF AQUITAINE married Louis VII of France, whom she divorced in 1152 to marry Henry II of England. She maintained an elegant chivalric court at Poitiers. Her sons, Richard I and John, and
their successors as kings of England were dukes of Aquitaine (later known as GUIENNE). _^<N__^<N_The French conquered Poitou in 1224 and other parts of Aquitaine in the next century. English victories during the HUNDRED YEARS' WAR enabled Edward
III to reconstruct the old duchy in the 1360s, but France finally conquered the remainder of it in 1453. _^<N__^<N_John B. Henneman
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12136
CATO
4812
9628
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Arab-Israeli Wars
-O-
000000|Arab-Israeli Wars
000461| THE FIRST PALESTINE WAR (1947-49)
002519| SUEZ-SINAI WAR (1956)
004502| SIX-DAY WAR (1967)
006957| OCTOBER WAR (1973)
009653| OPERATION "PEACE FOR GALILEE" (1982)
-T-
Arab-Israeli Wars_^<N__^<N_Since the United Nations partition of Palestine in 1947 and the establishment of the modern state of Israel in 1948, there have been five major Arab-Israeli wars (1947-49, 1956, 1967, 1973, and 1982) and numerous
intermittent battles. Although Egypt and Israel signed a peace treaty in 1979, hostility between Israel and the rest of its Arab neighbors was complicated by the demands of Palestinian Arabs for an independent state in Israeli-occupied territory.
_^<N__^<N_ THE FIRST PALESTINE WAR (1947-49)_^<N__^<N_The first war began as a civil conflict between Palestinian Jews and Arabs following the United Nations recommendation of Nov. 29, 1947, to partition Palestine, then still under British mandate,
into an Arab state and a Jewish state. Fighting quickly spread as Arab guerrillas attacked Jewish settlements to prevent implementation of the UN plan. _^<N__^<N_Jewish forces prevented seizure of most settlements, but Arab guerrillas, supported by
the Transjordanian Arab Legion under the command of British officers, besieged Jerusalem. By April, Haganah, the principal Jewish military group, seized the offensive, scoring victories against the Arab Liberation Army in northern Palestine, Jaffa,
and Jerusalem. British military forces withdrew to Haifa; although officially neutral, some commanders assisted one side or the other. _^<N__^<N_After the British had departed and the state of Israel had been established on May 15, 1948, under the
premiership of David BEN-GURION, the Palestine Arab forces and foreign volunteers were joined by regular armies of Transjordan (now the kingdom of Jordan), Iraq, Lebanon, and Syria, with token support from Saudi Arabia. Efforts by the UN to halt
the fighting were unsuccessful until June 11, when a 4-week truce was declared. When the Arab states refused to renew the truce, ten more days of fighting erupted. In that time Israel greatly extended the area under its control and broke the siege
of Jerusalem. Fighting on a smaller scale continued during the second UN truce beginning in mid-July, and Israel acquired more territory, especially in Galilee and the Negev. By January 1949, when the last battles ended, Israel had extended its
frontiers by about 5,000 sq km (1,930 sq mi) beyond the 15,500 sq km (4,983 sq mi) allocated to the Jewish state in the UN partition resolution. It had also secured its independence. During 1949, armistice agreements were signed under UN auspices
between Israel and Egypt, Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon. The armistice frontiers were unofficial boundaries until 1967. _^<N__^<N_ SUEZ-SINAI WAR (1956)_^<N__^<N_Border conflicts between Israel and the Arabs continued despite provisions in the 1949
armistice agreements for peace negotiations. Hundreds of thousands of Palestinian Arabs who had left Israeli-held territory during the first war concentrated in refugee camps along Israel's frontiers and became a major source of friction when they
infiltrated back to their homes or attacked Israeli border settlements. A major tension point was the Egyptian-controlled GAZA STRIP, from which Arab guerrillas raided southern Israel. Egypt's blockade of Israeli shipping in the Suez Canal and Gulf
of Aqaba intensified the hostilities. _^<N__^<N_These escalating tensions converged with the SUEZ CRISIS caused by the nationalization of the Suez Canal by Egyptian president Gamal NASSER. Great Britain and France strenuously objected to Nasser's
policies, and a joint military campaign was planned against Egypt with the understanding that Israel would take the initiative by seizing the Sinai Peninsula. The war began on Oct. 29, 1956, after an announcement that the armies of Egypt, Syria,
and Jordan were to be integrated under the Egyptian commander in chief. Israel's Operation Kadesh, commanded by Moshe DAYAN, lasted less than a week; its forces reached the eastern bank of the Suez Canal in about 100 hours, seizing the Gaza Strip
and nearly all the Sinai Peninsula. The Sinai operations were supplemented by an Anglo-French invasion of Egypt on November 5, giving the allies control of the northern sector of the Suez Canal. _^<N__^<N_The war was halted by a UN General Assembly
resolution calling for an immediate ceasefire and withdrawal of all occupying forces from Egyptian territory. The General Assembly also established a United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) to replace the allied troops on the Egyptian side of the
borders in Suez, Sinai, and Gaza. By December 22 the last British and French troops had left Egypt. Israel's forces were not withdrawn from Gaza until March 1957. _^<N__^<N_ SIX-DAY WAR (1967)_^<N__^<N_In the following decade the Suez Canal
remained closed to Israeli shipping, the Arab boycott of Israel was maintained, and periodic border clashes occurred between Israel, Syria, and Jordan. However, UNEF prevented direct military encounters between Egypt and Israel. _^<N__^<N_By 1967
the Arab confrontation states--Egypt, Syria, and Jordan--became impatient with the status quo, and border incidents increased. Tensions culminated in May when Egyptian forces massed in Sinai, and Cairo ordered the UNEF to leave Sinai and Gaza.
President Nasser also announced that the Gulf of Aqaba would be closed again to Israeli shipping. At the end of May, Egypt and Jordan signed a new defense pact placing Jordan's armed forces under Egyptian command. Efforts to de-escalate the crisis
were of no avail. Israeli and Egyptian leaders visited the United States, but President Lyndon Johnson's attempts to persuade Western powers to guarantee free passage through the Gulf failed. _^<N__^<N_Believing that war was inevitable, Israeli
Premier Levi ESHKOL, Minister of Defense Moshe Dayan, and Army Chief of Staff Yitzhak RABIN approved preemptive Israeli strikes at Egyptian, Syrian, Jordanian, and Iraqi airfields on June 5, 1967. By the evening of June 6, Israel had destroyed the
combat effectiveness of the major Arab air forces. Israel also swept into Sinai, reaching the Suez Canal and occupying most of the peninsula in less than four days. _^<N__^<N_King HUSSEIN of Jordon rejected an offer of neutrality and opened fire on
Israeli forces in Jerusalem on June 5. But a lightning Israeli campaign placed all of Arab Jerusalem and the Jordanian West Bank in Israeli hands by June 8. As the war ended on the Jordanian and Egyptian fronts, Israel opened an attack on Syria in
the north. In a little more than two days of fierce fighting, Syrian forces were driven from the Golan Heights, from which they had shelled Jewish settlements across the border. The Six-Day War ended on June 10 when the UN negotiated cease-fire
agreements on all fronts. _^<N__^<N_The Six-Day War increased severalfold the area under Israel's control. Through the occupation of Sinai, Gaza, Arab Jerusalem, the West Bank, and Golan Heights, Israel shortened its land frontiers with Egypt and
Jordan and temporarily increased its strategic advantages vis-a-vis the neighboring Arab states. But the addition of more than 1,500,000 Palestinian Arabs to areas under Israeli control threatened internal security. _^<N__^<N_ OCTOBER WAR
(1973)_^<N__^<N_Israel was the dominant military power in the region for the next six years. Led by Golda MEIR from 1969, it was generally satisfied with the status quo, but Arab leaders repeatedly warned that they would not accept continued
Israeli occupation of the lands lost in 1967. After Anwar al-SADAT succeeded Nasser as president of Egypt in 1970, threats were more frequent, as was periodic massing of troops along the Suez Canal. Egyptian and Syrian forces underwent massive
rearmament with sophisticated Soviet equipment. Sadat consolidated war preparations in secret agreements with President Hafez al-ASSAD of Syria for a joint attack and with King FAISAL of Saudi Arabia to finance the operations. _^<N__^<N_Egypt and
Syria attacked on Oct. 6, 1973, pushing Israeli forces several miles behind the 1967 cease-fire lines. Israel was thrown off guard, partly because the attack came on Yom Kippur (the Day of Atonement), the most sacred Jewish religious day
(coinciding with the Muslim fast of Ramadan). Although Israel recovered from the initial setback, it failed to regain all the territory lost in the first days of fighting. In counterattacks on the Egyptian front, Israel seized a major bridgehead
behind the Egyptian lines on the west bank of the canal. In the north, Israel drove a wedge into the Syrian lines. _^<N__^<N_After 18 days of fighting in the longest Arab-Israeli war since 1948, hostilities were again halted by the UN. The costs
were the greatest in any battles fought since World War II. The three-week war cost Egypt and Israel about $7 billion each, in materiel and losses from declining production or damage. _^<N__^<N_The political phase of the 1973 war ended with
disengagement agreements accepted by Israel, Egypt, and Syria after negotiations in 1974 and 1975 by U.S. secretary of state Henry A. KISSINGER. The agreements provided for Egyptian reoccupation of a strip of land in Sinai along the east bank of
the Suez Canal and for Syrian control of a small area around the Golan Heights town of Kuneitra. UN forces were stationed on both fronts to oversee observance of the agreements. _^<N__^<N_Under an Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty signed on Mar. 26,
1979, Israel returned the Sinai peninsula to Egypt. Hopes for an expansion of the peace process to include other Arab nations waned, however, when Egypt and Israel were subsequently unable to agree on a formula for Palestinian self-rule in the West
Bank and Gaza Strip. In the 1980s tensions were increased by conflicts between Israeli authorities and Palestinians in the occupied territories, by PALESTINE LIBERATION ORGANIZATION (PLO) guerrilla attacks on Israeli settlements in Galilee, and by
Israeli retaliatory raids into Lebanon. _^<N__^<N_ OPERATION "PEACE FOR GALILEE" (1982)_^<N__^<N_On June 6, 1982, Israel launched a full-scale invasion of Lebanon to destroy PLO bases there and to end the attacks across its borders. Meeting little
resistance, Israeli commanders pushed northward, reaching the outskirts of Beirut within a week. Fighting with Syrian forces also erupted; nearly 80 Syrian MiGs and 19 missile batteries in the Bekaa Valley were destroyed without loss of a single
Israeli plane. By the end of June, Israel had captured most of southern Lebanon and besieged PLO and Syrian forces in West Beirut. The siege ended through U.S. mediation in August, when Israel agreed to leave Beirut provided Syrian and PLO forces
also withdrew. A multinational force from the United States and Western Europe supervised the Syrian and PLO evacuation. On September 15, after the assassination of Lebanese president-elect Bashir Gemayel, Israel reoccupied Beirut and authorized
Gemayel's Phalangist militia to "cleanse" Palestinian refugee camps of any remaining PLO fighters. The Phalange massacred hundreds of Palestinians, sparking Israeli antiwar protests. _^<N__^<N_Israel signed an agreement with Lebanon ending the
state of war in May 1983, but Lebanon renounced the pact under Syrian pressure in March 1984. Public pressures in Israel forced the government to begin a phased withdrawal, but Israeli troops were attacked by militant Shiite militiamen as they
departed. After the 1984 Israeli elections, the government decided to complete withdrawal by June 1984, leaving 1,000 "security personnel" to assist its Lebanese allies. While Israel's borders remained secure, its internal stability was threatened
by continued demands for Palestinian self-determination and by an INTIFADA (uprising) in the occupied territories launched in December 1987. The Labor victory in Israel's June 1992 elections and the September 1993 accord with the PLO renewed hopes
of negotiating an interim peace accord between Israel and the Palestinians. _^<N__^<N_Don Peretz _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bailely, S., Four Arab-Israeli Wars and the Peace Process (1990); Cordesman, A. H., The Arab-Israeli Military Balance and the
Art of Operations (1987); Dupuy, T. N., Elusive Victory, rev. ed. (1984); Herzog, C., The Arab-Israeli Wars (1983); Morris, B., Nineteen Forty-Eight and After (1991); Quandt, W., Camp David (1986); Rubin, Barry, Revolution until Victory? The
Politics and History of the PLO (1994); Schiff, Z., and Ya'ari, E., Israel's Lebanon War (1984).
-END-
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797
CAT
-A-
Arab League
-T-
Arab League_^<N__^<N_The League of Arab States was formed in Cairo on Mar. 22, 1945, by Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Transjordan (now Jordan), and Yemen. The main aim of the league is to coordinate the political action and safeguard
the sovereignty of the Arab states. In the council of the league, on which each member has one vote, only unanimous decisions are binding. In 1992 the league had 21 members, including Egypt, which was readmitted in 1989 after being suspended for
ten years due to the Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty of 1979. League quarters, in Tunis from 1979, returned to Cairo in 1990. That year the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait split the league. Twelve of its members condemned Iraq, and nine sent ground
forces to join the anti-Iraq coalition in the 1991 PERSIAN GULF WAR.
-END-
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681
CAT
-A-
arabesque
-T-
arabesque_^<N__^<N_{air-uh-besk'} _^<N__^<N_In art, an arabesque is a decorative pattern composed of rhythmic, curvilinear designs. The term, derived from the Italian arabesco ("Arab-like"), is usually associated with the intricate geometric or
foliated scrollwork seen in Islamic architecture, miniature painting, and minor arts. These delicate traceries can be extended almost endlessly, and when deployed over entire surfaces they form rich textural effects. Architectural arabesques are
usually independent of the structure that carries them; representative examples are found in the 14th-century ALHAMBRA, in Granada, Spain. The motif was also employed in the late Roman and Renaissance periods.
-END-
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2172
CAT
-A-
Arabia
-T-
Arabia_^<N__^<N_Arabia is a large peninsula separated from Africa by the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden on the west and from Asia by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman on the east. The Indian Ocean forms the southern boundary, and the deserts of
Jordan and Syria isolate the area from the north. For these reasons, the Arabs call the area Jazirat al-Arab ("the island of the Arabs"). More than 80% of the 2,590,000-sq km (1,000,000-sq mi) peninsula is occupied by SAUDI ARABIA. The states of
YEMEN, OMAN, the UNITED ARAB EMIRATES, QATAR, and KUWAIT ring the peninsula on the south and east. The island state of BAHRAIN lies 21 km (13 mi) off the eastern coast of Saudi Arabia. The peninsula's population is 33,000,000 (1992 est.).
_^<N__^<N_The Arabian Peninsula is a plateau composed of crystalline rock and overlain with sediments. It is bordered on all sides by a series of escarpments. Summer temperatures average more than 38 deg C (100 deg F). Annual rainfall averages
less than 100 mm (4 in). Only in the highlands of Yemen and the Asir region of Saudi Arabia is there sufficient rainfall to support a permanent river. Mountainous regions are found along the western and southern coasts. Most of the water used to
support the production of millet, wheat, barley, and sheep comes from underground springs. More than one-fifth of the peninsula is covered by the Rub al-Khali ("Empty Quarter"), the largest continuous sand body in the world. Sand ridges hundreds
of miles long and dunes high enough to be called sand mountains are common features of its landscape. The area is virtually uninhabited. Oil fields concentrated around the Persian Gulf account for more than 20% of world petroleum production.
_^<N__^<N_The Arabian peninsula was occupied by the wealthy Sabaean civilization (see SHEBA), then by the Babylonians and Egyptians. It was eventually united (7th century) under MUHAMMAD's caliphs and became the "cradle of Islam." The western
Saudi Arabian province of Hejaz contains MECCA and MEDINA, the holiest cities of Islam. _^<N__^<N_Ira M. Sheskin _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Forster, C., The Historical Geography of Arabia, 2 vols. (1985); Netton, I. R., ed., Arabia and the Gulf
(1986).
-END-
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2014
CAT
-A-
Arabian Desert
-T-
Arabian Desert_^<N__^<N_The Arabian Desert, also called the Eastern Desert, is located in Egypt between the Nile River and the Red Sea, with an extension south into Sudan. It has an area of about 222,500 sq km (85,907 sq mi). The name is believed to
have originated either because of its closeness to Arabia or because it was the original home of the first Arab nomads in Egypt. The name Arabian Desert also is applied sometimes to the deserts of the Arabian Peninsula. _^<N__^<N_The Arabian Desert
is known in Egypt as the Eastern Highlands and has many peaks that rise to more than 1,830 m (5,925 ft). Jabal Shayib, the highest mountain in Egypt, has an elevation of 2,183 m (7,161 ft). Travel is difficult, because the mountains are dissected
deeply by wadis, riverbeds through which water flows only during the occasional winter rains. The area is so inaccessible that St. ANTHONY, the first Christian monk, chose Deir al-Memun as the site for his monastery. A caravan route along Wadi
al-Hammamat--connecting Thebes on the Nile with Quseir on the Red Sea--was once an important link to the south. Most of the desert is barren and inhospitable (annual rainfall is less than 100 mm/4 in), although some of the lower mountain slopes
along the Red Sea become grass covered after the winter rain. The average January temperature is 18 deg C (65 deg F), and the summers are characterized by heat waves. _^<N__^<N_An area of thin, stony soil, the Arabian Desert is inhabited by the
Maaza, a nomadic tribe that arrived from Arabia in the 18th century, and by the nomadic Ababda (who speak Arabic) and Bisharin, both of whom derive from the Hamitic-speaking BEJA. The population lives by herding goats and sheep or by trading. No
major cities or towns are located in the desert. Since ancient times the desert has been a source of porphyry, a hard igneous rock. Petroleum, iron ore, manganese, and granite also occur in the region. _^<N__^<N_Ira M. Sheskin
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Carter, J. R., The Arabian Desert (1987); Petrov, M. P., Deserts of the World (1977).
-END-
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1031
CAT
-A-
Arabian horse
-T-
Arabian horse_^<N__^<N_The Arabian is an ancient breed of HORSE originating in the Middle East, possibly among the Hittites of Anatolia and Syria; there is a legend that it was first bred in the time of King David of Israel. For about 1,400 years
Arabians have been crossed with other European strains, and the grace, hardiness, spirit, speed, and trimness of the Arabian have been passed on not only to the major breeds of lightweight horse--the AMERICAN SADDLE HORSE, QUARTER HORSE,
STANDARDBRED, and THOROUGHBRED-- but to some of the heavier breeds as well. The Arabian is rather small, about 14 to 15 hands (142 to 152 cm or 56 to 60 in). The offspring of crosses with other breeds are nearly always larger. Other
characteristics of the Arabian are a prominent chest and hindquarters; a short back; slender, small-boned legs; and a delicate, dished face with large, wide eyes. Arabians are characteristically bay in color, but gray or white ones are highly
prized. _^<N__^<N_Everett Sentman _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Byerford, S., The Arabian (1987).
-END-
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4355
CATO
-A-
Arabian music
-O-
000000|Arabian music
000302| Origins and Influences
002228| Musical Forms
-T-
Arabian music_^<N__^<N_Arabian music refers to that of the Islamic peoples of Arabia and also, in its broad sense, to that of Islamic peoples in North Africa, Persia, and Syria. Although the major writings on Arabian music appeared after the dawn of
ISLAM (AD 622), music had already been cultivated for thousands of years. _^<N__^<N_ Origins and Influences_^<N__^<N_The music of pre-Islamic Arabia was primarily vocal. It is alleged that singing originated with the caravan song (huda), from
which developed a more sophisticated secular song (nasb). Instruments were generally used alone and served only to accompany the singer. The short lute ('ud), long lute (tunbur), flute (qussaba), tambourine (duff), and drum (tabl) were the most
popular. _^<N__^<N_With the coming of Islam and the Arab conquest of Syria, Egypt, and Persia, foreign musical influence began to be felt more strongly in Arabia. The tuning of the 'ud was altered to afford it the range of the Persian lute. Works
began to be written on musical theory, which borrowed from Syrian and Persian practices. Ibn Misjah (d. c.715) described eight melodic modes (asabi) and six rhythmic patterns (iqaat); these were modified and expanded in the following centuries.
During the Umayyad dynasty (661-750) and the first hundred years of the Abbasid dynasty (750-847), Damascus and Baghdad, respectively, were the centers of culture. The caliphs, or rulers, were noted music patrons, and the classical art flourished
at their courts. Al-Farabi (d. c.950) was one of the greatest music theorists of all time. His Grand Book on Music describes in detail the musical instruments of the age and explains the rhythmic modes then in use. The last of the caliphs had
Safi al-Din (d. 1294) as principal court musician. In his treatises he included an early example of Arabic musical notation and formulated a new theoretical system that consisted of 12 primary melodic modes. By the 14th century the term maqamat
(plural of maqam) referred to the 12 scales. During subsequent centuries additional melodic modes were admitted, and different rhythmic patterns were established; but the development of Arabian music had already reached its zenith, and the music
of this period was built mainly on past achievements. _^<N__^<N_ Musical Forms_^<N__^<N_The two major features of present-day Arabian music are much the same as those of a thousand years ago: a single, unharmonized melodic line, based upon one of
the maqamat, and a repetitive rhythmic cycle (iqa). Each maqam can be represented as a scale whose pitches result from different divisions of a vibrating string. The performer emphasizes particular pitches of the scale and sings or plays standard
musical phrases associated with the maqam. All performers make use of elaboration, embellishment, and improvisation. Programs of Arabian classical music often feature the taqsim, a nonmetrical, improvisatory solo instrumental form in a particular
maqam but without rhythmic accompaniment. The taqsim may be self-contained, or it may preface a metrical solo song or suite (nauba). Another improvisatory form is the layali, performed vocally but otherwise similar to the taqsim. It is often
followed by a composed piece or by a mawwal, which includes melodic improvisation on a poetic text. The maqamat and iqaat are closely linked by the Arabs with their dogma of tathir (ethos) in music. The universality of the modes is underscored by
their connection with moods or emotions, times of the day or year, colors, planets, the zodiac, and so on. Even the instruments have extramusical identifications. The four courses of the ud, for example, are related to the four elements and the
four humors. _^<N__^<N_The most important classical instrument is the ud, a pear-shaped lute with four or more pairs of strings and a wooden soundboard. The most popular flute is the end-blown variety, the nay (a Persian term). The qanun is a
zither with 72 strings in 3-string courses stretched over a trapezoidal box; it is played by plectra worn on each index finger. The two most representative percussion instruments are the tambourine (duff) and the vase drum (darbuka).
_^<N__^<N_Wayne Howard _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Farmer, Henry G., A History of Arabian Music to the Thirteenth Century (1929; repr. 1973); Salvador-Daniel, Francesco, The Music and Musical Instruments of the Arab, ed. and trans. by Henry G. Farmer
(1915; repr. 1976).
-END-
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1412
CAT
-A-
Arabian Nights
-T-
Arabian Nights_^<N__^<N_The Arabian Nights, also called The Thousand and One Nights, is a large collection of stories, mostly of Arabian, Indian, or Persian origin, written in Arabic between the 14th and 16th centuries. They were introduced into
Europe through Antoine Galland's French translation (1704-17). The best-known English version is by the explorer Sir Richard BURTON, who published (1885-88) a complete version. _^<N__^<N_The frame story, Persian in origin, turns on the
woman-hating King Schahriah (Shahryar) who, after his queen's blatant infidelity, marries a different woman each night and then slays her the next morning, thus ensuring her faithfulness. The bride SCHEHERAZADE (Shahrazad), however, beguiles the
king with a series of stories for a thousand and one nights, withholding the ending of each story until the next night. In this way she saves her life. _^<N__^<N_The elaborately plotted stories, filled with intrigue, are folkloric in origin.
Three of the best known are "The History of Aladdin, or the Wonderful Lamp," "The History of Sinbad the Sailor," and "The History of Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves." _^<N__^<N_Jane Colville Betts _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ali, Muhsin, J.,
Scheherazade in England (1981); Gerhardt, M. I., The Art of Story-Telling (1963); Gibb, Hamilton, Arabic Literature: An Introduction (1926; repr. 1974). _^<N__^<N_See also: ALADDIN; ALI BABA; ARABIC LITERATURE; INDIAN LITERATURE; PERSIAN
LITERATURE.
-END-
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30
CAT
-A-
Arabian Peninsula:
-T-
Arabian Peninsula:_^<N__^<N_see ARABIA.
-END-
-C-
661
CAT
-A-
Arabian Sea
-T-
Arabian Sea_^<N__^<N_The Arabian Sea is the broad northern portion of the INDIAN OCEAN, between India and the Arabian Peninsula. It has an area of about 3,859,100 sq km (1,490,300 sq mi) and a mean depth of 2,734 m (8,968 ft). The Arabian Sea
remains unusually deep close to its shores, and its islands, such as SOCOTRA and the LACCADIVE ISLANDS, lie close to the coast. Trade winds blow northeast in winter and southwest in summer, a circumstance that has aided direct crossing of the sea
since the time of early sailing ships. The water surface temperature is normally warm (24 deg C/75 deg F minimum), and fish life is abundant. Its main ports are Bombay and Karachi.
-END-
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2772
CAT
-A-
Arabic language
-T-
Arabic language_^<N__^<N_Arabic belongs to the Semitic branch of AFROASIATIC LANGUAGES and is the national language of about 175 million inhabitants of North Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Iraq. Outside these areas, it is
spoken by Arabs living in Israel, and in some parts of sub-Saharan Africa, North and South America, and Soviet Central Asia. Since it is the language of the KORAN, some limited knowledge of it exists throughout the Muslim world. _^<N__^<N_All Arabs
have as their mother tongue some local variety of Arabic. These vernaculars differ markedly so that, for example, Moroccan Arabic is virtually unintelligible in Iraq. The local vernacular is used in everyday commerce, but rarely written.
Contrasting to the local vernaculars is standard, or formal, Arabic, which is used for writing and formal speech. Because it must be learned at school, large sectors of the Arab public do not command it sufficiently to use it themselves, although
radio and other media are gradually spreading its comprehension. Standard Arabic has remained remarkably stable. In grammar and basic vocabulary the Arabic literature produced from the 8th century to the present is strikingly homogeneous; the
works of the medieval writers differ from modern standard Arabic hardly more than Shakespeare's language differs from modern English. _^<N__^<N_Standard literary Arabic is capable of expressing the finest shades of meaning. The vernaculars in
their present form cannot perform the same task. If they were adapted, such a development would fatally split the unity of the Arab world. Today tensions exist between the standard language and the vernaculars, particularly in imaginative
literature. In drama the demand for realism favors the vernacular, and many poets are tending toward their mother tongue. In the novel and short story, the trend is toward having the characters speak in the vernacular while the author uses formal
language. Some of the most celebrated living novelists and poets, however, write exclusively in the standard language. _^<N__^<N_A. F. L. Beeston _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Beeston, A. F. L., The Arabic Language Today (1970); Caspari, Carl Paul, A
Grammar of the Arabic Language, 3d rev. ed. (1974); Chejne, A. G., The Arabic Language: Its Role in History (1969); Cowan, David, Introduction to Modern Literary Arabic (1958); Owens, Jonathan, The Foundations of Grammar: An Introduction to
Medieval Arabic Grammatical Theory (1987); Tarazi, Fuad, Studies in Fundamentals of Arabic Language and Grammar (1969); Thatcher, Griffithes Wheeler, A New Arabic Grammar of the Written Language, 2d ed. (1970); Winder, R. B., and Ziadeh, Farhat
J., Introduction to Modern Arabic (1957); Wright, William, Grammar of the Arabic Language, 2 vols., 3d ed. (1933-67).
-END-
-C-
4979
CATO
4814
-A-
Arabic literature
-O-
000000|Arabic literature
000806| Historical Periods
002787| Modern Period
-T-
Arabic literature_^<N__^<N_A written Arabic literature began to be known with the collection of the KORAN, the sacred book of Islam, in Arabia in the 7th century AD. With the spread of the Islamic faith into Asia, Africa, and Europe, the Arabic
language soon became a major world language. Today it is read or understood by hundreds of millions of people. _^<N__^<N_Even before the revelations of MUHAMMAD (c.570-632) were collected in the Koran, however, the Arabs possessed a highly
developed poetry, composed for recitation and transmitted orally from generation to generation. The most famous examples are the elaborate odes, or qasidahs, of the Mu'allaqat ("the suspended ones"), beginning with those of IMRU' AL-QAIS (fl.
c.540). These poems reflected and praised the customs and values of the desert environment in which they arose. _^<N__^<N_ Historical Periods_^<N__^<N_The history of Arabic literature is usually divided into periods marking the dynastic changes
and divisions that took place within the Islamic world. During the UMAYYAD period (AD 661-750), Arabic prose literature was limited primarily to grammatical treatises, commentaries on the Koran, and the compiling of stories about Muhammad and his
companions. The Umayyad poets, chief of whom were al-Akhtal (7th-8th cent.) and al-Farazdaq (c.640-732), favored new poetic forms such as love lyrics (called ghazals), wine songs, and hunting poems. These forms reflected the conditions of life and
manners found in the territories conquered by Islam. _^<N__^<N_In the early years of the ABBASID empire (750-1258), many forms were invented for Arabic literature, which then entered what is generally regarded its greatest period of development and
achievement. It is certain that Persian influences contributed significantly to this development. For example, translations from the Persian, such as those of IBN AL-MUQAFFA' (d. 757), led to a new refinement in Arabic prose called adab, often
sprinkled with poetry and utilizing rhymed prose (saj' ), the style of the Koran. The greatest masters of adab were al-JAHIZ (d. 868) and al-HARIRI (d. 1122). An inventive type of folk literature, exemplified in The Thousand and One Nights
(popularly known as the ARABIAN NIGHTS), drew upon the recitations of wandering storytellers called rawis. ABU NUWAS (d. c.810) was acknowledged as foremost among the new poets who used the Arabic language with greater freedom and imagination. An
experimental tradition now vied with a classical tradition, and some poets excelled in both traditions; al-MAARRI (973-1057) and al-MUTANABI (915-965) are regarded as the greatest among them. In Spain an independent poetic tradition culminated in
the exquisite lyrics of Ibn Zaydun and Ibn Quzman (d. 1160). The Romance of Antar, the closest work to an epic in Arabic, was also written about this time. _^<N__^<N_ Modern Period_^<N__^<N_During the centuries of Ottoman Turkish domination, Arabic
literature fell into decline. Not until the mid-19th century was it revived in the intellectual movement known as the nahdah ("reawakening"), which originated in Syria and spread to Egypt. At first highly imitative of the themes and forms of
European literature, modern Arabic literature, both prose and poetry, has gradually freed itself from centuries of neglect and has assumed its former place among the world's great literatures. Arabic writers of the past hundred years have been
extremely versatile. Most of their work is characterized by a strong concern for social issues. Outstanding among recent Arabic novelists, dramatists, and essayists are Tawfiq al-HAKIM, Nobelist Naguib MAHFOUZ, and Taha Husayn. Among the poets,
Iliya ABU MADI, Adonis, Ahmad Shawqi, ABu Shadi, and Abbas al-Aqqad excel. Many of their works have been translated and are enjoyed by non-Arab connoisseurs of literature everywhere. Iliya ABU MADI, ADONIS, Ahmad Shawqi, Abu Shadi, and Abbas
al-Aqqad excel. Many of their works have been translated and are enjoyed by non-Arab connoisseurs of literature everywhere. _^<N__^<N_James Kritzeck _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Allen, R., The Arabic Novel (1982) and as ed., Modern Arabic Literature
(1987); Arbuthnot, F. F., Arabic Authors (1984); Badawi, M. M., Critical Introduction to Arabic Poetry (1976); Badran, M., and Cooke, M., eds., Opening the Gates (1990); Bakalla, M.H., Arabic Culture through Its Language and Literature
(1984); Chaitanya, K., A History of Arabic Literature (1983); Gibb, Hamilton A. R., Arabic Literature, 2d rev. ed. (1963); Goldziher, Ignace, A Short History of Classical Arabic Literature (1966); Hamori, Andras, On the Art of Medieval
Arabic Literature (1974); Haywood, John A., Modern Arabic Literature (1971); Jayyusi, S. K., ed., Modern Arabic Poetry: An Anthology (1987) and The Literature of Modern Arabia (1988); Kritzeck, James, Anthology of Islamic Literature (1964) and
Modern Islamic Literature (1970); Moosa, M., The Origins of Modern Arabic Fiction (1983); Nicholson, Reynold A., A Literary History of the Arabs, 2d ed. (1969).
-END-
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19126
CATO
4853
9685
14530
-A-
Arabs
-O-
000000|Arabs
001067| ARAB HISTORY
005480| PEOPLE AND ECONOMY
011960| MODERN POLITICS AND SOCIAL ISSUES
016401| FUTURE PROSPECTS
-T-
Arabs_^<N__^<N_The term Arabs refers to the people who speak Arabic as their native language. A Semitic people like the Jews (see SEMITES), Arabs form the bulk of the population of Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya,
Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. In addition, there are about 1.7 million Palestinian Arabs living under Israeli rule in the WEST BANK and GAZA STRIP, territories occupied by Israel
during the 1967 Arab-Israeli War (see ARAB-ISRAELI WARS), and more than 700,000 Arab citizens of Israel. Estimates of the total Arab population of the countries above range from 175 to 200 million. The great majority of Arabs are Muslims, but
there are significant numbers of Christian Arabs in Egypt (see COPTIC CHURCH), Lebanon, and Syria and among Palestinians. In geographical terms the Arab world includes North Africa and most of the Middle East (excluding Turkey, Israel, and Iran),
a region that has been a center of civilization and crossroads of trade since prehistoric times. _^<N__^<N_ ARAB HISTORY_^<N__^<N_References to Arabs as nomads and camel herders of northern ARABIA appear in Assyrian inscriptions of the 9th century
BC. The name was subsequently applied to all inhabitants of the Arabian peninsula. From time to time Arab kingdoms arose across on the fringes of the desert, including the Nabataeans at PETRA in southern Jordan in the 2d century BC and PALMYRA in
central Syria in the 3d century AD, but no great Arab empire emerged until ISLAM appeared in the 7th century AD. _^<N__^<N_Although a majority of Muslims today are not Arabs, the religion was born in the Arabian peninsula and Arabic is its mother
tongue. MECCA, a place of religious pilgrimage for tribes of western Arabia and a trading center on the route between southern Arabia and the urban civilizations of the eastern Mediterranean and Iraq, was the birthplace of the prophet of Islam,
MUHAMMAD Ibn Abdullah (c.570-632 AD); the Muslim calendar begins with his flight to MEDINA in 622 because it marked the founding of a separate Muslim community. By the time of Muhammad's death, Mecca and nearly all the tribes of the peninsula had
accepted Islam. A century later the lands of Islam, under Arab leadership, stretched from Spain in the west across North Africa and most of the modern Middle East into Central Asia and northern India. _^<N__^<N_There were two great Islamic
dynasties of Arab origin, the UMAYYADS (661-750), centered in Damascus, and the ABBASIDS (750-1258), whose capital was Baghdad. Most Umayyad rulers insisted on Arab primacy over non-Arab converts to Islam, while the Abbasid caliphs (see CALIPHATE)
accepted the principle of Arab and non-Arab equality as Muslims. At its height in the 8th and 9th centuries, the Abbasid caliphate was extraordinarily wealthy, dominating trade routes between Asia and Europe. Islamic civilization flourished
during the Abbasid period (see ARABIC LITERATURE; ISLAMIC ART AND ARCHITECTURE) even though the political unity of the caliphate often shattered into rival dynasties. Greek philosophy was translated into Arabic and contributed to the expansion of
Arab-Persian Islamic scholarship. Islamic treatises on medicine, philosophy, and science, including Arabic translation of Plato and Aristotle, greatly influenced Christian thinkers in Europe in the 12th century by way of Muslim Spain.
_^<N__^<N_The power of the Arab Abbasid family declined from the 10th century onward due to internal political and religious rivalries and victories by Christian European Crusaders (see CRUSADES; MIDDLE EAST, HISTORY OF THE) seeking to recapture
territory lost to Islam. The Mongol invasion of the 13th century (see MONGOLS) led to the destruction of the Abbasid caliphate in 1258 and opened the way for the eventual rise of a great Turkish Muslim empire known as the OTTOMAN EMPIRE. The
Ottomans took Constantinople (Istanbul) from the Byzantines in 1453 and had taken control of the Arab Middle East and most of North Africa by the end of the 16th century. Arabs remained subjects of the Ottoman Turks for over 300 years--into the
20th century. _^<N__^<N_The Arab world of today is the product of Ottoman decline, European colonialism, and Arab demands for freedom from European occupation. At the beginning of World War I all of North Africa was under French (Algeria, Tunisia,
Morocco), Italian (Libya), or British (Egypt) domination. After World War I the League of Nations divided the Arab lands that had remained Ottoman during the war between Britain and France with the understanding that each power would encourage the
development of the peoples of the region toward self-rule. Iraq and PALESTINE (including what is now Jordan) went to Britain, and Syria and Lebanon to France. Britain had suggested to Arab leaders during the war that Palestine would be included in
areas to be given Arab self-determination, but British officials then promised the region to the Zionist movement, which called for a Jewish state there (see ZIONISM). The Arab lands gained their independence in stages after World War II,
sometimes, as in Algeria, after long and bitter struggles. Much of Palestine became the state of Israel in May 1948, setting the stage for the Arab-Israeli conflict, in which five wars have occurred (1948-49, 1956, 1967, 1973, and 1982), and
contributing to the rise of the PALESTINE LIBERATION ORGANIZATION (PLO), which gained prominence after the humiliating Arab losses in the 1967 war. _^<N__^<N_ PEOPLE AND ECONOMY_^<N__^<N_Arabs have traditionally been considered nomads, epitomized
by the BEDOUIN of Arabia. Stereotypical portrayals of Arabs today use the image of the nomad or tribal sheik, usually with prejudicial intent. In fact, it is difficult to generalize about Arabs in terms of appearance or way of life. Bedouins are
less than 10 percent of the total Arab population. Most Arab societies are heavily urbanized, particularly the oil-rich states of the Arabian Peninsula. _^<N__^<N_This reversal of the stereotype of the desert Arab owes much to the fact that there
is little if any agriculture in such societies. Major peasant populations are found in countries such as Egypt (see FELLAHIN), Syria, Algeria, and Iraq, where there is water for irrigation, but even there generalizations are difficult. All these
nations have heavy urban concentrations; Cairo, for example, has a population of 14 million and is still expanding. As a whole, then, Arab society today is more heavily urban than rural, as a result of major political, economic, and social
changes that have occurred in the last century. In addition, there are important variations in political and religious outlooks among Arabs. _^<N__^<N_In the midst of such diversity the two basic elements uniting most Arabs are the Arabic language
and Islam. Though spoken Arabic differs from country to country, the written language forms a cultural basis for all Arabs. Islam does the same for many, with Arabic being the language of the KORAN, the revealed word of God delivered through the
prophet Muhammad. Most Arabs are Sunni Muslims (see SUNNITES). A minority are SHIITES. The division of Islam into two main branches is the result of a dispute over succession to the caliphate that goes back to the 7th century and has led to
certain doctrinal differences between the two branches. The major Shiite country is non-Arab Iran, but there are large numbers of Shiites in Iraq (where they form a majority) and in Lebanon (where Shiites are now the biggest single religious
group). Shiite tensions are due partly to Iranian efforts to promote Shiite Islam in the aftermath of the 1979 revolution that brought Ayatollah Ruhollah KHOMEINI to power and partly to the fact that Shiites, who form the economic underclass in
many Arab nations, feel that they have been discriminated against by the Sunnite majority. _^<N__^<N_Although traditional tribal life has nearly disappeared, tribal values and identity retain some importance, especially when linked to Islam.
Descent from the clan of the prophet Muhammad or from one of the first Arab tribes to accept Islam still carries great prestige. Many villages and towns contain prominent families with common links to tribal ancestors. Blood ties contribute to the
formation of political factions. These types of relationships are less prevalent in cities; even there, however, leading families may seek to intermarry their children to preserve traditional bonds, and many urban families retain patronage ties to
their villages. _^<N__^<N_Nevertheless, the importance of kinship has been weakened by the rapid expansion of urban society, by modern educational systems, and by the creation of centralized governments whose bureaucracies are often the major
source of employment for university graduates. Many educated young people choose spouses from among fellow classmates, a development that reflects especially the expansion of educational and professional opportunities for women. It is not
uncommon for young people to become engaged and then wait a year or two to marry because they cannot find or afford suitable housing immediately. In the past the bride would have become part of the husband's family household, a custom still
followed in many villages. _^<N__^<N_This rapid pace of urbanization and social change has been encouraged by economic constraints found in many Arab societies. Except for oil, there are few natural resources to be exploited for industrial
development. Agricultural productivity is generally high in Arab countries, but productive land is scarce in some regions because of the lack of water, and droughts and rising demand have increased the possibility of conflicts over water resources
shared by neighboring countries. Fewer opportunities in agriculture, coupled with social modernization, have caused young people to flock to major cities seeking education and employment. This has placed serious strains on governmental abilities
to respond to social needs. _^<N__^<N_This process has been exacerbated by another factor--the rapid rate of population growth in many Arab countries. Most have a rate of increase near 3% annually, as compared to rates of growth in Western Europe
of under 1%. These growth rates reflect the impact of modern medicine and social services that have lessened infant mortality. The tendency to smaller families found in Western urban societies has not occurred because of the prevalence of
traditional attitudes favoring large families, particularly among the poor and in areas where tribal values prevail. The United Arab Emirates has a growth rate approaching 9%, and even a rate of 2.7% for Egypt means that a million Egyptians are
born every 9 months in a country where agricultural land comprises only 12% of the total land area, forcing further urban congestion and the need to import more food to maintain subsistence levels. This inability to feed one's population from
indigenous resources leads to increased indebtedness and a diversion of funds needed for development. _^<N__^<N_One final element in this equation is the large number of young people in these expanding populations. For example, 60% of all
Tunisians are under 20 years of age, a not unrepresentative statistic suggesting that future problems of unemployment and food shortages will be greater than they are now. These population indices suggest great potential for social unrest, and the
failure of many secular Arab regimes to fulfill their promises of economic prosperity and national strength have contributed to the increasing adherence to Islam by young people in some Arab countries. Among the young, in particular, Arab
inability to regain the territories lost in the 1967 war with Israel led to questioning of the secular ideologies that had dominated regional politics during the post-World War II era, while a growing gap between rich and poor and the spread of
education increased demands for greater participation in largely undemocratic political systems. _^<N__^<N_ MODERN POLITICS AND SOCIAL ISSUES_^<N__^<N_The men who led the Arab independence movements after World War I were usually secularists.
Although many of them, such as Egypt's Gamal Abdul NASSER, were Pan-Arab nationalists who advocated the creation of a single Arab nation, they believed it essential that their countries adopt many aspects of Western civilization, such as secular
laws, parliamentary government, and the like. These views challenged the primacy of Islam in everyday life. Islamic law (see SHARIA) makes no distinction between religious and temporal power. Muslims believe that all law derives from the Koran,
and that God's word must therefore apply to all aspects of life. The gradual relegation of Islam to the realm of personal status, a process that began during the period of Western dominance, continued as Arab nations gained independence under
nationalist leaders who believed that Islam lacked answers to the problems confronting modern society and national development. _^<N__^<N_Many devout Arab Muslims disagreed. The Muslim Brotherhood, for example, was formed in Egypt as early as 1929
to meet the needs of Egyptians uprooted by modern economic and cultural inroads into traditional Egyptian life. A central tenet of all such Muslim groups is the belief that Western economic and social values cannot restore past Arab greatness, and
that Muslim societies must be based on principles derived from their own roots. Beyond this, such groups often differ on the type of society they envisage and how to achieve it. Some organizations advocate overthrow of existing regimes, others
the spread of their views by peaceful means. The call to Islam has special appeal to those who are unemployed and have little hope of a secure future, people who are the victims rather than the beneficiaries of modernization. Many others who have
rejected membership in such groups have returned to the private religious duties of Islam, such as praying five times daily, fasting during the holy month of RAMADAN, and making a pilgrimage to Mecca. _^<N__^<N_Muslim organizations see the West as
the real threat to Islamic stability. Most see Israel as an agent of the West in the Middle East, depriving Palestinian Arabs of their rightful homeland. Even secular Arabs who admire the West and fear reintroduction of a Muslim theocracy
nevertheless often feel angered at what they perceive as Western and especially American ignorance of and unconcern for Arab concerns. The Palestinian uprising (INTIFADA) launched in December 1988 has created new awareness of the problem.
_^<N__^<N_On the other hand, anti-Israel pronouncements have often served to create a false impression of unity when real agreement was lacking. The ARAB LEAGUE, formed in 1945, has been more a forum for Arab infighting than a framework for
cooperation. Arabs genuinely feel common bonds based on language and a shared historical and cultural legacy, but they also identify themselves as Egyptians, Iraqis, and so on. Their ideological differences reflect the wide range of governing
systems in the Arab world, from socialist regimes to oil-rich monarchies. _^<N__^<N_Complicating factors for the region have been the IRAN-IRAQ WAR (1980-88), tensions between Iran and the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, regional involvement in
Lebanon, and the 1991 PERSIAN GULF WAR. As of 1990, more than 60% of the proved oil reserves of the globe could be found in the Middle East, particularly in Saudi Arabia, which contains nearly half of the world's reserves. Oil has been exported
from the Arab world since the 1930s, but only with the creation of the ORGANIZATION OF PETROLEUM EXPORTING COUNTRIES (OPEC) in 1960 and the Libyan revolution of 1969 did these countries begin to determine oil prices themselves. Although only eight
Arab nations are substantial oil producers and OPEC has several non-Arab members, the organization is usually associated with Arab oil; the oil shortages of 1973-74 resulted from Saudi anger at U. S. policy during the 1973 Arab-Israeli War.
Overproduction drove down prices in the 1980s, weakening OPEC's clout and the ability of the oil-producing Arab states to provide aid and jobs for the poorer Arab nations. Oil experts believe, however, that the Arab world will remain the center of
world oil production, a fact that contributed to the international response to Iraq's 1990 invasion of Kuwait and to the ongoing efforts to destroy Iraq's nuclear capability. _^<N__^<N_ FUTURE PROSPECTS_^<N__^<N_The Arab world holds potential for
both growth and conflict. A solution to the Palestinian problem would defuse the likelihood of another Arab-Israeli war and permit allocation of resources to domestic sectors rather than to military outlays. Some Arab efforts to promote more
unified approaches to common problems have been made in recent years, including the formation of the Gulf Cooperation Council (1981) and the Arab Maghrib Union (1989), and the union of the Yemens in 1990. Efforts to forge Arab unity are strained
by competition among Iraq, Syria, and Egypt for leadership of the Arab world, and the varied Arab reactions to Iraqi's invasion of Kuwait shattered the myth of such unity. Prospects for regional stability and hopes for a negotiated settlement of
the Palestinian problem did improve somewhat with the ending of the Cold War and the emergence of an independent Palestinian nationalist movement in the occupied territories. The impact of population growth on development and the success of
appeals to the disaffected by Islamic militants, who have become the main Arab opposition movement, are crucial to Arab prospects. _^<N__^<N_Charles D. Smith _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Alnasrawi, A., Arab Nationalism, Oil, and the Political Economy
of Dependency (1991); Anderson, L., et al., The Origins of Arab Nationalism (1991); Beck, L., and Keddie, N., eds., Women in the Muslim World (1978); Dessouki, A. E. H., ed., Islamic Resurgence in the Modern World (1982); Drysdale, Alasdair, and
Blake, Gerald, The Middle East and North Africa: A Political Geography (1985); Esposito, John L., The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality? (1992); Europa Publications, The Middle East and North Africa, 1991, 37th ed. (1991); Fernea, Elizabeth W. and
Robert A., Arab World (1987); Fromkin, David, A Peace to End All Peace: Creating the Modern Middle East, 1914-1922 (1989); Held, Colbert C., Middle East Patterns: Places, People, and Politics (1989); Hodgson, Marshall, The Venture of Islam, 3
vols. (1974); Hourani, A., ed., The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the Middle East and North Africa (1988) and A History of the Arab Peoples (1991; repr. 1992); Lamb, David, The Arabs: Journey beyond the Mirage (1987); Mackey, Sandra, Passion and
Politics: The Turbulent World of the Arabs (1992); Mansfield, Peter, A History of the Middle East (1991); Mernissi, Fatima, Islam and Democracy: Fear of the Modern World, trans. by Mary Jo Lakeland (1992); Mostyn, Trevor, and Hourani, Albert,
eds., The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the Middle East and North Africa (1988); Shaheen, Jack G., The TV Arab (1984); Smith, Charles D., Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict (1988); Sonn, T., Between Qur'an and Crown (1990).
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245
CAT
-A-
Arachne
-T-
Arachne_^<N__^<N_{uh-rak'-nee} _^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, Arachne was a woman of Lydia who was so skilled in weaving that she presumed to challenge the goddess ATHENA to a contest. After seeing the perfection of Arachne's work, Athena changed her
into a spider.
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1825
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arachnid
-T-
arachnid_^<N__^<N_{uh-rak'-nid} _^<N__^<N_Arachnids are a major class of the ARTHROPOD phylum and include the SPIDER (order Araneae); SCORPION (order Scorpiones); MITE and TICK (order Acarina); harvestman and daddy longlegs (order Opiliones, or
Phelangida); whip scorpion and vinegaroon (order Uropygi); and the SUN SPIDER, or wind scorpion, (order Solifugae). The class comprises more than 60,000 species. Most dwell on land, a few in water. _^<N__^<N_Arachnids are usually small, less
than 5 cm (2 in) long, with the exception of the sun spiders, the scorpions, the tailless whip scorpion, and some whip scorpions and spiders. Some mites are as small as 0.1 mm (0.004 in), but certain African scorpions attain a length of about 18
cm (7 in). _^<N__^<N_Arachnids have two major body parts: a posterior opisthosoma and an anterior prosoma with six pairs of appendages. These appendages include the following: a pair of chelicerae (often pincerlike, small, and associated with
feeding); a pair of pedipalps (pincerlike limbs that scorpions use for holding prey, and male spiders use as a copulatory organ); and four pairs of walking legs. The prosoma houses the brain and usually bears, on its upper surface (carapace), up to
six pairs of simple, never compound, eyes. _^<N__^<N_Most arachnids are nocturnal predators, feeding mostly on small arthropods; the mites and ticks, however, are commonly either herbivorous or parasitic, and some harvestmen are scavengers. Fossils
of scorpions are found in geologic formations of the Silurian Period, and arachnids were probably among the first animals to invade the land from the sea. _^<N__^<N_Jonathan Reiskind _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Barth, F. G., ed., Neurobiology of
Arachnids (1985); Levi, H. W. and L. R., Spiders and Their Kin (1968); Nardi, Jim, Close Encounters with Insects and Spiders (1988); Snow, Keith R., Arachnids (1970).
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1285
CAT
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Arafat, Yasir
-T-
Arafat, Yasir_^<N__^<N_{ahr'-ah-faht, yah-seer'} _^<N__^<N_Yasir Arafat, b. 1929, is the leader of the PALESTINE LIBERATION ORGANIZATION (PLO). A native of Palestine, Arafat emigrated to Egypt after the establishment of the state of Israel and later
became head of al-Fatah, an anti-Israeli guerrilla group. Named chairman of the PLO in 1969, he originally sought to replace Israel with a secular Palestinian state and was widely recognized as the chief spokesman for the Palestinian people. After
Palestinians in the Israeli-occupied territories launched an uprising (INTIFADA) in December 1987, Arafat persuaded the PLO to declare (November 1988) an independent state, renounced terrorism, and accepted UN Resolution 242 and Israel's right to
exist. Named president of the Palestinian government in exile in 1989, Arafat faced increasing hard-line, religious, and pragmatic challenges to his leadership. On Sept. 13, 1993, he changed the face of Middle East diplomacy by signing an
unprecedented accord with Israel on Palestinian self-rule in the Gaza Strip and Jericho. The PLO accord with Israel was opposed by PLO rejectionists and radical Muslims. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hart, A., Arafat (1989); Rubin, Barry, Revolution
until Victory? The Politics and History of the PLO (1994); Wallach, J., Arafat (1990).
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674
CAT
-A-
Arago, Francois
-T-
Arago, Francois_^<N__^<N_{ahr-ah-goh'} _^<N__^<N_The French physicist and astronomer Dominique Francois Jean Arago, b. Feb. 16, 1786, d. Oct. 2, 1853, was an early and vocal supporter of Thomas Young's wave theory of light. He invented numerous
optical instruments and became politically influential. Arago's investigations into the polarization of light confirmed the wave theory, and his invention of the polariscope and the polarimeter proved useful in physics and astronomy. Throughout his
political career, which included prolonged membership in the Chamber of Deputies, he staunchly advocated social reform, freedom of the press, and the application of science to technological progress.
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1810
CAT
-A-
Aragon
-T-
Aragon_^<N__^<N_{air'-uh-gahn} _^<N__^<N_Aragon is an historic region and former kingdom in northeastern Spain. Today it is made up of the provinces of Huesca, Zaragoza, and Teruel, and covers an area of 47,609 sq km (18,382 sq mi). It extends
from the Pyrenees, which separate it from France, to the high plateaus that separate it from Castile, a distance of about 320 km (200 mi). To the southeast, and separating it from the Mediterranean Sea, is Catalonia. Aragon has three distinct
regions: the southern flanks of the Pyrenees in the north, the wide plain of Aragon formed by the Ebro River and its tributaries, and, in the south, the mountains and plateaus that border Castile. _^<N__^<N_Temperature and rainfall vary greatly
with altitude. In the Ebro Valley summers are very hot, averaging about 25 deg C (77 deg F) in July, and winters are cool, averaging about 7 deg C (45 deg F) in January. Annual rainfall is less than 508 mm (20 in), except in the mountains, and
parts of the region verge on desert conditions. _^<N__^<N_The population of 1,212,362 (1986 est.) is sparsely spread over most of Aragon, whose only large city is SARAGOSSA (Zaragoza). Agriculture is the predominant occupation but can be carried on
only with extensive irrigation in parts of the Ebro Valley. _^<N__^<N_The kingdom of Aragon was formed in the 11th century out of lands formerly controlled by the MOORS. It grew with the annexation of the county of Barcelona (Catalonia) in 1137
and Valencia in 1238. The marriage of FERDINAND II of Aragon and ISABELLA I of Castile led to the unification of Spain into a single kingdom in 1516. _^<N__^<N_Norman J.G. Pounds _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Alexander, D. W., Rod of Iron (1985);
Chaytor, H. J., A History of Aragon and Catalonia (1933; repr. 1969); Schneidman, J. Lee, Rise of the Aragonese-Catalan Empire: 1200-1350, 2 vols. (1970).
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1539
CAT
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Aragon, Louis
-T-
Aragon, Louis_^<N__^<N_{ahr-ah-gohn'} _^<N__^<N_Louis Aragon, b. Oct. 3, 1897, d. Dec. 24, 1982, a French writer, began his career as a brilliantly iconoclastic participant in DADA and then in SURREALISM. Leaving the surrealist movement after a
visit to the USSR in 1930-31, he joined the Communist party and devoted himself mainly to realistic and political fiction. _^<N__^<N_Some of Aragon's early writings are among the classic surrealist texts. The poems in La Grande Gaite (1929)
memorably illustrate surrealist poetic investigation through wordplay and constitute an essential contribution to the foundation of surrealist poetics. His novel Le Paysan de Paris (1926; The Night Walker, 1950) develops the surrealist concept of
"the daily marvelous" (le merveilleux quotidien) through its evocation of the urban landscape of the French capital. In Traite du style (1928) he offered not a treatise on style but a virtuoso display of invective, inspired by the surrealist ethic.
_^<N__^<N_He inaugurated his realistic fiction in 1934 with Les Cloches de Bale (The Bells of Basel, 1936) and thereafter became increasingly Marxist oriented. His realistic work is pedestrian, earnest, and well intentioned, as are the poems of his
postsurrealist period. _^<N__^<N_J. H. Matthews _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Becker, Lucille F., Louis Aragon (1971); Caws, Mary Ann, The Poetry of Dada and Surrealism (1970); Josephson, Hannah, and Cowley, Malcolm, eds., Aragon: Poet of Resurgent
France (1946; repr. 1980); Matthews, J. H., Surrealist Poetry in France (1969) and Theatre in Dada and Surrealism (1974).
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580
CAT
-A-
aragonite
-T-
aragonite_^<N__^<N_{uh-rag'-uh-nyt} _^<N__^<N_Aragonite is the less common and stable of the two calcium CARBONATE MINERALS; the other is CALCITE. Occurring in near-surface deposits, aragonite forms crystals that are glassy-white, slender, and
tapering, as well as columnar masses, stalactites, and crusts. Some specimens fluoresce green (see FLUORESCENCE). Aragonite is formed through organic agencies as pearl and mother-of-pearl; it is precipitated as a hot-spring deposit and in beds
with GYPSUM as an evaporite deposit. Hardness is 3.5-4, streak is white, and specific gravity is 2.9-3.0.
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500
CAT
-A-
Araguaia River
-T-
Araguaia River_^<N__^<N_{ahr-uh-gwy'-uh} _^<N__^<N_The Araguaia (Araguaya) River is in central Brazil. Rising in the Sierra des Araras in Mato Grosso state, it flows north for 2,627 km (1,632 mi), forming the border between Goias state on the east
and Mato Grosso and Para states on the west. It joins the TOCANTINS RIVER at Sao Joao do Araguaia, just before Maraba. At the northeastern corner of Mato Grosso state, the river divides into two branches for about 320 km (200 mi) and then rejoins,
forming Bananal Island.
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1089
CAT
-A-
Aral Sea
-T-
Aral Sea_^<N__^<N_{ar'-ul} _^<N__^<N_The Aral Sea is a large inland body of water located in former Soviet Central Asia on the border between Kazakhstan to the north and the Uzbekistan to the south. The Ustyurt Plateau is to the west and the Kyzyl
Kum desert to the southeast. The Aral Sea has no outlet. It is fed by two rivers, the SYR DARYA on the east and the AMU DARYA on the south. These rivers have been tapped extensively for irrigation, and their flow has been so drastically cut that
the Aral Sea's area declined by about 40% between 1960 and 1990. Increasing salinity and pollution have destroyed the fishing industry; the former Uzbek port of Muynak is now 48 km (30 mi) inland. Schemes proposed to halt the sea's shrinkage,
which poses a severe environmental threat to the surrounding area, include reductions in water usage and the building of a canal to divert water from the IRTYSH RIVER into the Aral Sea. The Aral Sea was known as the Khwarazan Sea to the Arabs as
early as AD 903. Native KAZAKHS were living in the area when the Russians first sighted the sea in the 17th century.
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1649
CAT
-A-
Arales
-T-
Arales_^<N__^<N_{uh-ray'-leez} _^<N__^<N_The plant order Arales comprises the ARUM family, Araceae, or aroids, and the DUCKWEED family, Lemnaceae. Plants of this order are perennial herbs with small flowers on a fleshy spike, or spadix, wrapped in
a reduced leaf called a spathe. _^<N__^<N_The aroids, which are found worldwide but mainly in the forests of tropical regions, number more than 100 genera and about 2,000 species. Some are important food plants--especially TARO, Colocasia
esculenta, which is cultivated in eastern Asia, the Pacific Islands, and the West Indies for its edible tuber. Familiar American species include the CALLA, JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT, and SKUNK CABBAGE. Many aroids make striking houseplants and are used
as ornamentals. The leaves are extremely variable. In some genera, such as Monstera, they are large and may develop holes; in others, they are compound. The flowers are often attractive but may have an unpleasantly pungent odor. Some species of
Anthurium have masses of scarlet or vermilion spathes with protruding, creamy-white spadices. In the climbing aroids, aerial roots are common. They serve as supports and may also grow into the soil and function as roots. _^<N__^<N_The duckweeds,
which number 4 genera and about 30 species, are common on ponds, lakes, and still streams in tropical and temperate regions, where they often form a thin green mat on the water's surface. A much simplified form of Arales, duckweeds are among the
smallest and simplest of flowering plants. They rarely flower and have no distinct stems or leaves. _^<N__^<N_Robert C. Romans _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Fernald, Merritt L., Gray's Manual of Botany, 8th ed. (1950; repr. 1987).
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1396
CAT
-A-
Aramaeans
-T-
Aramaeans_^<N__^<N_{air-uh-may'-uhnz} _^<N__^<N_The Aramaeans were an ancient West Semitic people of the Syro-Palestinian area in the Near East. Originally seminomadic, they are known from about 1500 BC. Their population may have included tribal
elements of other neighboring Semitic peoples, particularly the earliest Hebrews, whose ancestor Jacob is called "a wandering Aramaean" in Deuteronomy 26:5. Wandering Aramaeans continually harassed the inhabitants of northern Mesopotamia (ASSYRIA)
and southern Mesopotamia (BABYLONIA), thereby seriously affecting the political stability of these areas. By about 1000 BC, however, large numbers of Aramaeans had settled permanently, creating small, city-state kingdoms in Syria and the Upper
Euphrates region. _^<N__^<N_After 1000 BC, the Aramaic kingdoms around Damascus, as well as those in Palestinian border areas, interacted with the Hebrews, sometimes as opponents and sometimes as expedient allies. Beginning in the late 8th century
BC, Syrian Aramaic territories were incorporated into the provincial systems of the dominant Near Eastern empires, including those of Assyrian, the Neo-Babylonian, and the Persian dynasties. _^<N__^<N_Under the Persians (post-539 BC), Aramaic
became the usual language of everyday affairs in the Near East, and so it remained for centuries. Thus Jesus spoke in Aramaic. _^<N__^<N_Louis L. Orlin _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bright, John, A History of Israel, 2d ed. (1972) .
Aranda_^<N__^<N_{uh-ran'-duh} _^<N__^<N_The Aranda (or Arunta) are ABORIGINES who traditionally inhabited a large area in central Australia, including the MacDonnell Ranges and Alice Springs. Four primary subgroups each occupied a distinct region,
and each spoke its own dialect of the Aranda language. Some fighting occurred between subgroups (over women and sorcery, for example). The Aranda, however, came together on many occasions, especially for religious rituals, when sacred tjurunga
(incised slabs of stone or wood) emblems were lent and displayed. _^<N__^<N_Aranda culture was rich in religious mythology, ritual, and song-poetry. Leadership was derived from a man's position in both the religious hierarchy and his local descent
group. Rules of kinship linked all groups. The most important social unit was the land-based kin group, established by a system of descent determined according to male ancestry. The territories of each group functioned as game reserves and as the
sites of secret storehouses of sacred objects. _^<N__^<N_European settlement in the late 19th century drastically changed the lives of the Aranda people. The European influence flowed from Alice Springs township and surrounding pastoral
developments and from the Hermannsburg mission station. Today much of the traditional Aranda culture has drastically changed. _^<N__^<N_Ronald M. Berndt _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Liberman, Kenneth, Understanding Interaction in Central Australia
(1985); Strehlow, Theodor G. H., Aranda Traditions (1947; repr. 1968) and Songs of Central Australia (1971).
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734
CAT
-A-
Arany, Janos
-T-
Arany, Janos_^<N__^<N_{aw'-rawn-yuh, yah'-nawsh} _^<N__^<N_Janos Arany, b. Mar. 2, 1817, d. Oct. 22, 1882, was Hungary's greatest epic poet and, with Sandor PETOFI, the creator of a realistic poetry based on Hungarian folk traditions. He produced
literary treatises of lasting value, landmark translations of Shakespeare and Aristophanes, and ballads unsurpassed in Hungarian literature. _^<N__^<N_His Toldi trilogy--Toldi (1847), Toldi szerelme (Toldi's Love, 1848-79), and Toldi esteje (1854;
Toldi's Evening, 1914)--an epic tracing the life of the 14th-century Hungarian hero, remains the best narrative poem in Hungarian literature. It is distinguished by penetrating characterization, a striking use of mythology and chivalry, and vivid
diction. _^<N__^<N_Albert Tezla
-END-
-C-
1396
CAT
-A-
Arapaho
-T-
Arapaho_^<N__^<N_{uh-rap'-uh-hoh} _^<N__^<N_The Arapaho are a North American Indian people who, like their traditional allies the CHEYENNE, lived as nomadic buffalo-hunters on the Great Plains in the 19th century. These Algonquian-speakers called
themselves Inuna-ina ("our people"). _^<N__^<N_At one time the Arapaho lived in agricultural villages in northern Minnesota. With the expansion of the fur trade and white settlements in this area, they migrated westward onto the Plains by the late
18th century. There they fought the PAWNEE, SHOSHONI, UTE, and other Indian tribes as well as white settlers crossing Indian territory. After 1830 they split into northern and southern divisions, living near the Platte River in Wyoming and the
Arkansas River in Colorado. _^<N__^<N_As did many other tribes, the Arapaho made the SUN DANCE a major ceremonial event. A GHOST DANCE ritual was added later. The search for visions through communion with supernatural beings was also practiced.
An estimated 4,109 southern Arapaho combined with Cheyenne live on a reservation in Oklahoma. About 3,810 northern Arapaho live on or near the reservation at Wind River, Wyo. _^<N__^<N_Gene Weltfish _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Dorsey, G. A., and
Kroeber, Alfred L., Traditions of the Arapaho (1903; repr. 1974); Trenholm, Virginia C., The Arapahoes, Our People (1970; repr. 1973); Salzmann, Zdenek, The Arapaho Indians: A Research Guide and Bibliography (1988).
-END-
-C-
560
CAT
-A-
arapaima
-T-
arapaima_^<N__^<N_{ahr-uh-py'-muh} _^<N__^<N_One of the largest strictly freshwater fishes, the remarkably graceful Arapaima (family Osteoglossidae, order Osteoglossiformes) of South America reaches lengths of 3 m (almost 10 ft) and weights of 200
kg (about 440 lb). The genus is characterized by large olive-green scales, large eyes, bony plates covering the head, a bony tongue, and the dorsal and anal fins so posteriorly placed as to appear continuous with the crimson-red caudal fin.
Spawning takes place in a small nest (50 cm/20 in. wide and 15 cm/6 in. deep). _^<N__^<N_A. R. Emery
-END-
-C-
1675
CAT
-A-
Arapesh
-T-
Arapesh_^<N__^<N_{ar'-uh-pesh} _^<N__^<N_The Arapesh, a people of the east Sepik district of Papua New Guinea, are dispersed over an area from the north bank of the river to the coast. Beach Arapesh live in large villages and practice some fishing
but rely mainly on their gardens and sago (palm) patches for subsistence. Mountain Arapesh have small settlements, hunt occasionally, and make their gardens on steep hillsides as well as on the plains. _^<N__^<N_Hamlets traditionally are occupied
by a land-owning clan made up of members of one family whose lineage is determined through male ancestry. Labor is divided between the sexes in taro and banana gardening, with men doing the initial clearing and fencing and women the planting,
weeding, and harvesting. In the yam gardens men do almost all the work. Cooperation is the key to traditional Arapesh life, in which warfare has played a lesser role than among other Sepik peoples. Expressions of competitiveness and
aggressiveness are de-emphasized in the training of both boys and girls, although qualities of leadership, particularly trading ability, are encouraged. _^<N__^<N_Traditional religion is based on the tamberan cult of ancestors and other spirits.
Arapesh living in the foothills of the Sepik grass plains are noted for cult houses that have sharply sloping gables and painted facades. Towering up to 20-25 m (70-80 ft) above the village clearings, the houses contain the slit gongs, sacred
flutes, and other objects used in rituals. _^<N__^<N_Ronald M. Berndt _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Fortune, R. F., Arapesh (1942); Mead, Margaret, Cooperation and Competition Among Primitive Peoples, enl. ed. (1961); Tuzin, D. F., The Voice of
the Tamberan (1980).
-END-
-C-
572
CAT
-A-
Ararat, Mount
-T-
Ararat, Mount_^<N__^<N_{ar'-uh-rat} _^<N__^<N_Mount Ararat (Turkish: Agri Dagi) consists of two volcanic peaks--Great Ararat, rising to 5,122 m (16,804 ft), and Little Ararat, at 3,896 m (12,782 ft), on the Aras Plain in extreme eastern Turkey near
Iran and the USSR. The highest point in Turkey, Great Ararat, according to tradition, is the place where Noah's ark landed. Earthquakes in 1840 destroyed a village, a convent, and a chapel on the mountain. Ararat is the Hebrew form for Urartu,
the Assyrian name for a kingdom that existed in the region from the 9th to the 7th century BC.
-END-
-C-
19
CAT
-A-
Ararat:
-T-
Ararat:_^<N__^<N_see URARTU.
-END-
-C-
1821
CAT
-A-
Araucanians
-T-
Araucanians_^<N__^<N_{ar-uh-kayn'-ee-uhnz} _^<N__^<N_Araucanian is both a cultural and linguistic classification of the Picunche, Mapuche, and Huilliche Indians of South America. Most live in Chile, but a large emigre population settled in the
Argentine Andes after the Spanish conquest (1540). The Picunche, northernmost, are now extinct as an ethnic population, having been absorbed into Spanish colonial society under the systems of encomienda and hacienda during the 17th century. The
southernmost Huilliche have virtually disappeared. The Chilean Mapuche resisted control during the Spanish colonial and early republican periods. They were finally pacified and settled on more than 3,000 small reservations between 1884 and 1912,
mainly in the provinces of Cautin and Malleco. Today they are the largest indigenous society in South America, with a population of about 675,000. _^<N__^<N_Mapuche determine descent and residence according to male ancestry. Patterns of alliance,
bride-price, and dowry are based on female descent and involve ritual obligations such as participation in large-scale funeral rites and agricultural fertility ceremonies. These practices are buttressed by the Mapuche's traditional polytheistic
religion. _^<N__^<N_An agricultural people whose main crops are wheat and potatoes, the Mapuche have been drawn into the regional Chilean cash-credit economy. Because of increasing population pressure on dwindling land reserves, many of the
younger generation migrate to towns to become laborers. The reservation system, however, has helped to perpetuate traditional Mapuche society and culture. _^<N__^<N_Louis C. Faron _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Faron, Louis C., The Mapuche Indians of
Chile (1968; repr. 1986); Lyon, P., Native South Americans (1985); Steward, J. H., ed., Handbook of South American Indians, 7 vols. (1957; repr. 1963).
-END-
-C-
1492
CAT
-A-
Arawak
-T-
Arawak_^<N__^<N_{ah'-ruh-wahk} _^<N__^<N_The Arawak are a group of linguistically related but culturally diverse Indian peoples who inhabit the tropical forests of South America, especially north of the Amazon, extending from the Andean foothills to
the Antilles. _^<N__^<N_Before the Spanish conquest (1540), the Taino, an Arawakan group of the Greater Antilles, had established in this area a highly developed form of political organization, based on the exploitation of rich maritime resources
as well as on agriculture. Where resources were abundant, as along the lower Amazon and the coast of Brazil, mainland Arawakan communities were large, consisting of several lineage-based households numbering as many as 2,000 people. Shortly
before the Spanish occupation of the Caribbean, the CARIB drove the Arawak off the Lesser Antilles. Early in the colonial period the Antillean Arawak, along with the Carib, were absorbed into Spanish society. _^<N__^<N_The mainland Arawak who
survived conquest continue to practice slash-and-burn horticulture and exploit river resources. They live in small communities of between 100 and 200 persons. Settlements often consist of a single large multifamily dwelling. The Arawak believe in
bush spirits and the power of local shamans. In the past, some Arawak societies had harvest ceremonies and messianic movements. _^<N__^<N_Louis C. Faron _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Olsen, Fred, On the Trail of the Arawaks (1974); Steward, Julian H.,
ed., Handbook of South American Indians, vol. 3 (1957; repr. 1963).
-END-
-C-
784
CAT
-A-
Arber, Werner
-T-
Arber, Werner_^<N__^<N_The Swiss scientist Werner Arber, b. June 3, 1929, is known for his discovery in the early 1960s of restriction ENZYMES, for which he received the 1978 Nobel Prize for medicine with Hamilton SMITH and Daniel NATHANS.
Restriction enzymes are able to cut DNA molecules, the constituents of genes, at specific sites and thus are important tools in recombinant DNA research. These enzymes can also be used to determine the order of genes in chromosomes, to map both
healthy and cancerous genes, and to study how proteins interact with DNA bases. Arber's work was done while he was on the faculty of the University of Geneva. He is now actively engaged in research at the Microbiological Center at Basel University
in Switzerland. _^<N__^<N_See also: GENETIC ENGINEERING; NUCLEIC ACID.
-END-
-C-
482
CAT
-A-
arbitrage
-T-
arbitrage_^<N__^<N_{ahr'-bi-trahj} _^<N__^<N_Arbitrage is the buying and (often simultaneous) selling in another market of commodities, currencies, or securities in order to profit from price differences. In the stock market, risk arbitragers can
make (and lose) large amounts by acting on take-over bids and imminent MERGERS. Arbitragers buy blocks of the target company's stock at a low price, hoping to sell at a higher price when the merger occurs. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Boesky, Ivan,
Merger Mania (1985).
-END-
-C-
1057
CAT
-A-
arbitration (international law)
-T-
arbitration (international law)_^<N__^<N_Arbitration, in international law, is the settlement of disputes among nations by referring them to a third party for decision. Arbitration has been practiced since ancient times, when it was used among the
Greek city-states. In recent centuries territorial disputes have frequently been settled by arbitration. For example, JAY'S TREATY between Great Britain and the United States in 1794 set up an arbitral commission that settled the boundary dispute
between Maine and New Brunswick. Two other commissions ruled on claims for property damages arising out of the American Revolution. The ALABAMA CLAIMS, a U.S. demand for reparations from Great Britain for actions against shipping in the Civil
War, were arbitrated by a five-nation commission (1871-74). _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Carbonneau, T. E., ed., Resolving Transnational Disputes through International Arbitration (1984); Hoellering, Michael F. et al., eds., Arbitration and the Law
(1983); Stuyt, Alexander M., Survey of International Arbitrations, 1794-1970 (1972).
-END-
-C-
2064
CAT
-A-
arbitration (labor-management and commercial)
-T-
arbitration (labor-management and commercial)_^<N__^<N_Arbitration, the sending of a dispute to an impartial third party for a decision, is common in labor-management relations and in the commercial world. In a small number of cases, acceptance of
the decision is voluntary; the usual practice, however, is to make acceptance compulsory. _^<N__^<N_Two types of labor-management arbitration are distinguished. The first, arbitration of rights, provides ways to settle disputes over the
interpretation of the terms in a collective-bargaining agreement. It is used, for example, when a worker and a company disagree over a job classification. The second type, arbitration of interests, is used far less often, since it is considered a
last step after a deadlock develops in negotiations on a new contract. Laws often compel arbitration in industries involving public utilities or municipal services, where public safety or convenience is involved. _^<N__^<N_Commercial arbitration
has been used since medieval times to settle disputes outside the courts. The parties concerned agree to abide by the decision, often referred to as an award. Many business contracts include provisions for arbitration; this reduces legal expense,
settles matters faster than court cases, and assures privacy. _^<N__^<N_An arbitrator's award may generally be appealed to the courts if there is a question whether proper procedure was followed. The facts of the case, however, are usually not open
to court review. _^<N__^<N_The third party, or arbitrator, often is a single individual, but three-person panels also are established. Arbitrators are skilled professionals, often professors or lawyers or businesspersons familiar with a particular
area of business. The American Arbitration Association, established in 1926, offers the services of numerous experts. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: American Arbitration Association, Dictionary of Arbitration (annual); Gennings, A. T., Arbitration: A
Practical Guide (1984); LaCugna, C. S., An Introduction to Labor Arbitration (1988); Parris, John, Arbitration: Principles and Practice (1985).
-END-
-C-
1924
CAT
-A-
arboriculture
-T-
arboriculture_^<N__^<N_Arboriculture, one of the main divisions of HORTICULTURE, involves the cultivation and maintenance of trees and shrubs for shade and aesthetic purposes. Arboriculture differs from forestry (see FORESTS AND FORESTRY) in that
the latter involves economic concerns and the welfare of the forest as a whole. _^<N__^<N_The origins of present-day arboriculture may be traced to the ancient Egyptians. Technology, materials, and methods of application have changed over the
years, making arboriculture an involved and diversified art. Since tree development is affected by climate, soil conditions, insects, diseases, and fertilizers, it is necessary to know what trees would survive well in the existing soil and weather
conditions and how susceptible they would be to local insects and diseases. Arboriculturists also consider appearance and how trees should be appropriately grouped and spaced. Crab apples and other flowering trees, for example, may be planted for
their decorative qualities, and larger trees may be planted for shade and soil retention. The propagation, transplantation, growth, and care of trees involve a variety of activities that are considered part of arboriculture. New trees are
propagated from parent stock by means of seeds, cuttings, or various methods of GRAFTING. Transplanting requires keeping roots intact and moist and knowing when to transplant, what size tree can be used, and what steps to take once the tree is
planted. Fertilizers are added to enrich the soil, and sprays are used to control insects and diseases. PRUNING may be needed to shape and encourage a certain type of growth or effect, and cabling and bracing may occasionally be required for
support. Dressings or surgery are used to treat fungus, cavities, and wounds in trees. Damaged trees are diagnosed to determine whether surgery or other treatment is feasible or whether they must be cut down. _^<N__^<N_Richard Merritt
-END-
-C-
1133
CAT
-A-
arborvitae
-T-
arborvitae_^<N__^<N_{ahr-bur-vy'-tee} _^<N__^<N_Arborvitae (from Latin meaning "tree of life") is a common name for evergreen conifers that belong to the genus Thuja of the cypress family, Cupressaceae. Five species of these trees or shrubs, which
have flexible branches and tiny, scalelike leaves, are found in eastern Asia and North America. The oriental arborvitae, Platycladus orientalis, native to China and Korea, and the hiba, or false, arborvitae, Thujopsis dolabrata, of Japan, were
classified with Thuja at one time but are now placed in separate taxonomic groups. _^<N__^<N_The two native North American species of arborvitae, sometimes called cedars, should not be confused with the true CEDARS (genus Cedrus). American
arborvitae, or white cedar, T. occidentalis, is found in northeastern North America, and giant arborvitae, or western red cedar, T. plicata, occurs in the Pacific Northwest. T. occidentalis is a popular landscape tree; more than 100 varieties
have been cultivated. Although T. plicata is also used for ornamental purposes, its wood, which is resistant to moisture and decay, is in great demand as a construction material.
-END-
-C-
777
CAT
-A-
Arbuckle, Fatty
-T-
Arbuckle, Fatty_^<N__^<N_Roscoe "Fatty" Arbuckle, b. Mar. 24, 1887, d. June 29, 1933, was one of the movies' first comedy stars. His boyish face, ample girth, and acrobatic skill made him a natural comic in silent films. After achieving stardom at
Mack Sennett's studio, he went on to write, direct, and star in his own films. His on-screen career was ruined by a 1921 scandal involving the death of a young woman. Although cleared of manslaughter charges, Arbuckle was unable to work again in
films except as a writer-director in 1931-32, using the pseudonym William Goodrich. _^<N__^<N_Leonard Maltin _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Kerr, W., The Silent Clowns (1979); Maltin, L., Great Movie Comedians (1978); Wagenknecht, E., Stars of the
Silents (1987); Yallop, David, The Day the Laughter Stopped (1976).
-END-
-C-
824
CAT
-A-
Arbus, Diane
-T-
Arbus, Diane_^<N__^<N_Photographer Diane Arbus, b. Diane Nemerov in New York City, Mar. 14, 1923, d. a suicide, July 26, 1971, became famous for her ability to spy out and capture in black and white the strangeness, craziness, and sadness of
ordinary people. In the 1940s she and her husband photographed for U.S. fashion magazines. From the mid-1950s, however, she began to find new subjects on the city's streets, and by 1960 had embarked on a career as a free-lance photographer. Two
Guggenheim fellowships (1963, 1966) supported her work. A 1967 exhibition at the New York Museum of Modern Art--and a posthumous show in 1972--proved her acceptance as a major talent. _^<N__^<N_Keith F. Davis _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Arbus, D.,
Diane Arbus (1972); Bosworth, P., Diane Arbus (1984); Southall, T. W., ed., Diane Arbus: Magazine Work (1984).
-END-
-C-
1266
CAT
-A-
arbutus
-T-
arbutus_^<N__^<N_{ahr-bue'-tuhs} _^<N__^<N_The genus Arbutus of evergreen trees and shrubs in the heath family, Ericaceae, contains the madrone tree, Arbutus menziesii, that sometimes reaches heights of 30 m (100 ft). Also in this genus are the
strawberry trees, A. unedo of Ireland and southern Europe, and A. andrachne of Anatolia and southeastern Europe, which grow about 9 m (30 ft) high. The familiar trailing arbutus is a member of another heath genus. _^<N__^<N_The madrone is found
in the coastal range from British Columbia south to California, and on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada below 1,200 m (4,000 ft). Trunks in open stands of the tree are usually short and crooked, but in dense stands they are straight and free
from branches in the lower portions. The green outer bark peels off in strips to reveal the red inner bark. The flowers are white and urn-shaped, the leaves are green and glossy, and the edible berries are orange red. The wood is used in the
manufacture of furniture, and a brown vegetable dye is prepared from the bark. _^<N__^<N_Robert C. Romans _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Beckett, K. A., The Complete Book of Evergreens (1981); Harlow, W. M., and Harrar, E. S., Textbook of Dendrology,
6th ed. (1979); Hillier, H. G., Hillier's Manual of Trees and Shrubs (1973).
-END-
-C-
924
CAT
-A-
arc
-T-
arc_^<N__^<N_An arc is a continuous segment of a simple curve. More specifically, any segment of the circumference of a CIRCLE is called a circular arc. In a circle with center at O and two points A and B on the circumference, the ANGLE AOB is a
central angle of the circle; the larger of the two arcs AB is a major arc of the circle; the smaller, a minor arc. If A and B are endpoints of a diameter, the two arcs AB are the same length, and each arc is a semicircle. _^<N__^<N_An arc can be
measured by the angle it cuts off, or subtends. Therefore, it is measured in units of angular measure, or angles--either in degrees, minutes, and seconds (used in astronomy and some mathematics) or in RADIANS (used in some applications to simplify
calculations). In radian measure, the length s of a circular arc is given by s = rM, where r is the radius of the circle, and M is the (central) angle subtended by the arc, in radians. _^<N__^<N_Joe K. Smith
-END-
-C-
1066
CAT
-A-
arc, electric
-T-
arc, electric_^<N__^<N_An electric arc, or arc discharge, is a continuous electrical conduction in gases between two separated conductors. It is characterized by high current density and relatively low potential difference, or voltage. (In
contrast, a spark is a relatively brief discharge with a high potential difference and low current density.) The first controlled arc discharge was produced by Sir Humphry DAVY about 1809, using two carbon rods connected to a battery. The
carbon-arc lamp was the first practical electric lighting device; sodium-arc and mercury-arc lamps are still used for high-intensity outdoor illumination. In heavy industry, the arc furnace is the most important type of ELECTRIC FURNACE, producing
temperatures measured in thousands of degrees Celsius. _^<N__^<N_In low-current gas-discharge tubes, the gas molecules are not uniformly excited and dark regions occur. The gas emits a diffuse glow, a phenomenon called glow discharge.
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Jones, G. R., High Pressure Arcs in Industrial Devices (1988). _^<N__^<N_See Also: DISCHARGE, ELECTRIC; LIGHTNING.
-END-
-C-
1273
CAT
-A-
Arc de Triomphe de l'Etoile
-T-
Arc de Triomphe de l'Etoile_^<N__^<N_{ahrk duh tree-ohmf' duh lay-twahl'} _^<N__^<N_The Arc de Triomphe de l'Etoile, the world's largest triumphal arch, forms the backdrop for an impressive urban ensemble in Paris. The monument surmounts the hill of
Chaillot at the center of a star-shaped configuration of 12 radiating avenues. It is the climax of a vista seen the length of the Champs Elysees from the smaller Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel. _^<N__^<N_In 1806, NAPOLEON I conceived of a triumphal
arch patterned after those of ancient Rome and dedicated to the glory of his imperial armies. The structure was designed by Jean Francois Therese CHALGRIN (1739-1811) and completed in 1836 during the reign of LOUIS PHILIPPE. Its deceptively simple
design and immense size, 49.5 m (162 ft) in height, mark it unmistakably as a product of late 18th-century romantic NEOCLASSICISM. The arch also serves as a reminder that Chalgrin was a pupil of Etienne Louis BOULLEE, the father of visionary
architecture. The most famous of its sculptural reliefs is La Marseillaise (1833-36) of Francois RUDE. Specific historic associations notwithstanding, the arch has become an emblem of French patriotism. Since 1920 it has sheltered the tomb of
France's Unknown Soldier. _^<N__^<N_Robert M. Neuman _^<N__^<N_See also: ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
-END-
-C-
1038
CAT
-A-
arcade
-T-
arcade_^<N__^<N_{ahr-kayd'} _^<N__^<N_An arcade is a range or series of two or more ARCHES borne by PIERS or COLUMNS and may be either freestanding or blind. An arcade supported on columns is also called a COLONNADE. Freestanding arcades were
developed early in ROMAN ARCHITECTURE and were widely used throughout the empire. They formed the supporting walls of amphitheaters, such as the COLOSSEUM in Rome, and were used by the mile in aqueducts, such as the Pont-du-Gard in NIMES, France,
which employs three tiers of arcades to bridge a deep valley. If an arcade is attached to a wall, or if the openings are filled with masonry, it is called a blind arcade. Such an arcade may strengthen the wall but often serves a decorative purpose
as well. Blind arcades originated in Rome, were used extensively in EARLY CHRISTIAN and BYZANTINE architecture, and adorn ROMANESQUE, GOTHIC, RENAISSANCE, and NEOCLASSICAL buildings. The term arcade has also come to mean a roofed gallery lined with
shops, amusement concessions, and restaurants. _^<N__^<N_See also: ARCHITECTURE.
-END-
-C-
428
CAT
-A-
Arcadia
-T-
Arcadia_^<N__^<N_{ahr-kay'-dee-uh} _^<N__^<N_Arcadia is a mountainous area in the center of the Greek Peloponnesus that became celebrated in ancient literature for its rustic simplicity. The region was under Spartan domination from the 5th century
BC until about 370 BC, when an anti-Spartan Arcadian League was formed on the advice of EPAMINONDAS. The capital of the league was MEGALOPOLIS. Arcadia was also known for the mercenaries it produced.
-END-
-C-
1072
CAT
-A-
Arcadius, Roman Emperor in the East
-T-
Arcadius, Roman Emperor in the East_^<N__^<N_{ahr-kay'-dee-uhs} _^<N__^<N_Flavius Arcadius, b. c.377, d. May 1, 408, was the first emperor of the Eastern, or Byzantine, empire after the permanent division of the Roman Empire on the death (395) of
THEODOSIUS I. The oldest son of Theodosius, Arcadius inherited the east, and his brother HONORIUS received the west. _^<N__^<N_Arcadius was a weak ruler dominated by his ministers, notably Rufinus and Eutropius, and by his Frankish wife, Eudoxia.
In 395, Greece was overrun by the Visigoths under ALARIC. A campaign against them by the general Flavius STILICHO was cut short when Arcadius ordered Stilicho out of the east. The emperor then made peace (397) with Alaric by making him supreme
commander of Illyricum (see ILLYRIA). Two years later the empire's Gothic mercenary troops revolted and held Constantinople for six months before they were defeated. Arcadius's court was repeatedly denounced for immorality by John CHRYSOSTOM,
patriarch of Constantinople, whom the emperor banished in 404. Arcadius was succeeded by his son, THEODOSIUS II.
-END-
-C-
514
CAT
-A-
Arcaro, Eddie
-T-
Arcaro, Eddie_^<N__^<N_{ahr-kair'-oh} _^<N__^<N_George Edward "Eddie" Arcaro, b. Cincinnati, Ohio, Feb. 19, 1916, a jockey, set a record by riding the Kentucky Derby winner five times (1938, 1941, 1945, 1948, and 1952). Arcaro also rode the Triple
Crown winner (the Kentucky Derby, the Preakness, and the Belmont, all for 3-year-olds) two years, first with Whirlaway in 1941 and again with Citation in 1948. In a 31-year racing career that ended in 1962, he rode 4,779 winners, and his mounts
earned $30,035,543 in stakes and purses.
-END-
-C-
607
CAT
-A-
Arcella
-T-
Arcella_^<N__^<N_{ahr-sel'-uh} _^<N__^<N_Arcella is a genus of PROTOZOA belonging to the order Testacea (alternatively Arcellinida), single-celled organisms commonly called shelled amoebas because they build a test, or shell, in which they live.
They are distinguished from other shell-building amoebas, such as FORAMINIFERA, by having only one shell. The shell is made of sand grains that adhere to secretions from the organism or of spiny or scaly shells composed entirely of secretions. The
Arcella shell, pale brown and shaped like the cap of a mushroom, is usually found on the surfaces of decaying plants in fresh water.
-END-
-C-
4863
CATO
4807
-A-
arch and vault
-O-
000000|arch and vault
000222| Arch
001897| Vault
003631| Modern Developments of the Arch and Vault
-T-
arch and vault_^<N__^<N_The arch and vault were, until the 19th century, the only known construction methods for roofing buildings without the use of beams. They had become a highly developed system with infinite variations over the centuries.
_^<N__^<N_ Arch_^<N__^<N_The arch is an architectural form used to span a window, a door, or other open space of any size. It can be semicircular (Roman and Romanesque), segmental (less than half a circle), or pointed (Gothic). The arch developed
from the POST AND LINTEL. In this construction method, the spanning element, the lintel, is flat; the span is limited by the length of the lintel and the weight it can support. _^<N__^<N_Although the arch was known in ancient Egyptian and Greek
architecture, the Romans were the first to give it monumental form. The semicircular arch of the Romans requires two supports (PIERS or COLUMNS) and a series of wedge-shaped, trimmed stones or bricks called voussoirs. Starting from each support,
the voussoirs are laid one next to the other, building up each side equally until the space of a single voussoir remains in the center. A wooden scaffolding supports the voussoirs until the final stone, the keystone, is dropped in. The downward
thrust of the keystone pushes the voussoirs outward and holds the arch in place. The advantages of the arch over the post-and-lintel system are the greater distances that may be spanned and the greater weight that, with adequate buttressing (see
BUTTRESS) to counteract the outward thrust of the voussoirs, may be carried. _^<N__^<N_The Romans used segmental and semicircular arches in the construction of BRIDGES and AQUEDUCTS. The use of the arch enabled the Romans to spread some of the
comforts of their civilization, such as fresh water and easier communications, throughout the empire. The most visible monumental arch constructions were the TRIUMPHAL ARCHES and amphitheaters, such as the COLOSSEUM in Rome (AD 80). _^<N__^<N_
Vault_^<N__^<N_The vault is an architectural elaboration of the arch. The simplest form, the barrel vault, is a series of semicircular arches placed adjacent to each other, to form a barrellike roof. This vault was known in Egypt and the eastern
Mediterranean, but the Romans perfected it and used it extensively. _^<N__^<N_The barrel vault has limitations. It functions successfully in one architectural direction only and requires heavy buttressing to counteract the outward thrust of the
voussoirs. The Romans solved this problem. They placed two barrel vaults together, intersecting at right angles, creating a new form, the groin vault. The groin vault dispersed the weight and thrust of the voussoirs onto four supports, along the
outlines (groins) of the arches. This dispersion of the weight allowed a still greater space to be spanned, permitted two architectural directions to interpenetrate, and enabled more windows to be placed within the walls, since it reduced the need
for buttressing. The Romans used the groin vault in some of their largest and most important constructions. _^<N__^<N_During the Romanesque period (c.700-c.1150), the ribbed vault, a variation of the groin vault, was introduced. Ribs are added
along the groins, which help to reduce the need for scaffolding in the construction of the vault. They also support some of the weight of the vault. In the Gothic period (c.1150-c.1600), the soaring interior spaces and the dazzling light from the
numerous stained-glass windows in cathedrals such as CHARTRES (begun 1194) were made possible by the ribbed vault. In order to counteract the outward thrust of these vaults, sometimes 47 m (154 ft) high, supports known as flying buttresses were
built against the NAVE walls. _^<N__^<N_ Modern Developments of the Arch and Vault_^<N__^<N_In the 19th and 20th centuries the techniques and forms of the arch and vault changed radically as a result of the availability of new materials. Metal
frames, prestressed concrete, and tensile structures reduced the power of the outward thrust. Spans could be much greater, and vast areas could be spanned. Pier Luigi NERVI used prestressed concrete in his Exhibition Hall in Turin (1948-49) to
create a flattened, semicircular vault that would have been impossible in masonry. Frei Otto's German Pavilion, Montreal (1967), seems more like a fragile tent than a concrete and metal structure. Since it spans open space, it can be considered a
vault, but the traditional problems of outward thrust no longer exist in such structures. _^<N__^<N_Nicholas Adams _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Grodeki, Louis, Gothic Architecture (1977); Kubach, Hans Erich, Romanesque Architecture, rev. ed. (1988);
Leedy, W., Jr., Fan Vaults (1980); MacDonald, William L., The Architecture of the Roman Empire, rev. ed. (1982); Murray, Peter, Architecture of the Renaissance (1971); Pevsner, Nikolaus, The Sources of Modern Architecture and Design (1968).
_^<N__^<N_See also: ARCHITECTURE; CATHEDRALS AND CHURCHES; DOME.
-END-
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964
CAT
-A-
archaebacteria
-T-
archaebacteria_^<N__^<N_{ahr-kee-bak-tir'-ee-uh} _^<N__^<N_Archaebacteria constitute a unique grouping of BACTERIA. In microscopes they resemble other bacterial forms, now collectively called eubacteria, and like them are PROCARYOTES (organisms
whose cells lack nuclei). In recent years, however, intensive studies were made of gene sequences in bacteria. They showed that at the molecular level the organisms now called archaebacteria bore as close a resemblance to all other organisms--the
EUCARYOTES (organisms whose have nuclei) they did to eubacteria. The name was chosen because archaebacteria seem best suited to conditions found early in Earth's history. The three main types of archaebacteria are methane producers, sulfur
metabolizers that thrive in hot and acid conditions, and forms that live in very salty environments (see ANAEROBE). Some biologists suggest that the archaebacteria, eubacteria, and eucaryotes all derived from a common ancestral group not yet known.
-END-
-C-
6554
CATO
4801
-A-
archaeoastronomy
-O-
000000|archaeoastronomy
002188| Origins in the Old World
003728| Importance in the New World
-T-
archaeoastronomy_^<N__^<N_{ahr'-kee-oh-as-trahn'-uh-mee} _^<N__^<N_Archaeoastronomy is the science that concerns the recovery and study of evidence of the astronomical beliefs and practices of ancient or preliterate peoples. It is primarily a tool
to gain insight into the intellectual achievements of remote cultures, for example, the builders of MEGALITHS (stone monuments) that have astronomical orientation or the makers of glyphs (symbolic figures) that have astronomical significance.
Archaeoastronomical findings may also be of value to astronomers in documenting ancient celestial events. _^<N__^<N_Three related terms are used to refer to specialized areas of the field. Astroarchaeology and megalithic astronomy generally
concern the measurement and astronomical interpretation of architectural structures of prehistoric origin, such as STONEHENGE. Ethnoastronomy is the study of astronomical and astrological beliefs and sky lore of early peoples. _^<N__^<N_The basis
for archaeoastronomy is the supposition that early peoples, in even a primitive state of intellectual advancement, took notice of the sky and its changes. In time they made use of their observations in rituals and myth, for regulating a CALENDAR,
or for purposes such as anticipating yearly floods and setting dates for agricultural activities. The most obvious of the periodic changes are the phases of the Moon (the basis for the month) and the annual motion of the Sun and changing panorama
of star patterns, by which the year can be accurately defined. Identifying the planets and their cyclic movements is more complex, as is plotting the complicated pattern of the Moon's motion in the sky. Which of these features were recognized,
and how they were used for practical or ceremonial purposes, is a measure of the cultural complexity of the people studied. Evidence for early knowledge of the heavens is found in such archaeological features as STONE ALIGNMENTS and stone circles,
in building orientations, and in pictorial or written records. _^<N__^<N_Archaeoastronomy is an interdisciplinary field. It requires the collaboration of archaeologists, astronomers, and other specialists, for the evidence is often subtle and
subject to diverse interpretations. _^<N__^<N_ Origins in the Old World_^<N__^<N_Archaeoastronomical ideas were probably first applied to Stonehenge in southern England, where in 1740 William STUKELEY noted that the principal axis of the monument
was oriented to the direction of sunrise at summer solstice (June 21). These ideas became the subject of controversy in the late 19th and early 20th centuries when Sir Joseph Norman LOCKYER, Piazzi Smyth, and others attempted more extensive
astronomical explanations of Stonehenge and other British stone circles, of the PYRAMIDS and temples of ancient Egypt, and of certain temples of classical Greece. In all cases, alignments on various astronomical bodies were noted, and attempts
were made to link these to the calendar and to sky worship. Lockyer also endeavored to confirm or establish construction dates of the sites for which astronomical orientation was claimed, making use of known changes in the aspect of the heavens
that result from long-term changes in the rotational axis of the Earth (precession). _^<N__^<N_Today the field of archaeoastronomy is actively studied in Western Europe, where scientists have demonstrated that a relatively high level of
astronomical achievement existed among the Early BRONZE AGE inhabitants of the British Isles and Brittany (western France). More controversial are the suggestions that the Bronze Age builders used structures such as Stonehenge to predict the dates
of lunar and solar eclipses and that a standard unit of length ("the megalithic yard") was used in laying out the megalithic stone circles. _^<N__^<N_ Importance in the New World_^<N__^<N_Archaeoastronomy is especially important in the study of the
ancient cultures of Latin America, where archaeologists and astronomers have worked together to interpret the astronomical significance of the remains of AZTEC, INCA, MAYA, and OLMEC civilizations. Considerable evidence suggests the fundamental
importance of astronomy in the daily life of the Maya, for surviving books, called codices, include accurate tables of planetary positions. Maya calendar glyphs carved in stone also attest to the vital significance of astronomy in their
measurement of time. _^<N__^<N_In North America, archaeoastronomy has been applied to the interpretation of stone artifacts, called medicine wheels. These circular stone patterns were called medicine wheels because medicine suggests the mysterious
and the unknown, and the medicine wheels are not fully understood. Some of these stone structures, found on the high plains and mountains, show consistent astronomical alignments. Distinctive features of the Bighorn Medicine Wheel in Wyoming are
aligned to the place of sunrise at summer solstice and to three bright stars of midsummer dawn--Aldebaran, Rigel, and Sirius. Archaeological evidence suggests that this medicine wheel was built in stages, beginning perhaps 300 or 400 years ago.
The Moose Mountain medicine wheel in Saskatchewan, built about 2,000 years ago, shows the same pattern of alignments. _^<N__^<N_Astronomical orientations have also been attributed to certain structures built in the central United States by MOUND
BUILDERS 500 to 1,500 years ago and to stone structures such as Casa Rinconada at CHACO CANYON, in New Mexico, where the ANASAZI Indians lived until about AD 1200. The symbol of the crescent Moon with an adjacent starlike object, found painted or
pecked onto rock surfaces throughout the southwestern United States and northern Mexico, has been interpreted as a depiction of the well-known exploding star, or SUPERNOVA, in the Crab Nebula, recorded by Chinese astronomers and depicted by other
peoples in various forms. In North America, the supernova was first visible as a brilliant new star in the eastern sky, near the crescent Moon, on the morning of July 5, 1054. _^<N__^<N_John a. Eddy _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Aveni, A. F.,
Archaeoastronomy in Pre-Colombian America (1975) and Native American Astronomy (1977); Bobrovnikoff, N. T., Astronomy before the Telescope (1984); Brown, P. L., Megaliths, Myths, and Men (1976; repr. 1978); Hawkins, G. S., Stonehenge Decoded
(1965); Krupp, E. C., In Search of Ancient Astronomies (1978) and Echoes of the Ancient Skies (1984); Lockyer, N. J., The Dawn of Astronomy (1894; repr. 1973); Thom, A., Megalithic Lunar Observatories (1971) and Megalithic Sites in Britain
(1967); Wood, J. E., Sun, Moon and Standing Stones (1978).
-END-
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933
CAT
-A-
archaeocyathid
-T-
archaeocyathid_^<N__^<N_{ahr-kee-oh-sy'-uh-thid} _^<N__^<N_The archaeocyathids are a group of extinct marine organisms that flourished in the warm seas of the CAMBRIAN PERIOD, 570 to 500 million years ago. Their skeletons accumulated to form reefs.
The skeletons are cylindrical or conical, up to several centimeters long, with variably porous, radial internal walls (septae) resembling those of some CORALS but sufficiently different that many paleontologists prefer to compare them with ancient
SPONGES. Worldwide in distribution, archaeocyathids occur chiefly in rocks of the Lower and Middle Cambrian. Large numbers of fossils have been found in Siberia, Australia, British Columbia, and Antarctica, which had far warmer climates during
the Cambrian. _^<N__^<N_James M. Schopf _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Clarkson, E. N., Invertebrate Paleontology and Evolution (1986); Moore, Raymond C., et al., Invertebrate Fossils (1952). _^<N__^<N_See also: FOSSIL RECORD; PALEOZOIC ERA.
-END-
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35778
CATO
4786
9614
14429
19259
24107
28947
33793
-A-
archaeology
-O-
000000|archaeology
000277| SCOPE OF ARCHAEOLOGY
003171| METHODS OF ARCHAEOLOGY
004452| Discovering the Site
005336| Archaeological Prospecting
008523| Excavating the Site
010325| Underwater Archaeology
011332| Interpreting the Finds
013403| ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATING
016802| HISTORY OF ARCHAEOLOGY
018368| Origins in Classical Archaeology
020882| Archaeology's Heroic Age
024228| Development of Prehistoric Archaeology
028616| Other Areas
030463| Archaeology in Perspective
-T-
archaeology_^<N__^<N_{ahr-kee-ahl'-uh-jee} _^<N__^<N_Archaeology is the branch of the humanities and social sciences that studies the material remains of humankind. Benjamin Franklin coined the phrase, "man is a tool-making animal"; archaeology is
concerned with tools and other artifacts of human CULTURE. _^<N__^<N_ SCOPE OF ARCHAEOLOGY_^<N__^<N_Archaeology is an immense and wide-ranging subject that covers a time span of at least 3 million years, from the first appearance of humankind to
the present day. Writing, and therefore history in the strict sense, came into existence only 5,000 years ago in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) and of the Nile in Egypt. Two archaeologies are immediately
obvious: the archaeology of everything preceding the earliest period of recorded history, or prehistoric archaeology; and the archaeology from the appearance of writing onward, which is sometimes referred to as text-aided archaeology. For the first
archaeology--that before writing--the French had already been using the term prehistoire in the early years of the 19th century, but the idea and the word were not commonly used in the English-speaking world until Sir Daniel Wilson (1816-92), a
Scottish archaeologist, published The Archaeology and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland in 1851, and Sir John LUBBOCK published Prehistoric Times As Illustrated by Ancient Remains and the Manners and Customs of Modern Savages in 1865. Today,
prehistoric archaeology, or PREHISTORY as it is sometimes called, is often viewed as part of the wider discipline of ANTHROPOLOGY. _^<N__^<N_The borders between prehistory and history are extremely vague and differ chronologically from place to
place. In parts of the Near East, prehistory ends around 3000 BC; in parts of Europe it continues until the beginning of the Christian Era and elsewhere even longer. Moreover, there is no immediate change from prehistory to history but rather a
long transitional period, when both material and written sources form the raw data of archaeology. For this period the word protohistory is often used. _^<N__^<N_The only source for knowledge of humankind during the prehistoric period of roughly 3
million years is archaeology-- the material remains. Both archaeology and written sources are combined to produce an account of human culture during the protohistoric period, and during the historic period written sources become more and more
important. For example, the study of the Paleolithic caves in southern France and northern Spain is strictly prehistoric, as is the study of the OLMEC civilization of Mexico: archaeology is the only available source of knowledge about these topics.
The development of city life out of peasant villages in Mesopotamia and Egypt from 3500 to 2500 BC and the subsequent establishment of two of the first civilizations are protohistoric subjects, the sources of which are twofold, namely, the
archaeological remains and the inscriptions in Mesopotamian cuneiform writing and in Egyptian hieroglyphics. The Norman conquest of England is well attested by written records; archaeological evidence from domestic, military, and religious sites
acts as a valuable supplement to the historical record. _^<N__^<N_ METHODS OF ARCHAEOLOGY_^<N__^<N_The archaeologist attempts to reconstruct the past by analyzing, dating, and comparing systematically excavated sites and artifacts. Within the field
of archaeology and parallel to the traditional subdivisions of history are separate areas of research and specialization, such as the following: EGYPTOLOGY, or the study of ancient Egypt; Mesopotamian archaeology; classical archaeology, or the
study of ancient Greece and Rome; medieval archaeology; and American archaeology. As a methodology, however, archaeology has many more aspects in common with the natural sciences than with history. Excavation reports today would hardly be possible
without the contributions of geologists, geophysicists, mineralogists, botanists, zoologists, physical anthropologists, chemists, physicists, and other specialists. _^<N__^<N_Current developments in archaeological methods are reflected in the
academic training the archaeologist receives and in the daily practice of the profession. Alongside the contemporary professional archaeologist, the amateur archaeologist--who for a long time was the only archaeologist--continues to play an
important role in locating sites, searching for and passing on archaeological finds, and often in assisting at the "dig," or excavation site. _^<N__^<N_ Discovering the Site_^<N__^<N_Many archaeological sites are discovered by accident. Sometimes
layers of soil are exposed by natural causes such as erosion. Most accidental finds, however, are unearthed in the course of human activities such as plowing fields, dredging waterways, or constructing foundations for buildings, roads, and
reservoirs. In recent years a specialized field called SALVAGE ARCHAEOLOGY has developed in response to the need for the quick recovery and research of finds resulting from urban expansion and modernization projects throughout the world.
_^<N__^<N_Sometimes indications on the surface of the earth suggest that an archaeological site is buried below. Middens (see MIDDEN), burial mounds, and earthworks such as the famous Celtic field systems are examples. A study of old records, place
names, and local folklore may also lead to the discovery of archaeological sites. _^<N__^<N_ Archaeological Prospecting_^<N__^<N_During the 20th century a separate branch of archaeology has developed that specializes in archaeological prospecting.
The goal of this subfield is the systematic inventory of all sites in a given area. AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY has revolutionized this search. _^<N__^<N_First employed on a limited scale during World War I, aerial photography was further developed by O. G.
S. Crawford and others in England from 1920 to 1940. It received a strong impetus during World War II when many archaeologists, geologists, and geographers from Britain, the United States, Canada, and France were employed by military intelligence
as air-photograph interpreters. During the past three decades the developments in aerial photography have made possible the discovery of thousands of previously unknown sites. Some of these are surface sites that could perhaps have been found by
ordinary fieldwork, but most are visible only from the air, when shadows and crop and soil marks reveal partly destroyed earthworks and other types of archaeological evidence. With aerial photography, the landscape can be surveyed as a totality.
The air photograph reveals certain details that cannot be seen from the ground, usually variations in soil color and differences in flora or crop densities that result from the influence of ancient construction on the drainage capacity of the soil.
_^<N__^<N_Aerial photography has revolutionized archaeological prospecting. For example, until the mid-1920s prehistoric stone circles in Britain were regarded as a particular category of archaeological site. In 1927 a military pilot interested in
archaeology saw and photographed not far from STONEHENGE on the Salisbury Plain of southern England what he described as "a ploughed-out round barrow [burial mound] with measles." Excavation revealed a series of circular postholes surrounding an
Early Bronze Age burial; Sir Thomas Kendrick (1895-1979) later coined the name WOODHENGE for this monument. A few years later the same pilot found a similar monument in another location. As a result of these discoveries, archaeologists now define
henge monuments as embanked and ditched circles of either stone or wooden pillars, and it is now widely understood that the famous stone circles of the British Isles are lithic, that is, stone translations of wooden circles. This piece of
archaeology and prehistoric reconstruction could never have happened without the penetrating eye of the air camera. _^<N__^<N_The photoperiscope furnishes archaeology with another prospecting tool. First used in 1957 to probe Etruscan tombs at the
cemetery of Monte Abbatone, Italy, the periscope was inserted into the burial chamber in order to photograph the walls and contents of the tomb. Other prospecting techniques applied to archaeology employ geophysical methods such as electromagnetic
and resistivity surveying. Magnetic methods of prospecting make use of instruments such as the proton MAGNETOMETER, which measures variations in underground magnetism caused by the presence of stone foundations, brick walls, kilns, ovens, and other
structures. The important Etruscan town of TARQUINIA, Italy, was discovered in 1967 by magnetic prospecting. _^<N__^<N_ Excavating the Site_^<N__^<N_The purpose of archaeological excavation is to discover as precisely as possible the basic sequence
of occupation of a site and to examine various aspects of the artifacts and other remains found there. By combining horizontal and vertical cross -sections of the areas under examination, the archaeologist is able to study the structure,
dimensions, and stratification of the terrain. _^<N__^<N_In most cases, once a topographical survey has been undertaken, experimental borings made, and trial ditches cut to determine the approximate expanse of the site, the excavation pits are dug.
Most of the digging must be done carefully by hand with a shovel and a trowel. Digging machines are generally used only to remove the uppermost layer of soil. _^<N__^<N_All the data are registered as they are uncovered. Longitudinal and transverse
cross-sections are drawn to scale and photographed, and the location and depth of various finds in relation to a fixed point are calculated. Often a contour line map of the elevation of the terrain is also drawn, and scale drawings of the site in
the horizontal plane are made as the excavation proceeds downward. After the exact location of each find is registered as precisely as possible, the objects can be removed from the site, cleaned, analyzed, and stored for safekeeping. At excavation
sites where the stratification is extremely complex, the digging is done layer by layer until the natural subsoil is reached. Often the completion of the excavation of visible monuments is followed by a process of restoration. When an important
site is not menaced by general destruction, a part of the site is sometimes left untouched so that at some point in the future the conclusions that have been drawn can be reevaluated, possibly with the aid of improved methods. _^<N__^<N_ Underwater
Archaeology_^<N__^<N_Excavation is not confined to dry land. Underwater archaeology has been considerably developed in the 20th century. It involves many of the same techniques of observation and excavation required at land sites. In addition, of
course, one must be trained as a diver. _^<N__^<N_Sponge divers made the first great archaeological discoveries in the Mediterranean. In 1942, Jacques-Yves COUSTEAU developed the self-contained breathing apparatus known as the SCUBA, of which the
most commonly used type is the aqualung. Cousteau's pioneering work near Marseilles and that of the American archaeologists George Bass (1932- ) and Peter Throckmorton (1928- ) off the coast of Turkey demonstrated the amazing possibilities of
archaeology under the sea. Work on a Byzantine shipwreck near Yassi Ada, Turkey, from 1961 on led to the development of the photogrammetric mapping of shipwrecks and the launching in 1964 of the Asherah, a two-seated submarine specially designed
for archaeological exploration. _^<N__^<N_ Interpreting the Finds_^<N__^<N_Discovering and excavating the site, although primary and essential aspects of archaeology, are only part of the archaeologist's task. After the excavation work has been
completed, the archaeologist must evaluate and interpret the results. _^<N__^<N_In analyzing certain finds, the contemporary archaeologist often must rely on specialists in the natural sciences and other disciplines. The work of the British
geologist H. H. Thomas (1876-1935) in the early 1920s showed that many of the "bluestones" used in the construction of Stonehenge in southern England came from the Preseli Mountains in southwestern Wales 320 km (200 mi) away. Petrological analysis
of Neolithic stone axes in western Europe has enabled archaeologists to determine some of the sites where they were made. _^<N__^<N_Using spectroscopic techniques, it is now possible to "fingerprint"geological sources of obsidian by their trace-
element composition. Obsidian is a volcanic glass highly prized for the manufacture of tools in prehistory. Elemental analyses of the artifacts themselves have shown that obsidian was widely traded in the Mediterranean and Near East, possibly as
early as the 8th millennium BC. _^<N__^<N_Archaeologists view the sites they have excavated or the objects that arrive in their museums not as isolated finds but as material remains of the past that must be fitted into the appropriate environmental
picture. The ecological approach to archaeology is one of the most important and interesting developments in the last quarter century. The information in the specialized branch of botany called palynology (see POLLEN STRATIGRAPHY) is indispensable
to the archaeologist in this regard. By taking pollen samples at the excavation site, it is possible to reconstruct the natural environment of the site at the time it was inhabited. Similarly, a zoologist can offer information about the types of
animal that were hunted or domesticated by studying bones found on the site. Archaeology today is also closely linked to PALEOGEOGRAPHY, the physical geography of the geological past. _^<N__^<N_ ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATING_^<N__^<N_A key problem in
archaeology is dating. When studying Egyptian and Greek remains, or cathedrals and castles in medieval Europe, archaeologists have written dates to which they can refer. But in prehistoric Europe and Africa no written dates exist before the arrival
of the Romans, and for North America and Australia, there are none before the explorations of Columbus and Captain Cook. Thus, a major problem for the archaeologist has been how to date the prehistoric remains of the world--how to put Stonehenge,
Machu Picchu, Mohenjodaro, or the giant statues of Easter Island in meaningful temporal perspective. _^<N__^<N_Two different types of archaeological dating have been devised, one based on relative chronology and one based on absolute chronology.
Relative chronology refers to the dating of archaeological matter in relation to other phenomena so that artifacts can be arranged in a chronological sequence. With this method, one can say that a certain object is older than another object, but
one cannot say how much older in years. Absolute chronology, on the other hand, is the calculation of the actual age of archaeological objects in years. _^<N__^<N_In the late 19th century Sir Flinders PETRIE invented the technique of cross-dating,
relating undated materials to times that were dated in the Near East by written records. He found Egyptian artifacts in Mycenae and Mycenaean pottery in Egypt, and thus was able to suggest dates for the Mycenaean civilization of Greece based on the
historical Egyptian chronology. This technique of cross-dating prehistoric southeastern Europe with historic Egypt was later extended by the Swedish archaeologist Oscar MONTELIUS and the British archaeologist V. Gordon CHILDE to include central,
western, and northern Europe. _^<N__^<N_The establishment of a relative chronology through cross-dating had great limitations. The dates given in the 1930s and 1940s for the beginning of agriculture and, for example, the construction of megalithic
monuments, 3000 to 2000 BC, were to a certain extent the result of guesswork by archaeologists. The first absolute chronology based on nonhuman history was obtained by counting varved deposits (see VARVED DEPOSIT), or geochronology as it was called
by its inventor, the Swedish geologist and archaeologist Baron Gerard de GEER. This method was based on counting the layers, or varves, deposited by the melting glaciers as the Ice Age came to an end. It gave a chronology of 18,000 years, which was
more than three times as long as the chronology based on Egyptian and Mesopotamian king lists. The dating of trees by counting their annual growth rings, called DENDROCHRONOLOGY, was first applied to archaeology in 1929 by the American scientist A.
E. DOUGLASS. The technique depended on the use of trees in the construction of buildings in ancient times. _^<N__^<N_The discovery in 1948 by Willard F. LIBBY of CARBON-14 DATING brought about a revolution in archaeological dating. By this method
the radioactive carbon-14 (C-14) content of organic material is measured, and absolute dates as far back as 50,000 years ago can be obtained. _^<N__^<N_Other techniques of absolute dating have been developed, among them thermoluminescence (see
LUMINESCENCE, MINERAL), used in dating earthenware products, and POTASSIUM-ARGON DATING, by which it has been established that early humans existed in East Africa at least 3 million years ago. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY OF ARCHAEOLOGY_^<N__^<N_The obvious
material remains of the past, such as the Egyptian pyramids, Stonehenge, and Hadrian's Wall, had been noticed and discussed for centuries and were the object of antiquarian speculation. The medieval and later antiquaries, however, were not
archaeologists. They tried to explain antiquities with reference to written sources, and this is why they attributed the existence of ancient monuments to biblical events such as the Flood or to the explanations that appeared in classical sources
such as Caesar and Tacitus. The classical writers who described the pre-Roman inhabitants of France and Great Britain often referred to the DRUIDS--an ancient people who seemed to have been priests, judges, teachers, and sages. Therefore, it is not
surprising that antiquarians of the 17th and 18th centuries attributed to the Druids the great megalithic monuments of France and Britain such as the CARNAC alignments, AVEBURY Circle, New Grange, and Stonehenge. The essential feature of
archaeology is that the material remains are studied directly, by excavation and comparison, and answers concerning the name, nature, and date of these remains are sought from the remains themselves. Archaeology in this modern sense of the word
began not more than 150 to 200 years ago, when carefully conducted excavations began to take place in England, France, and Denmark, and surveys of antiquities were being made, such as the exhaustive, brilliantly illustrated Description de l'Egypte
(Description of Egypt) published by French scholars in 1809-13. _^<N__^<N_ Origins in Classical Archaeology_^<N__^<N_The word archaeology, which comes from two Greek words meaning to talk about ancient things, seems to have been first used
extensively in the 16th and 17th centuries. Although the material remains of past civilizations have always been sought after, the search was usually restricted to objects of intrinsic value, such as gold and silver utensils and ornaments and
coins. During the Renaissance a growing interest in the classical world of Greece and Rome was primarily concerned with art, both the written works of classical authors and the material works of classical sculpture and architecture. The search for
and collection of these works of art gave rise to the oldest branch of archaeology, classical archaeology. _^<N__^<N_As early as the 15th century, Italian humanists collected antique statues. The LAOCOON group by Agesander (fl. 1st century BC),
discovered in Rome in 1506, attracted much attention. The first systematic collection of classical antiquities was started in the Collegium Romanum in 1635. The art-historical phase of classical archaeology reached a peak in the exact precision of
the work and commentary of J. J. WINCKELMANN, known as the father of classical archaeology. _^<N__^<N_In 1711 antique statuary was found at the site of ancient HERCULANEUM, which, along with POMPEII, had been destroyed during the eruption of
Vesuvius in AD 79. In 1748, Charles IV, king of Naples (later CHARLES III of Spain), initiated excavation work at Pompeii, and for many years excavations were pursued there but without any systematic plan. A new era of serious scientific
exploration in Pompeii and Herculaneum began in 1861 with the activities of Guiseppe FIORELLI. He was the first to note the location of the finds and make efforts to have them carefully and conscientiously restored. _^<N__^<N_Other important
large-scale excavations were undertaken in other areas of the Mediterranean during the mid-19th century. The ruins of the temple of Artemis, one of the SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD, were excavated in 1869-74 at EPHESUS. In 1878, Karl Human (1839-96)
began excavations at PERGAMUM , which yielded the famous Zeus altar and frieze, now in the Pergamon Museum, Berlin. In 1873 a team of French archaeologists began excavations on the island of DELOS, and the German archaeologist Alexander Conze
(1831-1914) dug at SAMOTHRACE. The work begun by the German archaeologist Ernst CURTIUS in 1875 at OLYMPIA is considered one of the first truly scientific full-scale archaeological projects. _^<N__^<N_ Archaeology's Heroic Age_^<N__^<N_A series of
remarkable finds were made by the brilliant, wealthy German merchant-scientist Heinrich SCHLIEMANN, assisted by his friend and advisor, Wilhelm DORPFELD. Schliemann helped shape certain basic principles of good excavation work. He preserved
everything he found, realizing the importance of everyday objects in supplying an accurate archaeological picture of the past. He recorded carefully the levels at which all finds were made, had drawings or photographs made of every important find,
and published his results quickly. His untiring efforts to prove that Homer's story of the battle of TROY was based on fact were rewarded in 1870 with the discovery of the Trojan fortress on the mound of present-day Hissarlik in Turkey. At MYCENAE
he discovered the famous royal shaft graves in 1874, and in 1884 he excavated TIRYNS. These discoveries greatly enriched the knowledge of AEGEAN CIVILIZATION. He was unable to realize his plans for excavations at Crete, which he had to relinquish
to the English archaeologist Arthur EVANS. Early in the 20th century, Evans discovered the labyrinthlike great palace at KNOSSOS and an ancient civilization he called Minoan. In 1952 an English architect and cryptographer, Michael VENTRIS,
deciphered LINEAR B, one of the two types of hieroglyphic script that appeared on the clay tablets discovered by Evans at Knossos. _^<N__^<N_The foundation for the study of Egyptology was laid by experts and draftsmen who came to Egypt in the wake
of Napoleon in 1798. During this expedition, a stone tablet was found at the town of Rosetta in the Nile delta; it bore the same inscription in three different kinds of writing: HIEROGLYPHICS, demotic characters, and Greek. The ROSETTA STONE
enabled the French Egyptologist Jean Francois CHAMPOLLION to decipher Egyptian hieroglyphics in 1822. The first scientific excavations were undertaken in 1880 at Giza under the supervision of Petrie. In 1919 excavations were conducted in the VALLEY
OF THE KINGS, led by Howard CARTER. This undertaking culminated in one of the most sensational finds of the 20th century: the discovery (1922) of the almost completely intact tomb of the pharaoh TUTANKHAMEN. _^<N__^<N_Archaeological expeditions to
the Near East began in the early 17th century, when Pietro della VALLE visited PERSEPOLIS. Later, Jean Chardin (1643-1713) and Engelbert Kempfer (1651- 1716) studied the ruins of that ancient Persian capital. Georg Friedrich GROTEFEND provided the
basis for the decipherment of clay tablets containing CUNEIFORM writing at Persepolis--copied by Karsten NIEBUHR--by comparing them with the decipherment of inscriptions in three languages found at BEHISTUN in Persia. The decipherment of cuneiform
was completed in 1846 by H. C. RAWLINSON. The first systematic excavations in the Near East took place in the 19th century. In 1843, Paul Emile BOTTA began archaeological research at KHORSABAD. In 1845, A. H. LAYARD did the same at NIMRUD. From
1890 to 1900, an American expedition undertook excavations at NIPPUR; from 1899 to 1914, a German expedition led by Robert KOLDEWEY worked at BABYLON. Important research was also conducted by Leonard WOOLLEY at ALALAKH (Tell Atchana; 1912-14) and
at UR in Mesopotamia (1922-34). Among the most important discoveries of the 20th century were the Hebrew DEAD SEA SCROLLS (1947). _^<N__^<N_ Development of Prehistoric Archaeology_^<N__^<N_The ideas underlying prehistoric archaeology originated in
Europe at the beginning of the 19th century. According to long- standing antiquarian notions, human beings had existed for a very short time; calculations made from the dates given in the Bible suggested that the world and the human species were
created in 4004 BC. The geologists of the 18th century firmly believed in this short chronology and explained the layering of rocks as a result of the Flood. This was the view of the geologist William BUCKLANDS when he wrote Reliquiae Diluvianae;
or Observations on the Organic Remains Contained in Caves, Fissures, and Diluvial Gravel and on Other Geological Phenomena Attesting the Action of an Universal Deluge (1823). _^<N__^<N_His pupil, Charles LYELL, reacted against this CATASTROPHISM
interpretation of geology, although James HUTTON, in his book Theory of the Earth (1785), had already realized that the layering of rocks was due to ongoing processes in rivers, lakes, and oceans. "No processes are to be employed that are not
natural to the globe," he wrote, "no action to be admitted except those of which we know the principle." This was the beginning of the theory of UNIFORMITARIANISM, which held that early geological processes do not substantially differ from those
currently observable. A leading figure among the Fluvialists, as they were called, was Lyell, whose Principles of Geology, first published in 1830-33, was regarded by Charles DARWIN as a book that helped form his own thinking. Prehistoric
archaeology could not have been born had not the short chronology of the antiquarians disappeared and the new fluviatile geology gained acceptance. _^<N__^<N_During the early years of the 19th century, in addition to a new geology, archaeology
developed a new approach to artifacts that was provided by Scandinavian archaeologists. Excavators in the late 18th century had complained that although they found in their excavations objects of stone, bronze, and iron, they did not know in what
sequence to place them. The ancient Greeks already had a vague notion that there had been a stone age in the past, but it was the Scandinavian archaeologists who created a complete revolution in antiquarian thought by postulating, on technological
grounds, successive stages in the past. C. J. THOMSEN classified the material in the Copenhagen Museum, opened to the public in 1819, on the basis of three successive technological ages of stone, bronze, and iron. His pupil and successor, J. J. A.
WORSAAE, demonstrated the truth of this hypothesis by his excavations in the peat bogs and barrows of Denmark. The same was shown to be true in Switzerland, when low lake-levels revealed prehistoric lake dwellings (see LAKE DWELLING). Thomsen had
demonstrated the succession of cultures and produced the three-age system. Worsaae demonstrated stratigraphy as applied to human remains. Geology was based on stratigraphy; now archaeology could also benefit from stratigraphical observation. More
than a quarter of a century before the opening of the Copenhagen Museum, Thomas Jefferson had excavated a burial mound in Virginia and correctly observed its stratigraphy and the lessons to be drawn from it. _^<N__^<N_Prehistoric archaeology began
with the three-age system. Lubbock, in his book Prehistoric Times (1865), invented the terms PALEOLITHIC and NEOLITHIC and turned the three-age system into a four-age system. Hodder Westropp (d. 1884) in 1866 proposed the term MESOLITHIC, and thus
European prehistory became a fivefold system of Old Stone Age (Paleolithic Period), Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic Period), New Stone Age (Neolithic Period), Bronze Age, and Iron Age. _^<N__^<N_General Augustus PITT-RIVERS instituted the use of
highly refined excavation methods in prehistoric archaeology. His numerous excavations of sites in Britain from 1880 to 1900 were notable for the emphasis he placed on precise stratigraphic observation and recording; detailed sectional drawings and
plans of all his excavations were made, and scale models were constructed of major sites. His sumptuous 4-volume work, Excavations in Cranborne Chase, produced from 1887 to 1898, set a high standard for archaeological publications. Pitt-Rivers's
approach was later adapted and perfected by the English archaeologist Mortimer WHEELER, as set forth in his book Archaeology from the Earth (1954). _^<N__^<N_ Other Areas_^<N__^<N_In the Americas, the first reports concerning ancient civilizations
date from the time of the Spanish conquistador Hernan CORTES. The famous expedition (1799-1804) to South and Central America headed by Alexander von HUMBOLDT led to renewed interest in the ancient American cultures. Count J. F. M. de Waldeck
(1766-1875) and J. L. STEPHENS were among the first to study the Mayan cities. In 1912, Hiram BINGHAM discovered in the Urubamba valley of Peru the Inca town of MACHU PICCHU, spectacularly situated on a saddle in the Andes Mountains with a drop of
457 m (1500 ft) on either side. _^<N__^<N_In Africa, the state of Zimbabwe (formerly Rhodesia) is named after a great fortified site located on the plateau between the Limpopo and Zambesi rivers. It was formerly argued that the ZIMBABWE RUINS could
not have been built by the local population but rather by an intrusive group of superior foreigners. Excavations, particularly those of Dr. Gertrude CATON-THOMPSON in 1929 and Peter Garlake in 1964-70, have shown, however, that this site was built
and inhabited from AD 330 to 1450 by a prosperous farming and trading people indigenous to southern Africa. _^<N__^<N_For a long time archaeology was primarily concerned with the most ancient human past in the Old World. Gradually, however,
archaeological interests and scholarly competence moved into diverse geographical regions and throughout the historical field. Now Anglo-Saxon and Merovingian archaeologists, medieval archaeologists, and postmedieval archaeologists are practicing
members of the profession; a genuine interest has developed in the archaeology of the past 200 years, particularly in the development of industry, a discipline called INDUSTRIAL ARCHAEOLOGY. Everything from the first stone tool to the garbage in
yesterday's trash can is now a legitimate archaeological subject. _^<N__^<N_ Archaeology in Perspective_^<N__^<N_How can the amount of energy, activity, and money now spent on archaeology in all parts of the world be justified? First, the cave
paintings at Lascaux and Altamira, the temples of the Maya, the megalithic monuments of the Maltese, classical Greek architecture (even if the urban pollution in Athens is steadily destroying what remains of the masterpieces on the Acropolis), the
art of the Celts and the Scythians, the cathedrals and the castles of the Middle Ages and of the Renaissance are all part of the universal heritage of humanity that must be guarded and understood. Second, humans' curiosity about their past and
their remote origins justifies the search. Through the now well -dated record of the material past, the following facts about human history have been revealed: (1) humans themselves, the tool-making animals, have existed for at least 3 million
years; (2) humans of the same physical type as modern humans, namely Homo sapiens sapiens (formerly called CRO-MAGNON MAN), have been in existence for at least 50,000 years, and cultural features associated with modern humans, such as careful
burial of the dead, the production of art, and the decoration of objects of everyday use, date from this period; (3) humans moved slowly from being hunters, fishers, and food-gatherers to domesticators of animals and cultivators of foodstuffs in
many different parts of the world, achieving what V. Gordon Childe called the Neolithic Revolution; (4) some agrarian communities brought into existence by the Neolithic Revolution went through a process whereby they became complex urban societies
and developed into the first civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, northwest India, and China in the Old World, and the Olmec, the Maya, and the Andean civilizations in the New World. This process, sometimes known as the Urban Revolution, took place
5,000 years ago in the ancient Near East. In America the oldest civilization, that of the Olmec, dates from about 1200 BC. _^<N__^<N_This is the pageant and perspective of human history now revealed by archaeology, and without doubt the last
decades of the 20th century will make it more detailed and better documented. New discoveries are continually being made: only recently it has been learned that pottery in Japan dates from about 10,000 BC and that humans reached Australia by about
40,000 years ago. _^<N__^<N_In the 19th century endless discussion centered on the nature of change revealed by archaeology. Was the advancement from a Stone Age to a Bronze Age, and from a Bronze Age to an Iron Age, something natural for all
humankind? Did cultural evolution thus follow biological evolution, or were new ideas and techniques spread from one center? The battle between the proponents of independent evolution and of diffusion from a single cultural center was waged in
archaeological books and meetings of learned societies for many years. Some scholars argued that nothing could be invented twice, and others, like Elliot SMITH, proposed that all post-Stone Age discoveries and inventions came from ancient Egypt.
_^<N__^<N_This Egyptocentric hyperdiffusionist dogma is no longer fashionable. It was replaced in the 1920s and '30s by a modified diffusionism advocated by V. Gordon Childe, in which most of the post-Paleolithic advances in human culture (such as
the Neolithic Revolution and the Urban Revolution) were seen as coming from a number of centers in southwest Asia. Accurate dating and the study of prehistoric African, Chinese, and American archaeology have established that, although some ideas
and processes were diffused--and undoubtedly extensive movement of peoples took place in prehistoric times--parallel cultures developed in many parts of the world. _^<N__^<N_What is referred to as the origin of agriculture was in fact the discrete
development of crop raising in many parts of the world; and what is referred to as the origin of civilization is the independent growth of literate urban communities in many different parts of the world. Archaeology has made human history far more
interesting and understandable. _^<N__^<N_Glyn E. Daniel _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: General Introductions: Clark, Grahame, Archaeology and Society, 3d ed. (1957; repr. 1969); Hawkes, Jacquetta, ed., Atlas of Ancient Archaeology (1974); McIntosh, J.,
The Practical Archaeologist (1987); Piggott, Stuart, ed., Approach to Archaeology (1959; repr. 1965); Wheeler, Mortimer, Archaeology from the Earth (1954); Woolley, Leonard, Digging Up the Past, 3d ed. (1973). _^<N__^<N_Histories: Bibby, Geoffrey,
The Testimony of the Spade; Ceram, C. W., Gods, Graves, and Scholars, rev. ed. (1967; repr. 1976); Daniel, Glyn E., A Short History of Archaeology. _^<N__^<N_Specialized Studies: Barker, P., Understanding Archeological Excavation (1986); Bass, G.
F., Archaeology under Water (1966; repr. 1974); Brothwell, D., Digging Up Bones (1981); Clark, Grahame, World Prehistory in New Perspective,, 3d ed. (1977); Parkes, P. A., Current Scientific Techniques in Archaeology (1986); Renfrew, Colin,
Approaches to Social Archaeology (1984); and Archaeology and Language (1988); St. Joseph, J. K., ed., The Uses of Air Photography (1966); Tite, M. S., Methods of Physical Examination in Archaeology (1972). _^<N__^<N_See also: AFRICAN PREHISTORY;
CHINESE ARCHAEOLOGY; NORTH AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY; RADIOMETRIC AGE-DATING.
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Archaeopteryx
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Archaeopteryx_^<N__^<N_{ahr-kee-ahp'-tur-iks} _^<N__^<N_The extinct Archaeopteryx ( Greek: archoios, "ancient"; pteryx, "wing") is the oldest known bird, although the skeletal remains of a primitive birdlike form discovered in 1986 are taken as
evidence by some scientists that birds lived 75 million years before Archaeopteryx. About the size of a crow, Archaeopteryx weighed about 200-500 g (7-18 oz). Besides having feathers, Archaeopteryx was birdlike in having a furcula (wishbone), a
big toe rotated backward to oppose the other toes in a gripping adaptation, and some fused wrist bones. Judging from the skull, the BRAIN had reached a stage of organization between that of the modern REPTILE and the more advanced BIRD. Weighing a
little more than a gram (0.04 oz), the brain included a large cerebrum and cerebellum, indicating a high level of sensory perception and neuromuscular coordination. Reptilian features included a long, flexible tail, teeth, three complete clawed
fingers, and abdominal ribs. The limb bones were solid, lacking avian air sacs. It is not known if the sternum (breastbone) possessed a keel. _^<N__^<N_Archaeopteryx figured importantly in the heated 19th-century debates about Charles Darwin's
theory of the origin of species by NATURAL SELECTION. Current opinions on its origin and habits differ. One theory assumes that birds, through Archaeopteryx, are descended from a coelurosaurian dinosaur akin to COMPSOGNATHUS. Feathers probably
evolved as insulating mechanisms--important to active vertebrates-- and only later evolved into mechanisms for flight. Some paleontologists suggest that several active dinosaur forms developed feathers. Whether Archaeopteryx was capable of
flapping or gliding flight, or was a fast-running ground dweller is conjectural. Six skeletal specimens of Archaeopteryx showing traces of feathers have been found in Upper JURASSIC limestones. In 1985 some scientists alleged that the most famous
one, now in the British Museum, was a forgery; paleontologists later concluded that it was genuine. _^<N__^<N_Wann Langton, Jr. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bakker, Robert, The Dinosaur Heresies (1987); Eldredge, Niles, Life Pulse (1987); Gould,
Stephen Jay, "The Fossil Fraud that Never Was," New Scientist, Mar. 12, 1987.
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Archangel:
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Archangel:_^<N__^<N_see ARKHANGELSK.
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Archeozoic Era:
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Archeozoic Era:_^<N__^<N_see PRECAMBRIAN TIME.
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525
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Archer, Frederick Scott
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Archer, Frederick Scott_^<N__^<N_Frederick Scott Archer, b. 1813, d. May 2, 1857, an English sculptor and photographer, developed the collodion wet-plate process, which used glass instead of paper for photographic negatives. Because of the resulting
clarity, the process rapidly replaced the CALOTYPE. Archer's process, which required that the negative be exposed while still wet from coating, was the principal method of making negatives from its introduction in 1851 until it was replaced by the
dry plate around 1880. _^<N__^<N_Peter Galassi
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Archer, Thomas
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Archer, Thomas_^<N__^<N_Thomas Archer, b. June 12, 1668, d. May 23, 1743, was an important early English BAROQUE architect. Little information is available about his education, but he is known to have studied in Italy, and his work reflects the
influence of Francesco BORROMINI and Giovanni BERNINI in its individual motifs, plans, and the use of concave and convex forms. Archer's most notable structures are the original Heythrop Hall, Oxford (c.1705, rebuilt 1870); Birmingham Cathedral
(1710-15); St. Paul's Church, Deptford (1712-30); and St. John's Church, Smith Square, London (1714-28). _^<N__^<N_David Cast _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Whiffen, Marcus, Thomas Archer, rev. ed. (1973). _^<N__^<N_See also: ENGLISH ART AND ARCHITECTURE.
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archerfish
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archerfish_^<N__^<N_The archerfish is any of four species of perchlike fish in the genus Toxotes, found in coastal fresh, brackish, and marine waters from India to Australia, the Philippines, and Polynesia. They are up to about 25 cm (10 in) long
and have a large, expansive mouth. With it they can spit jets of water up to about 1.2 m (4 ft) above the surface, with reasonable accuracy, to dislodge small prey or other food into the water. The range and accuracy vary with individual fish. The
water is ejected by rapid compression of the gill covers, which forces a thin stream of water out of the narrowly opened mouth. Archerfish are classified in the order Perciformes, family Toxotidae. Some taxonomers distinguish five species. The best
known is T. jaculator, a black-striped silver fish.
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archery
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archery_^<N__^<N_Archery, the skill of shooting arrows with a bow, was one of the earliest hunting techniques acquired by humans. The bow and arrow were used for this purpose more than 30,000 years ago. They were also principal weapons in warfare
until superseded by gunpowder. _^<N__^<N_Hunting with the bow and arrow is still popular, and archery in the form of target shooting has developed into a national and international competitive sport. The Federation Internationale de Tir a l'Arc
(FITA) has continued to hold world championships since 1931. In 1933 it established separate competitions for men and women. _^<N__^<N_The average length of the modern bow is 1.8 m (6 ft) for men and 1.7 m (5.5 ft) for women. The force required to
draw the bowstring to its extremity is called the bow weight. This is 14.5-19 kg (32-42 lb) for men; 11.8-15.4 kg (26-34 lb) for women. The string side of a bow is called the belly, and the other side is referred to as the back. The length of the
modern arrow is 61-81 cm (24-32 in). An archer uses an arrow slightly longer than his or her arm. (See BOW AND ARROW.) _^<N__^<N_The standard target used in official competition is 122 cm (48 in) in diameter, and the bottom is 61 cm (24 in) from
the ground. The target is divided into a center circle (the bull's-eye) and four concentric colored bands; a specified number of points is given for hitting each area. From the center out the scoring is gold bull's-eye, 9; red band, 7; blue band,
5; black band, 3; and white band, 1. In competition each archer is allowed a specified number of shots, which constitute a round. In an FITA round an archer must shoot 36 arrows each at 90, 70, 50, and 30 m (295, 230, 164, and 98 ft).
_^<N__^<N_Other forms of archery are flight shooting, in which the archer tries only for distance; freestyle shooting (also for distance), in which the archer straps a 68-kg (150-lb) bow to his or her feet and lies down to draw the string with both
hands; and field archery, which employs the same skills as those used in bow hunting. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: McKinney, Wayne C., Archery, 3d ed. (1975).
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740
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Archilochus
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Archilochus_^<N__^<N_{ahr-kil'-uh-kuhs} _^<N__^<N_Archilochus, a Greek poet who flourished between 680 and 640 BC, is best remembered for the sensual strength of his satiric verse and for his metrical innovations. He was born on the island of Paros,
traveled extensively around the Aegean, and fought and died as a mercenary. Considered the first to have used iambic meter, he experimented with many metrical combinations as well as with the use of colloquial language. A sharp observer of nature,
society, love, and war, Archilochus emerged as the first Western writer to express a strong sense of individuality in his poetry. Some of his invective was so sharp that its targets reputedly committed suicide. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ayrton,
Michael, Archilochus (1977).
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2104
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Archimedes
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Archimedes_^<N__^<N_Archimedes, b. c.298 BC, d. 212 BC, was the greatest mathematician of ancient times (see MATHEMATICS, HISTORY OF). A native of Syracuse, Sicily, he was killed during its capture by the Romans in the Second Punic War. Stories
from Plutarch, Livy, and Polybius describe machines including the CATAPULT, the compound pulley, and a burning-mirror invented by Archimedes for the defense of Syracuse. He spent some time in Egypt, where he invented a device now known as
ARCHIMEDES' SCREW. _^<N__^<N_Archimedes made many original contributions to GEOMETRY in his work on the areas of plane figures and the areas and volumes of curved surfaces. His methods anticipated INTEGRAL CALCULUS 2,000 years before it was
"invented" by Sir Isaac NEWTON and Gottfried Wilhelm von LEIBNIZ. Archimedes proved that the volume of a sphere is two-thirds the volume of a circumscribed cylinder. Evidently he considered this one of his most significant accomplishments, since
he requested that a representation of a cylinder circumscribing a sphere be inscribed on his tomb. He was also known for his approximation of pi (between the values 310/71 and 31/7) obtained by circumscribing and inscribing a circle with regular
polygons having 96 sides. _^<N__^<N_In theoretical mechanics, Archimedes is responsible for fundamental theorems concerning the centers of gravity of plane figures and solids, and he is famous for his theorem on the weight of a body immersed in a
liquid, called ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE. A famous story, unfortunately with no foundation, relates that having discovered this while in the bath, he ran naked through the streets crying, "Eureka," or "I have found it." Archimedes' treatises are
remarkable for their original ideas, rigorous demonstrations, and excellent computational technique. His surviving works include On the Sphere and Cylinder, Measurement of a Circle, On Conoids and Spheroids, On Spirals, On Plane Equilibriums, The
Sand Reckoner, Quadrature of the Parabola, On Floating Bodies, and Stomachion (fragment only). _^<N__^<N_Janice A. Henderson _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Dijksterhuis, E. J., Archimedes (1987).
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Archimedes' principle
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Archimedes' principle_^<N__^<N_Archimedes' principle is the fundamental natural law of buoyancy, first identified by the Greek mathematician and inventor Archimedes in the 3d century BC. It states that any object floating upon or submerged in a
fluid is buoyed upward by a force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid. _^<N__^<N_This buoyant force is caused by the weight of the fluid, which causes the fluid pressure to increase steadily with increasing depth from the surface. Any
submerged object is subject to a greater pressure force on its lower surface than on its upper surface, creating a tendency for the object to rise. This tendency is counteracted by the weight of the object, which will sink if it is heavier than
the surrounding fluid and will rise if it is lighter. If the object weighs the same as an equivalent volume of the fluid, it will be in equilibrium and remain motionless. Buoyancy may be thought of as the DENSITY of a fluid relative to the
densities of objects submerged in it. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Halliday, David, and Resnick, Robert, Fundamentals of Physics, 3d ed. (1988). _^<N__^<N_See also: HYDROSTATICS.
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Archimedes' screw
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Archimedes' screw_^<N__^<N_Archimedes' screw is a tube bent around a rod into the shape of a SPIRAL. It has been used since ancient times to lift water a distance of a few feet from a pool or stream. The device, often used to direct water into an
IRRIGATION channel, was composed of a wooden beam, several feet long, around which a spiral SCREW thread was built of layers of flexible, pitch-covered wood strips. Over this thread were fastened tight-fitting narrow planks running the length of
the beam and giving it the appearance of a tube. VITRUVIUS (1st century BC) described it as a "natural imitation of a spiral shell." _^<N__^<N_To operate the screw, it is angled into the water so that the underportions of the threads at the
submerged end can cup and hold the water. When the screw is rotated on its axis in the proper direction, the cupped water is lifted up along the underside of the beam on the moving threads until it reaches and can flow out of the tube's raised end.
_^<N__^<N_In Roman times the Archimedes' screw was operated by walking on it, as lumberjacks today walk on and spin a floating log. When it came into general use in the 15th century, it was rotated by turning a crank. _^<N__^<N_Thomas M. Smith
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Archipenko, Aleksandr
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Archipenko, Aleksandr_^<N__^<N_{ahr-kee-pen'-koh} _^<N__^<N_The Russian-American Aleksandr Archipenko, b. Kiev, the Ukraine, May 30 (N. S.), 1887, d. New York City, Feb. 25, 1964, was a pioneer in abstract sculpture. He studied in Kiev from
1902 to 1905 and in Moscow from 1905 to 1908, when he moved to Paris. By 1910 he was creating solid, geometrically stylized figurative sculpture. In 1912, while he was associated with Jacques VILLON's Section d'Or (Golden Section) group in Paris,
Archipenko began to use CUBIST space and multiplanarity (use of many surfaces in one work), empty spaces, or "holes," in his works as part of the design and in order to increase the number of surfaces. During this same period (1912-17), and in
accord with the FUTURISTS' idea of working with unorthodox materials, he began to use polychrome glass, metal, and wood in a series of figural relief constructions that he called "sculpto-paintings." In 1913 he completed Head: Construction of
Crossing Planes (Perls Gallery, New York), in which he transposed into three-dimensional form the type of cubist head painted by Pablo PICASSO and Georges BRAQUE. His work was included in the epic New York ARMORY SHOW of 1913. About 1916-17,
Archipenko started a slow return to more traditional forms in sculpture. After spending the years 1920 to 1923 in Berlin, he moved to the United States, opened an art school in New York, and taught at several American universities. Archipenko's
most original and accomplished works are those he produced between 1910 and 1920 in Paris, which may be seen in most major collections of 20th-century art. _^<N__^<N_Barbara Cavaliere _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Archipenko, Alexander, Archipenko:
Fifty Creative Years, 1908-1958 (1960); Giedion-Welcker, Carola, Contemporary Sculpture: An Evolution in Volume and Space, rev. ed. (1961); Guralink, N., and Michaelson, K. G., Alexander Archipenko (1987); Karshan, Donald, Archipenko: The
Sculpture and Graphic Art (1975); National Gallery of Art, Alexander Archipenko (1987); Seuphor, Michael, The Sculpture of This Century (1960).
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000000|architecture
002046| Architects
003492| The Study of Architecture
005396| ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY
005875| Ancient Egyptian and Near Eastern Architecture
007894| Greek Architecture
011451| Roman Architecture
013376| Byzantine Architecture
014097| Romanesque Architecture
015228| Gothic Architecture
016974| Renaissance Architecture
018702| Baroque and Rococo Architecture
020686| The Age of Revivals
022159| Modern Architecture
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architecture_^<N__^<N_Architecture is probably the oldest of the fine arts (see ART). Certainly it is the most useful and in some respects is a prerequisite for the other arts. Most early sacred texts associate buildings with deities; architecture
was not only considered the highest art form, to which other arts were adornments, but some buildings were viewed as representing another, higher realm. In medieval illuminated manuscripts, God was frequently shown armed with compasses and a
mason's square, as Architect of the Universe. _^<N__^<N_Architecture can be defined in at least four ways, all valid, all interrelated, and none truly satisfactory. It is the art and method of erecting structures; it is a planned entity, the result
of a conscious act; it is a body or corpus of work; it is a way to build. A good definition was provided by the Roman architect VITRUVIUS in the 1st century AD and was translated from the Latin into English during the 17th century by Sir Henry
Wotton (1568-1639). Vitruvius said that architecture was a building that incorporated utilitas, firmitas, and venustas, which Wotton translated as "commodotie, firmness, and delighte." This definition recognizes that architecture embraces
functional, technological, and aesthetic requirements: it must have commodotie (utilitarian qualities), firmness (structural stability and sound construction), and delighte (attractive appearance). _^<N__^<N_Because the history of architecture
concerns buildings substantial enough to survive (at least in part) or important enough to be recorded in some way (by drawings or written description), in practice it has been the history of significant buildings (see CASTLE, CATHEDRALS AND
CHURCHES, TEMPLE), and major institutional monuments. _^<N__^<N_This discussion will concentrate on the development of Western architecture. Nonwestern architecture, as well as more detailed consideration of each epoch in Western architecture, are
treated elsewhere in the encyclopedia and may be found by culture, by country, by style, by type, by architect, and by building or monument. _^<N__^<N_ Architects_^<N__^<N_Much more is known of ancient buildings than of the people who designed and
built them. The names of a few Egyptian, Greek, and Roman architects have survived, but the identities of the great cathedral builders of the Middle Ages are mostly unknown. They are generally described as master masons, but they regarded
themselves as architects and sometimes incorporated a LABYRINTH in their own memorial plaques to signify a link with DAEDALUS, the legendary first architect of the Greek world and the designer of the labyrinth of the MINOTAUR. _^<N__^<N_The names
of architects first began to be known in Italy during the RENAISSANCE in the 15th and 16th centuries. The idea of a professional architect with formal training and academic qualifications is a product of the 19th century. In 1819 architecture
courses were instituted at the ECOLE DES BEAUX- ARTS (School of Fine Arts) in Paris; in 1847 a night school was established at the Architectural Association in London; courses in architecture were first offered at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology in 1868, at Cornell University in 1871, and at the University of Illinois in 1873. Until World War I, however, most architects were trained while working in the offices of practicing architects, and governments were slow to insist upon
qualification tests. The state of Illinois passed the first licensing law for architects in 1897; Great Britain did not have such a law until 1931. _^<N__^<N_ The Study of Architecture_^<N__^<N_Just as the architect as a professional is a recent
phenomenon, so too is the evaluation of architecture itself. Not until the late 18th century did ancient Greek and Roman architecture cease to be regarded as an unassailable criterion of excellence throughout the Western world. Only when the
hegemony of the classical styles began to be challenged did architects and scholars begin to consider the whole of the subject. The traditional approach was based on a closely observed study of architectural style, with considerable emphasis on the
differences of detail treatment from one country to another. _^<N__^<N_An alternate approach based on determinism has been developed over many years by a group of German-speaking scholars (including Jakob BURCKHARDT, Siegfried GIEDION, Sir Nikolaus
PEVSNER, and Heinrich WOLFFLIN) who established an interpretation of architecture as an expression of the Zeitgeist, or spirit of the age. Burckhardt and Wolfflin introduced the Zeitgeist concept in their studies of the Italian Renaissance, but
Giedion and Pevsner applied it to MODERN ARCHITECTURE, which they saw as expressing the spirit of a technological era. Another approach seeks to understand architecture in the same way as did the people who built it. During the 19th century this
associative school of thought became central to architectural theory. _^<N__^<N_Contemporary architects and scholars emphasize the influences of technology on the development of buildings. The use of iron and steel beams and columns released the
wall from its traditional load-bearing function and allowed architects to incorporate enormous windows and wide, open-plan floors, two of the most significant characteristics of modern architecture. No large modern building, however, would be
practicable without the parallel development of the ELEVATOR, central ventilation and HEATING, and electric LIGHTING DEVICES. _^<N__^<N_ ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY_^<N__^<N_Architecture is most readily grasped by studying its development in successive
historical periods, noting the general characteristic of each, the development of building techniques from one era to the next as well as from one culture to the next, and noting the evolution of each successive architectural style. Following are
brief summaries of the ten major cultural epochs in Western architecture from ancient Egypt and the Near East to the present time. _^<N__^<N_ Ancient Egyptian and Near Eastern Architecture_^<N__^<N_The construction of the most famous Egyptian
structures, the PYRAMIDS, began in the 3d and 4th Dynasties of the Old Kingdom (c.2686-2498 BC). Temples in stone were built during the Middle Kingdom (c.2133-1786 BC), but most of the surviving examples date from the New Kingdom (1570-1085 BC) and
the Ptolemaic Period (323-30 BC). Permanent building in stone was restricted to the TOMB, temple, and the associated statuary (OBELISK and avenues of SPHINX and lion), but the forms of these monumental stone structures seem to have been influenced
by those of primitive Egyptian domestic architecture. Houses were formed of mud-brick walls with columns made from bundles of reeds lashed together. Thus, the walls of stone buildings were generally battered (thicker at the base and tapered), and
the columns were short in proportion, seldom more than six times their diameters. The column heads or capitals were carved to represent lotus flowers or buds, palm leaves, and papyrus heads; the column shafts often had decorative bindings recalling
the primitive lashed reeds. _^<N__^<N_Stone and timber were rare in the alluvial plains of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers; so MESOPOTAMIAN ARCHITECTURE was necessarily based on the use of clay BRICK with an outer skin of often highly colored
glazed bricks, exemplified by the ZIGGURAT at UR (c.2500 BC). Farther up the Mesopotamian rivers in ASSYRIA, stone was available, but it was used primarily as a wall covering to be decorated with BAS-RELIEF sculpture and inscriptions, from which
much of the knowledge of Assyrian history is derived. The architecture of both the Babylonian (c.1900-c.1550 BC) and the Assyrian empires (c.1100-612 BC) was based on massive brick platforms raised above the floodplain and often further terraced to
give the characteristic ziggurat form. The ancient Persian Empire (538-333 BC) adopted these features and supplemented them with the extensive use of columns, as in the palaces at PERSEPOLIS (518-c.460 BC) _^<N__^<N_ Greek Architecture_^<N__^<N_Any
consideration of Greek architecture must begin with mention of AEGEAN CIVILIZATION, typified by the great Minoan palaces on the island of CRETE, in particular the huge complex of KNOSSOS and the magnificently sited structures at PHAISTOS (both
c.1700 -c.1400 BC). Constructed of massive masonry, they were several stories high and incorporated large pillared halls, dozens of labyrinthine smaller rooms, sweeping terraces looking to the sea, and plumbing arrangements of astonishing
modernity. The walls were decorated with brilliantly colored frescoes (see FRESCO PAINTING) and STUCCO bas-reliefs. The Minoans were conquered by the Mycenaeans of mainland Greece, whose architecture was subsequently strongly influenced by Cretan
prototypes. _^<N__^<N_This early Greek architecture (3000-700 BC) is characterized by the use of massive stone blocks for walls and by the occasional use of corbeled masonry to make primitive forms of vaults and domes, as in the Lion Gate and
so-called Treasury of Atreus at MYCENAE (1400-1200 BC). Columns sometimes were also used to frame doors and gateways and to provide internal colonnades for palaces, as in the courtyard at TIRYNS. It was, however, the column and the beam--POST AND
LINTEL--that formed the basis of classical Greek architecture and that give it the simple, straightforward character that, together with its details, has led many scholars to speculate on its origins in the construction of primitive wooden huts.
_^<N__^<N_The Greeks developed a vocabulary of architectural detail in stone that was fundamental to European architecture for more than 2,000 years. The Greek "language of architecture" reached its zenith during the 5th century BC. Classical Greek
architecture consisted of three orders--the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Each represented the assembly of the basic components of a simple rectangular building with a pitched roof, that is, COLUMN, CAPITAL (or column head), ENTABLATURE (the "beam"
connecting the columns), and PEDIMENT the triangular gable of the roof). Different proportions and decorative conventions imparted a distinctive character to each order, regardless of the bright colors applied to the original buildings or the
subject matter of the sculptured decoration along the FRIEZE or in the triangular pediment (TYMPANUM). The proportions of each order were fixed within narrow limits, and, strictly speaking, the components of each order could be correctly assembled
in only one way. The Greeks never mixed different orders on the same building. This, and other rules, were modified in Roman architecture. The Romans created two additional orders, the Tuscan and the Composite, and employed all five orders as
decoration for buildings constructed on principles different from those the Greeks used. _^<N__^<N_The basic building material of the classical period was MARBLE, a strong stone that could be shaped to give great precision of line and detail. The
basic temple form was also very simple: a rectangular chamber with a shallow-pitched gabled roof, surrounded by a row of columns (or fronted by a columned porch), standing on a podium of three steps. Given the simplicity of the construction system
and the building form, the essential achievement of the Greeks was the refinement of the building and its components into an architectural system of proportion and decoration--exemplified by the buildings on the Athens ACROPOLIS, in particular the
PARTHENON (447-32 BC)--that remained the basis of the Western European architectural tradition until the mid-19th century. _^<N__^<N_ Roman Architecture_^<N__^<N_During the 2d century BC the Romans, in conquering North Africa, Greece, Anatolia, and
Spain, absorbed the architectural traditions of those areas (most significantly that of Greece), to which they added the constructional skills of the ETRUSCANS, their immediate neighbors in central Italy. The most significant achievements of the
Romans were in their technology of building, their use of a much wider range of materials (including concrete, TERRA-COTTA, and fired bricks), and their refinements of the ARCH AND VAULT and the DOME--all of which had been pioneered by the
Etruscans. Roman temples generally remained modeled on those of Greece, with the common addition of a high plinth (base or platform) and the frequent omission of the side and rear columns, typified by the MAISON CARRE at NIMES, France.
_^<N__^<N_Roman civic monuments included a number of building types of unprecedented size and complexity, which could not have been built using the Greek beam-and-column construction system. The AQUEDUCT, thermae (such as the Baths of CARACALLA),
BASILICA (law court), theater, TRIUMPHAL ARCH, amphitheater (such as the COLOSSEUM), circuses, and palaces involved enclosing much larger spaces or bridging much greater distances than could be achieved by the use of timber or stone beams. The
Roman use of domed construction in mass concrete is best represented by the well-preserved PANTHEON in Rome (constructed AD 120-24), which subsequently became a Christian church. Later Roman or EARLY CHRISTIAN churches, however, generally took
their form from the basilica, whose central NAVE, side aisles, TRIFORIUM, and APSE became characteristic features of the Romanesque and Gothic church. Emperor CONSTANTINE I built huge basilican churches at all the major Christian sites in the Roman
Empire in the 4th century, thus firmly establishing the basilica as the predominant form of Christian church architecture. _^<N__^<N_ Byzantine Architecture_^<N__^<N_BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE developed in the BYZANTINE EMPIRE founded by Constantine I
when he moved the capital from Rome to BYZANTIUM (subsequently Constantinople--present-day ISTANBUL) in the 4th century. In southern and eastern Europe, in particular in those parts of Italy, Greece, and Anatolia that remained under the sway of the
Byzantine Empire, the continuity of Roman plans and techniques was strong. Only slightly modified Roman basilican plans were used for such Italian churches as Sant' Apollinare in Classe, RAVENNA (534-39); in Constantinople itself huge domed
churches, such as HAGIA SOPHIA (532-37), were built on a scale far larger than anything achieved by the Western Roman Empire. _^<N__^<N_ Romanesque Architecture_^<N__^<N_In northern Europe, where Roman remains were less frequently encountered,
greater freedom of experiment existed in MEROVINGIAN, CAROLINGIAN, and OTTONIAN ARCHITECTURE, as the early periods are known. From the mid-10th to the mid-12th century greater progress was made toward the development of a successor style--the
Gothic. The primary characteristics of ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE (or NORMAN ARCHITECTURE, as northern Romanesque is often known) were Roman in origin, however: large internal spaces were spanned by barrel vaults on thick, squat columns and piers,
windows and doors had round-headed arches, and most of the major churches were laid out on the basilican plan, modified by the addition of the BUTTRESS, TRANSEPT, and tower. The buildings are solid, heavy, and, because of the comparatively small
windows, dimly lighted, exemplified by DURHAM CATHEDRAL (begun 1023) in England. Portals, capitals, and altars are embellished with sculpture of superlative skill and powerful effect; STAINED GLASS first appeared in Europe, but on a limited scale,
because of the restricted size of window openings. _^<N__^<N_ Gothic Architecture_^<N__^<N_From the mid-12th century to the 16th century northern European architecture was characterized by the use of flying buttresses, pointed arches, ribbed
vaults, and traceried windows. The thin walls, slender columns, and the very large areas of glass in Gothic buildings gave an impression of lightness that contrasted markedly with the Romanesque. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE originated at the royal abbey
church of ST. DENIS, built by Abbot SUGER between 1137 and 1144. It was refined in the great churches of northern and central France, such as AMIENS CATHEDRAL (1220-70), notable for its great height and the slenderness of its columns, and the
SAINTE-CHAPELLE in Paris (1247-48), in which exceptionally large wall areas were filled with glass and tracery. Indeed, Gothic architecture was most fully developed in France and England, where the style spread in the late 12th century. The spread
of Gothic to Germany was delayed until the mid-13th century, and in this country only a few cathedrals, such as the one in Cologne (begun 1248), approached the size and quality of the northern French prototypes. The most thorough application of
northern Gothic to Italy was in the Milan Cathedral, built at the end of the 14th century by French and German masons. In general, the Italians tended to use Gothic as a decorative feature rather than as a total building system. _^<N__^<N_Many
Gothic secular buildings survive, some of the finest examples being the Bruges Town Hall (1376-1420) in Belgium, the Palazzo Pubblico (begun 1298) in Siena, Italy, and the Pont Valentre (early 14th century) in Cahors, France. The greatest
concentration of Gothic secular buildings is in Belgium, in what was then the most prosperous part of northwest Europe. _^<N__^<N_ Renaissance Architecture_^<N__^<N_During the early 15th century, European culture became inspired by the rediscovery,
known as the Renaissance, of classical literature, art, and architecture. Italy was the center of this rebirth, and in Florence, where the movement started, architecture was influenced by the use of the orders, the round arch, the barrel vault, and
the dome--all Roman features. In northern Europe, where Gothic continued to flourish well into the 16th century, the Renaissance at first made only a superficial impact and was for a much longer time confined to decorative changes. In both France
and England a truly classical style was not established until the first half of the 17th century: in France by Francois MANSART and in England by Inigo JONES. _^<N__^<N_The Florentine Renaissance did not initially mean the complete break with
traditional practice that was implied in the Gothic north. For the church of Santo Spirito (begun c.1436), Filippo BRUNELLESCHI used a basilican plan, round arches, and a flat ceiling; but these traditional Italian Romanesque elements were combined
with a new sense of proportion, the use of Corinthian columns, and a dome over the crossing of nave and transepts. Brunelleschi's later design for the vast, still unfinished cathedral of Santa Maria degli Angeli (also called the Duomo of Florence)
took the form of a domed octagon with eight radiating chapels, a centralized plan that became the ideal among his contemporaries in Florence (Leon Battista ALBERTI and MICHELOZZO) and his followers in Rome. _^<N__^<N_There, during the 16th century,
a more monumental version of the style was developed by Donato BRAMANTE, RAPHAEL, and MICHELANGELO, as in their various plans for SAINT PETER'S BASILICA. _^<N__^<N_ Baroque and Rococo Architecture_^<N__^<N_In the 15th century Florentine
architecture relied for effect upon proportion, simple straight lines, and the correct use of classical details. During the 16th century, however, architects such as Michelangelo and GIULIO ROMANO abandoned this restraint for a more exciting,
idiosyncratic version of the style, now called MANNERISM, in which the classical rules were deliberately flouted for effect. Giovanni Lorenzo BERNINI and Francesco BORROMINI further developed the style by introducing curvilinear forms and by
incorporating sculpture and painting in their buildings to give a rich and dynamic version, known as BAROQUE, which spread during the 17th and 18th centuries from Rome to much of southern Europe and to South America. _^<N__^<N_In northern Europe,
especially in Austria and Germany, baroque architecture achieved an exuberance and freedom unmatched elsewhere, climaxing in the ROCOCO, as in the WURZBURG RESIDENZ in West Germany. In France baroque and rococo were tempered by NEOCLASSICISM, with
a resultant elegance and refinement in both architecture and decoration, exemplified by the 18th-century sections of the palace of VERSAILLES. The spread of neoclassical architecture during the 17th and 18th centuries was due in no small measure to
the illustrated books that brought it to the attention of educated patrons. Although fine architecture has never been created by untalented architects, the rules of the classical orders enforced systematic convention in design that enabled many
moderately competent architects to produce well-proportioned and finely detailed buildings. In part this explains the extraordinary success of the Palladian (see PALLADIO, Andrea) interpretation of Romanized Greek architecture. It was, for example,
the source of almost all country-house building in England during the 18th century, as well as of numerous mansions, courthouses, state capitols, and universities along the eastern seaboard of North America. _^<N__^<N_ The Age of
Revivals_^<N__^<N_During the late 18th and 19th centuries, Europe and America witnessed a series of stylistic revivals. The period was dominated by the proponents of the classical (themselves split between "Greeks" and "Romans") and the northern
Gothic. Buildings were also designed in self-conscious imitation of Byzantine, Oriental, Egyptian, Venetian Gothic, and Florentine Renaissance architecture, however. This was not, of course, the first time that ancient styles had been revived; the
Italians of the 15th century and the architects of Charlemagne's court in the 9th century had incorporated classical motifs in their buildings. Both the revived classical and the GOTHIC REVIVAL, however, were essentially different from the
architecture that inspired them. _^<N__^<N_The country mansion of England and colonial America bore a classical portico, but it was attached to a type of building never seen in ancient Rome or Greece. The revived Gothic applied during the 19th
century to private houses, office buildings, railroad stations, hospitals, and waterworks was by no means the same as the Gothic architecture of the northern medieval cathedrals. New engineering techniques and modern materials--in particular in
CAST-IRON ARCHITECTURE--removed many of the age-old practical constraints on building design. Rapid urban growth during the 19th century produced a great many fine and essentially original buildings, the quality of which is only beginning to be
appreciated. _^<N__^<N_ Modern Architecture_^<N__^<N_Contemporary architecture takes a bewildering variety of forms and makes use of a far wider range of materials than ever before. The INTERNATIONAL STYLE, promulgated by Walter GROPIUS, LE
CORBUSIER, and Ludwig MIES VAN DER ROHE in theory and practice, has dominated architecture in this century until very recently. Most of the earlier buildings by these architects were small private houses, usually rectangular, with undecorated
walls, flat roofs, and large areas of glass set in metal frames. Conscious avoidance of any previous styles or recognizable antecedents was combined with highly sophisticated proportioning to achieve sleek, elegant structures, such as Mies's German
Pavilion for the 1929 Barcelona Exhibition. To the dismay of its originators, the International Style was enthusiastically adopted by far lesser talents and profit- minded builders to produce numerous "modern" office buildings, apartment complexes,
hospitals, and motels all over the world. _^<N__^<N_Not all contemporary architects subscribed to Mies's dictum of "less is more," and hence their work is difficult to classify as "modern." _^<N__^<N_Frank Lloyd WRIGHT, probably the outstanding
native American architect of this century, Kenzo TANGE of Japan, Alvar AALTO of Finland, and the Finnish-Americans Eliel and Eero SAARINEN produced many buildings of great beauty and originality. _^<N__^<N_Although some of their work does reflect
the International Style, most of their buildings are instantly recognizable in their individuality, as were the great buildings of the past. _^<N__^<N_In short, these architects and others like them seem to be part of a continuing architectural
tradition rejected by the practitioners of the International Style. _^<N__^<N_The social turmoil of the 1960s was emphatically reflected in architecture. Complexity and Contradiction in Modern Architecture (1968) by the architect Robert VENTURI was
a revolt against the ubiquitous glass boxes of the modernists, and it signaled the emergence of POSTMODERN ARCHITECTURE. Since that time, architects have found new strength in the traditions of the past, as well as in the vernacular architecture
seen all about them. _^<N__^<N_Stephen Bayley and Simon Pepper _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: _^<N__^<N_General Works: Fleming, John, Honour, Hugh, and Pevsner, Nikolaus, eds., A Dictionary of Architecture, rev. ed. (1976); Fletcher, Bannister, Sir
Bannister Fletcher's A History of Architecture, 18th ed., rev. by J. C. Palmes (1975); Giedion, Siegfried, Space, Time, and Architecture, 5th ed. (1967); Kostof, Spiro, A History of Architecture (1985); Macmillan Encyclopedia of Architects, 4 vols.
(1982); Shepheard, Paul, What Is Architecture? (1994); Wilkes, Joseph A., and Packard, Robert T., eds., Encyclopedia of Architecture, 4 vols. (1988). _^<N__^<N_Historical Periods: Banham, Reyner, The Architecture of the Well-tempered Environment,
2d rev. ed. (1984) and Theory and Design in the First Machine Age, 2d ed. (1960; repr. 1980); Benevolo, Leonardo, History of Modern Architecture, 2 vols. (1971; repr. 1977); Boethius, Axel, and Ward-Perkins, John B., Etruscan and Roman Architecture
(1970); Clark, Kenneth, The Gothic Revival, 3d ed. (1962); Frankl, Paul, The Gothic: Literary Interpretations through Eight Centuries (1960); Hitchcock, Henry-Russell, Architecture: Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (1971); Lawrence, A. W., Greek
Architecture (1957; repr. 1984); Mumford, Lewis, ed., Roots of Contemporary American Architecture (1972); Pevsner, Nikolaus, Pioneers of Modern Design, rev. ed. (1975; repr. 1986); Simson, Otto von, The Gothic Cathedral (1956; repr. 1988); Venturi,
Robert, Complexity and Contradiction in Modern Architecture, enlarged ed. (1977). _^<N__^<N_See also: COLONIAL STYLES IN NORTH AMERICA; HISTORIC PRESERVATION; HOUSE (IN WESTERN ARCHITECTURE); LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE; URBAN PLANNING.
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architrave_^<N__^<N_{ahr'-kuh-trayv} _^<N__^<N_An architrave is the lowest of the parts of the ENTABLATURE in classical architecture, beneath the FRIEZE and the CORNICE. The architrave comes into direct contact with the column or abacus. Although
the term is derived from classical architecture, it may sometimes be used to describe a similar feature of a nonclassical building. It has also come to mean the frame or molding of a door or a window. _^<N__^<N_See also: GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
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archon
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archon_^<N__^<N_{ahr'-kahn} _^<N__^<N_In ancient Greek city-states, archons were state magistrates of the highest order. Athens had at first three archons--one each to wield religious, military, and civil powers. In the 8th century BC their tenure
was for ten years, but by 683 BC tenure was reduced to one year. Soon thereafter, six court magistrates (called themosthetai) were elected, in addition to the archons, to record judicial decisions. The nine positions were the focus of fierce
political rivalry in the 7th and 6th centuries BC. After 487 BC the archons were chosen by lot from all three social classes, and their importance diminished. Ex-archons became lifetime members of the AREOPAGUS. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Sealey,
Raphael, A History of the Greek City States, 700-338 B.C. (1976).
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Arcimboldo, Giuseppe
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Arcimboldo, Giuseppe_^<N__^<N_{ahr-cheem-bohl'-doh} _^<N__^<N_Giuseppe Arcimboldo, b. Milan, c.1527, d. July 11, 1593, an Italian MANNERIST painter, is best known for his paintings of bizarre heads formed by combinations of fruits, flowers, animals,
or fish. In his youth he painted for the Milan Cathedral. In 1562 he entered the service of the Habsburgs in Vienna and Prague and became court painter to Maximilian II and Rudolf II. Works painted in the grotesque style for which he is famous
include a Four Seasons series (1563; Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna) and a portrait of John Calvin (1566; Gripsholm Castle, Sweden). _^<N__^<N_Edward J. Sullivan
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000000|Arctic
001714| PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
002887| Topography
005591| Mineral Resources
006138| Climate
008307| FLORA AND FAUNA
008624| Plants
009742| Animals
012305| PEOPLE
013586| EXPLORATION
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Arctic_^<N__^<N_The Arctic is the northernmost region of the Earth. Centering on the North Pole, the region includes the Arctic Ocean, the northernmost sections of North America and Eurasia, and the numerous islands and archipelagoes that fringe the
northern coasts of these two continents. The region thus encompasses all of Greenland (a Danish territory) and all the northern parts of Canada, Alaska (U.S.), Russia, Finland, Sweden, and Norway. The major islands are those of the Canadian
Archipelago (including Baffin, Banks, Ellesmere, Victoria, Sverdrup, Parry, Prince of Wales, and Axel-Heiberg); the Norwegian island group of Svalbard (including Spitsbergen); and Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya, and the New Siberian Islands, all
of which are part of Russia. Whether Iceland is placed within, or excluded from, the Arctic depends on the criteria used to define the southern limit of the region. _^<N__^<N_The southern limit of the Arctic region is most commonly placed at the
Arctic Circle (lat. 66 degrees 30 min N); because of the way the Earth spins around the Sun on a tilted axis of rotation, this is also the southernmost limit of the midnight Sun, or 24-hour summer day. Some experts, however, regard the tree line
(the southern edge of the TUNDRA and the northern limit of tree growth) as the edge of the Arctic. Others place the edge of the region along the 10 degrees C (50 degrees F) isotherm (a line connecting points of equal temperature) for the warmest
month of the year, or along the - 4 degrees C (25 degrees F) annual isotherm. _^<N__^<N_The name Arctic is derived from the Greek word arktos, meaning "bear," and is a reference to the constellation Ursa Major, or Great Bear, which appears
prominently in the northern sky. _^<N__^<N_ PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY_^<N__^<N_The Arctic, unlike Antarctica, is mostly free of snow and ice cover in the summer months. Glaciers are common throughout the archipelagoes, but the only permanent ice sheet,
that of Greenland, is about one-eighth the size of the Antarctic ice sheet. In the Arctic snow is subject to melting and evaporation more than in Antarctica, and thus ice buildup is less. The region's long, cold winters do produce an all-year layer
of drifting ice, 5-7 m (16-23 ft) thick, on the central (and some coastal) areas of the Arctic Ocean. This ice covers a larger area in winter than in summer, but open water exists even in the winter months. _^<N__^<N_PERMAFROST, or permanently
frozen ground, occurs in all Arctic lands and commonly extends to a depth hundreds of meters below the surface. In Siberia permafrost reaches depths greater than 1,500 m (5,000 ft), although in northern Alaska the maximum depth is about 600 m
(2,000 ft). The permafrost prevents or impedes drainage. In warmer areas a shallow layer may thaw in summer, and the meltwater will form vast marshy areas and myriad lakes that dot the coastal plains. Such areas afford nesting sites for migratory
birds. _^<N__^<N_ Topography_^<N__^<N_At one time or another during the Pleistocene Epoch (2,000,000 to 10,000 years ago), most of the Arctic was covered by ice sheets, although some areas such as northern Alaska and parts of Siberia appear to have
escaped glaciation. Glaciation dissected the existing mountain ranges, but the Arctic was a region of low average elevation before the Pleistocene Epoch began. _^<N__^<N_The continental fringes bordering the Arctic Ocean in both North America and
Eurasia are generally low-lying. Four of the world's major rivers--the Mackenzie in North America and the Lena, Ob, and Yenisei in Eurasia--flow north to the Arctic Ocean through the northern continental plains. _^<N__^<N_By contrast, many of the
Arctic islands are relatively rugged, and low mountains rise precipitously from the sea. In the Canadian Archipelago the mountains range in height from about 2,000 m (6,600 ft) in the eastern islands of Baffin, Devon, Ellesmere, and
Axel-Heiberg--which are the four islands where the principal glaciers of the archipelago are found--to only a few hundred meters above sea level in the western islands. This highest point of the archipelago is Barbeau Peak, which rises 2,604 m
(8,544 ft) on Ellesmere Island. _^<N__^<N_Greenland, located to the east of the Canadian Archipelago, is also rugged, rising to a high point of 3,700 m (12,139 ft) at Mount Gunnbjorn on the east coast. Approximately 80 percent of Greenland is
covered by ice. _^<N__^<N_In Eurasia the most westerly of the Arctic islands is Svalbard, located to the north of Norway. Svalbard includes several groups of islands lying between 74 degrees and 81 degrees north latitude, with a total area of about
62,050 sq km (23,958 sq mi); it rises to a high point of 1,717 m (5,633 ft) in Newtontoppen on West Spitsbergen. More than half of all Svalbard is buried under glaciers. Franz Josef Land, located east-northeast of Svalbard, is an archipelago lying
between 80 degrees and 82 degrees north latitude, with a total area of about 16,090 sq km (6,212 sq mi), about 85 percent of which is under ice. Novaya Zemlya, off the coast of Russia, has an area of about 82,621 sq km (31,900 sq mi), one-fourth of
which is ice-covered; Sedova, which rises to 1,591 m (5,220 ft), is the highest point. _^<N__^<N_Severnaya Zemlya, an archipelago located north of central Siberia, has a total area of 36,713 sq km (14,175 sq mi), about half of which is covered with
ice, and a high point of 965 m (3,166 ft) on Oktyabrskoy Revolyutsii Island. The New Siberian Islands, located off the coast of eastern Siberia, have a total area of 37,555 sq km (14,500 sq mi), and, although the highest point is only 374 m (1,227
ft) above sea level, small glaciers are found in the northeastern islands. _^<N__^<N_ Mineral Resources_^<N__^<N_The Arctic is the site of many valuable mineral deposits. Russia mines gold, tin, tungsten, diamonds, nickel, copper, and coal in the
Arctic. Coal is mined in Svalbard, and iron ore is mined in northern Sweden. In 1968 vast oil and natural-gas deposits were found on the North Slope at PRUDHOE BAY, Alaska. Geologic exploration continues throughout the North American Arctic.
Alaska's Arctic National Wildlife Refuge is believed to contain significant reserves of oil but is closed to drilling because of environmental concerns. _^<N__^<N_ Climate_^<N__^<N_Climatically, the Arctic is a cold desert--that is, it receives
(with local exceptions) less than 250 mm (10 in) of precipitation annually. Indeed, some areas of the Arctic, such as Peary Land in northern Greenland, are drier than the world's tropical deserts. Generally, precipitation ranges from 250 mm (10 in)
in the southern regions to less than 125 mm (5 in) in the north. Most precipitation falls as snow (an annual average of about 300-600 mm/12-14 in) in the autumn and the early spring. _^<N__^<N_Arctic winters are long and cold, and summers are short
and cool. The region receives minimal solar heat owing to the low angle at which the Sun's rays strike the Earth even during the long summer days; in winter the Sun does not rise above the horizon (see POLAR CLIMATE). _^<N__^<N_The Arctic Ocean,
which receives relatively warm north-flowing currents from the Atlantic and Pacific, acts as a moderating influence, especially on the surrounding shores and islands. A temperature INVERSION exists over the region during much of the year, the
result of relatively warm air coming into contact with a lower layer cooled by the ground. In summer, especially, this is associated with cloud cover and fog. Smog, probably from Eurasian industrial areas, has accumulated over parts of the Arctic;
some scientists think such pollution will affect the climate. Thinning of the OZONE LAYER above the Arctic has also been observed. _^<N__^<N_The Greenland ice sheet and the Arctic Ocean maintain cold temperatures throughout the year, but the
tundra-covered coastal fringes warm up each summer for a brief period. Minimum temperatures of -70 degrees C (-94 degrees F) are approached or reached in Greenland and have been recorded at Verkhoyansk, in Siberia; maximum temperatures of about -5
degrees C (23 degrees F) to 2 degrees C (36 degrees F) are common on the ice sheet, and highs of 20 degrees to 40 degrees C (70 degrees to 100 degrees F) on land areas. The annual temperature range is greatest in parts of Siberia, approaching 100 C
degrees (180 F degrees). Arctic winds are less prevalent and strong than those of Antarctica, but coasts are subject to cyclonic storms. _^<N__^<N_Robert F. Black _^<N__^<N_ FLORA AND FAUNA_^<N__^<N_Despite the Arctic's harsh environment, the zone
contains a varied plant and animal life. Cycles of overpopulation and food scarcity characterize Arctic ecology. Humans living in the Arctic have long had a stable relationship with their environment, but modern technology threatens this
relationship. _^<N__^<N_ Plants_^<N__^<N_Arctic plants have evolved many specialized adaptations for life on the windswept tundra, with its low precipitation and long, severe winters. Trees and shrubs that grow there are much smaller than related
forms to the south, and their tissues are far more resistant to freezing and thawing. (The recent discovery of a fossil forest in the Canadian Arctic indicates that trees were more substantial in the past.) Arctic plants have short roots because of
permafrost. Mosses and lichens are the most common plant life, the lichens helping to break down surface rocks into soil. During the brief summer grasses and attractive flowering plants appear, sometimes completing their entire life cycle within
one month. _^<N__^<N_The buds of many Arctic plants grow just above or below the surface of the soil and are protected by plant parts remaining from former years. Only three species survive the winter in seed form. Because many kinds of asexual
reproduction occur and self-pollination predominates, genetic variation is slight within Arctic plant species. The plants are dispersed by wind, water, and migratory animals. _^<N__^<N_ Animals_^<N__^<N_Arctic animal life is more familiarly
represented by the polar bear, which roams the snow and ice, and the caribou, which migrates in vast herds across the tundra in search of food. The migratory routes of caribou in North America have been disrupted by oil-pipeline construction. The
caribou and the reindeer of northern Europe and Asia, once considered different species, are now classified as one. Besides caribou and polar bears, large Arctic land mammals include other bears and musk- oxen. Among the several small Arctic land
mammals are rodents such as voles and lemmings; weasels such as ermines, martins, and sables; foxes; squirrels; and hares. _^<N__^<N_Arctic sea mammals such as the narwhal, walrus, seal, and sea lion usually migrate, but fish such as cod, salmon,
and char are found in Arctic waters and below the ice cap throughout the year. Insects and other invertebrate species inhabit milder regions of the zone. Generally, the adult insect forms stay below the snow in winter, but their eggs and pupae can
survive below the surface. The high GLYCEROL content of some adult insects enables them to withstand extreme cold without freezing. The absence of predatory reptiles, together with the long summer days and the abundance of insects, makes the tundra
an ideal breeding place for ground-nesting birds. These include many kinds of waterfowl, sandpipers, plovers, and some hawks, ptarmigans, cranes, owls, larks, and finches. _^<N__^<N_As the Arctic winter approaches, all herbivorous mammals and many
carnivores acquire fat reserves. The caribou has a prominent layer of back fat extending from shoulders to rump and often equal to one-sixth of the body weight. Besides acting as an energy reserve, the fat serves as excellent insulation. The hair
seals and walrus, lacking a dense coat of fur, are equipped with a thick blubber layer, as are the Arctic whales. In addition to fat, the larger land mammals have thick coats of fur. The musk-ox's body is covered with a deep, dense wool called
quivut--the most valuable raw fiber in the world--over which lie long, coarse guard hairs. A dominant characteristic of most Arctic animals is their white color, the degree of which is related to the winter climate in a given region. Some animals
are white the year round, such as the polar bear and snowy owl, and others alternate with a darker summer color, such as the Arctic fox. The color helps conceal both predator and prey in winter. It was formerly believed to reduce the loss of body
heat, but experiments apparently have disproved this. _^<N__^<N_R. R. Riewe _^<N__^<N_ PEOPLE_^<N__^<N_The harsh Arctic environment supports a sparse but varied population. In North America the principal Arctic inhabitants are the small numbers of
miners, technicians, and government workers who come north for short periods of service and a far larger number of ESKIMO, or, as they prefer to be called, Inuit. _^<N__^<N_The Eskimo, a people of Mongoloid origin, are believed to have lived in the
Arctic since their first migration from Asia at least 10,000 years ago. Although traditionally dependent on hunting seals, walruses, whales, and migrating caribou, many Eskimo now live in government camps and are employed in mining and other
nontraditional activities. _^<N__^<N_The principal inhabitants of the European Arctic are the LAPPS, a people of Finno-Ugrian origin, who now occupy the northern parts of Norway, Sweden, Finland, and northwestern Russia, collectively referred to as
Lapland. Once primarily nomadic reindeer hunters inland and fishermen along the coast, the Lapps have in recent years turned to reindeer herding and breeding and to farming and other sedentary activities as the wild reindeer have declined in
number. _^<N__^<N_The Arctic reaches of central and northeastern Russia are occupied by numerous ethnic groups, including a small number of Eskimo, CHUKCHI, SAMOYED, and YAKUT. _^<N__^<N_ EXPLORATION_^<N__^<N_The recorded history of the Arctic
lands dates from the early 9th century when, according to Icelandic sagas, Irish monks were living in Iceland. In about 850, Norsemen settled in Iceland. The first reported sighting of Greenland was by Gunnbjorn Ulfsson, but the credit for actual
exploration of the island goes to ERIC THE RED, who visited the western coast about 982 and, in about 986, set up a colony in the southwestern part of the island that survived for several centuries. Spitsbergen was discovered in 1194 and was used
as a base by Norsemen who explored eastward as far as the island Novaya Zemlya. _^<N__^<N_In the 15th and 16th centuries, in their search for a northern sea route to China, explorers rediscovered many of the Arctic islands. Martin FROBISHER, who
commanded the first (1576) of numerous British expeditions charged with finding a NORTHWEST PASSAGE, discovered in the course of his voyages Frobisher Bay in southern Baffin Island and accurately mapped for the first time parts of Greenland and the
Canadian Archipelago. _^<N__^<N_Willem BARENTS, a Dutch navigator for whom the Barents Sea is named, searched for a NORTHEAST PASSAGE in 1596-97. His expedition rediscovered Spitsbergen and wintered on Novaya Zemlya, the first European explorers to
survive the hardships of an Arctic winter. Henry HUDSON led the first expedition to survive the winter (1610-11) in Hudson Bay. _^<N__^<N_In 1671, Friedrich Martens, a German surgeon, wrote an account of the landscape and natural history of
Spitsbergen that was the standard reference work on the islands until William Scoresby, Jr.'s famous Account of the Arctic Regions was published in 1820. _^<N__^<N_Exploration of the Russian Arctic occurred during the conquest of Siberia beginning
in the 17th century. Between 1728 and 1741, Vitus BERING, a Dane in Russian service, became the first to sail through the strait between Asia and North America that now bears his name. _^<N__^<N_The 19th century saw a renewed interest in Arctic
exploration. In 1818, Sir William Edward PARRY and Sir John Ross retraced the 1615-16 voyage of William BAFFIN and opened up an extensive area of Baffin Bay to whaling interests. In 1831, Sir James Clark ROSS, a nephew of John Ross, became the
first man to reach the north magnetic pole. _^<N__^<N_In 1847, Sir John FRANKLIN became the first man to find a sea passage through the North American Arctic, but it was blocked by ice and unnavigable. Franklin's ship was caught in ice between
Victoria and King William islands. After his death the members of his party set out on foot, and all perished. Relief expeditions sent out to find or learn the fate of the missing Franklin party brought much new knowledge of the region. On one such
expedition, Sir Robert McClure made the first traverse (1853) of a route by foot and boat that, if not icebound, would have realized the British dream of a Northwest Passage. Richard Collinson discovered another sea route, but it, too, was icebound
and unnavigable. Interest in the Eurasian Arctic was similarly renewed in the 19th century, and in 1878-79, Adolf Erik Nordenskjold successfully navigated the Northeast Passage for the first time. _^<N__^<N_Toward the end of the 19th century
international polar conferences in 1879 and 1880 advanced the idea of international cooperation in conducting systematic meteorologic and magnetic observations in the Arctic. Starting in 1882, observation stations were set up by several countries,
including the United States, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Russia, Great Britain, Germany, and Austria. _^<N__^<N_In 1888, Fridtjof NANSEN, Otto Sverdrup, and others became the first people known to have crossed Greenland. In 1893, Nansen and Sverdrup
sailed the Fram into the Arctic Ocean pack ice off the New Siberian Islands and allowed the ship, frozen into the ice, to drift for three years across the ocean. The scientific observations completed during this drift set new standards for
oceanographic and Arctic research. Nansen left the icebound Fram in 1895 and, with Hjalmar Johansen, traveled northward by dogsled and kayak in an unsuccessful effort to reach the North Pole. They set a new record for northward exploration by
reaching 86 degrees 14 min north latitude. _^<N__^<N_Much scientific work and the conquest of the North Pole in various ways has been accomplished in the 20th century. Vilhjalmur STEFANSSON explored many parts of the Arctic in the early part of the
century, and the 1921-24 studies of Knud RASMUSSEN of American Eskimo are recorded in his famous book, Across Arctic America (1927). The Gjoa, under the command of Roald AMUNDSEN, became the first ship to successfully navigate the Northwest
Passage; later, in the Maud (1918-20), Amundsen also navigated the Northeast Passage. _^<N__^<N_Robert E. PEARY, after several unsuccessful attempts, finally reached the North Pole for the first time on Apr. 6, 1909. On May 9, 1926, Admiral Richard
E. BYRD and Floyd BENNETT became the first men to fly to the pole by airplane; just three days later Lincoln ELLSWORTH, Umberto NOBILE, and Roald Amundsen crossed the pole for the first time in a dirigible. Sir Hubert WILKINS and Carl Eielson were
the first to cross the Arctic Ocean by fixed-wing airplane in 1928. In 1958 two U.S. Navy submarines crossed the North Pole under the Arctic Ocean ice pack. Wally Herbert's British Trans-Arctic Expedition (1968-69) made the first successful surface
crossing of the Arctic Ocean. On May 1, 1978, the Japanese explorer Naomi Uemura made the first one-person expedition to the North Pole. A Canadian team surveyed the Alpha Ridge, a huge underwater mountain range, in 1983. _^<N__^<N_Many nations
have expressed interest in the Arctic's resources, and the United States and Russia each maintain a strong military presence in this strategic region. The Inuit (Eskimo People's) Circumpolar Conference, founded in 1980 following an initial (1977)
meeting at Barrow, Alaska, has worked to formulate an Arctic policy on oil development, military maneuvers, and weapons testing that will preserve the traditional Inuit way of life. U.S. concern for the preservation of the Arctic environment led to
the passage of the controversial Alaska Lands Bill in 1980. In addition, the Arctic Research and Policy Act of 1984 was designed to promote scientific research and to coordinate policy in the Arctic region. _^<N__^<N_Robert F. Black
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Fisher, David, Across the Top of the World (1992); Graf, Miller, Arctic Journeys: A History of Exploration for the Northwest Passage (1992); Henson, M. A., A Negro at the North Pole (1912; repr. 1969); Horensma, Pier, The
Soviet Arctic (1991); King, H. G., ed., The Arctic (1989); Lynge, Finn, Arctic Wars, Animal Rights, Endangered Peoples (1992); Peary, R. E., The North Pole (1910; repr. 1968); Ray, G. C., and McCormick-Ray, M. G., Wildlife of the Polar Regions
(1981); Young, Oran, Arctic Politics: Conflict and Cooperation in the Circumpolar North (1992); Young, Steven B., To the Arctic: An Introduction to the Far Northern World (1989).
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Arctic Ocean
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Arctic Ocean_^<N__^<N_The Arctic Ocean, located entirely in the North Pole region, is the smallest of the world's oceans. It occupies a roughly circular basin and covers an area of about 14,090,000 sq km (5,440,000 sq mi). Nearly landlocked, the
ocean is surrounded by the land masses of Europe, Asia, North America, and Greenland and a number of islands, as well as by the BARENTS, BEAUFORT, Chukchi, Kara, Laptev, East Siberian, Lincoln, Wandel, Greenland, and Norwegian seas. It is connected
to the Pacific Ocean by the BERING STRAIT and to the Atlantic Ocean through the Greenland Sea. _^<N__^<N_An underwater ridge, the LOMONOSOV RIDGE, divides the Arctic Ocean into two basins: the Eurasian, or Nansen, Basin, which is between 4,000 and
4,500 m (13,000 and 15,000 ft) deep, and the North American, or Hyperborean, Basin, which is about 4,000 m deep. The topography of the ocean bottom is marked by ridges, plains of the ABYSSAL ZONE, and basins. _^<N__^<N_The greatest inflow of water
comes from the Atlantic via the Norwegian Current, which then flows along the Eurasian coast. Water also enters from the Pacific via the Bering Strait. The East Greenland Current carries the major outflow. _^<N__^<N_Temperature and salinity vary
seasonally as the ice cover melts and freezes. Ice covers most of the ocean surface year-round, causing subfreezing temperatures much of the time. The Arctic is a major source of very cold air that inevitably moves toward the equator, meeting with
warmer air in the middle latitudes and causing rain and snow. Little marine life exists where the ocean surface is covered with ice throughout the year. Marine life abounds in open areas, especially the more southerly waters. The ocean's major
ports are the Russian cities MURMANSK and ARKHANGELSK (Archangel). The Arctic Ocean is strategically important as the shortest route between North America and Russia. _^<N__^<N_Peter P. Sakalowsky, Jr. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Chapin, F. Stuart, et
al., eds., Arctic Ecosystems in a Changing Climate (1991); Grantz, A., et al., eds., The Arctic Ocean Region (1990); King, H. G., ed., The Arctic (1989). _^<N__^<N_See also: OCEAN AND SEA; POLAR CLIMATE.
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Ardashir I, King of Persia
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Ardashir I, King of Persia_^<N__^<N_{ahr-dah-sheer'} _^<N__^<N_Ardashir, d. c.241, was king (AD 224-40) of Persia and founder of the powerful SASSANIAN dynasty. He is called the son of Papak, a minor prince of Fars province, although some sources
maintain that he was the son of an unknown Sasan. Ardashir served as a governor of Firuzabad, where he made his capital, building several great palaces and carving rock reliefs. He revolted against his Parthian overlord, the Arsacid king Artabanus
V, whom he defeated and killed in 224. He fought several battles with the Romans and made (c.240) his son SHAPUR I coruler, after which he abdicated. During his reign he reestablished Zoroastrianism as the state religion. _^<N__^<N_Richard N. Frye
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Ardennes
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Ardennes_^<N__^<N_{ahr-den'} _^<N__^<N_The Ardennes is a region of heavily wooded dissected plateaus and rounded peaks, located mostly in southwestern Belgium and extending into Luxembourg and northeastern France. Rising to the east of the Meuse
River valley, the plateau reaches 694 m (2,277 ft) at Botrange, in Belgium. The Ardennes's proximity to major corridors of Western Europe has often made it a battleground, notably in 1914 and 1918 during World War I, and it was the site of the
Battle of the Bulge (1944) during World War II. The infertile and frequently boggy soil is unsuitable for most agriculture, but tourism is important at such resorts as Spa, Belgium.
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Ardrey, Robert
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Ardrey, Robert_^<N__^<N_Robert Ardrey, b. Chicago, Oct. 16, 1908, d. Jan. 14, 1980, was a playwright and popular writer on anthropology. His dramatic works include the plays Thunder Rock (1939) and Sing Me No Lullaby (1954) and the screenplay They
Knew What They Wanted (1940). African Genesis (1961; repr. 1977), The Territorial Imperative (1966; repr. 1971), and The Social Contract (1970) are among his many books about evolutionary behavior. Ardrey's controversial speculations about the
innate nature of aggression and territoriality in Homo sapiens are rejected by most social scientists. _^<N__^<N_James W. Herrick _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Montagu, Ashley, Man and Aggression, 2d ed. (1973).
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Arduino, Giovanni
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Arduino, Giovanni_^<N__^<N_{ahr-dwee'-noh} _^<N__^<N_Giovanni Arduino, b. Oct. 16, 1714, d. Mar. 21, 1795, an Italian geologist, pioneered the classification of rocks into chronological sequences. Although his parents were poor, a noble's
patronage permitted him to study at Verona and to become a mining expert. Commissioned (1769) by the Republic of Venice to develop its agriculture and industry and later to study all of its mines, he also worked for several mining companies in
Italy and taught mineralogy and metallurgy in Venice. _^<N__^<N_In 1759, Arduino published his observation that mountains comprise groups of rock formations uplifted at different times. About the same time, Johann Gottlob LEHMANN of Germany made a
similar, independent announcement. From observations in the Atesine Alps, Arduino divided the rocks of the Earth's crust into primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary groups, each of different composition and of successively later age. The
strata within each group he recognized as comprising different materials formed at different times. Arduino recognized that fossil remains change according to the age of the rocks in which they occur. He explained changes in the Earth's surface
as having been produced by volcanoes, which caused upheaval and subsidence of the crust. _^<N__^<N_Anne Millbrooke _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Adams, F. D., The Birth and Development of the Geological Sciences (1938; repr. 1954). _^<N__^<N_See
also: FOSSIL RECORD; STRATIGRAPHY.
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area
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area_^<N__^<N_Area is a measure of the size of a closed region. It is expressed as the number of square units contained in the region. A unit of area is a square of a unit of length. Areas of many irregular figures or other figures whose areas
could not be calculated directly were calculated in the past by a limiting process called the method of exhaustion. Such areas are now calculated by methods of INTEGRAL CALCULUS. Formulas for the areas of many plane geometric figures are given in
separate articles on each figure. _^<N__^<N_Joe K. Smith _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Wheeler, Ruric E., Modern Mathematics: An Elementary Approach, 6th ed. (1984)
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Arecibo Observatory
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Arecibo Observatory_^<N__^<N_{ah-ray-see'-boh} _^<N__^<N_Arecibo Observatory, located 15 km (9 mi) south of Arecibo, Puerto Rico, is part of the National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center. Conceived in 1958 by William E. Gordon, a Cornell University
professor of electrical engineering, the radio observatory has been operated, since its completion in 1963, by Cornell under contract with the National Science Foundation. Its chief instrument is a 1,000-ft wide (305-m) immobile radio telescope,
composed of 38,778 individual panels, each approximately 40 by 80 in (102 by 203 cm) and attached to a network of steel cables stretched across a natural valley. Three towers support a 600-ton triangular platform that hovers over the dish and
collects or transmits radio signals. The movement of the instruments on this platform gives the telescope a limited pointing capability. A 100-ft wide (30-m) telescope 12 km (7 mi) north of the observatory site is used in conjunction with the main
reflector for interferometric studies. _^<N__^<N_Major research programs at Arecibo include studies of the Earth's middle atmosphere and ionosphere to an elevation of 5,000 km (3,100 mi), investigations of planetary surfaces through the analysis of
reflected radar signals, observations of radio objects within and outside our own galaxy, and occasional searches for signals that might indicate the existence of extraterrestrial intelligent life.
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Arendt, Hannah
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Arendt, Hannah_^<N__^<N_{ar'-ent} _^<N__^<N_Hannah Arendt, b. Hanover, Germany, Oct. 14, 1906, d. Dec. 4, 1975, was a teacher, writer, and political philosopher. She was educated at the universities of Marburg, Freiburg, and Heidelberg. In 1933
she left Germany for France; in 1941, fleeing the Nazis, she went to the United States. She worked for Jewish relief agencies until 1952, afterward devoting herself primarily to university teaching and writing. She held professorial positions at
Princeton, the University of Chicago, and the New School for Social Research. Her books, which viewed the human condition pessimistically, generated extensive controversy when they appeared. They included The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951),
The Human Condition (1958), Eichmann in Jerusalem (1963), On Revolution (1963), On Violence (1970), Crises of the Republic (1972), and The Life of the Mind (1977). _^<N__^<N_Rita J. Immerman _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Kateb, George, Hannah Arendt:
Politics, Conscience, Evil (1984); Kohler, Lotte, and Saner, Hans, eds., Hannah Arendt--Karl Jaspers: Correspondence, 1926-1969, trans. by Richard and Rita Kimber (1992); Young-Bruehl, Elisabeth, Hannah Arendt: For Love of the World (1982).
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Arens, Moshe
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Arens, Moshe_^<N__^<N_Moshe Arens, b. Dec. 27, 1925, is defense minister of Israel. Arens's family emigrated to the United States from Lithuania in 1939, and he eventually became a U.S. citizen. When the Arab-Israeli war broke out in 1948, Arens
went to Israel, where he joined the Irgun, the right wing Zionist guerrilla force led by Menachem Begin. He later returned to the United States and attended the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the California Institute of Technology, from
which he received a degree in aeronautical engineering. Returning to Israel in 1957, Arens taught at the Technion in Haifa and became one of Israel's leading designers of aircraft and missiles. He also entered the Knesset, eventually becoming
chairman of the committee on foreign affairs and defense. After serving (1981-83) as ambassador to the United States, he became (1983) defense minister, replacing Ariel Sharon, who resigned. Like Sharon, Arens was regarded as a hard-liner in
Israel's relations with the Arab world. Arens was foreign minister from 1988 to 1990, when he became Israeli defense minister.
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Arensky, Anton Stepanovich
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Arensky, Anton Stepanovich_^<N__^<N_{uh-rayn'-skee} _^<N__^<N_Anton Stepanovich Arensky, b. July 12, 1861, d. Feb. 25, 1906, was a Russian composer whose lyrical style marked him as a follower of Peter Ilich TCHAIKOVSKY. He studied musical
composition with Nikolai RIMSKY-KORSAKOV in St. Petersburg (Leningrad), graduating in 1882. For the next 13 years he taught music theory in the Moscow Conservatory, where he also became a close friend of Tchaikovsky. Among Arensky's pupils was
Sergei RACHMANINOFF. From 1895 to 1901 he conducted the imperial chapel choir of the Russian Court in St. Petersburg, but the last four years of his life, spent in a tuberculosis sanatorium, were devoted to composition and a few concert
appearances. He composed three operas, two symphonies, considerable chamber music, including the popular Piano Trio dedicated to Tchaikovsky's memory, numerous vocal works, and many piano compositions. Arensky also wrote several "melodeclamations,"
an unusual genre in which the text is spoken against a piano score. His Variations on a Theme of Tchaikovsky for string orchestra is frequently heard in concert. His Manual of Harmony and Handbook of Musical Forms are still in use, as is his
collection of 1,000 exercises in harmony. _^<N__^<N_Milos Velimirovic _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ewen, David, Great Composers 1300-1900 (1966). _^<N__^<N_See also: FIVE, THE; RUSSIAN MUSIC.
-END-
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562
CAT
-A-
Areopagitica
-T-
Areopagitica_^<N__^<N_{ar-ee-ahp-uh-jit'-uh-kuh} _^<N__^<N_Areopagitica is the abbreviated title of John MILTON's best-known political prose work published in 1644. Its full title was Areopagitica, A Speech of Mr. John Milton for the Liberty of
Unlicens'd Printing to the Parlament {sic} of England. Areopagitica is still considered an eloquent defense of the freedom of the press from governmental restriction. It was written in response to the Press Licensing Order of 1643, which decreed
that all journalistic writing would have to be approved by the government for publication.
-END-
-C-
745
CAT
-A-
Areopagus
-T-
Areopagus_^<N__^<N_{ar-ee-ahp'-uh-guhs} _^<N__^<N_The Areopagus was the principal council of ancient ATHENS. It took its name from the Hill (Greek, pagos) of Ares, just northwest of the Acropolis, where it convened. It probably began as the king's
advisory council, but its judicial and legislative power increased as the monarchy declined. It ruled in murder cases and had important religious functions as well as censorship powers over state officers. After 487 BC, with democratic changes in
government, the choosing of the ARCHONS (chief magistrates) by lot, and the advance of naval power, the influence of the Areopagus began to decline. It retained its religious functions and its position as a homicide court, however, and survived
into the 4th century AD.
-END-
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552
CAT
-A-
Ares
-T-
Ares_^<N__^<N_{air'-eez} _^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, Ares, the son of ZEUS and brother of ERIS, was the god of war. Although he was not greatly admired among the Olympian gods, he was loved by APHRODITE, by whom he became the father of several
children. In Homer's ILIAD, Ares is depicted as a warrior god who exults in bloodshed and violence. Called variously the avenger, the slayer, and the curse, Ares used a spear as his emblem. The vulture and the dog were sacred to him. In the TROJAN
WAR, he favored the Trojans. In Roman mythology, he was identified with MARS.
-END-
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344
CAT
-A-
arete (mountain ridge)
-T-
arete (mountain ridge)_^<N__^<N_{uh-rayt'} _^<N__^<N_An arete is a sharp-crested mountain ridge at the intersection of two cirques (see CIRQUE). Headward extension of the cirques, either by glaciation or FROST ACTION, produces this jagged,
steep-sided ridge. An arete may culminate in a high triangular peak or horn, the remnant of a mountain mass. _^<N__^<N_Troy L. Pewe
-END-
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960
CAT
-A-
arete (Greek term)
-T-
arete (Greek term)_^<N__^<N_{ah-re-tay'} _^<N__^<N_Arete is an ancient Greek term that embodies the Greek cultural ideal of excellence. The oldest meaning combined the notions of proud, courtly morality and military valor, but Homer used the word in
a wider sense to describe not only human distinction but also the excellence of nonhuman traits, such as the power of the gods and the spirit and speed of noble horses. _^<N__^<N_Hesiod described the prince whose arete consisted of sagacity and
persuasion instead of brute force. Until the 5th century BC, the concept entailed excellence and success in competitive achievement, but by Plato's time it included a social reference and implied the four civic virtues: courage, justice, prudence,
and wisdom. In the Platonic dialogue Meno, Socrates reexamined the traditional concept and infused it with a new meaning that relied more on intellectual and cognitive qualities. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Jaeger, W., Paideia, trans. by Gilbert Highet
(1943).
-END-
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519
CAT
-A-
Arethusa
-T-
Arethusa_^<N__^<N_{ar-uh-thoo'-zuh} _^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, Arethusa was a woodland NYMPH and one of the attendants of ARTEMIS. Alpheus, a river god, saw her bathing in a stream and tried to embrace her. As she fled under the sea, she called
on Artemis for help and was changed into a fountain. It was believed that Alpheus, in the form of a river, flowed underground to Sicily, where he was united with her in the fountain of Arethusa in Syracuse. The story has been beautifully told by
Percy Bysshe Shelley in his poem "Arethusa."
-END-
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933
CAT
-A-
Aretino, Pietro
-T-
Aretino, Pietro_^<N__^<N_{ah-ray-tee'-noh} _^<N__^<N_Pietro Aretino, b. Apr. 20, 1492, d. Oct. 21, 1556, was an Italian satirist whose forthright, witty, and often wicked pen earned him the sobriquet "Scourge of Princes." Forced to leave Rome, in
spite of papal protection, because of the enmity aroused by his journalistic exposures, he settled in Venice in 1527. Thereafter he devoted himself in equal measure to a lavish libertinism (supported by blackmail) and serious literary pursuits. I
ragionamenti (The Harlot's Dialogues, 1534-36), illustrated by the painter GIULIO ROMANO, colorfully demonstrates Aretino's dual concerns. His spoof of Roman corruption in The Courtesan (1534; Eng. trans., 1926) and his Lettere (1537-57)
demonstrate his intimate knowledge of the mores of High Renaissance Italy. _^<N__^<N_Oscar Budel _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Aretino, Pietro, Selected Letters, trans. by George Bull (1977); Cleugh, James, The Divine Aretino: A Biography (1966).
-END-
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756
CAT
-A-
Argelander, Friedrich Wilhelm August
-T-
Argelander, Friedrich Wilhelm August_^<N__^<N_A German astronomer who pioneered in the field of variable stars, Friedrich Argelander, b. Mar. 22, 1799, d. Feb. 17, 1875, compiled the last extensive star catalog made without the aid of photography
and cofounded the Astronomische Gesellschaft, the first significant international organization of astronomers. As a student at Konigsberg University he assisted the astronomer Friedrich Bessel and later became, in turn, director of the
observatories at Abo (now Turku, Finland), Helsinki, and Bonn. His Uranometria Nova (1843), a star catalog, superseded Johann Bayer's Uranometria (1603); his monumental Bonner Durchmusterung (1859-62), a catalog of more than 324,000 stars brighter
than magnitude 9.5, is still used.
-END-
-C-
573
CAT
-A-
Argenteuil
-T-
Argenteuil_^<N__^<N_{ahr-zhahn-toy'} _^<N__^<N_Argenteuil (1990 pop., 94,162) is a suburban industrial city in northern France located on the Seine River about 8 km (5 mi) northwest of Paris. Industries produce metal, chemicals, transportation
equipment, and furniture. The town grew around a 7th-century convent, where, in the 12th century, Heloise served as prioress during her romance with Peter ABELARD. A seamless robe given by Charlemagne, thought to have been worn by Jesus, is
enshrined in St.-Denis Basilica (1866). Argenteuil was a favorite subject of the impressionist painters.
-END-
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25417
CATO
4750
9481
14182
18943
23781
-A-
Argentina
-O-
000000|Argentina
001140| LAND AND RESOURCES
001159| Physical Regions
002554| Soils
002899| Climate
003883| Drainage
004551| Vegetation and Animal Life
005391| Resources
005731| PEOPLE
006813| Language
007373| Religion
007686| Demography
008490| Education and Health
008996| Cultural Activities
009669| ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
011124| Manufacturing, Mining, and Energy
011956| Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing
013276| Transportation
013582| Trade
013865| GOVERNMENT
015171| HISTORY
015340| Colonization
017062| Independence
018364| Economic Expansion
019395| Recent History
-T-
Argentina_^<N__^<N_Argentina is the second largest country in Latin America and occupies most of the southern portion of the South American continent. It is bordered by five countries--Chile to the west (with which it shares the island of TIERRA
DEL FUEGO), Bolivia and Paraguay to the north, and Brazil and Uruguay to the northeast. On its east and south, Argentina has an extensive Atlantic coastline. Its north-south length is about 3,500 km (2,175 mi), and its greatest width is about
1,400 km (870 mi). Argentina is the third most populous country in Latin America (after Brazil and Mexico), containing about 7% of that region's total population. A plan to move the capital from BUENOS AIRES to Viedma-Carmen de Patagones was
approved by Congress in 1987 but indefinitely suspended in 1990. _^<N__^<N_Argentina is one of the more highly developed countries in the Western Hemisphere. Its economy has gradually shifted from an exclusive dependence on the large-scale
production of livestock and agricultural goods to one in which the industrial and service sectors are now dominant. Since the 1950s, it has been one of the world's principal trading nations. _^<N__^<N_ LAND AND RESOURCES_^<N__^<N_ Physical
Regions_^<N__^<N_Argentina is primarily a country of lowlands, although the ANDES, which occupy its western periphery, rise to an elevation of 6,960 m (22,834 ft) in the peak of ACONCAGUA, the highest point in the Western Hemisphere. Overall, the
country may be divided into four topographical regions: the PAMPAS, PATAGONIA, the Andes and their foothills, and the Northeast. _^<N__^<N_Approximately one-fourth of the total area is given to the flat, fertile Pampas of east and central
Argentina. This region is subdivided into the eastern, humid Pampas, which receives as much as 1,000 mm (40 in) of precipitation a year, and the dry Pampas to the west, where the average rainfall is less than 500 mm (20 in). To the south of the
Pampas, south of the Rio Colorado, lies Patagonia, whose arid, windy plateaus are cut by an occasional ravine. The Andean and plateau region in the western part of the country includes most of the ranges, or cordilleras, of the Andes--low and
glaciated to the south, high and arid to the north--the hills of the Sierra de Cordoba, and the desert and mountains of the old colonial region in the northwest. The northeast region of Argentina, one-fifth of the country's area, comprises the
forested plains of the CHACO, the subtropical zones of Misiones, and the floodplains and gently rolling land known as Mesopotamia, which lies between the PARANA and URUGUAY rivers. _^<N__^<N_ Soils_^<N__^<N_The soils of the Pampas are among the
richest in the world and consist of a deep accumulation of loose, wind-blown materials (LOESS), resting upon granite and other ancient crystalline rock, entirely free of stones. The country's less productive soils range from laterite in the north
to desert sands and sierozems in the west and south. _^<N__^<N_ Climate_^<N__^<N_Most of Argentina has a temperate climate, although there is considerable variation. The extreme heat of the northern Chaco, which has an annual mean temperature of
23 deg C (74 deg F) with some 14 days a year of nearly 45 deg C (113 deg F), and the high humidity of the northeast (85%-90% during the winter) are gradually ameliorated toward the central Pampas, which enjoy an annual mean temperature of 16 deg C
(60 deg F) and humidity of 76%. Farther south, the cool, windy, and dry climate of Patagonia turns into glacial cold at higher altitudes in the Andes. _^<N__^<N_In the northern two-thirds of the country, winter (May to August) is the driest period
of the year. Rainfall diminishes from east to west and toward the south, with about 2,000 mm (80 in) a year in Misiones, 940 mm (37 in) in Buenos Aires, and 750 mm (30 in) in the Chaco. Annual precipitation is less than 250 mm (10 in) in
Patagonia, and only 50 mm (2 in) in the far west and the northwest of the country. _^<N__^<N_ Drainage_^<N__^<N_Argentine streams form five great river systems, all of which drain eastward into the Atlantic Ocean. The largest of these is the
Parana, Paraguay, and Uruguay system in the north, which empties into the RIO DE LA PLATA estuary. All these rivers are more or less navigable. Large areas of the Pampas are poorly drained. Bluffs rising above the Parana slope gently to the
southwest and merge at a zone of marshes southwest of ROSARIO and Buenos Aires. Here the water table rises during the wet season (October to April) so that much of the surface becomes marshy with shallow lakes. The Colorado, Negro, and Chubut are
the principal rivers of Patagonia. _^<N__^<N_ Vegetation and Animal Life_^<N__^<N_Because the climates and soils are diverse, Argentina has a wide variety of vegetation. With their cold, dry climate, Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego have few trees
and are covered by low shrubs and grasses. The less arid Pampas constitute South America's largest area of grassland. The Chaco region is characterized by both forests (including quebracho and carob trees) and savanna. In the temperate northeast
are forests of carob and palm, and in the more humid Andes deciduous forests flourish. Animal life in Argentina is especially rich and varied. Llama and vicuna inhabit the Andean tracts; jaguars, pumas, monkeys, deer, foxes, and wild boars are
found at lower elevations. Birds, including the condor, and fish are particularly numerous, and the country is one of the richest in dinosaur fossils. _^<N__^<N_ Resources_^<N__^<N_Argentina has a varied base of mineral deposits, but most are
small and are in remote regions of the Andes or Patagonia. Petroleum is the only mineral produced in a substantial quantity, and about 21 million metric tons (over 23 million U.S. tons) are extracted each year, making Argentina nearly
self-sufficient in liquid fuels. _^<N__^<N_ PEOPLE_^<N__^<N_Most Argentinians are descendants of either the Spaniards who settled in the 16th century or the millions of European immigrants who arrived in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The
mestizo (mixed Indian and European) and Indian populations, once a majority, have been absorbed into the general population, and as a distinct ethnic group now number only about 30,000. Blacks were originally brought in as slaves, but as a
separate racial group have virtually disappeared. The largest groups of immigrants entering Argentina between 1857 and 1940 were Italians (44%) and Spaniards (31%). Other Western Europeans, such as the French, Germans, Austrians, British, Swiss,
and Portuguese, accounted for less than 10% of the immigrants. Eastern Europeans, including Poles, Russians, Hungarians, Turks, and Yugoslavs, made up about 9% of the new population. Since the mid-20th century, many Paraguayans, Bolivians, and
Chileans have crossed the border into Argentina. The Jewish population of 500,000 is the largest in Latin America and the fifth largest in the world. _^<N__^<N_ Language_^<N__^<N_Spanish is both the official and the popular language. It is,
however, a distinctly Argentine Spanish, characterized by expressions and pronunciation that have evolved over more than 350 years. A dialect called Spanish Lunfardo, which developed in Buenos Aires before 1900, with many borrowed words from
Italian and Portuguese, has had a significant impact on the capital. Bilingualism among immigrants and their descendants is considerable. Indian languages, including Guarani, Quechua, and Tehuelche, are spoken by only about 1 person in 1,000.
_^<N__^<N_ Religion_^<N__^<N_In the early 1980s approximately 90% of the people identified themselves as Catholics, 2% as Protestants, and 2% as Jewish. Freedom of worship is guaranteed by the constitution, but the Roman Catholic church is
recognized as the established church and the president and vice-president must belong to it. _^<N__^<N_ Demography_^<N__^<N_Argentina has one of the lowest growth rates in Latin America and therefore has few problems associated with the rapid
growth of population. The country, however, has long had an imbalance of population distribution. Less than one-fifth of the people are dispersed over the vast rural landscape; more than one-third live in metropolitan Buenos Aires, and nearly
half live in the five largest metropolitan cities--Buenos Aires, Rosario, CORDOBA, LA PLATA, and Mendoza. The country lacks a healthy sector of middle-size cities, towns, and villages. _^<N__^<N_Argentina ranks above the United States as one of
the most extensively urbanized countries in the Western Hemisphere. However, the overall population density is one of the lowest in Latin America and less than one-third of the world average. _^<N__^<N_ Education and Health_^<N__^<N_Argentina's
literacy rate is more than 90%. Free compulsory education ensures that the great majority of people go through elementary schools. Large numbers (40%) enter secondary schools, but only 8% graduate. The University of Buenos Aires, has more than
100,000 students. There are 21 other national universities and 18 private universities located in Argentina. Argentinians have a life expectancy of 70 years, and medical facilities (especially urban) are generally excellent. _^<N__^<N_ Cultural
Activities_^<N__^<N_Argentina has long been noted for the high quality of its intellectual life and for its many artistic influences. Among its modern literary figures of international reputation are Jorge Luis BORGES, Julio CORTAZAR, and Manuel
PUIG. (See also LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE.) _^<N__^<N_Drama, music, painting, and sculpture have flourished, especially in Buenos Aires, although political and economic turmoil in the country since the 1950s has in some respects acted as a
deterrent to the development of the arts. Buenos Aires, however, is still the scene of some of the world's major international music events, many of which take place at the famous Teatro Colon. _^<N__^<N_ ECONOMIC ACTIVITY_^<N__^<N_Foreign trade
and commerce have been major components of the country's economy since the time of colonization. Over the three centuries since colonization several, sometimes overlapping, economic periods can be distinguished. From 1600 to 1750, wild cattle and
horses were hunted for hides; from 1700 to 1850, large herds of semidomesticated animals were formed and became the backbone of the estancia (large-scale ranch) system. From the colonial period to the end of the 19th century, fats and salted
meats were processed in large vats and sold as food for slaves on plantations in the Americas and as food to be eaten on board sailing ships. Between 1830 and 1900, extensive sheep ranches were established. _^<N__^<N_Dramatic economic changes
occurred during the latter half of the 19th century, when rapid expansion of crop farming coincided with the influx of European immigrants. By the late 1920s, Argentina had attained the highest level of economic development in Latin America and
ranked alongside a number of European countries. Since then, however, and especially since the 1940s, economic growth has been hampered by inflation, which is fueled by large budgetary deficits from expenditures in the public sector.
_^<N__^<N_Since the 1930s industrial growth has been stressed, and by the 1980s manufacturing and mining accounted for 36% of the gross domestic product (GDP), while agriculture, fishing, and forestry accounted for only 14%. _^<N__^<N_
Manufacturing, Mining, and Energy_^<N__^<N_Manufacturing alone employs about one-fourth of the labor force. Meat packing and food processing are among the country's major manufacturing industries, as are the production of textiles, cement,
petroleum, chemicals, iron and steel, automobiles, and machinery. Mining employs only 0.5% of the labor force. Petroleum and natural gas, coal and iron ore, and copper are Argentina's major mineral resources. _^<N__^<N_The great bulk of energy
production is consumed in the city and province of Buenos Aires, which is far from the sources of power. Argentina's oil and gas fields are located in Patagonia and near the Bolivian border, and hydroelectric sites are located principally in the
Andes and on the Brazilian frontier. Argentina was the first Latin American country to install nuclear power plants. _^<N__^<N_ Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing_^<N__^<N_Argentina ranks among the world's top dozen producers of wheat, rye, maize
(corn), and linseed. Livestock production is also among the highest. The cattle herd numbers about 55,000,000 head, the sheep herd about 30,000,000. Hogs number about 4,650,000. In addition to meat, hides and skins and wool are the major trade
commodities. _^<N__^<N_About 60% of Argentina's land area is used for agriculture. About half of all farms are privately owned; the rest are mostly in corporate, cooperative, state, or institutional ownership. Relatively few tenant farms exist
today. _^<N__^<N_About 23% of the land is covered by forests, which are mainly in the northern subtropical Misiones and Chaco. The most valuable timber, however, is in Patagonia, where araucarian forests as well as cypress, pine, larch, and oak
are found. The quebracho tree is valued for the tannin that is extracted from it. _^<N__^<N_The fishing industry has expanded dramatically since the early 1960s. Argentinian dietary habits, which traditionally favored meat, have changed
considerably, and fish catches have increased nearly three-fold since 1960 but still lag behind those of other South American countries. Most fishing is off the northern half of the Atlantic coast. Hake, mackerel, and anchovies are the most
important catches. _^<N__^<N_ Transportation_^<N__^<N_Argentina has the most extensive transportation system in Latin America. In 1988, railroad track had a total length of about 39,738 km (24,692 mi). Highways in 1988 totaled 208,350 km (124,463
mi), but only about one-quarter was paved. Buenos Aires is the focus of the transport network. _^<N__^<N_ Trade_^<N__^<N_Since 1970 Argentina has frequently registered annual trade deficits, adding to a debilitating national debt which reached $45
billion in 1984. Because the country is self-sufficient in food and most consumer goods, imports are mainly raw materials, chemicals, and machinery. _^<N__^<N_ GOVERNMENT_^<N__^<N_Argentina is a federal republic made up of 23 provinces, one
territory, and the federal capital. The country is governed under the constitution of 1853, with amendments. During much of the period since 1930, however, Argentina has often been ruled by military governments that have suspended many
constitutional provisions. Although a separation of powers among the branches of government is provided for, the president has considerable control over legislative and judicial matters. He draws up and introduces his own bills in congress and
appoints cabinet members and other officials without the consent of the legislature. He can declare a state of siege and thereby legally suspend constitutional guarantees. _^<N__^<N_Congress consists of two chambers, a Senate and a Chamber of
Deputies. Members of the Chamber of Deputies serve 4-year terms and members of the Senate, 9-year terms. The president serves a 6-year term but cannot serve two consecutive terms. Federal judicial power is vested in a supreme court of justice
appointed by the president with the consent of the Senate. Provincial governments have some autonomy but do not participate in the amendment of the constitution, and the federal government can intervene in the provinces in order to ensure a
republican form of government. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY_^<N__^<N_At the beginning of the 16th century, before the arrival of Europeans, the area that is now Argentina had a population of about 300,000, mostly nomadic Indians. _^<N__^<N_
Colonization_^<N__^<N_In 1516 the Spaniard Juan Diaz de Solis, in search of a southwest passage to the Orient, became the first European to set foot on Argentine territory. He sailed up the Rio de la Plata estuary and claimed the land on both
sides for Spain. (He was killed by Indians, and his party returned to Spain.) In 1526, Sebastian CABOT, in the employ of the Spanish, ascended the Parana and Paraguay rivers. He was impressed by the silver ornaments of the Indians, and this may
account for the names Rio de la Plata ("Silver River") and Argentina ("silvery"). When the country did not yield the silver that had been anticipated, the Spanish crown lost interest. _^<N__^<N_Buenos Aires was originally founded in 1536 by Pedro
de MENDOZA, but because of Indian attacks was abandoned within a few years in favor of Ascuncion, Paraguay. From about the mid-16th century to about 1700, Spanish colonists moved in from the Pacific coast over the Andes, founding such cities as
Santiago del Estero (1553), Mendoza (1561), San Juan (1562), TUCUMAN (1565), Cordoba (1573), Salta (1582), La Rioja (1591), and San Luis (1596). The pattern of settlement, from west to east, was opposite to that of the United States.
_^<N__^<N_After Buenos Aires was permanently resettled in 1580, it gradually began to reap the benefits of its advantageous location as both an east-coast port and as a buffer to the southward expansion of the Portuguese colony of Brazil. The
creation, in 1776, of the Viceroyalty of La Plata (including present-day Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and southern Bolivia), with its capital in Buenos Aires, further enhanced the city's growth and prestige. Up to this time Argentina had been
administered under the Viceroyalty of Peru. _^<N__^<N_ Independence_^<N__^<N_In 1806, during the Napoleonic Wars, Buenos Aires was occupied by the British. Although the colonial militia led by Jacques de Liniers (1753-1810) restored Spanish rule,
Spain's ties with its American colonies were weakened in the tumultuous period, especially after Napoleon's deposition of Ferdinand VII. On May 25, 1810, a revolt occurred in Buenos Aires, and a junta was appointed to rule in the name of the
deposed king. A full independence movement led by Manuel BELGRANO soon gathered force, however; the royalists were defeated, and a proclamation of independence was signed at Tucuman on July 9, 1816. Independence was followed by almost continuous
civil war. Conflict developed between the centralists (or unitarians), who favored a strongly centralized government at Buenos Aires, and the federalists, who, with the support of gaucho troops, supported provincial autonomy. The federalist Juan
Manuel de ROSAS, governor of Buenos Aires, consolidated his power to rule as virtual dictator of the country from 1835 to 1852 and managed to preserve a national unity. Following his overthrow, the present constitution was adopted (1853), but it
was not until 1862 that Buenos Aires became a fully integrated province in the federal structure provided for by the constitution. _^<N__^<N_ Economic Expansion_^<N__^<N_Despite intermittent uprisings and periods of anarchy in the 19th century,
much economic progress was made. During the administrations of presidents Bartolome MITRE (1862-68) and Domingo SARMIENTO (1868-74) immigration was encouraged, a public education system established, railroads built, and better breeds of cattle and
sheep introduced. Gen. Julio ROCA (president 1880-86, 1898-1904) achieved a final victory over the Indians in 1879, opening the Pampas to settlement. _^<N__^<N_With the support of immigrant groups and the urban middle class, a political
organization, which became known as the Radical party, was formed, and in 1912 it won the adoption of universal male suffrage and election by secret ballot. Effective government control had up to then remained in the hands of the landowners and the
military. In 1916 the Radical candidate Hipolito Irigoyen (c.1850-1933) became the first Argentine president to be elected by popular vote. Irigoyen continued Argentina's policy of neutrality in World War I. _^<N__^<N_ Recent
History_^<N__^<N_Disillusion with the Radical party's ineffectualness grew, and in 1930, Irigoyen was deposed from his second term by a coup. Conservatives then ruled the country until 1943, when another coup replaced the president with a military
dictatorship. Argentina remained neutral through most of World War II, but eventually declared war on Germany (March 1945). In 1946, with the strong support of labor unions and the Roman Catholic church, Juan D. PERON was elected president.
During his 9 years in power, Peron established a virtually totalitarian regime. He and his second wife, Eva, cultivated an extraordinary popularity with the workers, the so-called shirtless ones, to whom they gave a political voice. Peron
skillfully combined repression, nationalism, and reform. His policies of rapid industrial expansion (to the discouragement of agriculture) and markedly increased social benefits resulted, however, in social and economic problems. _^<N__^<N_Even
after the armed forces ousted him in September 1955, Peron continued to be a force in Argentine politics. Of the succession of military and civilian presidents that followed, none completed a full term. The Peronistas were alternately banned and
permitted to participate in the political process. Then, after 18 years of exile, Peron was again elected president in 1973. By that time, however, his followers were bitterly divided; urban guerrillas (both leftist and rightist) were active, and
Peron was old and ailing. He died the following year, leaving his third wife, Isabel, who had run with him as vice-president, to succeed him. Unable to unite the divided Peronistas, contain mounting violence, or cope with an inflation rate that
exceeded 300%, she was overthrown by the armed forces in March 1976 in a bloodless military coup that installed Lt. Gen. Jorge VIDELA as president. _^<N__^<N_Videla led a ruthless campaign against terrorism, in which thousands of left-wing
dissidents disappeared and were presumably killed. He was succeeded in March 1981 by Gen. Roberto Eduardo VIOLA who, in turn, was replaced the following December by Gen. Leopoldo Fortunato GALTIERI. _^<N__^<N_In the spring of 1982 tensions arose
between Argentina and Great Britain over the Falkland (Malvinas) Islands, a British dependency in the south Atlantic claimed by Argentina for more than a century. Argentine troops invaded and captured the Falklands in April, precipitating a brief
war that ended when Britain retook the disputed territory two months later. Both sides lost several naval vessels in the fighting; the heaviest loss of life occurred on May 2, when the Argentine cruiser General Belgrano was torpedoed by a British
submarine and went down with several hundred of its crew. Galtieri, discredited by Argentina's defeat in the Falklands war, resigned on June 17 and was succeeded by a retired general, Reynaldo BIGNONE. _^<N__^<N_Civilian government returned the
following year. In elections held on Oct. 30, 1983, Raul ALFONSIN, a Radical, was victorious in the contest for the presidency, defeating the Peronist candidate, Italo Luder. The Radicals also won a majority in the Chamber of Deputies. Alfonsin
took office in December in the midst of an economic crisis, with the annual inflation rate running at more than 500% and an enormous foreign debt. Alfonsin's government also took steps early on to prosecute military officers responsible for the
disappearance of 8,426 persons--the number recorded by a commission appointed by the new president. By the start of 1985, Argentina's foreign debt reached $45 billion, and inflation exceeded 1,000%. To secure emergency aid from the International
Monetary Fund and from other countries, Alfonsin was forced to impose several austerity measures. In June 1985, he declared a five-day bank holiday and announced a new unit of currency, the austral, which was valued at 1,000 pesos, the former
monetary unit. By mid-1986 inflation was about 50%. Late in 1985 ex-presidents Jorge VIDELA and Roberto Viola and three others received prison sentences. Separately, former president Leopoldo GALTIERI was convicted in May 1986 of negligence in
conducting the Falklands war. _^<N__^<N_Although Peronistas made strong gains in the elections of 1987, the Radicals retained legislative dominance. The government crushed military rebellions in April 1987 and January 1988. Alfonsin's term ended
in 1989, and he was not constitutionally able to run for reelection. In mid-May 1989, Carlos Saul MENEM, the Peronist candidate, won the presidency by a wide margin. Because of the severe economic crisis, Alfonsin resigned from office five months
before the end of his six-year term, and Menem was sworn into office as president on July 8, 1989. Menem's emergency austerity plan included measures to reduce inflation sharply, to close the fiscal deficit, and to privatize a large number of
state enterprises. He pardoned three former military leaders in 1989 and restored ties with Britain in 1990. Menem's economic austerity plan, however, failed to halt inflation. Although his free-market economic policies were opposed by many
Peronists, he was named leader of the Peronist party in August 1990. The leaders of an unsuccessful December 1990 army mutiny were sentenced to prison terms in September 1991. _^<N__^<N_Richard W. Wilkie _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Crassweller,
Robert D., Peron and the Enigmas of Argentina (1987); Ferns, H. S., The Argentine Republic, 1516-1971 (1973); Hodges, D. C., Argentina, 1943-1987 (1988); Organization of American States: General Secretariat, Inter-American Commission of Human
Rights, Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Argentina (1980); Randall, Laura, An Economic History of Argentina in the 20th Century (1977); Rock, David, ed., Argentina in the Twentieth Century (1975) and Argentina, 1516-1987 (1987);
Shumway, Nicolas, The Invention of Argentina (1991); Smith, Peter H., Argentina and the Failure of Democracy, 1904-1955 (1974); Waisman, C., Reversal of Development in Argentina (1988). _^<N__^<N_
-END-
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600
CAT
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Argentina, La
-T-
Argentina, La_^<N__^<N_La Argentina (Antonia Merce), b. Buenos Aires, Sept. 4, 1888 or 1890, d. near Bayonne, France, July 18, 1936, is credited with bringing the Spanish dance to the concert stage. Trained by her parents as a classical dancer, she
preferred the folk forms, which she refined for presentation on her world tours between 1928 and 1936. La Argentina's choreography for and performance in Manuel de FALLA's El Amor Brujo (Love, the Sorcerer) brought her world fame as perhaps the
finest Spanish dancer of this century. _^<N__^<N_Michael Robertson _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ivanova, Anna, The Dancing Spaniards (1970).
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603
CAT
-A-
argentine
-T-
argentine_^<N__^<N_The argentine, Argentina silus, family Argentinidae, order Salmoniformes, is a slender, silvery FISH reaching a length of 45 cm (18 in). It is common in waters that range from 145 to 545 m (480 to 1800 ft) in depth. This species
inhabits both sides of the North Atlantic. On the European side its distribution extends from the seas of northern Norway south to the northern reaches of the North Sea. At one time, the argentine was considered a rarity in the western Atlantic.
Not until the 1940s was it commonly found in the catch of the rosefish fishery in the Gulf of Maine. _^<N__^<N_Alfred Perlmutter
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538
CAT
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argentite
-T-
argentite_^<N__^<N_Argentite, a silver SULFIDE MINERAL, is an important constituent of silver ore deposits. Containing 87% silver, it forms blackish-gray coatings or masses with a metallic luster and a shining black STREAK. Characteristic is the
ease with which it is cut. Argentite is stable only above 179 deg C; thus, although the few crystals found appear outwardly to be ISOMETRIC, they are actually composed of acanthite, a chemically identical PARAMORPH belonging to the MONOCLINIC
SYSTEM. Hardness is 2-2.5 and specific gravity is 7.2-7.4.
-END-
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723
CAT
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Argento, Dominick
-T-
Argento, Dominick_^<N__^<N_The American composer Dominick Argento, b. York, Pa., Oct. 27, 1927, won the 1975 Pulitzer Prize for music for his song cycle, From the Diary of Virginia Woolf. He received his musical training at the Peabody Conservatory
in Baltimore, Md., the Eastman School of Music in Rochester, N.Y., and the Conservatorio Cherubini in Florence. He credits his strong sense of music theater to collaboration with Sir Tyrone GUTHRIE. Most of his operas, such as The Shoemaker's
Holiday, oratorios, such as Ode to the West Wind, ballets, and orchestral music stem from literary and dramatic sources. He has been professor of music at the University of Minnesota since 1958, and cofounded the Minnesota Opera. _^<N__^<N_Ella
Malin
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1333
CAT
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Argersinger v. Hamlin
-T-
Argersinger v. Hamlin_^<N__^<N_In the case of Argersinger v. Hamlin (1972), the scope of the right to counsel was broadened considerably by a unanimous U.S. Supreme Court. Jon Richard Argersinger was an indigent who had been sentenced to serve 90
days in jail after conviction for carrying a concealed weapon, an offense under Florida law that carried a penalty of up to six months' imprisonment and a fine of $1,000. At no time had Argersinger been represented by counsel, and he subsequently
brought action against Hamlin, the local sheriff; he argued that without the services of an attorney guaranteed by the 6th and 14th Amendments he had been unconstitutionally convicted. The Florida Supreme Court dismissed the petition, relying on
Duncan v. Louisiana (1968), which had held that jury trials were not required in crimes carrying no more than six months in prison. The Florida court extended this ruling, reasoning that if jury trials were not required for misdemeanors, the right
to counsel was not guaranteed either. _^<N__^<N_Speaking for the Supreme Court, Justice William O. DOUGLAS reversed Argersinger's conviction, holding that "absent a knowing and intelligent waiver, no person may be imprisoned for any offense,
whether classified as petty, misdemeanor, or felony, unless he was represented by counsel at his trial." _^<N__^<N_Robert J. Steamer
-END-
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597
CAT
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Argo
-T-
Argo_^<N__^<N_Argo, also known as Argo Navis, is an ancient name for a Southern Hemisphere CONSTELLATION that contains Canopus (a Carinae), the brightest star in the sky after Sirius. It was named for the ship in Greek mythology in which Jason and
the Argonauts sought the Golden Fleece. Because Argo covered such a large area of the sky, in modern times it has been divided into smaller constellations representing parts of the ship, including Puppis (the Stern), Carina (the Keel), Vela (the
Sails), and Pyxis (the Compass). Some of the most brilliant parts of the Milky Way pass through Vela and Carina.
-END-
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1250
CAT
-A-
argon
-T-
argon_^<N__^<N_Argon is a chemical element--a monatomic gas--the third of the INERT GASES in group 0 of the periodic table. Its symbol is Ar; its atomic number is 18, and its atomic weight is 39.948. Argon is the most abundant of the inert, or
so-called noble, gases in the atmosphere, being present to the extent of 0.94% by volume. The presence of argon in air was suggested by Henry Cavendish in 1785, but it was first separated by fractional distillation of liquid air by Lord Rayleigh
and Sir William Ramsay in 1894. _^<N__^<N_Naturally occurring argon comprises three isotopes with physical properties that include a melting point of -189.2 deg C, a boiling point of -185.7 deg C, and a gas density of 1.7837 g/l at 0 deg C. The
element does not appear to form true compounds, although it is known to form a hydrate, and some ions have been detected spectroscopically. _^<N__^<N_Argon is obtained commercially from the distillation of liquid air. It is used to fill electric
light bulbs, fluorescent tubes, phototubes, and glow tubes. Argon is also used as an inert gas shield for electric arc welding and cutting, as a blanket for the production of reactive elements such as titanium, and as an inert atmosphere for
growing silicon and germanium crystals. _^<N__^<N_J. Alistair Kerr
-END-
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23
CAT
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argonaut:
-T-
argonaut:_^<N__^<N_see NAUTILUS.
-END-
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21
CAT
-A-
Argonauts:
-T-
Argonauts:_^<N__^<N_see JASON.
-END-
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273
CAT
-A-
Argonne
-T-
Argonne_^<N__^<N_{ahr-guhn'} _^<N__^<N_The Argonne is a plateau region in northeastern France between the Meuse River on the east and the Aisne River on the west. About 350 m (1,150 ft) in elevation, it is rocky and heavily forested. It was the site
of battles in 1792 and in both world wars.
-END-
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675
CAT
-A-
Argonne National Laboratory
-T-
Argonne National Laboratory_^<N__^<N_{ahr-gawn'} _^<N__^<N_The Argonne National Laboratory, founded in 1946, is a large, multidisciplinary center for research in nuclear and high-energy physics and in energy and environmental problems. It is
operated by the University of Chicago for the U.S. Department of Energy and is located on a 690-ha (1,700-acre) site near Chicago; it has a staff of about 4,000 people. Major research equipment includes nuclear reactors, particularly BREEDER
REACTORS, and an intense pulsed neutron source (IPNS-I) that provides bursts of neutrons for research. A proton ACCELERATOR (the 12.5 GeV zero-gradient synchrotron, or ZGS) closed down in 1979. _^<N__^<N_Brian Southworth
-END-
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683
CAT
-A-
Argos
-T-
Argos_^<N__^<N_Argos was an ancient Greek city in the northeastern Peloponnesus, near modern Nauplia. Inhabited since prehistoric times, it became the most powerful of the Greek city-states by the 7th century BC, when King Pheidon defeated Sparta.
Argos fought intermittently with Sparta and was often allied with Athens. Cleomenes I of Sparta defeated Argos in 494 BC. The city joined the Achaean League (see ACHAEA) in 229 BC and was conquered by Rome in 146 BC. A small farming town now exists
on the site of the ancient city. Important archaeological remains include a complex of sanctuaries of the mother goddess Hera, which contained sculptures by POLYCLITUS, and extensive Roman ruins.
-END-
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518
CAT
-A-
Arguedas, Alcides
-T-
Arguedas, Alcides_^<N__^<N_{ahr-gway'-dahs, ahl-see'-days} _^<N__^<N_A Bolivian diplomat as well as a social historian and novelist, Alcides Arguedas, b. July 16, 1879, d. May 6, 1946, is primarily known for his in-depth studies of Indian life and
suffering. In his nonfictional Pueblo enfermo (A Sick People, 1909), he vividly describes the Indians' plight and attributes it to the brutalizing character of colonialism. His influential Raza de bronce (A Race of Bronze, 1919) established the
format for the Indianista novel. _^<N__^<N_Keith Ellis
-END-
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305
CAT
-A-
Argus
-T-
Argus_^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, Argus was a monster with 100 eyes, also called Panoptes ("all-seeing"). It guarded IO, a mortal maiden loved by Zeus whom he changed into a heifer. Argus was also the name of the old dog of Odysseus that recognized
its master on his return to Ithaca after an absence of 19 years.
-END-
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848
CAT
-A-
Argyll
-T-
Argyll_^<N__^<N_{ahr-gyl'} _^<N__^<N_Argyll is a former county in the western highlands of Scotland. Its deeply indented, island-dotted coastline is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and the North Channel. The county town was Inveraray, and the main
islands include Mull, Islay, Iona, and Jura. Argyll is mountainous away from the coast, with its highest point, Ben Cruachan, reaching an altitude of 1,124 m (3,689 ft). Fishing is important along the coast, livestock is raised inland, and
distilleries, woolen textile mills, and timber mills are located in the main towns of Campbeltown, Oban, Dunoon, and Inveraray. Tourism is also important. Early Celtic Christian ruins dating from the 6th century are located on Iona. In 1975, during
the reorganization of Scottish local government, Argyll was divided between the administrative regions of Highland and Strathclyde.
-END-
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1038
CAT
-A-
Arhus
-T-
Arhus_^<N__^<N_{awr'-hoos} _^<N__^<N_Arhus is a seaport in eastern Jutland, Denmark, about 121 km (75 mi) north of Odense, on Arhus Bay. The seat of Arhus County, it is the second largest city in Denmark, with a population of 258,028 (1988 est.).
Temperatures average -1 deg C (30 deg F) in January and 16 deg C (60 deg F) in July, with annual rainfall amounting to about 610 mm (24 in). Industries include beer, machinery, textiles, chemicals, tobacco, and shipbuilding. Arhus is a commercial
center, and the city has several fine examples of modern Danish architecture. Notable buildings are the cathedral of Saint Clement (13th century), the town hall (1938-42), and the University of Arhus (1928). Cultural institutions include an
open-air museum, a theater, and a music academy. _^<N__^<N_Arhus became a bishopric in 948. It was a trade center until the Reformation, when its political status declined. During the 19th century, efforts were made to improve the harbor, and
eventually the economy of Arhus grew to its present importance in Danish commerce.
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1963
CAT
-A-
aria
-T-
aria_^<N__^<N_The aria is a long, complex, accompanied vocal solo, found usually in the OPERA but also in the ORATORIO and the CANTATA. The antithesis of the RECITATIVE, it has no part in moving the plot forward, for its emphasis is centered on
music. _^<N__^<N_Early-17th-century aria forms were separate, strophic pieces, but they soon began to be used within longer compositions, where they became formalized as da capo arias. The unique feature of the da capo aria is the return of its
opening section (A) after a contrasting section (B), da capo being a musical term meaning "repeat from the beginning." A favorite with singers, who had the full attention of the audience during their arias, the da capo idea was condemned by other
musicians and critics because it removed the opera further from credibility. One complaint was that if A posed a problem and B resolved it, the return of A for purely musical reasons created an irresolution of the plot. _^<N__^<N_After the
mid-18th century, arias often continued to interrupt the action, but they were emotionally and dramatically integrated into operatic scenes. In the alternating interest between conventional opera and music drama that developed in the 19th century,
however, the aria has been the pendulum. Such works as Richard Wagner's Tristan und Isolde obliterated the distinction between recitative and aria; because the relationship between the voice and the orchestra is so complex, no "numbers" exist that
can be extracted and performed separately with piano accompaniment. The prominent position of conventional 19th-century opera in the standard repertoire is due, in great part, to its high percentage of attractive arias that bring together a
memorable melody, a dramatic interlude, and a leading character. _^<N__^<N_Elwyn A. Wienandt _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Grout, Donald Jay, A Short History of Opera, rev. ed. (1965); Hamilton, David, ed., The Metropolitan Opera Encyclopedia (1987);
May, Robbin, Companion to the Opera (1988).
-END-
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460
CAT
-A-
Ariadne
-T-
Ariadne_^<N__^<N_{air-ee-ad'-nee} _^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, Ariadne was the daughter of MINOS, the king of Crete. She fell in love with THESEUS and helped him slay the monstrous MINOTAUR by providing Theseus with a thread to find his way out of
the LABYRINTH in which the monster was confined. Theseus took Ariadne with him when he sailed for Athens but soon abandoned her, leaving her asleep on the island of Naxos. There, DIONYSUS, the god of wine, wooed and later wed her.
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1621
CAT
-A-
Ariane
-T-
Ariane_^<N__^<N_{ahr-ee-ahn'} _^<N__^<N_Ariane is a rocket designed by the EUROPEAN SPACE AGENCY (ESA) to give Europe greater independence in the launching of satellites. Its private marketing company, Arianespace, has headquarters in Every,
France. The French space agency is the company's principal shareholder, along with 36 European aerospace firms and 11 European banks. _^<N__^<N_The prototype Ariane 1 was designed to place a payload of up to 1,700 kg (3,750 lb) into geosynchronous
orbit. The rocket had a lift-off weight of 210,269 kg (463,643 lb), excluding payload, and stood 47.38 m (155.45 ft) tall. The first two stages used unsymmetrical dimethyl hydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide as propellants, and the third stage used
liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen. The rocket's first successful launch took place on June 16, 1983, when the fifth Ariane 1 orbited two satellites. Following several other Ariane 1 flights, the first Ariane 3 lifted two satellites into space on
Aug. 4, 1984. The new model of the rocket differed in several features, including the use of two solid strap-on boosters. _^<N__^<N_The more powerful Ariane 4 model offers a multiple-payload launch capability. On its first launch, on June 15,
1988, it orbited three satellites. Ariane 44L, the most powerful version of Ariane 4, exploded during launch on Feb. 22, 1990, because of a rag left in a water circuit, destroying its payload and causing some delays in Arianespace's program. One
version of Ariane 5, a heavy-lift launcher set to operate by the mid-1990s, will be used to orbit ESA's planned Hermes spaceplane (see SPACE PROGRAMS, NATIONAL). _^<N__^<N_Kenneth Gatland
-END-
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2114
CAT
-A-
Arianism
-T-
Arianism_^<N__^<N_Arianism was a 4th-century Christian heresy named for Arius (c.250-c.336), a priest in Alexandria. Arius denied the full deity of the preexistent Son of God who became incarnate in Jesus Christ. He held that the Son, while divine
and like God ("of like substance"), was created by God as the agent through whom he created the universe. Arius said of the Son, "there was a time when he was not." Arianism became so widespread in the Christian church and resulted in such disunity
that the emperor Constantine convoked a church council at Nicaea in 325 (see NICAEA, COUNCILS OF). Led by ATHANASIUS, bishop of Alexandria, the council condemned Arianism and stated that the Son was consubstantial (of one and the same substance or
being) and coeternal with the Father, a belief formulated as homoousios ("of one substance") against the Arian position of homoiousios ("of like substance"). Nonetheless, the conflict continued, aided by the conflicting politics of the empire after
the death of Constantine (337). Three types of Arianism emerged: radical Arianism,which asserted that the Son was "dissimilar" to the Father; homoeanism, which held that the Son was similar to the Father; and semi-Arianism, which shaded off into
orthodoxy and held that the Son was similar yet distinct from the Father. After an initial victory of the homoean party in 357, the semi-Arians joined the ranks of orthodoxy, which finally triumphed except in Teutonic Christianity, where Arianism
survived until after the conversion (496) of the Franks. Although much of the dispute about Arianism seems a battle over words (Edward GIBBON scornfully observed that Christianity was split over a single iota, the difference between homoousios and
homoiousios), a fundamental issue involving the integrity of the Gospel was at stake: whether God was really in Christ reconciling the world to himself. _^<N__^<N_Reginald H. Fuller _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Gregg, R. C., ed., Arianism: Historical
and Theological Reassessments (1987); Gwatkin, H. M., Studies of Arianism, 2d ed. (1900); Newman, John Henry, The Arians of the Fourth Century (1833; repr. 1968).
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464
CAT
-A-
Arias Sanchez, Oscar
-T-
Arias Sanchez, Oscar_^<N__^<N_{ah'-re-ahs sahn'-chays} _^<N__^<N_Oscar Arias Sanchez, b. Sept. 13, 1941, a former minister of planning and a professor, was president of Costa Rica from 1986 to 1990. He was the main architect of the peace plan for
CENTRAL AMERICA that he signed on Aug. 7, 1987, with the presidents of strife-torn El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua. Although peace has proved elusive, Arias won the 1987 Nobel Peace Prize for his persistent efforts.
-END-
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515
CAT
-A-
Arica
-T-
Arica_^<N__^<N_{ah-ree'-kah} _^<N__^<N_Arica (1991 est. pop., 194,588) is a port city of Tarapaca province in northern Chile. Located just south of the Chilean-Peruvian border, it lies at the edge of the ATACAMA DESERT. Annual rainfall is less than
25 mm (1 in). In 1954, Arica was made a free port, and it handles a great deal of foreign trade for landlocked Bolivia and for Peru. Its fishing industry is also important. Chile's claim to Arica, which originally belonged to Peru, was not settled
until 1929 (see TACNA-ARICA DISPUTE).
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2315
CAT
-A-
arid climate
-T-
arid climate_^<N__^<N_Zones of arid climate are defined as areas where precipitation is exceeded by potential loss of water by evaporation and plant transpiration (see EVAPOTRANSPIRATION). Meteorologists delineate such zones by analyzing long-term
records of temperature, precipitation, solar radiation, humidity, and wind. Climates may be classified as (1) extremely arid, where precipitation totally lacks any seasonal rhythm and remains at zero for at least 12 consecutive months; (2) arid,
where farming is impossible without irrigation; (3) SEMIARID, where seasonal dry farming is possible (see also DESERT). On a geographic basis, dry climates may be subdivided into tropical and mid-latitude (see TROPICAL CLIMATE; MEDITERRANEAN
CLIMATE), depending on position north and south of the equator. Tropical arid climates occur between 20 deg and 30 deg latitude and develop on the east side of persistent, HIGH-PRESSURE atmospheric cells where continually subsiding, stable air is
heated by compression, furnishing a continuous drying environment. Dry climates of the mid-latitudes, from 30 deg to 40 deg, are cooler; they occur in continental interiors far from oceanic influences or behind mountain ranges that provide a
RAIN-SHADOW barrier. _^<N__^<N_All arid climates share extreme temperature ranges and unpredictable or variable rainfall. In general, because of the closeness to the equator and the clear, dry air, the amount of SOLAR RADIATION received and average
temperatures are high. Because terrestrial reradiation is also high, temperatures vary greatly, both daily and seasonally. Stations in the central Sahara, for example, have recorded a 24-hour range of 55.5 deg C (100 deg F)--from 52.2 deg C to -3.3
deg C (126 deg F to 26 deg F). Similarly, rainfall may be so variable that annual values cannot be used to predict climatic conditions. In North Africa, for instance, stations averaging 81 mm (3.2 in) of annual precipitation have gone for as long
as 20 months without rain and have then received as much as 400 mm (16 in) during a single 72-hour period, with downpours of 74 mm (3.0 in) in less than an hour, causing FLASH FLOODS. _^<N__^<N_David L. Weide _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Lydolph, P.E.,
The Climate of the Earth (1985); Thompson, R., Climatology of the Arid World (1975). _^<N__^<N_See also: CLIMATE; DESERT; PEDOCAL; PLAYA.
-END-
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836
CAT
-A-
Aries
-T-
Aries_^<N__^<N_{air'-eez} _^<N__^<N_Aries, the Ram, is one of the CONSTELLATIONS of the ZODIAC, the band of sky through which the Sun, Moon, and planets appear to move. Most prominent during the autumn in the Northern Hemisphere, it contains no
stars brighter than 2d magnitude. In ASTROLOGY, Aries governs the period between March 21 and April 19. Celestial right ascension (analogous to terrestrial longitude) is measured from the so-called first point of Aries, or vernal equinox, where the
Sun crosses the celestial equator from south to north during the spring equinox. Because of wobbling of the Earth's axis, or precession, this point now lies in Pisces and is moving into the constellation Aquarius. In Greek mythology, Aries was the
ram owned by Phrixus, who safely crossed the Hellespont on its back; its golden fleece was later sought by JASON.
-END-
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1502
CAT
-A-
Arikara
-T-
Arikara_^<N__^<N_{uh-rik'-uh-ruh} _^<N__^<N_The Arikara are a North American Indian tribe in North Dakota. At least as early as AD 1100 these Caddoan-speaking Indians inhabited the area of the upper Missouri River around southern and central South
Dakota; after about 1750 they moved to North Dakota. They once dominated the region around Pierre, S. Dak., occupying a number of great fortified villages. At times they were in close contact with the Siouan MANDAN and other rival tribes. In
language and way of life, they are closely related to the Skidi division of the PAWNEE Indians of Nebraska. _^<N__^<N_The semisedentary Arikara lived in earth-covered lodges, grew maize (corn) and other crops, and twice yearly--once in the summer
and once in the winter--left their villages to hunt buffalo. They preserved both meat and vegetables by dehydration and produced an ample agricultural surplus for trade with hunting tribes. Like other upper Missouri River peoples, the Arikara
population was largely destroyed by wars, especially with the Dakota, and by smallpox epidemics in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. From an estimated population of 15,000 in the mid-1700s, their numbers declined to about 2,600 in 1804. In
1990 about 3,000 Arikara, Mandan, and HIDATSA known as the three Affiliated Tribes, lived on the Fort Berthold Reservation in North Dakota. _^<N__^<N_Gene Weltfish _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Holder, Preston, The Hoe and the Horse on the Plains (1970;
rep. 1977); Lehmer, Donald, and Jones, David, Arikara Archaeology (1968).
-END-
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1686
CAT
-A-
Ariosto, Ludovico
-T-
Ariosto, Ludovico_^<N__^<N_The Italian epic poet Ludovico Ariosto, b. Sept. 8, 1474, d. July 6, 1533, wrote ORLANDO FURIOSO (1516; final form 1532), a narrative poem of universal importance. He was the son of a captain in the service of the Este
dukes of Ferrara. After his father's death in 1500, he entered the service of Cardinal Ippolito d'Este, who sent him on numerous diplomatic missions, among them, to popes JULIUS II and LEO X. He became governor of the Garfagnana in 1522, directed
the theater at the court of Ferrara, and retired about 1526. _^<N__^<N_His Orlando Furioso is a continuation of Matteo Maria BOIARDO's uncompleted epic Orlando Innamorato (1483). The fine and all-pervasive irony of Ariosto's work, including
self-mockery and mockery of the audience, represents the highest achievement as well as the consummation of a waning Renaissance classicism. His Satires (1519-25), in triple rhyme and with Horatian overtones, affords a glimpse into the private life
of the poet. As director of the newly erected court theater at Ferrara, Ariosto presented the first regular Italian comedies on the stage, among them his own I suppositi (1509), Il negromante (1520), and La Lena (1529), which are reminiscent of the
comedies of PLAUTUS and TERENCE. _^<N__^<N_Oscar Budel _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ariosto, Ludovico, Orlando Furioso, trans. by John Harrington (1972); Brand, Charles Peter, Ludovico Ariosto; A Preface to the Orlando Furioso (1974); Griffin,
Robert, Ludovico Ariosto (1974); Hart, T.R., Cervantes and Ariosto (1989); Murtaugh, K.O., Ariosto and the Classical Simile (1981); Shapiro, Marianne, The Poetics of Ariosto (1988); Wiggins, Peter D., Figures in Ariosto's Tapestry (1986).
-END-
-C-
539
CAT
-A-
Arista, Mariano
-T-
Arista, Mariano_^<N__^<N_{ah-rees'-tah} _^<N__^<N_Mariano Arista, b. July 26, 1802, d. Aug. 7, 1855, was a Mexican general and president. He served with Augustin de ITURBIDE during the independence struggles. During the MEXICAN WAR he headed the
Northern Army charged with repulsing U.S. troops led by Gen. Zachary TAYLOR but was defeated (May 8, 1846) at Palo Alto. Arista became (1848) minister of war under Jose Herrera and in 1851 was elected to succeed Herrera as president. He tried to
unify the country but was forced out of office in 1853 and exiled.
-END-
-C-
555
CAT
-A-
Aristaeus
-T-
Aristaeus_^<N__^<N_{air-i-stee'-uhs} _^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, Aristaeus, the son of APOLLO and Cyrene, was a guardian of herds and a beekeeper. He fell in love with Eurydice, wife of ORPHEUS, and tried to seduce her. As she fled from Aristaeus,
his bees pursued her; she accidentally stepped on a snake and died of its bite. Thereafter, all his bees died. _^<N__^<N_Aristaeus consulted PROTEUS, a seer, and on his advice offered sacrifices and funeral honors to Eurydice, and new swarms of
bees were then generated. Aristaeus spent his last days teaching the skill of beekeeping.
-END-
-C-
1328
CAT
-A-
Aristarchus of Samos
-T-
Aristarchus of Samos_^<N__^<N_{ar-i-stahr'-kuhs, say'-mahs} _^<N__^<N_The Greek mathematician and astronomer Aristarchus, c.310-230 BC, is celebrated as the exponent of a Sun-centered universe and for his pioneering attempt to determine the sizes
and distances of the Sun and Moon. A student of Strato of Lampsacus, third head of Aristotle's Lyceum, Aristarchus was in the generation between EUCLID and ARCHIMEDES. Little evidence exists concerning the origin of his belief in a HELIOCENTRIC
WORLD SYSTEM; the theory was not accepted by the Greeks and is known only because of a summary statement in Archimedes' The Sand-Reckoner. _^<N__^<N_The only surviving work of Aristarchus, On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and Moon, provides
the details of his remarkable geometric argument, based on observation, whereby he determined that the Sun was about 20 times as distant from the Earth as the Moon, and 20 times the Moon's size. Both these estimates were an order of magnitude too
small, but the fault was in Aristarchus' lack of accurate instruments rather than in his impeccable method of reasoning. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Dreyer, J. L. E., A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler, rev. ed. (1953); Heath, Sir
Thomas L., Aristarchus of Samos, the Ancient Copernicus (1913; repr. 1981). _^<N__^<N_See also: ASTRONOMY, HISTORY OF; DISTANCE, ASTRONOMICAL.
-END-
-C-
1390
CAT
-A-
Aristide, Jean Bertrand
-T-
Aristide, Jean Bertrand_^<N__^<N_Jean-Bertrand Aristide, b. July 15, 1953, captured 70% of the popular vote in December 1990 to become Haiti's first freely elected president. He trained for the Roman Catholic priesthood and earned a degree in
psychology (1979) before studying religion and foreign languages in Europe and the Middle East (1979-82). Ordained in 1982, he used the pulpit of his first parish, in Port-au-Prince, to attack the regime of Jean Claude DUVALIER. Exiled to
Montreal, he returned in 1985 and helped expel Duvalier the next year. A succession of Duvalierist proxies followed, and on Sept. 11, 1988, Aristide's church was torched during Mass and 15 communicants were murdered. _^<N__^<N_Aristide escaped and
later rode a ground swell of support to the presidency. He was inaugurated on Feb. 7, 1991. Aristide promptly set about purging the military. In the process, critics said, Aristide incited the masses to violence, and eight months later--on Sept.
30, 1991--he was overthrown by a military coup and driven into a second exile. On October 2, the Organization of American States announced a boycott of the new regime. Lengthy negotiations eventually resulted in an agreement between the Haitian
regime and the exiled Aristide to allow him to return to power on Oct. 30, 1993. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Aristide, Jean-Bertrand, with Christophe Wargny, Aristide: An Autobiography (1993).
-END-
-C-
554
CAT
-A-
Aristides
-T-
Aristides_^<N__^<N_{air-i-sty'-deez} _^<N__^<N_Aristides, c.530-c.467 BC, was an Athenian general and political leader, surnamed "the Just." He served in the Battle of Marathon (490) but was later (482) ostracized after a quarrel with THEMISTOCLES.
Recalled to Athens, he played a significant part in the Greek victory over the Persians at Salamis (480). Aristides played a central role in the formation (478) of the DELIAN LEAGUE and was chosen to assess the contributions to be paid by the
member states. Thereafter he remained an influential figure in Athenian politics.
-END-
-C-
339
CAT
-A-
Aristippus
-T-
Aristippus_^<N__^<N_{air-i-stip'-uhs} _^<N__^<N_Aristippus, c.435-c.366 BC, was a Greek philosopher and the founder of the CYRENAICS. Like his teacher SOCRATES, Aristippus focused attention on practical ETHICS. In developing his theory of HEDONISM,
however, holding pleasure to be the highest good, he and the Cyrenaics diverged sharply from Socrates' views.
-END-
-C-
622
CAT
-A-
aristocracy
-T-
aristocracy_^<N__^<N_The word aristocracy, from the Greek aristos ("best") and kratos ("rule"), originally meant rule by the best people of the country. In later times it came to mean rule by any privileged group, usually a hereditary landowning
nobility. In a broader sense, aristocracy may mean a group that is superior in wealth, power, or intellect and is able to pass these on to successive generations. _^<N__^<N_Modern political aristocracies have included the British landed gentry who
governed England until the mid-19th century, the French nobility who lost power after 1789, and the Russian nobility who clung to power until 1917.
-END-
-C-
5884
CAT
4807
-A-
Aristophanes
-T-
Aristophanes_^<N__^<N_{ar-i-stahf'-uh-neez} _^<N__^<N_Aristophanes, b. c.445 BC, d. c.385 BC, the greatest comic dramatist of ancient times and the only extant representative of the Athenian style known as Old Attic Comedy, refined his genre to
its highest point of sophistication and virtuosity. In his last two plays, examples of Middle Comedy, he also bridged the gap between the comic forms born of religious ritual and the domestically oriented New Comedy of the Hellenistic period,
which, via its Roman imitators, determined the course comedy would take in Elizabethan and modern times. _^<N__^<N_Although Aristophanes was much influenced by earlier comic poets, especially CRATINUS, his use of the traditional elements of Old
Comedy, which had been an integral feature of the annual Athenian state festivals in honor of DIONYSUS since 487 BC, was inventive and subtle, and he voiced justifiable pride in his original treatment of themes. Like other comic poets,
Aristophanes was critical of the pomposity, imposture, wrongheadedness, and corruption he observed in society. His targets were prominent people from all walks of life--politicians, poets, philosophers, scientists--the old and the young, the rich
and the poor. Because he wrote for a wide and diverse audience, his plays commonly appeal to popular sentiments, hostile to major cultural innovations and to those responsible for them. His heroes (or sympathetic characters) often look to an
idealized Athenian past, with its traditional pleasures, civic virtues, and social solidarity. The hero is commonly an "everyman," who may be positively ruthless in attaining his goals but whose successful struggles to debunk or best authority
figures must have given Aristophanes' audiences great vicarious pleasure. _^<N__^<N_Because no class of citizen was exempted from criticism, it is difficult to identify Aristophanes with any particular political faction or social philosophy. A
conservative in the broadest sense of the term, he nevertheless did not align himself with the proponents of oligarchic reaction. Rather, he was intent on preserving Athens's traditional democratic ways--the climate established by his
grandfather's generation--and concentrated his fire on all those who threatened them. _^<N__^<N_The plays produced during the first decade of Athens's 27-year war against Sparta, the PELOPONNESIAN WAR (431-404 BC), are particularly rich in topical
references and use the chorus in a relatively uniform way. In general, the entry of the chorus (parodos), the set debate (agon), and the chorus's address to the audience (parabasis) constitute the first half of the play; in the second half a
series of episodes is articulated by choral songs. In later plays there are progressive changes in these structures until, in the last plays, the role of the chorus has been drastically curtailed and the number of topical references greatly
reduced. _^<N__^<N_Aristophanes is believed to have written more than 40 plays, although only 11 survive. In The Acharnians (425), the playwright reveals his own predilections by having his hero, Just City, make a private and advantageous peace
with Sparta. In The Knights (424), Aristophanes savagely attacks the popular demagogue and imperialist Cleon, who is caricatured as a slave of Demos (Sovereign People); in a contest of abuse, Cleon is worsted by a sausage seller. In The CLOUDS
(423; rev. 418), Socrates is aligned with the Sophists, contemporary teachers of rhetoric and masters of specious reasoning, and attacked as an evil influence on society. The Wasps (422) ridicules the mania for litigation and paid jury service
exhibited by the senior citizens of Athens. The Peace (421) celebrates the recent armistice with Sparta. _^<N__^<N_In The Birds (414), a clever Athenian dropout persuades the birds to build a utopian city in the sky (Cloudcuckooland) and forces
the gods to cede him their prerogatives. Aristophanes' third comment on the Peloponnesian War, LYSISTRATA (411), has women from everywhere in Greece uniting to compel their men, by means of a sex strike, to conclude peace. In The
Thesmophoriazusae (411), Euripides is satirized when the women at the festival in honor of Demeter vote to destroy the playwright for slandering women, and an elderly relative of his, disguised as a woman, must plead his case. Euripides is again
the target in The Frogs (405), in which Dionysus goes to Hades to recover the poet and there becomes involved in a contest between Aeschylus and Euripides for the throne of tragedy, which the older dramatist wins. In The Ecclesiazusae (c.391), a
satire on communistic theories, the women of Athens take over the city and declare all property to be in common, to be distributed according to need. In the Plutus (388), private domestic and moral concerns replace larger social issues as the
subject of comedy by means of a plot that hinges on the god of wealth, Plutus, being cured of his blindness. _^<N__^<N_Aristophanes was adept in a variety of techniques, including burlesque, caricature, parody, satire, exaggeration, and fantasy.
In ancient times he was most admired for the choiceness of his language, including his elaborate wordplay, and his mastery of lyric poetry. His style could be by turns grandiloquent or colloquial, solemn or bawdy; his humor, broad or subtle. In
an age of giants he had no rival among comic playwrights, and there have been few, if any, who have equaled the inventiveness and rhythmical beauty of his work. _^<N__^<N_Jeffrey Henderson _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Dover, K. J., Aristophanic Comedy
(1972); Ehrenburg, Victor L., The People of Aristophanes, 3d ed. (1972); Henderson, Jeffrey, The Maculate Muse (1975); McLeish, K., The Theater of Aristophanes (1980); Murray, Gilbert, Aristophanes: A Study (1933; repr. 1964); Spatz, Lois S.,
Aristophanes (1978); Whitman, Cedric H., Aristophanes and the Comic Hero (1964) and The Heroic Paradise (1982).
-END-
-C-
16199
CATO
4815
9655
14480
-A-
Aristotle
-O-
000000|Aristotle
001160| LIFE
002941| WRITINGS
005106| THOUGHT
005114| Logic
007343| Natural Sciences
010380| Metaphysics
011496| Ethics
013647| Rhetoric and Poetics
014705| ARISTOTELIAN TRADITION
-T-
Aristotle_^<N__^<N_{ar-is-taht'-uhl} _^<N__^<N_With the possible exception of Plato, Aristotle, 384-322 BC, is the most influential philosopher in the history of Western thought. Logic into the present century was basically Aristotelian LOGIC. The
study of the natural sciences was dominated by Aristotle until early modern times, and modern physics was developed in reaction to the Aristotelian tradition. His metaphysics continues to be the subject of philosophical debate, although his ETHICS
now constitutes that part of his philosophy which appeals most to contemporary philosophers. Aristotle's influence extends far beyond philosophy, however. For example, Aristotle was the founder of BIOLOGY; Charles DARWIN regarded him as the most
important contributor to the subject. Aristotle's POETICS, the first formal work of literary criticism (see CRITICISM, LITERARY), had a strong influence on the theory and practice of modern classical drama. Aristotle's immense influence is due
primarily to the fact that he seemed to offer an all-encompassing system, which, although lacking in certain respects, was as a whole formidably imposing and unrivaled in its comprehensiveness. _^<N__^<N_ LIFE_^<N__^<N_Aristotle was born in 384 BC
in Stagira in northern Greece. His father, Nicomachus, was a physician with close connections to the Macedonian court, connections that were maintained by Aristotle and by his school even after his death. It may have been his father's influence
that gave Aristotle a strong interest in anatomy and the structure of living things in general, and that helped him develop a remarkable talent for observation. _^<N__^<N_In 367, Aristotle went to Athens to join PLATO's Academy, first as a student,
then as a teacher. Plato had gathered around him a group of outstanding men who worked in a wide variety of subjects, ranging from medicine and biology to mathematics and astronomy. They shared no common doctrine but were united by the systematic
effort to organize human knowledge on a firm theoretical basis and expand it in all directions. This effort, more than anything else, characterizes Aristotle's own work. _^<N__^<N_It was also part of the Academy's program to train young men for a
political career and to provide advice to rulers. Thus, after Plato's death, Aristotle joined (347) the court of Hermias of Atarneus, and later went (343) to the court of Philip II of Macedonia, where he became tutor to the young Alexander the
Great. In 335, Aristotle returned to Athens to found his own school, the Lyceum, or Peripatus. Whereas the Academy had become rather narrow in its interests since Plato's death, the Peripatus under Aristotle and his successor, THEOPHRASTUS,
pursued a wider range of subjects than the Academy ever had. In particular, prominence was given to the detailed study of nature. After the death of Alexander the Great in 323, anti-Macedonian feeling in Athens rose, and Aristotle retired to
Chalcis, where he died the following year. _^<N__^<N_ WRITINGS_^<N__^<N_All Aristotle's writings for a larger audience, mainly dialogues, have been lost except for some fragments. What remains are treatises apparently meant for use within the
school. These form the so-called Corpus Aristotelicum. In addition, there survives a mutilated version of his Constitution of Athens, some letters of doubtful authenticity, and some poems, including an elegy on Plato. _^<N__^<N_The Corpus
Aristotelicum can be traced back to the 2d century AD. An earlier edition is said to have been prepared by Andronicus of Rhodes in the 1st century BC, but this is doubtful. In what form Aristotle's treatises were available before the 1st century
BC is a matter of controversy. The texts of the treatises raise serious problems. Some of them so clearly contain later thought and language that they cannot possibly be by Aristotle; others are of doubtful authenticity. Even such clearly
authentic writings as the Metaphysics show the work of later editors. Many texts show signs of addition and revision, and it is difficult to determine which of these were made by Aristotle himself. Attempts have been made--without much
success--to reconstruct the original form of a text, to distinguish the different levels of revision it has undergone, and to associate these levels with phases in Aristotle's thought. _^<N__^<N_Underlying the order of the treatises in the Corpus
is the traditional division of philosophy into logic, physics, and ethics. Two sets of Aristotelian writings do not easily fit this scheme, the Metaphysics, and the Rhetoric and the Poetics. These are appended to the physical and the ethical
writings, respectively. Thus the following classification of Aristotle's writings is observed: (1) Logical writings--Categories, On Interpretation, Prior and Posterior Analytics, Topics, Sophistical Refutations; (2) Physical writings--Physics,
On Generation and Corruption, On the Heavens, Meteorologica, On the Soul, Parva Naturalia, History of Animals, Parts of Animals, Generation of Animals, Motion of Animals; (3) Metaphysics; (4) Ethical writings--Nicomachean Ethics, Eudemean Ethics,
Magna Moralia, Politics; (5) Rhetoric, Poetics. _^<N__^<N_ THOUGHT_^<N__^<N_ Logic_^<N__^<N_Logic, the theory of formal truth and validity, originated in reflections on the practice of DIALECTIC, the kind of debate found in Plato's dialogues.
Dialogue was regarded as the appropriate form for philosophical arguments, and hence the acquisition of dialectical skill was regarded as crucial for students of philosophy. Aristotle's first great achievement was probably a handbook, now entitled
Topics and Sophistical Refutations, in which he provided the first general analysis of dialectic and formulated rules for success in this kind of argument. Clearly, dialectical argument does not by itself lead either to incontestably true
conclusions or to scientific knowledge. Dialectical method aims to ensure that premises are plausible and that arguments are valid. In the Prior and Posterior Analytics Aristotle tried to work out which kind of premises are needed to gain
scientific knowledge and which formal conditions an argument must satisfy to be incontestably valid. According to the Posterior Analytics, the ultimate premises or principles of a science are necessary truths. Human knowledge of these truths is
based on experience; it is not itself a matter of experience, however, but rather of reason. When a subject is sufficiently familiar, its governing principles become evident to reason. Deduction from these principles provides not only the
knowledge that something is true, but also the reasons why it is true. For Aristotle, both are required for scientific knowledge. _^<N__^<N_Aristotle's ideal of a science as a deductive system based on evident axioms had a considerable influence
on the history of science. In the Prior Analytics he examines the conditions an argument must satisfy in order to be incontestably valid. Because he is primarily concerned with the arguments whose propositions are scientific, and because he only
regards general categorical propositions as scientific, his theory applies only to a small class of logically valid arguments, the so-called categorical SYLLOGISMS. Aristotle proceeds by specifying certain parts of an argument, or moods, that
axiomatically count as valid. Any argument that can be transformed into an axiomatically valid argument must also be valid. _^<N__^<N_ Natural Sciences_^<N__^<N_The natural sciences are concerned with natural objects that are characterized by the
fact that they are subject to change. Change is therefore the basic phenomenon with which physics has to deal. Hence Aristotle's work in physics is devoted to an analysis of change and a discussion of its presuppositions. According to Aristotle
every change involves three factors: (1) a feature or form that exists as a result of change; (2) the earlier absence of this form; and (3) the matter that was always there but which, as a result of the change, is now characterized by the form in
question. In the case of a statue the three factors are the form of the statue; its previous lack of form; and the material from which it was made. _^<N__^<N_Aristotle ties the notions of matter and form to other notions. Thus he explains that
if matter becomes an F the matter is F potentially (that is, is capable of being an F), whereas the form is the actuality in virtue of which it is now an actual F. Matter and form are the material and the formal cause, respectively, of what comes
to be. A cause is a factor, and a true statement about that factor helps to explain the being of what is caused. Aristotle distinguishes four kinds of causes. If a house comes into being, its efficient cause is the builder, its formal cause the
structure by virtue of which it is a house, its material cause the matter that has received this structure, and its final cause the end or purpose for which houses exist, namely the protection of people and property. Because motion, due to its
continuity, has no end, presupposes a location, seems to presuppose a void, and takes time, Aristotle also discusses these notions in detail. He denies the existence of a void and considers the continuity of motion at length. Finally, he argues
that there would be no motion at all unless there is first a force of movement that is itself unmoved--namely God. _^<N__^<N_The form of an object helps to account for its behavior. Aristotle calls the forms of living things "souls," which are of
three kinds: vegetative (plants), sensitive (animals), or rational (human beings). Because Aristotle believed that the soul is merely a set of defining features, he did not regard the body and the soul as two separate entities that mysteriously
combine to form an organism. Hence it is not clear what he had in mind when he described an active intellect whose activity is presupposed by the activity of the human mind and that is supposed to be able to exist independently of the body.
_^<N__^<N_Most of Aristotle's work in biology was devoted to zoology. In Aristotle's study of biology the doctrine of TELEOLOGY is particularly prominent. This doctrine, that the form of natural objects is determined by their final ends or
purposes, has frequently been misunderstood as an assertion that there is a universal design in nature. Aristotle simply insists that the structure and the behavior of things also has to be understood as contributing to their individual being and
function. _^<N__^<N_ Metaphysics_^<N__^<N_Whereas sciences deal with particular kinds of beings, metaphysics is concerned with beings as such. According to Aristotle there is no such thing as mere being; to be is always to be a SUBSTANCE or
object, a quantity, a quality, or a member of some other basic category. Substances are prior to nonsubstances because qualities or quantities are determined by substances. Such substances as God may, however, lack quantities and qualities.
Hence an account of beings is, in the first place, an account of substances. Initially, it appears that substances are objects, like the everyday objects, but closer consideration shows that the primary individuals are the forms or essences of
particular objects. To understand these it is necessary to realize that they are a particular kind of substance--embodied substantial forms. To understand substance, therefore, it is necessary to consider immaterial substantial forms, ultimately
God. Only then can humans understand what it is to be a substance, and what it is to exist. Ultimately, then, the study of metaphysics becomes in part theological. _^<N__^<N_ Ethics_^<N__^<N_The end, or good, of humankind is not merely to live,
but to lead a good, flourishing life that manifests the rational nature of humanity and thus satisfies human needs. The pursuit of happiness is a search for the good life, which is composed of virtuous actions. Aristotle offers no simple
definition of goodness, but he advises that virtue is a mean, lying between extremes. Generosity, for example, consists in giving neither too little nor too much. Aristotle also describes intellectual virtue and moral virtue, which correspond to
the rational and the irrational parts of the soul. The most important of the intellectual virtues are theoretical and practical wisdom. To the extent that the irrational part of a person's soul is subject to reason and has reasonable desires and
feelings, that person is characterized by such moral virtues as justice, courage, and magnanimity. The effort to perform virtuous acts creates the desire to do the right thing for its own sake and also cultivates practical wisdom. The highest,
and therefore most satisfying, form of rational existence is a life of contemplation--the exercise of the theoretical wisdom. Because human beings are not purely rational, however, a flourishing, happy human life demands the exercise of both the
intellectual and the moral virtues. _^<N__^<N_Humans are by nature gregarious and are disposed to form political associations to fulfill their desires. The aim of the state is the good life of its citizens. In the Politics, Aristotle evaluates
different forms of government in the light of these assumptions. His views are profoundly influenced by the belief that only certain people are endowed with the capacity to lead the good life and undertake the responsibilities of citizens, and
that fewer still are capable of holding public office. Thus a Greek DEMOCRACY (which was nonrepresentational and in which offices rotated) imposed severe limitations on rights to citizenship. Aristotle believed that a state should be organized in
such a way as to encourage that part of the population which is capable of the good life to practice moral and theoretical virtue. _^<N__^<N_ Rhetoric and Poetics_^<N__^<N_In their competition for bright, ambitious young men, the Greek schools of
philosophy were not willing to allow specialists, such as Isocrates, to monopolize instruction in RHETORIC AND ORATORY. Aristotle in his Rhetoric makes use of traditional rhetorical methods, but he deals with the subject in a more systematic and
theoretical fashion. Priority is given to the orator's ability to invent arguments, to see what is plausible in a given case. Only then does Aristotle turn to the strategy and verbal form of the plea. _^<N__^<N_In the Poetics, Aristotle defends
poetry against Plato's criticisms. Whereas Plato had spoken of the imitative character of the arts, Aristotle regarded the poet's creations as imaginative, ideal truths closer to reality than the records of historiography. He also rejected the
view that poetry should be judged by the morality of what it depicts. The interpretation of Aristotle's observation in the Poetics, that tragic drama, by engendering pity and fear, can purge the emotions, has always been disputed. _^<N__^<N_
ARISTOTELIAN TRADITION_^<N__^<N_During the Hellenistic period the Aristotelian tradition was continued by the Peripatetic school (see PERIPATETICS). Because of the eclecticism and neoclassicism that arose during the 1st century BC, Aristotle became
an authority for all philosophers, especially in logic and in natural sciences. The leading philosophy from the 3d century AD onward, however, came to be Platonism, which better suited the religious temperament of the age. As a result
theologians, whether in western Europe, in Byzantium, or in the Islamic states, tended to be Platonists and to view pure Aristotelianism, as represented by the Arab commentator AVERROES, for example, as heretical. Nevertheless, the history of
scholastic philosophy (see SCHOLASTICISM) is primarily the history of the assimilation of Aristotelianism despite the opposition of theologians. It was because of the close association of Aristotelianism and scholasticism that Aristotelianism fell
into disrepute in early modern times. During the 19th century, however, Aristotelianism was revived in reaction to Hegelianism. _^<N__^<N_Michael Frede _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Allan, D. J., The Philosophy of Aristotle, 2d ed. (1970); Cooper,
J. M., Reason and Human Good in Aristotle (1975; repr. 1986); Grene, Marjorie, A Portrait of Aristotle (1963; repr. 1979); Jaeger, Werner, Aristotle (1948; repr. 1983); Lear, J., Aristotle (1988); Smith, J. A., and Ross, W. D., eds.,
The Works of Aristotle, 12 vols. (1908-52).
-END-
-C-
6540
CATO
4737
-A-
arithmetic
-O-
000000|arithmetic
001770| Scope of Subject
004916| History
-T-
arithmetic_^<N__^<N_Arithmetic is a branch of mathematics. The term can be used to refer to everything from simple numerical computations to abstract NUMBER THEORY. The two fundamental operations of arithmetic are addition and multiplication. The
result of adding two numbers is called the sum of the numbers. The result of multiplying two numbers is called the product. Subtraction is the inverse operation, or the undoing, of addition; the result is called the difference. The inverse, or
undoing, of multiplication is division; the result is called the quotient. Arithmetic of REAL NUMBERS--that is, rational and irrational numbers--is based on a number of properties called field properties. They include the following: _^<N__^<N_1.
Closure property of addition. For any real numbers a and b, a + b is a real number. _^<N__^<N_2. Closure property of multiplication. For any real numbers a and b, a X b is a real number. _^<N__^<N_3. ASSOCIATIVE LAW of addition. For any real
numbers a, b, and c, (a + b) +c = a + (b + c). _^<N__^<N_4. Associative law of multiplication. For any real numbers a, b, and c, (a X b) X c = a X (b X c). _^<N__^<N_5. COMMUTATIVE LAW of addition. For any real numbers a and b, a + b = b + a.
_^<N__^<N_6. Commutative law of multiplication. For any real numbers a and b, a X b = b X a. _^<N__^<N_7. Additive identity property. For any real number a, 0 + a = a + 0 + a. _^<N__^<N_8. Multiplicative identity property. For any real number
a, 1 X a = a X 1 = a. _^<N__^<N_9. Additive inverse property. For any real number a, there is a unique real number -a such that -a + a = 0. _^<N__^<N_10. Multiplicative inverse property. For any nonzero real number a, there is a unique real
number 1/a such that (1/a) X a = 1. _^<N__^<N_11. DISTRIBUTIVE LAW of multiplication over addition. For any real numbers a, b, and c, a X (b + c) = (a X b) + (a X c). _^<N__^<N_ Scope of Subject_^<N__^<N_When one deals with money, time, size,
volume, area, distance, temperature, or anything else that requires numbers, it is necessary to use arithmetic skills. _^<N__^<N_Different types of numbers (see NUMBER) answer different types of questions. Whole numbers (0, 1, 2, 3, . . .)
answer these questions: How much? How far? Addition of whole numbers is accomplished by uniting, or combining. Multiplication of whole numbers can be considered repeated addition. For example, 3 X 7 is the same as 7 + 7 + 7. The whole-number
system has all the field properties except for the two inverse properties, and it is usually the first number system with which people become acquainted. Whole numbers (with the exception of 0, or ZERO) are also called counting numbers, because
they involve counting. There is no largest whole number, but there is a smallest one, zero. The answer to the question "How many?" can be no less than "none," which is represented by zero. _^<N__^<N_When questions ask for the direction of a
number but still deal with complete units only, the system of integers (see INTEGER) is used. Integers are often called signed numbers or directed numbers. They include all whole numbers as well as the negative, or additive inverse, of every
whole number. Thus the integers are . . .-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . in which zero no longer represents nothing but is the middle number of the system. Integers are used to measure temperature, keep a bank balance, compute yardage in a
football game, and make any other calculations in which directions as well as amounts are important. The system of integers includes all field properties except for the multiplicative inverse property. _^<N__^<N_Integers with like signs (both
positive or both negative) are added (or subtracted) in the same way as are whole numbers, and the sum (or difference) is given the common sign. If the signs are unlike, the sum (or difference) is found by taking the difference (or sum) of the
numbers and supplying the sign of the number with the greater absolute value. Multiplication (or division) of integers is carried out in the same way as for whole numbers, and the product (or quotient) is positive if the factors have like signs
and negative if the signs are different. _^<N__^<N_Rational numbers (see RATIONAL NUMBER) include integers as well as fractional numbers (see FRACTION), which lie between integers. A rational number can be represented by any integer (called the
numerator) divided by a nonzero integer (called the denominator) or by a repeating or terminating decimal fraction. The rational-number system has all the field properties and is certainly more nearly complete than the system of whole numbers or
the system of integers, but it is still not entirely complete because it does not provide a way of measuring all distances. For this, the real-number system, which includes both rational numbers and irrational numbers (see IRRATIONAL NUMBER), is
needed. The system of real numbers includes all possible distances--positive, negative, and zero--and complete units and parts of units. This system is called a complete ordered FIELD. _^<N__^<N_ History_^<N__^<N_The history of arithmetic is,
essentially, the history of the development of numeration systems. The one that is in almost universal use today is the familiar base-10 system (see BASE, mathematics), but, in the past, other systems were also common. More than 4,000 years ago
the Babylonians, who were proficient in arithmetic, used a base-60 system that also included place values. That is, the position and value of a single NUMERAL symbol within a total numeral indicated that it was a certain multiple of 60, or of 60
times 60, and so on. _^<N__^<N_The Babylonian system lacked a zero symbol, however, which could be used in calculations to hold an empty place in a numeral. This important concept was introduced into the present base-10 system by the Hindus, and
with this added symbol the Arabs made significant advances in mathematics. These Hindu-Arab contributions were transmitted to medieval Europe by the Moors. Thereafter the most significant developments in arithmetic took place in the 19th and 20th
centuries, when the mathematics of numbers was firmly grounded in logical systems. _^<N__^<N_John M. Peterson _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Barrow, John D., Pi in the Sky: Counting, Thinking, and Being (1992); Brown, R. F., Basic Arithmetic, 2d ed.
(1982); Davenport, Harold, The Higher Arithmetic, 5th ed. (1982); Eves, Howard, An Introduction to the History of Mathematics, 5th ed. (1983); McLeish, John, Number (1992); Preis, Sandra, and Cocks, George, Arithmetic, 3d ed. (1990); Woods, M.
M., Developmental Mathematics, 4th ed. (1990). _^<N__^<N_See also: ALGEBRA; DUODECIMAL SYSTEM; GROUP THEORY; MATHEMATICS, HISTORY OF.
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arithmetic mean:
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arithmetic mean:_^<N__^<N_see AVERAGE.
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Arius:
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Arius:_^<N__^<N_see ARIANISM.
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Arizona
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000000|Arizona
000880| LAND AND RESOURCES
001341| Physiographic Regions
003238| Soils
003541| Rivers and Lakes
005066| Climate
006097| Vegetation and Animal Life
007722| Mineral Resources
008009| PEOPLE
009265| EDUCATION AND CULTURAL ACTIVITY
010352| Cultural Institutions
010829| Historic Sites
011783| Communications
012335| GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
014095| ECONOMY
014507| Agriculture and Forestry
015536| Mining
016025| Manufacturing
016594| Tourism
017053| Transportation
017272| Energy
017620| HISTORY
018445| Spanish Presence
019958| U.S. Annexations
022468| Statehood
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Arizona_^<N__^<N_Arizona, the sixth-largest state of the United States, in terms of area, is located in the Southwest. It is bordered by Utah on the north, by Colorado on the northeast, by New Mexico on the east, by Mexico on the south, and by
California and Nevada on the west; its northeast corner is the only point in the United States shared by four state boundaries. Known as the Grand Canyon State, Arizona is one of the fastest-developing states of the U.S. Sunbelt. Its population
is increasing at a rapid rate, and its diversified economy is dominated by manufacturing industries, many established as recently as the 1960s and 1970s. Arizona's name is derived from the Pima Indian village of Arizonac (formerly located in what
is now Mexico, near modern Nogales, Ariz.), where silver was found by Spaniards about 1736. The word Arizonac probably means "place of the small spring." _^<N__^<N_ LAND AND RESOURCES_^<N__^<N_Arizona includes many areas of great natural beauty
and geological interest. The highest point in the state is Humphreys Peak (3,851 m/12,633 ft), near FLAGSTAFF, and the lowest point is 21 m (70 ft) above sea level, in the southwest along the Colorado River. The approximate mean elevation of
Arizona is 1,250 m (4,100 ft). Nearly 45% of the state's land area is owned by the federal government and includes about 20 Indian reservations. _^<N__^<N_ Physiographic Regions_^<N__^<N_Arizona may be divided into two major geographic regions,
each of which is part of a larger physiographic area. In the north is a section of the COLORADO PLATEAU, and in the south and west is a part of the Basin and Range Region. _^<N__^<N_The Colorado Plateau area, about two-fifths of the state,
comprises a series of generally level plateaus, mostly separated by steep-sided chasms. The elevation is mainly between 1,525 and 2,440 m (5,000 and 8,000 ft), although some areas, such as the extensive Kaibab Plateau (2,835 m/9,300 ft high) and
the volcanic San Francisco Peaks (one of which is Humphreys Peak), are higher. Other notable features of the Colorado Plateau include the 1.6-km-deep (1-mi) GRAND CANYON of the Colorado River; the CANYON DE CHELLY, with sheer red cliffs; the
PAINTED DESERT, an extensive area of colorful sand and rock formations; the PETRIFIED FOREST, with great "logs" of jasper and agate; and MONUMENT VALLEY (astride the border with Utah), containing monumental red-sandstone buttes about 305 m (1,000
ft) high. _^<N__^<N_The Mogollon Rim, an escarpment (about 609 m/2,000 ft high) that extends diagonally from central Arizona to southwest New Mexico, in part separates the Colorado Plateau from the Basin and Range Region. The latter comprises
several northwest-southeast trending mountain ranges, close together in central Arizona but separated by wide valleys in the southern part of the state. Ranges in the central region include the Black, Hualapai, Mazatzal, Superstition, and Gila
Bend mountains; crest elevations are generally from 2,135 to 3,355 m (7,000 to 11,000 ft). The southern Arizona ranges include the Pinaleno, Chiricahua, Huachuca, Santa Rita, Santa Catalina, and Mohawk mountains; elevations are generally less
than 1,340 m (4,400 ft), but isolated peaks rise more than 2,700 m (9,000 ft). In the southwest is the Sonoran Desert. _^<N__^<N_ Soils_^<N__^<N_Soils suitable for agriculture cover only about 10% of Arizona's land area. The Colorado Plateau
region of the north has very little arable land, but some of the broad basins of the south contain gray and red soils that, with the addition of fertilizer, can support productive irrigated farming. _^<N__^<N_ Rivers and Lakes_^<N__^<N_The COLORADO
RIVER (rising in Colorado) and its tributaries drain most of Arizona. The Colorado flows for about 1,127 km (700 mi) in the state, entering in the north, then winding westward (in part through the Grand Canyon) before turning south to form most of
Arizona's western boundary. Important components of the Colorado system in Arizona include the GILA, Little Colorado, Bill Williams, Verde, Salt, and Santa Cruz rivers. The Central Arizona Project has carried water from the Colorado River to
Phoenix since 1985. It is scheduled to be extended to Tucson. Most of the state's rivers and streams are intermittent, flowing only after a rainfall; the Colorado flows at all times, however. Some mountain streams, such as Havasu, or Cataract
Creek (in the Grand Canyon area), form impressive waterfalls. _^<N__^<N_Arizona's few natural lakes are small and situated in mountain areas. But the state has several very large artificial lakes, created by damming rivers for irrigation, flood
control, and power generation. These lakes include Lake MEAD and Lake Mohave (both partly in Nevada), Lake Powell (mostly in Utah), and Havasu Lake (partly in California), all on the Colorado River; Theodore Roosevelt Lake, on the Salt River;
San Carlos Lake, on the Gila River; Bartlett Reservoir, on the Verde River; and Alamo Reservoir, on the Bill Williams River. The long-term Central Arizona Project, to carry scarce water eastward from the Colorado, connected with Phoenix in 1985
and with Tucson in 1990. _^<N__^<N_ Climate_^<N__^<N_Because of its wide range of elevation and relief, Arizona has a varied climate pattern. The Colorado Plateau region has cool to cold winters and warm summers. In Flagstaff the mean January
temperature is -3 deg C (28 deg F), and the average July temperature is 19 deg C (66 deg F). The Basin and Range Region has mild winters and hot summers. In PHOENIX, the centrally located state capital, the mean January temperature is 11 deg C
(52 deg F), and the average July temperature is 33 deg C (92 deg F). The city usually has little cloud cover, and each year it receives about 86% of the possible sunshine, a very high percentage. _^<N__^<N_Arizona as a whole gets about 330 mm (13
in) of precipitation yearly. High mountains and plateaus receive somewhat more moisture (510-1015 mm/20-40 in per year, with up to 1.5 m/5 ft of snow), while the southwest gets much less precipitation (50-130 mm/2-5 in annually). Except in the
extreme western part of the state, most of the precipitation occurs in the summer and winter months. _^<N__^<N_ Vegetation and Animal Life_^<N__^<N_Vegetation in Arizona forms distinct zones, largely according to elevation. Lowland deserts,
dominated by creosote bushes and sagebrush, include many cacti, notably the giant saguaro (whose blossom is the state flower), and yucca, such as the tall Joshua tree. The useful (because it is edible and indicative of groundwater) mesquite tree
is also found in desert regions. Grasslands, some pure and others shrub-dotted, are common at somewhat higher elevations. The grasslands merge into woodlands of oak and chaparral in the warmer areas and into woodlands of pinon, juniper, and other
pine trees in the cooler locations. Above the woodlands, from about 2,135 to 2,745 m (7,000-9,000 ft), are dense stands of valuable ponderosa pine. At high altitudes are forests of Douglas fir and spruce mixed with such deciduous trees as aspen,
oak, and maple. _^<N__^<N_Altogether, about 25% of Arizona is forested, but less than 20% of this area has commercial value. Virtually all the commercial timberland is controlled by the federal government, mostly in the state's seven national
forests. _^<N__^<N_Arizona has large numbers of wildlife. Bigger animals include black bear, mountain lions, desert bighorn sheep, mule deer, white-tailed deer, antelope, and elk. Among the smaller wild animals are jackrabbits, beavers,
squirrels, and chipmunks. The state's numerous reptiles include the poisonous Gila monster and other kinds of lizards; rattlesnake; and coral snakes. More than 400 species of birds, including both rarities, such as the elegant trogon, and common
types, such as the roadrunner, are found there. _^<N__^<N_ Mineral Resources_^<N__^<N_Arizona has great copper deposits, principally located at Morenci, San Manuel, Ajo, Bagdad, and the area south of Tucson. Deposits of asbestos, coal, gemstones,
gold, gypsum, helium, lead, molybdenum, pyrites, sand and gravel, silver, uranium, and zinc are also found. _^<N__^<N_ PEOPLE_^<N__^<N_Arizona experienced a rapid population expansion in the post-World War II years, a result largely of persons
moving into the state for its employment opportunities and for its healthful warm, dry climate. During the 1970s in-migration represented nearly three-quarters of the state's population increase, and Arizona has remained among the top five states
for in-migration. From 1980 to 1990 the state's population increased about 35%, far more than the national average increase of about 10%. Most of the population is classified as urban; the principal cities are Chandler, Flagstaff, Glendale,
MESA, Peoria, Phoenix, PRESCOTT, Scottsdale, Sierra Vista, TEMPE, TUCSON, and YUMA. _^<N__^<N_The majority of Arizonans are white. Nearly 20% of Arizona residents are of Hispanic background; most of them are Mexican-Americans, concentrated in
southern cities and mining centers. The Indian population of 203,527 is exceeded in size only by those of Oklahoma and California. Larger Indian groups in Arizona are the NAVAJO, HOPI, YUMA, APACHE, Yavapai, PIMA, and PAPAGO. Blacks, about 3% of
the state's population, live mainly in the Phoenix and Tucson areas. _^<N__^<N_In religion, most Arizonans are Protestant, but large numbers are Roman Catholics and Mormons. _^<N__^<N_ EDUCATION AND CULTURAL ACTIVITY_^<N__^<N_The first public
schools in Arizona were established in the early 1870s, but the school system became sizable only well after statehood was granted in 1912. School attendance in Arizona is compulsory to grade 10 of secondary school. Arizona has numerous public
two-year colleges, including Navajo Community College (opened 1969), at Tsaile, the first U.S. college established on an Indian reservation. Other institutions of higher education in the state include Arizona State University (1885), at Tempe;
Grand Canyon University (1949), at Phoenix; Northern Arizona University (1899), at Flagstaff; and the University of Arizona (1885), at Tucson (see ARIZONA, STATE UNIVERSITIES OF). Lowell Observatory (founded 1894), at Flagstaff, is a noted
research center of astronomy; in 1930 the existence of the planet Pluto was confirmed here by Clyde W. Tombaugh. Kitt Peak National Observatory (founded 1958), with several large reflecting telescopes and the world's biggest solar telescope, is
situated on the Papago Indian Reservation, near Tucson. _^<N__^<N_ Cultural Institutions_^<N__^<N_Arizona has several museums with historical or anthropological emphasis: the Arizona State Museum, in Tucson; the Heard Museum, in Phoenix; the
Museum of Northern Arizona, in Flagstaff; and the Amerind Foundation, near Dragoon. The Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum, at Tucson, has exhibits on the region's natural environment. The principal libraries in Arizona are the state library located
in Phoenix, and the University of Arizona Library at Tucson. _^<N__^<N_ Historic Sites_^<N__^<N_Arizona has several highly interesting remains of past Indian cultures. These include cliff dwellings in MONTEZUMA CASTLE NATIONAL MONUMENT, near Camp
Verde; Navajo National Monument, near Tonalea; Tonto National Monument, at Roosevelt; and Walnut Canyon National Monument, near Flagstaff. Also of historical interest are the 800-year-old Hopi Indian pueblo of Oraibi and ruins of pueblos in
Tuzigoot National Monument, near Clarkdale, and Wupatki National Monument, near Flagstaff. Among other historic sites are the Spanish Roman Catholic mission of San Xavier del Bac in Tucson and the city of TOMBSTONE, containing many reminders of the
time when it was a lawless silver-mining boom town. The noted American architect Frank Lloyd WRIGHT lived for many years in Arizona, and buildings he designed in the state include Taliesin West, in Scottsdale, and Gammage Center for the Performing
Arts, at Arizona State University in Tempe. _^<N__^<N_ Communications_^<N__^<N_Arizona's communications media includes a number of television commercial stations and AM and FM radio stations. In 1988 there were 19 daily newspapers, with a combined
daily circulation of 736,000 copies. There were also 11 Sunday papers with a circulation of 791,000 copies. Influential dailies included the Phoenix Arizona Republic, the Phoenix Gazette, the Tucson Citizen, the Tucson Arizona Daily Star, the
Mesa Tribune, and the Scottsdale Progress. Arizona's first newspaper was the Weekly Arizonian, founded in 1859 at Tubac. _^<N__^<N_ GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS_^<N__^<N_Arizona is governed under a constitution of 1911, as amended. The charter was
drawn up during the Progressive Era, and it incorporated such reform measures of the period as the initiative and referendum; the recall was added in 1912. The chief executive of the state is a governor, elected to a 4-year term; the number of
terms a governor may serve is unlimited. Arizona has a bicameral legislature, comprising a 30-member Senate and a 60-member House of Representatives. All the legislators are elected to 2-year terms. Two populous counties, Maricopa (including
Phoenix) and Pima (including Tucson), together elect about three-fourths of the members of each chamber. The highest tribunal in the state is the Supreme Court, comprising five justices appointed by the governor to staggered 6-year terms. The
state also has a Court of Appeals, and each of Arizona's 15 counties has a Superior Court. The government of each county is overseen by an elected board of supervisors. Many of the state's cities use the city-manager form of government.
Following the 1990 population census, the state gained an additional U.S. representative and one more electoral vote in presidential elections. _^<N__^<N_The Democratic party dominated state and local politics in Arizona until the early 1950s.
Since that time the Republican party has attracted a large proportion of the state's many immigrants, and Republicans have held the majority of governorships since 1950. A similar pattern has occurred in presidential elections. The Democratic
candidates won in the state during 1932-48, and the Republican nominees prevailed in the state from 1952 on. In 1964 U.S. Sen. Barry M. GOLDWATER of Arizona was the Republican candidate for president. _^<N__^<N_ ECONOMY_^<N__^<N_In the first half
of the 20th century Arizona's economy was dominated by copper, cattle, cotton, and climate (which lured tourists). Beginning in the 1940s, however, many factories were built; eventually the electronics industry greatly boosted Arizona's
manufacturing. By the late 1980s the service industries (including trade and financial services contributed about 75% of the gross state product. _^<N__^<N_ Agriculture and Forestry_^<N__^<N_Although now proportionately much less important,
agriculture still contributes significantly to Arizona's economy. The most valuable agricultural commodities are cattle, cotton, hay, and lettuce; maize, potatoes, citrus fruit, hogs, sheep, milk, and eggs also are produced in sizable quantities.
Agricultural holdings in Arizona generally are very large, and most of the farmland is used to raise livestock. Ranches are situated in the Colorado Plateau region, in the central mountains, and in the southeast. Most cattle are fattened in
feedlots, concentrated in the Phoenix area. Crops are grown intensively on irrigated land. The Salt River Valley is the leading crop-producing region; it is irrigated in large part with waters from the Theodore Roosevelt Dam (completed 1911).
_^<N__^<N_Arizona has a relatively small forest-products industry. The chief trees cut are softwoods like yellow pine, Douglas fir, and ponderosa pine. Important centers of the industry are Flagstaff, McNary, and Williams. _^<N__^<N_
Mining_^<N__^<N_Arizona has an important mining industry. Copper ore is by far the most valuable mineral recovered (although in the 1980s there was a major copper-industry decline). Arizona produces more than half of the nation's total copper
output, mostly from open-pit mines. Significant amounts of gold, silver, and molybdenum are recovered through the processing of copper ore. Other mineral products include coal, sand and gravel, stone, asbestos, perlite, pumice, pyrites, and
gemstones. _^<N__^<N_ Manufacturing_^<N__^<N_Arizona's manufacturing has grown tremendously since the 1940s, most recently in high-technology areas. About 15% of the state's work force is in manufacturing, producing about the same percentage of
the gross state product (ranking second after the overall service industries). The leading goods produced in the state's factories, mostly located in the Phoenix and Tucson metropolitan areas, are electrical machinery and electronic devices,
followed by nonelectrical machinery, transportation equipment, and primary metals (mainly refined copper ore). _^<N__^<N_ Tourism_^<N__^<N_Tourism is one of Arizona's major economic activities. Winter visitors are attracted mainly by the warm and
dry climate in the southern part of the state, and summer tourists are lured principally by the state's areas of great natural beauty. The state's parks and monuments are primary attractions. There are also luxurious private resort hotels
(notably in Scottsdale) and some dude ranches (formerly a mainstay of the state's tourist industry). _^<N__^<N_ Transportation_^<N__^<N_Arizona is well equipped to move persons and freight by road, railroad, and air transport. Most major roads and
railroad lines run east-west. There are about 200 airports, the busiest being at Phoenix. _^<N__^<N_ Energy_^<N__^<N_In the mid-1980s Arizona had an installed electric generating capacity of 13.7 million kW, and the annual production of
electricity was about 51 billion kW h. About two-thirds was produced in thermal plants; much of the rest was generated by hydroelectric facilities (notably HOOVER, Glen Canyon, Davis, and Parker dams, on the Colorado). _^<N__^<N_
HISTORY_^<N__^<N_Indians first inhabited the region that is now Arizona between about 25,000 and 10,000 years ago. Agriculture was introduced about 2000 BC in the southeast and spread northward. By 300 BC, maize, squash, beans, and cotton were
grown, partly with the use of sophisticated irrigation systems. By AD 700 the HOHOKAM CULTURE, centered in the lower Salt and middle Gila river basins, was among the most productive and sophisticated Indian group north of present-day Mexico.
Another highly developed culture group, the ANASAZI (of which the Hopi are descendants), lived on the Colorado Plateau. These people constructed many cliff dwellings that still exist. During the 16th and 17th centuries the Athapascan-speaking
Apache and Navajo moved into eastern Arizona; by this time the Hohokam had abandoned their lands. _^<N__^<N_ Spanish Presence_^<N__^<N_The first white person to enter Arizona was probably the Spanish explorer Alvar Nunez CABEZA DE VACA, in 1536.
Three years later the Franciscan friar Marcos de Niza and the black slave Estavan passed through the San Pedro valley in search of the fabled Seven Cities of CIBOLA, reputed to contain great amounts of gold. In 1540-42, members of a party led by
Francisco Vasquez de CORONADO, also attempting to find the Seven Cities, visited the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River and some Hopi villages. During the following 100 years several Spanish explorers and missionaries traveled in Arizona. One
such visitor was Juan de ONATE, who went down the lower Colorado in 1605. In the early 17th century missions were established among the Hopi, Papago, and Pima Indians; the Hopi later ousted the missionaries during a great Indian revolt in 1680.
_^<N__^<N_In the 1690s and early 1700s the Jesuit Eusebio KINO, founded missions at Tumacacori, Guevavi, and Bac (which is now called San Xavier and is still active), in the Santa Cruz valley, and at Quiburi, in the San Pedro valley. In 1752
Spanish soldiers established Arizona's first white settlement, a presidio at Tubac, and in 1776 the presidio was transferred to Tucson. During the 18th century warfare occurred between the Spanish and Indians and between the Apache and other
Indians. The whites and Apache were at peace from about 1790 to 1822, but in the later 1820s much fighting occurred in Arizona, since 1821 a part of independent Mexico. _^<N__^<N_ U.S. Annexations_^<N__^<N_As a result of the MEXICAN WAR (1846-48)
the United States annexed Arizona north of the Gila River, and the area was made part of the New Mexico Territory in 1850. The United States also sought the region south of the Gila, partly as a transportation route to California, and it gained
this territory from Mexico through the GADSDEN PURCHASE (1853). In the late 1850s silver was mined near Tubac, and copper was produced at Ajo. Southern Arizona was settled mainly by Americans from the South, and during the Civil War considerable
sentiment for the Confederacy existed. One military engagement occurred in Arizona, at Picacho Pass (between Casa Grande and Tucson) in April 1862. _^<N__^<N_On Feb. 24, 1863, the separate Union territory of Arizona was created. Its first capital
was Fort Whipple; in 1864 Prescott was established nearby and made the capital. The capital was moved to Tucson in 1867, back to Prescott in 1877, and finally to Phoenix in 1889. In the 1860s several agricultural settlements, such as Gila Bend
(1864), Phoenix (late 1860s), and Florence (1866), were founded, and in the 1870s and '80s many large cattle and sheep ranches were established. In 1877 much silver was discovered at what became (1879) Tombstone. Also in the 1870s, the Mormons
founded a number of settlements on the Colorado Plateau and in the Salt and upper Gila river valleys. In 1878 the railroad reached Yuma from California, and during 1881-83 a rail line was built westward across northern Arizona. From the 1860s to
1880s fighting occurred between whites and the Apache, led by chiefs MANGAS COLORADAS, COCHISE, and GERONIMO (surrendered 1886). _^<N__^<N_In the 1880s and '90s several corporations opened large-scale copper mines, and the area of irrigated
agriculture reached about 81,000 ha (200,070 acres) by 1900. The completion, in 1911, of Theodore Roosevelt Dam on the Salt River resulted in a considerable growth of irrigated farming. As the state's economy and population grew, many Arizonans
sought statehood for their territory. Having rejected proposals for the creation of a state including both Arizona and New Mexico, Arizona was permitted (1910) to draft a constitution by itself. The resulting charter was vetoed (1911) by President
William Howard Taft, as it permitted the recall of judges by popular vote. After the recall provision was deleted, Taft signed (Feb. 14, 1912) the proclamation admitting Arizona as the 48th state. At the first state election the recall was
restored. _^<N__^<N_ Statehood_^<N__^<N_The first governor of the state was George W. P. Hunt, a Democrat; he held the office for seven 2-year terms before his death in 1934. The copper-mining industry grew during this period, but serious labor
unrest existed at the mines. Major strikes occurred at Clifton and Morenci in 1915, at Ajo and Jerome in 1916, and at Bisbee in 1917. In the 1920s and '30s commercial agriculture expanded as new irrigation projects were constructed.
_^<N__^<N_Arizona's economy received a great boost during World War II when many defense installations (notably air bases) and industries were established in the state. In the postwar period manufacturing became the leading segment of the economy,
and agriculture, mining, and tourism also expanded rapidly. The population began to increase at a rapid rate as well. With the great economic and population growth came a need for more fresh water. In 1963 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that
Arizona was entitled to 3.45 billion cu m (2.8 million acre-ft) of water per year from the Colorado River, and in 1968 the U.S. Congress authorized the great Central Arizona Project. The project delivered water from the Colorado to Phoenix in 1985
and to Tucson in 1990. In February 1988 the Arizona house voted to impeach Gov. Evan Mecham, a Republican; in April the state senate convicted him on two charges of official misconduct and removed him from office. Only the seventh U.S. governor
to have been impeached and removed from office, Mecham was succeeded by Arizona secretary of state Rose Mofford, a Democrat. In 1991, Fife Symington, a Republican, became governor. _^<N__^<N_Melvin E. Hecht _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Arizona
Yearbook: A Guide to Government in Arizona (annual); Comeaux, Malcolm, Arizona: A Geography (1981); Faulk, Odie B., Arizona: A Short History (1977); Fireman, B. M., Arizona: Historic Land (1982); Goldwater, Barry, Arizona (1978); Miller,
Tom, ed., Arizona: The Land and the People (1986); Mountain States of America (1972); Powell, L. C., Arizona (1990); Smiley, T. L., et al., eds., Landscapes of Arizona: The Geological Story (1984); Trimble, Marshall, Roadside History of
Arizona (1987); University of Arizona Faculty, Arizona: Its People and Resources, rev. 2d ed. (1972); Wagoner, J. J., Arizona Government (1985), and Early Arizona: Prehistory to Civil War (1975); Walker, Henry P., and Bufkin Don, Historical
Atlas of Arizona 2d ed. (1983). _^<N__^<N_
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Arizona, state universities of
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Arizona, state universities of_^<N__^<N_All three state universities of Arizona are coeducational and grant undergraduate and graduate degrees. The University of Arizona (1885; enrollment: 35,539; library: 1,900,000 volumes), a land-grant
school in Tucson, has 10 colleges--including arts and sciences, agriculture, architecture, business and public administration, education, engineering and mines, law, medicine, nursing, and pharmacy--and one school. Arizona State University (1885;
enrollment: 43,546; library: 2,340,657 volumes), in Tempe, has nine colleges--including arts and sciences, architecture, business, education, engineering, fine arts, law, nursing, and public programs--and one school. Northern Arizona University
(1899; enrollment: 16,095; library: 429,795 volumes), in Flagstaff, has five colleges and three schools.
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ark
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ark_^<N__^<N_In the biblical story of NOAH, the ark was a large vessel that saved Noah's family and pairs of all living creatures at the time of the DELUGE. Genesis 6:14-16 gives a description of this floating houseboat. It was made of "gopher"
wood, had three decks, and was approximately 137 by 23 by 14 m (450 by 75 by 45 ft) in size. The Sumerian-Babylonian Epic of GILGAMESH gives a similar but more detailed account of an ark and a deluge. Recent attempts to identify the ark's location
at Mount Ararat are pseudoscientific and inconclusive. The most sensational evidence, a large wooden structure in northeast Turkey, has been scientifically dated as only 1,200 years old.
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ark of the covenant
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ark of the covenant_^<N__^<N_In the Bible, the ark of the covenant was a portable wooden chest surmounted by two golden cherubim. According to Exod. 25: 10-22 it was fashioned by the Israelites at God's command to contain the two stone tablets of
the TEN COMMANDMENTS. They carried it before their army into battle as a symbol of the divine presence and as a military rallying point. During the period of the Judges it was kept at SHILOH; later King DAVID brought it to Jerusalem, where it
eventually resided in the inner sanctuary of the temple. In Jewish synagogues the Ark (aron), placed in the wall facing Jerusalem, is the receptacle that contains the TORAH scrolls.
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Arkansas
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000000|Arkansas
000823| LAND AND RESOURCES
001246| Physiographic Regions
003260| Rivers and Lakes
004350| Climate
005189| Vegetation and Animal Life
006172| Mineral Resources
006842| PEOPLE
007786| Education
008807| Cultural Institutions
009523| Historical Sites
010062| Communications
010821| ECONOMY
010987| Agriculture
011802| Forestry and Fishing
012361| Mining
012884| Manufacturing
013513| Tourism
014041| Transportation
014532| Energy
014937| GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
016477| HISTORY
017052| European Exploration and Early Settlement
018258| U.S. Territory and Statehood
019188| The Civil War and Reconstruction
020768| Economic Hardships and Recovery
022267| Civil Rights and Recent Trends
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Arkansas_^<N__^<N_{ahr'-kuhn-saw} _^<N__^<N_Arkansas, one of the Southern states of the United States, is bordered by Missouri on the north and northeast, by Tennessee and Mississippi on the east, by Louisiana on the south, and by Texas and Oklahoma
on the west. The region of Arkansas was first visited by Europeans in 1541-42, when Hernando DE SOTO, a Spanish explorer, led a party through the area. The region was acquired by the United States in 1803 as part of the LOUISIANA PURCHASE, and
Arkansas became the 25th U.S. state in 1836. Long an agricultural region, the state industrialized rapidly after 1940. Today, various service industries account for about two-thirds of the gross state product. The name Arkansas is derived from a
Quapaw Indian word meaning "downstream people"; the name was formerly also spelled Arkansa and Arkansaw. _^<N__^<N_ LAND AND RESOURCES_^<N__^<N_Arkansas encompasses a picturesque region, with much forestland and several major rivers. The highest
point is Magazine Mountain (839 m/2,753 ft high), in the western part of the state, and the lowest point, along the Ouachita River in the south, has an elevation of 17 m (55 ft); the approximate mean elevation is 198 m (650 ft). About 7% of the
state's land area is owned by the federal government. _^<N__^<N_ Physiographic Regions_^<N__^<N_Arkansas comprises two major regions of roughly equal size--the Interior Highlands of much of the west and north and the Lowlands of the south and east.
_^<N__^<N_The Interior Highlands comprise the Ozark Plateau (see OZARK MOUNTAINS) in the north and the Ouachita Mountains. Both areas extend into neighboring states. The Ozarks, ranging in elevation in Arkansas from 150 to 786 m (492 to 2,579
ft), comprise mainly the Springfield and Salem plateaus, in the north, and the Boston Mountains, in the south. The plateaus are gently rolling, except where swift-flowing streams have cut deep valleys. Much of this area is forested and also has
good farmland, especially on the Springfield Plateau. The wooded Boston Mountains generally have steep slopes and are interlaced by numerous river gorges. _^<N__^<N_The Ouachita Mountains comprise a series of parallel east-west valleys and ridges,
composed of strongly folded and faulted sedimentary rocks. Included in the Ouachitas is the Arkansas Valley, through which runs the Arkansas River. Although generally less elevated than the rest of the region, the valley contains several lofty
points, including Magazine Mountain, which is the highest point in the state, and Petit Jean Mountain. The Ouachita Mountains region as a whole contains many mineral springs, such as those found at HOT SPRINGS in Garland County. _^<N__^<N_The
Lowlands region is composed of the West Gulf Coastal Plain, in the south, and the Mississippi Alluvial Plain, in the east; the terrain is mostly level and from 30 to 90 m (98 to 295 ft) in elevation. The coastal plain has extensive pine forests
and important deposits of bauxite, petroleum, and natural gas; the soil is generally sandy. The alluvial plain, adjacent to the Mississippi River, has a deep fill of unconsolidated river-deposited sediments, sometimes with a shallow hardpan that
permits irrigated rice farming. Crowleys Ridge, a narrow north-south band of hills covered with loess, is in the center of the alluvial plain. _^<N__^<N_ Rivers and Lakes_^<N__^<N_Arkansas contains several major rivers. The MISSISSIPPI RIVER
forms most of the state's eastern boundary, and the ARKANSAS RIVER flows diagonally across the state from the Oklahoma southeast. Other rivers include the White River, which traverses much of northern and eastern Arkansas before entering the
Mississippi; the Ouachita River, which rises in western Arkansas and flows south into Louisiana; and the Red River, which forms part of the boundary with Texas. All of Arkansas lies within the Mississippi River drainage basin. _^<N__^<N_Arkansas
has few big natural lakes; the largest is Lake Chicot, in the southeast, an oxbow lake near the Mississippi River. The state has several major artificial lakes, created by dams on rivers: Lakes Ouachita, Hamilton, and Catherine, on the Ouachita
River; Millwood Lake, on the Little River; Nimrod Lake, on the Fourche La Fave River; Ozark Reservoir and Dardanelle Lake, on the Arkansas River; Greers Ferry Lake, on the Little Red River; Beaver and Bull Shoals lakes, on the White River; and
Norfolk Lake, on Bryant Creek. _^<N__^<N_ Climate_^<N__^<N_The climate of Arkansas is mild, with warm to hot summers and cool winters. Annual precipitation averages from 1,016 to 1,524 mm (40 to 60 in) and comes mostly during winter and spring.
December and January are usually the wettest months in the south, and March through May is the wet period in the north. The Interior Highlands are somewhat cooler than the Lowlands and receive small amounts of snow in the winter. Tornadoes occur
in the warm seasons, especially in the extreme northwest and in the low-lying southeast. LITTLE ROCK, in the center of the state, has a mean January temperature of 4 deg C (40 deg F) and a mean July temperature of 27 deg C (81 deg F); it receives
1,232 mm (48.5 in) of precipitation per year. The growing season ranges from about 175 days, in the highlands, to about 240 days, in the lowlands. _^<N__^<N_ Vegetation and Animal Life_^<N__^<N_About 68,745 sq km (26,543 sq mi) of Arkansas, or
about 50% of the state's land area, is covered with forestland, most of which is privately owned. The state has three national forests. Approximately two-thirds of the forests comprise hardwoods, such as oak, white ash, cypress, elm, and hickory;
these are located mainly in the Interior Highlands and in the Mississippi Alluvial Plain. The West Gulf Coastal Plain contains softwood forests, chiefly composed of loblolly pine and shortleaf pine. Tulip trees grow on Crowleys Ridge. The state
has many kinds of wildflowers, including American bellflowers, yellow jasmines, orchids, water lilies, and hydrangea. _^<N__^<N_The plentiful animal life includes whitetail deer, red foxes, rabbits, squirrels, bobcats, weasels, and muskrat. Among
the numerous game birds are ducks, geese, pheasant, woodcocks, and quail. Rivers and lakes are well stocked with fish, such as bass, perch, catfish, bream, and sturgeon. _^<N__^<N_ Mineral Resources_^<N__^<N_Arkansas has several valuable mineral
deposits. Bauxite is found in great quantity near Little Rock, and deposits of petroleum, natural gas, and bromine are located in the West Gulf Coastal Plain. The Arkansas River Valley has coal and natural-gas deposits. Manganese deposits are
found in the northeast but are not mined. There are deposits of diamonds near Murfreesboro, but nearly all the diamonds were recovered during 1908-25 and the area is now a state park; individuals can search for diamonds and occasionally find them
near the surface. The state's other mineral resources include stone, sand and gravel, lime, clay, barite, and gypsum. _^<N__^<N_ PEOPLE_^<N__^<N_The 1990 resident census of Arkansas is 2,350,725. During the census period 1980-90 the population of
Arkansas increased by about 3%, considerably below the national growth rate of about 10% and far below the nearly 20% state growth rate of the previous decade (1970-80). The proportion of urban population has steadily increased since the 1940s.
The largest communities in Arkansas are Little Rock (the capital), FORT SMITH, North Little Rock, PINE BLUFF, Jonesboro, Fayetteville, Hot Springs, Springdale, Jacksonville, West Memphis, and Conway. In 1990 about 83% of the state's inhabitants
were white, and about 16% were black; approximately 13,000 were Indians. The fastest-growing ethnic group was Asian. Nearly all Arkansans are U.S.-born. _^<N__^<N_In religion, a substantial majority of Arkansans were Protestant, mainly Baptist
and Methodist. A sizable number of inhabitants were Roman Catholics, and a much smaller number Jewish. _^<N__^<N_ Education_^<N__^<N_The first school established in Arkansas was the Dwight Mission (opened in 1822 near modern Russellville), whose
initial students were Cherokee Indians. In 1843 the state legislature provided for a statewide system of public schools, but private academies dominated education until the 1870s. _^<N__^<N_Among the institutions of higher education in the state
are Arkansas Tech University (1909), at Russellville; Arkansas State University (1909), at State University; Harding University (1924), at Searcy; Henderson State University (1890) and Ouachita Baptist University (1886), both at Arkadelphia;
Southern Arkansas University (1909), at Magnolia; the University of Arkansas (1871), at Fayetteville; the University of Arkansas at Little Rock (1927); the University of Arkansas at Monticello (1909); the University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff
(1873); the University of Central Arkansas (1907), at Conway; and Westark Community College (1928), at Fort Smith. (See ARKANSAS, STATE UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES OF.) _^<N__^<N_ Cultural Institutions_^<N__^<N_The leading libraries in Arkansas
are at the University of Arkansas at Fayetteville and at the University of Arkansas at Little Rock. The Arkansas Library Commission maintains about 35 regional public libraries. Notable museums in the state include the Arkansas Arts Center, the
Old State House history museum and the Museum of Science and History (housed in the building where Gen. Douglas MacArthur was born), all in Little Rock; the University of Arkansas museum, with displays on the state's history, in Fayetteville; a
noted museum of firearms, in Berryville; and a museum of Indian artifacts, near Wilson. Little Rock supports various musical groups, including a symphony orchestra. _^<N__^<N_ Historical Sites_^<N__^<N_Among the places of historical interest in
Arkansas are Arkansas Post National Memorial, including the site of the first permanent white settlement (founded 1686) in the lower Mississippi Valley; Fort Smith National Historic Site, encompassing one of the first U.S. military posts in the
Louisiana Territory; Pea Ridge National Military Park, taking in the battlefield where Union forces scored an important victory (Mar. 7-8, 1862) during the Civil War; and the capitol, in Little Rock, of the old Arkansaw Territory. _^<N__^<N_
Communications_^<N__^<N_The residents of Arkansas are well served by numerous radio stations (the first one began operation in Pine Bluff in 1920); commercial television broadcasting is augmented by cable systems. Among the more influential daily
newspapers are the Fort Smith Southwest Times Record; the Hot Springs National Park Sentinel-Record; the Jonesboro Sun; the Little Rock Arkansas Democrat-Gazette; the Pine Bluff Commercial; and the Texarkana Gazette. The state's first
newspaper was the Arkansas Gazette, initially published in 1819 at Arkansas Post and moved in 1821 to Little Rock. The oldest U. S. newspaper published west of the Mississippi River, the newspaper merged in 1991 with the Arkansas Democrat to form
the Arkansas Democrat-Gazette. _^<N__^<N_ ECONOMY_^<N__^<N_The economy of Arkansas was overwhelmingly agricultural until the middle of the 20th century when industrial plants began to be established in large numbers. _^<N__^<N_
Agriculture_^<N__^<N_Although farm income has diminished proportionately as income from services and industry has increased, the value of farm output in Arkansas nonetheless totals several billion dollars annually. Leading as the most valuable
crops are soybeans, rice, cotton, and hay; other important crops include wheat, oats, sorghum grain, spinach, tomatoes, potatoes, watermelons, apples, and peaches. Arkansas leads the nation in the production of broilers (young chickens) and is a
leading producer of chickens, chicken eggs, and turkeys. The state also has a sizable dairy industry and produces large numbers of beef cattle and hogs. The principal cropland is located in eastern Arkansas, where most of the cotton, rice, and
soybeans are grown; livestock farms are situated mainly in the north and northwest. _^<N__^<N_ Forestry and Fishing_^<N__^<N_Arkansas has a substantial forest-products industry. The commercially valuable softwood is used for pulp and plywood;
much hardwood is also cut. _^<N__^<N_Arkansas has a small but significant fishing industry--perhaps unexpected for an inland state. Millions of pounds of fish are caught by commercial concerns in the Mississippi and its tributaries. The chief
species landed are catfish, buffalo fish, carp, gizzard shad, paddlefish, sheepshead, and garfish. Fish also are raised commercially in some unused rice fields that have been flooded. _^<N__^<N_ Mining_^<N__^<N_Arkansas has an important mining
sector. The most valuable mineral recovered is petroleum; the chief petroleum production sites in Arkansas are in Union and Columbia counties in the south, bordering Louisiana. Other valuable minerals include bromine, natural gas, and stone.
Arkansas is the leading U.S. state in the production of bromine as well as bauxite and vanadium; it also was a leading source of barite. Other minerals produced in significant quantities included coal, clay, lime, and sand and gravel. _^<N__^<N_
Manufacturing_^<N__^<N_The leading branch of the economy of Arkansas is manufacturing. The chief products are processed food (mainly dressed beef and poultry, canned fruits and vegetables, and dairy products), electrical equipment (notably
household appliances and motors), and forest products (especially lumber, paper, and paper goods). Other manufactures include refined petroleum, clothing, printed materials, and metals. Arkansas, with its abundant water, power, and mineral
resources, has been developing chemical-processing industries. The chief industrial centers are Little Rock-North Little Rock, Pine Bluff, and Fort Smith. _^<N__^<N_ Tourism_^<N__^<N_Arkansas has a large tourist industry, and each year about 15
million persons visit the state. Notable attractions include Hot Springs National Park, with 47 hot springs used by people seeking relief from illness or injury; Buffalo National River, an unpolluted stream that flows past multicolored bluffs and
many caves and springs; and a variety of state parks and recreation areas. Arkansas' many lakes, rivers, and streams and wilderness areas attract sizable numbers of out-of-state sport fishermen and hunters. _^<N__^<N_
Transportation_^<N__^<N_Road, water, and air transport are the chief means of carrying persons and freight in Arkansas. Although railroad mileage has diminished since early in the 20th century, a number of cities have rail freight service. Among
the major navigable waterways are the Arkansas River (navigable from its mouth to Catoosa, Oklahoma, the port for Tulsa) and the Ouachita and White rivers. Major airlines serve the state's largest cities; other centers are connected for feeder
lines. _^<N__^<N_ Energy_^<N__^<N_Despite its large and varied energy resources (natural gas, petroleum, coal, water), Arkansas lagged in developing them; very few Arkansas farms had electricity in the 1930s. Today, most of the electricity is
produced in thermal plants using refined petroleum. The state has several hydroelectric facilities, notably on the White and Little Red rivers, and a nuclear-power plant at Russellville. _^<N__^<N_ GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS_^<N__^<N_Arkansas is
governed under a constitution of 1874, as amended; previous charters had been adopted in 1836, 1861, 1864, and 1868. The chief executive of the state is a governor, elected to a 4-year term (raised from 2 years by voter approval in 1984). The
state's bicameral legislature, called the General Assembly, comprises a 35-member Senate and 100-member House of Representatives; senators are elected to 4-year terms, and representatives are elected to 2-year terms. The highest tribunal in
Arkansas is the supreme court, composed of a chief justice and six associate justices, all elected to 8-year terms. The state also has circuit courts, chancery courts, county courts, and municipal courts. Arkansas is divided into 75 counties,
each of which is administered by an elected county judge. Each county judge presides over a quorum court, a legislative body whose chief function is to draw up and approve the county budget. _^<N__^<N_The Democratic party dominates state and local
government in Arkansas; Republicans have served as governor only in 1868-74 (during the era of RECONSTRUCTION), 1967-71 (when Winthrop Rockefeller held the office) and 1981-83 (when Frank D. White served one term). In presidential elections, the
Democratic nominee carried Arkansas in all elections between 1872 and 1968; since then the record has been mixed, but the state voted Republican in 1980, 1984, and 1988. In 1992, the state voted for favorite son and Democrat Bill CLINTON as the
winner in the presidential election. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY_^<N__^<N_Among the earliest inhabitants of present-day Arkansas were the Bluff Dweller Indians, who probably lived in the northwestern part of the state before 1000 BC. About 2,000 years
later, Indians known as MOUND BUILDERS settled along the Mississippi River in Arkansas. When the first Europeans arrived, in the mid-16th century, the Siouan-speaking QUAPAW lived near the mouth of the Arkansas River, and the OSAGE lived to the
north of the river; the CADDO Indians, an agricultural people, who constructed distinctive beehive-shaped dwellings, lived in the southwest. _^<N__^<N_ European Exploration and Early Settlement_^<N__^<N_The first Europeans to enter Arkansas were
members of a party led by the Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto; they traversed the central and southern parts of the state in 1541-42. In 1673 a group under Jacques MARQUETTE and Louis JOLLIET traveled down the Mississippi as far as the Arkansas
River. In 1682 a party headed by Robert Cavelier, sieur de LA SALLE, journeyed down the Mississippi to its mouth. La Salle claimed the Mississippi Valley, including modern Arkansas, for Louis XIV of France and called it Louisiana. One of La
Salle's aides, Henri de TONTY, established (1686) Aux Ares, the first permanent white settlement in Arkansas, near the mouth of the Arkansas River; the community later became known as Arkansas Post. In 1719-20 a colony of Germans was established
nearby as part of the abortive French MISSISSIPPI SCHEME. In 1762 France ceded Arkansas and its other possessions west of the Mississippi to Spain. The Spanish encouraged white settlement in the region, but when they returned the area to France
in 1800, fewer than 1,000 persons lived in Arkansas. In 1803 the United States acquired Arkansas as part of the Louisiana Purchase. _^<N__^<N_ U.S. Territory and Statehood_^<N__^<N_Arkansas was part of the Louisiana District (1804-05), the
Louisiana Territory (1805-12), and the Missouri Territory (1812-19) before being constituted, in 1819, as the Arkansaw Territory, which also included part of present-day Oklahoma. Arkansas Post was the capital from 1819 to 1821, when Little Rock
was made the capital. Settlement of Arkansas was slow until the later 1820s, when the CHEROKEE and CHOCTAW Indians (who had become embroiled in disputes with whites after being moved to Arkansas by the federal government) were removed from the
territory. By 1835 Arkansas had 50,000 white inhabitants, and on June 15, 1836, it entered the Union as the 25th state. Black slaves supplied most of the labor for the productive cotton plantations of eastern and southern Arkansas; in 1860
Arkansas had about 111,000 black inhabitants, who constituted more than one-quarter of the total population. _^<N__^<N_ The Civil War and Reconstruction_^<N__^<N_On the eve of the CIVIL WAR, Arkansas was almost equally divided between secessionists
(mainly associated with cotton production) and antisecessionists (largely small farmers of the northwestern part of the state). In March 1861, a state convention voted against leaving the Union, but in May 1861, a month after the Civil War had
begun, the convention voted for secession and Arkansas joined the CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA. In March 1862, Union troops won a bloody battle at Pea Ridge (Elkhorn Tavern), and by early 1864 Confederate forces were confined to southern
Arkansas, where they made the town of Washington the new state capital. A Union regime administered most of Arkansas from Little Rock. _^<N__^<N_The war ended in 1865, but during 1866-67 former secessionists controlled the state legislature and
passed several measures restricting the rights of the recently emancipated blacks. As a result, Arkansas was placed under federal military rule in 1867. The state was readmitted to the Union in mid-1868, after a new constitution had been
ratified. During 1868-74 Republicans controlled the state government; the period was marked by a violent clash over the outcome of the 1872 election for governor. Two Republicans, Elisha Baxter and Joseph Brooks, claimed victory in the close
contest, and partisans of the candidates engaged in gun battles in 1874 until President Ulysses S. Grant intervened to help restore order; Baxter was declared governor. In elections later in 1874 the Democrats regained control of the state
government. _^<N__^<N_ Economic Hardships and Recovery_^<N__^<N_During the late 19th century agriculture (especially cotton cultivation) and business expanded, fostered in part by large-scale railroad construction. Because of low prices and crop
failures, farmers faced hard times in the 1880s, however, and, organized in such groups as the Agricultural Wheel, dissatisfied farmers almost gained the governorship in the 1888 election. In the 1890s several laws were adopted that severely
restricted the civil rights of blacks in Arkansas. In 1901-07, under Gov. Jeff Davis, a charismatic, Populist-style politician, the state's educational and penal systems were reformed and most of its debt was retired. _^<N__^<N_In 1921 petroleum
was discovered near El Dorado, but Arkansas remained overwhelmingly agricultural until manufacturing enterprises began to be established in sizable numbers during the 1940s. Farmers suffered from low cotton prices in the 1920s, a situation
compounded by destructive flooding by the Arkansas and Mississippi rivers in 1927 and by a severe drought that began in 1930. The Depression of the 1930s created widespread unemployment and hardship in the state, and many "Arkies" headed west in
search of better living conditions. Recovery in the state began during World War II when new industries (such as bauxite processing) were started and several military bases were established. During the war, J. William FULBRIGHT first gained
national prominence as a representative of Arkansas in the U.S. Congress. _^<N__^<N_ Civil Rights and Recent Trends_^<N__^<N_In 1954 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that segregating black and white pupils in separate public schools was
unconstitutional. Arkansas resisted implementing the ruling, and in September 1957 the state received national attention when Gov. Orval E. Faubus (in office 1955-67) tried to prevent the integration of Little Rock Central High School. President
Dwight D. Eisenhower quickly intervened, in part by sending federal troops to Little Rock, and several black students were enrolled at the high school. Resistance by whites to school integration continued into the 1960s and '70s, but by the late
1970s blacks had equal access to virtually all public educational institutions in the state. _^<N__^<N_From 1940 to 1960 the population of Arkansas declined by more than 8%, because many persons, particularly blacks, left the state for better
employment opportunities elsewhere. In the 1960s the state's population began to increase, and the trend has continued. Despite efforts during the 1980s centered on education, economic development, and fiscal modernization, Arkansas remains one
of the poorest states. Its five-term Democratic governor, Bill Clinton, was elected the U. S. president in 1992. _^<N__^<N_O. Orland Maxfield _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ashmore, Harry S., Arkansas: A History (1978; repr. 1984); Bennett, S., and
Worthen, W. B., eds., Arkansas Made, 2 vols. (1990-91); Blair, D. P., Arkansas Politics and Government (1988); Bolton, S. Charles, Territorial Ambition (1993); Browne, Turner, The Last River: Life Along Arkansas's Lower White (1993); Donovan,
Timothy P., and Gatewood, Willard P., Jr., The Governors of Arkansas (1981; repr. 1988); Graff, Thomas, et al., Arkansas: A Geography (1985); Niswonger, R. L., Arkansas Democratic Politics, 1896-1920 (1990); Tucker, D. M., Arkansas (1986);
Williams, C. F., Arkansas (1986). _^<N__^<N_
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Arkansas (Indian tribe):
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Arkansas (Indian tribe):_^<N__^<N_see QUAPAW.
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Arkansas, state universities of
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Arkansas, state universities of_^<N__^<N_The University of Arkansas (1871), a land-grant school, has its main and oldest campus at Fayetteville (enrollment: 14,433; library: 1,180,792 volumes). This campus includes a college of arts and sciences and
various professional colleges and schools. Another campus (1927; enrollment: 10,740; library: 300,251 volumes) and the university's medical school are at Little Rock. The Monticello campus, formerly Arkansas Agricultural and Mechanical College
(1909; enrollment: 2,376; library: 174,945 volumes), offers the state's program in forestry. There is also a Pine Bluff campus (1873; enrollment: 3,531; library: 125,546 volumes). _^<N__^<N_Other state universities include Arkansas State (1909;
enrollment: 9,712; library: 1,091,949 volumes) at State University; Arkansas Tech (1909; enrollment: 4,333; library: 134,128 volumes) at Russellville; Southern Arkansas (1909; enrollment: 2,892; library: 140,988 volumes) at Magnolia; Henderson
State (1890; enrollment: 3,736; library: 230,000 volumes) at Arkadelphia; and the University of Central Arkansas (1907; enrollment: 8,787; library: 505,773 volumes) at Conway.
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Arkansas River
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Arkansas River_^<N__^<N_{ahr'-kuhn-saw or ahr-kan'-zuhs} _^<N__^<N_The Arkansas River, a major western tributary of the Mississippi River system, rises in the Rocky Mountains of central Colorado. It flows east into Kansas, turns southeast through
northern Oklahoma, and crosses Arkansas to enter the Mississippi. It is 2,333 km (1,450 mi) long and its drainage area is about 415,700 sq km (160,500 sq mi). From its source to its mouth, it falls 3,475 m (11,400 ft) and has a relatively rapid
current. _^<N__^<N_The principal tributaries of the Arkansas are the Canadian, Cimarron, and Verdigris rivers. Dams on the Arkansas have created reservoirs, including the John Martin in Colorado, the Keystone in Oklahoma, and the Dardanelle in
Arkansas. Widening the river has made it navigable for 1,210 km (750 mi) from its mouth. Important cities on its course are Pueblo, Colo.; Wichita, Kans.; Tulsa, Okla.; and Fort Smith and Little Rock, Ark. Arkansas Post, near the river's mouth, was
settled by the French in 1686 and was one of the first European communities in the lower Mississippi River valley.
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Arkhangelsk
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Arkhangelsk_^<N__^<N_{ahr-hahn'-gelsk} _^<N__^<N_Arkhangelsk (English: Archangel) is a city in northwestern Russia, situated on the Northern Dvina River about 48 km (30 mi) from its mouth in the White Sea. It has a population of 428,200 (1991 est.).
Its harbor is frozen for six months a year but can be kept open by icebreakers; the city is an important shipping point for lumber and wood products and has a fishing industry. It is the home of one of the world's oldest maritime schools (1771).
_^<N__^<N_The city was founded in 1584 on the site of an earlier Norse settlement. Originally called Novo-Kholmogory, the city was renamed in 1613 for a monastery of the archangel Michael. Arkhangelsk served as Russia's only foreign trade port
until the founding of St. Petersburg in 1703, whereupon it declined. A railroad completed to the city from Moscow in 1898 revived port activity. _^<N__^<N_Theodore Shabad
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arkose
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arkose_^<N__^<N_{ahr'-kohs} _^<N__^<N_Arkose is a coarse-grained SANDSTONE derived from the rapid disintegration of granite or other feldspar-rich igneous rock. Characteristically, arkoses contain more than 25 percent feldspar grains loosely
cemented to quartz and mica grains by calcite, silica, or, less commonly, iron oxides. The feldspar grains are fresh, unaltered, and only slightly rounded. Because of this, arkose is thought to have formed in areas either where the climate was cool
or dry or where uplift, erosion, and deposition proceeded so quickly that the sediment was not completely weathered when buried. _^<N__^<N_See also: SEDIMENTARY ROCK.
-END-
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1163
CAT
-A-
Arkwright, Sir Richard
-T-
Arkwright, Sir Richard_^<N__^<N_The English inventor Richard Arkwright, b. Dec. 23, 1732, d. Aug. 3, 1792, is best known for designing the SPINNING frame, a device that helped usher in the Industrial Revolution. Arkwright began his working career as
a barber's apprentice and prospered for years as a traveling wigmaker. In the 1760s he gave up his business and began a series of attempts that resulted, in 1769, in the invention of a mechanical thread-spinner capable of drawing carded cotton into
hard-twisted threads of any desired thickness. This machine supplanted the earlier spinning jenny, because the stronger threads it produced could be used as the warp--or fixed, lengthwise threads--in weaving cotton cloth. Water-driven cotton mills
using the spinning frame were built throughout the British Isles. Arkwright built many himself and established one of Britain's first industrial empires. He was knighted in 1786. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: The Arkwright Society, Arkwright and the
Mills at Cromford (1971); Ashton, T. S., The Industrial Revolution, rev. ed. (1964; repr. 1986); Fitton, R. S., and Wadsworth, A. P., Strutts and the Arkwrights, 1758-1830 (1958; repr. 1968).
-END-
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1177
CAT
-A-
Arledge, Roone
-T-
Arledge, Roone_^<N__^<N_The U.S. television executive Roone Arledge, b. Forest Hills, N.Y., July 8, 1931, has been considered an influential figure in television news and sports broadcasting since the late 1960s and early 1970s. Upon graduating
from Columbia College in 1952, Arledge joined the Dumont television network and then worked in the children's and public affairs programming departments at NBC television. He began his long career at the ABC television network as a producer of
network sports shows in 1960, eventually rising to the presidency of ABC Sports. Arledge served as executive producer of all of the networks sports shows, including the long-running, award-winning "Wide World of Sports," which he created. After
becoming president of ABC News in 1977, Arledge transformed a once lackluster news organization into an industry leader by introducing innovative programming and expanding staff and facilities. After experimenting with various news anchor
arrangements, Arledge in 1983 named Peter Jennings as sole anchor for World News Tonight. With other network executives, Arledge in 1991 denounced Pentagon restraints on the press during the Persian Gulf War.
-END-
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626
CAT
-A-
Arlen, Harold
-T-
Arlen, Harold_^<N__^<N_Harold Arlen, b. Hyman Arluck in Buffalo, N.Y., Feb. 15, 1905, d. Apr. 23, 1986, was a blues and popular-song composer. His success began in 1933 with "Stormy Weather," introduced by Ethel Waters in Harlem's Cotton Club. In
1939 his "Over the Rainbow" from The Wizard of Oz won an Oscar and became Judy Garland's musical trademark. Among his other motion-picture songs were "Blues in the Night," "One for My Baby," "That Old Black Magic," and "It's Only a Paper Moon."
Broadway shows for which he wrote the music include Bloomer Girl and Jamaica. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Jablonski, Edward, Harold Arlen (1961; repr. 1986).
-END-
-C-
312
CAT
-A-
Arlington
-T-
Arlington_^<N__^<N_Arlington (1990 pop., 261,721) is a city in northern Texas, between Dallas and Fort Worth. It has aerospace and automotive industries and produces oil-field and electronics equipment and rubber and plastic products. The amusement
park Six Flags Over Texas and the Texas Rangers baseball club are there.
-END-
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524
CAT
-A-
Arlington National Cemetery
-T-
Arlington National Cemetery_^<N__^<N_The Arlington National Cemetery, located across the Potomac River from Washington, D.C., in Arlington, Va., has become the final resting place for thousands of Americans who were killed in war or who died while
in the service of their country. Established in 1864, the 200-ha (500-acre) site also contains the Tomb of the Unknowns, the Confederate Monument, and the Custis-Lee mansion. Among the many famous persons buried there are presidents Taft and
Kennedy and generals Pershing and Marshall.
-END-
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488
CAT
-A-
Arliss, George
-T-
Arliss, George_^<N__^<N_The English actor George Arliss, b. Apr. 10, 1868, d. Feb. 5, 1946, went to the United States in 1901 after a successful stage career in England. He was best known for the many historical personalities he played on both
stage (before 1929) and screen (until 1937). Disraeli, for which he won an ACADEMY AWARD in 1930, was his most famous role in both media. He wrote two autobiographical works: Up the Years from Bloomsbury (1927) and My Ten Years in the Studio
(1940).
-END-
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36
CAT
-A-
Armada, Spanish:
-T-
Armada, Spanish:_^<N__^<N_see SPANISH ARMADA.
-END-
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1314
CAT
-A-
armadillo
-T-
armadillo_^<N__^<N_Armadillos are nocturnal, burrowing New World mammals with a distinctive armor-encased body. They belong to the family Dasypodidae, order Edentata. They comprise nine genera and about 20 species, each differentiated by the number
of plates between the front and rear plates. The name armadillo was first used by the early Spanish explorers and means "small armored one." Armadillo fossils have been found in North and South America. _^<N__^<N_A patterned, hornlike, brown to
pink armor composed of bony plates covers the upper and side surfaces and parts of the legs and undersides. Hair grows between the plates, and on the armored underside of the animal. If overtaken by an enemy, armadillos draw in their feet and nose,
and some species roll into a ball. The nine-banded armadillo, Dasypus novemcinctus, is found from the southcentral and southeastern United States through South America. Its head and body are about 41 cm (16 in) long, the tail is an additional 36 cm
(14 in), and the weight is up to 8 kg (18 lb). It feeds at night on frogs, snakes, insects, carrion, and plant matter. _^<N__^<N_All other armadillos live in Central and South America. The largest is the giant armadillo, Priodontes giganteus, of
eastern South America, which is often 150 cm (5 ft) long and weighs up to 60 kg (130 lb). _^<N__^<N_Everett Sentman
-END-
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729
CAT
-A-
Armageddon
-T-
Armageddon_^<N__^<N_{ahr-muh-ged'-uhn} _^<N__^<N_Armageddon is the place named in the Book of REVELATION (16:16) where the kings of the Earth, the forces of good and evil, were to assemble for battle on the day of divine judgment. The biblical
writer notes that Armageddon is the Greek transliteration of a Hebrew word. The term may mean "the mountain of Megiddo," referring to Mount CARMEL overlooking the plain of Megiddo, where many Old Testament battles were fought. Different readings of
the underlying Hebrew or Aramaic produce "city of Megiddo" or "land of Megiddo." Other interpretations eliminate Megiddo entirely, in favor of "the mount of assembly" or "his fruitful mountain," and may refer to Mount Zion in Jerusalem.
_^<N__^<N_Norman K. Gottwald
-END-
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890
CAT
-A-
Armagh
-T-
Armagh_^<N__^<N_{ahr-mah'} _^<N__^<N_Armagh, a district of Northern Ireland established in 1974, is a part of a county of the same name. Bordering the Republic of Ireland on the south, Armagh has an area of 672 sq km (259 sq mi) and a population of
49,100 (1990). The district town, also called Armagh, has been the ecclesiastical center of Ireland since the 5th century when Saint PATRICK is said to have founded his first mission settlement there; it is the seat of both the Church of Ireland
and Roman Catholic archbishops. Apples and strawberries are grown in the district's northern lowlands, but its once important linen mills are nearly all closed. Inhabited since prehistoric times, Armagh was an important political, religious, and
cultural center during the Middle Ages. The area prospered during the 18th century, and the several buildings and monuments erected during this period attract tourists.
-END-
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1469
CAT
-A-
Armagnacs and Burgundians
-T-
Armagnacs and Burgundians_^<N__^<N_{ahr-mahn-yahks', bur-guhn'-deeuhnz} _^<N__^<N_The Armagnacs and Burgundians were rival French factions in the early 15th century. When CHARLES V of France died (1380), his youngest brother, PHILIP THE BOLD, duke
of Burgundy, attempted to assert control over French policy at the court of CHARLES VI. Philip's son, JOHN THE FEARLESS, continued these efforts after Philip's death in 1404. Opposing these two dukes was an anti-Burgundian party, made up of royal
officials and leading military commanders, that drew its main strength from the nobility of northwestern France. Its successive leaders were Louis, duc d'Anjou (to 1382); the constable of France, Olivier de Clisson (to 1392); and finally Louis, duc
d'Orleans, who was murdered in 1407 on the orders of John the Fearless, his first cousin. _^<N__^<N_The murder of Orleans helped bring (1411) open war between the Burgundians and their opponents, who now became known as Armagnacs after their new
leader, Bernard, comte d'Armagnac, a Gascon lord whose daughter married Orleans's son. The Armagnacs gained ascendancy in 1413. After the French defeat by the English in the Battle of AGINCOURT (1415), however, the Burgundians seized Paris and the
king and massacred the Armagnacs in 1418. The latter, severely weakened, engineered the murder of John the Fearless in 1419. Until 1435, Burgundy was then allied with England against France in the HUNDRED YEARS' WAR. _^<N__^<N_John B. Henneman
_^<N__^<N_See also: ORLEANS (house).
-END-
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965
CAT
-A-
armature
-T-
armature_^<N__^<N_In electricity, an armature is the rotating or stationary assembly that includes the main current-carrying conductor in an electric GENERATOR or MOTOR. For direct-current generators and motors, the armature is formed by windings
around a core--usually of soft iron (a good magnetic path) that is laminated to reduce heat losses. A steel shaft with a commutator is fitted through the center of the core. The commutator, a drumlike cylinder of copper bars, serves--in combination
with brush assemblies--to link the windings and the stationary terminals. (It also permits current reversal in the windings.) The windings are fitted into slots around the core, and the ends of the windings are connected to the commutator bars.
_^<N__^<N_Alternating-current generators (alternators) and motors without a commutator both have a stationary armature, or stator. The generator's load, or motor's power source, is connected to the ends of the stator windings. _^<N__^<N_Donald L.
Armenia (historic region)_^<N__^<N_{ahr-mee'-nee-uh} _^<N__^<N_The historic Armenian homeland lies in eastern Anatolia and southern CAUCASIA (the Republic of Armenia and adjacent parts of eastern Turkey). Almost 3.4 million Armenians live in the
Republic of Armenia; another 1.4 million live in Georgia, Azerbaijan, and other parts of the former USSR; about 2 million more live in the United States, Iran, France, Lebanon, Syria, and Turkey. _^<N__^<N_The Armenians are an Indo-European people
who migrated to Armenia from the west, probably in the 7th century BC, intermingling with the peoples of URARTU. Ruled by kings of the Orontid dynasty, Armenia was one of the satrapies of the Persian empire until the defeat (4th century BC) of
Persia by Alexander the Great, when it came under the nominal suzerainty of the Seleucids. During the Hellenistic and Roman periods it was an autonomous buffer state between the Parthian empire (2d century BC-3d century AD) and the Greco-Roman
powers in the west. Under the Artaxiad king TIGRANES I (c.95-55 BC), the Armenian state reached its greatest expansion, extending from Georgia in the north into Mesopotamia and Syria in the south. Tigranes, however, was forced to become a tributary
of Rome in 66 BC. _^<N__^<N_About AD 300, Tiridates III adopted Christianity as the religion of his kingdom, making Armenia the first Christian state. Christianization led to the development of a unique Armenian culture, a blend of Hellenistic and
Iranian influences. In the early 5th century, Saint Mesrop, an Armenian churchman, devised an alphabet for the ARMENIAN LANGUAGE, initiating a period of literary and intellectual activity exemplified by the work of such historians as Athangelos and
Koriun and the 5th-century philosopher and theologian Eznik of Kolb. _^<N__^<N_In the 5th and 6th centuries some parts of Armenia were nominally subject to the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) emperor, and others to the Sassanians of Persia, but the
country was actually controlled by native clan leaders known as nakharars. Although at times the nobles were able to fight together to repel an external foe, as they did against the Sassanians at Avarair (451), much of medieval Armenian history was
marked by disunity and division, intrigues and revolts by dynastic princes, and periodic invasions. In 640 the Muslim Arabs invaded Armenia and captured Dvin, its principal town. Under their patronage, the Bagratid family rose to prominence and
established a line of kings in 886. Bagratid power reached its height in the 10th century, fostering a cultural renewal that included the work of such writers as Grigor Narekatsi and Hovhannes Draskhankertsi. _^<N__^<N_In the 11th century Armenia
was conquered first by the Byzantines and then by the Seljuk Turks. Fleeing from the Turks, a group of Armenian nobles and their followers settled in Byzantine CILICIA, where they established a state known as Lesser, or Little, Armenia; it attained
the status of a kingdom in 1198 and survived until 1375. The Armenians of Cilicia allied themselves with the European crusaders and developed a culture strongly influenced by the West. _^<N__^<N_The original Armenian homeland was conquered by the
Ottoman Turks in the 16th century and--except for a portion seized by Persia in the early 17th century--remained under Ottoman rule for the next 400 years. The Armenians and other non-Orthodox eastern Christians were governed by the patriarch of
the Armenian church, who lived at Istanbul and was responsible to the Ottoman sultan. Armenian society was dominated by wealthy bankers and businessmen--the sarafs and amiras; culture and literature were maintained by the church until the revival
of national consciousness in the mid-19th century. _^<N__^<N_The annexation of Persian Armenia by Russia in 1828 and the growing influence of European thought among educated Armenians led to the development of a nationalist literature--outstanding
examples of which were the novels of Khachatur Abovian (1805-48) and Hagop Melik-Agopian, known as "Raffi" (1835-88)--and to the formation of revolutionary political parties, the Hnchaks and the Dashnaks. Turkish atrocities against Christians led
Armenians to undertake their self-defense and to call for autonomy or independence. European diplomats expressed concern about the "Armenian Question," but little was done when thousands of Armenians were massacred in 1894-96. During World War I
the Turkish government, considering the Armenians sympathetic to its Russian foe, deported them en masse from Anatolia. Massacres and the hardships of the journey resulted in the deaths of between 600,000 and 1,000,000 Armenians in what has been
called the "first genocide of modern times." Thousands migrated to Russian Armenia, where in 1918 an independent Republic of Armenia was established under Dashnak administration. For the duration of the republic the Dashnaks struggled to gain
international recognition, solve chronic economic problems, and stave off attacks by Turkey. In December 1920 they turned the government over to the Communists rather than surrender to the Turks, and the Soviet Republic of Armenia came into being.
_^<N__^<N_Along with the other Soviet republics, Armenia became independent in 1991, but the new nation found its energies largely absorbed by a territorial dispute with its neighbor, Azerbaijan. _^<N__^<N_Ronald Grigor Suny _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Chahin, M., The Kingdom of Armenia (1987); Hovannisian, Richard G., The Republic of Armenia, 2 vols. (1971-82); Maksoudian, Krikor, History of Armenia (1987); Suny, Ronald Grigor, Armenia in the 20th Century (1983); Walker, Christopher J., Armenia:
The Survival of a Nation, 2d ed. (1990).
-END-
-C-
1054
CAT
-A-
Armenian church
-T-
Armenian church_^<N__^<N_The Armenian church, also known as the Armenian Apostolic or Gregorian church, is an independent Christian church embracing the majority of the Armenian people. Membership is estimated at 1,600,000. At the end of the 3d
century, the king of Armenia, Tiridates III, was converted to Christianity by Saint Gregory the Illuminator. Since the 5th century the Armenian church has embraced MONOPHYSITISM, a doctrine that states that Christ has a single human and divine
nature. Adherence to Monophysitism has kept the Armenian church separated from other Christian groups. In other respects, most practices of the Armenian church resemble those of the ORTHODOX CHURCH. The head of the church is called the supreme
catholicos. His permanent residence is at Echmiadzin in the Republic of Armenia. _^<N__^<N_John Meyendorff _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Gulleserian, Papken, Armenian Church, trans. by Vartapet T. Poladian (1939; repr. 1970); Sarkassian, Karekin, The
Council of Chalcedon and the Armenian Church (1965); Zahirsky, Valerie, The Conversion of Armenia (1985).
-END-
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1378
CAT
-A-
Armenian language
-T-
Armenian language_^<N__^<N_Modern Armenian, spoken by between 5 and 6 million people, comprises two main dialects: the Eastern, which is spoken in various parts of Caucasia and Iran and is the official language of the Republic of Armenia; and the
Western, which is spoken in Armenian communities in other parts of the Middle East, Europe, and the Western Hemisphere. Grabar, the classical Armenian dialect of the 5th century, survives as the language of the Armenian church. Armenian has its own
alphabet, originally 36 letters (now 38), which was mainly derived from the Greek alphabet but with distinct innovations. _^<N__^<N_The Armenian vocabulary contains numerous loanwords borrowed from the Hittite-Luwian languages during the late 2d
and early 1st millennia BC. Thereafter other loanwords came into the language from Parthian, an old Iranian dialect, and in the Middle Ages numerous terms were borrowed from Classical Persian and, to a lesser extent, from Turkish. _^<N__^<N_The
language is not closely akin to any surviving Indo-European dialect. Older theories relating it to the so-called Thraco-Phrygian linguistic group are no longer accepted. Current theory suggests a closer relationship to Greek, however.
_^<N__^<N_John A. C. Greppin _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Thomson, Robert, An Introduction to Classical Armenian, 2d ed. (1990); Greppin, John, and Kachaturian, Amalya, Handbook of Armenian Dialectology (1986).
-END-
-C-
9626
CATO
4738
9572
-A-
Armenia, Republic of
-O-
000000|Armenia, Republic of
000535| LAND AND RESOURCES
001459| Soil
001810| Resources
002427| People
002879| Culture
003716| Religion
004271| ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
006804| HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT
-T-
Armenia, Republic of_^<N__^<N_The Republic of Armenia is a landlocked country in southern CAUCASIA, between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea; it forms part of the historic region of Armenia and is bordered on the north by Georgia, on the east by
Azerbaijan, on the south by Iran, on the southwest by Azerbaijan, and on the west by Turkey. The republic's capital is YEREVAN. After centuries of foreign rule, Armenia enjoyed a brief period of independence after World War I and regained its
independence in 1991 following several decades as a republic of the USSR. _^<N__^<N_ LAND AND RESOURCES_^<N__^<N_The Republic of Armenia is a mountainous region occupying the northeastern part of the Armenian Plateau and adjoining parts of the
Lesser CAUCASUS MOUNTAINS; 90 percent of the area is at elevations of 1,000 m (3,300 ft). The climate is dry and continental, with warm summers and cold winters. The only major lowland suitable for agriculture is the Araks Valley and the plain at
the foot of Mount ARARAT, which is across the border in Turkey. _^<N__^<N_The most prominent physical feature of the republic is Lake Sevan, one of the world's largest mountain lakes (72.4 by 375 km/45 by 233 mi), which covers 5 percent of
Armenia's area. The Razdan River, which is used for power generation and irrigation, flows out of the lake and joins the Araks River, which forms the southern border of the republic. The highest elevation is Mount Aragats (4,090 m/13,419 ft), with
its four peaks featured in Armenian folk songs. _^<N__^<N_ Soil_^<N__^<N_Despite the harshness of the climate in many regions, the volcanic soil is quite fertile, especially in the valleys. Armenia's fruits, particularly apricots, grapes, and
peaches, are renowned, and, though irrigation is required for most crops, the rough landscape is fine for sheep, goats, and horses. Armenia produces wine and very fine brandy. _^<N__^<N_ Resources_^<N__^<N_Copper and molybdenum are mined in the
Kajaran area, and gold is mined in the Zod district near the east end of Lake Sevan. A chemical industry is concentrated in Yerevan and Kirovakan. Hydroelectric power is used to produce some electricity. A nuclear power plant at Metsamor is not
currently in use because of the danger of earthquakes in that area. Some chemical plants have also been shut down for environmental reasons. Armenia is dependent for its energy needs on petroleum imports, but supplies of oil were cut off in the
1990s because of strained relations with the neighboring state of Azerbaijan. _^<N__^<N_ People_^<N__^<N_Since the expulsion about about 200,000 Azeris in 1988-89, the population of the Republic of Armenia has been more than 95% Armenian, with
small Kurdish, Russian, and Yezidi minorities. More than two-thirds of the population is classified as urban, mostly living in small towns. In addition to Yerevan, the major cities are Gyumri (formerly Leninakan), with a population of 123,000 (1990
est.) and Kirovakan, with a population of 76,000 (1989). _^<N__^<N_ Culture_^<N__^<N_Historically, the Armenians were a nation of peasant farmers who withstood successive invasions, developing a unique culture that combined Iranian social and
political structure with Hellenic and Christian literary traditions. Their language is Indo-European but is not closely related to any other. It is the primary language of more than 90 percent of the people, although many speak Russian as well.
Both languages are used in the schools, and during the Soviet period, great prestige was attached to a Russian education. Armenian music, like Armenian cuisine, is similar to that of other Middle Eastern peoples. _^<N__^<N_Among the Armenians who
have achieved prominence during the 20th century are the Soviet composer Aram KHATCHATURIAN, the astrophyicist Victor Hambartsumian, and the onetime president of the USSR, Anastas MIKOYAN. _^<N__^<N_ Religion_^<N__^<N_Armenians have been Christians
since the early 4th century AD and claim that their nation was the first to adopt Christianity as its official religion. Among villagers, however, pre-Christian practices and celebrations still survive, and the traditional ethnic culture remains
strong. Most believers are members of the national ARMENIAN CHURCH. Since independence, however, a revival of interest in religion has occurred, and the Armenian church now faces competition from Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, and non-Christian
religious movements. _^<N__^<N_ ECONOMIC ACTIVITY_^<N__^<N_Under Soviet rule (1920-91) Armenia was transformed from a largely agricultural region into a modern industrial society. Industries included metalworking, machinery manufacturing, and
telecommunications, as well as chemicals and synthetic rubber production. Its manufacturing sector was highly integrated into the overall Soviet economy, and Armenia imported much of its raw materials and food from the other Soviet republics. One
of the republic's most valued "products" was its highly skilled and educated workforce, many of whom left Armenia to work in other parts of the USSR. _^<N__^<N_From the Stalin revolution of the 1930s until the end of the Soviet period Armenia's
economy was completely state-controlled. However, with the rise to power of the non-Communist Pan-National Armenian Movement (APM) in 1990, efforts were initiated to create a Western-style market economy. The government pushed for the privatization
of state enterprises, many of which had been connected with the Soviet defense industry. Agricultural land, which had been held by collective farms, was distributed to individual farmers. Small enterprises such as restaurants were transferred to
private hands or converted into cooperatives run by their employees. _^<N__^<N_However, efforts to transform the republic's command economy into a market system floundered as a result of a combination of natural and political factors. Destruction
caused by the disastrous earthquake of December 1988 was a severe setback to the economy, and the subsequent collapse of the Soviet system, coupled with conflicts between Armenia and Azerbaijan, prevented recovery. Particularly debilitating were
the economic blockade imposed by Azerbaijan--hitherto the source of most of Armenia's petroleum supply--and an influx of refugees from areas affected by the Azerbaijan war. _^<N__^<N_By the early 1990s, Armenia experienced economic collapse and was
unable to provide adequate food, energy, and other necessities to its people. The winters of 1991 and 1992 were times of extreme hardship, near starvation, and rising death rates. The lack of energy reduced transportation and heating to a
minimum. The republic's meager resources were supplemented by aid from abroad, but in 1993 the war in Azerbaijan continued to drain the Armenian economy. Dependent on Russia's cooperation, the government in September 1993 joined with other former
Soviet republics in surrendering control over its own monetary policy in return for permission to continue using the ruble as its currency. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT_^<N__^<N_The Soviet Republic of Armenia was established after the country
was invaded by Bolshevik forces in 1920. It was part of the Transcaucasian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (which also included Georgia and Azerbaijan) from 1922 to 1936, when it became a full union republic of the USSR. As part of the
Soviet Union, Armenia benefited from the economic and educational advances achieved by the Soviets but suffered from political repression, particularly during the period of the brutal Stalin regime (1930s-1950s). _^<N__^<N_With the coming to power
of Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985, Armenians began to express more openly their national aspirations, notably their desire to reclaim NAGORNO-KARABAKH, an Armenian-populated enclave the Soviet government had made part of Azerbaijan in 1923. In 1988 the
Gorbachev regime refused Armenia's request that the enclave to transferred to its control. This and the arrest of the committee that had been spearheading the Nagorno-Karabakh campaign caused an outburst of nationalist sentiment in Armenia, and a
rebellion broke out in Nagorno-Karabakh. In September 1989, Azerbaijan imposed its economic blockade in retaliation for alleged Armenian support for the rebels. The following November, Armenia unilaterally declared Nagorno-Karabakh to be part of
its territory. _^<N__^<N_Parliamentary elections in May-July 1990 brought victory for the nationalist APM, whose leader, Levon Ter-Petrosyan, became Armenia's president. The new government pursued a moderate course, promoting friendly relations
with Turkey, Armenia's historic foe, and resisting pressure from more extreme nationalists for secession from the USSR. It denied any direct involvement in the continuing revolt of Nagorno-Karabakh against Azerbaijan. When the Soviet Union was
dissolved in 1991, Armenia joined other former Soviet Republics in forming the Commonwealth of Independent States. _^<N__^<N_In March 1992, President Ter-Petrosyan repudiated Armenia's previous claims to Nagorno-Karabakh and began devoting his
efforts to the long process of negotiating a truce in the embattled enclave. In September 1993 he participated in a Russian-sponsored conference in Moscow convened for the purpose of finding a peaceful solution to the conflict. _^<N__^<N_Ronald
Grigor Suny _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hovannisian, Richard, Armenia on the Road to Independence, 1918 (1967) and The Armenian Republic, 2 vols. (1982); International Monetary Fund, Armenia: Economic Review (1992); Matossian, Mary K., The Impact of
Soviet Politics in Armenia (1962); Suny, Ronald G., Armenia in the 20th Century (1983) and Looking toward Ararat: Armenia in Modern History (1993); Walker, Christopher, Armenia, the Survival of a Nation, 2d ed. (1990); Walker, Christopher, et al.,
Armenia and Karabagh: The Struggle for Unity (1991). _^<N__^<N_
armillary sphere_^<N__^<N_{ahr'-mi-lair-ee} _^<N__^<N_Armillaries constitute a family of early astronomical instruments that differed considerably in design and purpose. As first described by PTOLEMY about AD 140, the armillary sphere, or astrolabon
was a spherical grouping of large rings onto which sights could be fixed. The rings, which represented great circles on the sphere of the heavens (see CELESTIAL SPHERE), were marked off in degrees of a circle. The armillary sphere was used to
determine the positions of the Sun, Moon, and planets in terms of the ecliptic COORDINATE SYSTEM in astronomy, converting the observed altitude and azimuth of a celestial object into celestial latitude and longitude. Armillaries often also had
rings representing latitude circles on Earth--the equator, tropics, and polar circles--as well as one representing the ecliptic. In medieval times armillaries began to be used as a teaching device to demonstrate astronomical principles. Later they
served to illustrate the differences between the Ptolemaic and Copernican models of the solar system. _^<N__^<N_The Danish astronomer Tycho BRAHE (1546-1601) constructed a series of different types of armillaries. The most important of them had
only one complete ring. Its graduated wooden and brass declination circle, 2.7 m (9 ft) in diameter, was used for the direct observation of celestial positions. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: King, David, Islamic Astronomical Instruments (1987);
Neugebauer, Otto, The Exact Sciences in Antiquity, 2d ed. (1969).
-END-
-C-
1197
CAT
-A-
Arminianism
-T-
Arminianism_^<N__^<N_{ahr-min'-ee-uhn-izm} _^<N__^<N_Arminianism, which takes its name from Jacobus Arminius (Jakob Harmensen), is a moderate theological revision of CALVINISM that limits the significance of predestination. Arminius (1560-1609) was
a Dutch Reformed theologian who studied at Leiden and Geneva. He became a professor at Leiden in 1603 and spent the rest of his life defending against strict Calvinists his position that God's sovereignty and human free will are compatible.
_^<N__^<N_A Remonstrance in 1610 gave the name REMONSTRANTS to the Arminian party. They were condemned by the Synod of Dort (1618-19) but later received toleration. English revisionist theology of the 17th century was called Arminian, although
possibly without direct influence from Holland. John WESLEY accepted the term for his theological position and published the Arminian Magazine. The tension between the Arminian and Calvinist positions in theology became quiescent until Karl BARTH
sparked its revival in the 20th century. _^<N__^<N_Frederick A. Norwood _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bangs, Carl, Arminius, rev. ed. (1985); Muller, Richard, God, Creation, and Providence in the Thought of Jacob Arminius (1991); Tyacke, Nicholas,
Anti-Calvinists (1987).
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373
CAT
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Arminius
-T-
Arminius_^<N__^<N_{ahr-min'-ee-uhs} _^<N__^<N_Arminius, c.18 BC-AD 19, was a chief of the German Cherusci tribe who won a victory over the Roman army of Publius Quinctilius Varus in the Teutoburg Forest in AD 9. This battle, in which three Roman
legions were destroyed, halted the Roman advance into Germany at the Rhine. Arminius, also called Hermann, was regarded as a German national hero.
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296
CAT
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Armistice Day
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Armistice Day_^<N__^<N_Armistice Day commemorates the signing of the armistice that ended WORLD WAR I on Nov. 11, 1918. In the United States it was proclaimed an annual day of mourning by President Woodrow Wilson in 1919, the name was changed to
Veterans Day in 1954, honoring the fallen in all U.S. wars.
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857
CAT
-A-
Armitage, Kenneth
-T-
Armitage, Kenneth_^<N__^<N_Kenneth Armitage, b. July 18, 1916, is a leading English sculptor. His first one-man show, of bronze figures (London, 1952), demonstrated a striking mature style. Although deeply affected by the modern drive toward
abstraction, Armitage nearly always presents recognizably human forms, sometimes joining them with the forms of animals or furniture. The results are massive and highly stylized, with an archaic flavor that points to Armitage's interest in Egyptian
and Cycladic art. In his later work, he has experimented with new materials--aluminum, polyester, wood--sometimes incorporating drawing with his sculpture. His figures have grown increasingly monumental: his glass-fiber Arm (1967-8) is almost 4 m
armor_^<N__^<N_Armor is covering worn to protect the body against assault by weapons. Although most often associated with the equipment worn by knights (see KNIGHT) in the Age of Chivalry, the first armor was probably a rudimentary wood and hide
shield used in Neolithic times. The materials used for armor have ranged from tightly woven fibers to wood, metal, and--in our time--plastics. The wearing of armor became significant for the military about 1600 BC, when Greek foot-soldiers, or
hoplites (see HOPLITE), began to wear protective equipment consisting of a round shield large enough to hide the body when kneeling, a bronze helmet, a cuirass (breastplate and backplate), and greaves (shin guards). This equipment plus a spear and
short sword weighed more than 30 kg (about 70 lb). The magnificent Macedonian army of 331 BC was similarly armored, but individual overlapping metal plates known as scale armor were used. A significant Macedonian contribution was the use of scale
armor to protect the heads and chests of war-horses, a practice known as barding. Armor was relatively unchanged during the next millennium, through the Roman period. _^<N__^<N_The importance of improvements in armor was demonstrated at the Battle
of HASTINGS (1066), where Norman horsemen, protected by interlocking iron rings known as chain mail, and armored infantry soundly defeated the numerically superior English infantry, whose only protection was kite-shaped shields of Viking origin.
This event marked the emergence of the armored horseman as the premier fighting force. In the next 400 years, however, the use of chain mail dwindled as technical advances allowed armorers to forge large single plates, or plate armor. Armor
production increased and armor-related nomenclature became widely established. _^<N__^<N_Single-plate body armor reached its highest level of development during the 15th and 16th centuries, as German and Italian armorers vied to achieve the
ultimate in technical, structural, and decorative craftsmanship. In the 17th century, the increasing efficiency of firearms in the West began to make armor obsolete; it had to be so heavy to withstand shot that troops refused to wear it for any
length of time. In Asia mail and plate armor were significant during the 1st millennium BC, and continued in use even through the 19th century. _^<N__^<N_Only two forms of armor, the helmet and the cuirass, survive to link the knights' armor with
present-day protection. The shape of the earliest helmets and the helmets worn by today's soldiers are strikingly similar. The cuirass continued to be used by cavalry units and is still worn as ceremonial dress. During World War I it was briefly
resurrected for infantry as protective body armor, especially for snipers and machine gunners. _^<N__^<N_World War II rekindled interest in body armor, and today many armies use a close relative of the cuirass in the form of a protective fabric
vest containing plastic-encased metal plates. Commonly called a flak jacket, it originated during World War II, when experimental models were worn by American airmen to protect them from antiaircraft fire, known as flak. _^<N__^<N_In 1974 a
stronger-than-steel fiber called Kevlar was developed for use as a puncture-resistant component of automobile tires. When combined in layers inside clothing, it was discovered that Kevlar acts as a kind of armor, bulletproofing the covered portions
of the body (23 Kevlar layers can stop a submachine-gun bullet). The fiber was used at first in vests but is now made in almost every form of apparel. Body armor is bought by police officers, businesspersons, celebrities, and others who feel
subject to attack, as well as by criminals. Many firms selling body armor require references or a gun permit from the buyer. Kevlar padding is also used to bulletproof automobiles. _^<N__^<N_Lane Rogers _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Alexander, D., The
Arts of War: Arms and Armour of the 7th to 19th Centuries (1993); Blair, Claude, et al., Studies in European Arms and Armour (1992); Bull, Stephen, An Historical Guide to Arms and Armor (1991); Ffoulkes, C., The Armourer and His Craft (1912; repr.
1988); Granesay, S. V., Arms and Armour (1986); Robinson, H. Russell, Oriental Armour (1967); Suenaga, M., Pictorial History of Ancient Japanese Weapons, Armour and Artifacts (1983); Thomas, Bruno, Arms and Armour of the Western World (1964).
-END-
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8486
CATO
4804
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armored vehicle
-O-
000000|armored vehicle
000517| EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE TANK
003885| TANKS IN WORLD WAR II
005919| POSTWAR DEVELOPMENTS
007287| PERSONNEL CARRIERS
-T-
armored vehicle_^<N__^<N_Of basic importance in modern land warfare, armored vehicles include a variety of military equipment: tanks, infantry combat vehicles, armored personnel carriers, command vehicles, and self-propelled weapons, which are
essentially mobile guns that carry their crews inside protective armor (see ARTILLERY). Most armored vehicles are propelled on caterpillar tracks capable of supporting and moving the heavy weights of these machines over rough terrain, with an
offensive capability in the form of guns or missiles. _^<N__^<N_ EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE TANK_^<N__^<N_Armored cars were the first modern armored fighting vehicles. Used in the opening years of World War I for reconnaissance and as self-propelled
guns, the wheeled armored car was often immobilized by mud and was incapable of traversing trenches. In February 1915, Winston Churchill, then first lord of the Admiralty, brought together a committee to investigate the possibility of
"landships"--armored vehicles that could cross trenches and destroy the German machine guns that were dominating the Western Front. In December of that year, the Mark I was tested. It was the first of a series of tanks with the lozenge, or
rhomboid, shape that marked all British tanks of the period. Production began in February 1916, and the Mark I went into action the following July at the Somme. _^<N__^<N_Tank designs--both French and British--were constantly refined and improved
as the war progressed. The first tanks were slow moving, with a maximum speed of 6 km/h (3.7 mph), and were difficult to steer. Of the eight-man crew in the Marks I to IV, four were needed to steer the tank. The Mark V provided one-man steering and
a slight increase in speed. In addition to heavy tanks, weighing about 28 metric tons (31 U.S. tons), both the British and the French built lighter tanks, the Whippet and the Renault FT, which weighed roughly one-half and one-quarter less,
respectively, than the heavier tanks and had twice the speed. By the end of the war the British had built approximately 2,350 tanks of 13 different types, and the French about 4,000 smaller vehicles. The Germans built only 20 tanks throughout the
war. The U.S. tank-building program had hardly begun when the war ended, and the U.S. tank corps fought in Mark Vs and Renault FTs. _^<N__^<N_Military strategists thought of the tank solely as support for the infantry, and thus these early armored
vehicles were frequently used in small numbers on unsuitable ground. Tank capabilities were not really understood until the Battle of Cambrai (Nov. 20, 1917), when 400 British tanks, followed by large numbers of infantry, crashed through the
Hindenburg Line along a 10-km (6-mi) front. Tanks were present and fought effectively in all the final Allied offensives of the war. _^<N__^<N_In the period between the wars, tank engines and components were greatly improved, and tank design began
to take on its contemporary shape: an armored hull supported by tracks and topped by a turret mounting cannon and machine guns. Speeds took a quantum leap, to between 32 and 48 km/h (20-30 mph). Special-duty variants, such as light scouting tanks,
began to appear. _^<N__^<N_Theorists of the 1920s, such as the British officers J. F. C. Fuller and B. H. LIDDELL-HART, postulated that tanks could not only seize ground by brute strength, but could also be the central factor in a new strategy of
warfare. If moved rapidly enough, concentrations of tanks could smash through enemy lines and into the enemy's rear, destroying supplies and artillery positions and decreasing the enemy's will to resist. Germany was particularly attracted by this
new, untried strategy, and by 1939 had refined the theory, instituted the training required, and organized panzer ("armored") units to utilize this new method, dubbed blitzkrieg ("lightning war"). The German soldier-theorist Heinz GUDERIAN was a
major contributor to the planning for blitzkrieg. _^<N__^<N_ TANKS IN WORLD WAR II_^<N__^<N_The German attack on Poland in September 1939--which combined devastating attacks by the German air force with tank units moving at speed through the Polish
lines--proved the worth of the theory. In 1940, when Germany used blitzkrieg tactics to invade France and the Low Countries, German tanks were outnumbered by French and British vehicles; but the Allied tanks, used as in World War I for close
infantry support, were spread too thin to counter the massive German attacks. _^<N__^<N_During the 1930s most nations had experimented with designing tanks that could carry heavier armor and armament without losing mobility. The Russian T-34 was
the first of these new tanks to be fielded, and it proved effective against the lighter German tanks. Some 40,000 T-34s were produced by war's end, and the model continued as the main battle tank of the USSR until it was phased out in the mid-1950s
and replaced by the T-54. _^<N__^<N_The tank-against-tank battles of World War II spurred intense research and development. The need to stay ahead of the enemy was so great that, for both sides, the rapid design and production of new models was
accompanied by often severe mechanical problems. Germany upgraded the design of tanks already in use and developed new models: the Tiger (1942), the Panther (1943), and the Royal Tiger (1944) all had superior guns and armor but were complex and
difficult to manufacture. Relatively few were actually produced. _^<N__^<N_With little effort or money having been devoted to tanks in the period between the wars, the United States was the farthest behind at the outset of World War II. The tank
chosen for production, the M-4 Sherman, was barely equal to the German tanks of 1942-43, and by 1944 its armor was proving woefully thin and its gun too small for lone combat against an improved German tank. Nevertheless, its mechanical reliability
gave it an advantage over many other tanks, and it saw more service than any other Allied armored vehicle. More than 49,000 Shermans were produced during the war. _^<N__^<N_ POSTWAR DEVELOPMENTS_^<N__^<N_The U.S. drive to design improved tanks
during World War II led to the production of superior tanks in the postwar period. The M-60 series, produced from 1960 to 1983, is still in use. Its successor, The M-1 Abrams, carries a 120-mm gun that gives it a range exceeding 4,000 m (4,374 yd),
a decisive advantage over the Soviet-supplied tanks fielded by the Iraqis during the Persian Gulf War (1991), which fared poorly in their first battlefield test against U.S. weapons. The Abrams has thermal imaging and laser-guided fire controls,
allowing it to fire accurately while moving. (The Soviet vehicles had to stop in order to fire.) The M1A2 is the latest version of this U.S. main battle tank. _^<N__^<N_Tank technology changes rapidly in response to antitank weaponry developments.
Attack rockets and shaped explosive charges resulted in the adoption of laminated tank armor and the use of "reactive" armor--armed steel boxes on the tank's surface that destroy explosives before they can penetrate the tank's interior. When tandem
warheads were invented to negate reactive armor, tank designers responded by making steel spiked with depleted uranium fuel from nuclear reactors--producing a much stronger, denser armor that, unfortunately, proved to be radioactive. _^<N__^<N_The
AMX Leclerc and the Challenger 2 are the French and British equivalents to the Abrams. _^<N__^<N_ PERSONNEL CARRIERS_^<N__^<N_Armored personnel carriers (APCs) were originally simply shielded vehicles. In the 1960s, however, they were armed with
machine guns or small cannon and with gun ports along the sides that allowed firing from inside the vehicle. In 1967 the USSR introduced the BMP-1, considered the first true Infantry Fighting Vehicle (IFV). It carries a crew of three plus eight
infantry. The current U.S. IFV, the Bradley Fighting Vehicle, carries a crew of three as well as six infantry and is equipped with a 25-mm cannon and TOW antitank missiles. Like its Russian counterpart, the BMP-2, it is amphibious and is propelled
through the water by its tracks. Improvements in the survivability and crew protection of the Bradley were made after early versions showed serious weaknesses in these areas. _^<N__^<N_Arthur B. Alphin _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Baily, C. M., Faint
Praise: The Development of American Tanks and Tank Destroyers during World War II (1983); Foss, C., ed., Jane's Armour and Artillery, 1992-93 (1992); Hogg, Ian, Jane's Infantry Weapons, 1992-93 (1992); Messenger, C., Observers, Tanks, and Other
Armoured Vehicles (1990); Terry, T. W., et al., Fighting Vehicles, 2d ed. (1991).
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1625
CAT
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Armory Show
-T-
Armory Show_^<N__^<N_The Armory Show is the popular name for the International Exposition of Modern Art that took place at the 69th Regiment Armory in New York City from Feb. 17 to Mar. 15, 1913. The exhibition, which afforded the American public
their first look at European modernist art, was instigated by about 25 American artists, primarily from the ASHCAN and STIEGLITZ groups. _^<N__^<N_Among the chief organizers were Arthur B. DAVIES, Walt Kuhn, and Walter Pach. Their aim was to
protest the academic art that then dominated exhibitions in the United States. About 1,500 paintings and sculptures were included in the show. Approximately 1,000 were by such American artists as John MARIN, Maurice PRENDERGAST, and John SLOAN.
Also included were about 500 works by European artists, among them Odilon REDON, Paul CEZANNE, and Wassily KANDINSKY; the cubists Pablo PICASSO, Georges BRAQUE, and Fernand LEGER; and the Fauvists Henri MATISSE, Georges ROUAULT, and Maurice de
VLAMINCK. _^<N__^<N_Critics, the press, and the general public had strongly negative reactions to the show, particularly to the work of such Europeans as Marcel DUCHAMP, whose painting Nude Descending a Staircase was the object of much ridicule.
The show had a significant impact, however, on a small group of American artists. More than any other single event, it stimulated American interest in ABSTRACT ART. _^<N__^<N_Barbara Cavaliere _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Brown, Milton, American
Painting from the Armory Show to the Depression (1955); and The Story of the Armory Show (1963; repr. 1988); Goodrich, Lloyd, Pioneers of Modern Art in America: The Decade of the Armory Show, 1910-1920 (1963).
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762
CAT
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Armour, Philip Danforth
-T-
Armour, Philip Danforth_^<N__^<N_Philip Danforth Armour, b. Stockbridge, N.Y., May 16, 1832, d. Jan. 6, 1901, was a meat-packer who developed the Chicago stockyards. Beginning as a miner, farmer, and wholesale grocer, Armour went into meat-packing
in 1870. He pioneered in shipping hogs to Chicago for slaughter and in canning and exporting meat. He purchased his own refrigerator cars in order to ship fresh meat to the East Coast. Toward the end of his life he was charged, along with other
packers, with selling chemically treated inferior meat to the armed forces. After his death his son, J. Ogden Armour, built Armour and Company into the world's largest meat-packing firm. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Leech, Harper, and Carroll, John C.,
Armour and His Times (1938; repr. 1979).
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arms, coat of:
-T-
arms, coat of:_^<N__^<N_see HERALDRY.
-END-
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11054
CATO
4819
9636
-A-
arms control
-O-
000000|arms control
002081| SALT Negotiations
004094| START and SDI
005346| Breakthrough
006587| Transformation
009078| Prospects
-T-
arms control_^<N__^<N_Arms control, a term popularized in the early 1960s, refers to the voluntary limitation or reduction of weapons and their means of delivery, between and among countries, through negotiation. It is distinct from DISARMAMENT,
which seeks to eliminate, also by international agreement, the means by which countries wage war. The goal of eliminating war goes far back in history, but in modern times disarmament came into focus with the HAGUE CONFERENCES in 1899 and 1907.
These and subsequent efforts met with only modest success. _^<N__^<N_As defined by academic specialists, the three objectives of arms control are to reduce the likelihood of war, to limit the extent of damage should war occur, and to reduce
expenditures on military forces. While arms control compiled a mixed record during the post-World War II era--seldom meeting the ambitious goals set forth by its numerous proponents--the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the COLD WAR have
opened up promising new opportunities for radical reductions in the nuclear and conventional weapons arsenals of the major powers. _^<N__^<N_Arms control, particularly between the superpowers, aroused controversy from the outset. The Limited Test
Ban Treaty, signed by representatives of the United States, United Kingdom, and Soviet Union in 1963, provoked sharp debate when U.S. president John F. Kennedy submitted this arms-control "first" for Senate approval. The treaty, which prohibits
testing nuclear weapons above ground, under water, and in space, was seen by some critics as unenforceable. These and other criticisms notwithstanding, the treaty was eventually ratified and fears of Soviet noncompliance proved unfounded. More
favorably received in the United States was the 1968 United Nations-sponsored Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), which seeks to restrict the size of the "nuclear club" by inducing non-nuclear-weapons states to renounce the acquisition of such
weapons in exchange (among other pledges) for a commitment on the part of the nuclear-weapons countries to reduce their own arsenals (see NUCLEAR STRATEGY). _^<N__^<N_ SALT Negotiations_^<N__^<N_The NPT was critically important in facilitating the
start of bilateral U.S.-Soviet negotiations in 1969 to limit central strategic forces. Known by the acronym SALT, for Strategic Arms Limitation Talks, the negotiations resulted in two arms-control agreements in 1972. The first and more important
was the Antiballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty, by which the two countries agreed to limit the number of ABM sites and thus not deploy nationwide defensive systems to protect their homelands against nuclear-missile attack. The treaty, which
representatives of the U.S. and Soviet (now Russian) governments review at five-year intervals, is of unlimited duration. The second accord was a five-year freeze on the construction of long-range land- and sea-based ballistic missile "launchers"
(underground silos and submarine missile tubes, respectively). The so-called Interim Agreement on Offensive Weapons was a temporary measure to slow the competition in offensive weaponry, pending negotiation of a more permanent and restrictive
treaty. _^<N__^<N_The second phase of the negotiations, lasting from 1972 to 1979, led to the signing of several agreements, including an accord further limiting U.S. and Soviet ABM deployments and the 1974 Threshold Test Ban Treaty, which
restricts the yields of underground nuclear weapons tests. The most important agreement concluded during this period was the 1979 SALT II treaty, a lengthy and complex document that attempted to extend and refine many of the provisions of the 1972
Interim Agreement. The U.S. Senate never ratified the treaty, however, largely because of the dramatic deterioration in superpower relations that began during the abbreviated administration of President Gerald R. Ford and accelerated during the
term of his White House successor, Jimmy Carter. Despite the ambiguous legal status of the treaty following the failure to obtain its ratification, both the United States and the Soviet Union abided by most of its provisions well into the 1980s.
_^<N__^<N_ START and SDI_^<N__^<N_Negotiations on U.S. and Soviet strategic nuclear systems, renamed the Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START) by President Ronald Reagan's administration, resumed in the summer of 1982. Through the remainder of
Reagan's presidency the two sides reached consensus on many key points, including the desirability of 50 percent reductions in long-range nuclear forces and the need for intrusive, on-site inspections to prevent cheating. Among unresolved issues
were how intrusive to make the new regime for monitoring treaty compliance and how to construct the preferred relationship between strategic offensive and defensive forces. In a dramatic reversal of its earlier negotiating position, the United
States now favored the rapid development and deployment of nationwide defensive systems, as shown by its sponsorship of the STRATEGIC DEFENSE INITIATIVE (SDI), first outlined by Reagan in March 1983 in a nationally televised speech. The Soviet
Union was sharply critical of SDI during most of the 1980s and resisted the conclusion of any new agreement to reduce strategic offensive weapons, pending a commitment by the United States to abide by the terms of the ABM treaty, narrowly
interpreted, through at least the end of the century. _^<N__^<N_ Breakthrough_^<N__^<N_The rise to power of Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985 heralded a fundamentally new phase in arms control. One of Gorbachev's most important foreign policy
objectives was to curtail sharply the political rivalry between the USSR and the West by, among other steps, delimiting their military competition. The first major result of this policy was the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty,
concluded in 1987, which eliminated all U.S. and Soviet land-based nuclear missiles with ranges between 500 and 5,500 km (310 and 3,415 mi). This was followed in 1990 by a treaty on the reduction of conventional forces in Europe (CFE), signed by 22
member-states of the NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION (NATO) and the WARSAW TREATY ORGANIZATION. At about the same time, U.S. and Soviet negotiators completed work on the long-awaited START treaty, and in July 1991, President George Bush traveled
to Moscow to join Gorbachev in signing the accord. Less than six months later, under sustained attack from virtually every organized political faction in the country, Gorbachev--the architect of the most ambitious reform program in the 74-year
history of the Soviet Union--resigned as president, and the USSR ceased to exist. _^<N__^<N_ Transformation_^<N__^<N_At a hastily called summit meeting in June 1992, Bush and Russian Federation president Boris Yeltsin agreed to press for early
ratification of the START treaty. They also pledged to conclude a second and far more ambitious agreement to reduce U.S. and Russian strategic nuclear arsenals by roughly two-thirds within a decade and to eliminate all land-based MIRVed (multiple
warhead) missiles. The U.S. and Russian governments reaffirmed that pledge and finalized much of the new treaty's language in December 1992. _^<N__^<N_The U.S.-Russian arms control agenda has been complicated by the confused--and confusing--nuclear
legacy of the Soviet Union. In the wake of the Soviet collapse four of the defunct country's now independent republics, including Russia, found themselves in possession of some number of nuclear weapons and long-range delivery systems. Under
pressure from Russia and the West, the governments of Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine promised in May 1992 to abide by the terms of the 1991 U.S.-Soviet START agreement and to join the NPT as non-nuclear weapons states. Belarus ratified START and
the NPT in 1993, and Kazakhstan likewise ratified START, with the apparent intention of joining NPT. Ukraine, however, had not acted officially on either treaty by late that year, despite repeated assurances that ratification of both START and NPT
was imminent. _^<N__^<N_In the opinion of some Ukrainian leaders, both the unsettled character of bilateral relations between Ukraine and Russia and the generally high level of political instability throughout the region militated strongly in favor
of retaining the nuclear weapons deployed on Ukrainian soil. Western policymakers, by contrast, worried that a potentially dangerous arms race could develop between a nuclear-armed Ukraine and a nuclear-armed Russia. They also feared that some
countries not then in possession of nuclear weapons might reassess their non-nuclear status in light of Ukraine's apparent decision to safeguard its nuclear option. Moscow worried lest it have to contend with a new nuclear adversary, armed with
ballistic missiles capable of striking the full range of Russian targets within a matter of minutes. _^<N__^<N_This and other problems directly resulting from the Soviet Union's demise admitted of no easy solution. Arms control may be of some
assistance in resolving these issues, but because most of the key problems are political rather than technical, it is unlikely to play more than a supporting role. _^<N__^<N_ Prospects_^<N__^<N_The end of the cold war nevertheless makes possible
new progress in arms control. For example, the development of a more constructive relationship between the United States and Russia could facilitate negotiation of cooperative agreements governing military deployments and weapons transfers in
regions such as the Middle East and South and East Asia. It could also assist conclusion of other multilateral agreements, such as the 1993 treaty banning the production, possession, deployment, and use of chemical weapons, and strengthen the
effort to contain nuclear proliferation. _^<N__^<N_The end of Soviet rule, however, has given rise to a new collection of security problems for which policymakers everywhere have been ill prepared. The frequency and intensity of ethnically and
religiously inspired conflicts, for example, have increased dramatically since the collapse of central authority in the former Soviet Union (as they have elsewhere in Europe and Asia). The related tasks of economic revitalization and
demilitarization confront governments throughout the region. In addition, the collapse of the Soviet Union's alliance relationships, together with the reconfiguration of relations between the United States and many of its closest friends and
allies, has left many countries politically orphaned, and thus less secure. This serves to increase instability. It also may encourage some states--notably North Korea--to develop nuclear weapons of their own, despite the spirited opposition of the
major powers, including the five permanent (and nuclear-armed) members of the United Nations Security Council. Developed at an earlier time and for different purposes, both the theory and practice of arms control will have to be radically revised.
_^<N__^<N_Coit D. Blacker _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Allison, G., et als., Cooperative Denuclearization (1993); Blacker, C. D., and Duffy, G., eds., International Arms Control, 2d ed. (1984); Glynn, P., Closing Pandora's Box (1992).
-END-
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475
CAT
-A-
Arms and the Man
-T-
Arms and the Man_^<N__^<N_Arms and the Man (1898, produced 1894), a satire on the idealization of war and love, is one of George Bernard SHAW's wittiest and most charming comedies. In it, the practical mercenary Bluntschli outmaneuvers the Bulgarian
Major Sergius, a pompous hero engaged to the romantic Raina. Bluntschli wins Raina, and Sergius is trapped into marriage by Raina's scheming maid. Oscar Straus's operetta The Chocolate Soldier (1908) is based on the play. _^<N__^<N_Myron Matlaw
-END-
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8675
CATO
4834
-A-
arms trade
-O-
000000|arms trade
001929| The Process of Arms Transfers
005175| Arming Iraq
006866| The Arms Market in the 1990s
-T-
arms trade_^<N__^<N_The trade in arms--the mass marketing of conventional (nonnuclear) weapons and other military equipment to foreign countries--is a phenomenon that began with the emergence of large weapons industries in the West in the late 19th
century. Governments, however, have used large-scale weapons sales--or weapons transfers, as such sales are called by arms professionals--as a major instrument of foreign policy only within the past half century. The U.S. Lend-Lease program of
1941-45, during which over $50 billion in arms and equipment was given to Great Britain, China, and the Soviet Union, marks the first openly conducted government effort to influence the course of events in other countries by providing quantities of
arms. The postwar Truman Doctrine committed the United States in effect to continuing lend-lease by undertaking to arm countries that it believed were threatened by Communist subversion. Outright government grants of U.S. military equipment were
gradually replaced by the sale of arms, often negotiated directly between the purchasing countries and U.S. manufacturers. Such sales were often facilitated by providing purchasers with low-interest loans from U.S. banks and long- term credits from
U.S. government agencies. _^<N__^<N_After World War II, the Soviet Union's involvement in the weapons trade was as extensive as that of the United States, and for many years the two nations were the world's principal arms suppliers. Increasingly,
however, other countries have become arms manufacturers and sellers. Thus, whereas in 1963 the United States and the USSR together sold or gave away 85 percent of the world's arms exports, by the end of the 1980s their joint contribution was about
68 percent, and thereafter substantially less. (Russia--which inherited most of the USSR's weapons stockpile after the 1991 breakup of the Soviet empire-- has been attempting to sell it off in exchange for badly needed cash.) _^<N__^<N_ The Process
of Arms Transfers_^<N__^<N_Most U.S. weapons transfers are carried out under the supervision of the State Department, which may veto a private sale (one between a U.S. manufacturer and a foreign country) if it is deemed to be not in accord with
U.S. foreign policy. The Arms Export Control Act of 1976 requires that the president submit proposed substantial sales of defense equipment to Congress for its approval. _^<N__^<N_The State Department has permitted some weapons to be manufactured
in certain allied countries under license from the U.S. manufacturers. It has also occasionally sanctioned the sale to a third country of weapons either bought directly from the United States or manufactured under license. "Offset agreements,"
which are arrangements designed to reduce the amount of currency needed to buy military items, may allow the purchasing country to barter or sell some of its own products in exchange for arms; or the agreements may call for the establishment of
U.S. subsidiaries or other forms of financial investment within the purchasing country. _^<N__^<N_Arms transfers have increasingly involved technology transfers as well. In 1982 alone, the major U.S. weapons manufacturers had co-production
agreements for the making of radar systems, tank components, helicopters, rockets, and advanced fighter aircraft with South Korea, Turkey, Israel, Egypt, and Taiwan. There were also over 20 large coproduction programs in Japan, Canada, and Europe,
as well as hundreds of smaller licensing agreements with other countries. Through these agreements, the purchasing countries often acquire the technology and expertise to establish their own arms industries. _^<N__^<N_The Soviet Union only rarely
allowed arms technology transfers to Third World states (although it did aid the weapons industries of its Warsaw Pact partners). Before 1960, however, China received some Soviet technology exports. Later, China produced and exported relatively
simple weapons based on those early Soviet designs. Chinese sales of Silkworm missiles to warring countries in the Middle East during the 1980s raised concerns about the spread of such weapons. During the 1991 PERSIAN GULF WAR Iraq used modified
versions of Scud missiles that it had received from the Soviet Union to attack Saudi Arabia and Israel. _^<N__^<N_Small arms--rifles, mortars, grenade launchers, machine guns-- are widely available. They are sold by many governments and private
arms dealers, who often operate with tacit governmental approval. Weapons are also stolen from factories or diverted in some way from the usual weapons-supply channels. The black market in surplus or stolen arms may amount to as much as $9 billion
a year. _^<N__^<N_The availability of spare parts for sophisticated weapons has become an important and politically sensitive area in many countries. After the 1979 revolution in Iran, for example, many of the billions-of-dollars-worth of arms
transferred from the United States to the Shah were rendered almost inoperable by a U.S. cut-off of spare parts. The political leverage gained through arms transfers was made clear by the IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIR, in which President Reagan sought Iranian
help in securing freedom for Western hostages in Lebanon in exchange for secret shipments of parts. _^<N__^<N_ Arming Iraq_^<N__^<N_Between 1970 and 1990, almost every arms-manufacturing country in the world--China and the Soviet Union, as well as
Brazil, Egypt, France, West Germany, Great Britain, and the United States--sold an eager-to-buy Iraq everything from missile systems and fighter planes to naval vessels, howitzers, and helicopters. When Iraq attacked Kuwait in 1990, the world
finally became aware of the dimensions of the war machine it had helped Iraq to create: not only conventional weapons systems of every variety, but also the technologies necessary for producing chemical weapons and a very-nearly-perfected capacity
to make nuclear arms. Most of Iraq's purchasing had been well within the various guidelines established in several conventional arms-control agreements between the United States and other major arms sellers; some of the more esoteric
material--chemicals, high-capacity computer chips, communications equipment--arrived at Iraqi ports in parts, from manufacturers who claimed, after the fact, that they had been innocent of any knowledge of the ultimate uses for which these
materials had been bought. _^<N__^<N_In the aftermath of the Persian Gulf War, President George Bush convened a meeting of the world's largest weapons sellers--the United States, Russia, Great Britain, France, and China--in order to redefine
arms-sales guidelines. (Even in the midst of the talks, however, the United States announced the sale of attack helicopters to Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates, F-5 fighter planes to Israel, and F-15 aircraft to Saudi Arabia.) While several
vague agreements were eventually reached, they have had no discernible effect on the scope or nature of the arms market. _^<N__^<N_ The Arms Market in the 1990s_^<N__^<N_The Middle East remains the world's primary arms market, accounting for 38
percent of all sales between 1989 and 1992. (Saudi Arabia is the largest arms customer in the region; it spent about $36 billion for arms in that 4-year period.) Other regions are also beginning to invest heavily in weapons accumulations. In
Asia--which is making about 30 percent of total arms purchases--China, India, Japan, North and South Korea, and Taiwan all both buy and sell arms in massive quantities. Israel is said to have sold arms and military technology to China, and China is
suspected of selling missile technology to Iran and Pakistan, and chemical weapons technology to Iran. In South America, both Chile and Argentina are new customers for surplus arms from the United States. The arms embargoes levied on Yugoslavia and
its former member republics Croatia and Bosnia, and on Iraq and Libya, have meant only that purveyors of ex-Soviet armaments, the principal sale items involved, have found new channels for smuggling arms into those countries.
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Anthony, Ian, ed., Arms Trade Regulations (1991); Bajusz, William D., and Louscher, David J., Arms Sales and the U.S. Economy (1988); Barnaby, Frank, The Role and Control of Weapons in the 1990s (1993); Gill, R. Bates,
Chinese Arms Transfers (1992); Glynn, Patrick, Closing Pandora's Box: Arms Races, Arms Control, and the History of the Cold War (1992); Klieman, A. S., Israel's Global Reach: Arms Sales as Diplomacy (1985); Neuman, Stephanie G., Military Assistance
in Recent Wars (1987); Timmerman, Kenneth R., The Death Lobby: How the West Armed Iraq (1991); Walker, Gregg, et al. eds., The Military-Industrial Complex: Eisenhower's Warning Three Decades Later (1992). _^<N__^<N_See also: ARMS CONTROL; DEFENSE,
NATIONAL.
-END-
-C-
627
CAT
-A-
Armstrong, Debbie
-T-
Armstrong, Debbie_^<N__^<N_American ski racer Deborah Armstrong, b. Salem, Oreg., Dec. 6, 1963, became the first surprise winner at the 1984 Winter Olympics in Sarajevo, when she took the gold medal in the women's giant slalom. Considered only the
fourth best woman on the U.S. team--behind Tamara McKinney (1983 World Cup overall champion), Christin Cooper, and Cindy Nelson--Armstrong had never even won a World Cup race and did not arrive on the Cup circuit until 1982. Armstrong's second- and
fourth-place runs were good enough for victory, however, by 0.4 sec over Cooper, the silver medalist. She retired after the 1987-88 season.
-END-
-C-
942
CAT
-A-
Armstrong, Edwin
-T-
Armstrong, Edwin_^<N__^<N_Edwin Howard Armstrong, b. New York City, Dec. 18, 1890, d. Feb. 1, 1954, was an American inventor and electrical engineer who made fundamental contributions to radio. His invention of the regenerative (FEEDBACK) circuit in
1912, while he was still in college, was challenged by Lee DE FOREST in a series of lengthy patent suits. Although Armstrong lost the case, the scientific community continued to support his claims. In 1918 he invented the superheterodyne circuit,
which uses the HETERODYNE PRINCIPLE. His invention (1925-33) of the system of FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM) eliminated radio static. This invention, however, was also challenged in a patent suit. In poor health, with most of his money gone, he
committed suicide. Armstrong has posthumously received increasing recognition for his many important inventions. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Lessing, L. P., Man of High Fidelity (1956); Lewis, T. S. W., Empire of the Air (1991).
-END-
-C-
707
CAT
-A-
Armstrong, Henry
-T-
Armstrong, Henry_^<N__^<N_Henry Armstrong, b. Columbus, Miss., Dec. 12, 1912, d. Oct. 22, 1988, is the only professional boxer to have held three world titles simultaneously. Originally named Henry Jackson, "Hammerin' Hank" adopted a ring name,
Honey Mellody, and had a modest career up to 1937, when singer Al Jolson bought his contract. In October 1937 he won the featherweight title, adding the welterweight title in May 1938 and the lightweight crown in August 1938. He continued to win 46
straight matches into 1939 and fought until 1945, finishing his career with 152 victories and 100 knockouts in 181 bouts. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Armstrong, Henry, Gloves, Glory, and God (1956); Heller, Peter, In This Corner (1973).
-END-
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917
CAT
-A-
Armstrong, John
-T-
Armstrong, John_^<N__^<N_John Armstrong, b. Carlisle, Pa., Nov. 25, 1758, d. Apr. 1, 1843, was U.S. secretary of war (1813-14) during the War of 1812. He was the son of another John Armstrong (1717-95), famous for his exploits in the French and
Indian War. Both Armstrongs served in the American Revolution, and at its conclusion the younger wrote the anonymous "Newburgh Addresses" (1783), suggesting that the army use force if necessary to secure back pay. He was elected to the
Continental Congress (1787), served in the U.S. Senate (1800-04), and was minister in Paris (1804-10). _^<N__^<N_When the War of 1812 began, Armstrong became a brigadier general and was charged with the defense of New York City. Appointed
secretary of war, he was blamed for the disastrous 1813 expedition against Montreal. He was forced to resign when the British captured (1814) Washington. He later wrote Notices of the War of 1812 (1836-40).
-END-
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1492
CAT
-A-
Armstrong, Louis
-T-
Armstrong, Louis_^<N__^<N_Louis "Satchmo" Armstrong, b. New Orleans, July 4, 1900, d. July 6, 1971, was a brilliant American jazz cornet and trumpet soloist. He began to play at the age of 13, as a member of the band of the New Orleans Waifs' home.
A cornetist in New Orleans and in Mississippi riverboat bands, he was first heard by a larger audience when he joined the group of King OLIVER in Chicago in 1922. His 1923 recordings with Oliver were among the first to feature black performers. In
1925, after playing as a solo artist with the New York band of Fletcher HENDERSON, he returned to Chicago and formed his own group, Louis Armstrong's Hot Five (or occasionally, Hot Seven), which made a series of recordings still prized today as
classic Chicago Dixieland. _^<N__^<N_In 1932, Armstrong made the first of many successful European tours. His popularity was heightened through appearances on radio, in films, and, later, on television. His unique "scat" singing style became as
well known as his trumpet tone, and today he remains one of the most famous of all American jazz musicians. _^<N__^<N_Donald Ivey _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Armstrong, Louis, Satchmo: My Life in New Orleans (1954; repr. 1986) and Swing That Music
(1936); Collier, James L., Louis Armstrong: An American Genius (1983); Giddens, Gary, Satchmo (1988); Goffin, Robert, Horn of Plenty: The Story of Louis Armstrong (1947; repr. 1977); Meryman, Richard, Louis Armstrong: A Self Portrait (1971);
Pinfold, Mike, Louis Armstrong: His Life and Times (1987).
-END-
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1587
CAT
-A-
Armstrong, Neil A.
-T-
Armstrong, Neil A._^<N__^<N_The American ASTRONAUT Neil Alden Armstrong, b. Wapakoneta, Ohio, Aug. 5, 1930, was the first person to walk on the MOON. Armstrong received his pilot's license on his 16th birthday. After two years at Purdue University,
he joined the navy and flew combat missions over Korea. He returned to Purdue, obtained his aeronautical engineering degree in 1955, and became a test pilot. At Edwards Air Force base he flew the X-15 rocket plane seven times. In 1962 he was
selected as an astronaut. His first flight (1966), as commander of GEMINI 8, was aborted by a thruster failure after 10 hr 41 min. _^<N__^<N_Armstrong was later assigned as commander of APOLLO 11, the first U.S. attempt to land on the Moon. On July
20, 1969, Armstrong and lunar module pilot Edwin E. ALDRIN landed the Apollo 11 lunar module Eagle on the Moon at the Sea of Tranquility. At 10:56:20 pm Eastern Daylight Time (EDT), he planted his left foot on the lunar surface and proclaimed:
"That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." He later said that he intended to say "a," but tape static leaves this uncertain. After serving as deputy associate administrator for aeronautics, Armstrong retired from NASA to be a
professor of engineering at the University of Cincinnati (1971-79) and thereafter a computer company executive. In 1986 he served as vice-chairman of the presidential commission appointed to investigate the destruction of the SPACE SHUTTLE
Challenger in January 1986. _^<N__^<N_David Dooling _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Crocker, Chris, Great American Astronauts (1988). _^<N__^<N_See also: SPACE EXPLORATION.
-END-
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743
CAT
-A-
Armstrong, William
-T-
Armstrong, William_^<N__^<N_An American educator and writer, William Howard Armstrong, b. Lexington, Va., Sept. 14, 1914, is best known as the author of Sounder (1969; film 1972), which won the 1970 Newbery Medal. Sounder tells the story of an
anonymous family of black sharecroppers who suffer tragic injustices and survive them with dignity. Among Armstrong's other books for children are a sequel to Sounder, Sour Land (1971), and The Education of Abraham Lincoln (1974). He has also
written a number of books on education, including Study Is Hard Work (1967) and 87 Ways to Help Your Child in School (1961). In 1963 he won the National School Bell award for distinction in the field of education. Armstrong teaches at the Kent
School in Kent, Conn.
-END-
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657
CAT
-A-
Armstrong, William George, Baron Armstrong of Craigside
-T-
Armstrong, William George, Baron Armstrong of Craigside_^<N__^<N_The English inventor William Armstrong, b. Nov. 26, 1810, d. Dec. 27, 1900, is best known for designing (1855) the first breech-loading, rifle-bored cannon. During the 1830s and '40s
he also devised a hydraulic engine, a hydraulic crane, and a hydroelectric engine. Armstrong wrote on many scientific subjects and warned of the wastefully extravagant use of limited fuel supplies, predicting the future use of solar energy and
waterpower. The factory he established developed into one of the world's largest engineering works and became, after his death, the huge munitions firm Vickers Armstrong Ltd.
-END-
-C-
20103
CATO
4781
9562
14368
19188
-A-
army
-O-
000000|army
000612| ARMIES OF THE PAST
001311| Ancient Armies
004494| Feudal Armies
006541| Early Modern Armies
010783| Mechanized and Conscript Armies
016074| UNITED STATES ARMY
-T-
army_^<N__^<N_An army is that portion of a nation's armed forces raised and trained to fight on land, as distinct from naval forces, separate air forces, constabularies, marines, and other large military organizations that sometimes engage in ground
combat. Most armies have been seen as relatively large organized armed groups, under both formal military discipline and the control of established governments. The word army is also used in military circles to denote the field army, a large
tactical land warfare unit within modern armed forces and ranked in the hierarchy of headquarters just below theater and army group. _^<N__^<N_ ARMIES OF THE PAST_^<N__^<N_Armies' roles and missions since ancient times have included defense of
territory; patrol and guarding of frontiers; conquest; conduct of raids, sieges, and expeditions; deterring aggression; and intimidation or coercion of foreign or domestic enemies, slaves, or subject peoples. Civil functions have included
protecting dignitaries and sovereigns; intelligence; policing; crowd control and suppressing riots; parades and ceremonies; military governance; building roads, aqueducts, camps, forts, harbors, and dams; providing disaster relief, education, and
socialization; and affording through employment an economic option and upward mobility to social underclasses and aliens. _^<N__^<N_ Ancient Armies_^<N__^<N_The term army connotes a large mass, hence inflated descriptions of ancient armies, like
the wild overestimate of HERODOTUS of Persian forces in his history of the Persian Wars. The sparse historical evidence suggests growth in the scale and complexity of armies from 1500 to 500 BC of from dozens or hundreds of light infantry or
charioteers to linear arrays of thousands. The Egyptian army at the Battle of MEGIDDO in 1468 BC, for instance, had fewer than 10,000 soldiers. _^<N__^<N_Increasingly bigger armies, like those of Assyria, China, and Persia, came to include
infantry, chariots, horsemen, and complex siege trains. Force mixes changed along with a growing appreciation for tactics. Until modern times assembling armies was limited by climatic effects on mobility and by the agricultural cycle's constraint
on the availability of manpower. _^<N__^<N_The phalanx, a bloc of massed pikemen, was the backbone of the armies of PHILIP II of Macedonia that overwhelmed HOPLITE light infantry on the level floodplains of Greece, while Philip's son ALEXANDER THE
GREAT came to rely on cavalry in his campaigns of conquest. Later, the phalanx was overtaken by Roman armies made up of smaller and more dispersed blocs of short sword-wielding infantry and mobile support elements, better able to negotiate steep
and broken terrain. _^<N__^<N_Most ancient armies, from the Achaeans of the Trojan War through Persia, Athens, Sparta, Israel, and republican Rome to Byzantium, were made up of MILITIA, citizens serving only in crisis or war, who might also serve
as marines in naval battles. By the late 5th century BC armies deployed in coherent formations and using tactics (see STRATEGY AND TACTICS, MILITARY) fought large and costly battles. Commanders' orders were conveyed by couriers, standards, and
sometimes military bands. _^<N__^<N_The armies of HANNIBAL were a hodgepodge of local levies around a small force of Carthaginians. During the PUNIC WARS and afterward the Roman army evolved into a blend of heavy infantry, light and heavy cavalry,
and slingers, archers, and dart-throwers. The 2d-century BC reforms of MARIUS created not only a Roman republic but a large standing army, and his refined model of the LEGION served as its core unit for half a millennium. The transition to empire
and the rise of the "army emperors" reflected how Rome's and Byzantium's armies, especially their PRAETORIAN GUARD, held the balance of political power. _^<N__^<N_Like Persia's before them, Rome's and Byzantium's armies dominated large tribes along
the imperial frontiers with diplomacy, bribes, and more rational military methods and tactics, including road and signals systems allowing quick concentration at key points. Imperial armies also socialized and educated, recruiting from subject or
neighboring peoples. _^<N__^<N_By the 6th century AD, after the western empire faded, cataphracts--heavily armored cavalry--raised from landed gentry became the key element in Byzantium's armies. That form persisted in western European armies until
the 16th century, despite setbacks at the hands of Saracen light cavalry in the CRUSADES, the MONGOL incursions, and the deadly effects of crossbows, longbows, halberds, and gunpowder. _^<N__^<N_ Feudal Armies_^<N__^<N_Until the Crusades few feudal
arrays were actual armies in terms of size or coherence, partly owing to fragmentation arising from feudal landholding (see FEUDALISM). Vassals holding land and titles owed their liege lords set amounts of military duty and resources. Those
overlords wishing to maintain a certain level of military force in the field, as in a siege, had to raise the force through levees (levies) of their vassals. Another limitation was that until the late 1600s most armies in Europe lived off the land.
_^<N__^<N_The 9th-century military reforms of CHARLEMAGNE, although transitory, revived parts of the Roman system, including disciplined armies, and a road-and-base network. In the east, although Byzantium's ability to project power shrank--the
expedition of BELISARIUS to Italy in the 7th century involved fewer than 25,000 men--Anatolia's military districts, like Persia's satrapies 1,000 years earlier, could raise up to 250,000 men until they were overrun by the Turks in the 11th
century.. _^<N__^<N_From the 6th to the 11th centuries and often thereafter western Europe's armies were far smaller than those of antiquity. Estimates of both sides' armies at the Battle of HASTINGS in 1066 range from 10,000 to 50,000, while a
generation later Crusader "armies" of sometimes fewer than 2,000 faced Saracen armies 10 to 20 times larger. Following the Arab armies of conquest of the 7th and 8th centuries came the Turks, who from the 11th to 18th century regularly fielded
200,000-man armies in Europe. _^<N__^<N_In the 13th century, Mongol cavalry armies under GENGHIS KHAN swept out of the Gobi desert. Masters of mobility, intelligence, ruses, and terror, their dreaded "hordes" of about 250,000 men and perhaps 1
million horses overcame armies in China of some 300,000 and in Persia of half-a-million at a time when combined English and French forces at the Battle of CRECY (1346) numbered fewer than 60,000. In the 14th century, after sweeping into central
Europe with seemingly no resistance before them, they returned to Central Asia. _^<N__^<N_ Early Modern Armies_^<N__^<N_From the 15th century on in Europe growth of commerce and agriculture and the rise of market economies saw an increase in
scutage--money payments in lieu of feudal military service--and other taxes allowing kings and high nobility to raise standing armies. Western European armies came to reflect the rising mercantile classes' spirit of risk, investment, and
profit-seeking. During the Renaissance, CONDOTTIERI mercenary bands were employed by the Italian city-states. Their armies, safely encased in expensive armor, clashed in strange, nearly bloodless battles. In contrast, in England tiny armies of
nobles decimated each other in the Wars of the Roses (see ROSES, WARS OF THE). Meanwhile, in France, the reforms of CHARLES VII set the basic organizational forms of modern armies, and his 25,000-man army, including 8,000 foreign MERCENARIES,
stunned Europe with its effectiveness in Italy in 1496-97. _^<N__^<N_From the Renaissance on, science, mathematics, and engineering were applied to warfare, which also saw a steady increase in bourgeois officers in the armies of the new
nation-states and of merchant-adventurer companies. These officers' skills made them useful as adjutants and quartermasters and as artillerymen and engineers. When guns had first appeared in the early 1300s, breaking down noble strongholds,
pikemen and bowmen were also eroding the dominance of the mounted KNIGHT. In the 15th and 16th centuries Swiss schiltrons--circular masses of pikemen--and infantry blocs of the Spanish tercios, variants of the phalanx and legion respectively,
reflected a revival of ancient forms of war. _^<N__^<N_Over the next three centuries armies in Europe grew to match those of India and China, although those engaged in imperial conquest were usually much smaller, as determination, greed,
discipline, organization, and a technical edge often allowed conquerors to defeat far larger enemy forces. Hernan CORTES toppled the Aztec ruler MONTEZUMA II with 600 men and 17 horses, and Francisco PIZARRO overcame the INCAS with some 200. As the
Spanish army, funded by spoils of empire, gained eminence in Europe, armies became increasingly intricate mixes of artillery, matchlock gun-equipped arquebusiers, pikemen, and cavalry of various kinds. Use of body armor declined as additional small
arms added further complexity to the increasing melange of weaponry. _^<N__^<N_In the mid-1600s, King GUSTAV II ADOLF of Sweden wrestled with those complex trends in forming his army of 60,000. At the same time, Puritans in the ENGLISH CIVIL WAR
shaped a "New Model Army" of fewer than 16,000--far smaller than armies in central and eastern Europe but dreaded far beyond Great Britain's shores. _^<N__^<N_In the late 1600s, the grand reforms of the ministers of LOUIS XIV gave France a standing
army of almost half-a-million, with field armies of 100,000. Their firm discipline, depot-based logistics, and elaborate tactics and fortifications shaped European military science and statecraft for two generations. _^<N__^<N_In the 18th century
the scale of armies remained much smaller even a short distance away from the cockpit of Europe. In North America, for example, from the 1750s to 1815 tiny armies yielded much larger results than did grand arrays in Europe. In the AMERICAN
REVOLUTION, the Continental Army of George WASHINGTON never exceeded 15,000, and the armies joined at Yorktown (see YORKTOWN CAMPAIGN) barely exceeded 25,000 men. _^<N__^<N_European powers formed larger armies in India, some mainly composed of
sepoys--Indian natives employed by the Europeans--with European officers and gunners. At the same time that Frederick the Great (see FREDERICK II, KING OF PRUSSIA) used the Prussian Army's skill and speed to fend off his more numerous foes, Robert
CLIVE, at Plassey in India in 1757, beat a French-led force of almost 70,000 with his tiny British EAST INDIA COMPANY army of 2,100, and 1,100 Europeans. _^<N__^<N_In the mid-1700s the intellectual, social, and technical forces of the Industrial
Revolution and the Enlightenment altered the nature of armies. In the 1750s, Marshal de SAXE and the Duc de Broglie each proposed models for combined arms units of 5,000 to 10,000 in France that evolved into the basic building-block of modern
armies--the division. _^<N__^<N_ Mechanized and Conscript Armies_^<N__^<N_Experience on the Austrian and North American frontiers fueled a "light infantry" revival that gained momentum from a people-in-arms concept and the rising spirit of liberty
and romantic heroism in the FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS and NAPOLEONIC WARS. Movement and deployment of the large armies raised by the mass levies (14 initially) and, beginning in 1798, the first nominal CONSCRIPTION was aided by advances in
mapmaking and printing and by road, canal, and semaphore networks. Prerevolutionary refinements of French artillery and superior organization and improvisation gave the French republican generals a way to mass firepower and forces quickly. In
concert with light infantry skirmishing fire and heavy cavalry charges, French massed artillery opened gaps in their foes' battle lines, allowing the massed, ill-trained, but fervently patriotic French infantry columns to charge home and conquer.
_^<N__^<N_The victories of NAPOLEON I were aided by a new division-corps-army hierarchy to control his widely dispersed armies and by the linear tactics of France's allied foes. Victory followed victory until 1812-14, in the Peninsular War, when
French occupation forces, harried by Spanish GUERRILLAS, were pushed back across the Pyrenees by the small but deadly army of the Duke of WELLINGTON with a loss of 250,000 men. Meanwhile defeat had overtaken the French forces in Russia in 1812, on
a much larger scale. In barely half-a-year, after heavy losses at Borodino, myriad skirmishes, and harassment from COSSACKS, fewer than 20,000 of the Grand Army's original 450,000 remained fit for duty. _^<N__^<N_Yet Napoleon formed more armies,
opposing half-a-million allied troops at Dresden in 1813 with 300,000. Returning from exile in 1815, he raised another half-million troops as allied armies of some 700,000 converged, and he commanded just over 70,000 against Wellington's slightly
smaller force at WATERLOO. The mystique of the emperor's armies had powerful aftereffects over the next century. Officer veterans of them played a major role in the French conquest of Algeria in the 1830s and the CRIMEAN WAR in the 1850s.
_^<N__^<N_While most major 19th-century wars--the TAIPING REBELLION, the U.S. CIVIL WAR, and the War of the Triple Alliance (see TRIPLE ALLIANCE, WAR OF THE)--occurred outside Europe, the majority of overseas conflicts in the 19th century were
small. Latin America's wars of independence involved armies of a few thousand, and fewer than 2,000 Texans and Mexicans fought in the battle of San Jacinto during the MEXICAN WAR. The appearance of rifles and explosive shells early in the century
did not lead to rapid changes in armies' structure or tactics, with the result that increasingly heavy losses of life occurred in mid-century European wars. _^<N__^<N_These presaged the U.S. Civil War's far greater tolls, as repeatedly, for four
years, armies of eager volunteers and, later, some conscripts in compact, linear formations were shredded by rifle fire. That conflict revealed many of the problems of controlling the vast armies that mass production, railways, and telegraphy made
it possible to raise, gather, transport, and supply. _^<N__^<N_From the Civil War to WORLD WAR I the U.S. Army was dwarfed by other nations' armies. In Europe large armies clashed in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 (see SEVEN WEEKS' WAR) and the
FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR of 1870-71. In the latter more than 750,000 men fought in the opening battle. Like Napoleon's, the Germans' large armies triumphed in linear battles, but then, like Napoleon's in Spain, suffered from the depredations of
irregulars. Prussia's victories led several nations to adopt models of the Prussian GENERAL STAFF as mechanisms for controlling their own mass armies. _^<N__^<N_As World War I began in 1914, 20 field armies were quickly mobilized on the three major
fronts. At the war's end, in 1918, twice as many stood on the Western Front alone. Most were dismantled in 1918 and 1919, and after the Russian civil war ended in 1922, only France and the USSR maintained large standing armies. In the 1930s,
however, Japan, China, Germany, Italy, and Spain all mobilized large armies. _^<N__^<N_In the United States the National Defense Act of 1920 mandated a standing army of 300,000 and a three-tiered reserve system designed to rapidly mobilize five
well trained field armies. Funding for that grand scheme ended in 1923, and as WORLD WAR II began in 1939, the U.S. Army and Air Corps numbered 150,000. During the war, their strength peaked at just over 8 million, against about 13 million in all
U.S. services. _^<N__^<N_When the fighting in Europe ended in 1945, 11 Allied field armies under three army groups occupied what was to become West Germany; one army group of two field armies remained in Italy, and some 22 field armies of three Red
Army Fronts were deployed in central Europe. _^<N__^<N_After the war many nations ended conscription. By the time the United States escalated its involvement in the VIETNAM WAR in 1965 many analysts deemed set battles things of the past. The
ARAB-ISRAELI WAR of 1973 nevertheless saw the largest tank battles in history, and the IRAN-IRAQ WAR of l980-88 involved armies and casualties on a scale approaching that of World War I. In the PERSIAN GULF WAR of 1991 more than 1 million troops
were arrayed on both sides. _^<N__^<N_ UNITED STATES ARMY_^<N__^<N_In the early 1990s the U.S. Army's active strength of about 550,000, including 80,000 women, was organized in 14 divisions and almost 50 separate brigades, regiments, and groups.
Its two main reserve components were the Army NATIONAL GUARD, with 10 divisions, and the Army Reserve, with 12 training divisions. Both the former, numbering 450,000, and the latter, numbering 650,000, included many units organized to support
Regular Army elements in case of mobilization. The active Army's combat-type divisions of 10,000 to 15,000 each were the 1st Armored; the 101st Airborne (air-assault); the 82nd Airborne; the 2nd Infantry Division; the 1st, 3d, 4th, 5th, and 24th
Infantry (Mechanized); the 6th, 7th, 25th, and 10th Mountain, all designated as Light; and the 1st Cavalry. Its major suborganizations were Forces Command; Southern Command; U.S. Army Pacific; U.S. Army Japan; U.S. Army Europe and the Seventh Army
(Germany); U.S. Forces Korea and the Eighth Army (South Korea); the Army Material Command; the Training and Doctrine Command; and four numbered field army areas in the United States. In addition to those were almost 50 field operating agencies,
which included many diverse functions, ranging from the Health Services Command and the Corps of Engineers to the Criminal Investigation Command and the UNITED STATES MILITARY ACADEMY. _^<N__^<N_The organizational lineage of some Army components,
especially smaller units like regiments and battalions, dates from the American Revolution, as does that of some branches, like the infantry and artillery. Others are of relatively recent origin, including the numbered field armies, corps, and
divisions designated from World War I onward, and elements formed since World War II, such as the Special Forces, 75th Ranger Regiment, 160th Special Aviation Unit, and the Transportation, Military Police, Military Intelligence, and Aviation
branches. _^<N__^<N_Other significant Army organizational realignments in the 20th century include creation of the Army General Staff (1903), adoption of the French G/S-4 staff model (1917-21), and establishment of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, made
up of the military heads of of the armed services (1942). The creation of the Department of Defense (see DEFENSE, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF) in 1947 and subsequent changes rerouted operational command channels from the president, as commander-in-chief,
to U.S. Army components. These run through the secretary of defense and chairman of the Joint Chiefs to unified and specified commands, the so-called "CINCs." _^<N__^<N_All major operational commands include elements of each of the armed services,
reflecting "jointness," or meshing of the services in modern military operations. In the early 1990s most projections of Active Army strength by the late 1990s approximated 500,000 and 10 or 12 divisions. Major cuts in defense funding led to a 57
percent drop in Army units in Germany from 1989 to 1992 and a decline of the Active Army from 930,000 to 640,000 following the Persian Gulf War. Since 1973 the Army has been an all-volunteer force. _^<N__^<N_After a slow start following the order
by President Harry TRUMAN desegregating the armed forces in 1947, the Army is the most racially integrated service. By the late 1970s women constituted more than 10 percent of its strength. In the early 1990s debates over admitting professed
homosexuals generated intense controversy, as international turbulence following the relaxation of superpower polarity left a perplexing array of contingencies, as well as a decline of resources, creating strains of a kind not seen since the late
1940s. _^<N__^<N_Roger Beaumont _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ball, H. P., Of Responsible Command: A History of the U.S. War College (1984); Butler, J. S., Inequality in the Military: The Black Experience (1980); Dupuy, R. E. and T. N., Encyclopedia of
Military History, 2d ed. (1986); Gilroy, C. L., Army Manpower Economics (1985); Liddell Hart, B. H., The Remaking of Modern Armies (1980); Weigley, R. F., History of the U.S. Army, enl. ed. (1984).
-END-
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896
CAT
-A-
Arnauld, Antoine
-T-
Arnauld, Antoine_^<N__^<N_{ahr-noh'} _^<N__^<N_Antoine Arnauld, b. Feb. 6, 1612, d. Aug. 8, 1694, was the single most important leader of French JANSENISM during the later 17th century. The youngest son of a wealthy Parisian family, he first studied
law and then theology at the University of Paris, entering the priesthood in 1641 and obtaining his doctorate two years later. Under the influence of the Abbe de SAINT-CYRAN, he had long embraced the theological doctrine of Jansenism, and he became
the foremost proponent of the movement with the publication of his treatise Frequent Communion (1643). Thereafter, he wrote hundreds of essays, pamphlets, and letters, ardently defending the Jansenist cause. He died in Brussels, where he had fled
in 1679. Best known for his theological tracts, he also wrote on logic, grammar, and geometry and was considered one of the most learned Frenchmen of his age. _^<N__^<N_T. Tackett
-END-
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898
CAT
-A-
Arnauld, Jacqueline Marie Angelique
-T-
Arnauld, Jacqueline Marie Angelique_^<N__^<N_Angelique Arnauld, known as Mere Angelique, b. Sept. 8, 1591, d. Aug. 6, 1661, was a 17th-century French abbess who made her CISTERCIAN convent of Port-Royal (near Paris) the spiritual center of French
JANSENISM. Sent to the convent at the age of 7 and made abbess at 11, she was only 17 when she began to reform Port-Royal, ultimately converting it into a model of piety and austerity befitting her strong Jansenist convictions. In the following
years, she was joined there by numerous members of her family, among whom were four sisters, her mother, and several nieces. The convent also became a retreat for many Jansenist writers and polemicists, including her theologian brother, Antoine. A
certain number of her writings and letters have been published, but she is perhaps most remembered for her strong spiritual influence on her contemporaries. _^<N__^<N_T. Tackett
-END-
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34
CAT
-A-
Arnaut Daniel:
-T-
Arnaut Daniel:_^<N__^<N_see DANIEL, ARNAUT.
-END-
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907
CAT
-A-
Arne, Thomas
-T-
Arne, Thomas_^<N__^<N_{ahrn} _^<N__^<N_Thomas Augustine Arne, b. Mar. 12, 1710, d. Mar. 5, 1778, was a prominent English composer of songs and dramatic music, including "Rule, Britannia!" (1740). His parents sent him to Eton to study law, but Arne
secretly learned the violin and the spinet, which he practiced on a muffled instrument hidden in the family attic. His music for the masques Comus (1738) and The Judgment of Paris (1740), the opera Artaxerxes (1762), and his settings for songs from
Shakespeare's plays made him one of the most celebrated composers of the period. His other works include the oratorio Judith (1761), concertos, sonatas, overtures, and chamber music. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Fiske, R., English Theatre Music in the
18th Century (1973); Hogwood, Christopher, and Luckett, Richard, eds., Music in 18th-Century England (1983); Horner, B. H., Life and Works of Dr. Arne (1893); Langley, Hubert, Dr. Arne (1938).
-END-
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1061
CAT
-A-
Arnhem
-T-
Arnhem_^<N__^<N_{ahrn'-hem} _^<N__^<N_Arnhem is the capital of Gelderland province in the Lower Rhine district of the Netherlands. It is located on the north bank of the Rhine River near its juncture with the Ijssel, about 35 km (20 mi) from the
German border. The 1991 population was estimated to be 131,707 and that of the metropolitan area, 305,000. Arnhem is a center for the manufacture of scientific instruments, drugs, and textiles. _^<N__^<N_The site of the city may have been that of
the Roman town of Arenacum. A trading center in the Middle Ages, Arnhem was the home of the dukes of Gelderland until the 16th century. It was occupied by France (1672 and 1795), Prussia (1813), and Germany (1940). In World War II it was the scene
(1944) of a major battle between the British and the Germans. Several outstanding parks and museums in the Arnhem area include the Netherlands Open-Air Museum of Dutch customs and rural life and the Kroller-Muller Museum in the Hoge Veluwe National
Park at Otterloo, which has a major collection of art that contains more than 300 works by Van Gogh.
-END-
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619
CAT
-A-
Arnhem Land
-T-
Arnhem Land_^<N__^<N_{ahrn'-hem} _^<N__^<N_A sparsely populated area of 80,808 sq km (31,200 sq mi) in northeastern NORTHERN TERRITORY, Australia, Arnhem Land extends from the Van Diemen Gulf southeast to the Gulf of Carpentaria and the Groote
Eylandt. The area constitutes the largest of 17 Aboriginal reservations. Arnhem Land was discovered in 1623 by the Dutch explorer Jan Carstensz, who named it for his ship Arnhem. The name was first used to designate the entire region between the
Roper and Victoria rivers. Arnhem Land is largely tropical plateau and rain forest. Elevation ranges from more than 1,000 m (3,300 ft) to sea level.
-END-
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853
CAT
-A-
Arnim, Achim and Bettina von
-T-
Arnim, Achim and Bettina von_^<N__^<N_{ahr'-nim, ah'-kim} _^<N__^<N_Ludwig Joachim von Arnim, better known by his nickname, Achim, b. Jan. 1781, d. Jan. 21, 1831, was a German romantic poet and novelist whose fame rests on the volume of German folk
poetry he collected and edited with his brother-in-law Clemens BRENTANO: Des Knaben Wunderhorn (The Youth's Magic Horn, 1805-08). Influenced by Johann Gottfried von HERDER's collection of Folk Songs (1778-79), Arnim's work was intended to awaken
the spirit of German national identity. His wife, Bettina von Arnim, b. Apr. 4, 1785, d. Jan. 20, 1859, is best known for her correspondence with GOETHE, published in 1835 as Goethes Briefweschel mit einem Kinde (Goethe's Correspondence with a
Child, 2 vols., 1837). She was foremost among the intellectually emancipated women of the romantic period in Germany. _^<N__^<N_Carl R. Mueller
-END-
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661
CAT
-A-
Arno, Peter
-T-
Arno, Peter_^<N__^<N_Peter Arno was the pen name of Curtis Arnoux Peters, b. New York City, Jan. 8, 1904, d. Feb. 22, 1968, an American cartoonist whose distinctive charcoal-and-wash satiric drawings regularly graced the pages of The New Yorker and
Esquire for more than 40 years. Arno was best known for his depiction of New York society, especially the foibles of the rich. His deceptively simple vignettes brought to comic life a world inhabited by bibulous executives, sabled dowagers,
lecherous clubmen, and buxom, often scantily clad young women. Collections of his cartoons include Man in the Shower (1944), Sizzling Platter (1949), and Lady in the Shower (1967).
-END-
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602
CAT
-A-
Arno River
-T-
Arno River_^<N__^<N_The principal river of TUSCANY, in central Italy, the Arno flows 242 km (150 mi) from the hills of Monte Falterona in the Tuscan Apennines to the Ligurian Sea 11 km (7 mi) west of Pisa. The river is navigable to FLORENCE but is
used mainly for irrigation. It has a drainage basin of 8,247 sq km (3,184 sq mi). The Arno has changed course several times over the centuries. Although flood control measures have been taken, the river still causes considerable damage, for
example, its destructive flooding of Florence in 1966. Noted for its beauty, the river has a rich history in myth and art.
-END-
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2822
CAT
-A-
Arnold, Benedict
-T-
Arnold, Benedict_^<N__^<N_Benedict Arnold, b. Norwich, Conn., Jan. 14, 1741, was an American Revolutionary general and America's most infamous traitor. At the age of 14, Arnold was a druggist's apprentice, but he ran away twice to serve in the
colonial militia during the French and Indian War (1754-63). When the AMERICAN REVOLUTION broke out, Arnold marched his Connecticut militia company to Massachusetts, where he was made a colonel. His force, along with Ethan Allen's Green Mountain
Boys, captured TICONDEROGA on May 10, 1775. _^<N__^<N_Arnold then led a force of 1,100 men through Maine in the dead of winter to invade Canada. His march remains a military classic. Linking up with another American force under Richard
MONTGOMERY, he led an unsuccessful attack on Quebec in December and was wounded. For his courage, he was promoted to brigadier general in January 1776. _^<N__^<N_Before his defection, Arnold had a brilliant career in the Continental Army. In
October 1776 he fought a series of naval battles on Lake Champlain that helped delay a British invasion from Canada. When the British raided Danbury, Conn., in April 1777, Arnold drove them off. He particularly distinguished himself in the
Saratoga campaign as second in command to Horatio GATES. During the second battle of Saratoga on Oct. 7, 1777, Arnold led a charge and was again wounded. _^<N__^<N_Arnold suffered many disappointments that embittered him. When he was promoted to
major general in February 1777, others he thought less deserving preceded him in rank. Gates received the credit for the victory at Saratoga. Named (June 1778) commander in Philadelphia, Arnold was accused of overstepping his authority. His
second marriage (1779) to Margaret Shippen, the daughter of a Loyalist, also aroused suspicions. _^<N__^<N_His bitterness, along with a need for money to pay heavy debts, led Arnold to negotiate with the British. He conceived a plan to betray West
Point, a post that he commanded. His attempted treachery was revealed when John ANDRE, a British major, was captured in September 1780 carrying Arnold's message. Arnold escaped to the enemy lines and was commissioned a brigadier general in the
British army. For his property losses, he claimed and was paid about $10,000. He led two British expeditions, one that burned Richmond, Va., and the other against New London, Conn. _^<N__^<N_Arnold went to England in 1781 and turned to trade.
Worn by depression and suffering from a nervous disease, he died in London on June 14, 1801. _^<N__^<N_George Athan Billias _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bakeless, J. Turncoats, Traitors and Heroes (1959); Flexner, James T., The Traitor and the Spy
(1953); Van Doren, Carl, Secret History of the American Revolution (1941; repr. 1973); Wright, Esmond, "Benedict Arnold and The Loyalists," History Today, October 1986. _^<N__^<N_See also: SARATOGA, BATTLES OF.
-END-
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767
CAT
-A-
Arnold, Henry Harley
-T-
Arnold, Henry Harley_^<N__^<N_As commanding general of the U.S. Army Air Forces during World War II, Henry "Hap" Arnold, b. Gladwyne, Pa., June 15, 1886, d. Jan. 15, 1950, built up the world's largest air force. Arnold joined the infant aviation
section of the army in 1911 and organized the air defense of the Panama Canal in World War I. _^<N__^<N_Chief of the Army Air Forces throughout World War II, Arnold was a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff from 1942 and a 5-star general of the
army from 1944. From 1944 to 1946 he was in direct command of the new 20th Air Force, whose B-29s carried out saturation bombing of Japanese cities. In 1949 he was made a 5-star general of the U.S. Air Force (created as a separate unit in 1947).
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Coffey, T. M., Hap (1982).
-END-
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479
CAT
-A-
Arnold, Malcolm
-T-
Arnold, Malcolm_^<N__^<N_Malcolm Henry Arnold, b. Oct. 21, 1921, is an English composer whose music has a direct and melodious style. He studied (1938-40) with Gordon Jacob at the Royal College of Music in London and was trumpeter in the London
Philharmonic Orchestra and the BBC Symphony during the following decade. Arnold's English Dances (1951) for orchestra is frequently performed, and the music he wrote for the film The Bridge on the River Kwai (1957) earned him an Academy Award.
-END-
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3705
CAT
-A-
Arnold, Matthew
-T-
Arnold, Matthew_^<N__^<N_Matthew Arnold, b. Dec. 24, 1822, d. Apr. 15, 1888, was a major Victorian poet, the principal English literary critic of his generation, an important commentator on society and culture, and an effective government
official. His father was Thomas Arnold, the headmaster of Rugby School. After graduation from Oxford, Matthew Arnold went to London as a private secretary to a member of the government. In 1851 he was appointed an inspector of schools. For 35
years he visited teacher-training schools to assure that they met government standards. He also visited schools on the continent, writing several reports in which he urged the benefits of state support and centralized supervision of education.
_^<N__^<N_Arnold began his literary career in 1849 with a volume of poems, The Strayed Reveller and Other Poems. The title poem of his second volume (1852), "Empedocles on Etna," is a long dramatic poem about the suicide of a 5th-century BC Greek
philosopher, who in a changing time no longer believes that his work is making headway against ignorance and confusion. For a time Arnold withdrew this poem because, as he wrote in a preface to his collection Poems (1853), it did not fulfill the
inspirational function of poetry. Yet many of his most characteristic poems, including DOVER BEACH and "The Scholar Gipsy," concern the difficulty of confident knowing and acting in an age when conventional ideas and institutions have lost their
authority. Arnold wrote little poetry after 1860. His themes, however, and the quiet modulation of his verse, some of it in irregular meters and forms, have made the relatively small body of his poetry of major significance for 20th-century
readers. _^<N__^<N_Arnold began to publish literary criticism after his appointment in 1857 as professor of poetry at Oxford. In his lectures On Translating Homer (1861), the two series of Essays in Criticism (1865, 1888), and other essays he
argued that literature could elevate a skeptical and materialistic age. Because it expressed its time, the literature of the present could not rise above it to save it. But the literature of the past was steadier and more grand, and the task of
literary criticism was to make this literature effective in the present. When Arnold turned to social criticism, especially in CULTURE AND ANARCHY (1869), he similarly argued that a knowledge of culture, "the best that has been thought and said,"
would provide standards to resist the errors and corruptions of contemporary life. In St. Paul and Protestantism (1870) and other books and essays, he enlisted religion in his argument by trying to separate belief in a reality higher than our own
from sectarian doctrines so that religion could flourish and lift us out of our ordinary lives and selves. In his poetry Arnold often expressed the sadness of living in an age in which what one loved most was in jeopardy. In his prose he tried to
reestablish the authority of institutions--schools, the state, literature, religion--in which his contemporaries could learn how to know and live up to what was best in human experience and possibility. _^<N__^<N_Donald Gray _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Allott, M., and Super, R. H., eds., Matthew Arnold (1987); Bush, Douglas, Matthew Arnold (1971); Dawson, Carl, ed., Matthew Arnold: The Poetry (1973); DeLaura, David J., ed., Matthew Arnold: A Collection of Critical Essays (1973); Honan,
P., Matthew Arnold (1981); Machann, C., and Burt, F. D., eds., Matthew Arnold in His Time and Ours (1988); Robbins, William, The Ethical Idealism of Matthew Arnold (1959); Stange, G. Robert, Matthew Arnold: The Poet As Humanist (1967);
Trilling, Lionel, Matthew Arnold, 2d ed. (1949; repr. 1979).
-END-
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1176
CAT
-A-
Arnold, Roseanne
-T-
Arnold, Roseanne_^<N__^<N_Roseanne Barr Arnold, b. Salt Lake City, Utah, Nov. 3, 1952, creative consultant and star of the television series "Roseanne," is one of television's most popular performers. She is also said to be one of the best paid,
drawing more than $450,000 per episode. Her character, blue-collar and unglamorous, deals with such issues as families being broke or the implied violence of American home life or, as in the controversial "lesbian kiss" episode in 1994, gay rights.
Both the series and the performer have been nominated for Emmy Awards. Roseanne's laconic delivery of stinging commentary was honed during Arnold's career as a stand-up comedian. Arnold's personal life is often covered in the press, particularly
her battles with her network, ABC, her husband, Tom Arnold, and her parents, whom she has accused of abusing her as a child. Those matters and her bitter experience growing up Jewish in Mormon Salt Lake City are detailed in her autobiographies, My
Life As a Woman (1989) and My Lives (1994). In 1993 Arnold starred in her first TV movie, The Woman Who Loved Elvis, and launched an advice column for the Iowa newspapers she owns with Tom Arnold.
-END-
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1083
CAT
-A-
Arnold, Thomas
-T-
Arnold, Thomas_^<N__^<N_Thomas Arnold, b. June 13, 1795, d. June 12, 1842, was a headmaster of RUGBY SCHOOL whose innovations made it the prototype of the Victorian school for gentlemen. He was a Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford, from 1815 to 1819.
He accepted the headmastership of Rugby and was also ordained a priest in the Church of England in 1828. _^<N__^<N_The basis of education at Rugby was the classics. To these Arnold added mathematics, modern languages, and modern history. He felt,
however, that the formation of character was more important than intellectual achievement. He routed out lying, cheating, and bullying and set a code of conduct based on Christian principles. He introduced a competitive house system and developed
the prefect system, in which older boys were made house monitors, responsible for the younger ones. As headmaster, Arnold is portrayed in Thomas Hughes's novel Tom Brown's Schooldays (1857). _^<N__^<N_Arnold's achievements as a scholar earned him
election to Regius Professor of History at Oxford shortly before his death. His son was the poet and critic Matthew ARNOLD.
-END-
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1274
CAT
-A-
Arnold of Brescia
-T-
Arnold of Brescia_^<N__^<N_{bray'-shah} _^<N__^<N_Arnold of Brescia, c.1100-1155, was an Italian reformer. After studying at Paris, he became an Augustinian monk. Attacking the worldliness of the church, he advocated radical church reforms,
including a life of poverty for the clergy and the abandonment of wealth and temporal power by the church. He also rejected the idea of CONFESSION of sins to a priest. In 1139 the Second Lateran Council condemned these views (see LATERAN, COUNCILS
OF), and Pope Innocent II ordered Arnold exiled and his books burned. _^<N__^<N_Arnold was able to evade imprisonment, and for a short period he taught in Paris until expelled from France by the royal authorities. He traveled in Switzerland and
Bohemia until he achieved a reconciliation with Pope EUGENE III and returned to Italy. Soon after, he became the head of a political group in Rome that set up a republic and forced Eugene into exile (1146). Even after he was excommunicated, Arnold
continued to head the city-state. He remained in Rome until 1155, when Pope ADRIAN IV banished him; within the year he was captured by Frederick I and hanged as a political rebel. _^<N__^<N_David Harry Miller _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Partner, Peter,
The Lands of St. Peter: The Papal State in the Middle Ages and the Early Renaissance (1972).
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1358
CAT
-A-
Arnolfo di Cambio
-T-
Arnolfo di Cambio_^<N__^<N_{ahr-nohl'-foh dee kahm'-bee-oh} _^<N__^<N_The Florentine sculptor and architect Arnolfo di Cambio, 1255-1302, was one of the foremost artists of the GOTHIC period in Italy. Among his major sculptural projects were the
tomb of Cardinal Guillaume de Braye (d. 1282) in San Domenico at Orvieto and the original decoration of the facade of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore (or the Duomo) in Florence (after 1296; surviving fragments in the Cathedral Museum). His
style in these works shows a massiveness of form, a clarity of structure, and a knowledge of both classical and French Gothic art. _^<N__^<N_Arnolfo's giant altar canopies (ciboria, or baldachinos) in San Paolo fuori le Mura (St. Paul's Outside the
Walls, 1285) and Santa Cecilia in Trastevere (1293), both in Rome, imaginatively combine sculpture and architecture. Arnolfo was, in addition, the original architect of the vast Cathedral of Florence (begun 1296), a building of austere grandeur and
imposing solemnity. He may also have designed the Church of the Badia (begun 1284) and Santa Croce (begun 1295), two of the most important Gothic churches in Florence. _^<N__^<N_Mark J. Zucker _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Pope-Hennessy, John, Italian
Gothic Sculpture (1955); Salmi, Mario, "Arnolfo di Cambio," in the Encyclopedia of World Art, vol. 1 (1959); White, John, Art and Architecture in Italy, 1250-1400 (1966).
-END-
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601
CAT
-A-
Arnulf, Frankish emperor
-T-
Arnulf, Frankish emperor_^<N__^<N_Arnulf, b. c. 850, d. Dec. 8, 899, was the last Carolingian to be crowned Frankish emperor. In 887 the magnates of the East Frankish kingdom (Germany) elected Arnulf king in place of his uncle Emperor CHARLES III,
who had failed to halt the VIKING raids. Arnulf defeated the Vikings in 891 but ended Moravian assaults by treaty (894). Invited by Pope Formosus, Arnulf invaded Italy in 894 and returned the next year to capture Rome from the Italian king Lambert
of Spoleto and be crowned emperor (896). The final years of his life were clouded by illness and military defeats.
-END-
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2580
CAT
-A-
aromatic compounds
-T-
aromatic compounds_^<N__^<N_One of the major groups of organic compounds, aromatic compounds contain atoms of carbon linked to form a closed ring. (ALIPHATIC COMPOUNDS, in contrast, have open, chainlike structures.) The compounds were named aromatic
because many of them have a strong odor. In modern chemistry, however, aromaticity means a distinctive type of chemical stability or low reactivity (see RESONANCE). _^<N__^<N_BENZENE is the simplest aromatic compound, and it is sometimes
considered the parent of the group because many aromatic compounds are derived from it. Today, however, many other aromatic compounds are known that are unrelated to benzene but have its distinctive stability. _^<N__^<N_Many aromatic compounds
(like benzene) have a hexagonal structure with six carbon atoms forming a ring. Each carbon atom is joined to one adjacent carbon atom by a single bond and to the other adjacent carbon atom by a double bond. Of the two pairs of electrons involved
in carbon-carbon double bonds, one pair is designated as sigma electrons and the other as pi electrons. (For a more complete explanation, see CARBON.) In an aromatic compound the pi electrons are delocalized--that is, they are not associated only
with the pair of carbon atoms that are doubly bonded but are shared by all the atoms of the aromatic group, forming a cloud of electrons. This electronic configuration is responsible for the stability and low reactivity of the compounds. Any
molecule that shows aromatic properties similar to benzene must have a total of 4n + 2 pi electrons, where n is zero or any positive integer. Most commonly there are six pi electrons, as in benzene. _^<N__^<N_Other atoms or functional groups can
be attached to an aromatic compound without impairing its aromaticity. Two benzene molecules can be joined by a single bond (biphenyl). Such compounds and their derivatives are similar to benzene and its corresponding derivatives. Rings can also
be fused (attached side-to-side) so that the two rings have common carbon atoms (see ANTHRACENE; NAPHTHALENE). Fused rings lose some stability, and thus naphthalene is somewhat more reactive than benzene. _^<N__^<N_HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS, or
those containing rings with one or more atoms other than carbon, may also be aromatic. An example is pyridine, an unpleasant-smelling liquid used in laboratories as a solvent. _^<N__^<N_Elbert H. Hadley _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: McMurray, John,
Organic Chemistry, 2d ed. (1987); Solomons, T. W., Organic Chemistry, 4th ed. (1988); Streitweiser, Andrew, Jr., and Heathcock, C. H., Introduction to Organic Chemistry, 3d ed. (1985).
-END-
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1486
CAT
-A-
Aron, Raymond Claude Ferdinand
-T-
Aron, Raymond Claude Ferdinand_^<N__^<N_{ah-rohn'} _^<N__^<N_Raymond Claude Ferdinand Aron, b. Mar. 14, 1905, d. Oct. 17, 1983, was a French journalist, sociologist, and political scientist known for his pro-American and anti-Communist views. A
graduate of the Ecole Normale Superieure, he taught in Cologne and Berlin during the early 1930s and was strongly influenced by such German thinkers as Martin HEIDEGGER, Edmund HUSSERL, and Max WEBER. After France's defeat in 1940 he went to
London to join the Free French forces of Gen. Charles de Gaulle. He began his journalism career during the war and in 1947 was a regular contributor to the Parisian daily Le Figaro (1947-77) and the weekly news magazine L'express (1977-83).
_^<N__^<N_For many years Aron taught political science and sociology at France's most important universities. At the same time he continued his journalism, lectured, and published. He saw the main issue of the 20th century as the threat of strong
governments to individual freedom. He opposed France's war in Algeria and criticized de Gaulle's policies in the 1960s, especially his insistence that France be independent of U.S. influence. Of his more than 40 books, Aron's most significant
include the Century of Total War (1951; Eng. trans., 1954); Clausewitz, Philosopher of War (1976; Eng. trans., 1985)--in Aron's judgment, his most important book; In Defense of Decadent Europe (1977; Eng. trans., 1979); and Memoirs (1983;
Eng. trans., 1983), his autobiography.
-END-
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1050
CAT
-A-
Aronson, Boris
-T-
Aronson, Boris_^<N__^<N_{air'-uhn-suhn} _^<N__^<N_The Russian-born American theatrical designer Boris Aronson, b. Oct. 15, 1900, d. Nov. 16, 1980, designed sets and costumes for more than 100 plays, ballets, and operas. From the 1960s he was a major
designer of Broadway musicals. _^<N__^<N_Aronson studied art in Russia, where he wrote a book on Marc Chagall. He went to the United States in 1923 and began designing for the Yiddish Art Theater. His semiabstract and symbolic style reflected
Chagall's fantastic and cubistic influences. Productions designed by Aronson included Three Men on a Horse (1935), Awake and Sing (1935), South Pacific (1943), The Rose Tattoo (1951), I Am a Camera (1951), The Crucible (1953), The Diary of Anne
Frank (1955), J.B. (1958), Fiddler on the Roof (1964), Cabaret (1966), Zorba (1968), Company (1970), Follies (1971), and A Little Night Music (1973); Pacific Overtures (1976) and The Nutcracker (1976-77). He has won five TONY AWARDS.
_^<N__^<N_Arnold Aronson _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Rich, Frank, and Aronson, Lisa, The Theatre Art of Boris Aronson (1987).
-END-
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679
CAT
-A-
Aroostook War
-T-
Aroostook War_^<N__^<N_{uh-roos'-tuk} _^<N__^<N_The Aroostook War, 1838-39, was a small border conflict between the inhabitants of Maine and New Brunswick, Canada, over the Aroostook Valley. The Treaty of Paris (1783) ending the American Revolution
was unclear about the border, but no one paid much attention until exploration for proposed railroads and an expanding frontier movement made the valley seem worth fighting for. When New Brunswick began granting land titles and claiming
jurisdiction, the citizens of Maine started the war. The fighting was halted by Gen. Winfield SCOTT in March 1839, and the line of the border was settled by the WEBSTER-ASHBURTON TREATY of 1842. _^<N__^<N_Robert H. Ferrell
-END-
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2896
CAT
-A-
Arp, Jean
-T-
Arp, Jean_^<N__^<N_The French painter, sculptor, and poet Jean Hans Arp, b. Sept. 16, 1887, d. June 7, 1966, is a leading figure in 20th-century avant-garde art. After studying in Weimar, Germany, at the Academy (1905-07), Arp went to Paris,
where he attended the Academie Julian in 1908. In 1909 he met Paul KLEE in Switzerland, and in 1912 he visited Wassily KANDINSKY in Munich. That same year Arp exhibited with the BLAUE REITER (Blue Rider) group, and in 1913 he was in the Erste
Herbstsalon (First Autumn Exhibition) in Berlin with leading EXPRESSIONIST artists. Arp had already published figure sketches related to Klee's work in the magazine Der Sturm. Returning to Paris in 1914, Arp became associated with Guillaume
APOLLINAIRE's circle of artists, including Pablo PICASSO. After exhibiting abstract, rectilinear works in 1915 in Zurich, Arp turned to arrangements of objects according to the laws of chance. _^<N__^<N_In 1916, in Zurich, Arp became a co-founder
of DADA with Hugo Ball, Richard Huelsenbeck, Marcel Janco, and Tristan TZARA. Arp, who had written poetry since his youth, contributed both poetry and illustrations to all the Dada publications. Beginning in 1917, Arp made several series of
abstract WOODCUTS and polychromatic reliefs. In 1918, with his future wife, the artist Sophie Taeuber, he made large collages of geometric cutouts, largely under her influence. In 1919-20, Arp worked with Max ERNST in Cologne on a number of Dada
enterprises. In 1923 he contributed to Kurt SCHWITTERS's review Merz, and in 1925 he published, with El LISSITZKY, a work about all the contemporary art movements called The Isms of Art. _^<N__^<N_Becoming a member of the SURREALIST group, Arp
began a long residency in Meudon near Paris in 1926. He joined (1930) the Cercle et Carre (Circle and Square) group, taking part in its international exhibition, and in 1931 he co-founded the Abstraction-Creation group in Paris. Arp invented
(1930) a new kind of COLLAGE, using pieces of colored paper that were torn rather than cut and then arranged according to chance. The torn pieces were dropped on a sheet of paper, adjusted into configurations, and then attached. Arp called these
works "organic concretions," avoiding the term abstraction because of its implications of discipline. Around 1930 he also began doing sculptures in full round, the compositions of organic shapes in wood for which he is perhaps best known. Arp is
represented in most major collections of contemporary art. _^<N__^<N_Barbara Cavaliere _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Arp, Jean, Arp on Arp, ed. by Marcel Jean (1972), and On My Way, Poetry and Essays (1948); Fauchereau, S. Hans Arp (1988);
Giedion-Welcker, Carola, Jean Arp (1957); Hancock, J., and Poley, S., eds., Hans Arp (1987); Last, Rex, Dadaist Literature (1973) and Hans Arp, The Poet of Dadaism (1969); Read, Sir Herbert E., The Art of Jean Arp (1968); Soby, James T., Arp
(1958).
-END-
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343
CAT
-A-
arpeggio
-T-
arpeggio_^<N__^<N_{ahr-pej'-jee-oh} _^<N__^<N_The notes of a musical chord played one at a time, from lowest to highest, form an arpeggio. An arpeggio may be part of a melody or an accompaniment. Although the device is often associated with the harp
or keyboard instruments, other instruments, principally the strings or woodwinds, also use it. _^<N__^<N_Elwyn A. Wienandt
-END-
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664
CAT
-A-
Arpino, Gerald
-T-
Arpino, Gerald_^<N__^<N_{ahr-pee'-noh} _^<N__^<N_Gerald Arpino, b. Staten Island, N.Y., Jan. 14, 1928, is artistic director of the JOFFREY BALLET and is its resident choreographer. His training is in both modern dance and ballet, and the two
forms sometimes come together in his virtuosic, technically demanding ballets. He is chiefly identified with the Joffrey's youthful, exuberant image, particularly in works like Kettentanz, Trinity, and the all-male Olympics. His dances are often
controversial, both in their content and craftsmanship, and employ music from Vivaldi to rock. _^<N__^<N_Robert J. Pierce _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Clarke, Mary, and Crisp, Clement, Dancer: Men in Dance (1986).
-END-
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1460
CAT
-A-
Arrabal, Fernando
-T-
Arrabal, Fernando_^<N__^<N_{ah-rah-bahl'} _^<N__^<N_The plays of the Spanish dramatist Fernando Arrabal, b. Aug. 11, 1932, belong to the THEATER OF THE ABSURD by way of the Theater of Cruelty. Arrabal's childhood and youth were marred by family
divisions that reflected those of the Spanish Civil War. His father, a Liberal disappeared in Francisco Franco's prisons; his mother, a Franco partisan, was as rigid and repressive at home as was Franco's public rule. Arrabal exiled himself to
France in 1955. His plays are notable for exhibiting extremes of cruelty, obscenity, and blasphemy. They have outraged many and have left others wondering whether his ideas can be adequately conveyed in the confusion and brute noise of his
theater. Yet there are many who see in his work a liberating quality, in the tradition of the theater movement that began with Antonin ARTAUD. Arrabal himself invented the "theater of panic," surreal, ceremonial, and exemplified by his best-known
play, The Architect and the Emperor of Assyria (1967; Eng. trans., 1969). Other successful works include The Automobile Graveyard (1958; Eng. trans., 1960) and And They Put Handcuffs on the Flowers (1967; Eng. trans., 1969), the latter a
protest against political oppression in Spain. Arrabala has written a number of novels, of which the first, Baal Babylon (1959; Eng. trans., 1961), found a large readership. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Esslin, Martin, the Theatre of the Absurd, 3d
ed. (1983).
-END-
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398
CAT
-A-
arraignment
-T-
arraignment_^<N__^<N_{uh-rayn'-ment} _^<N__^<N_Arraignment, in the CRIMINAL JUSTICE system, is the bringing of a prisoner to the bar of the court to answer an indictment made against him or her. The charges are read, and the prisoner is asked
whether he or she is guilty or not guilty. If the plea is not guilty, the case will go to trial. If the plea is guilty, a judgment will be rendered at an appropriate time.
-END-
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547
CAT
-A-
Arras
-T-
Arras_^<N__^<N_Arras (1990 pop., 38,983) is a city in northern France and is the capital of Pas-de-Calais department. Vegetable-oil processing and other diversified light manufacturing takes place here. Of Gallo-Roman origin, Arras became the
capital of ARTOIS. During the Middle Ages, it was an important cultural and commercial center famous for tapestry production. Arras was fought over many times until 1659, when it became a permanent part of France. Much of the city was destroyed
during the French Revolution, and again during both world wars.
-END-
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641
CAT
-A-
Arrau, Claudio
-T-
Arrau, Claudio_^<N__^<N_{ahr-rah'-oo, klow'-dee-oh} _^<N__^<N_Claudio Arrau, b. Chillan, Chile, Feb. 6, 1903, d. June 9, 1991, was a distinguished 20th-century pianist. He first studied the piano in Santiago; his recital debut at the age of
five led to a 10-year Chilean government scholarship to study in Berlin with Martin Krause, one of Franz LISZT's last pupils. Arrau performed throughout the world with leading conductors and orchestras. Regarded as one of the foremost interpreters
of Beethoven and the romantic composers, Arrau produced a considerable catalog of recordings and continued to perform regularly almost until his death. _^<N__^<N_Ella A. Malin
-END-
-C-
1560
CAT
-A-
arrest
-T-
arrest_^<N__^<N_In law, arrest is the taking of a person into custody on suspicion of having committed a crime. An arrest may be obtained by an officer of the law on the basis of a WARRANT, which is granted by a court after evidence has been
presented that the person named has committed the crime. Most arrests, however, are made without warrants in legal circumstances that are considered to be reasonable. A private citizen--as well as an officer of the law--may arrest someone he or
she sees committing a crime. _^<N__^<N_The circumstances of an arrest can determine whether EVIDENCE obtained from the suspect may be admitted in court. In the United States, several important Supreme Court rulings pertain to arrest and
admissibility of evidence. MAPP V. OHIO extended the EXCLUSIONARY RULE concerning evidence to all states. This rule was broadened in ESCOBEDO V. ILLINOIS and MIRANDA V. ARIZONA, the Court holding that evidence obtained from a suspect may be
held invalid if the suspect has not been informed of his or her rights to remain silent and to consult an attorney. _^<N__^<N_Arrests are sometimes made for noncriminal offenses--for example, to prevent a debtor from absconding or a mentally
disturbed person from injuring someone--but usually arrest is the first step in the process of CRIMINAL JUSTICE. _^<N__^<N_Jim L. Munro _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Creamer, J. Shane, The Law of Arrest, 3d ed. (1980); Hill, J.B., and Fletcher-Rogers,
K.E., Arrest: Police Powers and the Rights of the Individual (1988); Lethem, Christopher J., A Practical Guide to Arrest and Detention (1990).
-END-
-C-
871
CAT
-A-
Arrhenius, Svante August
-T-
Arrhenius, Svante August_^<N__^<N_{ahr-ray'-nee-uhs, sfahn'-tu how'-gust} _^<N__^<N_The Swedish physical chemist Svante Arrhenius, b. Feb. 19, 1859, d. Oct. 2, 1927, is best known for his theory of electrolytic dissociation, or ionization. The
theory was initially developed (1884) in his doctoral dissertation at the University of Uppsala, in which he argued that many molecules, such as sodium chloride (NaCl), break apart spontaneously in solution with the freed ions becoming the agents
of ELECTROLYSIS. This was a major discovery. It helped establish the new field of physical chemistry, and Arrhenius received the Nobel Prize for chemistry for it in 1903. _^<N__^<N_Arrhenius is also known for his work Worlds in the Making (1908),
in which he supported the hypothesis that life on Earth and throughout the universe originated from living spores traveling through outer space. _^<N__^<N_John T. Blackmore
-END-
-C-
384
CAT
-A-
Arrian
-T-
Arrian_^<N__^<N_{air'-ee-uhn} _^<N__^<N_A Greek historian, Arrian, or Flavius Arrianus, fl. 2d century AD, was the author of the Anabasis, a valuable life of ALEXANDER THE GREAT based on the writings of Alexander's generals PTOLEMY I and
Aristobulus. He also wrote the Indica, an account of India, and edited the discourses of the philosopher EPICTETUS. Arrian was Roman governor of Cappodocia (131-37).
-END-
-C-
381
CAT
-A-
Arrow, Kenneth Joseph
-T-
Arrow, Kenneth Joseph_^<N__^<N_Kenneth J. Arrow, b. New York City, Aug. 23, 1921, shared the Nobel Prize for economics, with Sir John R. Hicks, in 1972 for his contributions to economic theory. Considered a highly original thinker in mathematical
economics, he developed the "impossibility theorem," which states that a perfect system of democratic choice-making is impossible in principle.
-END-
-C-
1269
CAT
-A-
arrowhead (artifact)
-T-
arrowhead (artifact)_^<N__^<N_An arrowhead is the penetrative tip of a projectile shot by a bow. Arrowheads are similar in shape and function to spearpoints, although generally smaller. The earliest known archaeological evidence for arrowheads
comes from Western Europe, where small, preformed, chipped flint projectile points appear in MOUSTERIAN sites estimated to date from about 40,000 years ago. By 12,000 years ago MAGDALENIAN cultures of Western Europe and Late Stone Age cultures in
Africa were using a series of small flint blades set at an angle in a wooden arrow. The rock paintings of Spain and the Sahara conclusively demonstrate the use of the BOW AND ARROW by 8000 BC. In the New World, arrows did not replace javelin darts
until after about AD 500. _^<N__^<N_Arrowheads have been made of chipped stone, bone, antler tips, fish teeth, stingray spines, bronze, iron, and, more recently, aluminum and plastic. Perhaps the most common and the earliest arrowhead was the
hardened and sharpened head of the arrowshaft itself. The chipped stone arrowheads associated with various preliterate societies occur in numerous varieties. _^<N__^<N_David S. Brose _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Price, R.D., and Brown, J.A., eds.,
Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherers (1988); Wymer, J., The Paleolithic Age (1982).
-END-
-C-
376
CAT
-A-
arrowhead (plant)
-T-
arrowhead (plant)_^<N__^<N_The arrowhead is any plant in the genus Sagittaria of the family Alismataceae. The leaves of some common species are shaped liked arrowheads. Most arrowheads are perennial, stolon-bearing herbs with white flowers and are
found in marshes or in ponds or slow streams. They are widely distributed in temperate and tropical regions of the world. _^<N__^<N_Hugh M. Raup
-END-
-C-
618
CAT
-A-
arrowroot
-T-
arrowroot_^<N__^<N_Arrowroot is an edible starch, the product of the rhizomes, or rootstocks, of several tropical plants. West Indian arrowroot, Maranta arundinacea, family Marantaceae, is a perennial plant that produces genuine arrowroot starch in
large (20-40 cm/9-14 in) rhizomes. These are peeled and grated into water, and the fine-textured starch is extracted. It is used as a thickener in cooking; its blandness and digestibility make it particularly useful for invalid diets. Tous-les-mo
(tulema) arrowroot is made from Canna edulis; Brazilian arrowroot comes from the MANIOC plant, which is also the source of tapioca.
-END-
-C-
781
CAT
-A-
Arrowsmith
-T-
Arrowsmith_^<N__^<N_In the novel Arrowsmith (1925), Sinclair LEWIS employed the biting, detailed satire of American small-town provincialism that had become his trademark in earlier works. Unlike Main Street and Babbitt, however, Arrowsmith suggests
an alternative to the narrowness of this life in the disinterested pursuit of science. Martin Arrowsmith completes his medical training at a school he calls a "Ford Motor factory," but whose product is physicians, and goes on to become a
bacteriologist. In order to function, he must constantly confront the commercialism and complacency of established medicine. In writing the novel, Lewis collaborated with Paul de Kruif, a famous scientist and writer of the day, who verified the
medical information contained in it. _^<N__^<N_Charlotte D. Soloman
-END-
-C-
490
CAT
-A-
arrowworm
-T-
arrowworm_^<N__^<N_Arrowworms are slender, active sea animals with transparent bodies 5 to 140 mm (0.2 to 1.6 in) long. Most dart about, capturing minute marine creatures as prey. They belong to the phylum Chaetognatha, the name of which means
"bristle jaws." It refers to the stiff bristles on two muscular lobes beside the mouth, with which the arrowworm captures and devours its prey. Arrowworms, like many chordates, have a tail posterior to the anus. _^<N__^<N_Lorus J. and Margery Milne
_^<N__^<N_See also: WORMS.
-END-
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984
CAT
-A-
Arruda (family)
-T-
Arruda (family)_^<N__^<N_{ah-roo'-dah} _^<N__^<N_Among the principal architects of the Portuguese Renaissance were members of the Arruda family who, for at least three generations, designed and constructed a number of important secular and religious
structures throughout the country. Joao de Arruda is documented as master of works at the Monastery of Batahla (1485); later, Diogo de Arruda (active 1508-31) and Francisco de Arruda (active 1510-47) created such monuments of the MANUELINE STYLE
as the Tower of Belem near LISBON and the nave and chapter house of Christ Church at Tomar. During the reign of King JOHN II of Portugal, Miguel de Arruda (active 1533; d. 1563) became famous for his work on the palace at Santarem and the
cloister for the Church of Santa Ana, Lisbon. _^<N__^<N_Edward J. Sullivan _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Kubler, George, and Soria, Martin, Art and Architecture in Spain and Portugal and Their American Dominions, 1500-1800 (1959); Smith, Robert C. The
Art of Portugal, 1500-1800 (1968).
-END-
-C-
944
CAT
-A-
Arsacids
-T-
Arsacids_^<N__^<N_{ahr-sas'-idz} _^<N__^<N_The Arsacids were a Parthian dynasty that ruled in Iran from about 238 BC to AD 224. The first ruler was called Arsaces, and all his successors adopted that as their throne name. The principal rulers of
the Arsacid dynasty were Mithradates I (r. c.171-138 BC), who expanded the boundaries of PARTHIA into Mesopotamia, and Mithradates II (r. c.128-87 BC), who established Parthian boundaries to the east in present-day Afghanistan. Under their
successors the dynasty continually fought the Romans, defeating them at Carrhae in 53 BC. Although many times later defeated by the Romans, the Arsacids kept their independence until their final defeat by the SASSANIANS in AD 224. _^<N__^<N_Richard
N. Frye _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Debevoise, Neilson C., A Political History of Parthia (1938; repr. 1968); Yarshater, Ehsan, Cambridge History of Iran: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanid Periods, 2 vols. (1983). _^<N__^<N_See also: PERSIA,
ANCIENT.
-END-
-C-
792
CAT
-A-
arsenate minerals
-T-
arsenate minerals_^<N__^<N_{ahr'-sen-ayt} _^<N__^<N_The arsenate minerals are compounds of arsenic and oxygen that often occur as oxidation products of arsenide ore minerals. For the most part rare, arsenate minerals have been deposited in
low-temperature, near-surface veins and cavities. MIMETITE is a minor ore of lead; the others are of little economic importance, although the brilliantly colored erythrite and annabergite have been useful in identifying ORE DEPOSITS of cobalt and
nickel. The arsenate minerals are transition-metal salts of arsenic acid and thus contain the arsenate group, composed of an arsenic atom at the center of a tetrahedron formed by four oxygen atoms. In crystallography and chemistry, they are similar
to the PHOSPHATE MINERALS and to the vanadate minerals, such as VANADINITE.
-END-
-C-
2599
CAT
-A-
arsenic
-T-
arsenic_^<N__^<N_{ahrs'-nik} _^<N__^<N_Arsenic is a metallic chemical element in Group VA of the periodic table. Its symbol is As, its atomic number 33, and its atomic weight 74.9216. The Earth's crust contains only about 5.5 parts arsenic per
million. Arsenic occurs in numerous minerals, in particular realgar, orpiment, and arsenopyrite. Arsenic and some arsenic compounds have been known for a long time. Aristotle thought that arsenic was a kind of sulfur. In about 1250, Albertus Magnus
became the first to describe a method of manufacturing arsenic. Since then the method has scarcely changed: the mineral arsenopyrite is heated and decomposes with the liberation of arsenic gas. The gas can be condensed on a cold surface.
_^<N__^<N_Arsenic exists in three allotropic modifications: the yellow (alpha); the black (beta); and the metallic, or gray (gamma). Normally arsenic is found in its metallic form, which is the most stable and at normal pressure does not melt but
sublimes at about 615 degrees C. It forms alloys with other metals. The alpha and beta modifications have no metallic properties. Arsenic is fairly reactive. Above 400 degrees C it burns with a bluish flame, forming arsenic trioxide. This compound
is known as white arsenic and is used as a rat poison. _^<N__^<N_Arsenic was used in Aristotle's time to harden copper. Orpiment and realgar have long been used as depilatories in the leather industry. When orpiment is rubbed on silver, it gives
the surface a golden color. Orpiment thus appears to have one of the properties attributed to the philosophers' stone, and it was therefore an important material for alchemists. _^<N__^<N_The toxic quality of arsenic also has been known since
ancient times. In the human body it accumulates in the nails and the hair, where it can be detected--even in the bodies of persons long dead--by the atomic absorption method. The acute symptoms are diarrhea and cramps. In cases of chronic
poisoning, anemia and paralysis may appear. If there is prolonged contact with the skin, malignant skin tumors can develop. BAL (British Anti-Lewisite) was developed as an antidote against the arsenic-containing war gas Lewisite, but it also proved
useful in treating common arsenic poisoning. In medicine, 4-aminobenzene arsenic and 4-hydroxybenzene arsenic compounds are used in certain infections. The best known is Salvarsan, an antisyphilis drug. Commercially, arsenic is added to lead to
harden it and is used in the production of herbicides and pesticides. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Lederer, W. H., and Fensterheim, R. J., eds., Arsenic (1982); Reddy, R. G., et al., eds., Arsenic Metallurgy (1988).
-END-
-C-
677
CAT
-A-
arsenopyrite
-T-
arsenopyrite_^<N__^<N_{ahr-sen-oh-py'-ryt} _^<N__^<N_Arsenopyrite, an iron-arsenic SULFIDE mineral (FeAsS), is the most widespread and abundant ore of arsenic. Small amounts of cobalt replace some of the iron in the crystal structure. Arsenopyrite
forms brittle, metallic, silver-white to steel-gray prisms, columns, or compact masses often associated with native gold, silver minerals, and a variety of other ore minerals. Hardness is 5.5-6, streak dark grayish-black, and specific gravity
6.0-6.2. Arsenopyrite is often the first mineral to form in high-temperature ore veins and in CONTACT METAMORPHIC sulfide deposits. Its twinned MONOCLINIC crystals appear to have ORTHORHOMBIC symmetry.
-END-
-C-
692
CAT
-A-
arson
-T-
arson_^<N__^<N_Arson is the malicious burning of property for some illegal purpose such as destroying evidence, collecting insurance, or injuring someone. In English common law it originally meant the burning of a house, but in modern statute law
the definition has been expanded to include the burning of any property. _^<N__^<N_Most laws recognize several degrees of arson. The first degree includes burning an inhabited dwelling at night. The second degree is burning a building other than
a dwelling at night. The third degree includes burning personal as well as real property for illegal purposes. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Micheels, Peter A., Heat: The Fire Investigators and Their War on Arson and Murder (1991).
-END-
-C-
39053
CATO
4769
9564
14400
19252
24102
28940
33761
38604
-A-
art
-O-
000000|art
000209| ASPECTS OF ART
000609| Art History and Its Methods
002765| The Visual Media
005456| Experiencing the Arts Today
007154| HISTORY OF WESTERN ART
008197| The Ancient World
013461| The Advent of Christianity
017945| The Renaissance
024652| The Baroque Age
029298| The Modern World
-T-
art_^<N__^<N_All cultures throughout history have produced art. The impulse to create, to realize form and order out of mere matter--to recognize order in the world or to generate it oneself--is universal and perpetual. _^<N__^<N_ ASPECTS OF
ART_^<N__^<N_Every work of art has two aspects: it is a present experience as well as a record of the past, and it is valued, preserved, and studied for both identities. As present experience, artworks afford people the pleasures, the tensions,
the dramas, and ultimately the satisfaction to the senses of pure form--in the visual arts the relationships among colors, lines, and masses in space. _^<N__^<N_ Art History and Its Methods_^<N__^<N_The meaning of the word art, derived from the
Latin ars, meaning "skill," has changed through history. In medieval Europe, proficiency in the "liberal arts" was the goal of an educated person; only by the 19th century did the word come to denote painting, drawing, sculpture, graphic arts,
and decorative arts. A distinction then arose between artist and artisan, the latter denoting a skilled manual worker, the former connoting capacity for imaginative invention. Although the arts may be taken today as comprising the musical and
verbal as well as the visual, art or fine arts is usually assumed to mean the visual arts--PAINTING, SCULPTURE, ARCHITECTURE, and, by extension, printmaking, DRAWING, DECORATIVE ARTS, and PHOTOGRAPHY. _^<N__^<N_The concept of a history of art is
relatively recent. In the mid-16th century Giorgio VASARI compiled information about Renaissance artists' lives and works in Lives of the Artists. Modern art history may be thought of as beginning in the mid-18th century with Johann Joachim
WINCKELMANN, who applied a conception of history as cyclical to what remained of the art of ancient Greece and Rome. From the philosopher G. W. F. HEGEL onward, much of the theoretical support of art history was supplied by German historians and
philosophers. Heinrich WOLFFLIN provided, in the early 20th century, a technique for understanding style by comparing two works of different periods and noting their differences; this is still the most widely used heuristic (interpretative)
approach today. _^<N__^<N_Art history, congealing as a distinct discipline in the humanities in the late 19th century, is now largely non-theoretical. Historians examine works and documents about the works in order to place them appropriately in
the present set of recognized groupings. Broadly, the four most general categories for Western art are ancient, medieval, Renaissance, and modern. In the past, the humanistic, classical art of Greece served as a positive standard by which works
were judged. Today, art historians are neutral with regard to different styles--none is superior or inferior; all are worthy of study. _^<N__^<N_ The Visual Media_^<N__^<N_Art has been made for many reasons: for religious devotion, for
commemoration of people and events, for adornment of utilitarian objects, for personal expression. It has also been created on many scales: huge cathedrals, large public murals, small private manuscripts, and, most familiar, easel paintings.
Perhaps the broadest generalization is that the visual arts are spatial rather than temporal. Music and literature must be experienced serially in time; the visual arts must of necessity be experienced in space. _^<N__^<N_In painting, space is an
illusion--an indication of three dimensions in two. This is rendered by conventions understood by the work's audience, and conventions vary in different periods and places. _^<N__^<N_For example, space can be understood by the overlap of shapes
(the shape partly imposed on another is in front); by the location of shapes in relation to one another (the shape higher up is farther away); by the lightening and graying of tones to simulate atmospheric effects in nature; or by a complex
mathematical system by which is determined the size diminution of objects as they increase in distance from the picture plane toward a theoretically infinite vanishing point on the horizon (see PERSPECTIVE). _^<N__^<N_Sculpture can represent three
dimensions in three dimensions and (except in the case of relief sculpture, such as BAS-RELIEF, which partakes of both actual and illusionary depth) is best seen from a moving vantage point. In this way the volumes that make up the work are
continually rediscovered in new and interesting interactions with the surrounding voids. _^<N__^<N_Architecture is also three-dimensional, but with an entirely different effect from that of sculpture. Architecture encloses spaces, and defines and
orders them, to the advantage of various human activities that take place within them. As one moves around and through an architectural environment, spaces appear and disappear, generating reactions by virtue of their scale and structure.
_^<N__^<N_To some degree, the physical materials used by artists influence the properties of the resulting work. A FRESCO PAINTING (pigments applied to a wet plaster wall) will have different visual properties from an oil painting on canvas (see
PAINTING TECHNIQUES), and an oil painting will have different properties from a WATERCOLOR on paper. A sculpture modeled in wax and then cast in bronze (LOST-WAX PROCESS) will differ in effect from one carved directly out of stone or wood (see
WOOD CARVING). The multifarious materials at the disposal of the architect determine both the expressive tenor and structural limitations of a building. In short, great art is in harmony with its medium. _^<N__^<N_ Experiencing the Arts
Today_^<N__^<N_Today the arts are more accessible than ever before. Most metropolitan areas have at least one art museum, and the dissemination of all the visual arts through photographic reproduction has brought the most remote works to a
convenient coffee table. Works known second hand through reproductions, however, are only ghosts of their real selves, and one must then try to construct in one's imagination their true appearance and effect. _^<N__^<N_Since the artwork exists as
a physical artifact with special properties, it has become a rarity in short supply and high demand. In a society that values things in terms of money, the artwork takes on great importance as a precious object. Every day brings news of
astounding auction prices or astounding museum thefts, and original works are often seen only behind plexiglass and in the company of guards. Further, ART CRITICISM and the history of art can often seem an exotic and arcane region of intellectual
sophistication, where lofty decisions about quality and importance are made and passed down to a wider audience. This notion is misleading. The accessibility of art means its cultural and intellectual accessibility as well. Furthermore,
historians are becoming more and more interested in types of art previously ignored because they have been termed "popular"; also, so-called high art is now more and more present in almost everyone's life. A museum should exist to bring art
experience to its public, not to sequester precious objects. The critic's role is to expand in others their capacity for response to a work by making trenchant observation and analysis of it, not by pronouncing judgments from on high. _^<N__^<N_
HISTORY OF WESTERN ART_^<N__^<N_STONEHENGE on the Salisbury Plain in England is the remaining monument of a prehistoric people now otherwise unknown. Built c.2000 BC, the post-and-lintel circles of massive rock testify that--even at the earliest
stages of a civilization--the altering of the earth itself, the defining of space, and the ordering of space in regular sets of relationships are the ways by which people can bring order to their lives and common focus to their society. This
monument's actual intent was functional rather than artistic, like most PREHISTORIC ART. The cave paintings of LASCAUX in France and ALTAMIRA in Spain, or fertility figures such as the VENUS OF WILLENDORF from Austria, far older than Stonehenge,
have in common with it a significance and even necessity in the rituals and beliefs of their makers. For more detailed consideration of prehistoric art--and the art and architecture of non-Western cultures and nations--see individual articles by
country, by style, by type, by artist, and by building or monument. _^<N__^<N_ The Ancient World_^<N__^<N_The advanced social, political, religious, and linguistic structures that constitute Western civilization appeared first in Mesopotamia and
Egypt around the beginning of the third millennium BC. Egypt remained relatively stable as a state for the better part of 3,000 years and was able to generate and maintain a distinctive artistic style in all media. The monumental style of
Egyptian art (see EGYPT, ANCIENT) is most powerful in 4th-dynasty sculpture, such as the seated pharaoh Khafre in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo. The figure seems contained, as if still confined within the block from which it was carved. The style
and its formal properties make sense when seen in light of the beliefs to which the style is responsive. The sculpture was, in effect, a new and immortal dwelling for the spirit of the dead pharaoh, and as such was beyond the world.
_^<N__^<N_Egyptian architecture includes not only the great PYRAMIDS at Giza but also a number of TEMPLES featuring long, low colonnades deployed on a central axis line, as at the temple complexes at KARNAK (c.1570-1085 BC) and LUXOR (c.1570- 1200
BC). The temples were built so that the interior captures one's architectural interest as one proceeds from chamber to chamber, each more protected and secret than the one before. Incorporated in these massive architectural monuments were miles of
wall paintings and relief sculptures. _^<N__^<N_Much less stable than Egypt were the several civilizations of the Tigris and Euphrates valleys, and hence their art is more various. The extensive reliefs that adorned royal palaces like that of
Ashurnasirpal II at NIMRUD (9th century BC) have a firmness and authority of execution and cogent use of conventional stylizations--particularly in the musculature of the animals and men, the profile eyes, and the repeated contour lines of the
horses--that are the hallmarks of a mature style. The imagery of the reliefs--the ruler's prowess as a warrior--reflects the concern with which these often warring states treated arms and power. At the opposite pole from these monuments of public
propaganda were tiny mementos of individual distinction--cylinder seals, usually of semiprecious stone and about 2.5 cm (1 in) long, carved to leave an imprint of a god or mythological figure when rolled in soft clay. _^<N__^<N_Contemporary with
the civilizations of the Fertile Crescent were the AEGEAN CIVILIZATIONS of the Minoans on the island of Crete and the Mycenaeans on the Greek mainland. Relatively little of their art is preserved, but in the fragments of wall paintings and the
bright, lively style of Kamares-ware pottery one can sense the ebullient freedom of design and organic motifs that animate MINOAN ART. The ruins of their palaces, such as those at KNOSSOS and MYCENAE, give evidence of their highly developed
cultures. _^<N__^<N_For many artists and historians of the past, GREEK ART was artistic perfection. No other ancient style lingered on in the Western consciousness to reemerge so frequently or to condition aesthetic perception so pervasively.
After an era of geometric abstraction in pottery and of archaic freestanding sculpture (korai, or female, and kouroi, or male, figures) that partook of the same monumental abstraction as that of Egypt and Mesopotamia, the golden age of Greek art
emerged in the 5th century BC. Of the painting, all that remains are painted vases, many of the highest quality. As in the earlier cultures, architectural monuments and the sculpture that adorned them are the principal surviving achievements.
The Parthenon (447-432 BC) incorporates in its design and sculptural embellishments the epitome of the classical style. _^<N__^<N_Located high on the ACROPOLIS in Athens, this white marble temple dedicated to the goddess Athena is composed of Doric
columns surrounding the interior room, or cella, and supporting the architrave and the east and west pediments, which once held the principal sculptures. All architectural components are brought into perfect balance to achieve the structure's
stately firmness and tranquil grace. The sculptural works of PHIDIAS and his school, now called the ELGIN MARBLES and housed in London's BRITISH MUSEUM, use images of the gods to show the idealized human body in motion and at rest. _^<N__^<N_In
freestanding sculpture, the stylized and monumental archaic style was replaced in the 5th century BC with one reflecting the natural rhythms of the body as it reacts to gravity. The Hermes Holding the Infant Dionysus of PRAXITELES (4th century BC;
Olympia Museum, Greece) is posed in contrapposto, that is, the weight of the body is supported on one leg so that the hips and shoulders slant in opposite directions as a result. The proportions of such figures as this formed a canon that would
remain in use hundreds of years later. _^<N__^<N_ROMAN ART had the same humanistic basis as Greek; in fact, most Greek sculptures are known to us through Roman copies. The realistic portrait sculpture produced by the Romans is important since it
superseded the Greek emphasis on the ideal and general to portray the specific and individual. In architecture, new conceptions and new structural possibilities were developed, as shown in the huge domed PANTHEON (AD c.118-128) in Rome, now used
as a Christian church. _^<N__^<N_ The Advent of Christianity_^<N__^<N_During the first centuries of Christianity, the classical world and its styles atrophied as the Western Roman Empire slipped into decline. EARLY CHRISTIAN ART, oriented toward
intangible spirituality, developed into the stylized abstraction characteristic of BYZANTINE ART, the product of the flourishing BYZANTINE EMPIRE, as the Eastern Roman Empire is known. In the West, Christian art proceeded through a series of
styles splendidly chronicled in the applied arts--the IVORIES, iles, MOSAICS, METALWORK, ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS, and various liturgical implements of the MEROVINGIAN, CAROLINGIAN, and OTTONIAN periods. Christian architecture, and the sculpture
that adorned it, gained prominence in the ROMANESQUE and GOTHIC eras. Large churches such as Saint Sernin (11th century) in Toulouse, France, synthesized elements from the earlier Carolingian and Ottonian periods. Romanesque churches employed
barrel vaults to support the roof, with heavy masonry walls and BUTTRESSES. In plan these 11th- and 12th-century structures resembled a cross because the long NAVE was intersected by TRANSEPTS. Pilgrims could move through the church down side
aisles and through the AMBULATORY around the periphery of the APSE, where the ALTAR and shrine were housed. _^<N__^<N_The elaborate sculptural programs of the churches represented biblical figures and theological ideas. Although most of the
worshipers were probably illiterate, they understood the sculptured scenes well enough. The artists/craftsmen of the Middle Ages charged their relief sculptures with great emotional power, executing them in a style that owes little or nothing to
the classical tradition. In the TYMPANUM relief (early 12th century) over the west entrance to the Cathedral of Saint Lazare in Autun, France, the saved souls are shown approaching heaven on the left, while on the right devils capture souls as
they are torn from their graves at the Last Judgment, a warning to the mortals who pass beneath it into the cathedral. _^<N__^<N_In the later 12th and through the 13th centuries, principally in France, the CATHEDRALS were built that still make the
Gothic style a feature of the urban landscape. The great height of the nave of CHARTRES CATHEDRAL (1194-1220) draws the gaze in and up. The arcade, the TRIFORIUM above it, the CLERESTORY windows, and finally the vaulting proceed from one to the
next with grace and structural logic, just as the nave continues toward the altar with the regularly spaced intervals of the thick clustered PIERS. STAINED GLASS in the great windows diffuses a rich and gentle light throughout the nave. Supported
externally by flying buttresses, the walls seem fragile and delicate in contrast to both classical and Romanesque styles, and the use of the pointed ARCH throughout emphasizes the cathedral's verticality, as do the various architectural adornments.
_^<N__^<N_While at all times compatible with the architecture, the sculpture at Chartres illustrates the variety of sculptural styles that developed in the Gothic era. The west facade displays an orderly array of elongated jamb figures, especially
notable in the central Royal Portal. The statues seem to be squeezed into a tight fit with the adjacent columns, as if the figures were still columns. Yet they are conceived as sculptures in the round rather than in relief and thus reintroduce
large-scale sculpture, virtually absent for a millennium. The feverish energy of the Autun tympanum is replaced in the corresponding relief at Chartres with serene calm, showing Christ giving blessing, surrounded by the symmetrically disposed
symbols of the four Gospels. The portals of the south transept are later (c.1215) and show the relaxed naturalism of High Gothic sculpture. The jamb figures have a greater suggestion of space around them than their columnar predecessors on the
Royal Portal. They are more mobile in space, with axes that hint at a slight S-curve of the body instead of maintaining the strict verticality of the earlier figures. _^<N__^<N_In Italy the Gothic style was never as pervasive as it was in the
nations to the north. Manuscript illumination had been the chief outlet for painting in the north (culminating in the Gothic INTERNATIONAL STYLE at the beginning of the 15th century), but panel and fresco painting dominated in Italy. The
development of painting most clearly traces changes in Italian art, just as developments in architecture and architectural sculpture do in France. _^<N__^<N_ The Renaissance_^<N__^<N_After centuries under the dominance of the abstract Byzantine
style, Italian (more specifically Sienese and Florentine) painters began to create altarpieces in which the figures became less and less stately and psychologically distant. The backgrounds were done in gold leaf, the rest in tempera, and the
frames were elaborate gilded structures patterned on Gothic ornament. Key stylistic features shifted in the time from the late 13th to the early 14th centuries: the illusion of space was strengthened by the use of architectural backgrounds that
imply and divide spatial areas. The receding diagonals of the setting unite and extend the space in the painting. DUCCIO's Maesta (1308-11; Museo dell' Opera del Duomo, Siena), a polyptych (multipaneled altarpiece) commissioned by the Cathedral
of Siena and installed in 1311, shows a point in the transition from the earlier frontal, hieratic style of CIMABUE to the later spatial and volumetric style of GIOTTO--a change that implies a shift in the conception and portrayal of religious
personages from embodiments of abstract spirits to sentient, recognizable human beings. Giotto initiated a great age of fresco painting with his cycles in the Arena Chapel in Padua and the Church of Saint Francis in Assisi, both from the first
third of the 14th century. Since the Francis series is based in part on history (Francis had lived just a century before), the iconographic formulae of the past had to be abandoned in favor of new compositions. _^<N__^<N_A century later, the new
tangibility of painted figures and settings was taken up by MASACCIO and other Florentines as the RENAISSANCE gathered momentum. Filippo BRUNELLESCHI's PAZZI CHAPEL (c.1430-33), an elegant addition to the church of Santa Croce (Holy Cross) in
Florence, is of simple and sober design, especially when weighed against the dramatic energy and awesome scale of the adjoining Gothic church. The chapel is laid out in multiples of a basic square module. The arches are round and the chapel
domed, intentionally recalling Roman architecture. _^<N__^<N_The development of naturalism and individualism in the Renaissance is easily recognized in Florentine sculpture. As early as 1401, Lorenzo GHIBERTI adapted antique Roman figural
naturalism in his bronze reliefs for the Florence BAPTISTERY doors. Large-scale bronze casting came back into practice with DONATELLO's equestrian Gattamelata (1445-50) in Padua. The horse and rider, although patterned on the 2d-century bronze
statue of Marcus Aurelius in Rome, is strongly individual. The Renaissance esteem for strength of character and personal presence is quintessentially expressed in Andrea del VERROCCHIO's Colleoni Monument (1483-88) in Venice. The robust horse and
rider exude the physical firmness that is at once seen as fortitude of will. The strong interests in anatomical correctness of structure and motion and in authority of execution reached their apogee in the work of MICHELANGELO in the next
century--in sculpture, such as his DAVID (1501-04; Academia, Florence), in painting, such as his ceiling of the SISTINE CHAPEL (1508-1512; Vatican, Rome,) and in architecture, such as the Farnese Palace (1546). _^<N__^<N_Italian painters shared
the sculptors' concern for figural naturalism. As interest in the observable world increased, it was accompanied by the perfection of a regular system of spatial structure, or perspective, a primary concern of painters throughout the 15th century.
Duccio's compressed and approximate space becomes, through Leon Battista ALBERTI's mathematical research and the experiments of such painters as Paolo UCCELLO and PIERO DELLA FRANCESCA, the orderly and precise space of PERUGINO's Delivery of the
Keys to St. Peter (1482), a wall fresco in the Sistine Chapel. _^<N__^<N_Toward the end of the 15th century, the increasing availability of important papal commissions in Rome caused the Renaissance center of gravity to shift there from northern
Italy. RAPHAEL and Michelangelo, along with LEONARDO DA VINCI, were the outstanding figures of the High Renaissance. More and more, the personality of the artist, his uniqueness, and his artistic sensibility became an important factor to those
who sought works of art as well as those who made them. In the artist's workshop (bottega), manned by assistants and apprentices, the distinction between the master's hand and that of his underlings became more noteworthy. Before this, the
creation of an artwork had been marked by relative anonymity and cooperation, the work being conceived as the product of group skills rather than the product of individual judgment. _^<N__^<N_The linear quality of Renaissance painting, the clarity
by which every detail is perfected to the same degree and discloses itself to the viewer to the same extent, was supplanted in the 16th century by a style featuring CHIAROSCURO--soft, mellow light, deep shadows, and greater awareness of the texture
and handling of the paint itself. Color took on new prominence--subtle oil glazes enrich the color and hence the mood; earlier fresco and tempera works sometimes seem chalky, harsh, and arid by comparison. Lighting, once even and unobtrusive,
became more selective and emphatic. The Venetian painter TITIAN combined intense hues with vivid action in his Bacchus and Ariadne (1522; National Gallery, London). Well illustrated in this canvas is the continuing Renaissance interest in
anatomy, while the pagan theme testifies to the new options that competed with Christian subjects. _^<N__^<N_In the essentially Gothic north of Europe, the impact of the Renaissance is best seen in the work of Albrecht DURER, the preeminent figure
outside of Italy. A tradition of superb craftsmanship and dazzling realism had been established a century before by the Flemish artist Jan van EYCK, particularly in the resplendent polyptych Adoration of the Holy Lamb (1432; St. Bavon, Ghent),
and even before that with a succession of unsurpassed manuscript illuminators, such as the LIMBOURG BROTHERS of the Burgundian court, working up to the second decade of the 15th century. During that century the development and large-scale use of
WOODCUTS AND ENGRAVINGS also occurred; these printing techniques increased the accessibility of art with their ease in distribution, thanks to their modest cost, small scale, and innate reproducibility. Durer's engraving Knight, Death, and the
Devil (1513), an allegory with starting imagery, shows the high point of verisimilitude and tonal richness to which Durer elevated the GRAPHIC ARTS. Even more than before, GENRE, LANDSCAPE, and STILL-LIFE PAINTING grew toward independence as
categories and emerged, fully individual, in the 17th century. _^<N__^<N_ The Baroque Age_^<N__^<N_In the 17th century, the BAROQUE age, the styles of the arts were at their most diverse. Large-scale mural and ceiling paintings with dizzying
trompe l'oeil ("eye-fooling") ILLUSIONISM glorified Roman Catholicism in Italy; by contrast, diminutive still lifes recorded the austere tenor of Protestantism in The Netherlands. The Flemish master Peter Paul RUBENS, a diplomat as well as an
artist, filled acres of canvas with his vigorous, splendidly colored scenes, typified by the 21 huge paintings (1622-25; Louvre, Paris) allegorizing the life of Marie de Medicis. Nicolas POUSSIN pursued his own stately classical style that kept
Renaissance values alive in Paris and Rome, evidenced by his large Triumph of Neptune and Amphitrite (c.1636; Philadelphia Museum of Art). _^<N__^<N_Set against the grand and highly public baroque style are such subtle, intimate, and personally
revealing works as REMBRANDT's tiny drawing of a child guided in his first steps (1660-62; British Museum, London). Sketches, once regarded as the unimportant preparatory debris of larger finished works, emerged in the 17th century as expressive
and uninhibiting outlets for the artist. _^<N__^<N_The personal element is present, too, in such royal commissions as Diego VELAZQUEZ's Las Meninas (The Maids of Honor; 1656, Prado Museum, Madrid), where the artist depicts himself at work in the
Spanish king's household. The king and queen, seen reflected in the mirror on the back wall, force an awareness in the viewer of the world beyond the painting as well as the world within it. _^<N__^<N_Baroque architecture retained antique forms
but modified their syntax or architectural language, developing new combinations that resulted in strikingly dramatic buildings, often on a large scale, impelled by Michelangelo's and Andrea PALLADIO's 16th-century redirection and elaboration of
Renaissance classicism. SAINT PETER'S BASILICA in Rome was so vast a project that several architects were responsible for its progress in the 16th and 17th centuries. Giovanni Lorenzo BERNINI finished the work in the mid-17th century by adding
the gigantic colonnade embracing the vast piazza, bringing order to the urban environment by sculpturing the space in front of the church. _^<N__^<N_Sculpture, too, took a turn toward the dramatic, as the intense, even theatrical The Ecstasy of St.
Teresa (1645-52; Cornaro Chapel, Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome) well illustrates. In this complex work, Bernini combines the force of the sculpture with that of the architecture around it, even controlling the light, which comes from above as
if to make into real light the gilded wood rays Bernini added. Combined with the illusionistic painting above, the whole ensemble exemplifies the baroque desire to maximize illusionistic effects and to integrate the arts. _^<N__^<N_The ROCOCO
STYLE, the joyous child of the baroque, had different tones and emphases in different countries, especially in Germany and Austria, but was initially and most prominently French. In painting, the bombastic heaviness of court styles was softened
and lightened in the painterly tradition of Rubens. Pastel pinks, blues, and greens were used to depict such images of pleasure as Antoine WATTEAU's Embarkation for the Island of Cythera (1717; Louvre, Paris) and Jean Honore FRAGONARD's series
The Progress of Love (1771-73 Frick Collection, New York). In England, the 18th century was a rich one for a land where the verbal arts had long predominated over the visual. William HOGARTH invented a new genre with his moralizing paintings
organized in series and commenting on contemporary values, such as in the eight paintings depicting The Rake's Progress (1735; Soane Museum, London). Sir Joshua REYNOLDS, the first president of the Royal Academy (founded in 1768), developed
academic painting, drawing on its French incarnation and on Sir Anthony van DYCK's style, both from the previous century. Thomas GAINSBOROUGH produced elegant portraits, frequently with a rococo flavor to the handling. His Robert Andrews and Wife
(1748-50; The National Gallery, London) combines portraiture with Dutch-inspired landscape painting, showing the gentleman farmer and his wife comfortably at home. _^<N__^<N_Rococo architecture radiates from Paris, where its curvilinear decoration
was most fully developed by such artists as Jules HARDOUIN MANSART, Robert de COTTE, and Germain BOFFRAND. In southern Germany it was sumptuously expressed in the palaces and churches of Francois CUVILLIES and Balthasar NEUMANN. Rococo
decoration--light in color, exuberant in mood, effortless in structure--was usually divorced from architectural function. _^<N__^<N_ The Modern World_^<N__^<N_By the end of the 18th century, there were crosscurrents of different fundamental
orientations to the possibilities provided by previous generations. Antonio CANOVA's sculpture, Pauline Borghese as Venus (1808; Borghese Gallery, Rome), epitomizes the tranquil repose of the neoclassical outlook. The marble seems to give up its
own material nature as stone and assume that of the opulent flesh it represents. Outside Italy, NEOCLASSICISM gathered even greater strength, as in Jacques Louis DAVID's large neoclassical paintings such as his Oath of the Horatii (1784; Louvre,
Paris), in the 1780s and '90s--archaeologically exact in detail (ancient POMPEII was rediscovered in 1748) but contemporary in its implicit political message in revolutionary France. _^<N__^<N_The romantic impulse emerged with those artists usually
thought of as intense and often solitary personalities. It appeared at much the same time with William BLAKE and Henry FUSELI in England, Caspar David FRIEDRICH and Philipp Otto RUNGE in Germany, and Eugene DELACROIX and Theodore GERICAULT in
France. Thus, the term ROMANTICISM, as a name for a style, really describes a shared sensibility in the context of different national traditions, whereas the term baroque encompasses many divergent attitudes in one historical style. _^<N__^<N_The
Spaniard Francisco de GOYA's Third of May, 1808 (c.1814; Prado Museum, Madrid) embodies key features of the romantic outlook--the paint application reveals the personal, energetic brushstroke of the artist; contrasting masses of light and dark
give a spotlit effect to maximize the drama; the action of the scene is at its frantic peak; the subject--the systematic murder of civilians--stirs our sympathy at the same time that it excites our morbid curiosity. _^<N__^<N_The United States
had produced artists, such as John Singleton COPLEY and Benjamin WEST, who gravitated toward the capitals of Europe, but early in the 19th century an indigenous group of landscapists, named the HUDSON RIVER SCHOOL, emerged under the leadership of
Thomas COLE. Frederic Edwin CHURCH's Niagara Falls (1857; Corcoran Gallery, Washington, D.C.), typical of this school, shows the sublime magnitude and power of nature in an untamed, primeval land. _^<N__^<N_The profusion and diversity of styles
in the 19th century is reflected in its architecture. The austerity of neoclassicism followed on the heels of rococo indulgence and spread rapidly from France to England and then to the United States, exemplified by buildings such as Thomas
Jefferson's MONTICELLO in Charlottesville, Va. Revivalism caused a recapitulation of recent, older, and exotic styles, including the GOTHIC REVIVAL, as seen in Sir Charles BARRY's and Augustus PUGIN's Houses of Parliament in London (begun 1836),
which found wide favor for the first time since it was eclipsed by the Renaissance. _^<N__^<N_The 19th century was characterized by stylistic upheavals for another reason--the Industrial Revolution and modern technology had begun to change the way
structures could be built and hence changed how they looked. Sir Joseph PAXTON's CRYSTAL PALACE (1851; destroyed 1936) utilized the tensile strength of iron to free the walls from the function of support and thus allowed enormous areas of glass
(see CAST-IRON ARCHITECTURE). In the modern world, regularity, uniformity, order, and a frequent respect for the structural properties of materials has created economical, functional buildings. This is true of Walter GROPIUS's BAUHAUS buildings
at Dessau (1925-26) as well as of Ludwig MIES VAN DER ROHE's Lake Shore Drive apartments (1948-51) in Chicago, which achieve a reposeful monumentality and feature a predominantly glass curtain wall with understated vertical shafts.
_^<N__^<N_Academic sculpture, reiterating classical works by rote, was shaken up in the late 19th century by the powerful presence of Auguste RODIN, who invested bronze sculpture in particular with new energy and new freedom in handling. Balzac
(1892-97; Museum of Modern Art, New York) is a virtual column of upward force, a singular mass, with facial features deeply cut and intensely expressive. With the 20th century, direct carving of stone regained its popularity, and modeling in clay
for bronze casting declined. The new aesthetic brought with it geometric abstraction and resulted in sculpture with the grace and refinement of Constantin BRANCUSI's yellow marble Bird in Space (1919; Philadelphia Museum of Art), in which the
subject is pared down to its formal essence. The third way of making sculpture--assembling different materials and constructing it--was explored by Aleksandr ARCHIPENKO, Naum GABO, and many others, who brought new materials into the sculptor's
vocabulary--glass, plastic, sheet metal, and the like. The metal constructions of David SMITH followed in that modernist tradition. _^<N__^<N_The late 19th century was also characterized by the rise of the avant-garde in the arts and by the birth
of the "isms" that named the principal trends. Claude MONET's Water Lilies (1899; Louvre, Paris) shows his and the other impressionists' concern with light--the way it can change from hour to hour or day to day, the idea that material things are
known to us only by light in its infinite permutations and hence may seem no more substantial than the atmosphere around them. The artists who matured after the first wave of IMPRESSIONISM altered its rationale. Georges SEURAT attempted to
measure scientifically the effects of light, Paul GAUGUIN and Vincent VAN GOGH explored the mysteries of the self, and Paul CEZANNE created a painted structure echoing the structure of the visible world. All four are now considered leaders of POST
IMPRESSIONISM. _^<N__^<N_In the first decade of this century abstraction, oriented toward problems of composition or pictorial structure, was the preeminent artistic movement, originating, as had most of the important developments of the previous
century, in Paris. CUBISM had by far the greatest impact. Pablo PICASSO's Demoiselles d'Avignon (1906-07; Museum of Modern Art, New York) creates a new logic of structure for the figures--one that does not depend on their relative appearance from
any one point. The rebuilding of the figures also allows new boldness in composition, now that color and shape are freed from functioning purely for description. Also evident is Picasso's interest in AFRICAN ART, in particular carved masks and
wood sculptures, reflected in the grotesque faces of the women. _^<N__^<N_Composition with Red, Blue, and Yellow (1930; Collection of Mr. and Mrs. Armand P. Batos, New York) by Piet MONDRIAN, one of the founders of the neoplastic DE STIJL group
and also working in Paris, gives up representation entirely for an ABSTRACT ART dependent on pure relationships of forms and primary colors. In FAUVISM and EXPRESSIONISM artists sought to utilize the medium for subjective expression and evidence
of personal involvement, while Mondrian and other artists created works that eschewed such features for those of reflective tranquility and formal precision. In a sense, the painting of this century may be understood as progressive
self-examination and reduction, in quest of the deepest innate character of the medium. Alternatively, it may be seen as a response to the new, industrial, fast-paced, insecure world, or as the revelation of intuitions no longer suppressed by
convention, as in SURREALISM, in which the inner world becomes the real world. _^<N__^<N_American artists began their own experiments in what came to be called MODERN ART a few years after such work appeared in Europe, sparked by New York's famous
ARMORY SHOW of 1913. This culminated with the emergence of New York as the artistic world capital, supplanting Paris, with the development of ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM after World War II. Willem DE KOONING, Franz KLINE, Robert MOTHERWELL, Jackson
POLLOCK, Mark ROTHKO, and Clyfford STILL were among the pioneers of this dynamic movement. _^<N__^<N_Today, the distinction between media is being blurred; sculpture seems an outmoded term for assembled pieces, and painting no longer applies if
only a document is left, the artwork having become an act rather than an artifact. With such vanguard movements as CONCEPTUAL ART and, certainly, EARTHWORKS, the work transcends gallery walls. These and additional recent trends, including
PERFORMANCE ART and VIDEO ART, not only further the distinction between media but also extend the traditional definitions of art. _^<N__^<N_Roger Baldwin and Mark Roskill _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Encyclopedia of World Art, 16 vols., McGraw-Hill
(1959-83); Fleming, John, et al., The Penguin Dictionary of Architecture, 2d ed. (1972); Gombrich, Ernst, The Story of Art, 14th ed. (1985); Hartt, Frederick, Art: A History of Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, 2d. ed., (1985); Janson, H.
W., History of Art, 3d ed. (1986); Kleinbauer, W. Eugene, Modern Perspectives in Western Art History (1971); Kubler, George, The Shape of Time (1962); Murray, Peter and Linda, A Dictionary of Art and Artists, rev. ed. (1984); Myers, Bernard
S., ed., McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Art (1969); Nervi, Pier Luigi, gen. ed., History of World Architecture (multivolume series); Pevsner, Nikolaus, An Outline of European Architecture (1963), and, as gen. ed., Pelican History of Art (multivolume
series); Roskill, Mark, What Is Art History? (1976); Spencer, Harold, The Image Maker: Man and His Art (1975), and as ed., Readings in Art History, 2 vols., 3d ed. (1982); Steiner, George, Real Presences (1989); World of Art, Oxford
(multivolume series). _^<N__^<N_See also: BRONZES; ENAMEL; FURNITURE; GLASSWARE, DECORATIVE; GOLD AND SILVER WORK; HOUSE (in Western architecture); INTERIOR DESIGN; JEWELRY; MUSEUMS, ART; SCULPTURE TECHNIQUES.
-END-
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958
CAT
-A-
art brut
-T-
art brut_^<N__^<N_{ahr broot} _^<N__^<N_Art brut, a style of rough, spontaneous, or uncultured art, was so named in 1947 by the French artist Jean DUBUFFET, who applied it to the kind of art that, he believed, arises from the subconscious mind, and
that he saw best exemplified in the art of psychotics, children, and unsophisticated people. Dubuffet deliberately set out to emulate in his own painting and sculpture the qualities of spontaneity, roughness of execution, and disregard for cultural
conventions that he found in art brut. To this end he used nontraditional materials such as mud in his paintings. Since 1947 artists in Europe and America, including CHRISTO and Claes OLDENBURG, have followed Dubuffet's lead in the use of
unconventional materials and forms. _^<N__^<N_Marian Burleigh-Motley _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Feigen, Richard L., ed., Dubuffet and the Anticulture (1969); Glimcher, M., and Dubuffet, J., Jean Dubuffet (1987); Selz, Peter, The Work of Jean
Dubuffet (1962).
-END-
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8960
CATO
4837
-A-
art collectors and patrons
-O-
000000|art collectors and patrons
000457| Renaissance Patronage--Church and Aristocracy
003901| National Patronage--Academies and the Middle Class
005293| Contemporary Patronage--Museums and Millionaires
007051| New Trends in Patronage--Government and Corporate
-T-
art collectors and patrons_^<N__^<N_Humanists of the Italian Renaissance often advocated support of art and artists. Their most frequently cited precedent was Gaius MAECENAS, a Roman statesman of the 1st century BC, who was the patron of the poets
HORACE and VERGIL. In the Middle Ages, artists of all sorts were usually relegated to anonymity as artisans. Most of them worked for the church, which did not so much patronize and collect art as requisition it for the furtherance of religion.
_^<N__^<N_ Renaissance Patronage--Church and Aristocracy_^<N__^<N_Patrons in the modern sense appeared when artists began to gain renown for their individual accomplishments. In 1334, the commune of Florence commissioned GIOTTO DI BONDONE to
oversee the construction of a CAMPANILE (bell tower) and to decorate the BARGELLO with frescoes. The city government's decree cited Giotto's personal reputation as a reason for awarding him these projects. By the 15th century, individuals had begun
to serve as patrons, for example, the Florentine merchant Giovanni Rucellai (1403-81), who supported the artists Paolo UCCELLO and DOMENICO VENEZIANO. _^<N__^<N_The leading 15th-century Florentine patron was Cosimo de' Medici (see MEDICI family),
who furthered the revival of classical learning at the same time that he gave support to contemporary artists--among them the painters Fra ANGELICO and Fra Filippo LIPPI, the sculptors Luca DELLA ROBBIA, DONATELLO, and Lorenzo GHIBERTI, and the
architect Fillippo BRUNELLESCHI. Cosimo's grandson, Lorenzo the Magnificent, carried on the Medici tradition until his death in 1492, whereupon the center of patronage shifted from Florence to Rome. In particular, Pope JULIUS II was adept at
employing artists on projects that both advanced the cause of religion and helped the church compete with the growing power of secular government and the mercantile classes. Julius is best known as the patron of MICHELANGELO, who executed the great
SISTINE CHAPEL frescoes for him; in addition, Julius awarded major commissions to RAPHAEL and to the architect Donato BRAMANTE. _^<N__^<N_In 1516, FRANCIS I of France made LEONARDO DA VINCI a member of his court at Amboise. MAXIMILIAN I, Holy Roman
emperor from 1493 to 1519, supported the careers of Albrecht DURER and other northern European painters. Later in the 16th century, Hans HOLBEIN THE YOUNGER and Pietro TORRIGIANO found places at the court of HENRY VIII of England. In 1560 Elector
Augustus of Saxony (1526-86) began assembling his Dresden Kunstkammer, a collection that became the nucleus of the famed DRESDEN STATE ART COLLECTION. _^<N__^<N_During the first decades of the 17th century, however, the church's earlier generosity
toward artists was renewed. In 1623, with the beginning of URBAN VIII's pontificate, Rome became once again the center of art patronage for all of Europe. Princes of the church vied with secular princes and wealthy merchants in their support of
painters, sculptors, and architects. Giovanni Lorenzo BERNINI, CARAVAGGIO, Annibale CARRACCI, Pietro da CORTONA, DOMENICHINO, Claude LORRAIN, Nicolas POUSSIN, Guido RENI, Peter Paul RUBENS, and Diego VELAZQUEZ were among the beneficiaries of this
competition. _^<N__^<N_Throughout Europe, courts and urban centers employed artists to provide prestige and aesthetic pleasure. Some of the most active patrons and collectors from northern Europe were diplomats. Among the latter are Sir Dudley
Carleton (1573-1632), CHARLES I's ambassador to The Hague, who was a major collector of Rubens's paintings. In the first half of the 18th century, an English merchant, Joseph Smith (1682-1770), became active in the Venetian trade and settled in
that city. By 1744, when he was made British consul at Venice, Smith had become the leading art patron and collector of his day. Also a publisher of lavishly illustrated books, Smith centered his collection on such Venetian painters as CANALETTO,
Giovanni Battista TIEPOLO, and Francesco ZUCCARELLI. _^<N__^<N_ National Patronage--Academies and the Middle Class_^<N__^<N_The founding of the Royal Academy in 1769 in London signaled the beginning of a period in which the fine arts were defined
as separate disciplines governed by their own standards and rules. As academic authorities formulated those rules, they became the conduits for the patronage of national governments. The steadily rising middle classes, guided for the most part by
the national ACADEMIES OF ART, began to dominate collecting and patronage. An important countercurrent to this development had its origins in ROMANTICISM's extreme interpretation of the 18th-century premise that the fine arts are independent
disciplines. By 1874, the year of the first major IMPRESSIONIST exhibition in Paris, this attitude had produced the avant-garde, which addressed itself only to the most adventurous audiences of the period. With most patronage, both governmental and
private, supporting only art officially approved by the academies, avant-garde artists often spent their early careers without benefit of any patrons. Early collectors of the impressionists and the POSTIMPRESSIONISTS were often sophisticated
Parisian dealers such as Ambroise VOLLARD, Paul Durand-Ruel (1828-1922), and Georges Petit. One of the most important collections of this period was assembled by a wealthy colleague of the impressionists, the painter Gustave CAILLEBOTTE. _^<N__^<N_
Contemporary Patronage--Museums and Millionaires_^<N__^<N_By the early years of this century, the avant-garde had attracted a substantial number of supporters. Many of them migrated to Paris, although important early collections of contemporary
art were formed in the United States by Gertrude Vanderbilt WHITNEY, John Quinn (1870-1924), Walter Arensberg (1878-1954), and others. At the time of their founding, New York's MUSEUM OF MODERN ART (1929) and WHITNEY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ART (1931)
were attempts to provide the avant-garde with the kind of backing that was still being made available to conservative art by the METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART and other long-established institutions. In 1937 the GUGGENHEIM MUSEUM joined the Modern
and the Whitney. By the end of the 1950s, these museums, working in concert with such collectors as Peggy GUGGENHEIM, Philip JOHNSON, and Nelson ROCKEFELLER, had insured the dominance of the avant-garde in the postwar era. Similar shifts occurred
in Europe; by the 1960s experimental art occupied a primary place. _^<N__^<N_In the 1970s three art patrons emerged as dominant in the United States. The oil magnate J. Paul GETTY left the bulk of his immense estate to the GETTY MUSEUM in
Malibu, Calif., making it by far the wealthiest museum in the world. The philanthropist Paul MELLON added the $100-million East Wing to Washington's NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART. The industrialist Joseph H. Hirshhorn (1899-1981) donated all of his
huge art collection to the nation. It is housed in the HIRSHHORN MUSEUM AND SCULPTURE GARDEN in Washington, D.C. During the 1980s other extensive private art collections were opened to the public, including the outstanding 20th-century art
collection of Dominique de Menil, housed in Houston, Tex. _^<N__^<N_ New Trends in Patronage--Government and CorporatePatronage of museums and private collectors has been supplemented in recent years by extensive programs of governmental grants.
Precedent for this was set in the WORKS PROGRESS ADMINISTRATION of the 1930s in which the federal government employed artists, awarding them monthly stipends. A further source of patronage has recently appeared--corporations wishing to present a
favorable image to the general public. Corporate patrons either provide grants of money to museums and other arts organizations or support artists directly through the formation of corporate collections. _^<N__^<N_Carter Ratcliff
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Alsop, Joseph, The Rare Art Traditions (1982); Constable, W. G., Art Collecting in the United States (1964); Cooper, Douglas, Great Family Collections (1965) and Great Private Collections (1963); Cummings, M. C., and
Katz, R., The Patron State (1987); Davis, John N., The Guggenheims: An American Epic (1978); Friedman, B. H., Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney: A Biography (1978); Haskell, Francis, Patrons and Painters: A Study in the Relations between Italian
Art and Society in the Age of the Baroque (1963) and Past and Present in Art and Taste (1987) and Rediscoveries in Art (1980); Hauser, Arnold, A Social History of Art, 2 vols. (1962); Hess, Thomas B., and Ashbery, John, eds., Academic Art (1971);
Lynes, Russell, The Grand Old Modern (1972); Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Splendor of Dresden (1978); Miller, Lillian B., Patrons and Patriotism: Fine Arts in the United States, 1790-1860 (1966); Netzer, Dick, The Subsidized Muse: Public
Support for the Arts in the United States (1978); Saarinen, Aline B., The Proud Possessors: American Art Collectors (1958); Schlotterback, T., Five Thousand Years of Art (1976); Tomkins, Calvin, Merchants and Masterpieces: Metropolitan Museum
of Art (1970).
-END-
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10793
CATO
4808
9617
-A-
art conservation and restoration
-O-
000000|art conservation and restoration
001249| History
004538| Examination, Analysis, and Treatment
008853| Environment and Conservation
-T-
art conservation and restoration_^<N__^<N_Art conservation and restoration involve the examination, analysis, and treatment of artworks and artifacts by conservators, as these highly trained specialists are called. Art conservators are also
concerned with the storage, shipment, and exhibition of artworks and with control of the environment in which the objects are kept. If an artwork is damaged--by physical deterioration, accident, or vandalism--the conservator must attempt to repair
the object and, if possible, restore it to its original appearance, or at least to a state in which it can be exhibited. _^<N__^<N_Artworks are cared for and treated according to the nature of their materials. These fall into three broad
categories: organic materials (animal skin, papyrus, paper, textiles, wood, bone, ivory, and most paints); metals (gold, silver, copper, lead, iron, steel, bronze, and brass); and siliceous and related materials (stone, ceramics, and glass).
Since a great many artworks--such as sculpture, armor, illuminated manuscripts, icons, reliquaries, tapestries, furniture, collages, assemblages, and almost all decorative objects--combine elements from these categories, the conservator's task
becomes extremely complicated, requiring scientific as well as cultural training. _^<N__^<N_ History_^<N__^<N_Use of the term art conservation appears to date from an international conference on the conservation of paintings held in Rome in 1930,
but artists have been employed to restore works of art since ancient times. Such famous artists as PAUSANIAS, LORENZO DI CREDI, Giorgio VASARI, and Peter Paul RUBENS have been associated with art conservation; generally however, this kind of work
appears to have been relegated to unrecorded artists. In 1543 an official cleaner was appointed to care for the ceiling and wall frescoes of the SISTINE CHAPEL in the Vatican. The first recorded transfer of paint from one canvas to another was
performed in 1729 by the artist Domenico Michelini in Rome. Lining a canvas support with an additional canvas became standard procedure in the 18th and 19th centuries and is still practiced. _^<N__^<N_The scientific method began to influence
restoration procedures in the 18th and 19th centuries; at about the same time, artists and patrons began to question the carefully guarded restoration secrets and conservation recipes of self-taught amateurs. In 1809, the French chemist Jean
Antoine CHAPTAL analyzed colors found at POMPEII, and in 1815 the British physicist Sir Humphry DAVY analyzed other pigments used in ancient times. The first cleaning of pictures at the National Gallery in London began in 1846. A government
commission was set up (1850) to investigate the condition of the paintings; one of its members, the eminent scientist Michael FARADAY, made deterioration studies, including a study of the deleterious effects of train smoke and illuminating gas on
paintings. The first museum laboratory for treating and restoring art and antiquities was established in 1888 at the Staatliche Museen, Berlin. In 1896, only a year after Wilhelm Konrad ROENTGEN discovered the X RAY, radiography was used to
detect alterations in an oil painting. The British Museum laboratory was set up in 1919, and the first scientific museum laboratory in America began operation in the Fogg Art Museum at Harvard University nine years later. _^<N__^<N_The
International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (IIC) was established in 1950 to "provide a permanent organization to coordinate and improve the knowledge, methods and working standards needed to protect and preserve and to
maintain the condition and the integrity of any objects or structures which because of their history, significance, rarity or workmanship have a commonly accepted value and importance . . . ." The American Group of the IIC held its first regular
meeting in 1960, and in 1972 became the American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (AIC). _^<N__^<N_Apprenticeship was the only means of entering the profession until 1960, when the first American graduate training program
in fine art conservation was established at the Institute of Fine Arts of New York University. A three-year graduate program in conservation was established in 1970 as the Cooperstown Graduate Program under the auspices of the State University of
New York College at Oneonta and the New York State Historical Association; in 1974 a similar graduate program was inaugurated at the University of Delaware under the joint sponsorship of the university and the Winterthur Museum. _^<N__^<N_
Examination, Analysis, and Treatment_^<N__^<N_Before restoration or other treatment is initiated, an art object is carefully examined and, when necessary, component materials are analyzed. Photographic and written documentation before, during, and
after treatment is essential. Transmitted raking or direct light can be used to determine surface characteristics. ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT fluorescence can reveal changes in the surface, repairs, fills, the presence of a varnish film, recent retouches,
and the presence of certain pigments, resins, waxes, and minerals. Infrared photography (see INFRARED RADIATION) may clarify obscure inscriptions and reveal fills, underpainting, underdrawing, and other below-surface characteristics.
Photomacrography (a technique for obtaining slightly enlarged pictures without a microscope) or examination with hand or stereoscopic magnification may be used to isolate and study such details as brushwork, cracks, damage, corrosion, previous
repairs, and the weave, fiber, paper texture, and method of construction. _^<N__^<N_Thick layers of substances that are opaque to light can be penetrated by X rays. The higher the atomic weight of the components of an artwork, the more resistant
it is to the passage of X rays. When a painting executed chiefly in lead-based pigments is radiographed, an image is obtained in which areas of light vary according to the thickness of the pigment layer and the distribution of the heavier
elements. Radiographs of a painting may reveal characteristics of the wood or canvas support, tacks, cleats, panel joints, losses, fills, tears, patches, changes in composition, and different compositions altogether (as when a painting has been
executed on top of another composition). Radiographs of furniture reveal information about joints and assembly; radiographs of corroded metal objects and sculpture furnish information about construction, thickness, amount of original material
remaining, engraving, and current structural condition. Beta-radiography (see BETATRON) may be used in the examination of paper to reveal watermarks, laid and chain lines (manufacturing marks), and the presence of iron particles. _^<N__^<N_All
these processes have the advantage of being nondestructive. Microsamples can also be taken from the art object in order to study its structure and material. The number taken and their location depend on the problem to be solved; samples should be
as small as possible, but also truly representative. Microscopic study or photomicrographs of pigments, and cross-sections of multilayered structures of textile and paper fibers, corrosion products, wood, and ceramics may furnish essential
information for a decision on a method of treatment. More advanced techniques of analysis used in conservation may include X-ray fluorescence, X-ray diffraction, CHROMATOGRAPHY, spectrography (see SPECTROSCOPY), NEUTRON activation analysis,
ELECTRON-BEAM probe microanalysis, neutron activation autoradiography, infrared spectrophotometry, RADIOMETRIC AGE-DATING, and thermoluminescent dating (see LUMINESCENCE, MINERAL). _^<N__^<N_Restoration methods for artworks are as complex and
varied as the materials from which works of art have been constructed. In all cases, the conservator must possess an aesthetic and scientific understanding of the materials of the art-work and those used in treating it. An important general
principle is that the materials used should be reversible. An oil painting, for example, should never be retouched or "inpainted" in an oil medium that would become as insoluble as the surrounding original paint. A more easily soluble acrylic or
watercolor vehicle would be recommended instead. _^<N__^<N_Typical treatment procedures include lining or relining oil paintings on canvas with an additional fabric, using a wax-resin or synthetic adhesive; deacidifying and relaxing distorted
paper supports; using carefully analyzed adhesives to consolidate flaking gouache (gum-based watercolor) on paper, oil paint on canvas, painted gesso (a plasterlike substance) on wood, and paint on glass or metal; removing dirt and stains from
textiles or paper; removing corrosion products from metals and stained glass; and mending torn paper, split canvas, fraying textiles, broken ceramics, damaged metal, split wood, and cracked marble or plaster. _^<N__^<N_ Environment and
Conservation_^<N__^<N_A work of art is a complex assemblage of different organic and inorganic materials, each of which reacts to the environment according to its natural properties. Sudden changes in temperature or humidity may immediately
aggravate existing incompatibilities within the components of the object. These factors must be considered during all arrangements for storage, shipment, and exhibition of artworks. Generally a temperature of 21 deg C (70 deg F) and a relative
humidity of about 50 percent constitute a stable environment for the maintenance of most art objects. _^<N__^<N_Paper, photographs, parchment, leather, and textiles are extremely sensitive to excessive moisture and are susceptible to fungus attack.
Exposure to sunlight may cause immediate fading of watercolors, textiles, and wallpaper. One day of 90 percent relative humidity may cause corrosion in polished metals, which would be aggravated by the presence of any polish residue. Variations
in humidity cause warping and checking of wood, especially in large objects and veneered furniture. Ivory, crizzled glass, salt-infused archaeological pottery, and painted, gilded, and gessoed wood all react unfavorably to moisture, which may be
further catalyzed by heat, light, and atmospheric pollutants. The museum conservator must supervise the maintenance of stable environmental control as well as provide first aid or complete restoration of damaged or deteriorated artworks.
_^<N__^<N_Joyce Hill Stoner _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Haney, W. F., Handbook of Paper Art Conservation 3d ed. (1983); Kuhn, H., The Conservation and Restoration of Works of Art and Antiquities (1987); Plenderleith, H. J., and Werner, A. E. A.,
The Conservation of Antiquities and Works of Art (1974); Shelly, M., et al., The Care and Handling of Art Objects (1988). _^<N__^<N_See also: FRESCO PAINTING; MURAL PAINTING; PAINTING TECHNIQUES; SCULPTURE TECHNIQUES.
-END-
-C-
5674
CAT
4880
-A-
art criticism
-T-
art criticism_^<N__^<N_Art criticism may be defined as the process of judging the aesthetic qualities of visual art, chiefly PAINTING, SCULPTURE, and ARCHITECTURE, but also including CRAFT objects. This has become a specialized field in the modern
era, but judgments about works of art have appeared since ancient times in descriptive and poetic writings, histories, technical treatises on art, and philosophical discussions of AESTHETICS. _^<N__^<N_In the Western world, reflection on art began
with the philosophers of ancient Greece. Plato discussed proportion as the source of beauty, and mimesis, or imitation, as the primary mode of art. Aristotle identified different kinds of imitation, and Xenocrates wrote technical treatises on
painting and sculpture discussing the ideal synthesis of proportion and imitation in terms of the lives of classical Greek artists. _^<N__^<N_Later, in the 3rd century AD, Plotinus combined mysticism and Neoplatonism to give images a divine source
and interpretation. This, together with the Byzantine use of light and color to evoke spiritual transcendence, underlay the symbolic, allegorical, and decorative character of medieval Christian art. _^<N__^<N_The Italian RENAISSANCE of the 15th and
16th centuries reinstated classical mimesis as the basis of art. Leonardo da Vinci wrote that painting brings the senses together with reason and mathematics in a scientific practice. Giorgio VASARI's Lives of the Artists (1550), on the other
hand, emphasized artistic personalities and technical progress as the measure of art, the pinnacle of which he saw in the genius of Michelangelo. Vasari's concept of genius was Neoplatonic, holding that the inspired artist creates earthly beauty
as a reflection of the Absolute. This ideal characterized the BAROQUE ART AND ARCHITECTURE of the 17th century. In the mid-18th century a rationalist tendency toward order and restraint combined with interest generated by the excavation of Roman
remains inspired a NEOCLASSICISM that emphasized fidelity to Greek and Roman models. Art history, museums, and the first regular public exhibitions of art also had their origin in the 18th century. Reviews of these exhibitions, such as those by
Denis DIDEROT, began art criticism as it is now known. _^<N__^<N_By the early 19th century, ROMANTICISM, a reaction against neoclassical strictures, had taken root across Europe. In England landscape painting and Gothic revival architecture
explored the Sublime, an exalted feeling embodied in the awesome and even horrific aspect of nature. In Germany the idealist philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich HEGEL transcended the revivalist history of neoclassicism with his dialectical history
of art, which has been of singular importance in the subsequent development of art history and theory. For Hegel, the classical sculptors had achieved a perfect balance between idea and material, but in romantic art the idea predominates over the
material, allowing the artist to seek the revelation of Spirit. In France, Eugene Delacroix challenged the neoclassical doctrines upheld by the Academie des Beaux Arts with his romantic paintings, and was championed in the critical writings of
Charles Baudelaire, who placed the highest value on the faculty of imagination. Other French artists espoused REALISM, creating socially critical images of both the urban and peasant life of their own times and rejecting classical and allegorical
subjects. Many others, in France and elsewhere, came to believe in art for art's sake. In the second half of the century, the impressionists and postimpressionists, rejected by the artistic establishment, formed the modernist AVANT-GARDE, which
became the dominant influence in 20th-century art. _^<N__^<N_In recent times art has become a frequent subject in philosophical theories of knowledge, generating a broad range of new critical viewpoints. Freudian psychology and phenomenological
theories of intentionality have recast ideas of the subjective experience of both artist and viewer, and suggest new levels of meaning and new forms of art. Another pervasive idea is that art constitutes a mode of experience similar to language in
its operation. Formalist criticism develops this notion, advancing through its defense of abstract painting and sculpture. Notable formalist critics such as Clive BELL and Clement GREENBERG have argued for the significance of the very elements of
form, such as color, line, and composition, and have contended that representational content is secondary, even distracting. Attacking formalism as rarified and socially unresponsive, Marxist criticism has become increasingly influential through
the writings of such theorists as Theodor ADORNO and Walter BENJAMIN. Contemporary Marxist criticism attempts to go beyond the sociological critiques explored in the 19th century to understand the dialectical interactions of artistic form, the
conditions of its production, and the interpretation of content, often employing the methods of structural linguistics and anthropology. A widespread critical attitude in the 1980s is that the oppositional role of the modernist avant-garde is
over, leading to the current eclectic condition designated postmodernism. Recent theories of poststructuralism and interpretation theory propose strategies of critical evaluation that incorporate multiple viewpoints and accept a basic
indeterminacy in meaning. _^<N__^<N_B. Ward Doubet _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Berger, John, Ways of Seeing (1972); Greenberg, Clement, Art and Culture: Critical Essays (1961); Halpern, D., ed., Writers on Artists (1988); Podro, Michael, The
Critical Historians of Art (1982); Venturi, Lionello, History of Art Criticism, (1964).
-END-
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4321
CAT
-A-
Art Deco
-T-
Art Deco_^<N__^<N_Art Deco is an architectural and decorative-arts style, popular from 1910 to 1940, that is characterized by highly stylized natural and geometric forms and ornaments, usually strongly symmetrical. Outstanding American examples of
Art Deco are the CHRYSLER BUILDING and RADIO CITY MUSIC HALL in New York City. Some of the century's most significant artists, such as Pablo PICASSO, Fernand LEGER, Sonia Delaunay, and Wassily KANDINSKY, produced work in the style, as did designers
of furnishings, textiles, jewelry, and advertising. _^<N__^<N_Art Deco themes were often classical motifs reduced to geometric stylizations. Edgar Brandt decorated wrought-iron screens with symmetrical fountains; Emil Ruhlman inlaid ebony
cabinets with ivory to depict floral arrangements of geometrical precision; Rene LALIQUE etched scenes, such as a gracefully striding female with a wolfhound or a gazelle, into crystal or frosted glass; and Jean Puiforcat and Daum depicted
abstract geometric forms. _^<N__^<N_The term Art Deco, coined in the 1960s when interest in the style revived, was derived from L'Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs et Industriels Modernes. This Paris exhibition of 1925 came midway in
Art Deco's development and was a definitive display of the style. At this time Art Deco was also known as "Art Moderne" or "Modernistic"; later it was called "Jazz Pattern," or "Skyscraper Modern." _^<N__^<N_The INTERNATIONAL STYLE in
architecture developed at the same time, and after 1925 it considerably influenced the final phase of Art Deco. Along with CUBIST painting and the German BAUHAUS school, the work of LE CORBUSIER and other International Style architects effected a
change from the earlier, more decorative phase of Art Deco toward a simpler, bolder approach typical of the 1930s. _^<N__^<N_Art Deco emerged as a reaction to ART NOUVEAU. Its two forerunners were Charles Rennie MACKINTOSH of Scotland and Josef
HOFFMANN of Vienna. These men were reformers of the excesses of the Art Nouveau style, and their works in 1900 were an indication of what was to appear in the next decades. _^<N__^<N_Hoffman's austere Palais Stoclet in Brussels (1905-11), with its
mosaic murals by Gustave KLIMT, was surprisingly advanced for its time, and it marked the transition from Art Nouveau to Art Deco. In 1903 Hoffman founded the WIENER WERKSTATTE, a workshop that produced some of the earliest Art Deco designs.
_^<N__^<N_These concepts were introduced in Paris in 1910 with an exhibition of decorative arts from Munich and Vienna at the Louvre. On display was a new style based on a simplification of the early 19th-century neoclassical BIEDERMEIER style and
of peasant art, or FOLK ART, quite the antithesis of Art Nouveau. Another significant event in Paris in 1910 was the presentation by the BALLETS RUSSES DE SERGE DIAGHILEV of Scheherazade. Leon BAKST had concocted oriental sets and costumes in
dazzling, barbaric colors; this brought a demand in the fashion world for exoticism, soon answered by the couturier Paul POIRET. In 1912, Poiret created his own design school, the Atelier Martine, to further his Art Deco ideas. By the 1920s the
effects of cubist painting were seen in advertising and product designs. Coco CHANEL used cubist colors and forms in creating women's fashions, which she adorned with Art Deco jewelry. _^<N__^<N_African sculpture and ancient Egyptian and Southwest
American Indian arts all had their influence on Art Deco in this decade, as did Archaic Greek art. With the influence of the Bauhaus and the International Style after 1925, Art Deco arrived at a final development that reflected the industrial age,
thus achieving a reconciliation of the arts and machine production that had troubled artists and designers since the Industrial Revolution began. _^<N__^<N_E. M. Plunkett _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Arwas, Victor, Art Deco (1985), Art Deco Sculpture
(1985), and Glass: Art Nouveau to Art Deco (1987); Battersby, Martin, Art Deco Fashion (1974; repr. 1984); Duncan, Alistair, American Art Deco (1986) and, as ed., The Encyclopedia of Art Deco: An Illustrated Guide to a Decorative Style from
1920 to 1939 (1988); Hillier, Bevis, The World of Art Deo (1971; repr. 1981); Lesieutre, Alain, The Spirit and Splendour of Art Deco (1974); Lucie-Smith, Edward, Art Deco Painting (1990); Menten, Theodore, The Art Deco Style (1972).
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32
CAT
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art forgery:
-T-
art forgery:_^<N__^<N_see FORGERY IN ART.
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30
CAT
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art museums:
-T-
art museums:_^<N__^<N_see MUSEUMS, ART.
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9245
CAT
4814
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Art Nouveau
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Art Nouveau_^<N__^<N_{ahr noo-voh'} _^<N__^<N_Art Nouveau, a French term meaning new art, refers to a style of ARCHITECTURE, of commercial and DECORATIVE ART, and, to some extent, a style of PAINTING and SCULPTURE that was popular about 1900.
Although the style was then thought of as modern and was given the title "new art," it was adapted from older styles and art forms. Much was derived from the GOTHIC and ROCOCO and from the arts of Java and Japan. The movement was also inspired by
Celtic manuscripts and the drawings of William BLAKE. Persian pottery and ancient Roman glass also served as models for some Art Nouveau craftsmen. _^<N__^<N_The style's patterns and motifs were taken primarily from nature and were often carried
out with unrestrained exuberance of form, color, and especially line. The characteristic line, a flowing curvilinear, was to give Art Nouveau the descriptive nicknames "noodle," "whiplash," "tapeworm," and "cigarette-smoke style." _^<N__^<N_A
favorite Art Nouveau theme was a nymph with flowers in her abundant streaming hair. She appeared on the posters of Alfons MUCHA and among the opals and moonstones of Rene LALIQUE's jewelry. Other favorites were peacocks, dragonflies, and moths.
In brilliant enamels and gold filigree, they were worked into combs, brooches, and other adornments. Morning glories glimmered through the stained glass of Louis Comfort TIFFANY. Irises were inlaid in the marquetry cabinets of Louis Majorelle
(1859-1926). Cresting waves broke and seaweed clustered around Art Nouveau vases. A dish might be an unadorned lotus leaf. Other botanical forms were arranged in abstract patterns and were symmetrically arrayed around mirror or picture frames or
repeated on fabrics and wallpapers or in mural decorations. _^<N__^<N_Art Nouveau was a rich, voluptuous style that appealed to an enlightened elite, to personalities such as Sarah BERNHARDT and Loie FULLER, and to the nouveaux riches, whose
tastes, uninhibited by tradition, encouraged designers to stylistic excesses. The style's patrons grew bored with it, however, and it declined in fashion within a decade. _^<N__^<N_Yet not all Art Nouveau was frivolous and evanescent. Its serious
adherents viewed it as the answer to a serious problem that had become apparent by the end of the 19th century: to find a style suitable for the industrial age rather than, as the academically trained architects of the Parisian ECOLE DES
BEAUX-ARTS were doing, applying past styles to contemporary works. _^<N__^<N_In 1861 the English designer William MORRIS, concerned with this problem, started the ARTS AND CRAFTS MOVEMENT in an effort to improve the tastes of the Victorian public.
He hoped to overcome the banality of industrially produced decorative arts by fostering a return to medieval craftsmanship. Although not a solution to mass-produced articles, the movement did revive an interest in craftsmanship that had been
diminishing steadily since the French Revolution. _^<N__^<N_The Arts and Crafts Movement was the parent of Art Nouveau, but it persisted into the new period and after 1900 merged into the mainstream of the newer style. This was also true of
SYMBOLISM, a Continental movement in poetry and painting that appeared in the 1870s. Much of the enigmatic form and color of Art Nouveau is related to the spirit of symbolism, as are such motifs as Medusa heads, Pans, and woodland nymphs. The
atmosphere of decadent cynicism found in the drawings and paintings of Aubrey BEARDSLEY, Henri de TOULOUSE-LAUTREC, and Edvard MUNCH, as well as the otherworldly qualities found in the works of Paul GAUGUIN, Odilon REDON, and Gustav KLIMT, were
derived from the symbolist poets, yet the rendering in color and line related to Art Nouveau. _^<N__^<N_One other development that influenced Art Nouveau was the Aesthetic Movement, an English decorative-arts style created by followers of William
Morris during the 1880s. The Aesthetic Movement took its sources from medieval art, as did its Arts and Crafts Movement counterpart, but it adapted the newly discovered arts of Japan as well. It survived for only a decade, and much of the style
was absorbed into Art Nouveau. Some of the Morris-inspired fabrics and wallpapers of Walter CRANE, Charles VOYSEY, and Arthur Macmurdo (1851-1942), designed in 1882, could easily be taken for Art Nouveau circa 1895. _^<N__^<N_In fact, the British
developments attracted interest on the Continent. The Belgian architects Victor HORTA and Henri VAN DE VELDE introduced the works of the English designers in a Brussels exhibition in 1892. They were considered very advanced and were called "Style
Anglais." Also, in 1892, when Horta designed a home in Brussels for a Professor Tassel, he amalgamated these recent influences in a linear design, a biomorphic whiplash, and thus created the first Art Nouveau architecture. The French architect
Hector GUIMARD was aware of the work of Horta and Van de Velde, and in 1900, Guimard made brilliant use of Art Nouveau in his design for the entrances to the new Paris subway system, the Metro. For some time thereafter the style was called "le
Style Metro." A Metro gate by Guimard is now in the sculpture garden of New York's MUSEUM OF MODERN ART. _^<N__^<N_Architects in other parts of the world had been leaning in the direction of Art Nouveau even before 1890. One was the American
architect Louis SULLIVAN, the teacher of Frank Lloyd WRIGHT. Sullivan made use of ancient Celtic designs, incorporating them in the decoration of his otherwise functional buildings, such as the AUDITORIUM BUILDING (1889) and the Carson Pirie Scott
Department Store, both in Chicago. In Barcelona the Spanish architect Antonio GAUDI was another precursor of Art Nouveau. Employing medieval Spanish traditions, Gaudi, like Sullivan, created a uniquely personal style. He combined typical Spanish
materials such as wrought iron and colorful tile with cast concrete to create fantastic structures in an unusual Art Nouveau idiom. Gaudi's plans and structural models for the still uncompleted Church of the Sagrada Familia (Sacred Family), begun
in 1883, show his power of invention as an engineer. _^<N__^<N_Emile GALLE, the French designer of glass and furniture, was following William Morris's precepts before 1880. Inspired by Chinese cameo glass, he created glassware that was to
influence Tiffany in the United States. Tiffany achieved an iridescent glass by using unusual chemical techniques; to Americans his name became synonymous with the new styles of 1900. During the 1890s Arthur Lasenby Liberty's (1843-1917) shops
in London and Paris were outlets for the modern style. Italians called Art Nouveau "Stile Liberty" and "Stile Floreale." The Germans referred to it as "Jugendstil," after the avant-garde art periodical Jugend (Youth). But the present-day label is
derived from Maison de l'art nouveau, a shop opened by the dealer Siegfried Bing (1838-1905) in 1896. _^<N__^<N_A rational architectural approach to the style was achieved by Charles Rennie MACKINTOSH, a Scotsman. His work so impressed Josef
HOFFMANN and the Viennese SECESSION (or Sezession) group that they adapted a similar modification of Art Nouveau, and in doing so created a new style that many decades later became known as ART DECO. Hoffmann's Palais Stoclet in Brussels (1905)
was a precursor of the French Art Deco style of 1925. _^<N__^<N_Art Nouveau was out of fashion before World War I had begun. From the 1920s to the 1950s it was considered by critics a moribund, even ugly, style. About 1960, however, a reappraisal
began. In reaction to the unimaginative glass-and-steel rectangular architecture of the 1950s, critics began to turn back to the style of 1900 with favorable reconsideration. Numerous exhibitions were held, scholarly publications on Art Nouveau
began to appear, and prices for Art Nouveau objects soared. Art Nouveau was incorporated in the rebellious psychedelic style of the 1960s and finally achieved its place as a significant style in the history of modern art. _^<N__^<N_E. M. Plunkett
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Amaya, Mario, Art Nouveau (1966); Barilli, Renato, Art Nouveau (1969); Bing, Samuel, Artistic America, Tiffany Glass, and Art Nouveau (1970); Bouillon, Jean-Paul, Art Nouveau, 1870 to 1914 (1985); Champigneulle,
Bernard, Art Nouveau (1976); Grafton, C. B., Treasury of Art Nouveau Design and Ornament (1982); Madsen, Stephen T., The Sources of Art Nouveau (1959; repr. 1975); Pevsner, Nikolaus, The Sources of Modern Architecture and Design (1968);
Rheims, Maurice, The Flowering of Art Nouveau (1966); Selz, Peter, and Constantine, Mildred, eds., Art Nouveau (1959; repr. 1976); Schmutzler, Robert, Art Nouveau (1962); Sterner, Gabriele, Art Nouveau: An Art in Transition from Individualism
to Mass Society, trans, by F. G. and D. S. Peters (1982); Waddel, Roberta, The Art Nouveau Style in Jewelry, Metalwork, Glass, Ceramics, Textiles, Architecture and Furniture (1977); Warren, Geoffrey, The All Color Book of Art Nouveau (1974);
Weisberg, Gabriel P., Art Nouveau Bing: Paris Style 1900 (1986). _^<N__^<N_See also: AMERICAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE; AUSTRIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE; ENGLISH ART AND ARCHITECTURE; FRENCH ART AND ARCHITECTURE; GLASSWARE, DECORATIVE; JEWELRY;
MODERN ARCHITECTURE; SPANISH ART AND ARCHITECTURE; WIENER WERKSTATTE.
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2606
CAT
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Artaud, Antonin
-T-
Artaud, Antonin_^<N__^<N_Antonin Artaud, b. Sept. 4, 1896, d. Mar. 4, 1948, was a visionary French actor, playwright, poet, and theorist. His idea of a theater of cruelty, set down in his work Le theatre et son double (1938-45; The Theatre and
Its Double, 1958), has significantly influenced modern notions of theatrical performance. _^<N__^<N_As a child, Artaud suffered from meningitis, and throughout his life he was afflicted with mental disorders. During the 1920s he wrote poems in the
manner of the surrealists, acted in plays under such directors as Charles DULLIN and in films such as Abel GANCE's Napoleon (1927), and began to write his own plays and essays. He left the surrealists to form his Theatre Alfred JARRY (1926) with
Roger Vitrac and Robert Aron, staging plays by such writers as STRINDBERG and CLAUDEL. In essays and manifestos, collected in Le Theatre et son double, Artaud advocated a metaphysical theater, linking spectator and spectacle. He was influenced
less by literature than by myth, ritual, Oriental art, the gestures of Balinese dance, and the world of dreams. Artaud felt that the theater should give rise to numinous or religious feelings within the audience. At certain points he likened
theater to a plague that attacks the audience, breaks down its resistance, and cleanses it morally and spiritually. In the only play that he wrote and directed according to his precepts, Les Cenci (1935; Eng. trans., 1970), based on works by
Percy Bysshe SHELLEY and STENDAHL, Artaud emphasized space, physicality, color, and sensual awareness over text and language. When his production was deemed a failure, Artaud left for Mexico in 1936 to study the ways of the Tarahumaras Indians.
He wrote about the experience in Au Pays des Tarahumaras (1945). When he returned to France in 1937, he suffered a severe mental breakdown and was confined to the sanatorium at Rodez until 1946. _^<N__^<N_Artaud's theories influenced such theater
artists as Jean Louis BARRAULT, Roger Blin, Peter Brook , the LIVING THEATER, and the entire movement known as experimental theater (see IMPROVISATIONAL AND EXPERIMENTAL THEATER). Although Artaud was more a seer than a practical artist, his
suggestive ideas are continually being defined and redefined. _^<N__^<N_Bettina Knapp _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Artaud, Antonin, Collected Works, 4 vols., ed. and trans. by V. Corti and A. Hamilton (1968-73) and Selected Writings, ed. by Susan
Sontag (1977); Derrida, J., and Thevenin, P., Antonin Artaud: Drawings and Paintings (1988); Esslin, Martin, Antonin Artaud (1976); Knapp, Bettina, Antonin Artaud: Man of Vision (1971).
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899
CAT
-A-
Artaxerxes I, King of Persia
-T-
Artaxerxes I, King of Persia_^<N__^<N_{ahr-tuh-zurk'-seez} _^<N__^<N_Artaxerxes I, called by the Greeks Macrocheir (Longhand; in Latin Longimanus), was an ACHAEMENID king of Persia who ruled 465-24 BC. He came to the throne after the assassination
of his father, XERXES I, and his elder brother Darius. Court intrigues at the beginning of his reign were followed by revolts in the provinces of BACTRIA and Egypt, which were put down after much fighting. A peace treaty was also signed (449) with
Athens, and EZRA AND NEHEMIAH codified the laws of Israel by order of Artaxerxes. The reign of Artaxerxes was marked by increased taxation and discontent, but through diplomacy the king maintained his empire in peace during the last years of his
rule. His building inscriptions say that he spent most of his life at SUSA and later retired to PERSEPOLIS. He died peacefully and was buried at Naqsh-e Rustam. _^<N__^<N_Richard N. Frye
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927
CAT
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Artaxerxes II, King of Persia
-T-
Artaxerxes II, King of Persia_^<N__^<N_Artaxerxes II was an Achaemenid king of Persia (404-359 BC). The son of Darius II, he was called Mnemon by the Greeks. His younger brother CYRUS THE YOUNGER revolted against him at the outset of his reign but
was killed (401) in battle. At the same time, Egypt became independent of Persian rule and remained so throughout his reign. After much fighting with the Greeks, Artaxerxes secured the King's Peace (also called the Peace of Antalcidas) in 387,
whereby the Ionian cities of Anatolia were returned to Persian rule. Attempts to regain Egypt failed, and local revolts became frequent. Threats from the Greeks and Egyptians failed, however, because of dissension among them. In inscriptions at
SUSA and PERSEPOLIS, Artaxerxes invoked the aid of the gods Mithra and Anahite, as well as of Ahura Mazda, thus indicating a new development in the Persian religion of ZOROASTRIANISM. _^<N__^<N_Richard N. Frye
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958
CAT
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Artemis
-T-
Artemis_^<N__^<N_{ahr'-tuh-mis} _^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, Artemis was goddess of the hunt--the mistress of wild things--and the protectress of youth and women. In contrast to the voluptuous Aphrodite, Artemis was associated with chaste love; she
is usually depicted as lean and athletic and is frequently accompanied by a deer. She was the twin sister of Apollo and the daughter of Zeus and Leto. Artemis was also identified with the Moon, and for that reason she was later identified with the
moon-goddess SELENE. Another of her names was Cynthia, bestowed because she was assumed to have been born on Mount Cynthus on the island of Delos. To the Romans she was DIANA. _^<N__^<N_In her role as protectress of women, Artemis was often called
upon to ensure a painless and swift death, and women who died in such a manner were said to have been slain by one of her silver arrows. Among her most ardent male admirers was Hippolytus, son of the Athenian hero Theseus. _^<N__^<N_C. Scott
Littleton
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63
CAT
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Artemis, Temple of, at Ephesus:
-T-
Artemis, Temple of, at Ephesus:_^<N__^<N_see SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD.
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1857
CAT
-A-
arteriosclerosis
-T-
arteriosclerosis_^<N__^<N_{ahr-tir-ee-oh-skluh-roh'-sis} _^<N__^<N_The term arteriosclerosis refers to several diseases that involve both arteries of different sizes and different layers of the walls of the arteries. From Greek words that mean
"hardening of the arteries," the term originally signified the tendency of arteries to become hard and brittle through the depositing of calcium in their walls. This is not, however, an important characteristic of the most familiar form of
arteriosclerosis, atherosclerosis, which involves the buildup of fatty deposits in the innermost lining of large and medium-sized arteries. Atherosclerosis can lead to coronary HEART DISEASE, STROKES, and other disorders brought about by the
tendency of blood clots to form in the narrowed arteries; hardening of the arteries occurs only in advanced stages. A second form of the disease is medial, or Monckeberg's, sclerosis, which involves calcium buildup in the medial layer of arteries
in the extremities, leading to higher blood pressure. A third form of the disease is arteriolar sclerosis, involving the inner and medial layers of small arteries, which can decrease the blood flow to the limbs, eyes, and internal organs.
_^<N__^<N_A sign of possible arteriosclerosis is high blood pressure, or hypertension; conversely, hypertension can aggravate arteriosclerosis. Although arteriosclerotic drugs are on the market, physicians most often aim at preventing the disease
by treating the causative factors, which include not only hypertension but also diabetes mellitus, smoking, and obesity. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Berne, Robert M., and Levy, Matthew N., Cardiovascular Physiology, 3d ed. (1977); Freeman, W. E.,
Jr., Preventing Hardening of the Arteries (1986); Lupovici, Z., Arteriosclerosis (1988); Nash, David T., Coronary (1979); National Heart and Lung Institute, Arteriosclerosis (1972).
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1913
CAT
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artery
-T-
artery_^<N__^<N_An artery is any blood vessel that carries blood from the HEART toward the CAPILLARIES, in contrast to a VEIN, which carries blood from the capillaries toward the heart. The largest artery is the AORTA, which receives blood from the
left ventricle of the heart. Several main arteries branch from the aorta and successively branch into vessels of smaller diameter, culminating in tiny arteries called arterioles. These deliver blood to the capillaries, the network of microscopic
blood vessels that brings blood close to all the cells of the body. The capillaries collect into venules, which are the beginning of the venous system for return of blood to the heart. _^<N__^<N_Arteries have three concentric layers of tissue. The
innermost consists of a smooth endothelial lining, connective tissue, and a few muscle cells. The middle layer comprises primarily muscle cells and elastic fibers for expansion during a pulse of blood set in motion by heart contraction. The outer
layer is mainly fibrous connective tissue that prevents overexpansion during the pulse (see PULSE, BIOLOGY). Large arteries near the heart have a large amount of elastic tissue but little muscle. This elasticity allows them to resist the high
pressures that occur during heart contraction; between heart contractions, the elastic recoil in the arteries keeps the blood moving. Smaller arteries and arterioles have a thick muscular layer, which can contract or relax under control of the
nervous system to vary the artery's internal diameter. This variation helps regulate BLOOD PRESSURE and blood distribution in various regions of the body. _^<N__^<N_Peter L. Petrakis _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bunce, Donald F., Atlas of Arterial
Histology, 2d ed. (1975); Harcus, Alfred, and Adamson, Leslie, Arteries and Veins (1975); O'Rourke, Michael F., Arterial Function in Health and Disease (1982). _^<N__^<N_See also: ANEURYSM; CIRCULATORY SYSTEM; CORONARY ARTERY.
-END-
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884
CAT
-A-
artesian well
-T-
artesian well_^<N__^<N_An artesian well taps water in an AQUIFER, or water-bearing layer of rock, that lies between rock layers impermeable to water. Such GROUNDWATER is under enough pressure to rise above the aquifer and often to the surface of the
ground, producing a flowing well. As the artesian pressure decreases, however, the well may have to be pumped. The name artesian is derived from Artois, France, where such wells bored during the Middle Ages became well known, although similar wells
have existed since ancient times. _^<N__^<N_The geological formations in which artesian wells can be sunk are usually only several square kilometers in extent, but a few are quite large. The Great Australian Artesian Basin is the most extensive,
covering about 1,750,000 sq km (676,250 sq mi). In the United States, a similar basin exists in North and South Dakota and neighboring areas. _^<N__^<N_Stanley N. Davis
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964
CAT
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Artevelde (family)
-T-
Artevelde (family)_^<N__^<N_{ahr-tuh-vel'-duh} _^<N__^<N_The Arteveldes were wealthy Flemish merchants of Ghent who led uprisings in FLANDERS in alliance with England during the HUNDRED YEARS' WAR. Jacob van Artevelde, b. c.1290, was named (1338)
captain of Ghent, which rose in rebellion against the count of Flanders after King EDWARD III of England stopped the export of English wool to the Flemish towns. The rebellious Flemings remained neutral between France and England for two years,
then, under Jacob's leadership, joined the English side. Jacob was murdered by a weaver during a riot in Ghent on July 17, 1345. His son, Philip van Artevelde, b. July 18, 1340, led another rebellion (1381-82) and was named governor of Flanders.
He was killed on Nov. 17, 1382 by invading French troops. _^<N__^<N_Herbert H. Rowen _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Lucas, Henry S., The Low Countries and the Hundred Years' War, 1326-1347 (1929; repr. 1977); Nicholas, David, The Van Arteveldes of
arthritis_^<N__^<N_Arthritis is a general term for approximately 100 diseases that produce either INFLAMMATION of connective tissues, particularly in joints, or noninflammatory degeneration of these tissues. The word means "joint inflammation," but
because other structures are also affected, the diseases are often called connective tissue diseases. The terms rheumatism and rheumatic diseases are also used. Besides conditions so named, the diseases include gout, lupus erythematosus,
ankylosing spondylitis, degenerative joint disease, and many others, among them the more recently identified LYME DISEASE. Causes of these disorders include immune-system reactions and the wear and tear of aging, while research indicates that the
nervous system may often be equally involved. About one out of seven Americans exhibit some form of arthritis. _^<N__^<N_ INFLAMMATORY CONNECTIVE TISSUE DISEASES_^<N__^<N_This varied group of diseases produces inflammation in the connective
tissues, particularly in the joints. The signs of inflammation--warmth, redness, swelling, and pain--may be apparent. Microscopic examination of the lesions reveals prominent blood vessels, abnormal accumulations of white blood cells, and varying
degrees of wound healing with scarring. In some diseases, the inflammation is clearly an immune reaction, the body's defense against invading microorganisms. In others, the cause is different or unknown. _^<N__^<N_ Infectious
Arthritis_^<N__^<N_This disease is most common in young adults. Infection in a joint is usually caused by bacteria or other microorganisms that invade the joint from its blood vessels. Within hours or a few days the joint, usually the knee or
elbow, becomes inflamed. There is an abnormal accumulation of synovial, or joint, fluid, which may be cloudy and contain large numbers of white blood cells. _^<N__^<N_Gonococcal arthritis, a complication of gonorrhea, is the most common form of
infectious arthritis. Treatment with antibiotics and aspiration of synovial fluid is usually promptly effective, and only minor residual damage is done to the joint. Occasionally the infection is prolonged and produces joint destruction and
requires surgery. _^<N__^<N_ Rheumatic Fever_^<N__^<N_This is a form of infectious arthritis caused by hemolytic streptococcus, a bacterium. Unlike typical infectious arthritis, however, the disease is most common in children aged 5 to 15 years,
begins weeks after the onset of the streptococcal infection, and streptococci cannot be isolated from the joint fluid. The inflammatory process may involve the heart and produce rheumatic heart disease. _^<N__^<N_The symptoms of RHEUMATIC FEVER
usually occur 2 to 3 weeks after the onset of a severe streptococcal sore throat. Acute pain and swelling "migrate" from joint to joint over a period of several days. The inflammation, which persists for less than three months, can usually be
controlled by aspirin and rest, and it produces no residual deformity. Less than 1 percent of children with streptococcal sore throats develop rheumatic fever, and a small number of these will develop rheumatic heart disease. Rheumatic fever only
rarely occurs if the streptococcal sore throat is treated early with an antibiotic such as penicillin. _^<N__^<N_The inflammation of the joints and the heart in rheumatic fever apparently occurs because the body's immune response to the
streptococcus damages tissues. For this reason, rheumatic fever has been termed an autoimmune disease. _^<N__^<N_ Gout and Pseudogout_^<N__^<N_The inflammatory process in these diseases is unrelated to infection. Rather, inflammation is incited by
the deposition in the joint of uric acid present in the bloodstream. An attack of acute gouty arthritis is caused by the formation of needlelike crystals of the deposited uric acid. When these crystals are ingested by white blood cells, the cells
release enzymes that evoke inflammations. _^<N__^<N_Uric acid is a normal breakdown product of urine metabolism. Abnormally elevated blood levels of uric acid, which are associated with gouty arthritis, arise through either excessive production of
uric acid or decreased excretion of uric acid by the kidneys. Some cases of hyperuricemia and gout are caused by known specific enzymatic defects. Many are associated with metabolic alterations that occur in obesity. When extreme, the gouty process
results in large deposits of uric acid, or tophi, around joints. _^<N__^<N_Acute attacks subside when the patient receives anti-inflammatory drugs. Further attacks may be prevented by colchicine, a drug that inhibits the ingestion of crystals by
white blood cells. Serum uric acid levels decline and tophi resolve when the excess uric acid production is controlled by weight reduction and by drugs such as allopurinol, a purine analog that inhibits both formation of purines and their breakdown
to uric acid. The disease usually affects men over age 40. _^<N__^<N_The symptoms of pseudogout may mimic GOUT, but the inflammation is initiated by crystals of calcium pyrophosphate. They can be distinguished from uric acid crystals by
polarization microscopy. The disease is treated with anti-inflammatory drugs. _^<N__^<N_ Rheumatoid Arthritis_^<N__^<N_The symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis are attributable to inflammation of the connective tissues, but the cause is unknown. The
major disability produced by rheumatoid arthritis has prompted a worldwide program of research devoted to finding its cause and cure. _^<N__^<N_In rheumatoid arthritis, the synovial membranes, or inner linings of the joint capsules, are chronically
inflamed. The synovial mass proliferates and thereby destroys cartilage, bone, and adjacent structures. The widespread inflammatory process also involves other tissue such as blood vessels, skin, nerves, muscles, heart, and lungs. The result is
painful joints, loss of mobility, and generalized soreness and depression. _^<N__^<N_Rheumatoid arthritis is predominantly a disease of women between the ages of 20 and 60. Probably many individuals have such a mild form of the disease that they
never seek medical care. _^<N__^<N_The typical patient with newly diagnosed rheumatoid arthritis is a 35-year-old woman who has been complaining for months of generalized aches and stiffness, particularly in her hands and fingers, for an hour after
arising; swelling and pain in fingers, hands, wrists, and elbows; distressing fatigue in the early afternoon; and difficulty in sleeping. The affected joints are tender. The fingers have a sausage-like appearance because of swelling at the proximal
interphalangeal joints. The wrists, too, are swollen by overgrowth of synovium, and there are rheumatoid nodules at the elbows. Laboratory studies of the blood may reveal the presence of rheumatoid factors, proteins produced by the immune system in
response to the rheumatic process. _^<N__^<N_Although rheumatoid arthritis may prove to be infectious, it is not a conventional contagious disease. The minor tendency for familial occurrence is probably attributable to genetic factors. Immunology,
including autoimmunity, is clearly important. Rheumatoid factors (anti-antibodies) form immune complexes that incite inflammation, and lymphocyte accumulations in the body cause swelling of tissues, including synovia. _^<N__^<N_Systemic LUPUS
ERYTHEMATOSUS is about one-tenth as common as rheumatoid arthritis. It has an even stronger predilection for women, especially those in the child-bearing ages. It is characterized by inflammation of blood vessels and potential involvement of
several tissues and organs, particularly the skin, joints, kidneys, lungs, heart, nervous system, and blood cells. Some patients are acutely affected with a febrile disease that is life threatening because of renal disease, nervous system disease,
or accompanying infections. Most have a more indolent disease that produces moderate disability from nondeforming arthritis, skin eruptions, and fatigue. _^<N__^<N_As in rheumatoid arthritis, the body seems to react against itself rather than
against an invading microorganism. Anti-self antibodies react with intact blood cells, nuclear components, and blood-vessel walls. The complexes that form in the patient's blood precipitate in basement membranes of skin, kidneys, and nervous system
and thus cause inflammation. _^<N__^<N_Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis usually begins by age 5 or in the early teens. In most cases, tests for rheumatoid factors are negative and the disease becomes inactive by age 15. Ankylosing SPONDYLITIS occurs
more commonly in men than women; it affects the spine and sacroiliac joints in particular, with resultant fusion of vertebrae and immobility. Tests for rheumatoid factors are negative, and tests for the tissue antigen HLA B27 are usually positive.
_^<N__^<N_ NONINFLAMMATORY CONNECTIVE TISSUE DISEASES_^<N__^<N_The joints and other connective tissues can be involved by trauma, endocrine disorders, metabolic abnormalities, congenital deformities, and other disease processes. The most important
one is degenerative joint disease (OSTEOARTHRITIS). _^<N__^<N_ Degenerative Joint Disease._^<N__^<N_This is the most common form of arthritis and affects virtually all older adults to one degree or another. Most have few, if any associated
symptoms, and the disease is diagnosed only because X rays of the vertebrae show characteristic spurs or because the fingers are knobbed by bony proliferations (Heberden's nodes) at the distal interphalangeal joints. In some the spurs encroach on
nerves as they emerge from the spinal canal and produce nerve-root syndromes. In others, the malpositioned joints are a source of ligamentous strain and abnormal muscular tension. The result is pain that becomes worse as the day goes on.
_^<N__^<N_Occasionally a severe form of the disease affects the hips. The destructive process results in restricted mobility of the hip joints and disabling pain, and major surgery may be required. The destroyed tissue is removed and replaced by a
new joint made of plastic, an operation that is usually dramatically effective. _^<N__^<N_Degenerative processes affect the ligaments and intervertebral disks of the spine. If a disk slips out, the syndrome of herniated disk may ensue. This is
common in middle-aged men and usually affects the lumbar vertebrae, producing nerve-root irritation and ligamentous strain with resultant low-back pain and neurological deficits. Unless the symptoms remit with rest and analgesics, the disk may need
to be surgically removed. _^<N__^<N_These degenerative processes are in part caused by wear and tear. They affect primarily weight-bearing joints and joints subject to trauma or to malpositioned anatomy. Joints damaged by other forms of arthritis
are prone to later degenerative joint disease. Heberden's nodes are more prominent in the right hand of right-handed individuals and in the fingers of typists. Traumas produce microfractures in the cartilage that lines the articulating surfaces
exposing raw underlying bone. The bone cells then release enzymes that destroy the protein and polysaccharide components of bone. Frayed pieces of cartilage may be taken up by white blood cells and thus add an element of inflammation. _^<N__^<N_
TREATMENT OF ARTHRITIS_^<N__^<N_Accurate diagnosis and proper treatment usually follow naturally from the history, physical exam, and laboratory tests and from consideration of the pathophysiologic mechanisms. Infectious arthritis usually responds
dramatically to appropriate antibiotics. The noninfectious inflammatory diseases are treated with drugs that suppress inflammation. Many of these drugs, for example, aspirin, indomethacin, and ibuprofen, appear to work by inhibiting synthesis of
prostaglandins that mediate inflammation. Although certain adrenal cortical steroids are powerful inhibitors of inflammation, toxic side effects limit their usefulness. Similarly, drugs that inhibit proliferation of cells in the inflammatory masses
have potentially severe side effects. Drugs that inhibit undesirable inflammation may also inhibit desired inflammatory responses. A result is a high frequency of secondary infections. More specific therapy, for example, allopurinol and colchicine
in gout, is dependent on knowledge of the precise biochemical mechanisms of disease pathogenesis. Researchers are also studying the use of drugs that act on the nervous system. _^<N__^<N_Despite the wear-and-tear origin of degenerative joint
disease, it, too, may respond well to so-called anti-inflammatory drugs. Perhaps they are primarily acting as analgesics (pain-killers), or they may act by decreasing the secondary inflammation that follows joint trauma. _^<N__^<N_Franklin Mullinax
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Arthritis Foundation, Understanding Arthritis (1986); Kelley, William N., et al., eds., Textbook of Rheumatology, 2d ed., (1985); McCarty, Daniel F., ed., Arthritis and Allied Conditions, 11th ed. (1988); Moll, J. M.
H., Rheumatology in Clinical Practice (1987).
-END-
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820
CAT
-A-
arthrodire
-T-
arthrodire_^<N__^<N_{ahr'-throh-dyr} _^<N__^<N_Arthrodires are extinct armored fish, members of an archaic class, the placoderms, that lived from Late Silurian to Late Devonian time (about 400-350 million years ago). The name is derived from two
Greek words meaning "joint-necked" and refers to the ball-and-socket joints located on either side of the fish's neck. The earliest arthrodires were relatively small, broad, and flat. The front part of the body was armored with bony plates.
Exposed bony plates formed shearlike cutting edges on the jaws. Most species were only 30-45 cm (12-18 in) long, but some, such as Dinichthys, were huge, reaching lengths of more than 9 m (30 ft). _^<N__^<N_William H. Matthews III
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Moy-Thomas, James A., and Miles, R. S., Paleozoic Fishes, 2d ed. (1971). _^<N__^<N_See also: FOSSIL RECORD; PALEOZOIC ERA.
-END-
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12503
CATO
4816
9615
-A-
arthropod
-O-
000000|arthropod
001416| Paths of Evolution
003816| Body Systems
006138| Sex and Life Cycle
008254| Limits to Size
010145| Adaptations to Land Life
-T-
arthropod_^<N__^<N_{ahr'-throh-pahd} _^<N__^<N_An arthropod is any member of the phylum Arthropoda, which includes the CENTIPEDES, CRUSTACEANS, INSECTS, MILLIPEDES, MITES, SCORPIONS, SPIDERS, and other related forms. Arthropods constitute about 75
percent of known animal species. More than 930,000 have been described, and the total has been estimated at more than 6,000,000. Arthropods are characterized by a resistant integument, or cuticle, forming an EXOSKELETON, a segmented body, and
jointed appendages; the name Arthropoda means "jointed legs." Other characteristics include bilateral symmetry, growth by MOLTING, the presence of specialized cuticular sense organs, blood-filled spaces in the body (the hemocoel), and a greatly
reduced body cavity (coelom). Respiratory tracheae, or book lung, occur in most terrestrial forms. Eyes are simple or compound; both types may occur in the same animal. _^<N__^<N_Millions of years before animal life succeeded in colonizing the
land, the primeval oceans were teeming with arthropods. These had probably evolved from segmented, wormlike forms similar to the polychaete ANNELIDS of today, but fossil evidence is lacking. It is now generally accepted, however, that the phylum
is polyphyletic; that is, some of its distinctive features--an exoskeleton, tracheal respiration, Malpighian excretory tubes, compound eyes, and others--must have originated from at least three separate ancestral lines. _^<N__^<N_ Paths of
Evolution_^<N__^<N_From the wormlike ancestor, one evolutionary path led to the extinct TRILOBITES and the chelicerates. Trilobites were marine organisms that were particularly numerous in the Cambrian Period, 570 million to 500 million years ago.
They had flattened bodies molded longitudinally into three lobes whose segments bore paired limbs with fringed hairs. The chelicerates include ARACHNIDA--false scorpions, harvestmen, mites, scorpions, solifugids (see SUN SPIDER), and spiders--as
well as KING CRABS (Xiphosura), SEA SPIDERS (Pycnogonida), and the EURYPTERIDA--gigantic, scorpionlike marine animals, now extinct. The body of a chelicerate is divided into two regions, or tagmata: an anterior prosoma, or cephalothorax, and a
posterior abdomen, or opisthosoma. It has no distinct head, and the prosoma is without ANTENNAE. It bears pincerlike chelicerae (jaws) and sometimes pedipalps. These may take the form of claws in scorpions and false scorpions; tactile and
feeding organs in solifugids, harvestmen, and mites; or reproductive organs in male spiders. _^<N__^<N_The second evolutionary path led to the crustacea--BARNACLES, BRINE SHRIMPS, CRABS, COPEPODS, LOBSTERS, OSTRACODS, SHRIMPS, WATER FLEAS, and
their allies. With the exception of wood lice, slaters, and land crabs, crustaceans are mostly aquatic, respiring by means of GILLS. They are equipped with two pairs of antennae; the eyes, when present, may be stalked or unstalked, and the limbs
are often specialized. Many crustaceans have adopted a parasitic mode of life and show appropriate adaptations of their anatomy and life history. _^<N__^<N_The last assemblage of arthropods has evolved through animals like PERIPATUS, which retains
many wormlike characteristics, to millipedes, symphylans, centipedes, and SPRINGTAILS and other insects. These groups possess one pair of antennae and simple and compound eyes; like crustaceans, they feed with the aid of mandibles. A fundamental
difference, however, is that the crustacea use the basal part, or gnathobase, of a modified limb for masticating their food; whereas in the groups under discussion an entire limb has become a jaw, and its tip is used for biting. The crustaceans
also resemble the arachnids in that the excretory coxal glands are divided from coelomoducts, whereas the Malpighian tubules of insects and their allies are outgrowths from the alimentary canal. _^<N__^<N_ Body Systems_^<N__^<N_Many small and
primitive arthropods, such as those that enjoy a hidden or cryptozoic mode of life, respire through the body wall. The sites of gaseous exchange in crustaceans are varied. Many arachnids make use of book lung. These are derived directly from the
gill books of their marine ancestors and contain numerous leaflike respiratory filaments. Tracheae and tracheoles, tiny breathing tubes that lead directly to the tissues, are the routes by which oxygen enters the body of most terrestrial
arthropods. These tubes are present in their most primitive condition in the peripatus and are the principal respiratory organs of insects, myriapods, and some arachnids. Studies of the evolution of arthropods indicate that the tracheal system
must have evolved a number of separate times. _^<N__^<N_The modes of nutrition of arthropods are even more diverse than are their respiratory systems. Some are vegetarians, some are carnivores, and many of the crustaceans are filter feeders;
others feed on fluids obtained from the sap of plants or the blood of other animals. In these, different parts of the alimentary canal may be modified as sucking pumps--the foregut in arachnids, the pharynx in insects. _^<N__^<N_The basic pattern
of the nervous system is as follows. From an anterior dorsal brain a pair of nerve cords passes ventrally, one on each side of the gut; lying in the hemocoel close to the ventral surface, each cord continues posteriorly to the extremity of the
body. Paired ganglia in successive segments fuse together to produce more complex nerve masses from which segmental nerves lead off to the limbs and other appendages. Apart from the eyes, the sense organs of arthropods occur mainly in the form of
hairs, the function of which may be tactile, auditory, chemoreceptive, or proprioceptive (responding to internal stimuli). Color change, retinal pigment migration, GROWTH, molting, METAMORPHOSIS, and sexual development are controlled by HORMONES.
_^<N__^<N_In arthropods whose limbs are moved by their own muscles, the coelom is greatly reduced, and the functional body cavity is a blood-filled space known as the hemocoel. At the time of molting, arthropods swallow air or water. The pressure
induced is distributed by the blood so that when the new cuticle hardens, the entire body will have expanded. _^<N__^<N_ Sex and Life Cycle_^<N__^<N_With few exceptions, both sexes occur separately in arthropods. The reproductive organs are
directly continuous with their ducts, the latter being connected to ectodermal invaginations that lead to the exterior. Sex ducts open near the rear of the body in peripatus, centipedes, and insects. Among crustaceans, they nearly always open at
the hind end of the thorax; in millipedes, pauropods, and symphylans their opening is not far behind the head. In arachnids, they open near the middle of the body. The abdomen of the sea spiders is so reduced that it contains little more than
the terminal part of the alimentary canal, and the gonads are displaced into the proximal segments of the legs. _^<N__^<N_Spermatozoa are usually transferred to the female arthropod in sealed packets known as spermatophores. In this way the sperms
are not diluted by the surrounding medium in the case of aquatic forms, nor do they suffer from desiccation on land. Transfer of spermatozoa is often accompanied by ritual courtship and mating ceremonies. In some groups there has been a
specialization toward indirect sperm transfer, resulting in dissociation of the male and female. In some springtails, for instance, the male deposits spermatophores at random, and these are afterward picked up casually by passing females.
_^<N__^<N_Most arthropods lay eggs in masses, but in some species the eggs hatch inside the body of the mother and the young are born alive. Newly hatched arthropods are often very different from the adults in appearance and habits. In this way
competition is avoided, and alternative food sources can be exploited. Many crustaceans have larval development stages that are planktonic; these play an important role in dispersal, especially in the case of parasitic species. Among
endopterygote insects, the larvae are entirely different from the adults and pass through a pupal, or CHRYSALIS, stage, during which metamorphosis occurs. In the case of exopterygote insects, on the other hand, the nymphal stages, although
wingless, are essentially similar to the adults, as they are in most arachnids. _^<N__^<N_ Limits to Size_^<N__^<N_Chief among the characteristics to which the arthropods owe their success is the presence of a rigid and almost impervious
exoskeleton; this assists in the osmotic regulation of aquatic forms and enables many terrestrial species to become almost independent of water. _^<N__^<N_Animals encased in armored skeletons can grow only by molting, or ecdysis. The need for
this also limits absolute size, because in larger animals, a considerable increase in weight results in a relatively small gain in linear dimensions. Molting is a hazardous process at all times. If everything does not go exactly right, the animal
may die, for it is extremely vulnerable to enemies until its new cuticle has hardened. Thus the benefits conferred by an exoskeleton are increasingly offset by its disadvantages as the size of the animal increases. _^<N__^<N_Among arthropods, only
aquatic forms whose bodies are supported by seawater are able to attain any great size or weight. Crustacean integuments are heavy because they are strongly calcified, and weight is advantageous to bottom-dwelling aquatic animals. The cuticles of
terrestrial arthropods, such as centipedes, insects, and arachnids, are strengthened by sclerotization, a chemical process analogous to the tanning of leather. In this way they become tough and rigid but at the same time remain light in weight.
_^<N__^<N_Tracheal respiration is another deterrent to large size, because it depends on the slow process of gaseous diffusion. It is significant that the biggest insects either have long, slender bodies, like dragonflies and mantids, or else tend
to be sluggish, like the Goliath beetle and Hercules beetle. _^<N__^<N_The largest of the arachnids, which respire by means of book lungs, are not restricted in this way because their blood contains a respiratory pigment, hemocyanin, that stores
oxygen, enabling them to indulge in sudden bursts of activity. _^<N__^<N_ Adaptations to Land Life_^<N__^<N_Terrestrial arthropods face a number of problems not experienced by aquatic forms. Larger species require structural support; respiratory
organs must be modified for breathing air; there is no surrounding water into which toxic excretory products can freely diffuse; and mechanisms for the conservation of water and maintenance of a constant internal medium must be developed. That
these problems are by no means easily overcome is shown by the fact that most invertebrate phyla are almost exclusively marine, and others possess few terrestrial species. _^<N__^<N_The arthropods have been uniquely successful in exploiting the
terrestrial environment by many adaptive changes. Each aspect of their adaptation to life on land has been affected by other aspects. Prevention of water loss by the evolution of an impervious integument has raised problems of respiration, which
in turn have been solved by the development of book lungs and tracheae. Limitations to growth, engendered by the possession of a rigid integument, have been overcome by molting, but this, of course, has also set a limit to size. Many primitive
land arthropods have not evolved a discrete layer of waterproof wax on their cuticles, as insects and arachnids have. Consequently, they soon dry up unless they remain hidden in damp, dark habitats; they can emerge only at night, when the
temperature drops and the relative humidity of the atmosphere increases. This behavior is strongly influenced by the operation of circadian BIOLOGICAL CLOCKS. _^<N__^<N_The function of excretion, like that of osmotic regulation, is the maintenance
of constant conditions within the body of an animal. Aquatic forms can safely excrete toxic nitrogenous waste compounds, such as ammonia, but the necessity for water economy in terrestrial species generally requires the excretion of some dry,
nontoxic compound. In terrestrial arthropods this problem has been solved by the evolution of insoluble, nontoxic excretory products--uric acid in the case of myriapods and insects and guanine in arachnids. _^<N__^<N_J. L. Cloudsley-Thompson
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Blum, M. S., ed., Chemical Defenses of Arthropods (1981); Clarke, K., The Biology of the Arthropoda (1975); Cloudsley-Thompson, J. L., Evolution and Adaptation of Terrestrial Arthropods (1987); Manton, S. M., The
Arthropoda (1978).
-END-
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4832
CATO
4784
-A-
Arthur, Chester Alan
-O-
000000|Arthur, Chester Alan
000418| Early Political Career
002629| Presidency
-T-
Arthur, Chester Alan_^<N__^<N_Chester Alan Arthur, 21st president of the United States (1881-85), succeeded to the presidency on the death of James A. GARFIELD on Sept. 19, 1881. An influential member of Roscoe CONKLING's political organization in
New York State before he won the vice-presidency in 1880, Arthur made a competent chief executive. This creditable record contradicted the general dismay expressed when he entered the White House. _^<N__^<N_ Early Political Career_^<N__^<N_Arthur
was born in North Fairfield, Vt., on Oct. 5, 1829, the son of a Baptist clergyman and schoolteacher. He graduated from Union College in Schenectady, N.Y., in 1848 and was admitted to the bar in 1854. Practicing in New York City, he defended
fugitive slaves and joined the Republican party. In 1859 he married Ellen Lewis Herndon, and they had three children. _^<N__^<N_Arthur became an aide to Edwin D. Morgan in Morgan's successful gubernatorial campaign of 1860 and was appointed the
state's engineer-in-chief. For the first two years of the Civil War, he served as assistant quartermaster general, supplying food and equipment for the New York militia, then inspector general, and finally quartermaster general for New York. He
won praise for his organizing ability and his overall contribution to the war effort. _^<N__^<N_When Horatio Seymour, a Democrat, became governor in 1863, Arthur returned to his law practice, working in Roscoe Conkling's New York political
organization for the next decade. Within the Republican party he was a skilled manager and mediator. In 1871 President Ulysses S. Grant appointed Arthur collector of the port of New York, a post that involved the handling of two-thirds of U.S.
tariff revenues. It was the most profitable and powerful patronage job in the nation, and Arthur was as honest, efficient, and partisan as the position allowed. When Conkling and President Rutherford B. HAYES quarreled over civil service reform
and party supremacy in 1878, Arthur was removed. _^<N__^<N_After the Republicans nominated James A. Garfield of Ohio for president in 1880, they offered Arthur the vice-presidency, hoping he would help carry New York in the election. An angry
Conkling, who disliked Garfield and had supported Grant for the nomination, urged Arthur to decline, saying, "Drop it as you would a red-hot shoe from the forge." Arthur responded, "The office of vice-president is a greater honor than I ever
dreamed of attaining," and accepted. In the campaign he raised funds by assessing officeholders and personally oversaw the successful Republican canvass of New York State. His services, a colleague recalled, "were of the highest importance" to
the party. _^<N__^<N_ Presidency_^<N__^<N_Garfield was shot on July 2, 1881, and died two and a half months later. In a brief inaugural address, Arthur said, "Men may die, but the fabric of our free institutions remains unshaken." The
administration that followed was competent but uninspired. Arthur kept Conkling at arm's length and ran his own government. Mrs. Arthur had died in 1880, and a sister served as First Lady. The tall, urbane president, who wore sideburns and
expensive clothes, shone in society. When a visitor asked him about his expensive tastes, he replied, "I may be president of the United States, but my private life is nobody's damned business." _^<N__^<N_A stalemated party system and a divided
Congress limited the achievements of Arthur's term. He prosecuted grafters in the Post Office and vetoed (1882) rivers and harbors legislation, but Congress overrode his veto. Arthur also vetoed (1882) a bill that restricted Chinese immigration,
compelling the lawmakers to pass an improved and less harsh measure. After the Republicans lost the midterm congressional elections of 1882, Congress enacted, with Arthur's support, the Pendleton Law that created a Civil Service Commission and a
classified merit system. His support of a lower tariff failed when Congress enacted the high protective tariff of 1883. _^<N__^<N_Arthur's tepid record and lack of strong support within his own party cost him the presidential nomination in 1884.
Moreover, he was ill with Bright's disease and knew that he could not live out a second term. His race for the nomination was only symbolic, and the party chose James G. BLAINE. Arthur died 21 months after leaving office. At a time when the
presidency was held in low esteem, he had been both respectable and admirable in office. Conscientious though not inspiring, he had demonstrated that men of modest background and attainments could grow in the White House. _^<N__^<N_Lewis L. Gould
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Cardinale, E. J., Chester A. Arthur (1989); Doenecke, J. D., The Presidencies of James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur (1981); Howe, George F., Chester A. Arthur (1934; repr. 1957); Reeves, Thomas C., Gentleman
Boss: The Life of Chester Alan Arthur (1975). _^<N__^<N_
-END-
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4083
CAT
-A-
Arthur and Arthurian legend
-T-
Arthur and Arthurian legend_^<N__^<N_Arthur, the focus of an extensive medieval cycle of legends and romances, was probably a Celtic British king or chieftain of the 6th century AD who fought against the Saxon invaders of England. The name may also
be that of a Celtic god whose mythology was early confused with the exploits of the historical figure. Arthur is first mentioned in the Welsh poem Gododdin (c.600), is referred to by the Welsh chronicler Nennius (c.800) in his Latin Historia
Britonum, and appears also in the compilation Annales Cambriae (10th century). His popularity was equally great in Cornwall and Brittany, and it was through the Bretons that the legends spread orally to the rest of Europe. _^<N__^<N_By the 12th
century, Arthur, now indistinguishable from folk and literary accretion, had become a national hero to the English. Given full-bodied shape by GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH, he appears in the Historia regum Britanniae (1137) as the master of a European
empire. The French poet Wace fleshed out the details of Arthur's fame in Le Roman de Brut (1155), to which the English poet LAYAMON added in his epic narrative Brut at the end of the century. The French poet CHRETIEN DE TROYES (fl. late 12th
century) used the court of King Arthur as the setting for his intense, tragic romances of individual knights associated with Arthur, such as LANCELOT and Percival. These in turn influenced the German renderings of the PARSIFAL legend produced by
WOLFRAM VON ESCHENBACH and the Tristan legend (see TRISTAN AND ISOLDE) produced by GOTTFRIED VON STRASSBURG (both 13th century); Chretien de Troyes's romances also contributed substantially to the mystique of COURTLY LOVE and the ideals of
CHIVALRY then in vogue among the French aristocracy. _^<N__^<N_In the 13th century, the Arthurian legends, especially those concerning the Holy GRAIL, increasingly took on Christian overtones; pagan and religious elements survived in interpretive
re-creations through the 19th century, most notably in the Idylls of the King (1859-85), by Alfred, Lord TENNYSON, and the opera Parsifal (1882), by Richard WAGNER. SIR GAWAIN AND THE GREEN KNIGHT was an important 14th-century English addition to
Arthurian literature. _^<N__^<N_Arthur and his knights assumed quasi-definitive form in the heroic prose epic MORTE D'ARTHUR of Sir Thomas MALORY. Here could be found all the ingredients that have continued as a source of inspiration for the poets
Edmund Spenser and Algernon Charles Swinburne as well as for takeoffs as various as Mark Twain's Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (1889), T. H. WHITE's Once and Future King (1958), and the Alan Jay Lerner-Frederick Loewe musical Camelot
(1960); (see LERNER, ALAN JAY, AND LOEWE, FREDERICK.) These elements include Arthur's natural birth to Igraine and King Uther Pendragon; his tutelage by the magician MERLIN; his assumption of the English throne after extracting the sword
Excalibur from a rock; the institution of a round table for the knights at his court in Caerleon, or CAMELOT; the adulterous love affair between his queen, GUINEVERE, and the noble Lancelot; the treachery of his nephew Mordred (or Modred); the
mortal combat between Arthur and Mordred at the battle of Camlan; his mysterious translation to the island of Avalon, where he was taken to be buried (or healed); the quest of Sir GALAHAD for the Holy Grail; and the adventures of GAWAIN, Gareth,
Kay, Bedivere, Tristram, and others. _^<N__^<N_David M. Zesmer _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Alcock, Leslie, Arthur's Britain (1970); Ashe, Geoffrey, et al., eds., Quest for Arthur's Britain (1977); Barber, Richard, King Arthur (1986); Brengle,
Richard L., ed., Arthur, King of Britain: History, Romance, Chronicle, and Criticism (1964); Fletcher, Robert H., Arthurian Material in the Chronicles of Great Britain and France (1906; repr. 1969); Goodman, J. R., The Legend of Arthur in
British and American Literature (1988); Lacy, N. L., The Arthurian Handbook (1988); Loomis, Roger S., ed., Arthurian Literature in the Middle Ages (1959); Matthews, J., and Stewart, B., Warriors of Arthur (1988).
-END-
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1018
CAT
-A-
artichoke
-T-
artichoke_^<N__^<N_{ahr'-ti-chohk} _^<N__^<N_The globe artichoke, Cynara scolymus, is a popular vegetable that is grown for its bud. A member of the thistle tribe of the Compositae family, it is native to the central and western Mediterranean area,
where it is still economically important. It was known as a delicacy at least 2,500 years ago, and records of cultivation date from the 15th century. The entire U.S. artichoke crop is produced in the midcoastal area of California. The moderate
climate, with generally frost-free winters and cool summers, affords ideal conditions for growth. _^<N__^<N_Artichokes grow to about 1.5 m (5 ft); blue green leaves and flower stalks bearing a central bud, and 2 or 3 secondary buds arise from the
base, or crown, of the plant. The immature buds, surrounded by leaflike bracts, are the harvested portions of the plant. Established plants produce 10 or 12 stalks annually. Propagation is usually by division rather than by seeds, and the plants
remain productive for 3 to 7 or more years. _^<N__^<N_Donald N. Maynard
-END-
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3403
CAT
-A-
Articles of Confederation
-T-
Articles of Confederation_^<N__^<N_The Articles of Confederation, drafted by the Continental Congress in 1777 and ratified in 1781, became the first constitution of the United States. The original draft, prepared by John DICKINSON in 1776, contained
provisions for a strong and possibly viable national government, but state jealousies and widespread distrust of central authority led to the emasculation of that document (see STATE RIGHTS). _^<N__^<N_As adopted, the articles provided only for a
"firm league of friendship" in which each of the 13 states expressly retained "its sovereignty, freedom, and independence." Citizens of each state were given equal privileges and immunities, freedom of movement was guaranteed, and procedures for
the extradition of accused criminals were outlined. The articles established a national legislature called the Congress, consisting of two to seven delegates from each state; each state had one vote, irrespective of its size or population. No
executive or judicial branches were provided for. Congress was charged with responsibility for conducting foreign relations, declaring war or peace, maintaining an army and navy, settling boundary disputes, establishing and maintaining a postal
service, and various lesser functions. Some of these responsibilities were shared with the states, and in one way or another Congress was dependent upon the cooperation of the states for carrying out any of them. _^<N__^<N_Four broad weaknesses of
the articles, apart from those of organization, made it impossible for Congress to execute its constitutional duties. These were brilliantly analyzed in numbers 15-22 of The FEDERALIST, the political essays in which Alexander Hamilton, James
Madison, and John Jay argued the case for the U.S. Constitution of 1787. The first and fundamental weakness was that Congress could legislate only for states, not for individuals; thus it could not enforce legislation. Second, Congress had no power
to tax. Instead, it was to estimate its expenses and apportion those among the states on the basis of the value of land. States were then to tax their own citizens to raise the money for these requisitions and turn the proceeds over to Congress.
They could not be forced to do so, and in practice they rarely met their obligations. Third, Congress lacked the power to regulate commerce--without which its power to conduct foreign relations was meaningless, since most treaties except those of
peace were concerned mainly with trade. The fourth weakness ensured the demise of the Confederation by making it too difficult to remedy the first three. Amendments could have rectified any of the weaknesses, but amendments required ratification by
all 13 state legislatures. None of the several amendments that were proposed met that requirement. _^<N__^<N_In 1786 the ANNAPOLIS CONVENTION met to discuss the problem of interstate commerce. Out of it came the proposal for the CONSTITUTIONAL
CONVENTION that met in Philadelphia in 1787 and drafted the new Constitution. To ensure its adoption, the amendment procedure of the articles was simply ignored. _^<N__^<N_Forrest McDonald _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Burnett, E. C., The Continental
Congress (1941; repr. 1976); Henderson, H. J., Party Politics in the Continental Congress (1987); Jensen, Merill, The New Nation (1981); McLaughlin, A. C., The Confederation and the Constitution (1905); Rakove, J. N., The Beginnings of National
Politics (1981).
-END-
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683
CAT
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articles of religion
-T-
articles of religion_^<N__^<N_Short theological statements, articles of religion were official Protestant declarations of doctrine issued during the 16th and 17th centuries. The best known are the THIRTY-NINE ARTICLES of the Church of England
(1563), revised by the U.S. Episcopal Church in 1801. Other Reformation articles include the Schwabach Articles (1529), Ten Articles (1536), Schmalkaldic Articles (1537), Six Articles (1539), Forty-two Articles (1553), Lambeth Articles (1595), and
Irish Articles (1615). Many Reformation statements were called CONFESSIONS OF FAITH. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: George, Timothy, Theology of the Reformers (1988); Leith, John H., ed., Creeds of the Churches (1982).
-END-
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38
CAT
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Articles of War:
-T-
Articles of War:_^<N__^<N_see MILITARY JUSTICE.
-END-
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5038
CAT
4765
-A-
artificial insemination
-T-
artificial insemination_^<N__^<N_Artificial insemination is the injection of SEMEN into the vagina by instrumental means. The first experiments with artificial inseminations of viviparous (live-bearing) animals were performed by the 18th-century
Italian physiologist Lazzaro Spallanzani, who proved that the male contribution to reproduction resided in the semen. Pioneering work in the artificial insemination of dairy and beef animals was done in Russia about the time of the Revolutions of
1917. _^<N__^<N_The science of animal artificial insemination was brought to the United States in 1938 by Enos J. Perry, an extension agent from Hunterdon County, New Jersey. Perry learned the technique in Denmark, then used it to breed Holstein
cows on four New Jersey farms. On Feb. 15, 1939, the first of Perry's experimental calves was born. _^<N__^<N_Although Perry's work was met with resistance by farmers who perceived a threat to the lucrative business of selling bulls, the increased
need for dairy products in World War II and the discovery in 1949 of a technique to preserve semen by freezing fostered the progress of the artificial insemination industry. Its principal advantage over natural breeding is that a single male of
superior genetic quality can be used to impregnate thousands of females, thereby improving herds and increasing dairy and meat production. Dairy farmers risk deterioration of their herds from excessive inbreeding, and artificial insemination helps
farmers avoid the expense of maintaining their own bulls. Artificial insemination now accounts for 85 percent of all registered Holstein births and over 65 percent of all other dairy breeds. It is also used for breeding other livestock.
_^<N__^<N_The artificial insemination process, for dairy cattle, begins with the collection of semen. A bull mounts either a castrated steer or a cow in heat (whichever the bull prefers) fitted with a human-held artificial vagina to collect the
semen. Penetration must be avoided to prevent loss of semen and because bulls are prone to venereal diseases. The semen is mixed with a nutrient and antibiotic solution, packaged in plastic straws, then frozen at - 320 degrees F in liquid nitrogen.
The straws cost between $10 and $20 each, and it usually takes two straws to achieve a pregnancy. _^<N__^<N_Zoo workers are in the process of refining artificial insemination and IN VITRO FERTILIZATION technologies to help breed rare and endangered
species and to replace the expensive and not-always-successful practice of shipping animals around the world for mating purposes. Inbreeding of small populations of animals increases the prevalence of genetic defects leading to early death and
reduced fertility. Inbreeding also contributes to the loss of genes, reducing the long-term fitness of a species. Importing semen will make it easier to mate rare animals from distant zoos, thus keeping greater variety in the gene pool.
_^<N__^<N_Artificial insemination in humans was first reported in the late 19th century. Much of its early use occurred in secrecy. It was not until the freezing of semen became technically feasible and reliable in the early 1950s that artificial
insemination in humans became more widespread. The first human progeny from stored spermatozoa was born in 1953. Today, over 65,000 children born in the United States each year are the products of artificial insemination. _^<N__^<N_Artificial
insemination is used to achieve pregnancy when an anatomical impediment prevents direct fertilization. When the male is sterile, semen is collected from a donor who is free of genetic and infectious disease. In cases where a woman is unable to
conceive as a result of defective oviducts, an egg can be removed surgically from her ovary and fertilized in vitro--that is, in a petri dish under laboratory conditions that simulate the environment inside the oviduct, where fertilization normally
takes place. The embryo is then transferred to the woman's uterus to develop in the usual manner. _^<N__^<N_In recent years artificial insemination has been used as a means of providing a child to a couple where the woman cannot conceive. The
husband's sperm is used to fertilize a SURROGATE MOTHER, who has volunteered to bear the child, usually for a fee, and to give it up immediately after its birth. _^<N__^<N_Artificial insemination in humans has raised complex legal, religious,
social, and ethical questions regarding the nature of parentage, the rights of natural parents, and eugenics issues. Advances in reproductive technology have preceded resolution of such issues. _^<N__^<N_James A. Blackman, M.D.
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Andrews, L., New Conceptions (1983); Barratt, C., and Cooke, I., eds., Donor Insemination (1993); Bearden, J. H., and Fuquay, J. H., Applied Animal Reproduction, 3d ed. (1991); Noble, E., Having Your Baby by Donor
Insemination: A Complete Resource Guide (1988); O'Donovan, O., Begotten or Made? Human Procreation and Medical Technique (1984); Waltz, J. A., Artificial Insemination and the Unmarried Woman: Legal Rights and Responsibilities (1987). _^<N__^<N_See
also: EUGENICS; FERTILITY, HUMAN.
-END-
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12532
CATO
4781
9580
-A-
artificial intelligence
-O-
000000|artificial intelligence
001900| CHARACTERISTICS OF AI
003108| HISTORY OF AI
006121| THE FIFTH-GENERATION ATTEMPT
007738| THE FUTURE OF AI RESEARCH
-T-
artificial intelligence_^<N__^<N_Artificial intelligence (AI) is, in theory, the ability of an artificial mechanism to demonstrate some form of intelligent behavior equivalent to the behaviors observed in intelligent living organisms. Artificial
intelligence is also the name of the field of science and technology in which artificial mechanisms that exhibit behavior resembling intelligence are developed and studied. _^<N__^<N_The term AI itself, and the phenomena actually observed,
invite--indeed demand--philosophical speculation about what in fact constitutes the mind or intelligence (see BEHAVIORISM; CONSCIOUSNESS; REASONING). These kinds of questions can be considered separately, however, from a description of the various
endeavors to construct increasingly sophisticated mechanisms that exhibit "intelligence." _^<N__^<N_Research into all aspects of AI is vigorous. Some concern exists among workers in the field, however, that both the progress and expectations of AI
have been overstated. AI programs are primitive when compared to the kinds of intuitive reasoning and induction of which the human brain or even the brains of much less advanced organisms are capable. AI has indeed shown great promise in the area
of EXPERT SYSTEMS--that is, knowledge-based expert programs--but while these programs are powerful when answering questions within a specific domain, they are nevertheless incapable of any type of adaptable, or truly intelligent, reasoning.
_^<N__^<N_Examples of AI systems include COMPUTER programs that perform such tasks as medical diagnoses and mineral prospecting. Computers have also been programmed to display some degree of legal reasoning, speech understanding, vision
interpretation, natural-language processing, problem solving, and learning. Although most of these systems have proved valuable either as research vehicles or in specific, practical applications, most of them are also still very far from being
perfected. _^<N__^<N_ CHARACTERISTICS OF AI_^<N__^<N_No generally accepted theories have yet emerged within the field of AI, owing in part to the fact that AI is a very young science. It is assumed, however, that on the highest level an AI system
must receive input from its environment, determine an action or response, and deliver an output to its environment. A mechanism for interpreting the input is needed. This need has led to research in speech understanding, vision, and natural
language (see VOICE RECOGNITION; PATTERN RECOGNITION). The interpretation must be represented in some form that can be manipulated by the machine. _^<N__^<N_In order to achieve this goal, techniques of knowledge representation are invoked. The AI
interpretation of this, together with knowledge obtained previously, is manipulated within the system under study by means of some mechanism or ALGORITHM. The system thus arrives at an internal representation of the response or action. The
development of such processes requires techniques of expert reasoning, common-sense reasoning, problem solving, planning, signal interpretation, and learning. Finally, the system must construct an effective response. This requires techniques of
natural-language generation. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY OF AI_^<N__^<N_The term artificial intelligence was coined in 1956, when a group of interested scientists met for an initial summer workshop. Those attending included Allen Newell, Herbert SIMON,
Marvin Minsky, Oliver Selfridge, and John McCarthy. Early work in AI consisted of attempts to simulate the NEURAL NETWORKS of the brain with numerically modeled nerve cells called "perceptrons."Success in these efforts was greatly limited by the
extreme complexity of the problem (although interest was revived in the 1980s and continued into the 1990s, because of advances in computer technology). _^<N__^<N_In the late 1950s and early 1960s, scientists Newell, Simon, and J. C. Shaw offered
their "logical theorist" computer program, and introduced symbolic processing (see COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY). Instead of building systems based on numbers, they attempted to build systems that manipulated symbols. Their approach was powerful and has
been fundamental to almost all work in AI until fairly recently. In this symbolic approach, knowledge is expressed as rules. For instance, one such rule might be: "If x is a bird, then x can fly." If an AI system determines or is told that a robin
is a bird, then, it can infer that the robin can fly. The problem with this rule, of course, is that animals such as ostriches and penguins are birds but cannot fly. Although the difficulty here is obvious, it serves to exemplify subtler problems
that are endemic to the methodology of the logical, symbolic approach. _^<N__^<N_Scores of AI systems have been built as a means for uncovering and facing the problems of producing intelligent behavior. In the 1950s a checkers-playing program
capable of championship-level play was developed. In the 1960s a program was developed that could prove theorems in Euclidean geometry. Another program was capable of solving analogy problems such as those given on standard intelligence tests. In
the late 1960s a program was developed that could create a betting strategy for the card game poker. _^<N__^<N_Explosive growth occurred in the 1970s. Progress was made in the interpretation of visual input. A method was developed for representing
actions in a less ambiguous way, advancing the capabilities of programs for understanding natural language. A rudimentary speech recognition system, capable of identifying spoken words, was also developed. The first knowledge-based expert program
was written in the mid-1960s. Called Dendral, it could predict the structures of unknown chemical compounds based on routine analyses. _^<N__^<N_Expert systems of a more sophisticated rule-based nature were subsequently developed. One notable
example is the Mycin program. Mycin uses rules derived from the medical domain to reason backward--that is, deduce--from a list of symptoms to a particular disease. Many expert systems of similar design have been constructed. In the field of
strategy, chess-playing programs were devised by the 1990s that could compete at the level of grand masters of the game, and do so successfully at times. _^<N__^<N_ THE FIFTH-GENERATION ATTEMPT_^<N__^<N_In the 1980s, in an attempt to develop an
expert system on a very large scale, the Japanese government began building powerful computers with hardware that made logical inferences in the computer language PROLOG. (Following the idea of representing knowledge declaratively, the logic
programming PROLOG had been developed in England and France. PROLOG is actually an inference engine that searches declared facts and rules to confirm or deny a hypothesis. A drawback of PROLOG is that it cannot be altered by the programmer.) The
Japanese referred to such machines as "fifth-generation" computers. _^<N__^<N_By the early 1990s, however, Japan had forsaken this plan and even announced that they were ready to release its software. Although they did not detail reasons for their
abandonment of the fifth-generation program, U.S scientists faulted their efforts at AI as being too much in the direction of computer-type logic and too little in the direction of human thinking processes. The choice of PROLOG was also criticized.
Other nations were by then not developing software in that computer language and were showing little further enthusiasm for it. Furthermore, the Japanese were not making much progress in PARALLEL PROCESSING, a kind of computer architecture
involving many independent processors working together in parallel--a method increasingly important in the field of computer science. The Japanese have now defined a "sixth-generation"goal instead, called the Real World Computing Project, that
veers away from the expert-systems approach that works only by built-in logical rules. _^<N__^<N_ THE FUTURE OF AI RESEARCH_^<N__^<N_One impediment to building even more useful expert systems has been, from the start, the problem of input--in
particular, the feeding of raw data into an AI system. To this end, much effort has been devoted to speech recognition, character recognition, machine vision, and natural-language processing. A second problem is in obtaining knowledge. It has
proved arduous to extract knowledge from an expert and then code it for use by the machine, so a great deal of effort is also being devoted to learning and knowledge acquisition. _^<N__^<N_One of the most useful ideas that has emerged from AI
research, however, is that facts and rules (declarative knowledge) can be represented separately from decision-making algorithms (procedural knowledge). This realization has had a profound effect both on the way that scientists approach problems
and on the engineering techniques used to produce AI systems. By adopting a particular procedural element, called an inference engine, development of an AI system is reduced to obtaining and codifying sufficient rules and facts from the problem
domain. This codification process is called knowledge engineering. Reducing system development to knowledge engineering has opened the door to non-AI practitioners. In addition, business and industry have been recruiting AI scientists to build
expert systems. _^<N__^<N_In particular, a large number of these problems in the AI field have been associated with robotics (see AUTOMATA, THEORY OF; ROBOT). There are, first of all, the mechanical problems of getting a machine to make very
precise or delicate movements. Beyond that are the much more difficult problems of programming sequences of movements that will enable a robot to interact effectively with a natural environment, rather than some carefully designed laboratory
setting. Much work in this area involves problem solving and planning. _^<N__^<N_A radical approach to such problems has been to abandon the aim of developing "reasoning" AI systems and to produce, instead, robots that function "reflexively." A
leading figure in this field has been Rodney Brooks of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. These AI researchers felt that preceding efforts in robotics were doomed to failure because the systems produced could not function in the real world.
Rather than trying to construct integrated networks that operate under a centralizing control and maintain a logically consistent model of the world, they are pursuing a behavior-based approach named subsumption architecture. _^<N__^<N_Subsumption
architecture employs a design technique called "layering,"--a form of parallel processing in which each layer is a separate behavior-producing network that functions on its own, with no central control. No true separation exists, in these layers,
between data and computation. Both of them are distributed over the same networks. Connections between sensors and actuators in these systems are kept short as well. The resulting robots might be called "mindless," but in fact they have
demonstrated remarkable abilities to learn and to adapt to real-life circumstances. _^<N__^<N_The apparent successes of this new approach have not convinced many supporters of integrated-systems development that the alternative is a valid one for
drawing nearer to the goal of producing true AI. The arguments that have arisen between practitioners of the two different methodologies are in fact profound ones. They have implications about the nature of intelligence in general, whether natural
or artificial. _^<N__^<N_Paul E. Utgoff _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bjoccara, Nino, et al., eds., Cellular Automata and Cooperative Systems (1993); Brooks, Rodney A., "New Approaches to Robotics ," Science, Sept. 13, 1991; Burton, R. G., ed., Natural
and Artificial Minds (1993); Charniak, Eugene, and McDermott, Drew, Introduction to Artificial Intelligence (1985); Copeland, Jack, Artificial Intelligence: A Philosophical Introduction (1993); Forbes, K. D., Building Problem Solvers (1993); Ford,
Nigel, How Machines Think (1987); Kim, S. H., Designing Intelligence (1990); Maes, Pattie, ed., Designing Autonomous Agents (1990); Moravec, Hans, Mind Children (1989; repr. 1990); Newell, Allen, Unified Theories of Cognition (1990); Partridge,
Derek, and Wilkes, Yorick, eds., The Foundations of Artificial Intelligence (1990); Patterson, D. W., Introduction to Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems (1990); Penrose, Roger, The Emperor's New Mind (1989); Said, K. A., et al., eds.,
Modelling the Mind (1990); Smith, Raoul, The Facts on File Dictionary of Artificial Intelligence (1989); Wagman, Morton, Cognitive Psychology and Artificial Intelligence (1993); Winston, Patrick, Artificial Intelligence at MIT (1990). _^<N__^<N_See
artificial life_^<N__^<N_Artificial life (commonly called a-life) is the term applied collectively to attempts being made to develop mathematical models and computer simulations of the ways in which living organisms develop, grow, and evolve.
Researchers in this burgeoning field hope to gain deeper insights into the nature of organic life as well as into the further possibilities of COMPUTER science and robotics (see ROBOT). A-life techniques are also being used to explore the origins
and chemical processes of metabolism. Some investigators have even proposed that some digital "life" in computers might already be considered a real life form. _^<N__^<N_ Background_^<N__^<N_The term artificial life was coined in the 1980s by
Christopher Langdon, a computer scientist at Los Alamos National Laboratory and the Santa Fe Institute. Langdon organized the first experimental workshop on the subject at Santa Fe in 1987. Since then other a-life conferences have taken place,
drawing increasingly wider attention and a growing number of participants. _^<N__^<N_Theoretical studies of a-life, however, had been in progress long before the 1980s. Most notably, the Hungarian-born U.S. mathematician John VON NEUMANN, one of
the pioneers of computer science, had begun to explore the nature of very basic a-life formats called cellular automata (see AUTOMATA, THEORY OF) in the 1950s. Cellular automata are imaginary mathematical "cells" --analogous to checkerboard
squares--that can be made to simulate physical processes by subjecting them to certain simple rules called algorithms (see ALGORITHM). Before his death, von Neumann had developed a set of algorithms by which a cellular automaton--a box shape with a
very long tail--could "reproduce" itself. _^<N__^<N_Another important predecessor of a-life research was Dutch biologist Aristid Lindenmeyer. Interested in the mathematics of plant growth, Lindenmeyer found in the 1960s that through the use of a
few basic algorithms--now called Lindenmeyer systems, or L-systems--he could model biochemical processes as well as tracing the development of complex biological forms such as flowers. Computer-graphics programs now make use of L-systems to yield
realistic three-dimensional images of plants. _^<N__^<N_The significance of Lindenmeyer's contribution is evident in the fact that so-called "genetic algorithms" are now basic to research into a-life as well as many other areas of interest. Genetic
algorithms, first described by computer scientist John Holland of the University of Michigan in the 1970s, are comparable to L-systems. A computer worker trying to answer some question about a-life sets up a system--an algorithm--by which the
computer itself rapidly grades the multiple possible answers that it has produced to the question. The most successful of the solutions are then used to develop new software that yields further solutions, and the cycle is repeated through several
"generations" of answers. _^<N__^<N_ Evolutionary Modeling_^<N__^<N_Langdon himself picked up on the work of von Neumann by attempting to design an "a-life" form on a computer screen. In 1979 he finally succeeded in developing loop-shaped objects
that actually reproduced themselves, over and over again. As new generations spread outward from the initial "organisms" they left "dead" generations inside the expanding parameter. Langdon noted that the "behavior" of these a-life forms genuinely
mimicked real-life processes of mutation and evolution. He eventually proposed that a-life studies could provide keys to understanding the logical form of any living systems, known or unknown. _^<N__^<N_One of the most striking a-life simulations
of evolutionary processes has been the work of Thomas Ray of the University of Delaware, who in 1990 set in motion a "world" of computer programs that he called Tierra. The world started out with a single ancestor, a program containing 80
instructions. A-life evolution proceeded as mutations rapidly appeared. The new forms included "parasites" that interacted with the original host forms, producing further mutations of hosts and parasites that "learned" to deal with one another anew
in each succeeding generation. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Braitenberg, Valentino, Vehicles: Experiments in Synthetic Psychology (1984); Langdon, Christopher, ed., Artificial Life (1988); Levy, Steven, Artificial Life (1992); Pagels, H. R., The Dreams
of Reason (1988); Prata, Stephen, Artificial Life (1993).
-END-
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2075
CAT
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artificial limbs
-T-
artificial limbs_^<N__^<N_Artificial limbs--legs, arms, and hands--are used by people who have undergone an amputation or were born with a deficient or missing limb. Amputation surgery is an exact science, with the remnant or residual limb designed
for weight-bearing and control of the artificial limb, or prosthesis. The latter is designed, made, and fit by specialists called prosthetists. Artificial limbs have been used for more than 2,000 years. The earliest (c.300 BC) known artificial limb
was a leg made of metal plates surrounding a wooden core. The greatest developments in artificial limbs occurred after World War II when surgeons and PROSTHETICS experts worked to remake bodies damaged in war. Current advances include the use of
materials and microelectronics from the aerospace industry. _^<N__^<N_Hand and arm replacements are usually operated by voluntary muscle control from the opposite shoulder through cables that connect from the shoulder harness to the artificial hand
or hook, called the terminal device. Arm prostheses may also be operated by myoelectric control (myo means muscle), where the electrochemical activity of key arm muscles is received by electrodes in the prosthesis, and transmitted to a motor that
operates the prosthesis. Arm prosthetic research is exploring microelectronic control systems and BIOFEEDBACK. _^<N__^<N_The leg prosthesis socket in which the residual limb fits is aligned with the feet, ankles, and knees for each individual.
Research has produced more dynamic feet and more comfortable and flexible sockets. Materials such as carbon graphite, titanium, and flexible thermoplastics have allowed great advances in leg prostheses. Here too, researchers are exploring
microelectronics for sensory feedback and control of artificial knee swing and stance. _^<N__^<N_C. Michael Schuch _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons Staff, Atlas of Limb Prosthetics, 2d ed. (1992); Facklam, M. and H.,
Spare Parts for People (1987); Phillips, C. A., ed., Effective Upper and Lower Extremity Prostheses (1989); Wilson, A. B., Jr., Limb Prosthetics (1989).
-END-
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3974
CAT
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artificial organs
-T-
artificial organs_^<N__^<N_Artificial organs are materials or devices designed either for implantation in or use outside the body, to replace functions that have been lost through disease or injury to major organs. Artificial organs may be used to
take over the full-time functions of organs or as a bridge to a transplant. Artificial organs include such permanent devices as tubes made of various synthetic materials to replace diseased arteries and metal replacements for diseased or injured
hip sockets or other joints, and the HEART-LUNG MACHINE, which takes over the function of those two organs during open heart surgery. _^<N__^<N_When organ failure is irreversible, the best long-term solution (if possible) is transplantation.
However, demand for organ transplants far exceeds available donor organs, and patients may die while waiting for a transplant. A device such as the artificial kidney, a machine that is connected externally to filter wastes from the blood of
patients who have impaired kidney function, can be a temporary measure until a suitable donor kidney is found. The artificial kidney can also function as a long-term replacement, as in cases of chronic uremia. The device consists of a semipermeable
membrane package into which the patient's blood flows in a continuous circuit from and to blood vessels in the arm or leg. The membrane filters wastes from the blood to a circulating fluid that flows outside the membrane compartment and is
discarded. The process, called "hemodialysis," is undergone three or more times each week, for four to six hours per treatment. There are approximately 500,000 people worldwide who are sustained by maintenance dialysis. _^<N__^<N_The hemodialysis
techniques were quickly adapted to the heart-lung machine, which removes carbon dioxide and adds oxygen to blood circulating outside the body. This machine provides surgeons with the time needed for complex heart surgery. The technology of the
heart-lung machine has been adapted to create an "artificial lung," which for periods of up to several days is able to sustain patients with acute lung disorders who are likely to recover. This type of treatment has become a mainstay of treatment
for premature infants with underdeveloped lungs. _^<N__^<N_Artificial heart valves and cardiac pacemakers have been implanted in many people with heart disease. Permanent artificial heart transplants were tried beginning in 1982 but have been
discontinued because of lack of success. Artificial hearts are still used temporarily as a bridge until a human heart becomes available for transplant. Research teams continue to refine artificial heart designs for eventual human use.
_^<N__^<N_Among the other artificial organs available are the artificial LARYNX, or "voice box," an electrically powered device used externally, and the cochlear implant, an electrode or electrodes implanted in the cochlea of the inner ear of some
profoundly deaf adults and children with undamaged auditory nerves (see HEARING AID). Artificial SKIN made of animal protein fiber and silicon has been developed for burn victims, and BLOOD substitutes have had limited use in patients who cannot
accept natural blood. Artificial bladders and ureters can replace bladders lost to cancer. _^<N__^<N_Research continues in bioartificial organs, in which a synthetic membrane encloses functioning human or animal cells, permitting a naturally
functioning organ to do its job, yet protecting it from rejection by the body. Experiments are focusing on replacing the liver, the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas, adrenal cells in Parkinson's disease patients, and stimulating nerve cell
regrowth. _^<N__^<N_Eli A. Friedman, M.D. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Galletti, P. M., "Bioartificial Organs ," Artificial Organs, vol. 16 (1992); Olsen, D. B., "Artificial Organs of the Future," ASAIO Journal, vol. 38 (1992); Plough, A. L., Borrowed
Time (1986). _^<N__^<N_See also: BIONICS; HEART, ARTIFICIAL; IRON LUNG; KIDNEY, ARTIFICIAL; PACEMAKER, ARTIFICIAL; PROSTHETICS; TRANSPLANTATION, ORGAN.
-END-
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69
CAT
-A-
artificial respiration:
-T-
artificial respiration:_^<N__^<N_see CARDIOPULMONARY RESUSCITATION; FIRST AID.
-END-
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1621
CAT
-A-
Artigas, Jose Gervasio
-T-
Artigas, Jose Gervasio_^<N__^<N_{ahr-tee'-gahs, hoh-say' hair-vah'-seeoh} _^<N__^<N_Jose Gervasio Artigas, b. June 19, 1764, d. Sept. 23, 1850, was a military and political leader of the people of the Banda Oriental (modern Uruguay) in the Latin
American wars of independence. He was a leading figure in the Uruguayan independence movement and is revered as that country's national hero. _^<N__^<N_Born to an elite family in Montevideo, Artigas early pursued the life of a gaucho and later
joined the Spanish army, where he developed his military skills. When the Argentine wars of independence broke out in 1811, Artigas raised a force of Uruguayans to support the revolutionaries in Buenos Aires, and by 1812 he controlled virtually all
of Uruguay except Montevideo. Later, however, he faced a more difficult struggle against the Argentinians and the Portuguese from Brazil, who had competed for control over Uruguay since the 18th century. When his demand for representation in the
proposed confederation of Rio de la Plata provinces was rebuffed (1813) by the junta in Buenos Aires, Artigas pursued an independent strategy and formed an alliance with some Argentine inland provinces in opposition to the authority of Buenos
Aires. The federation collapsed in 1816, when the Portuguese reoccupied the area and Buenos Aires refused to help. _^<N__^<N_Artigas fought the Portuguese for four years but was defeated in 1820 and fled to Paraguay. Uruguay was incorporated into
Brazil. Although Uruguay achieved its independence eight years later, Artigas never returned to his homeland. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Street, John, Artigas and the Emancipation of Uruguay (1959).
-END-
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7032
CATO
4764
-A-
artillery
-O-
000000|artillery
000517| Early Artillery
001355| 16th and 17th Centuries
002647| 18th Century
003529| 19th Century
004360| Development of Modern Artillery
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artillery_^<N__^<N_Artillery is one of the three main branches of an ARMY, along with the INFANTRY and the CAVALRY. Artillery refers both to the personnel who transport and serve its weapons and to the weapons themselves. Traditionally, artillery
weapons include larger firearms such as guns, HOWITZERS, MORTARS, and rocket launchers. In the United States, artillery weapons are those that use ammunition larger than 25.4 mm (1 in), except for portable rocket launchers such as the BAZOOKA, the
RECOILLESS RIFLE, and small mortars. _^<N__^<N_ Early Artillery_^<N__^<N_The term artillery once applied to all weapons that used projectiles: the BOW AND ARROW, the slingshot, and the many variations of the CATAPULT. Soon after GUNPOWDER was
introduced in Europe in the 13th century, machinery for utilizing it in warfare began to be devised. The earliest reference to artillery manufacture in Britain dates from the reign of Edward III (1327-77), when John Ryker, artillator regis ("the
king's artillery man"), received sixpence a day for making spingards, a type of small CANNON. During the 15th century the French and the Italians attempted to make artillery more mobile by mounting some of the lighter pieces on carriages. A key
technical development was the trunnion: two posts, one on either side of the barrel, fixed the tube to the mount and permitted it to be raised or lowered. _^<N__^<N_ 16th and 17th Centuries_^<N__^<N_During the 16th century the use and development
of artillery increased. The younger duke of Ferrara used his artillery to destroy the Venetian fleet that had sailed up the Po River within a short distance of his capital in 1509. Henry VIII patronized the art of gun founding in England after
being forced to import his cannon. He encouraged the development of hollow shells filled with powder. In 1537, the Italian mathematician Niccolo Tartaglia founded the science of BALLISTICS in his Nuova Scienzia, in which he described the
trajectory of a cannonball. _^<N__^<N_The Swedish king Gustav II Adolf (r. 1611-32), an innovative military tactician, developed effective methods for using artillery on the battlefield. Gustavus limited his field artillery to nothing heavier
than the 12-pounder, and he increased the ratio of cannon from one gun to six for every 1,000 infantry. He concentrated his firepower, frequently massing guns in strong batteries, and he utilized the distinctions among siege, field, and regimental
artillery. _^<N__^<N_As the standing-army principle that began about 1500 came into general use, artillery became an organized arm of the military. Louis XIV of France raised a regiment of artillerymen in 1671 and established schools of artillery
instruction. _^<N__^<N_ 18th Century_^<N__^<N_In 1715 Britain organized the Royal Regiment of Artillery, consisting of two permanent companies. The English scientist Benjamin Robins laid the groundwork for modern ordnance theory and practice in
his New Principles of Gunnery (1742) and contributed to the introduction of carronades (short, light pieces useful on ships) in 1779. _^<N__^<N_During the Seven Years' War, Frederick the Great (1740-86) of Prussia developed a horse artillery to
accompany his cavalry. Mobility was improved considerably by adding a second pair of wheels to the gun carriage or by placing a four-wheel wagon, with interchangeable wheels and iron axletrees, under the rear part of the gun carriage. Napoleon
used his field artillery as a shock weapon, sending guns in front of his own infantry to fire grape and canister shot at the enemy infantry and literally blast holes in the opposing lines. _^<N__^<N_ 19th Century_^<N__^<N_Cannon began to change
rapidly during the 19th century. Improvements included the rifled barrel, breech-loading mechanisms, smokeless powder, recoil-absorbing systems, and better metallurgy. During the U.S. Civil War, Parrott and Rodman guns were commonplace. The
gunmaker R. P. Parrott made cannon by surrounding a central tube of cast iron or steel with wrought-iron or steel hoops. Thomas J. Rodman devised a method of casting barrels around a removable core that was cooled with water; each successive
layer shrank and compressed the previous layer. _^<N__^<N_Alfred KRUPP of Germany produced a successful all-steel gun drilled out of a single block of cast metal, but he soon returned to the built-up hoop system. The hoops were replaced by
countless turns of fine wire coiled under tension, creating wire-wound guns. _^<N__^<N_ Development of Modern Artillery_^<N__^<N_The science of mechanics contributed to the development of a gun mount that could absorb recoil--the backward movement
of the gun caused by firing the projectile. Compression cylinders were used to absorb the recoil, and heavy springs returned the barrel to its original position. Because the recoil force could also be harnessed to open the breech and eject the
shell, the French developed a 75-mm cannon that was capable of firing 15 rounds a minute; its rapid fire compensated for its lighter projectiles. The Germans developed heavier guns and howitzers, with longer ranges and larger bores. The largest
used in World War I, "Big Bertha," was a 420-mm howitzer that fired an 800-kg (1,764-lb) shell about 10 km (6 mi). _^<N__^<N_To support infantry advances in World War I, the artillery developed a standard pattern. First, barrages were directed
against entrenched positions and against barbed-wire entanglements; then, as the troops moved across open ground, the artillery laid down a "walking barrage" in front of them. The quantity of shells and guns needed for the artillery severely
strained the industrial capacity of the belligerents. _^<N__^<N_During World War II the Germans developed a self-propelled howitzer of two calibers, 540 mm and 600 mm. They also had a railroad gun ("Gustave") of 800 mm, used only at the siege of
Sebastopol, on the Russian front. Improvements in mobility resulted in such versatile guns as the 105-mm howitzer that the U.S. Army found so useful in World War II. The U.S. Army now has a 155-mm gun for long-range use, and a cannon-fired
nuclear warhead. _^<N__^<N_Postwar developments have begun to erase the distinction between artillery and other forms of armament. Shoulder-carried recoilless rifles and ground-launched rockets and missiles are included within the definition of
artillery, which is usually classified into three main groups: field artillery includes howitzers, mortars, and large recoilless weapons; antiaircraft artillery comprises cannon, medium-caliber automatic weapons, rockets, and SURFACE-TO-AIR
MISSILES; antitank artillery includes ROCKETS AND MISSILES and cannon. Most U. S. artillery weapons are protected by an armored, wheeled- or track-mounted chassis, and are self-propelled. Towed howitzers are gradually falling into disuse.
_^<N__^<N_Russell J. Parkinson _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Foss, Christopher, Artillery of the World, rev. ed. (1981), and, as ed., Jane's Armour and Artillery, 1988-1989 (1988); Hogg, O. F., Artillery: Its Origin, Heyday, and Decline (1970);
Rogers, H. B., A History of Artillery (1974). _^<N__^<N_See also: AMMUNITION; ARMORED VEHICLE; NAVAL VESSELS; WEAPONS.
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artillery plant
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artillery plant_^<N__^<N_The artillery plant, Pilea microphylla, is an annual herbaceous plant of the nettle family, Urticaceae. Native to tropical America, it is cultivated as a houseplant. Measuring up to 23 cm (9 in) in height, it has small,
succulent leaves borne on numerous branches. It is called the artillery plant because clouds of pollen explode from the tiny, yellow green flowers at maturity.
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artiodactyl
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artiodactyl_^<N__^<N_{ahr-tee-uh-dak'-tul} _^<N__^<N_The artiodactyls are even-toed ungulate, or hoofed, animals of the mammalian order Artiodactyla (artiodactyl means "even-toed"). The order includes 9 living families, 82 genera, and about 150
species. The foot is the distinctive feature of members of this order, with either two- or four-toed hoofs on each foot. Internal anatomical similarities also are present, although the animals range in size from the tiny mouse deer, or
chevrotain, which weighs about 4 kg (9 lb), to the massive hippopotamus, which weighs about 3,600 kg (8,000 lb). Artiodactyls have larger stomachs and longer intestines than carnivores because they are chiefly plant eaters, and plants are harder to
digest than meat. They are native to all parts of the world except Australia, New Zealand, Antarctica, and some islands. They have now been introduced almost everywhere because they are of greater importance to humans than any other mammalian
order. By feeding on grasses and other plant materials, they convert the energy of the Sun to meat, milk, hide, and fiber. _^<N__^<N_The animals in the largest of artiodactyl families, Bovidae, are all RUMINANTS; that is, they have a complex
multichambered stomach and chew their food again after it has been partly broken down. The family includes cattle, bison, buffalo, goats, antelope, and sheep. The 49 genera and about 115 species are widely distributed. _^<N__^<N_The family
Suidae, comprising five genera and nine species, includes pigs and babirusas. Suids are nonruminating and omnivorous, and, despite the adage "eats like a pig," they rarely overeat. _^<N__^<N_The family Tayassuidae includes only the piglike peccary
of the Americas, which is not a ruminant. The family Camelidae includes the dromedary and Bactrian camels of the Old World and the llama, vicuna, alpaca, and guanaco of South America, which are all ruminants. The two hippopotamus species
(Hippopotamidae), neither of which is a ruminant, are native to Africa. The deer of Asia, Europe, and the Americas (Cervidae), the African and Asian chevrotains (Tragulidae), the African giraffes and okapis (Giraffidae), and the North American
pronghorn (Antilocapridae) are all ruminants. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Nowak, R. M., and Paradiso, J. L., eds., Walker's Mammals of the World, 4th ed. (1983). _^<N__^<N_See also: Separate articles on most of the animals mentioned.
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Artois
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Artois_^<N__^<N_{ahr-twah'} _^<N__^<N_A former province in northern France, Artois is roughly equivalent to the present department of Pas-de-Calais (6,638 sq km/2,363 sq mi). ARRAS, the major town, was its capital. Artois is bounded by Flanders on
the northeast, by Picardy on the south and southwest, and by the English Channel on the northwest. It is a low-lying region with some hills in the south. Coal mining and agriculture are the principal economic activities. _^<N__^<N_Originally part
of Flanders, Artois came under French control for the first time in 1180, through the marriage of King Philip II to Isabel of Hainaut. Artois passed to Burgundy in 1329. It became a possession of the Habsburgs in 1477 and a province of Spain in
1493. It was reconquered by the French in 1640; French possession was confirmed by the treaties of the Pyrenees (1659), Nijmegen (1678), and Utrecht (1713). Because of its strategic importance, Artois was the scene of heavy fighting during World
War I.
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arts, education in the
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arts, education in the_^<N__^<N_The term education in the arts may refer to (1) the training of aspiring professionals in the visual and performing arts (including painting, sculpture, graphics, music, dance, theater, and film), which today is
provided mainly by college and university schools of art and by many fewer private schools and conservatories; (2) instruction in the historical, philosophical, and critical dimensions of the arts, which is found largely in colleges of liberal
arts and sciences where it contributes to the goals of liberal or general education; and (3) education in the spirit of either (1) or (2) above in the lower public and private schools. _^<N__^<N_Except in the case of high schools for the
performing arts, however, aesthetic instruction in the lower schools is typically less professional and more consistent with the objectives of nonspecialist education. The study of the arts in higher education conforms to fairly standard
patterns--it tends to be either studio- or performance-centered or to be historically and philosophically oriented--and overall exhibits less diversity of aim than does aesthetic instruction in the lower schools, which is the focus of this article.
_^<N__^<N_The principal questions about arts education in the lower schools concern beliefs about the nature and functions of art and about the kinds of curricula appropriate to educating the young in the arts. Should arts education, for example,
promote such general educational goals as creative and mental growth, or promote more distinctively aesthetic objectives derived from an examination of art's characteristic or preeminent functions? The central issue regarding this latter emphasis
is whether or not arts education should stress a distinctive attitude or form of mental functioning termed visual or aesthetic literacy. _^<N__^<N_These two approaches--arts education for general creative and mental growth and arts education for
the development of a distinctive kind of experience or understanding--typifies recent theorizing about arts education. While the former approach is still strongly evident, the latter (with its theoretical options) is gaining acceptance.
_^<N__^<N_Since the establishment of the National Endowment for the Arts in 1965, a number of public and private authorities increasingly have stressed the study of the arts not for their distinctive values but rather for their instrumental uses in
attaining a number of extraaesthetic objectives, both academic and social. It has been urged that the arts be used, first, to help achieve the objectives of reading, mathematics, and social-studies instruction, for which artists and performing
groups may be employed (for example, actors to perform in social-studies skits); second, to spark general educational reform and raise school morale, believed an achievable goal by virtue of the strength of the arts as a "catalyst"; and, last, to
meliorate such social problems as vandalism, racial prejudice, and the plight of the handicapped. Such beliefs represent the infiltration of government priorities into curriculum policy. _^<N__^<N_A product of the cultural and educational climate
of the 1960's and 70's, this way of construing arts education was criticized and to some extent gave way in the 1980's to views that regard art as a basic subject worthy of study in its own right, in which matters of content and excellence are
central concerns. _^<N__^<N_Ralph A. Smith _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Abbs, Peter, ed., Living Powers: The Arts in Education (1987); Arts, Education, and Americans Panel, Coming to Our Senses (1977; repr. 1988); Beardsley, Monroe, C., The
Aesthetic Point of View, ed. by M. J. Wreen and D. M. Callen (1982); Broudy, Harry S., Enlightened Cherishing (1972); Chapman, Laura, Instant Art, Instant Culture (1982); Fowler, Charles, Can We Preserve the Arts for America's Children?
Coming to Our Senses Ten Years Later (1988); Lowenfeld, Viktor, and Brittain, W. Lambert, Creative and Mental Growth, 7th ed. (1982); Ross, Malcolm, The Aesthetic Imperative (1981).
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Arts and Crafts movement
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Arts and Crafts movement_^<N__^<N_The Arts and Crafts movement originated in England in the second half of the 19th century as a revolt against the mass-produced FURNITURE, household objects, and ARCHITECTURE that flooded the country following the
Great Exhibition of 1851 at the CRYSTAL PALACE in London. The theorists of the movement were the writer John RUSKIN and the artist-poet William MORRIS, who, with the PRE-RAPHAELITE artists Ford Madox BROWN, Edward BURNE-JONES, and Dante Gabriel
ROSSETTI and the architect Philip Webb, preached a return to the traditions of anonymous medieval artisans and recently discovered Japanese artists and craftsmen. Their aim was "honest" art, that is, superior design and execution applied to
utilitarian objects--furniture, household utensils, and architecture--as well as to decorative objects--jewelry, books, textiles, and wallpaper. The beauty and high quality of the work they produced was undeniable and is still admired, but critics
of the time felt that their quality made them costly and impractical in a machine-age world, "the work of a few for the few." _^<N__^<N_Just as the movement seemed to fail, the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society emerged in London. Beginning in
1888, it launched a series of exhibitions that finally aroused broad public interest in superior craftsmanship and design. The movement's time had come, and it spread rapidly to Europe and the United States. In England and Scotland its principles
were evident in the work of such architect-designers as Charles Rennie MACKINTOSH, C. F. A. VOYSEY, and Arthur H. Mackmurdo. In the United States the movement's influence is most evident in the CHICAGO SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE--particularly in
the work of Louis SULLIVAN and Frank Lloyd WRIGHT--and in California somewhat later, as expressed in the architecture of Greene and Greene (the brothers Charles and Henry Greene) and Bernard MAYBECK. By the turn of the century the Arts and Crafts
movement had become a major influence throughout the Western world and had led to the widespread popularity of ART NOUVEAU. The arts and crafts lost much popular appeal in subsequent decades, but interest in good design and craftsmanship is now
flourishing. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Anscombe, Isabelle, and Gere, Charlotte, Arts and Crafts in Britain and America (1983); Boris, E., Art and Labor (1988); Condit, Carl W., The Chicago School of Architecture (1964; repr. 1973); Dickason,
David H., The Daring Young Men: The Story of the American Pre-Raphaelites (1953); Hitchcock, Henry-Russell, Architecture: Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, 3d ed. (1971); Jordy, William H., American Buildings and Their Architects, vol. 3,
in Progressive and Academic Ideals at the Turn of the Twentieth Century (1972); Kaplan, W., ed., The Art That is Life (1987); Kornwolf, James D., M. H. Baillie Scott and the Arts and Crafts Movement (1972); Madsen, Stephan Tschudi, Sources of
Art Nouveau (1956; repr. 1976); Naylor, B., The Arts and Crafts Movement (1971); Selig, H., et al., Jugendstil (1959); Stansky, P., Redesigning the World: William Morris, the 1880s, and the Arts and Crafts (1984); Stein, Roger B., John Ruskin
and Aesthetic Thought in America, 1840-1900 (1967); Stickley, Gustav, Craftsman Homes: Architecture and Furnishings of the American Arts and Crafts Movement (1979); Volpe, T. M., and Cathers, B., Treasures of the American Arts and Crafts
Movement, 1890-1920 (1988). _^<N__^<N_See also: ART DECO; GLASSWARE, DECORATIVE; INDUSTRIAL DESIGN; INTERIOR DESIGN; SECESSION MOVEMENT; WIENER WERKSTATTE.
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629
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Artsybashev, Mikhail Petrovich
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Artsybashev, Mikhail Petrovich_^<N__^<N_{ahrt-si-bah'-shef, mee-kuh-yeel' pee-traw'-vich} _^<N__^<N_The Russian novelist, essayist, and playwright Mikhail Petrovich Artsybashev, b. Nov. 6 (N.S.), 1878, d. Mar. 3, 1927, became known particularly for
his stories concerning sex and death. A version of Nietzsche's philosophy greatly influenced his fiction. His novel Sanine (1907; Eng. trans., 1915) advocated free love and gratification of desires. His other, better-known novels include The
Breaking-Point (1915) and The Millionaire (1915). Expelled from the USSR in 1923, Artsybashev wrote anti-Soviet articles in the emigre press. _^<N__^<N_Laszlo M. Tikos
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750
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Artyukhin, Y. P.
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Artyukhin, Y. P._^<N__^<N_{ahr-tue'-kin} _^<N__^<N_The Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Petrovich Artyukhin, b. July 22, 1930, served as flight engineer on the first successful SALYUT space-station mission. Artyukhin, a Soviet Air Force engineer, was selected
to become a cosmonaut in 1963. He trained for the SOYUZ and Salyut missions and served as capsule communicator aboard tracking ships during several space missions in 1969-71. In 1973 he was named to the first cosmonaut crew slated to visit the
Salyut 3 space station, along with crew commander Pavel Popovich. The two cosmonauts were launched on the Soyuz 14 spaceship on July 3, 1974, and then went aboard the Salyut 3 for a 15-day stay. Artyukhin later assisted in planning the Salyut 5
mission in 1976-77. _^<N__^<N_James Oberg
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1448
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Aruba
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Aruba_^<N__^<N_{ah-roo'-bah} _^<N__^<N_Aruba is an island in the Caribbean Sea, formerly part of the NETHERLANDS ANTILLES, lying about 32 km (20 mi) off the coast of Venezuela. On Jan. 1, 1986, Aruba separated from the Netherlands Antilles and
became an autonomous member of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, with full independence scheduled for 1996. _^<N__^<N_Aruba, with an area of 186 sq km (72 sq mi) and a population of 62,000 (1987 est.), has a tropical, semiarid climate. The highest
point, Jamanota, has an elevation of 188 m (617 ft). Oranjestad is the largest city and administrative center of the island. The population is mostly of mixed Dutch and Indian heritage but includes Spanish and some Chinese elements. Dutch is the
official language; a lingua franca derived from Spanish, Portuguese, and Dutch, called Papiamento, is also widely spoken. _^<N__^<N_Aruba's economy depended for decades on tourism and the refining of oil imported from Venezuela. Since 1960, when
employment in oil refining and shipping began to decline, diversified tourism has been stressed. The closing in 1985 of the main refinery dimmed not only Aruba's economic future but also its hopes for eventual autonomy or independence.
_^<N__^<N_Aruba was claimed by the Spanish in 1499, but the Dutch seized the island in 1634 and, except for brief periods during the Napoleonic Wars, have held it ever since. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Goslinga, C. C., A Short History of the
Netherlands Antilles and Surinam (1978).
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arum
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arum_^<N__^<N_{ar'-uhm} _^<N__^<N_Arum is the common name for Araceae, a large family of herbaceous or woody plants. Most arums are native to the tropics, although a few genera, such as Arisaema, Symplocarpus, and Peltandra, are found in temperate
regions. Arum flowers are crowded on a spike (spadix), which is enfolded by a vaselike leaf (spathe). Many species of arum contain acrid and sometimes milky juices; the tubers of the familiar JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT contain needlelike crystals that are
irritating if eaten raw. The aromatic rhizome of Acorus calamus is used in toilet powders, and an oil from it is used in perfumes. Three arums are grown extensively for a starchy food made from their corms or tubers: taro (Colocasia esculenta) and
dasheen (C. esculenta), both of which are widely cultivated in Southeast Asia and Polynesia, and Yautia (Xanthosoma sagittifolium), which is native to tropical America and the West Indies. Common houseplants in the arum family are species of
DIEFFENBACHIA, PHILODENDRON, and spathiphyllum. _^<N__^<N_Hugh M. Raup
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Arunachal Pradesh
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Arunachal Pradesh_^<N__^<N_{ah-roon-uh-chahl pra-daysh'} _^<N__^<N_Arunachal Pradesh, formerly the North East Frontier Agency, became a union territory of India in 1972 and was declared the 24th state of India in December 1986. Bordered by China,
Bhutan, Myanmar (Burma), and the Indian state of Assam, it has an area of 83,743 sq km (32,333 sq mi) and a population of 858,392 (1991); Itanagar (1991 pop., 17,320) is the capital. The mountainous, heavily forested area is inhabited primarily by
hill tribes practicing slash-and-burn agriculture. During World War II, the Allies airlifted supplies to China over Himalayan peaks there known as the "Hump". Much of Arunachal Pradesh is claimed by China, which sent troops across the disputed
border (the McMahon Line, est. 1913) in 1959 and 1962.
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Arunta:
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Arunta:_^<N__^<N_see ARANDA.
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1564
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Aryan
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Aryan_^<N__^<N_{air'-ee-uhn} _^<N__^<N_Aryan is a term formerly used to denote both a linguistic and an assumed racial category related to the language family now known as INDO-EUROPEAN. Early scholars, struck by similarities among ancient Indian
languages such as Sanskrit and ancient European languages such as Latin and Greek, hypothesized the existence not only of a proto-Indo-European language but also of a proto-Indo-European racial group, the Aryans. This group, it was argued, had
spread into South Asia and Europe from a Central Asian homeland in a series of migrations during the 2d millennium BC. Thus it was argued that, in contrast to the darker-skinned DRAVIDIANS of southern India, the northern Indians were, racially
speaking, Aryans, sharing a common descent with the peoples of Western Europe. _^<N__^<N_Today, such arguments about racial origins are usually seen as little more than speculation. The term Aryan is now used to designate a family of languages
that includes such modern South Asian examples as Bengali, Hindi, Punjabi, and Sinhalese. It was among the Aryan-speaking peoples of northern India during the 2d and 1st millennia BC that the religion of Hinduism and the institutions of CASTE
first developed, later spreading to other parts of India. _^<N__^<N_Hilary Standing and R. L. Stirrat _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Basham, Arthur L., The Wonder That Was India, 3d ed., (1967); Childe, V. Gordon, The Aryans (1926; repr. 1988);
Deshpande, M. M., and Hook, P. E., eds., Aryan and Non-Aryan in India, (1979); Tyler, S. A., India: An Anthropological Perspective (1986).
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aryl group
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aryl group_^<N__^<N_{air-ul} _^<N__^<N_An aryl group is the subunit of an AROMATIC COMPOUND that is responsible for the compound's aromaticity. Two common examples are the phenyl group, and the naphthyl group. The symbol Ar is usually written for
aryl groups in general, particularly to distinguish them from nonaromatic, or ALKYL GROUPS, symbolized by R.
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671
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As I Lay Dying
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As I Lay Dying_^<N__^<N_The novel As I Lay Dying (1930), considered one of William FAULKNER's masterpieces, is about the journey of a poor farm family by wagon to bury Addie Bundren. Her family must transport the body to Jefferson, Miss., for
burial. The relationships among the family members are explored through a series of interior monologues as a series of catastrophes, grim in themselves but frequently perceived in a comic manner, occur along the road. Hailed as a technical triumph,
the novel deftly blends psychological fidelity and symbolic action. It later inspired Jean Louis BARRAULT's first independent mime production, Autor d'une mere (1935). _^<N__^<N_Charlotte D. Solomon
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As You Like It
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As You Like It_^<N__^<N_Shakespeare's romantic comedy As You Like It (c.1599-1600) suggests a mood of wish fulfillment. The play can be whatever you like, or the play as it stands is exactly what you like. Duke Frederick banishes Duke Senior, the
rightful ruler, to the Forest of Arden, a pastoral world set apart from ordinary realities. Here Duke Senior lives a rustic life with his followers and offers refuge to Orlando, who is fleeing his villainous older brother. Here too, Rosalind,
Duke Senior's daughter, woos Orlando in scenes that both mock and celebrate the power of love. Only the satirical malcontent Jaques injects a discordant element into the pastoral serenity of the play. _^<N__^<N_Shakespeare used Thomas Lodge's
pastoral romance Rosalynde or Euphues' Golden Legacy (1590) as his source for the play. Shakespeare added several minor characters and some of his best-known lyric songs. The famous speech about the seven ages of man, beginning "All the world's a
stage," appears in this play. _^<N__^<N_Maurice Charney _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Barber, C. L., Shakespeare's Festive Comedy; (1959); Ornstein, R., Shakespeare's Comedies (1986).
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Asam brothers
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Asam brothers_^<N__^<N_{ah'-zahm} _^<N__^<N_Cosmas Damian Asam, b. Sept. 27, 1686, d. May 10, 1739, and his brother Egid Quirin Asam, b. Sept. 1, 1692, d. Apr. 29, 1750, were important Bavarian architects and decorators in the baroque style. Cosmas
also painted frescoes, and Egid specialized in sculpture. Their influence was widespread throughout Germany and is clearly evident in the work of Joseph Effner (1687-1745) and Dominikus ZIMMERMANN. _^<N__^<N_By 1711 the brothers were in Rome,
studying under the architect Carlo FONTANA; they were also influenced by the baroque art of Giovanni Lorenzo BERNINI, Giovanni Battista GAULLI, and Pietro da CORTONA, evident in their first commissions after their return to Bavaria in 1714. Their
first joint work, rebuilding the abbey church of Weltenburg (1717-21), helped to launch Bavarian baroque art. Typical of their work are the dramatic effects used at Weltenburg, such as concealed light sources, twisted columns, stucco decorations in
brilliant colors, and illusionist frescoes and sculptures. _^<N__^<N_The Church of Saint John Nepomuk, also called the Asamkirche (1733-46), was built in Munich by Cosmas and Egid as part of a complex that includes their own houses, the priest's
house, and the small votive church. The interior of the chapel is the epitome of German baroque decoration. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Harries, K., The Bavarian Rococo Church (1983); Norberg-Schultz, C., Late Baroque and Rococo Architecture (1974;
repr. 1985).
-END-
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3274
CAT
-A-
asbestos
-T-
asbestos_^<N__^<N_Asbestos is the name given to certain inorganic minerals when they occur in fibrous form. Such fibers can be processed into a variety of materials that are uniquely resistant to fire, heat, and corrosion. Chrysotile, the fibrous
form of SERPENTINE, is the most important source; it is mined principally in Canada. Fibrous forms of certain AMPHIBOLE minerals are lesser asbestos sources. Usually excavated from open-pit mines, asbestos rock is crushed to free the fibers. These
can be spun and woven into fire-resistant textiles, matted into insulating materials, or used with other substances to make more than 2,500 products, including brake linings and clutch pads, roofing and flooring materials, cement, and insulation
for electrical circuits. For many of these products, asbestos is almost irreplaceable. No other substance provides its stability, strength, and heat resistance so cheaply and efficiently. _^<N__^<N_Nevertheless, manufacturers are developing
materials that can substitute for asbestos in part, usually at greater cost, and in 1987 they formed the Alternative Materials Institute. The reason for this is that asbestos's extremely fine fibers are easily inhaled, and exposure to them over a
period of years has been linked to cancers of the lung or lung-cavity lining and to asbestosis, a severe lung impairment. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has estimated that 3,000 to 12,000 cases of cancer, usually fatal, are caused
annually in the United States by asbestos exposure. A 1964 U.S. study of World War II shipyard workers had proved this connection between airborne asbestos and the development of disease 20 or more years after exposure, and it is probable that the
asbestos industry knew of the dangers far earlier. In 1971 asbestos became the first material to be regulated by the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA); in 1986, OSHA drastically reduced work-exposure levels. Finally, in
1989, the EPA ordered that the manufacture, use, and export of asbestos be reduced by 94 percent over a 7-year period. The order will end asbestos use for all building materials and for brake linings. Controversy continues to surround the EPA's
assessment of asbestos insulation as a strong health hazard. Critics also maintain that chrysotile asbestos, unlike the amphibole form, is not a health hazard in the workplace. _^<N__^<N_Thousands of asbestos-related claims have been filed against
asbestos manufacturers. In a major California case, a court ruled in 1987 that the largest possible number of insurance companies should be responsible for paying the claims of victims of asbestos-related diseases. The U.S. government is also the
target of suits, because exposure standards it set in World War II shipyards were known at the time to be ineffective; it also failed to mandate adequate safety measures. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Berger, C. J., Hazardous Substances in Buildings:
Liability, Litigation, and Abatement (1992); Hodgson, A. A., ed., Alternatives to Asbestos (1989); Mossman, B. T., et al., "Asbestos," Science, Jan. 19, 1990; Selikoff, I. J., and Hammond, E. C., eds., Health Hazards of Asbestos Exposure (1979);
Skinner, H. C., et al., Asbestos and Other Fibrous Materials: Mineralogy, Crystal Chemistry, and Health Effects (1988).
-END-
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721
CAT
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Asbjornsen, Peter Christen
-T-
Asbjornsen, Peter Christen_^<N__^<N_{ahs'-bee-orn-suhn} _^<N__^<N_Peter Christen Asbjornsen, b. Jan. 15, 1812, d. Jan. 5, 1885, was a compiler of popular Norwegian folktales that strongly influenced writing in Norway from the romantic period onward.
Together with his friend Jorgen Moe, he published two volumes of Norwegian Folk Tales in 1841 and 1852. In addition, Asbjornsen alone published two volumes entitled Norwegian Fairy Tales and Folk Legends in 1845 and 1848. Told with an appealing
directness, humor, and simplicity that contrasted with the ponderous Latinate prose style of the period, the stories demonstrated that important literature could be derived from native materials and presented in vernacular prose. _^<N__^<N_William
Mishler
-END-
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1317
CAT
-A-
Asbury, Francis
-T-
Asbury, Francis_^<N__^<N_Francis Asbury, b. Aug. 20, 1745, d. Mar. 31, 1816, an English- born American Methodist bishop, was the leader of the Methodist Episcopal Church, which through mergers with other denominations became the United Methodist
Church in 1968. After experiencing trials in school and employment, Asbury underwent a spiritual conversion and joined a Methodist society at the age of 16. When he was 26, John Wesley appointed him missionary to the American colonies. Asbury's
ship landed at Philadelphia on Oct. 27, 1771. _^<N__^<N_For the rest of his life, Asbury traveled on horseback, gathering congregations in schoolhouses, cabins, and taverns. He provided a model for the CIRCUIT RIDER, or itinerant preacher. His
journal records in detail his travels in the eastern United States and across the Appalachian Mountains, more than 8,000 km (about 5,000 mi) a year. He was a leading figure in the formation of the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1784, when he was
ordained and elected superintendent, or bishop, as he came to be known. _^<N__^<N_Frederick A. Norwood _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Asbury, Francis, The Journal and Letters of Francis Asbury, ed. by Elmer T. Clark et al. (1958); Baker, Frank, From
Wesley to Asbury: Studies in Early American Methodism (1976); Richey, Russell E., Early American Methodism: A Reconsideration (1991).
-END-
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906
CAT
-A-
ascariasis
-T-
ascariasis_^<N__^<N_{as-kuh-ry'-uh-sis} _^<N__^<N_Ascariasis is a debilitating human disease caused by the roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides; other species of Ascaris are parasitic in domestic animals (see NEMATODE). Perhaps as many as one-fourth of
the world's people are infected, but ascariasis is particularly prevalent in tropical regions and in areas of poor hygiene. Infection occurs through ingestion of food contaminated with fecal matter containing Ascaris eggs. The larvae burrow through
the intestine, reach the lungs, migrate up the respiratory tract, are reswallowed, and mature in the intestine, growing up to 30 cm (12 in) in length and anchoring themselves to the intestinal wall. Infections, usually light, may be accompanied by
inflammation, fever, and diarrhea. Serious problems may develop if the worms migrate to other parts of the body. They are easily killed by ANTHELMINTIC DRUGS. _^<N__^<N_David Francis Mettrick
-END-
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381
CAT
-A-
Ascension of Christ
-T-
Ascension of Christ_^<N__^<N_Described in the Bible as the lifting up of JESUS CHRIST into heaven 40 days after the RESURRECTION (Mark 16:19; Luke 24:51; Acts 1:9), the ascension signifies the exaltation of Christ as Lord of the universe and is thus
closely associated with the resurrection. Ascension Thursday, kept 40 days after EASTER, is one of the major feasts of the Christian church.
-END-
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953
CAT
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Ascension Island
-T-
Ascension Island_^<N__^<N_Ascension Island is a volcanic island about 10 degrees below the equator in the South Atlantic between Africa and South America. With ST. HELENA, 1,125 km (700 mi) to the south, it forms a British colony. Ascension's area
is 88 sq km (34 sq mi), and its population is 1,099 (1991; excluding British military personnel). The Portuguese navigator Joao da Nova Castella discovered the island on Ascension Day in 1501. About 650 mm (26 in) of rain fall in the mountains,
where a little vegetation grows in the poor soil, supporting rabbits and wild goats. Most of the rest of the island is dry and barren. Sea turtles lay their eggs along the sandy coasts. The island was uninhabited when Britain established a naval
base there in 1815. This grew into the main settlement, Georgetown. The United States built an airfield there during World War II; a cable station, satellite tracking station, and missile base are now located on the island.
-END-
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1207
CAT
-A-
asceticism
-T-
asceticism_^<N__^<N_{uh-set'-uh-sizm} _^<N__^<N_Asceticism denotes a system of practices that aims at the development of virtue and strength of character through self-denial and mortification. It has been an aspect of most religious traditions and
of many philosophies, such as Stoicism. Methods of asceticism generally include exercises such as celibacy, fasting, upright posture, periods of silence, performance of unpleasant tasks, and withdrawal from human companionship. It is thought that
these practices gradually free a person's spiritual element from the body's demands. Once control has been achieved, a harmony of the whole person is experienced. Forms of self-mutilation, flagellation, and castration have been used in extreme
practices of asceticism. Adherents of Jainism in India sometimes even starve themselves to death in striving for sainthood. In most religious traditions some persons, individually or in groups, follow an entirely ascetic way of life; they are
called ascetics. _^<N__^<N_Joan A. Range _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Chadwick, Owen, ed., Western Asceticism (1958; repr. 1979); Colliander, Tito, The Way of Ascetics (1976; repr. 1985); Sheils, W. J., ed., Monks, Hermits, and the Ascetic
Tradition (1985).
-END-
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1553
CAT
-A-
Asch, Sholem
-T-
Asch, Sholem_^<N__^<N_Sholem (or Shalom) Asch, b. Kutno, Poland, Nov. 1, 1880, d. July 10, 1957, was the first Yiddish novelist and dramatist to attain international fame. Under the influence of Isaac Peretz, he wrote the romantic novella The Little
Town (1904; Eng. trans., 1907) and the tragedy God of Vengeance (1907; Eng. trans., 1918). Twenty more plays followed during a long and creative career. In 1907, Asch visited Palestine; he described its biblical sites and Zionist pioneers in short
stories and, later, in the novel Song of the Valley (1938; Eng. trans., 1939). _^<N__^<N_Asch spent many years in France, England, and the United States, where he was naturalized, but lived in Israel after 1954. His early work includes the novels
Mottke the Vagabond (1917; Eng. trans., 1935), later dramatized, and Uncle Moses (1918; Eng. trans., 1920), which concerns the difficult adjustment of Jewish immigrants to New York City. In Kiddush Hashem (1920) and The Witch of Castile (1926),
Asch glorified the Jewish martyrdom of earlier centuries. His trilogy Three Cities (1929-32; Eng. trans., 1932) is a prose epic of Russian Jewry before and during the revolution. _^<N__^<N_Asch's Christological novels--The Nazarene (1939), The
Apostle (1943), and Mary (1949)--offended some Jewish readers but were all best-sellers in English translation. In the biblical novels Moses (1951) and The Prophet (1955) he returned to traditional Jewish subjects. _^<N__^<N_Sol Liptzin
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Landis, Joseph C., The Great Jewish Plays (1972); Liptzin, Sol, The Flowering of Yiddish Literature (1963).
-END-
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445
CAT
-A-
Asch, Solomon
-T-
Asch, Solomon_^<N__^<N_Solomon Elliott Asch, b. Warsaw, Sept. 14, 1907, is an American social psychologist who has been associated with Gestalt psychology. He is well known for his studies on the influence of the group on individual behavior. In a
series of experiments on CONFORMITY he showed that many people will take unreasonable positions merely to agree with the opinions of others. He is the author of Social Psychology (1952), a popular textbook.
-END-
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1079
CAT
-A-
Ascham, Roger
-T-
Ascham, Roger_^<N__^<N_{as'-kuhm} _^<N__^<N_The English scholar and educator Roger Ascham, b. 1515, d. Dec. 30, 1568, taught at Cambridge University and subsequently served (1548-50) as tutor to the future Queen Elizabeth I and as secretary to King
Edward VI. In Toxophilus (1545), a treatise on the training of archers in the form of a Platonic dialogue, Ascham stressed the benefits of physical training, championed the principles of HUMANISM, and recommended the use of a vernacular style of
English prose. His best-known work, The Scholemaster (1570), discusses methods of teaching Latin composition and denounces overelaborate styles of English prose such as that of Sir Thomas Malory's Morte Darthur, but it is generally concerned with
the shaping of character through enlightened principles of education that renounce corporal punishment. Ascham's lively but rigorously plain prose style is often said to have served as a model for writers of the Elizabethan Age.
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ryan, L. V., Roger Ascham (1963); Vos, A., ed., Selected Letters of Roger Ascham, trans. by M. Hatch (1989).
-END-
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28
CAT
-A-
Aschelminthes:
-T-
Aschelminthes:_^<N__^<N_see NEMATODE.
-END-
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25
CAT
-A-
ascidian:
-T-
ascidian:_^<N__^<N_see SEA SQUIRT.
-END-
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619
CAT
-A-
Asclepius
-T-
Asclepius_^<N__^<N_{as-klee'-pee-uhs} _^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, Asclepius, son of Apollo, the god of healing, was a famous physician. His mother, Coronis, a princess of Thessaly, died when he was an infant. Apollo entrusted the child's education
to CHIRON, a centaur, who taught Asclepius the healing arts. Asclepius, when grown, became so skilled in surgery and the use of medicinal plants that he could even restore the dead to life. Hades, ruler of the dead, became alarmed at this and
complained to Zeus, who killed Asclepius with a thunderbolt. Among the children of Asclepius the best known are his daughters HYGEIA and Panacea.
-END-
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571
CAT
-A-
ascorbic acid
-T-
ascorbic acid_^<N__^<N_Ascorbic acid, or vitamin C, is essential for sound bones and teeth. An inadequate intake causes SCURVY in humans because they cannot synthesize ascorbic acid as most other animals can. Citrus fruit, liver, milk, and green
vegetables are good sources. Ascorbic acid is used as a vitamin supplement and is added to beverages and foods as an ANTIOXIDANT. _^<N__^<N_Pure ascorbic acid forms white, water-soluble crystals that melt at 190 deg C. It is prepared commercially
by chemical and bacterial reactions on glucose. _^<N__^<N_Elbert H. Hadley _^<N__^<N_See also: VITAMINS AND MINERALS.
-END-
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769
CAT
-A-
ASEAN
-T-
ASEAN_^<N__^<N_The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was established in 1967 by the governments of Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand to promote economic growth, social and cultural development, and a balance
of power in the Southeast Asian region. ASEAN was formed during the Vietnam War and supported the unsuccessful U. S. effort to prevent the establishment of a Communist government in Vietnam. After the installation of a Vietnamese-backed government
in Cambodia in 1979, ASEAN supported an opposition government in exile made up of KHMER ROUGE and two non-Communist factions. The newly independent nation of Brunei joined ASEAN in 1984. Today the organization is concerned primarily with improving
economic ties among its members.
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487
CAT
-A-
Asgard
-T-
Asgard_^<N__^<N_In Norse mythology, Asgard was the home and citadel of the gods, corresponding to Mount Olympus in Greek mythology. It was located in the heavens and was accessible only over the rainbow bridge, Bifrost. Asgard had many gold and
silver halls or palaces, the most splendid of which was VALHALLA, the residence of Odin. The Norse myths held that Asgard would be destroyed at RAGNAROK ("Twilight of the Gods"), the final battle in which the giants and demons would overcome the
gods.
-END-
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1602
CAT
-A-
ash
-T-
ash_^<N__^<N_An ash is a deciduous hardwood tree belonging to the Oleaceae, or olive, family and to the genus Fraxinus. Of the 65 species, most occur in the northern temperate zone, but some grow as far south as Mexico, Cuba, northern Africa,
southern Asia, and Java. Some ash species are valuable timber trees; others are used as landscape trees and shrubs. _^<N__^<N_Ashes may be identified by their opposite pinnate leaves, which have 3 to 11 oval to elliptical leaflets that are usually
saw-toothed. Winter buds are blunt, with one to three pairs of exposed scales. The bark is furrowed or scaly. Male and female flowers, both usually minute and greenish, are borne on separate trees. The fruit is a single oar-shaped wing with a seed
capsule at the base. _^<N__^<N_The species F. excelsior is an important timber tree in Europe; it is also planted in the United States as a landscaping tree. Another native European and Asiatic tree, F. ornus, is commonly planted in the Pacific
Northwest. A medicinal substance, manna, is extracted from this species. Ash is also useful for lumber and veneers. A veneer sold as tamo is derived from a Japanese species of ash. _^<N__^<N_White ash, F. americana, is the most common and the
largest ash in North America. Other ashes include green ash, F. pennsylvanica; Oregon ash, F. latifolia; velvet ash, F. velvutina; and blue ash, F. quadrangulata. Ashes are subject to attack by an unidentified disease that causes dieback.
_^<N__^<N_The principal uses of ash wood are furniture, handles, motor-vehicle parts, barrels and crates, sporting and athletic goods, railroad ties, veneer, and fuel. _^<N__^<N_Charles L. Wilson
-END-
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668
CAT
-A-
Ash, Mary Kay
-T-
Ash, Mary Kay_^<N__^<N_The American business executive Mary Kay Ash, b. Mary Kay Wagner in Hot Wells, Tex., is the founder and head of Mary Kay Cosmetics, a successful direct-sales firm. Ash had worked as an executive for two large direct-sales
firms before founding (1963) Mary Kay Cosmetics in Dallas, with her son Richard Rogers. The company, which specializes in cosmetics and skin care products, was set up as a MULTILEVEL MARKETING organization and by the early 1980s had thousands of
representatives and sales directors. It sells primarily in the United States and Canada, although overseas markets have also been developed. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ash, M. K., Mary Kay (1981).
-END-
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314
CAT
-A-
Ash Wednesday
-T-
Ash Wednesday_^<N__^<N_In the Western church, Ash Wednesday is the first day of LENT and the seventh Wednesday before EASTER. Its name comes from the practice of placing ashes on the foreheads of worshipers to symbolize death and sorrow for sin. In
the Orthodox church, Lent begins on a Monday rather than on Ash Wednesday.
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1504
CAT
-A-
Ashanti
-T-
Ashanti_^<N__^<N_{ah-shahn'-tee} _^<N__^<N_The Ashanti are an AKAN-speaking people of central Ghana and neighboring regions of Togo and Ivory Coast, in West Africa, numbering more than 1,000,000. They subsist primarily by farming, with cacao a
major cash crop. Produce and handicraft articles are exchanged in local markets. _^<N__^<N_Formerly an independent kingdom subdivided into provinces, districts, and villages, the Ashanti state was headed by the chieftain of the Oyoko clan by the
late 17th century. With its capital at Kumasi, the Ashanti kingdom was active in the slave trade in the 18th century. Conflicts arose with the British in the 19th century, resulting in Britain's annexation of Ashanti territory in 1901.
_^<N__^<N_Ashanti traditionally worship a supreme deity, many minor spirits, and their ancestors. Ancestry is traced through the mother's line, but Ashanti believe that a child's spirit comes from the father, who is responsible for much of the
child's training. Ashanti artistic creations include a wealth of myths and tales and distinguished plastic art forms of wood, bronze, and gold. The Golden Stool, the royal throne, symbolized the sovereign's power and was thought to contain the
souls of the Ashanti people. The queen mother played an important role in politics. _^<N__^<N_Phoebe Miller _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Freedman, Richard A., Travels and Life in Ashanti and Jaman (1898; repr. 1967); Fuller, Francis, Vanished
Dynasty Ashanti, 2d ed. (1968); Lystad, Robert A., Ashanti: A Proud People (1958; repr. 1969).
-END-
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1477
CAT
-A-
Ashbery, John
-T-
Ashbery, John_^<N__^<N_John Ashbery, b. Rochester, N.Y., July 28, 1927, an American poet, is noted for his experimental verse and vivid imagery. After studying at Harvard and Columbia, he published his first book of poems, Turandot, in 1953. He
continued to write poetry while working as a copywriter and art critic in Paris and New York. Later volumes include Some Trees (1956), The Tennis Court Oath (1962), Rivers and Mountains (1966), The Vermont Notebook (1975), The Double Dream of
Spring (1976), Houseboat Days (1977), As We Know (1979), Shadow Train (1981), The Wave (1984), and April Galleons (1987). Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror (1975) won the Pulitzer Prize for poetry, the National Book Award, and the National Book
Critics Circle Award, all in 1976. He has also written three plays, The Compromise (1960), The Heroes (1960), and The Philosopher (1964). _^<N__^<N_Most critics consider Ashbery's work highly original and inventive, but many have complained about
its obscurity and abnormal syntax. Ashbery himself likens his poetry to music, in which the structure carries the argument, "though the terms of this argument remain unknown quantities." _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Kalstone, David, and Brower,
Reuben, Five Temperaments: Elizabeth Bishop, Robert Lowell, James Merrill, Adrienne Rich, John Ashbery (1982); Lehman, David, ed., John Ashbery (1979) and Beyond Amazement: New Essays on John Ashbery (1980); Shapiro, David, John Ashbery: An
Introduction to the Poetry (1979).
-END-
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1928
CAT
-A-
Ashcan school
-T-
Ashcan school_^<N__^<N_The Ashcan school is the term subsequently applied to the American rebel group of painters originally known as The Eight, who exhibited together in New York City in 1908 and who are identified chiefly with the introduction of
REALISM and urban subjects in American painting. They had considerable influence on other American artists, notably George BELLOWS. Their leader, Robert HENRI, and members of the group, including John SLOAN, George LUKS, William GLACKENS, Everett
SHINN, Maurice PRENDERGAST, Ernest LAWSON, and Arthur B. DAVIES, had little in common stylistically but shared an aversion to the pervasive academic paintings then fashionable. The movement reflected the new American interest in naturalism, which
ranged from Theodore Roosevelt's political style to the novels of Stephen Crane and Theodore Dreiser. _^<N__^<N_Except for Davies, who specialized in romantic pastorals laced with allegory, and Lawson, who favored misty river landscapes, all could
be called realists. Prendergast painted city views and sunny scenes of leisure activity in the spotty, broken brush technique characteristic of French IMPRESSIONISM. Shinn, like Edgar DEGAS, painted gallery crowds and theater performers on gaslit
stages seen from dramatic angles. Henri in his many portraits was strongly influenced by the dark tonality and quick, slashing brushwork of Frans HALS and the early Edouard MANET. Glackens and Luks, who were newspaper illustrators during the
Spanish-American War, worked rather in the style of Henri, painting both fashionable and seamy urban life. Sloan, also an illustrator, is known for his vivid New York street scenes, especially the views of slum backyards, alleys, and rooftops,
which gave rise to the "ashcan" label, first used by the critics Holger Cahill and Alfred BARR in 1934. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Goodard, David, ed., American Painting (1990); Perlman, Bernard B., Painters of the Ashcan School (1990).
-END-
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770
CAT
-A-
Ashcroft, Dame Peggy
-T-
Ashcroft, Dame Peggy_^<N__^<N_The English actress Edith Margaret Emily Ashcroft, b. Dec. 22, 1907, d. June 14, 1991, was noted for her performances in both classical and contemporary drama. During her lengthy stage career she played Desdemona to
Paul Robeson's Othello (1930) and all the other major female roles in the Shakespearean canon, as well as starring in plays by dramatists from John Webster to Samuel Beckett. Long ranked as one of Britain's greatest stage actresses, she won even
wider fame late in her life when she appeared in the film A Passage to India (1984), for which she won an Academy Award, and in the popular television miniseries The Jewel in the Crown (1984). She was made a Dame of the British Empire in 1956.
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Tanitch, R., Ashcroft (1988).
-END-
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1417
CAT
-A-
Ashe, Arthur
-T-
Ashe, Arthur_^<N__^<N_{ash} _^<N__^<N_Arthur Robert Ashe, b. Richmond, Va., July 10, 1943, d. Feb. 6, 1993, was the first black player to win a major men's tennis title by triumphing in the U.S. National Amateur singles competition in 1968. That
year, he also won the U.S. Open and became the first black to play on the U.S. Davis Cup team. Ashe turned professional in 1969, won the Australian Open in 1970, and in 1975 won the Wimbledon title as well as the world championship of professional
tennis. In July 1979, Ashe suffered a mild heart attack and in December of that year underwent triple bypass surgery. He subsequently announced (April 1980) his retirement from competitive tennis but was named nonplaying captain of the U.S. Davis
Cup team in September 1980. The team won the Cup in 1981 and 1982. He later wrote Hard Road to Glory (3 vols., 1988), a history of African-American athletes. Ashe announced on Apr. 8, 1992, that he had contracted the AIDS virus more than three
years earlier as the result of a blood transfusion given during his heart bypass surgery. His death 10 months later was caused by AIDS-related infections. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ashe, Arthur, and Rampersad, Arnold, Days of Grace: A Memoir
(1993); Ashe, Arthur, and Deford, Frank, Arthur Ashe: Portrait in Motion (1975); Ashe, Arthur, with Neil Amdur, Off the Court (1981); McPhee, John, Levels of the Game (1969); Weissberg, Ed, Arthur Ashe (1991).
-END-
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552
CAT
-A-
Asheville
-T-
Asheville_^<N__^<N_Asheville is a city in west central North Carolina and the seat of Buncombe County. The population of the city proper is 61,607 (1990), and that of the metropolitan area is 174,821. The eastern gateway to the Great Smoky
Mountains, Asheville is a tourist and tobacco center and a producer of electrical equipment, textiles, timber, and paper products. Settled and laid out in 1794, it was subsequently named Asheville for Gov. Samuel Ashe. Landmarks include Biltmore,
the great Vanderbilt mansion, and Thomas Wolfe's birthplace, now a museum.
-END-
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956
CAT
-A-
Ashford, Evelyn
-T-
Ashford, Evelyn_^<N__^<N_The American sprinter Evelyn Ashford, b. Shreveport, La., Apr. 15, 1957, accumulated, from 1976 to 1992, four gold and two silver medals in Olympic competition. After graduating from Roseville High School in California in
1975, Ashford competed for UCLA from 1976 to 1978. Although she ran both the 200-m and 400-m sprints often during her career, her specialty was at 100 m. At that distance she held the world record for five years, first at 10.79 sec (1983-84, then
at 10.76 sec (1984-88). Intermittently plagued by hamstring and other injuries, Ashford nevertheless managed to participate in four Olympics: 1976 (silver medal, 4 x 100-m relay); 1984 (gold, 100 m; gold, 4 x 100-m relay); 1988 (silver, 100 m;
gold, 4 x 100-m relay); and 1992 (gold, 4 x 100-m relay). Her 1992 medal was achieved at age 35, old for a sprinter. Had the United States not boycotted the 1980 Games, Ashford would doubtless have competed in a fifth Olympics.
-END-
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421
CAT
-A-
Ashi
-T-
Ashi_^<N__^<N_{ah-shee'} _^<N__^<N_Ashi, AD 352-427, a Babylonian rabbi, was the primary editor of the Babylonian TALMUD, or compilations of and commentaries on the oral teachings of the Jews. He revived the Sura rabbinical academy and headed it for
more than 50 years while gathering material for his work. Ashi's edition of the Talmud was completed several decades after his death by Rabina II, head of the school of Sura from 474 to 499.
-END-
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733
CAT
-A-
Ashkenazi, Vladimir
-T-
Ashkenazi, Vladimir_^<N__^<N_Russian pianist Vladimir Davidovich Ashkenazi, b. July 6, 1937, is known for bringing sensitivity and imagination to his playing of the classical and romantic composers as well as the moderns. He is especially noted for
his interpretations of Mozart. Born into a family of musicians, he made his piano debut at age seven. He later studied at the Central Music School of Moscow and the Moscow State Conservatory. Ashkenazi's awards include a second prize at the
International Chopin Competition in Warsaw (1955) and a first prize at the Queen Elizabeth Competition in Brussels (1956). His first U.S. tour was in 1958. He became an Icelandic citizen in 1972. His autobiography was published in 1985.
_^<N__^<N_Carolynn Bailey
-END-
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1332
CAT
-A-
Ashkenazim
-T-
Ashkenazim_^<N__^<N_{ash-kuh-naz'-im} _^<N__^<N_The Ashkenazim are one of the two major divisions of the JEWS, the other being the SEPHARDIM. The division is based on geographic, linguistic, and cultural distinctions. The term Ashkenazim was
derived from Ashkenaz, the great-grandson of Noah (Gen. 10:3). Medieval rabbis, to explain Jewish settlements in the Rhineland predating the Roman Empire, claimed that Ashkenaz immigrated to Germany after the DELUGE. _^<N__^<N_The language
identified with Ashkenazic culture is Yiddish, a melange of Middle German, Laaz, Slavic, and Hebrew, written in Hebrew characters. Before the 12th century, RASHI, Gershom ben Judah, and other scholars made Speyer, Worms, and Mainz centers of
Jewish learning. Their achievements so impressed Eastern Jews that when refugees from these centers fled eastward from the crusaders, they were called Ashkenazim. Later, during the persecutions in the 17th century, large numbers of Eastern Jews
settled in Western Europe. _^<N__^<N_Today the term Ashkenazim applies to Jews whose ancestors originally lived in German lands; Sephardim applies to Jews whose ancestors resided in the Iberian Peninsula. Ashkenazi Jews constitute more than 80
percent of the world Jewish population. _^<N__^<N_Saul S. Friedman _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ben Sasson, H. H., ed., A History of the Jewish People (1976; repr. 1985).
-END-
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475
CAT
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Ashkhabad
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Ashkhabad_^<N__^<N_{ash-kah-bahd'} _^<N__^<N_Ashkhabad is the capital of Turkmenistan, formerly part of the USSR. Settled by Russians in 1881, this central Asian city is located about 40 km (25 mi) from the Iranian border on the Trans-Caspian
Railroad. The population is 398,000 (1989 est.). Industries include machinery, glass, filmmaking, silk spinning, food processing, and Bukhara carpets. The city was built up on a major fault zone and was virtually destroyed by an earthquake in
1948.
-END-
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904
CAT
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Ashley, William Henry
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Ashley, William Henry_^<N__^<N_William Henry Ashley, b. Powhatan County, Va., c.1778, d. Mar. 26, 1838, was a financier and a participant in the development of the American West. Having emigrated from Virginia to Missouri by 1808, he served as
lieutenant governor there before joining Andrew Henry in 1822 in a famous expedition from St. Louis to establish fur-trading posts on the upper Missouri River. When Indians resisting intrusion forced abandonment of the posts, Ashley and Henry in
1825 devised a rendezvous system in which company agents met independent trappers each summer to exchange trade goods for beaver pelts. By the time he retired in 1826, Ashley had made a fortune and had revolutionized the fur trade. He was
congressman for Missouri in 1831-37. _^<N__^<N_Elliott West _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Clokey, R. M., William H. Ashley (1980; repr. 1990); Morgan, D., ed., The West of William H. Ashley (1964).
-END-
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2397
CAT
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Ashton, Sir Frederick
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Ashton, Sir Frederick_^<N__^<N_Sir Frederick William Mallandaine Ashton, b. Guayaquil, Ecuador, Sept. 17, 1904, d. Aug 18, 1988, was a choreographer and director of Britain's ROYAL BALLET. He spent his childhood in Lima, Peru. After seeing Anna
PAVLOVA dance there in 1917, he determined to seek a career in ballet. In the early 1920s he began studying in London, first with Leonid MASSINE and then with Marie RAMBERT who encouraged him to choreograph his first ballet, A Tragedy of Fashion,
in 1926. In 1928 he joined Ida RUBINSTEIN's company in Paris and worked with Massine and Bronislava NIJINSKA. Returning to London, he continued to make ballets for Rambert's small company and for the Vic-Wells Ballet, founded in 1931 by Ninette
de VALOIS. De Valois engaged Ashton as resident choreographer and principal dancer in 1935. Most of his works have been made for that company, which became the Royal Ballet in 1956. _^<N__^<N_Ashton's early work was strongly influenced by
Nijinska and Massine. At the same time, it showed the beginnings of a distinctive personal style--witty, elegant, and lyrical, Facade (1931), Les Masques (1933), and Les Rendezvous (1933). More than any other choreographer, Ashton developed and
defined the British national style in classic ballet with such works as these and Les Patineurs (1937), Symphonic Variations (1946), Scenes de ballet (1948), Cinderella (1948), Daphnis and Chloe (1951), Ondine (1958), La Fille mal gardee (1960),
and The Dream (1964). As a dancer, Ashton was never a virtuoso, but he will be remembered for such portrayals as Kostchei in Igor STRAVINSKY's Firebird and the timid stepsister in his own version of Sergei PROKOFIEV's Cinderella. _^<N__^<N_For
many years Ashton's chosen interpreter was Margot FONTEYN, but later ballets were created around the talents of younger dancers including Anthony DOWELL, Lynn SEYMOUR, Antoinette SIBLEY, and Nadia Nerina. In 1963 Ashton succeeded de Valois as
director of the company, an office he held until his retirement in 1970. Since that time he has choreographed one major ballet, A Month in the Country (1976), Rhapsody (1980), Varii Capricci (1983), La Chatte Metamorphosee en Femme (1985) and
Fanfare for Elizabeth (1986). _^<N__^<N_David Vaughan _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Dominic, Zoe, and Gilbert, John Selwyn, Frederick Ashton: A Choreographer and His Ballets (1971); Vaughan, David, Frederick Ashton and His Ballets (1977).
-END-
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812
CAT
-A-
Ashton-Warner, Sylvia
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Ashton-Warner, Sylvia_^<N__^<N_Sylvia Ashton-Warner, b. Dec. 17, 1908, d. Apr. 28, 1984, was a New Zealand writer whose first novel, Spinster (1958), was warmly received for its portrait of a dedicated teacher passionately opposed to mediocrity.
After her marriage to schoolmaster Keith Dawson Henderson, she taught mixed classes of Maori and European children in rural schools. Teacher (1963) is a novelistic but nonfiction account of that experience and of the iconoclastic teaching methods
she devised. Of four other novels, three are about the problems of women, and Greenstone (1966) is a vivid rendering of a family in which the Maori and European cultures meet. Spearpoint: Teacher in America (1972) chronicles her attempt to use
her method on American children. Her autobiography Myself appeared in 1967.
-END-
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1357
CAT
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Ashurbanipal, King of Assyria
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Ashurbanipal, King of Assyria_^<N__^<N_{ah-shoor-bah'-nuh-pahl} _^<N__^<N_Ashurbanipal was the last great king of ASSYRIA. During his reign (668-26 BC), the Assyrian empire reached its fullest extent (c.663) and then rapidly declined. Ashurbanipal
was the son of ESARHADDON, by whom he was chosen to be king of Assyria. His brother, Shamash-shum-ukin, was made king of BABYLONIA. _^<N__^<N_In the early years of Ashurbanipal's reign, a successful Egyptian campaign took the Assyrians all the way
to Thebes in the south and established PSAMTIK I of Sais as virtual viceroy of Egypt. When Gyges of LYDIA sought an alliance with Ashurbanipal about the same time, Assyrian influence extended across Anatolia to the Aegean Sea. Later, when
Shamash-shum-ukin allied himself with the Elamites against his brother (652 BC), Ashurbanipal was engaged in four years of civil war to win back Babylonia. In the meantime Egypt had become independent, the alliance with Lydia ended, and ELAM and
MEDIA ceased to be tributary to Assyria. Ashurbanipal was a great, if unsuccessful, warrior king, but he was also a scholar. The enormous library of cuneiform literature--Babylonian, Assyrian, Sumerian--that he collected at NINEVEH (rediscovered by
A. H. Layard in 1850) is a fitting monument to his memory. _^<N__^<N_Tom B. Jones _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ahmed, S. S., Southern Mesopotamia in the Time of Ashurbanipal (1968).
-END-
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608
CAT
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Ashurnasirpal II, King of Assyria
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Ashurnasirpal II, King of Assyria_^<N__^<N_{ah-shur-nah'-zir-pahl} _^<N__^<N_Ashurnasirpal II, d. 859 BC, king of Assyria from 883 to 859 BC, strengthened and expanded the empire of his father, Tukulti-Ninurta II. Information on his reign comes from
inscriptions recording his conquests and administration found at NIMRUD, where he used captured enemies to build magnificent palaces, temples, and gardens. His palace contained outstanding works of art, including the famous series of relief
sculptures (now in the British Museum, London) depicting the king's lion hunt. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Paley, Samuel M., King of the World (1976).
-END-
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55417
CATO
4755
9608
14416
19223
24010
28828
33614
38442
43247
48022
52852
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Asia
-O-
000000|Asia
002250| LAND AND RESOURCES
002269| Topography
008071| Geology
010301| Climate
014244| Drainage
015966| Soils
017902| Vegetation
019208| Fauna
020176| Mineral Resources
021978| Water Resources
023072| Arable Land Resources
023877| Forest and Fish Resources
024735| PEOPLE
024742| Traditional Culture Areas
029536| Racial and Ethnic Groups
030943| Languages
032129| Religions
033333| Education and Health
034350| Demography
037831| ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
038618| Agriculture
041725| Forestry and Fishing
041945| Mining
042870| Manufacturing
044513| Power
044862| Transportation and Communication
045748| Trade
047473| RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
047493| Population Growth
048306| Food Supply
049333| Political Unrest
050548| Industrialization and Economic Development
-T-
Asia_^<N__^<N_This article provides a description of the Asian continent and a survey of its resources, people, economy, and recent developments. Further information may be found in ASIA, HISTORY OF, and separate articles on the Asian countries.
_^<N__^<N_Asia is the largest of all the continents and includes within its limits an area of 44,441,100 sq km (17,159,995 sq mi), or about 33% of the world's total land surface and the greater part of the Eurasian landmass. The border between
Europe is traditionally drawn as an imaginary zigzag line passing down the spine of the URAL MOUNTAINS and through the CASPIAN SEA, CAUCASUS MOUNTAINS, and BLACK SEA. The boundary dividing Asia and Africa is generally placed along the SUEZ CANAL,
and the boundary between Asia and Australia is usually placed between the island of New Guinea and Australia. _^<N__^<N_Asia is by far the most populous of all the continents, with an estimated population in 1992 of 3,275,200,000, or more than 60%
of the world's total population. The population is, however, diverse and divided by language, race, religion, politics, economics, and cultural origins into a complex cultural mosaic. _^<N__^<N_The nations of Asia are usually grouped into five
main geographical and political-cultural subdivisions: _^<N__^<N_1. Southwest Asia, which includes Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Cyprus, Georgia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, United
Arab Emirates, and Yemen, plus Asian Turkey and Egypt east of the Suez Canal (Sinai Peninsula); _^<N__^<N_2. South Asia, which includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon); _^<N__^<N_3. East Asia,
which includes most of the People's Republic of China, Japan, North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea), South Korea (Republic of Korea), and Taiwan (Republic of China); _^<N__^<N_4. Southeast Asia, which includes Brunei, Myanmar
(formerly Burma), Indonesia, Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam; _^<N__^<N_5. Central and North Asia, which includes Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and
Uzbekistan plus Asian Russia (Siberia) and three of the five autonomous regions of China--Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang-Uygur, and Tibet. _^<N__^<N_ LAND AND RESOURCES_^<N__^<N_ Topography_^<N__^<N_The topography of Asia comprises a series of high
mountain belts, which are the dominant landforms, and a related complex of plateaus, basins, island arcs, and alluvial lowlands. The highest point is Mount EVEREST, which towers to 8,848 m (29,028 ft) in Nepal; the lowest point is 395 m (1,296
ft) below sea level along the shores of the DEAD SEA in Israel and Jordan. The Ural Mountains on the western edge of Asia trend in a north-south direction, but most other belts extend across the continent in a general west-east direction and
converge in a knot of high mountains in the PAMIRS, located where the borders of Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, China, and Afghanistan come together. West of the Pamirs, two main mountain belts are discernible. The southern one crosses the island of
Cyprus, enters the mainland to form the TAURUS MOUNTAINS along the southern edge of Turkey, swings along the southern edge of the Iranian Plateau to form the ZAGROS MOUNTAINS, and on into Pakistan before turning north to become the HINDU KUSH and
join the Pamirs. The northern mountain belt in Asia west of the Pamirs enters the continent at the Crimean Peninsula; swings eastward to form the Caucasus Mountains between the Black and Caspian seas; continues south of the Caspian Sea as the
ELBURZ MOUNTAINS of Iran and the Kopet Mountains on the Iran-Azerbaijan border; and crosses into Afghanistan to merge with the Hindu Kush and the Pamirs. _^<N__^<N_East of the Pamirs, three mountain belts are discernible. One belt trends
northeastward toward the Pacific Ocean and forms the Alai Range in Kyrgyzstan, the Tian Shan (Tien Shan) and Da Hinggan (Greater Khinghan) Range in China, the ALTAI mountains in Kazakhstan, and the Sayan, YABLONOVY, and STANOVOI mountains in
Russia. A second mountain belt, located farther south, extends eastward from the Pamirs to form the KUNLUN MOUNTAINS, Astin Tagh, and Nan Shan in China. This belt continues across the middle of China, separating North China from South China, as
the Qin Ling (Tsinling). _^<N__^<N_The third and most southerly of the mountain belts radiating eastward from the Pamirs turns southeastward to form the KARAKORAM RANGE and the broad arc of the HIMALAYAS and then abruptly southward at the eastern
end of the Tibetan Plateau, where it splits into a number of lesser ranges that continue southward as the Arakan Yoma in Myanmar (Burma), the mountainous rib of the Malay Peninsula, and the Annam Mountains (Annamitic Cordillera) in Vietnam.
_^<N__^<N_Numerous plateaus and structural basins are located within or along the margins of these mountain ranges. The highest is the Tibetan Plateau, which has an average elevation of over 4,000 m (13,000 ft) and is bordered by some of the
world's highest mountains, including the Himalayas on the south, the Karakoram on the west, and the Kunlun Mountains on the north. This entire complex of high mountains and plateaus is often referred to as the "roof of the world." To the north of
Tibet are three important Chinese basins: the Qaidam (Tsaidam) Basin, the Tarim Basin (see TAKLIMAKAN), and the Junggar Pendi (Dzungarian) Basin. _^<N__^<N_Also important to China are the Sichuan (Szechwan, or Red) Basin, located in the western
Chinese province of Sichuan; the Gobi Plateau, a vast, semidesert upland located in Mongolia and China's Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region (see GOBI); and the Loess Plateau, located south of the Gobi, which is covered with an immense thickness of
windblown loess deposits derived from the Gobi. Other plateaus in Asia are the Anatolian Plateau, in Turkey; the Arabian Plateau, mainly in Saudi Arabia; the DECCAN PLATEAU, in peninsular India; and the Vitim and Aldan plateaus, in Russia.
_^<N__^<N_Numerous islands, arranged in a series of arcs, fringe the Southeast Asian and Pacific coasts of the continent. The islands of the Southeast Asia archipelago pick up the main trend lines of Myanmar's Arakan Yoma and continue them through
the Andaman and Nicobar islands of India and the islands of Sumatra, Java, and Bali in the Indonesian archipelago. Near Bali, the main trend of the mountainous belt splits into two segments. One segment continues eastward through the islands of
Timor, the Moluccas, and New Guinea and eventually forms the mountains of New Zealand; the other segment turns northeastward and passes in a series of arcs through Borneo, the Philippine archipelago, Taiwan, the Ryukyu Islands, Japan, and Sakhalin
and the Kuril Islands before touching the mainland in the Kamchatka Peninsula (Russia). These island arcs are seismically active, and earthquakes and volcanic eruptions frequently occur. _^<N__^<N_Asia's most extensive lowlands are located in the
former Soviet Union. They are the Western Siberian Plain, a vast, subarctic forested region located east of the Urals, and the Kirghiz Steppe, a semiarid plain located mainly in Kazakhstan. Other important lowlands are mainly in the alluvial
valleys and deltas developed by rivers flowing to the south and east. The largest of the alluvial valleys is the Indo-Gangetic Plain, located in the Indian subcontinent between the Himalayas and the Deccan Plateau. Occupying parts of Pakistan,
India, and Bangladesh, it is drained by the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra rivers; river water is diverted extensively across the plain for irrigation, and the region is one of the world's most intensively cultivated and most densely populated
places. Other Asian lowlands are the North China Plain, its soils enriched for centuries by loess sediments spread over the valley and deltas of the Huang He (Hwang Ho, or Yellow River); the alluvial valleys and deltas of the Chiang Jiang
(Yangtze), Irrawaddy (Myanmar), and Mekong (Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam) rivers; and the Fertile Crescent of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Iraq. _^<N__^<N_ Geology_^<N__^<N_Five Asian "shield" areas (geologically stable areas of
ancient crystalline rock) are usually recognized. They are the Arabian and Indian shields in the south and the Tarim Basin (Seridian massif), Northern China (the Chinese massif), and the Siberian (Angara) Shield. Great thicknesses of sediments
accumulated between these blocks of stable rocks and were subsequently folded and uplifted in periods of mountain building (orogenies). Asia has had a complex orogenic or mountain building history. The Caldonian Orogeny occurred in the Silurian
and Devonian periods and is recorded in Asia by the Sayan and other mountains of eastern Siberia. The Hercynian Orogeny occurred in the Late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian) and Permian periods and created the Urals, Tian Shan, Kunlun, and Qin Ling
mountains. _^<N__^<N_According to plate-tectonics theory, by the close of the Permian Period, Asia, together with the ancestral cores of all the other continents, formed the supercontinent known as Pangaea. During the Triassic Period, Pangaea
split apart into the northern landmass of Laurasia (from which North America, Europe, and northern Asia later developed) and the southern landmass of Gondwanaland (from which India and the continents of the Southern Hemisphere later developed). A
large sea called Tethys separated the two landmasses. By the end of the Jurassic Period, Gondwanaland fragmented, and the Indian plate began a northeastward movement. It eventually collided with and was drawn under the edge of the Eurasian plate,
and in the process Tethyan sediments were deformed and uplifted to form the Himalayas, Tibetan Plateau, and other high mountains of southern Asia. The African plate moved northward and collided with Eurasia to thrust up the European Alps and the
mountains of Asia west of the Himalayas. Much later, probably during the Miocene Epoch, rifting and seafloor spreading created the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, and Arabia split away from Africa to form a separate plate. Earth movements occur
today in the Indonesian, Japanese, Philippine, and other Pacific island arcs, where widespread seismic and volcanic activity attest to the geological instability of the region. (See CONTINENTAL DRIFT.) _^<N__^<N_ Climate_^<N__^<N_Three broad
climatic realms may be distinguished in Asia. They are: monsoon Asia, dry Asia, and cold Asia. _^<N__^<N_Monsoon Asia. The climate of South, Southeast, and East Asia is strongly influenced by the immensity of the Asian landmass, the barrier
presented by its great highland core, and the MONSOON wind system. In summer, the continental interior of Asia heats up rapidly as a result of increased isolation as the overhead Sun moves toward the Tropic of Cancer. Warm air above the heart of
Asia rises and creates low-pressure centers. The air pressures above the Pacific and Indian oceans are relatively high. Consequently, strong, moisture-laden winds are drawn inland from the oceans into the low-pressure areas of Asia, bringing
heavy rainfall wherever they are forced to rise up over low hills, mountains, or other topographic obstacles. The summer monsoon in India interrupts a very hot, dry spell. Elsewhere in Southeast and East Asia the break is not as dramatic, but
rainfall in all of monsoon Asia is concentrated in the summer months. In the coastal region of East Asia, tropical cyclones (typhoons) bring additional precipitation and devastating winds. _^<N__^<N_In winter, the land surface in the interior of
Asia cools off more rapidly than the surrounding oceans. As a result, cold descending air currents over the heart of Asia generate high-pressure centers facing the relatively low pressure zones over the Indian and Pacific oceans, where
temperatures are higher. From October to about April, cold, dry, continental winds blow offshore from inland Asia. This is the season of the winter monsoon. _^<N__^<N_Places exposed to the monsoons are warmer in summer and colder in winter than
places in corresponding latitudes not under their influence. They are also, for the most part, the wettest parts of Asia. _^<N__^<N_Within this large monsoon area, important temperature differences exist between north and south. An equatorial
climate predominates over much of Indonesia and Malaysia; average annual temperature is about 20 deg C (70 deg F) and average annual rainfall more than 2,030 mm (80 in). North of the equatorial region is a tropical monsoon area, in which summers
are hot and humid (average temperatures over 27 deg C/80 deg F) and winters cool (10 deg C/50 deg F) and dry. Rainfall is more than 1,270 mm (50 in). Climates in the rest of monsoon Asia range from warm temperate in central China and southern
Japan to cool temperate in northern China and Japan. Similarly, the length of the growing season, which is the period between killing frosts in the warm half of the year, decreases gradually from almost a full year in Indonesia to about four months
in China's northeast. _^<N__^<N_Dry Asia. Parts of Southeast Asia, Central Asia, and Mongolia have a wide range of dry climates that range latitudinally from the tropical deserts of the Arabian Peninsula in the west to the subtropical steppe
climate present in Iran and Afghanistan and the midlatitude steppe and deserts of Mongolia and northern China. Rainfall varies from a low of less than 25 mm (1 in) in parts of the Gobi Desert to 200 mm (8 in) in Central Asia. Throughout this belt,
rainfall is extremely unpredictable. The eastern coastal fringe of the Mediterranean Basin (the Levant) has a typical Mediterranean climate and receives rain in winter; average annual precipitation along this Western edge of dry Asia is about 500
mm (20 in). _^<N__^<N_Cold Asia. Most of Asian Russia has a cold climate. The southern regions have a subarctic climate, where summers are mild (21 deg C/70 deg F) and short, lasting for less than four months. Rainfall decreases from about 510
mm (20 in) in coastal locations to less than 250 mm (10 in) in the interior. The extreme northern section of Asia is dominated by the polar tundra climate, where the low year round temperatures (warmest month averages below 10 deg C/50 deg F)
create a permanently frozen subsoil known as permafrost. _^<N__^<N_ Drainage_^<N__^<N_The major rivers of Asia, that is, those reaching the sea, include the OB, YENISEI, and LENA, which flow northward to the Arctic Ocean; the AMUR, HUANG HE, and
CHIANG JIANG or Yangtze (the world's third-longest river, after the Nile and the Amazon), which drain eastward to the Sea of Okhotsk, Yellow Sea, and East China Sea, respectively, all coastal seas of the Pacific Ocean; the GANGES, INDUS, and
BRAHMAPUTRA rivers, which flow southward toward the Indian Ocean; the MEKONG, IRRAWADDY, and SALWEEN, which rise in eastern Tibet and drain southward through the peninsulas of Southeast Asia; and the TIGRIS and EUPHRATES system, which flows into
the Persian Gulf, an arm of the Indian Ocean. In addition, about 12,950,000 sq km (5,000,000 sq mi) of land in Central Asia is drained by rivers that do not reach the sea. This is the internal, or inland, drainage area of Asia. The Ili flows
into Lake Balkhash; the Syr Darya and the Amu Darya into the Aral Sea; and the Ural River into the Caspian Sea. Others are intermittent streams, which flow only after heavy rains; their waters evaporate in the deserts, and some end in salt lakes
or playas, which may be dry part of the year. _^<N__^<N_The Dead Sea, a saltwater lake whose shore is the lowest point on Earth, is fed by the JORDAN RIVER. The Caspian Sea, also saline and the world's largest inland body of water, loses more
water by evaporation than it receives from streams and precipitation. The ARAL SEA, about 280 km (175 mi) to the east, is also saline and once covered a much larger area. Lake BAIKAL in southern Siberia is the world's deepest lake (1,741 m/5,712
ft) and has only one outlet, the Angara River. The waters of Lake Baikal are fresh. _^<N__^<N_ Soils_^<N__^<N_Soil types correspond closely to their respective climatic and natural vegetation regions. In the permafrost region of northern Asia are
TUNDRA soils, unusable for agriculture because of the short growing season and impeded drainage, but otherwise rich in organic matter. South of the tundra, in the vast coniferous forest region of cold temperate Asia, are podzols with high acidity
and low organic content. Farther south, in the zone of mixed coniferous and deciduous forests, the gray brown forest soils have higher humus content and are less acidic than the podzols. Between the temperate forests of northern Asia and the
deserts of Central Asia a belt of chernozem and chestnut soils appears. These black to dark-brown soils are very rich in humus and mineral nutrients and are very productive when farmed. The desert and mountain soils of dry Asia have little to
offer for agricultural production. Even where irrigation is possible, a danger of salt and alkali accumulation in the topsoil exists resulting from the evaporation of mineralized underground water through capillary action. Consequently,
cultivation in dry Asia is confined to well-drained alluvial soils along major river valleys. _^<N__^<N_The soils of hot, humid monsoon Asia belong to the major soil category known as pedalfers. These soils are rich in iron and aluminum material.
High temperatures promote rapid oxidation and contribute to their reddish or yellowish appearance. Heavy rainfall washes soluble mineral and organic matter from the topsoil to the subsoil, leaving insoluble minerals, such as aluminum, in the
topsoil. These tropical red earths are generally infertile, and therefore agriculture in monsoon Asia is confined mostly to alluvial soils along river valleys. Some prominent exceptions exist: soils developed on basic volcanic ash in the
northeastern Deccan Plateau (India) and in Java are among the richest soils in monsoon Asia. _^<N__^<N_ Vegetation_^<N__^<N_Much of the original green cover in monsoon Asia has been replaced by secondary growth or farmlands as a result of centuries
of cultivation. Even in the equatorial region of Southeast Asia periodic burning by shifting cultivators has greatly reduced the extent of tropical rain forest, and tropical deciduous forests dominate what little forest area remains. These
forests yield valuable tropical hardwoods, such as teak, sal, ironwood, and bamboo. _^<N__^<N_In dry Asia limited vegetation, such as short grasses, will occur even on the edges of the most barren desert areas. Most of these desert plants are
xerophytic (drought resistant) and halophytic (salt tolerant). More significant vegetation occurs where ground water is available near the surface. _^<N__^<N_Separating cold Asia from dry Asia is an extensive band of low grasslands called the
steppe. Steppe vegetation predominates in Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan. North of the steppeland is a narrow transition zone of mixed forest and further north a vast expanse of coniferous forest known as taiga in Russia. The
taiga is a rich storehouse of commercially valuable needleleaf softwoods, such as spruce, larch, fir, and pine. Farther north lichens, mosses, and occasional dwarf willows manage to survive in the cold tundra. _^<N__^<N_ Fauna_^<N__^<N_Arctic
animals, although noted for their mobility, are even less diverse than arctic plants. Polar bears, mouselike lemmings, reindeer, and arctic foxes are common animals in the tundra region. The mammals and birds of subarctic Asiatic Russia are of
the cold, hardy type. Examples are the Altai elk, brown bear, wolf, ermine, sable, and the erne (a Siberian eagle similar to the bald eagle). Birds are prominent vertebrates in Asian deserts. Animals peculiar to dry Asia include the kuland
(Mongolian wild ass), the Bactrian camel, the saiga (an antelope), the Tibetan antelope, the kiang, the yak, the argali (wild sheep), and the markhor (wild goat). In East Asia are found such indigenous animals as the takin, bharal (wild Himalayan
sheep), goral (a rock goat), musk deer, sika, Thorold's deer, Pere David's deer, panda, Asiatic black bear, and high-altitude salamanders. Tigers and elephants are still found in some southern parts of the continent. _^<N__^<N_ Mineral
Resources_^<N__^<N_Asia's coal deposits are the largest in the world. About one-fourth of the world's total reserves are located in Russia; other coal reserves occur in nearly every province of China, in Indonesia, in India, in Korea, in
Kyrgyzstan, and in Uzbekistan. In 1991, China ranked first in world coal production and India 5th. Nearly half of the coal extracted in the former USSR, which ranked 3d in world production in 1991, is mined in Russia. Asia also has vast oil
deposits, especially in the Persian Gulf area; in the South China and Yellow Seas and other parts of the continental shelf off the coasts of East, Southeast, and South Asia; and in Russia, with smaller deposits in Turkmenistan. The former USSR
ranked 1st among world crude-oil producers in 1991, Saudi Arabia 2d, Iran 4th, and China 5th; the United Arab Emirates, Indonesia, Kuwait, Egypt, Oman, Malaysia, India, Iraq, Syria, and Qatar are also significant producers. Nearly one-third of
the world's natural gas reserves are located in Russia, although marketing difficulties limited production there before the construction of a pipeline in the 1980s that enabled Russia to supply Western Europe as well as to increase domestic
supplies. _^<N__^<N_Iron ore is abundant in China, which ranked 2nd in world production in 1989 and in India, which ranked 6th; Tin is widely distributed in Southeast Asia, with Malaysia and Indonesia ranking among the top world producers. Asia
also has large deposits of bauxite and a variety of other minerals, including major world deposits of chromium, manganese, mercury, selenium, tellurium, tungsten, zinc, graphite, magnesite, mica, pyrite, and talc. Japan, although it is the
industrial giant in Asia, has few of the mineral resources needed for modern industry and must import them. _^<N__^<N_ Water Resources_^<N__^<N_Irrigation canals crisscross the Indo-Gangetic Plain, Yangtze Valley, and other alluvial lowlands of
monsoon Asia. Irrigation during the dry season of the monsoon makes possible a double and triple cropping of land where year-round temperatures are warm enough and has been a major factor in the ability of Asia's river valleys to support such large
population clusters. Irrigation and the availability of groundwater for growing crops in oases are also major factors in the settlement and economic development of most of dry Asia in the southwest. Rivers remain the primary means of
transportation for most Asian countries other than Japan. Road and rail facilities are generally limited, although India's network is extensive. _^<N__^<N_Only a small part of the continent's vast hydroelectric power potential has been developed,
most of it in such fuel-deficient nations as Japan and Bangladesh or as part of a larger program of river improvements as in the Indus and Mekong river basin projects. Rivers with enormous hydroelectric potential are the Yangtze, Ob, Lena, and
Yenisei. _^<N__^<N_ Arable Land Resources_^<N__^<N_Only about 17% of all Asia excluding the former USSR is planted in crops and only 14% of all Asia including the former USSR. India has the most arable land, with 168,880,000 ha (422,200,000 acres),
or 50% of its total area, under cultivation. China ranks second, with 103,400,000 ha (255,070,000 acres), or 11% of its total area, under crops; and Turkey a poor third, with 27,413,000 ha (67,739,500 acres), or 35% of its total land area, under
crops. Other large arable landholdings are in Iran, which has 20,235,000 ha (50,002,000 acres), or 12% of its total land area, under crops; Indonesia, which has 19,400,000 ha (47,938,000 acres), or 10% of its total area, cultivated; and
Pakistan, which has 19,109,000 ha (42,219,000 acres), or 24% of its total area, planted to crops. _^<N__^<N_ Forest and Fish Resources_^<N__^<N_Forests cover about one third of Russia and 20% of the rest of Asia. Russia has the largest reserves of
commercial softwoods in the world (mostly east of the Urals) and leads the world in timber production. Deciduous forests are extensive in southern Asia, especially in the tropical and subtropical parts of monsoonal Asia. Indonesia and India
together account for half of all Asian woods cut from deciduous forests. In the wake of industrialization, however, deforestation is occurring in South and Southeast Asia, as it had earlier in China. _^<N__^<N_Japan and Russia are the world's two
top-ranking fish producers, and both maintain large oceangoing fishing fleets. China is the third-ranking fish producer, and India is fourth. In keeping with the intensive cultivation of land in Asia, fish are also raised in flooded rice fields.
_^<N__^<N_ PEOPLE_^<N__^<N_ Traditional Culture Areas_^<N__^<N_Asia has a long cultural heritage of great diversity. Sedentary agriculture and the beginnings of urban life and civilization developed before 4000 BC in MESOPOTAMIA (southwestern
Asia), about 3000 BC at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro in the Indus Valley, now in Pakistan (see INDUS CIVILIZATION), and about 2000 BC in the unrelated development of Chinese culture in the loess lands of China's middle Huang He valley (see CHINESE
ARCHAEOLOGY). These three areas of early civilization served as "culture hearths," or centers from which major cultural traditions, modified by later differences in religion, nationalism, and historical circumstance, were transferred outward and
adopted over wide areas of Asia (and sometimes beyond). _^<N__^<N_Six major cultural regions are recognized in Asia today. The three dominant ones are Southwest (or Islamic) Asia, South (or Indic) Asia, and East (or Sinic) Asia, which developed
from the three original culture hearths. The fourth is Southeast Asia; set between China and India, the Southeast Asia culture region is what political and cultural geographers call a "shatter zone," or culture area dominated by two or more strong
neighboring cultures. The remaining two culture areas are Northern (or Russian) Asia and Central (or Interior) Asia, both sparsely populated and peripherally located in terms of the major culture hearths. _^<N__^<N_Southwest (or Islamic) Asia
roughly coincides with the dry belt of desert and semidesert lands that extend eastward from the eastern Mediterranean (Levant) shores as far as Afghanistan. This area is customarily linked with North Africa under the labels Near or Middle East or
Arab World; the latter is misleading, however, because non-Arabs constitute a majority of the population in Iran, Israel, and Turkey. The Southwest Asian culture area saw the development of early agriculture in Mesopotamia and the rise and fall
of numerous ancient kingdoms and empires. It was unified by ISLAM in the 7th century, but important concentrations of non-Islamic peoples remain, including Christians in Syria, Armenia, and Lebanon, and Jews, mainly in Israel. _^<N__^<N_South (or
Indic) Asia is located on the Indian subcontinent and dominated by India. The culture dates from about 1500 BC when ARYANS invaded northern India. Their Vedic religion merged with indigenous customs and beliefs to produce HINDUISM, which
continues to play a major role in social organization and structure; it remains an important influence even in northern areas where Islam now prevails. BUDDHISM, founded in India in the 6th century BC, had its main cultural impact elsewhere.
_^<N__^<N_The nations included in East (or Sinic) Asia share a common culture developed by the ancient Chinese in the Huang He loesslands and unified during the SHANG dynasty about 1500 BC. Periodically invaded by nomads from the northern steppes,
the East Asian culture region included most of modern China by about 100 BC, began to move southward into Vietnam about the same time, and reached out to Korea and Japan about AD 400. Social organization and structure within the region is strongly
influenced by ancient Chinese concepts of familial duty and ancestor worship which were articulated in CONFUCIANISM and Japanese SHINTO, and to a lesser degree in TAOISM and Chinese Buddhism. _^<N__^<N_Southeast Asia embraces the peninsulas and
islands located between India and China. The indigenous peoples of this region were pushed from the lowlands into isolated hill areas by migrants from China and the rest of Asia in a process beginning 2,500 years ago. Buddhism became the dominant
religion, but Islamic influences, brought by Arab traders after the 12th century AD, and colonial penetrations by the British, French, Dutch, Spanish, and Americans after the 17th century brought much cultural diversification. _^<N__^<N_Northern
Asia, also sometimes called Asiatic Russia, is located in the semiarid steppes of the southern Russia and extends northward across Siberia to the shores of the Arctic Ocean. The steppes are the traditional home of various nomadic and indigenous
peoples, including the MONGOLS, YAKUT, TUNGUS, KAZAKH, UZBEK, and TATAR. Russians brought European influences into the region from the 17th century on, a process intensified in the 20th century. _^<N__^<N_Inner (or Central) Asia is located in
Tibet, Mongolia, Xinjiang-Uyghur, and Inner Mongolia. Isolated by high mountains or broad deserts, Inner Asia was for centuries the domain of nomadic herders and was for long feared by the Chinese as the homeland from which invaders repeatedly
entered the settled lands of eastern China. Chinese settlement and influence, however, greatly increased in recent years, spurred in part by Chinese fears of Soviet and Russian domination of this strategically significant border. _^<N__^<N_ Racial
and Ethnic Groups_^<N__^<N_Asia has a great diversity of ethnic groups, with two-thirds of all Asian peoples belonging to the Mongoloid group. The largest ethnic group is the Han Chinese, who constitute about 94% of the total population of China
and dominate the eastern half of that nation. The remaining 6% of that nation's population includes Mongols, Uygurs, Huis, Zhuangs, Tibetans, and other groups. The second largest Asian group is the Japanese, who except for a few thousand AINU in
the northern island of Hokkaido, constitute a single ethnic group in Japan. India, by contrast, is ethnically complex. In general terms, a lighter-skinned people of Aryan origins are characteristic in the north and a darker-skinned DRAVIDIAN
speaking people are characteristic of the south. _^<N__^<N_The north-central sections are occupied by a great variety of different tribal groups. European Russians constitute about 40% of the population of Soviet Asia, but important minorities in
the southern steppes include the BURYAT, KALMYK, TADZHIK, CHUKCHI, and Tungu. Southeast Asia is fragmented along ethnic lines and includes among its major ethnic groupings Indonesians, MALAYS, BURMESE, THAI, KHMER, Vietnamese, and Filipinos as
well as numerous isolated hill peoples. The principal ethnic groups in Southwest Asia are Semites (mostly ARABS but many JEWS in Israel), TURKS, Armenians, Persians, KURDS, and Baluchis. _^<N__^<N_ Languages_^<N__^<N_Chinese, spoken by an
estimated 1 billion people in China, Southeast Asia, and other parts of the continent, is the language most widely spoken in Asia; it includes Mandarin Chinese and many distinctive dialects including Cantonese, Wu, Min, and Hakka. Hindi, spoken
by about 215 million people, is the second most widely used language; it is spoken mainly in northern India and Pakistan. Arabic, spoken mainly in Southwest Asia, is the third major language; and Russian, widely spoken and used as a second
language in former Soviet Asia, is the fourth. These languages cross national boundaries and enjoy international status. The many other languages spoken in Asia enjoy mainly national and regional usage. Languages introduced by colonial powers
have also left important marks on Asia. In India, which is fragmented by numerous languages, English remains an official government language and the country's only unifying tongue. Spanish still has some importance in the Philippines. (See
AFROASIATIC LANGUAGES; DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGES; INDO-IRANIAN LANGUAGES; MALAYO-POLYNESIAN LANGUAGES; SINO-TIBETAN LANGUAGES; SOUTHEAST ASIAN LANGUAGES; URAL-ALTAIC LANGUAGES.) _^<N__^<N_ Religions_^<N__^<N_The principal Asian religions are
Hinduism, Islam, and Buddhism. Hinduism has a following of about 520 million and is the main religion of India. Islam, with an estimated 430 million adherents in Asia, is the principal religion in Southwest Asia, Afghanistan, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, Malaysia, and Indonesia. Large Muslim minorities exist in India, the Philippines, and Central Asia. Buddhism, which developed in India, is no longer important in that country but has a following of about 250 million in other regions
of Asia and constitutes the principal religion in Burma, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Laos, and Cambodia. In the form of a northern sect known as TIBETAN BUDDHISM, it is dominant in Tibet and Bhutan. Buddhism is also well represented in Japan. Taoism, an
indigenous Chinese religion, and Confucianism, which is more a philosophy than a religion, were both widespread in China in pre-Communist times. Other important Asian religions are Shinto, or traditional Japanese nature worship; Roman
Catholicism, practiced mainly in Vietnam and the Philippines, and Protestantism. Less well represented religions include such sects as the SIKHS, PARSIS, and Jains (see JAINISM) in India. _^<N__^<N_ Education and Health_^<N__^<N_About 60% of
Asia's school-age children attend school. Literacy varies markedly from one Asian country to another. Only 10% of Afghanistan's population is literate, which is defined as persons more than 15 years of age who can read or write. Literacy rates
range from about 25% of the population in Iran and Saudi Arabia to about 50% in China, India, Turkey, and Malaysia and close to 100% in Japan and Russia. (See CHINESE UNIVERSITIES; JAPANESE UNIVERSITIES; KOREAN UNIVERSITIES; SOUTH ASIAN
UNIVERSITIES; SOUTHEAST ASIAN UNIVERSITIES.) _^<N__^<N_The average daily per capita protein consumption is inadequate in the majority of Asian countries. The rates of infant mortality are higher in India and the Middle East than in China and are
lowest in the industrial developed countries of Japan and Russia. The average life expectancy of Asians ranges from about 40 to 65 years. Japan and Russia are significant exceptions; life expectancy is more than 70 years, and infant mortality is
very low. _^<N__^<N_ Demography_^<N__^<N_Population densities in Asia range from the lowest in the world in parts of the Arabian Desert, Tibetan Plateau, and high mountains of South and Inner Asia to some of the world's highest population densities
in the Indo-Gangetic Plain and the Chang Jiang (Yangtze) Valley. Although average annual population growth in Asia (excluding former Soviet Central Asia) has declined from the more than 2% in the first half of the 1970s, the annual population
growth for the region has averaged 2% a year for the past 30 years. Population-growth figures for Russia averaged a rate of 0.9% a year for the period 1980-88. India grew at an overall rate of 1.7% a year, and China at an estimated rate of 1.6% a
year. Because of the immense size of these nations, the rates translate into total increases of about 16 million people a year each for India and China. Natural growth rates near, or in excess of, 3% are typical of Southwest Asia (excluding
Israel). _^<N__^<N_In Russia the birthrate for 1988 was 20.1 for each 1,000, and the death rate 10.3 for each 1,000. For the rest of Asia the overall birthrate was 31 for each 1,000, and the overall death rate 2 for each 1,000. Death rates
throughout the world have been reduced as a result of improved nutrition and medical care. Birthrates, however, are less easy to control. The Chinese government, alarmed by the rate of population growth indicated by the census of 1982, reinforced
its restriction of one child per family. With laws that prohibit marriage before the age of 22 for men and 20 for women and make birth control compulsory for newlyweds, China aims to limit its population growth to no more than 1.2 billion by the
end of the century. India has experimented with various programs for birth control since the 1950s, having introduced payments for vasectomies, which proved popular, and compulsory sterilization for all families with three or more children, which
was met with great hostility. By 1988, China's birthrate had fallen to about 22 per thousand, as opposed to India's 32 per thousand. Japan's birthrate was controlled many years ago by legalization of abortion. It is generally assumed that
economic development and reduction in birthrates are related, but much dispute exists as to which comes first. _^<N__^<N_Practically all Asian countries, with perhaps the exception of isolated Bhutan and Nepal, have experienced urbanization in
recent years. People flock from the countryside to the cities, where they increase unemployment, congestion, and various forms of social disorganization. They also tend to abandon traditional cultures in favor of modern, urban, industrial, and
commercial mores. BOMBAY, CALCUTTA, YANGON (Rangoon), BANGKOK, MANILA, HONG KONG, SINGAPORE, and JAKARTA are examples of this process. SHANGHAI, one of the largest cities in the world, was such a city until the Chinese government forcibly
relocated part of the city population to the surrounding countryside. _^<N__^<N_Despite this process of urbanization, however, most Asian countries remain predominantly rural. The exceptions are modernized Israel, where less than 15% of the
population live in rural areas, and Japan, where only 18% of the population are classified as rural. In Southwest Asia, with its long tradition of urban living, Iraq has only 28% of its population in rural areas and Jordan only 44%. Elsewhere in
Asia, the rural population amounts to 76% of the total in India, 77% in Indonesia, and nearly 80% in China. _^<N__^<N_ ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT_^<N__^<N_During the Middle Ages, Asia was the most developed part of the world. Syria was famous for its
textiles, swords, steel, and silverware, India for the delicacy of its cottons, Iran (Persia) and Central Asia for rugs, Southeast Asia for spices, and China for exquisite porcelains, silks, and other items coveted by Western traders and consumers
as late as the 18th century. Today, however, except for Russia, Japan, and Israel, most of these same Asian countries are considered part of the developing, or underdeveloped, world. They have not shared in the Industrial Revolution and the
higher standards of living that industrialization has provided to the Western world, and in most Asian countries the majority of the people live close to the limits of survival. _^<N__^<N_ Agriculture_^<N__^<N_Agriculture remains the dominant
economic activity throughout Asia except in Israel, where only 6% of the population are engaged in farming, Japan, where only 8% are farmers, and Soviet Asia, where only 10% work in agricultural activities. By contrast the proportion of the labor
force in farming in the rest of Asia is 62% in China, 64% in India, 61% in Indonesia, and ranges as high as 94% in Bhutan and Nepal. _^<N__^<N_Four distinct agricultural systems coexist in Asia: small-holding agriculture, plantation agriculture,
collective agriculture, and shifting agriculture. Small-holding agriculture, in which small private farms produce a combination of subsistence and cash crops for home consumption and local markets, predominates in the capitalist economies.
Collective agriculture, in which production is based on central planning, is practiced in China. Plantation agriculture, involving the production on large land estates of one or a few agricultural commodities for foreign markets, is most notable
in Southeast Asia. Shifting or SLASH-AND-BURN AGRICULTURE is practiced by tribal groups in tropical rain forests. _^<N__^<N_The principal food crop in Asia is rice, most of it paddy rice grown in flooded fields during the summer, but some upland
rice is also grown without irrigation. About 91% of all the world's rice is grown in Asia, some 40% of it in China, 20% in India, 7% in Indonesia, and 6% in Bangladesh. Wheat is the second major food crop; it is grown as a second crop during the
dry monsoon season where temperatures are warm enough and is also the chief crop in drier areas such as northern China, Russia, Turkey, and the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. About 23% of the world's wheat is produced in Russia, 10% in China, 7%
in India, 4% in Turkey, and 5% in the rest of Asia. Other principal food crops are millet, sorghum, maize, barley, soybeans and kaoliang (kafir corn). Commercial crops include cotton (India, Russia, and China), silk (China, India, and Japan),
jute (Bangladesh and Southeast Asia), rubber and palm oil (Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia), sugarcane (Pakistan, Thailand, Indonesia, Taiwan, India, and the Philippines), tea (India, China, Indonesia, and Japan), and copra (Indonesia and the
Philippines). _^<N__^<N_Animals play a major role in Asian agriculture, both as part of the intensive system of agriculture characteristic of the densely populated alluvial plains and as part of a nomadic economy of cold and semiarid regions.
China has the largest hog population in the world. They are easy to raise, produce abundant manure, and, as pork, provide a major source of animal protein in the Chinese diet. India has the largest bovine population in the world. Cattle in
India, however, are kept for religious and draft purposes; as a sacred animal the cow is not raised for meat. Camels, mainly used for transportation, are ubiquitous animals in dry Asia. Sheep are reared in semiarid environments such as south
central Russia, western China, the central Indian plateaus, and the Middle East, and reindeer are herded in the northern parts of Soviet Asia. _^<N__^<N_ Forestry and Fishing_^<N__^<N_In most of Asia, forestry and fishing cater mainly to domestic
markets. Both activities, however, are major industries in Japan and Russia. Teak is a specialty timber export in Thailand and Burma. _^<N__^<N_ Mining_^<N__^<N_Asia's great wealth of mineral resources furnishes the raw materials for much of the
world's industrial establishments. Among the fuels, in 1988 Asia produced 33% of the world's total oil supply, 24% of the bituminous and anthracite coals, and 8% of the marketed natural gas. Among metals, it produced 43% of the world's tin, most
of it concentrated in Malaysia, Indonesia, and other parts of Southeast Asia; 18% of the iron ore; 22% of the chromium; 11% of the manganese; 16% of the mercury; 36% of the selenium; 20% of the tellurium; 43% of the tungsten; 19% of the
zinc; and 12% of the titanium. Of the world's total production of nonmetals, Asia supplied 24% of the cement, 41% of the graphite, 36% of the magnesite, 40% of the mica, 34% of the nitrogen fertilizers, 19% of the pyrite, 19% of the salt, and 43%
of the talc. In total value of mineral output, Asia ranked first among all the continents. _^<N__^<N_ Manufacturing_^<N__^<N_Russia and Japan are among the world's leading manufacturing nations. In Russia, however, the major industrial centers
are in the European part; Russian Asia is essentially a vast storehouse of natural resources still largely unexploited because of their inaccessibility to markets. In Japan, manufacturing districts are concentrated in the Kanto Plain (the
Tokyo-Yokohama area), the Kansai region (NAGOYA and the cities along the Inland Sea, such as OSAKA and KOBE), and in northern Kyushu (KITAKYUSHU). Lacking industrial raw materials, Japan specializes in producing technical machinery, transport
equipment, and precision instruments that are high in value but low in bulk. Examples are automobiles and electrical and electronic equipment. _^<N__^<N_In China, heavy industries are located in such cities as CHANGCHUN (Ch'ang-ch'un), SHENYANG
(Shen-yang), TIANJIN (Tientsin), Shanghai, and WUHAN (Wu-han). China has begun to import advanced technological capital goods from the West to promote its industrialization program. As in India, the industrial structure in China is still
dominated by light manufacturing. _^<N__^<N_India's major industrial operations are located in the Bombay, Calcutta, and Chota Nagpur area just west of Calcutta, where coal and iron ore mines are in close proximity. Southeast Asia and the Middle
East possess few significant industrial regions. What little manufacturing exists is concentrated in the countries' capitals and a few commercial cities. The rich petroleum resources of the Middle East have earned large revenues but have not yet
significantly contributed to the area's industrial development. _^<N__^<N_ Power_^<N__^<N_Energy consumption in Asia is closely related to the degree of industrialization. Per capita energy consumption is highest in Japan and lowest in India and
Indonesia. Thermal energy is a major source of power in Asia. India, China, and Central Asia have high hydroelectric power potentials, most of which, however, have not been developed. _^<N__^<N_ Transportation and Communication_^<N__^<N_With the
single exception of Japan, Asian countries possess inadequate transportation facilities. Overland transportation in Asia is made difficult by the continent's landforms and the great distances between key population, market, and resource areas.
Railroads are extensive only in Japan, India, and eastern China. The TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILROAD, which serves much of Asian Russia, crosses the Ural Mountains and proceeds across southern Siberia to the the Pacific port of VLADIVOSTOK. A parallel
rail line, the Baikal-Amur Mainline (BAM), was completed in 1984. Asia's road system is even less developed than its railroads. Consequently, river and local coastal transport are of great importance in much of Asia. More than 45% of all
passenger traffic in Japan travels via automobile, but corresponding figures in the rest of Asia are very low. _^<N__^<N_ Trade_^<N__^<N_Petroleum is the major export in oil-rich countries of the Middle East. It accounts for nearly 90% of the
total annual exports by value in Saudi Arabia and is the predominant export for Iran and Kuwait; Iraqi oil exports, halted by an international trade embargo in 1990, remained severely restricted after the PERSIAN GULF WAR in 1991. Indonesia and
Brunei are the only countries in monsoon Asia with sizable petroleum exports. The regional economic impact of the 1990-91 Persian Gulf crisis included the loss of income from hundreds of thousands of displaced Palestinian, Jordanian, South Asian,
and Filipino guest workers in Kuwait and Iraq, the impact of a temporary rise in oil prices and suspension of exports of South Asian commodities to Iraq and Kuwait, and the loss of Turkish and Jordanian revenues from Iraqi exports. _^<N__^<N_After
the breakup of the USSR in 1991, Turkey, Iran, and Saudi Arabia sought to establish trade links with the Muslim nations of former Soviet Central Asia. The members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (see ASEAN) agreed in 1992 to take
steps to create a regional common market. _^<N__^<N_Exports from Southeast Asia are mainly tropical crops and minerals (rubber, palm oil, sugarcane, coconut, tin, bauxite), most of which are shipped to the industrialized nations of the world. The
Indian subcontinent exports textiles, machine products, and craft goods. The principal imports are manufactured products and petroleum. _^<N__^<N_China's foreign trade increased dramatically in the 1980s after the government abandoned its earlier
policy of self-reliance. The foreign trade of mainland China still lags significantly behind that of Taiwan, which exports 73% of its gross national product. _^<N__^<N_ RECENT DEVELOPMENTS_^<N__^<N_ Population Growth_^<N__^<N_Asia's population is
growing at a rapid rate of nearly 2% a year, is expected to double soon after the end of the century, and is expected to account for 65% to 75% of all the world's population at that time. Only Japan, Hong Kong, and Singapore have attained low
birthrates and low death rates. China and India, of special concern because of the immense size of their combined populations, have demonstrated some success in encouraging birth limitation, but birthrates in the rest of Asia continue at high
rates characteristic of less developed countries. Death rates have fallen almost everywhere with the advent of better medical care, improved nutrition, and the creation of a vast trade and transportation network capable of relieving famine by
imports from other areas when crops fail. _^<N__^<N_ Food Supply_^<N__^<N_Asia's food supply has grown at only a slightly faster rate than population. Malnutrition is widespread in poorer areas and among the lowest economic groups. Japan, India,
and China are largely self-sufficient in food. New strains of wheat and rice, developed in the 1960s and '70s as part of the GREEN REVOLUTION, have raised crop yields as much as four- to fivefold. The new strains, however, require nurturing by
large amounts of fertilizers and careful irrigation. Fertilizer production has increased greatly, as has the amount of land under irrigation. Except in Japan and Taiwan, however, fertilizers and irrigation are not available to all farmers, and
those too poor to afford them have suffered declining yields. _^<N__^<N_Mechanization holds less promise for raising agricultural productivity in Asia because Asia's agricultural methods have been traditionally labor-intensive. Indeed, it would
pose additional burdens for most Asian nations by increasing the need to provide employment for those displaced. _^<N__^<N_ Political Unrest_^<N__^<N_Political unrest is apparent in most developing Asian countries, and insurgency continues today in
Cambodia, Myanmar, the Philippines, and Sri Lanka much as it did earlier in Vietnam, Indonesia, and Malaysia. Such unrest stems from growing discontent with land ownership patterns, the widening gap between rich and poor in almost all Asian
nations, ethnic conflicts, and dislocations resulting from urbanization and industrialization. Vigorous land-reform programs have redistributed land in some countries, most notably China, but land ownership in many countries is concentrated into
the hands of a few families belonging to the nation's social, political, or military elite. Day-to-day farm operations are left to a class of poor and discontented renters and sharecroppers who have no hope of breaking the rental cycle.
_^<N__^<N_Moreover, the surplus population from rural areas, developed as a result of the fast-growing populations, is unable to find work when it moves to the cities, where it lives in squalor and poverty. The frustrations, discontent, and lack
of opportunity of this substantial population group are a potential source of revolution and are everywhere a concern for governments. _^<N__^<N_ Industrialization and Economic Development_^<N__^<N_Industrialization is widely promoted as the
solution to Asia's poverty and unemployment problems. Japan, assisted by massive U.S. aid programs after World War II, has shown the advantages of its "economic miracle," and Taiwan, South Korea, and Singapore have demonstrated that the Japanese
model can work elsewhere. Southwest Asia has benefited from foreign aid to some extent, especially in the case of strategically located Turkey, but oil has contributed much of the capital needed for development. Industrial growth in the region
was disrupted by the 1990-91 Persian Gulf crisis. India ranks among the first ten industrial nations of the world. After independence industrial development was based on socialist principles aimed at achieving self-sufficiency. In 1991, however,
facing an economic crisis, the government introduced reforms designed to reduce state control of industry and trade and attract foreign investment. China experimented briefly with a peasant-based industrialization program during its GREAT LEAP
FORWARD of 1958-60, but this approach was later abandoned as inefficient. After the Cultural Revolution, China began to import advanced technology from the West, but the pace of free-market reforms there slowed in the late 1980s and early 1990s.
Industry in both China and India is still dominated by light manufacturing. _^<N__^<N_Uncertainty in China; tensions between Israel, the Palestine Liberation Organization, Iran, and various Arab countries in the Middle East; the 1991 breakup of
the Soviet Union, which created eight new nations in Southwest and Central Asia; antagonisms between the region's "haves" and "have-nots"; and a rising tide of religious fundamentalism and sectarian militancy in many nations of the region dominate
much of the development in Asia today. Regional cooperation is a protective and military device for a politically fragmented continent. Major cooperative ventures include the COLOMBO PLAN, set up in 1960 to provide education in technical matters,
ASEAN, set up in 1967 as the successor to the SOUTHEAST ASIA TREATY ORGANIZATION to promote unity among the non-Communist countries of the region; the often fragmented ARAB LEAGUE, established in 1945 to promote Arab unity; and the South Asian
Association for Regional Cooperation, founded by seven South Asian nations in 1985 but hampered by tensions between India and Pakistan. _^<N__^<N_Reviewed by Rhoads Murphey _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: _^<N__^<N_GENERAL: Chan, S., East Asian Dynamism
(1990); Embree, Ainslie, ed., Encyclopedia of Asian History (1987); Fairbanks, J. K., et al., East Asia: Tradition and Transformation, rev. ed. (1989); Far Eastern Economic Review, ed., Asia Yearbook (annual); Farmer, Edward, et al.,
Comparative History of Civilizations in Asia, 2 vols. (1986); Han, S. B., Asian Peoples and Their Cultures (1987); Jamieson, J. W., The Asian Mainland (1989); McCord, W., The Dawn of the Pacific Century (1990); Peretz, D., ed., The Middle East
Today, 5th ed. (1988); Steinberg, D. J., et al., In Search of Southeast Asia, 2d ed. (1987); Welty, P. T., The Asians, 6th ed. (1984). _^<N__^<N_CULTURAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY: Bacon, Elizabeth, Central Asians under Soviet Rule: A Study in
Cultural Change (1980); Baxter, C., et al., Government and Politics in South Asia, 2d ed., (1991); Binswager, Hans P., et al., eds., Rural Household Studies in Asia (1981); Caldarola, Carlo, ed., Religion and Societies: Asia and the Middle East
(1984); Chambers, Kevin, The Traveller's Guide to Asian Customs and Manners (1988); Fryer, Donald W., Emerging Southeast Asia: A Study in Growth and Stagnation, 2d ed. (1979); Spencer, J. E., and Thomas, W. L., Asia, East by South: A
Cultural Geography (1971); Welty, Paul T., The Asians: Their Heritage and Their Destiny, 6th ed. (1984). _^<N__^<N_ECONOMICS: Andrews, John, The Asian Challenge: Looking Beyond 2000 (1992); Costa, F. J., et al., Urbanization in Asia (1989);
Darling, Frank, The Westernization of Asia (1980); Far Eastern Economic Review, ed., Asia Yearbook (annual); Jones, William, et al., Asian Development: Economic Successes and Policy Lessons (1988); Oshima, Harry T., Economic Growth in Monsoon
Asia (1986); Scalapino, R. A., The Politics of Development (1989); Vogel, Ezra F., The Four Little Dragons: The Spread of Industrialization in East Asia (1991); Woronoff, Jon, Asia's Miracle Economies (1986). _^<N__^<N_CULTURES AND RELIGIONS:
Binswager, Hans P., et al., eds., Rural Household Studies in Asia (1981); Chan, Wing I., and Alfaruqi, Ismael R., Great Asian Religions (1969); Kitagawa, Joseph M., ed., The Religious Traditions of Asia (1989); Nielsen, Niels, et al., Religions
of Asia (1988); Tweddell, Colin C., and Kimball, Linda A., Introduction to the Peoples and Cultures of Asia (1985); Vogel, E. F., The Four Little Dragons (1992). _^<N__^<N_
-END-
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Asia, history of
-O-
000000|Asia, history of
000612| ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS
003183| Southwest Asia in Ancient Times
004066| Babylonia and Assyria
005248| Persian Leadership
007344| Judaism and Christianity
008112| Ancient India
009665| Aryan Invasions and Hinduism
010889| Rise of Buddhism and Jainism
011902| Mauryan and Gupta Periods
013123| Ancient China
015322| Early Chinese Dynasties
017753| Transition to Classical China
022348| Early Developments in Southeast Asia, Korea, and Japan
022864| Southeast Asia
026514| Korea
027277| Japan
029133| PERIOD OF NOMADIC INVASIONS
029337| The Rise of Islam in Western Asia
029687| Arab Dominance
030327| Turkish Dominance
031339| The Crusades
032037| Turkic and Mongol Raiding in the South and East
032307| Muslim Invasions of India
032896| Mongols
034174| Impact of Islam
035220| Post-Han China
037351| ASIA AND THE WEST
037840| Early Contact
040053| Early European Relations with China and Japan
042453| European Expansion in Asia
046920| ASIAN NATIONALISM
047706| The Chinese Revolution
048760| Impact of World War I
049762| Impact of World War II
051761| The Spread of Communism and U.S. Intervention
053490| Ethnic and Religious Tensions
055170| Modern Diversity
-T-
Asia, history of_^<N__^<N_The origins of Asian history and civilization developed independently but in similar patterns in three widely separated river-valley systems. The earliest cultural center in western Asia was in the parallel valleys of the
Tigris and Euphrates rivers, later called MESOPOTAMIA by the Greeks. The second was the INDUS Valley of northwestern India, located to the east of the Hindu Kush and Afghan mountains and south of the westernmost extension of the Himalayan range.
The third was the flatland section of the HUANG HE (Hwang Ho), or Yellow River, of northeastern China, remotely distant from the other two. _^<N__^<N_ ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS_^<N__^<N_The basic contributing factor in the development of all three
centers of civilization was the seasonal deposit of sedimentation by silt-saturated floodwaters below the delivery point of tributary streams from the highlands. Such perennial flood areas had to be cleared of debris, penetrated by drainage canals
to eliminate marshland and swamp, and protected by artificial levees to control excessive water and to facilitate the development of irrigation. Permanently settled agriculturists abandoned their previous hunting, fishing, and food-gathering
routines and learned to cooperate in village units. These units were eventually grouped around governmental centers, which could define and enforce land claims and water rights and protect access to such facilities. Regulated trading craft came
to ply the navigable portions of the rivers and developed outlets for both inland and seaborne trade. _^<N__^<N_Contemporary with the development of such river-valley communities during the 4th and 3d millennia BC was the transition from the use of
stone tools in the NEOLITHIC PERIOD to the use of metals, especially bronze, in the BRONZE AGE. The blending of copper and tin under intense heat produced durable tools for cultivation and weapons for defense of the irrigated valley areas. Egypt's
contemporary Nile Valley civilization differed from the Asian centers mainly in its greater use of stone for construction purposes. In the absence of adequate timber and stone resources, the Asian communities used baked brick for construction.
The three regions of early Asian history also shared the need to differentiate the economic, social, and religious functions of government. As society became more complex, writing systems were developed to record land holdings, labor assignments,
trading activities, and official and religious rites. A wedge-shaped cuneiform script emerged in Mesopotamia, Chinese character recordings appeared in the Huang He valley, and a kind of writing was developed in the Indus Valley area, although the
last was outgrown and remains undeciphered. Early writing was inscribed on stone or earthenware; the Chinese invented paper. _^<N__^<N_In all three areas the pattern for controlling perennial flooding problems included ceremonial incantations
designed to influence the gods of the sky and the waters. Such incantations were the function of the king-priests. Below the upper social layer were the merchants and artisans; farther down came the farmers and laborers, with enslaved elements
and wartime captives at the bottom. _^<N__^<N_ Southwest Asia in Ancient Times_^<N__^<N_During the early 3d millennium BC, control over Mesopotamia radiated from the mouth of the Euphrates River in the cities of SUMER, at the eastern end of the
FERTILE CRESCENT. One of the most important cities was UR, from which Abraham came in biblical legend. From about 2800 to 2400 BC, the Sumerians ruled from the lower valley. Dominance then passed to the more northerly region of AKKAD, whose
people, like the Sumerians, were Semites. The Akkadian king SARGON conquered as far west as the Mediterranean coast. The prolonged developmental period of Sumerian and Akkadian rule established a firm basis for cultural as well as economic and
political development. Cultural achievements included cuneiform literature, the study of mathematics and astronomy, the construction of walled urban defenses and temples, and the creation of art objects. _^<N__^<N_ Babylonia and
Assyria_^<N__^<N_Beginning about 2100 BC, Mesopotamia was subjected to a century-long period of enemy intrusions, by AMORITES from the west and the people of ELAM from the east. Around 2000, however, the state of BABYLONIA emerged in Mesopotamia.
More extensive and better integrated than its predecessors, it produced in time the famous Code of HAMMURABI (c.1800 BC), which defined the legal rights of all sections of the population, including the slave inhabitants. Four centuries (1600-1200)
of KASSITE rule was followed by the even longer ascendancy of ASSYRIA, an empire based in northern Mesopotamia that eventually included Syria and Egypt. Assyria finally fell (612 BC) before a coalition of the Indo-European Medes (see MEDIA) from
the north, the Persians from the east, and a resurgent Babylonia, under the Chaldean dynasty, in the south. The new Babylonian empire then survived for less than a century before being overrun (539) by the Persians. As part of the vast Persian
Empire, Mesopotamia lost its status as a center of political, cultural, and literary innovation. The numerals that the Mesopotamians invented are still used, although now called Arabic. _^<N__^<N_ Persian Leadership_^<N__^<N_Persian domination
over southwestern Asia was initiated by two famous rulers, CYRUS THE GREAT (r. 549-30) as conqueror and DARIUS I (r. 522-486) as administrative organizer of the vast empire. The empire extended from Persia proper, south of the Caspian Sea, to the
Punjab highlands on the borders of India in the east and across Mesopotamia and Syria to Egypt and Anatolia in the west. An effective administration was established, including 21 administrative satrapies, each under officers who collected tax
assessments and maintained police control. Courier horsemen maintained contacts between the several administrative segments. (See PERSIA, ANCIENT.) _^<N__^<N_A particularly noteworthy aspect of Persian rule was the emergence of the monotheistic
religious faith of ZOROASTRIANISM. The founder, Zoroaster (c.628-521 BC) developed the concept of the god Ahura Mazda, dedicated to developing an earthly kingdom of justice and truth along with the promise of immortal bliss. At the outset, the
novel concept aroused understandable opposition from civil and religious authorities who had a stake in the older polytheistic order, but it later earned the support of King Darius. The monotheistic concept of the Persians related directly to the
emergence of the other monotheistic faiths of Southwest Asia--Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. _^<N__^<N_In 330 BC the unity of the Persian Empire was interrupted temporarily by the invading Hellenistic forces of ALEXANDER THE GREAT, who actually
reached the Indus Valley in 326. But Alexander died in 323, and a period of political confusion developed. The kingdom of PARTHIA eventually revived Persian leadership, and a second Persian, or Parthian, empire spread across Mesopotamia to the
Mediterranean Sea. Roman armies conquered Syria in 63 BC, and for several centuries thereafter the Roman-Persian frontier was the Euphrates River. After the collapse of the Parthian dynasty in the early 3d century AD, the Persian SASSANIANS
continued the struggle with the Roman Empire and with its successor state in the east, the BYZANTINE EMPIRE. _^<N__^<N_ Judaism and Christianity_^<N__^<N_Another culturally significant development during the 1st millennium BC arose from the
political travail and religious insight of the minority group of Hebrew tribes, later called the JEWS. Rescued from Egyptian slavery by MOSES after 1200 BC, they established a homeland in PALESTINE but later suffered captivity by neighboring
Babylonians and Assyrians. The more comprehensive and tolerant rule of the Persians permitted their return to Palestine in the later 500s BC, but they were dispersed again by the Romans in the 2d century AD. JUDAISM focused on worship of the
single god, Jehovah. From the same background emerged CHRISTIANITY, destined to spread into the Mediterranean and Western European world via the Greeks and the Romans. _^<N__^<N_ Ancient India_^<N__^<N_The earliest focal point of historic
civilization in India, also dating from the late 4th millennium BC, was the central portion of the Indus Valley. INDUS CIVILIZATION had two major urban centers: Harappa, which was located in the Punjab immediately above the point of confluence of
the multiple mountain-area tributaries of the Indus system; and Mohenjo-daro, located several hundred miles downstream in the Sind area. Eventually, a seaport city in Gujarat, at the mouth of the Indus River, was added to the upstream system. It
developed commercial contacts with Mesopotamia and with Southeast Asian ports. _^<N__^<N_Early Indus civilization was normally prosperous, self-sufficient in food, orderly, and capable of self-defense. At peak points in the long history of
Mohenjo-daro, impressive palaces and temples were included among the brick structures that lined its grid of brick-paved streets. Nevertheless, modern excavations of the site have revealed that the extensive city was rebuilt at least seven times.
Early written items in Sanskrit, the language of the ARYANS who later conquered the area, include Vedic hymns borrowed from the original inhabitants. The latter have been described as dark-skinned, moderate in height, narrow between the eyes, and
flat-nosed; the males were heavily bearded. They were probably more closely akin to their Ganges Valley neighbors to the east than to the small-statured DRAVIDIANS, who inhabited the Deccan Plateau beyond the Thar Desert and the Vindhya mountain
divide to the south and east. _^<N__^<N_ Aryan Invasions and Hinduism_^<N__^<N_The Indo-European, or Aryan, conquerors of the Indus Valley were warrior predators from central Asia, whose multiple invasions began in the 3d millennium BC. Their
final conquest occurred between 1500 and 1200 BC, during which period virtually all urban fortifications were destroyed and a large percentage of the indigenous population either killed or forced to flee. The invaders absorbed a small fraction of
the older population, probably female consorts and enslaved male craftsmen, and eventually they appropriated significant aspects of the older culture. _^<N__^<N_The tall, fair-skinned Aryan conquerors were ethnic kinsmen of the Medes and Persians
who later took over much of western Asia. Their important contributions to Indian civilization included introduction of their Indo-European language and Sanskrit writing system. Aryan religious practices coalesced with older forms in the emerging
HINDUISM. The VEDAS, or early Aryan hymns, describe an imposing array of deities, eventually headed by the creator BRAHMA, the preserver VISHNU, and the destroyer SHIVA. A central feature of Hinduism was the CASTE system, which continued to shape
Indian social structure into the 20th century. _^<N__^<N_ Rise of Buddhism and Jainism_^<N__^<N_Major religious and cultural changes in Hindu India began in the 6th century BC, with the simultaneous appearance of Gautama BUDDHA and the prophet
Mahavira, founder of JAINISM. Both were palace-oriented personalities, brought up in luxurious surroundings that they later repudiated. Mahavira became a thoroughgoing ascetic; Gautama was less extreme but advocated the conquest of desire for
physical and material things. In its purest form, BUDDHISM aspired to the loss of personal identity and eventual union with the infinite godhead. Dedicated male adherents retreated to monasteries, which well-to-do elements of the population were
expected to support financially in return for personal merit. The new faith did not displace Hinduism at upper levels of the political and social order, but it attained status in the lower Ganges area and in other areas adjacent to the Bay of
Bengal. It was to spread in East and Southeast Asia, although it eventually disappeared in India. _^<N__^<N_ Mauryan and Gupta Periods_^<N__^<N_In the late 4th century BC, CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA conquered the kingdom of Magadha (modern Bihar
province) in the lower Ganges Valley. The conqueror's famous grandson, ASOKA (r. c.274-232), expanded his rule virtually throughout the subcontinent before converting to Buddhism and renouncing violence. Prior to the MAURYA ascendancy the lower
Indus Valley had experienced a significant if brief intrusion by the Hellenistic armies of Alexander the Great in 326-325 BC. This was a foretaste of events to come. Beginning in the 2d century, the Bactrian Greeks, Scythians (called Sakas),
Parthians, and Yueh-chi (called Kushans) overran northern India in succession. About AD 320 another Indian conqueror called Chandragupta restored imperial dominion over the entire subcontinent under the name of the GUPTA dynasty. The Guptas
continued their control for more than two centuries before succumbing to a new wave of incursions from the north by a Turko-Mongol group called the White Huns, or Hephthalites. During the period of Maurya and Gupta rule Indian culture, both Hindu
and Buddhist, exerted its most impressive influence on Southeast Asia and China, but more culturally than politically. _^<N__^<N_ Ancient China_^<N__^<N_Much of the deep layer of loess soil that covers most of north China above the Chang Jiang
(Yangtze) watershed was deposited by dust-carrying cyclonic winds from interior Asia during the ice ages. At the end of this period a heavy seasonal rainfall developed in the loess area. This shifted the principal source of continuing soil
deposit to the silt brought in by periodic flooding of what came to be called, for obvious reasons, the Yellow River, or Huang He. The vast flood plain included virtually no pastureland and was practically treeless, but the deep soil was
perennially fertile if the seasonal water supply could be controlled and used for irrigation purposes. Rice growing and cattle rearing were not possible, but millet and wheat could be grown and swine reared, the latter foraging waste elements for
food. Crop cultivation was limited to half of the year, but the interim period was used to keep the main river channels contained within artificial dikes, which were punctuated with controllable canal outlets for irrigation. In early prehistoric
times the river reached the ocean below the mountainous Shandong (Shantung) peninsula. It shifted eventually to a more northerly course through Henan (Honan) province, emptying into the sea not far from Beijing (Peking). _^<N__^<N_The cultivator
population lived in scattered groups of villages bordering the canal facilities, and the central government authorities maintained records covering ownership titles, villager maintenance obligations, access rights to the irrigated areas, and
cooperative defense duties. The process of enforcing such regulations was buttressed psychologically by formal ritual exercises, both governmental and religious. The Chinese writing system, invented for maintaining such records, used picture
symbols, inscribed at first on bone fragments, then on clay tablets, on silk-covered bamboo screens, and finally on paper. The resident cultivator population also produced tools and weapons of bronze and invented a three-wheeled cart for
transporting heavy loads. The principal security danger arose from perennial intrusions of mounted nomad bowmen from Mongolia and Manchuria to the north. _^<N__^<N_ Early Chinese Dynasties_^<N__^<N_The name Xia (Hsia), used by Chinese literary
sources to refer to the earliest Chinese dynasty, was derived from a leading member of the village agricultural units that cooperated in valley defense against the archer nomads. Its date of origin is traditionally placed at c.2200 BC, although
little is yet known about the connecting links between China's late Neolithic and early Bronze Age cultures. Family cohesion and ancestor veneration did much to make early Chinese society cohesive, while ruler cults provided priestly leadership.
Fragments of carved ORACLE BONES reveal evidence of the practice of human sacrifice, in which uncooperative individuals were offered up to the ruling cult gods. _^<N__^<N_About 1600 BC, a more authentic dynastic leadership developed in north China
under the SHANG, who took over a number of petty kingdoms including the Xia. The enlarged domain maintained cultural continuity in matters of literary functions, as well as social, religious, economic, and governmental controls. The ruling elite
under the Shang emperors included feudatory landowners, commanders of the organized soldiery, with the urban artisans, village agriculturists, and slaves underneath. The Shang structure achieved political unification during the 16th century and
peaked c.1400 BC, when the capital city of ANYANG was established. It included defensive walls plus palaces, temples, tombs for the elite, facilities for storage of grain, and army barracks. _^<N__^<N_The Shang empire extended from the Wei River
tributary area to the west of the central valley, eastward to the seacoast above the northern edge of the Chang Jiang River basin, and northward to the steppe country occupied by nomads. Cultural achievements included glazed pottery, carving in
marble and jade, and exquisite bronze casting. Pictographic script writing continued on oracle bones, pottery, jade and stone, wooden table surfaces, and silk-covered bamboo. In addition to being army commanders and high priests, the Shang rulers
specified popular obligations to the state through calendrical rites. During the later centuries of Shang rule, the abuse of such powers made the dynasty widely feared and hated by most of its subjects. It was finally overthrown in c.1027 BC by a
prince of ZHOU (Chou), the rebel ruler in the Wei He (Wei Ho) valley since 1050 BC. Rebel armies destroyed Anyang, and control shifted to Zhou territory. _^<N__^<N_ Transition to Classical China_^<N__^<N_The Zhou maintained many of the practices
of the former regime, including respect for village elders. Experienced administrators were employed, family identities and ancestral rites were respected, and feudal tributes replaced the arbitrary exactions of the dynastic court. The Zhou,
however, provoked resistance. A major uprising came in 771-770 BC, when dissidents within the Zhou nobility allied themselves with northern nomadic tribes to destroy the Wei Valley capital and to reduce dynastic authority. A new Zhou capital was
set up at Luoyang (Loyang) in 770 BC. _^<N__^<N_During the ensuing 300 years several smaller political units developed within the Huang He valley, each of them more or less independent. Three border states in the north, Qi (Ch'i), Qin (Chin), and
Jin (Ch'in), were counterbalanced in time by the large southern state of Qu (Ch'u), which united the interior of the Chang Jiang valley, the state of Wu in the lower reaches of the same valley, and Yue (Yueh) still farther south. Against the
background of such disorder the figure of CONFUCIUS (551-479 BC) emerged in the Shandong (Shantung) state of Lu. An intellectual rather than an administrator, he stressed the validity of reverence for ancestors, the respect of younger for older, as
a means of identifying and enforcing essential social and governmental standards. According to Confucius, the ruler's authority and exercise of heaven's mandate were derived from a display of proper conduct toward subjects. Priestly status must
be socially vindicated by the benevolent exercise of authority, by wisdom and thoughtfulness. In his own day, Confucius exercised little influence and no authority, but his teachings were destined to be revered after the period of the Warring
States (481-221 BC) ended. _^<N__^<N_The political unification of China during the latter half of the 3d century BC was accomplished by the western Wei He valley state of Qin (Ch'in). Having long been an effective opponent of the invaders from
central Asia, the Qin armies adopted the nomad tactic of using mounted cavalry troops rather than the traditional Chinese chariots, a change that added greatly to their mobility. They captured the Zhou capital of Luoyang in 256 BC and reduced most
of the central states to dependent status. From 230 to 221, under the able and unscrupulous Prince Zheng (Cheng), the Qin armies overcame all opposition; Zheng then assumed the imperial title of Shi Huangdi (Shih Huang-ti). His troops continued
south as far as Guangdong (Kwangtung) and Guangxi (Kwangsi) and even into the Vietnamese border state of Tonkin. Shi Huangdi enlisted a vast Chinese labor force to complete the construction of the GREAT WALL OF CHINA along the Mongolian border in
the far north and also for the construction of extensive canal irrigation facilities in central China. The emperor tolerated no opposition, executing those who opposed his will and burning the books that scholars presumed to cite against him.
_^<N__^<N_Shi Huangdi's premature death in 210 left control in the hands of a weak heir who was quite incapable of handling the problems he faced. Opposition factions, both feudal and scholarly, appeared in virtually every state and particularly
in the HAN region of the south. The Xiongnu (Hsiung-nu), Turkic bandits recently expelled from the north, returned to occupy the region from the Mongolian-Tibetan borders eastward to the Yellow Sea. The authority of Jin Shi's (Ch'in Shih's)
successor collapsed in 206, and central power shifted to the Han dynasty. The Han rulers forced the northern invaders to retire behind the Great Wall and reduced Korea to vassal status. They annexed Tonkin in 111 BC, took over the Fujian (Fukien)
state of Yue, and pushed Chinese political influence far westward into Central Asia. _^<N__^<N_Important historical results were derived from the effective unification of China under Qin and Han rule. Politically and culturally, the country became
a Confucianist state with the capacity for indefinite survival. The Great Wall eliminated the danger of annual invasions in the north, and even when Mongol and Manchurian conquests did come centuries later, the alien rulers had no choice but to
govern the country according to the established Confucianist pattern. Overseas contacts, cultural and commercial, were made with Japan, Taiwan, Funan on the Gulf of Siam, and Java, but none were of great importance. Starting in Han times, Chinese
scholars also made their way to India to study Buddhism, a religious tradition that eventually became firmly rooted in China. _^<N__^<N_ Early Developments in Southeast Asia, Korea, and Japan_^<N__^<N_China's political expansion toward the south no
doubt stimulated the movement of a variety of tribal peoples in Southeast Asia. With the exception of the Vietnamese, however, all the peoples of Southeast Asia developed important cultural contacts with India rather than with the more
sophisticated Confucianist China. Korea and Japan, however, were much closer to the northern center of Chinese power and culture and were much influenced by Chinese patterns. _^<N__^<N_ Southeast Asia_^<N__^<N_Prior to the Christian era,
Austroasiatic MON tribes had migrated southward from unintegrated China into the heart of the Southeast Asian mainland. An early Mon group proceeded down Burma's Salween and Sittang valleys to the shores of the Bay of Bengal. This site was on the
western side of the main drainage divide separating modern Burma from Thailand, or Siam. A later Mon group proceeded down the Siamese Menam Chao Phraya Valley, thus putting Mons on both sides of the southward projecting mainland isthmus. The
cooperation of Mon on both sides helped establish commercial and cultural ties with Indian ports to the west. In subsequent centuries the Mon were the principal conduit of Hindu and Buddhist culture and literature, both religious and artistic,
into mainland Southeast Asia. On the eastern shores of the Gulf of Siam a Malay people known as the Funanese participated in the north-south seaborne trade, while the Malay Chams occupied the lower shoreline of ANNAM, establishing the state of
CHAMPA. _^<N__^<N_Several centuries after the arrival of the Mon, the kindred KHMER tribal group pushed down the Mekong Valley corridor to the east from their original homes in South China. In time, the Khmer overcame or absorbed the Funanese and
established a major Buddhist cultural center on the eventual site of ANGKOR. The KHMER EMPIRE, which lasted from the 6th to the 15th century, corresponded to modern Kampuchea (Cambodia) and part of Laos. The Mon were eventually displaced, although
they long continued to provide a cultural base for the newcomers from the north. _^<N__^<N_Starting in the 6th century AD and continuing until about 835, a Tibetan people known as the Pyu moved into the valleys of the upper Irrawaddy River and its
Chindwin tributary in northern Burma. Instead of pushing southward into the monsoon-flooded lower Irrawaddy valley and delta, the Pyu established overland cultural and commercial contacts with India's border centers, notably Chittagong. This
upper Burma dry-zone route to India also served as part of an overland trade and cultural contact facility for post-Han China. The Pyu center of Srikshetra, completed in 638, was temporarily vassalized by the Nan Zhao (Nan Chao) state of South
China in the early 800s, but it was destroyed by Thai raiders in 835. _^<N__^<N_Leadership among the Tibeto-Burmese peoples then passed to the group called the BURMESE, who gradually took over the central Burma dry zone and developed superiority in
water-control projects, including hill terracing and rice cultivation. In the 10th century the Burmese king ANAWRATHA unified Burma, with its capital at PAGAN. Later capitals were at Ava and MANDALAY, to the north of Pagan. Lower Burma with its
heavy summer rainfall remained unattractive to the Burmese, who continued into modern times to tolerate Mon occupancy of the mouth of the Sittang and Salween rivers and of the Tenasserim coast. The politically predominant Burmese also permitted
Thai-speaking Shan chiefs to occupy the hill areas to the east of the middle Irrawaddy Valley. _^<N__^<N_The Thai occupation of the upper Mekong Valley above Khmer territory, as well as the entire valley of the Menam and the Isthmus of Kra (the
neck of the Malay Peninsula), occurred considerably later than the Tibetan intrusions into the Upper Irrawaddy. Thai tribes were widely distributed along the South China border from Tonkin on the east to the Shan Plateau on the west, but their
cultural orientation became Mon Buddhist. Their eventual capital of AYUTTHIA in the central Menam Valley, later destroyed by Burmese in 1767, was as thoroughly Buddhist-oriented as Pagan or Angkor. _^<N__^<N_ Korea_^<N__^<N_Tungusic tribes had
migrated into the Korean peninsula by the 4th millennium BC. Within several millennia their descendants had come into contact with the Chinese, who exerted considerable cultural and political influence throughout Korea's history. Chinese colonial
forces held parts of northwestern Korea from 108 BC until AD 313, when they were driven out by the Koguryo, one of three rival Korean kingdoms (Koguryo in the north; Paekche and Silla in the south). With Chinese help, the Buddhist Silla dynasty
unified the peninsula in the 660s. The Koryo dynasty replaced (936) Silla rule, until they were overthrown (1392) by the neo-Confucianist Yi dynasty, which from 1627 until the late 1800s was forced to pay tribute to Manchu-dominated China.
_^<N__^<N_ Japan_^<N__^<N_In the 3d century BC the indigenous Jomon culture of Japan was disrupted by a new people, called Yayoi, who probably came from northern Korea, propelled by Chinese incursions there. A unified Japanese state emerged in
about the 4th century AD ruled by the tribal leaders of Yamamoto. _^<N__^<N_Japanese social organization was based essentially on tribes, or clans, but this pattern was soon overlaid by Chinese concepts of statecraft and religion. Chinese
influence was at its height from the 6th to the 9th century: Chinese writing was adopted; Buddhism was introduced by way of Korea; and the Taika reforms of 646 imposed a centralized Chinese-style administration. Gradually, however, the Chinese
system broke down, and tribal patterns reemerged. By the 12th century, Japan had been divided into many autonomous and warring aristocratic estates. _^<N__^<N_Late in that century the powerful Minamoto YORITOMO declared himself SHOGUN, or military
dictator. The shogunate was to coexist with the essentially defunct civil administration headed by the emperor until 1868. For a time, however, the shoguns themselves were mere puppet rulers, and in the 15th century Japan once more became a
totally decentralized state. Authority was exercised by local lords (daimyo) and their military retainers, the SAMURAI. This situation persisted until the reunification of the country in the late 16th century by NOBUNAGA, HIDEYOSHI, and IEYASU.
The last of these military strongmen established the TOKUGAWA shogunate in 1603. Japan soon after entered a period of total seclusion, not only from the Europeans who had begun to penetrate Asia but from China. Although governmental borrowings
from China failed to take root in Japan, Chinese cultural influence had remained strong, especially in the 14th century, when Japan had acknowledged tributary status under China. _^<N__^<N_ PERIOD OF NOMADIC INVASIONS_^<N__^<N_From the early
centuries AD until the 17th century, Asia experienced the movements of a series of nomadic peoples, who established dominance over large parts of the continent. _^<N__^<N_ The Rise of Islam in Western Asia_^<N__^<N_Beginning in the 4th century AD
the Sassanian rulers of western Asia were challenged by nomadic invaders entering from the north. As a result of these incursions and continuing conflict with the Byzantines in Anatolia the Sassanians were ill-prepared to meet the aggressive Arab
Muslim invasion in the 7th century. _^<N__^<N_ Arab Dominance_^<N__^<N_Prior to the appearance of the Prophet Muhammad (572-632) the ARABS had played a relatively insignificant historic role. Under the banner of ISLAM, however, the monotheistic
religion "revealed" to the prophet, the Arabs embarked on an impressive and long-term expansion of control. Within 10 years of Muhammad's death they had overthrown the Sassanians. Damascus became the capital of the Arab CALIPHATE in the late 7th
century, and Baghdad in 762. Seaborne expeditions conquered the Sind valley of northwestern India in 712 and soon dominated the Indian Ocean. Muslim armies also overran North Africa and most of Spain. _^<N__^<N_ Turkish Dominance_^<N__^<N_When
Arab control weakened during the late 700s, Muslim leadership centered for a time in Persia, which had increasing political and cultural contacts with the Turkic peoples (see TURKS) of central Asia. The latter became Muslims, and in 1055 one
group, the SELJUKS, seized Baghdad. The Seljuks added most of Anatolia and Syria to their domains and came to dominate the entire Near East. Their empire soon fragmented, however, and was finally destroyed by the invasions of GENGHIS KHAN and his
MONGOL hordes in the early 13th century. Late in the 14th century a new wave of mixed Turko-Mongol hordes ravaged Persia and Mesopotamia under TIMUR. _^<N__^<N_During the period of Mongol raids the principality of the Ottoman Turks emerged in
Anatolia. This group completed the overthrow of the Byzantine Empire by the capture of Constantinople in 1453. The OTTOMAN EMPIRE, which survived until 1918, came to dominate not only the Near East (except Persia) but also North Africa and
Southeastern Europe. _^<N__^<N_ The Crusades_^<N__^<N_The weakening of Seljuk control in the Mediterranean Near East in the 1100s and 1200s had made possible temporary European Christian intrusions in the form of the CRUSADES. Their ostensible
object was the recovery of the Holy Land from Muslim control. The results, however, were more psychological and commercial than political or religious, for the Europeans were attracted by the pepper, spices, and silks that Arab traders were
importing from the Orient. Because the Turks blocked overland access to Asia, Portuguese and Spanish traders began to seek sea routes to the east. Portuguese vessels reached South Africa by 1488, Calicut in India by 1498, and Canton, China, by
1513. _^<N__^<N_ Turkic and Mongol Raiding in the South and East_^<N__^<N_For several centuries after 1000, Muslim Turkic groups (often called Turkomen) dominated the steppes of Central Asia. They became strongest on the borders of the
Seljuk-dominated lands of Western Asia and in Afghanistan. _^<N__^<N_ Muslim Invasions of India_^<N__^<N_The Afghan ruler MAHMUD OF GHAZNI invaded northern India about 1000. Although the early Ghaznavids limited themselves to plundering, their
successors turned to subjugation. The conquests of Muhammad of Ghur (d. 1206) led to the establishment (1206) of the DELHI SULTANATE, the first Muslim state in India. Although the sultanate declined in the 14th century and powerful new Hindu
states (such as VIJAYANAGAR) emerged in the south, the way was prepared for the more lasting conquests of the Mongol group that established the MOGUL Empire in the 16th century. _^<N__^<N_ Mongols_^<N__^<N_The roving pattern of Mongol aggression
was more extensive than that of the Turkomen. In the early 1200s Genghis Khan united the Turkic and other tribes of Mongolia and led them in raids as far afield as the Persian Gulf in 1222. His grandson BATU KHAN even penetrated Eastern Europe
from 1237 to 1242. Following KUBLAI KHAN's eventual overthrow of China's SONG (Sung) dynasty in 1279, Mongol bands raided much of Eastern Asia outside of China. They tried in vain to invade Japan in 1274 and 1281, captured Burma's Pagan in 1287,
and penetrated Champa and Annam in 1285-88. They even attempted to invade Java in 1292-93. Mongol tribesmen continued to control portions of TIBET and the area northward along the borders of TURKISTAN long after the Mongol withdrawal from China
proper in 1368. _^<N__^<N_One of the significant historical episodes of Mongol control of China under Kublai Khan in the late 1200s was the mission of the Venetian Marco POLO to Beijing (Peking). Polo was received by Kublai in friendly fashion and
served at the Mongol court for a number of years. The publication of his famous Travels following his return to Italy gave an astonished European readership its first close-up glimpse of China and generated further interest in trade with the
Orient. _^<N__^<N_ Impact of Islam_^<N__^<N_The contest that developed in northern India after the 11th century between traditional Hindu leadership and the belligerent Muslim intruders produced several significant results. First, the new
situation virtually eliminated northern India as a source of Buddhist indoctrination. The cult steadily retreated southward to the bordering island of Ceylon (SRI LANKA). A second effect was to cancel the centuries-old impact of Hindu cultural
and governmental patterns in the Straits of Malacca and southward into Sumatra and Java. A third effect was the increasing arrival in the strait after 1200 of ships from Muslim ports of northwestern India, the Persian Gulf, and the Red Sea. This
was in part stimulated by the increasing Mediterranean interest in the pepper and spice trade of Indonesia. The eventual domination of most of India by the Moguls virtually eliminated the impact of Hinduism in Southeast Asia. And in India itself,
except in the far south, a sophisticated Indo-Muslim culture developed alongside Hinduism. _^<N__^<N_ Post-Han China_^<N__^<N_After the Han period of rule (206 BC-AD 220), China occupied a virtually unassailable position in Eastern Asia, mainly
because of the country's large population and its well-integrated social and economic system. The sophisticated Confucianist and Buddhist order managed to withstand the personal frailties of misfit rulers. Even when barbarian factions managed to
seize control in border areas, as did the North Wei in 386 and the Liao Khitan Mongols in 907, China's heartland continued little changed. The same was true even under the more extensive alien control established by the Mongol YUAN (1279-1368) and
later by the Qing (Ch'ing or Manchus) in 1644. The foreign invader-rulers tended to become sinicized rather than to barbarize the government and economy. _^<N__^<N_China attained its peak of power under the TANG (T'ang) dynasty (618-907). Chinese
rule was pushed through Mongolia into the Turkistan region of Central Asia. Technical improvements included mill wheels, boat rudders, the use of cattle in plowing, harness and stirrups for horses, expert fertilizer use, and the development of
printing. Treatises on science and technology and medical discoveries were added to China's traditional historical and philosophical lore. The fall of the Tangs in 907 was attributable to their overexpansion territorially, burdensome taxation and
water-control problems, and court-eunuch rivalries, but it required less than 60 years for a successor Northern Song dynasty to restore stability in 960. A Southern Song dynasty took over from 1127 to 1279, and created a second cultural golden
age. To the use of gunpowder in warfare were added clocks and windmills, mapmaking and bridge construction, and the artistry of landscape painting of superior quality. Kublai Khan's Yuan dynasty, which, as mentioned, was thoroughly sinicized, was
followed by the indigenous MING from 1368 to 1644. The Ming were overthrown by the invading Qing (Manchus), whose sinicized rule lasted until 1911. The latter, moreover, were virtually unchallenged until the mid-19th century arrival of aggressive
European forces by sea. _^<N__^<N_ ASIA AND THE WEST_^<N__^<N_Western Asia abuts on Europe, and its contacts with that continent from ancient times on have been noted. The rise of Islam, however, and the domination of the eastern Mediterranean by
the Turks blocked contact between Christian Europe and the rest of Asia until the Europeans found a sea route around Africa in the 15th century. Steady contacts, which began in the 16th century, eventually resulted in the subjection of much of the
Asian continent by European powers. _^<N__^<N_ Early Contact_^<N__^<N_The first phases of contact took the form of European demands for desired Asian products and for missionary opportunities. Portuguese navigators and traders, soldiers, and
missionaries reached Calicut, India, by 1498. They captured the India base of GOA in 1510 and Malacca (modern MELAKA) in 1511. The latter center dominated the lower Malay peninsula and part of Sumatra. The Portuguese later extended influence over
the coasts of India and Ceylon and eastward to the MOLUCCAS, or Spice Islands, of Indonesia. _^<N__^<N_By the end of the 16th century, European competitors had appeared on the scene, attracted by the profitable SPICE TRADE. Spain acquired
territories in the PHILIPPINES by crossing the Pacific Ocean from the New World. By 1571, Miguel Lopez de LEGAZPI had brought the greater part of that archipelago under Spanish control. Only the southern Muslim islanders remained outside Spain's
sphere of influence. _^<N__^<N_The Dutch came to the region primarily for reasons of trade and directed their attention mainly to the Moluccas and Java. In 1619, they founded the city of Batavia (modern DJAKARTA) on Java. They captured Malacca in
1641 and Colombo in Ceylon in 1656. The Dutch also expanded their sphere of influence in Java, where their East India Company (see EAST INDIA COMPANY, DUTCH) intervened in civil wars. By the mid-18th century, Java was almost completely under
Dutch control. Elsewhere in INDONESIA, the Dutch East India Company concluded treaties and acquired trading posts, so that the sovereignty of minor kingdoms was not substantially affected. _^<N__^<N_Britain and France also established East India
Companies (see EAST INDIA COMPANY, BRITISH; EAST INDIA COMPANY, FRENCH) to exploit the trading opportunities. The British company founded a number of commercial settlements in India, such as MADRAS in 1640, BOMBAY in 1661, and CALCUTTA in 1690.
The French similarly established a trading post at PONDICHERRY in 1674. Under Joseph Francois DUPLEIX, the French company tried during the middle 1700s to bring southern India into its sphere of influence, but the French government at home did not
support the policy, and the British under Robert CLIVE attained a dominant position. _^<N__^<N_ Early European Relations with China and Japan_^<N__^<N_China and Japan escaped major European intervention during this early period. The seizure of
power in China by the Qing (Manchus) in 1644 resulted in the inclusion of Manchuria itself in the Chinese empire. The Qing emperor KANGXI (K'ang-Hsi) who reigned from 1661 to 1722, extended Chinese rule over both Mongolia and Tibet, and a
successor, QIANLONG (Ch'ien-Lung), who reigned from 1736 to 1799, annexed inner Asia's Lake Balkhash area and the Tarim Basin. Qing China was, in this period, much too formidable to be approached by trader Europeans in any but a cautious manner.
Because the Chinese themselves sensed little need for foreign contacts, European trade remained limited. As a kind of favor, Europeans were allowed entry privileges at GUANGZHOU (Canton), where they could sell their wares and purchase Chinese
goods under strict supervision of imperial officials. The Portuguese maintained a foothold at MACAO, established as a trading post as early as 1557. _^<N__^<N_Although at the outset Europeans appeared to have a good chance of establishing
commercial relations with Japan, the opportunity quickly slipped away. The long period of feudal decline ended with the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1603. In order to consolidate their control, however, the Tokugawa shoguns drove
out the Christian missionaries, who had been active since the arrival of St. FRANCIS XAVIER in 1549, and virtually isolated their country from the rest of the world. Only the Dutch were granted limited access to a trading station on the island of
Deshima in Nagasaki harbor. In this early period European commercial interests also regarded the countries of mainland Southeast Asia as lying outside their sphere. _^<N__^<N_Meanwhile, areas of Northern and Central Asia were being colonized by
the Russians. They founded fortified outposts at Tobolsk in 1587, at Tomsk in 1604, at Okhotsk in 1649, and at Irkutsk in 1661. Turning southward, they eventually reached the Chinese border, and the Russian and Chinese governments contracted a
border treaty in 1689. China's expanding influence in Central Asia and Russia's counter advances resulted in the imposition of increasing containment restrictions on resident nomadic peoples. The last major kingdom in the steppe area was that of
the Kalmyks (see KALMYK), which reached its peak at the end of the 1600s. _^<N__^<N_ European Expansion in Asia_^<N__^<N_The end of the 18th century witnessed the first substantial expansion of European control in Asia. This was partially a result
of economic changes caused by the Industrial Revolution and intra-European warfare, both of which had repercussions in Asia. At the same time Asia experienced the decline of Mogul authority in India and Qing (Manchu) power within China. In the
late 1700s and early 1800s the British East India Company managed to bring virtually all India under its control. The British took over the Dutch settlements in Ceylon and occupied that entire island in 1815. In 1824 they also initiated moves
into Lower Burma, which ended in the total annexation of the country by 1886. Meanwhile, after suppression of the INDIAN MUTINY of 1857, the last Mogul emperor was deposed, and the British government assumed direct rule over India.
_^<N__^<N_Farther east, the British founded the settlement of SINGAPORE in 1819. An Anglo-Dutch treaty of 1824 granted Britain a free hand in Malacca and assigned the Indonesian archipelago to Dutch control. The latter concluded their conquest of
Java in 1830 and gradually extended control over the other islands. After 1874 the British asserted sovereignty over all the states of the Malay peninsula (see MALAYSIA), establishing protectorates over northern Borneo as well in 1888.
_^<N__^<N_Even China now fell victim to European intrusion. Following the OPIUM WAR of 1839-42, China was forced to cede HONG KONG to Britain and to open other important ports to British trade and residence. Another short war in 1856 resulted in
the Treaties of TIANJIN (Tientsin), by which China opened further ports to European and U.S. trade, admitted foreign legations and missionaries, and legalized the importation of opium (a major interest of the European traders). At the same time
internal revolts such as the TAIPING REBELLION (1851-64) shook the Chinese empire to its foundations. Attempts to modernize Chinese institutions to meet changing demands ran aground because they diverged too abruptly from the Confucianist norms.
The BOXER UPRISING (1900), directed against Westerners, was suppressed by an international expedition sponsored by the interested foreign powers. China was never actually colonized, but it suffered extreme humiliation. _^<N__^<N_In Southeast Asia,
Siam alone managed to keep its independence, although it lost border territories. France focused its attention on VIETNAM, where national unity had been achieved only in 1802 after 30 years of civil strife. The French took over the southern
provinces (COCHIN CHINA) in 1862 and 1867 and assumed control over Annam and Tonkin between 1883 and 1885. They also took control of Cambodia (1863) and Laos (1893), which were then consolidated with Vietnam to form the colony of INDOCHINA.
_^<N__^<N_Japan's efforts to maintain its isolation from the outside world were finally overcome when a U.S. fleet under Commodore Matthew PERRY forced Japanese acceptance of a commercial treaty in 1853-54. The ensuing political uproar in Japan
led to the overthrow of the Tokugawa shogunate and the resumption of imperial authority in the MEIJI RESTORATION of 1868. In the following decades Japan pursued a program of industrial modernization and social reform. It also inaugurated an
expansionist foreign policy, challenging Chinese hegemony over Korea. After defeating China in the first SINO-JAPANESE WAR (1894-95), Japan assumed a virtual protectorate over Korea and forced China to cede Taiwan. Extending their interests to
Manchuria, the Japanese came into conflict with Russia, whom they defeated in the RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR (1904-05). In 1910 they formally annexed Korea. _^<N__^<N_Meanwhile, in 1898, the United States took possession of the Philippines, after
defeating Spain in the SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. Russian gains in northern Asia included territories in the Amur and Ussuri regions, where they founded VLADIVOSTOK in 1860. They also took over Turkistani SAMARKAND and Bukhara in 1868 and Khiva in 1873.
Changes in Western Asia were slower. The British seized ADEN on the lower Red Sea in 1839. They later acquired a controlling interest in the SUEZ CANAL, opened in 1869, which greatly facilitated access to their imperial holdings in Asia. At the
outbreak of WORLD WAR I in 1914, most of Asia was under European or U.S. domination both politically and economically. Nevertheless, by that time, Asian resistance to foreign domination had already begun. _^<N__^<N_ ASIAN
NATIONALISM_^<N__^<N_Asian nationalist movements and efforts at modernization were greatly influenced at the outset by Western ideas. They were usually directed against the traditional mores of their own societies as well as against colonialism.
In India such changes began in moderate form with the meeting of the first Congress nationalist group in 1885 (see INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS); in Burma, Indonesia, and Vietnam, nationalism started to emerge around 1900. The Filipino revolt against
the Spanish broke out in 1896, and the U.S. takeover of 1898 was tolerated because it helped climax the anti-Spanish movement. Asian nationalism received additional impetus during the period of the Russo-Japanese War, when for the first time an
Asian country defeated a major European power. _^<N__^<N_ The Chinese Revolution_^<N__^<N_China's revolutionary KUOMINTANG (Nationalist party), led by SUN YAT-SEN initiated the revolution of 1911 that brought the downfall of the Qing (Manchu)
dynasty. A period of confusion and anarchy, however, followed the proclamation of a republic. Japan attempted in 1915 to take advantage of China's confusion for political ends, but it was forced to abandon some of its demands by British and U.S.
pressure. _^<N__^<N_By 1928 the Nationalist general CHIANG KAI-SHEK had restored a semblance of Chinese unity by defeating the regional military commanders, the so-called WARLORDS, who had seized control in northern China. He had antagonized the
Chinese Communist party, however, which was originally allied with the Kuomintang. Conflict between the Nationalists and Communists gravely weakened China at the time when Japan resumed its policy of expansion. In 1931-32 the Japanese occupied
Manchuria and set up the puppet state of MANCHUKUO. In 1937 they initiated direct attacks on China proper, and the second Sino-Japanese War began. _^<N__^<N_ Impact of World War I_^<N__^<N_World War I had meanwhile produced enormous repercussions
in Western Asia. It led to the final breakup of the Ottoman Empire in 1918. A Turkish revolution led by Kemal ATATURK established the Republic of Turkey in Anatolia in 1923. The Arab provinces of the former empire, however, became virtual
colonies of Britain (Palestine, Transjordan, Iraq) and France (Syria and Lebanon). IRAQ gained formal independence in 1921, but like the others remained under European domination until WORLD WAR II. _^<N__^<N_In Persia, the desire for
modernization found expression in the politics of REZA SHAH PAHLAVI, who deposed the conservative Qajar dynasty in 1925. After the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia in 1917, adjacent Central Asian territories became separate republics within the
USSR. A revolutionary process of modernization ensued under Soviet supervision. Mongolia, which had separated from China in 1911, became part of the Soviet sphere of influence, although formally independent. _^<N__^<N_ Impact of World War
II_^<N__^<N_World War II permanently ended direct Western domination of Asia. Following Japan's lightning conquest of Southeast Asia in 1942, the British, French, and Dutch found it impossible to recover control, despite Japan's eventual defeat in
1945. The Asian peoples sought to take their fate into their own hands, even though their precise objectives were often far from clear. Wars of liberation led to a Dutch withdrawal from Indonesia in 1949 and the French from Indochina in 1954.
_^<N__^<N_In 1947 the British acceded to the demands of the Indian national movement, personified since 1920 by Mahatma GANDHI. In response to the aspirations of India's Muslim minority, however, they partitioned the Indian subcontinent into two
states: Hindu India and Muslim Pakistan. Terrible massacres of Muslims in India and Hindus in Pakistan occurred at the time of partition, and a series of INDIA-PAKISTAN WARS followed. The Philippines gained independence in 1946, Ceylon (now Sri
Lanka) and Burma (now Myanmar) in 1948, and Malaya in 1957. France and Britain also relinquished their interwar mandates in the Middle East. Most of Palestine was incorporated into the new Jewish state of Israel, a move bitterly opposed by the
Arab states and leading to four ARAB-ISRAELI WARS. Hostilities in the Middle East showed no sign of abatement until the late 1970s, when Egypt, the most powerful Arab state, and Israel negotiated (1979) a peace treaty. _^<N__^<N_In the liberated
countries of Southeast Asia, colonial-period antagonisms between native peoples and alien Asian settlers complicated the problems of economic recovery and self-government. The Burmans drove out most Indian residents. The Malays challenged the
continuing prominence of Chinese residents in their affairs, and the inclusion of largely Chinese Singapore in the Malaysian federation proved short-lived (1963-65). In a number of Southeast Asian countries, Communist insurgents refused to be
content with mere political independence. _^<N__^<N_ The Spread of Communism and U.S. Intervention_^<N__^<N_The Communist governments of Mongolia and North Korea were soon joined by another Communist regime in China, Asia's largest and most
populous nation, and the U.S.-backed Nationalists were forced to retreat to Taiwan. When North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950, the United States and China were drawn into the KOREAN WAR, which ended three years later with a restoration of the
status quo. After a Communist-led nationalist revolution drove the French from Indochina in 1954, civil war broke out in South Vietnam. The prolonged VIETNAM WAR, in which the United States backed the South Vietnamese government, finally ended
with a North Vietnamese victory in 1975. That same year, U.S.-supported governments in Laos and Cambodia also fell to Communist forces. Communist insurgencies elsewhere, including Burma, Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines, met with less
success than those in Indochina. _^<N__^<N_Antagonisms between the USSR and China were a major factor in China's decision to seek greater contact with the West in the 1970s and to aid the KHMER ROUGE in their struggle to overthrow the Cambodian
government backed by Vietnam, a Soviet ally. As East-West tensions eased, however, hard-line North Korea was increasingly isolated. Mongolia held multiparty elections in 1990, and its people, along with the new nations of former Soviet Asia,
reemphasized their ancient heritage. China introduced economic reforms, although it cracked down on political dissent. In Cambodia, the warring factions signed a UN-brokered peace accord in 1991. In 1992, three years after the Soviet occupation
of Afghanistan ended, rebel forces ousted the former Soviet-backed government there. _^<N__^<N_ Ethnic and Religious Tensions_^<N__^<N_In many parts of Asia, long-standing ethnic and religious rivalries have threatened economic progress and
political unity. The Burmans drove out most Indian residents after independence, while the Malays challenged the continuing prominence of Chinese residents in their affairs. The inclusion of largely Chinese Singapore in the Malaysian federation
proved short-lived (1963-65). In 1971 the Bengalis of East Pakistan broke away and created the new nation of Bangladesh. Cyprus, torn by ethnic rivalries since independence (1959), was forcibly partitioned (1975) into Greek and Turkish sectors
following a Turkish invasion. Elsewhere, there have been a series of INDIA-PAKISTAN WARS and ARAB-ISRAELI WARS, border skirmishes between China and India and China and Vietnam, and the long IRAN-IRAQ WAR (1980-88). SIKHS and Muslim Kashmiris in
India, TAMILS in Sri Lanka, Palestinian Arabs, KURDS in Turkey and Iraq, and other minorities have agitated, sometimes violently, for separate political status. Despite a 1979 Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty and the launching of an INTIFADA
(uprising) by Palestinian Arabs in the Israeli-occupied territories in 1987, the question of a Palestinian Arab homeland remains unresolved and is a key factor in the Arab-Israeli conflict. Much of Asia has been affected by a rising tide of
Islamic fundamentalism. A revolution led to the creation of an Islamic republic in Iran in 1979, while Lebanon was long a battleground of warring religious factions. Muslim rebels in Afghanistan fought each other after their victory, while
Turkey, Iran, and Saudi Arabia vied for influence in former Soviet Central Asia. _^<N__^<N_ Modern Diversity_^<N__^<N_Although most Asian nations are considered part of the THIRD WORLD economy, Asia is no more monolithic economically than it is
culturally or politically. It includes not only poverty-stricken agricultural Bangladesh, but also highly industrialized Japan. When Iraq's Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait in 1990, he attempted to capitalize on divisions between the oil-rich Gulf
nations and the poorer Arab states, as well as exploiting anti-Western feelings. Although Asians today are no longer subject to alien control, they have often found it difficult to isolate themselves from outside influences and interests. Despite
the end of the cold war, the continuation of outside involvement in the region was clearly evidenced in the 1991 PERSIAN GULF WAR. Many Asian nations are members of the NONALIGNED MOVEMENT and are active in international and regional
organizations. They are trying to preserve their traditions as they develop their economies. _^<N__^<N_John F. Cady _^<N__^<N_Cady, J. F., The History of Post War Southeast Asia (1975); Chaudhuri, K. N., Asia before Europe: Economy and
Civilization of the Indian Ocean from the Rise of Islam to 1750 (1990); Darling, F. C., The Westernization of Asia (1980); Dutt, A. K., Southeast Asia, 3d ed. (1984); Elegant, R., Pacific Destiny (1990); Embree, A., ed., Encyclopedia of Asian
History (1987); Fairbank, J. K., The Great Chinese Revolution: 1800-1985 (1986) and China: A New History (1992); Fairbank, J. K., and Twitchett, D., eds., Cambridge History of China, 7 vols. (1978-87); Fisher, S. N., and Oshsenwald, W. L., The
Middle East: A History, 4th ed. (1989); Gernet, J., A History of Chinese Civilization (1982; repr. 1985); Goldschmidt, A. A., Concise History of the Middle East, 2d rev. ed. (1983); Grousset, R., The Empire of the Steppes (1970); Hall, D. G.
E., A History of Southeast Asia, 4th ed. (1981); Hitti, P. K., Arabs: A Short History (1956); Osborne, M., Southeast Asia, 4th ed. (1989); Pandey, B. N., South and Southeast Asia (1980); Sansom, G. B., A History of Japan, 3 vols. (1958-63);
Sinor, D., ed., The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia (1990); Smith, V. A., The Oxford History of India, 4th ed. (1981); Sonn, T., Between Qur'an and Crown (1990); Spence, J., The Search for Modern China (1990); Vogel, E. F., The Four
Little Dragons (1992); Welty, T., The Asians: Their Evolving Heritage, 6th ed. (1984); Wolpert, S., A New History of India, 3d ed. (1989). _^<N__^<N_See also: ASIA; CHINA, HISTORY OF; INDIA, HISTORY OF; JAPAN, HISTORY OF; KOREA, HISTORY OF;
MIDDLE EAST, HISTORY OF THE.
-END-
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25
CAT
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Asia Minor:
-T-
Asia Minor:_^<N__^<N_see ANATOLIA.
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1031
CAT
-A-
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
-T-
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation_^<N__^<N_Founded in 1989 at the instigation of Australia to promote trade liberalization throughout the Pacific Rim, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) group consists of 18 economies--those of Australia,
Brunei, Canada, Chile, China, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, and the United States. Finance ministers of the group meet on a regular basis, and
the group held its first annual meeting of heads of state in Seattle, Wash., on Nov. 19--20, 1993. _^<N__^<N_In addition to dealing with matters of regional concern, representatives of APEC meet bilaterally and multilaterally to encourage freer
trade throughout the world by influencing decisions of both the EUROPEAN UNION (EU) and the World Trade Organization (WTO; see GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE). APEC also has dealt with matters of regional security--at its first summit
meeting, for instance, with the nuclear arms program of North Korea.
-END-
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12541
CATO
4778
9564
-A-
Asian Americans
-O-
000000|Asian Americans
001536| Chinese Americans
003472| Japanese Americans
005448| Korean Americans
006745| Filipino Americans
008646| Pacific-Islander Americans
010148| Southeast-Asian Americans
-T-
Asian Americans_^<N__^<N_Asian Americans are Americans whose origins are traced to countries of Asia and the Pacific Islands. Called Asian Americans or Pacific Americans according to their geographic origins, they represent diverse peoples with
differing historical, linguistic, and social backgrounds. The major population groups originate from three areas: (1) East Asia--Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans; (2) Southeast Asia--Cambodians, Laotians, Thai, and Vietnamese; and (3) the Pacific
Islands--Fijians, Filipinos, Guamanians, Hawaiians, and Samoans. In 1980 these groups, together with South Asians, numbered nearly 7.3 million people. The largest groups (in descending order) were Chinese, Filipinos, Japanese, Asian Indians,
Koreans, and Vietnamese. Many Asian and Pacific Americans arrived in the United States after 1965, when emigration restrictions were eased. Their largest concentrations are found in Hawaii and in the West Coast cities of Los Angeles, San
Francisco, and San Diego, all in California; and in Seattle, Wash. Substantial populations also live in other large metropolitan areas, including Washington, Chicago, Boston, and New York City. _^<N__^<N_In common with members of other racial
minorities in the United States, Asian and Pacific Americans have endured a history of racial discrimination and restricted opportunity for full participation in American life. Despite these adversities, the distinctive cultural heritage,
industry, and resourcefulness of these people represent a unique contribution to the American experience. _^<N__^<N_ Chinese Americans_^<N__^<N_The California GOLD RUSH of the 1850s provided the impetus for the initial wave of immigrants from
China. These immigrants were also eager to escape problems of overpopulation, poverty, and political unrest in their homeland. They intended to stay only long enough to acquire wealth, but relatively few returned. Many were victimized by
employers who paid low wages for long hours of hard labor. _^<N__^<N_Most Chinese soon gave up mining and turned to the service trades, small businesses, or unskilled labor. An estimated 10,000 Chinese laborers built the transcontinental railroad
across the Sierras and the Rockies. Very early the Chinese were targets of racial discrimination. They were prohibited from owning property or securing licenses and were barred from many occupations. In 1882, Congress passed the first of the
CHINESE EXCLUSION ACTS to halt further immigration. As a result of their encounter with racial hostility and of their own village tradition of mutual aid, the Chinese congregated in Chinatowns, insular ethnic communities that met their housing,
economic, social, and psychological needs. Chinatowns continue to flourish in New York City, San Francisco, and in other major American cities. _^<N__^<N_With the liberalization of immigration laws in 1965, a new wave of Chinese immigrants
arrived, mainly from Hong Kong. By 1980 the Chinese American population numbered more than 800,000, of which two-thirds were foreign born. In the decade from 1980 to 1990 the population more than doubled to about 1.6 million. The influx of new
immigrants has created problems of economic survival, overcrowding, family tensions, and youth in turmoil; however, the industry and energy of the new immigrants have also revitalized the Chinatowns across the nation. _^<N__^<N_Today Chinese
Americans are a vital force in American urban life. Many are well educated and have found employment in professional and technical fields. _^<N__^<N_ Japanese Americans_^<N__^<N_The Japanese formed the second wave of immigrants from Asia,
beginning in the late 1880s. When Chinese immigration was cut off, Western agriculturists turned to Japan for cheap labor. Most Japanese immigrants were impoverished farmers or young unmarried males wishing to make their fortunes abroad. As with
the earlier Chinese, the Japanese also worked in railroad construction, lumbering, and fishing and later moved into service trades and small businesses. With their hard work and efficiency they presented serious competition, and their success
angered many Americans. Anti-Japanese legislation followed, such as exclusion from further immigration, denial of land ownership, and segregation of school children. _^<N__^<N_In response to hostility and discrimination, the Japanese, like the
Chinese, found protection and mutual support in "Little Tokyos," ethnic enclaves similar to Chinatowns. They formed their own unions and social organizations, such as the Japanese American Citizens League (founded 1930), to combat anti-Japanese
acts. Their efforts, however, were largely ineffectual. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, the war hysteria of the early 1940s led to the forced removal and internment of about 110,000 West Coast Japanese (two-thirds of whom were U.S.
citizens; see NISEI) in concentration camps within the United States. _^<N__^<N_After World War II, overall American attitudes toward the Japanese Americans changed. A major factor was the brilliant record of the 442d Regimental Combat Team,
composed almost entirely of Japanese Americans and the most highly decorated military unit in American history. Today the 847,562 (1990) Japanese Americans are among the most acculturated of all Asian Americans in terms of American values and
lifestyle. They rank among the highest in education and income of all ethnic groups, and many among them have assumed an increasingly important role in building links between the United States and Japan. _^<N__^<N_ Korean Americans_^<N__^<N_The
first Koreans to reach the United States were students and political refugees of the 1880s. Large-scale immigration, mostly of poor farmers, began in 1903 to Hawaiian sugar plantations. In 1905 the Korean government ended further emigration upon
learning of harsh working conditions in Hawaii. Thereafter, until 1965, a small number of "picture brides," students, and political exiles were admitted. _^<N__^<N_After the quota system was abolished in 1965 immigration from Korea again increased.
The 1990 census reported that there were 798,849 Koreans living in the United States. This more than doubled the number of Korean Americans (357,000) reported in the 1980 census and represents a more than tenfold increase over the population of
70,000 reported in 1970. _^<N__^<N_Korean immigrants are highly educated; more than a third (1980) have completed college. Most were previously engaged in professional, technical, and managerial occupations, but in the United States many have
been impeded by language difficulties and restricted opportunities. Despite these obstacles Korean Americans are more widely dispersed than any other Asian American group. More than half are located outside the West Coast and Hawaii, mainly in
industrialized urban areas of the Northeast and Middle West. _^<N__^<N_ Filipino Americans_^<N__^<N_Filipino immigration in many respects has paralleled the Chinese and Japanese immigration that preceded it. Early Filipino immigrants were mostly
young men needed to replenish the labor force after the Japanese were excluded in 1924. They worked in seasonal agriculture in California and in salmon canneries in the Northwest and Alaska. They too faced racial discrimination through laws
forbidding land ownership, banning of interracial marriages, and imposition of an immigration quota of only 50 per year after 1935. They were frequently refused service in restaurants and barbershops, barred from swimming pools and movies, and
forced to live in slum areas. _^<N__^<N_Filipinos, who were among the lowest-paid farm workers, also found work as busboys, dishwashers, cooks, domestic help, and gardeners. Employment in business and the professions was largely denied by union
regulations and state licensing requirements. After World War II some Filipinos found jobs in factories, in trades, and in sales. As late as 1960, most were still employed as unskilled laborers. _^<N__^<N_Since 1965, when quotas were lifted, the
Philippines has been among the nations from which the greatest numbers of immigrants have originated. Between 1960 and 1970 the Filipino-American population increased from 176,000 to 343,000. At the time of the 1980 census there were 782,000,
surpassing the Japanese, and following the Chinese, as the second-largest Asian-American group. This trend continued through the 1980s, and at the 1990 census the Filipino population reached more than 1.4 million. _^<N__^<N_Many Filipino
immigrants have been professionals and single women. By 1970, Filipino women had attained higher median levels of education that the national average for all other women. This and other factors have contributed to a rapid improvement in the
socioeconomic status of the FilipinoAmerican community. _^<N__^<N_ Pacific-Islander Americans_^<N__^<N_The major groups of Pacific-Islander Americans consist of Guamanians, Hawaiians, and Samoans. At the time of the 1990 census, 49,345 Guamanians,
211,014 Hawaiians, and 62,964 Samoans were living in the 50 states and the District of Columbia. Many Pacific Islanders came to the United States during the late 1930s and the 1940s by enlisting in the military services. With their families they
settled mainly around military bases in San Diego, San Francisco, and Long Beach, Calif., and Seattle, Wash. A later migration consisted of Islanders who left home in search of a better life or in pursuit of higher education. _^<N__^<N_Because of
vast differences between the relatively simple agricultural economy and village society of the Islands and the complex industrial urban society in America, many Islanders have had great difficulty in adjusting to their new environment. American
institutions such as the public schools, health and welfare agencies, and governmental services have been generally unresponsive to the special needs and circumstances of the Islanders. The survival of Islander communities has largely depended on
preservation of traditional social institutions. The extended family has continued to provide support for family members and kin. A traditional system of matai, or family chief, maintains a sense of authority and order in Samoan communities. The
church, an important center of Islander community life, has helped to perpetuate native traditions. _^<N__^<N_ Southeast-Asian Americans_^<N__^<N_Southeast Asians are the most recent group to arrive in America. They consist mainly of Cambodian,
Laotian, and Vietnamese (many of Chinese descent) refugees who fled from South Vietnam in 1975. About 150,000 refugees were admitted initially, and the exodus has continued. By 1980 an estimated 200,000 or more Southeast-Asian refugees were
settled throughout the United States, with concentrations in California, Texas, New York, and Pennsylvania. The refugees were mainly young (two-thirds under the age of 24), many arrived in family groups, and 40 percent were Roman Catholics.
Two-thirds originated from urban settings. Many were highly educated and had occupied important positions in government, the military, business, and industry in South Vietnam. In the United States, most refugees have had to settle for low-level,
low-paying jobs. By 1990 the various ethnic groups from Southeast Asia numbered more than 1 million people. _^<N__^<N_Since their arrival the Southeast-Asian refugees have formed various ethnic organizations offering job placement,
English-language training, recreation, and other forms of mutual aid and support. Like the Chinese and the Japanese, Southeast-Asian Americans have relied heavily on ethnic-group solidarity and self-help for their survival. _^<N__^<N_Kenji Murase
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Chan, Sucheng, The Asian Americans: An Interpretive History (1991); Daniels, Roger, Asian America: Chinese and Japanese in the United States since 1850 (1988); Endo, Russell, et al., eds., Asian-Americans: Social and
Psychological Perspectives (1980); Hune, Shirley, et al., eds., Asian Americans (1991); Kim, Hyung-Chan, ed., Dictionary of Asian American History (1986); Kim, Hyung-Chan, and Mejia, Cynthia C., The Filipinos in America, 1898-1974 (1976); Kim,
Hyung-Chan, and Patterson, Wayne, The Koreans in America, 1882-1974 (1974); Kitano, Harry H., and Daniels, Roger, Asian Americans: The Emerging Minority (1988); Kwong, Peter, The New Chinatown (1987); Lee, Joann F., Asian American Experiences in
the United States (1991); Liu, William T., Transition to Nowhere: Vietnamese Refugees in America (1979); Melendy, H. B., Chinese and Japanese Americans (1984); Sung, Betty Lee, Mountain of Gold: The Story of the Chinese in America (1967);
Takaki, Ronald, Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans (1989).
-END-
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1642
CAT
-A-
Asimov, Isaac
-T-
Asimov, Isaac_^<N__^<N_The Russian-born American scientist and writer Isaac Asimov, b. Jan. 2, 1920, d. Apr. 6, 1992, wrote prolifically on a variety of subjects. Asimov's New Guide to Science (rev. ed. 1984) is ranked by critics among the best
books of science written for nonscientists. Asimov was best known, however, for his many works of science fiction. The most famous include I Robot (1950), The Foundation Trilogy (1951-52), Foundation's Edge (1982), and The Gods Themselves (1972),
which won both the Hugo and Nebula awards. Two volumes of his autobiography were published: In Memory Yet Green (1979) and In Joy Still Felt (1980). Asimov received a doctorate in chemistry from Columbia University and taught biochemistry
(1949-58) at Boston University, remaining on the faculty there until his death. _^<N__^<N_His nonscientific works range from Shakespearean interpretations to biblical studies. A Choice of Catastrophes (1979) demonstrated his effective approach in
writing about science for children and nonscientific adults: he examined various notions about how the world might end, incorporating geology, bacteriology, social history, and astrophysics in his discussion. Later Asimov works include In The
Beginning (1981), in which the biblical book of Genesis is explored from both the fundamentalist and the evolutionist point of view; The Measure of the Universe and Counting the Eons (both 1983); Nemesis (1989); and Asimov Laughs Again (1992).
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Fiedler, J., and Mele, J., Isaac Asimov (1982); Gunn, J., Isaac Asimov: The Foundations of Science Fiction (1982); Hassler, D. M., Reader's Guide to Isaac Asimov (1988).
-END-
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288
CAT
-A-
Asir, Cape
-T-
Asir, Cape_^<N__^<N_{uh-seer'} _^<N__^<N_Cape Asir (Arabic: Ras Asir), formerly called Cape Guardafui, is the tip of the Horn of Africa on the northeastern coast of Somalia. Located on the Indian Ocean at the entrance to the Gulf of Aden, it is an
area of desert lowlands. Nearby towns are Bereda and Tohen.
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827
CAT
-A-
asity
-T-
asity_^<N__^<N_The asities, Philepitta, are two species of birds belonging to the asity family, Philepittidae, along with the false sunbirds. The velvet asity, P. castanea, of eastern Madagascar is about 16.5 cm (6.5 in) long and has a short bill
and tail. The male is mainly black, with a bare wattle above the eye; the female is olive green and yellowish. Schlegel's asity, P. schlegeli, of western Madagascar, is more yellowish green in color. Asities, which eat berries and insects, are
usually solitary or in pairs. The pear-shaped, hanging nest, made of moss and palm fiber, is built in trees or bushes, and three eggs are laid. Asities are classified in the order Passeriformes, suborder Tyranni. _^<N__^<N_Robert J. Raikow
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Gooders, John, Bird Seekers Guide (1985); Langrand, Olivier, Guide to the Birds of Madagascar (1990).
-END-
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918
CAT
-A-
Askew, Reubin
-T-
Askew, Reubin_^<N__^<N_Reubin O'Donovan Askew, b. Muskogee, Okla., Sept. 11, 1928, served two terms (1971-79) as Democratic governor of Florida. Askew graduated from Florida State University in 1951 and from the University of Florida law school in
1956. He practiced law in Pensacola and for 25 years was a county prosecutor and a state legislator. His governorship coincided with a period of great growth for the state. In 1979-80 he was special representative for trade negotiations in the
administration of President Jimmy Carter. _^<N__^<N_Askew failed in his bid to seek the Democratic presidential nomination in 1984. Generally regarded as a conservative, he based his unsuccessful campaign on a "new union" of business, labor, and
agriculture and on the need for a domestic "Marshall Plan" to help revive the national economy. Askew later returned to the private practice of law and a wide range of public service activities.
-END-
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723
CAT
-A-
Asmara
-T-
Asmara_^<N__^<N_{az-mar'-uh} _^<N__^<N_Asmara, or Asmera (1988 est. pop., 331,029), is the capital of the African nation of Eritrea, which gained independence from Ethiopia in 1993. The city lies about 65 km (40 mi) southwest of Massawa, inland from
the Red Sea, at an altitude of 2,365 m (7,760 ft). It is the center of a fertile region, but drought and civil strife have disrupted the economy. Asmara was occupied by Italy in 1889 and became the capital of Italian Eritrea in 1900. It was the
principal base for the Italian attack on Ethiopia in 1935-36. The city was under British military administration from 1941 until 1952, when it was federated into Ethiopia by a United Nations resolution; in 1962 it was forcibly annexed by Ethiopia.
-END-
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1762
CAT
-A-
Asoka, Emperor of India
-T-
Asoka, Emperor of India_^<N__^<N_{uh-soh'-kuh} _^<N__^<N_Asoka, d. 232 BC, one of the greatest emperors of India, made Buddhism the state religion of his realm. The third ruler of the MAURYA dynasty, he was the son of Bindusara and grandson of
Chandragupta Maurya. As crown prince, Asoka was viceroy of Taxila and Ujjain. He became emperor on his father's death (c.273 BC) and by the conquest of Kalinga, now Orissa state, c.261 BC, consolidated his kingdom to include most of northern and
central India as well as what are now Afghanistan and Baluchistan. His influence extended to southern India and Sri Lanka. After seeing the horrors of war in Kalinga, Asoka converted from Brahmanism to Buddhism and ruled according to Buddhist
principles of philanthropy and compassion. He relaxed harsh laws, created an ordered economic expansion, established principles of justice and morality, and pursued a foreign policy that renounced war. _^<N__^<N_Many of Asoka's edicts, particularly
those on practical morality and the way of compassion, were engraved on pillars and rocks erected throughout India. More than 30 of these survive and are the chief source of information on Asoka's reign. He strongly influenced the development of
Buddhism, not only by making it the state religion, but also by sending Buddhist missionaries to other countries, particularly Sri Lanka, which became the center of classical Buddhism. Asoka's empire was ended only 50 years after his death by a
Brahman-led Hindu reaction that virtually extinguished Buddhism in India. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Gokhale, B. G., Asoka Maurya (1966); Mookerji, Radha Kumud, Asoka, 3d ed. (1962; repr. 1986); Smith, Vincent A., Asoka: The Buddhist Emperor of India
(1920; repr. 1990); Thapar, Romila, Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas (1961).
-END-
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840
CAT
-A-
asp
-T-
asp_^<N__^<N_The term asp is applied to various snakes: the asp viper, Vipera aspis, of Europe; the North African asps of the genus Cerastes; and the Egyptian cobra, Naja haje. The asp is probably most famous as the instrument of death in the
suicide of CLEOPATRA. The species of snake used is in question, but the most likely candidate is the Egyptian cobra, whose bite is relatively painless and quick in its lethal effect. This snake was worshiped by the ancient Egyptians and appears on
the headdresses of their sculptures. Political prisoners were often allowed to commit suicide by using the Egyptian cobra rather than face torture. This species has a much narrower hood than Asian cobras and is widely distributed in Africa.
_^<N__^<N_Jonathan A. Campbell _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Williams, K., and Wallach, V., Snakes of the World (1993). _^<N__^<N_See also: COBRA; VIPER.
-END-
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1263
CAT
-A-
asparagus
-T-
asparagus_^<N__^<N_{uh-spair'-uh-guhs} _^<N__^<N_An herbaceous perennial of the Liliaceae family, asparagus is cultivated for its tender shoots, which arise in early spring. It is indigenous to coastal areas of Asia and Europe. California, Oregon,
Washington, Michigan, Illinois, New Jersey, and Massachusetts are major asparagus-producing states. _^<N__^<N_Propagation is mostly by seed, either directly into the production site or in nurseries, to produce 1-year-old crowns that are
transplanted to the production field. The first harvest is made 2 or 3 years after field planting. Well-maintained plantings produce for 15 years or more. _^<N__^<N_With suitable environmental conditions, buds on underground rhizomes (rootlike
elements) develop into edible spears after dormancy. Spears are harvested when they are 20 to 25 cm (8 to 10 in) long and when leaves tightly clasp the tip. Daily harvests are required when temperatures exceed 25 deg C (77 deg F). The harvest
season extends for 2 to 3 months. _^<N__^<N_There are several named cultivars (varieties that exist only as cultivated plants) of asparagus, but all are improvements of the rust-resistant Washington lines developed in the early 20th century.
Researchers at the University of California have recently developed new HYBRIDS. _^<N__^<N_Donald N. Maynard
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793
CAT
-A-
asparagus fern
-T-
asparagus fern_^<N__^<N_The asparagus ferns, Asparagus, are any of 100 to 300 species of perennial herbs, woody VINES, or SHRUBS belonging to the lily family, Liliaceae. Although they are not true FERNS, they produce fernlike foliage. Native to the
Old World but widely cultivated, they are grown as foliage HOUSEPLANTS and are sometimes used in flower arrangements. The flowers are white, greenish, or yellowish. _^<N__^<N_The species most commonly called asparagus fern, or lace fern, A.
setaceus, has leaf clusters arranged in a flat, triangular spray. Baby smilax, A. asparagoides myrtifolius, has broad, glossy leaves. Foxtail asparagus, A. densiflorus, has stiff, upright stems that are densely covered with tiny, needlelike leaves.
Sickle thorn asparagus, A. falcatus, has glossy leaves. _^<N__^<N_Charles L. Wilson
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500
CAT
-A-
aspartame
-T-
aspartame_^<N__^<N_{a-spahr-taym'} _^<N__^<N_A sugar substitute, aspartame was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration as a dry food additive in 1981 and for use in soft drinks in 1983. Since then aspartame has become a strong market rival
to the principal artificial sweetener, SACCHARIN. Although aspartame has been laboratory-tested and is in use in many countries, its ultimate safety--especially when consumed, via soft drinks, in relatively large quantities--is still questioned by
many food scientists.
-END-
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621
CAT
-A-
Aspen (Colorado)
-T-
Aspen (Colorado)_^<N__^<N_{as'-pin} _^<N__^<N_Aspen (1990 census, 5,049) is a town in west central Colorado, located on the Roaring Fork River at an elevation of 2,400 m (7,875 ft). It is the seat of Pitkin County. Founded as a silver-mining camp
in 1878, the town declined when silver prices dropped in 1893. Today Aspen is a fashionable ski resort and the site of the Aspen Institute for Humanistic Studies, the Aspen Music School, and an annual music festival. The Aspen Music Festival and
School inaugurated a new 500-seat structure, the Joan and Irving Harris Concert Hall, in 1993. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Conover, Ted, Lost in Aspen (1991).
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865
CAT
-A-
aspen (tree)
-T-
aspen (tree)_^<N__^<N_Aspens are deciduous hardwood trees belonging to the genus Populus, which also includes cottonwoods and balsam poplars, within the willow family (Salicaceae). Aspens can be distinguished from cottonwoods and balsam poplars by
their buds, which are essentially nonresinous. Bigtooth aspens, Populus grandidentata, are medium-size trees found in the northern quarter of the United States and adjacent Canada. The bark is greenish, smooth, and thin and becomes dark brown.
Leaves are elliptical or nearly round, 6.4 to 10 cm (2.5 to 4 in) long, and coarsely toothed with curved teeth. Leafstalks are flat. Quaking aspens, Populus tremuloides, are small- to medium-size and are the most widely distributed trees in North
America. The bark is yellowish green or whitish on large trunks that become black with furrows and flat ridges. _^<N__^<N_Charles L. Wilson
-END-
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1139
CAT
-A-
aspergillus
-T-
aspergillus_^<N__^<N_Aspergillus is a widely distributed fungus genus, subdivision Ascomycotina (see FUNGI). About 80 species are known, many of which form MOLDS on exposed foods. (Aspergillus niger is known as black mold.) They are also common
contaminants of cultures in laboratories. _^<N__^<N_Several Aspergillus species, including A. niger, A. flavus, and A. fumingatus, cause respiratory disorders, particularly in birds but also in other animals--infrequently including humans, in whom
the disease can produce symptoms resembling those of tuberculosis. These same species can also cause serious human ear infections. A. flavus, which contaminates stored foods such as rice, wheat, peanuts, and corn under hot, humid conditions,
produces a toxin called aflotoxin. This toxin has caused liver cancer in humans with chronic hepatitis B, an infection that is common in developing countries. _^<N__^<N_Some Aspergillus species are used commercially, such as A. oryzae in the
production of the Japanese drink sake and various fermented foods. The manufacture of various chemicals, such as citric acid and gluconic acid, may also make use of this genus of fungi.
-END-
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484
CAT
-A-
aspergillosis
-T-
aspergillosis_^<N__^<N_{as-pur-ji-loh'-sis} _^<N__^<N_Aspergillosis is a common bird infection caused by the fungus Aspergillus fumigatus. It infrequently occurs in humans, where the infection, caused by A. niger, is called otomycosis and is
primarily limited to the outer ear. Primary bronchopulmonary infection is the most severe form of aspergillosis. Symptoms include severe cough, fever, and sputum tinged with blood and signs of fungus material; thus it is clinically similar to
TUBERCULOSIS.
-END-
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37
CAT
-A-
asphalt:
-T-
asphalt:_^<N__^<N_see TAR, PITCH, AND ASPHALT.
-END-
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487
CAT
-A-
asphyxia
-T-
asphyxia_^<N__^<N_{as-fik'-see-uh} _^<N__^<N_Asphyxia is unconsciousness due to suffocation or other interference with oxygenation of the blood. Causes include obstruction of the windpipe by food, foreign bodies, vomit, mucus, or swollen vocal
cords; lack of air; crushing injuries to the chest; and anaphylactic shock in severely allergic individuals. Late stages are characterized by bluish purple skin color; dilated pupils; increasingly irregular breathing; and loss of consciousness.
_^<N__^<N_Peter L. Petrakis
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446
CAT
-A-
aspidistra
-T-
aspidistra_^<N__^<N_{as-puh-dis'-truh} _^<N__^<N_Aspidistra is any of about eight species, genus Aspidistra, of perennial herbs of the lily family (Liliaceae) native to the Far East. One species--A. elatior--is a common houseplant, often called
the cast-iron plant because of its ability to withstand neglect and poor soil and light. It has long, upright, stiff, strongly veined, green or variegated leaves and inconspicuous brownish purple flowers. _^<N__^<N_Hugh M. Raup
-END-
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451
CAT
-A-
Aspin, Les
-T-
Aspin, Les_^<N__^<N_Leslie Aspin, Jr., b. Milwaukee, Wis., July 21, 1938, was U.S. secretary of defense from the beginning of the Clinton administration until mid-December 1993, when he resigned. A former economics professor, defense analyst,
Wisconsin congressman (1971-93), and chairman of the House Armed Services Committee (1985-93), Aspin, a Democrat, presided over base closings, personnel reductions, and weapons curtailments at the end of the cold war.
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1768
CAT
-A-
aspirin
-T-
aspirin_^<N__^<N_{as'-prin} _^<N__^<N_Aspirin is the drug most widely used as an ANALGESIC, or pain reliever; antipyretic, or fever reducer; and antiinflammatory agent. Its activity is based on chemicals called salicylates, derived from willow and
other plants and known for their medicinal properties since ancient times. Modern aspirin--acetylsalicylic acid--was synthesized in the laboratory in the late 19th century and introduced into widespread medical use in 1899. Since then it has become
the standard by which all other analgesics and antipyretics are measured. _^<N__^<N_Aspirin is most effective in relieving slight to moderately severe pain, particularly headache, muscle aches, and joint pains. It is less effective against
deep-seated pain originating in internal organs. Because it suppresses inflammatory processes while relieving pain, it is still the treatment of choice for arthritis and related disorders. Aspirin reduces fever by increasing blood flow to the
surface, thereby promoting sweating and heat loss from the body. There is evidence that all the therapeutic effects of aspirin involve the inhibition of the synthesis of PROSTAGLANDINS, fatty acids with hormonelike functions. This effect has been
linked with the prevention of blood clots in potential stroke and heart-attack victims. _^<N__^<N_Aspirin is considered a relatively safe drug. Its chief drawback is its ability to irritate the lining of the stomach and cause bleeding. In large
doses aspirin is toxic, however, causing kidney damage and, in severe cases, death. Aspirin should never be given to children with viral diseases such as chicken pox or influenza. Such use has been associated with occurrences of the sometimes-fatal
REYE'S SYNDROME. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Rainsford, K., ed., Aspirin and the Salicylates (1984).
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298
CAT
-A-
Asplund, Erik Gunnar
-T-
Asplund, Erik Gunnar_^<N__^<N_{ahs'-pluhnd} _^<N__^<N_Erik Gunnar Asplund, b. Stockholm, Sept. 22, 1885, d. Oct. 20, 1940, was the leading exponent of the INTERNATIONAL STYLE in Scandinavian architecture before World War II. His work, most of it in
Stockholm, marked the transition from neoclassical to modern design.
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2695
CAT
-A-
Asquith, Herbert Henry, 1st Earl of Oxford and Asquith
-T-
Asquith, Herbert Henry, 1st Earl of Oxford and Asquith_^<N__^<N_{as'-kwith} _^<N__^<N_Herbert Henry Asquith, b. Sept. 12, 1852, d. Feb. 15, 1928, was prime minister of Great Britain's last Liberal cabinet. Born into the middle class, he raised his
social status by brilliant scholarship at Oxford University, a successful career as a London barrister, and marriage (his second) to a wealthy socialite. Following election to Parliament in 1886, Asquith gained recognition as a powerful speaker and
debater, as the counsel to Charles Stewart PARNELL before a judicial commission (1889), and as a leader of the Liberal party's imperialist faction during the SOUTH AFRICAN WAR. He served as home secretary from 1892 to 1895 and as chancellor of the
exchequer in the Sir Henry CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN cabinet from 1905 to 1908. _^<N__^<N_Succeeding to the party leadership and the premiership in 1908, Asquith presided over one of Britain's most distinguished cabinets. Its legislative output included
old-age pensions; a miners' minimum-wage law; workers' insurance against sickness, accident, and unemployment; salaries for members of Parliament; and protection for trade unions. The introduction of heavy taxation of the propertied classes
provoked a crisis when the House of Lords rejected the budget, and the government, in turn, tried to end the veto power of the Lords. After two general elections in 1910 the government achieved its aim by passing the Parliament Act of 1911.
Asquith's premiership is also associated with agitation by militant socialists, women suffragists, and Irish Unionists. The last group, who were supported by the Conservative party in their opposition to the third HOME RULE BILL (1912), brought
Ireland to the brink of civil war in 1914. _^<N__^<N_The outbreak of WORLD WAR I in August 1914 changed the focus of events. Although Asquith's government had expanded the Royal Navy to maintain naval supremacy over Germany, its other war
preparations were halfhearted. Soon after the war began, Asquith came under criticism for apathetic leadership. He survived a political crisis in May 1915 and reconstituted his government as a coalition. He resigned in December 1916, however, when
dissension within his cabinet was revealed to the press. He was succeeded by David LLOYD GEORGE. Asquith led the strife-torn Liberal party until his retirement in 1926. In 1925 he went to the House of Lords as earl of Oxford and Asquith.
_^<N__^<N_Don M. Cregier _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Asquith, Herbert Henry, Memories and Reflections, 1852-1927, 2 vols. (1928); Cregier, D. M., Chiefs without Indians (1983); Jenkins, Roy, Asquith (1964); Spender, J. A., and Asquith, Cyril, Life of
Herbert Henry Asquith, Lord Oxford and Asquith, 2 vols. (1932).
-END-
-C-
1049
CAT
-A-
ass
-T-
ass_^<N__^<N_Asses, the smallest members of the horse family, Equidae, comprise the subgenus Asinus of the single horse genus, Equus. The domesticated ass is also called a DONKEY or burro. The animals stand 1 to 1.5 m (3 to 5 ft) at the shoulder and
have a brush-tipped tail about 45 cm (17 in) long; their weight ranges up to 260 kg (570 lb). The coat is gray to reddish brown, and the wiry mane is dark. The ears are long and the feet small, with sharp hooves. Wild asses live in desert plains,
where they can survive on little food or water for long periods. The ass of northern and eastern Africa, E. asinus, has been domesticated for centuries as a sturdy pack animal; introduced into the Americas, it has formed feral herds there. The
Asian species E. hemionus, called the kulan or onager, is found from Syria to Manchuria; a Tibetan species, E. kiang, is known as the kiang. _^<N__^<N_Everett Sentman _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Davis, J. M., Mules, Donkeys and Burros (1983); De
Wesselow, M. R., Donkeys (1969; repr. 1985); Hutchins, P. and B., The Definitive Donkey (1982).
-END-
-C-
1182
CALT
-A-
Assad, Hafez al-
-T-
Assad, Hafez al-_^<N__^<N_{ah-sahd', hah-fez ul} _^<N__^<N_Hafez al-Assad, b. c. 1928, was elected president of Syria in 1971 and reelected in 1978, 1985, and 1991. A member of Syria's Alawite minority, he joined the BAATH PARTY in 1946 and was
named air force commander after Baath took power in 1963. He served as defense minister from 1966 to 1970, when he seized the premiership. Assad has faced periodic opposition at home from the fundamentalist Muslim Brotherhood. He was among the
"hard-line" Arab leaders denouncing the 1979 Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty, and he strengthened Syria militarily in an attempt to gain parity with Israel. To advance Syrian interests, he maintained close ties with the USSR, aided Iran during the
IRAN-IRAQ WAR (1980-88), intervened militarily and diplomatically in Lebanon, and backed Palestinian factions opposed to Yasir ARAFAT. After the PERSIAN GULF WAR (1991), in which Syria joined the U.S.-led alliance against Iraq, he demanded the
return of the Israeli-occupied GOLAN HEIGHTS to Syria as part of any broad Middle East settlement. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ma'oz, Moshe, Asad (1988; repr. 1990); Seale, Patrick, Asad: The Struggle for the Middle East (1989).
-END-
-C-
1611
CAT
-A-
Assam
-T-
Assam_^<N__^<N_{uh-sam'} _^<N__^<N_Assam, a northeast Indian state situated mainly in the Brahmaputra River valley, has an area of about 78,523 sq km (30,318 sq mi) and a population of 22,294,562 (1991). Floods are a regular occurrence during the
May-to-September monsoon season, and the region is prone to earthquakes. The economy is based on agriculture, particularly rice and tea cultivation. The chief industrial activities are associated with petroleum production in the Dibrugarh district.
Dispur is Assam's capital. The main languages are Assamese and Bengali. _^<N__^<N_Assam, a word referring to the kingdom of the Ahoms, who ruled the region from 1228 to 1816, was known as Kamarupa in antiquity. After a decade of Burmese invasions
Assam came under British rule (1826-1947). During World War II, Assam was a major Allied supply route for the Asian theater. After independence traditional Assam was gradually truncated, beginning with the cession of most of the district of Sylhet
to Pakistan in 1947. In 1963, NAGALAND became a separate state, and in 1972 the state of MEGHALAYA and the union territories (now states) of ARUNACHAL PRADESH and MIZORAM were also separated. _^<N__^<N_The present Assam state is predominantly
Hindu. Following attacks by the student-led Assamese movement on Bangladeshi Muslim immigrants, a 1985 accord granted voting rights to immigrants who had arrived in Assam before 1966. Those who settled there between 1966 and 1971 were
disenfranchised for ten years, while those who arrived after 1971 were to be deported. Subsequently, there were demands for curbs on migration from elsewhere in India. _^<N__^<N_Ashok K. Dutt
-END-
-C-
774
CAT
-A-
assassin bug
-T-
assassin bug_^<N__^<N_{uh-sas'-in} _^<N__^<N_Assassin bug is the common name for the 3,000 to 4,000 species that constitute the terrestrial insect family Reduviidae, order Hemiptera. Assassin bugs are strong fliers and fast runners that suck the
blood of other insects. Some species also feed on larger animals and humans, inflicting painful bites. Because the bites are often in the face area, the insects are also known as "kissing bugs." Adults are 1.3-3.8 cm (0.5-1.5 in) long, with a
rather flattened, oval body and long antennae. The small, long head is usually narrower behind the protruding eyes. Assassin bugs occur worldwide; some South American species transmit Chagas' disease (see TRYPANOSOMIASIS), and some in the Old World
transmit the disease known as KALA-AZAR. _^<N__^<N_S. C. Reingold
-END-
-C-
1326
CAT
-A-
Assassins
-T-
Assassins_^<N__^<N_{uh-sas'-inz} _^<N__^<N_Assassins is the Western name for a group of fanatical ISMAILIS, a sect of the Muslim SHIITES, who worked for the creation of a new FATIMID caliphate from 1094 to 1273. On the death (1094) of al-Mustansir,
the Fatimid caliphate in Egypt was seriously split between his two sons; the Assassins were partisans of his deposed eldest son, Nizar. They seized and fortified a string of mountain strongholds in northern Persia, most notably Alamut in the
Elburz Mountains, and Syria. From these fortresses they waged a war of terror against both orthodox Muslims and the Christian Crusaders. They often murdered prominent individuals; hence assassin in English came to mean a politically motivated
murderer. _^<N__^<N_The Western designation for this group actually derives from the Arabic hashashin, meaning "users of hashish." The story related by Marco POLO and others that hallucinatory drugs were used to stimulate the Assassins to their
acts is unconfirmed, however, in any Ismaili sources. The extremism of the Assassins began to moderate in the 13th century. They were destroyed in Persia by the Mongols (1256) and in Syria by the MAMELUKES (1273). _^<N__^<N_Michael W. Dols
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Burman, E., The Assassins (1988); Lewis, Bernard, The Assassins (1968; repr. 1987); Ridley, F. A., The Assassins (1980).
-END-
-C-
1047
CAT
-A-
assault and battery
-T-
assault and battery_^<N__^<N_Assault is a threat against a person, and battery is physical attack. If a person waves a fist in front of another person and threatens to beat that person, the threatener is guilty of assault. If a person strikes
another person with a fist, the striker is guilty of battery. The victim can sue the assailant for damages, and the state may also prosecute. (See MISDEMEANOR; TORT.) _^<N__^<N_In a civil case alleging assault, the victim must prove that he or she
was in imminent danger of injury or had reason to think so. Abusive language alone does not constitute an assault. Threatening with a pistol may be an assault, even if the weapon is unloaded. In a case of battery the amount of contact or force is
unimportant, if it is made without permission. It may amount only to a touch on the shoulder, or the striking of a person's car or the chair in which a person is sitting. _^<N__^<N_Some jurisdictions distinguish the felony of aggravated assault,
usually defined as assault with intention to commit some other crime, such as armed robbery.
-END-
-C-
1383
CAT
-A-
assay of ores
-T-
assay of ores_^<N__^<N_In economic geology, an assay is an analysis of ore samples conducted to determine the amount of valuable material they contain. The average assay of an ORE DEPOSIT, referred to as the tenor, or grade, of the ore, is
ordinarily expressed as a percentage or in units of weight per ton. Historically, most metals were assayed by wet gravimetric methods (see QUANTITATIVE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS). Since 1950, however, modern instrumental techniques, such as atomic
absorption and radiation counting, have become increasingly popular for assaying metals. _^<N__^<N_When ores contain more than one commercially important chemical element, each element is assayed to determine the total value of the ore. Other ores
contain undesirable impurities that have to be assayed in order to determine the effective grade of the ore (see MINING AND QUARRYING). _^<N__^<N_Where the tenor of an ore deposit decreases regularly or irregularly into worthless rock, numerous
closely spaced assays may be needed to distinguish ore from high-grade waste that may be worth stockpiling until prices are higher, or from waste that has no potential value zone. The width of the ore zone may be as important as its tenor, and,
hence, tenors may be expressed in "percent meters." _^<N__^<N_Eric S. Cheney _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Gilbert, J., and Park, C. F., The Geology of Ore Deposits (1985); Smith, R., Assaying for Everyone (1981).
-END-
-C-
1718
CAT
-A-
Assemblies of God
-T-
Assemblies of God_^<N__^<N_The General Council of the Assemblies of God is a U.S-based fellowship of Pentecostal churches with a total membership of about 25 million (1992). Founded in 1914, the Assemblies of God fellowship is a product of
PENTECOSTALISM, a Christian revival that spread through the United States in the early years of the 20th century. Like other Pentecostal groups, the Assemblies of God believe in the baptism in the Holy Spirit, an experience in which modern
Christians are filled with the Spirit, just as the disciples of Jesus were in Acts 2:4. One of the signs of this "outpouring of the Holy Spirit" is glossolalia, which the Assemblies of God define as "speaking in an unknown language" (see TONGUES,
SPEAKING IN). _^<N__^<N_The Assemblies of God regard themselves as Protestant churches, affirming belief in the Trinity, and in the need of all adult people for redemption through the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. (Children are
"covered by grace" until they reach the age of accountability.) They practice baptism by immersion and observe the ordinance of the Lord's Supper. The basic unit of the fellowship is the local church. _^<N__^<N_The Assemblies of God have missions
in 132 countries around the world. The country with the largest membership is Brazil (about 15 million). The largest single church is in Seoul, South Korea (750,000 members). The United States has more than 11,000 churches, with an inclusive
membership of 2.3 million. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Blumhofer, Edith, Restoring the Faith: The Assemblies of God, Pentecostalism, and American Culture (1993); McGee, Mary, This Gospel . . . Shall be Preached: A History and Theology of Assemblies of
God Foreign Missions Since 1959, 2 vols. (1989).
-END-
-C-
743
CAT
-A-
assembly
-T-
assembly_^<N__^<N_Assembly is the name given to any low-level COMPUTER LANGUAGE that is tailored to the architecture of a specific MICROPROCESSOR. Although all assembly languages closely resemble one another, each microprocessor has a different
configuration of memory addresses--analogous to mail slots--where information can be stored in binary form, a series of ones and zeros, that is difficult to understand. Assembly languages are a more-readable shorthand form of binary code. Assembly
programs are, however, still more difficult to write and read than programs in high-level computer languages such as BASIC or Pascal, although assembly languages run much faster in a computer. The first assembly languages were developed in the
early 1950s.
-END-
-C-
3311
CAT
-A-
assembly line
-T-
assembly line_^<N__^<N_The assembly line is a system of MANUFACTURING in which each worker performs a specialized operation on an unfinished product as it is moved by CONVEYOR past his or her station. The system is designed to achieve an
uninterrupted production process by organizing and integrating the various operations involved. Although some aspects of the method were used in Europe, the assembly-line technique, as such, is primarily an American development. The concept of a
continuous production process, for example, was the essential feature of the system of conveyor belts and chutes installed in 1784 by Oliver EVANS in his Delaware flour mill. Adopted by the rest of the milling industry, the technique gradually
came to be used in other industries, including textiles, iron foundries, meat-packing, canning, and hardware. _^<N__^<N_The second major U.S. contribution to the evolution of the assembly line was the utilization of interchangeable parts for use in
such varied products as pistols, clocks, and agricultural machinery (see MASS PRODUCTION). By the beginning of the 20th century the separate features of the assembly-line process--the conveyor and the use of interchangeable parts--were well
established in U.S. industry. It remained for Henry FORD, head of the Ford Motor Company, to demonstrate how these features could be combined to yield the full potential of the system. _^<N__^<N_Early in 1913 Ford began using a moving assembly line
in the manufacture of magnetos. Previously, it had taken one man 18 minutes to assemble a magneto; with the assembly line, the time was cut to 5 minutes. This success prompted Ford to extend the assembly-line system to the production of the entire
automobile, which produced equally impressive results (see AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY). _^<N__^<N_Ford's development of a complete assembly-line process was a major technological breakthrough, soon adopted by the manufacturers of an increasing number of
products that require accurate and precise assembly, such as washing machines, radios, and refrigerators. The assembly line, the foundation of modern mass production, is capital intensive, that is, it requires a heavy investment in machinery and
equipment, so that it is economically feasible only for products for which large markets exist. _^<N__^<N_Concern over the possible adverse effects of assembly-line work has increased in recent years. In 1973 the U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare (now Health and Human Services) released a study of the relationship between work and health. The report cited the negative effects of the "dehumanizing" assembly line, among them alcoholism and drug addiction, low
productivity, and high absenteeism. The solution, the study indicated, might be found in two directions: using worker teams to produce a complete product, or a large segment of it; and giving workers a greater voice in decisions relating to
production. Such methods have been used successfully, the first in Scandinavia, the second in Japan. Small-scale experiments have also begun in the United States. _^<N__^<N_Harold F. Williamson _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Andreassen, M. M., ed.,
Assembly Automation (1987); Gould, Lawrence, Factory Automation: A Key to Survival (1985); Miller, Richard K., Robots in Industry (1984). _^<N__^<N_See also: HUMAN FACTORS ENGINEERING; MANUFACTURING, HISTORY OF.
-END-
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794
CAT
-A-
assessment
-T-
assessment_^<N__^<N_An assessment is the formal means of determining the amount of tax to be levied on real property. The term also refers to the tax itself (see PROPERTY TAX). The taxing authority makes an assessment by drawing up a list of owners
of land and buildings and making an APPRAISAL of the market value of each; that value is then used to compute the amount of tax for each owner. A special assessment is a sum levied to pay for a specific project; it is assessed according to the
benefit derived rather than the market value. _^<N__^<N_An assessment may also be a special charge to members of a club in addition to dues and membership fees, an installment on a stock subscription, a prorated share of a deficit levied on certain
classes of shareholders, or in general an evaluation of worth or merit.
-END-
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612
CAT
-A-
assignment
-T-
assignment_^<N__^<N_Assignment is an act whereby a person transfers an interest in a right or property to another. For example, the ownership of insurance policies and securities is often transferred by assignment. Courts have held that an
assignment is a CONTRACT and therefore must conform to the legal requirements of contracts. An assignment for the benefit of creditors is an assignment in TRUST of a debtor's property to an assignee (creditor) for payment of the assignor's
obligations. An assignment of account gives a creditor the right to have the assignor's income applied to the payment of the assignor's debt.
-END-
-C-
1389
CAT
-A-
Assiniboin
-T-
Assiniboin_^<N__^<N_{uh-sin'-uh-boyn} _^<N__^<N_The Assiniboin, an Indian tribe of the Great Plains of North America, separated from their neighbors the Dakota and Lakota (Teton) Sioux probably by the mid-1600s. They often formed alliances with the
Algonquian-speaking Cree and battled other Siouan-speakers--the Sioux, Crow, Hidatsa, and Mandan. A typical Plains warrior society, the Assiniboin relied upon the buffalo for food, shelter, and clothing, and upon the horse for mobility in war and
the hunt. The SUN DANCE was their most sacred ritual, and the long feathered headdress indicated male status and prestige. The women usually decorated skins and clothing with porcupine quills dyed with natural colors in geometric and floral
designs. The men exhibited their war deeds in naturalistic representations painted on their conical dwellings (see TEPEE) and on circular war shields. _^<N__^<N_The Assiniboin call themselves the Nakota, meaning "the allies" or "the people." They
number about 3,000 in Canada and 2,200 in the United States. The largest group, now known as Stoney Indians, resides west of Calgary in Alberta. Another large group lives primarily on the Fort Peck and Fort Belknap reservations in Montana. Their
traditional culture is displayed at such events as the Calgary Stampede. _^<N__^<N_Bea Medicine _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Denig, Edwin T., Five Indian Tribes of the Upper Missouri (1961; repr. 1985).
-END-
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409
CAT
-A-
Assiniboine River
-T-
Assiniboine River_^<N__^<N_{uh-sin'-uh-boyn} _^<N__^<N_The Assiniboine River, 965 km (600 mi) long rises in southeastern Saskatchewan, Canada, and flows south and east into Manitoba, where it joins the Red River at Winnipeg. It is navigable for
about 480 km (300 mi), and its main ports are Brandon and Winnipeg, an important grain exchange. The river was discovered by the French in 1736 and named after the ASSINIBOIN Indians.
-END-
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416
CAT
-A-
Assisi
-T-
Assisi_^<N__^<N_{ahs-see'-zee} _^<N__^<N_Assisi (1981 pop., 19,000) is a town in Perugia province in central Italy. The home of St. FRANCIS OF ASSISI (1182-1226), it is a religious and tourist center in the Apennines. It was an independent
commune in the Middle Ages when the Convent of St. Francis, with its upper and lower churches, was built and then frescoed by Cimabue, Giotto di Bondone, and Simone Martini. _^<N__^<N_Daniel R. Lesnick
-END-
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1277
CAT
-A-
assize
-T-
assize_^<N__^<N_A term still used to designate a judicial inquest or, less frequently, legislative session, the assize (or assise) was introduced in medieval England and France as an instrument for the administration of justice in the provinces. The
word originally meant a sitting and thus came to denote the meeting of a council or tribunal, specifically a tribunal appointed by the crown to administer justice outside the capital. The term was then applied to any ordinance issued at such a
meeting. In practice, it often referred to the convening of a trial by jury, and correspondingly to the jury verdict. _^<N__^<N_HENRY II of England (r. 1154-89) introduced the grand and petty assizes to try serious cases of criminal and property
law. His traveling justices were given "commissions of assize," and their rulings and the 12-man juries' verdicts in property disputes sometimes acquired the force of law, thus becoming part of the COMMON LAW. _^<N__^<N_In contemporary France the
courts of assize are criminal courts that deal with the most serious cases. In modern England the assize courts were the periodic sessions of the High Court held in the counties; these sessions were abolished in 1971. Similar courts, also called
assize courts, were abolished in the Federal Republic of Germany in 1975.
-END-
-C-
67
CAT
-A-
association, chemical:
-T-
association, chemical:_^<N__^<N_see BUFFER; CHEMICAL SYMBOLISM AND NOTATION.
-END-
-C-
2263
CAT
-A-
associationism
-T-
associationism_^<N__^<N_Associationism is the psychological theory that all mental activity begins with simple ideas that are both compounded into complex ideas and succeeded by other ideas in the stream of consciousness according to certain laws of
association. It is most familiar as the psychological doctrine of empiricist philosophers of the 18th and 19th centuries, although similar ideas were postulated much earlier (see EMPIRICISM). Originally, associationists were unable to agree on the
laws of association. The philosopher David HUME first listed three laws of association: (1) resemblance--the imagination runs easily from one idea to any other that resembles it; (2) contiguity--the imagination acquires the habit of running from
one thing to other things related in space and time; and (3) cause and effect--the mind runs from the idea of a cause to that of its effects. The central figure in the history of associationism, the physiologist David Hartley, showed that a
variety of supposed laws of association could be reduced to the one law of temporal contiguity. Other prominent associationists were James MILL and a contemporary of Mill, Alexander Bain, whose textbooks were widely used in English-speaking
countries. _^<N__^<N_Among the objections to associationism was the theory that new ideas are not simply compounds of old ones, and the theory was discredited by the end of the 19th century. Psychologist E. L. THORNDIKE revived some aspects of
associationism in his theory of connectionism, which postulated that the mind creates neural links to associate stimuli with effective responses. In recent decades cognitive psychologists (see COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY) have explored the neural
architecture that enables the brain to make connections between stored memories and new sensory input, as when a person is able to pick a face out of a crowd. Various attempts have also been made to replicate the brain's neural connections in a
computer. _^<N__^<N_Julian Weitzenfeld _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Guthrie, Edwin, The Psychology of Learning, rev. ed. (1952); Mackintosh, N. J., Conditioning and Associative Learning (1983); Nadel, Lynn, ed., Neural Connections, Mental
Computations (1988); Rapaport, David, History of the Concept of the Association of Ideas (1974).
-END-
-C-
478
CAT
-A-
associative law
-T-
associative law_^<N__^<N_The associative law, or property, of arithmetic states that a series of numbers can be added in any order and still yield the same result. Thus: _^<N__^<N_(5 + 6) + 4 = 11 + 4 = 25, and 5 + (6 + 4) = 5 + 10 = 25.
_^<N__^<N_The associative law also holds true for multiplication-- (a x b) x c = a x (b x c)--but does not hold true for either subtraction or division. The associative law is one of the fundamental properties used in the solving of algebraic
equations (see ALGEBRA).
-END-
-C-
640
CAT
-A-
Assumption of Mary
-T-
Assumption of Mary_^<N__^<N_In Roman Catholic doctrine, the Assumption means that MARY, the mother of Jesus, was taken (assumed) bodily into heavenly glory when she died. In the Orthodox church, the koimesis, or dormition ("falling asleep"), of the
Virgin began to be commemorated on August 15 in the 6th century. The observance gradually spread to the West, where it became known as the feast of the Assumption. By the 13th century, the belief was accepted by most Catholic theologians, and it
was a popular subject with Renaissance and baroque painters. The Assumption was declared a dogma of the Roman Catholic faith by Pope Pius XII in 1950.
-END-
-C-
48
CAT
-A-
Assurbanipal:
-T-
Assurbanipal:_^<N__^<N_see ASHURBANIPAL, KING OF ASSYRIA.
-END-
-C-
56
CAT
-A-
Assurnasirpal II:
-T-
Assurnasirpal II:_^<N__^<N_see ASHURNASIRPAL II, KING OF ASSYRIA.
-END-
-C-
3218
CAT
-A-
Assyria
-T-
Assyria_^<N__^<N_{uh-sir'-ee-uh} _^<N__^<N_Assyria was an ancient name for that part of MESOPOTAMIA on the upper Tigris River now included in the northern Iraqi provinces of Ninawa (Nineveh), Sulaymaniya, Tamim, and Irbil. Watered by the Tigris and
its tributaries, the Greater and Lesser Zab, ancient Assyria stretched from just west of the Tigris to the Zagros Mountains on the east and from about 34 deg north latitude up to the hills of Armenia. With moderate rainfall that permitted farming
without irrigation and with considerable resources of stone for building, Assyria had advantages over BABYLONIA, where irrigation was necessary and mud brick was the principal building material. _^<N__^<N_Assyria took its name from its original
capital, Ashur, situated just north of the junction of the Tigris and the Lesser Zab. Its founders, who are now called Assyrians, were a Semitic-speaking people who arrived from the southwest shortly after 2000 BC. During the Old Assyrian period
(c.1900-1550 BC) the territory was unified by a series of vigorous rulers, and its influence was felt along the middle Euphrates and westward into central Anatolia (modern Turkey), where Assyrian traders established commercial colonies. By 1800
BC, however, the coming of the HITTITES drove the Assyrians out of Anatolia, and the rise of Babylon under Hammurabi soon afterward caused a contraction of Assyrian power in Mesopotamia. By 1550 BC Assyria was part of the Kingdom of MITANNI; it
did not regain independence until the collapse of that regime about 1365 BC. _^<N__^<N_After a slow revival, Assyrian strength quickened after 1000 BC and reached a new peak in the 9th century under ASHURNASIRPAL II (r. 883-59) and SHALMANESER III
(r. 858-24), whose campaigns brought plunder and tribute from little kingdoms westward all the way to the Mediterranean Sea. After 800 BC this mighty dynasty gradually declined and finally collapsed (c.748 BC), but a new era began with the
accession of TIGLATH-PILESER III in 745. Babylon was subjected to Assyria, and states to the west were once more made tributary. The formal organization of an empire began with the last Assyrian dynasty, founded by SARGON II. Sargon (r.
721-05), SENNACHERIB (r. 705-681), and ESARHADDON (r. 681-68) made conquests that brought ELAM, MEDIA, Persia, Babylonia, Syria, Palestine, and even part of Egypt under Assyrian rule. A recession commenced under ASHURBANIPAL (r. 668-26), and by
612 the Medes and Babylonians had destroyed the city of NINEVEH and brought an end to the Assyrian Empire. _^<N__^<N_The four successive capitals of Assyria--Ashur (Qalat Sherqat); Calah (NIMRUD), founded by Ashurnasirpal II; Dur Sharrukin
(KHORSABAD), the fortress city of Sargon II; and Nineveh, selected by Sennacherib--have all been excavated by archaeologists, revealing the brilliance of Assyrian civilization. Despite the notorious brutality (and efficiency) of the Assyrian
army, which the Assyrians themselves assiduously publicized, the great accomplishments of ancient Assyria in art and architecture, and also in literature, are universally recognized. _^<N__^<N_Tom B. Jones _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Olmstead, A. T.,
History of Assyria (1923; repr. 1975); Roux, Georges, Ancient Iraq, rev. ed. (1976).
Astaire, Fred_^<N__^<N_Fred Astaire is the stage name of Frederick Austerlitz, b. Omaha, Nebr., May 10, 1899, d. June 22, 1987, who brought new distinction to musical comedy with his elegant and witty song and dance routines. First teamed with his
sister Adele on the stage-- they made their Broadway debut in 1918, dancing in the musical Over the Top--Astaire turned to Hollywood on her retirement from show business, making his initial screen appearance in Dancing Lady (1933). His greatest
success came when he was paired with Ginger ROGERS in a series of romantic comedies featuring their dance numbers. Flying Down to Rio (1933) was followed by The Gay Divorcee (1934), Roberta and Top Hat (1935), Follow the Fleet and Swing Time
(1936), Shall We Dance? (1937), and The Story of Vernon and Irene Castle (1939). In 1949 they were reunited in The Barkleys of Broadway. With other partners, Astaire starred in such musicals as Daddy Longlegs (1955) and Funny Face (1957). He
also appeared in dramatic roles. A perfectionist who often choreographed his own dances, he received a special Academy Award in 1949 for "raising the standards of all musicals." Astaire's autobiography is Steps in Time (1959; repr. 1988).
_^<N__^<N_Leslie Halliwell _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Adler, Bill, Fred Astaire: A Wonderful Life (1987); Astaire, Fred, Steps in Time (1959); Croce, Arlene, The Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers Book (1972; repr. 1987); Freedland, Michael, Fred
Astaire: An Illustrated Biography (1977); Giles, Sarah, Fred Astaire (1988); Green, Stanley, and Goldblatt, Burt, Starring Fred Astaire (1973); Mueller, J., Astaire Dancing (1985); Thomas, Bob, Astaire: The Man, the Dancer (1984).
-END-
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509
CAT
-A-
Astarte
-T-
Astarte_^<N__^<N_{uh-stahr'-tee} _^<N__^<N_In Near Eastern mythology, Astarte was the goddess of fertility and sexual love and of war. Crops, newborn animals, and firstborn children were sacrificed to her to assure fertility. The gazelle, dove, and
myrtle were sacred to her. In Phoenician art, Astarte was represented with a cow's horns, symbolizing fertility. Her Babylonian and Greek counterparts were ISHTAR and APHRODITE. The Bible refers to Astarte as Ashtoreth, worshiped by the Philistines
and, at times, the Israelites.
-END-
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1439
CAT
-A-
astatine
-T-
astatine_^<N__^<N_{as'-tuh-teen} _^<N__^<N_Astatine is a radioactive chemical element, the fifth and final of the HALOGEN elements, group V11A in the periodic table. Its symbol is At; its atomic number 85; and its atomic weight 210 (stablest
isotope). The name is derived from the Greek astatos, meaning "unstable." Astatine is one of the rarest elements in nature, and the Earth's crust is estimated to contain less than 30 g (1 oz). It was first synthesized in 1940 in a nuclear
reaction between alpha particles and bismuth. This was done at the University of California, Berkeley, by D. R. Corson, K. R. Meckenzie, and E. G. Segre. Twenty isotopes are known, of which At-210 is the longest-lived, with a half-life of 8.3
hours. The melting point of astatine is 302 deg C, and its boiling point is 337 deg C. Since it is short-lived, its chemical properties are difficult to investigate, but tracer experiments, in which small amounts of the element are reacted in the
presence of iodine, indicate that they are similar to those of iodine. At least four oxidation states of At are known: -1, +1, +3, and +5. Mass spectrometric studies have confirmed the existence of compounds of astatine with three other
halogens: chlorine, bromine, and iodine. Astatine accumulates in the thyroid gland, and its use has been proposed in the treatment of hyperthyroidism in humans. _^<N__^<N_J. Alistair Kerr _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Holloway, J. H., Noble Gas
Chemistry (1968).
-END-
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2265
CAT
-A-
aster
-T-
aster_^<N__^<N_Asters, genus Aster, are any of several large PLANTS, commonly called asters, starworts, Michaelmas daisies, or frost flowers. The genus, which belongs to the composite, or sunflower, family, Compositae, includes approximately 250 to
500 species. Asters are found chiefly in North America, with some species extending into South America; others are distributed throughout Europe and Asia. Asters reach their greatest complexity in the northeastern United States and adjacent Canada,
where more than 65 species are found. _^<N__^<N_The asters are mostly coarse-growing, leafy-stemmed plants that are occasionally somewhat woody at the base. Although most are perennials, a few are annuals and biennials. All have alternate, simple
leaves that are untoothed or toothed but rarely lobed. In late summer and autumn the asters produce large clusters of flowering heads, although a few species have single heads. Each head contains a central disk of small yellow (sometimes orange,
purple, or white), tubular flowers surrounded by numerous showy, ray flowers ranging from blue or violet shades of purple, to red, pink, or white. The ray flowers are never yellow. The tubular flowers are bisexual, having both a pistil and stamens;
the ray flowers usually are sterile. _^<N__^<N_The asters are a striking, common component of the flora of late summer and fall. They grow profusely along roadsides and in vacant lots, as well as in prairies and forests. Common forest species of
the eastern United States are the arrow-leaved aster, Aster sagittifolius; blue wood aster, A. cordifolius; and Short's aster, A. shortii. Well-known species of open areas include the hairy aster, A. pilosus; New England aster, A. novae-angliae;
and heath aster, A. ericoides. Other species such as the spiny aster, A. spinosus, grow in desert areas. The asters are excellent garden ornamentals, and many species, hybrids, and cultivars (horticultural varieties) are grown. _^<N__^<N_The China
aster, Callistephus cinensis, also a Compositae, is related to the true asters. Native to China, it is a handsome annual herb often grown for its late-summer blooms. Its showy, flowering heads grow to 13 cm (5 in) across. _^<N__^<N_John Ebinger
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Cronquist, Arthur, Evolution and Classification of Flowering Plants (1968).
-END-
-C-
2471
CAT
-A-
asteroid
-T-
asteroid_^<N__^<N_An asteroid is any one of a large number of small solid objects in the SOLAR SYSTEM, sometimes called minor planets because they orbit the Sun directly. The vast majority are found in a swarm called the asteroid belt, between the
orbits of Mars and Jupiter, at average distances of 2.1 to 3.3 ASTRONOMICAL UNITS (AU) from the Sun. They are given a number (and sometimes then named) when their orbits are well established. More than 5,000 such asteroids are now known, and many
more have been sighted at least once. Numbered ones include about 38 to 45 Amor asteroids, whose orbits intersect the orbit of Mars; about 40 Apollo asteroids, whose orbits intersect the Earth's orbit; about 6 Aten asteroids, with orbits smaller
than the Earth's orbit; and about 96 Trojan asteroids, which precede or follow Jupiter in its orbit. One Apollo asteroid, now numbered 4581 and called Asclepius, passed within 800,000 km (500,000 mi) of Earth in 1989--the closest approach of a
large asteroid since that of Hermes in 1937. _^<N__^<N_Asteroids range from many kilometers to a few meters or less in diameter. The three largest, CERES, Pallas, and Vesta, are about 785, 610, and 540 km (488, 379, and 336 mi) wide, respectively.
Gaspra, an irregular asteroid about 20 km (12 mi) long on its largest axis, was the first to be photographed at close range--by the space probe GALILEO in 1991, at a distance of 1,600 km (1,000 mi). Probes had earlier photographed the two tiny
moons of Mars, however, and it is likely these also are asteroids, captured by that planet's gravitational field. _^<N__^<N_Asteroids are thought to be remnants of the early solar system that never grew to planetary size. Collisions between such
objects must have been numerous in those early times. Most of the asteroids seen at present are probably fragments of once-larger ones, as indicated by their irregular shape. While some of those found in the inner solar system may be burned-out
comets, most probably have compositions in the general range found in meteorites (see METEOR AND METEORITE). _^<N__^<N_Collisions of larger asteroids with the Earth have been implicated in mass EXTINCTIONS over geological time, as well as with the
onset of an ice age about 2.3 million years ago. Some interest has been expressed in planning ways to avert future cataclysmic encounters with the Earth. _^<N__^<N_Lawrence Grossman _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Binzel, R. P., et al., Asteroids II
(1990); Cunningham, C., Introduction to Asteroids (1987).
-END-
-C-
3372
CAT
-A-
asthma
-T-
asthma_^<N__^<N_{az'-muh} _^<N__^<N_Asthma is a respiratory disorder marked by breathing difficulty caused by temporary narrowing of the bronchi, the airways branching from the trachea to the lungs. Attacks usually are brought on by allergic
reaction to ANTIGENS such as grass and tree pollens, mold spores, fungi, animal dander, and certain foods but may also be caused by chemical irritants in the atmosphere or by infections of the respiratory tract (see BRONCHITIS). Susceptibility to
an asthma attack is based on hyperactivity of the bronchial muscles, which constrict on exposure to one or another of these agents. Research suggests that an enzyme present in the lungs of asthma sufferers may lead to this hypersensitivity by
releasing a blood-protein peptide that acts as a potent constrictor of bronchial muscles. _^<N__^<N_Episodes of asthma vary widely in severity and may last from a few minutes to several days. They may begin at any age but usually occur in
childhood. In children, asthma often is associated with eczema, a skin inflammation that may reflect the tendency of the child to develop hypersensitivity reactions. The attacks usually become less frequent and less severe over the years and
disappear in about half of all affected children before adulthood. In one form of asthma, called intrinsic asthma, however, the attacks become less frequent and less severe, but recovery between them is less complete. The bronchi in such patients
become chronically narrowed, causing a progressive loss of capacity for physical exertion. The prevalence of asthma is only about 1 or 2 percent worldwide but varies greatly from country to country. In the United States, asthma affects about 6.9
percent of children. _^<N__^<N_Typically, an asthma attack begins within minutes after exposure to a triggering agent. Symptoms include a sensation of tightness in the chest, coughing and wheezing, and difficulty in breathing. Persons having
attacks usually find it more difficult to exhale than inhale, which causes overinflation of the chest and impaired lung functions. The breathing difficulty is alleviated somewhat by leaning forward and supporting the trunk with the arms on some
object. Attacks that last several hours or more, even several days, despite treatment are called status asthmaticus. Patients with this condition develop a rapid pulse as the heart attempts to compensate for the lack of oxygen in the blood by
beating faster. They also develop signs of exhaustion and dehydration. _^<N__^<N_On a long-term basis, asthma usually is managed by determining the agent responsible for the attacks so that the patient can avoid it. When avoidance of allergens is
not feasible, patients can sometimes be desensitized by injections of graded doses of the allergen at regular intervals. Relaxation and breathing exercises have also been found helpful. Most asthma attacks can be controlled by the administration
of appropriate drugs by injection, orally, or by inhalation of aerosols, sometimes in metered doses (see BRONCHODILATORS). Occasionally, oxygen administration or use of a respirator may be required. Asthma attacks can result in death.
_^<N__^<N_Peter L. Petrakis _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Gershwin, M. E., and Klingelhofer, E. L., Asthma (1986); Rudoff, Carol, Asthma Resources Directory (1990); Stevens, Maryann, Breathing Easy (1991); Young, Stuart, H., et al., The Asthma
Handbook (1985).
-END-
-C-
685
CAT
-A-
Astley, Philip
-T-
Astley, Philip_^<N__^<N_Philip Astley, b. Jan. 8, 1742, d. Oct. 20, 1814, a former horsebreaker in the English army, is generally credited with being the founder of the modern CIRCUS. In 1768, Astley and his wife began exhibiting trick horsemanship
on the outskirts of London, and in 1769 he established Astley's Amphitheater, where tumblers, ropedancers, clowns, strongmen, and a variety of other artists were quickly added. Astley erected some 19 amphitheaters, including the first circus
buildings in France (Paris) and Ireland (Dublin). By the end of the 18th century his disciples and their pupils had established the circus in many European countries and in the United States. _^<N__^<N_A. H. Saxon
-END-
-C-
821
CAT
-A-
Aston, Francis William
-T-
Aston, Francis William_^<N__^<N_The English physicist and chemist Francis William Aston, b. Sept. 1, 1877, d. Nov. 20, 1945, discovered in 1919 that stable elements of low atomic weight are mixtures of ISOTOPES. Using a mass spectrograph, which
he developed while working with Sir Joseph John THOMSON in Cambridge, and for which he received the 1922 Nobel Prize for chemistry, Aston also found that the masses of most atoms could be expressed as whole numbers when compared with oxygen (mass
16). With a more accurate spectrograph, however, Aston detected in 1927 a slight deviation from this whole-number rule. By graphing an index of the deviation (called the packing fraction) against the closest whole-number mass of an element, Aston
derived important information concerning its structure and stability. _^<N__^<N_Richard F. Hirsh
-END-
-C-
2609
CAT
-A-
Astor (family)
-T-
Astor (family)_^<N__^<N_The Astor family built an immense fortune from the American fur trade, New York City real estate, and other investments. The founder of the fortune, John Jacob Astor, born a butcher's son of Waldorf, near Heidelberg,
Germany, July 17, 1763, went to London at the age of 16 and immigrated to the United States at the age of 20. He organized the FUR TRADE from the Great Lakes to the Pacific and eventually to the Far East. He also made extremely profitable
investments in New York City real estate. In 1808 he combined all his holdings into the AMERICAN FUR COMPANY; when he died on Mar. 29, 1848, he was the wealthiest man in the country with a fortune estimated at more than $20 million. He left
$400,000 to establish the Astor Library, now part of the New York Public Library. _^<N__^<N_John Jacob's son William Backhouse Astor, b. Sept. 19, 1792, d. Nov. 24, 1875, directed the building of the Astor Library and, with astute investments
in New York City property, came to be known as "the landlord of New York." His son, John Jacob Astor, b. June 10, 1822, d. Feb. 22, 1890, was a philanthropist who took a minor part in New York civic and political affairs. William's grandson,
John Jacob Astor IV, b. July 13, 1864, d. Apr. 15, 1912, built the Astoria section of what later became the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York City. He died in the sinking of the Titanic. His mother, originally named Caroline Schermerhorn, was
the Mrs. William Astor of legend, queen of New York society's Four Hundred. His cousin, William Waldorf Astor, b. Mar. 31, 1848, d. Oct. 18, 1919, built the Waldorf section of the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel and served as U.S. minister to Italy in
1882-85. In 1890 he moved to England and in 1899 became a British subject. He bought the Pall Mall Gazette and established the Pall Mall Magazine and was made baron of Hever Castle in 1916 and viscount in 1917. _^<N__^<N_William Waldorf's elder
son, Waldorf Astor, the 2d viscount, b. May 19, 1879, d. Sept. 30, 1952, was private secretary to Prime Minister David Lloyd George. From 1919 to 1945 he published The Observer, and from 1935 to 1949 he served as chairman of the Royal Institute
of International Affairs. His wife was Nancy, Lady ASTOR. His younger brother, John Jacob Astor, b. May 20, 1886, d. July 19, 1971, became chief owner of the London Times in 1922. In 1956 he was made a baron in his own right.
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Astor, Brooke, Footprints (1980); Cowles, Virginia, The Astors (1979); Gates, John D., The Astor Family (1981); Sinclair, D., Dynasty (1984); Terrell, John, Furs by Astor (1963).
-END-
-C-
906
CAT
-A-
Astor, Lady
-T-
Astor, Lady_^<N__^<N_Nancy, Viscountess Astor, b. Danville, Va., May 19, 1879, d. May 2, 1964, became the first woman to sit in Britain's Parliament. Originally named Nancy Witcher Langhorne, in 1906 she married Waldorf ASTOR, a Conservative
member of Parliament. When he succeeded to his father's title in 1919 and entered the House of Lords, she won his seat in Commons and held it until 1945. She worked enthusiastically for temperance and for women's and children's welfare and was
known for her outspoken opinions. In the late 1930s, in her country home at Cliveden, she was the focus of a group that favored an appeasement policy toward Nazi Germany. When Britain declared war, however, she strongly supported the war effort.
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Grigg, John, Nancy Astor: A Lady Unashamed (1981); Masters, Anthony, Nancy Astor (1981); Sykes, Christopher, Nancy: The Life of Lady Astor (1972; repr. 1984).
-END-
-C-
488
CAT
-A-
Astor, Mary
-T-
Astor, Mary_^<N__^<N_Mary Astor was the stage name of Lucille Vasconcells Langhanke, b. Quincy, Ill., May 3, 1906, an American screen actress from the 1920s to the 1960s. She played conventional heroines in such silent epics as Beau Brummell
(1924) and appeared as a femme fatale in Dodsworth (1936), Midnight (1939), The Great Lie (1941; Academy Award), and The Maltese Falcon (1941). _^<N__^<N_Leslie Halliwell _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Astor, Mary, My Story (1959); Elliott, Sumner
Locke, A Life on Film (1971).
-END-
-C-
721
CAT
-A-
Astor Place Riot
-T-
Astor Place Riot_^<N__^<N_The Astor Place Riot occurred in New York City on the night of May 10, 1849. It climaxed a longtime rivalry and feud between two famous actors: William MACREADY, a haughty English tragedian supported by New York's social
elite; and Edwin FORREST, the self-made and hot-tempered idol of the masses. As Macready was playing Shakespeare's Macbeth inside the fashionable Astor Place Opera House, rock-hurling b'hoys--Bowery toughs led by the notorious Ned BUNTLINE--stormed
the theater. A hundred policemen and militia tried to stop them and finally began firing. The riot resulted in 31 deaths. Those injured in the melee numbered 150. _^<N__^<N_Myron Matlaw _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Moody, Richard, The Astor Place Riot
(1958).
-END-
-C-
470
CAT
-A-
Astoria
-T-
Astoria_^<N__^<N_Astoria is a seaport city and the seat of Clatsop County in northwestern Oregon, situated on the Columbia River near its mouth. Fishing and lumbering are the most important local industries. About half the population of 10,069
(1990 census) is of Finnish descent. Astoria grew from a trading post established by John Jacob ASTOR's fur company in 1811. Nearby Fort Clatsop National Memorial marks the site of a LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION encampment (1805-06).
-END-
-C-
1460
CAT
-A-
Astrakhan
-T-
Astrakhan_^<N__^<N_{as'-trah-hahn} _^<N__^<N_Astrakhan is the capital of Astrakhan oblast, an administrative region of Russia. The city of Astrakhan is situated in the delta of the Volga River about 100 km (60 mi) from the northwest shore of the
Caspian Sea and has a population of 511,900 (1991 est.). One of Russia's largest inland ports, Astrakhan serves as a center for transshipments between the Volga's river vessels and the Caspian's seagoing ships. Because of the shallowness of the
northern Caspian Sea, large vessels in the Caspian must stop at an anchorage 200 km (125 mi) from Astrakhan, and the cargo then is transported through a dredged sea canal. The city is a major fishing port and the center of the Russian caviar
industry. The pelts of the karakul lamb of Central Asia, which used to be traded through the port, are called "Astrakhan" after the city. _^<N__^<N_Astrakhan became prominent around 1460 as the capital of one of the Tatar khanates (chiefdoms) that
emerged from the breakup of the GOLDEN HORDE. After its conquest by the Russians in 1554-56, it was transformed into a fortress, of which the kremlin, or citadel, survives. Astrakhan flourished as a trading center on the Volga water route to Asia
from the 16th to the 19th century. It lost significance with the coming of the railroad era, but it regained importance as a transportation center during the Soviet period when it was connected by rail with the Caucasus (1942) and with Kazakhstan
(1970).
-END-
-C-
658
CAT
-A-
astringent
-T-
astringent_^<N__^<N_Astringents are used medically to promote healing, reduce inflammation of mucous membranes, and arrest hemorrhaging by coagulating the blood. Astringents act by shrinking tissues and reducing the permeability (passage of gas or
liquid) of membranes. They may be used internally to diminish mucous secretion in a sore throat, check diarrhea, or reduce stomach acid secretion. Externally, they are used for conditions such as cold sores, poison ivy, or hemorrhoids. Metallic
salts, dilute acids, and strongly hypertonic solutions are common astringents. Tannic acid (tannin), a vegetable astringent, is used as a chemical antidote in poisoning.
-END-
-C-
39
CAT
-A-
astroarchaeology:
-T-
astroarchaeology:_^<N__^<N_see ARCHAEOASTRONOMY.
-END-
-C-
3640
CAT
-A-
astrochemistry
-T-
astrochemistry_^<N__^<N_Astrochemistry is a branch of astronomy that primarily deals with the origin and interaction of the chemical constituents of the universe. Most matter in the universe exists in atomic or subatomic form, and for many years
astronomy and chemistry were somewhat divorced, because chemistry is principally concerned with the larger, molecular forms of matter. Since 1963, however, astronomers have discovered an increasing number of molecules in the space between the
stars. _^<N__^<N_The gas that exists between the stars has a low density, on the average about 1 atom per cubic centimeter (cu cm). In the clouds or nebulas where the INTERSTELLAR MATTER tends to concentrate, the density can be 1,000 or more times
greater than the average, but this is still a more nearly perfect vacuum than any that can be produced in a laboratory. At these tenuous concentrations, atoms only rarely collide with one another, and molecules do not have much chance to be
formed. _^<N__^<N_It is believed that the molecules form on the surfaces of interstellar dust grains. Within nebulas that have densities much larger than average, atoms occasionally collide with grains and adhere to the surfaces. On the grains
they can react with atoms to form molecules; if the molecules can then be jarred loose from the grains by absorbing energy, such as the energy derived from formation of the molecules themselves, or the energy of further collisions, interstellar
molecules are formed. _^<N__^<N_Hot stars emit large amounts of high-energy ultraviolet radiation that can tear apart the molecules, but high-density nebulae protect the molecules once they have formed. Within dense nebulae, the dust grains and
molecules shield the inner regions from destructive radiation. _^<N__^<N_Interstellar molecules are detected by RADIO ASTRONOMY, in most cases by analysis of emission rather than absorption spectra. (An exception is the hydrogen molecule (H(2)),
which is not observable at radio wavelengths.) Each molecule produces a characteristic spectrum as it first absorbs and then radiates energy. The emitted energy is of the order of a few millimeters in wavelength and is associated with a molecule's
rotation. Carbon monoxide (CO) and the hydroxal radical (OH) are the most numerous molecules detected by radio telescopes. _^<N__^<N_More than 60 interstellar molecules (not including isotopic variations) have been detected to date, including
Cyanodecapentyne (HC(4)N) is the largest one yet detected. The polymeric form of formaldehyde was detected in the dust cloud surrounding Halley's comet in 1986, and the existence of longer interstellar polymer chains is probable. _^<N__^<N_The
field of astrochemistry contributes an understanding of conditions found in interstellar space. Some astrochemists speculate that the existence of varied forms of organic molecules in space has interesting implications for life in the universe.
With the present level of understanding, it is reasonable to assume that, given the proper chemical substances, the appropriate physical conditions, and a long enough period of time, life will automatically develop through natural chemical
reactions. Some of the molecules observed in space could initiate the early steps in the development of life. _^<N__^<N_T. L. Swihart _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Herbst, E., et al., Organic Geo- and Cosmochemistry (1987); Ponnamperuma, Cyril, ed.,
Cosmochemistry and the Origin of Life (1983).
-END-
-C-
39
CAT
-A-
astrodynamics:
-T-
astrodynamics:_^<N__^<N_see CELESTIAL MECHANICS.
-END-
-C-
887
CAT
-A-
astrogeology
-T-
astrogeology_^<N__^<N_Astrogeology applies principles of geology, geochemistry, and geophysics in the study of extraterrestrial solid matter (planets, moons, asteroids, comets, and so on). Specific techniques include remote-sensing observation by
satellite or from Earth and the landing of men or instrument packages on other planetary bodies such as the Moon or Mars. Astrogeologists also study extraterrestrial objects found on Earth, such as meteorites, and terrestrial objects or geologic
structures created by meteorite impact, such as tektites, METEORITE CRATERS, and astroblemes (ancient impact scars). The science is largely an outgrowth of the exploration of the solar system over the past two decades. _^<N__^<N_Robert S. Dietz
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Glass, Billy P., Introduction to Planetary Geology (1982); Mutch, Thomas A., Geology of the Moon (1970); Short, Nicholas M., Planetary Geology (1975).
-END-
-C-
2036
CAT
-A-
astrolabe
-T-
astrolabe_^<N__^<N_{as'-troh-layb} _^<N__^<N_The planispheric astrolabe was the most important instrument used by astronomers and navigators from medieval times through the 16th century. It was used at least as early as the 1st century BC by the
Greeks. The word derives from astro ("star") and labio ("finder"). The function of the astrolabe was to measure the altitudes of celestial bodies, from which time and the observer's latitude could be determined. The measurement of the altitude
of the North Star yields the latitude and the altitude of the Sun and stars yields the time. _^<N__^<N_The astrolabe consists of two flat circular discs, usually made of brass, and ranging from about 7.5 to 25 cm (3 to 10 in) in diameter. One
disc, known as the rete, is a star map on which the bright stars are indicated by named pointers and the path of the Sun and planets is shown. The other disc, known as the tympan, is engraved to show the zenith, the horizon, and the lines of
altitude and azimuth for a specific latitude. Both discs are held by a hollow body, with a scale of hours engraved on the rim. _^<N__^<N_The back of the astrolabe is used to make the observations required. A circle of degrees is engraved around
the edge and is used to measure the altitude of the Sun or star with the aid of the alidade, or sighting bar. The astrolabe is held in a vertical position by a ring, and the altitude of a star is measured with the alidade. Then the rete is turned
until the proper star point is over the indicated altitude line on the tympan. The altitude and azimuth of the stars above the horizon can then be read. The astrolabe was superseded by the SEXTANT in the 18th century. _^<N__^<N_R. S. Webster
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Gunther, Robert T., Astrolabes of the World, 2 vols. (1932; repr. 1987); Jenkin, C. F., The Astrolabe: Its Construction and Use (1925); North, John D., "The Astrolabe," in Scientific American, January 1974; Price,
Derek J. de Solla, "Precision Instruments to 1500," in A History of Technology, vol. 3, ed. by Charles Singer et al. (1957).
-END-
-C-
1235
CAT
-A-
astrolabe, prismatic
-T-
astrolabe, prismatic_^<N__^<N_The prismatic astrolabe is an optical instrument used to determine the moment at which a star has a particular altitude, usually 60 deg. It is used by surveyors and navigators to determine position in latitude and
longitude or to determine time. It consists of a telescope through which two images of the star are seen. One image is received directly through a prism, and the other is reflected from a level mercury surface through the prism. _^<N__^<N_The
instrument is leveled and pointed in the direction of a star that is about to cross the predetermined altitude. It is constructed so that the two images coincide when the line of sight to the star is at the appropriate angle above a horizontal
line. By using tables that relate time and the positions of certain stars, the observer can determine his or her location if the correct time of crossing is known, or he or she can determine the correct time if his or her location is known.
_^<N__^<N_Because of the adjustment errors and the limitations of the human eye, the ordinary astrolabe is not accurate enough for use as a time standard. A modification developed by Andre Danjon of the Paris Observatory improves the accuracy
sufficiently for this purpose. _^<N__^<N_Charles A. Herubin
-END-
-C-
6397
CATO
4807
-A-
astrology
-O-
000000|astrology
000809| History
001752| Principles
004571| Validity
-T-
astrology_^<N__^<N_Astrology is the use of astronomical phenomena to predict earthly and human events, in terms of an assumed theoretical system. In its earliest form astrology consisted of simple omens that astrologers read from the sky. In its
mature form astrology analyzes the supposed effects of the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars on the Earth for a specific time and place. Although historically the meanings of the terms astronomy and astrology sometimes overlapped, astronomy has been
concerned only with determining the positions and physical properties of celestial bodies. Natural astrology, on the other hand, assumed that a generalized celestial influence affected weather, crops, and other phenomena related to whole nations of
people; judicial astrology made specific predictions about the future of individuals. _^<N__^<N_ History_^<N__^<N_Astrology originated in ancient Babylonia and spread from there to China, India, and the West, where different but related traditions
grew up. The earliest known horoscope incorporating the principles of mature astrology dates from 409 BC. In the 2d century AD the astronomer Claudius PTOLEMY prefaced his Tetrabiblos with a defense of astrology that proved influential. After the
fall of the Roman Empire, astrology declined in the Latin west but flourished in the hands of the conquerors of the Eastern Empire. _^<N__^<N_In the 12th century astrology began to prosper in Western Europe. By the end of the 17th century, however,
astrology was considered a pseudoscience by almost all learned people. Not only was it opposed to the Christian doctrines of divine intervention and human free will, but also the acceptance of a greatly-expanded, Sun-centered universe raised doubt
about whether the heavens were created to direct changes on Earth. _^<N__^<N_ Principles_^<N__^<N_In addition to the purported effects of planets on the weather, body types, and personality, astrology also has to take into account the new
relationships continually being set up among celestial bodies. To do this it uses the 12 signs of the ZODIAC. Aspects are special angles that allow for a discontinuity in astrological influences. For example, there is supposed to be an effect when
two planets are 60 degrees apart, but then relatively little effect until a separation of 90 degrees occurs. Ptolemaic astrology recognized four aspects: 180 degrees, 120 degrees, 90 degrees, and 60 degrees. More were added by Johannes KEPLER and
other astronomers. _^<N__^<N_The astrological column in a newspaper today is generally based on the sign of the zodiac in which the Sun was located when a person was born. A simplified form of astrology, it implies that all people born under the
same sign anywhere in the world at any time share common characteristics and that their daily activities should be so guided. A more individual analysis is possible when casting a horoscope by noting the relationships of the Sun, Moon, planets, and
signs of the zodiac to the time and place of one's birth. _^<N__^<N_Starting with the ascendant, the ecliptic is usually divided into 12 divisions called houses. Unlike the zodiacal signs, which represent the annual cycle of the Sun, the heavens
rotate behind the imaginary grid of houses once every 24 hours (reflecting the Earth's daily rotation), and in a unique manner for every place on Earth. Each of the 12 houses is significant for some phase of human existence. The astrological
judgment is rendered by examining what celestial bodies fall into which houses. Only individuals born at the same place and at the same time would have exactly the same astrological inheritance. Horoscopes can be cast on numerous occasions to
decide the fate of both nations and individuals. Most familiar is the casting of a horoscope based on the conception or birth of a child, the so-called nativity. _^<N__^<N_From a horoscope the astrologer may determine, through a technique known as
directing, when a predicted event will befall the subject. In all methods of directing a point on the ecliptic is chosen, and an arc related to it is used to give a time span; for example, one degree of arc may be taken to equal one year of life.
Through the technique of election an astrologer counsels an individual on the choice of propitious moments. The election is usually related in some way to the person's nativity. Even without knowing his or her nativity, a person could supposedly
come to some understanding of the effect of the heavens on his or her life through horary questions. For example, a horoscope is cast at a time when a pressing question arises, such as whether a business enterprise will be successful. _^<N__^<N_
Validity_^<N__^<N_For centuries critics have attacked astrology on scientific grounds, questioning the means by which celestial influences could occur, and on moral grounds, since many view humans as creatures of free will. (With popular
astrological columns there is also the problem that, due to the Earth's PRECESSION, the signs of the zodiac no longer correspond with their purported times of year.) On their side, astrologers, past and present, have often sought to imply that
empirical evidence establishes the existence of heavenly influences and have held that erroneous predictions could be attributed to the complexity of the study. Some practitioners have even thought that astrological theories should be modified.
_^<N__^<N_Although astrology has persisted to the present day, enjoying greater popularity in some countries than in others, it has never attracted more than an occasional scientist to its ranks since the 17th century. Periods of resurgence may
correspond with times of uncertainty, especially when science and technology seem unable to provide acceptable solutions to pressing problems and when many people seem to seek a more mystical and spiritual mode of understanding the world. Many
contemporary works of astrology use the terminology of recent psychological theories. _^<N__^<N_Mary Ellen Bowden _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Culver, R., and Ianna, P., Astrology: True or False?, rev. ed. (1988); Curry, P., Prophecy and Power (1990);
Curry, P., ed., Astrology, Science, and Society (1984); Gettings, F., The Arkana Dictionary of Astrology (1991); Kibre, P., Studies in Medieval Science (1983); Tester, S., A History of Western Astrology (1987; repr. 1990); Thierens, A., Astrology
in Mesopotamian Culture (1977); Thorndike, L., History of Magic and Experimental Science, rev. ed. (1958); Tucker, W., Ptolemaic Astrology (1962).
-END-
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4266
CAT
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astrometry
-T-
astrometry_^<N__^<N_Astrometry, also called positional astronomy, is the branch of astronomy that deals with determining the positions and motions of celestial bodies. This science is also concerned with measuring other quantities, such as the
diameter and polar flattening of the Sun and planets, and determining the orbits of double-star components (see BINARY STARS). _^<N__^<N_Astrometry is one of the oldest branches of astronomy. In ancient times the altitude of celestial bodies was
determined by the gnomon, the JACOB'S STAFF, the QUADRANT, and the ARMILLARY SPHERE. The accuracy obtained with the best of these instruments was within 2 minutes of ARC. The invention in the 17th century of the MICROMETER, TELESCOPE, TRANSIT, and
pendulum clock improved the accuracy of these measurements immensely. After the discovery in the 18th century that, aside from PARALLAX, the stars had their own motion, known as PROPER MOTION, the determination of their positions and the
measurement of stellar parallaxes caused by the Earth's motion around the Sun became the major objects of astrometry. _^<N__^<N_The position of a celestial object can be given by two coordinates, and either of two pairs of coordinates can be used.
The first pair, the ALTITUDE and the AZIMUTH, are related to the terrestrial horizon and are dependent on the time and place of observation. For this reason the second pair, RIGHT ASCENSION and DECLINATION, are more frequently used (see CELESTIAL
SPHERE; COORDINATE SYSTEMS in astronomy). _^<N__^<N_Two methods for determining the position of stars are used in astrometry. In the absolute method, the coordinates of a star are measured independently of those of any other star, usually by
reading the altitude on the transit circle and timing the transit of the star. The absolute system has many disadvantages. Only a small number of stars can be positioned, because the process is time-consuming and can only be used for stars visible
in the transit instrument. In addition, measurements taken with a transit instrument are affected by parallax, the small wobbles of the Earth known as PRECESSION and NUTATION, and the proper motion of the Sun. The second method, that of relative
determination, is called the differential method. In this method the coordinates of the star whose position is sought are determined by comparing its position to the positions of other stars, called fundamental stars. The coordinates of those
stars, which are distributed over the whole celestial sphere, have been determined with high precision, corrected for precession, nutation, and the proper motion of the Sun, and tabulated in fundamental catalogs. A position micrometer or a
heliometer is used to measure the angular distances between two stars within the field of a telescope. _^<N__^<N_Today, instead of visual observation, a photographic method is predominantly used. Stars being measured are photographed with
fundamental stars, and the necessary measurements are made on the photographic plate itself. Two types of telescopes are used: telescopes with short focuses are used for faint stars; long-focus telescopes, developed for this purpose, are used for
high-precision measurements of such phenomena as parallax and the orbits of double-star components. Long-focus astrometry can also detect disturbances in the proper motion of stars, for example, BARNARD'S STAR, caused by invisible companions. This
technique can exceed an accuracy of 0.01 second of arc. _^<N__^<N_Despite such achievements as these, the fact that all objects in the sky are in motion necessitates the periodic revision of fundamental catalogs. In addition, parallaxes at present
can be established only out to a distance of about 3,000 light-years. Beyond that distance, the motions and distances of celestial objects are estimated only in terms of various astrophysical assumptions (see DISTANCE, ASTRONOMICAL). Radio and,
increasingly, optical INTERFEROMETRY are used to establish the positions in the sky of very distant objects. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Budding, Edwin, Introduction to Astronomical Photometry (1993); Mueller, I. I., and Kolaczek, Barbara, eds.,
Developments in Astrometry and Their Impact on Astrophysics and Geodynamics (1993); Van de Kamp, Peter, Stellar Paths (1981). _^<N__^<N_See also: ASTRONOMICAL CATALOGS AND ATLASES; TIME.
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2517
CAT
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astronaut
-T-
astronaut_^<N__^<N_An astronaut, or cosmonaut in Russian usage, is a person trained for flight beyond the Earth's atmosphere. (The U.S. Department of Defense also awards astronaut wings to test pilots who fly aircraft higher than 80 km/50 mi above
the Earth.) From Apr. 9, 1959, when the first 7 U.S. astronauts were presented at a press conference in Washington, D.C., through the pre-Space Shuttle era, a total of 73 men were selected by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA). Of these, 43 flew in the MERCURY, GEMINI, APOLLO, and SKYLAB programs. In 1978, 35 new candidates were selected for the SPACE SHUTTLE program, including 6 women. Thereafter, new candidates were recruited annually. _^<N__^<N_At President
Eisenhower's recommendation, the original "Mercury seven" astronauts were selected from the military services. Only qualified test pilots with at least 1,500 hours of flight time were considered. Of the 508 men whose service records were screened,
18 were recommended and 7 were selected. A second group of 9 astronauts was selected in September 1962. All were test pilots, but only 7 were from the military services. A third group of 14 military and civilian test pilots was selected in October
1963. In June 1965, a group of 6 scientists was selected. Only one--Harrison H. Schmitt, a geologist--flew to the Moon. Three others orbited in Skylab, the space laboratory. A fifth group of 19 more test pilots was named in April 1966 and a sixth
group of 11 scientists in August 1967. A seventh group of 7 astronauts was transferred to NASA in August 1969 from the U.S. Air Force after its Manned Orbiting Laboratory program was halted. _^<N__^<N_The former Soviet Union's corps of cosmonauts
was selected on a similar basis and at about the same time as the Mercury astronauts, but women were incorporated earlier in the Soviet program. The total number of cosmonauts roughly equaled that of astronauts in 1970 and has been higher since
then. In more recent missions, cosmonauts from other nations have been included. _^<N__^<N_Richard S. Lewis _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Aldrin, B., and McConnell, M., Men from Earth (1989; repr. 1991); Burdett, G., and Soffer, G., eds., The Human Quest
in Space (1987); Cassat, M., Who's Who in Space (1987); Clark, P., The Soviet Manned Space Program (1988); Collins, M., Liftoff (1988); Hooper, G., The Soviet Cosmonaut Team (1990); Pogue, W., Astronaut Primer (1986). _^<N__^<N_See also: SPACE
EXPLORATION; SPACE MEDICINE; SPACE PROGRAMS, NATIONAL; separate entries on many of the astronauts and cosmonauts.
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10299
CATO
4781
9573
-A-
astronautics
-O-
000000|astronautics
002336| PRINCIPLES OF ASTRODYNAMICS
003564| APPLICATIONS TO SPACEFLIGHT
004539| Launch
005965| Orbital Maneuvers
007587| Rendezvous and Docking
008398| Reentry
009073| Midcourse Correction
-T-
astronautics_^<N__^<N_Astronautics is that area of engineering and technology concerned with spaceflight. The discipline encompasses several technical fields, including astrodynamics, propulsion, structures, power supplies, thermal control, and
communications. Astrodynamics, the study of spacecraft motion through force fields in space, is the cornerstone of astronautics. _^<N__^<N_A distinction is made between CELESTIAL MECHANICS and astrodynamics. The former is associated with the
natural motion of celestial bodies; the latter refers to the controlled motion of spacecraft. Astronautics may essentially be said to have its origins in the theoretical works of Konstantin TSIOLKOVSKY at the start of the 20th century (see SPACE
EXPLORATION). The knowledge of celestial mechanics preceded the development of astrodynamics by several hundred years. The Copernican theory of heliocentric (Sun-oriented) motion opened the way for more exact and proper theories of planetary
motion, which would have to be based on accurate observations of celestial bodies. Tycho BRAHE, the great Danish astronomer, accomplished this in the late 16th century by studying the motion of Mars. _^<N__^<N_At the beginning of the 17th century,
the German astronomer and mathematician Johannes KEPLER developed the first general empirical laws of planetary motion. During the latter half of that century Sir Isaac NEWTON created the field of celestial mechanics. In doing this he proved that
KEPLER'S LAWS were a necessary consequence of his own laws of gravitation and mechanics. _^<N__^<N_Basic differences also exist between astronautics and aeronautics, the flight of spacecraft as opposed to that of aircraft. An airplane uses
AERODYNAMIC forces (those resulting from the action and reaction associated with air movement) for its flight and the control of flight. The pilot implements this control through cockpit devices that change the orientation of deflecting surfaces
about the craft. He or she can use visual and instrument cues to tell him when to make altitude and flight-path corrections. An astronaut uses propulsive or internally caused torques to control orientation. Having no horizon or magnetic compass,
the astronaut relies on GYROSCOPES and special sensors to make changes in attitude. A spacecraft flies because of a balance between gravitational and centrifugal forces. _^<N__^<N_ PRINCIPLES OF ASTRODYNAMICS_^<N__^<N_The few physical principles
underlying the study of spacecraft motion are elementary in their basic form. Sir Isaac NEWTON first formalized the physical LAWS OF MOTION that determine the motion of a spacecraft: (1) Any body continues in a state of rest, or of constant
velocity in a straight line, unless acted upon by external forces. (2) The rate of change of linear momentum of a body is equal to the external force applied. For a body of constant mass, forces are balanced by accelerations. (3) To every action
there is an equal and opposite reaction. To these laws Newton added the law of gravitational attraction: any two masses attract each other with a force proportional to the product of the masses and inversely proportional to the square of their
separation distance. _^<N__^<N_Johannes Kepler provided the empirical laws that describe planetary motion and allowed a test of Newton's laws. KEPLER'S LAWS are the following: (1) The orbit of each planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one focus.
(2) The radius vector joining Sun to planet sweeps over equal areas in equal intervals of time. (3) The square of the planetary periods is proportional to the cube of the mean distance to the Sun. _^<N__^<N_ APPLICATIONS TO
SPACEFLIGHT_^<N__^<N_Spacecraft can follow four different types of flight paths in space. One of these, the elliptical orbit, corresponds to natural planetary motion. The other three are the circular orbit, parabolic trajectory, and hyperbolic
trajectory. All four are known as CONIC SECTIONS because they are curves generated by passing a plane through a cone at varying angles. Circular and elliptical orbits are closed and periodic flight paths. All orbits of Earth satellites fall into
one of these two categories. The parabolic trajectory is the escape path, and the associated velocity along this route is the ESCAPE VELOCITY. The velocity along a hyperbolic trajectory is always greater than the escape velocity at the same
point. In contrast to the parabolic trajectory, a hyperbolic path leaves the spacecraft with some extra velocity after escaping the planet. Planetary probes follow these trajectories when leaving Earth's gravitational influence. _^<N__^<N_
Launch_^<N__^<N_Two main launch sites are currently used by the United States, one at the KENNEDY SPACE CENTER in Florida and the other at VANDENBERG AIR FORCE BASE in California. East Coast launches are generally for spacecraft going into
low-inclination orbits. (Inclination is simply the angular deviation of the orbit of the spacecraft from the plane of the Earth's equator.) Launches from Kennedy Space Center can place payloads directly into orbits with inclinations between 28.5
deg and 57 deg. Vandenberg is used for higher inclination orbits. For example, a typical SPACE SHUTTLE launch from Florida begins with the ignition of the three shuttle main engines on the orbiter, which are supplied with propellant from the large
external tank. As soon as these engines reach 90 percent of their power, the two solid propellant rocket boosters are ignited and the hold-down clamps are released for launch. The solid boosters burn for about two minutes before being jettisoned,
and after about six and a half minutes the main engines shut down and the external tank is jettisoned. Small maneuvering engines on the orbiter impart the final thrust needed to achieve orbit. Typically, the initial space shuttle orbit is
circular, at an altitude of between 180 and 300 km (112 to 186 mi). Payloads are released at this altitude but can achieve higher orbits through the use of their own power sources (see ROCKETS AND MISSILES). _^<N__^<N_ Orbital
Maneuvers_^<N__^<N_There are generally two categories of orbital maneuvers of interest during spaceflights. The more common one is raising the altitude of a circular orbit. The other maneuver is changing the orbital inclination. Many times the
two can be done in combination. To raise the radius of a circular orbit, at least two separate thrusting intervals are required. For most such maneuvers, two such thrusts are optimum if applied properly. This maneuver, called a Hohmann transfer,
consists of simply increasing the orbital velocity at one point, waiting exactly one-half the transfer orbit period, and then increasing the orbital velocity again. The magnitude of the first increase inserts the spacecraft into a transfer orbit
whose apogee just reaches the final desired altitude. When that point is reached, the second increase inserts the vehicle into the desired circular orbit. _^<N__^<N_Most communications satellites are placed in geostationary orbits, or orbits in
the equatorial plane with a period precisely equal to that of the Earth about the poles. Thus, a satellite in such an orbit would appear stationary over one point on the equator. Geostationary orbits have a radius of 35,880 km (22,300 mi).
Communication satellites are sometimes released into space from a Space Shuttle. In such cases the latitude of the Kennedy Space Center Launch site corresponds to the minimum inclination directly reachable by the Shuttle boosters. The satellites
are therefore first placed in low parking orbits at an inclination of 28.5 deg. A combination Hohmann transfer and inclination change is then required. _^<N__^<N_ Rendezvous and Docking_^<N__^<N_Many missions involve the rendezvous and docking of
two spacecraft. Such maneuvers were demonstrated in the APOLLO PROGRAM. Specifically, the return of the LUNAR EXCURSION MODULE to lunar orbit and its rendezvous and docking with the Command and Service Module was essential to the success of the
Apollo missions to the Moon. The general method of mating two spacecraft involves a sequence of maneuvering phases. Initially, the chase vehicle is launched into an orbit quite close to that of the target. Once in the vicinity, special rendezvous
maneuvers are carried out, using small thrusts over a period of several minutes. Two close spacecraft will tend to drift around each other or to drift apart. Careful application of thrust is required to bring them together for a docking.
_^<N__^<N_ Reentry_^<N__^<N_As a mission in orbit ends, a spacecraft may simply be shut off, or it may be brought back to Earth. All manned flights, obviously, must end with a return through the atmosphere. This is initiated by slowing the
vehicle velocity slightly through the use of retrofiring. A shallow descent is then begun into the upper atmospheric limits. Passage through the upper atmosphere is spread along several thousand kilometers to minimize heat buildup in the
spacecraft's thermal protection system. Once the vehicle has slowed, landing can be achieved by parachute deployment or, in the case of vehicles such as the Shuttle, by an unpowered gliding descent to a landing. _^<N__^<N_ Midcourse
Correction_^<N__^<N_Many space missions involve planetary probes that leave a low parking orbit on a hyperbolic trajectory away from Earth. As the spacecraft speeds away, the gravitational attraction diminishes. The pull of the Sun, however,
quickly becomes a dominant force in the flight. Thus, the probe enters an orbit about the Sun in which it travels until it approaches the target planet. Gravitational forces of the planet on the probe get stronger as the vehicle gets closer.
Finally, they become dominant over solar pull. The probe will either crash on or fly by the planet, depending on small adjustments in its flight path. Such minute changes are called midcourse corrections. _^<N__^<N_M. H. Kaplan
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Angelo, Joseph, The Dictionary of Space Technology (1982); Berman, A. I., The Physical Principles of Astronautics (1961); Gatland, Kenneth, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Space Technology (1981); Lusis, Andy, Astronomy
and Astronautics: An Enthusiast's Guide to Books and Periodicals (1986); McDougal, Walter, The Heavens and the Earth (1986); Pardoe, G. K., The Future for Space Technology (1984). _^<N__^<N_See also: GUIDANCE AND CONTROL SYSTEMS; SATELLITE,
ARTIFICIAL; SPACE EXPLORATION.
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7353
CATO
4783
-A-
astronomical catalogs and atlases
-O-
000000|astronomical catalogs and atlases
001204| Early Catalogs and Atlases
004065| Modern Catalogs and Atlases
-T-
astronomical catalogs and atlases_^<N__^<N_An astronomical catalog is a tabular compilation of data about selected celestial objects, whereas an astronomical atlas includes charts or photographs of these objects. Catalogs may be divided into three
major categories: finding lists, positional catalogs, and specialized catalogs. The finding lists contain designations, positions, and brightnesses for the majority of the objects referred to by stellar astronomers. The positional catalogs
include differential, fundamental, and absolute catalogs in increasing order of positional accuracy (see ASTROMETRY). These compilations serve as the reference frame against which the relative motions of the stars can be measured. Specialized
catalogs may contain lists of objects having certain characteristics that must be continually updated, such as variability in brightness or strong radio emission. _^<N__^<N_Atlases can be of two kinds: those containing commentary, catalogs, and
charts, and those that are photographic surveys. Catalogs and atlases are both essential day-to-day working tools of the astronomer and valuable historical records. In cataloging, each star is assigned a numerical designation; thus a universal
reference system is created. _^<N__^<N_ Early Catalogs and Atlases_^<N__^<N_HIPPARCHUS of Rhodes is credited with the compilation of the first star catalog in 150 BC; it contained approximately 850 entries. About 127 AD, PTOLEMY of Alexandria
prepared a catalog of 1,022 stars, listing their brightnesses and positions. During the Middle Ages, Moslem astronomers prepared numerous catalogs and planetary tables. As European navigators set out to explore other continents, the need for
accurate almanacs and stellar maps increased. In the 15th century the first modern almanac, giving the positions of various celestial objects as a function of the day of the year, was published. _^<N__^<N_In 1603, Johann Bayer codified the
existing constellations in the Uranometria, an atlas that depicted the naked-eye stars in baroque drawings of the constellations. It provided the basis for the present constellation boundaries. A complementary atlas, the Historia coelestis
(History of the Heavens), was produced in 1729 by John FLAMSTEED, the first astronomer royal of England. A few of the brighter stars are still referred to by either their Bayer or their Flamsteed designations. _^<N__^<N_The Messier catalog of
diffuse objects (1771-84), compiled by the French astronomer Charles MESSIER, cataloged numerous diffuse objects, now known to be star clusters, galaxies, and nebulae. Many of Messier's objects are still commonly referred to by their Messier
number ("M" followed by the number in Messier's catalog). _^<N__^<N_One of the most useful sets of stellar catalogs and charts ever prepared is the Bonner Durchmusterung (Bonn Finding List, 1859-62), abbreviated BD. Compiled by Friedrich
ARGELANDER at the Bonn Observatory, it contains relatively accurate brightnesses and positions for about 320,000 stars, which were directly observed. Each star was plotted on the charts, with its size made proportional to its observed brightness.
A southern extension to the BD was issued in 1886 by E. Schonfeld, bringing the total number of entries in the catalog to 457,847. Because it contains so many stars and is largely accurate, it is still used by astronomers to prepare finding charts
for their observational programs. Southern Hemisphere astronomers have compiled finding lists, Cordoba Durchmusterung (CD) and Cape Photographic Durchmusterung (CPD), to cover those parts of the sky not incorporated in the BD. _^<N__^<N_An
ambitious program to map the entire sky was proposed in the late 1880s by the then director of the Paris Observatory. Called the Carte du Ciel, it was initiated at an organizational meeting in Paris in 1887 attended by representatives of 18
observatories around the world. The work began in 1891 but was interrupted by World War I and was never wholly completed. The Carte du Ciel maps and catalogs remain a major resource, however, and the program served as a model for future global
scientific collaboration. _^<N__^<N_ Modern Catalogs and Atlases_^<N__^<N_Modern catalogs and atlases may contain information on positions, distances, brightnesses, spectra, motions, variability, and other characteristics of celestial objects. They
range from the general to the specific. The Yale Catalog of Bright Stars, compiled by Dorrit Hoffleit, contains a wide variety of information on the 9,110 naked-eye stars in the sky, and Halton Arp's Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies is devoted to the
examination of a few hundred galaxies having odd structural characteristics. _^<N__^<N_The Henry Draper Catalogue (HD) of stellar spectra is an example of a catalog compiled to gain greater insight into the characteristics of a particular group of
objects. Begun in 1886 as a memorial to the American spectroscopist Henry DRAPER, the catalog was continually added to until, on completion in 1949, it contained 359,082 stars, giving brightnesses, spectral classes, and approximate positions (see
HARVARD CLASSIFICATION OF STARS). _^<N__^<N_The New General Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters of Stars (NGC) and two supplemental Index Catalogues (IC) were published between 1888 and 1908 by J. L. E. DREYER as a revision and enlargement of an
earlier catalog by John Herschel. The NGC and IC catalogs contain more than 13,000 objects. Bright galaxies are known by NGC numbers. _^<N__^<N_The Franklin-Adams Charts (1914) was the first photographic atlas that covered the entire sky. An
atlas much used at present is the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY-PALOMAR OBSERVATORY SKY SURVEY, covering two-thirds of the sky and consisting of plates taken in the blue and red region of the spectrum down to about magnitude 20. By means of
supercomputers and laser readers, a catalog is being developed of the objects that appear on these plates. Also under way is a deeper survey of northern skies, and a comparable Southern Hemisphere sky survey is being developed by astronomers in
Chile and Australia. _^<N__^<N_The most recent major photographic catalog of the skies of the Northern Hemisphere to be completed is the third Astronomische Gesellschaft Katalog (AGK3), which has positions and proper motions of 180,000 stars.
Astronomers in the future will rely more and more on computerized databases for their catalogs. The goal is to have a complete, current computer catalog that, on request, will furnish the astronomer with all the existing data on any particular star
or group of stars. _^<N__^<N_Cynthia E. Irvine _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Audouze, J., Israel, G., eds., The Cambridge Atlas of Astronomy (1985); Becvar, Antonin, Atlas of the Heavens, Atlas Coeli (1962) and Skalnate Pleso Atlas of the Heavens
(1976); De Vaucouleurs, Gerard, Reference Catalogue of Bright Galaxies (1964) and Second Reference Catalogue of Bright Galaxies (1976); Eichhorn, Heinrich, Astronomy of Star Positions: A Critical Investigation of Star Catalogues, the Methods of
Their Construction, and Their Purpose (1974); Henry, R.C., et al., Atlas of the Ultraviolet Sky (1988); Hirschfield, Alan, and Sinnott, Roger, Sky Catalogue 2000.0, 2 vols. (1982); Norton, Arthur P., Norton's Star Atlas and Reference Handbook,
17th ed. (1986); Sandage, Allan, The Hubble Atlas of Galaxies (1961; repr. 1984). Warner, D. J., The Sky Explored: Celestial Cartography, 1500-1800 (1979).
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CAT
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astronomical unit
-T-
astronomical unit_^<N__^<N_The astronomical unit, used for measuring distances in astronomy, especially in the solar system, equals the mean distance between the Earth and the Sun. The abbreviation AU is used for this unit in English; the
International Astronomical Union has adopted the value 1 AU = 149,600,000 km (92,956,000 mi). _^<N__^<N_See also: DISTANCE.
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23076
CATO
4804
9664
14477
19310
-A-
astronomy, history of
-O-
000000|astronomy, history of
000454| MOTIONS OF SUN, MOON, AND PLANETS
003350| Babylonian Tables
004371| Greek Spheres and Circles
008791| Keplerian Ellipses and Newtonian Gravitation
011359| PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CELESTIAL BODIES
012179| Moon and Planets
014707| Sun and Stars
015969| COSMOLOGY: THE STRUCTURE OF THE UNIVERSE
017645| The Galaxy
020896| Other Galaxies
-T-
astronomy, history of_^<N__^<N_The history of astronomy comprises three broadly defined areas that have characterized the science of the heavens since its beginnings. With varying degrees of emphasis among particular civilizations and during
particular historical periods, astronomers have sought to understand the motions of celestial bodies, to determine their physical characteristics, and to study the size and structure of the universe. The latter study is known as COSMOLOGY.
_^<N__^<N_ MOTIONS OF SUN, MOON, AND PLANETS_^<N__^<N_From the dawn of civilization until the time of Copernicus, astronomy was dominated by the study of the motions of celestial bodies. Such work was essential for ASTROLOGY, for the determination
of the CALENDAR, and for the prediction of ECLIPSES, and it was also fueled by the desire to reduce irregularity to order and to predict positions of celestial bodies with ever-increasing accuracy. The connection between the calendar and the
motions of the celestial bodies is especially important, because it meant that astronomy was essential to determining the times for the most basic functions of early societies, including the planting and harvesting of crops and the celebration of
religious feasts. _^<N__^<N_The celestial phenomena observed by the ancients were the same as those of today. The Sun progressed steadily westward in the course of a day, and the stars and the five visible planets did the same at night. The Sun
could be observed at sunset to have moved eastward about one degree a day against the background of the stars, until in the course of a year it had completely traversed the 360 degree path of constellations that came to be known as the ZODIAC. The
planets generally also moved eastward along the zodiac, with 8 degrees of the Sun's apparent annual path (the ecliptic), but at times they made puzzling reversals in the sky before resuming their normal eastward motion. By comparison, the Moon
moved across the ecliptic in about 27 1/3 days and went through several phases. The earliest civilizations did not realize that these phenomena were in part a product of the motion of the Earth itself; they merely wanted to predict the apparent
motions of the celestial bodies. _^<N__^<N_Although the Egyptians must have been familiar with these general phenomena, their systematic study of celestial motions was limited to the connection of the flooding of the Nile with the first visible
rising of the star Sirius. An early attempt to develop a calendar based on the Moon's phases was abandoned at too complex, and as a result astronomy played a lesser role in Egyptian civilization than it otherwise might have. Similarly, the Chinese
did not systematically attempt to determine celestial motions. Surprising evidence of a more substantial interest in astronomy is found the presence of ancient STONE ALIGNMENTS and STONE CIRCLES found throughout Europe and Great Britain, the most
notable of which is STONEHENGE in England. As early as 3000 BC, the collection of massive stones at Stonehenge functioned as an ancient observatory, where priests followed the annual motion of the Sun each morning along the horizon in order to
determine the beginning of the seasons. By about 2500 BC, Stonehenge may have been used to predict eclipses of the Moon. Not until 1000 AD were similar activities undertaken by New World cultures (see ARCHAEOASTRONOMY). _^<N__^<N_ Babylonian
Tables_^<N__^<N_Astronomy reached its first great heights among the Babylonians. In the period from about 1800 to 400 BC, the Babylonians developed a calendar based on the motion of the Sun and the phases of the Moon. During the 400 years that
followed, they focused their attention on the prediction of the precise time the new crescent Moon first became visible and defined the beginning of the month according to this event. Cuneiform tablets deciphered only within the last century
demonstrate that the Babylonians solved the problem within an accuracy of a few minutes of time; this was achieved by compiling precise observational tables that revealed smaller variations in the velocity of the Sun and of the Moon than ever
before measured. These variations--and others such as changes in the Moon's latitude--were analyzed numerically by noting how the variations fluctuated with time in a regular way. They used the same numerical method, utilizing the same
variations, to predict lunar and solar eclipses. _^<N__^<N_ Greek Spheres and Circles_^<N__^<N_The Greeks used a geometrical rather than a numerical approach to understand the same celestial motions. Influenced by Plato's metaphysical concept of
the perfection of circular motion, the Greeks sought to represent the motion of the divine celestial bodies by using spheres and circles. This explanatory method was not upset until KEPLER replaced the circle with the ellipse in 1609.
_^<N__^<N_Plato's student EUDOXUS OF CNIDUS, c.408-c.355 BC, was the first to offer a solution along these lines. He assumed that each planet is attached to one of a group of connected concentric spheres centered on the Earth, and that each planet
rotates on differently oriented axes to produce the observed motion. With this scheme of crystalline spheres he failed to account for the variation in brightness of the planets; the scheme was incorporated, however, into ARISTOTLE's cosmology
during the 4th century BC. Thus the Hellenic civilization that culminated with Aristotle attempted to describe a physical cosmology. In contrast, the Hellenistic civilization that followed the conquests of Alexander the Great developed over the
next four centuries soon predominant mathematical mechanisms to explain celestial phenomena. The basis for this approach was a variety of circles known as eccentrics, deferents, and epicycles. The Hellenistic mathematician APOLLONIUS OF PERGA,
c.262-c.190 BC, noted that the annual motion of the Sun can be approximated by a circle with the Earth slightly off-center, or eccentric, thus accounting for the observed variation in speed over a year. Similarly, the Moon traces an eccentric
circle in a period of 27 1/3 days. The periodic reverse, or retrograde, motion of the planets across the sky required a new theoretical device. Each planet was assumed to move with uniform velocity around a small circle (the epicycle) that moved
around a larger circle (the deferent), with a uniform velocity appropriate for each particular planet. HIPPARCHUS, c.190-120 BC, the most outstanding astronomer of ancient times, made refinements to the theory of the Sun and Moon based on
observations from Nicaea and the island of Rhodes, and he gave solar theory essentially its final form. It was left for PTOLEMY, c.100-c.165, to compile all the knowledge of Greek astronomy in the Almagest and to develop the final lunar and
planetary theories. _^<N__^<N_With Ptolemy the immense power and versatility of these combinations of circles as explanatory mechanisms reached new heights. In the case of the Moon, Ptolemy not only accounted for the chief irregularity, called the
equation of the center, which allowed for the prediction of eclipses. He also discovered and corrected another irregularity, evection, at other points of the Moon's orbit by using an epicycle on a movable eccentric deferent, whose center revolved
around the Earth. When Ptolemy made a further refinement known as prosneusis, he was able to predict the place of the Moon within 10', or 1/6 deg, of arc in the sky; these predictions were in good agreement with the accuracy of observations made
with the instruments used at that time. Similarly, Ptolemy described the motion of each planet in the Almagest, which passed, with a few notable elaborations, through Islamic civilization and on to the Renaissance European civilization that
nurtured COPERNICUS. _^<N__^<N_The revolution associated with the name of Copernicus was not a revolution in the technical astronomy of explaining motions, but rather belongs to the realm of cosmology. Prodded especially by an intense dislike of
one of Ptolemy's explanatory devices, known as the equant, which compromised the principle of uniform circular motions, Copernicus placed not the Earth but the Sun at the center of the universe; this view was put forth in his De revolutionibus
orbium caelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, 1543). In that work, however, he merely adapted the Greek system of epicycles and eccentrics to the new arrangement. The result was an initial simplification and harmony as the
diurnal and annual motions of the Earth assumed their true meaning, but no overall simplification in the numbers of epicycles needed to achieve the same accuracy of prediction as had Ptolemy. It was therefore not at all clear that this new
cosmological system held the key to the true mathematical system that could accurately explain planetary motions. _^<N__^<N_ Keplerian Ellipses and Newtonian Gravitation_^<N__^<N_The German astronomer Johannes KEPLER provided a daring solution to
the problem of planetary motions and demonstrated the validity of the heliocentric theory of Copernicus, directly associating the Sun with the physical cause of planetary motions. At issue for Kepler was a mere 8' discrepancy between theory and
observation for the position of the planet Mars. This degree of accuracy would have delighted Ptolemy or Copernicus, but it was unacceptable in light of the observations of the Danish astronomer Tycho BRAHE, made from Uraniborg Observatory with a
variety of newly constructed sextants and quadrants and accurate to within 1' to 4'. This new scale of accuracy revolutionized astronomy, for in his Astronomia nova (New Astronomy, 1609), Kepler announced that Mars and the other planets must move
in elliptical orbits, readily predictable by the laws of planetary motion that he proceeded to expound in this work and in the Harmonices mundi (Harmonies of the World, 1619). Only by abandoning the circle could the heavens be reduced to an order
comparable to the most accurate observations. _^<N__^<N_Kepler's laws and the Copernican theory reached their ultimate verification with NEWTON's enunciation of the laws of universal gravitation in the Principia (1687). In these laws, the Sun was
assigned as the physical cause of planetary motion. The laws also served as the theoretical basis for deriving Kepler's laws. During the 18th century, the implications of gravitational astronomy were recognized and analyzed by able
mathematicians, notably Jean d'ALEMBERT, Alexis CLAIRAUT, Leonhard EULER, Joseph LAGRANGE, and Pierre LAPLACE. The science of CELESTIAL MECHANICS was born and the goal of accurate prediction was finally realized. _^<N__^<N_During all of this
discussion the stars had been regarded as fixed. While working on his catalog of 850 stars, however, Hipparchus had already recognized the phenomenon known as the PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES, an apparent slight change in the positions of stars
over a period of hundreds of years caused by a wobble in the Earth's motion. In the 18th century, Edmond HALLEY, determined that the stars had their own motion, known as PROPER MOTION, that was detectable even over a period of a few years. The
observations of stellar positions, made with transit instruments through the monumental labors of such scientists as John FLAMSTEED, laid the groundwork for solving a cosmological problem of another era: the distribution of the stars and the
structure of the universe. _^<N__^<N_ PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CELESTIAL BODIES_^<N__^<N_The study of the motions of the celestial bodies required only that they be regarded as mere points of light. But already in the 4th century BC, Aristotle
proposed in his De caelo (On the Heavens) a theory of the physical nature of these bodies, which conferred on them the properties of perfection and unchangeability thought appropriate to the divine celestial regions, in contrast to the
ever-changing Earth. In the next century, ARISTARCHUS OF SAMOS, again exhibiting the mathematical penchant of the Hellenistic era, offered an observationally based estimate, although about ten times too low, of the sizes of the Sun and Moon.
These size estimates were universally admired, and Aristotle's physical hypothesis only sporadically challenged, by medieval commentators. _^<N__^<N_ Moon and Planets_^<N__^<N_The physical similarity of the Earth and planets became a matter of
significant inquiry only after Copernicus showed that the Earth and all of the planets are in motion around the central Sun. The question might have remained forever unresolved had not GALILEO GALILEI constructed a telescope, although not the
first in Europe, which he turned toward the heavens in 1609. The results, announced in the Sidereus nuncius (Sidereal Messenger, 1610), were shattering to the Aristotelian view. The Moon was found to be a mountainous body "not unlike the face of
the Earth." Galileo's further discovery of the moons of Jupiter and the phases of Venus was more evidence that the planets had Earthlike characteristics. _^<N__^<N_Such discoveries--extremely important as verification for the physical reality of
the Copernican theory--slowly accumulated throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. The nature of the Moon was discussed in increasing detail in Kepler's Somnium (1634), Johannes HEVELIUS's Selenographia (1647), and G. B. RICCIOLI's Almagestum
novum (1651). Christiaan HUYGENS, the greatest observational astronomer of the 17th century, first correctly interpreted the rings of Saturn in his Systema Saturnium (1659), observed dark markings on Mars, and belts of clouds on Jupiter, and
speculated that Venus was shrouded in clouds. With more refined telescopes, such as those built by Sir William HERSCHEL in England, the details of the solar system became better known. Herschel himself made the spectacular discovery of the planet
Uranus in 1781. In 1846, the presence of yet another planet (Neptune), predicted by J. C. ADAMS and U. J. J. LEVERRIER, was confirmed observationally--a triumph for both theory and observation. _^<N__^<N_With the invention of SPECTROSCOPY in
the 1860s, and with the work of Sir William Huggins and Norman Joseph LOCKYER in England, P. A. SECCHI in Rome, Cesar JANSSEN in Paris, Lewis Rutherfurd (1816-92) in the United States, and Hermann Vogel (1842-1907) in Germany, the science of
astrophysics was born. By spreading the light of the celestial bodies into the constituent colors of the SPECTRUM, each interspersed with lines characteristic of the elements present, a powerful new tool was given to the astronomer. The ability to
determine the chemical composition of planetary atmospheres and even of the stars, a task which the positivist philosopher Auguste Comte had offered less than 30 years before as the paradigm of what science could never achieve, now became possible.
_^<N__^<N_ Sun and Stars_^<N__^<N_Astrophysics yielded its most substantial results in the study of the Sun and stars, where the myriads of observed spectral lines were gradually interpreted as a precise set of chemical fingerprints. With
spectroscopy and the almost simultaneous invention of photography, astronomers compiled great catalogs mapping the solar spectrum. Knowledge of the Sun, which had not advanced substantially since Galileo's discovery of sunspots, now outstripped
planetary astronomy. The means were at hand to determine the temperature, composition, age, and structure of the Sun and to compare this data with that of the other stars, which were now for the first time proved to be other suns. In conjunction
with advances in nuclear physics the investigations of the latter half of the 19th century led to the building of a firm foundation for a discussion in the first quarter of the 20th century of the internal constitution and evolution of stars. This
program was pioneered by A. S. EDDINGTON and Karl SCHWARZSCHILD. By providing a wealth of data previously unavailable, astrophysics fueled the controversy over the possible existence of EXTRATERRESTRIAL LIFE not only in our solar system, but
throughout a universe of other possible solar systems. _^<N__^<N_ COSMOLOGY: THE STRUCTURE OF THE UNIVERSE_^<N__^<N_The study of the motions and physical characteristics of celestial bodies could be undertaken on a case-by-case basis. COSMOLOGY, on
the other hand, by definition had to mold from the whole body of observations a coherent theory of the structure of the universe. From the time of Aristotle until the Copernican revolution this structure had been conceived firmly as
Earth-centered, in spite of Aristarchus's heliocentric views. Between the inner Earth and the outer sphere of fixed stars each planet was considered imbedded in a crystalline sphere that was in uniform circular motion. Within this neat compact
structure the whole history of humankind and the universe unfolded. The work of Kepler and Newton on planetary motion and of Galileo and others on the physical nature of the planets resulted in the gradual acceptance during the 17th century of the
Copernican heliocentric hypothesis as a physically valid system. This acceptance had profound implications for cosmology. Not only did Kepler's theory of ellipses make obsolete the theory of crystalline spheres of Aristotle, the absence of any
detectable stellar PARALLAX--apparent change in the direction of a star--even when measured from opposite sides of the Earth's orbit, demonstrated the necessity of acknowledging the enormous size of the universe. The subsequent shift from the
closed tightly structured world to an infinite homogenous universe was one of the landmarks in the history of astronomy. Giordano BRUNO and Thomas DIGGES were among its earliest exponents, and DESCARTES and Newton incorporated it as a standard
part of the new view of the universe. _^<N__^<N_ The Galaxy_^<N__^<N_The downfall of the concept of the sphere of fixed stars opened the way for investigations into the distribution of the stars. The phenomenon of the Milky Way, shown by Galileo to
consist of myriads of stars, hinted that some previously unsuspected structure might exist among the stars. In 1750 the English theologian and astronomer Thomas WRIGHT sought to explain the brilliantly luminous band of the Milky Way as a
collection of stars that extended further in the direction of the band than in other directions. In 1780, William Herschel initiated an observational program of star counts, or gauges, of selected regions of the sky. By assuming that the
brightness of a star is a measure of its distance from the Earth, this program resulted in a picture of a flattened disc-shaped system with the Sun near the center. In spite of his incorrect assumptions, Herschel's research marked the beginnings
of an understanding of the structure of the stellar system and earned him the title of founder of stellar astronomy. _^<N__^<N_Because of the lack of a direct method for determining stellar distances, progress in cosmology lagged for more than a
century after Herschel's star gauges. Only with improved instrumentation did Friedrich BESSEL, Wilhelm STRUVE, and Thomas Henderson (1798-1844) in 1838 succeed in measuring the first stellar distances. An annual parallactic shift of .31" in the
position of the star 61 Cygni implied a distance equivalent to 590,000 times that of the Earth from the Sun. But difficulties innate to the method resulted in fewer than 300 known stellar distances by the end of the century--far too few to solve
the problem of the structure of the stellar system. _^<N__^<N_Along with continuous attempts at parallax measurements, a major task of 19th-century astronomers was the compilation of ASTRONOMICAL CATALOGS AND ATLASES containing the precise
magnitudes, positions, and motions of stars. The work of Friedrich ARGELANDER, David GILL, and J. C. KAPTEYN is especially notable in this regard, with the latter two astronomers utilizing new photographic techniques. Such surveys yielded the
two-dimensional distribution of stars over the celestial sphere. Heroic efforts were made, especially by Hugo von Seeliger, to extrapolate from this data to an understanding of three-dimensional structure. _^<N__^<N_Real progress was finally made
only through an analysis of the extremely small motions of stars, known as proper motion. Building on the astronomical catalogs of James BRADLEY, G. F. Arthur von Auwers (1838-1915), and Lewis Boss (1846-1912), and on his own observations, J. C.
Kapteyn, exploiting the new field of statistical astronomy, applied statistical methods of distance determination to find an ellipsoidal shape for the system of stars. In 1904 he found that the stars streamed in two directions. Only in 1927 did
J. H. OORT, working on the basis of Bertil LINDBLAD's studies, determine that Kapteyn's observational data could be accounted for if the galaxy were assumed to be rotating. In a cosmological shock comparable to the Copernican revolution four
centuries before, the Galaxy was found to be 100,000 light years in diameter, with the Earth's solar system some 30,000 light years from the center. _^<N__^<N_ Other Galaxies_^<N__^<N_The question of whether or not the Galaxy constituted the
entirety of the universe came to a head in the 1920s with the debate between H. D. CURTIS and Harlow SHAPLEY. Curtis argued that nebulae are island universes similar to but separate from our own galaxy; Shapley included the nebulae in our
galaxy. The controversy was settled when E. P. HUBBLE detected Cepheid stars in the Andromeda nebula and used them in a new method of distance determination, demonstrating that Andromeda and many other nebulae are far outside the Milky Way. Thus
the universe was found to consist of a large number of galaxies, spread like islands through infinite space. (See EXTRAGALACTIC SYSTEMS.) _^<N__^<N_Such was the progress of astronomy from the time of the Babylonian observations of planetary
motions to within a few degrees accuracy, to the Greek determinations of positions within a few minutes of arc, to the 19th-century measurements of parallax and proper motions in fractions of a second of arc. The concern of astronomers evolved from
the determination of apparent motions to the observation of planetary surfaces, and ultimately to the measurement of the motions of the stars themselves, and of galaxies and systems of galaxies. _^<N__^<N_Steven J. Dick _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Berenzden, Richard, et al., Man Discovers the Galaxies (1976; repr. 1984); Burke, J. G., Cosmic Debris: Meteorites in History (1986); DeVorkin, D. H., The History of Modern Astronomy and Astrophysics (1985); Dreyer, J. L. E., A History of
Astronomy from Thales to Kepler (1906; repr. 1953); Duhem, Pierre, Medieval Cosmology, trans. and ed. by Roger Ariew (1985); Hadingham, E., Early Man and the Cosmos (1985); Harrison, Edward, Darkness at Night (1987); Hearnshaw, J. B.,
Analysis of Starlight (1986); Ley, Willy, Watchers of the Skies (1963); Neugebauer, Otto, The Exact Sciences in Antiquity, 2d ed. (1957), and Astronomy and History (1985); Pannekoek, A., A History of Astronomy (1961); Tauber, G. E., Man's View
of the Universe: Astronomy from Babylonian Times to the Present (1979); Van Der Waerden, Bartel, Science Awakening: The Birth of Astronomy (1974).
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16360
CATO
4818
9617
14456
-A-
astronomy and astrophysics
-O-
000000|astronomy and astrophysics
001070| NEW WINDOWS ON THE UNIVERSE
001750| Radio Astronomy
002893| Infrared Astronomy
003440| Ultraviolet, X-Ray, and Gamma-Ray Astronomy
004682| THE SOLAR SYSTEM
005175| Planets, Asteroids, and Comets
007249| The Sun
008484| THE STARS
010414| THE GALAXIES
012476| Cosmology
-T-
astronomy and astrophysics_^<N__^<N_Astronomy, the most ancient science, began with the study of the Sun, the Moon, and the visible planets. The modern astronomer is still centrally concerned with recording position, brightness, motion, and other
directly observable features of celestial objects and with predicting their motion according to the laws of CELESTIAL MECHANICS. Astrophysics, a 19th- and 20th-century outgrowth of classical astronomy, uses quantum mechanics, relativity theory,
and molecular, atomic, nuclear, and elementary-particle physics to explain observed celestial phenomena as the logical result of predictable physical processes. The astrophysicist seeks to characterize the constituents of the universe in terms of
temperatures, pressures, densities, and chemical compositions. Although the term astronomer is still used, virtually all astronomers have been trained in astrophysics. The broad aim of modern astronomy is to develop encompassing theories of the
origin, evolution, and possible destiny of the universe as a whole, a field of endeavor that is known as COSMOLOGY. _^<N__^<N_ NEW WINDOWS ON THE UNIVERSE_^<N__^<N_In the 20th century advances in astronomy have been so rapid that the second half of
the century can be considered a golden age. Traditional optical astronomy has been revolutionized by the development of new techniques of FAINT OBJECT DETECTION, including more sensitive photographic emulsions and a plethora of electronic imaging
devices. Using a standard TELESCOPE, the optical astronomer can now see fainter and more distant objects than ever before. In addition the astronomer is no longer limited to observing the visible light from celestial bodies. New instruments now
allow the study of the heavens in entirely new regions of the SPECTRUM. _^<N__^<N_ Radio Astronomy_^<N__^<N_In 1931 Karl G. JANSKY of the Bell Telephone Laboratories discovered extraterrestrial radiation at radio wavelengths and launched the field
of RADIO ASTRONOMY. During the 1930s Grote REBER, a radio engineer, further investigated celestial radio radiation, and single-handedly brought radio astronomy to the attention of professional astronomers. As a result of theoretical
investigations by astronomers in the Netherlands during World War II, an observable radio line, emitted by neutral hydrogen atoms in space, was predicted at a wavelength of 21 cm. Detection of this line caused radio astronomy to advance rapidly
after the war. Today, radio telescopes throughout the world are used to study radio emission from the stars, the planets, the interstellar medium in the Galaxy, and extragalactic sources. Achievements in radio astronomy include the mapping of
galactic structure and the discovery of quasars, pulsars, and a large number of complex organic molecules in interstellar space. RADAR ASTRONOMY has also been used within the solar system to determine, for example, the rotational periods of Venus
and Mercury. _^<N__^<N_ Infrared Astronomy_^<N__^<N_Although scientists have known since the time of William Herschel in the late 18th century that infrared radiation from celestial objects can be detected, it was not until the late 1950s and early
1960s that INFRARED ASTRONOMY became the subject of intensive research. Sensitive detectors were developed that allowed astronomers to explore the infrared region of the spectrum. Infrared astronomy has been helpful in studying the very young or
evolved stars that are commonly associated with dense clouds of dust. (see IRAS). _^<N__^<N_ Ultraviolet, X-Ray, and Gamma-Ray Astronomy_^<N__^<N_In 1957 the USSR launched the first satellite, thus beginning the space age. Few other disciplines
have benefited from artificial SATELLITES to the extent that astronomy has. (See SPACE EXPLORATION.) For the astronomer, the atmosphere presents a murky or opaque barrier through which observations of the far infrared, ultraviolet, X-ray, and
gamma-ray spectral regions are difficult or impossible. Satellites and, to a limited extent, high-altitude balloons and rockets have become platforms from which to observe these spectral regions. Since 1962, the United States and other nations
have launched several orbiting observatories devoted to observing the ultraviolet and X-ray regions (see OAO; OSO; HIGH ENERGY ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORY; UHURU). These studies have resulted in better understanding of very hot stars and have
produced strong evidence of the existence of black holes (see BLACK HOLE). The impact of extraterrestrial observations on astronomy in all parts of the wavelength spectrum is being extended in the 1990s by a continuing program of space astronomy
supported by the SPACE SHUTTLE (see GAMMA-RAY ASTRONOMY; SPACE TELESCOPE; ULTRAVIOLET ASTRONOMY; X-RAY ASTRONOMY). _^<N__^<N_ THE SOLAR SYSTEM_^<N__^<N_The achievements of astronomy and astrophysics are evident in the rapidly growing knowledge of
the extraterrestrial environment, from the SOLAR SYSTEM to the most remote galaxies. The solar system, as it is known today, comprises the Sun and nine planets, in order of increasing distance from the Sun: MERCURY, VENUS, EARTH, MARS, JUPITER,
SATURN, URANUS, NEPTUNE and PLUTO. The last, Pluto, was discovered in 1930 by Clyde TOMBAUGH, an astronomer at the Lowell Observatory. _^<N__^<N_ Planets, Asteroids, and Comets_^<N__^<N_Except for Mercury and Venus, each planet has from 1 to more
than 20 natural satellites (see SATELLITE), including Pluto, whose moon was not discovered until 1978. The four gas-giant planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune all have ring systems made up of vast swarms of small icy and rocky fragments
circling those planets in the plane of their equators. By far the most spectacular of these ring systems is that of Saturn; the others are less developed. _^<N__^<N_Between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter lies a belt containing thousands of minor
planets, or asteroids (see ASTEROID). The orbits of most of the asteroids restrict them to the region between Mars and Jupiter, but exceptions of various kinds exist--including orbits that cross the Earth's orbit or lie still closer to the Sun.
_^<N__^<N_COMETS can attain distances 150,000 times greater than that from the Earth to the Sun. In 1950 the Dutch astronomer Jan Oort speculated that the solar system is surrounded by a cloud of comets, most of which never enter the inner regions
of the solar system. The orbits of only a few are disturbed sufficiently to bring them near the Earth. HALLEY'S COMET, known since 240 BC, swings around the sun once every 76 years and was visited by probes in 1985-88, during its most recent
swing. _^<N__^<N_Flyby space probes involving most of the planets, and surface landings on the Moon, Venus, and Mars, have transformed planetary astronomy. No longer must observations be made at great distances; on-site measurement of numerous
physical properties is now possible. In studying the planets, the astronomer must also enlist the aid of the chemist, the geologist, and the meteorologist. In spite of the great increase in knowledge, however, the probes and landings have raised
more questions than they have answered. The origin of the solar system, for example, remains unknown. The VENERA and Magellan missions to Venus and the VIKING landers on Mars indicate that life as it is known on Earth does not exist on either
planet, nor is life possible on the Moon. _^<N__^<N_ The Sun_^<N__^<N_The Sun is a star with a surface temperature of 5,800 K and an interior temperature of about 15,000,000 K. Because the Sun is the nearest star and is easily observed, its
chemical composition and surface activity have been intensely investigated. Among the surface features of the Sun are SUNSPOTS, prominences, and flares. It is now known that the maximum number of sunspots occurs approximately every 11 years, that
their temperature is approximately 4,300 K, and that they are related to solar magnetic activity in a cycle taking about 22 years to complete. Studies of historical records have also shown long-scale variations in sunspot numbers.
_^<N__^<N_Predictions based on theory indicate that energy-generating processes deep within the Sun and other stars should produce a certain number of chargeless, weightless particles called neutrinos (see NEUTRINO). Efforts to detect solar
neutrinos have thus far indicated a far lower rate of neutrino production than current theory seems to require, and revisions of theory may in time prove necessary. On the other hand, physicists and cosmologists are equally interested in the
concept that at least some forms of neutrino have mass and undergo transformations inside the Sun. _^<N__^<N_ THE STARS_^<N__^<N_The accumulation of precise data on some of the nearer STARS early in the 20th century enabled Ejnar HERTZSPRUNG and
Henry Norris RUSSELL, working independently, to plot a graph of brightness and color, two basic stellar properties. When they plotted intrinsic stellar brightness on one axis and stellar color (equivalent to surface temperature) on the other axis,
Hertzsprung and Russell found that, instead of being scattered over the graph, the stars fell into distinct regions: a heavily populated, diagonal band, known as the MAIN SEQUENCE, that varies from bright, hot, blue stars to faint, cool, red ones;
a horizontal band containing bright, cool, red stars (the giants); and a sparsely populated, horizontal band containing very luminous stars of all colors (the supergiants). In honor of these scientists, graphs of the type they plotted are called
HERTZSPRUNG-RUSSELL DIAGRAMS, or simply H-R diagrams. _^<N__^<N_The features found on the H-R diagrams are a key to modern astrophysics, because they are basic to an understanding of STELLAR EVOLUTION. The star's initial mass determines exactly
the position of the star on the main sequence. The star gradually changes, however, thus changing its position on the H-R diagrams. As the hydrogen that fuels the star's fusion reaction becomes depleted, the outer layers of the star expand, and
it enters the giant phase. Eventually they become unstable and begin to lose mass--some smoothly, others catastrophically, depending on their masses. Most stars pulsate smoothly; some may brighten rapidly in older age, blowing material off into
space to form a PLANETARY NEBULA. A few giant, unstable stars explode as supernovas (see SUPERNOVA). In any case, the end is inevitable and evolution proceeds to the stellar graveyard. The most common result of evolution is the WHITE DWARF; A
large star would end up as a NEUTRON STAR (PULSAR) and, possibly, a black hole. _^<N__^<N_ THE GALAXIES_^<N__^<N_The solar system is located in the outer regions of our GALAXY. From the Earth, the visible part of our Galaxy is seen in the night sky
as the Milky Way. The Galaxy is actually a flattened disk about 100,000 light-years wide, surrounded by a spherical halo approximately 200,000 light-years in diameter and by a much larger corona. In all, this system contains stars, gas, and dust
in quantities equivalent to more than 1,000 billion solar masses. The Sun takes about 200 million years to orbit the galactic center, approximately 30,000 light-years from the Sun in the direction of the constellation Sagittarius. _^<N__^<N_Before
the pioneering work of Harlow SHAPLEY in 1917, astronomers believed that the Sun was near the center of the galaxy. Besides correctly locating the solar system, Shapley showed that globular star clusters (see CLUSTER, star) form a halo about the
center of the Galaxy. The structure of the Galaxy has been mapped by now, using the distances of extremely luminous stars as well as radio observations of the 21-cm (8.27-in) line of the hydrogen spectrum, and has been shown to take the form of a
typical spiral galaxy. Three basic types of galaxies exist: spirals, such as the Milky Way and the Andromeda galaxy; irregulars, such as the Magellanic clouds; and ellipticals. Representatives of the elliptical galaxies exist at both extremes
of galactic size. A dwarf elliptical may contain only a few million stars; a giant elliptical may contain trillions (see EXTRAGALACTIC SYSTEMS). _^<N__^<N_The Galaxy is a member of a gravitationally bound cluster of galaxies known as the Local
Group. The ANDROMEDA GALAXY and the MAGELLANIC CLOUDS are conspicuous members of this group, which contains some 20 galaxies. As clusters of galaxies go, this is rather sparse. Other clusters, such as the one in the direction of the
constellation Virgo, can contain more than 1,000 galaxies. Gerard de Vaucouleurs indicated the possible existence of a local supercluster of galaxies, a cluster of clusters of which the Local Group is a member. _^<N__^<N_ Cosmology_^<N__^<N_The
nature of the spiral nebulae, as vast, remote collections of suns, was not understood until 1929 when Edwin P. HUBBLE identified a variable star in the Andromeda galaxy and determined its distance. In 1912 Vesto M. Slipher had discovered that the
spiral nebulae are receding from the Earth at high velocities. With a knowledge of the distances of these objects, Hubble was able to demonstrate a relationship between a galaxy's RED SHIFT (a DOPPLER EFFECT observed in the galaxy's spectrum,
indicating its recessional velocity) and its distance: the farther away a galaxy is, the greater is its red shift (see HUBBLE'S CONSTANT). This is considered good evidence for the BIG BANG THEORY mentioned below. _^<N__^<N_Since Hubble's
computations, a continuous effort has been made to extend the boundaries of the observable universe to more remote, higher red-shift objects. Observation of such distant galaxies contributes to greater understanding of the origin and possible fate
of the universe. The search for higher red shifts took an unexpected turn when, in 1960, two radio sources were identified with what appeared to be stars. This was surprising, because stars were not expected to be such strong radio sources, and
the spectra of these objects could not be associated with any type of star. It was not until 1963 that Maarten Schmidt correctly interpreted the spectra as having enormous red shifts. These objects, known as quasars, are still the subject of
great controversy. It is not known whether their red shifts are attributable to their great distance, as is true of normal galaxies, or to other physical phenomena. _^<N__^<N_Other evidence has given astronomers a good idea of the origin of the
universe--the concern of COSMOLOGY. In 1964 A. A. Penzias and R. W. Wilson discovered an isotropic microwave BACKGROUND RADIATION characteristic of that emitted by a blackbody at 3 K. This BLACKBODY RADIATION, whose existence has since been
confirmed by numerous observations, is believed to be an artifact of the big bang with which most astronomers believe the universe began. According to the big bang theory, a single, cataclysmic event occurred about 20 billion years ago that
disrupted the dense mass composed of all matter and radiation in the universe. The matter then dispersed, cooled, and condensed in the form of stars and galaxies. Most cosmologists now accept the big bang theory rather than the rival STEADY-STATE
THEORY, and are attempting to account for the exotic physical events that would have been involved in the very first moments of the big bang (see INFLATIONARY THEORY). They have yet to determine, however, whether the universe will expand
indefinitely or will ultimately collapse upon itself and perhaps repeat the process indefinitely. _^<N__^<N_Cynthia E. Irvine _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Abell, G. O., Realm of the Universe (1984); Ferris, T., Coming of Age in the Milky Way (1988);
Field, G. B., and Chaisson, E. J., The Invisible Universe (1985); Fredrick, L. W., and Baker, R. H., An Introduction to Astronomy, 9th ed. (1981); Harwit, Martin, Cosmic Discovery (1984); Illingworth, Valerie, The Macmillan Dictionary of
Astronomy, 2d ed. (1985); Jastrow, Robert, and Thompson, Malcolm R., Astronomy: Fundamentals and Frontiers, 4th ed. (1984); Lovell, Sir Bernard, and Smith, Sir F. Graham, The Guide to Modern Astronomy (1987); Mitton, Jacqueline, Key
Definitions in Astronomy (1982); Pasachoff, Jay M., Astronomy, 2d ed. (1983); Preston, R., First Light (1988); Schaaf, F., The Starry Room (1988); Riordan, Michael, and Schramm, David N., The Shadows of Creation: Dark Matter and the Structure
of the Universe (1991); Trefil, J. S., The Moment of Creation (1983); Unsold, Albrecht, and Baschek, R. B., The New Cosmos, 3d ed. (1983); Zeilik, Michael, Astronomy: The Evolving Universe, 4th ed. (1985).
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3505
CATO
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astrophotography
-O-
000000|astrophotography
000386| Techniques
001924| Applications
-T-
astrophotography_^<N__^<N_Astrophotography is the PHOTOGRAPHY of stars and other celestial bodies for the purpose of obtaining observational data. It has long been an important tool in modern astronomical and astrophysical research. Other
techniques have allowed improvements over the photograph in certain areas, but the photographic method has the advantage of providing a two-dimensional image of the sky. _^<N__^<N_ Techniques_^<N__^<N_In astrophotography the telescope is furnished
with a plateholder so that it can act as a CAMERA. In addition, several types of telescopes are exclusively designed for photography, such as the astrographs used for photographic star catalog observations, and the SCHMIDT TELESCOPE. The
advantage of the Schmidt telescope is the excellent images it produces over a large angular field. This is accomplished with a spherical mirror and a nonspherical thin corrector plate of glass located at the center of curvature of the mirror,
correcting the spherical aberration introduced by the mirror. _^<N__^<N_Among the several image-enhancing techniques, the development of the electrographic camera has made it possible to measure stars fainter than those detectable with either the
conventional photoelectric or photographic methods. In this camera the image is formed on a photographic plate by highly accelerated electrons emitted by a photocathode placed at the optical focal plane of the telescope. _^<N__^<N_Considerable
improvements have been made in the photographic emulsions available to astronomical research. Emulsions exist with different spectral sensitivities in the range from the near ultraviolet, through the visible, and into the infrared regions of the
spectrum to 1,150 nanometers, and within each spectral region several emulsions varying in grain size and speed are usually available. By choosing the proper emulsion and filter combination, it is possible to restrict the photorecording to a
predetermined spectral bandwidth. _^<N__^<N_ Applications_^<N__^<N_Astrophotography has served an important function in the production of ASTRONOMICAL CATALOGS AND ATLASES. Photographs for the construction of star catalogs and for proper motion
surveys of faint stars are taken with telescopes having a wide-angle field and moderate focal length. In the proper motion surveys, photographs are taken of the same areas of the sky with several years' separation and intercom based with a BLINK
MICROSCOPE or other measuring devices. Long-focus telescopes, which have a large scale but a small field, are used to determine stellar parallax, membership and motions in star clusters, and relative motions in binary systems.
_^<N__^<N_Photographic PHOTOMETRY determines the brightness of celestial objects (expressed as magnitude). Photographic magnitudes at various wavelengths are obtained by the use of suitable filters and photographic emulsions. The greater accuracy
of the photoelectric techniques has largely superseded photographic photometry, but it is still found useful. _^<N__^<N_In SPECTROSCOPY, where starlight is spread into its constituent colors, the photographic method continues to be of great
importance in the classification of stellar spectra, in SPECTROPHOTOMETRY, and in radial velocity determinations. Especially effective has been the method of spectral classification of a large number of stars by means of plates taken with Schmidt
telescopes furnished with objective prisms. _^<N__^<N_K. Aa. Strand _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Corington, M. A., Astrophotography for the Amateur (1985); Gordon, Barry, Astrophotography, 2d ed. (1985).
-END-
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45
CAT
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astrophysics:
-T-
astrophysics:_^<N__^<N_see ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS.
-END-
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945
CAT
-A-
Asturias
-T-
Asturias_^<N__^<N_{ahs-toor'-eeahs} _^<N__^<N_Asturias was a small kingdom in northwestern Spain centered on the city of Oviedo. The kingdom came into being early in the 8th century under Pelayo (r. 718-37), whose victory over the Muslims at
Covadonga in 722 marked the beginning of the Christian reconquest of Spain. The kings tried to restore the customs of the Visigothic rulers, whose heirs they pretended to be. They also expanded their frontiers westward to Galicia and southward to
the Douro River. The discovery of the supposed tomb of the Apostle James at Santiago de Compostela in Galicia enhanced the prestige of the kingdom and opened it to pilgrims from northern Europe. Early in the 10th century the kings took up residence
at LEON, and thereafter Asturias formed part of the kingdom of Leon. In 1388 the title "Prince of Asturias" was given to the heir to the throne, a custom continued by the kings of Spain into modern times. _^<N__^<N_Joseph F. O'Callaghan
-END-
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1239
CAT
-A-
Asturias, Miguel Angel
-T-
Asturias, Miguel Angel_^<N__^<N_{ahs-toor'-eeahs} _^<N__^<N_Miguel Angel Asturias, b. Oct. 19, 1899, d. June 9, 1974, was a Guatemalan-born poet and novelist who won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1967. He was cited for his "highly colored
writings rooted in a national individuality and Indian traditions." After receiving his law degree, he left Guatemala in 1923 and settled in Paris, where he studied ethnology. For the next four decades he alternately served his country as a
diplomat and spent long periods in political exile. In 1966 he won the Soviet Union's Lenin Peace Prize. _^<N__^<N_His most important novel, The President (1946; Eng. trans., 1964), a portrait of a modern dictatorship, was translated into 16
languages and marked his rise as an internationally known novelist. Another important novel, Men of Maize (1949; Eng. trans., 1975), was followed by the United Fruit Company trilogy: The Cyclone (1950; Eng. trans., 1967), The Green Pope (1954; Eng.
trans., 1971), and The Eye of the Interred (1960; Eng. trans., 1973). In 1963 he wrote Mulata de tal, a story steeped in Indian mythology, which describes a peasant couple preparing for the priesthood of witchcraft. _^<N__^<N_Edward Mullen
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Callan, Richard J., Miguel Angel Asturias (1970).
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1233
CAT
-A-
Asuncion
-T-
Asuncion_^<N__^<N_{ah-soon-see-ohn'} _^<N__^<N_Asuncion, is the capital city of PARAGUAY. It has a population of 477,000 (1985). Located on a bay of the Paraguay River near its junction with the Pilcomayo River, it is the industrial and cultural
center of Paraguay as well as its principal port. Cotton, sugar, grain, tobacco, and cattle from the surrounding agricultural region are processed here. Local manufactures include textiles, shoes, beverages, and small boats. The city has a warm
climate; the average July (winter) temperature is 17 deg C (63 deg F). Asuncion was founded as a trading post in 1537 on the day of the Assumption (August 15), the city's namesake. Inhabitants of Buenos Aires sought asylum here after an attack
by Pampa Indians in 1541, and soon afterward the city became headquarters for Spain's affairs in eastern South America. The modern city is graced by streets lined with orange trees and fine examples of Spanish colonial architecture. Of interest
are the cathedral, the presidential palace, the Godo Museum, and the Pantheon of Heroes, which is modeled on Les Invalides in Paris. The Universidad Nacional de Asuncion (1890) and the Universidad Catholica Nuestra Senora de la Asuncion (1960) are
located there.
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1051
CAT
-A-
Aswan
-T-
Aswan_^<N__^<N_Aswan (1986 est. pop., 195,700) is the capital of Aswan governorate in southeastern Egypt. About 708 km (440 mi) southeast of Cairo, it is on the east bank of the Nile River about 9.6 km (6 mi) north of the First Cataract. The
population swelled as a result of the construction (1960-70) of the ASWAN HIGH DAM. About 13 km (8 mi) south of the city, the dam has spurred development of metal, artificial fertilizer, and hydroelectric power industries. The older Aswan Dam is
located between the city and the Aswan High Dam. _^<N__^<N_Aswan has long been a favorite winter resort because of its hot, dry climate, with an average temperature of 25.8 deg C (78.4 deg F). Known to the ancient Egyptians as Suwana and to the
Greeks as Syene, Aswan has been an important city since the 1st millennium BC. As the southern frontier of Egypt, it was the gateway to trade with the south. Nearby archaeological sites include the now relocated 4th-century BC temple of Isis,
formerly on the island of PHILAE, and the 6th-century Coptic Monastery of St. Simeon.
-END-
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2739
CAT
-A-
Aswan High Dam
-T-
Aswan High Dam_^<N__^<N_The Aswan High Dam blocks the NILE RIVER near the resort town of Aswan in Upper Egypt. One of the world's largest structures, the rock-fill dam, completed in 1970, has a volume about 17 times that of the Great Pyramid at
Giza. It is 3.26 km (2.3 mi) in length and rises 111 m (364 ft) above the riverbed. Lake NASSER (High Dam Lake), the reservoir it impounds, averages 9.6 km (6 mi) wide and extends upstream 499 km (310 mi). About 30 percent of its length is in
neighboring Sudan. An earlier granite dam, the Aswan Dam, lies 6.4 km (4 mi) downstream--about midway between the Aswan High Dam and the town. The Aswan Dam was completed in 1902, but its crest has been twice raised. _^<N__^<N_Ten years in
construction, the Aswan High Dam cost $1 billion. The water it stores has opened the way to agricultural expansion. More than 360,000 ha (900,000 acres), most of it formerly desert, were added to the total of arable land; an equal amount was
irrigated year round to enable it to produce several crops a year instead of just one. Between 1979 and the mid-1980s, however, overuse and drought led to a 20% drop in the water level of Lake Nasser, forcing drastic reductions in the flow of
irrigation water and reducing power output by 55%. The dam has a hydroelectric power capacity of 2.1 million kW and supplies more than 25% of Egypt's power. _^<N__^<N_Both Aswan dams have been the focus of worldwide archaeological concern.
Construction of the Aswan Dam in 1902 partially inundated the Temple of PHILAE. Lake Nasser inundated many ancient sites, including the temples and colossi at ABU SIMBEL. Through an international effort these structures were raised and relocated
on the new shoreline. As a result of the creation of Lake Nasser, 100,000 Egyptian and Sudanese Nubians had to be resettled. _^<N__^<N_Many of the negative environmental effects that were anticipated from the dam have not yet appeared. A study
completed in 1982 found that the incidence of bilharzia and other waterborne diseases is lower in the areas along the Nile than it was before the dam was built. Evaporation from Lake Nasser is not as high as was predicted. But other adverse
ecological effects have been recorded: salt buildup in the irrigated areas and increased salinity in the waters of the Nile itself; the destruction of the sardine fishery in the eastern Mediterranean because of the decrease in silt; erosion in
the Nile waterway and in the delta region. Efforts are underway to establish a fishery in the lake and to resettle its shores. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Fahim, H. M., Dams, People, and Development (1982); Shibl, Yasuf, Aswan High Dam (1971);
White, G. F., "The Environmental Effects of the High Dam at Aswan," Environment, September 1988.
-END-
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27
CAT
-A-
asylum
-T-
asylum_^<N__^<N_see RIGHT OF ASYLUM.
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535
CAT
-A-
asymptote
-T-
asymptote_^<N__^<N_{as'-uhm-toht} _^<N__^<N_An asymptote is a straight line associated with certain types of mathematical curves. If a curve approaches a line, that is, if the curve gets closer and closer to the line as a point moves along the
curve, then the line is an asymptote of the curve, and the curve is said to approach the line asymptotically. Most types of curves do not have asymptotes, but several important types do. Constructing the asymptotes is a useful aid when sketching
curves, a procedure that is often followed in analytic geometry.
-END-
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760
CAT
-A-
Asyut
-T-
Asyut_^<N__^<N_{as-yoot'} _^<N__^<N_Asyut is the capital of Asyut governorate in east central Egypt. It has a population of 291,300 (1986 est.). The city lies on the west bank of the Nile, about 380 km (228 mi) south of Cairo. The climate is hot
and dry, with an annual mean temperature of 21.7 deg C (71.1 deg F) and average annual rainfall of 71 cm (28 in). Asyut is an important commercial center of Upper Egypt and is also known for its production of fine handicrafts. The University of
Asyut was established in 1957. Founded before 2160 BC as Syut, the city was the capital of an ancient Egyptian province during the Middle Kingdom (c.2133- 1786 BC). Nearby archaeological sites include El Badari, where Neolithic cultural remains
have been found dating from 4500 BC.
-END-
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1393
CAT
-A-
Atacama Desert
-T-
Atacama Desert_^<N__^<N_The Atacama Desert is an arid region in northern Chile, extending south from the Peruvian border for about 950 km (600 mi). The area is part of the Pacific Coast desert of South America. The desert is bounded on the west by a
coastal mountain range and stretches across a central plain (elevation about 600 m/2,000 ft) to the Andes Mountains. Average temperatures are relatively low, about 19 deg C (66 deg F) in summer, and little vegetation grows. In many places no
rainfall has ever been recorded, although this reflects, in part, lack of weather stations. The Andes block eastward movement of the warm humid air of the Amazon region. Little moisture comes from the west because of thermal inversion; the cold
PERU CURRENT keeps air at the surface along the shore colder than the air above, with the result that moisture remains in high clouds and little or no precipitation falls. Nitrate production from the region's many dry salt basins became so
profitable during the latter half of the 19th century that the desert was fought for by Bolivia, Peru, and Chile in the War of the Pacific and annexed (1884) by Chile (see PACIFIC, WAR OF THE). Production declined after World War I with the
manufacture of synthetic nitrates. Subsequent mining of copper, now the region's chief source of revenue, has not reversed the trend of declining population. _^<N__^<N_See also: CLIMATE; DESERT.
-END-
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952
CAT
-A-
Atahualpa
-T-
Atahualpa_^<N__^<N_{at-uh-wahl'-puh} _^<N__^<N_Atahualpa, c.1500-1533, was the last ruler of the INCA empire of pre-Columbian South America to exercise power independent of Spanish control. The son of HUAYNA CAPAC, Atahualpa was victorious in a
civil war resulting from a dispute with his brother Huascar over the rulership of the Inca territory. On Nov. 16, 1532, shortly after he gained control of the empire, Atahualpa was captured by Francisco PIZARRO and a small group of Spanish
soldiers in Cajamarca, Peru. In a vain attempt to save Atahualpa, his subjects assembled one of the largest ransoms in history, an estimated $30 million worth of gold and silver. He was executed by garroting, however, eight months after his
capture. _^<N__^<N_Craig Morris _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Brundage, Burr C., Empire of the Inca (1963; repr. 1985) and Lords of Cuzco (1985); Hemming, John, The Conquest of the Incas (1970); Mason, J. Alden, Ancient Civilizations of Peru, rev.
ed. (1988).
-END-
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693
CAT
-A-
Atalanta
-T-
Atalanta_^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, Atalanta was a princess famed for her swiftness in running. Warned against marriage by the oracle at DELPHI, she nevertheless challenged each of her suitors to a footrace. If Atalanta won, the suitor would
forfeit his life, and if he won, she would marry him. None outraced her. Then Melanion (in another version, Hippomenes) sought the help of APHRODITE, who gave him three golden apples. As Melanion and Atalanta raced, Melanion dropped the apples one
at a time, and Atalanta paused to retrieve them. She lost the race and married Melanion. Later they were changed into lions by ZEUS because they made love in a grove that was sacred to him. _^<N__^<N_Rosalind Darrow Shor
-END-
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944
CAT
-A-
Atanasoff, John V.
-T-
Atanasoff, John V._^<N__^<N_{a-tuhn-a'-sawf} _^<N__^<N_Physicist John Vincent Atanasoff, b. Hamilton, N.Y., Oct. 4, 1903, has been claimed to be the inventor of basic digital techniques used in the first electronic digital COMPUTER, ENIAC,
developed in the 1940s by John Presper ECKERT and John William MAUCHLY. The claim remains disputed. Atanasoff earned a Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin in 1930 and taught at Iowa State College before serving with the Naval Ordnance
Laboratory during World War II and thereafter entering industry. At Iowa he built a crude, vacuum-tube computing device and showed it to interested persons, including Mauchly, but failed to market it. In a 1971 lawsuit brought against the holders
of the Eckert-Mauchly patent, a rival electronics firm sought to establish Atanasoff's priority in the field; the patent was declared invalid in 1973. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Burks, A. R. and A. W., The First Electronic Computer (1987).
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3175
CAT
-A-
Ataturk, Kemal
-T-
Ataturk, Kemal_^<N__^<N_{ah'-tah-toork, kuh-mahl'} _^<N__^<N_Kemal Ataturk, b. 1881, d. Nov. 10, 1938, was the founder and first president of the Turkish Republic (1923-38). Originally named Mustafa Kemal, he joined the YOUNG TURKS as a young
military officer and led the extension of the movement to his native Salonika (Thessalonki). He took an active role in the military coup that overthrew the Ottoman sultan ABD AL-HAMID II in 1909. Kemal was the only Ottoman commander to gain fame
during World War I. He defeated the British attempt (1915) to land at Gallipoli and later kept the Turkish army of Syria together as it was pushed back into Anatolia by the British, helped by the Arab Revolt. _^<N__^<N_Kemal vigorously opposed the
Turkish government's decision to surrender (1918) to the Allies and sign the Treaty of Sevres (1920), which gave up large areas of Anatolia to foreign occupation or influence. Because of the government's desire to stimulate resistance despite the
foreign occupation of Istanbul, however, he was assigned to supervise demobilization of the remaining troops in Anatolia. He used this authority and his wartime reputation to coalesce rising Turkish resistance forces, organizing a national army
based at Ankara. This army ultimately drove out the various Allied occupying forces, abolished the sultanate, and replaced it with a republic with its capital at Ankara. As reward, Kemal was later given the name Ataturk ("Father of the Turks").
_^<N__^<N_As president of the republic, Ataturk instituted the forms of democracy, including a unicameral parliament (the Grand National Assembly), a responsible government, led mostly by Prime Minister Ismet INONU, and a modern bureaucracy. But he
allowed only one party--his own Republican People's party--to assure rapid modernization and avoid destructive opposition by vested interests. Turkish nationalism was emphasized as a means of rallying popular support for the drastic, revolutionary
measures needed to modernize the nation. A populist program encouraged mass adult education and support for the republic through a nationwide system of Peoples' Houses. Secularism was promoted, with the disestablishment of Islam as the state
religion, replacement of religious with secular institutions of education and justice, emancipation of women, adoption of modern Western clothing and Latin script, and enforcement of equality for all citizens regardless of religion.
_^<N__^<N_Initial attempts to develop the economy by encouraging private enterprise foundered because of inefficient management as well as the economic crisis of the 1930s; so Ataturk developed statism--state control of the basic means of
production through national banks. Friendly relations were maintained with Turkey's former subject peoples, now independent states or mandate territories, through a series of alliances. In the last years before his death, the rise of Italian
Fascism and German Nazism led Ataturk into close relations with Britain and France. _^<N__^<N_Stanford J. Shaw _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Kinross, Lord, Ataturk (1965); Volkan, V. D., and Itzkowitz, N., The Immortal Ataturk (1986); Webster, D. E., The
Turkey of Ataturk: Social Process in the Turkish Reformation (1939).
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925
CAT
-A-
ataxia
-T-
ataxia_^<N__^<N_{uh-tak'-see-uh} _^<N__^<N_Ataxia is an impairment of the ability to coordinate the muscles that move the body. The impairment can range from slight to severe--from a tendency to overshoot an object when reaching for it or to perform
precise tasks, to a great difficulty in walking or in maintaining balance, especially when the eyes are closed. An example is the staggering, widespread gait of some chronic alcoholics. Ataxia is caused by damage to one or more parts of the nervous
system responsible for muscle movement--the brain's cerebrum and cerebellum and the spinal cord--rather than to the muscles themselves. The damage may result from a physical injury, a brain tumor, or a degenerative disease of the nervous system
such as multiple sclerosis. It may also be associated with measles, smallpox, encephalitis, syphilis, and other infectious diseases, and it characterizes one form of cerebral palsy. _^<N__^<N_A. W. Dudley, M.D.
-END-
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27
CAT
-A-
Atchana, Tell:
-T-
Atchana, Tell:_^<N__^<N_see ALALAKH.
-END-
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316
CAT
-A-
Atchison
-T-
Atchison_^<N__^<N_Atchison (1990 census, 10,656) is a city in northeast Kansas. Located on the Missouri River, the city has been an important rail, river, and road terminal since the Atchison & Topeka Railroad was chartered in 1859. It is
surrounded by rich farmlands, and grain products and textiles are manufactured there.
-END-
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1234
CAT
-A-
Atget, Eugene
-T-
Atget, Eugene_^<N__^<N_{aht-gay'} _^<N__^<N_The French photographer Jean Eugene Atget, b. Feb. 12, 1857, d. Aug. 4, 1927, was virtually unknown in his lifetime, but is today considered one of the greatest photographers. He had been a sailor, an
actor, and a painter before he took up photography at the age of 40. Considered a documentary photographer, Atget sold thousands of his pictures of Paris to antiquarians and libraries. Inspired by an intellectually acute and loving curiosity for
the cultural history of France, he achieved a great intensity of personal expression. Atget often photographed the same site from different angles and at different times, thus demonstrating the malleability of photography: two pictures of one
subject can have quite different meanings. Attention was drawn to his work largely through the efforts of Berenice ABBOTT. _^<N__^<N_Peter Galassi _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Abbott, Berenice, The World of Atget (1964; repr., 1979; Atget, Jean
Eugene, A Vision of Paris: The Photographs of Eugene Atget: The Words of Marcel Proust, ed. by Arthur D. Trottenberg (1969; repr. 1980); Borcomann, J., Eugene Atget (1984); Nesbit, Molly, Atget's Seven Albums (1993); Szarkowsky, J., and
Hambourg, M. M., The Work of Atget, 4 vols. (1985).
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588
CAT
-A-
Athabasca, Lake
-T-
Athabasca, Lake_^<N__^<N_{ath-uh-bas'-kuh} _^<N__^<N_Lake Athabasca is in west central Canada and straddles the border between Alberta and Saskatchewan. The fourth largest lake in Canada, with the exception of the Great Lakes, it is 335 km (208 mi)
long from east to west and 8-56 km (5-35 mi) from north to south. A part of the Mackenzie River system, Athabasca is fed by the Athabasca and PEACE rivers on the southwest and is drained by the SLAVE RIVER to the northwest. Uranium City is on its
northern shore. The lake was discovered in 1771 by Samuel HEARNE. Its name is Cree for "where there are reeds."
-END-
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264
CAT
-A-
Athabasca River
-T-
Athabasca River_^<N__^<N_The Athabasca River, in Canada, is the most southerly tributary of the MACKENZIE RIVER. Rising in the COLUMBIA ICEFIELD in southwestern Alberta, it flows 1,231 km (765 mi) across the province to its northeast corner, where
it enters Lake Athabasca.
-END-
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28
CAT
-A-
Athanasian Creed:
-T-
Athanasian Creed:_^<N__^<N_see CREED.
-END-
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1997
CAT
-A-
Athanasius, Saint
-T-
Athanasius, Saint_^<N__^<N_{ath-uh-nay'-zhuhs} _^<N__^<N_Athanasius, b. c.295, d. 373, was bishop of Alexandria and a defender of the Christian faith during the 4th-century crisis of ARIANISM. He received a classical and theological education in
Alexandria, where he was also ordained deacon and appointed secretary to Bishop Alexander. As a theological expert at the Council of Nicaea, which gathered in 325 to condemn the Arian rejection of Christ's divinity, Athanasius defended the unity of
Christ as both God and man (see NICAEA, COUNCILS OF). In 328 he succeeded Alexander as bishop of the see over which he was to preside for 45 years. Seventeen of them were spent in exile, imposed on him on five separate occasions between 335 and
366, largely through the maneuverings of the Arianizing party. _^<N__^<N_Athanasius vigorously opposed the views of his Arian opponents in his writings in defense of Nicene orthodoxy. These were written for the most part between 336 and 359 and
include three Discourses Against the Arians (c.358). An earlier work, On the Incarnation of the Word (c.318), brought to its fullest expression the orthodox doctrine of redemption. His Life of St. Antony (c.356) is an important source for early
MONASTICISM. After his final restoration to office, Athanasius spent his last years in peace and died in 373. His feast day is May 2. _^<N__^<N_In reaction to those who denied both the full humanity and full divinity of Jesus Christ, Athanasius
explained how the LOGOS, the Word of God, was united with human nature and how his death and resurrection overcame death and sin. He worked out the implications of biblical passages on the INCARNATION and asserted the unity of the Logos and the
human nature in Christ. He held that if Christ were not one in being (homoousios, "having the same being") with God the Father, then SALVATION could not be possible; and if Christ were not fully man, then human nature could not be saved.
_^<N__^<N_Ross MacKenzie _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Cross, F. L., The Study of St. Athanasius (1945).
-END-
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4209
CAT
-A-
atheism
-T-
atheism_^<N__^<N_Atheism, from the Greek a ("without") and theos ("deity"), commonly and loosely refers to the theoretical or practical denial of the existence of a deity. The concrete meaning of atheism has varied considerably in history: even
the earliest Christians were labeled "atheists" because they denied the existence of the Roman deities. In Western culture, where monotheism has been the dominant mode of religious belief, atheism has generally referred to the denial of the
existence of a transcendent, perfect, personal creator of the universe. To be an atheist need not mean that one is nonreligious, for there are "high" religions, such as Buddhism and Taoism, that do not postulate the existence of a supernatural
being. Atheism should be distinguished from AGNOSTICISM, which means that one does not know whether or not a deity exists. _^<N__^<N_Monotheism has been so basic to and compounded with Western moral and philosophical beliefs as well as political
institutions that until recently atheism has been widely believed to be both immoral and dangerous to society. PLATO not only viewed atheism as irrational but argued that certain atheists deserved the death penalty. When Christianity finally
became the dominant religion in the West, atheism and heresy were thought to be worthy of exile or death because, as Thomas Aquinas argued, it was a much more serious matter to corrupt the soul than to damage the body. Atheism was also dangerous
to the political authority of Western monarchies that claimed to rest upon divine right. Even during the Enlightenment when the divine right of kings was challenged and religious toleration defended, John LOCKE, a staunch advocate of toleration,
denied free speech to atheists on the grounds that they undermined and destroyed religion. It was not until 1869 that atheists were permitted to give evidence in an English court of law, largely as a result of the efforts of Charles Bradlaugh, who
for a long time had not been permitted to take his seat in the House of Commons because of his beliefs. _^<N__^<N_The believability of atheism seems directly proportionate to the growth of the sciences and the emergence of humanism since the
Renaissance. In the 19th century the biological sciences seemed to make theological explanations of the origins of the universe and of the emergence of humankind unnecessary. Particularly important were the writings of David HUME and Immanuel
KANT, which established that attempts to prove the existence of God from the world order were invalid. In the mid-19th century, explicitly atheistic and humanistic systems of philosophy appeared. Ludwig FEUERBACH, Karl MARX, Arthur SCHOPENHAUER,
and Friedrich NIETZSCHE were not only atheists but also militant critics of religion generally and of Christianity particularly. In the 20th century there have been influential atheistic thinkers who were Marxists, existentialists, Freudians, and
logical positivists, although one may be any of these and not necessarily also an atheist. _^<N__^<N_Modern philosophical atheism is based on both theoretical and practical reasons. Theoretically, atheists argue either that there are no good
arguments for believing in the existence of a personal deity, whether this deity be conceived of anthropomorphically or metaphysically, or that the statement God exists is incoherent or meaningless. The last type of logical criticism of theism is
characteristic of logical positivism and analytic and linguistic philosophy. Practically, some atheists have argued, as did Nietzsche, that belief in a supernatural and supreme being requires a devaluation of this life; or, as FREUD did, that the
belief is an expression of infantile helplessness. _^<N__^<N_Van A. Harvey _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Berman, David, A History of Atheism in Britain (1987); Buckley, Michael J., At the Origins of Modern Atheism (1987); Feuerbach, Ludwig, The
Essence of Christianity, trans. by George Eliot (1957); Flew, Anthony, God and Philosophy (1966); Freud, Sigmund, The Future of an Illusion, trans. by James Strachey (1964); Nietzsche, Friedrich, The Gay Science, trans. by Walter Kaufmann
(1974); Turner, James, Without God, Without Creed: the Origins of Unbelief in America (1986).
-END-
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573
CAT
-A-
Athelstan, King of Wessex
-T-
Athelstan, King of Wessex_^<N__^<N_Athelstan, d. Oct. 27, 939, king of Wessex and Mercia (924-39), carried on the work of his grandfather, ALFRED, and father, EDWARD THE ELDER, in unifying the English kingdoms. He conquered (927) the Norse kingdom
of York and defeated (937) a coalition of Scots and Norse Irish at Brunanburh, a battle celebrated in the ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE. Athelstan's laws were aimed chiefly at the suppression of lawlessness. The king was well known in Europe and married
his sisters to several powerful princes, including the future Holy Roman emperor Otto I.
-END-
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1252
CAT
-A-
Athena
-T-
Athena_^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, Athena was the patron goddess of Athens and an important member of the Olympic pantheon. Born fully armed and from the forehead of the chief god, ZEUS, Athena was her father's favorite child. He entrusted her both
with the AEGIS, his breastplate, and with his terrible thunderbolt. _^<N__^<N_Athena's role as a goddess was varied. On the one hand, she was a major warrior figure, and most images depict her dressed in armor and holding a spear. In the ILIAD,
HOMER describes her as a fierce battle goddess who continually intervened on the side of the Greeks in the TROJAN WAR. On the other hand she took an interest in handicrafts and agriculture, and the olive tree, which she is said to have created, was
sacred to her. She was also noted for her wisdom and good sense; this explains her close association with the owl, an ancient symbol of wisdom and reason. _^<N__^<N_The most famous ancient temple to Athena was the PARTHENON, named for one of the
goddess's epithets, Parthenos ("the Maiden"), which still stands atop the ACROPOLIS in Athens. The interior of the Parthenon was once graced by a monumental statue of Athena Parthenos, sculpted by PHIDIAS (5th century BC), which served as the focal
point of the city cult. _^<N__^<N_C. Scott Littleton
-END-
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984
CAT
-A-
Athenagoras
-T-
Athenagoras_^<N__^<N_{ath-uh-nag'-uh-ruhs} _^<N__^<N_Athenagoras I, b. Vasilikon, Greece, Mar. 25, 1886, d. July 7, 1972, was the ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople (Istanbul) and honorary primate among the patriarchs of the ORTHODOX CHURCH from
1949 to 1971. His name was Aristokles Spyrou. After completing his theological studies in Istanbul, he returned to Greece, where he engaged in the priestly ministry. He was consecrated bishop of Corfu in 1922; in 1930 he was appointed head of the
Greek Archdiocese of North and South America. On Jan. 7, 1949, he was enthroned as patriarch. A brilliant and versatile personality, he responded to the ecumenical initiatives of Pope PAUL VI. After traveling to Jerusalem to meet (1964) the head of
Roman Catholicism, he also received the Pope in Istanbul (July 1967) and finally made a historic visit (October 1967) to Rome. He was the first Orthodox patriarch of recent history to engage in such far-reaching steps toward Christian unity.
_^<N__^<N_John Meyendorff
-END-
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397
CAT
-A-
Athens (Georgia)
-T-
Athens (Georgia)_^<N__^<N_Athens is a city in northeastern Georgia on the Oconee River. The city has a population of 45,734 (1990 census) and the metropolitan area has a population of 156,267 (1990 census). The seat of Clarke County, it was founded
in 1801 as the site of the University of Georgia. The city has many antebellum homes. Textiles, clocks, and electrical transformers are manufactured there.
-END-
-C-
5287
CATO
4805
-A-
Athens (Greece)
-O-
000000|Athens (Greece)
001347| The Contemporary City
003428| History
-T-
Athens (Greece)_^<N__^<N_Athens (Greek: Athinai) is the capital and largest city of Greece. It lies on a small plain that extends southward to the Saronic Gulf, a branch of the Aegean Sea. The city center is 11 km (7 mi) from the coast and is
served by the port of PIRAEUS, with which it forms a single metropolitan area. Greater Athens has an area of 427 sq km (165 sq mi) and a population of 3,027,331 (1981). The population of the city proper is 885,737 (1981). _^<N__^<N_Athens is
surrounded by mountains: Aigaleos to the west, Parnes to the north, Pentelikon to the northeast, and Hymettus to the east. Most are of limestone or marble, from which the ancient buildings of the city were constructed. The plain on which the
city lies contains isolated limestone hills, including Lykavittos, now called Hagios Georgios, which rises 339 m (1,112 ft) above the sea, and the flat-topped ACROPOLIS, 156 m (512 ft) high, around which the city grew. The city is on the Ilissus
River, which is dry for much of the year and carries abundant water only after winter storms. _^<N__^<N_The climate is typically Mediterranean. Summers are hot and dry, averaging 27 deg C (80 deg F) in July. Winters are mild, with a January
average of 18 deg C (52 deg F). Total annual rainfall is slight, about 408 mm (16 in), occurring mostly from October to March. Summers are almost entirely rainless. _^<N__^<N_ The Contemporary City_^<N__^<N_The predominantly Greek population of
Athens was swelled after 1921 by an influx of refugees expelled from Anatolia. At the same time the small number of Turks then residing in Athens departed. Most of the population adheres to the Greek Orthodox faith, and Athens is the seat of the
Orthodox primate of Greece. Athens is the center of the Greek government and the capital of the department of Attica. The old palace of the kings of Greece is now used to house the parliament. Athens is also the primary financial and commercial
center in Greece and is the focus of the road and rail systems. Much of the country's maritime trade takes place at the port of Piraeus. Athens has an international airport. Manufacturing industries have been developed primarily in and near
Piraeus. Light engineering, textiles, chemicals, and cement making are important, as are distilling, milling, tanning, tobacco preparation, oil refining, and the processing of local agricultural products. Tourism is also important.
_^<N__^<N_Athens is the principal cultural and educational center of Greece and has a university, founded in 1837, as well as professional schools. The city is noteworthy for its fine archaeological collections, especially those contained in the
National Archeological Museum. The city's most important cultural remains, however, are its numerous architectural monuments, dating from ancient times and later periods. Foremost among these is the ACROPOLIS, the ancient fortified hill on which
stand the ERECHTHEUM, PARTHENON, and Propylaea, all of the 5th century BC. To the south of the Acropolis are the THEATER of Dionysus and the Odeum of Herodes Atticus, and to the west, the AREOPAGUS (council chamber) in which St. Paul spoke. The
AGORA is partially excavated. The STOA, or colonnaded walk, of Attalos, which is located there, has been reconstructed and now holds a sizable collection of Greek antiquities. The city also contains a number of fine Orthodox churches of the
Byzantine period, including the 12th-century Little Metropolitan Church. _^<N__^<N_ History_^<N__^<N_The earliest settlement, dating from before 3000 BC, was situated on the summit of the Acropolis, protected on all sides except the west by its
steep slopes. Named for the city's patron goddess, ATHENA, the ancient city developed mainly to the north of this hill, around the Agora, or marketplace. Parallel walls, called the Long Walls, made a protected thoroughfare between the city and its
port of Piraeus. The most glorious period in the city's history was the 5th century BC, when it was the cultural and artistic center of the classical world. Although overshadowed by the rise of Rome, it remained a city of social and intellectual
importance during the Roman Empire. St. Paul visited Athens, and the Emperor Hadrian lavished money on its public buildings. _^<N__^<N_Thereafter the city declined in importance. It was subject to attack by Slavs and was reduced to a petty
provincial town in the Byzantine Empire. In 1204, Athens was occupied by the Crusaders and remained under Western rule until its capture by the Turks in 1456. Greece gained independence from the Turks in the war of 1821-32, and in 1833 Athens
became the capital of Greece. _^<N__^<N_In 1833, Athens was a small urban settlement of less than 4,000 people located north of the Acropolis in a district known today as the Plaka. Modern Athens developed to the north and east of the old city.
The architect Eduard Schaubert laid out a network of wide, straight boulevards that converge at Synragma (Constitution) Square and the Royal Palace, lying to the east of the early city. _^<N__^<N_Norman J. G. Pounds _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Fekete,
Irene, Athens (1966; repr. 1977); Horton, George, Modern Athens (1977); Meiggs, Russell, The Athenian Empire (1972; repr. 1979); Roberts, J. W., City of Sokrates (1984); Robinson, Charles A., Athens in the Age of Pericles (1959; repr.
1985).
-END-
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71
CAT
-A-
Athens, National Capodistrian University of:
-T-
Athens, National Capodistrian University of:_^<N__^<N_see EUROPEAN UNIVERSITIES.
-END-
-C-
3622
CAT
-A-
atherosclerosis
-T-
atherosclerosis_^<N__^<N_{ath-uh-roh-skluh-roh'-sis} _^<N__^<N_Atherosclerosis is a disorder of large and medium-sized arteries, most commonly the large CORONARY ARTERIES that supply the heart muscle with oxygen-rich blood. It is considered the
most familiar form of ARTERIOSCLEROSIS. _^<N__^<N_The disorder is characterized by a buildup of fatty deposits, called plaques, on the inner walls of the affected arteries. These yellowish plaques consist of materials such as CHOLESTEROL, LIPIDS,
and cellular debris. They lead to a loss of elasticity in the artery and to ischemia, or a narrowing of the blood's passageway. The resulting decrease in smooth blood flow may ultimately deprive a vital organ, such as the heart or brain, or its
blood supply. Loss of circulation to a limb may also occur. _^<N__^<N_Atherosclerosis is the most common cause of coronary HEART DISEASE, including HEART ATTACKS, and a number of other cardiac disorders. It is also a major cause of STROKE. Half
the mortality in Western society results from heart and blood-vessel diseases, of which atherosclerosis, the most common lethal disease, is the chief cause. _^<N__^<N_The incidence of atherosclerosis increases with age. Men show clinical
manifestations an average of 10 years earlier than women, and overt manifestations before the age of 40 occur almost entirely in men. Overt manifestations take time to occur because more than a 75 percent narrowing of arteries is required to
impede blood flow seriously. _^<N__^<N_The causes of the disorder are not yet fully understood, but certain characteristics called risk factors tend to be observed in persons prone to atherosclerosis. These include high blood pressure, or
HYPERTENSION, and high blood-cholesterol levels. Resistance to these factors appears to diminish with age, especially when accompanied by OBESITY and cigarette smoking. Atherosclerosis may also be manifested fairly rapidly in diseases such as
diabetes, in which the concentration of blood lipids is raised. _^<N__^<N_Diets rich in saturated fats and cholesterol are believed to promote atherosclerosis (see NUTRITION, HUMAN). Lipoproteins transport cholesterol in the blood, and low-density
lipoproteins (LDL) in particular seem to increase the accumulation of cholesterol in body tissues. A genetic factor also seems to play a role here, because persons with a low percentage of LDL receptors in their body tend to develop
atherosclerosis more frequently than do persons with a high percentage of the receptors, regardless of other life-styles. A deficiency in LDL receptors can also be acquired, however, from a high-cholesterol diet. Factors causing high blood
pressure are also important, since the atherosclerotic process is critically linked with high blood pressure and does not normally occur in low-pressure pulmonary arteries and veins. For this reason the excessive use of salt in the diet has also
been discouraged by many physicians. _^<N__^<N_Evidence suggests that a controlled diet, avoidance of smoking, more exercise, and hypertension control can, if implemented early enough, delay atherosclerosis in persons prone to the disease.
Anticholesterol drugs have also been developed (see LOVASTATIN). When arteries are clogged by plaques, physicians must resort to such techniques as coronary bypass surgery or ANGIOPLASTY in an effort to check the course of atherosclerosis.
_^<N__^<N_William B. Kannel _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Descovisch, G., and Lenzi, S., eds., Atherosclerosis (1982); Miller, N. E., Atherosclerosis (1984); Smith, Wynn, Cardiovascular Disease (1987); Vikhert, A. M., and Zhdanov, V. S., The
Effects of Various Diseases on the Development of Atherosclerosis (1981).
-END-
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427
CAT
-A-
Atherton, Gertrude Franklin
-T-
Atherton, Gertrude Franklin_^<N__^<N_The American author Gertrude Franklin Horn Atherton, b. San Francisco, Oct. 30, 1857, d. June 14, 1948, set her novels mainly in California. These include Before the Gringo Came (1894), The Californians (1898;
rev. ed. 1935), and The Horn of Life (1942). She is equally well known for her sensational novel Black Oxen (1923) and for The Conqueror (1902), a fictional biography of Alexander Hamilton.
-END-
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29
CAT
-A-
athlete's foot:
-T-
athlete's foot:_^<N__^<N_see RINGWORM.
-END-
-C-
30
CAT
-A-
athletics:
-T-
athletics:_^<N__^<N_see TRACK AND FIELD
-END-
-C-
1131
CAT
-A-
Athos, Mount
-T-
Athos, Mount_^<N__^<N_{ath'-ohs} _^<N__^<N_Mount Athos is in northeastern Greece at the eastern end of Acte (Akti) Peninsula, the easternmost of the three projections of the Chalcidice Peninsula on the Aegean Sea. The Holy Mountain (Ayion Oros) of
the Greek Orthodox church, it is 2,033 m (6,670 ft) high. The mountain and the surrounding area, 48 km (30 mi) long and 10 km (6 mi) wide, make up the theocratic republic of Mount Athos--an autonomous monastic district inhabited by 3,000 monks from
20 monasteries. Monastic communities of the rule of St. BASIL, a code still followed by monks of the Greek Orthodox church, were first established on the mountain in the 10th century. Nineteen monasteries were built during the 10th through the 13th
centuries; the 20th and last monastery was founded in 1540. Mount Athos was pillaged by Crusaders in the 13th century and was again damaged during the 19th-century Turkish occupation. The district declared its independence in 1913 and became a
theocratic republic under Greece in 1927. No women or female animals are allowed to enter the district, although recently male tourists have been welcomed here.
-END-
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666
CAT
-A-
Atkinson, Brooks
-T-
Atkinson, Brooks_^<N__^<N_Brooks Atkinson, b. Nov. 28, 1894, d. Jan. 13, 1984, was the principal drama critic for The New York Times from 1925 to 1960. His reviews and observations, collected in Broadway Scrapbook (1947), Broadway (1970), and The
Lively Years (1973), chronicle the development of the American theater from its parochial beginnings to its modern status as a sophisticated institution. In 1962, Atkinson received a special TONY AWARD for lifetime achievement in the theater. From
1942 to 1946 he left the drama desk to be a Times correspondent in Chungking and Moscow; he won a 1947 Pulitzer Prize for journalism for his reporting from the USSR. _^<N__^<N_Colette Brooks
-END-
-C-
3376
CATO
-A-
Atlanta
-O-
000000|Atlanta
000424| Contemporary City
002025| History
-T-
Atlanta_^<N__^<N_Atlanta, the capital of Georgia and seat of Fulton County, is the transportation, commercial, and financial center of the southeastern United States. It has a population of 394,017 (1990 census). Atlanta is located in north
central Georgia in the rolling foothills of the Blue Ridge Mountains. The city's relatively high elevation (320 m/1,050 ft) creates moderate summer weather and four climatically distinct seasons. _^<N__^<N_ Contemporary City_^<N__^<N_Atlanta's
metropolitan area has a population of 2,833,511 (1990 census). More than two-thirds of the residents of the city are black. The city itself, which has grown rapidly in the 20th century, showed the first signs of declining population in the
mid-1970s, and between 1980 and 1990 declined by 7.3%; the suburbs have continued to grow. Tied to the booming economy of the metropolitan area is the development of MARTA, Atlanta's rail rapid transit system. _^<N__^<N_Atlanta's excellent
transportation facilities (it owes its location to a railroad rather than a river) have attracted numerous industries. The most important of them manufacture automobiles, airplanes, soft drinks, and textiles. Nevertheless, distribution
(wholesaling, warehousing, trucking) remains the major economic activity. Atlanta has many corporate regional headquarters and has become the center of federal government activity in the Southeast. Hartsfield Atlanta International Airport is one
of the country's major airports. _^<N__^<N_Among the city's major institutions of higher education are Georgia State University (1913), Georgia Institute of Technology (1885); Atlanta University (1865), and Emory University (1836). The Robert W.
Woodruff Arts Center houses a theater company, a symphony orchestra, the Atlanta College of Art, and the High Museum of Art. Other places of interest are the Martin Luther King, Jr. National Historic Site, the museum of the Jimmy Carter
presidential library, and Grant Park, which has the city zoo and Cyclorama, a Civil War memorial. Stone Mountain state park is nearby. _^<N__^<N_ History_^<N__^<N_In 1821, Creek Indians ceded land, including the future site of Atlanta, to the
state of Georgia. The city sprang up at the southern end of a railroad built (1837) from Chattanooga, Tenn., and was originally called Terminus. Renamed Marthasville in 1843, it was incorporated as a city in 1847, at which time it received its
present name. During the Civil War, Atlanta was, because of its rail connections, a major Confederate supply station. It was occupied by Union forces under Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman on Sept. 1, 1864, and most of its buildings were burned on
November 15 (see ATLANTA CAMPAIGN). Sherman's assertion that the burning of the city would enable it to become a great city of the future eventually proved to be true. _^<N__^<N_After the Civil War, Atlanta regained its position as transportation
center of the Southeast. It has served as the state capital since 1868 and was made permanent capital in 1877. In the 20th century the city has actively sought new industries and businesses and has been the leading Southern city in instituting
civil rights legislation. In 1990, Atlanta was selected as the site of the 1996 Summer Olympic Games. _^<N__^<N_Truman A. Hartshorn _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Garrison, W., The Legacy of Atlanta (1987); Shavin, Norman, The Atlanta Century (1982;
repr. 1986), and Atlanta Then, Atlanta Now (1984).
-END-
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1324
CAT
-A-
Atlanta campaign
-T-
Atlanta campaign_^<N__^<N_The Atlanta campaign in the Civil War began on May 5, 1864, when Gen. William T. SHERMAN, with more than 100,000 Federal troops, advanced from Chattanooga, Tenn., against a Confederate force of some 65,000 under Gen.
Joseph E. JOHNSTON. Sherman's advance was part of a coordinated Federal drive against the two main Confederate armies in the field in 1864; this drive by George G. Meade against Robert E. Lee and Sherman against Johnston was designed to end the
war. _^<N__^<N_Johnston began one of the great retreats in history, parrying when he could, stalling everywhere, threatening on good ground, evading every trap, backing up with guns and men intact until, at last, he looked down on Sherman's legions
from defenses atop Kennesaw Mountain, northwest of Atlanta. There Sherman was checked (June 27), but he flanked the Confederates and besieged Atlanta by the end of July 1864. Johnston was relieved of command on July 17. His replacement was Gen.
John B. HOOD, whose more reckless tactics failed to halt Sherman's advance. Hood evacuated Atlanta during the night of August 31, and Sherman moved in the next day. _^<N__^<N_Frank E. Vandiver _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Castel, Albert, The Atlanta
Campaign of 1864 (1992); Connelly, Thomas L., Autumn of Glory (1971); McCarley, J. B., et al., The Atlanta Campaign (1989).
-END-
-C-
1024
CAT
-A-
Atlantic cable
-T-
Atlantic cable_^<N__^<N_The first transatlantic telegraph cable was completed in 1858, largely through the persistence of Cyrus W. FIELD, its American promoter. The cable stretched across the ocean floor between Trinity Bay, Newfoundland, and
Valencia, Ireland. On Aug. 5, 1858, Queen Victoria sent the first official transatlantic message--to President James Buchanan. The cable's current was so weak, however, that the transmission of her 90 words took 67 minutes. Three weeks later
the cable's insulation failed. Efforts to lay a new cable succeeded only in 1866, when Field used the largest steamship of its time, the GREAT EASTERN, to pay out the 3,432 km (2,133 mi) of cable. _^<N__^<N_Transatlantic telephone transmission was
not accomplished until 1956. since that year, numerous telephone CABLES have been laid under most of the world's oceans and seas. The first transatlantic FIBER OPTICS cable, completed in 1988, can carry 40,000 calls simultaneously.
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Judson, I.F., ed., Cyrus W. Field (1896; repr. 1972).
-END-
-C-
959
CAT
-A-
Atlantic Charter
-T-
Atlantic Charter_^<N__^<N_The Atlantic Charter was an Anglo-American statement of common principles issued on Aug. 14, 1941, by President Franklin D. ROOSEVELT and Prime Minister Winston CHURCHILL. They had conferred for four days (August 9-12)
aboard the U.S.S. Augusta off Newfoundland. Although the United States had not yet entered World War II, the statement became an unofficial manifesto of American and British aims in war and peace. The charter enunciated eight principles: (1)
renunciation of territorial aggression; (2) no territorial changes without consent of the peoples concerned; (3) restoration of sovereign rights and self-government; (4) access to raw materials for all nations; (5) world economic cooperation; (6)
freedom from fear and want; (7) freedom of the seas; and (8) disarmament of aggressors. The charter's principles were endorsed by 26 allies in the United Nations Declaration signed in Washington, D.C., on Jan. 1, 1942. _^<N__^<N_Louis L. Snyder
-END-
-C-
1699
CAT
-A-
Atlantic City
-T-
Atlantic City_^<N__^<N_Atlantic City is a resort and convention center in southeastern New Jersey. It has a population of 37,986 (1990 census), and a metropolitan population of 319,416. The city lies along the Atlantic Ocean on Absecon Beach, a
low, sandy barrier island, and is separated from the mainland by a narrow strait. The economy of the city is based almost entirely on tourism, although it is supplemented by the shipping of seafood. Atlantic City has a moderate climate. The
average temperature is 1 deg C (33 deg F) in January and 24 deg C (75 deg F) in July; average annual rainfall is 1,050 mm (41 in). _^<N__^<N_Permanent settlement of Absecon Beach began in the late 18th century. In 1852, largely through the
efforts of Dr. Jonathan Pitney, a local physician, the city became the eastern terminus of the Camden and Atlantic Railroad and began its role as a resort city. The first boardwalk was constructed in 1870, and the first pier, jutting from the
boardwalk over the ocean, was built in 1882. The Miss America Pageant was established there in 1921 and has been held annually since (with the exception of 1928-35). With the increase of air travel to other resorts after World War II, Atlantic
City experienced a continuous and serious decline in tourist activities. In 1976, however, legalized gambling for the city was approved by state referendum. The first casino opened in 1978, and by 1991, 12 casinos were in operation there. The
casinos provided jobs and helped the economy of the surrounding area, but they did little to halt the decline of Atlantic City's poorer neighborhoods. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Funnell, C.E., By the Beautiful Sea (1983); Pollock, M., Hostage to
Fortune (1987).
-END-
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630
CAT
-A-
Atlantic Monthly
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Atlantic Monthly_^<N__^<N_The Atlantic Monthly, founded in Boston in 1857, was primarily a literary magazine through much of its lifetime, but in recent decades it has shifted its emphasis to public affairs. James Russell LOWELL and William Dean
HOWELLS were its most distinguished editors. Contributors have included Harriet Beecher Stowe, Mark Twain, and Henry James in the 19th century and Norman Mailer, John Kenneth Galbraith, and Donald Barthelme in recent years. _^<N__^<N_Calder M.
Pickett _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Atlantic Monthly Press, One Hundred Nineteen Years of the Atlantic (1977); Sedgewick, E., ed., Atlantic Harvest (1947; repr. 1983).
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Atlantic Ocean
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000000|Atlantic Ocean
002336| OCEAN BOTTOM
004843| WATER CHARACTERISTICS
006609| CLIMATE
007969| HISTORY AND ECONOMY
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Atlantic Ocean_^<N__^<N_The Atlantic Ocean, second largest of the world's oceans, occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending in a north-south direction and is divided into the North Atlantic and South Atlantic by EQUATORIAL COUNTERCURRENTS at
about 8 deg north latitude. Bounded by North and South America on the west and Europe and Africa on the east, the Atlantic is linked to the Pacific Ocean by the Arctic Ocean on the north and the Drake Passage on the south. An artificial
connection between the Atlantic and Pacific is also provided by the Panama Canal. On the east, the dividing line between the Atlantic and the Indian oceans is the 20 deg E meridian. The Atlantic is separated from the Arctic Ocean by a line from
Greenland to southernmost Spitsbergen to northern Norway. _^<N__^<N_Covering approximately 20% of the Earth's surface, the Atlantic Ocean is second only to the Pacific in size. The name is derived from Greek mythology and means "Sea of Atlas."
With its adjacent seas it occupies an area of about 106,450,000 sq km (41,100,000 sq mi); without them, it has an area of 82,362,000 sq km (31,800,000 sq mi). The land area that drains into the Atlantic is four times that of either the Pacific or
Indian oceans. The volume of the Atlantic Ocean with its adjacent seas is 354,700,000 km(3) (85,093,000 mi(3)) and without them 323,600,000 km(3) (77,632,000 mi(3)). _^<N__^<N_The average depth of the Atlantic, with its adjacent seas, is 3,332 m
(10,932 ft); without them it is 3,926 m (12,877 ft). The greatest depth, 8,381 m (27,498 ft), is in the Puerto Rico Trench. The width of the Atlantic varies from 2,848 km (1,769 mi) between Brazil and Liberia to about 4,830 km (3,000 mi) between
the United States and northern Africa. _^<N__^<N_The Atlantic Ocean has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. These include the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Gulf of St. Lawrence, Hudson Bay, Baffin Bay, Mediterranean Sea,
Black Sea, North Sea, Baltic Sea, Barents Sea, Norwegian-Greenland Sea, and Weddell Sea. Another characteristic feature is its relatively small number of islands. These include Svalbard, Greenland, Iceland, the British Isles, the Azores, the
Madeira Islands, the Canaries, the Cape Verde Islands, Bermuda, the West Indies Ascension, St. Helena, Tristan da Cunha, the Falkland Islands, and the South Georgia Islands. _^<N__^<N_ OCEAN BOTTOM_^<N__^<N_The principal feature of the bottom
topography of the Atlantic Ocean is a great submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It extends from Iceland in the north to approximately 58 deg south latitude, reaching a maximum width of about 1,600 km (1,000 mi). A great RIFT
VALLEY also extends along the ridge over most of its length. The depth of water over the ridge is less than 2,700 m (8,900 ft) in most places, and several mountain peaks rise above the water, forming islands. The South Atlantic Ocean has an
additional submarine ridge, the Walvis Ridge. _^<N__^<N_The Mid-Atlantic Ridge separates the Atlantic Ocean into two large troughs with depths averaging between 3,660 and 5,485 m (12,000 and 18,000 ft). Transverse ridges running between the
continents and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge divide the ocean floor into numerous basins. Some of the larger basins are the Guiana, North American, Cape Verde, and Canaries basins in the North Atlantic. The largest South Atlantic basins are the Angola,
Cape, Argentina, and Brazil basins. _^<N__^<N_The deep ocean floor is thought to be fairly flat, although numerous SEAMOUNTS and some guyots exist. Several deeps or trenches are also found on the ocean floor. The Puerto Rico Trench, in the North
Atlantic, is the deepest. In the south Atlantic, the South Sandwich Trench, reaches a depth of 8,428 m (27,651 ft). A third major trench, the Romanche Trench, is located near the equator and reaches a depth of about 7,760 m (24,455 ft). The
shelves along the margins of the continents constitute about 11% of the bottom topography. In addition, a number of deep channels cut across the continental rise. _^<N__^<N_Ocean sediments are composed of terrigenous, pelagic, and authigenic
material. Terrigenous deposits consist of sand, mud, and rock particles formed by erosion, weathering, and volcanic activity on land and then washed to sea. These materials are largely found on the CONTINENTAL SHELVES and are thickest off the
mouths of large rivers or off desert coasts. Pelagic deposits, which contain the remains of organisms that sink to the ocean floor, include red clays and Globigerina, pteropod, and siliceous OOZES. Covering most of the ocean floor and ranging in
thickness from 60 m (200 ft) to 3,300 m (10,900 ft), they are thickest in the convergence belts and in the zones of UPWELLING. Authigenic deposits consist of such materials as MANGANESE NODULES. They occur where sedimentation proceeds slowly or
where currents sort the deposits. _^<N__^<N_ WATER CHARACTERISTICS_^<N__^<N_The salinity of the surface waters in the open ocean ranges from 33 to 37 parts per thousand and varies with latitude and season. Although the minimum salinity values are
found just north of the equator, in general the lowest values are in the high latitudes and along coasts where large rivers flow into the ocean. Maximum salinity values occur at about 25 deg north latitude. Surface salinity values are influenced
by evaporation, precipitation, river inflow, and melting of sea ice. _^<N__^<N_Surface water temperatures, which vary with latitude, current systems, and season and reflect the latitudinal distribution of solar energy, range from less than 2 deg to
29 deg C (28 deg to 84 deg F). Maximum temperatures occur north of the equator, and minimum values are found in the polar regions. In the middle latitudes the area of maximum temperature variations, values may vary by 7 deg to 8 deg C (12.6 deg
to 14.4 deg F). _^<N__^<N_The Atlantic Ocean consists of four major water masses. The North and South Atlantic central waters constitute the surface waters. The sub-Antarctic intermediate water extends to depths of 1,000 m (3,300 ft). The North
Atlantic deep water reaches depths of as much as 4,000 m (13,200 ft). The Antarctic bottom water occupies ocean basins at depths greater than 4,000 m (13,200 ft). _^<N__^<N_Water in the North Atlantic circulates in a clockwise direction, whereas
water circulation in the South Atlantic is counterclockwise--a reflection of the Coriolis force (see OCEAN CURRENTS). The South TIDES in the Atlantic Ocean are semidiurnal; that is, two high tides occur during each 24 lunar hours. The tides are
a general wave that moves from south to north. In latitudes above 40 deg north some east-west oscillation occurs. _^<N__^<N_ CLIMATE_^<N__^<N_The climate of the Atlantic Ocean and adjacent land areas is influenced by the temperatures of the
surface waters and water currents as well as the winds blowing across the waters. Because of the oceans' great capacity for retaining heat, MARITIME CLIMATES are moderate and free of extreme seasonal variations. Precipitation can be approximated
from coastal weather data and air temperature from the water temperatures. The oceans are the major source of the atmospheric moisture that is obtained through evaporation. Climatic zones vary with latitude; the warmest climatic zones stretch
across the Atlantic north of the equator. The coldest zones are in the high latitudes, with the coldest regions corresponding to the areas covered by sea ice. Ocean currents contribute to climatic control by transporting warm and cold waters to
other regions. Adjacent land areas are affected by the winds that are cooled or warmed when blowing over these currents. The Gulf Stream, for example, warms the atmosphere of the British Isles and northwestern Europe, and the cold water currents
contribute to heavy fog off the coast of northeastern Canada (the Grand Banks area) and the northwestern coast of Africa. In general winds tend to transport moisture and warm or cool air over land areas. Hurricanes develop in the southwestern
North Atlantic Ocean. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY AND ECONOMY_^<N__^<N_The Atlantic Ocean appears to be the youngest of the world's oceans. Evidence indicates that it did not exist prior to 100 million years ago, when the continents that formed from the
breakup of the ancestral supercontinent, Pangaea, were being rafted apart by the process of SEAFLOOR SPREADING. The Atlantic has been extensively explored since the earliest settlements were established along its shores. The Vikings, Portuguese,
and Christopher Columbus were the most famous among its early explorers. After Columbus, European exploration rapidly accelerated, and many new trade routes were established. As a result, the Atlantic became and remains the major artery between
Europe and the Americas. Numerous scientific explorations have been undertaken, including those by the German Meteor expedition, Columbia University's Lamont Geological Observatory, and the U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office. _^<N__^<N_The ocean has
also contributed significantly to the development and economy of the countries around it. Besides its major transportation and communication routes, the Atlantic offers abundant petroleum deposits in the sedimentary rocks of the continental
shelves and the world's richest fishing resources, especially in the waters covering the shelves. The major species of fish caught are cod, haddock, hake, herring, and mackerel. The most productive areas include the GRAND BANKS off Newfoundland,
the shelf area off Nova Scotia, Georges Bank off Cape Cod, the Bahama Banks, the waters around Iceland, the Irish Sea, the DOGGER BANK of the North Sea, and the Falkland Banks. Eel, lobster, and whales are also taken in great quantities. All
these factors, taken together, tremendously enhance the Atlantic's great commercial value. Because of the threats to the ocean environment presented by OIL SPILLS, plastic debris, and the incineration of toxic wastes at sea, various international
treaties exist to reduce some forms of POLLUTION. _^<N__^<N_Peter P. Sakalowsky, Jr. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Barton, Robert, Atlas of the Sea (1974); Cassidy, Vincent H., The Sea Around Them: The Atlantic Ocean, A.D. 1250 (1968); Emery, K. O.,
and Uchupi, E., The Geology of the Atlantic Ocean (1984); Fairbridge, Rhodes W., ed., Encyclopedia of Oceanography (1975); George, Kay F., The Atlantic Ocean: History and Oceanography of the Bridge between Two Worlds (1977); Harvey, J. G., The
Ocean and Atmosphere: Our Fluid Environment (1976); Huxley, Anthony, ed., Standard Encyclopedia of the World's Oceans and Islands (1962); Klenova, M. V., ed., Oceanographic Research in the Atlantic (1967). _^<N__^<N_See also: CONTINENTAL DRIFT;
Atlantis_^<N__^<N_In Greek legend, Atlantis was thought to be a large island in the Atlantic Ocean west of the PILLARS OF HERCULES. The seat of an ancient and advanced civilization, Atlantis and its people were supposedly destroyed by an earthquake.
The sources of many Atlantis legends are the two dialogues of PLATO in the Timaeus and the Critias. In the Timaeus, Plato recounts the story of Egyptian priests who 200 years earlier had reportedly described Atlantis as a powerful island empire
seeking to dominate the Mediterranean world more than 9,000 years before Plato's time. The grandiose, expansionist plans of the Atlantans were ended only when their army was defeated by Athens. Shortly afterward, an earthquake caused Atlantis to
sink beneath the ocean. In the Critias, Plato characterizes Atlantis as possessing an ideal political system. _^<N__^<N_Later writers were interested in the legend of Atlantis. Many theories suggesting the exact location of the lost island have
been advanced, and the nature of its utopian political system has been discussed extensively. Some writers have speculated that the present-day American Indians migrated from the Old World to the New by way of Atlantis. Although traditional
accounts of Atlantis have been proved false, some archaeologists speculate that the Atlantis legend may have originated with the volcanic eruption that destroyed a highly civilized Minoan town on the island of THERA (Thira) in the Aegean Sea about
1450 BC. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bowman, J. S., The Quest for Atlantis (1971); Forsyth, P. Y., Atlantis: The Making of Myth (1980); Galanopoulos, George A., and Bacon, Edward, Atlantis: The Truth Behind the Legend (1969); Muck, Otto, The
Secret of Atlantis (1978).
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Atlas (missile)
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Atlas (missile)_^<N__^<N_The Atlas was the first U.S. intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), produced in the 1950s to counter the threat posed by the Soviet development of large ballistic missiles. Its design profited from the thermonuclear
breakthrough of 1954, which led to warheads of lighter weight. Atlas rockets also played a prominent role in the U.S. space program. The Atlas ICBM stood 25.14 m (82.5 ft) high and had a diameter of 3.05 m (10 ft). The lift-off weight was about
120,600 kg (266,000 lb). The range exceeded 14,484 km (9,000 mi). _^<N__^<N_Attached to the base of the Atlas structure was a gimbal-mounted Rocketdyne LR-105 engine of 25,855-kg (57,000-lb) thrust, which operated in conjunction with two
453-kg-thrust (1,000-lb) swivelling motors used for roll control and vernier adjustment of velocity. _^<N__^<N_Two Rocketdyne LR-89 boost engines burned at takeoff in conjunction with the central sustainer. Each of these 74,844-kg-thrust
(165,000-lb) engines operated for about 145 seconds before separating. The central Atlas engine continued to burn for a total of about 270 seconds. All the engines drew their liquid oxygen-kerosene (RP-1) propellants from common tanks in the
sustainer. GUIDANCE depended on an inertial system that deflected the main engines in conjunction with the two roll jets. _^<N__^<N_The first launchings of Atlas took place at Cape Canaveral in 1957, but only the third launch on Aug. 2, 1958, was
a complete success, the missile traveling about 4,023 km (2,500 mi) downrange. The operational Atlas-D was flight-tested from the Pacific Test Range in California, between April and August 1959, and improved versions--Atlas E and F--were test
launched in 1960 and 1961, respectively. Some operational missiles were contained in coffinlike shelters from which they were raised to a vertical position for launch. The increasing vulnerability of launch sites to Soviet ICBMs led to the
construction of an underground silo in which Atlas F was fueled, serviced, and elevated to the surface only for launching. _^<N__^<N_In December 1958 an Atlas main-stage in orbit broadcast a recorded Christmas message by President Eisenhower,
marking a significant step in satellite communications. Atlas was also responsible for launching America's MERCURY PROGRAM astronauts into orbit in 1962 and 1963. The missile also launched Lockheed AGENA rocket stages for the U.S. Air Force and
NASA. In a subsequent development, the LO(2)/LH(2) CENTAUR stage was mounted atop a modified Atlas D to provide a versatile, high-energy launch vehicle. _^<N__^<N_Kenneth Gatland _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Beard, Edmund, Developing the ICBM (1976);
Gatland, Kenneth, Missiles and Rockets (1975). _^<N__^<N_See also: ROCKETS AND MISSILES.
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Atlas (mythology)
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Atlas (mythology)_^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, Atlas was a TITAN who bore the weight of the sky on his shoulders as a punishment for warring against ZEUS. After the Titans were defeated by the Olympian gods, Atlas was sentenced to support the sky
on his shoulders. He was the father of the HESPERIDES, who guarded the golden apples.
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atlas (book of maps)
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atlas (book of maps)_^<N__^<N_An atlas is a book of maps or charts that may include either a specific region or the entire world. It may also contain thematic information for the subject region on such topics as climate, geology, vegetation, or
population. Abraham ORTELIUS's Theatrum orbis terrarum (1570) is generally considered to be the first modern atlas. Its name dates from the 16th century, when Gerardus MERCATOR called his collection of maps an atlas and used the figure of Atlas,
the Titan, supporting the world on his shoulders, on a cover for books of maps.
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Atlas Mountains
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Atlas Mountains_^<N__^<N_The Atlas Mountains are a system of mountain ranges and plateaus in North Africa that extend across Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. They have a length of about 2,410 km (1,500 mi), extending from the Atlantic Ocean (where the
Canary Islands are their westernmost outcrop) to northeastern Tunisia on the Mediterranean Sea. The highest peak is Toubkal in southwestern Morocco, which reaches a height of 4,165 m (13,665 ft). The Atlas Mountains are separated from the Sierra
Nevada of Spain by the Strait of Gibraltar and from the Apennines of Italy by the Mediterranean. The Atlas system is related to the European Alpine system, both having been formed by the movements of the continents of Europe and Africa toward each
other during the late Jurassic Period (190-140 million years ago). _^<N__^<N_The ranges of the Atlas occur in two parallel groups: a coastal group that faces the sea and an interior group that faces the Sahara. The coastal group includes, from west
to east, the Great, or High, Atlas in Morocco; the Middle Atlas in Morocco; and the Tell, or Maritime, Atlas, which begins in eastern Morocco and extends across Algeria and Tunisia. The interior group includes the Anti-Atlas range, which is roughly
parallel to the Great Atlas; and the Saharan Atlas, which includes the Aures Mountains in Algeria and Tunisia. _^<N__^<N_The Atlas Mountains act as a climatic divide between the moderately moist Mediterranean zone and the arid Saharan zone. They
are, in addition, a distinctive bioclimatic unit themselves, although temperature, rainfall, and vegetation vary widely along the course of the mountains. Average annual rainfall ranges from 255 to 510 mm (10 to 20 in), and the mean average
temperature is 16 deg C (60 deg F). The areas with higher rainfall sustain forests (including cedars, oak, and cork), livestock raising (principally sheep and goats), and agriculture. The ranges are rich in minerals, including coal, manganese,
copper, iron, lead, cobalt, zinc, and phosphates. The principal inhabitants of the Atlas Mountains are the BERBERS. The spectacular scenery of the Atlas Mountains and the equable climate have contributed to making tourism an increasingly important
industry.
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atmosphere
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000000|atmosphere
000422| History of Studies
002736| COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE
005803| Stratification and Static Stability
009213| Moist Processes
011611| Radiation and Energy Transfer
014609| CIRCULATION
020440| Weather Disturbances
023190| Human Impacts
026269| THE ORIGIN OF THE ATMOSPHERE
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atmosphere_^<N__^<N_The atmosphere is the nearly transparent envelope of gases and suspended particles that surrounds the Earth, profoundly influencing environmental conditions on the planet's surface. Without chemical processes involving several of
the atmospheric gases, life could not exist. The physical processes that operate in the atmosphere are also of vital importance because they are responsible for the Earth's varied climates. _^<N__^<N_ History of Studies_^<N__^<N_Wind vanes were
known to the ancient Chinese and Egyptians, and an atmospheric observatory, the Tower of the Winds, was built by the Greeks in the 2d century BC. Aristotle's interpretations of atmospheric phenomena in his Meteorologica, written about 340 BC,
dominated Western thinking for almost 2,000 years (until the end of the 16th century). _^<N__^<N_Modern study of the atmosphere began with the invention of the thermometer (c.1600) by GALILEO and of the barometer (1643) by TORRICELLI. Early
scientists quickly discovered that weather conditions are related to pressure changes, and by the end of the 17th century, records of atmospheric conditions were being kept at many locations. Using such records, Benjamin FRANKLIN first deduced
(1743) that storms are traveling systems, but this discovery could not result in useful weather forecasts until the telegraph was invented in the 1850s. _^<N__^<N_During the latter half of the 19th century, BALLOONS were used to probe the upper
levels of the atmosphere. These efforts culminated in the discovery (1899) of the STRATOSPHERE by a French meteorologist, Teisserenc de Bort. With the development in 1927 of the radiosonde (an inexpensive balloon-borne instrument package radioing
back to Earth information on upper-level temperature, pressure, and humidity), systematic mapping of the atmosphere's structure and circulation began. _^<N__^<N_At about the same time the theory that cyclonic storms arise from disturbances in polar
fronts was developed by the Bergen school of meteorologists in Norway. Further key theoretical advances were made during the 1930s and '40s by Carl-Gustaf Rossby, a Swedish-American meteorologist who clarified the role of traveling weather
disturbances in the circulation of the atmosphere as a whole. During World War II, bomber pilots discovered JET STREAMS, narrow "rivers" of high-speed winds encircling the globe at altitudes of approximately 10 km (6 mi). With the launching
(1960) of the first weather satellite, Tiros I, scientists were able for the first time to obtain a truly global view of the atmosphere. The concurrent development of high-speed computers has made it possible to construct mathematical models of
complex atmospheric processes and to forecast the weather with increasing accuracy by numerical methods. _^<N__^<N_ COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE_^<N__^<N_Many of the physical and chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere are directly related to
its composition. The atmosphere is now composed almost entirely of oxygen and nitrogen in their diatomic forms (two atoms bound together by chemical forces). Diatomic nitrogen accounts for approximately 78% of the total molecules in the
atmosphere, and diatomic oxygen represents nearly 21%. The inert noble gas, argon, accounts for about 0.9%, and the remaining 0.1% is composed of many trace gases, the most significant of which are carbon dioxide and water vapor.
_^<N__^<N_Although carbon dioxide makes up only 325 parts per million of the atmosphere by volume, it is vital in maintaining the Earth-atmosphere system's heat balance because it strongly absorbs infrared (thermal) radiation. Water vapor, which
is present in highly variable quantities ranging from 0 to 4% by volume, also absorbs considerable infrared radiation and, additionally, is an essential link in the HYDROLOGIC CYCLE. Another important trace gas is the triatomic form of oxygen,
ozone, which is concentrated in a layer centered at about 25 km (16 mi) above the surface. Although present in maximum concentrations of only about 12 parts per million, ozone absorbs radiation in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum so
effectively that the OZONE LAYER can almost completely shield life on Earth from harmful ultraviolet rays. _^<N__^<N_Meteorologists usually divide the atmosphere into four layers. In order of increasing elevation these are the TROPOSPHERE, the
stratosphere, the MESOSPHERE, and the THERMOSPHERE. Each has a different temperature range. Temperatures decrease with altitude in the troposphere and mesosphere and increase with altitude in the stratosphere and thermosphere. The troposphere
and stratosphere are separated by the TROPOPAUSE, a level of minimum temperature that varies in altitude from about 16 km (10 mi) near the equator to 9 km (5 mi) near the poles. The stratosphere and mesosphere are separated by the stratopause, a
level of temperature maximum at an altitude near 50 km (30 mi). The mesosphere and thermosphere are in turn separated by a temperature minimum, the mesopause, which occurs near 80 km (50 mi). These temperature layers are created primarily by the
selective absorption of SOLAR RADIATION at various levels in the atmosphere. Radiation in the extreme ultraviolet (wavelength less than 100 nanometers) is absorbed by atoms of oxygen above 100 km (60 mi). This process not only maintains the high
temperatures of the thermosphere but also produces electrically charged particles, called ions. For this reason the region of the atmosphere above 80 km (50 mi) is also referred to as the IONOSPHERE. Ultraviolet radiation of somewhat longer
wavelengths (200-300 nanometers) penetrates into the stratosphere, where it is absorbed by ozone to produce the temperature maximum near 50 km (30 mi). Visible radiation, on the other hand, penetrates to the surface of the Earth and produces the
temperature maximum at the ground level. _^<N__^<N_ Stratification and Static Stability_^<N__^<N_Temperature distribution is not alone in determining the state of the atmosphere. Pressure and density also are important. Atmospheric pressure,
usually expressed in units called millibars, is the force that the total mass of air in an imaginary vertical column exerts on a given horizontal area of the Earth's surface. Standard sea-level pressure, 1,013.25 millibars, is equivalent to the
pressure exerted by a column of mercury 760 mm (30 in) high. If, like water, the atmosphere were incompressible, pressure would decrease uniformly with height, and the atmosphere, like the ocean, would have a definite upper limit. In reality the
atmosphere is compressible; that is, density (mass per unit volume) is proportional to pressure. This relationship, called BOYLE'S LAW, implies that density decreases with height in the atmosphere: as height increases, less mass remains above a
given point; therefore less pressure is exerted. At sea level the density of air is about 1 kg per cu m (8 oz per cu ft). Both pressure and density decrease by about a factor of 10 for every 16 km (10 mi) increase in altitude. _^<N__^<N_Density
does not depend only on pressure; for a given pressure, it is inversely proportional to temperature. This relationship, known as Charles's law, implies that the depth of an air column bounded by two constant-pressure surfaces will increase as the
temperature in the column increases. Thus the vertical distance over which pressure decreases to half of its surface value ranges from about 5,800 m (19,850 ft) in the tropics to 5,100 m (16,575 ft) near the poles. _^<N__^<N_When an AIR MASS
rises, it expands (because of the reduction in pressure). In expanding, it must work against the pressure force exerted by the surrounding air. According to the principle of conservation of energy (the first law of thermodynamics), the work done
in expansion must be balanced by an equal reduction in the internal energy of the air mass. Since the internal energy is proportional to temperature, an expanding air mass must cool. Conversely, an air mass that is compressed must warm.
Temperature changes caused by compression or expansion of a gas in the absence of heat exchange with the surroundings are called adiabatic changes. _^<N__^<N_The process of adiabatic cooling or heating is essential to an understanding of vertical
convection in the atmosphere. A mass of dry air rising adiabatically in the atmosphere cools at a rate of about 10 deg C per km (17 deg F per mi). Since, on the average, the decrease of temperature with height (the LAPSE RATE) in the troposphere
is only 6.5 deg C per km (11 deg F per mi), an adiabatically ascending air mass becomes cooler and denser than its surroundings and tends to sink back toward its original level. Thus the mean vertical temperature structure is said to be statically
stable with respect to a dry adiabatic displacement. In regions such as DESERTS, where the air near the ground is strongly heated, the lapse rate of temperature in the lower troposphere may exceed 10 deg C per km (17 deg F per mi). In such
situations an air mass displaced vertically upward will become warmer than its surroundings and will be accelerated farther upward. Such statically unstable conditions result in vigorous mixing and upward heat transport, which tends to reduce the
lapse rate toward the average value observed elsewhere. _^<N__^<N_ Moist Processes_^<N__^<N_Water can exist in all three chemical phases--solid, liquid, and gas--at atmospheric temperatures and pressures. During phase changes, water exchanges heat
with its surroundings, a process called latent heating. Condensation and freezing release heat and thus warm the surroundings, whereas evaporation and melting absorb heat and cool the surroundings. CLOUDS and PRECIPITATION are thus essential to
the heat balance of the atmosphere. _^<N__^<N_The amount of water vapor present in a region of the atmosphere is usually expressed in terms of the ratio of the mass of water vapor in a given volume of air to the mass of that volume of dry air (the
mixing ratio), the units used being grams of water per kilogram of dry air. Typically, this ratio is a few grams per kilogram (g/kg), but it can reach the range of 20 g/kg in the tropics, since warm air can hold more water than cold air. The value
of the mixing ratio for saturated air--air that holds all the water it can at a given temperature--is called the saturated mixing ratio. _^<N__^<N_Another common measure of water-vapor content is relative HUMIDITY, defined as the ratio of the
actual mixing ratio to the saturation mixing ration at the same temperature. Because the saturation mixing ratio decreases rapidly with decreasing temperature, when an air mass containing water vapor is forced to rise and cool adiabatically, it
will eventually reach saturation. If it rises beyond this point, condensation will occur and clouds form. _^<N__^<N_Condensation causes release of latent heat, which partially offsets adiabatic cooling. The net temperature decrease in an
adiabatically expanding mass of saturated air will be less than that in a mass of dry air. This saturated-adiabatic lapse rate varies with temperature but is about 6 deg C/km in the midtroposphere. Thus, unlike a dry air mass, an ascending
saturated air mass tends to become warmer and less dense than its environment, and thus to rise farther. The atmosphere is then said to be conditionally unstable because, although it is stable with respect to dry adiabatic ascent, it is unstable
with respect to saturated adiabatic ascent. Conditional instability is a widespread occurrence and accounts for the predominance of convective (CUMULUS) clouds in the atmosphere. The resulting vertical mixing plays an important role in maintaining
the atmosphere's heat and momentum balances. _^<N__^<N_ Radiation and Energy Transfer_^<N__^<N_In the long-term average, the energy content of the Earth-atmosphere system is nearly constant: energy received from the Sun is almost exactly balanced
by energy radiated to space by the atmosphere. The average flux of solar energy incident of the top of the atmosphere per unit area perpendicular to the Sun's rays is about 1,380 watts/sq m (see SOLAR CONSTANT). Not all of this energy is
absorbed, however. A fraction is reflected back to space by clouds and by the Earth's surface. This fraction, called the ALBEDO, is about 30%. About 19% of the incident energy is absorbed in the atmosphere. The remaining 51% is absorbed at the
Earth's surface (INSOLATION). _^<N__^<N_The sum of the energy absorbed by the Earth and the atmosphere must be balanced by thermal energy radiated into space. The amount of energy radiated by a body depends very much on its temperature. According
to the Stefan-Boltzmann law, a body that radiates at the maximum possible efficiency (a so-called blackbody) emits an amount of energy that is proportional to the fourth power of the temperature. This law implies that the Earth balances the
absorbed solar radiation by emitting radiation to space at an effective planetary temperature of -20 deg C (-4 deg F). This is much colder, however, than the average +15 deg C (+59 deg F) temperature of the Earth's surface. The excess surface
temperature is maintained by the atmospheric GREENHOUSE EFFECT. Much of the infrared radiation emitted by the Earth is absorbed by water vapor and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The atmosphere reemits this radiation, both upward and downward.
The fraction emitted downward is absorbed by the Earth's surface, thereby providing an energy source to maintain the surface temperature above the equilibrium value that would occur without an atmosphere. The intensity of the effect depends on the
concentration of absorbing gases in the atmosphere. _^<N__^<N_The radiation emitted by the atmosphere exceeds the amount absorbed from both solar radiation and infrared radiation from the ground by an amount equal to 30% of the incident solar flux.
This energy deficit is balanced by heat transferred to the atmosphere from the Earth's surface primarily through the release of latent heat by evaporation at the surface and subsequent condensation in clouds. _^<N__^<N_The annual average solar
radiation received by the atmosphere varies strongly with latitude--it is four times greater at the equator than at the poles. Radiation emitted to space by the Earth, however, does not vary greatly from one latitude to another. This results in a
net radiative energy surplus in the tropics and a net deficit in high latitudes. Thus, in order to maintain the Earth's overall energy balance, energy must be transported poleward. Observations indicate that poleward transport of heat in warm
ocean currents, such as the GULF STREAM, accounts for 50% of the required transport. The remaining 50% is transported by wind systems. _^<N__^<N_ CIRCULATION_^<N__^<N_The average distribution of WINDS in the atmosphere is called the general
circulation. The general circulation includes not only the more or less steady, global-scale winds but also the many transient disturbances that constitute the weather. To understand the structure of the wind and pressure systems on a global
scale, the effects of the Earth's rotation on moving air parcels must be considered. _^<N__^<N_On a nonrotating planet, differences in air pressure would be the primary cause of air flow. Winds would blow from high-pressure to low-pressure areas.
The atmosphere is warmer at the equator, and a mass of warm air occupies more space than an equivalent mass of cold air; thus, at higher altitudes more air is displaced vertically upward at the equator than at the poles, which means that air
pressure is greater at the equator at those altitudes. At higher altitudes on a nonrotating Earth, air would simply flow polewards. This would cause a buildup of sea-level air pressure at the poles, producing an equatorward flow of air at lower
altitudes. _^<N__^<N_The Earth's rotation, however, causes the flow of air to be deflected to the right of its direction of motion in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern. This is called the CORIOLIS EFFECT (after the
19th-century French mathematician G. G. Coriolis), and it is a result of the conservation of momentum. An air flow slows down or speeds up according to whether it moves farther from (equatorward) or nearer to (poleward) the Earth's axis of
rotation. _^<N__^<N_The pattern of air flow then becomes such that flow is parallel to isobars, or lines of constant air pressure at a given height, and the speed of flow is proportional to the pressure gradient. The wind is then said to be in
geostrophic balance. The outcome is stated in BUYS BALLOT's law: if one stands in the Northern Hemisphere with one's back to the wind, air pressure is lower on the left than on the right. _^<N__^<N_Temperature differences also affect the general
pattern of air flow. The cooler the atmosphere is, the more rapidly air pressure decreases with height above the Earth's surface. Therefore the difference in pressure at two different latitudes also increases with height, and wind velocity must
increase with height as well, if it is to maintain geostrophic balance. This tendency is described by the thermal-wind relationship, which states that if one stands with the warmer air to one's right and colder air to one's left in the Northern
Hemisphere, the wind increases with height in the direction one faces. _^<N__^<N_The geostrophic and thermal-wind relationships account for the mean winds being westerly (from the west) in mid-latitudes, where both pressure and temperature decrease
poleward, and also account for the winds increasing with height to a maximum of about 30 m/sec in the subtropical jet stream core at an average of 30 deg latitude and 12 km elevation. These upper-level WESTERLIES are among the most important
phenomena of the atmospheric general circulation. Transient areas of fair and bad weather originate in, and are carried along by, these upper-level winds. Thus, storm systems tend to move from west to east in mid-latitudes along storm tracks
associated with the jet stream. The average jet stream winds do not, however, blow uniformly in the west-to-east direction; otherwise they could not transport heat poleward. In reality, the disturbing influence of large mountain ranges and
land-sea contrasts (see OCEAN-ATMOSPHERE INTERACTION) causes the jet stream to deviate from its mean latitude along a sinuous path circling the globe. _^<N__^<N_In the Northern Hemisphere the largest equatorward deviations occur over the eastern
parts of the North American and Asian continents. East of these regions, in the western Pacific and western Atlantic, the mean flow has strong poleward components that enable it to transport considerable heat northward. The same regions also
create many transient weather disturbances, which move along with the mean winds and also act to transport heat poleward. _^<N__^<N_In the tropical regions a different mechanism must be considered. Near the surface, the pressure decreases from the
subtropical highs centered at approximately 30 deg latitude to the equatorial trough, or low-pressure zone (see TROPICAL CLIMATE). The resulting low-level winds depart from geostrophic balance because of the drag exerted by surface friction, and
they form the northeasterly TRADE WINDS in the Northern Hemisphere and southeasterly trade winds in the Southern Hemisphere. The trade winds form the low-level branch of a closed-circulation pattern in the meridional plane known as the HADLEY
CELL. The Hadley cell is named for the 18th-century Englishman George Hadley, who first proposed this circulation pattern. _^<N__^<N_According to Hadley, surface air heated near the equator rises and moves poleward in the upper troposphere,
gradually cooling and sinking back to the surface, where it again moves equatorward to close the loop. The actual Hadley circulation is highly asymmetric. The upward motion is concentrated along a narrow line about 50 km (30 mi) wide called the
intertropical convergence zone, which, on the average, circles the globe about 10 deg north of the equator. Nearly all the upward mass transport in this zone occurs in the cores of intense cumulus convective clouds, which often extend to heights
of 15 km (9 mi). Outside this zone, air gradually sinks as it is radiatively cooled over most of the subtropical belt. This widespread sinking accounts for the predominantly dry conditions in the subtropical zone. The heat and momentum
transported out of the equatorial zone by the upper-level poleward flow in the Hadley cell are primarily responsible for maintaining atmospheric heat and momentum balances in the tropical zone. _^<N__^<N_ Weather Disturbances_^<N__^<N_The transient
disturbances that occur in the upper-level jet stream are responsible for much of the weather variations in extratropical latitudes. Small and random perturbations introduced into the jet-stream flow are amplified by drawing energy from the main
flow. The resulting disturbances, typically several thousand kilometers in horizontal extent, are the familiar CYCLONES AND ANTICYCLONES seen on the daily weather charts. These systems go through life cycles of growth and decay that last about a
week. They tend to concentrate preexisting temperature contrasts into narrow zones of sharp temperature change known as FRONTS. Much of the precipitation associated with extratropical cyclonic systems is concentrated along the warm front (a
transition zone from cool, dry air to the warm, moist air pushing it along) that precedes the arrival of the low-pressure minimum at the surface. The low is followed at the surface by passage of a cold front, which pushes out the warm air and
marks a return to cool, dry conditions. (See METEOROLOGY.) _^<N__^<N_Cyclonic storm systems also occur in the tropics, especially in association with the intertropical convergence zone. These systems appear as wavelike perturbations in the wind
and as cloudiness fields that extend several thousand kilometers. Tropical disturbances, unlike mid-latitude systems, move from east to west, typically at a rate of about 10 deg longitude per day. Wind speeds associated with such disturbances
ordinarily do not exceed several meters per second, although precipitation may exceed 2 cm/day (0.8 in/day). Occasionally, such disturbances intensify into tropical storms, or hurricanes, especially in the western Atlantic and western Pacific,
where sea-surface temperatures are high (see HURRICANE AND TYPHOON). _^<N__^<N_Many of the most damaging storms are severe small-scale storms 10-100 km (6-60 mi) in horizontal extent, rather than the cyclonic variety. Isolated THUNDERSTORMS or
squalls (see SQUALL AND SQUALL LINE) generated by vertical motions produced by the heating of surface air are common during the summer months in areas where sufficient moisture is present and the atmosphere is conditionally unstable. When such
systems become organized into squall lines, they may be accompanied by high winds, hailstorms, and even TORNADOES. _^<N__^<N_These small-scale disturbances are fairly well understood by now, but little is yet known about the fundamental causes of
climatic change (see CLIMATE), which occurs on all time scales. Long-term changes may be related to changing external forces such as variations in the Sun's energy output (see SOLAR CONSTANT), but short-term variations seem to be random natural
fluctuations in the atmosphere-ocean system. _^<N__^<N_ Human Impacts_^<N__^<N_Events in recent years have created a greatly increased awareness of human impact on the atmosphere and the impact of the atmosphere on humans. The best-known example
of deliberate human impact is the use of cloud-seeding techniques to increase precipitation and prevent hail. (See WEATHER MODIFICATION.) Despite many years of extensive efforts, cloud seeding remains highly controversial, with very few
well-substantiated successes. _^<N__^<N_Inadvertent human modification of the atmosphere may have both local and global consequences. The local climatic impact of urbanization is well known (see URBAN CLIMATE). Global impacts are harder to
assess. In recent years concern has grown over the possible damage to the ozone layer that might occur due to ozone-destroying chemical reactions with FLUOROCARBONS introduced by human activities (see POLLUTION, ENVIRONMENTAL). In 1988 the major
manufacturers of fluorocarbons agreed to phase out the production of these harmful chemicals. Some scientists estimate that each 1 percent reduction of the ozone layer by fluorocarbons would increase the amount of ultraviolet solar radiation
reaching the Earth's surface by 1 to 3 percent. This would increase the incidence of cancer and could eventually threaten all life forms; it would also change the temperature distribution in the stratosphere, with potential global climatic
effects. Scientists established in 1986 that an "ozone hole" (area of ozone depletion) develops every spring above Antarctica, and evidence gathered since then suggests that a similar phenomenon occurs over the Arctic. Interpreting the
significance of this decline is difficult because of the complexity of atmospheric chemistry, but fluorocarbons are now considered to be primarily responsible for the decrease. At the Earth's surface, ozone levels are increasing as a result of air
pollution. Tropospheric ozone damages crops and plays a role in ACID RAIN formation. _^<N__^<N_The release of carbon dioxide by the burning of fossil fuels has been projected as another serious hazard if it continues unchecked. Concentrations of
the gas in the atmosphere have risen from less than 300 parts per million (ppm) before 1900 to about 350 ppm in the late 1980s. If this trend continues into the next century, the result could be a substantial increase in global surface temperature
because of the GREENHOUSE EFFECT. This would lead to regional climate changes and perhaps even to melting of the polar ice caps. Some scientists think that processes such as increased absorption of carbon dioxide by the ocean or an increase in
cloud cover could offset the warming trend. Reports from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the National Aeronautic and Space Administration, however, suggest that the trend is firmly established, and further research substantiates this
view. Scientists have also found atmospheric methane to be increasing at a rate of about 1 percent each year as a result of farming practices, further depleting the ozone layer and enhancing the greenhouse effect. _^<N__^<N_J. R. Holton _^<N__^<N_
THE ORIGIN OF THE ATMOSPHERE_^<N__^<N_To understand how the atmosphere formed, scientists must examine 4 1/2 billion years of GEOLOGIC TIME. Then, principles from chemistry and biology must be applied to develop a consistent explanation of the
changes that must have occurred. Scientists generally agree that the Earth's atmosphere formed from gases emitted by VOLCANOES. Here, a problem arises, however. The composition of volcanic gases today is radically different from the composition
of the atmosphere; in particular, volcanoes emit virtually no oxygen. _^<N__^<N_If, as some evidence suggests, the gases emitted by volcanoes in the Earth's early years were the same as now, how did the atmosphere change so drastically?
_^<N__^<N_Volcanic gases in the young planet would have undergone a number of physical and chemical changes upon leaving the hot, pressurized interior of the Earth. Upon cooling, most of the water vapor would have condensed, filling the oceans.
Much of the light hydrogen would then have escaped the gravitational attraction of the Earth. The carbon dioxide would have reacted with surface minerals, producing CARBONATE MINERALS and rocks. None of the changes, however, would have produced
the oxygen essential for higher forms of life. _^<N__^<N_Considerable evidence exists for the absence of oxygen during the first billion years of the Earth's existence. First, the earliest materials show incomplete oxidation. The Blind River
uranium deposits of Canada, for example, contain uraninite, a URANIUM MINERAL that decomposes when exposed to today's oxygen-rich air. Second, no known source of free oxygen exists. Finally, the generally accepted theories of the origin of life
indicate that life formed in an absence of oxygen. _^<N__^<N_Two theories have been proposed to explain how oxygen was produced. One is the breakdown of water vapor by ultraviolet light (photodissociation). This would produce free hydrogen and
oxygen, according to the reaction: _^<N__^<N_2H(2)O + ultraviolet light = 2H(2) + O(2) _^<N__^<N_However, because large quantities of hydrogen would have to escape Earth's gravity for this reaction to be effective--an unlikely
possibility--photodissociation does not appear to have been the major source of the Earth's oxygen. _^<N__^<N_A second, more likely source is life itself, mainly through the process called PHOTOSYNTHESIS, in which carbon dioxide and water combine
to produce carbohydrates and oxygen: _^<N__^<N_6CO(2) + 6H(2)O = C(6)H(12)O(6) + 6O(2) _^<N__^<N_According to some estimates, approximately 99% of the total amount of free oxygen added to the atmosphere since the Earth's beginnings was produced by
photosynthesis, with only 1% produced by photodissociation. _^<N__^<N_If life produced most of the oxygen in the atmosphere, however, life itself must have originated in an environment that would have been extremely hostile to present forms of
life. Without oxygen, the Sun's ultraviolet radiation, deadly to all cells, would reach the Earth's surface in lethal doses. _^<N__^<N_Thus the first organisms must have had a very restricted habitat: under a layer of water, near enough to the
surface to obtain sunlight yet deep enough to avoid the ultraviolet radiation. In an atmosphere without oxygen, lethal radiation penetrates to a depth of about 10 m (30 ft), and early forms of life probably lived near or slightly below this level,
secreting oxygen as a fermentation product that, to them, was a dangerous poison. As these organisms lived, died, and sank to the bottom, oxygen and ozone slowly increased in the atmosphere. The ozone reduced the amount of ultraviolet radiation
reaching the surface, making the upper layers of the ocean more hospitable. The organisms then invaded the layer of water immediately below the surface, where sunlight is abundant. They evolved to forms that could obtain energy through
respiration as well as fermentation, and the process of photosynthesis began to accelerate. An explosive diversification of species occurred at this point, apparently within the Cambrian Period that began about 570 million years ago. Finally, the
atmosphere's oxygen content increased enough to allow life to emerge from the water onto dry land, beginning in the Silurian Period about 430 million years ago. _^<N__^<N_Presumably the oxygen content of the atmosphere has varied with major
climatic changes of the past and with associated variations in photosynthesis, but such large-scale changes cannot be measured. On a smaller scale, scientists have found that oxygen is escaping into space from the polar regions of the ionosphere
at a rate of about 5 x (10 to the 7th power) kg per year, but this loss is counterbalanced by the dissociation of water vapor. _^<N__^<N_Richard A. Anthes _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Allen, Oliver, Atmosphere (1983); Anthes, Richard, et al., The
Atmosphere, 3d ed. (1981); Bohren, Craig F., Clouds in a Glass of Beer (1987); Goody, R. M., and Walker, J. C. G., Atmospheres (1972); Gribben, John, The Breathing Planet (1986); Lutgens, F. K., and Tarbuck, E. J., The Atmosphere: An
Introduction to Meteorology, 3d ed. (1986); Riehl, Herbert, Introduction to the Atmosphere, 2d ed. (1978); Walker, James C. G., Evolution of the Atmosphere (1977); Wallace, J. M., and Hobbs, P. V., Atmospheric Science: An Introductory Survey
(1977); Wayne, Richard, The Chemistry of Atmospheres (1985). _^<N__^<N_See also: EARTH; CONSERVATION, LAWS OF; GAS LAWS; WEATHER FORECASTING.
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atmospheric refraction
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atmospheric refraction_^<N__^<N_A light ray's path through the Earth's ATMOSPHERE is a straight line only if the light is moving vertically with respect to the Earth's surface. Light traveling on an oblique path is refracted, or bent, by the
atmosphere. This atmospheric refraction is greatest for objects near the horizon, so that a star that appears to be on the horizon is actually about one-half deg below it. The amount of refraction decreases markedly above the horizon; a light ray
traveling at 45 deg above the horizon is bent only one-sixtieth deg, or 1 minute of ARC. _^<N__^<N_If the Sun or Moon is viewed near the horizon, the difference in the atmospheric refraction between the upper and lower limbs causes it to appear as
a flattened ellipse. The sun's vertical height appears to be only about 25 minutes of arc, whereas its horizontal width, which is unaffected by refractions, is about 30 minutes of arc. _^<N__^<N_James R. Houck
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atmospheric sciences
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atmospheric sciences_^<N__^<N_The atmospheric sciences focus on the chemical, physical, and dynamic properties of the ATMOSPHERE. Several disciplines are involved: synoptic meteorology, which encompasses much of traditional METEOROLOGY, including
simultaneous observations over large portions of the Earth, and analysis of the data as the basis for WEATHER FORECASTING; atmospheric chemistry, the study of atmospheric components such as AEROSOLS, of photochemical reactions, of ozone production
and the OZONE LAYER, and of precipitation chemistry; physical meteorology, the study of radiation, optical phenomena, electrical effects in the atmosphere, and the phase changes of water; and atmospheric dynamics, the study of atmospheric motion,
both small-scale (turbulence) and large-scale (general circulation). _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Wallace, J. M., and Hobbs, Peter, Atmospheric Sciences (1977); Walls, Neil, The Atmosphere and Ocean (1986). _^<N__^<N_See also: EARTH SCIENCES.
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atmospheric tide
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atmospheric tide_^<N__^<N_Atmospheric TIDES are oscillations in the atmosphere. They are comparable to ocean tides in that they are caused in part by the gravitational pull of the Sun and Moon. In atmospheric tides, unlike ocean tides, the Sun plays
the major role. OZONE and water vapor in the atmosphere absorb solar radiation, and the heating and expansion of air that result are the major determinants of the oscillations. The daily atmospheric tides are observed as variations in air pressure
and wind speed, which can be broken down into shorter oscillations. Pressure variations at the Earth's surface are measurable by ordinary barometers. The largest is a 12-hour variation of about 1 millibar (mb) at the equator and about 0.1 mb near
the poles. (A millibar is about the force exerted by 1 gram per sq cm, or 2 lb/sq ft at the Earth's surface.) Wind variations on the ground are scarcely detectable, amounting to changes in wind speed on the order of 10 cm (4 in) per second. At high
altitudes tidal contributions to wind-speed changes can amount to several meters per second. _^<N__^<N_Richard A. Anthes _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Chapman, S., and Lindzen, R., Atmospheric Tides (1970).
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000000|atom
001231| EARLY ATOMIC THEORIES
002963| ORIGINS OF MODERN ATOMISM
005834| DISCOVERY OF THE ELECTRON AND OF RADIATION
008714| RUTHERFORD MODEL
010915| BOHR MODEL
012509| ATOMIC PHYSICS AND QUANTUM THEORY
015158| EXPLORATION OF THE NUCLEUS
018116| NUCLEAR FORCES AND REACTIONS
021314| NUCLEAR MODELS
022331| RECENT WORK IN ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
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atom_^<N__^<N_An atom is the smallest unit of matter that is recognizable as a chemical ELEMENT. Atoms of different elements may also combine into systems called MOLECULES, which are the smallest units of chemical COMPOUNDS. In all these ordinary
processes, atoms may be considered as the ancient Greeks imagined them to be: the ultimate building blocks of matter. When stronger forces are applied to atoms, however, the atoms may break up into smaller parts. Thus atoms are actually
composites and not units, and have a complex inner structure of their own. By studying the processes in which atoms break up, scientists in the 20th century have come to understand many details of the inner structure of atoms. _^<N__^<N_The size
of a typical atom is only about 10 (-10th) meters. A cubic centimeter of solid matter contains something like 10 (24th) atoms. Atoms cannot be seen using optical microscopes, because they are much smaller than the wavelengths of visible light.
By using more advanced imaging techniques such as electron microscopes, scanning tunneling microscopes, and atomic force microscopes, however, scientists have been able to produce images in which the sites of individual atoms can be identified (see
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE). _^<N__^<N_ EARLY ATOMIC THEORIES_^<N__^<N_The first recorded speculations that MATTER consisted of atoms are found in the works of the Greek philosophers LEUCIPPUS and DEMOCRITUS. The essence of their views is that all
phenomena are to be understood in terms of the motions, through empty space, of a large number of tiny and indivisible bodies. (The name "atom" comes from the Greek words atomos, for "indivisible.") According to Democritus, these bodies differ
from one another in shape and size, and the observed variety of substances derives from these differences in the atoms composing them. _^<N__^<N_Greek atomic theory was not an attempt to account for specific details of physical phenomena. It was
instead a philosophical response to the question of how change can occur in nature. Little effort was made to make atomic theory quantitative--that is, to develop it as a scientific hypothesis for the study of matter. Greek atomism, however, did
introduce the valuable concept that the nature of everyday things was to be understood in terms of an invisible substructure of objects with unfamiliar properties. Democritus stated this especially clearly in one of the few sayings of his that has
been preserved: "Color exists by convention, sweet by convention, bitter by convention, in reality nothing exists but atoms and the void." _^<N__^<N_Although adopted and extended by such later ancient thinkers as EPICURUS and LUCRETIUS, Greek
atomic theory had strong competition from other views of the nature of matter. One such view was the four-element theory of EMPEDOCLES. These alternative views, championed by ARISTOTLE among others, were also motivated more by a desire to answer
philosophical questions than by a wish to explain scientific phenomena. _^<N__^<N_ ORIGINS OF MODERN ATOMISM_^<N__^<N_When interest in science revived in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries, enough was known about Greek atomism to form the basis
for further thought. Among those who revived the atomic theory were Pierre GASSENDI, Robert BOYLE, and especially Isaac NEWTON. The latter part of Newton's book Optiks is a series of detailed speculations on the atomic nature of matter and light,
indicating how some of matter's properties are to be understood in terms of atoms. _^<N__^<N_In the 19th century, two independent lines of reasoning strengthened the belief of most scientists, by then, in the atomic theory. Both approaches also
began to reveal some quantitative properties of atoms. One approach, pioneered by John DALTON, involved chemical phenomena. The other, involving the behavior of gases, was carried out by physicists such as Rudolph CLAUSIUS and James Clerk
MAXWELL. _^<N__^<N_Dalton's main step forward was his introduction of ATOMIC WEIGHTS. Dalton studied the elements then known and analyzed the data of their reactions with one another. He discovered the law of multiple proportions, which states
that when several distinct reactions take place among the same elements, the quantities that enter the reactions are always in the proportions of simple integers--that is, 1 to 1, 2 to 1, 2 to 3, and so on. From this came the concept that such
reacting quantities contain equal numbers of atoms and are therefore proportional to the masses of individual atoms. Dalton gave the lightest known element, hydrogen, an atomic weight of 1, and developed comparative atomic weights for the other
known elements accordingly. _^<N__^<N_The study of gases in terms of atomic theory was begun by Daniel BERNOULLI in the 18th century. Bernoulli showed that the pressure exerted by a gas came about as the result of collisions of the atoms of the
gas with the walls of its container. In 1811, Amadeo AVOGADRO suggested that equal volumes of different gases, under the same conditions of pressure and temperature, contain equal numbers of atoms. The number of atoms in a mass of gas equal to
one gram atomic weight--a quantity of an element, in grams, that has the same numerical value as the element's atomic weight (see MOLE, unit of substance)--is now known to be approximately 6.022 x 10 (23rd). This huge value is an indication of the
disparity in size between atoms and everyday objects. _^<N__^<N_Avogadro himself never estimated the magnitude of this value, although it is now known as the AVOGADRO NUMBER. Estimates of its value were first given in the mid-19th century by
Clausius and Maxwell. An accurate measurement was not carried out until the early 20th century, using the diffraction of X-rays by crystals. From the value of the Avogadro number it is possible to infer the mass of the individual atoms, which for
hydrogen turns out to be 1.6 x 10 (-24th) grams. _^<N__^<N_ DISCOVERY OF THE ELECTRON AND OF RADIATION_^<N__^<N_By the end of the 19th century almost all scientists had become convinced of the truth of the atomic theory. By that time, ironically,
evidence was just beginning to accumulate that atoms are not in fact the indivisible particles suggested by their name. One source of such evidence came from studies using gas discharge tubes, which are similar to neon lights. In such tubes, a gas
at low pressure is subjected to intense electrical forces. Under these conditions, various colored glows (now known as glow DISCHARGE) are observed to traverse the tube. One blue glow at one end of the tube, around the electrode known as the
CATHODE, was observed for a wide variety of gases. The glow was shown by Joseph John THOMSON in 1897 to involve a stream of negatively charged particles with individual masses much smaller than that of any atom. These particles were called
ELECTRONS, and they were soon recognized to be a constituent of all atoms. That is, atoms are not indivisible but contain parts. _^<N__^<N_In the late 19th and the early 20th century it was also found that some kinds of atoms are not stable.
Instead they transform spontaneously into other kinds of atoms. For example, uranium atoms slowly change into lighter thorium atoms, which themselves change into still lighter atoms, eventually ending up as stable atoms of lead. These
transformations, first observed by Antoine Henri BECQUEREL, came to be known as RADIOACTIVITY, because the atomic changes were accompanied by the emission of several types of radiation. _^<N__^<N_Atoms are ordinarily electrically neutral.
Therefore the negative charge of the electrons in an atom must be balanced by a corresponding positive charge. Because the electrons have so little mass, the positive constituents of an atom must also carry most of the atom's mass. The obvious
question arose as to how these varied parts are arranged within an atom. The question was answered in 1911 through the work of Ernest RUTHERFORD and his collaborators. In their experiments they passed alpha particles--a type of radiation emitted
in some radioactive decays--through thin gold foils. They observed that in some instances the alpha particles emerged in the opposite direction from their initial path. This suggested a collision with a heavy object within the atoms of the gold.
Because electrons are not massive enough to produce such large deflections, the positive charges must be involved. Analyzing the data, Rutherford showed that the positive charge in an atom must be concentrated in a very small volume with a radius
less than 10(-14th) meter, or one ten-thousandth the size of the whole atom. This part of the atom was soon called the nucleus. Later measurements showed that the size of a nucleus is approximately given by multiplying the cube root of the atomic
weight by 10(-15th) meter. _^<N__^<N_ RUTHERFORD MODEL_^<N__^<N_Rutherford proposed an atomic model in which the atom was held together by electrical attraction between the nucleus and the electrons. In this model the electrons traveled in
relatively distant orbits around the nucleus. The model eventually proved successful in explaining most of the phenomena of chemistry and everyday physics. Subsequent studies of the atom divided into investigations of the electronic parts of the
atom, which came to be known as atomic physics, and investigations of the nucleus itself, which came to be known as nuclear physics. This division was natural, because of the immense difference in size between the nucleus and the electron orbits
and the much greater energy needed to produce nuclear as compared to electronic changes. _^<N__^<N_The Rutherford model of the atom, however, had to face two immediate problems. One was to account for the fact that different atoms of the same
element behaved in physically and chemically similar ways. According to the Rutherford model, electrons could move in any of the infinite number of orbits allowed by Newtonian physics. If that were so, different atoms of the same element could
behave quite differently. (This is actually a problem for any atomic model based on Newtonian physics, and it had already been recognized by Maxwell in 1870.) The other problem was that, according to the principles of electromagneticism, electrons
should continuously emit radiation as they orbit in an atom. This would cause the electrons to lose energy and to spiral into the nucleus. It was estimated that for the single electron in a hydrogen atom, this would take place in 10(-9th)
seconds. In reality, hydrogen atoms are indefinitely stable. _^<N__^<N_An important step toward solving these problems was taken by Niels BOHR in 1913. According to Bohr, the electrons in atoms cannot exist in arbitrary orbits. Instead they are
found only in certain "states". The states in which they can exist are those in which the ANGULAR MOMENTUM of their orbits is an integer multiple of h/2pi), where "h" is a quantity known as PLANCK'S CONSTANT. This constant had been introduced by
Max PLANCK in his theory describing BLACKBODY RADIATION. _^<N__^<N_ BOHR MODEL_^<N__^<N_According to the Bohr model of the atom, there is a so-called ground state for any atom. This ground state has the lowest energy allowed to the atom, and it is
the same for all atoms containing the same number of electrons. An atom normally exists in this ground state, which determined the observed properties of a given element. Furthermore, according to Bohr, no radiation is emitted by an atom in its
ground state. This is because energy must be conserved in the radiation process, and no available state of lower energy exists for the atom to balance any energy lost through radiation. _^<N__^<N_An atom can be removed from its ground state only
when enough energy is given to it, by radiation or collisions, to raise an electron to an "excited" state. For most atoms this excitation energy corresponds to several ELECTRON VOLTS. When the atom is excited, it will usually emit electromagnetic
radiation rapidly and return to the ground state. The radiation is emitted in the form of individual packets or quanta, of light, called PHOTONS. Each photon has an energy equal to the difference between the energy of the excited states and the
ground state of the atom. According to a formula developed by Planck and Albert EINSTEIN, this energy corresponds to a specific wavelength of the emitted light. Using his assumption about the allowed angular momenta for electrons, Bohr was able
to calculate the precise wavelengths in the SPECTRUM of the simplest atom, hydrogen. The agreement of his results with observations did much to convince scientists of the accuracy of his model. _^<N__^<N_ ATOMIC PHYSICS AND QUANTUM
THEORY_^<N__^<N_Bohr was able to extend his atomic theory to describe, qualitatively, the chemical properties of all the elements. Each electron in an atom is assigned a set of four so-called quantum numbers. (These numbers correspond to the
properties of energy, total orbital angular momentum, projection of orbital angular momentum, and projection of spin angular momentum.) It is also assumed--as had first been suggested by Wolfgang PAULI in 1924--that no two electrons in an atom can
have the same values for all four quantum numbers. This came to be known as the EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE. This principle influences the way in which the chemical properties of an element depend on its ATOMIC NUMBER (the number of electrons in each
atom of the element). A maximum number of electrons can occur for each energy level, and no more than that. For example, the lowest energy level of an atom--the one in which the electrons have zero orbital angular momentum--can contain up to two
electrons. The one electron in a hydrogen atom exists at this energy level, as do the two electrons in a helium atom. For the next heavier atom, lithium, one of its three electrons must exist in a higher energy state, and as a result this
electron can more easily be lost to another atom. Those electrons with approximately the same energy are said to form a "shell." When an atom contains the maximum number allowed for some energy level, that shell is said to be closed. Atoms of
INERT GASES such as helium and argon have all their shells closed. _^<N__^<N_Although Bohr's model gives a qualitatively accurate description of atoms, it does not give quantitatively accurate accurate results for atoms more complex than hydrogen.
In order to describe such atoms, it is necessary to use QUANTUM MECHANICS. This theory of atomic subatomic phenomena was created by Erwin SCHRODINGER, Werner HEISENBERG, Paul DIRAC, and others in the 1920s. In quantum mechanics, the electron
orbits are replaced by PROBABILITY distributions that only indicate in which regions of space each electron is most likely to be found. An equation first written by Schrodinger allows this distribution to be calculated for each atom. From the
distribution, properties of the atom such as energy and angular momentum can be determined. Calculations of a wide variety of atomic phenomena have been carried out by means of quantum mechanics. Without exception, these calculations have proven
to give an accurate description of the properties and behavior of atoms. For the simplest atoms, the observations and calculations sometimes agree to better than one part in a billion. _^<N__^<N_ EXPLORATION OF THE NUCLEUS_^<N__^<N_As described
above, physicists by the late 1920s were convinced that they sufficiently understood the electronic structure of atoms. Attention therefore turned to the nucleus. It was already known that nuclei sometimes change into one another through
radioactive decay. Rutherford had also shown, in 1919, that this could be accomplished artificially by bombarding nitrogen nuclei with high-energy alpha particles. In the process the nitrogen nucleus is converted into an oxygen nucleus, and a
hydrogen nucleus, or PROTON, is ejected. It had further been discovered by Thomson, Francis William ASTON, and others that for a given element the nucleus sometimes occurs in several different forms that differ in mass. These chemically similar
but physically distinct atoms were called ISOTOPES. All of this provided evidence that atomic nuclei also had some kind of internal structure that could be explored through experiments and calculations. _^<N__^<N_Differences in the integer values
of the electric charge and of the mass of many nuclei soon indicated that protons were not the only kind of particle to be found there. That is, the electric charge of a nucleus is always exactly an integer multiple of the charge of a proton, so
knowledge of this electric charge always indicates how many protons a nucleus contains. The mass of a nucleus is also approximately--but not exactly--an integer multiple of the mass of a proton. For many atoms, however, these two integer values
are not the same. For example, a helium nucleus has twice the charge but four times the mass of a proton. Clearly, nuclei contain something other than protons. _^<N__^<N_This problem was solved in 1932 with the discovery by James CHADWICK of the
NEUTRON. This is a particle that has no electric charge and is slightly more massive than a proton. Thus most nuclei are composed of both protons and neutrons, which collectively are known as nucleons. A helium nucleus contains two protons and
two neutrons, which correctly give the total charge and mass of the nucleus. The isotopes of any given element contain equal numbers of protons but different numbers of neutrons. For example, an isotope of hydrogen called DEUTERIUM contains one
proton and one neutron, and a heavier isotope called TRITIUM contains one proton and two neutrons. _^<N__^<N_The problem then arose as to how atomic particles could be held together in such a small region as the nucleus. The force holding them had
to be different from others then known to physicists. It was stronger than the electric forces that can break electrons away from nuclei. On the other hand, the nuclear forces between different nuclei that are far apart are very weak, much weaker
than electric forces at such distances. Nuclear forces were studied intensively in the 1930s and 1940s, and many details about their properties were learned. Ultimately, such studies became a part of the study of FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES. _^<N__^<N_
NUCLEAR FORCES AND REACTIONS_^<N__^<N_Measurements of nuclear masses showed that the mass of a nucleus is not exactly the sum of the masses of its constituents. Instead, the total mass is slightly smaller than this sum. The force binding nuclear
particles together--the so-called BINDING ENERGY--was linked to this decrease in total mass. That is, Einstein's equating of mass with energy (see RELATIVITY) indicated that the missing mass constituted the binding energy required to bring the
nuclear particles together. The stability of a nucleus can be measured by the magnitude of its binding energy divided by its number of nucleons. Greater values for the result correspond to greater stability for a given nucleus. For lighter
nuclei the average binding energy is small. It tends to increase with increasing nucleon number, up to nuclei with about 60 nucleons. These are the most stable nuclei. Beyond that nucleon number, the magnitude of the average binding energy
decreases slowly. The heaviest known atomic nuclei are the least stable ones. _^<N__^<N_By comparing the average binding energy of various nuclei, it is possible to tell whether a reaction among those nuclei will release energy or will require
extra energy to make it happen. Reactions between two light nuclei, such as the combining of two deuterons to produce helium, generally release helium. Because two nuclei repel each other electrically, however, such FUSION occurs only when they are
moving fast enough to overcome this repulsion and can approach one another to within a short enough distance for the attraction of the nuclear forces to bring them together. High-energy fusion reactions are the source of energy of most stars, and
they are also the means by which all of the elements in the universe other than hydrogen have been produced. _^<N__^<N_Very heavy nuclei, on the other hand, can break up into two or more similar nuclei, liberating energy in the process. Because of
this tendency, all nuclei containing more than about 210 nucleons are unstable against various kinds of radioactive decay. An important example of this instability of heavy nuclei is nuclear FISSION, discovered in uranium in 1938 by Otto HAHN and
Fritz STRASSMANN. In fission, the products of the breakup are two intermediate-sized nuclei and several neutrons. Fission can happen either spontaneously or as the result of subjecting the original nucleus to outside stimulation. The most
important such stimulus is the absorption of a neutron by the nucleus. Because neutrons are uncharged, they are not repelled electrically by nuclei. Thus even very low-energy neutrons can be absorbed and stimulate fission. In the fission of a
heavy nucleus such as uranium, hundreds of millions of electron volts of energy are liberated, millions of times more than in chemical processes involving the electrons in an atom. Furthermore, the fact that additional neutrons are liberated in
the fission process allows the possibility of a chain reaction, in which more and more nuclei are fissioned as the reaction proceeds. It is such chain reactions that occur in nuclear-power reactors and in fission-based nuclear explosives (see
ATOMIC BOMB; NUCLEAR ENERGY). _^<N__^<N_ NUCLEAR MODELS_^<N__^<N_As a result of studies of nuclear processes, several models exist to describe the structure of atomic nuclei. Because neutrons and protons each satisfy the exclusion principle, this
leads to a shell-structure model of nuclei. In the so-called independent-particle shell model, each nucleon is assumed to move under the influence of an average force produced by the other nucleons. The energy levels of this motion are described
by quantum mechanics in a way similar to that of electron energy levels in the atom. This model helps to explain why certain nuclei, such as the isotopes of helium that has four nucleons in its nucleus, have especially high binding energies
compared to nuclei fairly close to them in atomic weight. _^<N__^<N_Some properties of nuclei, however, are not well explained by the independent-particle model. For example, it does not account for the fact that some nuclei are cigar-shaped
rather than spherical. Other nuclear models have been proposed to account for such properties. _^<N__^<N_ RECENT WORK IN ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS_^<N__^<N_Much recent work in atomic physics has concentrated on atoms in abnormal situations. For
example, studies have been made of so-called Rydberg atoms, in which a single electron of a many-electron atom is excited to a very energetic state. Such Rydberg atoms behave similarly to hydrogen atoms, and their properties are accurately
described by the energies calculated from the Bohr theory. _^<N__^<N_There have also been studies of "exotic" atoms in which one of the electrons is replaced by a heavier, negatively charged subatomic particle such as an antiproton (see
ANTIMATTER). Because the heavier particle is much closer to the nucleus than an electron would be, such atoms serve as a useful probes of nuclear structure. _^<N__^<N_Nuclear physicists have found methods for studying nuclei heavier than uranium,
which do not occur naturally. One way to produce TRANSURANIUM ELEMENTS is by colliding two beams of lighter nuclei. In such a collision, the two nuclei sometimes fuse into a heavier nucleus that can be studied for a short time before it
disintegrates. Such heavy-ion collisions have produced nuclei that contain as many as 300 nucleons. _^<N__^<N_Gerald Feinberg _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Beyer, Robert, ed., Foundations of Nuclear Physics (1949); Feinberg, Gerald, What is the World
Made Of? (1977); Lapp, Ralph, and Andrews, Howard, Nuclear Radiation Physics (1972); Pais, Abraham, Inward Bound (1986); Van Melsen, Andrew, From Atomos to Atom (1952); Whittaker, Edmund, A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity
(1960).
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8454
CATO
4774
-A-
atomic bomb
-O-
000000|atomic bomb
000373| THEORY
002359| DEVELOPMENT
002986| U-235 Gun-Type Atomic Bomb
003904| Plutonium Atomic Bomb
006148| CONSEQUENCES
-T-
atomic bomb_^<N__^<N_The atomic bomb is an explosive device that depends upon the release of energy in a nuclear reaction known as FISSION, which is the splitting of atomic nuclei. With a release of energy on the order of a million times greater
than an equal weight of chemical high-explosive, it is regarded as the most impressive and disturbing application of science during World War II. _^<N__^<N_ THEORY_^<N__^<N_That mass could be converted into energy was predicted by Albert EINSTEIN
early in the century and confirmed experimentally by John D. Cockcroft and Ernest WALTON in 1932. But not until 1939, when an entirely new phenomenon of nature was discovered by Otto HAHN and Fritz Strassmann, did a net gain of energy appear
possible. Neutrons striking the heavy element URANIUM caused it to fission, the fragments having less mass than the original atom; this mass loss appeared as the energy of motion of the fission fragments and in emitted radiation. _^<N__^<N_Among
the pieces of the split atom were newly produced neutrons, and it was widely recognized that these might encounter other uranium nuclei, cause them to fission, and start a chain reaction. If the chain reaction were limited to a moderate pace, a
new source of energy could result. Allowed to progress unchecked, the chain reaction could release energy rapidly and with explosive force. _^<N__^<N_Physicists from 1939 onward conducted much research to find answers to such questions as how many
neutrons were emitted in each fission, which elements would not capture the neutrons but would moderate or reduce their velocity (thereby increasing the likelihood of uranium fission), and whether only the lighter and scarcer isotope of uranium
(U-235) fissioned or the common isotope (U-238) could be used. They learned that each fission releases a few neutrons. A chain reaction, therefore, was theoretically possible, if not too many neutrons escaped from the mass or were captured by
impurities. Ordinary water moderates the neutrons well but captures too many of them; heavy water, available only in tiny quantities, and graphite, never before produced at such high levels of purity, were found to be preferable. The lighter
isotope of uranium is, indeed, the fissionable component; but uranium as found in nature consists of 99.3% U-238, and only 0.7% is U-235, so that these chemically identical bodies needed to be separated. _^<N__^<N_ DEVELOPMENT_^<N__^<N_Frightened
by the possibility that Germany might produce an atomic bomb, the Hungarian-born physicists Leo SZILARD, Eugene WIGNER, and Edward TELLER prevailed upon Albert Einstein to address a letter to President Franklin ROOSEVELT. Spurred by the letter, in
late 1939 President Roosevelt ordered an American effort to obtain an atomic weapon before the Germans, but significant assistance did not begin until his coordinator of scientific activities for the war, Vannevar BUSH, took charge a few years
later. The American program was named the MANHATTAN PROJECT when it came under U.S. Army control in mid-1942. _^<N__^<N_ U-235 Gun-Type Atomic Bomb_^<N__^<N_Because the uncertainties were so great at every step, all processes and techniques were
pursued until shown ineffective. Of the several methods investigated for separating the two isotopes, gaseous diffusion and electromagnetic separation were carried into production at Oak Ridge, Tenn. In this manner uranium-235 was enriched from
its normal 0.7% to weapons grade of more than 90%. This purified material was then fashioned into the components of a gun-type weapon at the Los Alamos, N.Mex., laboratory headed by J. Robert OPPENHEIMER. Two pieces of U-235, individually not
large enough to sustain a chain reaction, were brought together rapidly in a gun barrel to form a supercritical mass that exploded instantaneously. Confidence was so high that this model would work that no test was conducted, and it was first
employed in military action over HIROSHIMA, Japan, on Aug. 6, 1945. _^<N__^<N_ Plutonium Atomic Bomb_^<N__^<N_Well before the U-235 weapon had been developed to the point of seeming assured of success, another type of bomb was proposed.
Uranium-238, earlier considered waste material, can capture a neutron without fissioning and become U-239. (All uranium atoms have 92 protons; U-238 has 146 neutrons, and the added neutron raises the total mass to 239.) But the U-239 thus
produced is unstable (radioactive) and decays first to neptunium-239 (93 protons and 146 neutrons) and then to plutonium-239 (94 protons and 145 neutrons). _^<N__^<N_Not only was Pu-239 theoretically fissionable, but being a different element it
could be separated from uranium by chemical techniques, which would be far simpler than the physical processes that are required to separate isotopes of the same element. _^<N__^<N_The first successful reactor was assembled on the campus of the
University of Chicago under the direction of the Italian physicist Enrico FERMI. On Dec. 2, 1942 it produced a controlled chain reaction. This led to the construction of five large reactors at Hanford, Wash., where U-238 was irradiated with
neutrons and transmuted into plutonium. After separation, plutonium was also shipped to Los Alamos for fabrication into a weapon. _^<N__^<N_Because another isotope of plutonium was formed that could also fission spontaneously, it was feared that a
chain reaction might start too soon when the pieces of plutonium fuel were brought together, causing the fuel to blow apart before much was consumed. To overcome this so-called "defect of nature," the plutonium had to be brought into a
supercritical mass far faster than conventional ballistics could achieve. A new technique called implosion was developed, in which a noncritical shell of plutonium was surrounded by chemical high-explosives. When the latter were detonated,
intense forces squeezed the plutonium core into an extremely dense, supercritical mass, in which a chain reaction could proceed long enough for a massive explosion. This device was tested at Alamogordo, N.Mex., on July 16, 1945, during the Potsdam
talks at which Truman, Churchill, and Stalin discussed the problems of recently defeated Germany and tottering Japan. It was used to bomb NAGASAKI, Japan, on Aug. 9, 1945. _^<N__^<N_ CONSEQUENCES_^<N__^<N_Controversy still exists on the reasons
for destroying Hiroshima and Nagasaki with atomic bombs that killed more than 100,000 people and wounded a like number. The atomic bomb did not win the war in the Pacific; at best, it hastened Japanese acceptance of a defeat that was viewed as
inevitable. Advocates of the bombing claimed, however, that invasion of the Japanese home islands would otherwise have been required, producing perhaps 1,000,000 military casualties and untold civilian carnage. Those who opposed dropping the
bombs, among whom were many of the scientists involved in developing them, argued in retrospect that U.S. use of the atomic bomb may have been the first act of the cold war. _^<N__^<N_After 1945, the United States built thousands of atomic bombs
and an array of small-size tactical atomic, or fission, weapons. The far more powerful HYDROGEN BOMB, however, soon came to dominate the U.S. nuclear arsenal. _^<N__^<N_In 1945 the United States was the only nation to possess atomic weapons. The
USSR acquired them in 1949, Britain in 1952, France in 1960, the People's Republic of China in 1964, and India (for peaceful purposes only, it was claimed) in 1974. The 1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty--signed by the United States, the USSR,
and Britain--set up strict requirements for non-nuclear nations wishing to build nuclear energy industries (see ARMS CONTROL). _^<N__^<N_Despite the treaty, however, a number of additional countries are believed to have acquired some nuclear
weapons. They include Israel and South Africa. Other nations--notably North Korea, Iran, and Pakistan--may be on the threshold of nuclear capability. The disintegration of the Soviet Union has added to the risks of proliferation, because the
status of the Soviet nuclear weapons deployed in the republics of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and Kazakhstan is still unresolved. _^<N__^<N_Lawrence Badash _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Del Tredici, R., At Work in the Fields of the Bomb (1987); Hacker,
B. C., The Dragon's Tail: Radiation Safety in the Manhattan Project (1987); Nichols, K. D., The Road to Trinity (1987); Rhodes, Richard, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (1987); Sanger, S. L., and Mull, R. W., Hanford and the Bomb (1990); Wyden,
Peter, Day One (1984). _^<N__^<N_See also: NUCLEAR STRATEGY; NUCLEAR WEAPON; WORLD WAR II.
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3547
CAT
-A-
atomic clock
-T-
atomic clock_^<N__^<N_The atomic clock, the most accurate of timekeeping devices, is based on the measurement of changes in the energy states of atoms. The energy change involved in the most common forms of the atomic clock occurs when the atom
absorbs energy, causing an electron to alter its spin characteristics and, subsequently, its magnetic field. The unique frequency (number of complete oscillations per second) of the radiation absorbed by an atom when it undergoes such an energy
change is a periodic phenomenon analogous to the swing of a pendulum and may thus be used as a time standard. Because this frequency is largely independent of all normal external conditions such as air pressure and magnetic fields, the atomic
clock is a highly stable device. Atoms especially suitable for atomic clocks include cesium, rubidium, and hydrogen. _^<N__^<N_The most stable and most commonly used frequency standard is the cesium atom clock. The frequency at which energy is
absorbed by a cesium atom, known as the resonance frequency, is 9,192,631,770 Hz (cycles per second). The cesium atom clock, which was developed around 1950, is now being used as a highly stable laboratory standard and as a frequency source in
aircraft navigational systems. Its chief component is a chamber, called a resonant cavity, filled with cesium atoms in the lower energy state and fed by radiation at the frequency corresponding to the energy needed to raise the atom to the higher
energy state. The measurement of this precise frequency yields the time. An international agreement in 1967 defined the atomic second in terms of the resonance frequency of the cesium atom (see METRIC SYSTEM). Cesium clocks can achieve a maximum
accuracy of about one second in every 300,000 years, but in fact atomic clocks must be readjusted periodically to keep in step with astronomical time--that is, the Earth's period of rotation, which is affected by a number of geophysical processes
(see DAY; TIME). _^<N__^<N_The rubidium atom clock is a similar atomic frequency standard. It contains a cell with rubidium vapor in a resonant cavity, onto which light of a certain desired wavelength (frequency) falls. Absorption of energy from
a high-frequency magnetic field inside the resonant cavity (6,834,692,608 Hz) puts the atoms in the desired energy state. The intensity of the transmitted light is then at its maximum. This light is incident upon a detector supplying feedback to
the electric oscillator. Rubidium atom clocks are often used as laboratory standards or as frequency sources for radio transmitters. _^<N__^<N_Currently, the most accurate atomic clocks are hydrogen MASER devices that operate for restricted
periods of time. The hydrogen atoms in the cavity of the maser absorb microwave energy at a resonance frequency of 1,420,405,752 Hz and lose time at a rate equivalent to only about one second in every 30 million years. Still greater accuracy has
been achieved experimentally by cryogenic cooling of such masers, and researchers are developing still more accurate devices that trap hydrogen ions in electromagnetic fields. _^<N__^<N_Although atomic frequency standards are too expensive for
general use, they can be used as master clocks. The U.S. Naval Observatory Time Center contains a battery of cesium atomic clocks and also uses various other types of atomic clocks. _^<N__^<N_Kartaschoff, P., Frequency and Time (1978); Morrison,
Leslie, "The Day Time Stands Still," New Scientist, June 27, 1985; Wineland, D. J., "Trapped Ions, Laser Cooling, and Better Clocks," Science, Oct. 26, 1984.
-END-
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4694
CATO
-A-
atomic constants
-O-
000000|atomic constants
001471| Elementary Unit of Charge
001796| Planck's Constant
002259| Velocity of Light
002717| Gravitational Constant
002999| Electron and Proton Mass
003206| Avogadro's Number
003524| Boltzmann's Constant
-T-
atomic constants_^<N__^<N_The goal of physics is to understand and formulate the basic laws that govern the various processes of nature, such as gravity and electricity, as well as subatomic processes. These laws must be mathematically precise and
must have physical implications testable by accurate laboratory experiments. _^<N__^<N_To express any law of nature, two kinds of physical quantities are required: one that expresses the variables characterizing a given situation, and another kind
that is assumed to be independent of any particular situation in which the laws operate. The latter quantities are called fundamental constants. _^<N__^<N_For example, according to the laws of electrostatics, the force F experienced by two static
electric charges P and Q separated by a distance r is F=kPQ/rr, where k is a number that depends only on the nature of medium containing the charges. P, Q, and r are the variables that characterize the electric charge and their distance, and in a
given medium, k is a constant. In a medium free of any matter (a vacuum), k=9.0 billion newton-meter-meter/coulomb. Thus, k is a fundamental constant, called the dielectric constant of free space. An analogous constant, called permeability, is
encountered in the study of forces between magnets. _^<N__^<N_In formulating the laws of physics pertaining to various phenomena occurring in nature, several such parameters are encountered that are considered fundamental constants. Some of the
more familiar ones are explained below. _^<N__^<N_ Elementary Unit of Charge_^<N__^<N_It has been observed that all electrically charged bodies in nature carry an electric charge that is an integral multiple of the absolute value of the charge of a
single electron, e. No smaller unit has been found. This is called quantization of charge, and e, therefore, is a fundamental constant. _^<N__^<N_ Planck's Constant_^<N__^<N_Energy released in atomic processes comes in extremely tiny bundles, with
a fixed amount of energy in each bundle. This discrete nature of energy was first recognized by the German physicist Max PLANCK, who postulated that for a given radiation frequency n, the amount of energy E is given by E=hn, where h is a
fundamental constant called PLANCK's CONSTANT. The entire subject of quantum physics is based on this fundamental atomic constant h. _^<N__^<N_ Velocity of Light_^<N__^<N_The velocities of all moving objects encountered in daily life are known to
depend on the frame of reference from which they are measured. Albert EINSTEIN postulated that the velocity of light is unlike any other velocity. Light (or any other form of electromagnetic radiation, such as X rays) travels with a speed, c, that
is fixed and independent of any frame of reference. The velocity of light, c, is therefore, a fundamental constant. _^<N__^<N_ Gravitational Constant_^<N__^<N_Newton's law of GRAVITATION states that any two bodies in the universe attract each other
with a force F defined by the law F=Gmn/rr, where m and m are their masses and r is the distance between them. G is an absolute constant called gravitational constant. _^<N__^<N_ Electron and Proton Mass_^<N__^<N_Other atomic constants that
describe atomic and subatomic systems are the masses of the proton and the electron. These particles, along with the neutron, are constituents of atoms. _^<N__^<N_ Avogadro's Number_^<N__^<N_In the early days of molecular physics, Amedeo AVOGADRO
(1776-1856) postulated that at a given temperature and pressure, equal volumes of different gases contain the same number of molecules. The AVOGADRO NUMBER is the number of molecules in one MOLE of the gas and is a constant for all substances.
_^<N__^<N_ Boltzmann's Constant_^<N__^<N_The description of thermal properties of gases is given by the ideal-gas law relating the pressure P, volume V, and temperature T of the gas as follows: PV=NkT, where N is the number of molecules in the gas.
The parameter k is an absolute constant called the BOLTZMANN CONSTANT. The determination of Boltzmann's constant was made possible by Avogadro's hypothesis. _^<N__^<N_In addition to these basic fundamental constants, several other constants can be
calculated from those previously defined. These include the Rydberg's constant, which is used in SPECTRUM analysis, the BOHR MAGNETON, which is used to describe the magnetic moment of atomic systems, and the electron charge-to-mass ratio.
_^<N__^<N_The values used for the fundamental constants and their derivatives undergo adjustments over the years, as scientific advances make more precise measurements possible. _^<N__^<N_R. N. Mohapatra _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: CODATA, The 1986
Adjustment of the Fundamental Physical Constants (1986); Nolen, J. A., and Benenson, W., eds., Atomic Masses and Fundamental Constants (1980); Rossini, F. D., Fundamental Measures and Constants for Science and Technology (1974).
-END-
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34
CAT
-A-
atomic energy:
-T-
atomic energy:_^<N__^<N_see NUCLEAR ENERGY.
-END-
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60
CAT
-A-
Atomic Energy Commission:
-T-
Atomic Energy Commission:_^<N__^<N_see NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION.
-END-
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37
CAT
-A-
atomic fission:
-T-
atomic fission:_^<N__^<N_see FISSION, NUCLEAR.
-END-
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31
CAT
-A-
atomic mass:
-T-
atomic mass:_^<N__^<N_see ATOMIC WEIGHT.
-END-
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11449
CATO
4804
9600
-A-
atomic nucleus
-O-
000000|atomic nucleus
000298| DEVELOPMENT OF THE NUCLEAR THEORY
000332| Thomson's Model
001423| Rutherford's Model
004832| Nuclear Transformations
006591| NUCLEAR COMPOSITION
007320| The Neutron
009931| Modern Nuclear Physics
-T-
atomic nucleus_^<N__^<N_The nucleus is the small, massive center of the ATOM, containing neutrons and protons bound together by the nuclear force, the strongest force known in nature. The diameter of the nucleus is about (10 to the power of - 12)
cm, which is about one ten-thousandth of the diameter of the atom itself. _^<N__^<N_ DEVELOPMENT OF THE NUCLEAR THEORY_^<N__^<N_ Thomson's Model_^<N__^<N_In 1897, J. J. Thomson identified the ELECTRON as a constituent of all atoms, disproving the
previously assumed indivisibility of the atom. This resulted in a search for the atom's internal structure. Thomson's idea of the mechanical and electrical structure of the atom was the electron cloud model. In this model, the volume of the atom
was occupied by a light, positively charged medium. The small, negatively charged electrons were distributed throughout the positive medium, resulting in the electrically neutral atom. The size of an atom was known to be about (10 to the power of -
10) meter in diameter. Thomson had deduced that the size of an electron, if its mass were a result of its electric field, would be about (10 to the power of - 15) meter. The atom was large enough to contain the thousands of electrons assumed to
comprise its mass. Measurements of the scattering of X rays, however, later indicated that atoms contain only a small number of electrons. This weakened Thomson's theory and encouraged the development of new and different models of the atom.
_^<N__^<N_ Rutherford's Model_^<N__^<N_At about the same time as the discovery of the electron, the phenomenon of radioactivity was reported by Henri BECQUEREL. One of the early investigators of radioactivity was Ernest RUTHERFORD, a physicist from
New Zealand who had studied with Thomson. Rutherford demonstrated experimentally that the alpha rays of radioactivity were actually doubly charged helium ions (see ALPHA PARTICLE). _^<N__^<N_It was observed that when a beam of electrons was
directed at a thin sheet of matter, electrons were widely scattered in all directions. Alpha particles, however, passed through matter essentially undeflected, although losing energy and slowing down in the process. These observations were largely
understandable in terms of the Thomson model of the atom: an electron would be strongly deflected in a collision with another electron imbedded in the atom, but an alpha particle, 4,000 times more massive than an electron, would move through an
atom essentially undeflected in collisions with atomic electrons. Careful observation, however, demonstrated that a few of the alpha particles were scattered through large angles in passing through matter. Rutherford surmised that the explanation
of this small deviation from expected behavior might be a critical test of the validity of the Thomson model. By 1910 Hans GEIGER had demonstrated in Rutherford's laboratory that occasionally an alpha particle would be scattered through an angle
even greater than 90 deg: it would bounce back from the scattering material. _^<N__^<N_Two methods had been devised for detecting individual alpha particles. In the scintillation method, alpha particles strike a screen of phosphorescent zinc
sulfide and produce visible flashes of light that could be observed and counted. Rutherford and Geiger had devised an electrical method of detection of individual alpha particles: the Geiger counter. The two independent methods of detection
produced comparable results, which increased confidence in their reliability. _^<N__^<N_In 1911, Rutherford proposed his nuclear model of the atom in an explanation of a series of experiments carried out by Geiger and E. Marsden in Rutherford's
laboratory. In a typical experiment, a beam of alpha particles was directed onto a thin gold foil. By the scintillation method, the numbers of particles scattered at each angle were counted accurately. Most of the beam passed through the foil
essentially undeflected. Some particles were scattered, and a very small fraction were deflected at large angles. _^<N__^<N_Rutherford assumed that all the positive electrical charge in an atom and most of its mass are concentrated in the nucleus
at the center of the atom. Occasionally an alpha particle collides with the massive nucleus of an atom and suffers a violent deflection from its initial direction. Rutherford calculated that the alpha particle would follow a hyperbolic trajectory
around the nucleus similar to the orbit of a comet near the Sun. He deduced the probability of deflection of the alpha particle through a given angle, and the dependence of the angle of deflection on the charge and mass of the nucleus and the
charge, mass, and velocity of the alpha particle. This was summarized in Rutherford's scattering formula. Detailed comparison of the formula with many experiments showed close agreement in every respect, implying convincingly the correctness of
Rutherford's nuclear model of the atom. _^<N__^<N_ Nuclear Transformations_^<N__^<N_The discovery of the nucleus raised new questions concerning the structure of the nucleus itself. Was it actually a point or did it have a finite size? Was it
composed of more elementary particles? Radioactivity had been shown to be the result of TRANSMUTATION OF ELEMENTS; for example, an atom of uranium becomes an atom of thorium by emitting an alpha particle. This could now be understood as a nuclear
transformation. _^<N__^<N_The first induced nuclear transformation was demonstrated in 1919 by Rutherford. Nitrogen gas was bombarded with natural alpha particles. Occasionally an alpha particle disappeared and a particle of longer range was
emitted; the new particle was the PROTON, which has a positive charge exactly equal in magnitude to the charge on the electron and a mass 1,836 times greater. The transformation was interpreted as a nuclear reaction in which an alpha particle
penetrated a nitrogen nucleus, causing the emission of an energetic proton and in the process transmuting the nitrogen to an oxygen nucleus. This suggested that protons existed within complex nuclei, perhaps as constituents of all nuclei. An
accelerator for nuclear particles was developed by Sir John COCKCROFT and Ernest Walton. Ions produced in a high-voltage electrode were accelerated to high velocities by an intense electric field to form a beam of energetic particles. The first
completely artificial nuclear reaction was accomplished in 1932 by bombarding the element lithium with accelerated protons. The lithium nucleus absorbed a proton and then disintegrated into two alpha particles. The development of other
accelerators, principally the VAN DE GRAAFF GENERATOR and the CYCLOTRON, permitted the production of particles of higher energies. _^<N__^<N_ NUCLEAR COMPOSITION_^<N__^<N_Rutherford's nuclear model of the atom focused attention on the composition
of the nucleus. The lightest nucleus was that of hydrogen and consisted of a single proton. Various experiments showed, however, that heavier nuclei could not be composed simply of protons. For example, the alpha particle, or helium nucleus, had
only twice the charge of the proton but four times the mass. A neutral combination of electron and proton, as in the hydrogen atom, was much too large to be contained within the nucleus. Nevertheless, electrons and protons were the only known
particles out of which to construct nuclei, so it was assumed that they existed within nuclei in some compact configuration not yet understood. _^<N__^<N_ The Neutron_^<N__^<N_The development of quantum mechanics in the 1920s, based on the wave
nature of matter, resulted in fundamental objections to the existence of electrons within the nucleus. One was that the size or wavelength of an electron depended inversely on its momentum and, therefore, on its energy. In order for an electron to
be confined within a region as small as the nucleus, its energy would have to be about 100 times greater than the observed energies of electrons emitted from atoms in radioactive disintegration. A second difficulty was in the so-called statistics
of elementary particles and their combinations. Protons and electrons are particles that are assigned spin, or intrinsic angular momentum, values of one-half. The rules of combination are such that an even number of protons and electrons must
result in an integral (whole number) value of the spin, whereas an odd number combine to give a half-integral value. The nitrogen nucleus, through its effect on the spectrum of the nitrogen molecule, was known to have an integral value of its spin.
With its mass of 14 and net charge of 7, the nitrogen nucleus, if composed of electrons and protons, would require 14 protons and 7 electrons, or 21 particles, an odd number that could not combine to give an integral value of the spin.
_^<N__^<N_These difficulties were resolved with Sir James Chadwick's discovery (1932) of the NEUTRON. The neutron is a particle of size and mass very closely equal to the proton but with no electrical charge. It is more difficult to detect than the
proton or electron. Because of its lack of electrical charge, it causes no direct scintillations in zinc sulfide or ionization in a detector. It must be detected indirectly, usually through collision with a proton, which then can be detected
directly. In studies of the nuclear reaction induced by alpha particles colliding with atoms of beryllium, a penetrating uncharged radiation had been detected as early as 1930 but had been interpreted as being gamma rays. Rutherford and Chadwick,
however, were alert for evidence of a new neutral particle. In a series of experiments, Chadwick proved that the new radiation could not be gamma radiation but must be a new neutral particle of about the mass of the proton. _^<N__^<N_The neutron
has half-integral spin. With the neutron, the nitrogen nucleus discussed above can be composed of 7 protons and 7 neutrons, resulting in the known mass, charge, and spin, and with the neutrons and protons easily confined in the small volume of the
nucleus. It was then obvious that the alpha particle consists of two protons and two neutrons. _^<N__^<N_ Modern Nuclear Physics_^<N__^<N_By 1932 nuclei were known to be composed of protons and neutrons. It was then necessary to explain how nuclei
were held together, and in 1935, Japanese physicist Hideki Yukawa predicted a smaller FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLE that was the carrier of a theorized strong interaction, one of the four FUNDAMENTAL INTERACTIONS, or forces. This particle, called a
pi-meson, was discovered in 1947. Since then a host of particles smaller than protons and neutrons have been discovered in the nucleus, all falling within two classes: FERMIONS, which obey the Pauli EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE, and BOSONS (pi-mesons are an
example), which carry the fundamental force. Modern NUCLEAR PHYSICS centers on fundamental interactions between fermions and their corresponding bosons. Bosons that carry the strong nuclear force are now theorized to be pairs or triplets of QUARKS.
The bosons involved in carrying the weak interaction, responsible for nuclear decay, are the W, Z, and HIGGS PARTICLES; the last have not yet been observed. Protons and neutrons are composed of particles representing all four forces.
_^<N__^<N_William J. Knox _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Asimov, Isaac, Inside the Atom (1974); Burge, E. J., Atomic Nuclei and Their Particles (1977); Conn, George K. T., and Turner, H. D., The Evolution of the Nuclear Atom (1965); Kerwin, Larkin, Atomic
Physics (1963); Preston, Melvin A., and Bhaduri, R. K., Structure of the Nucleus (1975); Reid, John M., The Atomic Nucleus (1972). _^<N__^<N_See also: FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES; QUARK.
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641
CAT
-A-
atomic number
-T-
atomic number_^<N__^<N_The atomic number of an element, which indicates its place in the PERIODIC TABLE of elements, is the number of protons (positively charged elementary particles) in the nucleus of one of its atoms. If an atom is electrically
neutral, the same number of electrons are present. Atomic number is often symbolized with the letter Z and is shown as a numerical subscript to the left of its chemical symbol. For example, the letter C preceded by a superscript number 12 and a
subscript number 6 indicates a carbon atom of atomic mass 12 and atomic number 6, the difference being equal to the number of neutrons present in the nucleus.
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36
CAT
-A-
atomic physics:
-T-
atomic physics:_^<N__^<N_see NUCLEAR PHYSICS.
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810
CAT
-A-
atomic weight
-T-
atomic weight_^<N__^<N_Atomic weight is the average mass of atoms of an element relative to some standard; the present standard is the carbon- 12 isotope, which is assigned an atomic weight of exactly 12 atomic mass units (amu). Mass numbers (the
sum of an atom's protons and neutrons) are always whole numbers, but the atomic weight of an element is the average of the weights of its isotopes (see ISOTOPE), taking the frequency of their natural occurrence into account, and is not usually a
whole number. A gram atomic weight is a quantity of an element in grams that has the same numerical value as the element's atomic weight; the gram atomic weight of carbon is 12 grams. Such a quantity always contains 6.022 times 10 to the 23rd power
atoms (one mole). For the atomic weights of the elements, see PERIODIC TABLE.
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647
CAT
-A-
atomism
-T-
atomism_^<N__^<N_{at'-uhm-izm} _^<N__^<N_Atomism (Greek atomon, "uncuttable") is the philosophic and scientific theory that reality is composed of indivisible elementary parts called atoms. A theory of physical atoms was first advanced by LEUCIPPUS
and DEMOCRITUS; later, it was developed by LUCRETIUS. A more complex version of the theory is held by natural scientists today, although at present it is not clear which particles are the most fundamental units of matter. Atomism also denotes
theories that may be psychological (the "simple ideas" of John LOCKE and David HUME) or linguistic (as in the elementary propositions of logical atomism). _^<N__^<N_Robert S. Brumbaugh
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2327
CAT
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atonality
-T-
atonality_^<N__^<N_{ay-tohn-al'-it-ee} _^<N__^<N_Atonality is a term in music that has been vaguely applied to a wide range of modern Western compositional methods. Their common feature is that they do not use TONALITY in the ways that characterized
Western music from the late 17th to the early 20th century. The term is sometimes confined to the music of Arnold SCHOENBERG and that of other innovative composers during the period that led to Schoenberg's development of the TWELVE-TONE SYSTEM in
the 1920s. _^<N__^<N_A tonal composition employs one or more tonal centers--C, for example--to define the functions of individual pitches in the work. In the 18th and 19th centuries, tonality came to embody a number of interrelated practices to
which rhythmic, dynamic, and other elements were closely linked. These included the use of diatonic SCALES and of collections of pitches, such as the triad, as the basis for harmonic construction. By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, such
composers as Richard WAGNER, Gustav MAHLER, and Claude DEBUSSY had greatly extended these practices in their efforts to expand musical expression. Tonal centers tended to become obscured by chromatic harmonies, continuous modulations, and the
avoidance of cadences. Atonality, as it first appeared in works such as Schoenberg's Three Piano Pieces, op. 11 (1909), therefore is sometimes described as the breakdown of tonal methods through their own overelaboration. In fact these early atonal
works had deep roots in the past. They could be better described as a rethinking of concepts in new organizational terms that deeply affected the old interrelationships found in tonal composition. _^<N__^<N_Modern composers, including those who
employ twelve-tone or other serial techniques, range widely in their use of tonal centers or emphases. The term atonality does not serve a clear function in describing this range. It could more simply be applied to tape or chance assemblages of
sound in which questions of tonality do not arise. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Forte, Allen, The Structure of Atonal Music (1973); George, Graham, Tonality and Musical Structure (1970); Perle, George, Serial Composition and Atonality, 5th ed. (1981);
Rahn, John, Basic Atonal Theory (1980); Reti, Rudolph, Tonality in Modern Music (1962); Salzman, Eric, Twentieth-Century Music: An Introduction, 2d ed. (1973).
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1691
CAT
-A-
atonement
-T-
atonement_^<N__^<N_The word atonement, constructed from at and one, means "to set at one" or "to reconcile." In Christian theology, atonement denotes the doctrine of the reconciliation of God and man accomplished by the crucifixion and death of
JESUS CHRIST. There have been three major theories of atonement: the ransom theory, the Anselmian theory, and the Abelardian theory. The ransom theory, first propounded by ORIGEN (c.185-254), was developed from Mark 10:45 and explained the
atonement as a price paid by God in Christ to the devil. Saint ANSELM (c.1033-1109) explained the atonement as an act of satisfaction paid by Christ as man to God, who demanded from man perfect obedience to the law, which he could not fulfill
because of his sinfulness. The exemplarist theory of Peter ABELARD (1079-1142) viewed Christ's death as an inspiring appeal of love evoking in the sinner a response of love, thus removing his sin. _^<N__^<N_Martin LUTHER, John CALVIN, and other
Reformers developed the Anselmian theory in the direction of penal substitution. Liberal theologians have reverted to an Abelardian type of explanation. Gustav AULEN and other Swedish theologians have recently advocated a return to the ransom
theory conceived in terms of victory over the powers of evil. _^<N__^<N_In Jewish theology, stress is placed on personal acts of atonement; vicarious atonement is given little importance (see also YOM KIPPUR). _^<N__^<N_Reginald H. Fuller
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Dillistone, Frederick W., The Christian Understanding of Atonement (1968); Feenstra, R., and Plantinga, C., Trinity, Incarnation, and Atonement (1990); Hengel, Martin, The Atonement, trans. by John Bowden (1981); White,
Vernon, Atonement and Incarnation (1991).
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34
CAT
-A-
Atonement, Day of:
-T-
Atonement, Day of:_^<N__^<N_see YOM KIPPUR.
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1421
CAT
-A-
ATP
-T-
ATP_^<N__^<N_The main source of immediate energy in all organisms is ATP, or adenosine triphosphate. ATP and closely related compounds furnish the energy for cell growth and cell reproduction, muscle contraction, and other chemical processes. ATP
may even be converted into light energy in organisms like the firefly. The ATP molecule comprises a nitrogen compound, adenine, linked to a molecule of sugar, ribose, to form adenosine. On the adenosine molecule is a chain of three phosphate groups
that can be removed one by one to produce ADP (adenosine diphosphate, having two phosphate groups), and AMP (adenosine monophosphate, having only one phosphate). As each phosphate group is removed, the bond that connects it to the rest of the
molecule breaks, releasing energy for the cells to use in their various activities. The most important reactions involving ATP are those in which the ATP donates one of its phosphates to another type of molecule to activate it. For example, glucose
(a sugar), a major energy source, does not react at body temperature unless it receives a phosphate. In vertebrate muscle and brain cells, excess ATP molecules are joined to the chemical compound creatine (phosphocreatine, or creatine phosphate),
which then serves as a reserve form of energy. In the invertebrates, phosphoarginine serves the same function. In 1992, ATP was found to be an important neurotransmitter. _^<N__^<N_Reviewed by Louis Levine
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819
CAT
-A-
Atreus
-T-
Atreus_^<N__^<N_{ay'-tree-uhs} _^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, Atreus, the son of PELOPS and the father of AGAMEMNON and MENELAUS, was king of Mycenae. He banished his brother Thyestes for contesting his right to rule. When Atreus discovered that
Aerope, his wife, and Thyestes had been lovers, he lured Thyestes home. Atreus then murdered two of his brother's sons, boiled them in a cauldron, and served their flesh to Thyestes at a feast. When Atreus told his brother what he had eaten,
Thyestes regurgitated the meal and pronounced an irrevocable curse on Atreus and his house. Later, Aegisthus, a son of Thyestes who had been spared, killed his uncle in revenge and presented the kingdom to his father. The continuing misfortunes of
the House of Atreus were the subject of poems and dramas by Homer, Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides.
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2595
CAT
-A-
atrium
-T-
atrium_^<N__^<N_{ay'-tree-uhm} _^<N__^<N_The atrium was the central, most important room of the Etruscan and Roman house. Although it may have been used in the 5th century BC, by the 3d century BC the atrium house had become overwhelmingly popular
in the Italian peninsula. Its use gradually declined under the Roman Empire, when it was replaced by peristyle garden houses. Few atrium houses were left by the 3d century AD. _^<N__^<N_An atrium was rectangular. Its long axis usually pointed
toward the street, and its center was open to the sky. The Roman architect VITRUVIUS gave names to five different ways to build roofs surrounding the opening: Tuscan, Corinthian, tetrastyle (using four columns for support), displuviate (roof
sloping out to wall), and testudinate (using vaults or arches). In the center of the atrium's floor was a pool (impluvium) to catch rainwater, sometimes with a tank underneath. Originally these were made of tufa or terra-cotta, but, in the richer
houses of the late Roman Republic, they were made of marble, sometimes elaborately sculptured. _^<N__^<N_The other rooms of the house were symmetrically distributed around the atrium. A narrow hall called the fauces connected the atrium to the
street. Beyond the atrium, and on axis with the fauces, was the tablinum. Originally this was the master bedroom, with a dining table placed before the entrance. By the late Republic, the table became elaborate but strictly ceremonial, and the
tablinum just a hallway to a peristyle garden at the back of the house. To the left and right of the tablinum were two alae, rooms that were open to the atrium. Other small rooms were entered from the atrium. _^<N__^<N_The atrium began, and in
some cases remained, as the social and religious center of the house. Shrines to the family's gods, busts of their ancesters, and other works of art were on display in the atrium. _^<N__^<N_In Early Christian and medieval times the term atrium
applied to a peristyle court (colonnaded quadrangle) built in front of a basilican church (see BASILICA). Everyone had access to the atrium, even non-Christians, but not to the rest of the church. _^<N__^<N_John Stephens Crawford
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Boethius, Axel, and Ward-Perkins, John, Etruscan and Roman Architecture (1970); Krautheimer, Richard, Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture (1965; repr. 1979); Robertson, D. S., A Handbook of Greek and Roman
Architecture, 2d ed. (1954); Vitruvius, The Ten Books on Architecture, trans. by Morris Morgan (1960); Ward-Perkins, John, Roman Imperial Architecture (1981). _^<N__^<N_See also: EARLY CHRISTIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE; ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
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849
CAT
-A-
atrophy
-T-
atrophy_^<N__^<N_Atrophy is the shrinking or wasting of cells, tissues, organs, or limbs. Atrophy can result from disuse, as with muscles within a cast; deprivation of motor nerve stimuli, as in poliomyelitis; reduced blood supply (ischemia);
starvation, terminal cancer, infection, and other chronic diseases; or deprivation of stimulating hormones. Atrophy of one organ or part can cause hypertrophy, or the enlargement of another tissue or organ to compensate for extra strain or work. In
some cases, atrophy is reversible; when it is not, the human body has considerable reserve available in each organ. A person may lose the function of 75 percent of an organ before showing symptoms of disease. For this reason, a kidney donor can
function normally with only 50 percent of original tissue. With advancing age, some atrophy is normal. _^<N__^<N_A. W. Dudley, M.D.
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647
CAT
-A-
atropine
-T-
atropine_^<N__^<N_Atropine (C17-H23-NO3) is a poisonous, crystalline ALKALOID found naturally in BELLADONNA, Atropa belladonna, and other plants of the NIGHTSHADE family. It is also prepared synthetically for medicinal purposes. Atropine inhibits
the secretion of bodily fluids and is used in nasal decongestants. In ophthamology it is used as a pupil dilator in eye examinations. As a smooth muscle relaxer, atropine is useful in relieving some gastrointestinal problems. It is also used as
an antidote to nerve gas and some insecticides. Overdoses of atropine can cause an accelerated heartbeat and shallow breathing, leading in some cases to death.
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25
CAT
-A-
Atsina:
-T-
Atsina:_^<N__^<N_see GROS VENTRES.
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938
CAT
-A-
attachment (law)
-T-
attachment (law)_^<N__^<N_Attachment, in law, is a writ issued by a court to take a defendant or his property into custody. It may be used to force the appearance of someone guilty of CONTEMPT or, in the case of property, to assure that the
judgment a plaintiff expects to obtain will actually be paid by the defendant. In issuing a writ of attachment before trial, the court may in some cases attach the defendant's bank account or some of his real estate in the amount that the
plaintiff hopes to recover. If the court later decides in favor of the defendant, the plaintiff faces the disagreeable prospect of a countersuit by the defendant for damages he sustained in the attachment of his assets. Garnishment, a common form
of attachment, is used to satisfy a creditor. The creditor, or garnishor, obtains a court order requiring the debtor's employer, or garnishee, to deduct the debt from the employee's salary and pay it to the creditor.
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3346
CAT
-A-
attachment (psychology)
-T-
attachment (psychology)_^<N__^<N_Attachment, in psychology, refers to a reciprocal bonding between individuals. Most research into attachment has focused on the bonding between an infant and a primary caregiver, particularly the mother.
_^<N__^<N_John Bowlby, a British psychologist who formulated the most widely accepted attachment theory in 1958, sought to combine psychoanalytic insights into early childhood development (see PSYCHOANALYSIS) with findings from the burgeoning field
of ETHOLOGY, the science of animal behavior. Psychoanalytic theory stresses the importance of maternal nurturing--especially feeding--in the development of infant-mother attachment. According to the theory, the intense need an infant has for oral
gratification by sucking attaches the infant to the breast--and later to the mother--as love object. From ethology comes the idea of IMPRINTING, the instinctual behavior pattern by which young animals learn to recognize and follow their parents.
It was early noted that human infants exhibit some of the same types of attachment behaviors--following, crying, sucking, and clinging--as do the young of other mammals. Another attachment behavior exhibited by human infants is smiling. These
behaviors occur cross culturally--that is, universally--among human infants. _^<N__^<N_Bowlby divided attachment behavior into four phases: reacting with signals and behavior toward any person; reacting discriminately toward one or more persons;
maintaining proximity to a specific person through movement and signals; and forming reciprocal relations with people. An infant generally forms a strong attachment to a particular person or persons at about seven months of age. This attachment
is often exhibited as a fear of strangers or strange situations. Mary Ainsworth and other researchers have developed the so-called strange situation paradigm in a series of experiments that built upon Bowlby's original contributions. In the
experiments, infants typically between the ages of 10 and 24 months were introduced to strangers or were separated briefly from their mothers. Their reactions to both the separation and the reunion were observed. Generally, a securely attached
infant explores actively in the mother's presence, reduces exploration and seeks proximity to the mother in a stranger's presence, abandons explorations and shows distress in the mother's absence, and seeks contact with the mother upon reunion.
Insecure infants avoided their mothers or acted ambiguously or angrily toward them upon reunion. A small body of evidence suggests that there may be a link between infant insecurity and behavioral problems in later childhood. _^<N__^<N_As an
infant exhibits a wide variety of attachment behaviors, so, too, does the caregiver who bonds with the infant through touching and stroking, attending and attuning to the infant's needs, maintaining eye-to-eye contact, and speaking in a
high-pitched voice. Infants apparently attach more readily to caregivers who respond quickly and spontaneously to their needs. More research is being devoted to caregivers' attachment behavior. _^<N__^<N_Reviewed by Marc H. Bornstein
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ainsworth, M. D. S., et al., Patterns of Attachment (1978); Bowlby, John, Separation (1973), Attachment, 2d ed. (1983), and A Secure Base (1988). Lamb, M. E., et al., Infant-Mother Attachment (1985).
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898
CAT
-A-
attainder, bill of
-T-
attainder, bill of_^<N__^<N_{uh-tayn'-dur} _^<N__^<N_A bill of attainder was a law directed against a person or a group that pronounced them guilty of treason or felony and denied recourse to normal legal procedure. _^<N__^<N_The English House of
Commons began to pass bills of attainder in the 15th century to punish those who had incurred the king's displeasure. Many distinguished figures were dispatched outside the normal channels of the law and often without any evidence being produced to
show their guilt. _^<N__^<N_The U.S. CONSTITUTION (Article I, sections 9 and 10) forbids bills of attainder. Some American states passed bills of attainder during the Revolution and afterward, prompting the Constitutional Convention to insert the
provision against them. Some laws passed by Congress after World War II, including those requiring employees to take loyalty oaths, have been held by the courts to constitute bills of attainder.
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1244
CAT
-A-
Attalus I, King of Pergamum
-T-
Attalus I, King of Pergamum_^<N__^<N_{at'-uh-luhs} _^<N__^<N_Attalus I, 269-197 BC, the greatest ruler of the Anatolian state of PERGAMUM, came to its throne in 241 BC. Although supposedly a vassal-ally of the dominant SELEUCID dynasty, to which he
was distantly related, Attalus was both a strong protector of the Greek cities of Anatolia and an opportunist in trying to expand Pergamum's territory and power. He won a major victory over the Galatians and in 229-228 conquered all Seleucid
Anatolia except Cilicia. Most of this territory was lost again (223-222), however, to Achaeus, the general of ANTIOCHUS III. _^<N__^<N_Attalus then turned his attention to Greece, becoming involved in wars against PHILIP V of Macedonia. He finally
enlisted Roman aid against Macedonia and died toward the end of Rome's Second Macedonian War. By drawing Rome into action in eastern affairs, Attalus brought the ultimate defeat of the Seleucids, but Pergamum itself eventually lost its
independence. The historian Polybius, however, said that Attalus died fighting "for the liberty of the Greeks." Attalus was succeeded by his son EUMENES II. _^<N__^<N_Louis L. Orlin _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Allen, R. E., The Attalid Kingdom (1983);
McShane, Roger, The Foreign Policy of the Attalids of Pergamum (1964).
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428
CAT
-A-
Attar, Farid al-Din Abu Hamid
-T-
Attar, Farid al-Din Abu Hamid_^<N__^<N_{a-tahr', fuh-reed' uhd-deen' a'-boo ha-meed'} _^<N__^<N_Farid al-Din Abu Hamid Attar, b. 1119, d. c.1230, was a Persian poet and mystic whose works on Sufism are considered definitive. His Biographies of the
Saints (Eng. trans., 1965) has delicately balanced rhymed prose. His mystical epic, Conference of the Birds (Eng. trans., 1954), furnished many metaphorical stories for later poets. _^<N__^<N_Marcia E. Maguire
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993
CAT
-A-
Attenborough, Richard and David
-T-
Attenborough, Richard and David_^<N__^<N_The English film actor Sir Richard Attenborough, b. Aug. 29, 1923, knighted in 1976, won fame as a cowardly young seaman in In Which We Serve (1942). As an actor he also appeared in Brighton Rock (1947), The
Guinea Pig (1949), and 10 Rillington Place (1971). He later directed such films as Oh! What a Lovely War (1969), Young Winston (1972), A Bridge Too Far (1977), Gandhi (1982; Academy Award), A Chorus Line (1985), Cry Freedom (1987), and Chaplin
(1992). _^<N__^<N_His younger brother, Sir David Attenborough, b. May 8, 1926, knighted in 1985, achieved fame as a naturalist, writer, and broadcaster. He joined the BBC in 1952 and was its television director of programs (1969-72). Beginning in
1954 he undertook worldwide zoological and ethnographic filming expeditions for the Zoo Quest series. He also wrote and presented the acclaimed series Tribal Eye (1975), Life on Earth (1979; U.S., 1982), The Living Planet (U.S., 1984), and The
Trials of Life (U.S., 1991).
-END-
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3292
CAT
-A-
attention
-T-
attention_^<N__^<N_Attention is the focus of consciousness. It entails selecting from available sensory or memorized information certain parts for further processing. Different kinds and degrees of attention are involved in listening to a person at
a crowded party, concentrating on a painting's colors but not its forms, and keeping one's mind on a problem rather than daydreaming. The need for selection implies that limits exist to the ability to perceive, think, or do several things at once.
_^<N__^<N_Attention is sometimes involuntary. It can be drawn by external stimuli that are intense, novel, or significant. These typically elicit an orienting response--the arousal increases, and the organism switches attention both internally and
physically by orienting toward the stimulus. If, however, the stimulus is repeated or continuous, the response will eventually diminish or disappear altogether. Attention is not necessary for certain kinds of activity. The general physical features
of a scene (its color, size, shape, or movement) can be registered without attention being brought to bear. Also, tasks that initially required full attention may become so automatic that they can later be combined with other activities.
_^<N__^<N_Psychologists seek to discover which parts of the perceptual process are influenced by attention. One series of studies of selective listening required subjects to repeat ("shadow") one of two simultaneous messages while they were still
listening to them. Then their knowledge of the other message was probed. The results suggested that a person can register the general physical characteristics of two messages at once but can identify the verbal content of only one. This research
culminated in the filter theory of Donald BROADBENT. He proposed that while a large amount of sensory information can be absorbed at one time, a selective filter reduces the input from one source while that from another source is being analyzed by
the brain. Subsequent experiments, however, showed that the content of an unattended message may be perceived if it is relevant, indicating that some analysis takes place before attention is brought to bear and that motivation, or interest, is
important in the activation of attention. Some theorists therefore claim that full perceptual analysis occurs before attention, which controls only access to memory, to behavioral response, and to consciousness. Other evidence suggests, however,
that attention can affect the earlier components of the brain's response to stimuli. _^<N__^<N_The difficulty of dividing attention between two tasks increases when the tasks involve the same mechanisms. One can combine listening to speech with
sight-reading piano music much more easily than one can listen to two simultaneous speech messages, perhaps because of the anatomical separation of the brain centers involved. Interference also occurs with unrelated tasks when these are difficult,
which suggests that there is competition for limited resources of effort as well as for brain centers. _^<N__^<N_Anne Treisman _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bion, W. R., Attention and Interpretation (1983); Broadbent, D. E., Perception and Communication
(1958; repr. 1987); Cohen, R. A., The Neuropsychology of Attention (1991); Posner, M. I., and Marin, O. S., eds., Attention and Performance (1985).
attic_^<N__^<N_An attic is any wall situated above the main cornice of a building. In Roman architecture the attic story was often the place for inscriptions or decorative carving. This is commonly seen in the Roman triumphal-arch form in which
arches and columns support a main cornice that in turn supports an attic. In Italian Renaissance architecture the attic story was an important part of a facade and often enclosed an additional floor of rooms. The attic windows were given a
distinctive treatment on the outside.
-END-
-C-
463
CAT
-A-
Attica
-T-
Attica_^<N__^<N_{at'-i-kuh} _^<N__^<N_Attica was a mountainous region of ancient Greece whose important centers included ELEUSIS, Marathon, and its principal city, ATHENS, which dominated the area by the 7th century BC. Attica (Greek, Attiki) is
also the name of a modern Greek nomos (department) with boundaries somewhat different from those of the ancient region. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Petrides, T., Folk Dances of Attica (1987); Traill, John, The Political Organization of Attica (1975).
-END-
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949
CAT
-A-
Attica prison riot
-T-
Attica prison riot_^<N__^<N_The Attica prison riot, in which 43 persons died, occurred Sept. 9-13, 1971, at New York State's maximum-security Attica Correctional Facility, near Buffalo. The revolt involved about 1,000 inmates who seized control of
the prison, fatally injuring one guard and taking 38 hostages--guards and civilian employees--in the first half hour. Subsequently, three inmates were killed by other inmates. The rebels--about half the Attica inmates--issued demands for improved
conditions. Negotiations failed, and on September 13, state troopers, sheriff's deputies, and prison guards took the prison by force. Their gunfire killed 29 prisoners and 10 hostages. A state commission that investigated the riot reported that the
inmates had legitimate grievances and that Gov. Nelson Rockefeller should have visited the scene before ordering the assault. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bell, Malcolm, The Turkey Shoot (1986); Wicker, Tom, A Time to Die (1975).
-END-
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1618
CAT
-A-
Attila the Hun
-T-
Attila the Hun_^<N__^<N_Attila, d. 453, a ruler of the nomadic HUNS, harassed the eastern half of the Roman Empire during the 440s and devastated much of the western half of the empire in 451-52. Because of these exploits he came to be known as
the "Scourge of God." _^<N__^<N_In 434, Attila and his brother Bleda negotiated a treaty with the East Roman (Byzantine) emperor THEODOSIUS II and obtained an immense annual tribute of about 300 kg (700 lb) of gold. After six years of peace, the
Huns invaded the empire, destroyed several important cities, and defeated several imperial armies. After another treaty and payment of more tribute, peace was made. In 445, Attila murdered his brother and launched a new campaign against the
empire. In 447 he struck again and forced the emperor to cede large areas of territory south of the Danube to the Huns. Another large tribute was also promised. _^<N__^<N_By 450, Attila's interests turned toward the West, and--with a pretext
provided by Honoria, sister of the emperor VALENTINIAN III, who sought to ally herself with Attila--he attacked Gaul. A coalition of imperial forces, Visigoths, and other peoples (especially Alans) was finally formed by the Roman general AETIUS.
Attila's horde was stopped at Orleans and forced to retreat. In 451 at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains (near Chalons-sur-Marne), Aetius's forces won a decisive victory. Attila was permitted to retreat, and in 452 he attacked Italy but was
turned back by an epidemic. _^<N__^<N_Bernard S. Bachrach _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Maenchen-Helfen, Otto, The World of the Huns (1973); Thompson, E. A., A History of Attila and the Huns (1948).
-END-
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3448
CAT
-A-
attitude
-T-
attitude_^<N__^<N_An attitude is an individual's prevailing tendency to respond favorably or unfavorably to an object, person or group of people, institution, or event. A negative attitude toward a racial, ethnic, or religious group is also called
a prejudice. Widely shared positive attitudes toward an abstract concept such as truth or freedom are known as values. _^<N__^<N_A key concept in the field of SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, attitudes are hypothetical constructs. Because they cannot be
directly observed, they must be inferred from an individual's responses--positive or negative--toward an "attitude object." Thus, for example, one's negative attitude toward a certain ethnic group may be discovered through perceived responses to
the group. Social psychologists distinguish and study three components of the responses. The cognitive component is one's knowledge about an attitude object, whether that knowledge is accurate or not. The affective component is one's feelings
toward an object. The conative (sometimes called behavioral) component is the action, or intent of action, one will take toward an object. _^<N__^<N_Researchers are particularly interested in the question of how attitudes are formed or changed.
Early approaches to the question focused on what functions an attitude serves: utilitarian--to attain rewards or avoid punishment; knowledge--to organize or simplify experiences; expressive--to vent emotions; or ego-defense--to protect the self.
Some social psychologists use a behavioral approach. They reason that attitudes are formed in response to repeated conditioning (see BEHAVIORISM; LEARNING THEORY). _^<N__^<N_Increasingly, theorists have turned to the field of COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
for models of attitude formation. In this framework, an individual's subjective knowledge (beliefs) about an object determine his or her attitude toward it. Generally, if most of an individual's beliefs about an object are positive, then a
positive attitude will develop. The beliefs may originate from a combination of direct experience, second-hand information, and inference. Thus, an adolescent might develop a positive attitude toward cigarette smoking because peers praise the
experience (second-hand information), because the experience gives a temporary pleasure (direct experience), and because the adolescent wants to appear mature and develops the attitude that smoking is an "adult" activity (inference). _^<N__^<N_Many
attitudes arise early in life and tend to persist or be influential throughout life. They are first learned from one's family, and the learning persists into adulthood. Attitudes do change, however. Among the most important variables in attitude
change are the following: personality characteristics; the credibility of the source of different opinions or of information countering the held attitudes; group membership; and personal behavior that is inconsistent with the individual's
attitudes. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Allport, Gordon, The Nature of Prejudice (1954; repr. 1979); Asch, Solomon E., Social Psychology (1987); Bethlehem, Douglas, A Social Psychology of Prejudice (1985); Kahle, L., Attitudes and Social Adaptation
(1984); Petty, R. E., and Caccioppo, J. T., Attitudes and Persuasion (1981); Pratkanis, Anthony R., et al., eds., Attitude Structure and Function (1989); Rokeach, Milton, Beliefs, Attitudes, and Values (1968). _^<N__^<N_See also: BRAINWASHING;
COGNITIVE DISSONANCE; CONFORMITY; GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY; GROUP DYNAMICS.
-END-
-C-
1983
CAT
-A-
Attlee, Clement, 1st Earl Attlee
-T-
Attlee, Clement, 1st Earl Attlee_^<N__^<N_Clement Richard Attlee, b. Jan. 3, 1883, d. Oct. 8, 1967, was prime minister of Great Britain's first majority Labour government. Of middle-class origin, he was educated at Oxford. After experience as a
social worker, he joined (1907) the Fabian Society and was converted to socialism. _^<N__^<N_Attlee served as an officer in World War I and then was elected (1919) mayor of Stepney, a London working-class borough. Entering the House of Commons in
1922, he became a minister in the minority Labour cabinet of 1929-31 and served as a member of the Simon Commission on Indian government in 1930. He refused to follow Ramsay MACDONALD into the National government in 1931. In 1935 he became the
Labour party's leader. _^<N__^<N_A prewar critic of Conservative foreign and defense policies, Attlee held high office in Winston Churchill's wartime coalition of 1940-45. Following Labour's landslide electoral victory in 1945, he headed the
cabinet that created Britain's WELFARE STATE. It nationalized major public utilities and several industries, including coal mining; instituted free medical and hospital care; and established or improved numerous relief programs for the
underprivileged. The Attlee cabinet was responsible for the granting (1947) of independence to India, Pakistan, Ceylon, and Burma, as well as Britain's charter membership in NATO and alignment with the United States against the Communist powers in
the Korean War and the cold war. _^<N__^<N_Financial and economic problems, especially a trade deficit, forced the Attlee government to resort to austerity measures, including food and fuel rationing and devaluation of the pound. Returned to power
by a diminished majority in the 1950 elections, Labour lost a second election to the Conservatives in 1951. Upon retiring from the party leadership in 1955, Attlee was awarded a peerage. _^<N__^<N_Don M. Cregier _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Attlee,
Clement R., As It Happened (1954); Williams, Francis, A Prime Minister Remembers (1961).
-END-
-C-
892
CAT
-A-
attorney
-T-
attorney_^<N__^<N_An attorney, or lawyer, is a person trained in the LAW who is authorized to offer legal advice and represent clients in court. In England a distinction exists between an attorney who deals with clients and an attorney who pleads
for them in court: the former is called a solicitor and the latter a BARRISTER (in Scotland, an advocate). Despite the absence of such precise definitions in the United States, many attorneys specialize in particular branches of the law, such as
criminal, corporation, tax, or patent law. Some states, as well as the Supreme Court, distinguish between attorney and counsellor, the former applying to younger members of the bar or those who conduct the formal parts of the suit and the latter to
those who advise in an area of their expertise. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Darrow, Clarence, The Story of My Life (1932); Nizer, Louis, My Life in Court (1961; repr. 1978).
-END-
-C-
604
CAT
-A-
attorney general
-T-
attorney general_^<N__^<N_In English-speaking countries an attorney general is the chief legal officer of a government. The attorney general of the United States is the head of the Department of JUSTICE and a member of the cabinet. He or she acts
as the government's attorney in litigation, advises the president and the heads of the executive departments on legal problems, administers the federal prison system, and is the government's legal officer in other matters. _^<N__^<N_In Britain the
attorney general represents the crown rather than the government, although some attorneys general have been cabinet ministers.
-END-
-C-
276
CAT
-A-
Attucks, Crispus
-T-
Attucks, Crispus_^<N__^<N_Crispus Attucks, b. c.1723, was the leader of the mob that defied British troops in Boston on Mar. 5, 1770. He was killed in the ensuing BOSTON MASSACRE. Little is known about him, but he is believed to have been a black
man, perhaps of partly Indian descent.
-END-
-C-
818
CAT
-A-
Atwood, Margaret
-T-
Atwood, Margaret_^<N__^<N_The poet and novelist Margaret Eleanor Atwood, b. Ottawa, Ontario, Nov. 18, 1939, is one of Canada's most acclaimed contemporary writers. The Circle Game (1964; rev. ed. 1966), a volume of poetry, won the 1966 Governor
General's Award and treats the male-female relationship with witty accuracy. Her powerful second novel, Surfacing (1972), analyzes the heroine's steady isolation from society as she searches in the Canadian wilderness for her missing father.
Atwood has also written an important thematic study of Canadian literature, Survival (1972). Her other works include 2 volumes of Selected Poems (1976, 1988) and the novels The Handmaid's Tale (1986) and Cat's Eye (1989). _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
McCombs, J., Critical Essays on Margaret Atwood (1988); Rigney, B. H., Margaret Atwood (1987).
-END-
-C-
627
CAT
-A-
Auber, Daniel Francois Esprit
-T-
Auber, Daniel Francois Esprit_^<N__^<N_{oh-bair'} _^<N__^<N_Daniel Francois Esprit Auber, b. Jan. 19, 1782, d. May 12, 1871, was a French composer who wrote more than 40 comic and serious operas. His first work was a failure, but his association
with the librettist Eugene SCRIBE resulted in many popular operas. The best known are La Muette de Portici (The Mute Girl of Portici, 1828), the first opera to treat the aspirations of the common people in a heroic manner, and Fra Diavolo (Frior
Devil, 1830). Auber's ingenious orchestrations, including stirring marches with chorus, influenced Giuseppe VERDI and Richard WAGNER. _^<N__^<N_Stephanie von Buchau
-END-
-C-
453
CAT
-A-
Aubignac, Abbe d'
-T-
Aubignac, Abbe d'_^<N__^<N_{doh-been-yahk'} _^<N__^<N_A French literary critic, Francois Hedelin, b. Aug. 4, 1604, d. July 25, 1676, contributed to the formulation of French CLASSICISM. In The Whole Art of the Stage (1657; Eng. trans., 1684), a
guide for playwrights, he emphasized the Aristotelian principle of unity and vraisemblance ("credibility"). He also produced plays and novels and polemical writings, mainly against playwright Pierre CORNEILLE. _^<N__^<N_Martin C. Turnell
-END-
-C-
673
CAT
-A-
Aubigne, Agrippa d'
-T-
Aubigne, Agrippa d'_^<N__^<N_{doh-been-yay', ah-grip-pah'} _^<N__^<N_Agrippa d'Aubigne, b. Feb. 8, 1552, d. Apr. 29, 1630, was a French soldier, historian, and poet whose Huguenot sympathies during the Wars of Religion first resulted in his
appointment as master of horse under Henry of Navarre (later King HENRY IV) and then, after 1620, led to his exile to Geneva. His ironic attack on the Catholic position, the Catholic Confession of a Nobleman of Sancy, was published posthumously in
1660. He also wrote (1616-19) a history of the Protestant struggle in Europe between 1553 and 1602 and a long sectarian poem, Les Tragiques (1616). _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Cameron, Keith, Agrippa d'Aubigne (1977).
-END-
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430
CAT
-A-
Aubrey, John
-T-
Aubrey, John_^<N__^<N_John Aubrey, b. Mar. 12, 1626, d. June 1697, an English antiquarian and author, is remembered for sketches of his contemporaries--published in 1813 as Minutes of Lives and now known under the title Brief Lives. His friends
included Thomas HOBBES, Robert HOOKE, and Sir Christopher WREN. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hunter, M., John Aubrey and the Realm of Learning (1975); Powell, A., John Aubrey and His Friends (1948; rev. 1964).
-END-
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1614
CAT
-A-
Aubusson
-T-
Aubusson_^<N__^<N_{oh-boo-sohn'} _^<N__^<N_Aubusson, a town in central France not far from Limoges, is a world-famous center of tapestry and rug weaving. Just when the town industry began is open to question, although some date it from the
9th-century Saracen occupation. Others believe it began when Flemish immigrants arrived in the 14th century. Well-documented 16th-century examples reveal Aubusson as one of several small centers producing bold, provincial designs of a variety of
subjects. Regional economic problems in the 17th century inspired Jean Baptiste COLBERT, minister of Louis XIV, to investigate and to promise aid for the group of independent weavers active in the town. Not until 1732 did the crown offer real help,
but from then on the industry flourished. In the 18th century, designs by such important artists as Jean Baptiste OUDRY, Francois BOUCHER, and Jean Baptiste Huet were used. The weavers survived the French Revolution and continue to operate to this
day; they are now famous for their contemporary tapestries as well as for those in earlier styles. A school founded in 1884 provides training for weavers and designers. A blue galloon border (ornamental fabric trim) was devised in the 17th century
to identify Aubusson products, which were sometimes marked Aubusson, MRD, or MRDB (Manufacture Royal Daubusson or Du Buisson ). _^<N__^<N_Marvin D. Schwartz _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Jarry, Madeleine, Carpets of Aubusson, trans. by C. Magdalino
(1969); Weigert, Roger Armand, French Tapestry, trans. by Donald and Monique King (1962). _^<N__^<N_See also: BAROQUE ART AND ARCHITECTURE; ROCOCO STYLE; STYLES OF LOUIS XIII-XVI; TAPESTRY.
-END-
-C-
2090
CAT
-A-
Auchincloss, Louis
-T-
Auchincloss, Louis_^<N__^<N_{aw'-chin-klaws} _^<N__^<N_Louis Auchincloss, b. Lawrence, N.Y., Sept. 27, 1917, is a writer whose novels of manners explore the world of Manhattan high society and the influential Eastern Establishment. Educated at
Groton and Yale, Auchincloss received a law degree in 1941 from the University of Virginia and became a Wall Street lawyer. He drew on his background for his first novel, The Indifferent Children (1947), examining the New York social set in World
War II. The Rector of Justin (1964), which won particularly high praise, has as its protagonist the headmaster of an exclusive Episcopal boarding school, who bears a strong likeness to Endicott Peabody, the founder and headmaster of Groton. The
Winthrop Covenant (1976), is peopled with affluent, upper-class New Englanders and New Yorkers, and analyzes the Puritan character from 1630 to post-Vietnam War days in nine loosely connected stories. _^<N__^<N_Auchincloss's fiction has been
likened to that of Henry James and Edith Wharton. He published a collection of essays on Henry James, Reflections of a Jacobite (1961), edited The Edith Wharton Reader (1965), and wrote Edith Wharton: A Biography (1971). Among his later works,
The House of the Prophet (1980) is the fictionalized biography of a life resembling that of the political journalist Walter Lippmann; The Cat and the King (1981) is a historical novel set in the court of Louis XIV (the cat is the duc de
Saint-Simon); Narcissa and Other Fables (1983) is a collection of short stories of contemporary society; Watchfires (1983) is a novel chronicling three generations of a New York society family during the Civil War era, and Skinny Island (1987) is
a collection of short stories. Fellow Passengers (1989) and The Lady of Situations (1990) are recently published novels. False Gods (1992) is a collection of short stories. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Gelderman, Carol, Louis Auchincloss: A Writer's
Life (1993); Hicks, Granville, and Robbins, Jack, Literary Horizons (1970); Parsell, D. G., Louis Auchincloss (1988); Vidal, Gore, Matters of Fact and Fiction (1977).
-END-
-C-
1126
CAT
-A-
Auckland
-T-
Auckland_^<N__^<N_{awk'-luhnd} _^<N__^<N_Auckland is the chief port of New Zealand and is located in north central North Island. The seaport city is situated on a plateaulike isthmus marked by hills, with Manukau Harbor on the south and Waitemata
Harbor on the north. The city proper has a population of 315,668 (1991), but its metropolitan area is the most populous (855,571) in the country. The central business district is near the commercial docks; factories are in 12 separate areas
surrounding the city; and residential areas are in the hills and along the coast. Major industries of Auckland include heavy engineering and the manufacture of consumer goods. Also important is the trade and export of dairy and lamb products of
the region's farming areas. _^<N__^<N_The site of Auckland was once a principal MAORI settlement. Established in 1840, it was until 1865 the colonial capital of New Zealand. The combination of a prosperous rural economy and development of industry
resulted in rapid growth, particularly in the 1950s and 1960s. Major institutions include the University of Auckland (1882) and the Auckland City Art Gallery (1888).
-END-
-C-
422
CAT
-A-
Auckland Islands
-T-
Auckland Islands_^<N__^<N_The Auckland Islands are a group of uninhabited volcanic islands administered by New Zealand and located about 483 km (300 mi) south of Invercargill, New Zealand. They cover an area of 606 sq km (234 sq mi); the largest
island is Auckland. The islands support a population of fur seals. The Auckland Islands were discovered in 1806 by Capt. Abraham Bristow and briefly served as a British whaling station.
-END-
-C-
3371
CATO
-A-
auction
-O-
000000|auction
000290| SYSTEMS
001381| THE AUCTIONEER
001963| MARKETS
-T-
auction_^<N__^<N_An auction is a sale of property in which potential buyers compete with each other until one person is acknowledged by the auctioneer as the highest bidder and new owner. An auction stands in sharp contrast to the more familiar
practices of face-to-face bargaining and fixed-price sales. _^<N__^<N_ SYSTEMS_^<N__^<N_In the English system of auction, the most familiar one in the United States, participants keep raising their bids. The term auction is derived from the Latin
auctio, meaning "to increase." In the so-called Dutch system, the auctioneer begins at a high price and then descends by steps until a bidder indicates his intention to buy at the price level reached. A third arrangement entails setting a time
limit for the acceptance of bids, perhaps until a candle burns out. An important, and sometimes controversial, mechanism is the reserve, or undisclosed minimum price, set by the seller jointly with the auctioneer, below which the property will not
be sold. The reserve is designed to offset collusive bidding by a consortium of dealers known as a "ring." Otherwise, a ring can refrain from competing with each other and instead place one bid at an unduly low price, later dividing or
re-auctioning the goods among themselves, thus depriving the original owner of his "fair" price. Despite criticism, the reserve system has become widely accepted, especially in art auctions. _^<N__^<N_ THE AUCTIONEER_^<N__^<N_In conducting the
sale, the auctioneer usually acts as an agent for the seller, although he or she may also have a proprietary interest in the goods offered. In recent years, British and American auctioneers have adopted the European practice of charging buyers a
premium (usually 10 percent) as well as being paid a commission by the seller. The auctioneer divides the property to be sold into "lots." Either through a spoken announcement or printed catalog, the auctioneer describes the lots and outlines the
legal and financial conditions governing the auction. _^<N__^<N_ MARKETS_^<N__^<N_Stock exchanges, commodity markets, and certain trades and industries--notably fur, fish, and flowers--often buy and sell merchandise by auction. The country
auction, where everything may be sold from ordinary household objects to entire farms and their equipment, is an old tradition. Widely publicized in recent years is the glamorous auction of important paintings and art objects, rare books,
antiques, jewels, or other items that are judged to have value that will increase over time. The fascination with such auctions has grown as art prices have surged to epic proportions. _^<N__^<N_As an institution, the auction has had a long
history. The slave auction is a practice that dates back to ancient Greece and Rome; it continued in Europe and the Americas until slavery itself was abolished. Auctions of commodities and raw materials were common for centuries in the large
port cities of Europe and, later, of the United States. _^<N__^<N_The oldest and largest art auction firm is Sotheby's, founded in 1744 in England. Joined with New York's Parke Bernet since 1964, it has branches throughout the world. Another
international firm is Christie, Manson, and Woods International Inc., which has held auctions in London since 1766. _^<N__^<N_Thomas E. Norton _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Faith, N., Sold: The Rise and Fall of the House of Sotheby (1986); Ketchum, W.
C., Auction! (1980); Smith, C. W., Auctions (1988).
-END-
-C-
4880
CAT
4837
-A-
Auden, W. H.
-T-
Auden, W. H._^<N__^<N_{aw'-duhn} _^<N__^<N_The English-born American writer Wystan Hugh Auden, b. Feb. 21, 1907, d. Sept. 28, 1973, was one of the most important poets of the 20th century. Educated at Oxford, he first attracted attention as a
prominent member of a group of young leftist writers who generally expressed a socialist viewpoint, while continuing the artistic revolution of such earlier writers as T. S. Eliot, James Joyce, and Ezra Pound. This group included the poets Louis
MACNEICE and Stephen SPENDER and the novelist Christopher ISHERWOOD. _^<N__^<N_Auden's earliest works are startling in several ways. They contain unusual meters, words, and images, juxtapose industrial and natural landscapes, and mix the rhythms of
poetry with those of jazz music. Some critics feel that Auden's first books, Poems (1930) and The Orators, an English Study (1932), contain some of his finest work. A prominent theme in these poems is the dissolution of civilization and culture.
With Isherwood, Auden also wrote three plays: The Dog Beneath the Skin (1935); The Ascent of F6 (1936); and On the Frontier (1938). In the later poems of the 1930s, such as those in Look, Stranger! (1936) and Journey to a War (1939), his political
and antiwar sentiments are expressed, but the poems lack some of the force of his earlier work. Another Time (1940) contains lighter and more romantic verse. _^<N__^<N_Auden lived in Germany, where he witnessed the rise of nazism, and during the
Spanish Civil War he served as an ambulance driver. In 1936 he married Erika Mann, daughter of Thomas MANN, to provide her with a British passport and enable her to leave Germany. In 1937 he received King George's Gold Medal for Poetry. Auden
immigrated to the United States in 1939 (he became an American citizen in 1946) and at about the same time returned to the religion of his youth, Anglicanism. His wide-ranging intellectual interests and his technical virtuosity in a variety of
metrical forms are apparent in such works as The Double Man (1941), For the Time Being (1944), and the 1948 Pulitzer Prize-winning The Age of Anxiety (1947). These works also bear the stamp of his religious reaffirmation, although this is expressed
by treating of questions concerning existence rather than by discussing his own spiritual struggles and achievements. In 1945 he published The Collected Poetry of W. H. Auden, a widely read volume in which poems were so arranged as to defy
chronology. In this volume, too, he revised many poems and omitted others, among them two of his most popular political poems. Many charged that Auden was censoring his early political self in a kind of purge. The poet, however, gave reasons of
technical correctness. _^<N__^<N_Nones (1951), The Shield of Achilles (1955), Homage to Clio (1960), About the House (1965), and City without Walls (1969) added steadily to the store of his carefully made, playful or irreverent, and sometimes
deceptively simple short poems. In 1954 he received the Bollingen Poetry Prize. From 1956 to 1961 he held the chair in poetry at Oxford. Critical essays published in The Enchafed Flood (1950), The Dyer's Hand (1962), and Forewords and Afterwords
(1973) increased his reputation for catholicity of taste. He influenced a generation of new poets by teaching, reading his poems, lecturing in colleges and universities throughout the United States and England, and editing the Yale series of young
poets' work. _^<N__^<N_In his later years Auden spent part of the year at his apartment in New York (he always considered himself not an American but a New Yorker) and part in Italy--later still, in Kirchstetten, Austria, where he owned a house
memorialized in "Thanksgiving for a Habitat" (1965). He received the National Medal for Literature in 1967. With his close friend Chester Kallman he collaborated on opera libretti, including Stravinsky's The Rake's Progress (1951). He returned to
Oxford as an honorary fellow in 1972. At the end of his life, Auden was generally thought to be the most important poet writing in English. _^<N__^<N_Richard A. Johnson _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bahlke, G. W., The Later Auden (1970); Bold, Alan
ed., W. H. Auden: The Far Interior (1985); Callan, Edward, Auden: A Carnival of Intellect (1983); Farnan, D. J., Auden in Love (1984); Gingerich, M. E., W. H. Auden: A Reference Guide (1978); Greenberg, Herbert, Quest for the Necessary:
W. H. Auden and the Dilemma of Divided Consciousness (1968); Haffenden, John, ed., W. H. Auden: The Critical Heritage (1983); Hecht, Anthony, The Hidden Law: The Poetry of W. H. Auden (1993); Levy, Alan, W. H. Auden: In the Autumn of
the Age of Anxiety (1983); McDiarmid, Lucy, Saving Civilization: Yeats, Eliot, and Auden between the Wars (1984); Mendelson, Edward, The Early Auden (1981); Rodway, Allan, Preface to Auden (1984); Rowse, A. L., The Poet Auden (1988); Wright,
G. T., W. H. Auden, rev. ed. (1981).
-END-
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572
CAT
-A-
Audiberti, Jacques
-T-
Audiberti, Jacques_^<N__^<N_{oh-dee-bair-tee'} _^<N__^<N_The French Poet, dramatist, and novelist Jacques Audiberti, b. Mar. 25, 1899, d. July 10, 1965, used complex, erudite, and sometimes extravagant language in works centered on problems of good
and evil. His poetry in Race des Hommes (Race of Men, 1937) was a reaction against the formlessness of SURREALISM. His plays, including Quoat-Quoat (1946), Le mal court (The Evil Runs, 1947), and La fourmi dans le corps (Ant in the Body, 1948),
dramatized conflicts against primitive forces of evil, and depicted the power of myth. _^<N__^<N_Robin Buss
-END-
-C-
704
CAT
-A-
audiencia
-T-
audiencia_^<N__^<N_{ow-dee-en'-see-uh} _^<N__^<N_Audiencias were regional courts of law established in Spain and its American colonies to exercise royal authority in both judicial and administrative matters. In the 16th and 17th centuries they
served as powerful arms of the Spanish throne in the New World, mainly to check the independence of the CONQUISTADORS. Four judges usually sat on each case, and their verdict was final in all but the most serious decisions. The judges also
functioned as advisors to local administrations and achieved considerable power. By the 19th century, 13 audiencias had been established in the New World. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Haring, Clarence H., The Spanish Empire in America (1947; repr.
1963).
-END-
-C-
710
CAT
-A-
audio frequency
-T-
audio frequency_^<N__^<N_Audio frequencies are the frequencies of sounds perceptible by the average normal human ear. All sounds are produced by mechanical vibrations. The number of times a vibration is repeated in one second is its frequency. A
vibrating body alternately compresses and expands the air in its vicinity, and these condensations and rarefactions are transmitted to neighboring air particles. Some of the energy of a vibrating body is therefore transmitted away from the body and
may affect the hearing mechanism of a living creature at a distant point. For the human ear, the limits of audibility are about 30 to 20,000 Hertz (1 Hz=1 cycle per second). _^<N__^<N_Frank G. Spreadbury _^<N__^<N_See also: SOUND AND ACOUSTICS.
-END-
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24
CAT
-A-
Audion tube:
-T-
Audion tube:_^<N__^<N_see TRIODE.
-END-
-C-
40
CAT
-A-
audiovisual teaching aids:
-T-
audiovisual teaching aids:_^<N__^<N_see TEACHING.
-END-
-C-
1021
CAT
-A-
audit
-T-
audit_^<N__^<N_An audit is a professional examination of the records, procedures, and financial transactions of an organization made by accounting specialists who are not involved in the preparation of those reports. On the basis of this
examination, the auditors give an independent opinion of whether the organization's report of its financial position is accurate, whether appropriate controls and procedures have been followed, and whether other criteria have been satisfied in the
disbursement of funds. All publicly held business firms are audited every year. In the United States, the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants has approved the auditing standards and procedures that guide the examination. _^<N__^<N_An
internal audit, conducted by employees of the company, tests the adequacy of the accounting system and procedures. Firms are also increasingly conducting annual personnel and social audits to determine whether the corporation is meeting its
responsibilities to employees and society. _^<N__^<N_See also: ACCOUNTING.
-END-
-C-
1044
CAT
-A-
Auditorium Building
-T-
Auditorium Building_^<N__^<N_The Auditorium Building, designed by the firm of Dankmar ADLER and Louis SULLIVAN and erected 1887-89 on Michigan Avenue at Congress Street in Chicago, Ill., is one of the major monuments of the CHICAGO SCHOOL OF
ARCHITECTURE. Within its traditional load-bearing walls, this rectangular 10-story building with a 17-story tower originally contained a 400-room hotel, 136 offices, and a 4,200-seat theater, famous for its superb acoustics by Adler and its
sumptuous ornamentation created by Sullivan. After falling into neglect in the 1930s, the building was acquired by Roosevelt University in 1946. Most of the interior was rebuilt for academic use, but the theater, leased by the Auditorium Theater
Council and sensitively restored by Harry WEESE and Associates at a cost of more than $2 million, formally reopened on Oct. 31, 1967. The Auditorium Building was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1976. _^<N__^<N_J. Meredith Neil
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Morrison, Hugh, Louis Sullivan, Prophet of Modern Architecture (1935; repr. 1971).
-END-
-C-
1394
CAT
-A-
Audubon, John James
-T-
Audubon, John James_^<N__^<N_John James Audubon, b. Apr. 26, 1785, d. Jan. 27, 1851, was a French-American ornithologist noted for his bird drawings and paintings. After being educated in France, he came to "Mill Grove," the Audubon estate
outside Philadelphia where he first experimented with bird-banding and migration. Eventually he devoted his life to painting birds and other animals. Audubon earned a living painting portraits and for a while taught drawing in New Orleans. He
took his bird paintings to a publisher in Edinburgh, Scotland, and they were printed in Birds of America between 1827 and 1838, with the text, Ornithological Biography, appearing in five volumes between 1831 and 1839. William MacGillivray, a
Scottish naturalist, collaborated with Audubon on the text and supplied most of the scientific data. Audubon had completed more than 400 paintings by 1838. Because he was one of the first U.S. naturalists, the Audubon societies of today were
named for him. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Adams, A. B., John James Audubon: A Biography (1976); Audubon, J. J., Letters, 1826-1840, ed. by H. Corning (1930; repr. 1969); Chancellor, John, Audubon (1978); Durant, Mary and Harwood, Michael, On
the Road with John James Audubon (1980; repr. 1984); Ford, Alice E., John James Audubon (1965; repr. 1988); Herrick, F. H., Audubon the Naturalist, 2 vols. (1938; repr. 1968).
-END-
-C-
623
CAT
-A-
Audubon Society, National
-T-
Audubon Society, National_^<N__^<N_The National Audubon Society, founded in 1905 and named for the ornithologist John James AUDUBON, seeks to promote the conservation of wildlife and of natural environments. Its headquarters are in New York City,
and it has about 580,000 members. The society maintains more than 80 wildlife sanctuaries and supports a variety of educational programs. It works with other conservation groups and federal agencies to preserve natural land areas and to advise on
conservation problems. It publishes the bimonthlies Audubon Magazine and American Birds, scientific reports, and regional newsletters.
-END-
-C-
975
CAT
-A-
Auer, Leopold
-T-
Auer, Leopold_^<N__^<N_{ow'-ur} _^<N__^<N_The great Hungarian violinist Leopold Auer, b. June 7, 1845, d. July 15, 1930, is best known as the teacher of noted performers, including Mischa ELMAN, Jascha HEIFETZ, Nathan MILSTEIN, and Efrem ZIMBALIST.
He studied in Budapest and Vienna and with Joseph JOACHIM in Hanover. From 1868 to 1917 he was professor of violin at the Imperial Conservatory in St. Petersburg. TCHAIKOVSKY originally dedicated his violin concerto to him but withdrew the
dedication when Auer suggested some changes in the work. Nevertheless, Auer played the concerto often and taught it to his pupils. He left Russia in 1917, made his concert debut in New York City the following year, and settled in the United States,
becoming an American citizen in 1926. He taught at the Institute of Musical Art in New York and at The Curtis Institute of Music in Philadelphia. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Auer, Leopold, My Long Life in Music (1923) and Violin Playing As I Teach It
(1921; repr. 1976).
-END-
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561
CAT
-A-
Auerbach, Berthold
-T-
Auerbach, Berthold_^<N__^<N_{ow'-ur-bahk} _^<N__^<N_A liberal author of the Young Germany period, Berthold Auerbach, b. Feb. 28, 1812, d. Feb. 8, 1882, is best remembered as a creator of the German village tale. His Black Forest Village Stories
(1843-54; Eng. trans., 1869), although didactic and sentimental, addressed timely issues concerning the transition from a rural to an urban culture. Auerbach was an admirer of the philosopher SPINOZA, whose works he translated in 1841 and about
whom he wrote a biographical novel, Spinoza (1837; Eng. trans., 1882). _^<N__^<N_James M. McGlathery
-END-
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732
CAT
-A-
Auerbach, Erich
-T-
Auerbach, Erich_^<N__^<N_{ow'-ur-bahk} _^<N__^<N_Erich Auerbach, b. Berlin, Nov. 9, 1892, d. Wallingford, Conn., Oct. 13, 1957, was a literary critic, philologist, and professor. After teaching Romance philology at German and Turkish universities,
he joined the faculty of Yale University in 1950. Auerbach's most important book, Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature (1946; Eng. trans., 1953), spans about 3,000 years and considers works from a variety of cultures and
genres. It moves from close examination of texts through broader historical and social considerations of literature. The remainder of Auerbach's work is principally devoted to late Latin antiquity and to the French and Italian Middle Ages.
_^<N__^<N_Melvin J. Friedman
-END-
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723
CAT
-A-
Auerbach, Red
-T-
Auerbach, Red_^<N__^<N_{ow'-ur-bahk} _^<N__^<N_Arnold Jacob "Red" Auerbach, b. New York City, Sept. 20, 1917, a former professional basketball coach, compiled the most successful coaching record in the history of the National Basketball Association
(NBA). Auerbach coached the Washington Capitols and Tri-Cities franchises in the late 1940s, then became the leader of the Boston Celtics in 1950. From then until 1966, his teams won 1,037 games and nine NBA titles. The Celtics won eight of those
titles in a row (1959-66), the longest reign in any major U.S. professional sport. Auerbach retired in 1966 to become full-time general manager of the team. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Auerbach, Arnold, Basketball for the Player, the Fan, and the Coach
(1976).
-END-
-C-
330
CAT
-A-
Augeas
-T-
Augeas_^<N__^<N_{aw-jee'-uhs} _^<N__^<N_In Greek mythology, Augeas was the king of Elis. He had a herd of 3,000 oxen whose stalls had not been cleaned for 30 years. One of the labors assigned to HERCULES was to clean the Augean Stables. He
accomplished the task in one day by diverting the waters of the Alpheus and Peneus rivers through the stalls.
-END-
-C-
840
CAT
-A-
Augier, Emile
-T-
Augier, Emile_^<N__^<N_{ohzh-eeay'} _^<N__^<N_One of the foremost French dramatists of his time, Emile Augier, b. Sept. 17, 1820, d. Oct. 25, 1889, was noted for his sympathetic treatment of middle-class values in a succession of WELL-MADE PLAYS.
Like Alexandre DUMAS fils, he dramatized the dangers he saw as threatening bourgeois domestic virtues. His best-known work, written with Jules Sandeau, is Le Gendre de Monsieur Poirier (M. Poirier's Son-in-Law, 1916), a comedy that contrasts
aristocratic and middle-class attitudes. He was also the author of Olympe's Marriage (1855; Eng. trans. 1915) and Lions et renards (Lions and Foxes, 1869), which concern marriage and money. _^<N__^<N_Stuart E. Baker _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Carlson,
Marvin, The French Stage in the Nineteenth Century (1972); Matthews, Brander, French Dramatists of the Nineteenth Century (1901; repr. 1968).
-END-
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21
CAT
-A-
augite:
-T-
augite:_^<N__^<N_see PYROXENE.
-END-
-C-
1205
CAT
-A-
Augsburg
-T-
Augsburg_^<N__^<N_{owks'-burk} _^<N__^<N_Augsburg is a city in Bavaria, in southern Germany. With a population of 256,877 (1991 est.), it is the capital of the district of Swabia. Located at the confluence of the Wertach and Lech rivers, Augsburg
is a major regional industrial center--producing textiles, machinery, electronic equipment, and airplanes--and is also an important railroad center. _^<N__^<N_It was founded about 15 BC by the Romans, and in 955 Otto I defeated the Magyar invaders
there. It was made a free imperial city in 1276 and joined the Swabian League in 1331. The FUGGERS and the Welsers were the most important of the business families who were responsible for the 15th- and 16th-century development of Augsburg into a
major banking and commercial center and into a scientific and cultural center as well. The AUGSBURG CONFESSION, which sets forth Lutheran doctrine, was read there in 1530. During the THIRTY YEARS' WAR the city declined. In 1806 it passed to
Bavaria. The noted Fuggerei, a 16th-century housing project for the poor, was damaged in World War II but was restored, as was the town hall (1615). Hans HOLBEIN the Elder, Hans HOLBEIN the Younger, and Bertolt BRECHT were natives of Augsburg.
-END-
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519
CAT
-A-
Augsburg, League of
-T-
Augsburg, League of_^<N__^<N_The League of Augsburg was formed on July 9, 1686, by Holy Roman Emperor LEOPOLD I, several German princes, and the kings of Spain and Sweden. It was a defensive alliance to resist the expansion of France under LOUIS
XIV. The league's strength was considerably increased when William of Orange took the English crown as WILLIAM III (1688) and became the head of the larger coalition known as the Grand Alliance. Louis's invasion of the Palatinate soon afterward led
to the War of the GRAND ALLIANCE.
-END-
-C-
387
CAT
-A-
Augsburg, Peace of
-T-
Augsburg, Peace of_^<N__^<N_In 1555 the diet (assembly of princes) of the Holy Roman Empire met in Augsburg to make peace between the warring Roman Catholic and Lutheran princes of Germany. It adopted the formula cuius regio, eius religio, whereby
each prince was to determine the religious character of his territory. The exclusion of the Calvinists caused later problems. _^<N__^<N_See also: REFORMATION.
-END-
-C-
1196
CAT
-A-
Augsburg Confession
-T-
Augsburg Confession_^<N__^<N_The Augsburg Confession is a Lutheran CONFESSION OF FAITH that was issued (1530) during the REFORMATION at the Diet of Augsburg. In 1530, Emperor CHARLES V convoked the diet as part of his effort to bring religious
peace to Europe. He failed in his efforts, however, because he underestimated the fervor with which the followers of Martin LUTHER had already formulated a distinctive position. Philipp MELANCHTHON, one of the authors of the Confession, designed
it to be relatively open to the Roman Catholic church on the right and to other reformed but non-Lutheran parties on the left. It affirmed inherited classic Christian doctrines. Its particular stress on GRACE, as Luther had interpreted it in the
writings of St. Paul, and its rejection of any righteousness based on human works and merits made it unacceptable to many other Western Christians. The Confession remains the primary statement of faith among Lutherans, who to this day expect their
ministers at ordination to express fidelity to the way it interprets the biblical teachings. _^<N__^<N_Martin E. Marty _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Grane, Leif, ed., The Augsburg Confession: A Commentary, trans. by John H. Rasmussen (1987).
-END-
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500
CAT
-A-
Augusta (Georgia)
-T-
Augusta (Georgia)_^<N__^<N_Augusta (1990 census, 44,639) is a city in eastern Georgia on the Savannah River. It is the seat of Richmond County and the main trade center for a large area. Its manufactures include textiles, bricks and tiles, and
cottonseed products, farm products, and fertilizers. Established in 1735 by order of Gov. James OGLETHORPE, Augusta was bitterly contested during the American Revolution. Its subsequent growth paralleled the rapid expansion of the tobacco and
cotton industries.
-END-
-C-
563
CAT
-A-
Augusta (Maine)
-T-
Augusta (Maine)_^<N__^<N_Augusta is the capital of Maine and the seat of Kennebec County and has a population of 21,325 (1990 census). It is located in south central Maine at the head of navigation on the Kennebec River and situated in the heart of
rich timberlands. Its main manufactures are cotton goods, textiles, food products, paper, and timber. Attracted to the location by its navigable tidewater, settlers from Plymouth Colony arrived in 1628. It became the state capital in 1831, and
the operation of state government plays a considerable part in its economy.
-END-
-C-
749
CAT
-A-
Augustan age
-T-
Augustan age_^<N__^<N_{uh-guhs'-tuhn} _^<N__^<N_In Roman literature, the Augustan Age was the reign of the emperor Augustus (27 BC-AD 14), during which VERGIL, OVID, and HORACE wrote. The name has come to designate any eminent period in the literary
life of a nation. _^<N__^<N_In English literature the Augustan Age was the period from the restoration of the monarchy (1660) to the death of Alexander POPE (1744). The major writers of the age were Pope and John DRYDEN in poetry, and Jonathan
SWIFT and Joseph ADDISON in prose. The literature of the age is distinguished by its striving for clarity and order (in verse the tight HEROIC COUPLET is the predominant form), its public tone, and its imitation of Roman models, especially CICERO,
Vergil, and Horace. _^<N__^<N_William McCarthy
-END-
-C-
5668
CATO
4784
-A-
Augustine, Saint
-O-
000000|Augustine, Saint
000665| Early Life and Conversion
002916| Later Life and Influence
-T-
Augustine, Saint_^<N__^<N_Saint Augustine, b. Nov. 13, 354, d. Aug. 28, 430, was one of the foremost philosopher-theologians of early Christianity and, while serving (396-430) as bishop of Hippo Regius, the leading figure in the church of North
Africa. He had a profound influence on the subsequent development of Western thought and culture and, more than any other person, shaped the themes and defined the problems that have characterized the Western tradition of Christian THEOLOGY.
Among his many writings considered classics, the two most celebrated are his semiautobiographical Confessions, which contains elements of MYSTICISM, and CITY OF GOD, a Christian vision of history. _^<N__^<N_ Early Life and
Conversion_^<N__^<N_Augustine was born at Thagaste (modern Souk-Ahras, Algeria), a small town in the Roman province of Numidia. He received a classical education that both schooled him in Latin literature and enabled him to escape from his
provincial upbringing. Trained at Carthage in rhetoric (public oratory), which was a requisite for a legal or political career in the Roman empire, he became a teacher of rhetoric in Carthage, in Rome, and finally in Milan, a seat of imperial
government at the time. At Milan, in 386, Augustine underwent religious conversion. He retired from his public position, received baptism from AMBROSE, the bishop of Milan, and soon returned to North Africa. In 391, he was ordained to the
priesthood in Hippo Regius (modern Bone, Algeria); five years later he became bishop. _^<N__^<N_The first part of Augustine's life (to 391) can be seen as a series of attempts to reconcile his Christian faith with his classical culture. His
mother, Saint Monica, had reared him as a Christian. Although her religion did not hold an important place in his early life, Christianity never totally lost its grip upon him. As a student in Carthage, he encountered the classical ideal of
philosophy's search for truth and was fired with enthusiasm for the philosophic life. Unable to give up Christianity altogether, however, he adopted MANICHAEISM, a Christian HERESY claiming to provide a rational Christianity on the basis of a
purified text of Scripture. Nine years later, his association with the Manichees ended in disillusionment; and it was in a religiously detached state that Augustine arrived in Milan. There he discovered, through a chance reading of some books of
NEOPLATONISM, a form of philosophy that seemed compatible with Christian belief. At the same time, he found that he was at last able to give up the ambitions for public success that had previously prevented him from embracing the philosophic life.
The result was the dramatic conversion that led Augustine to devote his life to the pursuit of truth, which he now identified with Christianity. With a small group of friends, he returned to North Africa and, in Thagaste, established a religious
community dedicated to the intellectual quest for God. _^<N__^<N_ Later Life and Influence_^<N__^<N_Augustine's ordination, unexpectedly forced upon him by popular acclamation during a visit to Hippo in 391, brought about a fundamental change in
his life and thought. It redirected his attention from the philosophic Christianity he had discovered in Milan to the turbulent, popular Christianity of North Africa's cities and towns. _^<N__^<N_His subsequent career as priest and bishop was to
be dominated by controversy and debate. Especially important were his struggles with the DONATISTS and with PELAGIANISM. The Donatists promoted a Christian separatist movement, maintaining that only they were the true church and that, as a
result, only their SACRAMENTS were valid. Augustine's counterattack emphasized unity, not division, as the mark of true Christianity and insisted that the validity of the sacraments depended on Christ himself, not on any human group or
institution. Pelagianism, an early 5th-century Christian reform movement, held that no person could be excused from meeting the full demand of God's law. In doing so, it stressed the freedom of the human will and its ability to control motives
and regulate behavior. In contrast, Augustine argued that because of ORIGINAL SIN no one can entirely govern his own motivation and that only the help of God's GRACE makes it possible for persons to will and to do good. In both of these
controversies, Augustine opposed forces that set some Christians apart from others on grounds either of religious exclusivism or of moral worth. _^<N__^<N_Augustine must be reckoned as one of the architects of the unified Christianity that survived
the barbarian invasions of the 5th century and emerged as the religion of medieval Europe. He succeeded in bringing together the philosophic Christianity of his youth and the popular Christianity of his congregation in Hippo. In doing so, he
created a theology that has remained basic to Western Christianity, both Roman Catholic and Protestant, ever since. Feast day: Aug. 28. _^<N__^<N_William S. Babcock _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Battenhouse, Roy, ed., A Companion to the Study of St.
Augustine (1955); Brown, Peter, Augustine of Hippo (1967; repr. 1987); Burnaby, John, Amor Dei: A Study of the Religion of St. Augustine (1938; repr. 1960); Chadwick, Henry, Augustine (1986); Marrou, H. I., St. Augustine and His
Influence Through the Ages, trans. by P. Hepburne-Scott (1957); O'Daly, Gerard, Augustine's Philosophy of the Mind (1987); O'Meara, John, An Augustine Reader (1973); Pagels, Elaine, Adam, Eve, and the Serpent (1988); Pelikan, Jaroslav, The
Mystery of Continuity: Time and History, Memory and Eternity in the Thought of St. Augustine (1986); Smith, Warren Thomas, Augustine: His Life and Thought (1980).
-END-
-C-
882
CAT
-A-
Augustine of Canterbury, Saint
-T-
Augustine of Canterbury, Saint_^<N__^<N_Saint Augustine, d. May 26, 604, called the Apostle of England, was the first archbishop of CANTERBURY. An Italian missionary, he had been prior of a monastery in Rome until 596, when he and 30 other monks
were sent by Pope GREGORY I to convert the Anglo-Saxons. King AETHELBERT of Kent, who had married a Christian, allowed them to enter his realm, to preach, and to establish a church at Canterbury. In accord with Gregory's instructions, Augustine
freely adapted local customs to Christianity. His policy was to preserve pagan temples and to destroy only the idols, transforming pagan rites and customs into Christian practices whenever possible. Feast day: May 27 (May 26 in England and Wales).
_^<N__^<N_Thomas E. Morrissey _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Cosgrave, Joyce, The Story of St. Augustine of Canterbury (1963); Deanesely, Margaret, Augustine of Canterbury (1964).
-END-
-C-
720
CAT
-A-
Augustinians
-T-
Augustinians_^<N__^<N_Augustinians are members of various Roman Catholic religious communities of men and women who follow the Rule of St. Augustine, a code of rules for the monastic life originally drawn up by St. AUGUSTINE of Hippo (354-430).
The two main groups of Augustinians are the Augustinian (Austin) Canons--or Canons Regular of Saint Augustine--dating from the 11th century, and the Augustinian Hermits or Friars, established by Pope Alexander IV in 1256. The traditional garb of
Augustinians is a black tunic, a short cape, and a cowl. Famous Augustinians include Martin LUTHER, in his early career, and the geneticist Gregor MENDEL. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Lawless, George, Augustine of Hippo and His Monastic Rule (1987).
-END-
-C-
5853
CATO
4821
-A-
Augustus, Roman Emperor
-O-
000000|Augustus, Roman Emperor
000614| Rise to Power
002654| Principate
-T-
Augustus, Roman Emperor_^<N__^<N_Augustus, b. Sept. 23, 63 BC, d. Aug. 19, AD 14, was the first Roman emperor (27 BC-AD 14). Named Gaius Octavius, he was the son of Gaius Octavius, a Roman senator, and Atia, the niece of Julius CAESAR. Augustus
was a title of honor conferred on him in 27 BC by the Senate. Octavius was only 18 years old when Caesar was assassinated (Mar. 15, 44 BC). In his will, Caesar adopted Octavius, whose official name then became Gaius Julius Caesar. This did not
give Octavian (as modern historians call him) any special privileges, but he was able to use the magic of Caesar's name to win over Caesar's veterans. _^<N__^<N_ Rise to Power_^<N__^<N_Republican leaders regarded Mark ANTONY, Caesar's chief
lieutenant, as a threat. CICERO proposed to use the young Octavian as a tool against Mark Antony, and later to remove him from power. Octavian, meanwhile, who had already illegally organized a private army, received from the Senate an
extraordinary military command and the rank of senator (January 43). Following Antony's defeat at Mutina, Octavian marched on Rome and had himself elected consul. Soon afterward he concluded an agreement with Antony and another Caesarian leader,
Marcus LEPIDUS. In November 43, the terrorized popular assembly appointed them triumvirs (a board of three) for five years and gave them the responsibility of reorganizing the republic. A bloody purge of their political and personal enemies
followed. _^<N__^<N_In October-November 42, at PHILIPPI in Macedonia, Antony and Octavian defeated the republicans led by BRUTUS and CASSIUS. They divided the empire between themselves. Antony remained in the East, and Octavian received the
difficult task of settling the veterans in Italy, which involved redistributing land and forcibly expelling the previous owners. The agreements in 40, when Antony married Octavian's sister, and in 37, when Antony and Octavian had their powers
extended for another five years, only delayed the new civil war. Antony's affair with CLEOPATRA, the queen of Egypt, gave Octavian a pretext to slander him as an oriental despot bent on destroying Rome. In 36 Lepidus, who held Africa, was
removed, and Octavian united in his hands all the western provinces. By his marriage (38) to LIVIA DRUSILLA, who became his trusted advisor, he indicated his wish to achieve a compromise with the republican aristocracy. In 32, Italy and the
western provinces swore an oath of allegiance to Octavian, but the majority of the senators fled to Antony. In September 31, Octavian defeated Antony at ACTIUM, and in 30 he conquered Egypt. Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide, and Octavian
was left as the sole ruler of Rome. _^<N__^<N_ Principate_^<N__^<N_Octavian proclaimed the restoration of the republic, but he had no intention of stepping down. In January 27, in a theatrical gesture he "placed the republic at the disposal of the
Senate and the Roman people," but the Senate begged him not to abandon the state. Octavian now received a number of prerogatives that legitimized his position. He was given the military command (imperium) for ten years (subsequently extended for
periods of five and ten years) and the administration of those provinces that required the presence of the army. His official name became Imperator Caesar Augustus, and he was called Augustus (the Exalted). In 23 he received the tribunician power
for life and assumed in this way the role of protector of the Roman people. He also received the right to intervene in those provinces administered by the Senate. In 12 BC he became high priest (pontifex maximus), the head of Roman state
religion, and in 2 BC he received the title "Father of His Country." The system he created came to be known as the principate, the rule of the first citizen (princeps). It was based on the allegiance of the army and the people to the emperor
(imperator) and on the collaboration between the emperor and the two upper social classes, the senators and the equestrians. _^<N__^<N_Augustus understood the importance of ideology and propaganda; he sponsored and encouraged the leading writers
and artists of his time, such as the historian LIVY and the poets VERGIL and HORACE, who glorified Rome's past and the greatness of his achievement. After years of wars, Augustus brought peace and prosperity. In 17 BC the beginning of a new
golden age was celebrated by the secular games, and in 9 BC an altar was dedicated to the peace of Augustus. He revived old religious customs and attempted to restore the old stern morality. Through his marriage laws, he tried to force the nobles
to marry and to have more children. The Roman frontiers were extended to the Danube and the Rhine in the west and to the Euphrates in the east. After the Roman defeat in the Teutoburg Forest (AD 9), however, he abandoned the idea of conquering
Germany. _^<N__^<N_To prevent civil wars from recurring, Augustus tried to arrange for his successors during his lifetime. Since he had no son, he used his daughter, Julia, as a means of achieving this end. But Julia's successive husbands (Marcus
Claudius Marcellus and Marcus AGRIPPA) and her two older sons died prematurely, and Augustus found himself forced to adopt and appoint as his successor Julia's third husband, Livia's son TIBERIUS, whom he disliked. Nevertheless, at his death he
left the principate strong enough to survive the follies of his successors. _^<N__^<N_J. Linderski _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bowersock, G. W., Augustus and the Greek World (1965); Buchan, John, Augustus (1937); Holmes, Thomas R., The Architect of
the Roman Empire, 2 vols. (1931; repr. 1976); Jones, Arnold H., Augustus (1971); Reinhold, Meyer, The Golden Age of Augustus (1977); Rowell, H. T., Rome in the Augustan Age (1962; repr. 1985); Syme, Ronald, The Roman Revolution (1939) and The
Augustan Aristocracy (1987); Walworth, Nancy, Augustus Caesar (1989).
-END-
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703
CAT
-A-
Augustus II, King of Poland
-T-
Augustus II, King of Poland_^<N__^<N_Augustus II (Augustus the Strong), b. May 12, 1670, d. Feb. 1, 1733, king of Poland, was also elector of Saxony (1694-1733) as Frederick Augustus I. When he was elected king of Poland on Sept. 15, 1697, the
union of predominantly Roman Catholic Poland with Protestant Saxony appeared useful to the Polish nobles, who hoped that the new king would secure the return to Poland of SILESIA. Instead, together with Emperor PETER I of Russia, Augustus
entangled Poland in the Great NORTHERN WAR and briefly (1704-10) lost his throne to STANISLAW I as a result. A patron of the arts, he was responsible for the Zwinger Museum in Dresden and for the development of MEISSEN WARE.
-END-
-C-
638
CAT
-A-
Augustus III, King of Poland
-T-
Augustus III, King of Poland_^<N__^<N_Augustus III, b. Oct. 17, 1696, d. Oct. 5, 1763, king of Poland and elector of Saxony, as Frederick Augustus II, was the son of AUGUSTUS II. With Russian help, he won the Polish throne in the War of the
POLISH SUCCESSION (1733-35). Under the negligent rule of Augustus and his minister Heinrich von Bruhl (1700-63), Poland was increasingly prey to the factional rivalries that eventually led to its partition by Russia, Prussia, and Austria. As
elector of Saxony, Augustus backed Austria against Frederick I of Prussia in the Seven Years' War, and his army was forced to surrender to Frederick in 1756.
-END-
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2422
CAT
-A-
auk
-T-
auk_^<N__^<N_{awk} _^<N__^<N_The auks and their allies, collectively called alcids, are oceanic birds found mostly in Arctic and sub-Arctic regions. Alcids are fisheaters and catch their prey by diving and pursuing it underwater. They also feed on
crustaceans, mollusks, worms, algae, and plankton. Their webbed feet are set far back on their short-tailed, compact bodies, and they are clumsy on land. They have large heads and short necks; their bills range from short and stout to moderately
long and slender. Most alcids are black or gray above and white below, and some have brightly colored bills and feet. _^<N__^<N_The name auk usually refers to the most famous alcid, the extinct great auk, a flightless bird about 76 cm (30 in) long.
The bird nested in great concentrations on North Atlantic islands. Because it showed little fear of humans, it could be easily clubbed to death, and great auks often were herded into corrals or driven on shipboard for slaughter by sailors,
fishermen, and sealers who visited the nesting colonies. The feathers were used for bedding, the carcasses for oil, and the eggs for food or fish bait. The colonies dwindled rapidly before 1800, and the last two known specimens were captured on
Eldey Island off the coast of Iceland on June 4, 1844. _^<N__^<N_Other alcids known as auks include the largest living species, the razor-billed auk, Alca torda, up to 45 cm (18 in) long; the little auk, or dovekie, Plautus alle, 23 cm (9 in) long;
the smallest, the least auklet, Aethia pusilla, about 16 cm (6.5 in) long; and several other auklets. The dovekie, in particular, is hunted by the Eskimo for food and clothing. Other alcids are the murres, GUILLEMOTS, and PUFFINS. _^<N__^<N_Alcids
gather in dense colonies on islands or rocky coasts, where they nest on the ground, in rock crevices, or on bare ledges. One concentration point is on Saint Lawrence Island in the Bering Sea, where they are harvested in enormous numbers for food
with little apparent effect on the total population. One egg or, rarely, two eggs are laid, and the male shares in their incubation. The murre's egg is pear-shaped and pivots on its axis, which prevents its rolling off the bare ledge when
disturbed. Young alcids born on exposed ledges take off for sea in about two weeks, but those born in safe burrows may remain there for six or eight weeks. Some alcids are migratory. The 22 species of alcids constitute the family Alcidae, order
Charadriiformes.
-END-
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567
CAT
-A-
Aulard, Alphonse
-T-
Aulard, Alphonse_^<N__^<N_{oh-lahr'} _^<N__^<N_The French historian Alphonse Aulard, b. July 19, 1849, d. Oct. 23, 1928, made a lifelong study of the French Revolution, and his researches into documents set a new critical standard in his field. He
was professor of the history of the French Revolution at the University of Paris (1887-1922) and supervised publication of the periodical La Revolution francaise. Among his works was The French Revolution, A Political History, 1789-1804, (4 vols.,
1901; Eng. trans., 1910). Aulard was cofounder of the liberal political journal Quotidien.
-END-
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525
CAT
-A-
Aulen, Gustav
-T-
Aulen, Gustav_^<N__^<N_{aw-layn'} _^<N__^<N_Gustav Aulen, b. 1879, d. Dec. 16, 1977, was a Swedish theologian and bishop who taught systematic theology at the University of Lund (1913-33). Consecrated bishop of Lund (1930), then of Strangnas (1933),
he led the Motivsforschung school, which focused upon the essential truth behind doctrine rather than its actual form. Of his many books, Christus Victor (1931) has proved most influential, with its defense of the classical theory of the ATONEMENT,
man's reconciliation with God through Christ.
-END-
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805
CAT
-A-
aulos
-T-
aulos_^<N__^<N_{aw'-lahs} _^<N__^<N_The aulos was a double-reed, double-pipe instrument used by the ancient Greeks. Associated with the Dionysian cult, it was the most important wind instrument of its time. It is probably the same as the halil
mentioned in the Bible. The instrument is believed to have had a piercing sound. Professionals played descriptive pieces; the best known of these described a battle between APOLLO and a dragon. In the Greek military forces, the aulos also served
the function of a bugle. An instrument in the British Museum has six holes in each of its two parallel sycamore pipes, which are 30 and 33 cm (12 and 13 in) long. Vase paintings show the aulos fastened to the player's head with a leather strap,
apparently to focus the breath and permit the cheeks to act as bellows. _^<N__^<N_Elwyn A. Wienandt
-END-
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900
CAT
-A-
Aumer, Jean
-T-
Aumer, Jean_^<N__^<N_{oh-mer'} _^<N__^<N_Jean Aumer, b. Apr. 21, 1774, d. July 1833, was a French dancer and a leading choreographer of preromantic ballet. Aumer studied with Jean DAUBERVAL, the choreographer of La Fille mal gardee (Vain
Precautions, 1789), which was one of the first ballets to deal with everyday life. During his career, Aumer danced in Bordeaux, London, and Paris. In 1802 he became ballet master at the Theatre de la Porte Saint Martin in Paris; later he filled
the same post in Kassel and in Vienna. Returning to the Paris Opera in 1820, Aumer choreographed such important ballets as La Somnambule (The Sleepwalker, 1827), La Belle au bois dormant (The Sleeping Beauty, 1829), and Manon Lescaut (1830), and
revived La Fille mal gardee (1828). _^<N__^<N_David Vaughan _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Guest, Ivor, The Romantic Ballet in Paris, 2d rev. ed. (1980); Winter, Marian Hannah, The Pre-Romantic Ballet (1974).
-END-
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1240
CAT
-A-
Aung San
-T-
Aung San_^<N__^<N_{awng sahn'} _^<N__^<N_Aung San, b. Feb. 13, 1915, d. July 19, 1947, was a founder and leader of the Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League (AFPFL), the Burmese political organization that led the struggle for BURMA's independence
from Great Britain. After Japan invaded Burma during World War II, Aung San was named (1943) defense minister in the puppet regime of Ba Maw. He later joined the underground resistance, however, and in 1944 helped found the AFPFL. In 1945, as
commander of the Burma National Army, he brought that force into the Allied camp. In April 1947 the AFPFL won an overwhelming majority in the constituent assembly, which immediately called for total independence. Aung San became head of the
provisional government, but he and several other cabinet ministers were assassinated a few months before the signing of the agreement by which Burma became independent. His daughter, Aung San Suu Kyi, emerged as a leader of the democratic
opposition during the 1988 uprising in Burma (name of country changed to Myanmar in 1989). _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: U Maung Maung, ed., Aung San of Burma (1962) and From Sanghai to Laity (1981); Trager, Frank N., Burma, From Kingdom to Republic:
A Historical and Political Analysis (1966).
-END-
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735
CAT
-A-
Aung San Suu Kyi
-T-
Aung San Suu Kyi_^<N__^<N_{awng sahn soo chee} _^<N__^<N_Daw Aung San Suu Kyi, b. June 19, 1945, the daughter of Burmese nationalist Aung San, was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991. She left Burma in 1960, received a degree from Oxford
University, and lived in Bhutan and Japan before settling (1974) in Britain with her husband, Dr. Michael Aris. In 1988, Suu Kyi returned to Burma to nurse her ailing mother. She became a leader of Burma's pro-democracy struggle and was put under
house arrest in July 1989. Although the National League for Democracy, of which she was general secretary, decisively won Burma's legislative elections of May 1990, the military regime refused to surrender power, and Suu Kyi remained under arrest
and in isolation.
-END-
-C-
728
CAT
-A-
Aunis
-T-
Aunis_^<N__^<N_{oh-nees'} _^<N__^<N_Aunis is a historic region in western France, formerly a province, bounded by the Bay of Biscay on the west and by the provinces of Poitou on the north and Angoumois on the east. Its main commercial center is LA
ROCHELLE. Today the region is included in the departments of Charente-Maritime and Deux-Sevres. Over the centuries Aunis was overrun by a succession of Celts, Romans, Visigoths, and Franks. England acquired it as a part of the dowry that ELEANOR OF
AQUITAINE brought to HENRY II in 1152, but it was returned to France in 1373. The province was France's last Protestant stronghold until 1628, when La Rochelle was defeated by Cardinal RICHELIEU. Aunis was abolished as an administrative unit in
1790.
-END-
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1503
CAT
-A-
Aurangzeb, Mogul Emperor of India
-T-
Aurangzeb, Mogul Emperor of India_^<N__^<N_{ah'-u-ruhng-zayb} _^<N__^<N_Aurangzeb, b. Oct. 24, 1618, d. Feb. 20, 1707, was the sixth MOGUL emperor of India and the last to wield effective power. He was the third son of SHAH JAHAN, whom he
served as viceroy of the Deccan (1636-44). He was sent to subdue Golconda (1656) and Bijapur (1657), but he returned in 1658 and seized the throne from his sick father, whom he held prisoner at Agra until his death. In the war of succession that
followed, Aurangzeb killed his two older brothers and imprisoned his younger brother. He then moved the seat of government from Agra to Delhi and adopted the reign title of Alamgir ("World-holder"). _^<N__^<N_Until about 1680 Aurangzeb's rule was
fairly stable. Then, possibly provoked by a revolt (1678-81) of the RAJPUTS, which was supported by his third son, he began a series of fierce campaigns against the Hindu kingdoms. Bijapur and Golconda were finally captured in 1686-87.
Thereafter he fought continuously and ineffectively against the MARATHAS in the south and west. Although Aurangzeb brought the Mogul empire to its greatest extent, his wars depleted his treasury, and his long absences in the south led to a
weakening of Mogul control in the north. By his death, the empire was disintegrating. His Muslim fanaticism had also resulted in the destruction of countless Hindu temples and shrines. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Lal, M., Aurangzib (1988); Sarkar,
Sir Jadunath, A Short History of Aurangzib, 1618-1707, 3d abr. ed. (1962).
-END-
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1049
CAT
-A-
Aurelian, Roman Emperor
-T-
Aurelian, Roman Emperor_^<N__^<N_{aw-reel'-eeuhn} _^<N__^<N_Aurelian, b. AD 215, became Roman emperor on the death (270) of Claudius II. Coming from a family of modest means, he rose through the ranks to be appointed commander in chief of the Balkan
army by Claudius. _^<N__^<N_During his brief reign Aurelian managed to reclaim large portions of imperial territory that had been lost through war or secession; he thus merited more than most the title "Restorer of the World," which he used on his
coinage. He not only recovered (272) Syria from PALMYRA, capturing its queen, ZENOBIA, but also reclaimed (274) several western provinces from the rival emperors of the independent Gallic Empire. Aurelian also began construction of the wall around
Rome, reformed the coinage, and installed the Syrian god Sol Invictus ("Unconquered Sun") as the unifying deity of the restored empire. In spite of these achievements, he was murdered as the result of a military conspiracy in 275. _^<N__^<N_John W.
Eadie _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Perowne, S., "Emperor Aurelian, A.D. 270-275," History Today, June, 1971.
-END-
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38
CAT
-A-
Aurelius, Marcus:
-T-
Aurelius, Marcus:_^<N__^<N_see MARCUS AURELIUS.
-END-
-C-
28
CAT
-A-
Aureomycin:
-T-
Aureomycin:_^<N__^<N_see ANTIBIOTICS.
-END-
-C-
682
CAT
-A-
Auric, Georges
-T-
Auric, Georges_^<N__^<N_{oh-reek'} _^<N__^<N_Georges Auric, b. Feb. 5, 1899, d. Jul. 23, 1983, established himself as a composer, critic, and opera administrator in Paris in the mid-20th century. A pupil of Vincent d'INDY, Auric shows in his music
early influences of Maurice RAVEL and later of Erik SATIE. Compositions include an opera, several ballets, and numerous orchestral, choral, and chamber works. Auric was associated with Darius MILHAUD and others in the group of French composers
known as Les Six. He is perhaps best remembered for his compositions for more than 60 films, and especially for the popular song "Where Is Your Heart," from his Moulin Rouge film score (1952). _^<N__^<N_Robert L. Parker
-END-
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733
CAT
-A-
Auriga
-T-
Auriga_^<N__^<N_{aw-ry'-guh} _^<N__^<N_Auriga the Charioteer is a CONSTELLATION prominent during winter in the Northern Hemisphere. Situated between the head of Orion and the north celestial pole, it contains Capella, the sixth brightest star in the
sky, three star clusters (M 36, M 37, and M 38) visible through binoculars, and several important double stars. One of the double stars, epsilon Aurigae, has a component 3,000 times the diameter of the Sun and eclipses its companion, causing a
variation of magnitude from 3.7 to 4.5 over a period of 27 years, the longest period of any known eclipsing binary. The other double star, zeta Aurigae, is also an eclipsing binary. It is composed of a hot blue star and a red giant with a period of
972 days.
-END-
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1361
CAT
-A-
Aurignacian
-T-
Aurignacian_^<N__^<N_{or-een-yay'-shuhn} _^<N__^<N_Aurignacian, in archaeology, is a Late PALEOLITHIC tool industry recognized in various forms throughout Europe. A comparable industry found in southwestern Asia may be related to the Aurignacian.
The name is taken from the French site of Aurignac. Aurignacian stone tools include numerous ridged end scrapers, blade scrapers and knives, and burins. Many of these tools exhibit a characteristic parallel fluting continuous around the tool
margins. Bone and antler tools are more abundant than in other contemporaneous industries; most numerous are slender bone points of varying length. _^<N__^<N_A clearly-defined Aurignacian tool industry occurred from approximately 34,000 to 29,000
years ago. Later artifacts, c.20,000 years old, have been classified as Aurignacian, but these have been disputed. The earliest Aurignacian assemblages seem to have occurred with early populations of fully anatomically modern Homo sapiens. It is
generally thought that the Aurignacian industry reflects a more efficient means of exploiting the environment than that possessed by the preceding Middle Paleolithic peoples. _^<N__^<N_David S. Brose _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bordes, Francois, Tools
of the Old and New Stone Age (1970); Klein, Richard, Ice-Age Hunters of the Ukraine (1973); Wymer, John, The Paleolithic Age (1982; repr. 1984). _^<N__^<N_See also: MOUSTERIAN.
-END-
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780
CAT
-A-
Auriol, Vincent
-T-
Auriol, Vincent_^<N__^<N_{awr-eeawl'} _^<N__^<N_Vincent Auriol, b. Aug. 27, 1884, d. Jan. 1, 1966, a French Socialist leader, became the first president (1947-54) of the Fourth Republic. Elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1914, he served as
minister of finance (1936-37) and of justice (1937-38) in Popular Front cabinets. In 1940 he voted against dissolution of the Third Republic and was imprisoned by the VICHY GOVERNMENT. Released in 1941, he worked in the French resistance until
1943, when he joined the Free French government in exile. In 1946 Auriol was president of the assembly that drafted the constitution of the Fourth Republic, and the next year he was elected its president. He retired in 1954 but reemerged in 1958 to
help swing Socialist support behind General Charles DE GAULLE.
-END-
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1753
CAT
-A-
Aurobindo, Sri
-T-
Aurobindo, Sri_^<N__^<N_{aw-roh-bin'-doh, sree} _^<N__^<N_Sri Aurobindo, or Aurobindo Ghose, b. Aug. 15, 1872, d. Dec. 5, 1950, was an Indian nationalist and one of India's most original philosophers. He was educated at Darjeeling and in
England, where he read classics at Cambridge. During a teaching career in Baroda and Calcutta, he became active in political affairs. As a result of his participation in efforts to free India from British rule, he was imprisoned in 1908. After
his release he retired (1910) to PONDICHERRY to found an ashram (retreat) that became one of the chief religious centers of India. Assisted by Mira Richard, known as the Mother, he lived there continuously until his death. _^<N__^<N_According to
Aurobindo's philosophy, cosmic salvation involves both an evolution and an enlightenment. On the one hand, humanity evolved from matter to the present stage of development called mind and is now in the process of moving to a higher state of
supermind, or divinity. On the other hand, human enlightenment and energy come from above. Through Aurobindo's system of YOGA, called Integral Yoga, evolution and enlightenment blend to form the true gnostic (see GNOSTICISM). _^<N__^<N_The ashram
at Pondicherry attracts thousands of pilgrims and students from all over the world. Its most ambitious effort is the building of Auroville, a new city nearby, to accommodate and enlarge the educational and community-service activities of the
movement. Aurobindo's writings include The Life Divine (1940) and The Synthesis of Yoga (1948). _^<N__^<N_Karl H. Potter _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Dar, Niranjan, Aurobindo, Gandhi, and Roy (1986); Gandhi, Kishore, ed., Contemporary Relevance of
Sri Aurobindo (1973); McDermott, R., ed., The Essential Aurobindo (1973) and Six Pillars (1979).
-END-
-C-
16
CAT
-A-
Aurora:
-T-
Aurora:_^<N__^<N_see EOS.
-END-
-C-
4138
CATO
-A-
auroras
-O-
000000|auroras
000520| Characteristics
001533| Cause
-T-
auroras_^<N__^<N_{uh-rohr'-uhz} _^<N__^<N_The aurora borealis (northern lights) and aurora australis (southern lights) are beautiful, dynamic luminous displays seen in the nighttime sky. The most common form of an aurora is a curtainlike luminosity
extending east to west. Auroras occur in the upper atmosphere of both poles and are occasionally visible from middle latitudes as a dark red glow near the poleward horizon. Auroral displays are strongest at times of greatest sunspot activity,
when magnetic storms disturb radio communications. _^<N__^<N_ Characteristics_^<N__^<N_The bottom of the auroral curtain is about 100 km (62 mi) in altitude, and the upper edge extends to about 300 km (190 mi) or even higher. The curtain often
shows a fine pleating or large-scale crimson folds, or both, near its lower edge. The curtain as a whole moves toward either the equator or the pole. _^<N__^<N_Seen from above, the auroral curtain appears along oval belts surrounding the
geomagnetic poles. These belts, the average radius of which is about 2,200 km (1,400 mi or 20 deg of latitude), extend thousands of kilometers east to west but are only about 1 kilometer thick from north to south. The center of the auroral oval
is not the geomagnetic pole, but is displaced toward the dark side of the Earth by 3 deg. As a result, auroras are, on the average, most commonly seen at midnight hours in the north in a circle including southern Hudson Bay, the southern tip of
Greenland, Iceland, the northern tip of the Scandinavian peninsula, the Arctic coast of Siberia, and central Alaska. _^<N__^<N_ Cause_^<N__^<N_An extensive series of satellite, rocket, and ground-based observations has revealed that auroras result
from large-scale electrical discharge processes surrounding the Earth. The discharges are powered by the electromotive force generated by the interaction between the SOLAR WIND and the Earth's magnetic field. The auroral luminosity comes from
excited, or ionized, atoms and molecules; energetic electrons, carrying the discharge current, are channeled toward the poles by the Earth's magnetic field and collide with and excite, or ionize, upper atmospheric atoms and molecules. The most
common source of light is the green color (wavelength 5577 angstroms) emitted by energized oxygen atoms. The occasional crimson color results from the band emission of excited nitrogen molecules. _^<N__^<N_Auroral activity is controlled by solar
activity through the magnetic field and the speed of the solar wind. A gusty solar wind generated by a solar flare often considerably enhances the auroral discharge, causing the auroral oval to expand to a geomagnetic latitude of 60 deg or lower.
During the declining SUNSPOT period, a fairly intense beam of the solar wind can blow out from a rather quiet region of the Sun and last for from a few months to two years. Since the Sun rotates in a period of about 27 days, the beam hits the
Earth at 27-day intervals, causing the so-called 27-day recurrence of auroral activity. Auroral activity has a pronounced seasonal variation, reaching a maximum during the months of March and September--the time of the equinoxes--but its cause is
not well understood. Even during solar flare-induced and recurrent geomagnetic storms, auroral activity is not continuous. Instead, it repeats a quasi-cyclic display that lasts for only a few hours. A typical auroral substorm begins with a sudden
brightening of an auroral curtain in the midnight sector. The brightened curtain moves violently poleward, and auroral activity subsequently spreads both westward and eastward. _^<N__^<N_Auroral study was established as a science in the early 20th
century. It is now a part of various branches of Earth science and of interplanetary physics. _^<N__^<N_S. I. Akasofu _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Akasofu, S. I., "The Dynamic Aurora," Scientific American, May 1989; Akasofu, S. I., and Kamide,
Yosuka, The Solar Wind and the Earth (1987); Brekke, Asgeir, and Egeland, Alf, The Northern Lights (1983); Eather, R. H., Majestic Lights (1980); Jones, A. V., Aurora (1974); Roble, R. G., "Chemistry in the Thermosphere and Ionosphere,"
Chemical & Engineering News, June 16, 1986. _^<N__^<N_See also: AIRGLOW.
-END-
-C-
913
CAT
-A-
Auschwitz
-T-
Auschwitz_^<N__^<N_{owsh'-vits} _^<N__^<N_Auschwitz was the German name for Oswiecim, a town in southern Poland, which was the site of a Nazi CONCENTRATION CAMP during World War II. Oswiecim is an industrial town and railroad junction with a
population of 45,200 (1982 est.). Large numbers of people, variously estimated at from 1 to 3 million, were killed in the Auschwitz camp. The prisoners were herded naked into gas chambers and exterminated with hydrocyanic gas produced by Zyklon B
crystals. Their clothing and valuables were systematically disposed of (even the gold fillings in their teeth were melted down) and the bodies cremated. Most of those exterminated were Jews. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Gilbert, Martin, The Holocaust
(1985); Hellman, Peter, and Meier, Lily, the Auschwitz Album (1982; repr. 1988); Levi, Primo, Survival in Auschwitz: The Nazi Assault on Humanity, trans. by Stuart Woolf (1961). _^<N__^<N_See also: HOLOCAUST.
-END-
-C-
472
CAT
-A-
Ausonius
-T-
Ausonius_^<N__^<N_{au-sohn'-ee-uhs} _^<N__^<N_The Latin poet and rhetorician Decimus Magnus Ausonius, 310-95, was born in Gaul, where he became so adept in rhetoric that Valentinian I made him tutor to the young Gratian in 365. He served as consul
from 379 until Gratian's death in 383. Most of his poetry is sentimental and provincial, containing accounts of his travels and sketches of dead relatives. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Glover, T. R., Life and Letters in the Fourth Century (1901; repr.
1968).
-END-
-C-
6050
CAT
4834
-A-
Austen, Jane
-T-
Austen, Jane_^<N__^<N_Jane Austen, one of the greatest of British fiction writers, had a major impact on the development of the English novel. Her six novels, written during the romantic period, combine 18th- and 19th-century concerns and modes of
fiction and together have a thematic unity and a consistent excellence that make them one of the supreme achievements of English literature. _^<N__^<N_Born Dec. 16, 1775, the daughter of a country clergyman, Austen spent her first 25 years in the
village of Steventon in Hampshire. There as a child she wrote sprightly and amusing burlesques of contemporary sentimental fiction and composed early versions of her first three novels: Elinor and Marianne (c.1795) became Sense and Sensibility
(1811), First Impressions (c.1796-97) became Pride and Prejudice (1813), and Susan, A Novel in Two Volumes became Northanger Abbey (written c..1798-99 and published posthumously in 1818). When her father retired in 1801, the family moved to Bath
(a change she deplored) and then briefly to Southampton. Finally they settled in the small village of Chawton, where Austen spent most of the remainder of her life. _^<N__^<N_When attempts to interest publishers in her novels failed, Austen
published Sense and Sensibility at her own expense in 1811. In Chawton she issued two of her early novels and wrote her three later ones, Mansfield Park (1814), Emma (1816), and Persuasion (published posthumously in 1818). A final novel,
Sanditon, was still unfinished when she died on July 18, 1817, in Winchester (where she is buried in the cathedral). Although Austen never married and led a relatively restricted life, the world of the family, of village life, and of England's
rural gentry withheld few secrets or subtleties from her observant and discriminating eye. _^<N__^<N_Austen's works are satirical comedies of the domestic and social life of a limited sphere of English society. Her plots constitute variations on
the standard theme of female novelists of the late 18th century, definitively established by Fanny BURNEY: a young girl's entry into society climaxed eventually by marriage. Each of Austen's heroines follows this course, by the end of the novel
acquiring a husband, often an older man who has been both father and guide to her as well as lover. Well aware of the limitations of her fiction, Austen likened herself to a painter of miniatures; yet within the confines of her seemingly
predictable plots, and narrow focus, she carefully explores, in highly polished, witty, and meticulous style, an important and universal theme, the adjustments the self must make to family and society. _^<N__^<N_Austen's early novels look back to
the 18th century. Northanger Abbey satirizes the Gothic novel and sentimental friendship, and Sense and Sensibility mocks the cult of sensibility in which personal feeling and spontaneity were valued to the exclusion of social responsibility and
self-restraint. Pride and Prejudice, representing the flowering of her early style, is probably Austen's best-loved work; its vivacious and witty heroine, Elizabeth Bennet, is in the tradition of the articulate women of Restoration and
18th-century comedy. Austen's later works, Mansfield Park and Persuasion, have themes traditionally labeled Victorian; they describe the loneliness and repression of young women forced into silence and self-effacement by the social codes
prescribing female behavior. Fanny Price and Anne Elliot, for example, must hide their love and wait for their moral strength to be discovered. Emma, the sunniest and most satisfying of Austen's novels, has something of the sprightliness of Pride
and Prejudice but also displays the psychological probing found in the later novels. It is especially skillful in the use of dialogue to convey the mental shifts and starts of its characters. _^<N__^<N_In her own time, Austen was a retiring
novelist whose name did not appear on her title pages. Yet although she was not widely known or acclaimed, she had a select band of admirers that included the novelist Sir Walter SCOTT and the Prince Regent. Her influence on later writers such as
Henry JAMES was profound. Her stature as a fiction writer now seems unquestionable, and critics like F. R. LEAVIS have ranked her among the greatest British novelists. There is, however, considerable debate about the tone of her work. Some
critics have stressed the irony of her vision, what D. W. Harding has called her "regulated hatred." They see Austen as responding subversively to a world she knows to be debased, undermining social values while she pays conventional homage to
them. Others view her work as an intelligent affirmation of conservative social and religious values, in the same moral tradition as the novelists Samuel RICHARDSON and Henry FIELDING and the essayist Samuel JOHNSON. According to proponents of
this view, her invariably happy endings are not acts of bad faith but necessary culminations of a mature fictional vision. In 1977 an untitled play attributed to Austen was discovered, making it her only surviving serious drama. _^<N__^<N_Janet
Todd _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Burrows, John, Computation into Criticism: A Study of Jane Austen's Novels (1987); Duckworth, Alistair, The Improvement of the Estate: A Study of Jane Austen's Novels (1971); Dwyer, June, Jane Austen (1989);
Fergus, Jan, Jane Austen and the Didactic Novel (1983); Halperin, John, The Life of Jane Austen (1984); Honan, Park, Jane Austen: Her Life (1988); Johnson, C. L., Jane Austen: Women, Politics, and the Novel (1988); Lascelles, Mary, Jane
Austen and Her Art (1954); Litz, A. Walton, Jane Austen: A Study of Her Artistic Development (1965); Rees, Joan, Jane Austen (1976); Scott, P. J., Jane Austen: A Reassessment (1982); Southam, B. C., Jane Austen: The Critical Heritage, 2
vols. (1986-87); Tanner, Tony, Jane Austen (1986); Thompson, J. P., Between Self and World: The Novels of Jane Austen (1988); Todd, Janet, ed., Jane Austen: New Perspectives (1983); Watt, Ian, ed., Jane Austen: A Collection of Critical Essays
(1963).
-END-
-C-
528
CAT
-A-
Austerlitz, Battle of
-T-
Austerlitz, Battle of_^<N__^<N_{ows'-tur-lits} _^<N__^<N_The Battle of Austerlitz, fought on Dec. 2, 1805, near Austerlitz in Moravia, was a major victory for NAPOLEON I. His opponents, the Austrians and Russians, hoped to cut the French off from
Vienna, which Napoleon had just occupied (November 13). Deliberately drawing an attack on his right wing, Napoleon then stormed the weakened allied center, dividing it and inflicting heavy losses. On December 4, the Austrians concluded a separate
armistice with the French. _^<N__^<N_See also: NAPOLEONIC WARS.
-END-
-C-
1541
CAT
-A-
Austin
-T-
Austin_^<N__^<N_Austin is the capital of Texas and a noted educational center, with the enormous main campus of the University of Texas located there. It is the seat of Travis County in central Texas and has a population of 465,622 (1990 census)
within the city and 781,572 in the metropolitan area. The population grew by nearly 35% during the decade between 1980 and 1990. _^<N__^<N_A city with broad, tree-lined streets, Austin is situated on the Colorado River (of Texas), at the foot of
the artificial Highland Lakes. Two of the lakes are in the heart of the city, furnishing recreational opportunities. The climate is mild, with an average annual temperature of 20 deg C (68 deg F) and an average annual rainfall of 790 mm (31 in).
The capitol building is set on one of the hills rising up from the river. _^<N__^<N_Austin's phenomenal growth in industry and research has been spurred by hydroelectric projects on the Colorado and by the facilities available at the city's
educational institutions. Austin also serves as the trade and financial center of a 10-county grain and livestock-raising area. It is the home of the Lyndon B. Johnson Library, on the campus of the University of Texas, and Bergstrom Air Force
Base. _^<N__^<N_In 1839 the village of Waterloo was selected as the site for the capital of the new Republic of Texas and was renamed for Stephen F. AUSTIN. Mexican and Indian raids forced the removal of the state offices to Houston in 1842, but
they were returned to Austin in 1845. Large-scale growth began with the arrival of the railroad in 1871.
-END-
-C-
305
CAT
-A-
Austin, Alfred
-T-
Austin, Alfred_^<N__^<N_Alfred Austin, b. May 30, 1835, d. June 2, 1913, succeeded Tennyson as England's POET LAUREATE in 1896. He was editor of the conservative National Review from 1883 to 1895. He wrote a prose work, The Garden That I Love
(1894), an autobiography, and several volumes of undistinguished verse.
-END-
-C-
726
CAT
-A-
Austin, J. L.
-T-
Austin, J. L._^<N__^<N_John Langshaw Austin, b. Mar. 26, 1911, d. Feb. 8, 1960, was an English philosopher important for his contributions to analytic and linguistic philosophy. He held various teaching posts at the University of Oxford from 1933
until his death. Most of his work concerns the philosophy of language. Austin's point of departure was the examination of language within the context of human behavior. He held that ordinary language warrants the deepest attention and that clear
insight into the subtle distinctions implied by language leads to important distinctions in observed reality. His most noted work is How to Do Things with Words (1962). _^<N__^<N_E. D. Klemke _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Berlin, Isaiah, Essays on J. L.
Austin (1973).
-END-
-C-
642
CAT
-A-
Austin, John
-T-
Austin, John_^<N__^<N_The British legal theorist John Austin, b. Mar. 3, 1790, d. December 1859, is remembered primarily for his book Lectures on Jurisprudence, published posthumously. Austin served in the army and practiced law before becoming
(1826) professor of jurisprudence at the University of London. He resigned in 1832 and lived mainly abroad until 1848. Austin held that law is a form of command, determined by power relationships rather than by moral principles or the popular will.
His work contributed to the development of UTILITARIANISM. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Campbell, E. M., John Austin and Jurisprudence in Nineteenth-Century England (1959).
-END-
-C-
773
CAT
-A-
Austin, Mary Hunter
-T-
Austin, Mary Hunter_^<N__^<N_Mary Hunter Austin, b. Carlinville, Ill., Sept. 9, 1868, d. Aug. 13, 1934, was an American essayist, fiction writer, and mystic who produced several classic works about the desert country and Indians of the American
Southwest. Her books include The Land of Little Rain (1903), a naturalistic description of the desert; The Basket Woman (1904), a retelling of Paiute Indian legends; The Flock (1906), an account of desert sheepherding; and Lost Borders (1909),
a collection of character sketches. A feminist, Austin was an active proponent of social causes, and she was instrumental in preserving records of Indian cultures. Her autobiography, Earth Horizon, appeared in 1932. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Fink,
A., I-Mary: A Biography of Mary Austin (1983).
-END-
-C-
1114
CAT
-A-
Austin, Stephen F.
-T-
Austin, Stephen F._^<N__^<N_Stephen Fuller Austin, b. Austinville, Va., Nov. 3, 1793, d. Dec. 27, 1836, is sometimes called the father of Texas. On the death (1821) of his father, Moses Austin, he took over a grant to bring U.S. settlers into
Spanish Texas. Under the terms of a special act in 1824 and additional contracts in 1825, 1827, and 1828--all granted by the newly independent Mexican government--the colonizer was responsible for the settlement of more than 1,200 American
families in Mexican Texas. _^<N__^<N_In 1835, following a period of imprisonment in Mexico City, Austin urged Texans to join federalists in Mexico in revolt against the centralist dictatorship of Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna. During the TEXAS
REVOLUTION (1835-36), Austin briefly commanded Texas volunteers and then went to the United States to gain support for the Texan cause. He served as secretary of state of the republic. _^<N__^<N_Seymour V. Connor _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Barker,
Eugene C., The Life of Stephen F. Austin, Founder of Texas, 1793-1836 (1925; repr. 1968); Rasbury, Ruth G., Broad Land: The Life and Times of Stephen Fuller Austin (1972).
-END-
-C-
744
CAT
-A-
Austin, Tracy
-T-
Austin, Tracy_^<N__^<N_Tennis player Tracy Ann Austin, b. Redondo Beach, Calif., Dec. 12, 1962, gained international renown in 1979, when at age 16 she became the youngest person ever to win the U.S. Open. During that tournament she defeated both
Martina Navratilova, reigning Wimbledon champion, and--in the finals--Chris Evert Lloyd. Austin's success continued for the next two years, and she won a second Open crown in 1981. Shortly thereafter, however, she was sidelined by an injury, and
even after recovery she never returned to form. She retired by the mid-1980s. Despite some intermittent attempts to return to competition, Austin never fulfilled her great promise as a player. Her autobiography, Beyond Center Court, was
published in 1992.
-END-
-C-
39858
CATO
4787
9601
14402
19160
23960
28729
33481
38257
-A-
Australia
-O-
000000|Australia
002486| LAND AND RESOURCES
002864| Physical Regions
006415| Geological History
008451| Climate
011488| Drainage
013969| Soils
015571| Vegetation
017527| Animal Life
018764| Mineral Resources
019823| Water Resources
020202| PEOPLE
021977| Language and Religion
022637| Demography
024419| Education
025727| Health
026060| Cultural Activity
028651| ECONOMY
029135| Agriculture
030529| Forestry and Fishing
031145| Manufacturing and Industry
032445| Power
033541| Transportation
034973| Trade
036272| GOVERNMENT
-T-
Australia_^<N__^<N_Australia is the world's smallest continent and sixth-largest country. With proportionately more desert land than any other continent, Australia has a low population density. Lying completely in the Southern Hemisphere,
Australia is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the west and south and by the Pacific Ocean on the east. These oceans merge on the north in the Arafura Sea between Australia and Indonesia and New Guinea, and on the south in the Bass Strait. The
coastline length, estimated at 19,200 km (12,000 mi), is remarkably short for so large an area, a result of the relative lack of indentation. Major inlets other than the Gulf of CARPENTARIA and the GREAT AUSTRALIAN BIGHT are few. _^<N__^<N_A
self-governing member of the Commonwealth of Nations, Australia celebrated its bicentennial in 1988 (see BICENTENNIAL, AUSTRALIAN). It is a federation of five mainland states (NEW SOUTH WALES, QUEENSLAND, SOUTH AUSTRALIA, VICTORIA, WESTERN
AUSTRALIA) and one island state (TASMANIA), as well as two territories (AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY, NORTHERN TERRITORY). The country's name derives from the Latin terra australis incognita, meaning "unknown southern land," which resulted from a
confusion between Australia and Antarctica on early world maps. _^<N__^<N_In many ways Australia is unusual among continents. It lacks major relief features and has a high proportion of dry land. The continent's isolation from other landmasses
accounts for its unique varieties of vegetation and animal life, and for the existence of a Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) culture among the Aborigines. Except for Antarctica, Australia was probably the last continent to be inhabited by humans and the
last to be explored and settled by Europeans. It is the only continent comprising a single nation-state. _^<N__^<N_Dutch explorers first sighted Australia in the early 17th century. Capt. James COOK explored the east coast in 1770 and claimed the
land for Great Britain. In 1778 the first settlement (SYDNEY) was founded at an excellent harbor on the southeast coast. British convicts played an important role in the territory's early history. The discovery of gold and other ores attracted
immigrants, but Australia remained a primarily agricultural country until World War II. _^<N__^<N_Subsequent industrialization has been rapid, and today Australia ranks as one of the world's most economically developed countries, although vast
areas of the interior, known as the Outback, remain all but uninhabited. (See AUSTRALIA, HISTORY OF.) _^<N__^<N_ LAND AND RESOURCES_^<N__^<N_Australia is primarily a flat low-lying plateau, with about 95 percent of the land standing less than 600 m
(1,970 ft) above sea level. The continent was not affected by recent geological mountain-building forces, and all its landforms are highly eroded; Australia's mountains reach only 2,228 m (7,310 ft) in Mount KOSCIUSKO in southeastern New South
Wales. _^<N__^<N_ Physical Regions_^<N__^<N_Australia can be divided into three major physical regions: the vast Western Plateau, the Eastern Highlands, and the GREAT ARTESIAN BASIN. _^<N__^<N_Western Plateau. Some 60 percent of the continent--more
than 4,500,000 sq km (1,740,000 sq mi) of central and western Australia--is the Western Plateau. About half of its area lies between 300 and 600 m (1,000 and 2,000 ft) above sea level. A major fault terminates the plateau on the west, separating a
strip of coastal lowland about 50 km (30 mi) wide. The flat, treeless NULLARBOR PLAIN of south central Australia is the southern edge of the plateau. Erosion of the plateau's thick sandstones has produced mesas and buttes in ARNHEM LAND in the
north and in the Kimberley and Pilbara regions of the northwest. In the center of the continent rise the MACDONNELL RANGES, carved out of ancient sediments and deformed by open folding. They culminate in Mount Zeil, at 1,150 m (4,955 ft), the
highest point in the Western Plateau. AYERS ROCK is to the south of this area. _^<N__^<N_The Western Plateau is marked by aridity, and its desert and semidesert lands are extensive. In clockwise order from the south, these deserts include the GREAT
VICTORIA, GIBSON, GREAT SANDY, SIMPSON, Tanami, and Arunta. Much of this area is covered with sand ridges. In central areas the dunes are live (that is, subject to realignment by the elements), but elsewhere they are dead and fixed by vegetation.
The dune ridges are strikingly parallel outside sand-source areas, reaching heights as great as 30 m (100 ft) with separations as wide as 500 m (1,650 ft). Sand-ridge country accounts for nearly a quarter of Australia's total land area. Other large
portions of the continent's desert and semidesert country consist of gibber (stony desert), formed by the breakup of surface rocks. _^<N__^<N_Eastern Highlands. Uplands, to a width of about 500 km (300 mi), serve as an eastern continental rim.
These highlands, also known as the GREAT DIVIDING RANGE, are mainly plateau country and are separated from the discontinuous coastal plain by steep, erosional scarps. Elevations exceed 1,500 m (5,000 ft) in parts of the northern rim, but half the
ground here is below 300 m (1,000 ft). The New England Range and Blue Mountains to the south vary in height from 900 to 1,500 m (3,000 to 5,000 ft). The Australian Alps in the extreme southeast reach more than 1,800 m (6,000 ft) and culminate in
Mount Kosciusko in the SNOWY MOUNTAINS. A detached and heavily glaciated portion of the Australian Alps occurs in Tasmania, where it exceeds 1,000 m (3,000 ft) in elevation. The Eastern Highlands form a major drainage divide of Australia. Off the
tropical northeastern coast lies the GREAT BARRIER REEF, the world's largest coral reef at 2,000 km (1,250 mi) long. _^<N__^<N_Great Artesian Basin. Between the Western Plateau and the Eastern Highlands lie three interior basins, called the Great
Artesian Basin. Most of this area is less than 300 m (1,000 ft) in elevation and much of it less than 150 m (500 ft). In the north is the Carpentaria Basin, which lies mostly beneath the sea (Gulf of Carpentaria). The vast Eyre Basin contains Lake
EYRE, the shore of which is the continent's lowest point, 16 m (52 ft) below sea level. The Eyre Basin is almost separated from the Murray Basin on the south by the projection of high ground (actually worn mountains) in the FLINDERS, Mount Lofty,
and Barrier Ranges. The overlap of the Simpson Desert from the Western Plateau to the interior basins somewhat blurs the physical distinction between the regions. _^<N__^<N_ Geological History_^<N__^<N_Geologically, Australia is part of the former
southern supercontinent GONDWANALAND, which broke up some 160 million years ago, isolating Australia from the other landmasses of the Southern Hemisphere. _^<N__^<N_The Western Plateau is a stable shield area and has extensive outcrops of
Precambrian age rocks (3,000 to 570 million years old). Some Precambrian rocks are also incorporated in the northern half of the Eastern Highlands. These rocks record at least two episodes of compression and mountain building: the first producing
granitic masses and highly altered rocks; the second forming a trough (the Adelaide Geosyncline) along the eastern edge of the shield (from the site of the Flinders and Mount Lofty ranges, through the center, to the northwest coast). Parts of the
Western Plateau have from time to time been submerged by shelf seas or have sagged into troughs. For example, the Canning Basin in the northwest is filled with sediments that are 600 to 250 million years old; the Eucla Basin in the south contains
mainly limestones that are less than 70 million years old. _^<N__^<N_Thick sedimentation in a subsiding trough, now the site of the Eastern Highlands, began some 600 to 500 million years ago, and continued in places until 250 million years ago.
Between 400 and 275 million years ago, the trough was twice compressed; mountains were formed, and volcanic chains erupted. Volcanic outbreaks were repeated later throughout the region, especially 25 to 20 million years ago. Most of the volcanic
fields are old enough for their cones to have been stripped down by erosion. Plateau basalts are also much broken by erosion. In the south of the mainland, however, volcanic activity persisted until less than a million years ago. _^<N__^<N_Sagging
basins in coastal areas subsequently collected sediment, much of it deltaic sand, which is now seen as thick sandstone formations. The major sags, however, were to form Australia's interior basins, which contain sediments dating from about 200
million years ago to the present day. _^<N__^<N_ Climate_^<N__^<N_The climate of Australia varies with latitude. Because the continent lacks relief features and is favored with the moderating influence of the surrounding seas, few dramatic regional
variations exist. The northern part of the continent is tropical and influenced by the trade winds. The southern parts lie in the belt of westerly winds and have a more temperate climate. The vast center of the continent is arid and extremely hot
during the summer (December to March). _^<N__^<N_The tropical region, and especially the northern coast, experiences a hot, wet (monsoonal) summer. The average January temperature in DARWIN is 28 degrees C (83 degrees F), and the average annual
rainfall is 1,240 mm (59 in), nearly 80 percent of which falls between December and March. _^<N__^<N_In winter, hurricanes tend to develop over the Coral and Arafura seas, some following the path of the East Australian Current as far south as
Sydney. Hurricanes in 1974 devastated Darwin and flooded BRISBANE. _^<N__^<N_Southern Australia has mild, wet winters, resembling a Mediterranean climate. The southwest experiences hot, dry summers, dominated by subtropical high-pressure systems.
Average temperatures at PERTH are 23 degrees C (74 degrees F) in January and 13 degrees C (55 degrees F) in July; the average annual rainfall is 900 mm (35 in). A similar climate affects an area around ADELAIDE. Southern New South Wales, Victoria,
and Tasmania have rainfall maximums in winter, but they receive the most dependable year-round precipitation of any region in Australia. The eastern coast of Queensland and New South Wales receive tropical summer rain. With increasing distance
southward, however, temperatures decline and the seasonality of rainfall becomes less marked. On the interior of the southern Eastern Highlands is a subhumid belt, important for agriculture. _^<N__^<N_About half of Australia is arid. Dry seasons
average eight months in length and a mean annual rainfall of 255 mm (10 in) or less. Summers are hot and winters are warm, and the daily temperature variation is great. The average temperature at ALICE SPRINGS is 26 degrees C (79 degrees F) in
January and 12 degrees C (53 degrees F) in July. As with most of Australia, precipitation is undependable, and on rare occasions floods occur. For instance, 450,000 sq km (175,000 sq mi) of the Lake Eyre Basin (a region that normally receives only
about 125 mm/5 in of rain annually) were completely flooded in 1974. _^<N__^<N_The arid zone is encircled by a broad belt of semiarid climate. North of the tropic of Capricorn this belt records a wet summer season; south of the tropic of Capricorn,
and especially in southwest Australia, the average summer is distinctly dry. Because livestock ranches are located in some large eastern parts, prolonged droughts are significant to the economy. Some droughts have lasted 10 years. Extreme high
temperatures in the arid and semiarid regions exceed 38 degrees C (100 degrees F). _^<N__^<N_Snow is rare except in the higher parts of the southern Eastern Highlands, principally the Snowy Mountains. _^<N__^<N_ Drainage_^<N__^<N_The Great Dividing
Range divides Australia's east-flowing rivers from the west-flowing rivers. About half the continent, however, does not drain into the sea. _^<N__^<N_Most of the rivers that rise in the Eastern Highlands and flow west either dry up or are seasonal.
An exception is the Murray-Darling system, the flow of which is great enough to survive the crossing of large tracts of arid land before emptying into Encounter Bay southeast of Adelaide. This is Australia's principal river system and includes the
DARLING, MURRAY, MURRUMBIDGEE, Barwon, and Lachlan rivers. About 14 percent of the continent is drained by the Murray-Darling system, although its driest areas are noncontributing. _^<N__^<N_Other than the Murray-Darling system, only 36 percent of
Australia is externally drained. These areas include the island of Tasmania, the area east of the Great Dividing Range, and parts of the coastal north and northwest. Principal rivers include the Flinders, Belyando, Mackenzie, and Fitzroy in the
northeast; Hawkesbury and Shoalhaven in the southeast; Murchison, Gascoyne, Ashburton, and another Fitzroy in the northwest; and Victoria, Roper, and Daly in the north. These rivers range between 350 and 830 km (220 and 520 mi) in length. They have
a runoff that averages the equivalent of only 117 mm (4.6 in) of rain a year, although this figure is 690 mm (27 in) in more humid Tasmania. _^<N__^<N_About 35 percent of the continent (in the Western Plateau) has uncoordinated drainage, including
many ephemeral lakes (those that form after rainfalls and shrink by evaporating) and disrupted streams. The enclosed Lake Eyre Basin, which makes up 14 percent of the continent, contains the occasionally flowing Cooper's Creek and the Diamantina,
Georgina, and Macumba rivers. Lake Eyre, Australia's largest "lake," is more often a dry depression with a hard salt crust. Until 1950 the lake bed was dry for about a century. _^<N__^<N_The Bulloo Bancannia Basin, adjacent to the Lake Eyre Basin
on the southeast, is also internally drained and accounts for about 1 percent of the continent's area. _^<N__^<N_In all regions where drainage is internal or uncoordinated, flow regimes are erratic and usually depend on day-to-day rainfall. The
externally flowing rivers generally reflect the seasonal rainfall of the climate, but flow averages conceal strong year-to-year variations. Dams on many Australian rivers (especially those of the Murray-Darling system) aid in the maintaining of
relatively steady stream flows. _^<N__^<N_ Soils_^<N__^<N_Australia's extensive arid regions have sandy or stony desert soils, although large areas on northern tablelands and in the central ranges are devoid of soils. Only the red desert loams
possess farming potential. _^<N__^<N_Light-textured brown soils with high sand content are found in the regions of semiarid climate and support vegetation suitable for livestock grazing. Heavy-textured gray-brown soils have formed on silty and
clayey alluvium, notably in the Riverina district in southern New South Wales, where irrigation has made for productive agriculture. _^<N__^<N_The most fertile soils are the black-earth and related red brown soils, which occur in regions receiving
from 380 to 650 mm (15 to 25 in) of precipitation annually. The humus-rich and moisture-retentive black-earth soils occur in the subhumid areas of the interior Eastern Highlands, and the red brown soils are found in semiarid areas. Australia's
chief wheat and animal products are produced on such soils. _^<N__^<N_In more humid areas with annual precipitation in excess of 650 mm (25 in), leaching can make soils acidic and naturally infertile. Research from about 1945 on has shown that
artificial fertilizers can help replace leached soil nutrients and turn the leached podzols of temperate areas into productive pastureland. Also leached and the subject of ongoing research on tropical pasture are the yellow and red loams and gray
and brown clays in northern Australia. Whereas most soil types in Australia reflect climatic conditions, leached soils formed during previous, wetter climatic cycles also occur in some of Australia's drier areas. _^<N__^<N_
Vegetation_^<N__^<N_Vegetation is characterized by a dominance of hard-leaf evergreen plants (sclerophylls). The evergreens include some 600 species of eucalyptus trees (called gum trees in Australia) and 800 species of acacia trees (wattles). The
hard leaves act as a deterrent to water evaporation, enabling the plants to survive dry seasons and semiaridity. _^<N__^<N_Australia's major vegetation belts broadly correspond to climate zones. Tropical rain forest in the north and northwest
coastal fringes include palms, hoop pines, tree ferns, and mangroves in coastal swamps. On the east coast, south of 26 degrees south latitude, tropical rain forest is replaced by subtropical and temperate rain forest of palms, tree ferns, and
eucalyptus, and eventually by beeches and conifers in Tasmania. Rain forests cover about 9 percent of the continent. _^<N__^<N_On the western slopes of the Great Dividing Range (which serves as a climatic divide by acting as a barrier to rainfall),
the vegetation cover thins to subtropical or temperate woodlands of eucalyptus and scrub, accounting for 9 percent of Australia's land area. _^<N__^<N_The semiarid belt supports mainly grassland south of the tropic of Capricorn and savanna woodland
to the north. Together they constitute 26 percent of the continent. In areas of greater dryness, low-growing saltbush and bluebush become common. The extremely dry regions of Australia are distinguished by the highly specialized mulga, a shrubby
acacia important as a forage plant. Valuable hardwoods such as jarra and kauri grow in the summer-dry southwest. A belt of mallee, a small, salt-tolerant eucalyptus, grows on sodium-rich soils. _^<N__^<N_Climatic influences on vegetation include
bushfires, which are especially common in the southeast. Human influences include the disastrous overgrazing of the semiarid country and the introduction of new species such as prickly pear and paspalum (crabgrass), the latter to replace native
tussock grasses as forage material. _^<N__^<N_ Animal Life_^<N__^<N_Before the coming of humans, and especially before the landing of Europeans, Australia's pouched mammals (marsupials) evolved for about 50 million years without predation or
competition by placental mammals. The pouched Tasmanian wolf was never abundant enough to prevent the varied evolution and wide dispersion of kangaroos, wallabies, koalas, wombats, and others. Also peculiar to Australia are the egg-laying mammals
(monotremes): the platypus and the echidna (or spiny anteater). _^<N__^<N_Bird life is highly varied and includes the mallee fowl, cockatoo, lyrebird, various parrots, the kookaburra (or laughing jackass), and the large, flightless emu. Numerous
species of snakes exist, many of which are poisonous. Among insects, leaf eaters, locusts, termites, and blowflies (which attack livestock) are destructive. _^<N__^<N_The introduction from Europe of cattle, sheep, rabbits, foxes, rats, and cats has
altered the natural picture and in some cases has been disruptive. Also, some native species have been hunted intensively. Despite the exploitation of kangaroos (for example, for pet-food manufacture), however, the numbers of large forms may be
greater today than ever before, because of the provision of water tanks on ranches. _^<N__^<N_ Mineral Resources_^<N__^<N_Australia possesses enormous mineral resources. Coal reserves are large, and although much is high in ash content, about a
third is of coking quality. New discoveries of iron ore in the Hammersley Range (Pilbara region) of the northwest have helped to keep annual production increasing. Vast bauxite reserves are concentrated in the Grove and Cape York peninsulas. Other
abundant metal ores include zinc, lead, nickel, and copper. Gemstones include sapphires from the northern Great Dividing Range and the distinctive Australian fire opals from inland fields in the southeast. _^<N__^<N_Petroleum, first exploited in
Queensland, now comes chiefly from the continental shelf off northwestern Australia and the Bass Strait. Production is increasing and supplies about two-thirds of domestic consumption. Recoverable reserves of natural gas were little tapped before
1969, but by 1990 output was about 20,090 million cu m (709,472 million cu ft) a year. At double the present output and consumption rates, coal, oil, and gas would last 100 to 300 years. _^<N__^<N_ Water Resources_^<N__^<N_The driest of continents,
Australia must carefully regulate its existing water resources. Even in some externally drained basins, water supply is at times deficient. Significant groundwater reserves occur beneath one quarter of Australia, most prominently in the Great
Artesian Basin, but they are generally overexploited and much is unfit for human consumption. _^<N__^<N_ PEOPLE_^<N__^<N_In 1994, Australia had an estimated population of 17,800,000, up from 10,100,000 in 1960. Immigration continues to play a major
role in population increase, more than 4 million new immigrants having settled in Australia since 1945. Despite a more diversified pattern of immigration in recent years, the population of Australia remains ethnically dominated by a majority that
is of British descent (more than 90 percent from Great Britain and Ireland) or is recently arrived from the United Kingdom. Smaller ethnic groups of European origin include many of Greek, German, Italian, and Yugoslav descent. Aborigines and people
of past Aboriginal descent constitute a small minority (only 1.5 percent of the total population); there are small but growing Chinese and other Asian minorities. Some of the descendants of Australia's pre-European inhabitants, the Aborigines and
Torres Strait Islanders, live on designated tribal lands, and others work on ranches or live in the deteriorated inner-city areas along the coast. In general, the Aborigines have a higher birthrate and a shorter life expectancy than other
Australians. _^<N__^<N_The Paleolithic culture of the Aborigines did not survive the European settlement of the early 1800s. Possessing no pottery or metals and depending on fishing, hunting, and gathering, the Aborigines had developed kinship
systems and a mythology that were rich and complex. Some 500 tribes and as many languages existed among the 300,000 Aborigines living in Australia when the Europeans arrived. Since the 1960s, the Aborigines have been granted legal and civil rights
enjoyed by the white population, but Aborigines and many part-Aborigines remain far removed from Australia's economic prosperity and social life. (See ABORIGINES, AUSTRALIAN.) _^<N__^<N_ Language and Religion_^<N__^<N_The language of Australia is
almost universally English, although some immigrant groups form small language blocks in the cities. Australia has developed its own accents of English, which to untutored ears sound similar to London cockney but which display Irish influences.
_^<N__^<N_About 73 percent of the total population profess affiliation with some form of Christianity. The predominant religions are Anglicanism (about 24 percent) and Roman Catholicism (26 percent), the former reflecting the strong traditional
influence of English (see AUSTRALIA, CHURCH OF ENGLAND IN), the latter of Irish, ancestry. About 13 percent profess no religion. _^<N__^<N_ Demography_^<N__^<N_The colonial capital cities (later to be state capitals) were founded from 1788 to 1836.
Adelaide, the youngest, was the only one to receive no British convicts. Assisted (subsidized) migration began in the 1830s and continues. Until about 1870, foreign-born population exceeded native-born, and it still amounts to some 20 percent.
Until 1973, immigration was controlled by the effective but unofficial White Australian Policy. Since then there has been a significant increase in arrivals from various Southeast Asian nations. _^<N__^<N_The population is more than 85 percent
urban. The capital cities have always been demographically dominant, containing 25 percent to 30 percent of their individual colonial populations in the mid-1800s and 62 percent to 72 percent of their state populations today, except for Brisbane,
Queensland (44 percent), and Hobart, Tasmania (39 percent). In 1992 the six capital cities and their surrounding metropolitan areas contained more than 55 percent of all Australians. The largest was Sydney, with nearly 3.7 million, followed closely
by Melbourne, with more than 3.2 million. Brisbane had more than 1.3 million by 1991, and Adelaide and Perth were slightly above the 1 million level. Canberra, the federal capital located in the Australian Capital Territory, had an estimated
population of 310,000 in 1991. Other large cities include the industrial center of Newcastle, the ports of Geelong and Wollongong, and the Queensland resort community of Gold Coast. Inland settlements other than Canberra are generally small.
Ballarat and Bendigo have survived from early starts in gold-rush days. Toowoomba, Albury-Wodonga, and Wagga Wagga are regional agricultural centers. Alice Springs is a stepping-off point and service center for the Outback. _^<N__^<N_
Education_^<N__^<N_Education is free and compulsory from the ages of 6 to 15 (16 in Tasmania). From colonial times, education in Australia has been highly centralized. State administrations (the federal government in the territories) controlled the
hiring, posting, and promotion of all public school teachers. Even the overwhelmingly Roman Catholic private schools, which enrolled about 39 percent of all primary and secondary school students in 1992, shared the common external (university
entrance) examination taken at the conclusion of secondary education. The federal government has taken an increasing role in education since the 1950s; the first concessions to local participation were not made until the 1970s, with the phasing out
of external exams in favor of internal assessment of student performance by teachers within the schools. _^<N__^<N_Almost all of Australia's universities (see AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES) are public institutions; Bond University, the nation's first
private university, was founded in 1987. Entrance is highly selective and competitive. Since World War II postgraduate programs have become increasingly popular. _^<N__^<N_Australia has developed special programs to meet the needs of children
living in isolated areas. The Schools of the Air Program, for example, uses two-way radios for instruction. _^<N__^<N_ Health_^<N__^<N_Australia has excellent public and private health-care facilities, and the government pays partial medical
expenses for citizens. Medical attention in the Outback is supplied by the Flying Doctor Service. The average life span, crude death rate, and infant mortality rate are similar to those of other industrialized nations. _^<N__^<N_ Cultural
Activity_^<N__^<N_A distinctively Australian artistic expression appeared at the end of the 19th century in the works of writers such as Henry LAWSON (see AUSTRALIAN LITERATURE). Patrick WHITE, winner of the 1973 Nobel prize for literature, helped
focus world attention on Australian literature. Many contemporary authors, including novelists Thea Astley, Rodney Hall, Thomas Keneally, David Malouf, and Morris WEST, dramatists Ray Lawlor and David Williamson, and the Aboriginal poet and
playwright Jack Davis, have garnered international fame. Novelist Peter Carey won England's foremost literary award, the Booker Prize, in 1988. _^<N__^<N_The growth of cultural institutions and forms of artistic expression reflecting national
characteristics was stimulated by government funding, particularly after the establishment of the Australia Council in 1975. Dance companies, museums, musical societies, and arts centers exist in many state capitals. The Australian National Gallery
at Canberra (opened 1982) and the Art Gallery of New South Wales in Sydney have large collections of Australian (including Aboriginal) arts, while the Melbourne National Gallery houses a fine collection of European paintings. The Australian Ballet,
the Australian National Opera, and the Sydney Dance Company are well known, and Melbourne and Sydney have notable symphony orchestras. The spectacular Sydney Opera House (completed 1973) has attracted an international roster of performers.
Melbourne, with its new Victoria Arts Center, became the third venue of the SPOLETO FESTIVAL in 1986. Other Australian contributions to the world of classical music include opera singers Dame Nellie MELBA and Joan SUTHERLAND and composer Percy
GRAINGER. Such Australian filmmakers as Gillian Armstrong (My Brilliant Career, 1979), Bruce Beresford (Breaker Morant, 1979; Driving Miss Daisy, 1989), New-Zealand-born Jane Campion (Sweetie, 1990; The Piano, 1993), George Miller (the Mad Max
series; Man from Snowy River, 1982), Fred Schepisi (The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith, 1978; Six Degrees of Separation, 1994), and Peter Weir (Picnic at Hanging Rock, 1975; Dead Poet's Society, 1989) have won international acclaim. _^<N__^<N_In the
1880s, Louis Buvelot and Tom Roberts helped shape a distinctive Australian style of landscape painting that emphasized the quality of local light. More contemporary artists, including William Dobell, Russell Drysdale, Sidney NOLAN, Arthur Boyd, and
Fred Williams, often fused modernist ideas with indigenous themes. Attempts are also being made to revive and preserve Aboriginal arts (see OCEANIA, ART OF). _^<N__^<N_ ECONOMY_^<N__^<N_Australia has a well-diversified economy. Although the country
is one of the world's leading exporters of agricultural products, manufacturing and mining are also extremely important economically. Gold rushes in the mid-1800s encouraged immigration and exploration of the Outback, and the silver-lead-zinc lode
discovered at Broken Hill, New South Wales, in 1883 remains a major source of production. Most of Australia's mineral production, however, dates from 1960 or later. _^<N__^<N_ Agriculture_^<N__^<N_Arable land amounts to only 6 percent of the
continent's area, while about 58 percent is in pasture used mainly for low-intensity grazing by cattle and sheep. The arable land, 80 percent of which is under cultivation, is confined to the nation's humid and subhumid areas located in the
southwestern corner of the continent and in a narrow fringe extending inland (no more than 250 km/155 mi) from the southeastern and eastern coastlands between Cairns in the north and Adelaide in the south. The lands used for pasture are
concentrated in the generally drier parts of the continent, some 25 percent of all Australia being occupied by 16,000 ranches, or stations, averaging 30,000 ha (75,000 acres) in extent. _^<N__^<N_Australia is an important producer and exporter of
agricultural products. It leads the world in wool production and is also an important supplier of wheat, other cereals, dairy produce, meat, sugar, and fruit. Australia's sheep constitute about 12 percent of the world's total sheep population and
yield about 25 percent of the world's wool as well as substantial quantities of mutton and lamb. Wheat, the chief crop, occupies nearly 70 percent of all cultivated land and is grown in almost all the states. Sugar is grown in the subtropical areas
of coastal Queensland and New South Wales. The major fruit products include berries, grapes, apples, bananas, and pineapples. _^<N__^<N_ Forestry and Fishing_^<N__^<N_Potentially productive forests and woodlands cover less than 6 percent of all
land. About two-thirds are occupied by eucalyptus, a strong, durable wood suitable for building and packaging. Only a small area is occupied by commercial plantations of pines and other conifers from the Northern Hemisphere, established to provide
the softwoods that are unavailable in Australia's natural forests. _^<N__^<N_Fisheries are limited, primarily because of the lack of mingling of ocean currents over the extensive continental shelves. The most important fish, by value, are prawns,
rock lobster, tuna, and salmon. _^<N__^<N_ Manufacturing and Industry_^<N__^<N_Australia is one of the world's most industrialized nations. The most industrialized states are New South Wales and Victoria. Western Australia and the Northern
Territory are the least industrialized areas. _^<N__^<N_Food processing is the leading industry, in terms of both value and employment. This reflects the continuing importance of processing Australia's traditional meat and wheat exports and the
growing importance of wine production, freezing, canning, and other forms of food processing. Second in importance is metallurgy, and third is the manufacture of chemical, petroleum, and coal products. Basic steel production is centered at
Newcastle, Port Kembla, and Whyalla; Australia also produces specialized steels, aluminum, and refined copper, lead, zinc, and tin. Fourth in value, and associated with the machine and metallurgical industries, is the manufacture of automobiles,
aircraft, ships, and other forms of transportation equipment. Other important industries include the manufacture of machinery, wood and wood products, textiles, clothing, and footwear. _^<N__^<N_A persistent problem is the limited domestic market
and remoteness of overseas markets. Partial mitigation is provided by tariff protection, although trade barriers with New Zealand were abolished in 1990. _^<N__^<N_ Power_^<N__^<N_Power is supplied by black coal, brown coal, hydroelectric
installations, petroleum, and natural gas. Total production from all sources amounted to 154.6 billion kW h in 1990, nearly 40 percent of which was generated and used in New South Wales. _^<N__^<N_Coal, supplemented by natural gas in South
Australia and Victoria and by oil in Western Australia, produced 89 percent of total electricity; hydroelectric installations, about 11 percent. The largest hydroelectric installation, producing about 5 billion kW h annually, is the Snowy Mountains
Hydroelectric Scheme in southeastern New South Wales, a multipurpose power and irrigation project that diverts water into headwaters of the Murray River drainage basin. Tasmania, with approximately 50 percent of Australia's total hydroelectric
potential, depends wholly on hydroelectricity; a back-up oil-fired plant is available for use in extended periods of drought. In addition to its other energy sources, Australia is well to the forefront in pioneering the use of solar energy,
especially for desalting artesian-well water and for domestic use. _^<N__^<N_ Transportation_^<N__^<N_Most of Australia's network of railroad tracks is owned and operated by Australia National, a federal authority, and by various state authorities.
Most of the railroad lines are concentrated near the coast and radiate inland from the major ports. Reflecting the early development of the states as separate colonies, those in Queensland, Western Australia, and Tasmania operate on narrow-gauge
tracks, those in Victoria and South Australia on broad-gauge tracks. Railroad lines cross state lines at only nine points, and at two of them transshipment from one gauge to another is required. Transcontinental routes, which have been converted to
standard gauge only since 1969, connect Townsville with Melbourne and Sydney with Perth, and all state capitals are now linked by standard-gauge tracks. _^<N__^<N_About 36 percent of Australia's roads are paved. Included in this total are national
highways that connect the state capitals and also link them and the Northern Territory with Canberra and the Australian Capital Territory. Traffic congestion is greatest in the large coastal cities where most of the nation's 7.7 million automobiles
and 2.1 million trucks and buses (1990) are, like the population, concentrated. _^<N__^<N_Air transportation is important in so large a country. There are six private domestic airlines and one government-owned international airline, Qantas. Most
ranches also have their own aircraft and airstrips. _^<N__^<N_ Trade_^<N__^<N_Internal trade is dominated by the two most populous states, New South Wales (mainly Sydney) and Victoria (mainly Melbourne). _^<N__^<N_Nearly three-fourths of all
foreign trade exports are primary products. Australia leads the world in wool exports and also ranks high among the world's leading exporters of meat, wheat, bauxite, lead, and iron ore. Coal exports are also significant. About 44 percent of all
imports are machinery and transportation equipment. In the mid-1980s, depressed commodity prices contributed to a balance-of-trade deficit and a substantial foreign debt. About 2.6 million tourists visited Australia in 1992, and tourism has become
an important source of foreign exchange. _^<N__^<N_Notable changes occurred in the direction of trade during the post-World War II era. Exports to the United Kingdom, which had taken 50 percent of all Australian exports before World War II, fell to
20 percent in 1965 and to only 3.4 percent in 1991. Conversely, Australia's trade with Japan and the United States increased dramatically, those two countries accounting for 39 percent of all exports and 42 percent of all imports in 1991. In recent
years, Australia has worked to strengthen its links with the Asia-Pacific region; it initiated the formation of the ASIA-PACIFIC ECONOMIC COOPERATION group. _^<N__^<N_ GOVERNMENT_^<N__^<N_The Commonwealth of Australia is a fully independent member
of the Commonwealth of Nations. The Australian constitution (1901) resembles that of the United States in that it establishes a federal form of government; the powers of the Commonwealth are specified, leaving residual powers to the states.
_^<N__^<N_Supreme executive powers (although more ceremonial than actual) rest in the British monarch, represented in Australia by the governor-general and in each of the six states by a governor. These officials are appointed by the British
monarch, but the government in 1993 proposed making Australia a republic, severing its ties to the British crown by the year 2001. _^<N__^<N_Legislative power rests with the Parliament of Australia, which consists of an upper house, the Senate, and
the House of Representatives. The leader of the majority party in the House is named prime minister and appoints a cabinet from members of the Senate and House. _^<N__^<N_The Senate consists of ten senators from each state and two from each
territory, each elected for 6-year terms. The number of representatives is proportional to the populations of the states and territories, and House elections are held at least once every three years. Members of Parliament are elected by universal
adult suffrage, and voting is compulsory. _^<N__^<N_The principal political parties are the Australian Labor party, the Liberal party, and the National Country party. The latter two, in coalition, were the dominant parties through most of the
period since World War II. Labor, however, was in power in 1972-75 and returned to office under Robert HAWKE in 1983. In 1991, Hawke lost a struggle for party leadership and was replaced by Paul KEATING, who remained prime minister following the
March 1993 elections. _^<N__^<N_The organization of the state governments is similar to that of the Commonwealth. Each state has an appointed governor, an elected premier, and a legislature. State governments are responsible for education, health,
public utilities, justice, and transportation. Since 1974 both the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory have had elected legislative assemblies. _^<N__^<N_George Dury _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: GEOGRAPHY: Burt, J., Australia (1989);
Carter, P., The Road to Botany Bay: An Exploration of Landscape and History (1989); Jeans, D. N., ed., Australia: A Geography (1977); Tooley, R. V., The Mapping of Australia (1980); Vandenbeld, J., The Nature of Australia (1988). _^<N__^<N_ANIMAL
LIFE: Cayley, N. W., What Bird Is That: A Guide to the Birds of Australia, 5th ed., rev. and enl. by A. H. Chisholm et al. (1968); Ride, W. D. L., A Guide to the Native Mammals of Australia (1970). _^<N__^<N_PEOPLES: Bottomley, G., From Another
Place: Migration and the Politics of Culture (1992); Jupp, J., ed., The Challenge of Diversity (1990); Lane, T., Australians at Home (1991); Rickard, J., Australia: A Cultural History (1988); Terrill, R., The Australians (1987).
_^<N__^<N_ECONOMICS: Chapman, B., ed., Australian Economic Growth (1989); Hefford, R., et al., An Introduction to the Australian Economy, 2d ed. (1987); Jackson, D., The Australian Economy (1989). _^<N__^<N_GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS: Brugger, B., and
Jaensch, D., Australian Politics (1986); Howard, M. C., ed., Whitefella Business: Aborigines in Australian Politics (1978); Hughes, C. A., ed., A Handbook of Australian Government and Politics, 1975-84 (1987); McMinn, W. G., A Constitutional
History of Australia (1979); Pilger, J., A Secret Country: The Hidden Australia (1992); Rowley, C. D., Recovery: The Politics of Aboriginal Reform (1986); Whitlam, Gough, A Pacific Community (1981). _^<N__^<N_
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000669| PENAL AND FREE COLONIES
005352| FEDERATION
009315| AFTER WORLD WAR II
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Australia, history of_^<N__^<N_The original inhabitants of Australia probably reached that continent from Southeast Asia by way of Indonesia approximately 12,000 years ago. The ABORIGINES were seminomadic hunter-gatherers, a way of life many of
their descendants still follow today in the Outback. When discovered in 1642 by the Dutch navigator Abel TASMAN, the Aborigines were a Paleolithic people sustaining a meager livelihood in their vast, arid continent. They remained undisturbed until
rediscovered in 1770 by Capt. James COOK, aboard the Endeavour, who charted a portion of the coastline and took possession of the eastern half of Australia for Britain on his first voyage around the world. _^<N__^<N_ PENAL AND FREE
COLONIES_^<N__^<N_The annexation was timely, because the British government soon began looking for an alternative penal settlement to the North American colonies that it lost in the American Revolution. Accordingly, Capt. Arthur PHILLIP was sent to
establish a penal colony at BOTANY BAY. Landing on Jan. 26, 1788, Phillip actually built the settlement on the better site of Port Jackson (later SYDNEY). He also opened a second post for transported convicts on Norfolk Island. In 1803, to
forestall French designs, a further penal extension was made in Van Diemen's Land (TASMANIA). The early years were ones of great hardship and near starvation. _^<N__^<N_Australia was spared from being no more than a penal settlement by the
introduction of fine wool sheep and the opening up of the western plains of NEW SOUTH WALES. British policy broadened to allow emancipists (freed convicts), discharged prison guards, and free migrants to take up land. By the 1830s they had spilled
over from Van Diemen's Land to the mainland to found the free settlement of VICTORIA, which became a separate colony in 1851. Meanwhile, in 1829 the convict-free British colony of WESTERN AUSTRALIA was established on the Swan River and was rescued
from mismanagement by the British government a few years later. In 1836 the colony of SOUTH AUSTRALIA was formed on the principles of systematic colonization advocated by Edward Gibbon WAKEFIELD. It, too, fell into chaos and was saved only by
official intervention and the stringent economies of Gov. George GREY. Prosperity was later assured by the introduction of wheat and a locally invented harvester. _^<N__^<N_In 1825 an expanding New South Wales established a separate penal colony at
Moreton Bay (BRISBANE); this became the capital of the new colony of QUEENSLAND in 1859. Squatters (illegal occupants of land) also opened up the Darling Downs in western New South Wales. By 1844 the free settlers of New South Wales forced the
British to stop sending convicts. However, transportation to other penal colonies continued. _^<N__^<N_Apart from the widely separated colonies around its coasts, little was known of Australia until its interior began to be explored, especially
after 1840. From then to the end of the century, many intrepid explorers such as Robert O'Hara BURKE, Edward John EYRE, John FORREST, John McDouall STUART, Charles STURT, Thomas Livingstone Mitchell (1792-1855), and Ludwig Leichhardt (1813-48)
trekked inland, often with camels, only to discover its barren, inhospitable, even forbidding nature. They found little to induce settlement beyond the eastern seaboard. _^<N__^<N_The discovery of gold in the 1850s, however, did lead to new
settlement, as mining towns sprang up in New South Wales and Victoria. It also produced conflict--sometimes erupting into violence as in the miners' rebellion at Eureka, Victoria, in 1854--between the overbearing authoritarianism of the colonial
governments and the radical political demands of the thousands of gold seekers from North America, the British Isles, and New Zealand. Consequently, empowered by the Australian Colonies Government Act of 1850, all colonies, except Western
Australia, adopted representative and responsible forms of government by 1860. _^<N__^<N_This development accentuated separatism and parochialism as each colony adopted different railway gauges and tariff policies, making intercolonial
communication and trade difficult. Common to all, however, was a growing demand by settlers and newcomers for land. This was often frustrated, not only by the intractable nature of the country, but also by the malpractices of squatters. However,
employer-employee antagonism and a series of bitterly fought strikes in the growing industrial sector, prolonged drought, and the failure of many banks in the early 1890s ended an era of prodigal expenditure of men and money. Only Western
Australia, through a timely discovery of gold at Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie, escaped the economic depression of the 1890s. _^<N__^<N_None suffered so grievously in these colonial years as did the Aborigines. Treated almost as animals, they were
hunted down for preying on settlers' sheep and cattle. They were virtually annihilated in Van Diemen's Land and nearly so in Queensland. _^<N__^<N_Preoccupation with domestic problems, however, did not blind the eastern colonies to French and
German activities in the South Pacific and more especially to the consequences of importation of cheap labor to replace freed convicts. The influx of thousands of Chinese to the gold fields to work for much less than standard wages gave rise to the
alarmist cry of "Yellow peril" and a demand by the labor unions for a "White Australia" policy to exclude Asians. _^<N__^<N_ FEDERATION_^<N__^<N_Common dangers from without and problems of division within fostered growing recognition of the need
for colonial union. After several intercolonial conventions, New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, and Western Australia federated in 1901 in the Commonwealth of Australia. The newly created NORTHERN TERRITORY entered in
1911. The constitution provided for an elected Senate (Upper House) and House of Representatives with specified powers and left the residual powers to the states. With its capital first in Melbourne and later transferred (1927) to CANBERRA, the
Commonwealth gave the former colonies what they wanted--union--but not unity. _^<N__^<N_The federal government quickly put into law (1901) the White Australia policy, thereby causing the repatriation of Pacific Islanders (Kanakas) employed in the
Queensland sugarcane fields. It also established a common tariff policy, the Commonwealth Court of Conciliation and Arbitration (1904) for industrial arbitration, and the Commonwealth Bank of Australia (1911). At the same time a growing sense of
independence from Britain was reflected in the creation (1909) of a separate navy and the institution of compulsory military training. _^<N__^<N_At the outbreak of World War I, Prime Minister William M. HUGHES pledged full support to Britain but
failed to obtain referendum approval of conscription. Overseas Australian "diggers" served with distinction, especially in the ill-fated GALLIPOLI CAMPAIGN. Its sense of nationhood intensified by the war, Australia secured separate representation
at the PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE (1919-20) and independent membership in the LEAGUE OF NATIONS. The league granted Australia a mandate over the former German New Guinea and a share in another mandate over the phosphate island of NAURU. _^<N__^<N_At
home, wartime demands had led to the development of heavy industries in the eastern states. In spite of labor troubles, with a flood of lockouts and strikes, the immediate postwar years were prosperous. High export prices for Australian wool,
wheat, and meat supported large-scale public works and the absorption of 300,000 migrants into the work force. The federal government attempted to develop the Northern Territory, while the individual states promoted their separate development. In
the 1930s Western Australia even indulged in a short-lived secession movement, and in New South Wales and Queensland abortive "new state" movements appeared. _^<N__^<N_But with a deterioration in trading conditions resulting from the worldwide
DEPRESSION OF THE 1930S, centralist tendencies prevailed. The states looked to the federal government, which in 1928 had taken over their debts. All the governments adopted stringent deflationary policies. With a high level of unemployment,
Australia sought desperately for new markets, which the Imperial Economic Conference at Ottawa (1932) only partly supplied. _^<N__^<N_By trial and error Australia was struggling out of the depression when war threatened in Europe. When World War II
broke out in September 1939, the federal government offered Britain every assistance and mobilized its resources of people and materials. To aid the war effort, the states surrendered their taxing rights to the federal government and even refused
to take them back after the war. _^<N__^<N_Soon after Australia entered the war, the Federal Labor party under John CURTIN came to power. He guided the country through the war with great skill and determination. After the fall (Feb. 15, 1942) of
the British naval base at Singapore to the Japanese and the consequent loss of 22,000 Australian troops as prisoners of war, Curtin insisted upon the return of troops from the Middle East to defend Australia and to assist the American forces
stationed in Australia under Gen. Douglas MACARTHUR in their drive back through the Pacific islands to Japan. But it was undoubtedly the supremacy of the U.S. Navy in the Pacific that saved Australia from Japanese occupation. _^<N__^<N_ AFTER WORLD
WAR II_^<N__^<N_After the war, liberal reconstruction programs, which had been begun before the war ended, were extended to include land settlement as well as full employment and education for all ex-servicemen. In 1948, Labor Prime Minister Joseph
Benedict CHIFLEY, having failed to nationalize trading banks and control rents and prices, abandoned all economic controls and introduced large-scale social welfare measures. Of great and lasting significance was the adoption (1946) by the federal
government of a bold program to finance immigration to the country. As a result, over 4 million new Australians, nearly half from continental Europe, diversified and enriched the social life of the big cities especially and brought the population
to more than 14.2 million by 1978. Beginning in 1956, the federal government also modified its White Australia policy to one of restricted immigration of Asians. _^<N__^<N_From 1949 to 1972 the government was a Liberal-Country party coalition, led
until 1966 by Robert G. MENZIES. This government initiated an extensive water conservation and hydroelectric venture in the Snowy Mountains of New South Wales, involving three states and taking more than 20 years to complete. Of even greater
consequence for the Australian economy were the rich mineral discoveries. Silver, lead, and copper had long replaced gold as a major source of wealth, but in the 1960s the opening up of almost limitless supplies of iron ore in Western Australia, as
well as nickel in Western Australia and bauxite (aluminum) in northern Queensland, changed the pattern of the economy and made Japan Australia's chief export market instead of Britain. The discovery of oil more recently and of natural gas in the
Bass Strait is making Australia largely independent of overseas supplies. _^<N__^<N_Meanwhile, in 1972 the Labor party returned to power in Canberra with Gough WHITLAM as prime minister. However, Whitlam's attempt to speed up the economic
development of the country through large foreign loans resulted in the dramatic downfall of his ministry. In his eagerness to do too much too quickly, he spent lavishly and was accused of irregularities in his loan borrowing. A hostile Senate
refused to approve his budget and thus made it impossible for him to govern. In December 1975, in an unprecedented and much criticized move, Gov. Gen. Sir John KERR dismissed Whitlam and dissolved both houses of Parliament. In the following
elections the Liberal-Country party was easily returned to power under J. Malcolm FRASER, but economic problems triggered by a worldwide recession lost his government popular support. In 1983 it was replaced by a Labor government under Robert
HAWKE, who remained in office after elections in 1984, 1987, and 1990. In December 1991, Hawke was replaced by Paul KEATING. Keating, who remained prime minister after the March 1993 elections, proposed making Australia a republic and severing ties
to the British crown. _^<N__^<N_Although the state governments have successfully resisted direct attempts by Labor especially to reduce their powers, their rights have been gradually, if subtly, eroded through encroachment by the federal
government. With funds provided annually by the federal treasurer, they jealously exercise what powers they still have, especially those of education. _^<N__^<N_In keeping with its egalitarian philosophy, the Labor government established a
universal contributory system of social security and a voluntary health-insurance plan (Medibank). More significantly, it extended these programs to include the Aborigines, over whom the nation's conscience has become increasingly sensitive. The
federal government has also granted Aborigines the vote and social benefits, but it is still uncertain as to how best to treat Australia's indigenous people. _^<N__^<N_In international affairs Australia has since World War II become acutely aware
of its position and responsibilities. Having shed all its traditional ties with Britain, including (in 1986) that of limited appeal to the British privy council, it has become vigorously assertive of its newfound independence. It granted
independence to Papua New Guinea in 1975 and plays an active role in Asian and Pacific affairs. Australia has defense links with the United States (see ANZUS TREATY) and New Zealand. It also signed (1986) a treaty to establish a nuclear-free zone
in the South Pacific. In January 1988 the country celebrated its bicentennial. _^<N__^<N_E. J. Tapp _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bassett, J., ed., The Oxford Dictionary of Australian History (1987); Boulton, G., et al., eds., The Oxford Dictionary of
Australia, 6 vols. (1987-90); Clark, M., A Short History of Australia (1964; repr. 1987); Craven, G., Australian Federation (1991); Davidson, A., The Invisible State (1991); Evans, G., and Grant, B., Australia's Foreign Relations (1991); Harris,
A., Settlers and Convicts, rev. ed. (1969); Hughes, R., The Fatal Shore (1987; repr. 1988); Keneally, T., et al., Australia (1987); Powell, J. M., An Historical Geography of Modern Australia (1988; repr. 1991).
-END-
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862
CAT
-A-
Australia, Church of England in
-T-
Australia, Church of England in_^<N__^<N_The Church of England in Australia belongs to the worldwide ANGLICAN COMMUNION, which comprises autonomous national churches bound by mutual loyalty to the ancient see of Canterbury and to the beliefs and
tradition of worship of the Church of England. About 4.3 million Anglicans live in Australia. The Church of England in Australia has no legal ties to either the Australian government or the British crown. _^<N__^<N_In 1788 a chaplain accompanying a
shipload of convicts to establish a penal colony performed the first Anglican service on Australian soil. The first church opened in 1793. The church was originally under the control of the bishop of London. In 1824 the Australian colony became an
archdeaconry, and in 1836 it was given the status of a separate see. The name Church of England in Australia was formally adopted in 1962.
-END-
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317
CAT
-A-
Australia Day
-T-
Australia Day_^<N__^<N_Australia Day is an Australian national holiday honoring the country's founder Capt. Arthur PHILLIP, who landed at what is now the city of Sydney on Jan. 26, 1788. The holiday was known as Victoria Day from 1890 to 1934; the
name was changed in 1935. It is celebrated on the Monday following January 26.
-END-
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548
CAT
-A-
Australian Capital Territory
-T-
Australian Capital Territory_^<N__^<N_The Australian Capital Territory, carved out of southeastern New South Wales in two steps (1911 and 1915), contains the national capital, CANBERRA. The terrain consists of rolling grasslands called the Canberra
Basin and is ringed by the Australian Alps. It covers 2,400 sq km (927 sq mi). The elevation of the basin is about 580 m (1,900 ft). Nearly all the residents live in Canberra, which has a population of 288,000 (1991). Parliament moved from
Melbourne to carefully planned Canberra in 1927. _^<N__^<N_Calvin Wilvert
-END-
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570
CAT
-A-
Australian cattle dog
-T-
Australian cattle dog_^<N__^<N_The Australian cattle dog is a strong, agile herding dog developed in Australia in the mid-1800s. The breed was officially recognized by the American Kennel Club in 1980. Australian cattle dogs stand about 43 to 51 cm
(17 to 20 in) at the withers and weigh about 16 kg (35 lb). They have broad skulls, erect ears, low-set bushy tails, and short, straight, dense coats. Puppies are born white; adults can be either blue or red-speckled, and blues sometimes have
black and tan markings. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Robertson, N., Australian Cattle Dogs (1990).
-END-
-C-
749
CAT
-A-
Australian External Territories
-T-
Australian External Territories_^<N__^<N_The Australian External Territories consist of a collection of islands and Antarctic lands administered by Australia. They differ greatly in climate, population, and physical environment. The islands include
CHRISTMAS ISLAND, the COCOS ISLANDS (which voted for union with Australia in 1984), NORFOLK ISLAND, the tropical Coral Sea Islands Territory, and the uninhabited HEARD ISLAND AND THE MCDONALD ISLANDS in the subantarctic south Indian Ocean. The
Australian Antarctic Territory, formed in 1933, includes all lands (except a portion claimed by France) below 60 deg south latitude and between 160 deg and 45 deg east longitude. The total area is 6,200,000 sq km (2,400,000 sq mi); there is no
permanent population.
-END-
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669
CAT
-A-
Australian frilled lizard
-T-
Australian frilled lizard_^<N__^<N_The Australian frilled lizard, Chlamydosaurus kingi, of the family Agamidae, occurs in northern Australia and New Guinea. It has a large frill that is normally folded back over the shoulders. When the lizard is
threatened, it opens its mouth and brings the frill forward in umbrellalike fashion, which greatly increases the apparent size of its head. In a 20-cm (8-in) adult, for example, the frill may be 18 cm (7 in) across. This defensive action, coupled
with the bright yellow, scarlet, and blue colors of the frill, intimidates enemies and allows the lizard to escape. It can run bipedally, with the forelegs and tail held off the ground.
-END-
-C-
7041
CATO
4780
-A-
Australian literature
-O-
000000|Australian literature
000691| Colonial Period
002151| Nationalist Period
002977| Modern Period
004105| Contemporary Period
-T-
Australian literature_^<N__^<N_Written Australian literature in the English language began about 50 years after the Europeans arrived on the continent in 1788. Long before then, the Aboriginal inhabitants had a rich and varied oral tradition, much
of which is now lost. In their songs and tales, they celebrated the mythical "dreamtime." _^<N__^<N_For the first decades after European settlement, transported convicts predominated, and they created out of their new circumstances a wealth of
songs and ballads based upon English and Irish models. Formal writers also sought to reconcile their experiences in the strange new world with the familiar traditions of the old. Slowly, a distinctive regional body of works developed. _^<N__^<N_
Colonial Period_^<N__^<N_Most formal poetry and fiction of the late 18th and the 19th centuries drew upon models from outside Australia, and much of it was aimed at a European audience. It frequently expressed surprise or alarm at local flora and
fauna and emphasized or exaggerated the uniqueness of things Australian, especially bushfires, hostile Aborigines, and escaped convicts. Henry Kingsley spent five years in Australia and inaugurated Australian prose with The Recollections of
Geoffry Hamlyn in 1859. It avoids the air of a guidebook while transplanting English social customs and aspirations to an Australian setting. The best early Australian novel, For the Term of His Natural Life (1874), by Marcus Clarke, is a
detailed account of convict life, based on historical records. The convict theme has remained an important one. _^<N__^<N_Colonial poets such as Charles Harpur and Henry Kendall also sought to marry the traditions of English literature (especially
nature poetry) with the varied local scene, but their efforts were frequently awkward and unsuccessful. By the end of the 19th century the colonial phase was drawing to a close. Writers were becoming more individual and less self-conscious of
their environment. Population growth meant a sustained local readership and the development of indigenous publishing. Magazines such as the Sydney Bulletin, founded in 1880, published short stories and poems especially those dealing with country
life. _^<N__^<N_ Nationalist Period_^<N__^<N_The political nationalism at the end of the 19th century, leading to the establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901, was reflected in the literature. It sought to isolate and depict
typically Australian qualities and character traits. Special emphasis was placed upon egalitarianism, loneliness, individualism, and pragmatic materialism. The short stories of Henry LAWSON and Barbara Baynton, the verse of Lawson and A. B.
"Banjo" PATERSON, and the novels of Tom COLLINS (pseudonym of Joseph Furphy), and Miles FRANKLIN were important in this nationalist phase of development. The most popular novel of the time, Robbery Under Arms (1880), by Rolf Boldrewood (pseudonym
of Thomas Alexander BROWNE), was more a product of the earlier period, however, emphasizing the exploits of BUSHRANGERS. _^<N__^<N_ Modern Period_^<N__^<N_The works of Christopher BRENNAN, who began publishing poetry about the turn of the century,
mark a significant shift in development. Until then, Australian writers had been either expatriate Britons or locals unfamiliar with developments in literature elsewhere. Brennan had lived in Europe for several years and was familiar with current
literary innovation and experimentation, especially French symbolism. His work introduced a note of cosmopolitan sophistication into Australian literature and made local writers aware of modernist work overseas. _^<N__^<N_Other notable writers,
such as Henry Handel RICHARDSON, (pseudonym of Ethel Florence Richardson), Vance Palmer, Martin Boyd, and Christina STEAD also spent time abroad. In fact, all but Palmer lived outside Australia during most of their careers. Even with this
widening of scope, however, the major themes and styles of Australian writers during the modern period remained those of the nationalist phase. It was not until after World War II that Australian literature ceased to be slightly old-fashioned and
parochial in its basic concerns and attitudes. _^<N__^<N_ Contemporary Period_^<N__^<N_The return of the novelist Patrick WHITE from 20 years in Europe was a major event in the rise of a strong and identifiable national literature. His
international reputation--he was the first Australian to win the Nobel Prize for literature (1972)--continued to grow as his novels, which drew upon traditional local themes, explored universal issues of suffering and success. His interests and
achievements--especially in the best-selling The Tree of Man (1955) and Voss (1957)--have had a considerable impact upon other writers. Thomas Keneally's The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith (1972), in particular, owes a debt to White, although
Keneally's later work--Schindler's List, for example, which takes place in World War II Germany and won the 1982 British Booker Prize--ranges widely in space and time. _^<N__^<N_Such poets as James MCAULEY, Judith WRIGHT, and Peter Porter have also
established reputations in and beyond Australia. The internationally acclaimed Summer of the Seventeenth Doll (1955), a play by Ray LAWLER, marked the true beginning of an Australian drama of international stature. _^<N__^<N_Among women writers
now well known, Colleen McCullough has captured legions of admirers with her epic of the Australian outback, The Thorn Birds (1977). Long-time novelist Janet Frame continues to publish internationally, as do more recent if less-known women writers
Dorothy Hewett, Thea Astley--three of whose novels have won the Miles Franklin Award--and Elizabeth Jolley. Germaine GREER heads the list of contemporary feminist critics and essayists. _^<N__^<N_Poets David Malouf and Rodney Hall have both
created international audiences for their works in prose, Malouf for several novels including his brilliant evocation of a primitive time in An Imaginary Life (1978) and the contemporary Harland's Half Acre (1984), and Hall for his huge,
encyclopedic novel Just Relations (1983). _^<N__^<N_Leon Cantrell _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Cantrell, Leon, ed., Bards, Bohemians, and Bookmen: Essays in Australian Literature (1976); Carroll, Dennis, Australian Contemporary Drama 1909-1982
(1985); Dutton, Geoffrey, ed., The Literature of Australia, 2d ed. (1976); Goodwin, Kenneth, A History of Australian Literature (1986); Green, H. M., A History of Australian Literature, Pure and Applied (1961); Hadgraft, Cecil, Australian
Literature: A Critical Account to 1955 (1960); Heseltine, H. P., The Penguin Book of Australian Short Stories (1976) and The Penguin Book of Australian Verse (1972); Johnston, Grahame, Annals of Australian Literature (1970); Jones, Joseph, and
Jones, Johanne, Australian Fiction (1983); Kramer, Leonie, ed., The Oxford History of Australian Literature (1981); Kramer, Leonie, and Mitchell, Adrian, eds., The Oxford Anthology of Australian Literature (1985); McAuley, James, ed., A Map of
Australian Verse (1975); Wilde, William H., et al., The Oxford Companion to Australian Literature (1986).
-END-
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941
CAT
-A-
Australian mudnest builder
-T-
Australian mudnest builder_^<N__^<N_The Australian mudnest builders comprise four species of the bird family Grallinidae: the magpie lark, or mudlark, Grallina cyanoleuca; the torrent lark, G. bruijni, of New Guinea; the white-winged chough,
Corcorax melanorhamphus; and the apostle-bird, Struthidea cinerea. All four species build bowl-shaped mud nests high in trees and line them with feathers and grass; the white-winged choughs and apostle-birds build their nests communally.
_^<N__^<N_Mudnest builders range in length from 19 to 50 cm (7.5 to 20 in). They are not strong fliers and usually jump from limb to limb. Feather colors range from black and white in the magpie lark and white-winged chough to bluish gray in the
apostle-bird. All eat insects; the magpie lark also eats water snails, the white-winged chough is omnivorous, and the apostle-bird also eats seeds. The Grallinidae belong to the order Passeriformes, suborder Passeres. _^<N__^<N_Robert J. Raikow
-END-
-C-
720
CAT
-A-
Australian National Radio Astronomy Observatory
-T-
Australian National Radio Astronomy Observatory_^<N__^<N_The Australian National Radio Astronomy Observatory became, in 1971, the first observatory to detect the organic molecules thioformaldehyde and formaldimine in interstellar space. It is
located near Parkes, New South Wales, 300 km (200 mi) west of Sydney. Its 64-m (210-ft) "dish" radio-antenna, commissioned in 1961, was intended to work at a wavelength of 21 cm. Improvements made in the 1970s, however, permit operation at
wavelengths as short as 1.35 cm. Because an equatorial mounting for such a large instrument would be unwieldy, the dish sits on a altazimuth mounting and is aimed and guided by computer. _^<N__^<N_Norman Sperling _^<N__^<N_See also: RADIO
ASTRONOMY; RADIO TELESCOPE.
-END-
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684
CAT
-A-
Australian shepherd
-T-
Australian shepherd_^<N__^<N_The Australian shepherd probably originated in the Pyrenees of Europe but became known as the Australian shepherd because of its association with Basque shepherds who came to the United States from Australia in the
1800s. Today's "Aussie" was developed as a utilitarian farm dog in the United States and was admitted to the herding group by the American Kennel Club in 1993. Males stand 50.8-58.4 cm (20-23 in) at the shoulder; females are slightly smaller. The
straight to wavy coat is black, blue merle, red, or red merle and may have white markings or tan points; the tail is docked or naturally bobbed. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hartnagle, J., Australian Shepherds (1990).
-END-
-C-
989
CAT
-A-
Australian terrier
-T-
Australian terrier_^<N__^<N_The Australian terrier is one of the small terriers, standing 25 cm (10 in) at the shoulder and weighing 5.4-6.3 kg (12-14 lb). The rough coat is usually blue-black or silver-black with rich red markings on head and legs.
Like that of many terriers, its coat is double; the harsh, straight outer one is about 7 cm (2.5 in) long evenly over the body, and the undercoat is short and soft. Ears and tail are erect. _^<N__^<N_The breed made its appearance in Australia in
the late 19th century, where early settlers interbred the terriers they had brought from England to create an all-purpose hardy little hunter. It is accepted that the cairn, Dandie Dinmont, Irish, Scottish, and Yorkshire terriers are among the
breed's progenitors. The breed was slow to gain recognition outside Australia. The Kennel Club in England recognized it in 1933, but the American Kennel Club did not do so until 1960. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Fox, Neil Nathan, How to Raise and Train
an Australian Terrier (1965).
-END-
-C-
541
CAT
-A-
Australian tree-creeper
-T-
Australian tree-creeper_^<N__^<N_The Australian tree-creeper family of birds, Climacteridae, order Passeriformes, suborder Passeres, contains six species. They are mainly Australian, but one species reaches New Guinea. About 15 cm (6 in) long, the
birds are mostly brown above and variously colored and streaked below. The bill is long and curved slightly downward, and the feet are strong. Tree-creepers are mainly solitary. They feed by creeping on tree trunks and larger branches, probing with
their bills for insects and spiders. _^<N__^<N_Robert J. Raikow
-END-
-C-
2357
CATO
-A-
Australian universities
-O-
000000|Australian universities
000331| University Organization
001722| Students
-T-
Australian universities_^<N__^<N_All 19 of Australia's universities are government operated. The states run 18 of them, and the federal government operates the Australian National University in Canberra, a national facility devoted to postgraduate
research. The country has more than 200 colleges or institutes of technology offering largely vocational courses. _^<N__^<N_ University Organization_^<N__^<N_Australian universities are clearly patterned after their British counterparts. A
university is typically governed by a council or senate that has considerable staff and student representation. The executive officer of the council is the vice-chancellor; he or she works closely with the chairman of the professorial or academic
board, who is elected by the senior academics. Departments usually have permanent heads and report to faculties. The faculties, in turn, report to the academic board through deans, who get their position usually by election rather than
appointment. _^<N__^<N_The title of professor is reserved for holders of special chairs, the highest ordinary academic rank being senior lecturer. Ranks are tutor, lecturer, senior lecturer, associate professor or reader, and professor. All
appointments except those of tutors are normally tenured. _^<N__^<N_Work for the bachelors degree is assessed by the departments, usually on the basis of written examinations, although continuous assessment is growing in popularity. Work for the
masters degree is assessed by faculties, and work for the doctorate by the professorial boards. Theses written for higher degrees are evaluated in whole or part by examiners from other universities. Some universities also have correspondence
programs. The Australian academic year normally runs from March through November. _^<N__^<N_ Students_^<N__^<N_Tuition is free, and living allowances support nearly 45 percent of all students. Despite this, the student population overrepresents
the upper classes. Nonetheless, the students remain clearly more to the political left than the Australian population as a whole. _^<N__^<N_William G. Walker _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Fielding, Anthony J., and Cavanaugh, D. M., Curriculum
Priorities in Australian Higher Education (1983); Walker, William G., "The University in Australia," in Universities for a Changing World, ed. by M. Stephens and G. Roderick (1975); Williams, Bruce, Systems of Higher Education: Australia (1978).
-END-
-C-
4751
CAT
-A-
Australopithecus
-T-
Australopithecus_^<N__^<N_{aws-truh-loh-pith'-uh-kuhs} _^<N__^<N_Australopithecus is a genus of extinct hominid (humanlike) fossils generally considered a possible evolutionary ancestor of modern humans. Australopithecus came to the attention of
the scientific world in 1924 when Raymond DART, a South African anatomy professor, was given the fossil skull of a young child, found at Taung, Cape Province, South Africa. Although the teeth were shaped differently from those of the apes and
resembled those of modern humans, the brain of the Taung child, even had it reached maturity, would have been no larger than that of a gorilla. Nevertheless, Dart believed he had found the remains of an ancient hominid and named it
Australopithecus africanus, the "southern ape of Africa." _^<N__^<N_Scientists, however, remained unconvinced of the hominid status of the australopithecines, as members of the Australopithecus genus are called, until the Scottish paleontologist
Robert Broom (1866-1951) discovered adult specimens similar to Dart's Taung child at STERKFONTEIN in the Transvaal. These fossils included pieces of the pelvis and thighbone and demonstrated that Australopithecus was an erect biped, one of the
most important attributes of a hominid. _^<N__^<N_The recovery of many additional Australopithecus specimens from a number of other South African sites led to the realization that more than one hominid species was represented. Two species,
Australopithecus africanus, the gracile australopithecine, and a larger, heavier form, A. robustus, are now known from the South African deposits. Although it is not possible to date these sites precisely, analyses of the animal bones found with
the hominids indicate that they lived some time between 3.5 million and 1.5 million years ago. _^<N__^<N_In 1959, at OLDUVAI GORGE, Tanzania, Mary LEAKEY discovered a fossil skull that belonged to a creature even more massive than the robust
australopithecines from South Africa. Originally called Zinjanthropus boisei, the specimen is now classified as Australopithecus boisei. Additional Australopithecus specimens have been found at other East African sites, including locations along
the eastern shore of Lake Turkana (Rudolf) in northern Kenya. Remains of a more ancient australopithecine, dubbed Lucy, were discovered by Donald Johanson in 1974 at Hadar, Ethiopia, and together with other fossilized bones found at both Hadar and
Laetoli, Tanzania, were called A. afarensis. Along with the fossil bones was discovered a remarkable series of footprints that clearly demonstrate the free-striding, fully upright gait of these creatures. Recent research, however, suggests that
A. afarensis may also have retained anatomical features adapted to arboreal life. A controversy ensued in 1985 when a fossil known as the "black skull" was found near Lake Turkana. On one side are the paleoanthropologists who place it in the
Australopithecus line as a precursor to A. bosei. Others have proposed that it represents a new species--Paranthropus, or "near man." The controversy remains unresolved. _^<N__^<N_At some of the East African sites, the remains of another kind of
creature, with more advanced features, have also been discovered. These fossils, placed in genus Homo, the same as modern humans, have made it difficult to understand fully the evolutionary relationships of Australopithecus. It seems clear that
the South African Australopithecus robustus and the East African A. boisei were specialized forms that became extinct around 1.5 to 1 million years ago. The question remains, however, whether the more gracile A. africanus was also an aberrant
form that ended in extinction or was the ancestor from which the more advanced members of the genus Homo evolved. The relationship of Australopithecus afarensis to the gracile and robust australopithecines is not clear at present, although it
seems reasonable that this species was a precursor to the gracile form. Johanson suggests that A. afarensis was the common ancestor to both australopithecines and humans and represents the missing link in human evolution. Stone pebble tools of
OLDOWAN type have been found at some sites; it is not known whether all or only the more advanced species of Australopithecus used these tools. _^<N__^<N_Alan Mann and Nancy Minugh _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Day, Michael H., Guide to Fossil Man, 4th
ed. (1986); Delson, Eric, ed., Ancestors: The Hard Evidence (1985); Edey, Maitland A., Blueprints: Solving the Mystery of Evolution (1989); Edey, M. A., and Johanson, Donald, Lucy: The Beginning of Humankind (1981); Leakey, Richard, and
Lewin, Roger, Origins (1977; repr. 1982); Rak, Yoel, The Australopithecine Face (1983); Reichs, K., Hominid Origins (1983). _^<N__^<N_See also: HOMO HABILIS; PREHISTORIC HUMANS.
-END-
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413
CAT
-A-
Austrasia
-T-
Austrasia_^<N__^<N_Austrasia was the eastern kingdom of the Frankish empire during the Merovingian period (6th-8th century). With its capital at Metz, it comprised northeastern France, the Low Countries, and western and southern Germany. Austrasia
was the home territory of the CAROLINGIANS, who rose to power as hereditary mayors of the palace in Austrasia and finally overthrew the MEROVINGIANS in 751. _^<N__^<N_See also: FRANKS.
-END-
-C-
22653
CATO
4787
9542
14311
19154
-A-
Austria
-O-
000000|Austria
001639| LAND AND RESOURCES
002958| Climate
003764| Drainage
004249| Vegetation and Animal Life
005170| Resources
005711| PEOPLE
006907| Education and Health
008172| ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
008190| Manufacturing and Industry
009158| Agriculture
009761| Forestry
009885| Transportation
010462| Trade
010881| GOVERNMENT
011818| HISTORY
-T-
Austria_^<N__^<N_Austria is a landlocked, mostly mountainous country of central Europe whose restricted size and role in world affairs today belie its historic significance. It is bordered to the west by Liechtenstein and Switzerland; to the north
by Germany and the Czech Republic; to the east by Hungary and Slovakia; and to the south by Italy and Slovenia. Its present boundaries and republican form of government, dating back to 1919, stem from defeat in World War I and the disintegration
of the once-vast, multinational Austro-Hungarian empire. _^<N__^<N_For centuries, Austria's command of vital east-west and north-south trade routes gave it both commercial and strategic importance. The DANUBE RIVER links Western and Eastern
Europe; north-south Alpine passes connect the country with the Mediterranean and the Balkans. Geographically and politically, Austria emerged in the 10th century as the eastern border state (the German name Osterreich means "eastern state") of the
HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE, which it served as a bulwark against invading Slavs and, later, against the Turks. From the late 13th century to the early 20th, Austria's fortunes were synonymous with those of the ruling HABSBURG dynasty, whose dynastic
ambitions made it the fulcrum of Europe. The capital city VIENNA, the Danube Valley, and the Hungarian Plain were the focal points throughout much of Austria's long history. _^<N__^<N_Conquered by Germany in 1938 and occupied by the Allies after
World War II, Austria has been a neutral state since 1955. It became a founding member of the European Free Trade Association in 1959 and formally applied to join the European Community in 1990. _^<N__^<N_ LAND AND RESOURCES_^<N__^<N_The Alps are
the dominant physical feature, covering all the narrow western part of the country and much of central and southern Austria as well, or 60,000 sq km (24,000 sq mi). They can be divided into three ranges: the Northern Alps and the Southern Alps,
composed of limestone, and the Central Alps, of crystalline rock. The highest peak, the Grossglockner (3,797 m/12,457 ft), stands in the Hohe Tauern range of the Central Alps. Average elevations decrease from west to east as these belts of
mountains fan out. The major ranges are separated by river valleys and depressions, such as the Klagenfurt Basin in south central Austria between the Karawanken and Carnic mountains. Passes such as the BRENNER, leading into Italy, and the
Semmering, in eastern Austria, facilitate communications. _^<N__^<N_To the north of the Alps lies the Danube Valley, which is narrow in the west and broadens at Vienna into the Hungarian Plain. Both these regions contain rich loess and alluvial
soils, admirably suited to agriculture. Elevations in the valley vary from 365 m (1,200 ft) in the west to 185 m (600 ft) in the eastern plain. _^<N__^<N_The Bohemian Plateau, north of the Danube Valley, is a hilly upland area composed of granite
or covered by forest. Elevations here range from 350 to 900 m (1,150 to 2,950 ft). _^<N__^<N_ Climate_^<N__^<N_The climate of western and central Austria varies according to altitude, wind, and certain other mountain conditions but, except for a
higher incidence of rain, snow, or mist, is generally similar to the moderate Atlantic climates typical of Western Europe. The FOEHN, a warm, dry wind from the south, can set off avalanches when it thaws the snow too suddenly. Eastern Austria is
subject to a harsher continental climate, with cold winters, short moderate summers, and only a modest amount of precipitation. Minimum winter temperatures in four major Austrian cities range between -3.3 deg and 2.2. deg C (26 deg and 28 deg F);
summer maximums, between 17.8 deg and 20 deg C (64 deg and 68 deg F). These index locations receive between 635 and 990 mm (25 and 39 in) of precipitation annually. _^<N__^<N_ Drainage_^<N__^<N_The Danube, the country's only navigable river,
flows across northern Austria from west to east. Other major rivers of Austria include the INN, Enns, Mur, Murz, Salzach, and Drau (Drava). Picturesque finger lakes lie to the north and east of Salzburg and in the Klagenfurt Basin. Neusiedler
Lake in Burgenland, on the Hungarian border, with an area of 350 sq km (135 sq mi), is Austria's largest. Lake Constance in the extreme west is shared with Switzerland and Germany. _^<N__^<N_ Vegetation and Animal Life_^<N__^<N_The flora and fauna
once native to Austria have been reduced in number over the centuries. Deciduous trees, including beech, birch, and oak, are much in evidence at lower altitudes; higher up, a mixed forest predominates. In Alpine areas, conifers extend from 1,370
to 1,980 m (4,500 to 6,500 ft). Bare rocks and grass slopes continue to the snow line at 2,745-3,048 m (9,000-10,000 ft). Endangered Alpine wild flowers such as the edelweiss grow at the highest altitudes. _^<N__^<N_The boar, bear, wolf, and lynx
have disappeared, but red deer, chamois, marmot, and grouse still flourish in protected Alpine reserves. In the grassy flats of the Neusiedlersee reserve can be found refugee populations of the gray goose, white-tailed and spotted eagles, and
breeding colonies of spoonbill and purple and great white herons. In the village of Rust, white storks return annually to their chimney nests. _^<N__^<N_ Resources_^<N__^<N_Austria's greatest natural resource is its abundant waterpower, which
supplies two-thirds of its electrical energy. Much of the potential hydroelectric capacity, however, remains to be exploited. Timber is supplied by the forests that cover up to 40% of the country and are protected by strict conservation measures.
The most important mineral resources are magnesite (16% of the world's production); graphite; iron ore; lignite, a low-grade brown coal; and oil and natural gas. Copper, zinc, lead, and salt are also mined. _^<N__^<N_ PEOPLE_^<N__^<N_Austria
is basically Germanic in language and ethnic affiliation. The minorities include about 40,000 Croats, principally in Burgenland; about 70,000 Slovenes, concentrated in southern Carinthia; and small groups of Hungarians (about 11,000) and Czechs
(about 5,000). Within the German-speaking population, unmixed representatives are relatively rare, a result of the heterogeneous nature of the Holy Roman and Austro-Hungarian empires. Roman Catholicism is professed by 89% of the population.
About 6%, centered in the lowlands and the capital, are Protestants. A Jewish community of less than 20,000 is concentrated in Vienna. _^<N__^<N_The five largest cities in Austria--Vienna, GRAZ, LINZ, SALZBURG, and INNSBRUCK--are home to about a
third of the population. One in five lives in the capital itself. A marked population redistribution has occurred since World War II. The eastern provinces have either lost population or made only modest gains, whereas the three western
provinces--Vorarlberg, Tyrol, and Salzburg--have shown dramatic increases. Urban areas continue to grow as the farm population leaves the upland valleys and as the tourist industry develops in the Alpine areas. _^<N__^<N_ Education and
Health_^<N__^<N_Austria's literacy rate of virtually 100% reflects a 200-year history of free and compulsory education. Children are required to attend school from age 6 through 15. The educational system provides the equivalent of eight years of
elementary school education for all students. Outside of rural areas, students, after the first four years, proceed either to a vocational school to train for a trade or to a secondary school (mittelschule) to prepare over an 8-year period to
enter a university. The number of students in the university system is modest but increasing: in 1980-81 there were 133,074 enrolled in the 17 universities or colleges supported by the state. _^<N__^<N_Austria's standards for health care and its
delivery systems are indicated by its low infant mortality rate and by a ratio of doctors to population of about 1 to 510, one of the highest in Europe. All citizens are covered by national health insurance. In the late 19th and early 20th
centuries, Vienna was perhaps Europe's greatest medical center, known particularly for the development of modern psychiatry under Sigmund FREUD. _^<N__^<N_For the contributions made by Austrians to the arts, see AUSTRIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE;
AUSTRIAN LITERATURE; and GERMAN AND AUSTRIAN MUSIC. _^<N__^<N_ ECONOMIC ACTIVITY_^<N__^<N_ Manufacturing and Industry_^<N__^<N_Since the end of World War II, when the country's basic industries were nationalized, the Austrian economy has become
increasingly industrialized. Heavy industry tends to concentrate in the Danube Valley, in the Mur-Muz corridor, and in the capital. Leading manufactured goods include pig iron and steel, automobiles, tractors, locomotives, heavy machinery,
electrical parts, chemicals, plastics, paper and pulp, furniture, textiles, and processed foods. The traditional products of Austrian craftsmen include ceramics, glassware, wood carvings, leather products such as shoes, and optical and musical
instruments. _^<N__^<N_Tourism has become a major industry. It is based on ski and winter sports facilities, on the perennial popularity of medicinal spas, and on the scenic, recreational, and cultural amenities available from the Alps to Vienna.
The number of foreigners visiting Austria annually has increased more than eightfold since 1955. _^<N__^<N_ Agriculture_^<N__^<N_Two trends have characterized postwar Austrian agriculture: a sharp decline in the portion of the labor force engaged
in farming and a decrease in small-scale farming, with farms of less than 5 ha (12 acres) either disappearing or being consolidated. Although average farm size remains small and only 20% of the land is arable, scientific methods enable farmers to
meet most of Austria's food requirements. Leading crops include barley, wheat, rye, oats, potatoes, sugar beets, and corn. Meat production has risen sharply, and dairy farming is more than adequate to meet national needs. _^<N__^<N_
Forestry_^<N__^<N_Conifers are the most important commercial wood. Austria produces wood-pulp, paper and paperboard, and sawtimber. _^<N__^<N_ Transportation_^<N__^<N_Austria's transportation system, which is largely state-owned, is modern and
efficient. All major points within the country are connected by air, rail, and road. A national airline flies domestic and international routes. About 6,500 km (4,040 mi) of railroads crisscross Austria, traversing all major valleys of the Alps.
There are about 11,000 km (6,900 mi) of autobahns (expressways) and federal highways. Both passenger and freight service are available on river vessels on the Danube. Vienna has been the eastern terminus for most traffic since 1945. _^<N__^<N_
Trade_^<N__^<N_Austria has had a negative balance of trade since 1945, despite large injections of foreign currency from tourism. Austria must import transport equipment and heavy machinery, fuels, foodstuffs, and raw materials. It exports
lumber, paper and pulp, textiles, iron and steel, electric power, and machinery. Its primary trading partners belong to the EUROPEAN COMMUNITY or to the EUROPEAN FREE TRADE ASSOCIATION. _^<N__^<N_ GOVERNMENT_^<N__^<N_Austria is a constitutional
federal republic composed of nine provinces. A president, popularly elected for a 6-year term, is the head of state, but most governmental power rests with the chancellor and his cabinet, who function for as long as their policies enjoy the
confidence of parliament. The chancellor, or prime minister, is usually the head of the political party with the largest number of seats in the lower house of parliament, the National Council (the Nationalrat). _^<N__^<N_National Council members
are elected for 4-year terms. Members of the largely advisory upper house, the Federal Council (Bundesrat), are elected by the provincial legislatures (Landtag), the number from each province being apportioned on the basis of population. Each of
the nine provinces (STYRIA, TYROL, Vorarlberg, Salzburg, Upper Austria, Lower Austria, Vienna, Burgenland, and Carinthia) has a governor chosen by its unicameral Landtag. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY_^<N__^<N_In ancient times, much of the territory later
known collectively as "Austria" was called Rhaetia, Noricum, and PANNONIA. These were organized as Roman provinces in the 1st century AD. Then, and for the next 10 centuries, the area served the more civilized peoples of Europe--initially Roman,
later Frankish and German--as a defensive outpost against barbarian invasions from the east. _^<N__^<N_Roman control collapsed in the 4th century under wave after wave of Germanic and Hunnish invaders. In the 6th century, these tribes were joined
by SLAVS and AVARS, over whom the FRANKS under CHARLEMAGNE established a brief ascendancy in the 8th century. Nomads from the east, among them MAGYARS, continued to overrun the Danubian area until OTTO I, later Holy Roman emperor, defeated them in
the mid-10th century and reorganized the eastern border region on a more permanent basis as a dependency of the dukes of Bavaria. Under the rule of the Babenberg margraves between 976 and 1246, Austria expanded eastward to the Hungarian border and
southward into Styria and Carniola. Christianity was well entrenched by the early 12th century. The Babenberg lands were occupied (1246-78) by OTTOKAR II of Bohemia. After his defeat by the Habsburg German king RUDOLF I, they passed to the
Habsburg family, which provided all but one of the Holy Roman emperors from 1438 to 1806. _^<N__^<N_The Habsburgs turned Austria into one of the most dynamic states of Europe. They steadily expanded their domains in the 14th and 15th centuries,
first by acquiring the Tyrol and Vorarlberg near their hereditary holdings in Switzerland, then by the addition of ISTRIA and TRIESTE to the south. By the marriage (1477) of the future MAXIMILIAN I to MARY OF BURGUNDY, they acquired BURGUNDY and
the LOW COUNTRIES. Then the accession (1516) of the future emperor CHARLES V to the Spanish throne brought Spain and its empire under Habsburg rule. On his abdication (1555-56), however, Charles divided his realm, leaving Spain and the Low
Countries to his son Philip II and Austria and the empire to his brother FERDINAND I. The Austrian line then oriented its expansion eastward. _^<N__^<N_Ferdinand's successors proved unable after 1564 to rule coherently or fairly those parts of the
empire that had embraced the Protestant REFORMATION. This deficiency was instrumental in causing the THIRTY YEARS' WAR (1618-48). A weakened Austria was forced to recognize the legitimacy of the reformed sects within the empire, but, as the
result of the success of the COUNTER-REFORMATION, Catholicism was fully restored in Bohemia and Austria itself. _^<N__^<N_The efforts of Emperor LEOPOLD I (r. 1657-1705) to undo the Reformation in Hungary led to renewed conflict with the Hungarians
and their Turkish allies. In 1683 the Turks besieged Vienna, which was rescued only by the timely intervention of German and Polish forces. A series of imperial victories drove the Turks from Hungary, which Austria formally acquired by the Peace
of Karlowitz (1699). _^<N__^<N_The Austrian empire reached its greatest extent in the first half of the 18th century. Wars over the Spanish and Polish successions brought the addition of the Spanish Netherlands (Belgium) and, in Italy, of Milan,
Mantua, Parma, Piacenza, and Tuscany. The WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION (1740-48) grew out of the refusal of the powers to honor the PRAGMATIC SANCTION (issued 1713), the instrument by which Emperor CHARLES VI sought to ensure the indivisibility
of his Habsburg possessions and the succession of his daughter MARIA THERESA (r. 1740-80). Maria Theresa's most important contribution lay in measures designed to centralize the administration of an unwieldy empire. _^<N__^<N_JOSEPH II (r. 1780-90)
continued the centralizing efforts of his mother, but he added a humanistic emphasis. He emancipated the serfs, increased the rights of religious minorities, and subordinated the Catholic church to the state. But his reign witnessed losses to the
Turks and a revolt in the Spanish Netherlands (1789). Under his brother LEOPOLD II (r. 1790-92), the church and the regional governing bodies won back many of their old powers. _^<N__^<N_Austria's position in Europe was temporarily shaken by the
outbreak of the French Revolution and by the political and geographic changes enacted by NAPOLEON I. In 1806, FRANCIS II laid aside the old imperial title of Holy Roman emperor, thereafter to reign simply as Emperor Francis I of Austria until
1835. Briefly allied with France in the invasion of Russia, Austria subsequently joined with the other powers to defeat Napoleon in 1814. _^<N__^<N_By the decisions of the Congress of Vienna (1815; see VIENNA, CONGRESS OF), brilliantly
orchestrated by the Austrian foreign minister Prince Klemens von METTERNICH, Austria ceded Belgium to the Netherlands but was compensated by new gains in LOMBARDY, Venetia, and DALMATIA that made Austria predominant in Italy. Austria also took
over leadership of the newly formed GERMAN CONFEDERATION. Under Metternich's aegis, conservatism reigned triumphant over much of the continent for more than 30 years. _^<N__^<N_The repressive atmosphere prevailing in the empire, however, could not
permanently dampen the liberal or nationalist sentiment that increasingly asserted itself in Hungary, Italy, and the Slavic lands. Dissatisfaction erupted during the REVOLUTIONS OF 1848, forcing Metternich to resign and the emperor to agree to the
election of a constituent assembly, and power was restored to the emperor, now FRANCIS JOSEPH (r. 1848-1916). Austria once more set its course in the direction of centralized, absolutist government, modernized and reformed just enough to make it
palatable. _^<N__^<N_Major setbacks followed. Austria was defeated (1859) in a war with Italy and France, leading to the loss of Lombardy to the newly unified kingdom of ITALY. Next came defeat in the SEVEN WEEKS' WAR (1866) against PRUSSIA,
which carried with it the loss of Venetia and a number of German territories. Prussia then unified all the German states except Austria into the German Empire in 1871. Austria responded to these events by reshaping its constitutional framework so
as to make the Hungarians equal partners in the Austrian Empire. The Compromise (Ausgleich) of 1867 created the Dual Monarchy of AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. _^<N__^<N_Austria remained plagued by the conflicting interests of its multiple nationalities. Its
occupation of the Turkish provinces of BOSNIA AND HERCEGOVINA in 1878 and rivalry with Russia for control over the BALKANS in the wake of the Ottoman Empire's decline inevitably intensified the nationalism of the empire's large Slavic minorities.
Six years after Austria's outright annexation of Bosnia-Hercegovina, a Serbian nationalist assassinated (June 28, 1914) Archduke FRANZ FERDINAND in Sarajevo. This event led to WORLD WAR I, in which Austria was allied with Germany (see TRIPLE
ALLIANCE). Austria emerged beaten and shorn of the territories that had contributed to its 1,000-year imperial history. _^<N__^<N_The new Austrian republic was reduced to its essential Germanic core, a quarter of its former size. At the same
time, the victorious Allies prohibited Austria from uniting with its potentially still powerful German neighbor, even by means of a customs union. Austria did not adjust well to its straightened postwar circumstances. Politically oriented private
armies representing both socialists and conservatives increased the potential for internal strife. The failure of Austria's largest bank in 1931 plunged the nation into economic crisis. Encouraged by Benito MUSSOLINI, Austria's protector until
1936, Chancellor Engelbert DOLLFUSS assumed dictatorial powers in 1933. He dissolved all rival parties in 1934. Socialist resistance to this measure led to the government's bombardment of Vienna's large socialist quarter in February 1934.
Dollfuss, a proto-Fascist who was nevertheless determined to keep Austria independent of Germany, was murdered on July 25, 1934. But an attempted takeover by Austrian Nazis collapsed when Mussolini dispatched troops to the Austrian border as a
warning to Adolf HITLER to keep hands off. _^<N__^<N_Dollfuss was succeeded by Kurt von SCHUSCHNIGG, who was unable to stop the growth of Nazi Germany's influence in Austria. Following his resignation, German troops entered (Mar. 12, 1938) the
country, and the union (Anschluss) of Austria and Germany was proclaimed. During World War II, Austria's fortunes were identified with those of Germany. _^<N__^<N_Following its liberation by Allied troops in the spring of 1945, Austria was
reestablished within its prewar boundaries under a provisional government. This soon gave way to a coalition government that included members of both the Socialist and People's parties. The country was divided into four administrative zones for
occupation by U.S., Soviet, British, and French forces. The four powers stayed until 1955. Austria joined the United Nations later the same year. _^<N__^<N_In the postwar era, Austria was governed by coalition governments up to 1966, when a
People's party administration led by Joseph Klaus took power. It was succeeded in 1970 by a Socialist government under Bruno KREISKY. In 1971 the Socialists won a majority of seats in parliament. During Kreisky's long chancellorship (1970-83),
Vienna grew in stature as an international center, becoming, along with New York and Geneva, one of the world headquarters of the United Nations. When his party lost its majority in April 1983, Kreisky stepped down to make way for a coalition
government under another Socialist, Fred Sinowatz (1983-86), followed by Franz Vranitzky (1986- ). Former UN secretary general Kurt WALDHEIM, who was elected to the presidency in 1986, became a subject of controversy when it was revealed that he
had lied about the extent of his activities in the German army during World War II, and that Yugoslav sources had accused him of complicity in war crimes. A committee of historians declared the latter charge unproven in 1988, and Waldheim ignored
calls for his resignation. On May 24, 1992, Thomas Klestil of the conservative People's party won election as Austrian president. _^<N__^<N_Bruce L. La Rose _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bridge, F. R., The Habsburg Monarchy among the Great Powers,
1815-1918 (1991); Fitzmaurice, John, Austrian Politics and Society Today (1991); Gordon, Harold J. and Nancy M., eds., The Austrian Empire (1974); Johnston, William M., The Austrian Mind (1976); Kann, Robert A., A History of the Habsburg
Empire, 1526-1918 (1974); Pelinka, Anton, and Bischof, Gunther, eds., Austria in the New Europe (1992); Rickett, Richard A., A Brief Survey of Austrian History (1977); Stadler, Karl R., Austria (1971); Steiner, Kurt, ed., Modern Austria (1981);
Sully, Melanie, A Contemporary History of Austria (1990); Sweeney, J., Austria and Its Political and Social Issues (1987). _^<N__^<N_
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4975
CAT
4811
-A-
Austria-Hungary
-T-
Austria-Hungary_^<N__^<N_Austria-Hungary was the name of the HABSBURG empire from its reorganization into the Dual Monarchy in 1867 to its breakup in 1918. (See AUSTRIA.) Its predecessor was known as the Austrian Empire, founded in 1804 during the
dissolution of the HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE in order to create a single centralized state from the dynasty's diverse provinces. After 1815 the major parts of Austria-Hungary were the Austrian crown lands of predominantly German population; the kingdom
of BOHEMIA, inhabited by Czechs and Germans; GALICIA, with a mixture of Poles and Ruthenians; the Italian provinces of LOMBARDY and VENETIA; and the kingdom of HUNGARY, which had a ruling class of Magyars and its own minorities--mainly Slovaks,
Croats, Serbs, and Romanians. _^<N__^<N_In 1849, in the midst of the REVOLUTIONS OF 1848, Hungary declared its independence; but with Russian aid, Emperor FRANCIS JOSEPH crushed the rebellion and obliterated the Hungarian state. Military defeats
in 1859 and 1866, which cost Austria Lombardy and Venetia and its position of leadership in Germany, forced the regime to introduce reforms and deal with the Magyar leaders, Ferenc DEAK and Gyula ANDRASSY, as equals. In 1867 the latter agreed to
the so-called Ausgleich, or Compromise, which established the Dual Monarchy. _^<N__^<N_The Compromise restored historic Hungary with all its non-Magyar peoples and confirmed its constitution of 1848, which allowed the Magyars to dominate. In
Austria (the remainder of the empire), the Germans maintained a similar ascendancy over Czechs, Poles, Ruthenians, Slovenes, and the few remaining Italians. Essentially the Compromise recognized two separate and equal states joined only by a
common monarch, who was emperor of Austria and king of Hungary; a single army; common ministries of war, foreign affairs, and finance; and, when parliamentary approval was necessary, delegations speaking for the two parliaments. In all other
respects Austria and Hungary functioned independently. In each, parliamentary government with a ministry responsible to an elective lower house prevailed, but the electoral laws severely discriminated against the Slavic majority in the empire.
_^<N__^<N_Austrian politics from 1867 to 1879 were dominated by German liberals, who introduced free compulsory education, enacted guarantees of free speech, press, and assembly, emancipated the Jews, and put through anticlerical legislation. In
1879 conservatives and Roman Catholics of all nationalities overthrew the liberals and formed a ministry under Eduard, Graf von TAAFFE. Taaffe hoped to ameliorate the nationality problem by bringing the masses into politics, but in 1893 his bill
for universal manhood suffrage failed, and his regime failed as a result. _^<N__^<N_In 1897 Kasimir, Graf Badeni (1846-1909), tried to put all local languages on a par with German, but violent resistance by the Germans in Bohemia ended his
ministry. Meanwhile, tensions were increased by the rise of socialism, anti-Semitism, and the Young Czech movement, led by Tomas MASARYK and Eduard BENES, who demanded ethnic rather than mere provincial autonomy. In 1907 universal manhood
suffrage was finally introduced, intensifying class conflict without abating national rivalries. After 1900, parliamentary majorities became increasingly rare and rule by emergency decree common. _^<N__^<N_In Hungary, Magyar control was more secure
and resulted in strenuous efforts to Magyarize the population. A small Independent party, inspired by the exiled hero Lajos KOSSUTH, demanded full independence, and the dominant Liberal party jealously guarded Hungary's rights under the
Compromise. The use of German in the army, the economic disparity resulting from industrialization in Austria, and the possibility of democratic suffrage were the main sources of concern. _^<N__^<N_The cohesive forces in the Dual Monarchy were the
army, the bureaucracy, the Catholic church, and a genuine loyalty to Francis Joseph. After the Austrian annexation of BOSNIA AND HERCEGOVINA in 1908, the Yugoslav movement, which aimed at the union of all South Slavs under Serbia, led to the
assassination of Archduke FRANZ FERDINAND in 1914. This precipitated the outbreak of WORLD WAR I, which Austria-Hungary fought in alliance with Germany. In 1916, CHARLES I succeeded Francis Joseph. In 1919-20 the peace treaties of Versailles,
St. Germain, and Trianon--negotiated at the PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE--recognized the dissolution of the empire. In the succession states, however--Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia--the difficulties of the diverse nationalities
continued. _^<N__^<N_Enno E. Kraehe _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bridge, F. R., The Habsburg Monarchy among the Great Powers, 1815-1918 (1991); Kann, Robert A., A History of the Habsburg Empire, 1526-1918 (1974); Komlos, John, The Habsburg Monarchy
as a Customs Union (1983); May, A. J., The Hapsburg Monarchy, 1867-1914 (1951); Taylor, A. J. P., The Habsburg Monarchy, 1809-1918, 2d ed. (1948; repr. 1976).
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7536
CATO
4795
-A-
Austrian art and architecture
-O-
000000|Austrian art and architecture
000633| Baroque and Rococo Periods
003748| Neoclassical and Romantic Periods
004898| Renaissance Revival in Vienna
005518| 20th-Century Movements
-T-
Austrian art and architecture_^<N__^<N_During the reign (1690-1705) of the Habsburg Holy Roman emperor LEOPOLD I, Austria began to make its contributions to European art history, particularly in the development of BAROQUE and ROCOCO art and
architecture. The BIEDERMEIER style emerged and flourished in Vienna in the early 19th century. The subsequent revival of Renaissance architectural styles made the city one of the most beautiful in the world by the 1890s. The SECESSION MOVEMENT at
the turn of the century brought forth a distinctively Austrian form of EXPRESSIONISM in all the arts; this became a powerful force in much of 20th-century architecture and painting. _^<N__^<N_ Baroque and Rococo Periods_^<N__^<N_Johann Bernhard
FISCHER VON ERLACH and Johann Lucas von HILDEBRANDT are the most outstanding Austrian baroque architects. Through their studies in Rome of the works of Giovanni Lorenzo BERNINI and Francesco BORROMINI, they absorbed the Italian baroque style and
developed it independently. These architects also absorbed the Roman Catholic doctrines of the COUNTER-REFORMATION. In architecture this took the form of churches that seemingly transcend spatial limits and, with complex floor plans, rich
ornamentation, and illusionistic frescoes, create an overwhelming vision of heaven. In secular architecture the palaces and civic buildings reflected the wealth and power of the rulers. _^<N__^<N_Fischer von Erlach's chaste Dreifaltigkeitskirche
(Church of the Holy Trinity) in Salzburg (1694-1702) and his spectacular Karlskirche in Vienna (1716-32) echo Borromini's and Bernini's designs in their undulating facades, floor plans in the form of a Greek cross (four equal arms), and use of oval
spaces with domed crossings. Fischer von Erlach's masterly grasp of baroque style is shown at its peak in the Vienna Hofbibliothek (Imperial Library, 1716-22), which combines the functional demands of a library with palatial opulence.
_^<N__^<N_Hildebrandt's Upper Belvedere Palace (1721-24) in Vienna is a magnificent expression of secular baroque intentions. The palace, enriched with sculpture on the exterior and with lavish interior stucco decorations and frescoes, is an
unmistakable expression of political power. It is intended to equate the Vienna Hofburg (Imperial Palace) and Fischer von Erlach's Schonbrunn (Summer Palace, 1695-1749) with Louis XIV's Versailles. The same exuberance and luxury are found in many
of Austria's baroque convents and monasteries, exemplified by the elegant Convent of Saint Florian (1708-11) and the imposing Monastery of Melk (1701-26), both by Jakob PRANDTAUER. _^<N__^<N_An early example of the continuation of Bernini's style
in Austrian baroque sculpture is the Pestsaule (memorial column to plague victims) in Vienna (1682-94) by Matthias Rauchmiller (1645-88). The statue Apotheosis of Prince Eugen of Savoy (1718 -21) by Balthasar PERMOSER and fountains for the Vienna
Flour Market (1737-39) by Georg Raphael DONNER are typical of the expressive and impassioned late baroque spirit, somewhat calmed by classicist rationality. Johann Michael Rottmayr (1654-1730) broke away from the Italian style by bringing a
Rubensesque vitality to his ceiling paintings. Paul Troger (1698-1762) developed a rococo version of this style, although it was weakened by the influence of Correggio and the Roman High Renaissance. _^<N__^<N_In the reign (1740-80) of MARIA
THERESA, painting was the only art form to achieve refinement. The ceiling frescoes of the Heiligenkreuz-Gutenbrunn Church (1757-58) by Franz Anton MAULPERTSCH exhibit a richness reminiscent of Rubens and a compositional strength reflective of
Rembrandt. In architecture and sculpture, far less vitality was achieved. Only Franz Xavier MESSERSCHMIDT, with his highly theatrical religious sculptures and portrait heads, stands out. _^<N__^<N_ Neoclassical and Romantic Periods_^<N__^<N_During
the reigns of Holy Roman emperors JOSEPH II (1780-90) and LEOPOLD II (1790-92), Austrian cultural life was concentrated in Vienna. The visual arts mirrored the NEOCLASSICISM that dominated all of Europe; the Vienna Academy, under the leadership of
the painter Heinrich Fuger (1751-1818), became a conservative bastion, against which a successful rebellion was fought by the German painters Johann Friedrich OVERBECK and Franz Pforr. They founded (1809) the Lukasbund, a brotherhood of painters
who sought to renew their art through a return to the pre-Renaissance system of artists' guilds. In 1810, Overbeck and Pforr moved to Rome and established the influential group now known as the NAZARENES. Austrian painting took a different turn
with the emergence of the Biedermeier, or Old Vienna, painting style, exemplified in the work of Ferdinand Georg WALDMULLER. A proto-realist reminiscent of the French BARBIZON SCHOOL, Waldmuller was renowned for his numerous portraits, his
naturalistic landscapes, and his affectionate genre paintings, typical of the optimistic world view of the Viennese at this time. _^<N__^<N_ Renaissance Revival in Vienna_^<N__^<N_Architecture revived in the 19th century with the vast projects of
Gottfried SEMPER, the greatest of the Renaissance-revival architects in the Austro-German sphere. His ensemble of splendid buildings on Vienna's Ringstrasse, including the art and natural history museums (1872-81), part of the Neue Hofburg (1881),
and particularly the Burgtheater (1874-88), is perhaps his finest achievement. In painting, the taste of the upper bourgeoisie and the nobility ran to pompous historical and allegorical subjects exemplified in the huge, brilliantly colored canvases
of Hans Makart (1840-84). _^<N__^<N_ 20th-Century Movements_^<N__^<N_In the 1890s a fin de siecle ("end of the century") decadence settled over all Europe. At the same time protests developed against it. Jugendstil ("youth style"), the Viennese
version of ART NOUVEAU, led directly to the founding of the Secession movement in 1897, and to the highly decorative and erotic art of Gustav KLIMT and Egon SCHIELE and the vivid expressionism of the paintings by Oskar KOKOSCHKA and the drawings
and prints of Alfred KUBIN. Impressionism, by contrast, had little impact on Austrian art. Otto WAGNER and his pupils Josef HOFFMAN, Adolf LOOS, and Joseph Maria OLBRICH, the architect of the Vienna Secession building, created a new Austrian
architecture of enormous influence in the 20th century, leading directly to the German BAUHAUS school and the dominant INTERNATIONAL STYLE in architecture. _^<N__^<N_The collapse of the Austrian Empire and the tragedies of the years between the two
world wars debilitated the spirit of the country. The arts suffered badly as well, and little of significance or originality was produced in Austria. Many artists fled the country after the Nazi takeover (1938), settling in Switzerland, Paris, and
New York and merging in art history with their German fellow expatriate artists. Since World War II, the fantasy paintings of HUNDERTWASSER (Friedrich Stowasser) and the sculptures of Fritz Wotruba (1907-75) have achieved international fame and
give promise of a resurgence in Austrian art. _^<N__^<N_Ulrich Finke _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Baumann, Edzard Eilert, Crossroads of European Art: A Concise History of Art and Architecture in Austria (1964); Botstein, Leon, and Weintraub, Linda,
eds., Pre-Modern Art of Vienna, 1848-1898 (1987); Kallir, Jane, Vienna Design and the Wiener Werkstatte (1986); Sotriffer, Kristian, Modern Austrian Art: A Concise History (1965); Varnedoe, Kirk, Vienna 1900: Art, Architecture, Design (1986);
Vergo, Peter, Art in Vienna 1898-1918 (1981). _^<N__^<N_See also: GERMAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE; ROMANTICISM (ART).
-END-
-C-
3848
CAT
-A-
Austrian literature
-T-
Austrian literature_^<N__^<N_Because they share a common language, Austrian literature is usually treated as part of German literature. But the separate cultural and political development of Austria justifies a separate discussion of a specifically
Austrian literature, which also includes literature produced in the German-speaking areas of Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Yugoslavia. _^<N__^<N_Medieval Austrian and German literature are inseparable. The earliest Austrian literature was
the court poems and songs of the minnesingers (see MINSTRELS, MINNESINGERS, AND TROUBADOURS) and the anonymous epic the NIBELUNGENLIED. WALTHER VON DER VOGELWEIDE, in his poems of courtly love, brought the art of the minnesingers to its highest
peak. The Nibelungenlied (c.1200) combined Teutonic myth with realities of court life. Around 1400, Johannes von Tepl (d. 1414) (also called von Saaz) introduced the Italian Renaissance and humanism into Austrian literature with his Der Ackermann
aus Bohmen. After this, however, literary production in Austria declined, except for 16th-century religious plays and the 18th-century folk plays of Joseph Stranitsky (c.1676-1726). _^<N__^<N_Not until the early 19th century, with the fall of
Napoleon and the ascendancy of Vienna as a world capital, did great literature blossom again. Among the works of the so-called Biedermeier writers, the historical dramas of Franz GRILLPARZER, the poems of Nikolaus Lenau (1802-50), and the Bohemian
tales of Adalbert STIFTER stand out. Of equal importance are the folk plays of Ferdinand Raimund and the satirical comedies of the "Viennese Aristophanes," Johann NESTROY. Austrian theater boasts of a long tradition going back to the baroque and
the Italian COMMEDIA DELL'ARTE. The theater company of the Viennese Burgtheater (founded 1741) became world famous in the 19th century. _^<N__^<N_In the second half of the 19th century realism began to dominate Austrian literature, especially in
the works of Ferdinand von Saar (1833-1906), Ludwig Anzengruber (1839-89), and Ernst von Wildenbruch (1845-1909). Most of these authors wrote village stories and Heimatroman, or "regional novels." Anzengruber concentrated particularly on the
political and social problems of his time, and Wildenbruch wrote patriotic plays. Saar was the forerunner of Viennese impressionism, of which Arthur SCHNITZLER and Hugo von HOFMANNSTHAL were the most important exponents. Schnitzler produced
pioneering work with his psychological plays and short stories; Hofmannsthal was a master at conveying the feel of life at the turn of the century in poetry, drama, and opera. Rainer Maria RILKE became the most important German-language poet of the
20th century. George TRAKL was a leading expressionist poet. Other major Austrian influences on German literature were the novelists Hermann BROCH and Stefan ZWEIG and the satirical essayist Karl KRAUS. _^<N__^<N_In the years immediately before and
after World War I, three writers from Prague attracted serious attention: Franz KAFKA, his friend Max BROD, and the novelist Franz WERFEL. The years between the wars were distinguished by the experimental fiction of novelists Robert MUSIL and
Heimito von Doderer. After World War II, Ingeborg BACHMANN and the Romanian-born poet Paul CELAN added their distinctive voices to the literature of the war. The Wiener Gruppe, formed in the 1960s, were experimental writers interested in CONCRETE
POETRY and the poetic uses of dialect. They included Friedrich Achleitner, Hans Carl Artmann, and Gerhard Ruhm. In more recent years, the novelist and poet Thomas BERNHARD and the avant-garde playwright-novelist Peter HANDKE achieved wide acclaim.
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bjorklund, B., ed., Contemporary Austrian Poetry (1986); Daviau, Donald, Major Figures of Contemporary Austrian Literature (1987); Ungar, Frederick, ed., Handbook of Austrian Literature (1973).
-END-
-C-
46
CAT
-A-
Austrian music:
-T-
Austrian music:_^<N__^<N_see GERMAN AND AUSTRIAN MUSIC.
-END-
-C-
2589
CAT
-A-
Austrian Succession, War of the
-T-
Austrian Succession, War of the_^<N__^<N_The War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48) was the first of two major European conflicts fought to preserve the balance of power in the mid-18th century. The war grew out of competition between Prussia and
Austria in central Europe, long-standing differences between Austria and France, and a worldwide struggle between England and France for superiority in overseas trade and colonial empire. These rivalries were intensified by the problem of the
Austrian succession. _^<N__^<N_On Oct. 20, 1740, Emperor CHARLES VI died without a male heir, and his lands passed to a daughter, MARIA THERESA. Two months later, FREDERICK II of Prussia, anticipating a partition of Habsburg domains, invaded
SILESIA, a province bordering Bohemia. A Prussian victory at Mollwitz on Apr. 10, 1741, hastened the formation of an anti-Habsburg coalition that included Bavaria, Spain, and France as well as Prussia. _^<N__^<N_Hard pressed by a Franco-Bavarian
offensive in the summer of 1741, Maria Theresa refused to surrender to her foes. Instead, she exploited divisions among the allies by making a temporary truce with Prussia. Then, aided by subsidies from England and Holland, she attacked her
remaining enemies. Austrian successes brought Prussia back into the war in May 1742 and again in June 1744. Illustrious victories by Frederick II in 1745 compelled Maria Theresa to sign the Treaty of Dresden on Dec. 25, 1745, reaffirming Prussian
control of Silesia. _^<N__^<N_Subsequent hostilities, confined largely to Italy and the Low Countries, did little to alter the situation in Germany. On May 11, 1745, the French, under Maurice, comte de SAXE, had won a tremendous battle over a
combined Austrian, English, and Dutch force at Fontenoy, but French triumphs in the Austrian Netherlands and in faraway India were counterbalanced by losses in Canada and by English domination of the high seas. _^<N__^<N_A general peace was finally
concluded at Aix-la-Chapelle on Oct. 18, 1748. It restored all the prewar territorial arrangements in western Europe and the colonial sphere. In central Europe, however, Austria reluctantly recognized Frederick II's annexation of Silesia. This was
the most important result of the conflict, because the wealth and population of Silesia immediately elevated Prussia into the ranks of the great European powers. However, Austria's determination to recover Silesia was a chief cause of the second
major European conflict, the SEVEN YEARS' WAR. _^<N__^<N_John A. Mears _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Black, Jeremy, The Eighteenth Century (1990). _^<N__^<N_See also: AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, TREATIES OF; FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS.
-END-
-C-
56
CAT
-A-
Austro-Asiatic languages:
-T-
Austro-Asiatic languages:_^<N__^<N_see SOUTHEAST ASIAN LANGUAGES.
-END-
-C-
42
CAT
-A-
Austro-Prussian War:
-T-
Austro-Prussian War:_^<N__^<N_see SEVEN WEEKS' WAR.
-END-
-C-
9689
CATO
4807
9612
-A-
austronesian languages
-O-
000000|austronesian languages
001937| Historical Development and Genetic Subgrouping
004427| Structural Characteristics
006982| Patterns of Language Use
-T-
austronesian languages_^<N__^<N_The Austronesian language family (from the Latin root austro, "southern," and the Greek word nesis, "island") includes between 600 and 1,000 languages, probably more than any other language family in the world.
Sometimes called the Malayo-Polynesian family, it encompasses most languages of Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Madagascar; a fifth of the approximately 1,000 languages spoken in New Guinea and neighboring islands; and most languages
spoken in the islands of the Pacific, which are traditionally grouped into three regions: Melanesia (Solomon Islands, New Caledonia, Vanuatu, and Fiji); Micronesia (Mariana Islands, Caroline Islands, Marshall Islands, and Kiribati); and Polynesia
(Tonga, Niue, Samoa, Wallis and Futuna, Tuvalu, Tokelau, Cook Islands, Hawaii, French Polynesia, Easter Island, and New Zealand). The Austronesian family also includes the aboriginal languages of Taiwan and a few isolated languages of Vietnam and
Cambodia; the Aboriginal languages of Australia, however, and the Papuan languages of New Guinea, are not related to the Austronesian family. _^<N__^<N_Two of the world's major languages belong to the Austronesian family: Indonesian-Malay, spoken
as a lingua franca by 150 million people in Indonesia and Malaysia, and Javanese, spoken natively by 60 million in Java. Other Austronesian languages with large numbers of speakers include: Tagalog (also called Pilipino), the official language of
the Philippines (10 million native and second-language speakers); Cebuano, also spoken in the Philippines (10 million speakers); Sundanese, spoken in West Java (15 million speakers); Madurese, spoken in East Java (7.5 million speakers); and
Malagasy, a chain of dialects spoken in Madagascar (10 million speakers). Most other Austronesian languages have fewer than one million speakers each, and many of them are spoken by very small communities, some of which number no more than a few
hundred people. _^<N__^<N_ Historical Development and Genetic Subgrouping_^<N__^<N_All Austronesian languages derive from a single language or group of dialects called Proto-Austronesian. Proto-Austronesian was spoken about 5,000 years ago
somewhere in the islands of Southeast Asia by a seafaring people. Speakers of Proto-Austronesian settled most of the Pacific, bringing with them their language, which developed into the many Austronesian languages of today. _^<N__^<N_The techniques
of historical linguistics indicate that the most ancient division in the Austronesian family separates three groups of about 20 Formosan languages from all other languages of the family. Formosan languages (which are spoken today by fewer than a
quarter of a million people in the hills of Taiwan), although clearly Austronesian, differ significantly in structure and vocabulary from the other languages of the family and from one another, a testimony to their early split from
Proto-Austronesian and to their subsequent isolation from other Austronesian languages. _^<N__^<N_Most of the remaining Austronesian languages fall into a Western group and an Eastern, or Oceanic, group. Members of the Western group include all the
Austronesian languages spoken in Southeast Asia, Indonesia, Madagascar, the Philippines, Guam, and Palau. The Oceanic group extends over the coastal areas of Papua New Guinea into the islands of the Pacific. The Western group and the Oceanic group
can be further subdivided into about thirty subgroups each. One of the more clearly defined Oceanic subgroups is Eastern Oceanic, in which one finds, among others, the various dialects of Fijian and the languages of Polynesia, including Tongan,
Samoan, Tahitian, Maori, and Hawaiian. Generally speaking, the subgrouping of Austronesian languages reflects the gradual eastward migrations of the early Austronesians, which took place between about 3000 BC and AD 1000. _^<N__^<N_While many
attempts have been made to link Austronesian languages to other language families, there is no solid evidence that the family has any external relatives. An ancient genetic link may have existed with the Papuan languages of New Guinea, or possibly
even with Tai languages, but these relationships, if they exist, are so remote that natural language change has obliterated any evidence of them. Other theories that have linked Austronesian languages to the Semitic languages, the Indo-European
family, the languages of South America, or to Japanese are dismissed as fanciful by virtually all researchers. _^<N__^<N_ Structural Characteristics_^<N__^<N_While structurally very diverse, many Austronesian languages share a number of grammatical
traits. For the most part, their inflectional morphology is simple: verbal conjugations and noun inflections are rare. Verbal categories such as voice, tense, and agreement are usually marked with affixes, or with independent function words,
particularly in the Oceanic languages. Typically, verbs can be used as nouns or adjectives without any change in form; to a lesser extent, the reverse is also true. Reduplication is commonly used to mark categories like plurality, repetition, and
moderation; for example, the Fijian word levu ("big") reduplicates as lelevu to refer to several objects and as levulevu to mean "biggish." Many Austronesian languages have two forms of the first-person plural pronouns: an exclusive form ("we
excluding you") and an inclusive form ("we including you"). Some languages like Fijian have very complex pronoun systems in which the exclusive-inclusive contrast and several number categories are marked: singular, dual (for two people), paucal
(for a few people), and plural (for many people). _^<N__^<N_The constituent order of basic transitive clauses in Austronesian languages is typically subject-verb-object or verb-subject-object. But the family also includes an unusual number of
languages (for example, Fijian, Malagasy, Batak, Palauan, and Kiribati) in which the basic order of constituents is verb- object-subject, a pattern that is quite rare among the world's languages. Austronesian languages typically place adjectives
after the nouns they modify, relative clauses after their head nouns, and articles before nouns. Formosan languages, Philippine languages, and Malagasy have developed a "focus" system, in which the verb changes its form to encode the grammatical
function (subject or direct object, for example) of the noun phrase with the greatest informational importance in the clause. Simplified versions of this system are also found in other languages of the family. _^<N__^<N_Exceptions to the above
generalizations abound, particularly among languages that have been influenced by non-Austronesian languages. In New Guinea, some languages have developed relatively complex verb conjugations under the influence of Papuan languages. Similarly,
while tone is not characteristic of most Austronesian languages, Formosan languages have borrowed tones from Chinese. Some languages of New Caledonia have also developed tonal systems, although this does not seem to be the result of any external
influence. _^<N__^<N_ Patterns of Language Use_^<N__^<N_A few Austronesian languages, mainly those spoken by communities that have become ethnic minorities in their own land, appear to be in danger of dying out. This situation has occurred among
indigenous groups in Taiwan, New Caledonia, Hawaii, and New Zealand. Generally speaking, however, patterns of strong language loyalty are the norm throughout the Austronesian region, even in very small speech communities. In areas of extreme
linguistic diversity (the natural outcome of the linguistic evolution of isolated speech communities over many centuries), multilingualism and the use of lingua francas facilitate intergroup interactions. _^<N__^<N_Important written traditions are
associated with some Western Austronesian languages, including Indonesian-Malay, Tagalog, and Javanese. A sizable body of ancient religious texts exists in Javanese, for which a now-obsolete syllabic writing system was devised in the 9th century.
In contrast to Western Austronesian languages, most Oceanic languages are handicapped by the small size of their speech communities from gaining wider acceptance as literary languages or languages of the media. In Fiji, Samoa, and Kiribati, the
indigenous languages serve as one of the working languages of government, education, and the press alongside English, though, in many respects, English holds a privileged position. With the exception of Javanese, Austronesian languages lacked
writing systems before contact with Europeans, and today most of them are written in the Roman alphabet. _^<N__^<N_Some Austronesian languages have different "speech levels," wherein certain words can be used only in addressing persons of
particular social rank. Complex speech-level systems are found in Balinese and Javanese, and, to a lesser extent, in certain Polynesian languages like Tongan and Samoan. But even where speech levels are not found, language structure varies in a
complex manner across contexts of use. _^<N__^<N_Many Austronesian languages have freely borrowed vocabulary from different sources. The imprint of Sanskrit and Arabic on the languages of Indonesia bears witness to the different waves of religious
influence on the region. European languages (principally English, French, and--in the Philippines and Micronesia--Spanish) have also left their mark on many Austronesian lexicons. _^<N__^<N_Niko Besnier _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Blust, Robert,
Austronesian Languages (1988); Dahl, Otto C., Proto-Austronesian (1973); Dyen, Isadore, A Lexicostatistical Classification of Austronesian Languages (1965); Edmonson, J., and Gregerson, K., eds., Tonality in Austronesisan Languages (1993); Wurm,
S., and Hattori, S., Language Atlas of the Pacific Area, 2 vols. (1981-84).
-END-
-C-
476
CAT
-A-
authoritarian personality
-T-
authoritarian personality_^<N__^<N_An authoritarian personality is dogmatic and prejudiced, demands unquestioning obedience, and is intolerant of ambiguity. A 1950 study, The Authoritarian Personality, by T. W. ADORNO and others, introduced the
F-scale (for fascism) as a measure of authoritarianism. Although this study also found high correlations with anti-Semitism, ethnocentrism, and conservatism, later work separated the attitudes toward authority from specific political views.
-END-
-C-
919
CAT
-A-
authoritarianism
-T-
authoritarianism_^<N__^<N_Authoritarianism, the favoring of blind submission to authority, is characteristic of certain individuals, of common belief systems shared by such individuals, and, by extension, of elitist, antidemocratic governments based
on such shared beliefs. As an individual trait, authoritarianism was first systematically explored in research presented by Theodor ADORNO and others in The Authoritarian Personality (1950). The study began as an investigation of ANTI-SEMITISM in
the United States but led to discovery of numerous correlations between anti-Semitism and other attitudes associated with stereotyped behavior. While authoritarian governments have sometimes been distinguished from totalitarian ones (see
TOTALITARIANISM)--for example, in defense of U.S. ties with antidemocratic governments of Latin America during the the 1980s--totalitarianism is in fact an extreme instance of authoritarianism.
-END-
-C-
7160
CATO
4802
-A-
autism
-O-
000000|autism
000802| Characteristics
001930| Types
004602| Possible Causes
005399| Treatment
-T-
autism_^<N__^<N_Autism is a rare, profound, and poorly understood mental disorder that severely impairs a person's abilities, particularly in the area of language and social relations. In many cases autism appears present at birth, but in all cases
it becomes evident during the first 30 months of life. Autistic children typically are normal in appearance and physically well developed. Their disabilities in communication and comprehension range from mild to profound. Autism occurs in about 4.5
children per 10,000 live births and afflicts three times as many boys as girls. Once believed to be a psychologically caused disorder, resulting from faulty mother- child relations in early infancy, autism is today recognized as being biological in
origin and not caused by any form of emotional trauma or deprivation. _^<N__^<N_ Characteristics_^<N__^<N_About 80 percent of persons with autism are also classified as mentally retarded. Their most distinctive feature, however-- which helps
distinguish them from those solely mentally retarded--is that they seem isolated from the world around-- detached, aloof, or in a dreamworld. The word autism (derived from the Greek word meaning "self" ) has been applied because of the autistic
person's superficial resemblance to someone self-involved or daydreaming. Such individuals often appear only vaguely aware of the people in their environment, including family members. _^<N__^<N_Another characteristic that differentiates autism
from retardation is the much greater likelihood that the autistic person will display strange postures, mannerisms, habits, and compulsions. Rocking, hand-flapping, unusual food preferences, avoidance of eye contact, insensitivity to pain,
head-banging, and other forms of self-injurious behavior are frequently seen in autistic persons. Appropriate play with toys or other children is uncommon. There is often a great interest in inanimate objects, especially mechanical devices and
appliances. _^<N__^<N_ Types_^<N__^<N_Autism has many causes, and therefore there are many types. Also, there continues to be confusion and controversy concerning the nature, cause, diagnosis, and treatment of autism. In recent years an effort has
been made to classify autism as a form of pervasive developmental disorder (PDD), but this categorization has met with considerable criticism and opposition and does not seem likely to prevail. The term autism spectrum disorder acknowledges the
diversity and range of severity of autism, and it is increasingly applied. _^<N__^<N_A number of conditions overlap autism in significant ways and tend to make its diagnosis more difficult. Thus some persons with FRAGILE X SYNDROME, a genetic
disorder affecting males almost exclusively, exhibit many characteristics of autism, although most fragile X cases are considered retarded and not autistic. Rett syndrome, a profound neurological disorder affecting females, also produces symptoms
similar to those of autism in a child's early years, before the physical characteristics of the syndrome appear. Aspergers syndrome is thought by some authorities to be merely a variant of autism that affects individuals who speak and are highly
functioning. Others believe that Asperger cases are not autistic but instead highly eccentric but otherwise normal individuals. _^<N__^<N_About half of all autistic individuals are mute or speak intelligibly only once or twice in their lifetimes.
Nonmute autistic children are able to produce words and sentences, sometimes even being able to articulate words clearly before their first birthday, but they have great difficulty in using language as an effective means of communication. If they
do develop useful speech, it generally begins to become meaningful between ages five and eight. Even the highest functioning autistic persons tend to communicate in speech that is stilted, overly formal, poorly modulated, and atypical in other
ways. _^<N__^<N_The speaking autistic individuals, especially those who fall into the subgroup that exhibits early infantile autism, also known as Kanner's syndrome, display many unusual language mannerisms, such as reversing pronouns (saying you
for I) and repeating a question to indicate yes. The Kanner's syndrome subgroup, constituting about 10 percent of all autistic persons, displays with remarkable consistency a characteristic cluster of symptoms seen to a lesser degree in other
autistic children: exceptional memory, fascination with mechanical objects, insistence on sameness in the environment (for example, having the furniture in a house always placed in a specific order), and, often, unusual skills in music, art, or
computation (see IDIOT SAVANT). _^<N__^<N_ Possible Causes_^<N__^<N_Since autism is now recognized to be of biological origin, researchers have begun to explore a variety of possible causes. Some cases are clearly genetic, and recently researchers
have identified certain genes that may be causative. The discovery of an antibody to brain receptors for the neurotransmitter SEROTONIN in the blood of some autistic individuals suggests that the disorder either might be a form of autoimmune
disease (see AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES) or else might be an indication of the degeneration of nerve cells in the brain. In 1988, brain scans using magnetic resonance imaging revealed that some autistic individuals have a large deficiency of brain cells
in a part of the cerebellum known as the vermis. The biological mechanism causing this has not been discovered. _^<N__^<N_ Treatment_^<N__^<N_The most pervasive form of treatment for autistic individuals today involves the use of intensive,
purposeful BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION programs, in which the subject is taught in small increments and reinforced immediately after an appropriate response is made. An intensive behavior modification program, if started at age three or four, may produce
near-normal behavior in a significant percentage of autistic children. _^<N__^<N_Various drugs have been used on autistic children, but drugs currently available have limited effectiveness and some potential for significant side effects.
Researchers have found larger-than-normal dosages of vitamin B6, accompanied by magnesium, to be helpful to many children and adults. Several reports show B6 and magnesium to benefit about one half of the autistic children and adults on whom this
has been tried, with no adverse effects reported. Improvement was found not only in behavior but also in brain electrical activity and in biochemical measures. Despite such progress, no treatment program has proved uniformly effective. Many
autistic persons remain severely impaired, requiring institutionalization or custodial home care all their lives. A few have spontaneously recovered, or partially recovered, and have written accounts of their experiences. _^<N__^<N_Bernard Rimland
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Donnellan, A., ed., Classic Readings in Autism (1985); Gillberg, C., and Coleman, M., The Biology of the Autistic Syndromes (1992); Grandin, T., Emergence: Labelled Autistic (1986); Powers, M., Children with Autism (1989);
Rimland, B., Infantile Autism (1964; repr. 1984); Rutter, M., and Schopler, E., Autism (1978); Schopler, E., and Mesibov, G., Neurobiological Issues in Autism (1987); Williams, Donna, Nobody Nowhere (1992).
-END-
-C-
46
CAT
-A-
Auto Workers, United:
-T-
Auto Workers, United:_^<N__^<N_see UNITED AUTO WORKERS.
-END-
-C-
399
CAT
-A-
Autobahn
-T-
Autobahn_^<N__^<N_{ow'-toh-bahn} _^<N__^<N_The Autobahn is a network of high-speed roadways in Germany. The first section of the Autobahn, between Cologne and Bonn, was completed by 1932. Its length totaled 10,854 km (6,744 mi) by the mid-1990s, of
which 8,959 km (5,566 mi) were in the former West Germany. The Autobahn was the first project to aim at creating a national highway system. _^<N__^<N_See also: ROADS AND HIGHWAYS.
-END-
-C-
4701
CAT
-A-
autobiography
-T-
autobiography_^<N__^<N_An autobiography, like a BIOGRAPHY, is a record of a life, but it is written by the subject himself or herself. The many different kinds of autobiographical writings include letters, memoirs, diaries, and journals preserved
with autobiographical intent; formal, retrospective self-studies; and autobiographical fiction. _^<N__^<N_The various kinds of autobiographical writings fall roughly into two groupings. The first category focuses primarily on events remembered or
participated in by the writer (memoirs and reminiscences). The second category emphasizes personal examination or analysis, as in CONFESSIONAL LITERATURE. The latter may be either looser in form (letters, fragmentary diaries, and autobiographical
incidents in novels) or carefully shaped, retrospective narratives composed as a single work. _^<N__^<N_In general, the history of the genre closely parallels the history of biography. Examples date as far back as the impulse of Egyptian,
Babylonian, and Assyrian kings to record their deeds and wealth in their own words. With the exception of the CONFESSIONS OF ST. AUGUSTINE, however, significant autobiographies are rare in the classical and medieval periods. The closest examples
are such works as the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius and Julius Caesar's Commentaries, which have autobiographical dimensions but are much closer to philosophy and history. _^<N__^<N_In the Renaissance, as people became more interested in
themselves and their relationship to the world, autobiographies and autobiographical writings of all kinds were produced in larger numbers. The Book of Margery Kempe (1436), the Autobiography (1558-66) of Benvenuto CELLINI, the Litera ad postero
(c.1367-72) of PETRARCH, and the autobiography of Lord Herbert of Cherbury (1764) are among the best examples. _^<N__^<N_The late Renaissance and the early 18th century became the great ages of autobiography. Journals (religious and secular),
memoirs (political, military, and erotic or scandalous), and letters were frequently published. Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners (1666), by John BUNYAN, and Reliquiae Baxterianae (1696) by Richard BAXTER are good examples of religious
autobiography. Apology (1740) for his own life by Colley CIBBER and the Autobiography (1766) of Benjamin FRANKLIN are excellent secular biographies. By far the best personal journals and diaries are those of John EVELYN, published in 1818; of
Samuel PEPYS--probably the most delightful of all diarists--published in their entirety between 1893 and 1899; and of James BOSWELL, published in the 20th century. _^<N__^<N_Possibly because of the romantic movement and a renewed interest in
self-examination, the late 18th and early 19th centuries saw the publication of the first great modern autobiographies: highly self-conscious, retrospective analyses of an author's life or some crucial aspect of it written as a complete work. The
best of these are the Autobiography (1796) of Edward GIBBON, Les Confessions (1781, 1788) of Jean Jacques ROUSSEAU, Apologia Pro Vita Sua (1864) by Cardinal John Henry NEWMAN, Edmund Gosse's Father and Son (1907), the Autobiography (1873) of John
Stuart MILL, and the EDUCATION OF HENRY ADAMS (1907). Such poems as the Prelude (1850) of William WORDSWORTH and the autobiographical sections of Lord Childe Harold's Pilgrimage (1812-18) by Lord BYRON might be included. _^<N__^<N_Several major
literary figures have treated their own lives in fictional form, writing thinly disguised, heavily autobiographical novels. Among the best of these are Samuel Butler's The WAY OF ALL FLESH (1903), D. H. Lawrence's SONS AND LOVERS (1913), and James
Joyce's A PORTRAIT OF THE ARTIST AS A YOUNG MAN. _^<N__^<N_During the past several decades, autobiographical writings of all kinds, as well as autobiographies in the form of ORAL HISTORY, have interested economists, social historians, and other
academic professions outside literature. The field of women's studies in particular has used the letters, diaries, and journals--mostly unpublished--of women in all walks of life to shed new light on women's history. In addition, the publication of
various autobiographical works by women writers (Anais NIN and Virginia WOOLF are prominent examples) has provided insights not only into their lives, but into the creative process as well. _^<N__^<N_William R. Siebenschuh _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Andrews, W. L., Afro-American Autobiography (1992); Brodzki, B., and Schenck, C., eds., Life-Lines (1988); Bruss, Elizabeth W., Autobiographical Acts (1977); Cockshut, A. O., The Art of Autobiography in 19th and 20th Century England (1984); Eskin,
Paul J., Fictions in Autobiography (1985); Olney, James, Studies in Autobiography (1988); Sturrock, John, The Language of Autobiography (1993).
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605
CAT
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Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas, The
-T-
Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas, The_^<N__^<N_The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas (1933) is in reality an autobiography of Gertrude STEIN, written by Stein as if her lifelong companion, Alice Toklas, were the author. Stein chronicles the comings
and goings of artists and writers who visited her apartment in Paris in the 1920s. Frequently humorous descriptions of celebrities such as Pablo PICASSO and Ernest HEMINGWAY afford a glimpse of the artistic atmosphere of Paris. In the
Autobiography, the writer says that she knows only three geniuses: Picasso, Stein, and Alfred North WHITEHEAD. _^<N__^<N_Charlotte D. Solomon
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655
CAT
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Autobiography of Malcolm X, The
-T-
Autobiography of Malcolm X, The_^<N__^<N_The Autobiography of Malcolm X, published in 1965 shortly after MALCOLM X's assassination, is perhaps the most compelling work to come out of the civil rights movement of the 1960s in the United States. It is
Malcolm X's account, as recorded by Alex HALEY, of his life from his impoverished youth in a northern black ghetto through numerous imprisonments to his emergence as a power in the BLACK MUSLIMS and his breach with that organization. Although he
lashes out against whites and their power structure, Malcolm X does hold out the slim hope of reconciliation between the races in a new society based on social justice.
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1143
CAT
-A-
autogiro
-T-
autogiro_^<N__^<N_{aw'-to-jy'-roh} _^<N__^<N_The autogiro is an aircraft that obtains its lift from a rotor that freely rotates horizontally. The rotor is not powered directly by the engine but rather by the flow of air past the blades. Forward
thrust comes from a propeller. Early autogiros were inherently unstable and tended to tip over when straight- line flight was attempted. The Spanish engineer Juan de la CIERVA designed the first successful autogiro (1923) by hinging the rotor
blades so that they could rise and fall freely in response to variations in relative velocity during rotation, thus equalizing the lift. Unlike the HELICOPTER, which eventually took over most of its functions, the autogiro is incapable of hovering
flight. Improved models can, however, make short takeoffs and landings (see VTOL/STOL). On early versions, wings were necessary for lateral control, but on later models the rotor system provides control. _^<N__^<N_H. C. Curtiss, Jr.
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Brooks, P. W., Cierva Autogiros: The Development of Rotary Flight (1988); Gablehouse, C., Helicopters and Autogiros (1969); Townsend, G., Autogiro, the Story of the "Windmill" Plane (1985).
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3416
CAT
-A-
autoimmune diseases
-T-
autoimmune diseases_^<N__^<N_In autoimmune diseases, the body's IMMUNE SYSTEM becomes unable to control immune responses against its own "self" substances, causing tissue destruction and malfunction. This leads to a number of chronic and
life-threatening diseases. Autoimmune diseases are characterized by the presence of antibodies and T-cells against "self" components, called autoantibodies and autoreactive T-cells. _^<N__^<N_A healthy person produces autoantibodies as a normal
part of aging and during viral and bacterial infections. Excessive autoimmune responses are prevented by the deletion of autoreactive cells during immune system development and by cellular and cytokine (immune system "hormones" ) networks. When
these controls fail, or the person is exposed to environmental or other agents, an autoimmune disease may result. Studies have shown that individuals likely to develop autoimmune diseases may be identified by the presence of autoantibodies--for
example, the presence of anti-islet cells or anti-insulin antibodies in combination with other tests may help to predict the onset of diabetes. _^<N__^<N_There are two types of autoimmune diseases: non-organ specific and organ specific. In
non-organ specific autoimmune diseases, the immune system attacks the many organs, causing systemic diseases such as rheumatoid ARTHRITIS, systemic LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS, Sjogren's syndrome, SCLERODERMA, polymyositis and dermomyositis, anklosing
SPONDYLITIS, and RHEUMATIC FEVER. Organ-specific autoimmune diseases are known for virtually every organ; among the most common are insulin-dependent DIABETES, thyroid diseases (Graves' disease and Hashimoto's thyroiditis), ADDISON'S DISEASE, and
some kidney and lung diseases. Some neurological diseases such as MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS and MYASTHENIA GRAVIS may also be considered autoimmune diseases because they are characterized by antibodies and T-cells that react with "self" components. Some
diseases of the eye (uveitis), skin (psoriasis), liver (forms of hepatitis and cirrhosis), gut (celiac disease, inflammatory bowel disease) and reproductive systems (male and female infertility) may result from predominantly autoimmune responses.
Autoimmune processes stimulated by viral infections including the HIV virus (see AIDS) frequently affect platelets and lymphocytes. Autoimmune phenomena may also accompany certain cancers or be precipitated by exposure to some chemicals.
_^<N__^<N_The origin of autoimmune diseases is not known. Most occur in females, and some have a genetic component, recurring in families. Immune response genes appear to confer particular susceptibility. Most likely, development of an autoimmune
disease requires both a genetic susceptibility and additional stimuli such as exposure to pathogens or toxins. _^<N__^<N_Autoimmune diseases are chronic illnesses that can be life-threatening. Treatment strategies, although limited by a present
lack of a fundamental understanding of disease mechanisms, begin with the management of loss of function and pain. Removal of toxic antibodies, called plasmapheresis, may be helpful in diseases such as myasthenia gravis. Drug therapy includes
corticosteroids, chloroquine derivatives, and small doses of antimetabolic or anticancer drugs. Other treatments include drugs that target immune system cells, such as the cyclosporines. _^<N__^<N_Janet M. McNicholl, M.D. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Lachman, P. J., et al., eds., Clinical Aspects of Immunology (1993).
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647
CAT
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Automat
-T-
Automat_^<N__^<N_Automat is the registered service mark of a chain of once-famous self-service restaurants, in which food was displayed and sold from individual compartments behind coin-operated doors and beverages were dispensed from coin-operated
spigots. Patrons could dine at tables after purchasing sandwiches, soup, hot casseroles, fruit, and desserts, all at comparatively inexpensive prices. Automats were first opened in the United States in 1904 by the Horn and Hardart Co. The
popularity of the Automat began to fade in the 1960s, with the advent of the fast-food era. Today, one restored and refurbished Automat still operates in New York City.
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6554
CATO
4748
-A-
automata, theory of
-O-
000000|automata, theory of
001155| The Turing Machine and Neural Nets
002339| Artificial Intelligence
004033| Recent Developments
-T-
automata, theory of_^<N__^<N_{awt-ah-mat'-uh} _^<N__^<N_The theory of automata deals with the fundamental behavioral principles of automatic machines. The term itself--automata (singular, automaton)--refers to the models developed to simulate
machines and the processes by which they operate. Automata theory provides the theoretical framework for all such automated processes. These include systems--actual and theoretical--in which sensors and detectors replace human sense organs,
actuators powered by electric motors or hydraulic forces replace human muscles, and microprocessors replace the human brain. _^<N__^<N_The theory of automata was once largely an abstract branch of mathematics. It was an attempt to define the
behavior of machines or systems in terms of data inputs and outputs. Specific areas of interest that have since developed in this area include computing machine theory, language or grammar theory, logic theory, and ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE.
_^<N__^<N_More recently, the theory of automata has been implemented in practical computer-based operations that mimic human processes. It is therefore also deeply involved in the growing field of research into what is now called ARTIFICIAL LIFE.
_^<N__^<N_ The Turing Machine and Neural Nets_^<N__^<N_In 1936, Alan TURING, an English mathematician, systematized automata theory by developing, on paper, a model for the digital computer. Turing proved that his "universal computer" could solve
virtually any mathematical or logical problem that could be formulated in a logically consistent manner. The Turing machine thus served, and continues to serve, as a model--an automaton--for the potentials of any computer that can be built within
the limits of technical knowledge for the foreseeable future. Turing also showed, however, that certain types of mathematical problems were beyond the powers of his universal computer because they could not be formulated in a logically consistent
way. _^<N__^<N_In the 1940s, Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), developed the theory of neural net automation. Essentially an abstract model of the human nervous system, neural net automation
theory describes a system of neurons, that, when stimulated above a certain threshold, will fire, and transmit an impulse along connecting fibers. Neural net automation theory has been used in a variety of automata applications. _^<N__^<N_
Artificial Intelligence_^<N__^<N_The 1950s brought a surge of enthusiasm for the theory of automata. American linguist Noam CHOMSKY, for example, demonstrated that automated language analysis could be performed on both human language and
programming languages. John McCarthy of MIT coined the term artificial intelligence and defined it as "the science of making computers do things which if done by men would require intelligence." This clever definition sidestepped a troubling issue:
the basically philosophical question as to the nature of human thought and intelligence and, in consequence, whether or not computers can actually think in terms of the answers proposed to that question. _^<N__^<N_Claude Elwood SHANNON, also of
MIT, outlined methods whereby a machine could be programmed to play winning chess and learn from its experiences. Additional advances were made by the researcher Herbert A. SIMON, who developed the "General Problem Solver," a program that was able
to prove a well-known theorem in a way that was simpler than traditional methods, and by Terry Winograd, who developed a program that could understand both verbal language and complex geometric manipulations. _^<N__^<N_Automata theorists have
struggled with the difficulties of learning how machines might be made to see, to hear, to learn from experience, and to think. Critics have accused researchers in the field of producing few results. Some have predicted that it will be impossible
for machines to mimic real human thinking, although researchers into complex systems and artificial life--discussed below--are more positive on this matter. At any rate, automatic machines that perform routine tasks have become commonplace in
industry. _^<N__^<N_ Recent Developments_^<N__^<N_Active areas in modern automata theory include studies in expert systems and man-machine interactions. EXPERT SYSTEMS are computer programs that to some extent encapsulate the expertise of highly
trained professionals. A program called Caduceus, for example, is a knowledge-based system that diagnoses blood diseases from 1,000 programmed rules. Another program, called Prospector, is used to locate mineral deposits using geological data
supplied by its programmers. _^<N__^<N_Advances in applied areas such as VOICE RECOGNITION and machine-learning have been frustrated by the slow speeds of older generations of computers. Higher speeds are needed in order to handle the data involved
in such processes. PARALLEL PROCESSING techniques and newer generations of faster microelectronics will be employed to attain such goals. _^<N__^<N_One possibly rich field for basic research is cellular automata. First elucidated by mathematicians
John VON NEUMANN and Stanislaw Ulam in the early 1950s, cellular automata are made up of mathematical "cells"--squares on a chessboard offer a good analogy--that change their value, or state, according to simple rules, or ALGORITHMS. The state of
each "cell"is affected by the states of neighboring cells. This concept of cellular automata is an outgrowth of the Turing machine. _^<N__^<N_Researchers in the field of cellular automata have used computers to model such natural physical processes
as snowflake formation. Workers in the field of so-called artificial life are further exploiting these potentialities by simulating, with growing exactitude, the natural biological processes of growth, development, mutation, and evolution. They
hope eventually to model such extremely complex biological systems as the human brain. Some theorists even suggest that computerized systems of cellular automata might already be considered new life forms in themselves. _^<N__^<N_Donna Logsdon and
Tom Logsdon _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Arbib, Michael, Computers and the Cybernetic Society, 2d ed. (1984); Bavel, Zarib, Introduction to the Theory of Automata (1983); Bergadano, F., Machine Learning (1991); Fogel, D. B., System Identification
through Simulated Evolution (1991); Howie, J. M., Automata and Languages (1991); Logsdon, Tom, Computers Today and Tomorrow (1985); McCorduck, Pamela, Aaron's Rod (1990); and Machines Who Think (1981); McNaughton, R., Elementary Computability,
Formal Languages and Automata (1982); Minsky, Marvin, Computation (1967); Nelson, R. J., Introduction to Automata (1967).
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719
CAT
-A-
automatic writing
-T-
automatic writing_^<N__^<N_Automatic writing is writing produced while a person is unconscious or semiconscious of the act. In the 19th century the phenomenon was used by practitioners of SPIRITUALISM, who sometimes employed devices such as the
OUIJA board. It was later adopted by workers in PARAPSYCHOLOGY. Psychologists have also studied automatic writing and drawing, or doodling, and it has been used in multiple-personality cases (see NEUROSIS). In the arts, automatic writing was taken
up by such 20th-century French writers as Andre Breton and Robert DESNOS as one of the techniques of SURREALISM. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Aragon, Louis, Treatise on Style, trans. by A. Waters (1991); Muhl, A. M., Automatic Writing, 2d ed. (1963).
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8253
CATO
4736
-A-
automation
-O-
000000|automation
000513| HISTORY
002173| PRINCIPLES
002325| Measurement
003026| Evaluation
003378| Control
003887| APPLICATIONS
004180| Process Control
004639| Servomechanisms
005111| Industrial Robots
005874| FUTURE OF AUTOMATION
-T-
automation_^<N__^<N_The term automation refers to a wide variety of systems and processes that operate with little or no human intervention. In the most modern automation systems, control is exercised by the system itself, through control devices
that sense changes in such conditions as temperature, rate of flow, and volume, and then command the system to make adjustments to compensate for these changes. Most modern industrial operations are too complex to be handled manually or even with
simple machines under manual control. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY_^<N__^<N_Automation developed as a result of advances in the design of a MACHINE. Although early machines were often complicated, most were designed to operate under a specific set of
conditions; when these conditions changed, a manual adjustment was necessary to assure proper operation. This was not a major shortcoming, since the machines operated at relatively low speeds. During the Industrial Revolution of the late 1700s and
the 1800s, however, more sophisticated machines were developed and applied to situations requiring a faster response than was possible with manual adjustment. This need led to the concept of automation. _^<N__^<N_Automation was quickly recognized
as a valuable way to assure efficiency and accuracy in manufacturing processes. The chemical industries developed the technology of automation to regulate variables such as pressure and temperature that are involved in the production of chemicals.
The food industries found that packaging, bottling, and sealing operations, as well as the production of food products, could be accomplished more efficiently by the use of automated systems. The methods of automation were refined with the
development of aircraft guidance systems and automatic pilots. The development of digital computers, which can monitor external conditions and make appropriate adjustments to a system, added further impetus to the applications of automation. Today,
through automation, an entire oil refinery can be operated by just four persons. Industrial robots perform numerous functions on assembly lines, and automated spacecraft on deep-space probes are programmed automatically to make adjustments in
operations. _^<N__^<N_ PRINCIPLES_^<N__^<N_An automated system adjusts its operations in response to changing external conditions in three steps: measurement, evaluation, and control. _^<N__^<N_ Measurement_^<N__^<N_In order for an automated system
to respond to the external environment, it must be able to measure the physical variables in that environment. Thus, if flow rate is to be controlled, a measurement must be made to determine what the flow rate is. If a complex assembly procedure is
to occur, a measurement or series of measurements must be made to define the present state of the assembly. These measurements supply the system with information known as FEEDBACK, because the information is fed back to the input of the system and
used to exercise some control over it. For example, if the process is self-guidance, the feedback will include the system's location, speed, and acceleration. _^<N__^<N_ Evaluation_^<N__^<N_The measured information is evaluated in order to
determine if corrective action must be initiated. Thus, if a spacecraft evaluates its position and finds itself to be off course, a course correction must be made; the evaluation function also determines exactly how long and in what direction a
rocket should be fired to correct the course. _^<N__^<N_ Control_^<N__^<N_The last step of automation is the action resulting from the measurement and evaluation operations. Thus, the rocket gets an appropriate signal to fire and thereby changes
the path of the spacecraft. _^<N__^<N_In many automation systems, these operations may be difficult to identify. A system may involve the interaction of more than one control loop--that is, a loop in the path of the signal from the output back to
the input. All systems, however, include the steps of measurement, evaluation, and control. _^<N__^<N_ APPLICATIONS_^<N__^<N_Automation is used in numerous industries throughout the world. Some industries have become more automated than others, and
some devices could not work at all without automated features. In many cases, specific applications of the principles of automation have led to new fields. _^<N__^<N_ Process Control_^<N__^<N_The application of the principles of automation to the
control of continuous manufacturing operations is called PROCESS CONTROL. It is used extensively in the chemical and petrochemical industries, where gas and liquid temperatures, flow, pressure, reaction rates, and many other characteristics must be
controlled. Some plants have become so automated that human involvement is needed only to monitor the operation for nonroutine conditions. _^<N__^<N_ Servomechanisms_^<N__^<N_Many industrial operations require a device, called a SERVOMECHANISM, to
control such simple operations as the rotational rate of motor shafts, the amount of current, hydraulic or pneumatic pressure within a system, or the position of a valve. Servomechanisms function through a FEEDBACK process. They are usually
actuated by changes in a mechanical situation, although some complex servomechanisms are set in motion by electric or electronic frequencies. _^<N__^<N_ Industrial Robots_^<N__^<N_The use of automated machines that can be programmed to perform
different jobs under various operating conditions has recently become widespread. These machines can properly be called industrial robots (see ROBOT). Robots are employed to drill, machine, and partially assemble automobile engines. By
reprogramming the controls or computer that oversees the operation, the same machines might be used to align and assemble washing machines. The spacecraft sent to the Moon and on deep-space missions are also types of robots. Although radio contact
is maintained with these craft, the distances involved are so great that the craft must incorporate devices that can adjust operations--based on the conditions encountered--without human commands. _^<N__^<N_ FUTURE OF AUTOMATION_^<N__^<N_As
technology continues to be developed and improved, more and more of the routine activities of business and industry will be taken over by automated systems. Microcomputers, based upon the INTEGRATED CIRCUIT, are already causing a vast change in the
applications of automation; even a device as simple as a washing machine can be put under computer control and thus be programmed to respond to a variety of environmental conditions. The continued deployment of automated systems will replace some
traditional employment opportunities for people, but new opportunities will be established. Indeed, as automation is extended, it will become necessary to evaluate its effect on society. _^<N__^<N_Recent advances in durable miniature systems for
computing, mobility, and energy storage have made the robot of science fiction a near reality. It is likely that future societies will see the first practical robot capable of interacting with human beings. The key characteristic of such a
completely automated machine will be self-adaptability, the capacity to evaluate a new overall condition and decide upon a course of action. Realizing this potential will require new developments in computer algorithms, pattern recognition, and
control functions. The use of computers to design and manufacture complex systems is becoming increasingly common (see COMPUTER- AIDED DESIGN AND COMPUTER-AIDED MANUFACTURING). CAD/CAM systems are now capable of designing and controlling entire
manufacturing processes. The development of interactive robots will undoubtedly require the use of even more highly sophisticated CAD/CAM systems. _^<N__^<N_Curtis D. Johnson _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Adler, P. S., and Winograd, T., eds., Usability:
Turning Technology Into Tools (1992); Billingsley, J., et al., Robots and Automated Manufacture (1985); Bouldin, Barbara M., Agents of Change: Managing the Introduction of Automated Tools (1989); Franklin, Gene F., et al., Digital Control of
Dynamic Systems, 2d ed. (1990); Gregory, J., and Marshall, D., eds., Office Automation: Jekyll or Hyde? (1983); Kraut, Robert E., ed., Technology and the Transformation of White Collar Work (1987); Marshall, B., Automated Fabrication: Improving
Productivity in Manufacturing (1993); Noble, David F., Forces of Production: A Social History of Industrial Automation (1986); Shaiken, Harley, Work Transformed (1985).
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2904
CAT
-A-
automaton
-T-
automaton_^<N__^<N_{aw-tahm'-uh-tahn} _^<N__^<N_An automaton is a device that can duplicate certain actions of living things. Greek myth discusses a robotlike guardian devised by Daedalus for King Minos of Crete that could walk around the entire
island in a day to awe intruders. In the 1st and 2d centuries BC, Hero of Alexandria constructed automatons, and in his book Epivitalia he described several displays depicting various groups of animal automatons. The medieval English philosopher
Roger BACON wrote on the subject of automatons. In 1354 the famous Strasbourg clock was built; this mechanism incorporated a metal cock that not only opened its beak, put out its tongue, and crowed, but also spread its feathers and flapped its
wings. A long string of even more complex clockwork mechanisms followed. _^<N__^<N_The term automaton first appeared in English in 1625 and was related to the idea of ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE. At the time of the Renaissance in Europe, Hero's works
were rediscovered, and his treatises and the accounts of his experiments inspired automaton makers and inventors. _^<N__^<N_The golden era of fine automatons, however, was the 18th and 19th centuries. In 1779, Wolfgang von Kempelen made a model of
the human vocal chords, which won a prize from the St. Petersburg Academy of Science. Jacques de Vaucanson made a flute player with a repertoire of 12 tunes. Henri Maillardet created a mechanical writer that would write little rhymes in English and
French. The family of Pierre Jacquet-Droz made fabulous toys, including a sheep that bleated. Organ-grinders with dancing monkeys were a common automaton theme. By the late 19th century, however, mechanical models had become crude devices despite
the availability of more sophisticated technology. _^<N__^<N_Most automatons were built to resemble their natural counterparts, and the notion of copying natural forms continued in literary and popular ideas about robots (see ROBOT). Contemporary
robots, however bear no resemblance to their makers--although they are, by definition, perfect automatons. Dante, a one-of-a-kind robot, has six camera-lens eyes and eight legs with built-in sensors and is designed to function in such extremely
harsh environments as the interior of an active volcano. Jason, an oceanographic robot, explores the deep seas for science. More mundane robots perform many less demanding tasks: in factories, they spot-weld automobile chassis, spray paint, install
windshields, vacuum the floors; equipped with delicate sensors, they can monitor river pollution and assist in cleanups of hazardous waste. _^<N__^<N_Ruth V. Buckley _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Aleksander, Igor, and Burnett, Piers, Reinventing Man: The
Robot Becomes Reality (1984); Asimov, Isaac, and Frankel, K., Robots (1985); Cohen, J., Human Robots in Myth and Science (1966); Drexler, Eric, Engines of Creation (1987); Simons, Geoff, The Quest for Living Machines (1993); Time-Life Staff, Robots
(1990).
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7307
CATO
4795
-A-
automobile
-O-
000000|automobile
000848| ENGINE
002640| CHASSIS
004827| POWER TRAIN
006279| BODY
-T-
automobile_^<N__^<N_The automobile is a self-propelled, wheeled, steerable vehicle used for transporting people and small cargoes on land. This article describes the main parts of the automobile and their functions. The history, manufacture, and
design of the motorized passenger vehicle are discussed in AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY. Technical and operational details may be found in separate articles on the systems mentioned below. _^<N__^<N_All passenger cars, trucks, and buses have certain things
in common: (1) a power plant or engine; (2) a chassis, which consists of the frame, drivetrain, suspension, and steering, and includes the wheels and brakes; (3) the power train, which transmits and distributes power from the engine to the car's
driving wheels, and (4) a body, which provides some protection for driver and passengers and gives the vehicle shape and identity. _^<N__^<N_ ENGINE_^<N__^<N_Throughout the world, many different types of engines have been used in automobiles.
Today, generally, they are internal-combustion engines (see INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE) that burn gasoline or diesel fuel. Most passenger car engines run on gasoline, are liquid-cooled, and are of the four-stroke, overhead-valve, reciprocating
type, with carburetion or fuel-injection. _^<N__^<N_The DIESEL ENGINE, which burns fuel oil, is more common in large trucks and buses, although it is used in many European automobiles. Diesel engines do not use spark-plug ignition systems (see
IGNITION SYSTEM). Instead, they spray fuel into the cylinders, where it is ignited spontaneously by the heat of compression. _^<N__^<N_Almost all automobiles use reciprocating engines, in which pistons move up and down inside tubular cylinders.
The pistons are connected, by means of an articulated connecting rod, to a spinning crankshaft, which converts their back-and-forth movement to circular motion. Some vehicles have Wankel engines (see WANKEL ENGINE), which contain triangular
rotating pistons that rotate inside combustion chambers. _^<N__^<N_Today, many diesel and gasoline engines use exhaust-driven turbochargers that increase power output with only a minor increase in weight. The turbocharger takes thermal energy from
the hot exhaust gases and uses it to compress the incoming charge of fuel and air, substantially increasing engine horsepower. _^<N__^<N_As concerns about air pollution grow the ELECTRIC CAR may once again provide a usable engine technology. Both
U. S. and foreign car makers have electric cars in development, although the problem of limited driving range has yet to be solved. Storage batteries are still crude and can power these vehicles for only about 160-240 km (100-150 mi) before a
recharge is needed. _^<N__^<N_ CHASSIS_^<N__^<N_An automobile chassis includes the car's frame, power train, suspension, wheels, steering, and brake systems. _^<N__^<N_Earlier cars had full, ladder-type frames on which the body was mounted in
separate pieces. Modern cars are made from a welded steel unibody that combines the function of the frame with the central cabin of the body. The subframe, front or rear, is a small steel brace that supports the engine or suspension and is welded
to the car's unibody structure, with the body forming the center and connecting supports. _^<N__^<N_The automobile's wheels are attached to the chassis by a SUSPENSION SYSTEM consisting of control arms, springs, and shock absorbers. Springs may be
any of three types: coil, leaf, or torsion bar. Shock absorbers damp vertical wheel movement and restrict the pitch and roll of the car's chassis while it is in motion. _^<N__^<N_The STEERING SYSTEM normally controls the angle of the front wheels
relative to the centerline of the car. As the steering wheel is turned, a gear under the hood changes the rotary motion to lateral motion, which is transmitted by steering arms to the front wheels, causing them to deflect to the left or right and
making the car turn. Most cars today have power steering, which uses engine power to reduce the effort of turning the steering wheel. Some vehicles use four-wheel steering, which allows the rear as well as the front wheels to steer, although to a
much lesser degree. While this system adds stability and maneuverability to a vehicle, it also adds weight, cost, and complexity. _^<N__^<N_To power the BRAKE system, hydraulic fluid in the master cylinder is forced through brake lines to the
wheels, in proportion to the force applied on the brake pedal. The pressure of the fluid drives brake shoes or pads against disks or drums that are fixed to the wheels. Friction from the brake pads causes the moving wheels to slow or stop. With
power brakes, power from the engine is used to decrease the pedal pressure needed to stop the car. Antilock, or antiskid, brake systems (ABS) are increasingly popular on passenger cars. With ABS, braking and steering control are retained even on
wet, slippery, or uneven road surfaces. _^<N__^<N_ POWER TRAIN_^<N__^<N_The power train includes a transmission, manual or automatic; a clutch, on cars with manual transmissions; a DIFFERENTIAL; wheel axles; and, in rear-drive cars, a drive
shaft. While cars with a front-engine, rear-drive layout were the norm for many years, most cars today are front-engine, front-drive. Front drive creates more passenger space and offers better traction on snowy or wet roads. Some cars and light
trucks designed to go off-road or through bad weather use all-wheel drive, where all four wheels are coupled to the engine. _^<N__^<N_Because of the great difference in engine speed and load between a car that is accelerating from a stop and one
that is cruising at a steady speed, different gear ratios are needed to match engine output with the inertia of the vehicle. Most automobile transmissions (see TRANSMISSION) have between two and six gear ratios, along with a reverse gear. When
the vehicle is started from rest, a high gear ratio is needed. As speed increases, lower gear ratios are selected. Overdrive denotes a gear ratio of less than 1:1. _^<N__^<N_Shifting gears is accomplished in manual transmissions by a gearshift
lever and a clutch, both operated by the driver. When the driver presses down on the clutch pedal while shifting gears, the clutch disengages the engine and no power is sent to the transmission. Automatic transmissions have internal clutches that
disengage the engine automatically as the gears change. _^<N__^<N_ BODY_^<N__^<N_Automobile bodies are usually made of stamped steel or cast fiberglass. Body styles include two-door, four-door, hatchback, convertible, station wagon, and minivan.
Sports cars and roadsters have no hard tops and are usually low and wide. Designers attempt to produce models that are appealing to the eye, resemble other products from the same manufacturer, and are aerodynamically efficient. Low wind
resistance makes for good fuel economy and reduces noise-causing turbulence, making a quieter inside environment for passengers. _^<N__^<N_Gregory von Dare _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Appel, Robert, The Car Owner's Survival Guide (1986); Crouse, W.
H., and Anglin, D. L., The Auto Book, 3d ed. (1983); Day, John, The Bosch Book of the Motor Car (1976); Masterman, Eric V., The Auto Compendium (1986); Ruiz, Marco, et al., 100 Years of the Automobile (1985); Sears, Stephen W., The American
Heritage History of the Automobile in America (1977); Whipp, Richard, and Clark, Peter, Innovation and the Automotive Industry (1986).
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automobile racing
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000423| TYPES OF RACES
004395| HISTORY
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automobile racing_^<N__^<N_Automobile racing is a competitive sport involving almost every type of automobile. It is open to both professional and amateur drivers and is run on a variety of tracks and courses. The Federation Internationale de
l'Automobile (FIA), the body that governs automobile racing worldwide, has established an elaborate classification system for racing events and the classes and subclasses of cars that may compete in each. _^<N__^<N_ TYPES OF RACES_^<N__^<N_Grand
Prix events are the most prestigious, and the title of world champion is awarded to the driver who amasses the highest point total over a series of about 18-20 Grand Prix races during the year. The circuit is open only to Formula One
cars--open-wheeled, single-seat, mid-engine vehicles with a strictly limited engine displacement and minimum weight, and with air foils to generate downward thrust. Races are held on specially constructed, closed-circuit tracks (Nurburgring,
Germany, for example), as well as on public roads through the heart of a city (Monaco and Rome, for example). Because of rigorous qualifying requirements, only about 30 drivers in the world have the required standing to enter a Formula One event.
Speeds, held down by winding, rolling courses, range from about 48 km/h (30 mph) to about 290 km/h (180 mph). _^<N__^<N_The type of car that races at the Indianapolis 500 resembles the Formula One car. The 500--consisting of 200 laps on a 4.02 km
(2.5 mi) oval track, or 805 km (500 mi)--is sponsored by the Championship Auto Racing Teams (CART) and is an important event for the United States Auto Club (USAC) championship. Most of the 20 USAC championship events are races of 160 to 320 km
(99 to 199 mi) held over closed circuits. One notable exception is the Pikes Peak Hill Climb. _^<N__^<N_Manufacturers World Championship races are open to three classes of vehicles. Most of the races place a premium on endurance (Le Mans 24-hour
race, Nurburgring 1,000 km/621 mi) as well as high-speed handling on closed circuits. _^<N__^<N_The Canadian-American Challenge Cup, or Can-Am series, is an annual 11-race series for two-seater sports cars without limitation on engine displacement.
The races do not exceed two hours in duration. Consequently, average speeds may be well in excess of 160 km/h (100 mph). _^<N__^<N_Stock car races, an American innovation, involve competition among five categories of autos, all of which are
modified production passenger vehicles. Thousands of these races are held throughout the country, particularly in the Southern states, under the auspices of the National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR), often on oval dirt tracks.
Speeds often exceed 240 km/h (150 mph) for some of the major events (Rebel 500, Firecracker 400). _^<N__^<N_Drag racing, one of the most popular types of events, is an acceleration event staged on a very short (0.4-km/0.25-mi), straight track.
Cars normally race two at a time, and elapsed time, now electronically measured, determines the winner. A drag meet will include several heats. More than 6,000 drag-racing events are held annually in the United States and Canada. For the fastest
classification of dragster vehicles, stopping by means of a drag parachute is necessary, because maximum speeds usually exceed 322 km/h (200 mph) and go up to about 400 km/h (249 mph). _^<N__^<N_Off-road racing is open to production and modified
two- and four-wheel drive vehicles. It is conducted over rugged trails and terrain. Contestants race between checkpoints without being restricted to a specific route. The most famous races of this type in the Western Hemisphere are the Baja 500
and the Mexican 1000, both run in Baja California, Mexico. _^<N__^<N_Speed trials are races against time; that is, they are attempts to achieve world speed records for an automobile. The vehicles are specially designed, without limitations on
weight, engine, or type of fuel. Jet propulsion is the favored propulsion system today. Records are sanctioned only if the trials are run at the BONNEVILLE SALT FLATS in Utah or Lake EYRE, Australia. The current record for one mile is 1,027.787
km/h (638.637 mph), set in 1979. _^<N__^<N_Rallies are not, strictly speaking, races. They are point-to-point driving competitions in which navigation, disciplined driving, fuel consumption, and other skills count toward victory. Rally courses
can be several hundred to thousands of kilometers long, with varying on- and off-road conditions. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY_^<N__^<N_Automobile racing first appeared as a sport in 1894, when a Paris newspaper organized a competition for mechanically
propelled vehicles. The 125-km (78-mi) run between Paris and Rouen was completed by 15 of 21 starting vehicles at an average speed of about 24 km/h (14 mph). A number of races quickly followed, including the first American race, in 1895, between
Chicago and Evanston, Ill., won by J. Frank DURYEA, a pioneer U.S. automaker, at an average speed of 12 km/h (7.5 mph). Early races were run on open roads lined with spectators, until an accident on the Madrid-Paris race in 1903 killed ten people
and led to a prohibition of this type of racing in Europe. The most famous of the early American races (the Vanderbilt Cup races, held on Long Island, N.Y.) suffered a similar ban in 1911. _^<N__^<N_The Grand Prix of France, the first competition
to take place on a specially constructed circuit, was held at LeMans in 1906. The Indianapolis Motor Raceway held its first race in 1909 on a dirt track. The track was bricked in 1911, when the first running of the Indianapolis 500 race was held
on Memorial Day, which has been its annual race day ever since. _^<N__^<N_Classifications and events proliferated, with frequent changes in regulations regarding weight and engine displacement. Dominance in certain events was gained, maintained,
and then lost over the years by some of the most famous names in automobiles--Alfa-Romeo, Bentley, Bugatti, Ferrari, Ford, Jaguar, Maserati, Mercedes-Benz, and Porsche. _^<N__^<N_Automobile racing has become one of the world's most popular
spectator sports. In the United States it is second only to horse racing. The Indy 500, for example, attracts about 300,000 people, the greatest annual attendance at a sports event in the country. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Brown, Allan E., The
History of the American Speedway (1984); Dymock, E., Grand Prix Motor Racing (1980); Fox, Jack, Illustrated History of Sprint Car Racing (1985); Frostick, M., A Background to Motor Racing 1894-1978 (1981); Hamilton, Maurice, ed., Autocourse,
1980-1981 (1981); Henry, Alan, Fifty Famous Motor Races (1988); MacGowan, Robin, and Watson, Graham, Kings of the Road: A Portrait of Racers and Racing (1987); Morrison, Ian, Motor Racing: The Records (1987); Stewart, Jackie, Jackie Stewart's
Principles of Performance Driving (1986).
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automotive industry
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000000|automotive industry
000414| HISTORY: FROM 1890 TO WORLD WAR II
002295| United States
006402| Europe
009132| THE MODERN INDUSTRY
010784| Production Methods
011437| Concentration of Production
012796| Crisis Years
015308| Mergers and Internationalization
017142| Production Methods
018441| Safety, Pollution, and Fuel Conservation
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automotive industry_^<N__^<N_The automobile or automotive industry, more accurately the motor vehicle industry, comprises the manufacture and assembly of automobiles, buses, motorcycles, trucks, and components of motor vehicles (see AUTOMOBILE, BUS,
MOTORCYCLE). The petroleum and rubber industries are not included, nor are manufacturers of batteries and other electrical equipment, unless they are affiliated with a motor vehicle company. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY: FROM 1890 TO WORLD WAR
II_^<N__^<N_Although the gasoline automobile first appeared in Germany, automotive production on a commercial scale began in France about 1890. Commercial production in the United States began around the turn of the century and was qualitatively
inferior to that in Europe. In those days the industry was an assortment of small firms, each turning out a few cars by handicraft methods. American automobile plants were assembly operations that used parts made by independent suppliers. By
contrast, European companies were more likely to build the entire car themselves. The early firms originated in various ways--from bicycle makers, carriage and wagon makers, machinery operations of all kinds, and tinkerers. Attrition was high; in
the United States, for example, almost 2,000 separate concerns produced one or more cars. By 1920 the number had shrunk to about 100, and by 1929 to 44. In 1976 the Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Association had 11 members. This trend involved
consolidation of some companies as well as elimination of the weakest firms. The same pattern emerged in Europe and Japan. _^<N__^<N_At the outset it was uncertain whether the automobile would be powered by electricity, steam, or gasoline. At
first, the electric car was popular, but its use was limited, because no battery existed that could drive the vehicle either far or fast, although some of the early speed records were set in electric cars. _^<N__^<N_The steamer lasted into the
1920s. Simply stated, steam automobiles have never been competitive in cost with gasoline cars, either to build or to maintain, and there has always been concern, perhaps unfounded, about the risk of boiler explosions. The problem of cost might
have been resolved by mass production, but although pioneers like Ransom E. Olds (1864-1950) and Henry FORD considered steam power, they chose to reject it. _^<N__^<N_ United States_^<N__^<N_During the first years of the 20th century the United
States established a leadership position in automotive production that went unchallenged for half a century. This achievement was largely associated with Henry Ford. After some false starts, he founded the Ford Motor Company in 1903 and five
years later brought out the famous Model T, the first car to meet the needs of a mass market. To produce this car in quantity and at low cost, Ford introduced the moving ASSEMBLY LINE technique of MASS PRODUCTION in 1913 and thereby secured a
dominant position in the industry. The founding of General Motors in 1908 by William C. Durant (1861-1947) appeared to be of secondary importance; yet if Ford devised the technique, General Motors provided the organizational pattern for
successful large-scale motor vehicle production over time. Durant lacked the managerial skill to execute a basically sound concept of a diversified structure that would produce cars in all price ranges; his ideas were systematized by Alfred P.
Sloan (1875-1966) in the 1920s. An additional important Ford contribution to the growth of the American automobile industry was his successful challenging of the Selden patent, claimed to be a comprehensive patent on the gasoline automobile and
controlled by the Association of Licensed Automobile Manufacturers. In 1911 the courts upheld Ford's claim that the Selden patent did not cover the four-cycle engine Ford was using. As a result, the industry adopted a policy (1915) of
cross-licensing patents to avoid such litigation, a policy that remains in effect. _^<N__^<N_Both Ford and General Motors were located in the Detroit area, as were other leading producers: Packard, Hudson, Maxwell (reorganized as Chrysler in
1925), and Dodge (acquired by Chrysler in 1928). The effect of this concentration was to make Detroit the center of American and, for a long time, world automotive production. During the 1920s General Motors overtook Ford as the leading
manufacturer of motor vehicles because Henry Ford continued to produce the Model T for some years after it had passed its peak of popularity. The last Model T was built in 1927. Part of Ford's problem was the emergence of a large used-car market,
which meant that a purchaser could buy a secondhand vehicle of higher quality and style for no more than a new Model T. Other companies faced the same situation and met it by devising the annual model, just different enough so that a used car
would be clearly identifiable as such. In short, the status symbol became part of the automobile business. _^<N__^<N_By the time of the great crash of 1929, the annual output of passenger cars in the United States had reached 5 million, and the
ratio of registered automobiles to people was 1:5. Cars were produced in quantity by the moving assembly line, a method that required exact standardization and interchangeability of parts, precise synchronization of main and subassembly lines, and
elaborate division of labor. The techniques involved were now for the first time integrated as a novel system of production and on a far larger scale than anything previously attempted. This technological revolution had repercussions in other
industries. The needs of the automobile industry gave rise to continuous-process manufacture of plate glass and the continuous strip mill for sheet steel, as well as extensive development of alloy steels. Mass production also called for
specialized MACHINE TOOLS. _^<N__^<N_The principal output of the PETROLEUM industry changed from illuminants to gasoline. The discovery of vast new oil fields in the early part of the 20th century was a major stimulus to the widespread use of
gasoline-powered automobiles, since fuel became plentiful and cheap. The development of the auto industry had other effects, such as the growth of service enterprises: gas stations, repair shops, tourist camps, and motels. In addition, vehicles
created a demand for ROADS AND HIGHWAYS, and an extensive program of highway construction and improvement emerged, much of it financed by taxes on automotive fuels. _^<N__^<N_ Europe_^<N__^<N_In Europe, the only other major center of automobile
production at this time, growth was less rapid. European manufacturers tended to concentrate on luxury and sports cars. Just before World War I, William Morris (1877-1963) in Britain and Andre Citroen (1878-1935) in France began trying to emulate
Henry Ford, but it was not until after the war that they achieved any substantial results. Even then they were handicapped by legislative restrictions not encountered in North America, which reflected a continuing attitude that automobiles were
luxuries for the well-to-do. _^<N__^<N_Consequently, European manufacturers operated on a considerably smaller scale than the Americans. In Britain, then the leading European producer, no company had enough annual output to justify installing a
moving assembly line until 1932, when both Morris and Hillman did so. Indeed, two of the largest firms operating in Europe were the American companies Ford and General Motors. Ford had manufacturing plants in Europe before World War I, and
General Motors acquired British Vauxhall and German Opel in the 1920s. _^<N__^<N_Surprisingly, these trends, American and European, were little affected by the Depression of the 1930s. Production dropped sharply in the years immediately after the
market crash in 1929, but registrations and motor vehicle use remained fairly stable. The principal effect worldwide was to accelerate the elimination of the smaller and weaker companies. In the United States, the Big Three (General Motors, Ford,
and Chrysler) controlled 90 percent of the passenger automobile market by 1939. What was left was shared mainly by the Middle Five (Hudson, Nash, Packard, Studebaker, and Willys-Overland). The separate truck manufacturers fared somewhat better,
because commercial vehicles come in such manifold and often highly specialized forms that they have never been as completely dominated by mass production methods as passenger cars, and mass production methods favor the big companies.
_^<N__^<N_During World War II the automotive industries of the various participants played a major role, in part because military operations were highly mobile and depended on motorized vehicles and, equally important, because the industry
possessed productive capacity that could be applied to other military needs. For the United States in particular, the motor vehicle industry was the country's largest single resource in manufacturing capacity, and its contribution to the war
effort was impressive. It produced $29 billion worth of military materials, which was one-fifth of the total American output. The list included not only vehicles and engines but aircraft, tanks, ammunition, and an endless variety of parts and
components. _^<N__^<N_ THE MODERN INDUSTRY_^<N__^<N_Since the middle of the 20th century, the automotive industry has been global in character, with the similarities between one country and another more pronounced than the differences. Once some
degree of stability was achieved after World War II, motor vehicle production and use surged; Western Europe and Japan began to match the pattern established in the United States and Canada. One striking consequence was the steady erosion of the
dominant position initially held by the United States. In 1950 the United States produced two-thirds of the world's motor vehicles. In 1980 its share of world production was just over one-fifth, although U.S. output was almost equivalent to the
output of 1950. There have been some striking shifts in position among producing countries. In the 1960s West Germany overtook Great Britain to become the world's second largest motor vehicle manufacturer, a feat largely attributable to the
phenomenal success of the VOLKSWAGEN. In the 1970s, Japan overtook West Germany and in the 1980s passed the United States to take first place among motor vehicle producers. _^<N__^<N_Other countries with substantial automotive industries are
Canada, France, Italy, Sweden, and Russia. Elsewhere, automobile manufacturing has largely been an offshoot of the big manufacturing firms in the major producing countries. _^<N__^<N_The heaviest concentrations of motor vehicles in use are in
North America, Western Europe, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand, with ratios of 1 car to 2 to 4 persons. China, by contrast, numbers 1 car per 2,000 people--although if trucks and buses are included, the ratio rises to 1 per 359. _^<N__^<N_
Production Methods_^<N__^<N_The assembly-line technique, first introduced by Ford, has become virtually universal. Almost all passenger automobiles and most commercial vehicles (see TRUCKING INDUSTRY) are made in this way. The technique has been
greatly refined so that, instead of the rigid uniformity with which the Model T was turned out, a wide variety of options can be programmed into individual bodies and chassis. Automation was introduced, initially for the manufacture of engines, in
the early 1950s. Computer-controlled robot welding machines were first used in the 1970s; computerized machining of engine parts is a technology of the late 1980s. _^<N__^<N_ Concentration of Production_^<N__^<N_Because only large firms can
compete successfully in domestic and world markets, the U.S. pattern of concentration of production within a few giant companies has become worldwide. Of the U.S. independents, for example, Nash and Hudson survived by merging as American Motors in
1954. Studebaker and Packard merged in the same year, but the new firm abandoned automobile manufacturing in 1964. _^<N__^<N_In Great Britain, Morris and Austin joined in 1952 to become the British Motor Corporation (BMC), and two other combines
were formed around Leyland Motors and Rootes. Leyland and BMC united in 1968 as British Leyland (BL) Motors, but in the mid-1970s, BL was taken over by the government, which--under the Conservatives' privatization policy--managed to sell off most
of the unprofitable automobile groups by the late 1980s. BL was renamed Rover Group in 1986. _^<N__^<N_The German automobile industry is dominated by Volkswagen, followed by Opel (General Motors), Ford, Daimler-Benz (Mercedes), and BMW (Bayernische
Motoren Werke). The French industry has long been focused on Renault (nationalized in 1944), Citroen, Simca, and Peugeot, which merged with Citroen in the 1970s. Fiat, founded in 1899, remains the major Italian automobile manufacturer. Japan's
automotive production centers on three firms: Toyota, Nissan (Datsun), and Honda. _^<N__^<N_ Crisis Years_^<N__^<N_For years the U.S. automobile industry emphasized speed, power, and styling in its products. About 1960, however, as first the
Volkswagen and then other small foreign cars penetrated the U.S. market, competition pushed U.S. manufacturers into making compacts, cars that--while not as small as the small imports--were considerably smaller than the average American car had
been in the years following World War II. _^<N__^<N_The market trend to smaller cars developed slowly until a second gasoline crisis in the spring of 1979 brought an abrupt increase in consumer demand for compacts and the new, even smaller,
subcompacts. U.S. manufacturers were not prepared for a rapid changeover to smaller models, and when the oil shortage was followed by a prolonged downswing in the economy, the U.S. industry suffered severely. Chrysler, which had already been
losing ground, was saved from bankruptcy only by a federally guaranteed $1.5 billion loan. By 1980 the Japanese had captured almost one-quarter of the U.S. market, and high-priced cars from Europe--particularly from Sweden and Germany--were
creaming off a significant percentage of the luxury- and sports-car market. So desperate was the U.S. industry's situation that, in the 1982 contract negotiations between the manufacturers and the United Auto Workers, the union made important wage
concessions and provided "give-backs" of some benefits, in an effort to help the industry back to profitability. _^<N__^<N_The Chrysler and British Leyland crises demonstrated that governments will not allow major motor vehicle producers to fail,
when that failure might cause economic catastrophe. In 1981 the U.S. government persuaded the Japanese to impose restrictions that had the effect of substantially raising the selling prices on all cars, although they also gave U.S. firms time to
retool and modernize. From 1978 to 1984 the U.S. industry spent about $69 billion worldwide to redesign their products and modernize their plants. The year 1984 had record automobile sales, and American cars continued to sell well in the
following years, spurred by manufacturers' offers of low finance charges and cash refunds. _^<N__^<N_Although the Japanese industry operated under a quota, cars from newer national industries did not. South Korea began exporting its Hyundai models
in quantity in 1984. The South Korean firms Daiwoo, in a joint venture with General Motors, and Kia, working with Ford and Japan's Mazda, have also been successful exporters to the United States. _^<N__^<N_ Mergers and
Internationalization_^<N__^<N_The process of industrial concentration through buyouts and mergers--a process that is almost as old as the U.S. industry itself--continued in the 1980s. In 1987, Chrysler bought American Motors, hoping to gain from
the smaller manufacturer's success with the four-wheel-drive Jeep. Manufacturing agreements have quickened the pace of internationalization, to the point where very few cars can be described as having been made entirely in one country. The three
major U.S. auto firms own factories throughout the world and, in addition, have subassemblies and entire cars manufactured by foreign affiliates. Most of the latter are Japanese or South Korean, although Europe and, increasingly, Latin America
also participate in these ventures. _^<N__^<N_The rebuilding and modernizing of automobile factories within the country has greatly increased U.S. production capacity. Yet despite the prosperity of the industry, many plants are once again
threatened with layoffs and closings. At the end of the 1980s an estimated 20% of all auto imports into the United States were "captive imports"--cars sold under U.S. brand names but manufactured in other countries. Auguring particularly ill for
the domestic U.S. industry, U.S. auto firms have increased their production of sophisticated high-tech parts in countries like Mexico and Taiwan, where work was once confined to simple manufacture and assembly. Foreign automakers have established
links in the United States with U.S. firms, and all major Japanese manufacturers have opened their own factories within the United States, so that in 1992 some 12% of North American manufacturing capacity was owned by foreign corporations. The U.
S. industry thus faces greatly increased competition and the prospect of overcapacity in the last decade of the 1900s. _^<N__^<N_ Production Methods_^<N__^<N_The assembly-line technique introduced by Henry Ford continues to be used almost
universally in Europe and America. Automation was introduced on the assembly line in the early 1950s, computer-controlled welding robots in the 1970s, and computerized machining of engine parts in the late 1980s. _^<N__^<N_The Japanese ability to
impose high standards of quality control while at the same time improving productivity is challenging the standard assembly-line techniques. The success of the General Motors-Toyota plant--the New United Motor Manufacturing, Inc., or NUMMI--in
Fremont, Calif., and of several other Japanese auto manufacturing plants in the United States is considered a triumph for their "team" approach to mass manufacturing. At NUMMI, after U.S. workers are trained in a range of skills, they form small
teams that are each responsible for the assembly of a major portion of a car. The team approach requires an educated work force, considerable training inside the factory, and a commitment on the part of management that trained personnel will not
be subject to the layoffs and rehirings customary in conventional U.S. auto firms. This new approach to manufacturing had proved so satisfactory that workers in one Japanese-owned plant voted against unionization in 1989. _^<N__^<N_ Safety,
Pollution, and Fuel Conservation_^<N__^<N_Since the 1960s the automobile industry has been subject to legislation limiting the types and quantity of exhaust emissions and dictating safety standards. The use of seat belts and the probable
installation of air bags in many car models in the 1990s are among the results of this legislation (see SAFETY, AUTOMOTIVE). Pollution caused by automobile exhausts has proved more difficult to deal with. Although more efficient engines and the
use of the CATALYTIC CONVERTER and fuel-injection systems have reduced some noxious emissions, overall auto emissions continue to create problems for such cities as Los Angeles and Tokyo. A plan for stricter emissions-control in Southern
California, announced in 1989, anticipates the phasing out of gas-fueled cars by the year 2010. Their place would be taken by electric cars and a new mass-transport system. In the meantime, new engine technologies and the use of alternative fuels
such as methanol and propane are intended to reduce pollution significantly. _^<N__^<N_In the early 1990s, fuel conservation was no longer an important issue. Larger cars were popular once again, as were gas-guzzling small trucks and
four-wheel-drive vehicles. Federal efficiency requirements for new cars and trucks were made less stringent. Yet prototypes for highly efficient vehicles had been made by every major automotive manufacturer. They employed such already-existing
technologies as turbochargers that use waste energy to improve engine efficiency; advanced diesel engines; sleeker, aerodynamic designs; and the increased use of plastics and lightweight materials. Some of these prototypes reached fuel
efficiencies of more than 160 km (100 mi) per gallon on the highway. _^<N__^<N_John B. Rae _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Flink, James J., The Automobile Age (1988); Fucini, J. J. and S., Working for the Japanese: Inside Mazda's American Auto Plant
(1992); Monden, Y., The Toyota Management System (1993); Philips, R., et al., Auto Industries of Europe, the U. S., and Japan (1982); Rae, John B., The American Automobile Industry (1984); Tolliday, S., and Zeitlin, J., eds., The Automobile
Industry and Its Workers (1987); Whipp, R., and Clark, P., Innovation and the Auto Industry (1986); Winston, C. M., Blind Intersection: Policy and the Automobile Industry (1987).
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automotive instrumentation
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automotive instrumentation_^<N__^<N_Automotive instrumentation performs the crucial role of monitoring vehicle operation and supplying information to both the driver and the vehicle subsystems. Mounted on the dashboard, standard instrumentation
usually includes a speedometer that registers road speed, often coupled with an odometer to record accumulated distance and a TACHOMETER showing the engine speed. Fuel and temperature gauges and oil-pressure and battery-charge warning lights
complete the basic dashboard array. _^<N__^<N_In recent years, however, the increased use of microcomputers to monitor engine performance and other automobile functions has led to far more sophisticated dashboard instrumentation. Some cars are now
equipped with message centers that check basic mechanical conditions (engine and coolant temperatures, for instance, or the levels of transmission and brake fluid) and spell out a problem when it arises. To increase fuel economy, a monitor lights
up when a change in gear will save gasoline. Other devices, linked to a computer, can announce instantaneous gas mileage, or tell the driver whether there is enough fuel to cover a certain distance. _^<N__^<N_Car makers anticipate even more
elaborate instrumentation in the near future when the standard car will utilize several microprocessors, which may be capable of monitoring everything from tire air pressures to the alertness of the driver. _^<N__^<N_Dennis Simanaitis
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Society of Automotive Engineers, Automotive Electronic Instrumentation (1980).
autopsy_^<N__^<N_An autopsy, or postmortem, is a medical examination of a body after death; the Greek word autopsia means "seeing with one's own eyes." The basic purpose of an autopsy is to determine the ultimate cause of death, but in the process
important medical knowledge can be obtained. Autopsies can reveal mistakes in diagnosis and treatment or confirm their correctness. They can increase understanding of disease processes and thereby result in improved therapy. By conclusively
establishing the cause of death, they can supply more reliable statistics on the incidence of the diseases. _^<N__^<N_Autopsies also are valuable for the training of medical students, physicians, and other health professionals. They cannot be done
without the permission of the nearest relative of the deceased person, except in criminal cases or suspicious deaths, when they can be ordered by a coroner or medical examiner to gather detailed medical evidence that can be combined with police
evidence in establishing the cause and circumstances of a death. _^<N__^<N_Autopsies include detailed examination of both the exterior and interior of the body. The body is opened by making a deep, Y-shaped incision that extends from each armpit to
the midline of the chest and continues down the midline to just above the pubic area. The rib cage is opened by cutting the ribs and sternum to expose the chest cavity. The abdominal cavity is exposed by pulling the edges of the incision aside.
Organs are removed and dissected for examination of their internal structure, and small pieces of tissue and samples of body fluids may be saved for later chemical and microscopic analysis. The brain is removed through a round hole sawed in the
skull in an area usually not visible to viewers at a funeral. After the autopsy is completed, organs not needed for further study are replaced in the body cavities, bones are put back in place, and all incisions are sutured. _^<N__^<N_Peter L.
Petrakis _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Adams, J., Autopsy (1976); Burgess, S. B., Understanding the Autopsy (1993); Riboli, E., and Delendi, M., eds., Autopsy in Epidemiology and Medical Research (1991); Walkory, H. I., Science and Medicine of Autopsy
(1985).
-END-
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31
CAT
-A-
autunite:
-T-
autunite:_^<N__^<N_see URANIUM MINERALS.
-END-
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1156
CAT
-A-
Auvergne
-T-
Auvergne_^<N__^<N_{oh-vairn'-yuh} _^<N__^<N_A historic region and former province of central France, Auvergne is made up of the departments of Allier, Cantal, Haute-Loire, and Puy-de-Dome. Its name is derived from the Arverni, a Celtic people whose
leader VERCINGETORIX defied and was defeated by Julius Caesar. In 1527 the duchy of Auvergne, created in 1360, was united with the French crown. _^<N__^<N_In the north is the fertile tertiary basin of the Limagne, where dairying and beef cattle
diversify the traditional wheat economy. Clermont-Ferrand (1990 pop., 140,167) on the Allier River is a regional center whose influence extends beyond Auvergne. It is the home of the Michelin rubber company and the center of the French rubber
industry. The Puy de Dome (1,463 m/4,800 ft) is the highest of a chain of recent volcanic peaks that overlook Clermont-Ferrand from the west. In the bleak, depopulated southern part of the Auvergne, the volcanic Plomb du Cantal and Mont Dore reach
1,858 m (6,096 ft) and 1,886 m (6,188 ft). The average annual temperature is 12 degrees C (53 degrees F), and the region receives 510 to 1,020 mm (20 to 40 in) of rainfall annually. _^<N__^<N_Timothy J. Rickard
-END-
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46
CAT
-A-
Auvergne, William of:
-T-
Auvergne, William of:_^<N__^<N_see WILLIAM OF AUVERGNE.
-END-
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701
CAT
-A-
auxin
-T-
auxin_^<N__^<N_{awk'-sin} _^<N__^<N_Auxins are growth hormones found in all members of the plant kingdom (see HORMONES, PLANT). They are produced mainly at root and shoot tips but also in leaves and stems. Small quantities of auxins profoundly
affect the growth and development of plant parts and are involved in many kinds of TROPISM and in the loss of deciduous leaves in autumn. They are important in maintaining the dominance of some plant buds over others; thus, plants in which the
auxins have been disturbed are often misshapen. Several auxins have been isolated in pure form, the most common of which is indoleacetic acid (IAA). When small quantities of IAA are added to plant tissue, growth is usually enhanced.
-END-
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39
CAT
-A-
avalanche:
-T-
avalanche:_^<N__^<N_see LANDSLIDE AND AVALANCHE.
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1587
CAT
-A-
avant-garde
-T-
avant-garde_^<N__^<N_{ah-vahnt-gahrd'} _^<N__^<N_Avant-garde is a common expression used to describe any experimental or revolutionary form of art, literature, theater, or music. It was originally a French military term referring to the vanguard, or
spearhead, of an action and gained wide acceptance as an aesthetic term in the mid-19th century. The French poet Charles BAUDELAIRE, for example, spoke pejoratively of radical writing as "les litteratures d'avant-garde." By the turn of the century,
avant-garde was frequently used in reference to symbolist poetry and drama. _^<N__^<N_At the beginning of the 20th century the term was synonymous with a number of artistic movements that arose throughout Europe, including Italian and Russian
FUTURISM, German EXPRESSIONISM, English VORTICISM, and French CUBISM, ORPHISM, SURREALISM, and DADA. Although the precepts and styles of each of these movements varied, and sometimes contradicted one another, each was avant-garde because of its
attack on tradition and its break with the past. _^<N__^<N_In the latter part of this century the avant-garde has manifested itself not in large-scale movements but in individual artistic and literary genres such as CONCRETE POETRY, the NEW NOVEL
(nouveau roman), the THEATER OF THE ABSURD, atonal and ELECTRONIC MUSIC, HAPPENINGS, experimental film and television, and, more recently, PERFORMANCE ART, which attempts to merge painting, sculpture, dance, and theater. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Ashton, Dore, Breakthroughs: Avant-Garde Artists in Europe and America, 1950-90 (1993); Kostelanetz, R., ed., The Avant-Garde Tradition in Literature (1982).
-END-
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603
CAT
-A-
Avars
-T-
Avars_^<N__^<N_{ah'-vahrz} _^<N__^<N_The Avars were a tribe of northeast Asian origin whose khanate (chiefdom) was extended during the 6th century to dominate a huge area in southern Russia and eastern Europe. Paid by the Byzantine emperor JUSTINIAN
I to conquer the Huns and Slavs, they spread northward and westward, reaching the kingdom of the Franks. By 600, under their king Baian, they were one of the major powers in Europe, extending from the Black Sea to the Baltic. During the 7th and 8th
centuries, however, a series of revolts reduced their empire, which was finally destroyed by CHARLEMAGNE in 805. _^<N__^<N_Robin Buss
-END-
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443
CAT
-A-
avatar
-T-
avatar_^<N__^<N_{av'-uh-tahr} _^<N__^<N_In HINDUISM, an avatar is the incarnation, or manifestation, of a god, especially of VISHNU. The doctrine of avatars first appeared in the BHAGAVAD GITA; portrayals of the various avatars are found in the
Puranas and other epics of India. KRISHNA is one of the most popular incarnations of Vishnu. Hindu legend says that Vishnu has already assumed nine avatars, with a tenth, Kalki, due to appear to usher in a golden age.
-END-
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388
CAT
-A-
Ave Maria
-T-
Ave Maria_^<N__^<N_{ah'-vay mah-ree'-uh} _^<N__^<N_The Ave Maria, or Hail Mary, is a prayer to the Virgin MARY. It is widely used by Roman Catholics and is recited as part of the ROSARY. Based on the salutations to Mary by Gabriel (Luke 1:28) and by
Elizabeth (Luke 1:42), the prayer was used devotionally as early as the 11th century. It has been set to music, notably by Charles GOUNOD and Franz SCHUBERT.
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1633
CAT
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Avebury
-T-
Avebury_^<N__^<N_{ayv'-bree} _^<N__^<N_Avebury, a village in Wiltshire, southern England, 129 km (80 mi) west of London, is the site of Avebury Circle, one of the largest prehistoric ritual monuments of Britain. It is termed a henge monument (from
STONEHENGE, a monument of similar type located about 27 km/17 mi to the south). Avebury consists of a circular enclosure surrounded by a huge ditch, originally 12 m (40 ft) wide and 9 m (30 ft) deep, and a large external bank, broken by entrances
from the north, east, south, and west. Inside the ditch are the remains of a circle of 100 standing stones, up to 4 m (14 ft) high and 335 m (1,100 ft) in diameter, the largest stone circle in Europe. Inside it are two smaller circles, about 98 m
(320 ft) across, with stones at the center of each. All the stones, termed megaliths (see MEGALITH), are of local sandstone, called sarsen, which occurs as large boulders on the adjacent chalk downs. From the south entrance an avenue of paired
standing stones, since destroyed but now partially restored, linked Avebury with the so-called Sanctuary, a double circle of stones located about 2.4 km (1.5 mi) away, which was destroyed in the 18th century. Avebury was built in late Neolithic
times, about 2000 BC, probably by the BEAKER CULTURE. Later the site was occupied by a Saxon village. Silbury Hill, the largest prehistoric mound in Europe, and Windmill Hill, site of a Neolithic causewayed camp, are nearby. _^<N__^<N_R. J. C.
Atkinson _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Burl, Aubrey, Prehistoric Avebury (1979; repr. 1986); Hadingham, Evan, Circles and Standing Stones (1975); Malone, Carolyn, English Heritage Book of Avebury (1989).
-END-
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981
CAT
-A-
Avedon, Richard
-T-
Avedon, Richard_^<N__^<N_{av'-uh-dahn} _^<N__^<N_The American photographer Richard Avedon, b. New York City, May 15, 1923, is noted for his fashion work and his austere, incisive portraits. His long career as a fashion photographer includes work for
Harper's Bazaar (1945-65) and for Vogue magazine since 1966. Avedon's portraits of celebrities, many of which are included in Portraits (1976), are characterized by blank, white backgrounds and a frontal, usually unflattering view of his subjects.
In 1974 he exhibited a dramatic series of portraits of his father, Jacob Israel Avedon, dying of cancer, and in 1975 had a retrospective at New York's Marlborough Gallery. His 1978 exhibition of fashion photographs at the Metropolitan Museum of Art
was a critical success. Earlier photographs are included in the books Observations (1959) and Nothing Personal (1964). In the American West (1985) presents a bleak picture of an alienated landscape. In 1993 he published his autobiography.
_^<N__^<N_Keith F. Davis
-END-
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477
CAT
-A-
Avempace
-T-
Avempace_^<N__^<N_{ah-vaym-pah'-thay} _^<N__^<N_Avempace (Arabic, Ibn Bajja), c.1095-1138, was a Spanish Arab philosopher, the first Arab representative in Western ISLAM of the Aristotelian-Neoplatonic tradition. Avempace drew on the writings of
al-FARABI to develop a mystical philosophy, according to which a mortal being can unite with the Active Intellect, an emanation of God. His chief work, The Regime of the Solitary Man, was never completed. Avempace influenced the philosopher
AVERROES.
-END-
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1664
CAT
-A-
average
-T-
average_^<N__^<N_The average, or mean, of a set of numbers is the sum of all the numbers in the set divided by the total number of elements of the set. Taking as an example the set 50, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 80, 85, 92, the mean is 73 (657 divided by
9). The mean should more precisely be called the arithmetic mean to distinguish it from other, more specialized types of means not defined here, such as geometric, harmonic, and weighted means. _^<N__^<N_A related term is median. The median of a
set of numbers is a number such that half of the elements of the set are larger and half smaller than it when the numbers are arranged in order of size. When the number of elements is even, there are two "middle" numbers. The median is then taken
to be the average of those two numbers. When the number of elements is odd, a particular number of the set is the middle number--hence, the median. The median of the set of numbers above, where the number of elements is odd, is 75.
_^<N__^<N_Another term related to average is mode. The mode is the number in a set of numbers that occurs most frequently. The mode of the above set of numbers is 80. If all the numbers are different, there is no mode. If two numbers occur most
frequently, there are two modes. _^<N__^<N_Together or separately, the mean, median, and mode are used statistically (see STATISTICS) as numbers for measuring central tendencies--that is, for discerning patterns in variable data. For example,
physicists cannot predict with certainty how a single subatomic particle will react during an experiment. They can, however, observe and average together large numbers of particle reactions and thereby predict tendencies of particle behavior.
-END-
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823
CAT
-A-
Avercamp, Hendrick van
-T-
Avercamp, Hendrick van_^<N__^<N_{ah'-vur-kahmp} _^<N__^<N_Hendrick Avercamp, 1585-1634, was an early realist among 17th-century Dutch landscape painters. He studied painting in Amsterdam but later moved to Kampen, where he lived and worked until his
death. Avercamp's painting was influenced by Pieter Bruegel the Elder and Gillis van Coninxloo. He is noted particularly for clear, colorful winter landscapes filled with skaters, buildings, thick trees, and frozen boats silhouetted against snow,
ice, and wintry sky. With his contemporaries Hercules Seghers and Esaias van de Velde, Avercamp influenced the succeeding generation of Dutch landscape painters, particularly Salomon van Ruysdael, Jan van Goyen, and Aert van der Neer.
_^<N__^<N_Charles I. Minott _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Stechow, Wolfgang, Dutch Landscape Painting of the Seventeenth Century (1966).
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514
CAT
-A-
Avernus, Lake
-T-
Avernus, Lake_^<N__^<N_{uh-vur'-nuhs} _^<N__^<N_Lake Avernus (Italian: Averno) is a crater lake in Italy, about 13 km (8 mi) west of Naples. More than 3 km (about 2 mi) in circumference and 36 m (118 ft) deep, the lake was believed by ancient Romans
to be the entrance to the underworld because of its sulfuric vapors. A nearby spring was believed to flow from the mythical River Styx. Marcus AGRIPPA converted the lake into a naval harbor in 37 BC, connected to the sea by a canal and to Cumae by
a tunnel, the Grotta della Sibilla.
-END-
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1675
CAT
-A-
Averroes
-T-
Averroes_^<N__^<N_{uh-vair'-oh-eez} _^<N__^<N_Averroes (Arabic: Ibn Rushd), 1126-98, was a Spanish-Arab philosopher, the most noted Aristotelian scholar in Islam. Called the "commentator" by Thomas Aquinas, Averroes composed 38 treatises on the
various works of Aristotle, as well as original tracts on astronomy, physics, and medicine. His primary work was The Incoherence of the Incoherence (c.1180; Eng. trans., 1954), a spirited defense of his Neoplatonic and Aristotelian philosophy.
_^<N__^<N_Averroes studied medicine and law, then served as a judge in Seville and later at Cordoba. In 1182 he became chief physician to the Almohad caliph Abu Yaqub Yusuf, whose favor he enjoyed until Yusuf's death, in 1184. His religious views
were considered heretical by orthodox Muslims, however, and he was banished from the court by the caliph Mansur in 1195. He was recalled from exile in 1198 but died soon after. _^<N__^<N_Averroes' philosophy represents a continuation of the
Hellenizing traditions of al-Farabi and Avicenna; his commentaries on the Greek philosophers were noted for their clear analysis. Although he enjoyed a high reputation in the Muslim world of learning, he was more influential among Christian and
Jewish philosophers. The guiding principle of all his writings was that philosophy and religion must agree. He viewed philosophers as prophets who teach the same principles as religious prophets but in a higher, more abstract form. _^<N__^<N_The
writings of Averroes survive mainly in Latin and Hebrew translations. _^<N__^<N_Tamara Green _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hourani, George Fadlo, Averroes on the Harmony of Religion and Philosophy (1961); Kogan, Barry S., Averroes and the Metaphysics
Avery, Milton_^<N__^<N_Milton Avery, b. Altmar, N.Y., Mar. 7, 1893, d. Jan. 3, 1965, was one of the most original American painters of his generation. He was much influenced by the art of Henri Matisse in the late 1920s. Working in New York
City for most of his career, he evolved a personal style that, despite its commitment to figuration, influenced the emergence of abstract expressionism after World War II. Eliminating details and dividing the canvas into several zones of
essentially flat color, Avery attained a structural simplicity in his mature landscapes that came close to abstraction, as in Green Sea (1954; Metropolitan Museum, New York City). _^<N__^<N_Marian Burleigh-Motley _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hobbs,
Avery, Oswald T._^<N__^<N_Oswald Theodore Avery, b. Halifax, Nova Scotia, Oct. 21, 1877, d. Feb. 20, 1955, a physician and bacteriologist, determined that deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the hereditary material of the cell. In 1944, Avery showed
through his work with bacteria that DNA alone, and not protein, was the agent responsible for inducing a heritable change in a living organism. This work, published in the Journal of Experimental Medicine, influenced James D. Watson and Francis H.
C. Crick to start DNA structure studies. Later work showed DNA--the basic unit of HEREDITY--present in all animal cells. These studies were important steps in GENETICS, opening the way to later detailed biochemical studies. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Dubos, Rene Jules, Professor, the Institute, and DNA (1976).
-END-
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15
CAT
-A-
Aves:
-T-
Aves:_^<N__^<N_see BIRD.
-END-
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23666
CATO
4804
9634
14430
19248
-A-
aviation
-O-
000000|aviation
000669| EARLY DEVELOPMENT
004138| COMMERCIAL AVIATION
004604| Airline Development
008464| Aircraft Development
013505| GENERAL AVIATION
014414| AIRCRAFT MANUFACTURE
017476| GOVERNMENT REGULATION
019397| AIRPORTS
021028| THE AIRLINES
-T-
aviation_^<N__^<N_The term aviation applies to the development, operation, and use of lighter-than-air and heavier-than-air vehicles, both of which are defined as aircraft. The first lighter-than-air vehicle to make a free flight, carrying
passengers, was a BALLOON constructed by the MONTGOLFIER brothers. These two Frenchmen achieved their historic ascent in Paris on Nov. 21, 1783. The Montgolfier balloon was filled with hot air generated by a fire in the balloon car; it flew for
only a short distance. Within a month, however--on Dec. 1, 1783--J. A. C. CHARLES and M. N. Robert made the first manned free flight in a hydrogen-filled balloon, covering a distance of 43 km (27 mi). _^<N__^<N_ EARLY DEVELOPMENT_^<N__^<N_Captive
balloons were first used for military reconnaissance in the battle of Maubeuge in 1794. During the Siege of Paris of 1870-71, 168 citizens escaped over the heads of the Prussian armies in 66 separate balloon flights, stimulating ideas that led to
the development of the dirigible, a balloon that could be powered and steered. Henri Giffard had achieved limited success in 1852 with a steam-powered balloon; Charles Renard and Arthur Krebs made the first fully controlled powered flight in the
balloon La France in 1884. In 1901, the Brazilian Alberto SANTOS-DUMONT made a perfectly controlled flight of 11 km (7 mi) from St. Cloud to the Eiffel Tower and back. _^<N__^<N_Balloons had been elongated into the more stable cigar shape as early
as 1784, but the most important advance was made in 1902, when Georges Juchmes flew Le Jaune, a balloon that had been fitted with an underside keel that both stiffened the airship and distributed the weight of the power unit and car more evenly.
(In 1897, David Schwarz, a Croatian, had built and flown an airship whose skin was made of thin metal--instead of the usual fabric--and was stiffened by a metal framework instead of a keel. It was the first rigid airship to fly, although it crashed
after a few minutes.) New impetus had already been given to the science and technique of flight with the first application of the gasoline engine, by Dr. Frederich Wolfert in 1898, using a Daimler engine. This led to the development of the rigid
AIRSHIP by Count Ferdinand ZEPPELIN, whose 128-meter-long (420-ft) LZ1 first flew on July 2, 1900. It was the forerunner of generations of bigger and better dirigible airships, whose fortunes were ultimately dashed with the destruction by fire of
the zeppelin HINDENBURG in 1937. _^<N__^<N_Meanwhile experiments had been made in attempts to achieve heavier-than-air flight, attained solely by the aerodynamic forces induced by forward speed--which could now be created by a gasoline engine
driving a propeller. During the 19th century steam-powered models had been flown, and the aviation pioneer Otto LILIENTHAL had made some long unpowered glides from elevated positions. Other early attempts at powered flight were made by Aleksander
Mozhaisky in Russia (1884), by Clement Ader in France (1890-1900), by Hiram Maxim in England (1894), and by Richard Pearce in New Zealand (1902 or 1903). These were clumsy performances, however, compared with the epoch-making triumph of Orville and
Wilbur WRIGHT on Dec. 17, 1903, at Kitty Hawk, N.C. Their Flyer not only flew under its own power with a man on board, but was also controllable in both vertical and horizontal axes. _^<N__^<N_Substantial progress was made during the first decade
after the Wrights' breakthrough. In 1909 the French aviator Louis BLERIOT crossed the English Channel in a small monoplane. Most aerial advances before World War I, however, took place under the aegis of such companies as the Societe pour les
Appareils Deperdussin (builders of the French SPAD racer in 1912), and the Delag Company, which operated Zeppelin airships in Germany. In the United States, Glenn CURTISS designed and built the first of generations of high-powered seaplanes and
racing planes. _^<N__^<N_During the war biplanes and monoplanes were improved in speed, range, performance, and reliability. Tens of thousands were built, and after the Armistice military aircraft were converted for civilian and commercial use (see
AIRCRAFT; AIRCRAFT, MILITARY). _^<N__^<N_ COMMERCIAL AVIATION_^<N__^<N_Commercial aviation--in the sense of an industry where people paid to be flown in aircraft--began in 1910 with the Delag airship company in Germany. In 1914 the St.
Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line operated across Tampa Bay in Florida, and in the same year, the Russian Il'ya Muromets flew from St. Petersburg to Kiev and back to demonstrate the efficiency of a multiengined transport airplane. The outbreak of World
War I ended its commercial use. _^<N__^<N_ Airline Development_^<N__^<N_Only after the Armistice did air transport, as we know it today, get under way. The United States Post Office established a creditable AIRMAIL service in 1918, first between
New York and Washington, and then, in 1920, from coast to coast. In Europe the warplane surplus was converted and put into airline service. Germany started the first domestic air route, early in 1919, and France quickly followed with the first
international air service, from Paris to Brussels. An important advance was made in the summer of that year, when a British company inaugurated a daily, scheduled international service from London to Paris, setting new standards of punctuality and
regularity. _^<N__^<N_During the early 1920s, U.S. attempts to start airlines were sporadic and unorganized. A few companies began isolated services, but all were short-lived. However, the U.S. Post Office's domestic airmail operation had grown to
the extent that it required special administration and organization; the 1925 Kelly Air Mail Act provided the legislation to transfer the carriage of mail to private contractors. Initially, 12 air-carrier companies were founded, and these, with
subsequent amalgamations, formed the nuclei of the big airlines that are still with us today. To regulate and oversee this infant industry, the Air Commerce Act was passed in 1926. _^<N__^<N_By this time almost every country in Europe had at least
one airline, and the leading nations had several. Airlines flourished in countries where surface transport was difficult--Australia, the Belgian Congo, Colombia, Bolivia, Thailand, and the southern islands of Japan. In Europe the French airmail
service Aeropostale expanded the former Latecoere Line to become the world's biggest airline, with a route network that extended from France to nine countries in Latin America by 1931. The larger European countries formed national corporations:
Great Britain's Imperial Airways in 1924, Germany's Deutsche Luft Hansa in 1926, France's Air France in 1933, and Italy's Ala Littoria in 1934. A tremendous incentive was given to the airlines when, in 1927, Charles LINDBERGH flew alone from New
York to Paris, on a preplanned and precisely navigated course. _^<N__^<N_Aided by the U.S. Post Office, which had indirectly subsidized them through its mail payments, the many small American companies merged into larger groups in the early 1930s
and became known domestically as the Big Four: American, United, Trans World Airlines (TWA), and Eastern. _^<N__^<N_Internationally, Pan American Airways established its hegemony over the whole of Latin America and led the way in the conquest of
the oceans. In the early 1930s, manufacturers could not yet build large land planes to fly long distances, because of structural difficulties with the landing gear and inadequate airfields. The solution was seen to be "flying boats"that could
alight on water and that were sturdy enough to carry large fuel loads. With such aircraft Pan American started a trans-Pacific airmail service in 1935, followed by passenger service in 1936; it began trans-Atlantic service for both passengers and
mail in 1939. _^<N__^<N_The European colonial powers had concentrated on linking their overseas territories by air. The Dutch K.L.M. airline pioneered a fast route to its East Indian colony, now Indonesia, in 1931; Imperial Airways began service to
South Africa, India, and East Asia, and Australia, by 1934; Air France flew to all its colonies in Africa and Indochina and took over Aeropostale's South American route; Germany's Lufthansa, handicapped by the lack of overseas bases as the result
of wartime losses, established international affiliates and subsidiaries throughout Latin America and in China; Italy linked its East African colonies with Rome; and the Soviet Union consolidated a wide domestic network to the far reaches of
Siberia and Central Asia. _^<N__^<N_ Aircraft Development_^<N__^<N_The 160-km/h (100-mph), mainly wood-and-fabric, and often single-engined aircraft of the early- and mid-1920s gave way to all-metal, trimotored types such as the American Ford
Tri-Motor, which became U.S. mainline equipment in the late 1920s. In Germany most aircraft had been made of metal since the Junkers-F13 of 1919. The Junkers-Ju 52/3m trimotor became the standard European airliner in the 1930s. _^<N__^<N_The
biggest technical advance was made in 1933 with the Boeing 247, which incorporated the qualities of all-metal construction, stressed-skin fuselage and wing surfaces, internal wing bracing, cowled radial engines, retractable landing gear, and
controllable-pitch propellers. These improvements combined to increase cruising speed from 160 km/h to about 270 km/h (160 mph) and reduced the U.S. transcontinental journey time from two days to 18 hours. The 10-seat 247 was eclipsed in 1934 by
the 14-seat Douglas DC-2, and then, in 1936, by the 21-seat Douglas Sleeper Transport, the DC-3, whose all-round efficiency changed the course of airline progress worldwide. By 1941, 95 percent of the aircraft used by U.S. airlines were DC-3s and
DC-2s, and ultimately 11,000 DC-3s were built in the United States--mainly as the military transport, the C-47--as well as 6,000 under license in the Soviet Union and more than 400 in Japan. _^<N__^<N_During World War II two important landplane
developments were made in the United States. The four major airlines and Pan American promoted the design of a Douglas four-engined long-haul airliner that went into service in 1943 as the military C-54, and in 1945 began postwar commercial service
as the DC-4. At the same time the Lockheed company produced the pressurized Constellation, which set the pace in postwar air route development. In 1940, Boeing had built the world's first pressurized airliner, the Model 307 Stratoliner, but it was
not a success. Its postwar Stratocruiser came too late to compete on the worldwide market seized by the Douglas DC-6 and DC-7 variants and the Super Constellations used by all the leading flag-carrying airlines of the world during the latter 1940s
and early 1950s. _^<N__^<N_Great Britain introduced the world's first jet airliner in 1952, the British Overseas Airline Corporation's (BOAC) de Havilland Comet 1, which cut the journey time to South Africa by almost half; and the world's first
turboprop airliner, the British European Airway's (BEA) Viscount, which did likewise on routes to the Mediterranean. The Comet experienced structural problems, however. The Soviet Union's Aeroflot airline introduced the world's first sustained jet
service with the Tupolev 104. After a short period during which the Bristol Britannia long-haul turboprop challenged the last of the piston-engined airliners across the Atlantic, the Jet Age began in 1958 when a redesigned Comet 4 and Pan
American's 160-seat Boeing 707 entered service (see JET PROPULSION). _^<N__^<N_At the secondary level of airline operations manufacturers competed to produce what was popularly called the DC-3 replacement, the CW-20, designed to succeed that
versatile but obsolescent prewar type. Regional networks used twin-engined turboprops, mainly the Dutch-built 40-seat Fokker F-27 Friendship. At the lowest level of operations, on what became known as commuter routes, smaller planes--notably the
Canadian-built 20-seat DHC-6 Twin Otter turbojet and, in the Soviet Union, the 12-seat Antonov An-2--provided essential service to thousands of communities in remote areas. _^<N__^<N_World air traffic quadrupled during the 1960s, leading to the
advent of wide-bodied jet airliners, popularly called jumbo jets. In the 1970s, Pan American's 360-seat four-engined Boeing 747, the 270-seat Douglas DC-10, the Lockheed L1011 trijets, and the 240-seat European Airbus provided a new generation of
superbly reliable transport aircraft. _^<N__^<N_Most of the progress and development of commercial aviation has been in the area of passenger travel. About 15 percent of the total airline effort (and perhaps 12 percent of the revenue) has
specialized in the carriage of high value or perishable freight. The carriage of mail, which, in the adolescent period of air transport was important enough to subsidize passenger traffic, is now a minor element of the total. _^<N__^<N_Except in
the Soviet Union passenger fares were so high in the early decades that air travel was restricted to the affluent and later to business flying. After World War II efficient jet propulsion introduced low-fare air tourism on a mass scale on scheduled
routes as well as in the new air charter, nonscheduled market. _^<N__^<N_Future airline traffic growth will ultimately require larger aircraft, such as possibly a 600-seat Boeing 747 variant. But prospects of widespread supersonic travel are
remote, and the Anglo-French CONCORDE, introduced in 1976, is unlikely to have a successor, because of the formidable technical challenge of producing a supersonic aircraft that can offer a reasonable financial return on its development, purchase,
and operating costs. _^<N__^<N_ GENERAL AVIATION_^<N__^<N_General aviation refers to all civil aeronautics except for commercial air-transport operations. A diverse field, it covers business-owned aircraft as well as AERIAL SPORTS, crop dusting,
and numerous other operations. Some 80 percent of registered U.S. civil aircraft are classed as general aviation aircraft; they range from gliders, ultralight aircraft, and small 240 km/h (150 mph) two-seat trainers through 800 km/h (500 mph)
business jets. Unlike military and commercial aviation, general aircraft requirements have fluctuated widely and have never been clearly defined. _^<N__^<N_One of the first major U.S. general-aviation airplanes was the single-seat Aeronca C-2,
first marketed in 1929; its European counterparts were the de Havilland Tiger Moth and the Soviet Polikarpov U-2. The best-known general-aviation airplane of all time was the ubiquitous PIPER CUB, which first appeared in 1937. _^<N__^<N_ AIRCRAFT
MANUFACTURE_^<N__^<N_The first manufactured aircraft in aviation history was the Lilienthal Type 11 GLIDER, which Otto Lilienthal built and sold to enthusiasts in Europe and the United States in the late 19th century. Before World War I many
aircraft were literally handcrafted, in part because their structure and fittings were too complex to be produced mechanically. _^<N__^<N_World War I changed the picture. The urgent demands of the war led to the development of rapid manufacturing
techniques for the basically wood-and-wire aircraft of that period. Companies developed forming techniques permitting the construction of wooden monocoque (single-shell) fuselages. During the 1920s, following the work of Hugo Junkers (1859-1935) in
wartime Germany, manufacturers developed techniques for metal construction. Claude Dornier (1884-1969), Adolf Rohrbach (1889-1939), and John NORTHROP made notable contributions to the development of metal aircraft. Northrop's work on metal
monocoque and multicellular wing construction foreshadowed some of the techniques used in the design of most subsequent stressed-skin, all-metal aircraft. _^<N__^<N_During World War II mass-production techniques and support from outside industries
permitted production of U.S. military aircraft to exceed 300,000 airplanes. Postwar challenges to manufacturers included those of transonic and supersonic flight. Once thought to be a barrier to future flight development, the speed of sound (Mach
1) was surpassed by the experimental Bell X-1 rocket-powered research aircraft, piloted by Capt. Charles E. YEAGER on Oct. 14, 1947. The first supersonic aircraft put into production was the North American F-100 Super Sabre jet fighter.
_^<N__^<N_During the early 1950s the AEROSPACE INDUSTRY took part in the development of long-range guided missiles, and related technologies immediately assumed key importance. These included computer systems, electronic controls, combustion
chemistry technology, and advanced structural technology, such as the use of composite structures. The heavy investment in this sophisticated equipment lengthened research and development times for new aircraft and greatly increased costs. A 1945
fighter plane cost about $51,000; current fighter aircraft development costs, however, have soared into the multibillion-dollar range. Transport aircraft costs have risen proportionately. _^<N__^<N_U.S. and foreign airlines fly a wide variety of
aircraft, many of them designed and manufactured in the United States. European industries have produced their own successful designs, among them the French Caravelle, built for the government-owned Aerospatiale, which became Europe's most popular
aircraft during the 20 years (1955-75) it was produced. Airbus Industrie, a five-nation European consortium created under the auspices of the five governments involved, has competed successfully with U.S. manufacturers. Its midrange Airbus 320 was
a best-seller even before it made its first commercial flight in April 1988; by the mid-1990s, Airbus was selling or leasing many of its craft to U.S. airlines. _^<N__^<N_ GOVERNMENT REGULATION_^<N__^<N_The development of aviation has required a
strong partnership between government and private industry. In Europe before World War I a number of scientifically trained engineers formed research organizations and laboratories, the most notable of these efforts being Britain's Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics (1909) and the aerodynamicist Ludwig Prandtl's research center at Gottingen, Germany. In 1915 the United States created the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, the predecessor of the NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE
ADMINISTRATION (NASA), established in 1958. Both agencies developed a number of new concepts (among them the variable-density WIND TUNNEL; the transonic research airplane; the variable-sweep wing; winglets; and the oblique, or scissors, wing) that
greatly benefited the development of advanced capability aircraft. _^<N__^<N_In addition, governmental regulation has been crucial to the growth of commercial and general aviation, both abroad and in the United States. The Air Commerce Act of 1926
marked the first federal attempt to impose safety regulations on civil aeronautics and required the registration and licensing of pilots and planes. Since that year several legislative acts have enlarged the scope of federal regulation both of air
safety and of commercial routes and fares. The FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION, under the Department of Transportation, regulates all aspects of airplane and airport safety and has direct control over the vast air-traffic-control system.
_^<N__^<N_The Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB), an independent agency, had been charged with regulating routes and fares. The passage of the Air Transport Deregulation Act (1978), however, freed U.S. domestic airlines from most governmental restraints
on fares and scheduling, and the CAB's authority was slowly scaled back until, in 1984, its functions were taken over by the Department of Transportation. _^<N__^<N_ AIRPORTS_^<N__^<N_Regulation of aviation has led to improvements in AIRPORT and
airway facilities. The first airports were usually grass strips or open fields; asphalt and concrete runways mostly came later, during the 1930s. In 1926 the U.S. federal government listed only 3,285 km (2,041 mi) of controlled civil
airways--airways having beacon lights and some weather-forecasting aids. By 1940 this number had jumped to 51,660 km (32,100 mi). As airways developed, radio navigation aids were increasingly used. The first federal Air Route Traffic Control Center
began operating in 1936, and in 1941 the first Instrument Landing Systems were placed in civil aeronautics service. _^<N__^<N_The postwar Federal Airport Act (1946) accelerated airport expansion and construction. The year 1950 witnessed the first
use of VOR (VHF Omnidirectional Range) transmission, which sends a flight-path signal to approaching planes. With the explosive expansion of jet travel air-traffic control has become increasingly sophisticated. Radar stations now provide coverage
of all airspace over the continental United States, and computers are used to automate much of the system. _^<N__^<N_International air traffic uses Omega, a navigational system in which signals are broadcast from eight global transmission sites.
On-plane computers calculate aircraft position by an analysis of the signals. The INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION (ICAO), an agency of the United Nations, facilitates compatibility of navigational equipment and procedures for air traffic
on international routes. Regional groups help coordinate air traffic in Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. _^<N__^<N_ THE AIRLINES_^<N__^<N_About 200 major airlines are engaged in worldwide intercity and intercontinental passenger and cargo
operations throughout the world. The United.States operates the largest front-line fleet, numbering about 4,000 jet aircraft. Until the breakup of the Soviet Union (1991), the largest single airline was Aeroflot, with almost 11,000 aircraft, of
which about 4,000 were jets. The world's airlines carry more than 800 million passengers every year. _^<N__^<N_The U.S. airline industry had been relatively stable for many years but entered a period of uncertainty after it was deregulated in 1978.
The former layers of trunk line, regional, and local commuter lines disappeared as price wars erupted and managements were unable to adapt to changing conditions of fierce competition. Great names like Braniff, Western, and Eastern disappeared from
the domestic scene, while Pan American Airways, America's standard-bearer overseas for more than 60 years, was another victim. Once dominated by the Big Four--American, United, Eastern, and T.W.A.--the U.S. airline industry is now dominated even
more by only three: American and United, joined by Delta, which had absorbed Western and benefited from Eastern's demise. _^<N__^<N_The debate still rages as to whether the airline industry has gained from deregulation. During the three years from
1990 to 1992, U.S. airlines collectively lost $5 billion, and many of the great European and other world airlines also lost heavily. In 1992, the European Community agreed to deregulate by 1997, and European countries are considering international
amalgamations to avoid dominance by the strongest airlines, headed by British Airways, Germany's Lufthansa, and Air France. On the Pacific Rim, Japan Air Lines and its rival, All Nippon Airways, continue to lead the way, but Singapore Airlines,
Hong Kong's Cathay Pacific, and Thai International, as well as others in the region, continue to make impressive progress. Of the other leading airline nations, two of the three major Australian airlines have recently merged, and the number of
Brazilian airlines has been reduced to three. _^<N__^<N_R. E. G. Davies _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Batchelor, John, Flight: The History of Aviation (1991); Bilstein, R. E., Flight in America, 1900-1983 (1984); Chant, Christopher, Illustrated Guide to
Airliners (1991); Davies, R. E. G., A History of the World's Airlines (1967; repr. 1983); and Rebels and Reformers of the Airways (1987); Hallion, R. P., Legacy of Flight (1977); Leary, W. M., Aerial Pioneers: The U.S. Air Mail Service, 1918-27
(1986); and The Airline Industry (1992); Taylor, M. J., Great Moments in Aviation (1989).
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1218
CAT
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Avicenna
-T-
Avicenna_^<N__^<N_{av-i-sen'-uh} _^<N__^<N_Avicenna (Arabic, Ibn Sina), 980-1037, was a Persian philosopher who spent his life as a physician and scholar-in-residence at many Islamic courts. He died while in service in Isfahan. Many of his writings
were translated in the West. Avicenna's works are of a compendious nature, the most notable being a philosophical encyclopedia. As did other Muslim scholars of the Greek school, he attempted to reconcile philosophy and Islam. For Avicenna,
philosophy was the true path to understanding. His summaries of Aristotle reveal a Neoplatonic outlook, especially in his emphasis on the DUALISM of mind and matter. He saw matter as passive and creation as the act of instilling existence into this
passive substance; only in God are being and existence one. Avicenna also wrote numerous works on medicine. His best known is the Canon of Medicine, based primarily on Greco-Roman medical tracts. An extraordinarily popular work, it was translated
into Latin and served as a foundation of medical learning in European universities for centuries. _^<N__^<N_Tamara Green _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Afnan, S., Avicenna (1958; repr. 1980); Goodman, L. E., Avicenna (1992); Heath, P., Allegory and
Philosophy in Avicenna (1992).
-END-
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1051
CAT
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Avignon
-T-
Avignon_^<N__^<N_{ah-veen-yohn'} _^<N__^<N_Avignon is the capital of Vaucluse department, southeastern France, on the Rhone River. Located about 80 km (50 mi) northwest of Marseille, it is a commercial and industrial center that manufactures wine,
oil, flour, and textiles. Tourism is also important. The population is 86,939 (1990). Several historic landmarks draw tourists to the city. They include the Palace of the Popes (14th century), which suffered heavy damage during the French raids
(1791) on the city and later served (1822-1906) as a barracks for French troops. Also of interest is a remnant of the Pont d'Avignon (1177-85), a bridge built by St. Benezet and made popular by the song "Sur le Pont d'Avignon." _^<N__^<N_Avignon
was held successively by the Romans, Germanic tribes, and Burgundian kings until it was purchased by Pope Clement VI (1348) as the site of the papal see. Several popes resided here until 1377, when Pope GREGORY XI returned to Rome. Two antipopes
resided in Avignon during the Great SCHISM (1378-1417). The city was annexed to France in 1791.
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691
CAT
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Avila
-T-
Avila_^<N__^<N_The picturesque Spanish town of Avila (Avila de los Caballeros), capital of the province of of the same name, is situated in the Avila Mountains northwest of Madrid, in the Castile-Leon autonomous region. The population is 45,000
(1988 est.). It was the birthplace of the famed 16th-century Spanish mystic, Saint TERESA OF AVILA. The 11th-century wall surrounding the old part of the town, which has 88 towers and 9 gates, is its best-known landmark. Local industries include
tanning and flour-milling. Avila dates from Roman times and became part of the kingdom of Castile in 1088. Once a large and prosperous city, it declined after the expulsion of the Moriscos in the 17th century.
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526
CAT
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Avila Camacho, Manuel
-T-
Avila Camacho, Manuel_^<N__^<N_{ah'-vee-lah kah-mah'-choh} _^<N__^<N_Manuel Avila Camacho, b. Apr. 24, 1897, d. Oct. 13, 1955, served as president of Mexico from 1940 to 1946. An army officer, he entered politics with his appointment (1937) as
secretary of defense in the administration of Lazaro CARDENAS. As president, Avila initiated literacy programs and fostered land reform and industrialization. He also improved relations with the United States by settling disputes over U.S. oil
properties and supporting the Allies during World War II.
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379
CAT
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Avison, Margaret
-T-
Avison, Margaret_^<N__^<N_Margaret Avison, b. Galt, Ontario, Apr. 23, 1918, is a contemporary Canadian poet. Her Winter Sun (1960) won the 1961 Governor-General's Award. The poems in Dumbfounding (1966) and Sunblue (1978) show her deep religious
feelings. The Plough and the Pen: Writings from Hungary, 1930-1956 (1957) includes her own translations. Selected Poems was published in 1992.
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1058
CAT
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avocado
-T-
avocado_^<N__^<N_{ah-vuh-kah'-doh} _^<N__^<N_The avocado, or alligator pear, Persea americana, is a common evergreen tree indigenous to Mexico and to Central and South America. It belongs to the LAUREL family, Lauraceae, which also includes
cinnamon, camphor, and sassafras. _^<N__^<N_The Mexican variety is grown in the San Joaquin Valley of California, the Guatemalan in Southern California, and the West Indian in Florida. The three types differ in susceptibility to cold injury and in
fruit size and quality. Some commercial avocados are hybrids of two varieties. _^<N__^<N_Propagation is by grafting or budding the desired type onto seedling stocks. Pollen transfer by bees is necessary, since the pistil of the flower is receptive
before pollen on that flower is mature. The oval fruit are borne two to three years after planting, and well-cared-for trees are productive for many years. _^<N__^<N_The fruit is used in salads and, mashed with spices, in the famous Mexican
guacamole. Avocado oil is highly prized for use in soaps and cosmetics. _^<N__^<N_Donald N. Maynard _^<N__^<N_See also: FRUITS AND FRUIT CULTIVATION.
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787
CAT
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avocet
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avocet_^<N__^<N_{av'-uh-set} _^<N__^<N_The avocet is a long-legged, long-necked wading bird of the genus Recurvirostra. It has white plumage with contrasting black markings; the sexes cannot be distinguished by their plumage. The long, upturned bill
is efficient for catching small crustaceans, mollusks, and insects in shallow or muddy waters. The birds nest gregariously. The American avocet, R. americana, which is 46 cm (18 in) long, breeds in western North and Central America but strays
during migrations to the eastern coast of the United States, where it once nested. The pied avocet, R. avosetta, of the Old World has a black band atop its head and neck. Avocets and stilts (see STILT) constitute the family Recurvirostridae.
_^<N__^<N_William F. Sandford _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: MacKenzie, John, Wading Birds (1993).
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1192
CAT
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Avogadro, Amedeo
-T-
Avogadro, Amedeo_^<N__^<N_{ah-voh-gah-'droh} _^<N__^<N_The Italian physicist and chemist Amedeo Avogadro, b. Aug. 9, 1776, d. July 9, 1856, is known principally for the law in chemistry that now bears his name, AVOGADRO'S LAW. Born of a family of
ecclesiastical lawyers, Avogadro received his doctorate in ecclesiastical law in 1796. He was professor of natural philosophy at the College of Vercelli (1809-20) and occupied the first chair of mathematical physics in Italy at the University of
Turin (1820-22; 1834-50). In his famous law, Avogadro explained Gay-Lussac's law of combining volumes (see GAS LAWS), established the formula of water as H2O (rather than the accepted HO), distinguished between atoms and molecules (the term
molecule being coined by Avogadro), distinguished atomic weights from molecular weights, and permitted the calculation of atomic weights without recourse to John Dalton's rules. Avogadro made constant use of a mathematical approach and can be
regarded as one of the founders of physical chemistry. _^<N__^<N_George B. Kauffman _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Asimov, Isaac, A Short History of Chemistry (1965, repr. 1979); Knight, David, Ideas in Chemistry (1992); Morselli, Mario, Amadeo Avogadro
(1984).
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1126
CAT
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Avogadro number
-T-
Avogadro number_^<N__^<N_A mole of any substance is that quantity of the substance that weighs (in grams) the same as its molecular weight. For example, molecular oxygen, has a weight of 32 (16 for each oxygen atom); one mole of oxygen weighs 32 g.
A mole of a substance always contains the same number of molecules--the Avogadro number--as a mole of any substance. Therefore, Avogadro's law can be stated in terms of moles, namely that equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure
contain the same number of moles. Scientists can measure out an equal number of molecules by simply weighing out an equal number of moles. For gases, this can be done by volume, as one mole of a gas at 0 deg C and at 1 atmosphere pressure occupies
22.4 liters. The Avogadro number is most reliably determined by X-ray diffraction of crystals. For many years the number was accepted as averaging at about 6.022045 x 10 to the 23rd power molecules; in 1986, however, after more recent studies of
silicon crystals, the International Council of Scientific Unions redefined the number as about 6.0221367 x 10 to the 23rd power. _^<N__^<N_Gerald C. Roper
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689
CAT
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Avogadro's law
-T-
Avogadro's law_^<N__^<N_Avogadro's law states that equal volumes of any two different gases if they are at the same temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules. The law holds except at high pressures, when gases tend to liquefy.
Avogadro's law is useful to chemists working with gases because they can simply measure the volumes of reacting gases to determine the equivalent amounts of materials; the difficulties of weighing gases are eliminated. _^<N__^<N_The hypothesis was
virtually ignored by chemists because when it was tested in 1811, appropriate temperatures were not used by other scientists. It was reintroduced in 1858 by Avogadro's countryman Stanislao Cannizzaro. _^<N__^<N_Gerald C. Roper
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38
CAT
-A-
avoirdupois:
-T-
avoirdupois:_^<N__^<N_see WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
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429
CAT
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Avon
-T-
Avon_^<N__^<N_Avon, a county in southwestern England, was created in 1974 from parts of Gloucestershire and Somerset. Its area is 1,346 sq km (520 sq mi), and it has a population of 919,800 (1991). Avon lies mostly outside the industrial complex
around BRISTOL and is largely agricultural. Dairy farming is prevalent. Tourists are attracted to BATH and Weston-super-Mare. During the Roman period, the area was on an important trade route.
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55
CAT
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Avon, Anthony Eden, 1st Earl of:
-T-
Avon, Anthony Eden, 1st Earl of:_^<N__^<N_see EDEN, SIR ANTHONY.
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347
CAT
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Avon, River
-T-
Avon, River_^<N__^<N_The River Avon, or Upper Avon, rises in central England near Naseby and flows southwest for 155 km (96 mi). It is a tributary of the River Severn. Unsuitable for commerce, it is fished and used by leisure craft. Besides its
beauty, the Avon is known chiefly for its association with William Shakespeare, who lived at STRATFORD-ON-AVON.
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1105
CAT
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Avvakum
-T-
Avvakum_^<N__^<N_{ah-vah-koom'} _^<N__^<N_Archpriest Avvakum Petrovich, b. c.1620, d. April 14, 1682, a Russian religious leader martyred for the cause of the OLD BELIEVERS, was also a major figure in the history of Russian literature. A village
priest from the area of Nizhny Novgorod, he became a leader in the Old Believers' opposition to the foreign-inspired reforms of Patriarch NIKON, upholding the indigenous traditions of the RUSSIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH. As a result, he was exiled to
Siberia in the 1650s, then to Mezen in northern Russia in 1664. Avvakum was excommunicated by the Orthodox church council that condemned the Old Believers in 1666-67 and exiled once again, this time to Pustozerk on the White Sea. He and three of
his followers were burned at the stake in 1682. _^<N__^<N_During his exile at Pustozerk, Avvakum produced a large body of writings that circulated among the Old Believers after his death. The most important of these was his Life (Russian: Zhitie),
considered the first Russian autobiography. Published in 1861, Avvakum's Life influenced the Russian novelists Dostoyevsky, Turgenev, and Solzhenitsyn.
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47
CAT
-A-
AWACS:
-T-
AWACS:_^<N__^<N_see AIRBORNE WARNING AND CONTROL SYSTEM.
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35
CAT
-A-
awards:
-T-
awards:_^<N__^<N_see MEDALS AND DECORATIONS.
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938
CAT
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Awoonor, Kofi
-T-
Awoonor, Kofi_^<N__^<N_{ah-woon'-ohr, koh'-fee} _^<N__^<N_Kofi Awoonor (original name, George Awoonor-Williams), b. Mar. 13, 1935, is a Ghanaian writer who is considered one of the finest English-language poets in Africa. Educated in Ghana, England,
and the United States, he has taught at several American universities and at Ghana's University of Cape Coast. In 1983, he became Ghana's ambassador to Brazil and since 1990 has been his country's permanent representative to the UN. Awoonor's
poetry draws on the structure and images of traditional African oral verse. His poems have been republished in the 1991 collection Until the Morning After. Novelist as well as poet, Awoonor has written This Earth, My Brother (1971) and Fire in the
Valley (1983), and a play, Ancestral Power (1970). The Breast of the Earth (1975) is a critical study of African literature. The Ghana Revolution: A Personal Perspective (1984) is a historical work. _^<N__^<N_Richard K. Priebe
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758
CAT
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Ax, Emanuel
-T-
Ax, Emanuel_^<N__^<N_Since winning the first Arthur Rubinstein International Piano Competition in 1974, Emanuel Ax, b. June 8, 1949, Lvov, USSR (now Lviv, Ukraine), has become one of the leading pianists of his generation. His appearances in
recital and with leading orchestras as well as his recordings are internationally acclaimed. His family immigrated (1959) to Canada before settling (1961) in New York City, where Ax studied with Mieczyslaw Munz at the Juilliard School of Music.
Ax made his New York debut in 1975, and by 1979, when he was awarded the Avery Fisher Prize, he was recognized for his mastery of Mozart, Beethoven, Dvorak, and, especially, Chopin. His repertoire also includes chamber music, which he often
performs with the cellist Yo-Yo Ma.
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19
CAT
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ax:
-T-
ax:_^<N__^<N_see HAND TOOLS.
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647
CAT
-A-
Axelrod, Julius
-T-
Axelrod, Julius_^<N__^<N_Pharmacologist Julius Axelrod, b. New York City, May 30, 1912, shared the 1970 Nobel Prize for physiology and medicine with Sir Bernard KATZ and Ulf von Euler for his work on the chemistry of nerve impulse transmission.
Working at the Laboratory of Clinical Sciences of the National Institute of Mental Health, Axelrod studied the mechanisms involved in the functioning of NORADRENALINE, a NEUROTRANSMITTER. This work and that of others on regulatory mechanisms in the
nervous system stimulated research into possible remedies for nervous-system disorders. Axelrod has also studied effects of drug metabolism on the nervous system.
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1781
CAT
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axiom
-T-
axiom_^<N__^<N_In ancient philosophy, an axiom--from Greek, meaning "thought to be worthy of"--was a starting point that needed no evidence or demonstration. A well-known example of the use of axioms in Greek thought is the geometry of EUCLID.
Axioms were assumed to be self-evident and necessarily true. They were used as foundations for demonstrating other geometrical truths. ARISTOTLE applied the term to certain propositions that he claimed were the self-evident foundations for all
science. _^<N__^<N_The term axiom is often used interchangeably with the term postulate. However, axiom usually refers to a basic proposition common to many or all subjects, whereas postulate refers to a basic proposition in a specific field.
_^<N__^<N_DESCARTES wrote a brief geometrical demonstration of his philosophy, in which the role of axioms is crucial. SPINOZA made an axiomatic system from Descartes's thought, then presented his own views as deductions from axioms and
definitions. KANT considered the axioms of mathematics to be based on intuition. Other philosophers questioned whether axioms have any special status as truths. _^<N__^<N_Axioms play a central role in modern mathematical LOGIC. They are no longer
regarded as either self-evident or necessarily true, but rather as the initial premises of a logical system. Thus for any set of propositions there can be many different groups of axioms. Beginning with Gottlob FREGE, Giuseppe PEANO, Bertrand
RUSSELL, and Alfred North WHITEHEAD, various kinds of systems described by axioms have been developed and explored. Many have proved to be useful in mathematical, logical, and scientific fields. _^<N__^<N_Richard H. Popkin _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Copi, J. M., An Introduction to Logic, 8th ed. (1990); Hamilton, A. G., Numbers, Sets, and Axioms: The Apparatus of Mathematics (1983).
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388
CAT
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axion
-T-
axion_^<N__^<N_Axions are hypothetical subatomic particles that preserve symmetry in strong interactions between QUARKS (see SYMMETRY, physics; QUANTUM CHROMODYNAMICS). Physicists theorize that axions are the "dark matter" that may account for
much of the universe's mass. Dark matter, if proven to exist, would explain gravitational effects observed in the motion and distribution of galaxies.
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274
CAT
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Axis (alliance)
-T-
Axis (alliance)_^<N__^<N_The Axis was the name of the alignment between Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy first formed in October 1936 and strengthened by a formal alliance in May 1939. The term was later used loosely to include Germany's other allies
in WORLD WAR II, especially Japan.
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887
CAT
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axis (mathematics)
-T-
axis (mathematics)_^<N__^<N_In mathematics, the term axis has a number of special meanings, all related to but going beyond the general meaning of a straight line. _^<N__^<N_In ANALYTIC GEOMETRY a straight line along which a coordinate is measured
is called a coordinate axis. In a rectangular COORDINATE SYSTEM in a plane, two perpendicular coordinate axes--the x axis and the y axis--are used. In a polar coordinate system the axis is the fixed horizontal line directed to the right from the
origin. If a point or a body rotates about a fixed line, the line is called the axis of rotation. If a rigid body is formed by rotating a plane figure about a fixed line, however, the line is then called the axis of revolution of the body, and the
body that is generated is called a solid of revolution. If an object has SYMMETRY with respect to a line, the line is called an axis of symmetry. _^<N__^<N_V. K. Balakrishnan
-END-
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979
CAT
-A-
axolotl
-T-
axolotl_^<N__^<N_{ak'-suh-laht-ul} _^<N__^<N_Axolotls are salamanders that live in ponds and lakes on the Mexican plateau. They retain most of the characteristics of larvae, such as gills, throughout their lives (the name comes from an Aztec word
meaning "water doll"). Their reproductive systems mature, however. The axolotl is known scientifically as Ambystoma mexicanum and is classified in the family Ambystomatidae, which inhabit much of North America. Axolotls occur at the lower end of
the geographic range of the family, and it is suggested that the relatively harsh conditions of the Mexican plateau resulted in the evolution of these permanently larval forms. In less harsh environments some closely related species are known to
occasionally metamorphose into an adult stage. Axolotls are easy to raise in the laboratory and have many genetic variations (including ALBINISM); they are therefore used to test a variety of genetic principles. _^<N__^<N_Marvalee H. Wake
_^<N__^<N_See also: SALAMANDER AND NEWT.
-END-
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16
CAT
-A-
Axum:
-T-
Axum:_^<N__^<N_see AKSUM.
-END-
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483
CAT
-A-
Ayckbourn, Alan
-T-
Ayckbourn, Alan_^<N__^<N_The English playwright Alan Ayckbourn, b. Apr. 12, 1939, writes witty farces that explore the domestic traumas of middle-class life. More than 40 of his plays have been produced, most notably Absurd Person Singular (1972),
the trilogy The Norman Conquests (1973), Season's Greetings (1982), Woman in Mind (1985), and The Revengers' Comedies (1989). Once an actor, Ayckbourn has also been a director. Since 1992 he has been Professor of Contemporary Theatre at Oxford.
-END-
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660
CAT
-A-
aye-aye
-T-
aye-aye_^<N__^<N_{y'-y} _^<N__^<N_The aye-aye, Daubentonia madagascariensis, is an odd PRIMATE native to Madagascar that somewhat resembles the lemur. About the size of a small fox, it has a long, bushy tail, moderately large eyes, thick fur, and a
pair of enlarged front teeth resembling those of rodents. It uses its teeth to break into termite-infested wood, whereupon it swiftly probes through the termite galleries with its slender, elongated middle finger. The claw on the end of this
unusual finger is used to spear insects. Despite these special features, the internal anatomy of the aye-aye closely resembles that of the more typical lemurs of Madagascar. _^<N__^<N_Eli C. Minkoff
-END-
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1331
CAT
-A-
Ayer, A. J.
-T-
Ayer, A. J._^<N__^<N_Sir Alfred Jules Ayer, b. London, Oct. 29, 1910, d. June 27, 1989, was an English philosopher instrumental in introducing the ideas of LOGICAL POSITIVISM into English philosophy with his book Language, Truth, and Logic (1936).
Influenced by the thought of Bertrand RUSSELL, Ludwig WITTGENSTEIN, and the earlier EMPIRICISM of George BERKELEY, Ayer held that philosophy's essential concern is the analysis of language rather than the construction of systems of metaphysics. He
denied that metaphysical statements can be meaningful and regarded theology and the value statements of ethics and aesthetics as merely expressions of emotion. _^<N__^<N_Ayer's later work, primarily concerned with EPISTEMOLOGY and philosophical
methodology, reflected more of the traditional emphases of British empiricism, but with a linguistic approach to problems. The Foundations of Empirical Knowledge (1940) is concerned with questions of knowledge of the external world. The Problem of
Knowledge (1956) considers various kinds of SKEPTICISM and emphasizes a reliance on common sense. Other works include The Origins of Pragmatism (1968), Russell and Moore and the Analytic Heritage (1971), Part of My Life (1977), More of My Life
(1984), Wittgenstein (1985), and Thomas Paine (1988). _^<N__^<N_E. D. Klemke _^<N__^<N_See also: ANALYTIC AND LINGUISTIC PHILOSOPHY.
-END-
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841
CAT
-A-
Ayers Rock
-T-
Ayers Rock_^<N__^<N_Ayers Rock, in central Australia, is a huge freestanding rock formation, or monolith. Rising above the flat plain of central Australia, the oval-shaped mass is composed of a multicolored, weathered conglomerate. As sunlight
strikes it at different angles, it appears to change color. Ayers Rock stands 348 m (1,143 ft) above the desert floor; it is about 2 km (1.5 mi) long and 1.5 km (0.9 mi) wide and is deeply eroded from top to bottom. Its lower portion is pocked
with numerous caves that have long been sacred to Aborigines who live in the region. The lower walls and caves contain traditional Aborigine paintings. Discovered in 1872 by the explorer Ernest Giles, Ayers Rock was named for a former South
Australian premier, Sir Henry Ayers. The government transferred ownership of Ayers Rock to the Aborigines in 1985.
-END-
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373
CAT
-A-
Ayllon, Lucas Vasquez de
-T-
Ayllon, Lucas Vasquez de_^<N__^<N_{yl-yohn'} _^<N__^<N_Lucas Vasquez de Ayllon, b. c.1475, d. Oct. 18, 1526, was a Spanish explorer who colonized the Carolina coast. In 1526 he sailed from Hispaniola (Santo Domingo) and founded a settlement at the
mouth of what was probably the Cape Fear, Santee, or Pee Dee River. Following his death there during a fever epidemic, the colony was abandoned.
-END-
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697
CAT
-A-
Aylwin, Patricio
-T-
Aylwin, Patricio_^<N__^<N_{ayl'-win} _^<N__^<N_Patricio Aylwin, b. Vina del Mar, Chile, Nov. 26, 1918, became president of Chile in 1990. His 1989 election as the candidate of the Christian Democratic party followed a 16-year period during which
Chile was ruled by Gen. Ugarte PINOCHET, who remains commander in chief of the Army. A lawyer by profession, Aylwin was elected to the Chilean Senate in 1965. His opposition to former Socialist president Salvador ALLENDE (1970-73) prompted him to
endorse the 1973 military coup, but subsequent repressive policies caused Aylwin to shift his position. As president, Aylwin ordered the release of some political prisoners and an investigation of human-rights abuses.
-END-
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1457
CAT
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Aymara
-T-
Aymara_^<N__^<N_{y-mah-rah'} _^<N__^<N_The Aymara are a South American Indian people inhabiting much of the Titicaca Basin in southern Peru and Bolivia. They were part of the INCA empire until the time of the Spanish conquest (c.1540), when their
large population then came under the administration of the ENCOMIENDA system. The Aymara staged unsuccessful rebellions in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Since the colonial period they have lived as sharecroppers and wage laborers on haciendas,
engaging in agriculture. Today they number more than 1 million. _^<N__^<N_The Aymara had a complex form of social organization in pre-Spanish times, but since conquest and incorporation they have been reduced to the status of peasants living in
small communities, called ayllu. These political units tend to be endogamous (men and women from the same ayllu marry one another) and are administered by an alcalde. _^<N__^<N_The patrilineal and patrilocal extended family is the basic landowning
and economic unit. Marriages are usually arranged and involve the payment of bride-price in addition to a Catholic service. For centuries Aymara have espoused Catholicism, but many vestiges remain of the traditional religious beliefs.
_^<N__^<N_Louis C. Faron _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Buechler, Hans C. and Judith-Maria, The Bolivian Aymara (1971); Cameron, Ian, Kingdom of the Sun God: A History of the Andes and Their People (1991); Lewellen, Ted C., Peasants in Transition: The
Changing Economy of the Peruvian Aymara (1978).
-END-
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435
CAT
-A-
Ayme, Marcel
-T-
Ayme, Marcel_^<N__^<N_{ay-may'} _^<N__^<N_The novelist, essayist, and playwright Marcel Ayme, b. Mar. 29, 1902, d. Oct. 14, 1967, gained success in 1933 with his comic novel of French peasant life, The Green Mare (Eng. trans., 1955). His later work,
which included the plays Clerambard (1955; Eng. trans., 1958) and La Tete des autres (The Head of Others, 1952) and short stories, introduced elements of fantasy and political or social satire. _^<N__^<N_Robin Buss
-END-
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620
CAT
-A-
Ayodhya
-T-
Ayodhya_^<N__^<N_{ay-yohd'-yah} _^<N__^<N_Ayodhya (1981 pop., 30,500), an ancient town in Uttar Pradesh state in northern India, is considered one of the seven holy sites of Hinduism. In the 6th-5th centuries BC, it was also a major Buddhist center.
Ayodhya is most revered for its association with the birth of Rama in the RAMAYANA, a great Indian epic. A famous mosque erected (1528) on the site of Rama's birthplace by the Mogul emperor BABUR was destroyed in December 1992 by Hindu militants
seeking to build a Hindu temple there. The incident sparked the worst communal violence between Hindus and Muslims in India since independence.
-END-
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597
CAT
-A-
Ayr
-T-
Ayr_^<N__^<N_{air} _^<N__^<N_Ayr was a county in southwest Scotland until 1975, when it became part of the Strathclyde administrative region. Located south of Glasgow, it is bounded on the west by the Firth of Clyde. The main town is Ayr. The
rivers Irvine and Doone divide the region into three traditional sections--hilly southeast; the central low hills, supporting an extensive dairy industry as well as ironworks and coal mining, which began in Ayr in 1780; and the widely cultivated
western lowlands, site of many summer resorts. The poet Robert BURNS was born in Ayr, the setting for much of his poetry.
-END-
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47
CAT
-A-
Ayrshire cattle:
-T-
Ayrshire cattle:_^<N__^<N_see CATTLE AND CATTLE RAISING.
-END-
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815
CAT
-A-
Ayrton, Hertha and William Edward
-T-
Ayrton, Hertha and William Edward_^<N__^<N_At a time when women scientists were rare and rarely granted recognition, Hertha Marks Ayrton, b. Aug. 27, 1854, d. Aug. 26, 1923, conducted celebrated research in the field of the electric ARC and
invented, for the British War Office, an anti-gas fan, more than 100,000 of which were used in the trenches during World War I. She was made a member of the Institution of Electrical Engineers in 1899, the only woman on its roster. Although
nominated for membership in the Royal Society, she was never elected, on the grounds that the society had no legal power to admit women. In 1906, however, she was awarded a Royal Society medal. Her husband, William, b. Sept. 14, 1847, d. Nov. 8,
1908, was a physicist and the inventor of several instruments for measuring electrical currents.
-END-
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1270
CAT
-A-
Ayub Khan, Muhammad
-T-
Ayub Khan, Muhammad_^<N__^<N_{ah-yub' kahn} _^<N__^<N_Muhammad Ayub Khan, b. May 14, 1907, d. Apr. 20, 1974, was a field marshal and president of Pakistan. Educated at the Royal Military Academy at Sandhurst, he served as a battalion commander in
the British Indian army in World War II. After the creation of the Muslim state of Pakistan in 1947, Ayub Khan rose through the army to become the first Pakistani commander in chief (1951-58), also serving as defense minister (1954-55). When the
government lost a vote of confidence, President Iskander Mirza appointed him administrator of martial law in October 1958. Ayub Khan proclaimed himself president, thus ousting Mirza. He became field marshal in 1959 and was confirmed as president by
a referendum in 1960. _^<N__^<N_Ayub Khan initiated (1960) a system of local governing councils (basic democracies), which was incorporated into the new constitution of 1962. He was reelected for a 5-year term in 1965. Political unrest and riots
erupted in 1968, particularly in East Pakistan (later, Bangladesh). Ayub Khan resigned amid charges of corruption on Mar. 26, 1969. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ayub Khan, M., Friends, Not Masters: A Political Autobiography (1967); Rizvi, H., The
Military and Politics in Pakistan (1989); Ziring, L., The Ayub Khan Era (1971).
-END-
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1188
CAT
-A-
Ayuthia
-T-
Ayuthia_^<N__^<N_{ah-yoo'-tee-yuh} _^<N__^<N_Ayuthia (Ayudhya), a town 72 km (45 mi) north of Bangkok, is the site of the first capital of the kingdom of Siam (present-day Thailand). Founded (c.1350) by the Thai king Ramathibodi I, it remained the
southern center of Thai power and culture until 1767, when the Burmese destroyed it. _^<N__^<N_Ayuthia's Buddhist kings attempted to supplant, by the splendor of their architecture, ANGKOR, the great capital city of the Khmer, who had earlier ruled
much of Thailand. Numerous ruined buildings survive at the site, among them tall brick STUPAS and tower-shrines based on Khmer patterns. These shrines contained Buddhist relics and serenely styled images of the Buddha, of which the colossal
bronze sculpture of the seated Buddha in the Phra Monkal Borpitr is the most spectacular. Major temples include the Wat Phra Ram (1369) and the Wat Phra Sri Sanpet (1492). Important pictorial remains include the wall paintings of Buddhist
subjects in the royal tomb chambers of Wat Rat Burana (1427) and the late 17th-century examples in the Wat Budhaisawan. Chandrakasem Palace is now a museum. _^<N__^<N_Philip Rawson _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Wyatt, David K., Thailand: A Short History
(1986).
-END-
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1049
CAT
-A-
Ayyubids
-T-
Ayyubids_^<N__^<N_{uh-yoo'-bidz} _^<N__^<N_The Ayyubids were members of the Islamic dynasty founded (1171) by SALADIN, which ruled Egypt, Muslim Syria-Palestine, Upper Mesopotamia, and Yemen. During the Ayyubid period Egypt became the main base of
Muslim military strength in the Middle East; subsequently, the Ayyubids were able to reduce the Crusader states substantially. The dynasty also promoted a strongly orthodox religious and educational policy, which aided the revival of Arabic
learning. _^<N__^<N_At Saladin's death in 1193, the empire was divided among his family, but central control was kept by his brother al-Adil (d. 1218) and his brother's son al-Kamil (d. 1238). Under them Saladin's activist policy gave place to one
of detente with the Crusaders; it allowed, particularly, for increased trade with Europe. _^<N__^<N_After al-Kamil's death, the dynasty was rent by internal quarrels caused mainly by the Turkish slave army, the MAMELUKES, who seized power and ended
Ayyubid rule in Egypt in 1249. _^<N__^<N_Michael W. Dols _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Newby, P. H., Saladin in His Time (1992).
-END-
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528
CAT
-A-
azalea
-T-
azalea_^<N__^<N_{uh-zayl'-yuh} _^<N__^<N_Azaleas are beautiful flowering, semievergreen shrubs or small trees that belong to the genus Rhododendron and the heath family, Ericaceae. Azaleas are native to southeastern Asia, North America, and southern
Europe. Horticulturists have developed numerous new varieties for landscape planting; both evergreen and deciduous types are available. Azaleas thrive in acidic soils (pH 4.5-6.5) and where they will receive direct sunlight for part of the day.
Azana, Manuel_^<N__^<N_{ah-thahn'-yah} _^<N__^<N_Manuel y Diaz Azana, b. Jan. 10, 1880, d. Nov. 4, 1940, was a Spanish political leader during the Second Republic. A writer of distinction and a member of the 1931 revolutionary committee, he became
war minister in the first republican cabinet and then prime minister (1931-33), inaugurating a number of reforms. When the Popular Front won the February 1936 election, he again became prime minister and then (May 1936) president. During the
SPANISH CIVIL WAR he became a mere figurehead. He fled (February 1939) to France just before the republican collapse.
-END-
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1247
CAT
-A-
Azande
-T-
Azande_^<N__^<N_{uh-zahn'-dee} _^<N__^<N_The Azande (singular, Zande) are an African people who live in Zaire, the Central African Republic, and Sudan. They number more than 100,000 and speak a language of the Eastern subfamily of the Niger-Congo
languages. The Azande live by subsistence farming of grain and root crops, bananas, and legumes; fishing; and gathering of plant foods and insects. They are skillful in smithing, pottery, wood carving, and basketry. _^<N__^<N_Descent is traced
through the father's line, but communal life is based on the political system rather than on family and kinship ties. Marriage is polygynous, with older men having an advantage over younger men in the acquisition of wives. The father has great
authority over other family members. _^<N__^<N_Traditional Zande religion includes belief in and deep concern with magic (especially sorcery), witchcraft, oracles, divination, and leechcraft, the art of healing. Because the Azande attribute
sickness to witchcraft or sorcery, religious belief and medical practices are inextricably connected. Islam has made some converts among the Azande. _^<N__^<N_Phoebe Miller _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Evans-Pritchard, Edward E., The Azande: History and
Political Institutions (1971) and, as ed., Man and Woman among the Azande (1974).
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770
CAT
-A-
azeotropic mixture
-T-
azeotropic mixture_^<N__^<N_An azeotropic mixture is a solution that does not change in composition when distilled. The word azeotrope, from the Greek, means "to boil unchanged." When a mixture of liquids is distilled, the vapor coming off is
ordinarily richer in the component of the mixture that has a lower boiling point. Thus as most solutions are boiled the composition of liquid and vapor keeps changing. The boiling point also rises steadily. Some solutions, however, have a maximum
or minimum boiling point at a given pressure. They arrive at a state in which liquid and vapor maintain the same composition and continue to boil unchanged. The most common such azeotrope is a solution of 95 percent ethanol and 5 percent water.
_^<N__^<N_Gerald C. Roper _^<N__^<N_See also: PHASE EQUILIBRIUM.
-END-
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9458
CATO
4755
-A-
Azerbaijan (country)
-O-
000000|Azerbaijan (country)
000949| LAND AND RESOURCES
001551| Vegetation and Climate
002180| Resources
002420| PEOPLE
003083| Religion
003263| Culture
003853| Education and Health Care
004215| ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
005711| GOVERNMENT
006731| HISTORY
-T-
Azerbaijan (country)_^<N__^<N_{ah-zur-by-jahn'} _^<N__^<N_The Republic of Azerbaijan is located in CAUCASIA, on the western shore of the Caspian Sea and south of the CAUCASUS MOUNTAINS. The republic is bounded by Russia on the north, Georgia on the
northwest, Armenia on the southwest, Iran on the south, and the Caspian Sea on the east. Its territory includes two administrative units of special status: the Autonomous Republic of Nakhichevan, separated from the rest of Azerbaijan by Armenia;
and the Autonomous District of NAGORNO-KARABAKH, an enclave in Azerbaijan with a largely Armenian population. The capital of the republic is BAKU, a port city on the Caspian Sea. The Republic of Azerbaijan is part of the larger historic region of
Azerbaijan, the rest of which is in Iran. The Azeri people on both sides of the frontier speak the same language and share the religious heritage of Islam. The republic itself was formerly part of the USSR; it became independent in 1991.
_^<N__^<N_ LAND AND RESOURCES_^<N__^<N_Nearly half of the Republic of Azerbaijan is covered by mountains. In the north is the Greater Caucasus range; in the south, the Lesser Caucasus and Talish Mountains; in between are the Kura River lowlands.
The highest elevation is Mount Bazar-dyuzi in the Greater Caucasus (4,466 m/14,652 ft). The 800-km (497-mi) coastline has few irregularities, the main one being the beak-shaped Apsheron Peninsula, which coincides with the Baku metropolitan area.
The largest river is the Kura, with its main tributary, the Araks. Most of the country's rivers drain into the Kura basin. _^<N__^<N_ Vegetation and Climate_^<N__^<N_The low-lying regions are covered with semidesert vegetation. In the plains and
semiarid foothills the vegetation consists of grass and wormwood. Extensive forests cover the southern slopes of the Greater Caucasus. Climatic conditions in Azerbaijan range from arid subtropical and humid subtropical to alpine. The mean annual
temperature varies from 14 degrees C (57 degrees F) in the lowlands to 0 degrees C (32 degrees F) in the mountains. Annual precipitation ranges from 200-400 mm (8-16 in) in the northern and central coastal belt to 1,000-1,200 mm (39-47 in) in the
southern region of Lenkoran. _^<N__^<N_ Resources_^<N__^<N_Azerbaijan has rich, though partly depleted reserves of oil concentrated around Baku and under the Caspian Sea. Other natural resources include natural gas and metal ores (chiefly iron and
bauxite in the area south of Gyandzha). _^<N__^<N_ PEOPLE_^<N__^<N_Azeris, who speak an Oghuz Turkic language closely related to Turkish, constituted 83 percent of the republic's population in 1989. The two largest non-Azeri ethnic groups were the
Russians and Armenians (between 5 and 6 percent each); the Talysh, an Iranian-speaking people, accounted for 3.5 percent, and the Lezghians, a Caucasian group, for 2.4 percent. Since the 1989 census more Azeris have entered the country from
Armenia, and many Armenians have emigrated, both movements related to the conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh (see below). The principal cities, in addition to Baku, are Gyandzha (Ganja, 1991 est. pop., 282,200) and Sumgait (236,200). _^<N__^<N_
Religion_^<N__^<N_The Azerbaijanis are mainly Muslim, about 70 percent of them Shiite, and the remainder Sunnite. Believers among the Russian and Armenian minorities are mostly Christian. _^<N__^<N_ Culture_^<N__^<N_The traditional visual art of
Azerbaijan reflected Iranian-Islamic styles and techniques, and the visual arts in the Soviet period were dominated by the official socialist realism favored in the USSR. Modern Azeri literature began with the great 19th-century Azeri writer Mirza
Fath Ali Akhundzade (Akhundov, 1812-78), who drew from both traditional Azeri and contemporary Russian models. After years of stagnation in the later decades of Soviet rule, a new period of literary revival began with the end of the USSR and the
beginning of increased contacts with the outside world. _^<N__^<N_ Education and Health Care_^<N__^<N_Literacy has been almost universal since the mid-20th century. Eight years of schooling is compulsory, and all education through the university
level is free. Medical care is provided free of charge in the system set up during the Soviet period, but the quality of medical care is poor, as evidenced by the high infant mortality rate. _^<N__^<N_ ECONOMIC ACTIVITY_^<N__^<N_Azerbaijan's
economy developed largely as an appendage of Russia's and has been oriented toward the Russian market. The most important sector of the industrial economy is the petroleum industry, established in the 1870s, which made the region the world's
leading producer of crude by the beginning of the 20th century. About four-fifths of Azerbaijani industrial production, in which oil producing equipment and chemicals are heavily represented, is located in the Batu-Sumgait area. Other industrial
products include textiles, carpets, processed foods, and wines. Agriculture is export-oriented; Azerbaijan supplies Russia with fruit, cotton, tobacco, and tea. _^<N__^<N_Among the former Soviet republics, Azerbaijan's rate of economic growth is
closer to those of Central Asia than to the more developed western areas of the USSR, or even to those of its Caucasian neighbors, Armenia and Georgia. Soviet economic policy, dictated by Moscow, inhibited Azerbaijani prosperity by overexploiting
the republic's oil resources and holding down the price of oil. It left Azerbaijan with inadequate infrastructure, lack of alternative industries, and a low standard of living. Chronic unemployment is a growing problem, compounded by the influx
of refugees from Armenia, and the transition from a socialist to a free-market economy has been slow. On the brighter side, the discovery of new offshore oil reserves has served to attract Western investors who are anxious to develop them.
_^<N__^<N_ GOVERNMENT_^<N__^<N_The government of Azerbaijan still retains many features left over from seven decades of Soviet rule. The present legislature was elected under the Soviet regime in September 1990, and former members of the Communist
party of Azerbaijan (CPA) hold an overwhelming majority of the seats. Supreme executive power is vested in the president of the republic, who appoints the Council of Ministers (prime minister and cabinet). The first president elected by popular
vote in September 1991 was CPA leader Ayaz Mutalibov; the second, elected the following June, was Abulfaz Elchibey of the People's Front of Azerbaijan (PFA). _^<N__^<N_The CPA, which had held a monopoly of power under the Soviets, dissolved itself
in September 1991, but its members retained their positions in the government bureaucracy. Other parties that have emerged include the PFA, the Social Democratic party of Azerbaijan, the Independent Social Democratic party, New Equality (Yeni
Musavat), and the Party for National Independence (Istiklal). _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY_^<N__^<N_In ancient times what is now the republic of Azerbaijan was occupied by the Caucasian kingdom of Albania. The region was conquered by the Arabs in the 7th
century AD, and in the 11th century it was occupied by the Oghuz Turks, who came to form the majority of its population. At the end of the 15th century, Azerbaijan became the power base of a native dynasty, the SAFAVIDS, who established an empire
that dominated Iran in the 16th and 17th centuries. With the weakening of Iranian central power in the 18th century, new centers of local power emerged in the form of khanates (principalities). This fragmentation facilitated conquest by the
Russians, who gained control of northern Azerbaijan between 1813 and 1828. _^<N__^<N_Russian rule brought some elements of change, most notably a lopsided industrialization centered on the extraction of oil. The Russian Revolution of 1905 ushered
in a political awakening and outbreaks of ethnic violence between the Azeris and their Christian neighbors the Armenians, who also had nationalist aspirations. In 1918, with the disintegration of the Russian Empire, Azerbaijan proclaimed its
independence. This lasted until 1920, when an invasion by the Red Army turned the country into a Soviet republic. Under the new regime, Azerbaijan shared the experiences common to all the peoples of the USSR: industrialization, collectivization
of agriculture, educational progress, the Stalin purges, and political repression of varying degrees' intensity. _^<N__^<N_National reawakening began in 1988 with the outbreak of the conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh, the Armenian enclave included by
the Soviets in the Republic of Azerbaijan. The Armenians of Karabakh rebelled against Azerbaijan, and, in the atmosphere of national emergency, free public opinion asserted itself. New political groups led by the PFA undermined the power of the
Communist party. The Communists were supported by Soviet troops, who occupied Baku in January 1990. On the dissolution of the USSR in 1991 Azerbaijan won its independence, but the government's failure to end the war in Nagorno-Karabakh kept it in
a continual state of crisis. In June 1993, with one-fifth of the republic's territory in the hands of the Armenian insurgents, Abulfaz Elchibey was ousted from the presidency and replaced by former Communist party chief Geidar Aliyev. Under
Aliyev, Azerbaijan joined (September 1993) the COMMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES. _^<N__^<N_Tadeusz Swietochowski _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Altstadt, A., The Azerbaijani Turks (1992); Nissman, D., The Soviet Union and Iranian Azerbaijan (1987);
Suny, R., ed., Transcaucasia: Nationalism and Social Change (1983); Swietochowski, T., Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920 (1985). _^<N__^<N_
-END-
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632
CAT
-A-
Azerbaijan (provinces)
-T-
Azerbaijan (provinces)_^<N__^<N_The provinces of East and West Azerbaijan (Azerbaijan) in northwestern Iran form the southern part of the historic region of Azerbaijan. The northern portion is the Republic of Azerbaijan. East Azerbaijan has an area
of 67,100 sq km (25,908 sq mi) and a population of 4,114,084 (1986); its capital is TABRIZ (1986 pop., 971,482). West Azerbaijan has an area of 38,850 sq km (15,000 sq mi) and a population of 1,971,677 (1986); its capital is Orumiyeh (formerly
Rezaiyeh, 1986 pop., 300,746). Lake Urmia (Orumiyeh) is on the boundary between the two provinces. The population is Azeri, with a Kurdish minority.
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877
CAT
-A-
azide
-T-
azide_^<N__^<N_Azides are a group of sensitive, explosive chemical compounds. The molecules of azides all contain three doubly bonded nitrogen atoms attached to an inorganic or organic group. Some have light-sensitive properties like those of silver
halides. Most metal azides are explosive under appropriate conditions of heat, shock, or friction and have a limited use in detonation work. Hydrogen azide, a sensitive explosive, is comparable to NITROGLYCERIN. It is also a poison with an action
similar to CYANIDE. Lead azide, the most important member of the group, is used as a primary explosive in industry and by the military. Organic acyl derivatives of azides are acetylating agents that are used in protein synthesis. _^<N__^<N_Elbert
Hadley _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Scriven, E. F., Azides and Nitrenes (1984); Streitwieser, Andrew, and Heathcock, Clayton, Introduction to Organic Chemistry (1976).
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1029
CAT
-A-
Azilian
-T-
Azilian_^<N__^<N_{uh-zeel'-eeuhn} _^<N__^<N_In archaeology, the Azilian is a PALEOLITHIC (Old Stone Age) culture of southwestern France and northeastern Spain. One of the very last Paleolithic tool industries of Ice Age Europe, it is closely related
typologically to the Upper MAGDALENIAN that precedes it and dates approximately from 9,500 to 9,200 years ago. The term originates from the site of Mas d'Azil in the French Pyrenees, where the Azilian was first identified. _^<N__^<N_The Azilian
cultural tradition represents an adaptation by Paleolithic hunter-gatherers to rapidly changing climatic conditions at the end of the most recent glacial period. At this time herds of large game animals were either becoming extinct or were
retreating northward as their accustomed habitats vanished. Among the most characteristic Azilian artifacts are harpoons, mostly small and flat, manufactured of red deer antler, and small pebbles painted with geometric designs.
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bahn, P., Pyrenean Prehistory: A Paleoeconomic Survey of the French Sites (1984).
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44
CAT
-A-
azimuth:
-T-
azimuth:_^<N__^<N_see COORDINATE SYSTEMS (astronomy).
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526
CAT
-A-
Aznavour, Charles
-T-
Aznavour, Charles_^<N__^<N_{ahz-nah-voor'} _^<N__^<N_Charles Aznavour is the stage name of Varenagh Aznavourian, b. May 22, 1924, a French-Armenian concert and cabaret singer of international fame. Early in his career he was a protege of the singer
Edith PIAF and wrote songs for her. He has also acted in such films as La Tete contre les murs (1958), Shoot the Piano Player (1960), The Games (1970), Les Intrus (1973), The Tin Drum (1979), and Vive la vie (1984). His autobiography was published
in English translation in 1972. _^<N__^<N_Leslie Halliwell
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1027
CAT
-A-
azo compound
-T-
azo compound_^<N__^<N_{a'-zoh} _^<N__^<N_An azo compound consists of two organic molecules linked by two nitrogen atoms that share a double bond. This central unit (-N=N-) is called the azo group after azote, an early name for nitrogen. If the
nitrogens are linked to atoms other than carbon in the aliphatic or aromatic molecules, the compounds are called diazo compounds. _^<N__^<N_The simplest aromatic azo compound is azobenzene. Like all compounds containing the light-absorbing azo
group, it is colored--in this instance, a bright orange red. Unlike the thousands of other aromatic azo compounds that are industrially important dyes, it has no affinity with fiber, but it is used as an intermediate in the synthesis of such dyes
and as an accelerator in the vulcanization of rubber. _^<N__^<N_Water-insoluble azo dyes that form within the treated material through the reaction of intermediate compounds are called azoic dyes. Most aliphatic azo compounds are not industrially
significant, but some of them are used as sources of free radicals. _^<N__^<N_Elbert H. Hadley
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567
CAT
-A-
azobenzene
-T-
azobenzene_^<N__^<N_{az-oh-ben'-zeen} _^<N__^<N_Azobenzene is a bright orange-red, industrially important chemical. It is the simplest compound having the NN chromophore (light-absorbing) group that always produces a colored compound, but it is not
a dye, since it has no affinity with fiber. Azobenzene can be oxidized to azoxybenzene and reduced to hydrazobenzene; these products are colorless. Azobenzene is moderately toxic, producing liver injury in rats. It is used as an intermediate in the
synthesis of dyes and as an accelerator in the vulcanization of rubber. _^<N__^<N_Elbert H. Hadley
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2971
CAT
-A-
Azores
-T-
Azores_^<N__^<N_{ay'-zohrz} _^<N__^<N_The Azores (Acores) are a group of Portuguese islands in the Atlantic Ocean, located between 37 degrees and 39 degrees north latitude and lying 1,190 km (740 mi) west of southern Portugal. Nine major islands,
stretching from northwest to southeast over a distance of about 645 km (400 mi), make up the group. Their total area of 2,247 sq km (868 sq mi) accommodates a population of 236,700 (1991), which is Portuguese-speaking and mainly of Portuguese
descent. The small western islands, Corvo and Flores, are separated by about 240 km (150 mi) of open sea from the central group, which consists of Faial, Pico, Sao Jorge, Graciosa, and Terceira. Open sea separates these from the islands of Sao
Miguel and Santa Maria, as well as the Formigas islets, to the southeast. _^<N__^<N_Sao Miguel, with an area of 746 sq km (288 sq mi), is the largest and most densely populated island. All except Santa Maria are of volcanic origin, built of lava
and volcanic ash, and most are subject to severe earthquakes. Rugged in relief, they rise to heights of more than 900 m (3,000 ft) within a few miles of the coast. Pico, with an area of only 433 sq km (167 sq mi), consists mostly of a volcanic cone
that rises to 2,351 m (7,713 ft) at Pico Alto. _^<N__^<N_The climate is temperate, with a very small seasonal range. Average temperatures in January are about 16 degrees C (60 degrees F) and in August about 22 degrees C (72 degrees F). Rainfall is
heavy on the windward sides of the islands, ranging between 762 and 1,525 mm (30 and 60 in) annually. Much of it falls in winter, when severe gales may occur. _^<N__^<N_Vegetation thrives at lower altitudes, where bananas, pineapples, and
subtropical fruits are grown. From elevations of about 450 to 900 m (1,500 to 3,000 ft), temperate cereals and fruits prevail, and recently dairying has been introduced. Much agriculture is carried out on terraced slopes. Sardines, tuna, and other
fish are caught. The population, engaged mainly in agriculture, is declining because of the migration to mainland Portugal and the United States. Most of the islands' trade passes through PONTA DELGADA (Sao Miguel), Horta (Faial), and Angra do
Heroismo (Terceira). _^<N__^<N_The Azores were discovered by the Portuguese about 1427. They were uninhabited, but the Portuguese began to settle there a few years later. Occupied by Spain from 1580 to 1640, they were used as a staging base for the
Spanish fleets. For political and administrative purposes, the islands form an autonomous region of Portugal, comprising three districts. _^<N__^<N_Norman J. G. Pounds _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hammick, Anne, and Heath, Nicholas, eds., The Atlantic
Islands: Azores, Canaries, Madeira, and Cape Verde Islands (1989); Porter, Darwin, Dollarwise Guide to Portugal, Madeira, and the Azores, rev. ed. (1988); Rogers, Francis M., Atlantic Islanders of the Azores and Madeiras (1979) and Internationalism
and the Three Portugals: The Memoirs of Francis Millet Rogers, ed. by Sheila R. Ackerlind (1993).
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1079
CAT
-A-
Azov, Sea of
-T-
Azov, Sea of_^<N__^<N_{uh-zawf'} _^<N__^<N_The Sea of Azov is a northern arm of the BLACK SEA, bordered by Ukraine and Russia. It covers an area of 38,850 sq km (15,000 sq mi) and is 370 km (230 mi) long, with a maximum width of 177 km (110 mi).
The Azov is the world's shallowest sea, with depths ranging from 0.9 to 14 m (3 to 46 ft). It is connected by rivers and the Kerch Strait to the Black Sea. Iron ore and coal are shipped across it, and it is fished commercially. The northeast end
of the Sea of Azov forms the Gulf of Taganrog, an area of sandy shores and sand spits. On the western shore, long sandspits separate the Azov from the Sivash, or Putrid Sea, a very salty area of lagoons and marshes. The Azov is frozen for three
to six months during the winter. _^<N__^<N_The Azov is fed by the Don, Mius, and Kalmius rivers from the north and by the Yeya and Kuban from the east. The water is of very low salinity and supports sardines and anchovies, sturgeon, pike, carp,
and herring. Major Azov ports are Taganrog in Russia and the metal-refining centers of Mariupol and Kerch in Ukraine.
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7490
CATO
4789
-A-
Aztec
-O-
000000|Aztec
000702| Aztec Empire
002553| Aztec Culture
004841| Aztec Religion
-T-
Aztec_^<N__^<N_According to their own myths and legends, the people known as the Aztecs (who referred to themselves as the Mexica or Tenochca) originated from a place called Aztlan, somewhere in north or northwest Mexico. At that time the Aztecs
were a small, nomadic tribe, Nahuatl-speaking, living in the border territory on the margins of civilized MESOAMERICA. Sometime in the 12th century they embarked on a period of wandering and in the 13th century settled in the valley of central
Mexico. Continually dislodged by the small city-states that fought one another in shifting alliances, the Aztecs finally found refuge on a small island in Lake Texcoco where, about 1345, they founded the town of TENOCHTITLAN. _^<N__^<N_ Aztec
Empire_^<N__^<N_The Aztecs at first lived under the dominion of Azcapotzalco, the mightiest of the city-states in the valley of central Mexico. They helped this town to conquer territory in the early 15th century, but in 1428 they defeated
Azcapotzalco itself with the assistance of allies. By 1431, Tenochtitlan had become an independent state in alliance with the neighboring cities of Texcoco and Tlacopan. This triple alliance soon controlled the entire valley and, with Tenochtitlan
as the dominant partner, began a program of military expansion that was still unfinished at the time of the Spanish conquest. _^<N__^<N_Montezuma I, grandfather of MONTEZUMA II, expanded the empire from the Atlantic to the Pacific. A total of 489
cities paid tribute to the alliance. From these conquered cities came foodstuffs to feed the growing population of Tenochtitlan, together with luxury goods for Aztec nobles and warriors. They also received exotic raw materials lacking in the Aztec
homeland--gold, copper, tropical feathers, gemstones, rubber, jade, amber, jaguar skins, and chocolate. Conquest also furnished war captives for sacrifice to the gods. _^<N__^<N_The alliance powers made no attempt to unify the area they controlled
or to change the customs of conquered peoples. The empire was held together by force rather than by loyalty, and the subject states were eager to shake off Aztec control. With the arrival (1519) of the Spanish army of Hernan CORTES, several Mexican
cities willingly joined forces with the invaders. These Indian allies, in particular the Tlaxcalans (hereditary enemies of the Aztecs), were an essential element in the conquest of Mexico, supplying auxiliary troops, food, transport, and secure
bases in friendly territory. In 1521, Tenochtitlan, under the leadership of CUAUHTEMOC, capitulated to Cortes, and the days of Aztec dominion ended. _^<N__^<N_ Aztec Culture_^<N__^<N_For a century, the Aztecs of Tenochtitlan had been the greatest
power in Mexico. As they grew in political status, they became sophisticated and civilized, learning from established peoples who had been town dwellers for more than 1,000 years. _^<N__^<N_The Aztec empire consisted of numerous loosely connected
urban communities. Land ownership was communal; each local group, called a capulli, was composed of a few families that jointly owned a piece of land. Part of the yield of cultivated land was given to the state as a kind of tax.
_^<N__^<N_Technology depended more on human skills than on mechanical devices. The wheel was known, but it was used for nothing more important than pull-along toys. No wheeled vehicles existed, nor any machines depending on rotary motion. Iron and
steel were unknown, although copper and bronze were used for tools, and Mexican jewelers made magnificent ornaments from gold, silver, and their alloys. Many things that a 16th-century Spaniard took for granted, including glass and glazes,
gunpowder, plows, and alphabetic writing, were absent from Mexico, but the lack of these things did not prevent the Aztecs from producing an art and architecture that amazed the Europeans. Although wheat, barley, cattle, horses, sheep, and goats
were unknown until introduced from Europe, the Mexicans were efficient farmers who made full use of irrigation, terracing, and fertilization of the fields. _^<N__^<N_As the Spaniards immediately appreciated, Aztec Mexico was rich and civilized,
even if its customs and technology were unlike those of the Old World. The state controlled every aspect of life. Schooling and training in the martial arts were compulsory for all boys. A centralized bureaucracy looked after the collection and
storage of taxes, matters of legislation and punishment, famine relief, and market trading. A special class of merchants devoted themselves to long-distance commerce outside the Aztec empire, and their caravans traveled as far as Yucatan and
Guatemala, where they exchanged goods with traders from MAYA territory. These merchants were also used as official envoys and as spies. Religion was in the hands of full-time priests, whose leaders were drawn from the ruling families; thus no
conflict of interest existed between church and state. _^<N__^<N_ Aztec Religion_^<N__^<N_Like all the Mexican peoples, the Aztecs worshiped a multitude of gods, each of whom demanded offerings and sacrifices. Above all, the Aztecs considered
themselves the chosen people of HUITZILOPOCHTLI, the sun and war god, in whose name they were destined to conquer all rival nations. Huitzilopochtli shared the main temple at Tenochtitlan with Tlaloc, the rain god, important to the farmers in a
land where drought was a constant threat. Another important god was QUETZALCOATL, the feathered serpent, patron of arts and crafts and the god of self- sacrifice. Religion was ever present. Each place and each trade had its patron deity: each day,
and each division of the day, was watched over by its own god. Priests were expected to live in chastity, to mortify their flesh, and to understand astronomy, astrology, the complex rituals and ceremonies, and the art of picture writing. Games also
formed part of the religious ritual. A popular ball game was lachtli, in which a small rubber ball had to be struck by the hips or thighs and knocked across a special court. In another ritual game, men attired as birds and attached to ropes were
slung in a wide circle around a pole. _^<N__^<N_The official state religion of the soldiers and noblemen was concerned primarily with the great and powerful gods: the creators, the solar deities, the patrons of the warrior orders. By contrast, the
common people seem to have preferred the lesser, more accessible gods: the patrons of the craft guilds, the protectors of local shrines, and the deities who looked after the things of everyday life. For everyone, however, rich or poor, each month
of the Aztec calendar had its festival, with music, dancing, processions, and sacrifices. All this came to an end with the Spanish conquest and the introduction of the Christian religion, although at the peasant level certain traditions from the
Aztec heritage still survive in modern Mexico. _^<N__^<N_Warwick Bray _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bray, Warwick, Everyday Life of the Aztecs (1968; repr. 1987); Brundage, Burr C., The Jade Steps (1985) and A Rain of Darts (1973); Cantu, Caesar, Cortes
and the Fall of the Aztec Empire (1966); Caso, Alphonso, The Aztecs: People of the Sun (1958; repr., 1970); Clendinnen, Inga, The Aztecs: An Interpretation (1991); Davies, Nigel, The Aztec Empire (1987); and The Aztecs: A History (1973; repr.
1980); Fagan, Brian, The Aztecs (1984); Keen, Benjamin, The Aztec Image in Western Thought (1971); Lincoln, J. D., Montezuma (1977); Stuart, Gene S., The Mighty Aztecs (1981); Townsend, Richard, The Aztecs (1992). _^<N__^<N_See also: LATIN AMERICA,
HISTORY OF; PRE-COLUMBIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE.
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971
CAT
-A-
Azuela, Mariano
-T-
Azuela, Mariano_^<N__^<N_{ah-sway'-lah} _^<N__^<N_Mariano Azuela, b. Jan. 1, 1873, d. Mar. 1, 1952, a Mexican novelist, inaugurated the cycle of the socially realistic "novels of the Mexican Revolution." A practicing physician from 1899, he served
briefly (1915) as a surgeon with Pancho VILLA during the Mexican Revolution before settling permanently in Mexico City in the aftermath of Villa's defeat. _^<N__^<N_Azuela's The Underdogs (1915; Eng. trans., 1928), one of the most important and
widely translated of Mexican novels, describes the disillusioning rise and fall of a petty army officer of Indian origins during the revolution. Azuela continued to explore the theme of the revolution's impact on all social classes and to express
his passion for social justice in novels such as The Bosses (1917; Eng. trans., 1956), The Flies (1918; Eng. trans., 1956), and The Trials of a Respectable Family (1918; Eng. trans., 1963). He was awarded Mexico's national literary prize in 1949.
_^<N__^<N_Edward Mullen
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622
CAT
-A-
azurite
-T-
azurite_^<N__^<N_The mineral azurite, the basic carbonate of copper, is used as a decorative stone and a blue pigment. Azurite occurs in the oxidized zone of copper deposits, where it has been precipitated from low-temperature copper and
carbonate-rich solutions. It is almost always associated with the more abundant green copper carbonate MALACHITE, to which azurite weathers. It forms modified MONOCLINIC crystals as well as columnar or earthy masses that have a vitreous luster and
a distinctive azure-blue color. Hardness is 3 1/2-4, streak is blue, and specific gravity is 3.7-3.9. _^<N__^<N_See also: CARBONATE MINERALS; ORE DEPOSITS.
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1308
CAT
-A-
B
-T-
B_^<N__^<N_B/b is the second letter of the English alphabet; its form and position were inherited from the Latin alphabet by way of the Etruscan and Greek. The Greek letter beta was in turn derived from a Semitic (probably Phoenician) writing
system, in which the name of the sign is beth. _^<N__^<N_In modern Greek, the letter beta is pronounced similarly to v. Thus, in the Cyrillic (Eastern Slavic) alphabet, which developed from the late Greek, the symbol B represents the sound v, and a
new symbol for the sound b was devised. _^<N__^<N_In English, the letter b represents a consonant that is a voiced labial stop made by interrupting the flow of air with the lips and vibrating the vocal cords, as in bat, label, and slab. In some
instances, b is not pronounced when preceded by m or followed by t, as in dumb or doubt. _^<N__^<N_Because the sound b is very closely related to other labial consonants, such as p, v, f (ph), m, and w (wh), these sounds are frequently interchanged
in words of different languages that have a common origin: thus, Latin frater, Greek phrater, Sanskrit bhratr, German Bruder, and English brother. At times, this interchange is found in words in a single language: English burse, bourse, bursar,
purse and purser are derived from Latin bursa. _^<N__^<N_I. J. Gelb and R. M. Whiting _^<N__^<N_See also: WRITING SYSTEMS, EVOLUTION OF.
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1334
CAT
-A-
B-1 bomber
-T-
B-1 bomber_^<N__^<N_The Rockwell International B-1 bomber was developed to replace the B-52 STRATOFORTRESS. In 1965 the U.S. Air Force began planning for an Advanced Manned Strategic Aircraft. In June 1970, North American Rockwell received the
contract for the airframe, with General Electric to supply the engines. Designated B-1 (later, B-1A), the original supersonic, variable -geometry, strategic bomber prototype emerged as a monoplane with swing wings of 41.67 m (136 ft 8 1/2 in)
extended span and 15 degrees sweepback, and a spread of 23.84 m (78 ft 2 1/2 in) in the fully swept position (67.5 degrees). The craft was powered by four 17,000-lb static thrust (75.62 x 103 newtons) F101-GE100 turbofans mounted in two pairs on
the underside. The first B-1 was flown on Dec. 23, 1974. _^<N__^<N_In 1977, President Jimmy Carter canceled the entire B-1 program. In 1981, however, President Ronald Reagan revived the program, with funding now going to the development of a new
model, the B-1B, with a maximum speed of approximately Mach 1.25 and a substantially reduced radar cross-section. Reagan's goal of a fleet of 100 B-1Bs was reached in 1988, although three craft were destroyed in crashes. The entire fleet was
grounded five times over the next two years because of engine and other problems. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Kotz, Nick, Wild Blue Yonder (1988).
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1118
CAT
-A-
B-17 Flying Fortress
-T-
B-17 Flying Fortress_^<N__^<N_The Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress was a World War II bomber that was used for daylight bombing raids over Europe and the Pacific. The powerful four-engine, low-wing, 31.62-m-span (103.75-ft) monoplane, with its five
defensive machine-gun positions, represented a significant advance in bomber evolution. The prototype made its first flight on July 28, 1935. It was an all-metal design with a circular-section fuselage, wings embodying a deep root section equal to
half the fuselage diameter, and large wing-mounted flaps. The fuselage bomb bay accommodated a 2,177-kg (4,800-lb) offensive load. _^<N__^<N_The B-17E was able to attain a top speed of 510 km/h (317 mph) at an altitude of 7,620 m (25,000 ft). It
incorporated various improvements, including an enlarged tail to improve stability, power operation for three gun turrets, a tail turret, a ventral "ball" turret, and use of 0.50-in machine guns throughout, except for a 0.30-in caliber pair in the
nose. The greatly improved B-17G represented the ultimate form of the B-17 and was produced in greater number than any other variant. _^<N__^<N_Peter M. H. Lewis
-END-
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1081
CAT
-A-
B-24 Liberator
-T-
B-24 Liberator_^<N__^<N_The Consolidated B-24 Liberator was developed in response to a U.S. Army Air Corps specification of September 1938 for a heavy bomber capable of exceeding the performance of the B-17. It evolved as a four-engine aircraft with
an advanced low-drag, high-aspect-ratio, 33.5-m-span (110-ft) wing, designed by David R. Davis specifically to achieve the mandatory long range. The impressive high-wing monoplane had a large fuselage and a tricycle landing gear. The initial flight
of the prototype XB-24 was on Dec. 29, 1939. Ultimately, the Liberator became the celebrated partner of the B-17 during World War II in the daylight raids over Europe. The B-24's long range also made it invaluable for operations in the Pacific.
Throughout its production life (1939-45), the various models of the B-24 were equipped with progressively improved versions of the Pratt & Whitney R-1830 radial engine and increasingly powerful defensive armament. The versatile Liberator was also
used extensively for maritime patrol, transport, and photographic reconnaissance. _^<N__^<N_Peter M. H. Lewis
-END-
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1152
CAT
-A-
B-29 Superfortress
-T-
B-29 Superfortress_^<N__^<N_The Boeing B-29 Superfortress, the successor to the B-17, was a U.S. bomber of World War II. Design of the B-29 was initiated in 1940 by the need for a "Hemisphere Defense Weapon"--an airplane with a speed of 644 km/h
(400 mph) and the ability to carry a 907-kg (2,000 lb) bomb load for 8,583 km (5,333 mi). The B-29 is best known as the aircraft that dropped the only atomic bombs of World War II--on Aug. 6, 1945, at Hiroshima, and on Aug. 9, 1945, at Nagasaki.
Earlier, the 43.05-m-span (141.25-ft) medium strategic bomber monoplane carried out high-altitude raids against Japanese-defended targets and numerous low-altitude night bombings. The B-29 was also used as a flight-refueling tanker. It usually
carried a crew of ten. High performance was ensured by the incorporation of high-aspect-ratio wings mid-mounted on a circular-section fuselage. Careful design decreased the drag of the nacelles (housing) on the four 2,200-hp Wright radial engines.
The bomb load of the B-29 eventually reached 9,000 kg (20,000 lb). Development of the basic design continued after VJ-Day, resulting in the B-50 Superfortress. _^<N__^<N_Peter M. H. Lewis
-END-
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1223
CAT
-A-
B-52 Stratofortress
-T-
B-52 Stratofortress_^<N__^<N_The Boeing B-52 Stratofortress was a long-distance U.S. bomber, first built in the 1950s. Intended initially to be equipped with turboprop engines to attain the necessary range, the massive 56-m-span (185-ft),
35-degree-sweptwing B-52 eventually entered the Strategic Air Command in 1955 with eight powerful Pratt & Whitney turbojet engines. The B-52G version, developed in 1958, was the most significant bomber in the world's most powerful air force and was
able to carry nuclear weapons to any global target at short notice. Major changes gave the B-52G integral fuel tanks in the wings, a remote-controlled tail-gun turret, and underwing attachment points for transporting North American GAM-77 Hound Dog
missiles. In 1962 the B-52H, with TF-33 turbofan engines, flew nonstop without refueling from Okinawa to Madrid (20,147 km/12,519 mi) in 22 hours and 10 minutes. In 1977 the Stratofortress was designated to carry the air-launched CRUISE MISSILE
(ALCM). During the Gulf War (1991), B-52s, modified and equipped with advanced electronics, were used against entrenched Iraqi forces. _^<N__^<N_Peter M. H. Lewis _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Boyne, Walter, Boeing B-52 (1982); Davis, L., B-52
Stratofortress in Action (1993).
-END-
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594
CAT
-A-
Ba Jin (Pa Chin)
-T-
Ba Jin (Pa Chin)_^<N__^<N_Ba Jin (Pa Chin) is the pseudonym of Li Feigan (Li Fei-kan), b. Nov. 25, 1904, a Chinese novelist. He is best known for the trilogy Jiliu (Chi-liu) (Torrent, 1933-40; Eng. trans. of first part, Family, 1958), which
attacked the traditional family system. Exalted by the Communist regime after 1949, Ba Jin was denounced as a counterrevolutionary during the 1966-69 Cultural Revolution but reappeared during the late 1970s. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Lang, Olga, Pa
Chin and His Writings: Chinese Youth Between Two Revolutions (1967); Munoz, V., Li Fei-kan and Chinese Anarchism (1988).
-END-
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545
CAT
-A-
Ba Xian (Pa Hsien)
-T-
Ba Xian (Pa Hsien)_^<N__^<N_{bah shee-en} _^<N__^<N_In Chinese mythology, the Ba Xian (Pa Hsien) (Eight Immortals) were Taoist holy men, similar in status to saints. Unconnected as historical persons, each was believed to have earned the right to
immortality and to be endowed with miraculous powers. The classic group of eight was formed during the Yuan period (1260-1368); they are often shown together in Chinese art. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ho, Kwok Man, and O'Brian, J., eds. and trans.,
The Eight Immortals of Taoism (1991); Lai, T. C., The Eight Immortals (1972).
-END-
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1014
CAT
-A-
Baade, Walter
-T-
Baade, Walter_^<N__^<N_{bahd'-e} _^<N__^<N_Wilhelm Heinrich Walter Baade, b. Mar. 24, 1893, d. June 25, 1960, was a German-born American astronomer who established through extragalactic studies that the universe is twice as large as had been
previously thought. After graduating from the University of Gottingen, Baade worked for 11 years at the observatory of the University of Hamburg at Bergedorf, where he discovered the asteroids Hidalgo and Icarus. In 1931 he arrived at Mount Wilson
Observatory in California and began a fruitful collaboration on extragalactic astronomy with Edwin P. HUBBLE. The wartime blackout in Los Angeles enhanced observational opportunities, and Baade's study of the Andromeda galaxy during this period led
to his distinction between the star types now known as population I and II stars (see POPULATION, STELLAR). From these studies Baade concluded that the Andromeda galaxy was more than twice as far away as had been estimated up until then.
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Richardson, R. S., The Star Lovers (1967).
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612
CAT
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Baal
-T-
Baal_^<N__^<N_{bay'-uhl} _^<N__^<N_Baal, the name of the fertility god or gods of the ancient Canaanite religions, was one of the chief characters mentioned in the 14th-century BC UGARIT tablets. Called the lord of the universe, he was killed by
monsters but restored to life. His death and resurrection were celebrated annually as a part of Canaanite fertility rituals. The cult of Baal--and particularly the human sacrifice and temple prostitution associated with it--was frequently denounced
by Old Testament prophets. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Van Vijl, Peter J., Baal: A Study of Texts in Connexion with Baal in the Ugaritic Epics (1972).
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1766
CAT
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Baal Shem Tov
-T-
Baal Shem Tov_^<N__^<N_{bah'-ahl shaym tohv} _^<N__^<N_Israel ben Eliezer, b. Ukraine, c.1700, d. 1760, known as the Baal Shem Tov ("Master of the Good Name") or by the acronym Besht, was the founder of the 18th-century Eastern European Jewish sect
of HASIDISM. Little is known of his life, and that little is encrusted with legend. Many of the legends closely parallel the stories that have clustered around the lives and activities of Christian saints. _^<N__^<N_Baal Shem Tov was reputed to be
a wonder-worker and healer by virtue of his knowledge of the secret name of God (hence, "Master of the Good Name"). His reputation for deep knowledge of the rabbinic tradition, as well as for clairvoyance and mystical penetration, is, in all
probability, a later legendary accretion. In reaction to the intellectualism and CASUISTRY of the rabbinical legalists, he stressed the joyous and enthusiastic experience of religious participation. Song and dance, fervent prayer, and ecstatic
communion with God were the keys to unlock spiritual powers. To complete the list of cardinal virtues, Baal Shem Tov and his disciples added humility to joyfulness and enthusiasm. Whatever in his teaching was drawn from either the earlier Zoharic
form of the KABBALAH or its later Lurianic form was developed in such a way as to emphasize the elements of adherence (devekut) to God through a recognition of the divine IMMANENCE in nature. Attainment of this adherence demanded the total
concentrated devotion (kavvanah) of the person in fervent communion with God. _^<N__^<N_Joseph L. Blau _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ben Amos, Dan, and Mintz, Jerome R., trans., In Praise of Baal Shem Tov (1970); Buber, Martin, The Legend of the Ba'al
Shem, trans. by Maurice Friedman (1955; repr. 1969); Minkin, J. S., The Romance of Hasidism (1958).
-END-
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957
CAT
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Baalbek
-T-
Baalbek_^<N__^<N_{bay'-uhl-bek} _^<N__^<N_Baalbek is a village in eastern Lebanon, about 55 km (34 mi) northwest of Damascus, Syria, and about 65 to 70 km (40 to 50 mi) northeast of Beirut. A desert oasis on the western slopes of the Anti-Lebanon
Mountains, it has a population of 14,000 (1982 est.) and has become a base for Shiite Muslim extremists. _^<N__^<N_Baalbek was probably an ancient center for the worship of the Phoenician god BAAL, although its early history is obscure. The Greeks,
who identified Baal with Helios and called the city Heliopolis ("City of the Sun"), occupied the site as part of their conquest of Syria in 332 BC. It became a Roman colony under Augustus in 16 BC. In 1759 an earthquake destroyed much of the
city. Just west of the village are some of the best preserved Roman ruins in the world. A major tourist attraction, they include remains of the Temple of Jupiter, the Temple of Bacchus, the circular Temple of Venus, and parts of the city wall.
-END-
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499
CAT
-A-
Baath party
-T-
Baath party_^<N__^<N_{bah'-ahth} _^<N__^<N_The Baath party is an Arab political party that advocates a single socialist Arab nation. Founded in 1940 in Damascus, it has been strongest in SYRIA and IRAQ, where, in the 1960s and '70s, it formed
governments. It has been split by factional disputes and by the political problems of the Middle East. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Devlin, John F., The Ba'th Party (1976); Olson, Robert W., The Ba'th and Syria (1982); Roberts, David, The Ba'th and
the Creation of Modern Syria (1987).
-END-
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439
CAT
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Bab el-Mandeb
-T-
Bab el-Mandeb_^<N__^<N_{bahb el-mahn'-deb} _^<N__^<N_The Bab el-Mandeb is a strait that connects the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea. An important shipping lane for Suez Canal traffic, it is about 26 km (16 mi) long and 32 km (20 mi) wide. It has a
maximum depth of 311 m (1,020 ft). The channel's name (Arabic for "gate of tears") comes from its reputation for being hard to navigate. Ethiopia and Djibouti are on its western shore; Yemen lies to the east.
-END-
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892
CAT
-A-
Babangida, Ibrahim
-T-
Babangida, Ibrahim_^<N__^<N_Maj.-Gen. Ibrahim Babangida became head of state of Nigeria in August 1985. Babangida participated in the 1983 coup led by Maj.-Gen. Mohammed BUHARI. He then served on the ruling Supreme Military Council and as army
chief of staff. As popular discontent with Buhari mounted, Babangida seized power to restore the prestige of the army and to forestall a takeover by younger officers. In 1987 he announced a plan for a gradual return to civilian rule, but by 1990
he had postponed enactment of this promise on three different occasions. Presidential elections were held in mid-June 1993, with a reported heavy vote against military rule, but the government voided the election results because of alleged
irregularities. Babangida resigned as president on Aug. 26, 1993, but appointed close friends and associates to a transitional government that was to rule by decree.
-END-
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1615
CAT
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Babbage, Charles
-T-
Babbage, Charles_^<N__^<N_The British mathematician Charles Babbage, b. Dec. 26, 1792, d. Oct. 18, 1871, designed and built an "analytical engine," a mechanical progenitor of the DIGITAL COMPUTER. After graduating from Cambridge University, he
was elected (1816) a fellow of the Royal Society. In 1827 he became Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge, a position he held for 12 years. Babbage never taught; rather, he studied a variety of scientific, technological, and economic
problems. In 1830 he published Reflections on the Decline of Science in England, a controversial work that resulted in the formation, in 1831, of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Two years later, Babbage published his most
influential work, On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures, in which he proposed an early form of OPERATIONS RESEARCH. The computation of logarithms had made him aware of the drudgery and inaccuracy of human calculation, and he became so
obsessed with the mechanization of computation that he spent his family fortune in pursuit of it. Although Babbage never built an operational, mechanical COMPUTER, his design concepts have been proved correct. _^<N__^<N_David Hounshell
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Babbage, Charles, Passages from the Life of a Philosopher (1864; repr. 1969); Dubbey, J. M., The Mathematical Work of Charles Babbage (1978); Franksen, Ole J., Mr. Babbage's Secret (1985); Halacy, Daniel, Charles
Babbage: Father of the Computer (1970); Hyman, A., Charles Babbage (1982; repr. 1984); Morrison, Philip and Emily, eds., Charles Babbage and His Calculating Engines (1966).
-END-
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824
CAT
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Babbitt
-T-
Babbitt_^<N__^<N_Babbitt (1922), a novel by Sinclair LEWIS, is a devastating attack on American small-town life. It is set in a fictional Zenith, nicknamed Zip City by its residents, who are inordinately proud and chauvinistic. The central character
is George F. Babbitt, a middle-aged real-estate broker who devoutly believes in progress and esteems "good fellowship, optimism, and good business." Although financially successful, Babbitt is dissatisfied with his life. The novel traces his
semiridiculous attempts to vary the monotony of his existence. The novel added Babbittry to the dictionary as a description of unthinking conformity to prevailing middle-class standards. _^<N__^<N_Charlotte D. Solomon _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Dooley, D. J., The Art of Sinclair Lewis (1967); Schorer, Mark, Sinclair Lewis: A Collection of Critical Essays (1962).
-END-
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1781
CAT
-A-
Babbitt, Bruce E.
-T-
Babbitt, Bruce E._^<N__^<N_Bruce Edward Babbitt, b. Flagstaff, Ariz., June 27, 1938, is U. S. Secretary of the Interior in the Clinton administration. Babbitt served as governor of Arizona from 1978 to 1986 and sought the 1988 Democratic nomination
for the presidency. He received a B. S. in geology from the University of Notre Dame in 1960, and an M. S. in geophysics from the University of Newcastle (England) in 1962. He worked for a time in Bolivia as a geologist for an American oil
company. After a relatively brief career as a geologist, he entered Harvard Law School, where he received an LL.B. in 1965. Babbitt worked as a civil rights lawyer in Washington, D.C., from 1965 to 1967, serving as an assistant to the director of
VISTA. Returning to Arizona, he practiced corporate law in Phoenix until 1974. _^<N__^<N_He ran successfully for Arizona attorney general on an anti-corruption platform in 1974. He served in that office until March 4, 1978, when he succeeded to
the governorship after the death of Gov. Wesley H. Bolin. Babbitt's two terms as governor were highlighted by passage of a major water-conservation program and a variety of innovative child welfare programs. Babbitt announced his candidacy for
the Democratic nomination for president on Mar. 10, 1987, running on a moderate Democratic platform that emphasized strong federal entitlement programs--albeit more closely tied to economic need--as well as leaner, more efficient government and a
strong national defense. In July he called for a federal sales tax--which he called a "progressive consumption tax"--of perhaps 5 percent to reduce the size of the national debt. After a lackluster performance in the Iowa and New Hampshire primary
elections, Babbitt withdrew from the presidential race on Feb. 18, 1988.
-END-
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889
CAT
-A-
Babbitt, Irving
-T-
Babbitt, Irving_^<N__^<N_Irving Babbitt, b. Aug. 2, 1865, d. July 15, 1933, an American literary critic and teacher, strongly advocated the New Humanism, an early 20th-century intellectual movement that sought inspiration in the classical
tradition. In The New Laokoon (1910) and Rousseau and Romanticism (1919), he vigorously criticized romanticism and opposed his contemporaries who applauded spontaneity and unconscious impulse. On the positive side, Babbitt upheld reason,
self-discipline, and tradition. He taught French literature at Harvard from 1912 until his death. _^<N__^<N_Charles Cantalupo _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Brennan, S. C., Irving Babbitt (1987); Hoeveler, J. David, Jr., The New Humanism: A Critique
of Modern America, 1900-1940 (1977); Manchester, Frederick, and Shepard, Odell, eds., Irving Babbitt, Man and Teacher (1941); Nevin, T. R., Irving Babbitt: An Intellectual Study (1984).
-END-
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1888
CAT
-A-
Babbitt, Milton
-T-
Babbitt, Milton_^<N__^<N_Born in Philadelphia on May 10, 1916, Milton Babbitt received early, traditional training in music and later in mathematics. His encounter with the music of Arnold SCHOENBERG at the age of 16 confirmed his decision to become
a composer. He studied with Roger SESSIONS and began writing twelve-tone music (see TWELVE-TONE SYSTEM), but came to the realization that he wanted total organization and total control of all musical elements in his compositions. _^<N__^<N_Babbitt
has been a member of the faculty of Princeton University since 1938. His work with the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center and with the journal Perspectives of New Music has been admired by music critics. Babbitt's music does not appeal to
the general public, nor does he desire this, wishing instead to enjoy the intellectual status of the mathematician, the scientist, or the philosopher. _^<N__^<N_The following are representative works: Composition for Four Instruments (1947-48);
Philomel, for voice and synthesizer (1963-64); Relata II, for orchestra (1968); and A Solo Requiem, for soprano and two pianos (1976-77). _^<N__^<N_Dika Newlin _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Babbitt, Milton, "Who Cares If You Listen?" in Contemporary
Composers on Contemporary Music, ed. by Elliot Schwartz and Barney Childs (1967; repr. 1978); Burbank, R., 20th Century Music (1984); Cope, David, New Directions in Music (1971); Griffiths, P., Modern Music: The Avant Garde since 1945
(1981); Hansen, Peter S., An Introduction to Twentieth Century Music, 3d ed. (1971); Morgan, R. P., 20th Century Music (1988); Peyser, Joan, The New Music: The Sense Behind the Sound (1971); Sablosky, I. L., American Music (1985);
Slonimsky, N., Music since 1900, 4th ed. (1971); "Sounds and Words: A Critical Celebration of Milton Babbitt at Sixty," Perspectives of New Music (double issue, 1976). _^<N__^<N_See also: ELECTRONIC MUSIC; SERIAL MUSIC.
-END-
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503
CAT
-A-
babbitt metals
-T-
babbitt metals_^<N__^<N_Babbitt metals, also called white metals, are soft ALLOYS of tin (or lead), copper, and antimony in various proportions, used to reduce friction in BEARINGS. These alloys were developed by the American manufacturer Isaac
Babbitt (1799-1862) in 1839. Babbitt metals are used as linings between bearings and shafts. Linings of 0.025 to 0.5 mm (0.001 to 0.02 in) are used. Thick linings are used in bearings subjected to steady loads, for example, in railroad journal
bearings. _^<N__^<N_Merle C. Nutt
-END-
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677
CAT
-A-
babbler
-T-
babbler_^<N__^<N_The babblers are nearly 300 species of songbirds that make up the babbler family, Timaliidae, order Passeriformes. They are an extremely diversified group that ranges through Africa, Australia, and the Orient. The family is poorly
defined, with some members superficially resembling types of wren, thrush, titmouse, or pitta. They are 9-40 cm (3.5-16 in) long; most have in common soft lax plumage, dull coloration (a few are boldly marked), short rounded wings, and strong legs.
The babblers are named for the chattering songs of many species. The birds feed on insects, other small animals, and fruit; the cuplike, or domed, nest has a side entrance. _^<N__^<N_Wm. Earl Godfrey
-END-
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547
CAT
-A-
Babcock, Horace Welcome
-T-
Babcock, Horace Welcome_^<N__^<N_The American astronomer Horace Welcome Babcock, b. Pasadena, Calif., Sept. 13, 1912, served as director of MOUNT WILSON and PALOMAR observatories from 1964 to 1978. A graduate (1938) of the University of
California, Babcock investigated the magnetic fields of the Sun and stars and, with his father, Harold D. Babcock, invented the solar magnetograph for this purpose. A specialist in telescope design and instrumentation, he played an important role
in the founding of LAS CAMPANAS OBSERVATORY in Chile. _^<N__^<N_Steven J. Dick
-END-
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613
CAT
-A-
Babcock, Stephen Moulton
-T-
Babcock, Stephen Moulton_^<N__^<N_An American agricultural chemist, Stephen Moulton Babcock, b. Bridgewater, N.Y., Oct. 22, 1843, d. July 1, 1931, developed (1890) the Babcock Test, a simple method for determining the butterfat content of MILK. The
test was an important factor in modernizing the dairy industry, since it permitted accurate grading of milk, discouraged adulteration, and, by furnishing a practical means for testing the milk of individual cows, encouraged the development of more
productive dairy strains. For most of his career, Babcock was a professor at the University of Wisconsin. _^<N__^<N_See also: DAIRYING.
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1341
CAT
-A-
Babel, Isaak Emmanuilovich
-T-
Babel, Isaak Emmanuilovich_^<N__^<N_{bah'-buhl, ee'-sahk em-ahn-weel'-oh-vich} _^<N__^<N_Isaak Emmanuilovich Babel, b. Odessa, July 13, 1894, ranks as one of the finest Russian short-story writers of the Soviet period. He received a traditional
Hebrew religious training as well as a secular education. As a result, his tales bear the imprint of four literary traditions, the Russian, the Hebrew, the Yiddish, and the French. Babel's most important works are about 50 short stories,
contained in two collections, The Red Cavalry (1926; Eng. trans., 1929) and Odessa Tales (1927; Collected Stories, 1955). The first is a series of vignettes based on his experiences as a soldier in the Polish-Soviet war. The second describes an
exotic Jewish Odessa, which Babel populates with gangsters, beggars, and other picturesque characters. He also wrote a novel, Benia Krik (1927; Eng. trans., 1935), and such plays as Sunset (1928) and Maria (1935). In 1939 Babel was arrested on
unknown charges; he died or was killed in prison in 1941. His works were again published, in censored form, in the 1950s after Stalin's death. _^<N__^<N_Maurice Friedberg _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bloom, H., intro., Isaac Babel (1987); Carden,
Patricia, The Art of Isaac Babel (1972); Falen, James, Isaac Babel, Russian Master of the Short Story (1974); Hallett, Richard W., Isaac Babel (1973).
-END-
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357
CAT
-A-
Babel, Tower of
-T-
Babel, Tower of_^<N__^<N_{bay'-buhl} _^<N__^<N_According to the Bible, the tower of Babel was erected by the descendants of NOAH, who were attempting to unite all peoples in building a city and tower that would reach to heaven. God thwarted their
efforts by turning their language into babblings (Gen. 11). The story may be an early attempt to explain the origin of languages.
-END-
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371
CAT
-A-
Babesia
-T-
Babesia_^<N__^<N_{buh-bee'-zhee-uh} _^<N__^<N_Babesia, Babesia, are any of several intracellular PROTOZOA parasites found in vertebrate animals and transmitted by ticks. One species, B. bigemina, causes one of the most serious diseases of domestic
animals: Texas, or red water, fever. The transmission of the disease by ticks was first demonstrated (1893) by Theobald Smith. _^<N__^<N_J. F. McClellan
-END-
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1136
CAT
-A-
Babeuf, Francois Noel
-T-
Babeuf, Francois Noel_^<N__^<N_{bah-buf', frahn-swah' noh-el'} _^<N__^<N_Francois Noel ("Gracchus") Babeuf, a minor figure in the FRENCH REVOLUTION, has received considerable attention as a precursor of modern COMMUNISM. Born of humble parents on
Nov. 23, 1760, he became an ardent revolutionary while employed as an agent for the assessment of local manorial dues in Picardy. Repeatedly imprisoned after 1789, he gained notoriety in 1795 through his paper The Tribune of the People, and on May
10, 1796, he and others were arrested for conspiring to overthrow the DIRECTORY. A fiasco, this "Conspiracy for Equality" was also a landmark in the theory and practice of revolution, because Babeuf had evolved both an advanced technique for the
seizure of power and a belief that an era of universal equality could be inaugurated by a final revolution in which all private property would be destroyed by a ruthless popular dictatorship. After a prolonged public trial, he was condemned and
guillotined on May 27, 1797. _^<N__^<N_M. J. Sydenham _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Rose, R. B., Gracchus Babeuf, The First Revolutionary Communist (1978); Thomson, David, The Babeuf Plot (1947).
-END-
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538
CAT
-A-
babirusa
-T-
babirusa_^<N__^<N_{bab-uh-roos'-uh} _^<N__^<N_The babirusa, Babyrousa babyrussa, is a MAMMAL belonging to the swine family, Suidae, order Artiodactyla. It is 100 cm (40 in) long and weighs about 90 kg (200 lb). The almost hairless skin is rough and
loose. The upper canine teeth, or tusks, grow through the snout upward to a length of 20-25 cm (8-9 in). Useless for rooting out food or for combat, the tusks may have sexual significance. Babirusas live in jungles of the Moluccas and Sulawesi,
where they forage at night for roots and grubs. _^<N__^<N_Everett Sentman
-END-
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1034
CAT
-A-
Babism
-T-
Babism_^<N__^<N_{bah'-bizm} _^<N__^<N_Babism is a religious movement founded by Mirza Ali Muhammad of Shiraz (Iran), who announced his divine election as the Bab in 1844. This title, meaning "doorway to knowledge," was understood by many to imply
that Muhammad of Shiraz claimed to have received a divine manifestation surpassing in significance the revelation granted to the prophet MUHAMMAD, and that his book of revelation, the Bayan, overshadowed the KORAN. _^<N__^<N_Understandably, serious
tensions arose, and the Bab was executed (1850). When an attempt to assassinate the Shah failed in 1852, the persecution of the Babis intensified. The Bab's successor fled to Baghdad with his half brother Mirza Husayn Ali, who was later on
recognized by most followers as the BAHAULLAH ("Splendor of God"). The religious movement led by the Bahaullah became known as BAHA'I. _^<N__^<N_Willem A. Bijlefeld _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Balyuzi, H. M., The Bab (1973); Miller, W. M., The
Baha'i Faith: Its History and Teachings (1974); Smith, Peter, The Babi and Baha'i Religions (1987).
-END-
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2900
CAT
-A-
baboon
-T-
baboon_^<N__^<N_Baboons are bulky, ground-dwelling MONKEYS in the order Primate, family Cercopithecidae. They are classified into two genera. Members of the genus Chaeropithecus are the blackish gray chacma (C. ursinus) of eastern and southern
Africa, largest of the baboons; the yellow baboon (C. cynocephalus) of central and southern Africa; the brown doguera baboon (C. doguera) of east central Africa; and the reddish brown western baboon (C. papio) of west central Africa, smallest
of the baboons. _^<N__^<N_The sole member of the genus Comopithecus is the hamadryas, or sacred Anubis, baboon, which lives in Egypt, Arabia, Sudan, Ethiopia, and Somalia. _^<N__^<N_Baboons range in length from 50 to 110 cm (20 to 43 in), plus a
tail that is 35 to 68 cm (14 to 27 in) long. They weigh from 13.5 to 39.6 kg (30 to 87 lb). The hamadryas grows up to 75 cm (30 in) long, has a 50-cm (20-in) tail, and weighs about 18 kg (40 lb). The body hair is coarse and rough and the
buttocks have naked pads. The adult male hamadryas baboon has an impressive wide mane and side whiskers. In the wild, baboons keep themselves clean by frequently grooming each other's coat. The canine teeth are long, the jaws powerful, and the
limbs extremely strong, making the baboon a formidable fighter. _^<N__^<N_Baboons walk or gallop on all fours, sniffing the air with their long, doglike muzzles, and carry their tails in an arch. They are social and travel in large troops of as
many as 50. The strongest and most dominant males travel near the center of the troop, along with the infants and their mothers. The older juveniles are nearby in play groups. The young adults on the troop's periphery warn of danger. The
dominant males are usually those with the largest canine teeth. They support each other in maintaining order within the troop; thus fighting among wild baboons is rare. Baboons do, however, fight in captivity. The dominant males also defend the
troop against such predators as cheetahs. _^<N__^<N_Baboons prefer to live on rocky plains or in hilly regions, although sometimes they are found in sparse forests. They usually feed during the day and sleep in trees at night. Occasionally they
raid farms at night, killing lambs and other young animals. Baboons may even attack humans if they see no gun being carried. Their usual diet includes scorpions, small animals, and most plants. _^<N__^<N_Baboons breed year round. Gestation lasts
six months. The infant is born black and changes to adult coloration 4 to 6 months later. Usually, one a year is born. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Abegglen, J., On Socialization in Hamadryas Baboons (1984); Altman, Stuart A., Baboon Ecology (1970);
Gardner, Richard, The Baboon (1972); Kummer, Hans, Social Organization of Hamadryas Baboons (1968); Smuts, B. B., Sex and Friendship in Baboons (1985); Strum, S. C., Almost Human: A Journey into the World of Baboons (1987). _^<N__^<N_See also:
MAMMAL; MANDRILL; PRIMATE.
-END-
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1051
CAT
-A-
Babur, Mogul emperor of India
-T-
Babur, Mogul emperor of India_^<N__^<N_{bah'-bur} _^<N__^<N_Babur, b. Feb. 15, 1483, d. Dec. 26, 1530, was the founder and first emperor of the MOGUL dynasty in India. A direct descendant of GENGHIS KHAN and TIMUR, he became king of the petty
principality of Fergana in 1495 and captured Samarkand in 1497. After losing both kingdoms, he occupied Kabul in 1504 and established a kingdom in Afghanistan. In 1525, Babur invaded India. He defeated (1526) the Lodi sultan at Panipat and took
Delhi, where he was declared king. During his brief reign Babur conquered northern India as far as Bengal, but he did not have time to establish a secure administration before his death and the succession of his son HUMAYUN. Also called Zahir
ud-Din Muhammad, Babur was a poet and the author of memoirs (Eng. trans., 1921-22). The name Babur (meaning "tiger") is also transliterated as Baber or Babar. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Lal, Muni, Babar: Life and Times (1977); Lamb, Harold, Babur, the
Tiger: First of the Great Moguls (1961); Williams, L. F., Empire Builder of the 16th Century (1962).
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2248
CAT
-A-
Babylon
-T-
Babylon_^<N__^<N_The ruins of Babylon (from Bab-ili, meaning "Gate of God"), the 2d-1st millennium BC capital of southern Mesopotamia (BABYLONIA), stand beside the Euphrates about 90 km (55 mi) south of modern Baghdad, Iraq. Occupied in prehistoric
times but first mentioned in the late 3d millennium BC, the city became important when its AMORITE king HAMMURABI (r. 1792-50 BC) gained control of all southern Mesopotamia. Raided by the HITTITES about 1595 BC, Babylon then came under KASSITE
rule about 1570 BC, only to be sacked again about 1158 BC by the Elamites, who removed many Babylonian monuments to SUSA, including the famous Law Code stela of Hammurabi (now in the Louvre). Dominated by Assyria from the 9th century until that
country's fall to the Medes in 612 BC, Babylon once more became a major political power under the 6th-century CHALDEAN kings, in particular NEBUCHADNEZZAR II (r. 605-562), builder of much of the existing city. Surrendered to CYRUS THE GREAT in
539 BC and possibly the intended capital of Alexander the Great, who died there in 323 BC, Babylon declined after the founding of SELEUCIA, the new Greek capital. _^<N__^<N_Nebuchadnezzar's triple-walled city measured at least 18 km (11 mi) in
circumference. In the old city, on the east bank of the Euphrates, stood Esagila, the temple of Marduk, the city god, and the associated seven-staged ziggurat Etemenanki, popularly associated with the Tower of BABEL. Northward from Esagila, the
Processional Way, decorated with animals in glazed and relief brickwork, led through the Ishtar Gate (now in the Berlin Museum) to the New Year (Akitu) temple. Northwest of the Processional Way stood Nebuchadnezzar's palace. Vaulted structures at
its northwest corner may be remains of the legendary Hanging Gardens, numbered among the SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD. _^<N__^<N_The site was first excavated in 1811, but the principal German investigations begun by Robert Koldewey took place in 1899
to 1917. The Iraq Department of Antiquities has carried out recent restoration work. _^<N__^<N_Kate Fielden _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Koldewey, Robert, The Excavations at Babylon (1914); Lloyd, Seton, Ruined Cities of Iraq (1942); Oates, Joan,
Babylon (1986); Saggs, H. W. F., The Greatness That Was Babylon (1962).
-END-
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2889
CAT
-A-
Babylonia
-T-
Babylonia_^<N__^<N_Babylonia was an ancient name for the lower Tigris-Euphrates valley in MESOPOTAMIA (now in Iraq). It was applied to an area beginning a little north of modern Baghdad and running in a southeasterly direction to the Persian Gulf.
Babylonia took its name from its capital city, BABYLON, which first rose to prominence under the Amorite, or Old Babylonian, dynasty shortly after 1900 BC. _^<N__^<N_The AMORITES were a Semitic-speaking people who came down the Euphrates River from
Syria and conquered the northern part of Babylonia (formerly called AKKAD). Under the sixth king of the dynasty, HAMMURABI (r. 1792-50 BC), famous for his code of laws, all of Babylonia, including SUMER (the south), was united into a single
state. The Amorites held sway until the coming (c.1550 BC) of the KASSITES, who established a regime that lasted to the 12th century. Then the Middle Babylonian kings restored native rule, which continued to about 1000 BC. Thereafter the country
came under the domination of a succession of foreign masters, of whom the most important were from ASSYRIA. After exacting tribute from the Babylonians for many years, the Assyrian kings finally took (729) the title of king in Babylonia in
addition to reigning separately as kings of Assyria. Eventually, a successful revolt against Assyria reestablished (626) Babylonian independence under the so-called CHALDEAN dynasty, the most notable of whose kings was NEBUCHADNEZZAR II (r.
605-562). Chaldean rule ended when the Persians under CYRUS THE GREAT captured Babylon in 539 BC. Henceforth, Babylonia was merely a province in a succession of large empires: Persian, Seleucid, Parthian, and Sassanian (539 BC-AD 650). Its
capital was moved from Babylon to nearby SELEUCIA by the Seleucids; later CTESIPHON, near Seleucia, was the administrative center of the Parthians and Sassanians. _^<N__^<N_Babylonia owed its long prosperity to its location astride important trade
routes. Babylon itself commanded the north-south route of the Tigris River running down from Assyria to the Persian Gulf; the Euphrates River gave access to the west; and a caravan route led eastward through the Zagros Mountains to Iran.
Babylon was not only the capital of the country but also a religious center. It became the most populous city of the Near East, and under Nebuchadnezzar II it was a legendary showplace with its great walls and ziggurat, gates and temples, and the
fabled Hanging Gardens. _^<N__^<N_Tom B. Jones _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Dandamaev, Muhammad, Slavery in Babylonia, trans. by V. Powell (1984); King, Leonard W., A History of Babylon from the Foundation of the Monarchy to the Persian Conquest
(1915; repr. 1980); Macqueen, J. C., Babylon (1965); Saggs, H. W. F., Everyday Life in Babylonia and Assyria (1965; repr. 1987); Wellard, James, Babylon (1974). _^<N__^<N_See also: HAMMURABI, CODE OF; MESOPOTAMIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE.
-END-
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31
CAT
-A-
Babylonia art:
-T-
Babylonia art:_^<N__^<N_see MESOPOTAMIA.
-END-
-C-
436
CAT
-A-
Babylonian Captivity
-T-
Babylonian Captivity_^<N__^<N_The Babylonian Captivity is the name given to the period between 586 and 538 BC when the JEWS of the Kingdom of JUDAH lived in exile in Babylonia. After NEBUCHADNEZZAR II captured Jerusalem and destroyed the first
temple in 586, he deported the Judeans to various Babylonian cities (Jer. 52:28-32). When CYRUS THE GREAT conquered Babylonia in 538, he permitted the Jews to return to their homeland. _^<N__^<N_Nahum N. Glatzer
-END-
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524
CAT
-A-
baby's breath
-T-
baby's breath_^<N__^<N_Baby's breath is the common name for two species of flowering plants, Gypsophila paniculata (a perennial) and G. elegans (an annual), belonging to the PINK family, Caryophyllaceae. The plants reach heights of 60-90 cm (24-36
in), have lance-shaped leaves, and produce clouds of small, white--sometimes reddish or purplish--flowers. Native to Eurasia but now widespread, they are cultivated as border plants in gardens and for use in bouquets. Some species of BEDSTRAW,
Galium, are known as false baby's breath.
-END-
-C-
697
CAT
-A-
Bacall, Lauren
-T-
Bacall, Lauren_^<N__^<N_Lauren Bacall is the stage name of Betty Joan Perske, b. New York City, Sept. 16, 1924, an actress who, after an unsuccessful period on Broadway, achieved overnight stardom with her first film, To Have and Have Not (1944).
She married the film's star, Humphrey BOGART, in 1945 and appeared with him in The Big Sleep (1946) and Key Largo (1948). Among her other films are The Shootist (1976) and Mr. North (1988). She returned to the stage in Cactus Flower (1965) and
won Tony Awards for Applause (1970) and Woman of the Year (1981). _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bacall, Lauren, Lauren Bacall by Myself (1978); Hyams, Joe, Bogart and Bacall (1975); Quirk, Lawrence J., Lauren Bacall (1986).
-END-
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863
CAT
-A-
Baccaloni, Salvatore
-T-
Baccaloni, Salvatore_^<N__^<N_{bahk-kah-loh'-nee} _^<N__^<N_Salvatore Baccaloni, b. Rome, Apr. 14, 1900, d. Dec. 31, 1969, was considered the best Italian basso-buffo of his generation. In 1922 he made his debut at Rome's Teatro Adriano as Bartolo
in Rossini's BARBER OF SEVILLE. It was to remain one of his most acclaimed roles, along with that of Dr. Bartolo in Mozart's MARRIAGE OF FIGARO, the title role in Donizetti's Don Pasquale, and Leporello in Mozart's DON GIOVANNI. Baccaloni appeared
at the major opera houses and festivals in England, Europe, and South America and in 1940 made his debut at the METROPOLITAN OPERA, where he appeared for 22 seasons. He was highly regarded for his vocal characterizations and for his acting ability.
Baccaloni later appeared in films. _^<N__^<N_Ella Malin _^<N__^<N_Discography: Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, Don Giovanni; Collections: "Legendary Performances."
-END-
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2265
CAT
-A-
baccarat
-T-
baccarat_^<N__^<N_{bah-kah-rah'} _^<N__^<N_Baccarat is a card game played by a banker, or dealer, and as many as ten other participants. The role of banker is awarded in an auction to the highest bidder, who then finances the bank with the amount
of the winning bid. The banker plays against the table in an order usually determined by the amount each player has bid. _^<N__^<N_Baccarat is played with at least three and as many as eight, but usually six, 52-card decks. They are shuffled
together and are not reshuffled until the bank changes hands or until seven cards or fewer remain undealt. _^<N__^<N_The banker deals three hands of two cards each, face down, and one at a time--one to the left, one to the right, and one to himself
or herself. The players, called punters, may then bet that either the left hand or the right hand, or both, will beat the banker. _^<N__^<N_Face cards and tens count 0, aces 1 each, and other cards their numerical value. When the total of one
hand exceeds 10, the tens unit is dropped. For example, a seven and a six, totaling 13 count as 3. The aim of each player, including the dealer, is to be as close to 9 as possible. Each player is entitled to request one more card, dealt face up.
The rules require that a player draw another card if his or her count is 4 or less and stand if the count is 6 or more; if the count is 5, the player may stand or draw. The banker is always free to stand or draw. _^<N__^<N_The banker is
committed to pay off only to the amount of money in the bank at the moment of play and may not remove any of the bank's money except to pay losses. The banker may withdraw from play, however, after a deal has been completed and the bets settled.
If the banker loses the entire bank or withdraws from the game, the bank is auctioned again and a new game started. _^<N__^<N_Once a highly popular game most often played for high stakes in the casinos of France, baccarat has never enjoyed favor in
the United States and has been replaced worldwide by CHEMIN DE FER. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Korfman, Tony, Baccarat (1986); Nolan, Walter I., Facts of Baccarat (1976); Renzoni, Tommy, Baccarat: Everything You Want to Know About Playing and
Winning (1977); Stuart, Lyle, Lyle Stuart on Baccarat (1984); Tamburin, H. J., and Rahm, D., Winning Baccarat Strategies (1983).
-END-
-C-
1257
CAT
-A-
Bacchae, The
-T-
Bacchae, The_^<N__^<N_{bak'-ee} _^<N__^<N_The Bacchae, a tragic play by EURIPIDES first produced in Athens in 405 BC, is the most demonic extant work of the ancient Attic theater. It takes as its overt theme the punishment that the wine god
DIONYSUS visits upon Thebes and its youthful king, the puritanical Pentheus, for rejecting his divinity. Euripides here advances an almost bewildering array of dramatic techniques and hypotheses as to the nature of the play's action. Divine,
human, animal, and sexual identities are confused; miracles and distortions of physical and behavioral phenomena abound. The Bacchae constitutes the most explicit dramatization of Euripides' preoccupations with the ambiguities, paradoxes, and
deceptions innate in the human condition. _^<N__^<N_Gerald FitzGerald _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Barlow, Shirley A., The Imagery of Euripides (1986); Burnett, Anne P., Catastrophe Survived: Euripides' Plays of Mixed Reversal (1985); Conacher, D.
J., Euripidean Drama: Myth, Theme, and Structure (1967); Foley, Helene P., Ritual Irony: Poetry and Sacrifice in Euripides (1985); Sale, William, Existentialism and Euripides (1977); Soyinka, Wole, The Bacchae of Euripiede: A Communion Rite
(1975); Winnington-Ingram, Reginald P., Euripides and Dionysus (1969).
-END-
-C-
252
CAT
-A-
Bacchanalia
-T-
Bacchanalia_^<N__^<N_{bak-uh-nayl'-ee-uh} _^<N__^<N_The Bacchanalia was a Roman festival celebrated for three days each year in honor of BACCHUS, the god of wine. Drunken orgies and other excesses characterizing its observance eventually caused its
prohibition in 186 BC.
-END-
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177
CAT
-A-
Bacchus
-T-
Bacchus_^<N__^<N_{bak'-uhs} _^<N__^<N_In Roman mythology, Bacchus was the god of wine and revelry. The son of SEMELE and JUPITER, Bacchus was known to the Greeks as DIONYSUS. His wife was ARIADNE.
-END-
-C-
552
CAT
-A-
Bacchylides
-T-
Bacchylides_^<N__^<N_{buh-kil'-i-deez} _^<N__^<N_A Greek lyric poet, Bacchylides, fl. 5th century BC, was the nephew of SIMONIDES. He wrote choral poetry and epigrams. He was best at mythical narration full of color and exuberant detail. A rival of
PINDAR, he nevertheless won several coveted commissions from Hieron of Syracuse, whose court he visited (c.476-70). Substantial portions of his poetry survive because of a papyrus found in Egypt in 1896 containing 15 victory odes and 6 dithyrambs.
_^<N__^<N_Charles Segal _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Burnett, A. P., The Art of Bacchylides (1985).
-END-
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1497
CAT
-A-
Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel
-T-
Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel_^<N__^<N_{bahk} _^<N__^<N_Known as the "Hamburg" or "Berlin" Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, b. Mar. 8, 1714, d. Dec. 14, 1788, was one of the leading composers and keyboard players of the mid-18th century. The second
surviving son of Johann Sebastian Bach, he studied law at the universities of Leipzig and Frankfurt an der Oder but received all his training in composition and keyboard from his father. In 1738 he visited the court of FREDERICK II of Prussia, and
in 1740 he became his official harpsichordist in Berlin. Bach grew dissatisfied in Berlin and went to Hamburg in 1768 as the musical director for the principal churches of the city. He remained in Hamburg until his death. _^<N__^<N_Bach wrote much
church and chamber music, but his most important compositions are the keyboard sonatas and fantasies written for his favorite instrument, the clavichord. These works were widely known and helped form the transition from the baroque style of his
father to the classical style of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Franz Josef Haydn. Like his symphonies, they are notable for their surprise effects and their exceptionally expressive character. His treatise on playing keyboard instruments is the most
informative of its kind from the period. _^<N__^<N_Robert L. Marshall _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Barford, Philip, The Keyboard Music of C. P. E. Bach (1965); Clark, S., ed., C. P. E. Bach Studies (1988); Geiringer, Karl, The Bach Family (1954; repr.
1981); Ottenberg, Hans-Gunter, Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (1987).
-END-
-C-
1017
CAT
-A-
Bach, Johann Christian
-T-
Bach, Johann Christian_^<N__^<N_Called the "English" Bach, Johann Christian Bach, b. Sept. 5, 1735, d. Jan. 1, 1782, was a German preclassical composer who had a profound influence on English musical life. The youngest son of Johann Sebastian Bach,
he studied in Berlin with his brother Carl Philipp Emanuel and in Bologna with Padre Giovanni Battista Martini. In 1762, Bach moved to England and became the master of music to King GEORGE III. In 1764, Bach and Carl Friedrich Abel started the
Bach-Abel concerts that lasted two decades and helped end England's musical isolation. Bach's sonatas, concertos, and symphonies (his best works) were important in the evolution of these forms and influenced Haydn and Mozart. Bach's pleasant and
melodious music was greatly admired by Mozart. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Terry, C. S., Johann Christian Bach (1929; repr. 1980); Wolff, C., et al., The New Grove Bach Family, rev. ed. (1983); Wesley, Samuel J., ed., The Bach Letters (1878; repr.
1981); Young, Percy, The Bachs (1970; repr. 1978-79).
-END-
-C-
8660
CATO
4804
-A-
Bach, Johann Sebastian
-O-
000000|Bach, Johann Sebastian
000755| Life
003151| Music
006393| Significance
-T-
Bach, Johann Sebastian_^<N__^<N_Johann Sebastian Bach, one of the greatest composers in Western musical history, created masterpieces of choral and instrumental music, both sacred and secular. More than 1,000 of his compositions survive, including
works in virtually every musical form and genre in use in 18th-century Germany. During his lifetime he enjoyed greater renown as an organist than as a composer, and although such later composers as Mozart and Beethoven held his work in great
esteem, it was not until nearly a century after his death that the broader musical public came to appreciate the level of craftsmanship his works embody. Bach's music is now regarded as the high point of the baroque era, which lasted from 1600 to
1750, the year of his death (see BAROQUE MUSIC). _^<N__^<N_ Life_^<N__^<N_Bach was born in Eisenach, Germany, on Mar. 21, 1685, into a family of musicians. His parents died when he was nine years old, and in 1695 he went to live with his brother
Johann Christoph, who was an organist at Ohrdruf. He remained there until 1700, learning the fundamentals of the keyboard from his brother and studying composition on his own, using works of older composers as models. _^<N__^<N_In 1703 he took an
orchestral post in Weimar and after six months was appointed organist at the Neukirche in Arnstadt, where he composed his earliest surviving organ works. In 1705 he went to Lubeck (he traveled the 320 km/200 mi, reportedly, on foot) to hear
Dietrich Buxtehude, one of the great northern German organist-composers. His Arnstadt tenure lasted two more years and was marked by clashes with the authorities about the scope of his duties. Such difficulties with his employers were constantly to
mar his career. _^<N__^<N_In 1707, Bach married his first cousin Maria Barbara and was appointed organist in Muhlhausen. Almost immediately, the congregation objected to the innovative harmonized music he was introducing, and by the end of the year
he moved back to Weimar, where he served as court organist for nine years. There he began composing a cycle of weekly cantatas, and his duties expanded, but he was not granted the position of music director (Kapellmeister) he had hoped for, and he
sought a post elsewhere. When he found one, at Cothen, in 1717, he asked for release from his duties at Weimar in a manner so antagonistic that he was imprisoned for a month. _^<N__^<N_Bach remained at Cothen until 1723. After the death of his
first wife, he married (1721) Anna Magdalena Wilcken. In all he fathered 20 children, of whom several--including Wilhelm Friedemann, Carl Philipp Emanuel, and Johann Christian--became well-known composers. Because his patron at Cothen, Prince
Leopold, enjoyed music, Bach composed both secular and sacred works. After the prince married, however, music played a less important role in court life, and again Bach sought employment elsewhere. _^<N__^<N_He found it in Leipzig, where in 1723 he
was appointed choir leader and Kapellmeister of Saint Thomas Church--a prestigious post that made Bach, in effect, the director of music for the entire city. He remained in Leipzig for the rest of his life and wrote many of his greatest works
there. Bach died in Leipzig on July 28, 1750. _^<N__^<N_ Music_^<N__^<N_Bach's duties required that he write compositions of many kinds--organ and choral music for the church, chamber music for court use, and fairly straightforward harpsichord
works for teaching the instrument. These compositions make up the bulk of his output. In addition, there are difficult solo works composed either for his own use or for that of friends, and there are also works that are clearly theoretical
exercises, such as the Mass in B-minor and the Art of Fugue. These were, in a sense, Bach's private explorations. They were not performed during his lifetime. Today, however, they stand as some of the most glorious of baroque works. _^<N__^<N_One
considerable body of Bach's music is his cantata series, of which more than 200 survive. (It is believed that over half of his secular cantatas and more than a third of his sacred ones have been lost.) The secular cantatas, by far the smaller of
the two groups, were composed for public and private festivities and use allegorical or mythological texts. Most of the sacred cantatas were composed as parts of cycles, with a specific work intended for each Sunday in the year. Their texts tend to
be either biblical or based on church hymns, although some also include poetry. In the greatest of these, which were composed in Leipzig, the chorale melody often serves as an underlying theme that unifies the complete cantata. Besides the
cantatas, Bach is believed to have composed five Passion settings, although only the St. John and St. Matthew Passions survive. Also prominent among his sacred works are the Easter and Christmas oratorios, the motets, and the Mass in B-minor.
_^<N__^<N_The sacred works show one side of Bach--that of a composer working in, and responding to, the Lutheran tradition. Another side, that of the keyboard virtuoso, is seen in his organ and harpsichord works. The organ works run the gamut from
fairly simple chorale settings to ornate fantasias, toccatas, fugues, and sonatas. Among the harpsichord works, the Goldberg Variations and the two books of The Well-Tempered Clavier remain at the peak of music for the keyboard. _^<N__^<N_Bach's
command of other instruments and their resources is evident in the six cello suites, the six violin sonatas and partitas, the four lute suites, and the accompanied sonatas for flute, violin, viola, and viola da gamba (now usually played on the
cello). For chamber orchestra, he composed four extended suites, as well as the six Brandenburg Concertos, and concertos for harpsichord, violin, and oboe. _^<N__^<N_Bach performance style has varied greatly over the years. As scholars have
unearthed new evidence and offered new theories about how the music was performed in Bach's time, approaches have changed radically. Thus the massive chorale presentations of the St. John and St. Matthew Passions and the Mass in B-minor that were
common through the 1960s have given way to performances by much smaller ensembles. One theory that gained prominence in the early 1980s suggested that the choral and many of the instrumental works were performed with one singer and one player to a
part. Since the 1950s the practice of using instruments constructed as they were during Bach's time has become an increasingly important aspect of Bach performance. _^<N__^<N_ Significance_^<N__^<N_At the start of his career, Bach built on the
foundations laid by Buxtehude and others of the north German school, but he quickly developed not only a distinctive compositional voice, but an unparalleled sense of structure. These qualities did not always serve him well politically. As an
employee of a German church establishment, he was required to provide music of the kind to which the congregation had become accustomed. There were, therefore, those who in the early years found Bach's counterpoint too florid and his harmonization
too bold. Later in his life, as musical styles moved toward the elegant simplicity of the stil galant (the basis of the classical style, of which his son, Johann Christian, was a pioneer), Bach came to be regarded as a musical arch-conservative, an
adherent to an antiquated style. _^<N__^<N_He was keenly aware of these changes, however, and in the last decade of his life he composed works of great complexity using the musical techniques that most interested him. An example is his final work,
the Art of Fugue. Begun during the 1740s but left incomplete at his death, this compilation is a thorough examination of a sublime musical form by a master who knew that the form was falling out of fashion. _^<N__^<N_Counterpoint, or the interplay
of independent musical strands, is certainly one of the salient features of Bach's work, and his brilliant use of this technique is something on which both professional musicians and general listeners can focus easily. Yet Bach's appeal lies in the
more human qualities the music embodies. Combined with its cerebral aspects are exquisite melodies and complex figuration, and a sense of passion that comes through both in his text settings and in his instrumental works. _^<N__^<N_Allan Kozinn
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Arnold, D., Bach (1984); Boyd, M., Bach (1983); David, H., and Mendel, A., eds., The Bach Reader (1966); Dowley, T., Bach: His Life and Times (1983); Felix, W., J. S. Bach (1985); Robertson, A., Bach (1977); Schweitzer, A.,
J. S. Bach, 2 vols. (Eng. trans., 1911; repr. 1962); Spitta, P., Johann Sebastian Bach, 2 vols. (1873-80; Eng. trans., 1884-99); Terry, C. S., The Music of Bach: An Introduction (1933); Wolff, C., et al., The New Grove Bach Family, rev. ed. (1983).
-END-
-C-
873
CAT
-A-
Bach, Wilhelm Friedemann
-T-
Bach, Wilhelm Friedemann_^<N__^<N_Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, b. Nov. 22, 1710, d. July 1, 1784, was a German virtuoso organist and composer whose compositions, although showing bursts of genius, never fulfilled his early promise. Called the
"Halle" Bach, he was the eldest son of Johann Sebastian BACH, who considered Friedemann his most talented son and wrote the instructional Clavier-Buchlein for him. After holding organist posts in Dresden (1733-47) and Halle (from 1746 until his
dismissal in 1764 for "irregular" behavior), Bach moved in 1770 to Berlin, where he subsisted on recitals, lessons, and charity. His struggles with poverty, illness, and emotional problems made him a figure of romantic interest and the subject of
several novels and a film. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Geiringer, Karl, The Bach Family (1954; repr. 1981); Young, Percy, The Bachs (1970; repr. 1978-79).
-END-
-C-
581
CAT
-A-
Bacharach, Burt
-T-
Bacharach, Burt_^<N__^<N_{bak'-rak} _^<N__^<N_Burt Bacharach, b. Kansas City, Mo., May 12, 1929, is a popular American songwriter. Teamed with lyricist Hal David from 1957, he has written many songs with uncommonly sophisticated harmony and
structure, including such hits as "Walk on By" (1964) and "I'll Never Fall in Love Again" (1969) for the pop-soul singer Dionne Warwick. His Academy Award-winning "Raindrops Keep Falling on My Head" (1969) sold 3 million records. Bacharach's stage
and film scores include Promises, Promises (1969) and Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1969). _^<N__^<N_Jonathan Kamin
-END-
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365
CAT
-A-
bachelor's button
-T-
bachelor's button_^<N__^<N_Bachelor's button is another common name for the cornflower, Centaurea cyanus. The name "yellow bachelor's button" is sometimes applied to a MILKWORT, Polygala lutea, also known as candyweed; a biennial of the eastern
United States, it grows to about 30 cm (12 in) high. The leaves form a rosette, and the orange yellow flowers develop in racemes.
-END-
-C-
839
CAT
-A-
Bacher, Robert Fox
-T-
Bacher, Robert Fox_^<N__^<N_{bak'-ur} _^<N__^<N_The American physicist, Robert Fox Bacher, b. Aug. 31, 1905, played a major role in the development of nuclear technology. After graduating (1930) from the University of Michigan, he joined the
faculty of Cornell University in 1935. Bacher undertook secret research on RADAR from 1940 to 1943 and collaborated (1943-45) on the development of the ATOMIC BOMB. At Los Alamos, N. Mex., on July 12, 1945, he assembled the first atomic bomb,
with his own hands, in an old ranch house. President Harry Truman awarded him the Medal of Merit and named him a commissioner of the Atomic Energy Commission in 1946, but Bacher resigned in 1949 to return to teaching. He chaired the physical
science division at the California Institute of Technology until 1962 and then served as provost until 1970. _^<N__^<N_Kenneth Thibodeau
-END-
-C-
761
CAT
-A-
Bachmann, Ingeborg
-T-
Bachmann, Ingeborg_^<N__^<N_{bahk'-mahn} _^<N__^<N_Ingeborg Bachmann, b. Klagenfurt, Austria, June 25, 1926, d. Rome, Oct. 16, 1973, was one of the most significant writers of postwar Austria. She wrote in many genres but is best known for her lyric
poetry. _^<N__^<N_Her first volume of poems, Die gestundete Zeit (Borrowed Time, 1953), earned her international recognition. Bachmann's poetry is distinguished by linguistic precision. Her themes center on the threat of existence and on social
protest, strongly stated in her collection of short stories, The Thirtieth Year (1961, Eng. trans., 1964). Her existential pessimism is balanced by the hope of finding a better human order through new language; thus her work deals fundamentally
with the problem of language. _^<N__^<N_Marilyn Sibley Fries
-END-
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639
CAT
-A-
Bachofen, Johann Jakob
-T-
Bachofen, Johann Jakob_^<N__^<N_{bahk'-ohf-en} _^<N__^<N_Johann Jakob Bachofen, b. Dec. 22, 1815, d. Nov. 25, 1887, was a Swiss jurist who made important contributions to the study of primitive law and religion. His many works include the
well-known Das Mutterrecht (The Mother Right, 1861), an evolutionary history of the family. In this work he introduced the notion that the matriarchal family (see MATRIARCHY) antedated the patriarchal family and was the foundation upon which human
society was first built. His works exerted considerable influence on early anthropological theorists, notably Lewis Henry MORGAN and E. B. TYLOR. _^<N__^<N_James W. Herrick
-END-
-C-
44
CAT
-A-
Baciccio, Il:
-T-
Baciccio, Il:_^<N__^<N_see GAULLI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA.
-END-
-C-
23
CAT
-A-
Bacillus:
-T-
Bacillus:_^<N__^<N_see BACTERIA.
-END-
-C-
28
CAT
-A-
bacitracin:
-T-
bacitracin:_^<N__^<N_see ANTIBIOTICS.
-END-
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2646
CATO
-A-
backgammon
-O-
000000|backgammon
000754| Rules
001795| History
-T-
backgammon_^<N__^<N_Backgammon is a two-person game played on a square or rectangular board that is divided into two equal halves by the bar. For purposes of play, one side is called the inner table; the other side is the outer table.
_^<N__^<N_Projecting toward the center from the edge of each side of the board are 12 elongated triangles called points. Each player has a set of 15 pieces, called men, stones, or counters. The sets are made of contrasting colors, most frequently
black and white or red and white. All 30 pieces are placed on the points at the start of the game, in the manner shown here. The equipment also includes two dice cups, four dice, and a doubling cube, whose six faces bear the numbers 2, 4, 8, 16,
32, and 64. This is used to double bets when gambling. _^<N__^<N_ Rules_^<N__^<N_The object of the game is to be the first to move all 15 men into the inner table and then bear them off, that is, remove them from the board. Play commences with each
player throwing a single die. Whoever rolls the higher number moves first by playing the numbers on both dice. After that, each player in turn rolls two dice, each of which is counted separately and used to move one or two men, as strategy
dictates. Whenever two or more men belong to the same player on a single point, they are safe from attack, and the opposing men may not even stop on such a point, regardless of what numbers a roll of the dice produces. _^<N__^<N_When a point is
occupied by a single man (a blot), and an opponent's man can land on that point, the blot is removed from the point, placed on the bar, and made to start over. At this juncture, the player with the man on the bar cannot make another move until that
man is able to enter the table, and if the count corresponding to the roll of the dice should block this entrance, the player loses that turn. _^<N__^<N_ History_^<N__^<N_Backgammon is thought to be about 5,000 years old, and a reference to the
game appears in Plato's writings. Popular in France and England from the 1600s, the game was described by Edmond Hoyle in 1743. With the formulation (1931) of the current set of rules by Wheaton Vaughan of New York City and others, the game's U.S.
popularity blossomed in the 1930s. Another revival occurred in the 1970s. With or without wagering, backgammon remains a favorite board pastime. The game has no worldwide governing body, but the annual tournaments in Monte Carlo, the Bahamas,
Boston, and Reno, Nev., are large, international events. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Barr, Ted, Barr on Backgammon (1981); Goren, Charles H., Goren's Modern Backgammon Complete (1974); Heyken, Enno, and Fischer, M. B., The Backgammon Handbook (1991);
Magriel, Paul, Backgammon 1976.
-END-
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2793
CAT
-A-
background radiation
-T-
background radiation_^<N__^<N_Background radiation is low-temperature electromagnetic radiation that pervades the universe at microwave wavelengths. Its source is thought to have been the extremely hot fireball with which the universe began,
according to the BIG BANG THEORY. Its existence was first predicted in 1948 by Hans BETHE, George GAMOW, and R. A. Alpher. According to their proposals--based on Einstein's theory of general relativity--the first chemical elements were formed
under the conditions of extremely high temperature that existed in the earliest moments of the universe. As the universe expanded and cooled, the radiation field corresponding to the high-temperature state decayed in a similar manner. Using data
available at the time, Bethe, Gamow, and Alpher calculated that the radiation's temperature would by now be about 25 K (25 degrees Kelvin, or 25 degrees above absolute zero). When they made this proposal, however, no experimental technique was
sensitive enough to detect such a weak field. _^<N__^<N_It was not until 1984, during the course of measurement made for another purpose, that Robert W. WILSON and Arno A. Penzias of Bell Telephone Laboratories discovered the existence of a uniform
background radiation at a temperature around 3.5 K. This was identified as the predicted radiation field. Its temperature has since been more accurately determined as 2.73 K. The discovery of background radiation demonstrated the correctness of
the application of Einstein's theory of general relativity to cosmology. In addition, its support of the big bang concept of the singular origin of the universe further entrenched the big bang as the prevailing cosmological concept. _^<N__^<N_In
the 1980s a sophisticated expansion of the big bang theory was developed, called inflationary theory (see COSMOLOGY). It tried to account for the fact that the universe is not featureless but has structure--particles, atoms, stars, galaxies. An
initial universe that left behind an absolutely uniform background radiation could not have produced such structure. If the big-bang concept was to survive, therefore, it became essential to find spatially widespread variations, however minute, in
the temperature of the background radiation. Such variations were at last detected by NASA's COBE (Cosmic Background Explorer) satellite in the early 1990s. This finding lends further support to but does not constitute final proof of the big bang
theory. _^<N__^<N_Hong Yee Chiu _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Gribbin, John, In Search of the Big Bang (1985); Hawking, Stephen, A Brief History of Time (1988); Henbest, Nigel, "Big Bang Echoes through the Universe," New Scientist, May 2, 1992; Stroh,
Michael, "COBE Causes Big Bang in Cosmology," Science News, May 2, 1992; Weinberg, Steven, The First Three Minutes (1988).
-END-
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675
CAT
-A-
Backhaus, Wilhelm
-T-
Backhaus, Wilhelm_^<N__^<N_{bahk'-hows} _^<N__^<N_The German pianist Wilhelm Backhaus, b. Mar. 26, 1884, d. July 5, 1969, was renowned for his interpretations of Beethoven and Brahms. After studies in Leipzig and in Frankfurt am Main, the latter
under Eugen d'ALBERT, he began (1900) his career as a concert artist. He taught in London (1905), where he won the Rubinstein piano prize, Sondershausen, Germany (1907), and at the Curtis Institute in Philadelphia (1925-26). His performances were
noted for their clarity, force, lack of obtrusive mannerisms, and faithfulness to the scores. He made many recordings, including a notable set of the complete Beethoven piano sonatas. _^<N__^<N_F. E. Kirby
-END-
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604
CAT
-A-
backswimmer
-T-
backswimmer_^<N__^<N_The backswimmer is any of several aquatic insects that constitute the family Notonectidae, order HEMIPTERA. The name is derived from the insects' ability to swim rapidly upside down, using the hind legs as oars. Their usually
light-colored, boat-shaped bodies are 2-17 mm (0.08-0.66 in) long, with a convex dorsal surface. _^<N__^<N_Backswimmers are predators of other insects, crustaceans, snails, tadpoles, and small fish, sucking out their body juices, and can inflict a
painful wound when handled by humans. Two genera, Notonecta and Buenoa, are found in the United States. _^<N__^<N_Stephen Charles Reingold
-END-
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1594
CAT
-A-
bacon
-T-
bacon_^<N__^<N_Bacon is the meat product resulting from the curing and smoking of pork. In the United States, about 900 million kg (2 billion lb) of bacon is produced annually from pork bellies; Canadian bacon is made from pork loin, and in Europe
the ham and shoulder are used. _^<N__^<N_Fresh pork bellies range in weight from 3.5 to 11 kg (8 to 25 lb). The ingredients most often used to cure bacon are salt, sugar, sodium nitrite, sodium erythorbate, and the sodium phosphates. These
ingredients may be rubbed into the meat or dissolved in water to make a pickling brine. Most commercially produced bacon is pickle-cured; the brine is injected uniformly into the bellies with a multiple-needle machine. The bellies are then
placed in a smokehouse, at temperatures of 54.5 deg to 60 deg C (130 deg to 140 deg F) and humidities of 25 to 45 percent. The time required for cooking and smoking is from two to ten days, depending on the size of the bellies, the internal
temperature desired, and air velocity. The bacon is then chilled, pressed, and formed into slabs of uniform width and thickness to facilitate slicing in high-speed slicers. Slabs are sliced to three thicknesses: thin, 0.08 cm (0.031 in);
regular, 0.16 cm (0.062 in); and thick, 0.32 cm (0.111 in). _^<N__^<N_Home-cured bacon, which was a staple food in Europe for hundreds of years, is made by rubbing a salt and spice mixture into the meat, or by soaking it in brine and then hanging
it in wood smoke. The curing process takes up to four months. _^<N__^<N_Rex L. Gilbreath _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Business Trend Analysts, eds., Processed meat Industry (1985).
-END-
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1498
CAT
-A-
Bacon, Francis (painter)
-T-
Bacon, Francis (painter)_^<N__^<N_Francis Bacon, b. Oct. 28, 1909, d. Apr. 28, 1992, is considered by many critics to be the outstanding British painter of the second half of the 20th century. Bacon's subjects--nightmarishly distorted faces, bodies,
and animals, frequently set in ominously confined spaces--seem to embody the calamities of modern civilization, although the artist avoided stating their meaning. _^<N__^<N_Bacon's paintings were often comments on the old masters. Two famous
paintings, Pope Innocent X by Diego Velazquez and Butchered Ox by Rembrandt, were sources for Bacon's startling "pope" series, in which an enthroned pontiff, mouth often agape in a shriek (derived from the Odessa Steps sequence in Eisenstein's 1925
film Battleship Potemkin), is trapped within the icy perspectives of a glass cage. In Head Surrounded by Sides of Beef (1954; The Art Institute of Chicago), a screaming figure is flanked by the split carcass of an ox. _^<N__^<N_Bacon's later works,
many of them triptychs of grotesque male forms writhing in sequence across the panels, reveal such disparate influences as Vincent van Gogh and Eadweard Muybridge's photographic motion studies. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Alley, R., and Rothenstein,
J., Francis Bacon (1964); Davies, H. M., and Yard, S., Francis Bacon (1986); Demetrion, J. T., et al., Francis Bacon (1989); Leiris, M., Francis Bacon (1988); Sylvester, D., Interviews with Francis Bacon, rev. ed. (1981; repr. 1988); Sinclair,
Andrew, Francis Bacon: His Life and Violent Times (1993).
-END-
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3416
CAT
-A-
Bacon, Francis (philosopher)
-T-
Bacon, Francis (philosopher)_^<N__^<N_Francis Bacon, b. Jan. 22, 1561, d. Apr. 9, 1626, was an English essayist, lawyer, statesman, and philosopher who had a major influence on the philosophy of science. When he was 12 years old, he began
studies at Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1576 he entered Gray's Inn to pursue a career in law. He was first elected to Parliament in 1584. _^<N__^<N_Bacon's opposition to royal tax measures would probably have brought an end to his political
advancement, but he had the support of the earl of ESSEX, whose prosecution for treason he later managed. Knighted (1603) after the succession of JAMES I, Bacon became solicitor-general (1609), attorney-general (1613), lord keeper of the great
seal (1617), and lord chancellor (1618); he was also created Baron Verulam (1618), and Viscount St. Albans (1621). Bacon retained James's favor by steadfast defense of royal prerogative, but in 1621 he was found guilty of accepting bribes and
was removed from his offices. Retiring to Gorhambury, he devoted himself to writing and scientific work. _^<N__^<N_Philosophically, Bacon sought to purge the mind of what he called "idols," or tendencies to error. These came from human nature
("idols of the tribe"), from individual temperament and experience ("idols of the cave"), from language ("idols of the market place"), and from false philosophies ("idols of the theater"). Of earlier philosophers, he particularly criticized
Aristotle. _^<N__^<N_Bacon planned a large work, the Instauratio Magna (Great Restoration), setting forth his concepts for the restoration of humankind to mastery over nature. It was intended to contain six parts: (1) a classification of
sciences; (2) a new inductive logic; (3) a gathering of empirical and experimental facts; (4) examples to show the efficacy of his new approach; (5) generalizations derivable from natural history; and (6) a new philosophy that would be a
complete science of nature. _^<N__^<N_Bacon completed only two parts, however: The Advancement of Learning (1605), later expanded as De Dignitate et Augmentis Scientiarum (On the Dignity and Growth of Sciences, 1623); and the Novum Organum (The
New Organon, 1620), which was to replace Aristotle's Organon. Sciences were classified under the general headings of history, poetry, and philosophy. Their culmination was an inductive philosophy of nature, in which Bacon proposed to find the
"forms," or natural laws, of bodily action. To this end, he devised so-called tables of induction (of presence, absence, and degrees) designed to discover such forms with the goal of mastery over nature. _^<N__^<N_Although Bacon was not a great
scientist, he gave impetus to the development of modern inductive science. His works were held in esteem by Robert BOYLE, Robert HOOKE, Sir Isaac NEWTON, and Thomas HOBBES. In the 18th century, VOLTAIRE and DIDEROT considered him the father of
modern science. Other works of Bacon's include his Essays (1597-1625) and The New Atlantis (1627). Some 19th-century writers suggested that Bacon was the real author of William SHAKESPEARE's plays, but this theory is discounted by most scholars.
_^<N__^<N_John P. Doyle _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Anderson, F. H., The Philosophy of Francis Bacon (1948); Davies, David W., A Concordance to the Essays of Francis Bacon (1973); Farrington, Benjamin, Francis Bacon: Philosopher of Planned Science
(1963); Wallace, Karl, Francis Bacon on the Nature of Man (1967).
-END-
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815
CAT
-A-
Bacon, Peggy
-T-
Bacon, Peggy_^<N__^<N_Peggy Bacon, b. Ridgefield, Conn., May 2, 1895, d. Jan. 4, 1987, was a printmaker, author, book illustrator, and painter. She studied at the Art Students League of New York primarily with John SLOAN and Kenneth Hayes Miller,
with whom she shared a commitment to the depiction of the life of New York City. Best known in the 1920s and '30s as a printmaker and pastelist, she did caricatures of the people in her artistic circle, many reproduced in her witty book Off With
Their Heads! (1934). During her marriage (1920-40) to the painter Alexander Brook, she gave up painting in oil, bur she returned to that medium in the 1950s. _^<N__^<N_Marian Burleigh-Motley _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bacon, Peggy, The True
Philosopher and Other Cat Tales (1919); Tarbell, Roberta K., Peggy Bacon: Personalities and Places (1975).
-END-
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2255
CAT
-A-
Bacon, Roger
-T-
Bacon, Roger_^<N__^<N_Because of his emphasis on the importance of mathematics and experimentation, the English scholastic philosopher Roger Bacon, c.1220-92, is often considered an early advocate of the methods of modern science. _^<N__^<N_Most of
what is known today about Bacon comes from autobiographical references in his own writings. He received much of his university training in Paris, where he taught philosophy from about 1240 to 1247; after that he went to Oxford, where he was
influenced by the ideas of Robert GROSSETESTE. About 1257, Bacon became a Franciscan friar, and for the rest of his life his outspokenness and unorthodox opinions involved him in frequent difficulties with the superiors of his order. _^<N__^<N_In
1267-68, at the request of Pope Clement IV, Bacon prepared three works, the Opus maius, Opus minus, and Opus tertium, in which he outlined proposals for a reform of education, arguing that a study of the natural world using observation and exact
measurement was the surest foundation for a knowledge of the world's creator. In place of the curriculum followed in medieval universities, he recommended the study of languages, mathematics, alchemy, and experimental sciences--especially optics.
In later works, the Compendium of the Study of Philosophy (1272) and Compendium of the Study of Theology (1292), he harshly criticized the philosophical and theological methods of his day. _^<N__^<N_Suspected of promoting "dangerous novelties,"
Bacon was imprisoned for a time (probably between 1277 and 1279) by order of the minister-general of the Franciscans. After his death Bacon acquired the reputation of having been a sorcerer and wonder-worker. Later, because he had speculated
about such things as gunpowder, flying machines, telescopes, and mechanically driven carriages, he became celebrated for his foresight. Modern research has shown that although Bacon borrowed many of his ideas from others, he did have a real
influence on subsequent scientific thought. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Crowley, Theodore, Roger Bacon: The Problem of the Soul in His Philosophical Commentaries (1950); Easton, S. C., Roger Bacon and His Search for a Universal Science (1952);
Westacott, Evelyn, Roger Bacon in Life and Legend (1953; repr. 1974). _^<N__^<N_See also: SCHOLASTICISM.
-END-
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1308
CAT
-A-
Bacon's Rebellion
-T-
Bacon's Rebellion_^<N__^<N_Bacon's Rebellion was a short-lived revolt in colonial Virginia. It began in May 1676 when Nathaniel Bacon (1647-76), a young, well-placed Virginian, led a small army of his fellow colonists in combat against both the
royal governor, Sir William BERKELEY, and the Indians on the frontier. The participants in the rebellion were motivated by a variety of concerns. Some resented Berkeley's growing personal power, others were anxious to strengthen the popular voice
in the political process, and nearly all were opposed to the governor's Indian policy, which threatened to restrict their expansion into western lands occupied by Indians. _^<N__^<N_Bacon and his men enjoyed some initial success. In June 1676 an
assembly dominated by Bacon's supporters passed laws extending the rights of freemen and restricting still further the rights of Indians. Bacon died of swamp fever, however, in October 1676, and by January 1677, Berkeley was once again in control
of the colony. _^<N__^<N_Richard R. Beeman _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Gallman, Robert E., Developing the American Colonies, 1607-1783 (1964); Washburn, Wilcomb E., The Governor and the Rebel (1957; repr. 1972); Wertenbaker, Thomas J., Torchbearer
of the Revolution: The Story of Bacon's Rebellion and Its Leader (1940) and Bacon's Rebellion, 1676 (1980).
-END-
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20331
CATO
4815
9594
14389
19185
-A-
bacteria
-O-
000000|bacteria
000874| SIZE AND HABITAT
001650| CLASSIFICATION
004947| PHYSIOLOGY
006644| REPRODUCTION
007792| ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
009771| DESTRUCTION OF BACTERIA
010989| BACTERIA AND DISEASE
011681| History
014053| Bacteria in Disease
016743| Plasmids
017781| Transduction
018597| BACTERIA IN MODERN BIOLOGY
-T-
bacteria_^<N__^<N_Bacteria is the common name for a vast group of one-celled microscopic organisms that encompasses the smallest, simplest, and perhaps first form of CELL life that evolved. They constitute one of two divisions in the kingdom
MONERA. They are unicellular and furnish both the raw material and the chemical machinery for their own reproduction, whereas viruses, for example, do not. The oldest sign of life is a fossilized bacterial cell discovered in a rock in Africa and
estimated at about 3 billion years old. The study of bacteria is called bacteriology, which belongs to the broader science of MICROBIOLOGY, or the study of all types of microorganisms, including one-celled protozoa, yeasts, and algae. Medical
microbiology is concerned with the behavior and control of pathogens, which are microorganisms that cause INFECTIOUS DISEASES in humans and other animals. _^<N__^<N_ SIZE AND HABITAT_^<N__^<N_Thirty trillion bacteria of average size would weigh
about 28 g (1 oz). Bacteria are measured in microns (0.001 micrometers, about 0.00004 in) and most types range in size from 0.1 to 4.0 microns in width and 0.2 to 50 microns in length. Bacteria are found everywhere. Approximately 2,000 species
have been identified, many of them living in conditions that would destroy any other organism. They have been found in the almost airless reaches of the upper atmosphere, 10 km (6 mi) below the surface of the ocean, living in frozen soil, and
attached to rocks in hot springs. Some bacteria produce a resting stage, the endospore, which is the most resistant living thing known and cannot be killed except by boiling in steam under pressure for many hours. _^<N__^<N_
CLASSIFICATION_^<N__^<N_Advances in BIOLOGY during the 19th century indicated that bacteria and certain other organisms were neither PLANT nor ANIMAL. Both bacteria and plants have rigid cell walls, but unlike plants, most kinds of bacteria move
about and use organic foods for energy and growth; only a few use photosynthesis. Although bacteria are classified as plants in the traditional two-kingdom classification system, in one of the five-kingdom classification systems used today the
one-celled PROKARYOTES bacteria and cyanobacteria, or BLUE-GREEN ALGAE) are classified in the kingdom Monera and the one-celled EUKARYOTES (protozoa) are placed in the kingdom Protista. _^<N__^<N_According to current definitions, each group of
similar strains, or types, of bacteria may be considered a species. A more precise definition is difficult. On the basis of their shapes, bacteria may be grouped into three main types: the rod-shaped bacilli, which often have small whiplike
structures known as FLAGELLA that propel the organism, usually in a rolling or tumbling motion; the spherical cocci (singular coccus), which may grow in chains (STREPTOCOCCI, or "strep germs," as in STREP THROAT) or which may clump together like a
bunch of grapes (STAPHYLOCOCCI); and the comma- or spiral-shaped spirilla and SPIROCHETES . Another kind of bacteria, called the MYCOPLASMAS, have no rigid cell walls and consequently are formless. These are the smallest bacteria and are often
called pleuropneumonia-like organisms (PPLO), because they cause a contagious form of pneumonia in cows and human beings. Recently, a new classification system has been proposed that arranges species according to genetic make-up. In this new
system, ARCHAEBACTERIA, a group of highly specialized bacteria, are differentiated from the eubacteria, a group that includes the vast majority of bacteria, on the basis of the sequence of ribosomal RNA. _^<N__^<N_An important, widely used
technique for identifying bacteria is gram staining, perfected by the Danish bacteriologist Hans Christian Gram in 1884. In this process the bacteria are treated with a special dye, or stain, and other chemicals. The treated bacteria fall into
two groups: gram-positive bacteria, which appear deep violet in color, and gram-negative bacteria, which appear red in color. Physicians often use gram staining in choosing the proper ANTIBIOTIC for treating a bacterial infection. Gram-positive
bacteria are more susceptible to penicillin, whereas gram-negative bacteria are usually more susceptible to other antibiotics such as streptomycin. The basis of this difference in staining properties is still a mystery, but evidence indicates that
the difference lies in the composition of the bacterial cell wall. _^<N__^<N_Although bacterial and plant cells are enclosed by rigid walls, they differ in important aspects of their composition. Plant cell walls derive their strength largely from
cellulose, whereas bacterial cell walls are stiffened primarily by murein (a compound made of amino acids and sugar). This important difference is the basis for the selective activity of certain drugs such as penicillin. Nontoxic to plants and
animals, penicillin is toxic to growing bacteria because it inhibits formation of murein and thus interferes with bacterial reproduction. _^<N__^<N_ PHYSIOLOGY_^<N__^<N_The only organisms comparable to bacteria in size and simplicity are the
cyanobacteria, still often known as the blue-green algae, Cyanophyta (see ALGAE). The kingdom MONERA is thus composed of only two groups and classified separately from all other forms of cellular life. Other life forms, including human beings,
are eucaryotic, that is, their cells contain organelles such as the nucleus, chloroplast, chromoplast, lysosome, mitochondrion, endoplasmic reticulum, and golgi apparatus. Cells of monerans are procaryotic (prenuclear) and lack organelles but,
interestingly, not the functions controlled by them. _^<N__^<N_In terms of metabolism, the diversity of life is much more evident in bacteria (and blue-green algae) than in other organisms. Bacteria display a staggering variety of mechanisms for
obtaining energy that have no parallel in higher organisms. _^<N__^<N_Bacteria may be classified on the basis of their requirements for free atmospheric oxygen. Those requiring oxygen are aerobes; those which cannot live in the presence of oxygen
are obligate ANAEROBES; and those which do well with oxygen but can survive without it are facultative anaerobes. Many photosynthetic bacteria are anaerobic. The sulfur bacteria that live in oxygen-poor environments produce sulfur instead of the
oxygen gas given off by green plants. _^<N__^<N_In the absence of oxygen, anaerobes obtain sufficient energy for all their needs through FERMENTATION (breaking down organic molecules with enzymes). Other bacteria are chemosynthetic; unlike
photosynthetic bacteria, which use light as an energy source, they use nitrogen- and sulfur-containing compounds to obtain the necessary energy for food manufacture. _^<N__^<N_ REPRODUCTION_^<N__^<N_Most bacteria reproduce asexually by binary
fission (see REPRODUCTION), in which a single cell divides in two after developing a wall across its width. Many species divide as often as every 20 minutes under favorable conditions. If all the descendants survived, the initial cell would
result in about 500,000 new cells after 6 hours. Increases to large numbers in a short period of time help to explain the rapid development of disease, food spoilage, decay, and the speed at which certain chemical processes used in industry take
place. _^<N__^<N_Certain bacteria such as E. coli reproduce by conjugation, which resembles sexual reproduction, in that the two bacteria join (mate) and exchange genes. As in true sexual reproduction, the genetic material, or "nuclear"
chromosomes, recombine with one another (see GENETICS). In the process of recombination, a fragment of a chromosome transmitted from one bacterium is incorporated in the chromosome of the recipient. Conjugation and recombination increase the total
number of different hereditary characteristics in a population of bacteria, increasing the bacteria's chances of survival. _^<N__^<N_ ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE_^<N__^<N_The beneficial role of bacteria is worth emphasizing, as the popular idea that all
bacteria are hostile stems from the prominent historical connection between bacteria and disease. Most important bacteria are harmless to humans, and many are essential to the existence of plant and animal life. Only a small fraction of bacteria
cause disease; most bacteria attack organic matter only after it is dead. Were it not for bacteria that decompose animal waste matter and the bodies of dead animals and plants, these materials would accumulate almost indefinitely. Bacteria also
enrich the soil in various ways. The so-called nitrogen-fixing bacteria take nitrogen gas from the atmosphere and convert it to a form (nitrate) that green plants use for growth. Small nodules in the roots of leguminous plants contain bacteria,
genus Rhizobium, that help fix nitrogen in usable form, and a number of cyanobacteria fix atmospheric nitrogen (see NITROGEN CYCLE). Bacteria also create FERTILIZER by breaking down compost heaps made of soil and dead plant matter.
_^<N__^<N_Bacteria are important industrially in the production of cheese, yogurt, buttermilk, vinegar, and sauerkraut; in the preparation of antibiotics such as Streptomycin, which is extracted from soil bacteria; in the tanning of leather and
hides and the curing of tobacco; and in sewage disposal plants to render organic wastes harmless. Cattle, sheep, and goats live on grass; yet without bacteria they would not be able to digest the tough fibers of plant cellulose. _^<N__^<N_Stored
foods that have been improperly processed are subject to spoilage by bacteria. Poisonous toxins are sometimes produced by such food-spoiling bacteria as Staphylococci, Streptococci, and SALMONELLA. They cause severe illness in humans eating
affected food. Clostridium botulinum, growing in canned or smoked foods that have been improperly processed, produces a toxin that causes a frequently fatal disease called BOTULISM. _^<N__^<N_ DESTRUCTION OF BACTERIA_^<N__^<N_High temperature
usually kills most bacteria. Most disease-producing bacteria in milk, for example, can be killed by maintaining the temperature at 62 deg C (143 deg F) for 30 minutes, a process called PASTEURIZATION. "Flash pasteurization," done at 71 deg C (160
deg F) for 15 seconds, is now commonly used. Most nonspore-forming bacteria are destroyed by boiling water and can be killed by various disinfectants. ANTISEPTICS may kill bacteria or prevent infection by inhibiting their growth. Among the most
potent disinfectants are phenol (carbolic acid), chlorine gas (drinking water is treated with chlorine to render it safe), and alcohol in a 50- to 70-percent solution, as in rubbing alcohol. Bichloride of mercury and other mercury-containing
compounds (mercurochrome and merthiolate) are often used as disinfectants and antiseptics. _^<N__^<N_The above chemicals are poisonous in the human body and should not be taken internally. Antibiotics, however, are substances produced by living
organisms (usually bacteria and MOLDS) that are used internally for inhibiting the growth of bacteria or destroying them; antimicrobial agents are natural or artificial chemicals having the same use. _^<N__^<N_ BACTERIA AND DISEASE_^<N__^<N_A
century ago in the United States, and even today in the less developed countries, at least 25 percent of the children died of bacterial infections before reaching puberty. In the United States and other Western nations, this figure is now below 5
percent as a result of improved sanitation, hygiene, nutrition, and medical care. _^<N__^<N_The control of TYPHOID FEVER alone is perhaps the greatest triumph of organized PREVENTIVE MEDICINE. As late as 1900, the annual death rate from typhoid
fever in the United States was more than 30 per 100,000; by 1944, the rate had decreased to 0.4 per 100,000. For the world as a whole, however, typhoid fever remains a major disease. _^<N__^<N_ History_^<N__^<N_To account for the spread of
certain diseases from person to person, thoughtful men since ancient times postulated the existence of transmissible agents of infection invisible to the naked eye. In his book on contagious diseases, published in 1546, the Italian physician
Girolamo FRACASTORO described the transmission of disease by "seminaria," or living germs. Although Fracastoro proposed the true germ theory of disease, visualization of the germs could not take place until the microscope had been invented.
Bacteria and other microscopic organisms were first seen in 1676 by a Dutch linen-draper, Antoni van LEEUWENHOEK, who made single-lens microscopes with sufficient magnification to observe the major types of bacteria as well as the larger microbes,
including protozoa, yeasts, and one-celled algae. Leeuwenhoek is regarded as the father of bacteriology. By keeping secret the methods of making and using his instruments, he remained the sole occupant of the field he had created for the rest of
his life. _^<N__^<N_The first important classification of bacteria was made in the early 1800s. In 1829 Christian Gottfried established the genus Bacterium, using a term formed from the Greek word bacterion, signifying a rod. The entire subject
of bacteriology has taken its common name from the prominence of rodlike forms of bacteria, now called bacilli. Eventually, bacteria were classified in the plant kingdom, and this remained the dominant view until the 1960s. Historically, living
organisms have been classified as either plant or animal. In this traditional classification, bacteria are regarded as the simplest forms of FUNGI and are named Schizomycetes, or "fission fungi," because they multiply by fission (splitting in
two). Bacteria are now classified as Monerans, and the name Schizophyta is the scientific designation of these organisms. _^<N__^<N_An experimental science of bacteriology emerged slowly and required the development of special methodology. The
key was the use of sterile (germ-free) materials and antiseptic techniques. Although the chemist defines purity in terms of the percentage of contaminating material, a single contaminating cell can ruin an experiment in bacteriology. Only after
learning to avoid such contamination could investigators recognize the existing variety of bacteria, their distribution, and their major roles. _^<N__^<N_ Bacteria in Disease_^<N__^<N_In Vienna in the mid-1840s, Ignaz Philip SEMMELWEIS, a Hungarian
obstetrician, tried to convince his disbelieving colleagues that the disease that swept through maternity wards and killed hundreds of women each year could be prevented. Childbed fever (puerperal sepsis) was caused by a strain of Streptococcus
spread by medical students going from the dissecting room to the patients without first washing. Semmelweiss had the students on his wards wash their hands in disinfectant before each delivery, and this precaution greatly reduced the amount of
infection. In spite of the remarkable drop in the number of deaths, he was discredited by his colleagues. Ironically, he died of an infection from a cut received during an AUTOPSY. _^<N__^<N_The role of bacteria in a disease was first proved
(1876) by the German bacteriologist Robert KOCH for ANTHRAX, and was confirmed by Louis PASTEUR. Koch meticulously developed the techniques that are used today in culturing bacteria for study and set down rules still used for proving that a given
infection is caused by particular bacteria. These rules are called Koch's postulates and may be summarized as follows: the bacteria must be present in the infected tissue in every case of the infection; they must be isolated in pure culture on
an artificial medium; inoculation of this culture into experimental animals must cause a similar disease; and the organisms must be recovered from the infected tissue. _^<N__^<N_About ten years before Koch isolated anthrax, Joseph LISTER
virtually eliminated wound infections by soaking bandages in carbolic acid. This was the start of modern aseptic surgical techniques. _^<N__^<N_Following Koch's initial discovery, medical scientists raced to identify other pathogens. Pasteur,
however, devoted himself to developing vaccines, which are materials made from specially treated organisms and inoculated into humans and other animals to develop immunity to a specific infectious disease. Studies of the response of the body's
defense mechanisms to bacteria later gave rise to the field of IMMUNOLOGY. Immunology is thus inseparable from bacteriology, although, strictly speaking, it is a branch of medicine. _^<N__^<N_It is now known that bacteria are transmitted by air,
insects, water, food, and direct contact with human beings, animals, and objects. Not all of the bacteria associated with human beings cause disease, however; a natural flora exists in the body, and the E. coli of the large intestine help to
control the body's water balance and to provide certain vitamins. Their presence in drinking water may be taken as a measure of contamination, however, suggesting that pathogens may be present. _^<N__^<N_ Plasmids_^<N__^<N_Many bacteria contain
PLASMIDS, which are tiny pieces of DNA (see NUCLEIC ACID) that are much smaller than and independent of chromosomal DNA and generally carry nonessential bacterial genes. First observed in E. coli, some plasmids carry traits such as resistance to
antibiotics. How they acquire their extra DNA controlling resistance and virulence is not known, although many authorities believe that overuse of antibiotics is the main cause. _^<N__^<N_In GENETIC ENGINEERING, plasmids are isolated, opened up
for insertion of pieces of DNA from other sources, and then resealed; this hybrid DNA is called recombinant DNA. The new plasmid is placed into a receptor cell, "infecting" it as if it were a virus. The inserted genes then express themselves
along with the normal genetic complement of the cell. A bacterium may be programmed in this way to produce a useful substance; human insulin, for example, is produced when human genes controlling insulin production are placed into a plasmid and
then inserted into a bacterium. _^<N__^<N_ Transduction_^<N__^<N_Bacteria also exchange chromosomal material through transduction, which occurs when bacteria are infected by viruses called bacteriophages. Transduction involves the accidental
transfer of bacterial genes between bacterial cells by a bacteriophage and the incorporation of these genes into the recipient bacterium. This transfer requires that the bacteriophage infect a bacterial strain that is destroyed by the virus and
that the recipient strain of bacteria be the one that harbors the virus but that is not usually destroyed by it. This alternation between destruction of bacterial cells by bacteriophage and harboring the virus with no sign of infection is called
lysogeny. A process analogous to lysogeny is believed to be the reason viruses cause certain cancers in animals and perhaps humans. _^<N__^<N_ BACTERIA IN MODERN BIOLOGY_^<N__^<N_Until the 1950s, bacteriology was a branch of medicine concerned
almost solely with pathogenic bacteria. Eventually, however, bacteria were found particularly suitable for studying many basic problems common to all cells, such as metabolism, the molecular aspects of genetics that involve the structure and
function of DNA and the way in which cellular action is regulated, and the synthesis of proteins in the cell. These studies revealed many instances of a resemblance between microbial cells and cells of higher organisms, in their building blocks,
enzymes, and metabolic pathways. The advantages of bacteria for such studies include their relatively simple structure; homogenous cell populations (each cell is exactly like the others); extremely rapid growth; and the ease with which billions
of individual cells can be cultivated and selected to yield mutants and mutant HYBRIDS. Mutants obtained in this way have permitted scientists to identify the role of various genes and protein molecules in cell actions as well as reasons for
bacterial resistance to antibiotics. These developments have led to an interdisciplinary activity known as molecular biology or biochemical genetics. _^<N__^<N_Reviewed by Lawrence J. Crockett _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bainbridge, B. W., Genetics
of Microbes (1986); Fletcher, M.M., and Floodgate, G.D., eds., Bacteria in Their Natural Environments (1985); Gunsalus, I. C., et al., eds., The Bacteria, 8 vols. (1960-85); Singleton, Paul, and Sainsbury, Diana, Introduction to Bacteria
(1981); Sinha, U., and Srivastava, S., An Introduction to Bacteria (1983); VanDemark, P.J., and Batzing, B. L., The Microbes: An Introduction to Their Nature and Importance (1987).
-END-
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622
CAT
-A-
bacteriology
-T-
bacteriology_^<N__^<N_Bacteriology is the branch of MICROBIOLOGY that studies BACTERIA. It is concerned with the classification of bacteria, their physiological and biochemical features, the bacteria that cause human diseases, and the spoilage of
food, and the ecological significance of bacteria in the cycle of matter, where the decomposition of dead plants and animals provides nutrients for new plant growth. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Baldry, P. E., The Battle Against Bacteria: A Fresh Look
(1976); Bryan, Arthur H., et al., Bacteriology: Principles and Practice, 6th ed. (1962); Lamanna, Carl, et al., Basic Bacteriology, 4th ed. (1973).
-END-
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1279
CAT
-A-
Bactria
-T-
Bactria_^<N__^<N_{bak'-tree-uh} _^<N__^<N_Bactria was an ancient land on both sides of the upper Oxus River, today called the Amu Darya, in present-day northern Afghanistan and southern Tadzhik SSR. The heart of Bactria was the plain south of the
river and its principal city, Bactra (the present-day Balkh). The northern and southern tributaries of the Oxus made the valleys of Bactria leading to the alluvial plain rich centers of agriculture, but Bactria was more important for its strategic
location between China, India, and the West. The prophet ZOROASTER is said to have made his first converts in Bactria and to have died there. Bactria became an important province of the ACHAEMENID Empire, and after the conquests of ALEXANDER THE
GREAT it became the center of an independent Greek kingdom whose rulers struck fine Greek coins. The kingdom lasted until 128 BC, when northern nomads overran it. Bactria then became part of the Kushan empire and remained so until the 4th century
AD, when Sassanian governors became its rulers. The nomadic Hephthalites (White Huns) took control in the following century, ruling until the Arab conquest at the end of the 7th century. _^<N__^<N_Richard N. Frye _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Rawlinson,
Hugh G., Bactria (1912); Tarn, William W., The Greeks in Bactria and India (1951).
-END-
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1417
CAT
-A-
Badaga
-T-
Badaga_^<N__^<N_{buh-dah'-guh} _^<N__^<N_The Badaga are the largest of the four main groups of people who live in the Nilgiri Hills of western Tamil Nadu (Madras) state in southern India. The population is estimated to be 85,000, and the Badaga
speak a DRAVIDIAN dialect that closely resembles the Kannada language of neighboring Karnataka state. The name Badaga means "northerner," suggesting an origin outside the Nilgiris. The Badaga were probably driven into the hills by stronger
political groups several centuries ago. _^<N__^<N_The Badaga are divided into six ritually ranked sections, which resemble the wider CASTE system of Indian society. The two highest sections are traditionally cultivators and vegetarians, and the
other four are artisans. Although traditionally dependent for essential goods and services upon the Kotas, Todas, and Kurumbas with whom they share the Nilgiris, the Badaga have increasingly dissociated themselves from these other, more tribal,
groups in their attempts to raise their status by becoming accepted as high-caste Hindus. Such self-improvement has been made possible by their success in agriculture, particularly in potato farming. The traditional interdependence between the
Badaga and their neighbors has gradually broken down, and the Badaga have begun to treat these same neighbors as UNTOUCHABLES. _^<N__^<N_Hilary Standing and R. L. Stirrat _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Mandelbaum, D. G., Society in India, 2 vols. (1970).
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1001
CAT
-A-
Badajoz
-T-
Badajoz_^<N__^<N_{bah-thah-hohs'} _^<N__^<N_Badajoz is the capital of Badajoz province in southwestern Spain, at the Portuguese border on the southern bank of the Guadiana River. Its population is 114,361 (1981). The city is Spain's most important
center of trade with Portugal and serves as the market center for the surrounding agricultural region. Industrialized since the 1940s, it processes wheat, pepper, coffee, tuna, cooking oil, building materials, and textiles. Industrialization has
caused a rapid rise in population, principally by emigration from the countryside. _^<N__^<N_Badajoz was settled by the Romans, who built (late 1st century BC) a fortress later occupied (1010-1229) by Moors. The city is still surrounded by walls,
with bastions and a moat; also remaining are a Roman bridge, ruins of a Moorish castle, and a cathedral begun during the 13th century that houses paintings by Luis de MORALES, a native of Badajoz. The city was the scene of a massacre after its
surrender to General Franco's forces in 1936.
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363
CAT
-A-
Badalona
-T-
Badalona_^<N__^<N_Badalona (1987 est. pop., 224,233) is an industrial suburb and port in northeastern Spain, on the Mediterranean coast about 8 km (5 mi) north of BARCELONA. Badalona is one of the country's most important and diversified
industrial centers, producing metals, textiles, glassware, and petroleum products. As Baetulo, it was important during Roman times.
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1681
CAT
-A-
Baden
-T-
Baden_^<N__^<N_{bah'-den} _^<N__^<N_Baden is a former state in the extreme southwest of Germany. It is now part of Baden-Wurttemberg, one of the lander (states) of Germany (see WURTTEMBERG); it retained this status following German reunification in
1990. The region's physical relief is dominated by the RHINE River valley in the west and the BLACK FOREST to the south. Baden's historic capital is KARLSRUHE; other important cities include FREIBURG IM BREISGAU, HEIDELBERG, MANNHEIM, and
Konstanz. _^<N__^<N_Baden became a political entity in 1112 when a member of the Zahringen family, Hermann, grandson of Bertold, duke of Carinthia, took the title of margrave of Baden. For the next 600 years, however, the region was divided into
numerous petty states, and it suffered particularly from religious rivalries following the Reformation. In 1771 Baden was reunited under the house of Zahringen (combining the margraviates of Baden-Baden and Baden-Durlach). Charles Frederick of
Baden allied (1796) himself with Napoleon I. In 1806, Baden, with expanded territory, became a duchy in Napoleon's Confederation of the Rhine. In 1815, Baden became a member of the German Confederation, and in 1836 it joined the ZOLLVEREIN.
Revolutionary activity in 1848 was suppressed by Prussian troops. In 1871, Baden became part of the German Empire as a grand duchy. The last grand duke was deposed in 1918, and Baden joined the Weimar Republic. Baden was made an administrative
district of Germany in 1933. In 1952 it was incorporated into the West German state of Baden-Wurttenberg. _^<N__^<N_Bruce L. Larose _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Lee, Lloyd, The Politics of Harmony: Civil Service and Social Reform in Baden, 1800-1850
(1980).
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703
CAT
-A-
Baden-Baden
-T-
Baden-Baden_^<N__^<N_Baden-Baden is a city in the state of Baden-Wurttemberg in southwestern Germany. Located in the BLACK FOREST, it is a health resort known for hot mineral baths and has a population of 51,849 (1991 est.). Average annual
rainfall is 1,102 mm (43 in). _^<N__^<N_The ruins here, dating from the early 3d century, attest to the importance of Baden-Baden as a spa since Roman times. From 1112 to 1705 it was the residence of the margraves of Baden. In the 19th century it
became one of Europe's most fashionable resorts. It served as the seat of the French zone of occupation after World War II. Important buildings include the casino, a 7th-century church with tombs of the margraves, and two castles.
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777
CAT
-A-
Baden-Powell, Robert
-T-
Baden-Powell, Robert_^<N__^<N_Robert Stephenson Smyth Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell of Gilwell, b. Feb. 22, 1857, d. Jan. 8, 1941, was a British soldier who founded the Boy Scout and Girl Guide (Girl Scout) movement. During the SOUTH
AFRICAN WAR (1899-1902) he won renown for holding Mafeking against a Boer siege for 217 days. He later organized the South African constabulary. Having formed the Boy Scouts (1908) and, with his sister Agnes Baden-Powell, the Girl Guides (1909),
Baden-Powell devoted the rest of his life to the SCOUTING movement. He wrote many books on scouting. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Baden-Powell, Heather, Baden-Powell: A Family Album (1986); Jeal, Tim, The Boy-Man: The Life of Lord Baden-Powell
(1990); Kiernan, R. H., Baden-Powell (1939; repr. 1970).
-END-
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1375
CAT
-A-
badger
-T-
badger_^<N__^<N_Badger is the common name of several nocturnal CARNIVORES belonging to the family Mustelidae, order Carnivora. Other members of the family include the SKUNKS, WEASELS, and WOLVERINES. Six genera and eight species exist. Seven
species live in Eurasia and one in North America, in habitats ranging from prairies to mountain areas. _^<N__^<N_The badger has a broad, flat body, a small head, and short, heavy-clawed legs. It is a rapid burrower and a fierce fighter. The body
may be up to 76 cm (30 in) long, excluding a short tail, and the weight up to 11 kg (25 lb). All badgers have scent glands, which give off offensive odors. The stiff fur of the badger has been used for making brushes and as trim for coats and
jackets. Most badgers are ground dwellers, but certain badgers of China, Burma, and Java can climb trees. Badgers eat gophers, mice, ground squirrels, other small animals, and some plant material. Young badgers are often tamed as pets. Gestation
lasts more than 180 days because of delayed implantation of the fertilized egg on the wall of the uterus. The female gives birth to a litter of one to seven young. _^<N__^<N_Everett Sentman _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Krunk, Hans, The Social Badger:
Ecology and Behavior of a Group-Living Carnivore (1989); Long, C., and Killingley, C. A., The Badgers of the World (1983); Neal, E., The Natural History of the Badgers (1981).
-END-
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552
CAT
-A-
Badings, Henk
-T-
Badings, Henk_^<N__^<N_{bah'-dingz} _^<N__^<N_Hendrik Herman Henk Badings, b. Bandoeng, Java, Jan. 17, 1907, of Dutch parents, d. June 26, 1987, was a prolific Dutch composer whose compositions show strong contrapuntal skills and striking orchestral
effects. Early works such as the Third Symphony (1937) are thickly polyphonic, but later ones such as the Concerto for Two Violins (1954) are lighter in texture. Badings also explored different scale systems. In the 1950s he began to write
electronic music, a medium he continued to use throughout his remaining career.
-END-
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1101
CAT
-A-
badlands
-T-
badlands_^<N__^<N_Badlands are elevated areas that have been severely eroded and are deeply incised with gullies. They are usually formed in dry regions and lack a protective vegetation cover. Occasional heavy rainfall will form runoff gullies in
the softer strata. Uneven resistance of different rocks can create a tortured landscape of pinnacles and buttes. _^<N__^<N_The term badlands was first used for a region of the northern Great Plains of the United States, specifically in southwest
South Dakota and the Little Missouri River region of North Dakota. Two protected badlands areas in the United States remain in their natural state. The Badlands National Monument southeast of Rapid City, S.D., covers 985 sq km (380 sq mi); fossil
remains of the saber-toothed cat, the three-toed horse, and other early mammals, reptiles, and birds have been found there. The Theodore Roosevelt National Memorial Park in North Dakota includes 285 sq km (110 sq mi) of badlands. Little vegetation
or animal life exists in these regions, but the multicolored formations of shales and limestones make the parks tourist attractions.
-END-
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2379
CATO
-A-
badminton
-O-
000000|badminton
000544| History
001357| Equipment
001666| Scoring
-T-
badminton_^<N__^<N_{bad'-min-tuhn} _^<N__^<N_Badminton is an Olympic sport for two or four players in which long-handled rackets are used to hit a shuttlecock (also called a shuttle or bird) over a net stretched across a marked court. Badminton's
growth both as a backyard recreation and as a highly developed competitive indoor sport has been greatest since the end of World War II, although the game dates back to the 1800s. The International Badminton Federation (IBF) has members in more
than 90 nations and an annual world Grand Prix circuit for both men and women. _^<N__^<N_ History_^<N__^<N_The game is believed to have been invented in India in a version called poona. British army officers learned the game about 1870. In 1873
the duke of Beaufort introduced the sport at his country estate, Badminton, from which the game derives its name. In 1887 the Bath Badminton Club was formed; it was replaced in 1893 by the Badminton Association of England, which codified the
rules that still govern competitive play. In the United States, meanwhile, the first badminton club was formed in 1878 in New York City. _^<N__^<N_The IBF was founded in 1934 with nine nations represented. The introduction of Thomas Cup play for
men in 1949 and Uber Cup competition for women in 1957 brought to public attention outstanding stars such as Judy Devlin Hashman, of Baltimore, Md., winner of ten all-England titles. _^<N__^<N_ Equipment_^<N__^<N_Rackets are lightweight, much
smaller than those used in tennis. The 5-g (0.18-oz) shuttlecock is usually made of cork and feathers, which can cause the shuttle suddenly to stop, drop, or turn in midair. The court is about 5.2 by 13.4 m (17 by 44 ft) for singles and 1 m (3
ft) wider for doubles. _^<N__^<N_ Scoring_^<N__^<N_In order to score, a player has to serve, or put the shuttle into play. A server can score when the opponent lets the shuttle fall to the ground or by a fault. A fault occurs when the opponent,
in an attempt to return the shuttle safely, allows it to go into or under the net, hits it out of the playing area, touches the net, or is touched by the shuttle. _^<N__^<N_In doubles or men's singles, 15 points wins a game; in women's singles, 11
points. A match is the best two out of three games. _^<N__^<N_Jim Benagh _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bloss, Margaret V., and Hales, R. S., Badminton, 6th ed. (1990); Davis, Pat, Badminton: A Complete Practical Guide (1989); Roper, Peter,
Badminton: The Skills of the Game (1985).
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402
CAT
-A-
Badoglio, Pietro
-T-
Badoglio, Pietro_^<N__^<N_{bah-dohl'-ee-oh, pee-et'-troh} _^<N__^<N_Pietro Badoglio, b. Sept. 28, 1871, d. Nov. 1, 1956, was an Italian general who was supreme commander in the Italian conquest of Ethiopia (1935-36) and in the disastrous Italian
invasion of Greece (1940). After Benito MUSSOLINI's fall, Badoglio became (July 25, 1943) prime minister and negotiated an armistice with the Allies. He resigned in June 1944.
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1180
CAT
-A-
Baeck, Leo
-T-
Baeck, Leo_^<N__^<N_{bek} _^<N__^<N_Leo Baeck, b. May 23, 1873, d. Nov. 2, 1956, was the chief rabbi of German Reform JUDAISM and an outstanding leader of progressive Judaism during the Nazi period. His theoretical position developed gradually.
In the beginning he espoused an extreme form of RATIONALISM, which is seen in his Essence of Judaism (1905; Eng. trans., 1936). Toward the end of his life, he promoted a Jewish EXISTENTIALISM, which grew out of his experiences in the
concentration camp of Theresienstadt and took expression in This People Israel (1955-57; Eng. trans., 1965). After 1945, Baeck chaired the World Union for Progressive Judaism and taught at the Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati. Both the Leo
Baeck College--a liberal Jewish training school in England--and the Leo Baeck Institute in New York City--a center for historical study of German-Jewish life--were named in his honor to preserve the memory of his efforts on behalf of his
coreligionists. _^<N__^<N_Joseph L. Blau _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bach, H. I., The German Jew (1984); Baker, Leonard, Days of Pain and Sorrow: Leo Baeck and the Berlin Jews (1980); Friedlander, A. H., Leo Baeck, Teacher of Theresienstadt (1968).
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518
CAT
-A-
Baedeker, Karl
-T-
Baedeker, Karl_^<N__^<N_{bay'-duh-kur} _^<N__^<N_Karl Baedeker, b. Nov. 3, 1801, d. Oct. 4, 1859, was the founder of a publishing firm specializing in travel books that were extremely popular not only in their original German editions but also
in English and French translations. The first of the "Baedekers," a guide to Germany and the Low Countries, appeared in 1839; it was followed by guides to of Europe, North America, and the Far East. Still published, the guides now present
information alphabetically, not geographically.
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822
CAT
-A-
Baer, Karl Ernst von
-T-
Baer, Karl Ernst von_^<N__^<N_{bair} _^<N__^<N_Karl Ernst von Baer, b. Feb. 29, 1792, d. Nov. 28, 1876, was a German-Russian biologist and a founder of modern EMBRYOLOGY. He was the first to observe and identify the mammalian ovum, or egg cell,
differentiating it from the fluid-filled sac, or Graafian follicle, that surrounds it and establishing that mammalian eggs are similar to those of lower animals. Baer also discovered that a developing egg forms several distinct layers of cells,
which he called germ layers, and that these layers become the specialized tissues of the body organs. He compared the development of embryos among various vertebrates and thus helped to establish comparative embryology. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Willier, Benjamin H., and Oppenheimer, Jane M., eds., Foundations of Experimental Embryology, 2d ed. (1974).
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684
CAT
-A-
Baeyer, Adolf von
-T-
Baeyer, Adolf von_^<N__^<N_{bah'-yur} _^<N__^<N_The German chemist Adolf von Baeyer, b. Oct. 31, 1835, d. Aug. 20, 1917, carried out important research on DYES. He discovered a new group of dyes--the phthaleins--demonstrated their chemical nature,
and, with Heinrich Caro, developed these compounds into dyestuffs. For this research on dyes and his synthesis of indigo, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1905. _^<N__^<N_He also carried out notable synthetic and theoretical work on
compounds resulting from the reduction of benzene derivatives. Baeyer synthesized (1864) barbituric acid, obtained (1892) the first synthesis of a terpene, and investigated the organic peroxides. _^<N__^<N_Virginia F. McConnell
-END-
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959
CAT
-A-
Baez, Joan
-T-
Baez, Joan_^<N__^<N_{by-ez'} _^<N__^<N_Joan Baez, b. Staten Island, N.Y., Jan. 9, 1941, is a folksinger and guitarist noted for her strong, pure soprano voice. A singer in Cambridge, Mass., coffeehouses in the mid-1950s, Baez first reached a
national audience at the 1959 Newport Folk Festival. She had several early recordings, primarily of Anglo-American folk ballads, that each sold more than 1 million copies. An early Bob DYLAN enthusiast, Baez recorded many of his songs, as well as
those she herself had composed. She was prominent during the 1960s in the civil rights and antiwar movements. In the 1970s Baez more or less retired from singing while continuing to work for other political causes. In 1985 she returned to the
stage, opening the immensely successful Live Aid concert. Her autobiography, And a Voice to Sing With, was published in 1987. In late 1989 Baez celebrated her three-decade career in show business with an album entitled Speaking of Dreams.
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559
CAT
-A-
Baffin, William
-T-
Baffin, William_^<N__^<N_{baf'-in} _^<N__^<N_William Baffin, b. c.1584, d. Jan. 23, 1622, was a British navigator who piloted two expeditions searching for the NORTHWEST PASSAGE. On the second voyage (1616), Baffin's ship Discovery passed north
through Davis Strait and went about 485 km (300 mi) beyond previous exploration. Finding it an unlikely route for passage to the Orient, he recommended a search for other routes. Baffin is said to have been the first person to attempt determination
of longitude by observing the Moon. BAFFIN BAY and BAFFIN ISLAND were named for him.
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345
CAT
-A-
Baffin Bay
-T-
Baffin Bay_^<N__^<N_Baffin Bay is between Greenland on the east and the Arctic Archipelago of Canada on the west. On the south it connects with the Atlantic Ocean through Davis Strait and on the north with the Arctic Ocean by a chain of sounds. It
is 1,127 km (700 mi) long and has a maximum width of 644 km (400 mi). Ice covers the bay much of the year.
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428
CAT
-A-
Baffin Island
-T-
Baffin Island_^<N__^<N_Baffin Island is in the Arctic Archipelago of Canada and is part of the Franklin district of the Northwest Territories. The fifth-largest island in the world, it is about 1,530 km (950 mi) long and up to 725 km (450 mi) wide.
Its area is about 476,100 sq km (183,800 sq mi). Peaks rise to 2,042 m (6,700 ft) on the island, which is named for William BAFFIN, an English voyager who explored the Arctic in 1615-16.
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776
CAT
-A-
Bagehot, Walter
-T-
Bagehot, Walter_^<N__^<N_{baj'-uht} _^<N__^<N_Walter Bagehot, b. Feb. 3, 1826, d. Mar. 24, 1877, was an English social scientist and the editor of The ECONOMIST from 1860 until his death. He joined the family banking business in 1852 and went
to The Economist six years later. His knowledge of the money market as it functioned between 1850 and 1870 formed the basis of his influential book Lombard Street (1873). Bagehot also wrote The English Constitution (1867), which depicted the daily
workings of British government; Physics and Politics (1869), an application of Darwinism to political theory; and Economic Studies and Literary Studies, which appeared after his death. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Irvine, William, Walter Bagehot
(1939; repr. 1987); Sullivan, Harry R., Walter Bagehot (1975).
-END-
-C-
1440
CAT
-A-
Baggara
-T-
Baggara_^<N__^<N_{buh-gah'-ruh} _^<N__^<N_Baggara, also Baqqarah or Bakkara, which means "cattlemen" in Arabic, is the name applied to nomadic tribes of Arabic-speaking pastoralists in SUDAN and CHAD who migrate seasonally in the zone of
cattle-supporting savanna between the Nile River and Lake Chad. Most of these culturally related, Muslim tribes claim distant kinship with one another. Their population numbers more than 5 million. _^<N__^<N_The Baggara graze their cattle in the
riverine country of the south in the dry season, and they move north each year to exploit seasonal grasslands during the wet season. On their way north they sow grain, especially millet and sorghum, and cotton, which they then harvest on their
return south at the beginning of each dry season. Drought and civil strife, however, have disrupted the way or life. _^<N__^<N_Most of the Baggara are descendants of Arab tribes that migrated west out of Egypt in the Middle Ages and later moved
south, arriving in their present habitat in the 18th and 19th centuries. They turned from camels to cattle as an adaptation to local conditions. They played an important part in the uprising of the MAHDI at the end of the 19th century.
Intermarriage with dark-skinned indigenous people (as slave-wives) has modified their appearance so that they are now indistinguishable in appearance from neighboring populations such as the FULANI. _^<N__^<N_Brian Spooner _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Cunnison, Ian, Baggara Arabs (1966).
-END-
-C-
3202
CATO
-A-
Baghdad
-O-
000000|Baghdad
001205| Contemporary City
002180| History
-T-
Baghdad_^<N__^<N_Baghdad is the largest city and the capital of IRAQ. It is also the capital of Baghdad province. Situated on both banks of the TIGRIS RIVER in the center of the country, it lies about 40 km (25 mi) north of the parallel river, the
EUPHRATES. The name, which in Persian means the "God-given," has been applied to the city since the 8th century. Baghdad is situated in a rich river valley with an extensive irrigation network and stands at the junction of many of the great trade
routes that have shaped the politics and economics of the Middle East. Baghdad has grown greatly in recent decades, and the population of the city is 3,844,608 (1987). During the 1991 PERSIAN GULF WAR, Baghdad was the target of massive allied air
attacks. The precision bombing destroyed much of the city's infrastructure, including several bridges over the Tigris, as well as military and government sites. Most city landmarks were spared, however, and reconstruction after the war was rapid.
_^<N__^<N_Summers are hot; July-August temperature ranges from 24 deg to 50 deg C (76 deg to 122 deg F). Winters are warm, with an average temperature of 13 deg C (55 deg F). Baghdad has little precipitation (149 mm/6 in annually). _^<N__^<N_
Contemporary City_^<N__^<N_Ancient Baghdad was extensively rebuilt and expanded in the 20th century until it became a largely modern city. Among the few remaining historic buildings are the 13th-century al-Mustansiriya Madrasah Mosque and the
10th-century minaret of Suq al-Ghazi. The University of Baghdad was founded in 1958. _^<N__^<N_The population, although mostly Arab, also has considerable Persian, Armenian, and Kurdish elements. The major trade of the city is in carpets, hides,
wool, gum, and dates. Industries include distilling, oil refining, food processing, tanning, and metalworking. Baghdad traditionally fills its role as an important center of communication and as an essential trade center for the fertile irrigated
areas that surround it. The city is the terminus of the Baghdad Railway (from Istanbul), a project sponsored by the Germans in the early 1900s and a sensitive topic in pre-World War I diplomacy, although traffic on the line was not possible until
1940. _^<N__^<N_ History_^<N__^<N_The present city was founded in 762 on the west bank by the Abbasid caliph al MANSUR. From that time its commercial supremacy in the region was unchallenged. The period of the city's greatest glory was under
Caliph HARUN AL-RASHID during the 8th-9th centuries, when it was one of the greatest cities of Islam. A period of decline set in, however, and in 1258 the Mongols sacked the city. It was again sacked by TIMUR (1401) and the Persian shah Esmail I
(1508). Thereafter Baghdad was repeatedly conquered by Persians and Turks until 1638, when it became part of the Ottoman Empire. The city was captured by the British in 1917. In 1921 it became the capital of the new Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq,
which was made a republic in 1958. Bagdad's economy was hurt by the trade embargo before and after the 1991 Persian Gulf War. A massive reconstruction effort is under way. _^<N__^<N_Arthur Campbell Turner _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Wiet, Gaston,
Baghdad: Metropolis of the Abbasid Caliphate, trans. by Seymour Feiler (1971).
-END-
-C-
46
CAT
-A-
Baghdad Pact:
-T-
Baghdad Pact:_^<N__^<N_see CENTRAL TREATY ORGANIZATION.
-END-
-C-
485
CAT
-A-
Bagley, Sarah G.
-T-
Bagley, Sarah G._^<N__^<N_The New Hampshire-born labor organizer Sarah G. Bagley, fl. 1835-47, worked (1836-45) in a cotton mill in Lowell Mass., where she founded (1844) the Lowell Female Labor Reform Association to agitate for improved conditions
in the mills and a 10-hour workday. After leaving the mill she organized factory workers elsewhere in New England, wrote tracts denouncing the mill owners, and served (1846) as a delegate to the National Industrial Congress. _^<N__^<N_Barbara
Cunningham
-END-
-C-
479
CAT
-A-
Bagnold, Enid
-T-
Bagnold, Enid_^<N__^<N_{bag'-nohld} _^<N__^<N_Enid Bagnold, later Lady Roderick Jones, b. Oct. 27, 1889, is an English novelist and playwright. Her most popular novel, National Velvet (1935; film, 1944), is the story of a working-class girl who
rides her horse to victory in the Grand National steeplechase. Her other works include the novel The Loved and Envied (1951) and the plays The Chalk Garden (1956) and The Chinese Prime Minister (1964). She published her autobiography in 1969.
_^<N__^<N_Robin Buss
-END-
-C-
2155
CAT
-A-
bagpipe
-T-
bagpipe_^<N__^<N_The bagpipe is a musical instrument having reed pipes that are actuated by air pressure from a windbag to which the pipes are attached. The melody is played on one pipe (the chanter) or two (the double chanter) having fingerholes.
Most chanters have a melodic range limited to one OCTAVE, or, at most, a ninth, although in some highly developed instruments KEYS are used to extend the range. The other pipes--up to six--are called drones; usually rested on the shoulder, they
play one sustained TONE each and furnish the accompaniment. In modern instruments pipes are inserted in stocks that are permanently sewn into the bag. In some bagpipes--the Scottish, for example--air is supplied by the player blowing into a tube
connected to the bag. In others, such as the French musette, the air is supplied by bellows, usually placed under the arm of the player, who regulates the pressure. _^<N__^<N_In the earlier, Eastern instruments, both the chanter and the drone
pipes have single reeds; in some modern types, all the pipes have double reeds, as with those used in Italy and parts of France, or the drones have single reeds and the chanter has a double reed, as in those of Ireland, Scotland, and Brittany.
Bags have been made from the whole skin of a sheep, goat, or other small animal. Modern bags are sometimes cut from leather or made of rubber or some other synthetic material. Originally of bone or ivory, the pipes today are normally made of some
kind of hardwood. _^<N__^<N_The bagpipe is believed to have originated in the Orient, and it was known in ancient Rome. Its penetrating melody with drone accompaniment, characteristic of much medieval music, made the bagpipe a useful instrument
during that period. Since the Renaissance it has been used mostly for folk and military music, notably in the British Isles. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Baines, Anthony, Bagpipes (1960) and Woodwind Instruments and Their History, 3d ed. (1967);
Collinson, Francis M., The Bagpipe (1975); Flood, W. G., The Story of the bagpipe (1911; repr. 1976); Marcuse, Sybil, Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary (1964) and Survey of Musical Instruments (1975).
-END-
-C-
247
CAT
-A-
Baguio
-T-
Baguio_^<N__^<N_{bah-gee'-oh} _^<N__^<N_Baguio (1989 est. pop., 152,193), a city on the island of Luzon in the Philippines, is the traditional summer capital of the country and a popular mountain resort. Copper and gold are mined in the rugged
surrounding mountains.
-END-
-C-
278
CAT
-A-
bagworm
-T-
bagworm_^<N__^<N_The bagworm is the larva of the bagworm moth of the worldwide family Psychidae, order Lepidoptera. Bagworm larvae feed on the leaves of a wide variety of trees, especially evergreens. The evergreen bagworm, Thryidopteryx
ephemeraeformis, attacks juniper and arborvitae.
-END-
-C-
1677
CAT
-A-
Baha'i
-T-
Baha'i_^<N__^<N_{bah-hah'-ee} _^<N__^<N_Baha'i is a religious movement founded in the 19th century by the Persian BAHAULLAH. It claims members in practically every country of the world. Objecting to polygamy, slavery of any kind, religious
prejudices, and politicized religion, Baha'is call for world peace and harmony. The ideals of a world federalist government and a new world language are also a part of their teachings. Recognition of the common ground of all religions is seen as
fostering this move toward global unity; Krishna, Buddha, Moses, Zarathustra, Jesus, and Muhammad are all recognized as divine manifestations, a series of prophets culminating in Bahaullah. Nonresistance, respect for persons, and legal recognition
of the equal rights of both sexes constitute additional aspects of Baha'i teaching. _^<N__^<N_By the time of Bahaullah's death in 1892, the Baha'i faith had won adherents throughout the Middle East. Under his son Abbas Effendi (or Abdul Baha,
1844-1921), who succeeded him as the movement's leader, it spread to Europe and the United States. Abbas Effendi was succeeded by his grandson, Shoghi Effendi (1897-1957). Since Shoghi Effendi's death, the Baha'is have been governed by elected
leaders. Divided into more than 130 national assemblies and more than 26,000 local assemblies, they are estimated to number about 2 million worldwide. Since the establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran in 1979, the discrimination to which
Baha'is have always been subjected in Iran has escalated into persecution. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hatcher, W., and Martin, J. D., The Baha'i Faith (1985); Savi, Julio, The Eternal Quest for God (1990); Smith, P., The Babi and Baha'i Religions
(1987).
-END-
-C-
3910
CATO
-A-
Bahama Islands
-O-
000000|Bahama Islands
000574| Land and People
001391| Economy
002201| History
-T-
Bahama Islands_^<N__^<N_The Commonwealth of the Bahamas, an independent member of the Commonwealth of Nations, is composed of about 700 islands and more than 2,000 cays, islets, and rocks in the Atlantic Ocean. Located about 97 km (60 mi) off the
southern Florida coast, they extend some l,224 km (760 mi) southeastward to within 80 km (50 mi) of Cuba. Their area is 13,939 sq km (5,382 sq mi), but they spread over an area of more than 233,000 sq km (90,000 sq mi) of the Atlantic. The
population is 255,811 (1992 est.). Scenic beaches and mild climate make the Bahamas a major tourist resort. _^<N__^<N_ Land and People_^<N__^<N_The main islands include Andros (the largest), New Providence, Grand Bahama, Eleuthera, Great Abaco, and
Great Inagua. The archipelago generally comprises an undulating limestone platform that is derived from coral. The climate is semitropical, with an average summer temperature of 28 deg C (83 deg F) and an average winter temperature of 21 deg C
(70 deg F). Annual rainfall averages 1,168 mm (46 in) and is concentrated in May-June and September-October. Large Caribbean pine forests thrive on several of the islands. _^<N__^<N_More than 80% of the population are black. Only 22 of the
islands have permanent residents. About half the total population lives on the small island of New Providence, the site of the capital, NASSAU. Other important settlements are Freeport and West End on Grand Bahama. _^<N__^<N_
Economy_^<N__^<N_Tourism is the Bahamas' major source of revenue. Climate, gambling casinos, and sport fishing on the out islands contribute to the continued attraction of tourist revenues. Also, liberal tax laws have encouraged expatriates to
settle in the Bahamas from countries such as the United States, Britain, and Canada. The tax structure has also attracted many foreign banks, which have major offices on New Providence. Agriculture has played only a minor role in the economy,
although the government is promoting agriculture and fishing to lessen the dependence on imported foodstuffs. _^<N__^<N_The Bahamas has long served as an oil transshipment point to the United States, but the health of oil-related industries
(including a government-owned refinery on Grand Bahama) fluctuates with the world demand for oil. _^<N__^<N_ History_^<N__^<N_Many scholars believe that Christopher COLUMBUS made his first landing (Oct. 12, 1492) in the Western Hemisphere on SAN
SALVADOR ISLAND of the Bahamas. The first British settlement on the islands was established on Eleuthera in 1648. When the islands became (1670) a British colony, New Providence was made the seat of government. After attempts at farming and
fishing proved unsuccessful, the economy eventually settled on tourism after World War II. In 1964 the Bahamas were granted internal self-government, and the first elections under universal suffrage were held in 1967. The islands became fully
independent on July 10, 1973. The British monarch appoints the governor-general, but actual governmental control is in the hands of the prime minister and the bicameral parliament. _^<N__^<N_The majority party for many years after 1967 was the
Progressive Liberal party, whose leader, Lynden Pindling, was prime minister. In the 1980s the islands became a major center for trade in illicit drugs, straining relations between the Bahamas and the United States. Pindling was increasing
attacked by foreign and domestic critics for his apparent tolerance of the drug trade and was accused of benefiting financially from it. Economic decline in the late 1980s and into the 1990s further eroded his political support, and in August 1992
Pindling was swept out of office in parliamentary elections. Hubert Ingraham, a former colleague of Pindling's and leader of the Free National Movement, became prime minister. _^<N__^<N_Thomas D. Boswell _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Ajlouny, J., The
Bahamas (1989); Evans, F. C., and Young, N., The Bahamas (1977); Hughes, Colin A., Race and Politics in the Bahamas (1981). _^<N__^<N_
-END-
-C-
771
CAT
-A-
Bahaullah
-T-
Bahaullah_^<N__^<N_{bah-hah-ul-lah'} _^<N__^<N_Bahaullah, or Baha'u'llah ("Splendor of God"), is the title assumed by the Iranian religious leader Mirza Husayn Ali, b. Nov. 12, 1817, d. May 29, 1892, the founder of the BAHA'I faith. Bahaullah
proclaimed (1863) himself to be the person announced by the Bab (see BABISM) as the one who would bring the Bab's work to completion. His teachings concerning the oneness of God, the oneness of religion, and the oneness of humankind became the
central principles of the Baha'i religion. Bahaullah died a prisoner of the Ottoman authorities in Acre, Palestine. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Balyuzi, H. M., Baha'u'llah (1980); Effendi, Shoghi, The World Order of Baha'u'llah, 2d rev. ed. (1974);
Taherzadeh, Adib, The Revelation of Baha'u'llah, 4 vols. (1989).
-END-
-C-
20
CAT
-A-
Bahia:
-T-
Bahia:_^<N__^<N_see SALVADOR.
-END-
-C-
1012
CAT
-A-
Bahia Blanca
-T-
Bahia Blanca_^<N__^<N_{bah-hee'-ah blahng'-kah} _^<N__^<N_Bahia Blanca, a city in Argentina, is a major seaport, naval base, and industrial and transportation center. It is located about 570 km (350 mi) southwest of Buenos Aires on Bahia Blanca
("white bay"), an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean. It has a mean annual temperature range of from 10 deg C to 16 deg C (50 deg F to 60 deg F). Annual precipitation averages about 510 mm (21 in). The city has a population of 242,000 (1985 est.). It
is the processing center for cereals, meat products, cowhide, wool, sheepskin, and other items produced in the PAMPAS. _^<N__^<N_Located on one of Argentina's best natural harbors, the city was founded in 1828 as a fort; Puerto Belgrano, a large
naval base, is now located here. Because of its strategic location, Bahia Blanca prospered as a regional city and has grown particularly fast since World War II. The National University of the South (1956) is located in Bahia Blanca, as is the
Bernardino Rivadavia Library (1882). _^<N__^<N_Richard W. Wilkie
-END-
-C-
5002
CATO
4787
-A-
Bahrain
-O-
000000|Bahrain
000533| THE LAND AND PEOPLE
002021| ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
003359| HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT
-T-
Bahrain_^<N__^<N_{bah-rayn'} _^<N__^<N_Bahrain is an independent emirate comprising a group of low-lying islands located in the Persian Gulf between the Saudi Arabian mainland and the Qatar peninsula. The archipelago's major island, Bahrain, is
about 48 km (30 mi) long and 16 km (10 mi) wide. About 40% of the country's population lives in MANAMA, the capital city. The name Bahrain is derived from the Arabic for "two seas." Bahrain's importance as an oil-producer is waning, but it
continues to be a commercial center because of its strategic location. _^<N__^<N_ THE LAND AND PEOPLE_^<N__^<N_The two most important islands are Bahrain and al-Muharraq, which are connected by causeway; other islands include Sitra, Umm Nassan, An
Nabi Salih, Jidda, and the Hawar group. All the islands are small and low-lying. The central region of the main island, however, is a barren limestone plateau that rises to a maximum elevation of 135 m (445 ft). _^<N__^<N_The climate is hot, and
rainfall is sparse. Summer temperatures average 34 deg C (93 deg F), with daytime temperatures in excess of 41 deg C (106 deg F); winter temperatures average about 17 deg C (63 deg F). Relative humidity is 70% to 80% for most of the year, but
annual rainfall averages only about 76 mm (3 in). _^<N__^<N_The population of Bahrain is mostly Arab, more than 65% of Bahrainis being native-born. Many Indians, Persians, Pakistanis, Europeans, and Americans also reside in the country. Arabic is
the official language, although Persian and English are understood widely. Islam, practiced by 95% of the population, is the official religion. The SUNNITE sect predominates in the urban centers and accounts for about one-third of the population,
including the ruling family. The SHIITE sect is important in rural areas. Urban services--including hospitals, utilities, highways, and education--have reached a high standard as a result of the influx of oil revenues, although oil income
declined in the 1980s. Housing and transportation are state subsidized, and health services and education are free. _^<N__^<N_ ECONOMIC ACTIVITY_^<N__^<N_Oil, first discovered in 1931, was Bahrain's principal product for many years, but since
reserves are small and will probably be depleted by the end of the 20th century, major efforts have been made to diversify the economy and develop other sources of income. These include a large oil refinery, which processes local oil and oil piped
from Saudi Arabia; a huge aluminum smelter, for which electric power is obtained from natural gas; and ancillary industries based on oil refining and aluminum smelting. _^<N__^<N_Bahrain receives a variety of subsidies from the richer Gulf states.
It has become a major regional banking and communications center. Also important are the engineering workshops, warehousing facilities, and ship-repair facilities (including a dry dock for the repair of supertankers) related to Bahrain's position
as a transportation and trade center for the Persian Gulf. The airport at al-Muharraq is a major international airport, and the port of Mina Sulman offers a free trade zone. A causeway linking Bahrain Island to Saudi Arabia was officially opened
in 1986. _^<N__^<N_Dates and alfalfa can be grown extensively, especially on the northern shore of Bahrain Island, because of the spring waters there. Rice, citrus fruits, and vegetables are also grown, although yields are low, and food must be
imported. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT_^<N__^<N_As early as the 3d millennium BC, Bahrain was the site of the thriving commercial center DILMUN. In ancient times Bahrain was known for its pearling industry. After nearly eight centuries of
independence as an Arab Muslim state, Bahrain came under the rule of Portugal (1521-1602) and Persia (1602-1783). Since 1783 the al-Khalifa family has ruled the country. British-Bahrain treaties were signed in 1820 and 1861, and Bahrain was under
British protection from 1861. _^<N__^<N_Upon independence in 1971, Bahrain elected not to join the UNITED ARAB EMIRATES. A constitution was adopted in 1973, but the National Assembly, which met for the first time in 1973, was dissolved in 1975,
and the emir has since then ruled by decree. Since the Iranian revolution (1979), there has been periodic unrest among Bahrain's Shiite majority, and Iran has revived a long-standing claim to Bahrain. After the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait on Aug. 2,
1990, Bahrain declared itself firmly anti-Iraq and agreed to the deployment of U.S. warplanes and warships as well as British naval units. Bahrain forces participated in the U.S.-led coalition war against Iraq in January-February 1991 (see PERSIAN
GULF WAR). _^<N__^<N_Ira M. Sheskin _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Abu Hakima, Ahmad M., History of Eastern Arabia, 1750-1800: The Rise and Development of Bahrain and Kuwait (1965); Adamiyat, Faridun, Bahrein Islands (1955); Khuri, F. I., Tribe and
State in Bahrain (1981); Lawson, F. H., Bahrain (1989); Nugent, J., and Thomas, T., Bahrain and the Gulf (1985); Sadik, Muhammed T., and Snavely, William P., Bahrain, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates (1972). _^<N__^<N_
-END-
-C-
2387
CAT
-A-
Baikal, Lake
-T-
Baikal, Lake_^<N__^<N_{by-kahl'} _^<N__^<N_The most remarkable freshwater lake in the world, Russia's Lake Baikal, or Baykal, is located in southeastern Siberia, west of the Yablonovy Mountains. It covers 31,494 sq km (12,160 sq mi), making it the
largest freshwater lake by area in Eurasia. Baikal measures 636 km (395 mi) long and 29-81 km (18-50 mi) wide and is fed by more than 300 rivers and streams. Its only outlet, however, is the Angara River, which flows past Irkutsk. Near the center
of the lake is Olkhon Island, Baikal's largest, with a maximum length of about 73.6 km (46 mi). _^<N__^<N_Baikal is most notable because it lies in a deep rocky fault produced by a massive shift in the Earth's crust. It contains about 23,000 cu km
(5,500 cu mi) of water. This is equivalent to the total volume of North America's Great Lakes and represents 20 percent of the world's liquid freshwater resources. Thus Baikal is the world's largest freshwater lake by volume. It is also the
deepest, reaching a maximum of 1,620 m (5,315 ft). Because it formed some 20 to 30 million years ago--making Baikal the world's oldest freshwater lake as well--the nearly 6.5 km (4 mi) of bottom sediment that has accumulated could be added to this
depth. The region continues to be geologically active and shaken by earthquakes. Some geologists conjecture that the Asian continent is splitting apart at this site and that Baikal is an ocean in the making, a view supported in 1990 by the
discovery of lake-bottom HYDROTHERMAL VENTS, which are usually found on mid-oceanic ridges. _^<N__^<N_Baikal's huge volume has a moderating effect on local weather, but the lake is buffeted by wind-generated storms. The water stays cold, with
temperatures rising to no more than 14 degrees C (57 degrees F) in summer. From December to May the lake is frozen. Baikal's exceptionally mineral-free waters support an unusual population of organisms, including many species endemic to the lake
and its vents. The lake is a popular summer resort. Forest and mineral resources have been processed along its shore. In the 1960s, however, iron-ore production and forest exploitation began to present a serious threat to the ecology of the
region, and by the 1980s the government of the former USSR had placed severe restrictions on activities that were polluting Baikal. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Tilzer, M. M., and Serruya, Colette, eds., Large Lakes (1990).
-END-
-C-
50
CAT
-A-
Baikonur Cosmodrome:
-T-
Baikonur Cosmodrome:_^<N__^<N_see SPACE PROGRAMS, NATIONAL.
-END-
-C-
1173
CAT
-A-
bail
-T-
bail_^<N__^<N_Bail is the procedure by which a judge releases from custody a person charged with a CRIME, upon receiving security in the form of cash or a promise that the released prisoner will appear in court at a specified time to answer the
charge. The usual form of security is a bail bond provided by a bonding company. Depending on the amount of bail fixed by the judge, the defendant may have to pay a fee of 10 percent and also put up collateral in the form of securities or
property. _^<N__^<N_In fixing bail the court may consider the nature of the offense, the weight of evidence, the accused's reputation in the community, and the accused's ability to obtain bail. Critics contend that deserving poor people stay in
jail because they cannot afford bail, while the professional criminals easily find someone to pay for their release. Some jurisdictions have experimented with releasing poor defendants who are employed and have no criminal record, on their
"personal recognizance," that is, their promise to appear for trial. The U.S. Comprehensive Crime Control Act of 1984 allowed judges to deny bail to defendants charged with serious federal crimes (see CRIMINAL JUSTICE).
-END-
-C-
995
CAT
-A-
Bailey, F. Lee
-T-
Bailey, F. Lee_^<N__^<N_F. Lee Bailey, b. Waltham, Mass., June 10, 1933, has become one of the best-known criminal lawyers of his day because of his aggressive courtroom tactics. "Criminal law," he once said, "has made me a rebel by profession."
Among his early successful cases was that of Samuel Sheppard, a Cleveland, Ohio, physician who had been sentenced to life imprisonment in the 1954 murder of his wife. Bailey became Sheppard's lawyer in 1961, a year after he had been admitted to the
bar, and took his case to the U.S. Supreme Court in 1965. The court in 1966 overturned Sheppard's conviction on the ground that prejudicial publicity before and during his prosecution had denied him a fair trial. A second trial resulted in a
verdict of not guilty. In 1977, Bailey represented Patricia Hearst at her trial for involvement in a bank robbery conducted by the SYMBIONESE LIBERATION ARMY. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bailey, F. Lee, The Defense Never Rests (1971) and, with John
Greenya, For the Defense (1975).
-END-
-C-
893
CAT
-A-
Bailey, Liberty Hyde
-T-
Bailey, Liberty Hyde_^<N__^<N_Liberty Hyde Bailey, b. South Haven, Mich., Mar. 15, 1858, d. Dec. 25, 1954, an American botanist, systematized the study of horticulture and trained a generation of agriculturalists. He graduated from Michigan
State Agricultural College and studied under the Harvard botanist Asa GRAY. As a professor of botany and dean of the College of Agriculture at Cornell University (1888-1913), Bailey brought botanists, plant physiologists, and geneticists together
to work in the field of horticulture, and he established a laboratory, the Bailey Hortorium, which is still an important research center. His published works--about 700 papers and 66 books--include The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture (1914),
still used as a reference source, and Hortus, revised and republished as Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada.
-END-
-C-
1103
CAT
-A-
Bailey bridge
-T-
Bailey bridge_^<N__^<N_The Bailey bridge is a temporary BRIDGE made of standard sections that can be put together quickly. Sir Donald Coleman Bailey designed the bridge for military use in World War II. He foresaw the need for a bridge constructed
of lightweight standardized panels that could be put together quickly in a wide range of spans and carry light or heavy loads. _^<N__^<N_The standard panels, measuring 3 by 1.5 m (10 by 4.75 ft), were prefabricated in all-welded high-tensile steel
and could be joined end to end by interlocking pin connections to make spans up to 73 m (240 ft) long that could carry convoys of heavy tanks. To support such weight, up to four panels could be assembled side by side if necessary, and the depth
could be increased by placing one panel on top of another to make girders of double or triple thicknesses. _^<N__^<N_The Bailey bridge proved so useful in wartime that it is now also used in the civilian market as a temporary structure either
before or during the construction of a permanent bridge, or as an emergency structure while a damaged bridge is being repaired. _^<N__^<N_Hubert Shirley-Smith
-END-
-C-
1082
CAT
-A-
Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Company
-T-
Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Company_^<N__^<N_In Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Company (1922), known as the Child Labor Tax Case, the Supreme Court declared unconstitutional the federal child labor law of 1919. Under that law a 10 percent tax was levied
on the net profits of any firm employing children under 14 years of age. The Drexel Furniture Company of North Carolina had been assessed more than $6,000 for having employed a boy under 14 during 1919. Speaking through Chief Justice William Howard
TAFT, the Court invalidated the law on two grounds: first, it was an attempt to regulate a matter reserved to the states; and second, the tax was a penalty rather than a revenue-raising measure. Said Taft, ". . . to give such magic to the word
'tax' would be to break down all constitutional limitation of the powers of Congress and completely wipe out the sovereignties of the states." Although the Supreme Court thus prevented Congress from outlawing CHILD LABOR through its taxing power,
Congress was able to resolve the problem in the late 1930s under the commerce power. _^<N__^<N_Robert J. Steamer
-END-
-C-
696
CAT
-A-
Baily, Francis
-T-
Baily, Francis_^<N__^<N_The English astronomer Francis Baily, b. Apr. 28, 1774, d. Aug. 30, 1844, is best known for his description of the solar ECLIPSE phenomenon now called Baily's beads. Baily was an explorer and stockbroker before turning to
astronomy at about age 50. He helped found what became the Royal Astronomical Society of London, revised star catalogs, and did work in meteorology. It was during the annular eclipse of May 15, 1836, that Baily described the fleeting phenomenon of
a string of bright points, like "beads," along the circumference of the otherwise totally eclipsed Sun. The beads, often difficult to observe, are caused by sunlight shining between mountains on the Moon's limb.
-END-
-C-
964
CAT
-A-
Bainbridge, William
-T-
Bainbridge, William_^<N__^<N_The American naval officer William Bainbridge, b. Princeton, N.J., May 7, 1774, d. July 27, 1833, was commissioned (1798) in the newly created U.S. Navy during the undeclared war with France (1798-1800) that followed the
XYZ AFFAIR. His first ship, the Retaliation, was captured by the French, but he was later so successful in running blockades and convoying American merchantmen in the French West Indies that he was promoted to captain in 1800. Given command of the
frigate Philadelphia during the TRIPOLITAN WAR (1801-05), Bainbridge was again captured when he ran aground at Tripoli in 1803. During the WAR OF 1812, he successfully advocated a strategy of fleet dispersion and commerce raiding. Commanding the
U.S.S. CONSTITUTION, he captured the British frigate Java off Brazil on Dec. 29, 1812. _^<N__^<N_Kenneth J. Hagan _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Barnes, James, Commodore Bainbridge (1897); Dearborn, Henry A. S., The Life of William Bainbridge, Esq.
(1931).
-END-
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843
CAT
-A-
Baird, Bil and Cora
-T-
Baird, Bil and Cora_^<N__^<N_The American puppeteers Bil Baird, b. Grand Island, Nebr., Aug. 15, 1904, d. Mar. 18, 1987, and his wife, Cora, b. New York City, Jan. 26, 1912, d. Dec. 7, 1967, were for nearly 30 years the creative spirits behind such
well-loved marionettes as Groovy the disc-jockey rabbit and Heathcliff the talking horse. Bil Baird, originally named William Britton Baird, had been making puppets for several years when he married (1937) Cora Burlar, then an actress. The two
presented puppet shows in theaters and nightclubs and, in the 1950s, on television shows. After his wife's death, Baird concentrated on television commercials and his Greenwich Village theater, where he presented puppet versions of children's
classics. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: McPharlin, Majorie B., Puppet Theatre in America: A History 1524-1948 (1949; repr. 1969).
-END-
-C-
669
CAT
-A-
Baird, John Logie
-T-
Baird, John Logie_^<N__^<N_Television inventor John Logie Baird, b. Scotland, Aug. 13, 1888, d. June 14, 1946, began experimenting with television in 1922. By 1926, using homemade equipment, he succeeded in transmitting the first television
picture, a crude, 30-line image of a human face sent electrically to a small screen (see VIDEO). In 1929 the British Broadcasting Corporation adopted Baird's system with its mechanical 30-line scanner, although they eventually abandoned it in
favor of the Marconi Company's 405-line system. Baird demonstrated color TV and transmitted the first transatlantic TV signal (both, 1928), and invented the first videodisc, the Phonodisc.
-END-
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576
CAT
-A-
Baird, Spencer F.
-T-
Baird, Spencer F._^<N__^<N_Spencer Fullerton Baird, b. Reading, Pa., Feb. 3, 1823, d. Aug. 19, 1887, was an American zoologist and a skilled administrator of scientific institutions. As assistant secretary (1850) and then as secretary (1878) of the
Smithsonian Institution, he directed the Smithsonian until his death. The first commissioner (1871) of the U.S. Fish Commission, he established the WOODS HOLE Marine Biological Laboratory. His most significant scientific publications were studies
of birds and animals. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Allard, D., Spencer Fullerton Baird, rev. ed. (1978).
-END-
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537
CAT
-A-
Baire, Rene
-T-
Baire, Rene_^<N__^<N_{bayr} _^<N__^<N_Rene Baire, b. Jan. 21, 1874, d. July 5, 1932, was one of the most influential French mathematicians of the early 20th century. His interest in the general ideas of FUNCTIONS and CONTINUITY was reinforced by
Vito VOLTERRA. In 1905, Baire became professor of analysis at the Faculty of Science in Dijon. While there, he wrote an important treatise on discontinuous functions. Baire's category theorem bears his name today, as do two other important
mathematical concepts, Baire functions and Baire classes. _^<N__^<N_J. W. Dauben
-END-
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724
CAT
-A-
Baj, Enrico
-T-
Baj, Enrico_^<N__^<N_{by} _^<N__^<N_Enrico Baj, b. Oct. 31, 1924, is a contemporary Italian artist who founded several influential art groups and the journal Il gesto (Milan, 1955-59) during the 1950s and '60s. After initially being influenced by
the drip paintings of Jackson Pollock, Baj produced work closely related to the tradition of surrealism. The strange humanoid forms that inhabit his paintings recall those of Jean Dubuffet, and his parodies of older works by Pablo Picasso and
Georges Seurat are close to American pop art. He is perhaps best known outside Italy for his assemblages and graphic works. _^<N__^<N_Marian Burleigh-Motley _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Sanesi, R., and van der Marck, J., Baj: Graphic Works (1986); Van
der Marck, J., Baj (1971).
-END-
-C-
890
CAT
-A-
Baja California
-T-
Baja California_^<N__^<N_{bah'-hah} _^<N__^<N_Baja California (English: Lower California) is a mountainous, arid peninsula of northwestern Mexico. Extending about 1,220 km (760 mi) south from the U.S. border, it ranges in width from 40 to 240 km (25
to 150 mi) and is connected to the Mexican mainland by a narrow strip across the delta of the Colorado River. The peninsula is divided into the Mexican states of Baja California Norte (1990 pop., 1,660,855), whose capital city is MEXICALI, and Baja
California Sur (1990 pop., 317,764; made a state in 1974), whose capital city is LA PAZ. _^<N__^<N_The peninsula retains much unspoiled desert land. Some indigenous plants, including the boogum and elephant trees, exist only there. Most of the
peninsula's population is concentrated in the cities clustered near the U.S. border--TIJUANA, Mexicali, and Ensenada. The economy is based on agriculture, fishing, and tourism.
-END-
-C-
674
CAT
-A-
Bakelite
-T-
Bakelite_^<N__^<N_The first commercially successful synthetic RESIN, developed in 1909 by the Belgian-American chemist Dr. Leo Hendrik Baekeland (1863-1944), Bakelite is a polymer of phenol and formaldehyde, often compounded with reinforcing fillers
such as asbestos, wood fibers, or cotton linters. When heat is applied, the mixture becomes a very hard mass, colorless or light yellow, with excellent solvent and heat resistance. Because it is almost noncombustible, it soon replaced CELLULOID. It
is used, instead of rubber, as an electrical insulator, in adhesives, in varnishes and molding powders, and in pot handles, bottle caps, electric switches, and automobile distributors.
-END-
-C-
658
CAT
-A-
Baker, Sir Benjamin
-T-
Baker, Sir Benjamin_^<N__^<N_The English engineer Benjamin Baker, b. Mar. 31, 1840, d. May 19, 1907, helped to design the great railroad bridge across Scotland's Firth of Forth, a 1,630-m-long (5,349-ft) steel structure completed in 1890. Involved
in the building of the first ASWAN Dam, Baker also designed a cylindrical ship to transport an obelisk, Cleopatra's Needle, from Egypt to London. In the United States, he assisted in the construction of the Eads Bridge across the Mississippi River
at St. Louis and _^<N__^<N_designed a pneumatic tunneling shield that made possible the _^<N__^<N_completion of the first Hudson River tunnel at New York City. _^<N__^<N_See also: EADS, JAMES BUCHANAN.
-END-
-C-
621
CAT
-A-
Baker, George Pierce
-T-
Baker, George Pierce_^<N__^<N_George Pierce Baker, b. Providence, R.I., Apr. 4, 1866, d. Jan. 6, 1935, was an educator who laid the groundwork for theater-arts training programs in U.S. universities. In 1906, Baker established a playwriting class at
Harvard University that became known (from its course number) as the "47 Workshop." It was devoted to the production of plays written by students, among them Eugene O'Neill. In 1925, Baker moved to Yale University, where he joined a new drama
department that later became the Yale School of Drama. _^<N__^<N_Colette Brooks _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Kinne, W. P., George Pierce Baker (1954; repr. 1968).
-END-
-C-
555
CAT
-A-
Baker, Howard
-T-
Baker, Howard_^<N__^<N_Howard Henry Baker, Jr., b. Huntsville, Tenn., Nov. 15, 1925, Republican senator from Tennessee (l967-85), gained national prominence in 1973 as a member of the Senate committee investigating WATERGATE. Baker became Senate
minority leader in 1977 and, after an unsuccessful bid for the Republican presidential nomination in l980, majority leader in l98l. He declined to run for reelection in 1984 but in 1987 became President Ronald Reagan's chief of staff during the
investigation of the IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIR. He retired to Tennessee in 1988.
-END-
-C-
455
CAT
-A-
Baker, James A.
-T-
Baker, James A._^<N__^<N_James Addison Baker III, b. Houston, Tex., Apr. 28, 1930, was U.S. secretary of state (l989-92) under George Bush, whose presidential campaigns he managed. A graduate (1952) of Princeton with a law degree (1957) from the
University of Texas, Baker practiced law in Houston. He served President Ronald Reagan first as chief of staff (1981-85), earning a reputation as a master of compromise, and then as secretary of the treasury (1985-88).
-END-
-C-
1017
CAT
-A-
Baker, Janet
-T-
Baker, Janet_^<N__^<N_Dame Janet Baker, b. York, England, Aug. 21, 1933, a mezzo-soprano, is world renowned as a recitalist, concert soloist, and opera singer. She studied with Helene Isepp in London, at the Mozarteum in Salzburg, and with Lotte
Lehmann. Baker first became known by giving recitals at the Edinburgh Festival and by appearing at the Royal Albert Hall, where she sang Sosostrice's aria from Michael Tippett's A Midsummer Marriage. In 1966 she made her debut in San Francisco and
in New York in Mahler's Das Lied von der Erde. Her repertoire ranges from classical works to modern opera, from Bach cantatas to the heroines of the operas of Benjamin Britten: Nancy in Albert Herring, Kate Julian in Owen Wingrave, and the title
role in The Rape of Lucretia. She was awarded a D.B.E. (Dame Commander of the British Empire) in 1976. She retired from the operatic stage in 1982. Her memoirs, Full Circle, were published in 1982. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Blyth, Alan, Janet Baker
(1973); Christiansen, Rupert, Prima Donna (1985).
-END-
-C-
1263
CAT
-A-
Baker, Josephine
-T-
Baker, Josephine_^<N__^<N_Josephine Baker, b. St. Louis, Mo., June 3, 1906, d. Apr. 12, 1975, an entertainer, personified le jazz hot for the French in the 1920s and '30s. At the age of 16 she joined the chorus of the all-black musical Shuffle Along
on a post-Broadway American tour and soon attracted attention with her brilliant clowning and dancing. In 1924 she was featured on Broadway in The Chocolate Dandies. In 1925 she starred in Paris in La Revue Negre and created a sensation as a dancer
clad only in a string of bananas. She remained in Paris as a star at the FOLIES BERGERE, a blues singer, and a film actress, and became a French citizen in 1937. Baker was honored by France for her work in the French resistance during World War II.
After the war she devoted much of her time and resources to her "rainbow tribe," a group of babies of all races whom she had adopted. Baker remained a glamorous international star for half a century, despite intermittent periods of retirement. She
enjoyed notably triumphant appearances on Broadway in 1964 and 1973. _^<N__^<N_Dale Harris _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Baker, Josephine, and Bouillon, Jo, Josephine, trans. by Mariana Fitzpatrick (1977; repr. 1988); Papich, Stephen, Remembering
Josephine (1976); Rose, Phyllis, Jazz Cleopatra (1989).
-END-
-C-
961
CAT
-A-
Baker, Newton Diehl
-T-
Baker, Newton Diehl_^<N__^<N_Newton Diehl Baker, b. Martinsburg, W.Va., Dec. 3, 1871, d. Dec. 25, 1937, was secretary of war (1916-21) under President Woodrow Wilson and administered the U.S. war effort in World War I. He was early influenced by the
reform Democratic mayor of Cleveland, Tom Loftin Johnson, under whom he served as city solicitor (1903-12). He was himself mayor of Cleveland from 1912 to 1916. _^<N__^<N_Appointed secretary of war in March 1916, Baker, a pacifist, took little
action until the United States entered (April 1917) World War I. Then he proved himself a vigorous administrator. He implemented military conscription, reorganized the War Department, and efficiently administered the huge war budget. Increasingly
conservative in his later life, he opposed the New Deal policies of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Cramer, Clarence H., Newton D. Baker (1961); Palmer, Frederick, Newton D. Baker: America at War, 2 vols. (1931; repr.
1969).
-END-
-C-
733
CAT
-A-
Baker, Ray Stannard
-T-
Baker, Ray Stannard_^<N__^<N_Ray Stannard Baker, b. Apr. 17, 1870, d. July 12, 1946, was a prolific American journalist and editor who won a 1940 Pulitzer Prize for his Woodrow Wilson: Life and Letters (8 vols., 1927-39). A friend and European envoy
of the World War I president, Baker also coedited The Public Papers of Woodrow Wilson (6 vols., 1925-26). Initially a reporter for the Chicago Record (1892-98), he wrote (1899-1905) muckraking articles for McClure's Magazine and helped found and
edit (1906-15) American Magazine. He also wrote several volumes of essays, including Adventures in Contentment (1907), under the pseudonym David Grayson. His Native American (1941) and American Chronicle (1945) are autobiographical. _^<N__^<N_F. M.
Paulsen
-END-
-C-
1021
CAT
-A-
Baker, Russell
-T-
Baker, Russell_^<N__^<N_Russell Baker, b. Loudoun County, Va., Aug. 14, 1925, is the author of the "Observer," a New York Times column that is one of the most popular U.S. humor commentaries. In 1993 he became the host of public television's
Masterpiece Theatre. Formerly a reporter on the Baltimore Sun (1947-54) and in the Washington bureau of the Times (1954-62), Baker began writing the "Observer" in 1962. Seldom permitting his wit to become cruel, Baker penetrates to the heart of
topics in the news. His columns have been collected in anthologies: An American in Washington (1961), No Cause for Panic (1964), All Things Considered (1965), Poor Russell's Almanac (1972), So This Is Depravity (1980), The Rescue of Miss Yaskell
and Other Pipe Dreams (1983), and There's a Country in My Cellar (1990). He received a Pulitzer Prize for commentary in 1979 and another in 1983 for the first volume of his autobiography, Growing Up (1982). The second volume, The Good Times (1989),
covers his days as a reporter. _^<N__^<N_Calder M. Pickett
-END-
-C-
692
CAT
-A-
Baker, Sir Samuel White
-T-
Baker, Sir Samuel White_^<N__^<N_Sir Samuel White Baker, b. June 8, 1821, d. Dec. 30, 1893, was an English explorer in Africa whose expeditions--with those of John Hanning SPEKE--finally settled the question of the source of the Nile. In 1861, Baker
and his wife explored the Nile's tributaries in Ethiopia. Two years later they followed the river farther south and discovered (Mar. 14, 1864) Lake Albert Nyanza, determining that the Nile flowed through the lake. Baker was later appointed (1869)
governor of the region by the Egyptian khedive and suppressed the slave trade there. _^<N__^<N_Robin Buss _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Middleton, Dorothy, Baker of the Nile (1949); Moorhead, Alan, The White Nile, rev. ed. (1971).
-END-
-C-
1217
CAT
-A-
Baker v. Carr
-T-
Baker v. Carr_^<N__^<N_In Baker v. Carr (1962), the U.S. Supreme Court made a landmark decision that opened the way to ending unequal APPORTIONMENT of state legislatures. The state of Tennessee had not reapportioned its legislative districts in more
than 50 years, even though the migration from rural to urban areas in that time had left rural counties with a disproportionately large representation in the legislature. Charles Baker, a voter, sued Joe Carr, a state official in charge of
elections, contending that he (Baker) had been deprived of the equal protection of the law in violation of the 14th Amendment to the Constitution. The district court dismissed the complaint, ruling that it lacked jurisdiction over a state political
issue. Up to that time, the federal judiciary had refused to become involved in state apportionment questions; on Baker's appeal, however, the Supreme Court held that the matter was within the purview of federal courts and ordered the district
court in Tennessee to decide the issue. The Supreme Court subsequently received appeals from 15 states; in REYNOLDS V. SIMS (1964), it held that, under the 14th Amendment, seats in a state legislature must be apportioned on a population basis.
-END-
-C-
293
CAT
-A-
Bakersfield
-T-
Bakersfield_^<N__^<N_Bakersfield is a city in the San Joaquin Valley in south central California with a population of 174,820 (1990). Founded in 1869, the city developed rapidly after petroleum was discovered nearby in 1899. It now depends on
petroleum-based industries, manufacturing, and agriculture.
-END-
-C-
1764
CAT
-A-
Bakhtiari
-T-
Bakhtiari_^<N__^<N_{bahk-tee-ah'-ree} _^<N__^<N_The Bakhtiari tribe, which numbers more than 800,000, inhabits an area of approximately 67,000 sq km (25,000 sq mi) that straddles the central Zagros Mountains in Iran. Although only about a third of
the tribe is nomadic (the rest are settled agriculturalists), the nomads embody the Bakhtiari cultural ideals. They specialize in producing meat and dairy products and migrate seasonally with their sheep, cattle, or goat herds from high plateau
pastures, where they spend the summer, west of the city of Isfahan, to lowland plains in the province of Khuzistan for winter herd grazing. Their migration is among the most spectacular known among nomadic pastoralists anywhere. They are obliged to
cross mountain passes at about 3,050 m (10,000 ft) and therefore have to time their movement with extreme care in order to minimize the danger of early snowfall, flooding mountain rivers, and lack of grazing. Traditionally these dangers took a
heavy toll, but in recent years the government has helped the migration by building bridges, improving the route, and setting up fodder supplies en route. _^<N__^<N_The Bakhtiari speak a dialect of Persian called Luri and are Shiite Muslims.
Politically the tribe used to form a confederacy under a chief appointed by the shah, but this position has now been abolished. The confederacy was most effective in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and the Bakhtiari played an important role
on the national level in Iran's constitutional movement. More recently many tribesmen have left the traditional way of life for employment in the oil industry in the cities. _^<N__^<N_Brian Spooner _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Metz, Helen, Iran: A
Country Study, 4th ed. (1989); Moss, W., Peoples of the World: Mid East, North Africa (1992).
-END-
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3094
CAT
-A-
baking industry
-T-
baking industry_^<N__^<N_The manufacture of bakery products is a significant part of the worldwide food industry. In the United States, for example, the industry produces and sells billions of dollars worth of goods annually. Bread and cake
products lead in total sales value, followed by cookies, crackers, pretzels, and similar low-moisture products. _^<N__^<N_The industry consists of large wholesale bakeries, which sell their products to retail outlets or food service operations;
retail bakeries owned, and usually run, by independent bakers; franchised retail outlets; and in-store bakeries--as they are known in the trade--which are speciality sections of supermarkets. _^<N__^<N_Small neighborhood bakeries owned by the
baker, and often staffed by members of his family, were the principal suppliers of bread, rolls, and pastries in the United States until after World War II, when the growth of large wholesale bakeries put small operations at a disadvantage. Large
plants could mass-produce bread and rolls on automated lines, and the labor costs per unit of product were lower, as were their expenses for ingredients and for energy, especially for heating ovens. The better control of processing conditions and
ingredient characteristics in larger bakeries also enabled them to maintain more uniform product quality, and they had an additional advantage in that they delivered their products to supermarkets, so that grocery shoppers could buy them without
having to visit another store. Factory technologies have now penetrated other countries. The French fear the disappearance of their famous traditional bread as factory-made breads take over supermarket shelves. Even in such traditionally
non-bread eating countries as Japan, mass-produced bread is becoming a staple. _^<N__^<N_Some small neighborhood bakeries attempt to adapt to the difficult competitive situation by making ethnic specialties, cakes decorated for special occasions,
gourmet-quality goods, and other products that can be sold at prices high enough to justify their large labor input, but for which demand is too limited to attract the wholesale baker. In addition, there has been a remarkable increase in the
number of small bakeries that sell their products in shopping malls. These stores usually specialize in a product that is in demand at the moment: chocolate chip cookies, for example, or croissants, or oversize muffins. Doughnut franchise shops
sell dazzling varieties of doughnuts prepared on the premises from recipes supplied by the franchiser. Finally, in recent years, bakeries have opened in many supermarkets, whose owners have found that a bakery on the premises increases store
traffic and improves the sale of baked goods. Supermarket bakeries either mix their own doughs and batters, or--more commonly--obtain frozen or refrigerated doughs from a central facility belonging to the supermarket chain, and bake and decorate
the products within the store. _^<N__^<N_Samuel A. Matz _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Business Trend Analysts, Bakery Products (1985); Matz, S. A., Bakery Technology: Nutrition, Packaging, Product Development (1989).
-END-
-C-
1088
CAT
-A-
baking powder
-T-
baking powder_^<N__^<N_Baking powder is a mixture of baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), an acid salt such as cream of tartar, and small amounts of starch, to simplify measuring and improve the stability of the mixture. It is used as a leavening agent
in baking. _^<N__^<N_Carbon dioxide, the leavening gas produced by baking powder, originates from baking soda. Addition of an acidic compound promotes a rapid release of gas. The rate of gas release controls the size of the bubbles in the dough and
influences the grain, volume, and texture of the baked product. _^<N__^<N_Some bakery products, such as pie crusts, are unleavened: they do not increase in volume while baking. Puff pastry doughs and cakes based on whipped eggs are leavened
primarily by the expansion of water vapor and entrapped air during baking. BREADS and sweet-dough pastries are usually YEAST leavened. Most layer cakes, cupcakes, and many kinds of cookies are leavened by chemicals such as baking powder. Although
yeast often produces a finer texture and flavor, baked goods made with baking powder are usually easier to prepare. _^<N__^<N_Samuel A. Matz
-END-
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22
CAT
-A-
baking soda:
-T-
baking soda:_^<N__^<N_see SODA.
-END-
-C-
50
CAT
-A-
Bakke case:
-T-
Bakke case:_^<N__^<N_see UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA V. BAKKE.
-END-
-C-
1826
CAT
-A-
Bakker, Jim
-T-
Bakker, Jim_^<N__^<N_{bay'-kur} _^<N__^<N_James Orsen Bakker, b. Muskegon, Mich., Jan. 2, 1940, was an Assemblies of God minister and television evangelist prominent in the 1970s and 1980s. Educated at North Central Bible College in Minneapolis,
Bakker was ordained in 1964 and began his television career with Pat ROBERTSON's Christian Broadcasting Network (CBN) in Portsmouth, Va. While at CBN he founded the popular "700 Club" and hosted the "Jim and Tammy Show" with his wife, Tammy
LaValley. In 1974 he founded his own PTL (Praise the Lord) Network in Charlotte, N.C. His religious talk program "The Jim Bakker Show" (originally "The PTL Club") appeared on hundreds of affiliated stations in 50 countries. Bakker, who was the
president of the Heritage Village Church and Missionary Fellowship, is the author of Move That Mountain! (1976), Eight Keys to Success (1980), God Answers Prayer (1980), and other books. _^<N__^<N_Bakker resigned his post on March 19, 1987, in the
wake of a extramarital sex scandal arising out of an incident that reportedly occurred in 1980. In May Bakker and a colleague were unfrocked as ministers of the Assemblies of God. Partly as a result of the Bakker and related incidents, the
National Religious Broadcasters on Feb. 3, 1988, voted a new code of ethics to define proper moral and financial standards. Following a 16-month federal grand jury investigation, Bakker was indicted on Dec. 5, 1988, charged with illegally
diverting millions of dollars of donations for his own use. After a 6-week trial in Charlotte, N.C., Bakker was convicted on 24 counts of fraud and conspiracy, and sentenced to 45 years in prison. A federal appeals court in February 1991 upheld
the conviction, but threw out the sentence, saying that the judge had unduly stressed religion. Bakker will be sentenced at a later date.
-END-
-C-
1190
CAT
-A-
Bakshi, Ralph
-T-
Bakshi, Ralph_^<N__^<N_The American filmmaker Ralph Bakshi, b. Haifa, Palestine, Oct. 26, 1938, is credited with bringing animation to adult films. Bakshi, who grew up in Brooklyn, N.Y., was long associated with CBS Terrytoons before becoming
creative director of Paramount's New York cartoon studio in 1967. When the studio was shut down later that year, he obtained backing for the first of his adult cartoons, Fritz the Cat (1972), an X-rated, feature-length film. He followed its
success with Heavy Traffic (1973), a semiautobiographical feature that mixed cartoons and live action, and Coonskin (1975), an animated look at the black experience in America. Both films offended various groups and got mixed reviews. Bakshi's
next effort, Wizards (1977), was a fantasy tale that was widely acclaimed. It was followed by the Lord of the Rings (1978), a version of J. R. R. Tolkien's story in which animation was overlaid on live action. Bakshi's later films included
American Pop (1981), an animated history of pop music, and Hey Good Lookin' (1982), an autobiographical story about growing up tough in Brooklyn in the 1950s. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Culhane, S., Animation from Script to Screen (1988).
-END-
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1310
CAT
-A-
Bakst, Leon
-T-
Bakst, Leon_^<N__^<N_The Russian artist Leon Bakst, b. Feb. 8, 1866, d. Dec. 24, 1924, is primarily known for his association with Serge DIAGHILEV and his BALLETS RUSSES. His sumptuous decors for such ballets as Scheherazade (1910) and
L'Apres-midi d'une Faune (AFTERNOON OF A FAUN, 1912) contributed to the success of the dance company and launched a craze for exotic colors and patterns in fashion and interior decoration. Bakst (originally named Lev Samoylovich Rosenberg) studied
painting at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts (1883-87) and then at the Academie Julian in Paris with Jean Leon GEROME. In the 1890s he met Diaghilev in St. Petersburg and became cofounder of the luxurious art magazine Mir iskusstva (World of
Art) in 1899. His first sets were for a mime staged by Marius PETIPA at the Hermitage court theater in 1902. After his success with the Ballets Russes in Paris in the 1900s, Bakst returned to Russia, where he founded a school of painting. His
last years were spent in Paris designing sets for plays, ballets, and operas. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bakst, Leon, The Decorative Art of Leon Bakst, trans. by Harry Melvill (1913; repr. 1969); Levinson, Andre, Bakst: The Story of the Artist's
Life (1923; repr. 1969); Pruzhan, Irina, Leon Bakst (1988); Spencer, Charles, Leon Bakst (1974).
-END-
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1343
CAT
-A-
Baku
-T-
Baku_^<N__^<N_{bah-koo'} _^<N__^<N_Baku is the capital of the republic of AZERBAIJAN, formerly part of the USSR. It is situated on the south shore of the beak-shaped Apsheron Peninsula on the CASPIAN SEA. The population of the city proper is
1,150,000 and that of the metropolitan area, which encompasses the entire peninsula, is 2,020,000 (1989). The name Baku is believed to mean "windy place," an allusion to the strong winds that sweep across the area. Baku has a dry climate, with an
annual precipitation of about 200 mm (8 in), hot, dry summers, and short, mild winters. _^<N__^<N_The city's economy revolves around the historic oil fields on the Apsheron Peninsula and offshore, and several oil refineries, oil-equipment
manufacturing plants, and other industries associated with oil are located there. Petroleum, in the form of incoming crude oil and outgoing refined products, constitutes most of the cargo of the port, which is the largest on the Caspian Sea. The
population is ethnically mixed, including 46% Azerbaijanis, 28% Russians, and 16% Armenians. _^<N__^<N_First mentioned in the 9th century, Baku passed from Persian to Russian control in 1806. Commercial oil development began in the 1870s. By the
start of the 20th century, Baku was the world's largest producer, a position it was unable to maintain with the development of major oil fields elsewhere.
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1554
CAT
-A-
Bakunin, Mikhail Aleksandrovich
-T-
Bakunin, Mikhail Aleksandrovich_^<N__^<N_{bah-koo'-nyeen} _^<N__^<N_Mikhail Aleksandrovich Bakunin, b. May 30, 1814, d. July 1, 1876, was a Russian aristocrat who became an ANARCHIST and revolutionist. He left Russia in 1840 to study philosophy in
Germany but was attracted to revolutionary socialism. After being actively involved in the REVOLUTIONS OF 1848 in Germany, France, and Austria, he was arrested in Dresden in 1849 and deported to Russia. Escaping from Siberia in 1861, he went to
England and Western Europe and resumed his revolutionary work. _^<N__^<N_Bakunin taught that man is basically good but corrupted by existing institutions. Accordingly, he advocated the violent overthrow of the state, the churches, and the economic
system to permit people to start over again in voluntary associations of free individuals. He was a bitter critic of MARXISM, which he saw as authoritarian. Although Bakunin was never precise about how his ends would be achieved in practice, he
won a substantial following in Italy and Spain. He died in Bern, Switzerland. _^<N__^<N_Robert Bass _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Aldred, Guy, Bakunin (1971); Carr, E. H., Mikhail Bakunin (1937; repr. 1961); Kelly, Aileen, Mikhail Bakunin (1982);
Maximoff, Grigorii P., The Political Philosophy of Bakunin: Scientific Anarchism (1953); Mendel, Arthur P., Michael Bakunin: Roots of Apocalypse (1981); Pyziur, Eugene, The Doctrine of Anarchism of Michael A. Bakunin (1955); Ravindranathan,
T.R., Bakunin and the Italians (1988); Saltman, Richard B., The Social and Political Thought of Michael Bakunin (1983).
-END-
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1095
CAT
-A-
Balaguer, Joaquin
-T-
Balaguer, Joaquin_^<N__^<N_{bah-lah-gair', hwah-keen'} _^<N__^<N_Joaquin Balaguer y Ricardo, b. Sept. 1, 1907, was elected president of the Dominican Republic five times. A scholar, poet, and lawyer, he held important posts during the
dictatorship of Rafael TRUJILLO Molina, including that of nominal president (1960-62). After Trujillo's assassination in 1961, the country fell into disorder; Balaguer resigned and went into U.S. exile for three years. He was elected president
in 1966 and reelected in 1970 and 1974. A moderate conservative, he attempted to restore financial stability to his country. In the 1978 elections, economic trouble and reports of repression and corruption in his government contributed to his
defeat by Antonio Guzman. In 1986, elderly and blind, Balaguer narrowly won a fourth term. He won a fifth term in 1990 in a close election that resulted in a recount. He is the author of Dominican Reality (1947; Eng. trans., 1949) and History
of Dominican Literature (1955; Eng. trans., 1978). _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Wiarda, H. J., and Kryzanek, M. J., The Dominican Republic (1982).
-END-
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1260
CAT
-A-
Balakirev, Mily Alekseyevich
-T-
Balakirev, Mily Alekseyevich_^<N__^<N_{buh-lahk'-yir-yef, mee'-lee ul-yeks-syay'-yih-vich} _^<N__^<N_Mily Alekseyevich Balakirev, b. Jan. 2, 1837, d. May 29, 1910, was a leading Russian nationalist composer. Balakirev received his earliest musical
training from his mother. He was precocious, and at the age of 14 he was made conductor of an orchestra of the nobleman Aleksandr Oulibishev, who became his patron. In 1855 Balakirev moved to Saint Petersburg, where he met Mikhail GLINKA, who
encouraged him, and for a brief period he was a concert pianist. Within a few years he had become the leader of a famous group of musicians known as The FIVE (which included Aleksandr BORODIN, Cesar CUI, Modest MUSSORGSKY, and Nikolai
RIMSKY-KORSAKOV). As a champion of nationalism, he wrote a number of works based on Russian folk themes and collected and arranged many Russian folk songs. Balakirev was one of the founders (1862) of the Free Music School in Saint Petersburg and
was director (1883-95) of the Court Chapel. Among his best-known works are the piano fantasy Islamey, the overture Russia, and the symphonic poem Tamara. He also wrote symphonies, piano concertos, chamber music, choral works, and many songs.
Balaklava, Battle of_^<N__^<N_{bah-lah-klah'-vah} _^<N__^<N_The Battle of Balaklava, fought on Oct. 25, 1854, in the CRIMEAN WAR, was brought about by an unsuccessful Russian attempt to raise the siege of Sevastopol by British, French, and Turkish
forces. It is famous primarily for the senseless but heroic British cavalry charge against Russian field artillery, commemorated in Tennyson's CHARGE OF THE LIGHT BRIGADE. More than one-third of the 673 British troops, commanded by the earl of
Cardigan (1797-1868), were killed or wounded. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Selby, John, Balaclava: Gentlemen's Battle (1970); Woodham-Smith, Cecil, The Reason Why (1953, repr. 1982).
-END-
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848
CAT
-A-
balalaika
-T-
balalaika_^<N__^<N_{bal-uh-ly'-kuh} _^<N__^<N_The balalaika, a popular Russian instrument of the guitar family, originated in the 17th century. It has a triangular body with a flat back and a slightly arched belly, a long fretted neck, and three
rib-fastened gut (or now sometimes metal) strings. V. V. Andreyev transformed the balalaika and the dombra, the immediate ancestor of the balalaika, from folk to popular instruments late in the 19th century, creating six sizes of balalaika, from
piccolo to contrabass, which he used to form the basis of an all-Russian orchestra. Such orchestras, playing arrangements usually scored in the style of Nikolai RIMSKY-KORSAKOV, have toured Europe and America. Typically the instruments are played
by plucking the strings with the fingers. _^<N__^<N_Robert A. Warner _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Marcuse, Sybil, A Survey of Musical Instruments (1975).
balance (measurement)_^<N__^<N_A balance is a mechanical device for weighing. The term is properly applied to an instrument that opposes equal weights in two pans suspended from the ends of a lever that has its fulcrum precisely in the middle. The
balance is basically a lever in which equal force is applied to its two arms at points equidistant from the fulcrum. Balances were used by the Egyptians as early as 5000 BC and have been used ever since. _^<N__^<N_ DEVELOPMENT_^<N__^<N_The most
primitive balance was a straight stick suspended at midpoint by a string and having pouches attached at either end. By the Middle Ages much more precise devices were in use. These had a stone or metal fulcrum and balanced metal weighing-pans. In
modern times balances are widely used in commerce, science, and industry. The basic concept of balancing forces at the ends of levers is still the most widely used principle in weighing, although not all balances have arms of equal length. Some use
a short arm for the load and a long one for the counterbalancing weights. The ratio of arm length times the counterbalance weight is used to calculate the true weight of the load. Many such devices are further modified by spring tension, which is
used in place of weights; these devices are actually scales rather than balances. _^<N__^<N_ TYPES_^<N__^<N_ Analytical Balance_^<N__^<N_Instruments for weighing with extreme accuracy in very small amounts are called analytical balances. An
accuracy of 1 part in 100,000,000 is theoretically possible using the best equipment. The simplest modern analytical balances are equal arm-balances with two pans, enclosed in a glass case to protect against dust and air currents. The material to
be weighed is placed on one pan, and weights are added to the other until the two are in exact balance. When small weighings are made, the swings of the balance pointer to the right and left are averaged, and the deviation from absolute center is
used to calculate the precise weight. _^<N__^<N_The fulcrum at the center of the beam is called a knife-edge. It is a triangular piece of hard material, such as synthetic sapphire, that balances on a smooth surface of the same material. This
mounting arrangement is delicate and easily disturbed. It includes pan rests and supporting guides, which can be retracted to allow the pans to swing free during the weighing. A balance such as this can accept weights up to 200 g and weigh with a
sensitivity of about 0.1 mg. _^<N__^<N_Many refinements of this basic design have been made. One such refinement is a damping device that shortens the time required for the swinging of the weighing arm to cease. This damping can be supplied by a
partially closed cylinder that entraps air under the swinging arm. _^<N__^<N_ Substitution Balance_^<N__^<N_In substitution balances, built-in weights counterbalance the load and are removed until the centering pointer comes to rest. The weights
may be removed by levers actuated by buttons labeled with the corresponding weight values. The sum of the weights left on the beam may be indicated by a digital readout. _^<N__^<N_ Apothecary Balance_^<N__^<N_Laboratory or apothecary balances for
weighing heavier samples with less accuracy have a platform or swinging pan on the short end of the beam and sliding weights that may be moved along the long end to offset the load by furnishing greater leverage. Double- and triple-beam balances
have riders of different weights on separate calibrated bars. Thus the heaviest rider may supply 0 to 100 g; the second, 0 to 10 g; and the third, 0 to 1 g. When all riders are in their highest position, they would exactly offset 111 g in the
weighing pan. _^<N__^<N_The standard weights used with balances are made of special noncorrosive metal alloys, such as chrome-nickel steel, and are manufactured to conform to standards set by the U.S. Bureau of Standards. The tolerance within which
they conform to these values is indicated by a grade marking. Weights should always be handled with forceps to keep oil, dirt, or moisture from altering their true values. _^<N__^<N_Leslie W. Lee _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Kisch, Bruno, Scales and
Weights (1965). _^<N__^<N_See also: WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
-END-
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4260
CAT
-A-
balance of payments
-T-
balance of payments_^<N__^<N_Every country maintains a record of its financial and economic relations with other countries. Just as a household's accounts show various sources of income (such as salary or wages, dividends, and payments for odd
jobs) balanced off against expenditures (for food, clothing, rent), so a national government maintains a balance of its international receipts and payments. While each country has its own procedures, the International Monetary Fund (IMF)
recommends certain standard practices for all countries to follow. The balance of payments is organized into the current account and the capital account. _^<N__^<N_The current account covers imports and exports of goods (this part is known as the
merchandise account) and of services such as transportation, insurance, and banking. It also lists purchases and sales of military equipment, earnings from investments in other countries, and payments on foreign investments in the home country.
Not all of these items will be in balance. For example, the country may have spent more for goods purchased from other countries than it made on sales of its own goods abroad; its merchandise account will then be in debit, and it will be said to
have a negative balance of trade. Many people feel that their country should export more goods than it imports, so as to have what is called a positive, or favorable, balance of trade, but this is not necessary. A negative balance of trade may be
offset by other accounts in the balance of payments--for example, by the export of services or by earnings on investments abroad. _^<N__^<N_The capital account covers the import and export of capital, both government and private. Capital moves
from one country to another in the form of short-term or long-term investments and as debt payments. If a large corporation in one country establishes a plant in some other country, that will cause a long-term outflow of capital from the first
country--and a long-term inflow to the second--to cover the investment. Thus if one of the oil-producing Arab countries buys a hotel in London, it will register on the British government's books as a long-term inflow of capital. Short-term
capital movements, on the other hand, include such transactions as short-term loans or rapid shifts of company funds from one country to another. _^<N__^<N_When the current and capital account balances are added together, the result shows the total
payments and receipts. If a deficit exists, it must be made up in some way. The deficit may be covered by borrowing from the central banks of other countries or from the International Monetary Fund. _^<N__^<N_When a country runs a sizable deficit
in its balance of payments, it means that the supply of its currency in the international money market will be greater than the demand. Under the system of floating exchange rates in existence since 1973, the value of the currency will tend to fall
until demand and supply are equal. In theory at least, the decline in value will cause foreigners to buy more of the country's goods and services, while its citizens will buy fewer things from outside. _^<N__^<N_Beginning in the 1970s major shifts
in the world balance of payments occurred, initially because of inflationary crude-oil price increases by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). International financial instability resulted because many nations, especially
less-developed countries dependent on imported oil, incurred serious trade deficits. By the 1980s some of these countries had incurred such debt that banks and the IMP were forced to act to prevent disruption of the international banking system.
_^<N__^<N_In the case of the United States, relatively high domestic interest rates and the fall in inflation in the early 1980s combined to attract a substantial and sustained net inflow of financial capital, which caused the U. S. dollar to
appreciate significantly. This created a mounting deficit in the current account as foreign goods and services became cheaper. In the mid-1980s the central banks of the major industrial nations took concerted action to depreciate the dollar in
order to slow this continuing trend. _^<N__^<N_Robert M. Stern _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: De Vries, Margaret G., Balance of Payment Adjustment from 1945 to 1986 (1987).
-END-
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2381
CAT
-A-
balance of power
-T-
balance of power_^<N__^<N_A balance of power among nations is a state of equilibrium in which no nation or group of nations is able to dominate others. The notion of a balance of power as the goal of foreign policy was adopted by the Italian
city-states of the 15th century and by William of Orange (later WILLIAM III of England), whose wars against France between 1672 and 1701 may be seen as an attempt to restore a power balance. In 1713 the Peace of Utrecht (see UTRECHT, PEACE OF)
prevented either France or Austria from dominating Europe. _^<N__^<N_The 19th century saw the peak of balance-of-power policies. The CONGRESS SYSTEM established in 1815 sought to achieve a balance in Europe and to guard against a revival of French
power. Although the formal arrangements made in 1815 broke down quickly, the system whereby the major European powers entered into alliances in order to maintain stable power relations lasted until World War I. _^<N__^<N_After World War II, the
COLD WAR rivalry between the United States and the USSR and the development of nuclear weapons produced a new bipolar balance--a "balance of terror." For the next 45 years this confrontation was a dominant factor in most international relations.
The U.S.-USSR relationship was characterized by periods of greater or lesser tensions, but alliances and regional security pacts were created throughout the world, distinguishing the "Eastern bloc" from the "Western bloc," and polarizing
international organizations. _^<N__^<N_Beginning in 1989, the formal structures of this balance of power began to disappear. An end to the cold war was pronounced, Germany was reunited, the WARSAW TREATY ORGANIZATION unraveled, and the United
Nations began to function more effectively, giving rise to hopes for a "New World Order." Nuclear and conventional arms control agreements between the superpowers, the growth of regional power centers such as the EUROPEAN COMMUNITY, and the
increased importance of so-called North/South issues such as development, trade, drugs, and terrorism have meant that the bipolar balance of power has been increasingly superseded by a more complex multipolar system. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Gulick, Edward V., Europe's Classical Balance of Power (1967); Keal, P., Unspoken Rules and Superpower Dominance (1984); Kipnis, David, The Powerholders (1976); Wright, Moorhead, ed., Theory and Practice of the Balance of Power (1975).
balance of trade_^<N__^<N_The balance of trade is the difference between the value of a nation's exports (goods sold) and the value of its imports (goods purchased). It is an important component of the BALANCE OF PAYMENTS.
-END-
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3907
CAT
-A-
Balanchine, George
-T-
Balanchine, George_^<N__^<N_{bal'-uhn-cheen or bal-ahn-sheen'} _^<N__^<N_George Balanchine b. Georgi Melitonovich Balanchivadze in Saint Petersburg (now Leningrad), Jan. 22 (N.S.), 1904, d. April 30, 1983, was considered the most influential and
prolific ballet choreographer of the 20th century. After graduating with honors from the Imperial Ballet Academy in 1921, he joined the corps de ballet of what is now the Kirov Ballet. In 1924, while touring Europe with a Soviet company, he
joined the Ballets Russes de Serge Diaghilev and became that company's chief choreographer the following year. _^<N__^<N_Balanchine created ten dances for Ballets Russes, two of which, Apollo (1928) and Prodigal Son (1929), are still performed.
Apollo, originally Apollon-Musagete (Apollo, Leader of the Muses), marks the definition of Balanchine's neoclassical style. After Ballets Russes was disbanded following Diaghilev's death in 1929, Balanchine worked for various companies before
accepting Lincoln Kirstein's invitation to come to the United States to direct a school and, eventually, a company. The School of American Ballet was founded in New York City in 1934; that same year Balanchine created his first ballet in the
United States, Serenade, for its students. The work, an homage to ballet's past and set to Peter Ilich Tchaikovsky's Serenade in C Major for String Orchestra, has since become the signature piece of NEW YORK CITY BALLET. _^<N__^<N_Between 1934 and
1948, Balanchine and Kirstein directed various financially unsuccessful forerunners of New York City Ballet, and Balanchine choreographed for other dance companies and for Broadway and Hollywood. From 1948 until his death, however, Balanchine
devoted himself almost exclusively to New York City Ballet--for which he created more than 200 ballets--while at the same time generously permitting his works to be restaged for other companies around the world. _^<N__^<N_Balanchine's neoclassical
style was based on the classical ballet vocabulary of the French-Russian choreographer Marius Petipa. Balanchine extended, distorted, and recombined this vocabulary in unexpected ways, but always within a classical context. He did, however,
occasionally use movements derived from the musical theater. Perhaps the most outstanding element in Balanchine's works is their musicality. He began studying piano at the age of five and attended the St. Petersburg Conservatory of Music. He
often used and commissioned scores by composers not yet popularly accepted and closely collaborated with Igor Stravinsky for almost 50 years. Balanchine did not alter tempos to suit his dancers; they earned their reputation for being the world's
fastest. _^<N__^<N_Although Balanchine occasionally created a story ballet, most of his ballets are non-narrative, and many are non-representational. Because the dancing was always of primary--and often exclusive--importance, costumes and decor
were de-emphasized, as was the role of the star performer. Although Balanchine was famous for his ability to discern unique qualities in individual dancers, and to reveal these choreographically, New York City Ballet has no star system. The
Balanchine legacy continues at New York City Ballet. _^<N__^<N_Robert J. Pierce _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Balanchine, George, and Mason, Francis, Balanchine's Book of Ballet (1977); Buckle, Richard, with John Taras, George Balanchine (1988);
Caras, Steven, Balanchine (1985); Kirstein, Lincoln, Portrait of Mr. B. (1984); Mason, Francis, I Remember Balanchine (1991); Reynolds, Nancy, Repertory in Review: 40 Years of the New York City Ballet (1977); Sheara, Moira, Ballet Master: A
Dancer's View of George Balanchine (1987); Stravinsky, Vera, and Craft, Robert, Stravinsky in Pictures and Documents (1979); Taper, B., Balanchine, 3d rev. ed. (1987); Tracy, Robert, and DeLano, Sharon, Balanchine's Ballerinas (1986).
_^<N__^<N_See also: AMERICAN BALLET THEATRE; BALLETS RUSSES DE MONTE CARLO; DANCE.
-END-
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562
CAT
-A-
Balantidium
-T-
Balantidium_^<N__^<N_{bal-uhn-tid'-ee-uhm} _^<N__^<N_Balantidium, a genus of PROTOZOA, is a parasitic microorganism that occasionally infests the human digestive tract, causing a severe form of dysentery called balantidiasis. Balantidium is usually
a parasite of pigs and is transmitted to humans through contaminated drinking water. Balantidiasis resembles COLITIS and is characterized by diarrhea, dysentery, and sometimes ulcers of the large intestine. The disease is usually cured by treatment
with a combination of drugs including tetracycline, emetine, and diiodohydroxyquin.
-END-
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610
CAT
-A-
Balard, Antoine Jerome
-T-
Balard, Antoine Jerome_^<N__^<N_Antoine Jerome Balard, b. Sept. 30, 1802, d. Mar. 30, 1876, was a French experimental chemist and pharmacist best known for his discovery (1825) of the element BROMINE. This, his first and greatest achievement, was a
by-product of his more general studies of the sea and its creatures. The discovery was especially important in that it made clear the existence of the most obvious family of chemical elements--the HALOGENS (salt formers)--in which the atomic weight
of bromine (79.91) is almost the arithmetic mean between those of chlorine (35.45) and iodine (126.9). _^<N__^<N_George B. Kauffman
-END-
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389
CAT
-A-
Balaton, Lake
-T-
Balaton, Lake_^<N__^<N_{bal'-uh-tahn} _^<N__^<N_Lake Balaton (German: Plattensee) is a lake in west central Hungary about 88 km (55 mi) southwest of Budapest. The largest lake in central Europe, it is 77 km (48 mi) long and an average of 13 km (8
mi) wide. It is shallow and fed mainly by the Zala River. Its outlet is the Sio River. Many resorts are on its shores, and prehistoric artifacts have been found.
-END-
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455
CAT
-A-
Balbo, Italo
-T-
Balbo, Italo_^<N__^<N_Italo Balbo, b. June 6, 1896, d. June 28, 1940, was an Italian Fascist leader and aviator. As air minister (1929-33), he developed the Italian air force and organized mass demonstration flights to Brazil and the United
States. From 1933 to 1940 he was governor of Libya. He died there when his plane was shot down, possibly by Italian antiaircraft guns, in battle against British forces. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Segre, C. B., Italo Balbo (1987).
-END-
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1265
CAT
-A-
Balboa, Vasco Nunez de
-T-
Balboa, Vasco Nunez de_^<N__^<N_Vasco Nunez de Balboa, b. 1475, the son of a poor nobleman, was a Spanish CONQUISTADOR and explorer (see EXPLORATION). The first European to sight the eastern shore of the Pacific Ocean, he opened the way for
Spanish exploration and settlement of SOUTH AMERICA's western coast. He set sail for the New World in 1500 as part of an expedition to the north coast of Colombia. He settled on the island of Hispaniola and tried his hand unsuccessfully at
farming. In 1510, to escape his creditors, he stowed away on a ship heading for the mainland, where he founded the colony of Darien on the Isthmus of Panama. _^<N__^<N_In 1513, Balboa led an expedition to the west, and on September 25 or 27 he
sighted the Pacific Ocean, which he named the South Sea. King Ferdinand II of Aragon [see FERDINAND II, KING OF ARAGON (FERDINAND THE CATHOLIC)] appointed Pedrarias Davila as governor of Darien and named Balboa to serve under Pedrarias as governor
of an area on the Pacific coast, where Balboa founded the settlement of Acla. In January 1519, Pedrarias had Balboa beheaded in Acla on false charges of treason. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Anderson, Charles L., Life and Letters of Vasco Nunez de
Balch, Emily Greene_^<N__^<N_{bawlch} _^<N__^<N_Emily Greene Balch, b. Jamaica Plain, Mass., Jan. 8, 1867, d. Jan. 9, 1961, was a pacifist who, with J. R. Mott, was corecipient of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1946. She taught economics and
political science at Wellesley College but was dismissed in 1918 for opposing U.S. entry into World War I. She became one of the founders of the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom.
-END-
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899
CAT
-A-
bald cypress
-T-
bald cypress_^<N__^<N_The bald cypress, Taxodium distichum, is an attractive coniferous tree of the southeastern United States. It grows mainly in swampy areas, sometimes reaching a height of 45 m (150 ft). Not a true cypress, the tree is deciduous,
shedding its needlelike leaves and short branches in winter--hence its name. It is noted for its long life; trees as old as 1,200 years have been reported. When it stands in water, unique structures called "knees" (conical outgrowths of lateral
roots) develop and usually project above the water. Bald cypress wood is decay-resistant and is valued for construction and siding. The taller Montezuma, or Mexican, cypress, T. mucronatum, of Mexico is not deciduous, although it may be so in
cooler regions. These two species are all that remain of a genus that was widely distributed a few million years ago. They are members of the redwood family, Taxodiaceae.
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537
CAT
-A-
Balder
-T-
Balder_^<N__^<N_In Norse mythology, Balder was the god of light and beauty. The most beloved of the gods, he was the son of ODIN and FRIGG and the husband of Nanna, goddess of the Moon. A famous Norse myth tells how LOKI, the evil giant, had Balder
killed with a dart made of mistletoe, the only thing in the world that had not promised his mother it would never harm him. Because Balder was the favorite of the gods, it was said that he would return to ASGARD, the home of the gods, at the end of
the world. Balder's Greek counterpart is Apollo.
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673
CAT
-A-
Baldinucci, Filippo
-T-
Baldinucci, Filippo_^<N__^<N_{bahl-dee-noo'-chee} _^<N__^<N_Filippo Baldinucci, b. 1624, d. Jan. 1, 1696, was a 17th-century connoisseur and historian of the arts. He was curator of Cardinal Leopoldo de' Medici's drawing collection, and his own fine
collection of drawings is now one of the treasures of the LOUVRE. Among Baldinucci's many writings are a number of perceptive and well-documented biographies of artists. Notizie de' professori del disegno (Accounts of the Professors of Design,
1681-1728) was published in six volumes. He also wrote a Life of Bernini (1682; Eng. trans., 1966), a history of engraving and etching (1686), and a dictionary of artistic terms (1686). _^<N__^<N_Tania Bayard
-END-
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1658
CAT
-A-
baldness
-T-
baldness_^<N__^<N_Baldness, or alopecia, is total or partial loss of scalp hair. The condition may be temporary or permanent. The most common type of alopecia is pattern baldness, a hereditary trait that is expressed more often in males than in
females because it depends on the influence of the male hormone testosterone. Pattern baldness in males extends until only a sparse growth of hair remains on the back and sides of the head. In women, the baldness usually extends until only a
sparse growth remains on the crown. Neither hair tonics nor any other medical measure can prevent or reverse such baldness. _^<N__^<N_Premature baldness may partly result from an imbalance of sex hormones. Sudden temporary hair loss sometimes
occurs as a result of typhoid fever, influenza, pneumonia, or stress. Gradual thinning of the hair may be caused by severe nutritional deficiency, tuberculosis, cancer, and disorders of the thyroid gland or pituitary gland. Temporary baldness also
may be caused by exposure to nuclear radiation or X rays or by the internal use of certain anticancer drugs. Plugs of hair-containing skin from the back of a bald person's head are sometimes successfully transplanted on bare areas of the scalp;
more painstakingly, individual hair follicles may be transplanted. The hypertension drug minoxidil has been found to restore hair growth. Although originally not approved for such use because of concern over serious side effects, it was approved
for sale as a hair restorer (Rogaine) in Canada in 1986 and the United States in 1987. It is expensive, must be used daily, and seems to work mainly on young men who only recently began to lose hair.
-END-
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1312
CAT
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Baldovinetti, Alesso
-T-
Baldovinetti, Alesso_^<N__^<N_{bahl-doh-vee-net'-tee, ah-les'-soh} _^<N__^<N_Alesso Baldovinetti, b. Oct. 14, 1425, d. Aug. 29, 1499, was an Italian painter and mosaicist who made important contributions to landscape painting during the early
Florentine Renaissance. As a youth he was apprenticed to DOMENICO VENEZIANO and was influenced by Fra ANGELICO. Baldovinetti was one of the most respected artists in Florence during the 1460s, renowned for such elegant paintings as his Annunciation
(c.1460; Uffizi, Florence) and the Madonna and Child (c.1460; Louvre, Paris). His paintings blend sophistication and naivete, using precisely drawn elongated figures and subtle gradations of tone and light. His refined style, however, became
conservative and archaistic toward the end of his career. He painted a solemn Annunciation (1466) above Antonio ROSSELLINO's elaborate tomb of the Cardinal of Portugal in the church of San Miniato al Monte above Florence. _^<N__^<N_Baldovinetti
also designed and executed several stained-glass windows and made ambitious wood-inlay (tarsia) panels and numerous mosaics, such as those (1453-55) above Lorenzo Ghiberti's two bronze doors to the Florence Baptistery. In 1483 he was appointed
curator and restorer of the Baptistery mosaics. _^<N__^<N_Alan P. Darr _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Kennedy, R. W., Alesso Baldovinetti (1938).
-END-
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1019
CAT
-A-
Baldrige, Malcolm
-T-
Baldrige, Malcolm_^<N__^<N_Howard Malcolm Baldrige, Jr., b. Omaha, Nebr., Oct. 4, 1922, d. July 25, 1987, was U.S. secretary of commerce during the Reagan administration from 1981 until the time of his death. A Yale University graduate (1944),
Baldrige worked for two Connecticut companies in the years prior to his cabinet appointment--Eastern Company (1947-62) and Scovill Manufacturing Company (1962-81). At Scovill he was president and chief executive officer (1963-69) and chairman of
the board (1969-81). _^<N__^<N_Baldrige, an advocate of international free trade, was considered to be one of the most influential U.S. secretaries of commerce in decades. He died in a freak accident at a rodeo in Walnut Creek, Calif. The U.S.
Congress in 1987 established the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Awards, given annually to competing U.S. corporations that meet the highest standards of excellence. Recent winners have included General Motors' Cadillac division, IBM, Federal
Express, and Wallace Co., a Houston pipe manufacturer.
-END-
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2846
CAT
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Baldung-Grien, Hans
-T-
Baldung-Grien, Hans_^<N__^<N_{bahl'-doong-green} _^<N__^<N_Hans Baldung, or Baldung-Grien, b. c.1484, was a German painter who spent most of his artistic life in the Rhineland. He became a citizen of Strasbourg in 1509 and died there in 1545.
Although his art was strongly influenced by Albrecht DURER, with whom Baldung studied in Nuremberg between 1502 and 1504, Baldung's distinctive fervor was soon evident in his many creations, which included altarpieces, isolated panels, designs for
stained glass, woodcut prints, BOOK ILLUSTRATIONS, drawings, and portraits of nobility. His most memorable images are fantasy creations of witches and allegories of love and death. _^<N__^<N_Baldung signed and dated paintings and other works
throughout his career. His earliest altarpiece commissions are from 1507, and his earliest dated drawings and prints appeared in 1503 and 1505. Most important and extensive of the Baldung altarpiece commissions is the giant Mary altarpiece
(1513-16) for the high altar of the cathedral at Freiburg im Breisgau. In this work, Baldung revealed his assimilation of the massive, full-scale figures of Durer, which were combined with the energetic motion, vibrant colors, and spiritual
passion found in the work of another great German painter, Mattias GRUNEWALD. In his smaller religious works, Baldung favored images of the Holy Family, particularly the Rest on the Flight into Egypt or the Nativity, employing a supernatural
nighttime lighting in versions of the latter scene. _^<N__^<N_Baldung's fascination with both the supernatural and the erotic gave rise to his most bizarre subjects. An early woodcut (1510) with color-toned blacks (CHIAROSCURO) depicts a witches'
sabbath in the depths of a nocturnal forest. Witches, shown as old and young nude women, are also featured in a large number of Baldung's drawings and in a painting, The Meteorologic Witches (1523; Stadelsches Kunstinstitut, Frankfurt am Main),
in which they are shown evoking storms. Baldung also used images of nude women to convey allegorically the ages of humankind and the vanity of sensual pleasures in the face of death. Several panels on the theme of "Death and the Maiden" contrast
a lustrous fleshy female nude with the spectral skeleton of Death. A typical masterwork in this genre is the image Eve, the Serpent, and Death (c.1510-12; National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa), where original sin is presented as the cause of man's
mortality, a theme related to the pessimistic visions of Baldung's contemporary, HIERONYMUS BOSCH. _^<N__^<N_Larry A. Silver _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Benesch, Otto, German Painting: From Durer to Holbein (1966); Koch, Robert A., Hans
Baldung-Grien: Eve, the Serpent, and Death (1974); Von der Osten, Gert, and Vey, Horst, Painting and Sculpture in Germany and the Netherlands, 1500-1600 (1969). _^<N__^<N_See also: GERMAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE; GRAPHIC ARTS.
-END-
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1611
CAT
-A-
Baldwin, James
-T-
Baldwin, James_^<N__^<N_James Arthur Baldwin, b. Harlem, New York City, Aug. 2, 1924, d. Nov. 30, 1987, was a vital literary voice during the era of civil rights activism in the 1950s and '60s. The son of a minister, at the age of 14 Baldwin himself
became a preacher in a small evangelical Harlem church. Within three years, he had transferred his faith from religion to literature, but the impassioned cadences of black religious ritual ring through his writings. His first novel, Go Tell It on
the Mountain (1953), is a partially autobiographical account of his youth. The essay collections--Notes of a Native Son (1955), Nobody Knows My Name (1961), and The FIRE NEXT TIME (1963)--influenced a large white audience. _^<N__^<N_After 1948,
Baldwin made his home primarily in France, although he returned to the United States often to teach and lecture. His novels include Giovanni's Room (1956), about a white American expatriate who must come to terms with his homosexuality, and Another
Country (1962), about racial and sexual tensions among New York intellectuals. His play, Blues for Mister Charlie, was produced in 1964. The short-story collection Going to Meet the Man (1965) and the novel Tell Me How Long the Train's Been Gone
(1968) added to his bitterly incisive descriptions of American racism. The Evidence of Things Not Seen (1985) is Baldwin's analysis of the Atlanta child murders of 1979 and 1980. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bloom, Harold, intro. by, James Baldwin
(1986); Leeming, David, James Baldwin: A Biography (1994); O'Daniel, T. B., James Baldwin: A Critical Evaluation (1977); Sylvander, C. W., James Baldwin (1981).
-END-
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707
CAT
-A-
Baldwin, Matthias W.
-T-
Baldwin, Matthias W._^<N__^<N_Matthias William Baldwin, b. Elizabethtown, N. J., Dec. 10, 1795, d. Sept. 7, 1866, was an American locomotive designer and philanthropist. Trained as a jeweler, he became a toolmaker, manufactured bookbinders'
tools, and devised machinery for fabric printing. In 1832 he built "Old Ironsides," Pennsylvania's first locomotive, and went on to establish what became the Baldwin Locomotive Works, the largest such company in the world. His engines could carry
more steam pressure than any others then available. During his lifetime he sold more than 1,500 of them throughout the United States, except in the South where his products were boycotted because he was an abolitionist.
-END-
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2405
CAT
-A-
Baldwin, Robert
-T-
Baldwin, Robert_^<N__^<N_Robert Baldwin, b. May 12, 1804, d. Dec. 9, 1858, was a respected political leader of pre-Confederation Canada who has become identified with the theory and practice of responsible government. Baldwin was a lawyer who
first entered the legislature in 1829 as a moderate reformer. Frequent confrontations between the elected assembly of Upper Canada (Ontario) and the British-appointed governor led Baldwin to advocate responsible government, the principle by which
the governor should act on the advice of ministers who possessed the confidence of the majority in the popular legislature. Twice while serving (1836, 1841) as a minister, Baldwin unsuccessfully pressed this view on governors, resigning when his
advice was not taken. On the first occasion he set down his ideas in a memorandum, from which they were incorporated by the earl of DURHAM in his famous Report (1839) offering remedies for political dissatisfaction in the Canadas. _^<N__^<N_In
1842, Baldwin joined with his French-speaking colleague Louis Hippolyte LAFONTAINE to form an administration devoted to the achievement of responsible government. When the governor, Sir Charles (later Baron) METCALFE, failed to take their advice
on appointments, Baldwin and Lafontaine and most of the cabinet resigned. In 1847 the reformers won victory in the elections, and early in 1848 Baldwin and Lafontaine were invited to collaborate in a second ministry as joint premiers and attorneys
general for their sections of the Province of Canada (created by the union of Upper and Lower Canada in 1840). Responsible government became firmly established when the new governor, the 8th earl of ELGIN, accepted the ministry's recommendation of
a bill granting compensation for losses in the rebellions of 1837-38 despite his own dislike for the measure. _^<N__^<N_The Baldwin-Lafontaine government, sometimes called the Great Ministry, provided amnesty to those taking part in the Rebellions
of 1837-38, established municipal institutions for Canada West (Ontario), and gave public aid to railroad building. Baldwin resigned his office in 1851 over a disagreement with his followers. His party became a major element in the national
Conservative party subsequently constructed by Sir John A. MACDONALD. _^<N__^<N_D. M. L. Farr _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Careless, J. M. S., ed., The Pre-Confederation Premiers (1980); Wilson, G. E., The Life of Robert Baldwin (1933).
-END-
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2769
CAT
-A-
Baldwin, Stanley, 1st Earl Baldwin of Bewdley
-T-
Baldwin, Stanley, 1st Earl Baldwin of Bewdley_^<N__^<N_Stanley Baldwin was prime minister of Great Britain three times between 1923 and 1937. Born on Aug. 3, 1867, he was the son of a prominent industrialist in Worcestershire and a cousin of Rudyard
Kipling. He was elected to Parliament as a Conservative in 1908, became parliamentary private secretary to Andrew Bonar LAW (1916) and joint financial secretary of the treasury (1917), and in 1921 entered the cabinet as president of the Board of
Trade. _^<N__^<N_In 1922 Baldwin played a leading part in persuading the Conservatives to withdraw their support of David LLOYD GEORGE's coalition government. After a general election, he became chancellor of the exchequer in the new Conservative
government and then found himself unexpectedly prime minister when Bonar Law had to resign in 1923. Although the Conservatives lost the general election at the end of that year, Baldwin returned to office in November 1924 and remained in power
until 1929. During a period of rising unemployment and unrest that culminated in the General Strike of 1926, Baldwin gained a reputation for reasonableness and considerable political skill. _^<N__^<N_After losing the election of 1929, Baldwin spent
an unhappy two years as leader of the opposition. When the Labour government collapsed during the economic crisis of 1931, he joined the coalition government of Ramsay MACDONALD as lord president of the council. Baldwin preferred this post to the
premiership; he was much less gifted as an executive than as a parliamentarian and conciliator. By the time he succeeded MacDonald as prime minister in the summer of 1935, Baldwin was tired and aging. He won an election that year on a platform that
included substantial rearmament but was severely shaken by the government's failure to settle the crisis provoked by the Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1935-36. Nonetheless, he managed the abdication (1936) of King EDWARD VIII with dignity and
sensitivity. Baldwin retired in May 1937, was created a peer, and died on Dec. 14, 1947. _^<N__^<N_In retirement, Baldwin was bitterly criticized. It was suggested that he had deceived the people about rearmament, which was not true; and that he
had underestimated the threat to peace posed by Nazi Germany, which was true--but he was not alone in this. More recently, Baldwin's reputation has risen as understanding of Britain's predicament in the 1930s has deepened. Baldwin may be admired
for his deft handling of the General Strike and of the abdication; his firm support of the Government of India Act (1935), in many respects a blueprint for Indian independence; and his efforts to assuage class strife. _^<N__^<N_David Dilks
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Middlemas, R. K., and Barnes, A. J. L., Baldwin (1969); Young, Kenneth, Stanley Baldwin (1976).
-END-
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369
CAT
-A-
Bale, John
-T-
Bale, John_^<N__^<N_John Bale, b. Nov. 21, 1495, d. November 1563, was an English bishop, playwright, and author of a catalog of British writers. His miracle plays, written to support the REFORMATION, are often virulent and crude anti-Catholic
propaganda. His Kynge Johan (c.1548) is an early historical drama. _^<N__^<N_Robin Buss _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Fairfield, L. P., John Bale (1976).
-END-
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1316
CAT
-A-
Balearic Islands
-T-
Balearic Islands_^<N__^<N_The Balearic Islands, an archipelago in the western Mediterranean, form the Spanish province of Baleares. The population of 675,400 (1986 est.) is concentrated on the densely inhabited four main islands--IBIZA, MAJORCA,
MINORCA, and Formentera. The numerous smaller islands are mostly uninhabited. Total area is 5,014 sq km (1,936 sq mi), and the highest elevation, Torrellas (Puig Mayor), is 1,363 m (4,471 ft). The Balearics are actually partially submerged peaks
that are a continuation of the mountains of southeastern Spain. The climate and good soil promote the growing of grapes, olives, citrus fruits, and pines (for lumber). Other economic activities include fishing and livestock raising, and some
minerals (lead, lignite, and marble) are found, but the economy is heavily dependent on tourism. PALMA, the capital, on Majorca, has a permanent population of 304,422 (1981). _^<N__^<N_Successively occupied by the Phoenicians, Carthaginians,
Romans, and Byzantines, the Balearics came under Moorish control in the 8th century and were used as pirate bases. James I of Aragon captured them in 1235. After maintaining independence from 1276 to 1343, they returned to Spanish control. During
the Spanish Civil War (1936-39), Majorca and Ibiza were held by insurgents; Minorca remained Loyalist.
-END-
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1419
CAT
-A-
Balenciaga, Cristobal
-T-
Balenciaga, Cristobal_^<N__^<N_Cristobal Balenciaga, b. Jan. 21, 1895, d. Mar. 24, 1972, was a master couturier from the 1930s through the 1960s; he was the only designer, beside Madeleine Vionnet, who could cut, fit, and sew his own designs. He
feminized the suit and popularized the chemise dress in 1955. Balenciaga was born in a Basque fishing village in Spain. His abilities as a dressmaker were discovered by the marquesa de Casas Torres, who encouraged him in his career. By the 1930s
Balenciaga had fashion houses in Barcelona and Madrid, but he left Spain during its civil war and opened a couture house in Paris in 1937. In 1947, Christian DIOR introduced the "new look," with lengthened skirts and softened shoulders, but by the
1950s, Balenciaga's ideas were dominant. He softened dresses, coats, and suits by loosening the fit, removing lapels, rounding collars, and adding three-quarter-length sleeves. His puffed evening dresses were marvels of engineering and yet devoid
of excess; in his clothes the mature woman could be fashionable. Balenciaga's disciples were Andre Courreges and Hubert de Givenchy. Discouraged by the youth revolution in the late 1960s, Balenciaga gave up his business and retired to Spain, where
he died. _^<N__^<N_E. M. Plunkett _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Brogden, Jean, Fashion Design (1971); Garland, Madge, The Changing World of Fashion (1970); Lyman, Ruth, Couture (1972). _^<N__^<N_See also: COSTUME; FASHION DESIGN.
-END-
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611
CAT
-A-
Balewa, Sir Abubakar Tafawa
-T-
Balewa, Sir Abubakar Tafawa_^<N__^<N_{bah-leh-wah', ah-boo-bah-kar' tah-fah'-wah} _^<N__^<N_Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, b. December 1912, d. January 1966, was the first federal prime minister of Nigeria. A teacher, he served in the House of Assembly
of the Northern Region from 1947 and the federal House of Representatives from 1952. As leader of the large Northern People's Congress, he became prime minister of the federation in 1957, continuing in that position when Nigeria became independent
(1960). Many thought him too closely identified with the interests of the Northern Region. He was killed in an army coup. _^<N__^<N_Robin Buss
-END-
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671
CAT
-A-
Balfe, Michael William
-T-
Balfe, Michael William_^<N__^<N_{balf} _^<N__^<N_Michael William Balfe, b. Dublin, May 15, 1808, d. Oct. 20, 1870, was a celebrated Irish composer and baritone best known for his opera The Bohemian Girl, which premiered in London in 1843. In
1827 he won recognition when he was engaged by Gioacchino ROSSINI, then director of the Italian Opera in Paris, to sing the part of Figaro in Rossini's BARBER OF SEVILLE. In London in 1835, he established his fame as a composer by producing his
opera The Siege of Rochelle. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Walker, Ernest, A History of Music in England, 3d ed., rev. by J. A. Westrup (1952; repr. 1978); Young, Percy M., A History of British Music (1967).
-END-
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2321
CAT
-A-
Balfour, Arthur, 1st Earl of Balfour
-T-
Balfour, Arthur, 1st Earl of Balfour_^<N__^<N_{bal'-fur} _^<N__^<N_Arthur James Balfour succeeded his uncle, the 3d marquess of SALISBURY, as British prime minister (1902-05) and was leader of the Conservative party until 1911. He held high office
again during World War I and at intervals until 1929. _^<N__^<N_Balfour was born on July 25, 1848, into a family with political connections and academic distinction. Entering Parliament in 1874, he received his first cabinet appointment in 1886.
As chief secretary for Ireland (1887-91) he earned the nickname "Bloody Balfour" by firm suppression of unrest, but at the same time he promoted land reforms. _^<N__^<N_Balfour rendered invaluable assistance to the marquess of Salisbury by acting
as government leader in the House of Commons in 1891-92 and again from 1895 to 1902. He established a reputation as one of the best debaters of his day. Although Balfour's time as prime minister was marked by party dissensions, his government
introduced (1902) educational reforms, concluded (1904) the Anglo-French Entente (see TRIPLE ENTENTE), and established (1904) the Committee of Imperial Defence. _^<N__^<N_The government split, however, over Joseph CHAMBERLAIN's tariff proposals,
and in 1905 Balfour resigned. After the defeat of the Conservatives in the election of 1906, he led the party in opposition until 1911. _^<N__^<N_In the wartime coalition governments, Balfour served as first lord of the Admiralty (1915-16) and as
foreign secretary (1916-19). In 1917 he issued the celebrated BALFOUR DECLARATION in favor of a Jewish national home. At the Paris Peace Conference he mitigated some of the harsher terms of the Treaty of Versailles (1919). Balfour, who held
office several more times during the 1920s, was created a peer in 1922 and died on Mar. 19, 1930. _^<N__^<N_Balfour enjoyed great social prestige and a considerable reputation as a philosopher; it was said of him that "no finer mind has been
given to politics in our generation." His writings include A Defence of Philosophic Doubt (1879), The Foundations of Belief (1895), and Chapters of Autobiography (1930). _^<N__^<N_David Dilks _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Dugdale, Blanche E. C., Arthur
James Balfour, 2 vols. (1936); Mackay, R. F., Balfour: Intellectual Statesman (1985); Young, Kenneth, Arthur James Balfour (1963); Zebel, S. H., Balfour: A Political Biography (1973).
-END-
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979
CAT
-A-
Balfour Declaration
-T-
Balfour Declaration_^<N__^<N_The Balfour Declaration was a statement of British policy concerning ZIONISM contained in a letter from Foreign Secretary Arthur BALFOUR to Lord Rothschild, head of the British Zionist Federation, dated Nov. 2, 1917.
Ultimately written into the League of Nations mandate for Palestine (1922), the declaration endorsed the establishment of "a national home" for the Jewish people in Palestine, stipulated that such a national home not prejudice the rights of
non-Jewish communities in Palestine, and added that the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in other countries should not be compromised by the creation of this national home. The declaration reflected a combination of wartime expediencies
and fundamentalist Christian yearnings among members of the British government. _^<N__^<N_Saul S. Friedman _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Friedman, I., and Sachar, H. M., eds., Britain Enters into a Compact with Zionism (1987); Stein, L. J., The
Balfour Declaration (1961).
-END-
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1187
CAT
-A-
Bali
-T-
Bali_^<N__^<N_Bali, a province of INDONESIA, is part of the Lesser Sunda Islands, 3.2 km (2 mi) east of Java. Its area is about 5,560 sq km (2,147 sq mi), and its highest peak, Mount Agung, reaches 3,142 m (10,308 ft). The population is 2,709,200
(1986 est.). European trade began shortly after the Dutch landed in 1597. _^<N__^<N_Volcanic in origin, Bali has a dry, mountainous north coastal section and a southern plain with a rainy monsoon season. The annual mean temperature is 28 deg C (82
deg F). Teak forests have economic importance, but the giant waringin trees are locally sacred. Wild animals include tigers and deer. Most BALINESE, of Malayan origin, follow a form of Hinduism. Largely agricultural, they raise rice, maize,
cassava, pigs, and cattle for local use; produce copra, coffee, and tobacco for export; and are noted for weaving and wood carving. Cities of Bali include the capital, Denpasar (1980 pop., 88,142), and Singaradja (1980 pop., 42,289).
_^<N__^<N_The Dutch EAST INDIA COMPANY traded with Bali from 1597, but the Dutch gained full control only in 1908. After Japanese occupation during World War II, Dutch rule was reestablished until Indonesia received independence in 1949.
-END-
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1445
CAT
-A-
Balinese
-T-
Balinese_^<N__^<N_The Balinese are the major ethnic group occupying the island of BALI in Indonesia. Their language, affiliated with the Malayo-Polynesian linguistic family, is written in both a Javanese script and the Roman alphabet (see
MALAYO-POLYNESIAN LANGUAGES). _^<N__^<N_Nearly all of the more than 2 million Balinese live in villages in narrow river valleys or along the coastal lowlands. The major crops of their small, irrigated fields are rice, corn, cassava, vegetables,
and fruit. Balinese villages vary in population from a few hundred to several thousand. The houses are usually surrounded by a walled courtyard. Genealogical descent is traced through the male line, and the family is the most important social
group. Polygamy is permitted, but most men have only one wife. Divorce is common. _^<N__^<N_Balinese culture was strongly influenced in the past by Indian civilization. The form of HINDUISM practiced by the Balinese stresses rituals and dramatic
features rather than philosophy and mysticism. The Balinese adopted a modified version of the Hindu CASTE system, but no UNTOUCHABLES live on the island. The people are noted for their graceful dances, lively music, and superb handicrafts--silver
and gold jewelry, painting, and wood-carving. _^<N__^<N_Donn V. Hart _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Belo, Jane, ed., Traditional Balinese Culture (1970) and Trance in Bali (1970); Geertz, H. and C., Kinship in Bali (1978); Lansing, J. S., Three
Worlds of Bail (1983).
-END-
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399
CAT
-A-
Balinese cat
-T-
Balinese cat_^<N__^<N_The Balinese cat originated as a sport, or mutation, from the Siamese cat in the early 1950s, when some purebred Siamese produced long-haired kittens. The long-hairs bred true, and eventually the new breed was established. The
Balinese has the same body conformation and color points as the Siamese but has a medium-long silky coat. The ears are large and the eyes blue. _^<N__^<N_Everett Sentman
-END-
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1035
CAT
-A-
Baliol, John de
-T-
Baliol, John de_^<N__^<N_{bay'-lee-ul} _^<N__^<N_John de Baliol (or Balliol), c.1250-1314, king of Scotland (1292-96), was the youngest son of John de Baliol (d. 1269), the founder of Balliol College, Oxford. In 1290, with the death of King
Alexander III's heir, Margaret, "Maid of Norway," John became one of the chief competitors for the Scottish crown along with Robert de Bruce, grandfather of King Robert I. EDWARD I of England was made adjudicator between the claimants and decided
in favor of Baliol. John was crowned at Scone on Nov. 30, 1292, and later did homage to Edward at Newcastle. _^<N__^<N_By 1296, John had fallen out with Edward, who had invaded Scotland and reduced the Scottish king to a toom tabard ("empty
cloak"). John was later imprisoned in the Tower of London. In 1299 the pope intervened for his release, and John fled to Normandy. John's son Edward de Baliol, d. 1364, was crowned king in 1332 and soon acknowledged EDWARD III as overlord of
Scotland. He later resigned (1356) his kingdom and title to the English king. _^<N__^<N_Charles H. Haws
-END-
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2671
CAT
-A-
Balkan Wars
-T-
Balkan Wars_^<N__^<N_The Balkan Wars of 1912-13 were two short wars fought over the disposition of the Ottoman Empire's former Balkan territories. Tsarist Russia supported the efforts of Bulgaria and Serbia in 1911 to establish an alliance that
would check Austria-Hungary's advances southeastward into the Balkans. In the aftermath of the 1908 revolt of the YOUNG TURKS, these two smaller states were additionally interested in dividing the remaining Turkish-controlled territory in Europe,
specifically MACEDONIA. On Mar. 13, 1912, Serbia and Bulgaria signed a treaty of mutual assistance. Greece joined in a pact with Bulgaria on May 29, 1912, and Montenegro arranged agreements with Bulgaria and Serbia in late September.
_^<N__^<N_With Turkey already involved in a war with Italy over Libya, and despite protests from the great powers, the Balkan League began its war against the Ottoman Empire on Oct. 8, 1912. To the surprise of most observers, the Balkan allies
won quick, decisive victories. The Treaty of London (May 30, 1913) forced the Ottoman Empire to cede virtually all of its remaining European territory--except for the region immediately adjacent to Constantinople--to the Balkan states.
_^<N__^<N_Subsequently, the allies disputed the division of the territorial gains. Bulgaria challenged, in particular, Greek and Serbian claims to Macedonia. Overestimating its strength, Bulgaria launched an attack on its former allies on June
30, 1913. This second Balkan War soon found Romania and Turkey joining the fighting with Greece and Serbia. Thus attacked from all sides, Bulgaria had to sign an armistice on July 31. The Treaty of Bucharest (Aug. 10, 1913) stripped Bulgaria of
some recently conquered territory. Greece, which in the earlier conflict had taken Crete and some Aegean islands from Turkey, now formally acquired the important port of Salonika (Thessaloniki) and most of coastal Macedonia, while Serbia received
north and central Macedonia. Romania obtained a large section of the DOBRUJA from Bulgaria, which also had to yield the greater part of Thrace to Turkey. _^<N__^<N_Although all the Balkan states significantly increased the size of their
territories at the expense of Turkey, Bulgaria remained embittered by its defeat in the second Balkan War, and its neighboring states sought still other lands for expansion. The Balkan disputes were to be continued in the larger context of WORLD
WAR I. _^<N__^<N_S. Victor Papacosma _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Helmreich, E. C., The Diplomacy of the Balkan Wars, 1912-1913 (1938; repr. 1969); Jelavich, Barbara, History of the Balkans: Twentieth Century (1983); Young, George, Nationalism
and War in the Near East (1915; repr. 1970).
-END-
-C-
9160
CATO
4771
-A-
Balkans
-O-
000000|Balkans
000608| LAND
001803| PEOPLE
004065| HISTORY
-T-
Balkans_^<N__^<N_The Balkans are the states that occupy the mountainous Balkan Peninsula of southeastern Europe, a region that was long part of the Ottoman Empire. Although the peninsula's boundaries are imprecise, it is usually defined as
including ALBANIA, BULGARIA, GREECE, ROMANIA, European TURKEY, the states that were formerly part of federal Yugoslavia (BOSNIA AND HERCEGOVINA, CROATIA, MACEDONIA, AND SLOVENIA), and present-day YUGOSLAVIA (SERBIA and MONTENEGRO). The Balkans are
bounded on the west by the Adriatic and Ionian seas, on the south by the Mediterranean, and on the east by the Black and Aegean seas. _^<N__^<N_ LAND_^<N__^<N_Mountains are the dominant topographic feature of the peninsula; Balkan means "forested
mountain" in Turkish. The mountains form two distinct systems. Toward the west lie the DINARIC ALPS, which border the Adriatic from Slovenia in the north to Albania in the south. In the east, the CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS and Transylvanian Alps cover
northern and central Romania; in Bulgaria, the Stara Planina, or Balkan Mountains, cover the central portion, and the Rhodope Massif is in the south. The heavily wooded mountains are a source of mineral wealth and, where less wooded, are used for
grazing. _^<N__^<N_The rivers and their valleys are the major arteries of movement between the mountains. The DANUBE RIVER flows east across the northern portion of the peninsula to the Black Sea, creating a deep gorge, the IRON GATE, where it
cuts between the Carpathian and Balkan mountains. Flowing from south to north are the Morava River, one of the Danube's main tributaries, and the Vardar River, which empties into the Aegean Sea at Salonika, Greece. Agriculture is practiced in the
few river valleys and narrow coastal plains. Cereals, tobacco, cotton, olives, and grapes are the principal products. _^<N__^<N_ PEOPLE_^<N__^<N_The people of the Balkans possess great cultural, linguistic, and religious diversity, a heritage of
the many distinct groups who invaded the region. As the invaders settled, they often became isolated because of the mountainous terrain, which has preserved their differences. By the 2d century AD, three main groups occupied the peninsula:
Greeks in the south and Thracians and Illyrians in the north. The modern Albanian language is descended from Illyrian. _^<N__^<N_During the 2d and 3d centuries, the Romans penetrated the region. They influenced Romania, which was the Roman
province of Dacia, most strongly, and the Romanian language is derived from Latin. _^<N__^<N_During the 5th to the 7th century the Balkans were penetrated from the north by the SLAVS. After settling, they split into distinct tribes that are
reflected in the different languages remaining today: Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Macedonian, and Bulgarian. (See SLAVIC LANGUAGES.) _^<N__^<N_The lack of clear divisions between ethnic communities has made it difficult to delimit political
boundaries, which has often led to prolonged conflict among the peoples of the peninsula. One of the worst of these occurred with the disintegration of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s. The existence of a Serbian minority in Croatia and of a
patchwork of Serbian, Croatian, and Slavic Muslim communities in Bosnia-Hercegovina led to fighting between the different groups once these states had broken free of the Yugoslav federation. In addition, Greece refused to recognize the former
Yugoslav state of Macedonia, challenging its right to use that name. _^<N__^<N_Three major religions are practiced in the Balkans: Orthodoxy, Islam, and Roman Catholicism. After the Christian church split in 1054, Constantinople (now Istanbul)
became the center of the Orthodox church, which spread throughout and still dominates the Balkans today. After the Ottoman conquest, many people converted to Islam; this influence remains in Albania, Bosnia and Hercegovina, and Bulgaria. The
largest Roman Catholic communities are in Croatia and Slovenia, which were under Hungarian and Austrian control. Catholic minorities, however, live in the other primarily Orthodox countries. Jewish and Protestant minorities also live in the
region. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY_^<N__^<N_The most important early civilization to arise in the Balkans was that of the Greeks. With the fall of Greek civilization, Rome became the major power, and by the 3d century it ruled the entire peninsula. In
395 the Roman Empire was divided between east and west, with most of the Balkans falling in the eastern portion, called the BYZANTINE EMPIRE. Byzantine rule continued until the 10th century, when the empire controlled only the southern Balkan
Peninsula. In the north, the independent states of Serbia, Croatia, and Bulgaria arose. _^<N__^<N_During the 14th century, the Ottomans began to penetrate the Balkans; some areas of the peninsula remained under their rule for about 500 years (see
OTTOMAN EMPIRE). They took Adrianople (now Edirne) in 1365, Serbia in 1389, Constantinople in 1453, and Belgrade in 1521. Ottoman rule was often characterized by harsh and oppressive methods. Because they failed to encourage any form of social
or economic development, the Balkans remained backward compared with the rest of Europe. By the 17th century, Ottoman rule in Europe had begun to decline, and in 1699, under provisions of the Treaty of Karlowitz, the Ottomans were forced to
surrender Transylvania, Croatia, and Slavonia to the Habsburgs, and DALMATIA and the PELOPONNESUS to Venice. _^<N__^<N_The 19th century ushered in the age of nationalism throughout the Balkans and the resulting struggle for independence from the
Ottomans. Serbia was the first to revolt, in 1804, and gained limited autonomy in 1815. The Greek revolution (1821-29) focused the attention of the European powers (Britain, France, Russia, Austria) on the Balkans for the first time, as each
sought to further its own interests in the region. The problems of the Balkans were thereafter a part of the EASTERN QUESTION. Britain, France, and Russia entered the Greek revolution on the side of Greece, defeating the Ottomans and assuring
Greek independence. Following the RUSSO-TURKISH WAR of 1828-29, the Ottomans were forced to affirm Serbian self-government and also to grant virtual autonomy to MOLDAVIA and WALACHIA. In 1861 Moldavia and Walachia united and proclaimed the
independent state of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 the Ottomans were again defeated. At the ensuing Congress of Berlin (see BERLIN, CONGRESS OF), Bulgaria was divided, the northern portion becoming autonomous and the southern
portion remaining under modified Ottoman control; Bosnia and Hercegovina were granted to the Habsburgs. _^<N__^<N_With independence, the Balkan states' own territorial ambitions increased. In 1912, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, and Serbia united,
forming the Balkan League, and declared war on the Ottomans. The two BALKAN WARS followed (1912-13), in which the Ottomans were virtually expelled from Europe. Following the wars, the state of Albania was formed, and the other states expanded
their territory. Meanwhile a movement for unification and independence from Austria-Hungary had arisen among Croatians, Serbians, and Slovenes. It reached a peak in 1914 with the assassination by a Serbian nationalist of Archduke Franz Ferdinand,
heir to the Austrian throne, precipitating the outbreak of WORLD WAR I. Following the war and the dissolution of Habsburg Austria-Hungary, Yugoslavia was created and Romania expanded. The southern Balkans, however, remained virtually unchanged.
_^<N__^<N_The interwar period was marked by political instability in the Balkans. During World War II, Bulgaria and Romania became German allies, but the other states attempted to remain neutral. Both Greece and Yugoslavia were invaded by Germany
in 1941. After Germany's defeat in 1945, Communist regimes were established in Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, and Yugoslavia. Only Greece, following a civil war (1946-49), did not enter the Soviet bloc. Yugoslavia was expelled from the bloc in 1948.
Albania was the next to establish an independent position, breaking off relations with the USSR in 1961. _^<N__^<N_This situation continued until the early 1990s, when Communist rule ended in Romania, Bulgaria, and Albania. At the same time
Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia-Hercegovina, and Macedonia seceded from Yugoslavia, which led to destructive civil wars among the contending ethnic groups of Croatia and Bosnia, and Serbian intervention in both states. In 1992, Serbia and Montenegro
formed a new and smaller Yugoslavia. _^<N__^<N_The term balkanization has been used to refer to the breaking-up of a geographic area into small and often hostile units. _^<N__^<N_Norman J. G. Pounds _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Fine, John, The Early
Medieval Balkans (1991) and The Late Medieval Balkans (1987); Hosch, Edgar, The Balkans: A Short History from Greek Times to the Present Day (1972); Jelavich, Barbara, History of the Balkans, 2 vols. (1983); Jelavich, Charles and Barbara, The
Establishment of the National Balkan States, 1804-1920 (1986); Lampe, J. R., and Jackson, M. R., Balkan Economic History (1982); Sjoberg, Orjan, and Wyzan, Michael, eds., Economic Crisis and Reform in the Balkans (1991); Vukmanovic, Svetozar,
Struggle for the Balkans (1990).
-END-
-C-
432
CAT
-A-
Balkhash, Lake
-T-
Balkhash, Lake_^<N__^<N_{bahl-kahsh'} _^<N__^<N_Lake Balkhash is in eastern Kazakhstan, about 160 km (100 mi) west of the Chinese border. It is about 605 km (376 mi) long and 10-74 km (6-46 mi) wide and is subject to climate-induced fluctuations.
Its maximum depth is 26 m (85 ft). The lake, which has no outlet, supports a fishing and salt extraction industry. Copper is mined on the northern shore and smelted in the lake's major town, Balkhash.
-END-
-C-
933
CAT
-A-
Ball, Lucille
-T-
Ball, Lucille_^<N__^<N_Lucille Ball, b. Jamestown, N. Y., Aug. 6, 1911, d. Apr. 26, 1989, was a comedian and TV producer best known for her television series "I Love Lucy," which ran almost continuously from 1951 to 1957 and also featured her
husband, bandleader Desi Arnaz. Ball began her career as a model, then appeared--first as a bit player, then as featured star--in more than 50 Hollywood films. After the success of the "Lucy" series, and her divorce from Arnaz, she became head of
two major TV production companies and the star of three subsequent "Lucy" series. She also starred in the Broadway show Wildcat (1960), the film Mame (1974), and occasionally in TV specials. _^<N__^<N_Frank Manchel _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Andrews, B., and Watson, T., Loving Lucy (1982); Harris, Warren, Lucy and Desi: The Legendary Love Story of Television's Most Famous Couple (1990); Hingham, C., Lucy (1986); Morella, J., and Epstein, E. Z., Forever Lucy (1986).
-END-
-C-
980
CAT
-A-
Ball, Thomas
-T-
Ball, Thomas_^<N__^<N_Thomas Ball, b. Charlestown, Mass., June 3, 1819, d. Dec. 11, 1911, was one of several 19th-century American sculptors who spent a large portion of their careers in Italy. Ball worked in Florence, producing marble portrait
busts, in the 1850s and again in the 1860s. He was one of the first American sculptors to work on large-scale public monuments in bronze, for which he received many commissions from the U.S. government in the 1870s. Ball's best-known bronze is an
equestrian portrait of George Washington in the Boston Public Gardens (unveiled 1875). Ball was greatly admired in his own time, but in this century his numerous public monuments, such as those in Central Park, New York, and in Washington, D.C.,
have fallen out of favor. His best-known pupil was Daniel Chester FRENCH. _^<N__^<N_Marian Burleigh-Motley _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Brown, Milton W., American Art to 1900 (1977); Craven, Wayne, Sculpture in America (1968). _^<N__^<N_See also:
AMERICAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE.
-END-
-C-
1106
CAT
-A-
Balla, Giacomo
-T-
Balla, Giacomo_^<N__^<N_Giacomo Balla, b. July 18, 1871, d. Mar. 1, 1958, was the oldest of the Italian painters who signed (1910) the Technical Manifesto of Futurist Painting in Milan. He was the teacher of both Umberto BOCCIONI and Gino
Severini and became the link to the second generation of futurists after World War I. _^<N__^<N_After early work in the Divisionist technique, and under the influence of the cinematograph and of photography, Balla, in 1912, adopted cubist
fragmentation as a means of expressing the dynamism of modern life. This fragmentation is evident in such works as Speeding Automobile (1912; Museum of Modern Art, New York). His studies, during that same year, of the interpenetration of light
were among the earliest abstract paintings. Balla's works are displayed in all major museums of modern art. _^<N__^<N_Marian Burleigh-Motley _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Dell'Arco, M. F., Balla (1988); Dortch-Dorazio, Virginia, Giacomo Balla: An
Album of His Life and Work (n.d.); Martin, Marianne W., Futurist Art and Theory, 1909-1915 (1968). _^<N__^<N_See also: ABSTRACT ART; CUBISM; FUTURISM; ITALIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE.
-END-
-C-
2340
CAT
-A-
ballad
-T-
ballad_^<N__^<N_A ballad is a poem that tells a dramatic story in a simple, direct style suitable for setting to music. The form is characterized by informal diction, by a narrative largely dependent on action and dialogue, by thematic intensity,
and by a stress on repetition. The typical ballad stanza is a quatrain containing rhymed second and fourth lines accentuated by alternating lines of trimeter and tetrameter verse. _^<N__^<N_The four types of ballads are folk, literary, broadside,
and sentimental. Folk ballads are derived from medieval oral tradition. English folk ballads were first collected by Bishop Thomas Percy in his Reliques of Ancient English Poetry (1765). These were supplemented by the more definitive English and
Scottish Popular Ballads published (1883-98) by Francis Child, an American. Many English ballads, such as "Edward" and "Barbara Allen," have survived in American versions. (See FOLK MUSIC.) _^<N__^<N_A literary ballad is the result of a
deliberate attempt by an author to capture the naive charm of the folk ballad. Literary ballads were part of the romantic impetus toward the natural. Wordsworth's "Preface" to his Lyrical Ballads (1798) is a manifesto of this movement.
_^<N__^<N_Broadside ballads were printed on large, double-columned sheets that included a suggested tune in keeping with the rhythm. In the 18th century they were sold for a penny and hence became known as penny ballads. Their human interest and
sometimes sensational subject matter served the function of the modern tabloid. _^<N__^<N_Sentimental ballads, songs with banal tunes and melodramatic lyrics, were popular at the turn of the 20th century. Simple popular songs written since then
have also been called ballads. _^<N__^<N_Jane Colville Betts _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Child, Francis James, English and Scottish Popular Ballads, ed. by H. C. Sargent and G. L. Kittredge, 5 vols. (1965); Coffin, Tristram P., and Renwick, Roger D.,
The British Traditional Ballad in North America, rev. ed. (1977); Fowler, D. C., A Literary History of the Popular Ballad (1968); Grigson, Geoffrey, ed., Penguin Book of Ballads (1976); Kinsley, James, ed., The Oxford Book of Ballads (1971 repr.
1982); Leach, MacEdward, ed., The Critics and the Ballads (1961; repr. 1973); Parrish, Stephen M., The Art of the Lyrical Ballads (1973); Richmond, W. E., Ballads and Ballad Scholarship (1986).
-END-
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831
CAT
-A-
Ballad of the Sad Cafe, The
-T-
Ballad of the Sad Cafe, The_^<N__^<N_The Ballad of the Sad Cafe, a novella by Carson MCCULLERS first published in Harper's Bazaar (1943), is considered by some critics her finest work. It is an allegorical tale about Amelia Evans, a woman who has
rejected her husband, Marvin Macy. She lives alone until her cousin Lymon, a dwarf who inspires joy in others, comes to visit her. Amelia then experiences a kind of love she has never known and turns her dull general store into a cafe. All goes
well for six years, but then Marvin returns. Lymon falls in love with Marvin and quite willingly helps him torment Amelia. Amelia is shattered when Lymon leaves town. The novella suggests the vulnerability of those who love and the power possessed
by the person loved. In 1963 the story was adapted by Edward ALBEE into a play. _^<N__^<N_Charlotte D. Solomon
-END-
-C-
1614
CAT
-A-
ballade
-T-
ballade_^<N__^<N_{bal-ahd'} _^<N__^<N_The ballade is both a musical and an Old French poetic form. Originally, it was a dance form as well. The ballade consists of three stanzas and an envoy, written in iambic or anapestic meter, with an octave
stanza in the rhyme scheme a b a b b c b C and an envoy in the scheme b c b C (see VERSIFICATION). Thus the rhymes are carried throughout the poem; stanzas and envoy both end with a refrain (C). _^<N__^<N_Sung ballades were popular in 14th- and
15th-century France. Guillaume de Machaut, poet and musician to French nobility, excelled at the courtly ballade. His influence is apparent in the work of the English poet Geoffrey CHAUCER, who wrote several poems in ballade form. Francois VILLON,
however, was the greatest master of the ballade. _^<N__^<N_The envoy of the ballade is addressed to an important person, usually a patron. Although many French ballades end with an envoy saluting "ma dame," the tradition seems to have as much to do
with being a courtier as it does with amorous courting. Chaucer's ballade "A Complaint to His Empty Purse" ends with an envoy that is both a compliment and a request for money. _^<N__^<N_Thomas MORLEY, in his Plaine and Easie Introduction to
Practical Musicke (1597), speaks of the ballade as a dance form lighter than the villanelle. By the time Charles Burney published his General History of Music (1776-89), the ballade had long been dissociated from dancing. _^<N__^<N_Composers in the
19th century turned to the ballade as a romantic musical form. BRAHMS, CHOPIN, GRIEG, and LISZT all wrote ballades for the piano; and SCHUBERT used the ballade as a song form. _^<N__^<N_Jane Colville Betts
-END-
-C-
688
CAT
-A-
Balladur, Edouard
-T-
Balladur, Edouard_^<N__^<N_{bahl-ah-duer'} _^<N__^<N_Edouard Balladur, b. May 2, 1929, became prime minister of France in 1993. A member of a prosperous banking family, Balladur got his start in politics as a protege of French President Georges
Pompidou; he subsequently became a close political ally of Jacques Chirac, leader of the neo-Gaullist Rassemblement pour la republique (RPR), serving as finance minister in Chirac's cabinet from 1986 to 1988. As premier, Balladur implemented
stringent economic reforms, pursued a policy of industrial privatisation, and won concessions for France in the GATT trade agreement of December 1993. He is considered likely to be a candidate for the presidency in 1995.
-END-
-C-
1355
CAT
-A-
Ballard, J. G.
-T-
Ballard, J. G._^<N__^<N_James Graham Ballard, b. Nov. 15, 1930, is an English novelist whose work in science fiction has extended the boundaries of that genre's content, style, and imagery. Ballard was born to prosperous English parents residing
in Shanghai. His comfortable childhood was abruptly ended, however, when, after the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor in 1941, they interned enemy foreigners living in Shanghai, separating Ballard from his family. His recollections of the war years
provide the substance of his autobiographical novel, Empire of the Sun (1984; film 1987). The visual motifs in that work--objects in landscapes of desolation that hint at events of cruelty and horror--are also found in much of his earlier
fiction. Ballard thinks of them as "psychological landscapes," externalizations, perhaps, of the collective psyche of industrialized humanity. Among Ballard's most successful science fiction novels are The Drowned World (1962), The Crystal World
(1966), The Atrocity Exhibition (1970), Concrete Island (1974), and The Day of Creation (1988). War Fever, a collection of stories, was published in 1991. The Kindness of Women, a sequel to Empire of the Sun, was published in 1993.
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Brigg, Peter, J. G. Ballard (1985); Pringle, David, Earth is the Alien Planet: J. G. Ballard's Four-Dimensional Nightmare (1979).
-END-
-C-
29147
CATO
4786
9628
14461
19205
23909
28665
-A-
ballet
-O-
000000|ballet
000818| BALLET HISTORY
001781| French Court Ballets
003009| Emergence of Professional Ballet
004443| Romantic Ballet
006999| Russian Ballet
008227| Fokine and Diaghilev
010484| CONTEMPORARY BALLET
012669| Ballet in North America
015832| GLOSSARY OF BALLET TERMS
-T-
ballet_^<N__^<N_{bal-lay'} _^<N__^<N_Ballet is a formalized type of dancing in which the performers, through planned movement to accompanying music, present a story or develop an abstract concept. It is an elaborated form of lyric theater, and its
history is a 400-year record of invention and performance. Like opera, with whose history it frequently intermingles, ballet is a tradition European in origin and Renaissance in its ideal of harmonious collaboration between artists--dancers,
mimes, choreographers, musicians, and designers of costumes and decor. Since World War II, ballet has achieved a renaissance of its own throughout the world with the establishment of national companies, or private companies with national
identities, supported variously by government subsidy, philanthropic funding, and burgeoning public enthusiasm. _^<N__^<N_ BALLET HISTORY_^<N__^<N_The roots of ballet are in the public celebrations--parades, masques, pageants, and equestrian
demonstrations--of Italy and France in the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries. In Italy the impulse toward dramatic representation resulted in the balletto--from ballo ("dance") and ballare ("to dance")--an enormous spectacle lasting hours (or even
days) and utilizing dance, recited poetry, song, and elaborate scenic effects, all organized around an allegorical plot and with the masked and richly costumed men and boys of the local court taking the principal roles. The spectacles were
presented in large halls or on tennis courts. (Modern theaters as such were not built until the late 16th century.) The audience for this matrix for ballet and opera was the courtiers, who themselves employed dancing masters for instruction in
social skills and for mounting amateur theatricals. In 1460, Domenico da Piacenza wrote one of the first dance manuals. _^<N__^<N_ French Court Ballets_^<N__^<N_When Henry II of France married Catherine de Medicis, in 1533, she imported the
Italian balletto to her new home in France, where it became the ballet. In 1573, she staged Ballet des Polonais to music of Roland de LASSUS, the poetry of Pierre de RONSARD, and the dances of Balthazar de BEAUJOYEUX. Beaujoyeux's most famous work
was Ballet Comique de la Reine, presented in 1581. _^<N__^<N_Louis XIV, patron of the arts and himself a dancer in court ballets (ballets de cour), founded L'ACADEMIE ROYALE DE DANSE in 1661, which brought this form to a culmination. His dancing
master, Pierre Beauchamps, codified the positions of the feet in classical ballet technique (the danse d'ecole) and invented many ballets, divertissements, and comedies-ballets (a spoken comedy with dance scenes interspersed) in collaboration with
MOLIERE and the composer Jean Baptiste LULLY. Le Triomphe de l'Amour (1681) was the masterpiece of Beauchamps and Lully; in it appeared LaFontaine, the first woman to dance professionally in a ballet. The French love of la danse found a home at
the Paris Opera, and the terminology for ballet technique was henceforth in the French language (see the accompanying Glossary of Ballet Terms). _^<N__^<N_ Emergence of Professional Ballet_^<N__^<N_In the early 18th century, ballet became a
profession, with schools, theaters, paid performers, and rival aesthetic movements. Two French dancers, Marie Salle and Marie CAMARGO, achieved fame through their reforms of stage dress and their refinements in dance technique. The most
distinguished composer of ballet music of the time was Jean Philippe RAMEAU. The dominant progressive style of dance theater in the century was the ballet d'action, an attempt to unify the spectacle around clear narrative indicated in heroic mime
and dance. No present-day equivalent to such a style exists, except perhaps in some of the dance-mimes of Mikhail FOKINE. The choreographers John Weaver of England, Franz Hilverding of Vienna, Gaspardo Angiolini of Italy, and Jean Georges NOVERRE
of France spread the form throughout Europe and into Russia. Noverre alone created 150 ballets and worked in England, Austria, Italy, and Germany; his Letters on the Dance (1760) are still read today. The new narrative realism of stage action
finally banished masks, and costumes began to suggest period style. Testifying to the international dynasties of dancers now possible, the Italian dancer and dancing master Gaetano Vestris (see VESTRIS family) fathered Auguste Vestris in Paris in
1760, and the son danced at the Paris Opera for almost four decades as the "god of the dance," a title inherited from his father. _^<N__^<N_ Romantic Ballet_^<N__^<N_At the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century ballet began to
produce works still revived in the present time and thus capable of direct experience. The French ballet La Fille Mal Gardee (1789) is the oldest regularly performed work in current world repertoire. Choreographed by Jean DAUBERVAL, the ballet
used peasant characters and occasional rustic dances, thereby prefiguring the style of the French romantic ballet of the 1830s and '40s. The technical reforms that resulted in the romantic movement were achieved by the Italian ballet masters
Salvatore VIGANO and Carlo BLASIS, and by the Frenchman Charles Didelot, who encouraged the use of pointe technique in "toe shoes" (shoes with blocked toes) for women. _^<N__^<N_The romantic ballet announced itself in Filippo Taglioni's La Sylphide
(1832), a ballet for his daughter, Marie Taglioni (see TAGLIONI family). The supernatural subject was expressed through the long, calf-length tutu of the sylphs' costume as well as by dancers "flown" by means of wires and pulleys. More
importantly, La Sylphide marked an advance in dance technique for the simulation of an "unearthly" floating continuity in the dance movement. The work allowed some pointwork for Taglioni, and its choreography featured reactive effects for the
corps de ballet and waltzlike partnering and adagio passages for the leads. In this ballet and in Adolphe ADAM's Giselle (1841) the modern idea of the ballerina was born, not only in her sheer authority but in her mastery of dance discourse.
Carlotta GRISI was the first Giselle; her dances were choreographed by Jules PERROT, who is known as well for the Pas de Quatre (1845), a dance divertissement choreographed for Taglioni, Fanny CERRITO, Grisi, and Lucile GRAHN, the four reigning
ballerinas of their age. French ballet music reached a peak of expression in the ballets composed by Leo DELIBES: Coppelia (1870), choreographed by Arthur SAINT-LEON, and Sylvia (1876), choreographed by Louis Merante. _^<N__^<N_In addition to the
French, the other major--although little known at the time--European school of ballet was the Danish under the direction of August BOURNONVILLE, a pupil of Auguste Vestris. Bournonville's version of La Sylphide (1836) is still performed today.
The legacy of Bournonville, especially his French-derived technical emphasis on buoyancy and unexpected movement transitions, still awaits full absorption into international ballet language. Bournonville's many works include The Conservatory,
Napoli, and The Guards at Amager. _^<N__^<N_ Russian Ballet_^<N__^<N_In Russia, the tsars' rapt imitation of European court manners included the importation of dancing masters, choreographers, and dancers throughout the 18th century. The French
ballet master Didelot and the Swedish teacher Christian Johansson brought their art to St. Petersburg (now Leningrad). The great achievement of establishing a Russian classical school of dance, however, was the work of a Frenchman, Marius PETIPA,
the chief ballet master of the Imperial School and the Maryinsky (now Kirov) Ballet from 1869 to 1903. His many ballets (at least 60 full-length) form the Western idea of Russian theatrical art, especially those ballets set to the music of Peter
Ilich TCHAIKOVSKY, The Sleeping Beauty (1890), and Swan Lake (first perf. 1877; Petipa version 1895). Petipa was assisted by Lev IVANOV, and together their corps de ballet experiments, sophistication of pointe technique, and clear
differentiation between classical and character dance styles remain as definitive of ballet. Ivanov choreographed The Nutcracker to Tchaikovsky's score and to Petipa's scenario in 1892. Perhaps the best loved of all ballets, The Nutcracker is
believed to be the most frequently staged ballet in history. _^<N__^<N_ Fokine and Diaghilev_^<N__^<N_The beginnings of American theatrical dance proved influential on Russian ballet through the work of Isadora DUNCAN as dancer and choreographer in
the first years of the 20th century. Performing to serious concert scores not intended for dance and wearing light "Greek" costumes, Duncan revolted against the declining French ballet and its European and American progeny, declaring the birth of a
"free dance" that her barefoot style was to herald. Her immediate influence was less on American choreographers--Ruth ST. DENIS, Martha GRAHAM, or Doris HUMPHREY--than on the Russian choreographer Mikhail Fokine. As chief choreographer for the
impresario Serge DIAGHILEV, Fokine conquered Paris and all Europe when the BALLETS RUSSES DE SERGE DIAGHILEV opened in the French capital in 1909. For the next 20 years Diaghilev's company ruled world ballet. The greatest of his choreographers
was Fokine, whose Petrushka (1911) combined the music of Igor STRAVINSKY, the decor of Aleksandr BENOIS, and the dancing of Vaslav NIJINSKY (the new "god of the dance"), Tamara KARSAVINA, and Enrico Cecchetti. Fokine's mastery of plastic values
and his effects of dance-mime created a new theatrical style. His ballets include Les Sylphides (1909; orig. Chopiniana, 1907), Le Pavillon d' Armide (1907), Le Carnaval (1910), and L'Oiseau de Feu (Firebird, 1910). Numerous dancers were
associated with the Diaghilev company: Adolf Bolm, Alexandra DANILOVA, Anton DOLIN, Alicia MARKOVA, and Olga SPESSIVTSEVA. The Russian ballerina Anna PAVLOVA danced only briefly with Diaghilev's company; with her own troupe she traveled
throughout the world educating audiences in classical dance. _^<N__^<N_From the Diaghilev period a tradition of great collaboration was born. Such world-famous choreographers as Vaslav Nijinsky, his sister Bronislava NIJINSKA, Leonid MASSINE, and
George BALANCHINE were all sponsored by Diaghilev. Splendid scenic contributions were made by Benois, Leon BAKST, Michel LARIONOV, and Natalia GONCHAROVA, as well as by artists of the modern French school, including Fernand LEGER, Georges BRAQUE,
Pablo PICASSO, and Henri MATISSE. The greatest ballet composer of this century, Stravinsky, began his career with the Ballets Russes. _^<N__^<N_ CONTEMPORARY BALLET_^<N__^<N_Following Diaghilev's death in 1929, various national ballet companies
were established, many of them by his former associates. The earliest to emerge (1932) was the BALLETS RUSSES DE MONTE CARLO, in the first of its several forms. The British school combined the teaching of Marie RAMBERT and the directorial skills
of Ninette de VALOIS. The resultant national company, the SADLER'S WELLS (later, ROYAL) BALLET, developed a great classical choreographer in Frederick ASHTON, whose many ballets--among them Les Patineurs (1937), Les Rendezvous (1933), Facade
(1931), Sylvia (1952), Birthday Offering (1956), and La Fille Mal Gardee (1960)--and favored ballerina, Margot FONTEYN, have achieved world acclaim. Recent British dancers of renown have been Antoinette SIBLEY, Lynn SEYMOUR, Anthony DOWELL, and
David Blair. The choreographer Kenneth MACMILLAN has produced such widely admired full-length ballets as Romeo and Juliet (1965), Anastasia (1971), and Manon (1974). _^<N__^<N_The French ballet has achieved no renaissance in the 20th century,
despite the efforts of such longtime Opera Ballet choreographers as Leo Staats and Serge LIFAR and other influential French choreographers, including Roland PETIT and Maurice BEJART. The ROYAL DANISH BALLET periodically retrenches itself around
its Bournonville reiches, and its academy continues to produce great male dancers. The STUTTGART BALLET, with a history dating from the 1600s gained new prominence under John CRANKO, who was its director (1961-73). The Hamburg Ballet is also
influential. The Russian schools associated with the BOLSHOI BALLET of Moscow and the Leningrad KIROV BALLET have produced such great performers as Galina ULANOVA, Maya PLISETSKAYA, Irina Kolpakova, and Vladimir Vasiliev, as well as the
sensational Kirov defectors to the West, Rudolf NUREYEV, Natalia MAKAROVA, and Mikhail BARYSHNIKOV. Soviet politics, however, have restrained conceptual innovation in choreography. The contributions of Aleksandr Gorsky, Fedor Lopukhov, and Leonid
Lavrovsky have been variously influential on choreography in the West, but Soviet thought has produced little dance of consequence in latter days. _^<N__^<N_ Ballet in North America_^<N__^<N_Canada has three major ballet companies, which also tour
the United States: Royal Winnipeg Ballet (1939) received its Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth II in 1953; NATIONAL BALLET OF CANADA (1951) is based in Toronto; Les Grands Ballets Canadiens (1956) makes its home in Montreal. _^<N__^<N_In the
United States, three companies dominate. The JOFFREY BALLET (1960) offers a museum repertoire of modern classics and occasional works by contemporary choreographers. AMERICAN BALLET THEATRE (1939) presents a repertoire of 19th-century classics
along with modern works by Jerome ROBBINS, Britain's Antony TUDOR, Eliot FELD, and Twyla THARP interpreted by a continually changing performance roster that has included such recent stars as Cynthia GREGORY, Gelsey KIRKLAND, Martine VAN HAMEL, and
the imported Russians Makarova, Nureyev, and Baryshnikov. _^<N__^<N_The largest ballet academy in the Western Hemisphere is the School of American Ballet, established in 1934 by Lincoln KIRSTEIN and choreographer George Balanchine and today the
official school of NEW YORK CITY BALLET. In a series of great modern works--Apollo (1928), Serenade (1934), The Four Temperaments (1946; revised 1951), Orpheus (1948), Agon (1957)--Balanchine has re-created the idea of dance classicism and ballet
technique. His collaborations with Stravinsky are models of sensitivity to musical values. The core of Balanchine's repertoire, including Concerto Barocco (1940), Ballet Imperial (1941; retitled Tchaikovsky Concerto #2), Symphony in C (1947, as
Palais de Cristal), Divertimento No. 15 (1956), Liebeslieder Walzer (1960), Jewels (1967), and Stravinsky Violin Concerto (1972; first version, Balustrade, 1941) has made him the most influential ballet choreographer in the second half of this
century. _^<N__^<N_A number of great dancers have associated with New York City Ballet, among them Diana Adams, Mikhail Baryshnikov, Jacques D'AMBOISE, Andre EGLEVSKY, Suzanne FARRELL, Melissa HAYDEN, Allegra KENT, Tanaquil LeClercq, Patricia
MCBRIDE, Peter MARTINS, Maria TALLCHIEF, and Edward VILLELLA. Arthur MITCHELL, also a principal dancer with the company, withdrew to found the first black classical ballet school and company, DANCE THEATRE OF HARLEM, following Martin Luther King's
assassination in 1968; the company made its auspicious debut two years later. _^<N__^<N_Ballet has recently become enormously popular outside New York City, although the oldest American company, the Atlanta Ballet, was founded in 1929. Among the
prestigious companies now presenting regular seasons are the Dayton Ballet (1937) in Ohio, the San Francisco Ballet (1938), the Tulsa Ballet (1956), the Boston Ballet (1963), the Minnesota Dance Theater (1962) in Minneapolis, the Houston Ballet
(1968), and the Pennsylvania and Milwaukee Ballet (merged 1987) in Philadelphia and Milwaukee. Ballet West, founded (1952) in Salt Lake City by the University of Utah, is the most notable of university-affiliated companies. _^<N__^<N_These groups,
and many professional ballet and dance schools in the United States, have become the source of fresh talent for ballet companies throughout the Western world. _^<N__^<N_Don Daniels _^<N__^<N_ GLOSSARY OF BALLET TERMS_^<N__^<N_Adagio: 1. A
sequence of exercises in slow tempo, performed in ballet class to develop strength in sustaining extensions and balances. 2. A passage in a pas de deux in which the man supports the woman in turns and balances. 3. The technique of partnering.
_^<N__^<N_Air, en l'--"In the air": May be used to describe steps performed with the working leg off the floor, for example, rond de jambe en l'air; or jumping steps, for example, tour en l'air. _^<N__^<N_Allegro: Sequences of steps in fast
tempo, performed in ballet class to develop speed and clarity of execution. _^<N__^<N_Arabesque: A position in which the dancer stands on one leg, straight or bent, with the other extended to the back, usually at right angles to the body, but
higher in arabesque penchee (leaning), when the dancer leans forward and raises the leg higher to follow the line of the torso. _^<N__^<N_Assemble: A jumping step in which the dancer thrusts one leg up and out to the front, side, or back, at the
same time springing off the other, and brings the legs together in the air before landing. _^<N__^<N_Attitude: A position originally derived from Giovanni da BOLOGNA's statue of Mercury, in which the dancer stands on one leg with the other extended
to the front or back and bent at the knee, which should be held at a higher level than the foot. _^<N__^<N_Ballabile: A group dance, usually for the corps de ballet. _^<N__^<N_Ballerina: Literally, "female dancer," but usually used of one who
dances leading roles, prima ballerina, first dancer. _^<N__^<N_Ballet master/mistress: Before the word choreographer was used in its contemporary sense, the ballet master was responsible for arranging ballets. Today, the term more usually denotes
the person who rehearses ballets created by someone else and also performs certain administrative duties such as drawing up rehearsal schedules; casting, of minor roles is often the province of the ballet master. _^<N__^<N_Ballon: Literally,
"bounce." The quality of smooth, springing ascent and descent in jumping steps, achieved primarily by the pliant use of the feet. _^<N__^<N_Barre: The horizontal wooden bar that runs around the wall of the ballet studio at waist height, and which
the dancer holds on to during the first part of class; by extension, this part of ballet class is also usually referred to as the barre. _^<N__^<N_Basque, saut de: A jumping step in which the working leg is raised to the side and the foot of the
other is drawn up to the knee of the working leg as the body turns in the air, landing in that position. _^<N__^<N_Battement: A generic term to describe the various movements in which the leg makes a beating motion. They are performed at the barre
in a systematic progression to exercise all the leg muscles: Battement tendu, in which the leg is extended to front, side, and back with the toe resting on the floor; battement tendu jete, in which the leg is extended to front, side, and back with
the toe leaving the floor very slightly (also called glisse or degage); battement frappe, in which the foot is sharply extended to front, side, and back from the ankle of the supporting leg; petit battement, in which the working foot beats from
front to back, or back to front, against the ankle of the supporting leg; battement fondu, in which the working leg is extended to front, side, or back, either to point tendu or in the air, from a position in which the working foot is pointed in
front or in back of the supporting ankle; both knees are bent at the beginning and straighten simultaneously; grand battement jete, in which the leg is lifted, straight, to front, side, and back, attaining waist level or higher; grand battement
developpe, in which the foot is drawn up to the knee of the standing leg and then extended to front, side, or back, until the leg is straight. _^<N__^<N_Batterie: A generic term referring to steps in which the feet beat together or cross in the
air, either as an embellishment to add brilliance to jumping steps, or as the essential characteristic of the step, as in entrechats or brises. _^<N__^<N_Bourree, pas de: A linking step in which the weight is transferred from one foot to the other
in three small steps. Pas de bourree chaine or couru is a series of small, even steps on pointe which give the impression that the dancer is gliding across the surface of the stage. _^<N__^<N_Brise, pas: Literally, "broken step." A small traveling
assemble embellished with a beat. _^<N__^<N_Brise vole: a series of brises to front and back alternately, landing on one foot, giving the impression that the dancer is skimming over the surface of the stage. _^<N__^<N_Cabriole: A jumping step in
which the dancer beats straight legs together in the air. _^<N__^<N_Changement de pieds: The dancer jumps straight up in the air with legs together and reverses the position of his feet before landing. _^<N__^<N_Chasse, pas: A linking step in which
the dancer slides one foot out to front, side, or back, bringing the other up to it in fifth position before continuing into the next movement. _^<N__^<N_Chat, pas de: Literally, "cat's step." A light, jumping step in which the knees bend, bringing
the feet together beneath the body before landing again in fifth position. _^<N__^<N_Coda: The fast final section of a pas de deux, in which the dancers may have brief solo passages as well as dancing together in a brilliant conclusion, as in the
"Bluebird" pas de deux of Tchaikovsky's Sleeping Beauty. _^<N__^<N_Corps de ballet: The ensemble of dancers in a ballet company, who appear in support of the soloists. _^<N__^<N_Coryphee: A dancer (of either sex) who has moved out of the corps de
ballet to dance minor solo roles. _^<N__^<N_Croise: Literally "crossed." A position of the body in which the dancer turns obliquely to the audience, so that when the working leg is raised, it crosses the supporting leg. _^<N__^<N_Developpe: See
grand battement developpe. _^<N__^<N_Divertissement: 1. A section of a ballet comprising dances that have no connection with the plot, for example, the fairy-tale dances in The Sleeping Beauty, Act III, or the "Peasant" pas de deux in Giselle,
Act I. 2. A short dance or excerpt from a longer ballet given as a separate item in a program. _^<N__^<N_Efface: A position of the body in which the dancer turns slightly away from the audience; the working leg is the one farther from the
audience. _^<N__^<N_Elevation: The ability to jump high in the air and give the impression of remaining suspended there for an instant. _^<N__^<N_Enchainement: A combination of steps into a dance phrase. _^<N__^<N_Entrechat: A vertical jump in
fifth position, with the feet changing in the air, twice (entrechat quatre), three times (entrechat six), four times (entrechat huit), and, exceptionally, five times (entrechat dix). The term entrechat deux is not used: when the feet beat once
and change this is called changement battu or royale. In all of these the dancer returns to fifth position. In entrechat trois, cinq, and sept the dancer lands on one foot with the other touching the supporting leg after one, two, or three beats.
_^<N__^<N_Epaulement: Literally, "shouldering." The slight turning of the shoulders, croise or efface, in relation to the head and legs, distinguishes the classic style, particularly of the Italian, Russian, and British Schools. In the old French
and the Danish Schools it is rarely used. _^<N__^<N_Fouette: Literally, "whipped." A turning step, usually done in a series, in which the working leg whips out to the side in a rond de jambe and then in to the knee as the dancer turns on the
supporting leg, rising on to the pointe at each revolution. The 32 fouettes performed by Odile in Swan Lake, Act III, are a supposed touchstone of female virtuosity. _^<N__^<N_Glissade: Literally, "sliding." A linking step in which the dancer moves
to the side, front, or back from fifth position to fourth or fifth position, with a moment of transition in which the feet should be fully stretched. _^<N__^<N_Jete: Literally, "thrown." A jump from one foot on to the other. It may be a small
jump, or large (grand jete), landing in a position such as arabesque or attitude. The jump may be beaten (battu) or done with a turn (en tournant). _^<N__^<N_Leotard: A one-piece garment covering the whole torso, with or without sleeves, worn with
tights for practice or, in many contemporary ballets, as a stage costume. Originally designed by the French acrobat Jules Leotard (1830-70). _^<N__^<N_Maitre or maitresse de ballet: See ballet master/mistress. _^<N__^<N_Pas: Literally, "step." The
technical terms for ballet steps often include the word pas, or sometimes temps (literally "time"), as in pas de chat or temps de poisson. Pas is also used in the sense of "dance," as in pas de deux/trois/quatre (dance for two, three, four people)
or more, or as in pas de l'ombre (dance of the shadow) from Ondine, or pas des patineurs (dance of the skaters). Pas d'action signifies a sequence in a ballet in which the narrative is carried forward by means of dancing, as in the so-called Rose
Adagio in Act I of The Sleeping Beauty. _^<N__^<N_Pirouette: A complete turn of the body performed on one leg; the working leg may be placed against the ankle or drawn up to the knee of the supporting leg, or extended to the side or to the back, in
arabesque or attitude. _^<N__^<N_Plie: Literally, a "bending." The first exercises done in every class to loosen the muscles, the foundation of the dancer's technique. The dancer stands erect at the barre and slowly bends the knees, keeping them
in line with the turned-out feet. Plies are practiced in all five positions. Nearly every step begins and ends in demi-plie (half-), giving impetus to a jump and cushioning a landing. _^<N__^<N_Pointe: The tip of the toe. Women, and infrequently
men, dance sur les pointes in blocked shoes. The introduction of this technique in the early 19th century made possible the development of female virtuosity, with such feats as multiple fouettes and sustained balances on one leg. Demi-pointe is
when the dancer stands with the toes spread flat on the floor and the rest of the foot raised (releve) from the metatarsal. _^<N__^<N_Port de bras: Literally, "carriage of the arms." Used in this general sense, and also to denote exercises designed
to develop the graceful and harmonious use of the arms. For instance, when a dancer, at the barre, bends the whole torso forward and back, this exercise is called port de bras even though its correct execution involves the entire body. There are
positions of the arms corresponding to positions of the feet. _^<N__^<N_Positions: There are five basic positions of the feet in which all steps in classic ballet begin and end, with the legs turned out from the pelvis: First position: heels
touching, feet in a straight line; Second position: feet wide apart, in a straight line; Third position: one foot in front of the other, and heel against the instep; Fourth position: feet apart, one in front of the other, opposite fifth;
Fifth position: one foot in front of the other, the heel against the joint of the big toe. _^<N__^<N_Releve: Literally, "lifted." The raising of the body on to half or full pointe. _^<N__^<N_Rond de jambe: Literally, "circle of the leg." The
working leg describes a circle either on the floor (a terre) or in the air (en l'air). _^<N__^<N_Sissonne: A jump from both feet on to one foot with the working leg opening to the side, front, or back in a scissor-like motion. May be performed
with a beat. _^<N__^<N_Tour: A complete turn of the body. See pirouette. Tour en l'air, a turn in the air, executed as the dancer jumps up vertically. Male dancers are expected to perform double tours en l'air, and some are capable of triples.
Rarely performed by women. _^<N__^<N_Tournant, en: Literally, "turning." Many steps may be performed, either singly or in series, while the dancer makes a revolution of the body or describes a circle on the floor. _^<N__^<N_Turn-out (French: en
dehors.): The turning out of the legs from the pelvis, essential for speed, flexibility, elegance, and the ability to move in any direction. _^<N__^<N_Tutu: Ballet skirt, either calf-length as in romantic ballets (as in Les Sylphides) or
projecting straight out at hip level as in classic ballets (as in Swan Lake), with many layers of ruffles underneath. The term tutu is actually a slang word referring to the latter part of the costume, or rather to the part of the anatomy it
conceals. _^<N__^<N_Variation: Solo dance. _^<N__^<N_David Vaughan _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Anderson, Jack, Ballet and Modern Dance: A Concise History (1986); Balanchine, George, and Mason, Francis, Balanchine's Book of Ballets (1977); Beaumont,
Cyril, Complete Book of Ballets (1949); Benois, Aleksandr, Memoirs, 2 vols., trans. by Moura Budberg (1960); Chujoy, Anatole, and Manchester, P. W., The Dance Encyclopedia (1967); Clarke, Mary, and Vaughan, David, eds., The Encyclopedia of
Dance & Ballet (1977); Cooper, Douglas, Picasso Theatre (1968); Croce, Arlene, Afterimages (1977); Denby, Edwin, Looking at the Dance (1949; repr. 1968); Guest, Ivor, The Romantic Ballet in Paris (1966); Karsavina, Tamara, Theatre Street
(1961); Kirstein, Lincoln, Dance (1969) and Movement and Metaphor (1970); Koegler, Horst, The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Ballet, 2d ed. (1982); Noverre, Jean Georges, Letters on Dancing and Ballets, trans. by Cyril Beaumont (1966);
Roslavleva, Natalia, Era of the Russian Ballet (1966); Stravinsky, Vera, and Craft, Robert, Stravinsky in Pictures and Documents (1979). _^<N__^<N_See also: CHOREOGRAPHY; DANCE; FOLK DANCE; MUSICAL COMEDY; OPERA; THEATER ARCHITECTURE AND
STAGING.
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Ballets Jooss:
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Ballets Jooss:_^<N__^<N_see JOOSS, KURT.
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Ballets Russes de Monte Carlo
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Ballets Russes de Monte Carlo_^<N__^<N_{bah-lay roos' duh mahn'-tay kahr'-loh} _^<N__^<N_Ballets Russes de Monte Carlo, an outgrowth of the great BALLETS RUSSES DE SERGE DIAGHILEV, was created in 1931, two years after the death of DIAGHILEV. The
new company included the best dancers and choreographers from the parent company, such as Leonid MASSINE, George BALANCHINE (until 1933), Andre EGLEVSKY, Alexandra DANILOVA, and Tamara TOUMANOVA, under the joint directorship of Rene Blum and
Colonel W. de Basil. It opened to great acclaim at Monte Carlo in 1932; a three-week London season in 1933 proved so successful that it was extended to four months. The same year Ballets Russes made its New York debut, followed by an extensive
American tour. This sequence--opening in Monte Carlo, followed by tours to London and the United States--was followed until 1936, when the company split into two factions, one headed by Blum and the other by de Basil. By 1938 dissension led to
litigation between the two; Blum's company emerged as the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo. Its rival, called by de Basil the Original Ballet Russe, never achieved stability and died of financial starvation after a decade of unsuccessful world tours.
_^<N__^<N_Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo, on the other hand, achieved triumphant success immediately under the leadership of Blum and Massine. For its first American tour in 1938, the dancers Alicia MARKOVA, Igor YOUSKEVITCH, Frederic FRANKLIN, and
Serge LIFAR, among others, joined the company. The outbreak of World War II in 1939 forced the company to remain in the United States where, headquartered in New York, it continued to tour. Blum was seized by the Gestapo in Paris and died at
Auschwitz in 1942. By 1948, when Ballet Russe celebrated its tenth anniversary in the United States with a gala performance at New York's Old Metropolitan Opera House, it had made itself a nonprofit foundation, one that long maintained an office
to oversee its remaining assets after its dissolution. It gave its final New York season in 1957, with Alicia ALONSO and Youskevitch as guest artists. Although the company toured occasionally until it was dissolved in 1962, its days as a major
force in ballet history were over long before then. Ballet Russe is remembered for maintaining the Diaghilev tradition and enhancing it and for preparing Western audiences for the unprecedented growth of their own national companies after 1950.
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Anderson, Jack, The One and Only: The Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo (1981); Clarke, Mary, and Crisp, Clement, Ballet: An Illustrated History (1978); Franks, Arthur, Twentieth Century Ballet (1954; repr. 1972); Garafola,
Lynn, Diaghilev's Ballets Russes (1989); Haskell, Arnold, Balletomania: Then and Now (1977); Lawson, Joan, A., History of Ballet and Its Makers (1972); Lieven, Peter, The Birth of Ballets-Russes, trans. by L. Zarine (1973); Walker, Katherine S.,
De Basil's Ballets Russes (1983).
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Ballets Russes de Serge Diaghilev
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Ballets Russes de Serge Diaghilev_^<N__^<N_{bah-lay roos duh sir-gay' dee-ah'-gil-yif} _^<N__^<N_A ballet company that became legendary in its own time for its brilliant synthesis of dance, decor, and music, the Ballets Russes de Serge Diaghilev,
founded in 1909 by the impresario DIAGHILEV, revolutionized and revitalized BALLET by departing from the romantic style of such full-length ballets as Adolphe ADAM's Giselle to create shorter, more novel ballets, such as l'Apres-midi d'un faune
(AFTERNOON OF A FAUN), in a modern, expressive style. When the company opened in Paris at the Theatre du Chatelet on May 19, 1909, the era of modern ballet began. _^<N__^<N_Called the "Diaghilev Miracle" when it burst upon the European scene, the
Ballets Russes was a unique combination of such luminaries as Vaslav NIJINSKY, Anna PAVLOVA, and Tamara KARSAVINA, the dancer-choreographer Mikhail FOKINE, the composer Igor STRAVINSKY, and the designers Aleksandr BENOIS, Leon BAKST, and Nikolai
ROERICH. Together under Diaghilev these artists transformed ballet into a new form, a vivid combination of movement, sound, passion, fantasy, and color. _^<N__^<N_Despite the company's name, it never performed as a group in Russia, although it did
tour the Continent, England, and the United States. But the artistic unity of the troupe's first Paris production, Le Pavillon d'Armide (Armida's Pavilion), created an immediate sensation and began a string of artistic triumphs that would last 20
years. Pavlova (who was a member of the troupe only for the first season) and Fokine danced the lead roles, and Nijinsky created a furor in the smaller virtuoso role of Armida's princely slave. The first season included the "Polovtsian Dances"
from Aleksandr BORODIN's opera Prince Igor, and Le Festin (The Banquet) to Mikhail GLINKA's music. _^<N__^<N_Sheherazade (to Nikolai RIMSKY-KORSAKOV's score) and The Firebird (with Stravinsky's music and Fokine's choreography) both premiered in
1910 and are typical of the early Ballets Russes style. Based on the first story from A Thousand and One Nights, Sheherazade highlighted Diaghilev's preference for exotic themes and colorful fairy-tale settings and costumes. Bakst's designs, and
the ballet, were an escape into a febrile world of sensuality and fantasy. The Firebird, derived from Russian fairy tales, continued in the same quasi-Oriental vein, but added Stravinsky's brilliantly dissonant score. _^<N__^<N_Petrushka (1911),
another Stravinsky-Fokine collaboration, was a success, particularly in Nijinsky's interpretation of the title role. But one of the greatest uproars in modern theater history occurred two years later at the premiere of Le Sacre du printemps (The
Rite of Spring), which represented a primitive fertility rite ending with a human sacrifice set to Stravinsky's wild and searing music, with Roerich's strange designs and Nijinsky's highly controversial choreography. The audience, violently
divided in opinion, rioted and almost halted the performance, which concluded with the arrival of the police, according to some accounts. _^<N__^<N_After 1913, the Ballets Russes moved in another direction, less Russian and more French, with new
dancers and designers; nevertheless, it continued to experiment. Its production of Parade (1917), half-danced and halfpantomimed, had a scenario by Jean COCTEAU and was choreographed by Leonid MASSINE. Parade became a major influence on postwar
French productions, largely because of Pablo PICASSO's cubist settings and costumes and Erik SATIE's score, a collage of sounds incorporating typewriters and street noises with instrumental music. Other French artists providing decor and costumes
for the company included Andre DERAIN, Georges BRAQUE, Henri MATISSE, and Georges ROUAULT. _^<N__^<N_During the 1920s Nijinsky's sister, Bronislava NIJINSKA, became an important choreographer for the troupe, and in 1925 George BALANCHINE was
appointed chief choreographer. For Serge LIFAR, the last of the great male dancers, after Nijinsky and Massine, to be discovered by Diaghilev, Balanchine created both Apollo (1928) and The Prodigal Son (1929), two of his most important works.
_^<N__^<N_The company was frequently on the verge of bankruptcy, but during the two decades of its existence, until Diaghilev's death in 1929, about 68 ballets were presented. The company did not have a school, but many dancers and choreographers
later joined the BALLETS RUSSES DE MONTE CARLO, founded in 1931 to succeed the Ballets Russes de Serge Diaghilev, while others such as Balanchine and Ninette de VALOIS went on to found their own companies. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Kochno, Boris,
Diaghilev and the Ballets Russes (1970); Macdonald, Nesta, Diaghilev Observed (1975); Spencer, Charles, and Dyer, Philip, The World of Serge Diaghilev (1974).
-END-
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979
CAT
-A-
Ballinger, Richard A.
-T-
Ballinger, Richard A._^<N__^<N_Richard Achilles Ballinger, b. Boonesboro, Iowa, July 9, 1858, d. June 6, 1922, U.S. secretary of the interior (1909-11) under President William H. TAFT, became the focus of attacks upon Taft's conservation
policies. An expert in mining law, he served (1907-08) as commissioner of the General Land Office. As interior secretary, Ballinger in 1909 fired a subordinate who had accused him of impeding investigation of allegedly fraudulent Alaskan coal-land
claims. He was denounced by Forestry Bureau chief Gifford PINCHOT and others who felt Taft was betraying former president Theodore ROOSEVELT's conservationist policies. A joint congressional committee cleared Ballinger of wrongdoing, but he
resigned in March 1911. The controversy helped create the split in the Republican party that led to the formation of the BULL MOOSE PARTY in 1912. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Penick, J. L., Progressive Politics and Conservation: The
Ballinger-Pinchot Affair (1968).
-END-
-C-
1708
CAT
-A-
ballistic missile
-T-
ballistic missile_^<N__^<N_A ballistic missile is a type of self-propelled weapon. It is termed unguided because after its rocket motor burns out in flight, the subsequent trajectory (called a ballistic trajectory) is determined by gravity. A
weapon of considerable sophistication, it is able to reach remote targets with a high degree of accuracy. _^<N__^<N_The initial acceleration imparted to such a missile may be controlled by varying the amount and duration of thrust applied by the
rocket motors. The direction of thrust may also be varied by means of deflectors or by nozzle steering to control the missile's orientation and attitude. After the rocket motors have burned out, further corrections to the trajectory can be made
by small thruster motors under the control of the missile guidance system. The guidance is usually based upon inertial navigation techniques. (See GUIDANCE AND CONTROL SYSTEMS.) _^<N__^<N_The booster stages of the propulsion motor separate one by
one from the main missile, either at burnout or at a predetermined instant, leaving the payload--the warhead, guidance package, and other subsystems--to continue to the target in the reentry vehicle. This vehicle may be equipped with some form of
terminal guidance to increase accuracy in the final phase of the trajectory. Multiple warheads, or MRVS, may be carried. _^<N__^<N_Categories of ballistic missiles include the ICBM (Intercontinental Ballistic Missile), SLBM (Submarine-Launched
Ballistic Missile), IRBM (Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile), and the Tactical Ballistic Missile. _^<N__^<N_R. T. Pretty _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Jane's Weapon System (annual); Taylor, Michael H., Missiles of the World, 3d ed. (1980).
_^<N__^<N_See also: MIRV MISSILE; ROCKETS AND MISSILES.
-END-
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50
CAT
-A-
Ballistic Missile Early Warning System:
-T-
Ballistic Missile Early Warning System:_^<N__^<N_see BMEWS.
-END-
-C-
17365
CATO
4813
9595
14406
-A-
ballistics
-O-
000000|ballistics
000658| DEVELOPMENT OF BALLISTIC THEORY
003615| INTERIOR BALLISTICS
004317| Guns
005056| Rockets
006656| EXTERIOR BALLISTICS
007162| Trajectory in a Vacuum
008008| Drag
012355| Projectile Stability
013910| TERMINAL BALLISTICS
014533| Impact Studies
016113| Detonation and Fragmentation
-T-
ballistics_^<N__^<N_Ballistics is the science that studies the propulsion, motion, and destructive action of projectiles, chiefly missile weapons such as bullets, ARTILLERY shells, BOMBS, rockets, guided missiles, and military satellites (see
ROCKETS AND MISSILES and SATELLITES, ARTIFICIAL). The theory and techniques of ballistics have broad applications to technology--including the formation of metal parts by explosion, and the development of cartridge-actuated devices for industry and
of heat shields and aluminum bumpers for spacecraft. Ballistics is also applicable to scientific research in fields such as geophysics, geodesy, meteoritics, and planetary exploration. _^<N__^<N_ DEVELOPMENT OF BALLISTIC THEORY_^<N__^<N_The first
systematic treatment of the ballistics of gunnery was given by the Italian Niccolo Fontana, better known to historians of science as TARTAGLIA, in his Nuova scienzia, which was published in 1537. A professional military engineer, Tartaglia served
as a consultant on scientific problems to the rulers of several principalities. The master of ordnance at the castle of Verona suggested that he consider what angular elevation of a gun barrel would yield the greatest range for a shot. Tartaglia
found that an elevation of one-half of a right angle--in traditional measure, 45 deg--was the inclination required. _^<N__^<N_The theory of exterior ballistics was rapidly developed early in the 18th century, after the principles of dynamics and
the methods of the calculus had been established by Galileo, Newton, and Leibniz. But this important work in theory was largely an exercise in pure mathematics that had no immediate effect on practical gunnery, because no acceptably accurate way
existed to measure the muzzle velocity of any firearm. Such a method was first suggested by the astronomer CASSINI in 1707; the instrument itself, the ballistic pendulum, was invented by the Englishman Benjamin Robins in 1740. In this device, a
large pendulum bob is suspended from a tripod. A bullet of small mass is fired into the bob, causing a swing of large amplitude that can be carefully measured. The velocity of the striking bullet can be determined from the known masses of the
bullet and bob and the amplitude of the swing, using the basic laws of physics. _^<N__^<N_Drawing on his own experience and the writings of others as far back as Leonardo da Vinci, Robins suggested some useful directions for research and
development in gun and projectile design. Noting that large quantities of gas escaped past round shot in the smooth-bore weapons of this time, he proposed the use of breech-loading weapons (loaded at the rear of the bore) with rifled barrels
(containing spiral grooves), and elongated projectiles of close fit in the bore. He described these design proposals in his New Principles of Gunnery; they were gradually incorporated into ordnance-engineering practice during the 19th century. A
breech-loading infantry rifle, the needle gun, so called because of its long, sharp firing pin, was invented by Johann Dreyse and issued to some Prussian regiments in 1841. A serviceable breech-loading artillery rifle was developed by Major Cavalli
of Sardinia in 1845. Pointed cylindrical projectiles became standard issue for both small arms and artillery. Bullets were made of soft metal so they could be seated at the base of the rifling in small arms, and copper rotating bands were added
near the base of artillery shells. By these means, the gases produced by the burning powder were retained behind the projectiles, which were induced to spin as their seating grooves were forced forward along the helical curve of the rifling.
_^<N__^<N_ INTERIOR BALLISTICS_^<N__^<N_Interior ballistics is the study of the propulsion of projectiles by forces derived from the expansion of gases burning within a gun or rocket motor. Although the burning proceeds by similar stages in a gun
and in a solid-propellant rocket, the pressures developed within a closed gun breech are much higher than those in a nozzled rocket motor; therefore, the metal parts of a gun system--the chamber, barrel, and recoil mechanism--are more complicated
and must be much stronger than those of a nearly recoilless rocket launcher. In addition, motion is imparted in quite different ways to projectiles fired from guns and to missiles carrying both warheads and gas-reaction motors. _^<N__^<N_
Guns_^<N__^<N_During the early development of the interior ballistics of guns, the muzzle velocity and the maximum pressure of the gas in the chamber were considered the two most important physical variables to predict and measure. These quantities
were found to be functions of given firing conditions, usually the known characteristics of projectile, charge, and gun. Four physical principles--governing the transformation of energy, the rate of change of projectile momentum, the linear buring
rate, and the granulation geometry--suffice for a solution of the problem of computing projectile travel, speed, and chamber pressure as functions of time. These quantities may then be used for comparison with data obtained from experimental
firings. _^<N__^<N_ Rockets_^<N__^<N_Rocket propellants may be either solid or liquid; if solid, the propellant should contain all the materials needed to maintain steady combustion; if liquid, the fuel and the oxidizer are kept in separate
containers and come in contact only in the motor chamber. In either case, the process must be stringently controlled; a good pressure-time curve for a rocket is roughly trapezoidal, rising steadily to a plateau that is maintained during thrust and
dropping rapidly at burnout. The mechanical strength of the chamber should not greatly exceed the maximum chamber pressure that can occur in practice, since the extra wall-mass can reduce acceleration. _^<N__^<N_The shape of the nozzle or nozzles
is a critical feature in the design of rockets. The contour chosen for the longitudinal section should steadily increase the speed of the gas into the throat, where it may flow at the speed of sound; beyond this point, the gas pressure declines and
its speed increases. _^<N__^<N_If gravity and air-drag are ignored, the motion of a rocket can be calculated by using an equation derived directly from Newton's second law of motion. This equation suggests that high-velocity rockets should permit
exhaust gases to escape at high speeds and should carry a mass of propellant that is large in comparison to the mass of the rest of the rocket. _^<N__^<N_A high initial propellant temperature will increase the chamber pressure in a rocket, which
will in turn increase the thrust. However, too high propellant temperature will cause burnout to occur quickly and will have no substantial effect on the final speed of the rocket. _^<N__^<N_ EXTERIOR BALLISTICS_^<N__^<N_Exterior ballistics, in the
classical sense, deals with the flight of projectiles moving under the influence of gravitational and aerodynamic forces. The study of certain types of projectile, however, may require that forces not treated in the classical theory of the subject
be considered. Guided missiles, for example, may be acted upon by corrective forces, such as motor thrust or aerodynamic lift due to fin movement, when their trajectories depart from prescribed paths in space. _^<N__^<N_ Trajectory in a
Vacuum_^<N__^<N_Galileo found that the path of a cannonball rolled off the end of a plank was the descending branch of a parabola, similar to the trajectory of a very heavy modern bomb dropped from an aircraft in horizontal flight. The trajectory
of a projectile fired in a vacuum from an inclined gun barrel would include both the ascending and the descending branches of a parabola. _^<N__^<N_Galileo assumed--incorrectly, because he was unaware of a small angle called the jump--that the
elevation of the initial tangent to the trajectory was equal to the quadrant elevation of the bore. From his range-elevation relation he found, as Tartaglia had, that the maximum range was obtained when the elevation was 45 deg. He also found "that
of other shots, those which exceed or fall short of forty-five degrees by equal amounts, have equal ranges." _^<N__^<N_ Drag_^<N__^<N_Galileo and Newton were both greatly interested in the force called air resistance, now usually called aerodynamic
drag, which reduces the speed of a projectile. Galileo had compared the times of fall of oak and lead balls dropped from heights of "150 or 200 cubits" and found small but definite differences in their times of descent. He concluded that the
deceleration due to drag varied with the projectile's shape, increased with its speed, and decreased with its density--more accurately, this should have been the modern sectional density, or mass divided by diameter squared. By dropping pellets
from different altitudes, Newton found that the drag was apparently proportional to the square of the velocity of the projectile. He was aware that what is now called the drag coefficient depended upon the projectile's shape, but he regarded it as
constant with respect to other variables. _^<N__^<N_The first determinations of the drag of projectiles in flight were made by Benjamin Robins, using the ballistic pendulum. He found that the average value of drag-induced deceleration was about 80
times the acceleration of gravity. This demonstration amply established the importance of drag as a force affecting the motion of projectiles. _^<N__^<N_Robins next undertook to determine drag as a function of speed. He obtained data approximately
in accord with the Newtonian square law up to speeds of about 275 m/sec (900 ft/sec), but beyond this point he found great differences between his experimental results and those predicted by Newton's law. Robins, who made measurements up to speeds
of about 520 m/sec (1,700 ft/sec), did not fully understand the significance of the differences between his measurements and Newton's predictions. It is now known that these differences chiefly result from the augmentation of the drag caused by the
bow wave that forms at the head of a projectile moving at a speed near that of sound because of the compressibility of the air. In modern terms, the effects of the compressibility of the air are expressed through dependence of the dimensionless
aerodynamic coefficients upon the MACH NUMBER, which is the ratio of the speed of the projectile to the speed of sound. _^<N__^<N_The drag of a projectile moving head on is now usually divided into three parts: bow resistance, due to air pressure
at the head of the projectile; skin friction, caused by the friction of air moving along the middle portion of the body; and base drag, due to the under-pressure and disturbance of the air behind the base. At speeds slightly greater than that of
sound, head drag can be diminished by a sharp, extended point; skin friction by a smooth, somewhat streamlined body; and base drag by a boattail. At Mach numbers of about 3, projectiles with slender, sharply pointed heads and boattails have about
half the drag of more obtusely coned, square-based projectiles of the same diameter. _^<N__^<N_The equations of motion of a particle acted upon by aerodynamic drag and terrestrial gravity can be written by using Newton's second law of motion. In
the early 18th century, Johann Bernoulli of Switzerland examined the problem of a particle moving under the influence of gravity and drag proportional to the nth power of the velocity. He changed the equations of motion by substituting, for time,
the angle of inclination of the tangent to the trajectory as the independent variable. The Bernoulli solution, obtained in 1719, was widely employed to compute trajectories during the 19th century and continues to have some application for the
motion of projectiles fired at low velocities. _^<N__^<N_Leonhard EULER of Switzerland was the first major writer on ballistics whose work was presented in analytical rather than geometrical form. In the mid-18th century he wrote equations of
motion for a particle projectile and devised approximate methods of solving them that have been used repeatedly by later writers. A somewhat more convenient method was devised by James GREGORY about the same time and served as the basis for the
important method for computing trajectories developed by American astronomer F. R. Moulton during World War I. _^<N__^<N_At sufficiently great altitudes and ranges, exterior ballistics merges with the field of CELESTIAL MECHANICS. Problems
encountered under such conditions fall within the province of a new science, sometimes called geoballistics. _^<N__^<N_ Projectile Stability_^<N__^<N_Most projectiles, such as bombs, artillery shells, and rockets, are somewhat elongated and have
warheads placed toward the forward end of the body. Satisfactory fuse action for such missiles requires that they travel roughly head-on in their trajectories. This type of nearly head-on motion is called stable flight and is roughly synonymous
with reasonably close trailing of some longitudinal line in the projectile along the tangent to its space path. Artillerists generally compare stability of motion with two other conditions, called instability and superstability; an unstable
projectile may yaw violently or tumble, while a superstable projectile may maintain a fixed attitude in space regardless of how the tangent to its trajectory turns. Both instability and superstability are undesirable conditions for most
conventional projectiles: for example, an unstable bomb may tumble and strike far short of its target because of excessive drag due to yaw; a superstable howitzer shell fired at a high angle of elevation may land base down, so that its point fuse
may fail to operate. _^<N__^<N_Stability in flight is ordinarily achieved by placing fins on the rear of the projectile or by giving it a rapid spin about a long axis by rifling in the bore of a gun. Bombs and darts are said to be fin-stabilized;
rifle bullets and artillery shells are spin-stabilized. Both methods of stabilization are based on ancient principles: for example, arrows are finned with trimmed feathers, and flywheels resist forces that tend to cant their axes. _^<N__^<N_
TERMINAL BALLISTICS_^<N__^<N_Terminal ballistics deals with the destructive actions and effects that occur at the end of the projectile's flight as an integral and undeformed body. The flight may end in one of two ways: the projectile may strike a
solid obstruction, or its metal case may be broken by the explosion of a bursting charge. The phenomena of impact of a solid missile on a solid target develop as a continuous physical process; they have been extensively studied by flash radiography
and are more readily predictable than those of the bursting of a high-explosive charge, whatever the nature of the surrounding medium. _^<N__^<N_ Impact Studies_^<N__^<N_Impact studies consider the mechanical impulse delivered by a solid projectile
striking a target and the resulting internal forces, motions, and deformations affecting the two bodies. Traditional types of solid projectiles designed to achieve high penetration include steel-jacketed rifle bullets and armor-piercing bombs and
shot. The projectile may strike into a target to some depth, leaving an indentation, or crater, or it may create an opening all the way through the target; a crater is said to result from a partial penetration, while a face-to-face opening is
called a perforation. _^<N__^<N_The mechanical impulse delivered to the target is greatest when the projectile's long axis is aligned on its path and the path is perpendicular to the face of the target. Empirical formulas for spherical projectiles
indicate that the depth of penetration is proportional to the cube root of the square of cos A, where A denotes the angle between the path of the projectile and the perpendicular to the face of the target, but such formulas do not hold for impact
angles close to the critical values at which a ricochet may occur. Ricochets occur more frequently as the impact angle increases; for firings at a given speed, the angle at which one-half of the rounds ricochet is called the ricochet angle.
Experimental studies also indicate that the depth of penetration increases with the projectile's speed and its sectional density, the ratio of the projectile's mass to the square of its diameter; heavy, needle-shaped projectiles penetrate better
than light, blunt ones. _^<N__^<N_ Detonation and Fragmentation_^<N__^<N_The physical action of high explosives is called detonation. Unlike propellants--in which the chemical reaction proceeds relatively slowly--the chemical reaction of high
explosives can keep pace with the physical disturbance resulting from the reaction. The resulting narrow-reaction zone is called a detonation wave and can move in explosive materials at speeds as great as 6.3 km/sec (4 mi/sec). The gaseous products
behind the front may have pressures of 50,000 atmospheres and temperatures of 3,000 to 5,000 deg C. If the wave strikes a solid material, it will deliver a mechanical impulse whose principal destructive effect is fragmentation. It has recently been
possible to control the masses, sizes, shapes, velocities, and directions of motion of fragments by varying the characteristics of the case, for example, by corrugation or surface shaping. _^<N__^<N_F. V. Reno _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Corner, J.,
Theory of Interior Ballistics of Guns (1950); Fuller, J. F. C., Armament and History (1945); Kinslow, Ray, ed., High-Velocity Impact Phenomena (1970); McShane, E. J., et al., Exterior Ballistics (1953); Sterne, T. E., Introduction to Celestial
Mechanics (1960); Sutton, G. P., Rocket Propulsion Elements, 3d ed. (1963).
-END-
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7456
CATO
4814
-A-
balloon
-O-
000000|balloon
002443| MILITARY USE
004974| TRANSCONTINENTAL CROSSING
005759| SPORT BALLOONING
006288| SCIENTIFIC USE
-T-
balloon_^<N__^<N_A balloon is a type of AIRCRAFT that becomes airborne because of the buoyancy, or lift, supplied by a gas that is less dense than the air surrounding the balloon. (See ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE; ATMOSPHERE.) _^<N__^<N_The first public
balloon flight was made by the MONTGOLFIER BROTHERS, Joseph and Etienne, at Annonay, France, on June 5, 1783. Made of linen and paper, this unmanned balloon had a volume of 660 cu m (23,308 cu ft) and was buoyed up by heated air. The balloon rose
to an altitude of 1,800 m (5,906 ft) and flew 1.6 km (1 mi) from its starting point. On Nov. 21, 1783, Pilatre de Rozier and the marquis d'Arlandes used a Montgolfier balloon to make the first manned flight, from the center of Paris to the city's
suburbs. On Aug. 27, 1783, French chemist J. A. C. CHARLES inflated a balloon with hydrogen and launched it on an unmanned flight from the Champ de Mars in Paris. In December of that year he and an assistant made the first manned flight in a
hydrogen balloon, from Paris to the village of Nesle, 104 km (65 mi) to the north. _^<N__^<N_Hydrogen was found to be superior to hot air for filling a balloon because hydrogen has inherent buoyancy, whereas the ability of hot air to supply lift
decreases as the air cools. The preference for hydrogen lasted well into the 20th century, although coal gas was popular for a brief time in the 19th century because it was used for streetlights and was readily available. Helium, discovered in
1895, did not become commercially available until after 1918; it was also expensive and could not supply as much lift as hydrogen. The great advantage of helium, however, is its safety. Hydrogen is highly flammable and potentially explosive, but
helium is not. _^<N__^<N_Once launched, a balloon will rise until its average density exactly equals that of the surrounding atmosphere. In order to go higher, the pilot must discard some ballast (bags of sand are often used). To descend, the
pilot releases some of the buoyant gas through a valve. When the balloon lands, a ripping panel is opened; this allows the remaining gas to escape so that the balloon will not be dragged over the ground. _^<N__^<N_Toward the end of the 18th
century a balloon craze swept Europe and the United States. On Jan. 9, 1783, at Philadelphia, Jean Pierre BLANCHARD made the first U.S. balloon flight. As late as the 1930s, balloon flights, races, and ascents in tethered balloons anchored by
cables were popular events. _^<N__^<N_ MILITARY USE_^<N__^<N_The balloon was used by the military soon after the first flight of the Montgolfiers. In the Battle of Fleurus between France and Austria (June 26, 1794), the French used a tethered
balloon to observe the battlefield and direct artillery fire. A balloon corps, the world's first air force, was organized, and more balloons were built. The corps, however, soon fell into disuse and was abolished. _^<N__^<N_When the Austrians
besieged Venice in 1849, they used 200 small hot-air balloons to carry bombs that were released by preset controls. Because of unpredictable winds, however, the results of this first aerial bombing were negligible. _^<N__^<N_Balloons were also
used in the American Civil War (1861-65). Again, however, results were negligible. _^<N__^<N_In the five-month-long siege of Paris during the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71), balloons were the only means of communication and transportation between
Paris and the rest of France. Balloons launched from Paris carried mail, passengers, and homing pigeons for carrying messages back to Paris. _^<N__^<N_The spherical balloon was excellent for free flight, but tethered spherical balloons were
subject to bucking and rotation about their anchor cables. This made them unsuitable for military operations, for which a steady platform was required. By 1900, sausage-shaped balloons had been developed that combined the aerodynamics of the KITE
with the aerostatics of the balloon. They foreshadowed the motorized AIRSHIP. Thousands of these kite balloons were used during World War I as observation posts and as aerial barrages (aprons of cables were suspended between the balloons to create
hazards for enemy airplanes). Barrage balloons were also used during World War II. During the war the Japanese launched 9,000 balloons carrying bombs that they hoped would be blown across the Pacific Ocean to North America. Only about 300 are
known to have reached North America, their bombs falling mostly in uninhabited areas. When the cold war developed between the United States and the USSR after 1948, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) launched camera-carrying balloons from
Western Europe, which were then carried across the USSR, including Siberia, to the Pacific, where the camera packages were retrieved. Because the flight path of the balloons could not be controlled, the operation had little success. After 1956
the CIA's balloon effort was superseded by the deployment of the Lockheed U-2 photo-reconnaissance plane (see U-2) and later by a series of military spy satellites. _^<N__^<N_ TRANSCONTINENTAL CROSSING_^<N__^<N_The great dream of 19th-century
balloonists was intercontinental air travel. Because the prevailing wind in the Northern Hemisphere blows from west to east, the Atlantic crossing is easier from North America to Europe; thus most attempts have been eastward. John Wise, a 19th
century American balloonist, detected a "constant current of wind" that, he was certain, would carry him across the ocean to Europe; but Wise was killed in a ballooning accident before he could make an attempt. Today, Wise's current of wind is
known as the JET STREAM. _^<N__^<N_In 1978, 1980, and 1981, respectively, the first transatlantic, transcontinental (North America), and transpacific flights were made, in helium balloons. In 1984 the first solo transatlantic flight was made.
_^<N__^<N_ SPORT BALLOONING_^<N__^<N_In the 1960s hot-air ballooning was revived as a sport. The Montgolfiers had had to place their heat source on the ground; once they took off, the air cooled. Thus their flights were short. The recent
development of a small, lightweight, propane burner, however, now allows the balloonist to carry the heat source aloft. New, tough, synthetic balloon fabrics have also been produced; this has lowered the cost and improved handling. The first
hot-air-balloon crossing of the Atlantic was achieved in 1987. _^<N__^<N_ SCIENTIFIC USE_^<N__^<N_Since the 1890s the main scientific use of balloons has been in meteorological research. Small pilot balloons are regularly launched and tracked to
determine wind direction and velocity; other balloons containing packages of METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS record data from the upper atmosphere. Until the development in the 1930s of the RADIOSONDE, a small, inexpensive radio transmitter, it was
necessary to retrieve these packages in order to obtain their data. _^<N__^<N_Extremely high-altitude balloons are used by astronomers and physicists to detect cosmic rays and gamma rays arriving from outer space. These balloons are sometimes
several hundred meters high, and their reusable instrument packages are returned to Earth by parachute. Development of very thin, tough balloon material such as Astrofilm E accelerated such balloon use in the 1980s. _^<N__^<N_Richard K. Smith
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Crouch, T. D., The Eagle Aloft (1983); Kirschner, E. J., Aerospace Balloons (1985); Lawler, B. P., With a Light Heart (1988); Maran, S. P., "Little Missions, Big Returns," Astronomy, January 1989. Rolt, L. T. C.,
The Aeronauts: A History of Ballooning (1966).
-END-
-C-
474
CAT
-A-
balloonflower
-T-
balloonflower_^<N__^<N_The balloonflower, P. grandiflorum, is the only species of the genus Platycodon in the bellflower family, Campanulaceae. Balloonflowers are perennial herbs native to eastern Asia and Japan. The large flowers are dark to pale
blue, lilac, or white and are borne at the ends of the branches. The leaves are oval, and the buds are balloonlike before opening, hence the name. The balloonflower and its varieties are commonly planted as garden borders. _^<N__^<N_Hugh M. Raup
-END-
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845
CAT
-A-
ballot
-T-
ballot_^<N__^<N_A ballot is a means for indicating a choice between alternatives in an ELECTION. The devices used have ranged from balls and shells in ancient times to tickets, printed forms, and VOTING MACHINES in the present day. _^<N__^<N_The
so-called Australian ballot, introduced to eliminate corruption in elections, requires that all candidates' names appear on a single, official ballot, which is printed at public expense and distributed at a polling place. It also allows secrecy
while voting. _^<N__^<N_The length of the ballot and the arrangement of candidates' names on it, are often controversial because they are thought to influence the decisions of voters. _^<N__^<N_Rita J. Immerman _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bain, Henry
M., and Hecock, Donald S., Ballot Position and Voter's Choice (1957; repr. 1973); Fredman, L. E., Australian Ballot: The Story of an American Reform (1968).
-END-
-C-
832
CAT
-A-
Ballou, Hosea
-T-
Ballou, Hosea_^<N__^<N_{buh-loo'} _^<N__^<N_Hosea Ballou, b. Apr. 30, 1771, d. June 7, 1852, was an American theologian and clergyman instrumental in formulating the tenets of UNIVERSALISM. After rejecting the Calvinist position on salvation of
the elect, he began teaching that all people are saved (universal salvation). Ballou was minister of the Second Universalist Society in Boston (1817-52). As editor of the Universalist Magazine (1819-21), he was a key figure in moving
Universalists toward the position of UNITARIANISM. His numerous writings include A Treatise on the Atonement (1805) and An Examination of the Doctrine of Future Retribution (1834). _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Cassara, Ernest, Hosea Ballou and the
Rise of American Religious Liberalism (1958), Hosea Ballou: The Challenge to Orthodoxy (1961), and Universalism in America (1984).
-END-
-C-
839
CAT
-A-
balm
-T-
balm_^<N__^<N_A balm is an aromatic substance. Several species of plants in the MINT family, Labiatae, are known as balm. The common balm, Melissa officinalis, is native to Eurasia but is widely cultivated in temperate areas as a garden herb. It
is sometimes called bee balm or lemon balm. M. officinalis is an upright, leafy perennial bearing white, yellowish, or pinkish flowers that attract bees. The lemon-scented flowers can be used for seasonings. _^<N__^<N_Other plants in the mint
family known as balm are the American bee balm, Monarda didyma, the bastard balm, Melittis melissophyllum, the Canary balm, Cedronella canariensis, the field balm, Glechoma hederacea, and Molucca balm, Moluccella laevis. The Mecca BALSAM,
Commiphora opobalsamum, of the torchwood family, Burseraceae, yields balm of Gilead, a resin used for incense. _^<N__^<N_Hugh M. Raup
-END-
-C-
772
CAT
-A-
Balmaceda, Jose
-T-
Balmaceda, Jose_^<N__^<N_{bahl-mah-say'-dah} _^<N__^<N_Jose Manuel Balmaceda Fernandez, b. July 19, 1840, d. Sept. 19, 1891, was president of Chile from 1886 to 1891. A Liberal party leader, he held several cabinet offices before winning the
presidency. His administration, noted for its progressive social policies, inaugurated a massive program of public works. The legislature opposed Balmaceda's strong assertion of presidential power, however, and a bitter civil war broke out in
1891. The congressional forces were victorious. In September, Balmaceda took refuge in the Argentine legation, where he committed suicide. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hervey, Maurice H., Dark Days in Chile: An Account of the Revolution of 1891
(1892; repr. 1979); Zeitlin, Maurice, The Civil Wars in Chile (1984).
-END-
-C-
36
CAT
-A-
Balmain, Pierre:
-T-
Balmain, Pierre:_^<N__^<N_see FASHION DESIGN.
-END-
-C-
678
CAT
-A-
Balmer, Johann Jakob
-T-
Balmer, Johann Jakob_^<N__^<N_{bahl'-mur} _^<N__^<N_Johann Jakob Balmer, b. May 1, 1825, d. Mar. 12, 1898, was a Swiss mathematician and physicist who developed the first mathematical organization of spectroscopic data. Balmer taught mathematics at
a girls' secondary school in Basel from 1859 until his death and did not become involved in spectroscopy until late in life. Other workers had tried to establish a mechanical acoustical relationship among spectral lines of an element; Balmer found,
by empirical means, a simple formula for accurately generating the known lines of the HYDROGEN SPECTRUM. Using this formula, he also predicted other spectral series that were subsequently discovered.
-END-
-C-
37
CAT
-A-
Balmer series:
-T-
Balmer series:_^<N__^<N_see HYDROGEN SPECTRUM.
-END-
-C-
1463
CAT
-A-
Balmont, Konstantin Dmitriyevich
-T-
Balmont, Konstantin Dmitriyevich_^<N__^<N_{bahl'-mawnt, kun-stahn-teen' dim-ee'-tree-ev-ich} _^<N__^<N_The Russian poet Konstantin Dmitriyevich Balmont, b. June 15, 1867, d. Dec. 24, 1942, was a highly influential representative of early Russian
SYMBOLISM, originally known as DECADENCE. His brilliant verses helped to create among Russian readers a taste for extreme subject matter (sex, evil, madness, death), esoteric knowledge, the exaltation of the human spirit and intuitive
understanding, and the refined aesthetic qualities characteristic of decadent poetry. A master of the SONNET, Balmont is also remembered for his experiments with poetic form, the musical qualities of his verse, his exoticism, and his moods of
romantic solitude and individualism. His works include Pod severnym nebom (Under the Northern Sky, 1894), Tishina (Silence, 1898), and Goryashchie zdaniya (Burning Buildings, 1900). A cosmopolite and polyglot, he was particularly fond of poetry
in English and translated extensively from it (BLAKE, COLERIDGE, POE, SHELLEY, WHITMAN, and WILDE). He also translated the poetry of Baudelaire and that of Czech and Japanese writers. In 1918 he immigrated to Paris, where he spent the rest of his
life. _^<N__^<N_Kenneth N. Brostrom _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Markov, Vladimir, and Sparks, Merrill, eds., Modern Russian Poetry (1966); Mirsky, D., Contemporary Russian Literature, 1881-1925, (1926); Proffer, Carl and Ellendea, eds., The Silver
Age of Russian Culture (1971).
-END-
-C-
1052
CAT
-A-
balsa
-T-
balsa_^<N__^<N_The balsa, Ochroma pyramidale, is a tropical American tree of the Bombax family, Bombacaceae, found in the West Indies and Central and South America. It is best known for its low-density and lightweight wood. The peoples who navigate
the coastal and inland waters of Central and South America have used it extensively for canoes and rafts. In 1947 the anthropologist Thor HEYERDAHL went to Peru, built a raft of balsa logs, and with five companions sailed it from the port of Callao
across the Pacific Ocean to the Tuamotu Islands in the South Pacific. _^<N__^<N_Balsa trees may grow to a height of 18 m (about 60 ft), with the trunk growing up to 76 cm (30 in) in diameter in about six years. They are now produced most
successfully in plantations. The properties of balsa wood are much like those of CORK; most of its commercial use exploits its insulating qualities against heat or cold, its lightness for flotation equipment, and its capacity for deadening sound or
mechanical vibrations. It is widely used for toys and for model building. _^<N__^<N_Hugh M. Raup
-END-
-C-
707
CAT
-A-
balsam
-T-
balsam_^<N__^<N_Balsam is a fragrant, resinous substance derived from evergreen plants and used for medicinal purposes, as a flavoring, in varnishes and lacquers, and in incense and perfume. Balsams with commercial applications include the Central
American balsam of Peru. Oleoresins (oil-bearing resins) that are sometimes called balsams are Canada balsam, or Canada TURPENTINE, from the bark of the North American BALSAM FIR, used in optical work; copaiba balsam, from Brazil and Venezuela,
used in varnishes and lacquers; and storax, from southwestern Asia, used medicinally and in incense. Balm of Gilead, a resin from the Middle East used for incense, is also sometimes referred to as Mecca balsam. _^<N__^<N_Frances Gies
-END-
-C-
778
CAT
-A-
balsam fir
-T-
balsam fir_^<N__^<N_The balsam fir, Abies balsamea, is a small- to medium-sized evergreen CONIFER tree of the northern forest regions of North America. It belongs to the PINE family, Pinaceae, and grows in Canada from Labrador to Alberta and, in the
United States, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, northern Pennsylvania, New York, and the New England states. Highly resistant to damage by cold, this tree cannot stand hot, dry summers and will seldom survive being brought to elevations much below
its natural mountain habitat. Balsam fir is short-lived, often decaying after 70 to 80 years. _^<N__^<N_Canada balsam, a liquid resin, is collected from the bark blisters of balsam fir and is used to mount specimens on microscope slides. Balsam fir
is also a popular Christmas tree. _^<N__^<N_Charles L. Wilson
-END-
-C-
543
CAT
-A-
Balthus
-T-
Balthus_^<N__^<N_{bahl-toos'} _^<N__^<N_The Polish-French artist Balthus (Balthasar Klossowski de Rola), b. Feb. 2, 1908, is a major 20th-century figurative painter, mainly self-taught. His large paintings, which he sometimes takes years to finish,
have disconcerting, dreamlike undercurrents. Balthus has notably portrayed young girls in unsettling, often erotic, attitudes. His many exhibits include one at New York's Metropolitan Museum in 1984. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Carandente, Giovanni,
Balthus (1983); Rewald, Sabine, Balthus, ed. by Kathleen Howard (1984).
-END-
-C-
4040
CATO
-A-
Baltic languages
-O-
000000|Baltic languages
001480| Lithuanian
002206| Lettish, or Latvian
002731| Prussian
003262| Curonian
-T-
Baltic languages_^<N__^<N_The Baltic languages are classified among the Northern INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE group, a branch that includes the Slavic and Germanic languages. Two Baltic languages, Lithuanian and Lettish, or Latvian, survive. In addition
are found some scant traces of Old Prussian as well as evidence of a fourth distinct dialect, Curonian. These four languages retain archaic elements of ancient Indo-European and of their common ancestor Proto-Baltic. The Baltic, Slavic, and
Germanic language groups are the only Indo-European languages to have the sound m in the dative plural ending, which indicates their close relationship. _^<N__^<N_Traditionally, Baltic has been more closely associated with the Slavic languages than
with the Germanic. Indeed, the term Balto-Slavic has been used, at least since the 19th century, to imply an especially close relationship between these two Indo-European subgroups. Many scholars, however, contend that the term Balto-Slavic is
not appropriate and that the two subgroups, Baltic and Slavic, should be kept separate. Efforts to form a Balto-Germanic subgroup have received little support. Scholars, particularly in the former USSR, have attempted to demonstrate that the
Baltic languages correspond to Dacian and Thracian, the ancient languages of the Balkans. _^<N__^<N_Each of the extant languages, Lithuanian and Latvian, is divided into dialects; Prussian is known only through surviving manuscripts; and Curonian
has been absorbed into the living languages. _^<N__^<N_ Lithuanian_^<N__^<N_This East Baltic language has existed in written form since the late 16th century and is spoken by more than 3 million persons. Lithuanian has retained more features of the
original Indo-European than any other surviving language. For example, its declension of nouns has retained the dual--a grammatical number indicating two, used in addition to the singular and plural. Its accentuation patterns have retained early
Indo-European characteristics, as have its vowels and most of its consonants. It has two principal dialects, Samogitian, or Low Lithuanian, and High Lithuanian. These have been further refined, and the western dialect of High Lithuanian has
become the basis for the modern literary language. _^<N__^<N_ Lettish, or Latvian_^<N__^<N_The East Baltic language Lettish is spoken by 2 million persons and has three principal dialects: Tamian, or Livonian; High Latvian; and a central
dialect, which is the basis for the modern literary language. As in Lithuanian, texts in this language exist only from the late 16th century. Lettish is less conservative than Lithuanian. For example, it no longer has a movable accent; all
words are accented on the initial syllable. No neuter gender exists, and the dual appears only in rare forms. _^<N__^<N_ Prussian_^<N__^<N_This West Baltic language, sometimes called Old Prussian, became extinct near the end of the 17th century
and is known only slightly from written documents, the oldest of which is the Elbing Vocabulary, a short German-Prussian glossary written between 1300 and 1400. Prussian texts did not appear until the mid-16th century. These writings indicate
that Prussian is the most conservative of all Baltic languages, containing more archaisms than Lithuanian and differing significantly from that language and from Lettish. _^<N__^<N_ Curonian_^<N__^<N_This East Baltic dialect was absorbed into both
Lithuanian and Lettish by the mid-16th century. No texts in Curonian exist, and knowledge of Curonian comes primarily from proper names that survived after the language became extinct. _^<N__^<N_John A. C. Greppin _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Dambriunas, Leonadas, et al., Introduction to Modern Lithuanian, 4th ed. (1990); Endzelins, J., Comparative Phonology and Morphology of the Baltic Languages, trans. by William Schmalsteig and Benjamin Jegers (1971); Fennel, T. G., and Gelsen,
H. A., Grammar of Modern Latvian, 3 vols. (1980); Magner, Thomas F., and Schmalsteig, William, eds., Baltic Linguistics (1970); Millers, Antonia, The Latvian Language for the Use of Students: Grammar, Vocabulary, and Exercises (1985).
-END-
-C-
1419
CAT
-A-
Baltic Sea
-T-
Baltic Sea_^<N__^<N_The Baltic Sea is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean and is connected to the North Sea by two relatively narrow passages, the KATTEGAT and SKAGERRAK. Touching on Finland, Russia, the Baltic States, Poland, Germany, Denmark, and
Sweden, the sea has long been important in trade and commerce. With an area estimated at 420,000 sq km (160,000 sq mi), the Baltic is a shrinking remnant of a large water body created by Ice Age glacial melt and is generally shallow. Many rivers
feed it, notably the ODER and VISTULA, and it has a shallow outlet to the Atlantic Ocean; the water is brackish (5 to 15 parts salt per 1,000), and the tide is negligible. Ice becomes a barrier to shipping in winter. Temperatures in Saint
Petersburg at the eastern tip average -9 deg C (15 deg F) in January. _^<N__^<N_In the Middle Ages the Baltic Sea was the center of trade between ports of the HANSEATIC LEAGUE dealing in fish--particularly herring--timber, grains, furs, and amber.
In the 17th century Sweden dominated the area, and from the late 17th century, Russia. Its importance declined when modern ships became too large to pass through the Kattegat, its shallow entrance between Denmark and Sweden. The Kiel Canal
crosses the base of the Danish peninsula, shortening distances to southern Europe. Connecting the Baltic and North seas, it can accommodate medium-size ships and is one of the most heavily used canals in the world.
-END-
-C-
913
CAT
-A-
Baltic States
-T-
Baltic States_^<N__^<N_The Baltic States are ESTONIA, LATVIA, and LITHUANIA, three small countries located between Poland and the Gulf of Finland on the forested eastern shore of the Baltic Sea. Before 1918 they were part of the Russian empire.
After World War I they became independent, but in 1940 they were forcibly annexed by the USSR. Nationalist movements developed in the Baltic States during the 1980s. Lithuania declared its independence in 1990; Estonia and Latvia did the same in
1991. The USSR, weakened by internal dissension, was forced to recognize the independence of all three Baltic States shortly before its own demise in late 1991. The Baltic enclave of KALININGRAD (formerly Konigsberg), between Poland and
Lithuania, remains part of the Russian Federation. (See also LIVONIA.) _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Lieven, Anatol, The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and the Path to Independence (1993).
-END-
-C-
4042
CATO
-A-
Baltimore
-O-
000000|Baltimore
000692| The Contemporary City
002559| History
-T-
Baltimore_^<N__^<N_Baltimore, the largest city in Maryland, has one of the nation's largest seaports and is a wholesaling and manufacturing center. Situated about 64 km (40 mi) northeast of Washington, D.C., the city occupies about 204 sq km (79 sq
mi) along the Patapsco River estuary on Chesapeake Bay. _^<N__^<N_The population of the city is 736,014 (1990 census); that of the metropolitan area is 2,382,172 (1990 census). Baltimore's population is nearly 60% black and also includes many
people of Italian, German, and central European ancestry. _^<N__^<N_The climate is moderate, with temperatures averaging 2 deg C (35 deg F) in January and 25 deg C (77 deg F) in July. Rainfall averages about 1,065 mm (42 in) annually. _^<N__^<N_
The Contemporary City_^<N__^<N_Industry and port activities are the main employers. The iron and steel, machinery, food processing, and printing industries are especially important. The port has extensive shipbuilding and repair facilities and
modern freight-handling equipment, and ranks 7th in the nation in terms of cargo value (1989). Baltimore has excellent rail, road, and air connections with other major U.S. cities. _^<N__^<N_Among the colleges and universities in the Baltimore
area are the JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY (1876), the College of Notre Dame of Maryland (1873), Peabody Institute of Johns Hopkins University (formerly the Peabody Conservatory of Music; f.1857), and GOUCHER COLLEGE (1885) in suburban Towson, Md. The
Baltimore Museum of Art, the Peale Museum, and the Walters Art Gallery have notable collections of art, and the B & O Railroad Museum houses an impressive collection of railroad memorabilia. The Morris Mechanic Theater, the Baltimore Symphony
Orchestra, the Baltimore Opera Company, and FORT MCHENRY (the defense of which, in 1814, inspired Francis Scott Key to write "The Star-Spangled Banner") are other major attractions. Pimlico Race Track, site of the Preakness Stakes, is nearby.
Druid Hill Park contains the city zoo and a natural history museum. The U.S.S. CONSTELLATION, launched in Baltimore in 1797 and the oldest U.S. warship afloat, is docked in the harbor. _^<N__^<N_Plagued for years by urban deterioration, great
strides have been made with renewal projects in the downtown and inner harbor areas. In the downtown area, streets are laid out in a grid pattern, but toward the suburbs, to conform with the topography, radial streets become more common. Charles
and Baltimore streets divide the city; at their intersection the Charles Center, a renewal area of office and apartment buildings, and the Civic Center dominate the skyline. _^<N__^<N_ History_^<N__^<N_Baltimore, founded in 1729, was named for the
baronial title of the CALVERT family, who were the proprietors of Maryland. The city's strategic location spurred its growth, and by the time of the American Revolution it was a thriving seaport. The city served (1776-77) as the seat of the
Continental Congress while Philadelphia was under British siege. The threat to Baltimore's commercial position posed by the opening of the Erie Canal in 1825 prompted construction of the first U.S. railroad there, the Baltimore and Ohio, begun in
1827. _^<N__^<N_The site of numerous riots between Southern and Northern sympathizers during the Civil War, Baltimore remained within the Union but under martial law throughout the war. During the latter half of the 19th century the city was
transformed from a mercantile to an industrial center. In 1904 a fire destroyed most of the downtown business district, but recovery was rapid. Baltimore's growth in the 20th century has been due in large part to its port facilities, which have
grown from the original all-purpose piers to the present 72 km (45 mi) of developed waterfront. _^<N__^<N_Paul A. Groves _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Beirne, F.F., The Amiable Baltimoreans (1984); Miles, Priscilla L., Historic Baltimore (1987); Nast,
L.H., et al., eds., Baltimore: A Living Renaissance (1982); Olson, Sherry H., Baltimore: The Building of an American City (1980); Vexler, Robert I., Baltimore: A Chronological and Documentary History, 1632-1970 (1975).
-END-
-C-
1149
CAT
-A-
Baltimore, David
-T-
Baltimore, David_^<N__^<N_The American biochemist David Baltimore, b. New York City, Mar. 7, 1938, shared the 1975 Nobel Prize for medicine with Renato DULBECCO and Howard TEMIN for the discovery of reverse transcriptase, an enzyme that carries out
one of the basic molecular processes in a cell. A graduate of Swarthmore College (1960) and Rockefeller University (1964), Baltimore worked at the Salk Institute of Biological Studies, then became a professor of microbiology at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology in 1968 and director of its institute for biomedical research. At the Salk Institute, Baltimore worked with Dulbecco on the mechanism of replication of the poliovirus in a cell. This led to his discovery of reverse
transcriptase in 1970, independently of Temin. The discovery that viral RNA can pass information to DNA and replicate was a conceptual breakthrough in molecular biology. It has also been an important tool in the study of viruses and cancer.
_^<N__^<N_In 1990, Baltimore was chosen president of Rockefeller University. After a paper he coauthored but was not the primary researcher for was found fraudulent, he resigned in 1991.
-END-
-C-
42
CAT
-A-
Baltimore, Earls of (family):
-T-
Baltimore, Earls of (family):_^<N__^<N_see CALVERT.
-END-
-C-
39
CAT
-A-
Baltimore Canyon:
-T-
Baltimore Canyon:_^<N__^<N_see SUBMARINE CANYON.
-END-
-C-
29
CAT
-A-
Baltimore oriole:
-T-
Baltimore oriole:_^<N__^<N_see ORIOLE.
-END-
-C-
1720
CAT
-A-
Baluch
-T-
Baluch_^<N__^<N_The Baluch (Baloch) are a group of tribes that inhabit the province of Baluchistan in western Pakistan, southeast Iran, and southwest Afghanistan; small groups also live in northeast Iran, northwest Afghanistan, Soviet Turkmenistan,
northwest India, the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, and on the coast and islands of East Africa. Of an estimated total Baluch population of more than 2,000,000, about 60 percent reside in Pakistan. Numerous Baluch migrations from the early 19th
century, primarily for raiding and for employment as mercenaries, have resulted in their present wide distribution across the Middle East. The groups that stayed among the TURKMEN on the northern edge of the Iranian plateau in what is now
Afghanistan and the Turkmen SSR developed the styles of Baluchi rugs for which the Baluch are famous. The origin of the Baluch is unclear. Although the name Baluch is known from earlier records in Iran, the present tribes cannot be traced back
beyond the 17th century, when they rose to power under their chief Kambar. The Baluch share a common identity based on Baluchi--an Iranian language--and adherence to Sunni Islam. They have never formed a political unit, although the khan of the
former Indian state of Kalat, in present-day Pakistan, briefly exerted suzerainty over a large portion of them in the 19th century. Traditional Baluch society consists of pastoral nomadic groups, small agricultural settlements, and remnants of a
Negroid slave population that earlier functioned as agricultural serfs and personal retainers for the chiefs. This organization is now breaking down as the Baluch are integrated into the social organization of the countries in which they reside.
_^<N__^<N_Brian Spooner
-END-
-C-
1131
CAT
-A-
Baluchistan
-T-
Baluchistan_^<N__^<N_Baluchistan, meaning "land of BALUCHS," is a province in western PAKISTAN, bordered by Afghanistan on the northwest, the Arabian Sea on the south, and Iran on the west. The area, approximately 347,188 sq km (134,050 sq mi), is
mainly mountainous with barren and rugged terrain. The mean annual temperature ranges from 37 deg C (98 deg F) in the inland deserts to 24 deg C (76 deg F) in the mountainous regions. Rainfall ranges from 100 to 400 mm (4 to 16 in) annually.
Primitive agriculture, nomadism, and karez (tunnel-type) irrigation are the main bases of economic life. Some coking coal is mined near QUETTA, the capital. The most important food crops are wheat, rice, and millet. Most of the 4,611,000 (1983
est.) inhabitants are Muslim. Baluchistan was a part of the Indian Maurya Empire (3d century BC) and fell under the control of various Turk and Arab empires until it was annexed by the Mogul Empire in 1595. It came under British rule in 1879. Since
1947 it has been a part of independent Pakistan. In 1972, 55,000 Baluch tribesmen launched a revolt for autonomy, which was harshly suppressed. _^<N__^<N_Ashok K. Dutt
-END-
-C-
1072
CAT
-A-
Baluchitherium
-T-
Baluchitherium_^<N__^<N_Baluchitherium is an extinct rhinoceros of the order Perissodactyla, class Mammalia, that lived during the late Oligocene and early Miocene epochs of the TERTIARY PERIOD (about 20-30 million years ago). It is believed to be
the largest land mammal that ever lived. The first baluchitheres were found in central Mongolia. Unlike its modern descendants, Baluchitherium was hornless, but other features clearly indicate that this huge beast was a rhinoceros. Its skull was
about 1.2 m (4 ft) long, and it stood about 5.5 m (18 feet) high at the shoulder. A long neck and huge, pillarlike legs enabled the animal to browse among the higher branches of trees. Baluchitheres were probably limited to Asia, for their remains
have not been found elsewhere. _^<N__^<N_William H. Matthews III _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Broadhead, T. W., ed., Mammals (1984); Romer, Alfred S., The Procession of Life (1968); Savage, R. J. G., and Long, M. R., Mammal Evolution: An Illustrated
Guide (1986); Schoch, Robert M., ed., Vertebrate Paleontology (1984). _^<N__^<N_See also: CENOZOIC ERA; PREHISTORIC ANIMALS.
-END-
-C-
5287
CATO
4792
-A-
Balzac, Honore de
-O-
000000|Balzac, Honore de
001139| Early Life
002641| Business Debts
003220| Success
-T-
Balzac, Honore de_^<N__^<N_{bahl-zahk', oh-nohr-ay' duh} _^<N__^<N_A traditionalist in morality and a reactionary in politics, the great French novelist Balzac was himself a product of the bourgeois society he so vehemently criticized. In fact,
without the middle-class society that developed after the FRENCH REVOLUTION, he would have lacked the subject matter of his monumental creation, La Comedie humaine. Produced between 1829 and 1847, it consists of nearly 100 completed novels and some
50 others left in drafts. Presenting the human character as fixed but often possessed by its hereditary, geographical, historical, and social environment, Balzac's microcosm of French society consists of 2,000 recurring characters and spans five
decades of postrevolutionary France. La Comedie humaine is divided into three categories: Analytical Studies, which demonstrate the principles that govern society; Philosophical Studies, which are concerned with the motives behind human behavior;
and Studies of Social Mores, which depict the effects of these two causes in six scenes of private, provincial, Parisian, military, political, and country life. (See COMEDIE HUMAINE, LA.) _^<N__^<N_ Early Life_^<N__^<N_Born in Tours on May 20,
1799, to a new member of the prospering middle class, Balzac (who later added the de to his name) was particularly devoted to his unobliging mother, who dominated him all his life and outlived him. At the age of 8, he was sent to a boarding school,
where he consoled himself by reading, but to such excess that by the time he was 14 he suffered from nervous exhaustion and returned home to attend the local lycee (secondary school). In 1814, he moved to Paris with his family and reluctantly began
to study law. After completing his studies he was apprenticed to a law firm, but he finally persuaded his family to subsidize his literary career for two years. In a miserable Paris garret, with a meager stipend, Balzac embarked on the regimen he
was to follow the rest of his life: a workday that began before dawn (16 hours were normal for him) and the consumption of innumerable cups of coffee. _^<N__^<N_Balzac's first and abiding ambition was to write for the theater. His first play,
Cromwell (1819), was so bad, however, that he was advised to try anything but writing. He then turned his hand to Gothic thrillers, using a variety of pen names and working with several collaborators. _^<N__^<N_In 1821 he met Laure de Berny, the
mother of nine children and 22 years his senior, who braved ridicule to become his mistress. For 10 years Balzac remained devoted to this remarkable woman who was a major influence in his life and inspired some of his most beautiful female
characters. _^<N__^<N_ Business Debts_^<N__^<N_In 1825 a venture that was to publish new editions of French classics turned into a financial disaster. Within three years Balzac amassed up to 100,000 francs in debts for his triple failures:
publishing, a printing establishment, and a type foundry. He was rescued by his family, but for the rest of his life he was pursued by debts and driven by a hunger for renown. His capacity for work was titanic, and his genius inexhaustible: three
or four novels a year, scores of articles and reviews, historical dramas, a correspondence that now fills numerous volumes. _^<N__^<N_ Success_^<N__^<N_The first novel published under his own name, The Chouans (1829; Eng. trans., 1921), attracted
considerable notice; The Physiology of Marriage (1829; Eng. trans., 1943) was a major success; and The Wild Ass's Skin (1831; Eng. trans., 1954) definitively launched his career. His expenses, however, always exceeded his income. He bought
properties, objets d'art, entertained lavishly, and traveled in style. By 1838 he was 230,000 francs further in debt. But he was always a few pages ahead of the process servers and managed to stay out of prison by ruses and speculations that would
have seemed extravagant in his novels. As massive in size as he was in talent and desire (see Auguste RODIN's statue of him), he churned through life like a ship under full steam, but stress undermined his health. Between daily sessions of
composing and correcting, he led the life of a celebrity, courting ladies whose beauty and position were no longer out of his reach. Women from all over Europe wrote to him; aristocratic ladies became his mistresses. His sensitive portrayals of
women won him the devotion of countless feminine readers, who recognized their longings in his characters. If George SAND was the first liberated woman novelist, Balzac was perhaps the first male novelist to explore the psychology of women with
such deep compassion. _^<N__^<N_On Mar. 2, 1850, after an 18-year courtship, Balzac married the Polish countess Mme. Hanska, who had signed herself L'Etrangere ("the foreign lady") in an anonymous fan letter. Her love was an inspiration, and her
wealth would have protected him from bill collectors. But on August 18, five months after the wedding, he was dead, worn out by having been what he called "a galley slave of the pen." _^<N__^<N_Beth Archer Brombert _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hemmings,
F. W. J., Balzac: An Interpretation of La Comedie humaine (1967); Hunt, H. J., Honore de Balzac: A Biography (1957; repr. 1969); Kanes, Martin, Balzac's Comedy of Words (1975); Maurois, Andre, Prometheus: The Life of Balzac (1965); Pritchett, V.
S., Balzac (1973).
-END-
-C-
784
CAT
-A-
Bamako
-T-
Bamako_^<N__^<N_{bah-mah-koh'} _^<N__^<N_Bamako, the capital of Mali in western Africa, is situated in the southwestern section of the country, on the upper Niger River. Bamako has a population of 745,787 (1992 est.). A bustling river port and trade
hub, the city is also a road and air nexus and an administrative and military center. It has commercial fishing fleets, and cattle are traded and local handicrafts displayed in the colorful markets. Bamako has several colleges, a notable national
museum, a large zoo, and botanical gardens. Although it was a Muslim center in the ancient Mali empire, it had declined to a village of fewer than 1,000 when the French arrived in 1880. Its growth was spurred by the opening of the railroad in 1904
and by the city's designation as colonial capital in 1908.
-END-
-C-
1170
CAT
-A-
Bambara kingdoms
-T-
Bambara kingdoms_^<N__^<N_{bahm-bar'-uh} _^<N__^<N_The Bambara kingdoms of the western Sudan (present-day MALI) were founded in the latter part of the 17th century by former slave-warriors (ton dyon) of the SONGHAI empire. Some historians regard
their establishment as an anti-Muslim response to the Islamic-style government under which Songhai had exercised its authority. The main Bambara capitals were at Segu (Segou), on the Niger River, and Kaarta, in the grasslands region between the
Niger and Senegal rivers. _^<N__^<N_Segu's founder was Kaladian Kulubali (r. 1652-82). Under Mamari "Biton" Kulubali (r. 1712-55) all the Bambara were unified in a state that extended from Bamako in the southwest to Timbuktu in the north. A period
of disorder followed, however, during which one group of Bambara established a new kingdom at Kaarta. In the mid-19th century both kingdoms were attacked and defeated by the Muslim reformer al-HAJJ UMAR. Many Bambara continued armed resistance
against their new Muslim overlords. Others were recruited into French colonial military service near the end of the century. Both kingdoms were incorporated into the French colonial empire by 1900. _^<N__^<N_Robert R. Griffeth
-END-
-C-
1158
CAT
-A-
Bamboccianti
-T-
Bamboccianti_^<N__^<N_Bamboccianti are GENRE PAINTINGS depicting everyday Italian life in the 17th century. The term derives from the nickname given to Pieter van LAER (c.1592-1642), a Dutch painter who settled in Rome around 1625. Because he was
physically deformed, Laer was called il Bamboccio ("the simpleton"). The word bamboccianti was applied to his paintings, which, because they depicted peasants and street people, aroused the hostility of certain artists and critics, who held
classical ideals and moral subject matter to be the chief concerns of art. Laer, whose style reflects the naturalism of CARAVAGGIO, was at the center of a group of Dutch and Flemish painters (Bamboccianti) who painted, and took part in, the coarser
side of life in 17th-century Rome. They were not accepted in official artistic circles, where their work was considered decadent, but they had a large following of private patrons. In rejecting idealized subject matter in favor of lowlife scenes,
the Bamboccianti were the precursors of later 17th-century Dutch genre painting. _^<N__^<N_Tania Bayard _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Wittkower, Rudolf, Art and Architecture in Italy: 1600-1750, 3d ed. (1973).
-END-
-C-
1722
CAT
-A-
bamboo
-T-
bamboo_^<N__^<N_Bamboos are plants of great economic importance in several regions of the world. The name is applied in general to members of the tribe Bambuseae in the GRASS family. Some 76 genera and over 1,000 species have been described. Most
are tropical or subtropical, but a few reach the temperate zones or grow at high altitudes. Some common bamboos, such as Bambusa vulgaris and Arundinaria amabilis, have been in cultivation so long that their origins are uncertain.
_^<N__^<N_Bamboos are perennial plants. Their woody stems are hollow and segmented, with partitions between the segments. The leaves, usually long and narrow, rise from the nodes of the stems. Some species are only shrublike, but others grow to
heights of 30 m (100 ft) or more, with stem diameters of 20-30 cm (8-12 in). Bamboo stems are light, strong, durable, flexible, and easily split lengthwise. Depending on size, they are used in making houses, furniture, piping, a wide range of
domestic goods, baskets, and musical instruments. They are also pulverized for paper pulp. Bamboo hay is a protein-rich food for livestock, and the fresh sprouts of some species are widely used in cookery. In the United States bamboo is grown
mainly as an ornamental. _^<N__^<N_One striking characteristic of bamboo is that most species produce seeds only once in their lifetime, which may range to more than 100 years. (They can also reproduce asexually by producing seedless clones, or
rhizomes.) Researchers in 1990 announced development of a promising technique for making bamboos flower more rapidly, which would be of major importance to bamboo cultivators. _^<N__^<N_Hugh M. Raup _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Farrelly, David, The
Book of Bamboo (1984); Wang, Dajun, Bamboos of China (1987).
-END-
-C-
1065
CAT
-A-
Bamian
-T-
Bamian_^<N__^<N_{bahm-yahn'} _^<N__^<N_Bamian (Bamiyan), a town in the Bamian River valley (elevation 2,590 m/8,480 ft) northwest of Kabul, in present-day Afghanistan, was for centuries an important commercial and religious center on the caravan
route between central Asia and India. During the 2d to 9th century, numerous Buddhist monuments were constructed along the conglomerate cliffs that wall the valley. They include caves fashioned into temples and monasteries, many containing
well-preserved frescolike wall paintings, and a famous colossal statue of the Buddha, standing 53 m (175 ft) high, the tallest stone sculpture of its kind in the world. This standing Buddha and another measuring about 37 m (120 ft) are set within
niches carved into the sheer cliff. The statues, which probably date from the 3d to 5th century, are mentioned by the great Chinese monk HSUAN-TSANG who visited Bamian c.630 on his way to India. Mongol invaders under GENGHIS KHAN destroyed Bamian
in 1221. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Allchin, F.R., and Hammond, N., eds., The Archaeology of Afghanistan (1979).
-END-
-C-
1263
CAT
-A-
Bamileke
-T-
Bamileke_^<N__^<N_{bam-i-lee'-kee} _^<N__^<N_The Bamileke (Mileke) are a people who live in the highlands of Cameroon, in Equatorial Africa, known for their distinctive art forms, particularly wood carving, and their pyramidal-roofed houses.
Numbering about 700,000, they speak a Bantu language of the Benue-Niger subfamily of the Niger-Congo stock (see AFRICAN LANGUAGES). They are subsistence farmers and live in chiefdoms, in which each chief is supported by his staff and by various
military and religious societies. Residence is in neighborhoods made up of dispersed homesteads. High population density has promoted migration of large numbers of the Bamileke to cities. _^<N__^<N_Bamileke religion consists chiefly of ancestor
worship. Descent is traced through the father's line. Marriage is polygynous, with co-wives and their children living in separate houses. Marriage is formalized by the payment of BRIDE-PRICE to the wife's people. The hierarchical structure of
Bamileke society is reflected in their wood carvings of chiefs and their wives, chiefs' thrones, and dignitaries' carved doorjambs, thresholds, and lintels. Other objects carved in wood include dance masks, drums, and stools. Bamileke also make
statuettes, goblets, horns, and bracelets of carved ivory. _^<N__^<N_Phoebe Miller
-END-
-C-
1001
CAT
-A-
Ban Chiang
-T-
Ban Chiang_^<N__^<N_The village of Ban Chiang, in northeastern Thailand, is the site of a large and rich Late Neolithic settlement occupied through the Bronze and Iron ages. It is famous for its ancient red-on-buff painted pottery, which resembles
the pottery of the Yango-shao Neolithic (5000-2500 BC) of northern China. Similar pottery was found in Bronze Age deposits at NON NOK THA. _^<N__^<N_Initial faulty dating suggested that Ban Chiang's bronze artifacts preceded the earliest-known
bronze artifacts found in the Near East, and some scientists still believe that metallurgy developed there independently. It is now thought that the area was settled about 4000 BC, with pottery dating back to as early as 3500 BC, bronzework
between 2500 and 1500 BC, and iron implements about 1000 to 500 BC. Since excavation of the site began in 1967, Ban Chiang pottery has become renowned in the international art market. _^<N__^<N_Robert E. Dewar _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Hingham, C.
F., The Ban Chiang Culture in Wider Perspective (1985).
-END-
-C-
656
CAT
-A-
Banach, Stefan
-T-
Banach, Stefan_^<N__^<N_{bah-nahk'} _^<N__^<N_Stefan Banach, b. Mar. 30, 1892, d. Aug. 31, 1945, was a Polish mathematician who helped found modern functional analysis and made major contributions to the theory of topological vector spaces. In
addition, he contributed to measure theory, integration, and orthogonal SERIES. _^<N__^<N_Banach lectured in mathematics at the Institute of Technology in Lvov and eventually became a professor at the University of Lvov. His best-known work is the
Theorie des operations lineaires (Theory of Linear Operations, 1932). Banach algebra and Banach spaces, the latter an important class of vector spaces, were named after him. _^<N__^<N_H. Howard Frisinger
-END-
-C-
5746
CATO
4812
-A-
banana
-O-
000000|banana
000982| Origin and Types
002743| World Production and Trade
005127| Diseases
-T-
banana_^<N__^<N_The banana family consists of large plants that flourish in moist areas throughout the tropics. The edible fruit is rich in carbohydrates and is a source of vitamins A and C and the minerals potassium and phosphorus. The most
familiar banana is the yellow-skinned, sweet, pulpy fruit of international trade. Of the many varieties, only a few are widely grown and only two are exported. Wild banana plants tend to spring up where tropical forest has been felled or burned.
_^<N__^<N_Bananas are a significant food crop in the tropics. From 80 to 85 percent of the world's banana crop is grown locally on what agriculturalists call a "backyard scale" for domestic consumption. Consumers in the tropics not only eat the
raw, ripe fruit but also cook bananas as a starchy vegetable food similar to the potato. Some are fermented to make beer, and others are dried. In upland East Africa, especially in the Buganda province of Uganda, bananas even attain the status of
a staple foodstuff. _^<N__^<N_ Origin and Types_^<N__^<N_Bananas originated primarily in Malaysia and the neighboring archipelago probably about 4,000 years ago. Diversity developed over a much wider area, from India to the Philippines and New
Guinea. About 2,000 years ago, travelers carried bananas eastward through the Pacific and westward across the Indian Ocean to tropical Africa. Shortly after the discovery of America, Europeans took banana plants from Africa or the Canary Islands
to Hispaniola (modern Haiti and the Dominican Republic). _^<N__^<N_The banana family, Musaceae, contains only two genera, Ensete and Musa. They range in height from 1 m (3 ft) to more than 9 m (30 ft) and are actually gigantic herbs. What looks
like the trunk of a banana plant is neither woody nor a true stem. The true stem is underground, and the above-ground portion is called a pseudostem. Even when as large as 60 cm (2 ft) across, the pseudostem is made solely of overlapping,
concentric leaf sheaths wrapped tightly. _^<N__^<N_A slender flowering stalk several centimeters across grows up through the center of the pseudostem and bears a terminal cluster of flowers. The flowers emerge from a purple bract and are tubular,
with yellow petals. When plants are in the wild state, bees and bats pollinate the female flowers, each of which produces a banana. Wild banana fruit is seedy and inedible; the edible, cultivated types are seedless because they are set without
POLLINATION and have evolved sterility. _^<N__^<N_A Southeast Asian species, Musa textilis, supplies the Philippine Islands with a principal export--Manila HEMP, or abaca. In parts of Ethiopia the 6-m (20-ft) leaves of E. ventricosum provide
building material, fiber, and a starchy food. Several of the smaller species of Musa are grown as ornamentals. _^<N__^<N_ World Production and Trade_^<N__^<N_The world crop of bananas (including plantains, which are never reliably distinguished in
statistics) is not accurately recorded; estimates vary from about 35 million to more than 40 million metric tons. Many countries, including those in Africa, consume most of what they grow. Banana exporters, who supply the North American and
European markets, are led by Brazil, which is by far the world's largest producer. India follows, growing somewhat less than half of Brazil's crop. The Philippines, Ecuador, Colombia, and Honduras are also important producers. In the United
States only Hawaii grows significant amounts. The United States is the world's leading banana importer. Banana shipments are transported in special refrigerator units. _^<N__^<N_From small beginnings in the early years of the 19th century, the
trade became important toward the end of the century, aided by the development of fast refrigerated sea transport, improved local transport in the producing countries (such as Central American railways), and vertical integration of production from
plantation to point of retail. The United Fruit Company, formed in 1899, became the first big international name in the export business; in 1970 it was merged into United Brands. Standard Fruit and Steamship Company was established in 1923 as a
competitor; since 1968 it has been a subsidiary of Castle and Cook. Del Monte Corporation entered the banana trade in 1968 by purchasing the West Indies Fruit Company. Large landholdings and one-crop economies made the multinational companies
important influences in some Latin American countries, particularly in the early days of the banana industry. _^<N__^<N_The export trades have always been based on only two basic varieties: Gros Michel (or Martinique) and several mutants (called
"sports") of the Cavendish banana. Dwarf or semi-dwarf mutants of the latter have been especially important because they can be planted densely and are less susceptible to damage by wind than are tall bananas. In the early days, fruit bunches,
especially of Gros Michel, were mostly shipped unwrapped; parceling, or wrapping of bunches, was also practiced by some trades, but today most fruit is cut and boxed for transport. Fruit is always cut and carried green and ripened just before
delivery to retail stores by the use of ethylene gas in special chambers. _^<N__^<N_ Diseases_^<N__^<N_Export production has been bedeviled by epidemic diseases promoted by large-scale monoculture. Panama disease, or banana wilt, caused by a
soil-borne fungus; Sigatoka disease, or leaf-spot, caused by an airborne fungus; bacterial wilt; banana nematode; and bunchy-top, caused by a virus, have contributed substantially to the fluctuations in the banana trade's economic fortunes.
Efforts are being made to breed new, disease-resistant varieties. _^<N__^<N_N. W. Simmonds _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Reynolds, P. K., The Banana: Its History and Cultivation (1977); Simmonds, N. W., Bananas, 2d ed. (1978; repr. 1982).
-END-
-C-
730
CAT
-A-
bananaquit
-T-
bananaquit_^<N__^<N_{buh-nan'-uh-kwit} _^<N__^<N_The bananaquit, or banana bird, is a small SONGBIRD of the West Indies, except Cuba; it also ranges from Mexico to Argentina. It is found in gardens, scrub vegetation, and open woodlands; its domed
nest is constructed of banana leaf fibers. The sexes are similar in appearance: dark gray above and yellow below, black crowned, and often with a white stripe above the eye and a white patch on the wing. The bill is curved, with a tubular tongue
for drawing nectar from flowers. Insects are the main diet, however. The species, Coereba flaveola, is usually classified with the wood-warbler family, Parulidae, but some taxonomists place it in a separate honeycreeper family, Coerebidae.
_^<N__^<N_Robert J. Raikow
-END-
-C-
725
CAT
-A-
Bancroft, Anne
-T-
Bancroft, Anne_^<N__^<N_Anne Bancroft is the stage name of Anna Maria Italiano, b. New York City, Sept. 17, 1931, a stage and film actress. She achieved Broadway and Hollywood fame in the role of Annie Sullivan, Helen Keller's teacher, in The
Miracle Worker (1960; film, 1962), for which she won an Academy Award. Other notable films include The Graduate (1967), The Turning Point (1977); Fatso (1979), which she also wrote and directed; To Be or Not To Be (1983), with her husband, Mel
BROOKS; Night, Mother (1986); and 84 Charing Cross Road (1987). Bancroft won an Emmy award in 1970 for her television work, and starred in the Broadway production Golda (1977), about the life of Israeli leader Golda Meier. _^<N__^<N_Leslie
Halliwell
-END-
-C-
1493
CAT
-A-
Bancroft, George
-T-
Bancroft, George_^<N__^<N_George Bancroft, b. Worcester, Mass., Oct, 3, 1800, d. Jan. 17, 1891, was an American historian, diplomat, and statesman whose comprehensive 10-volume work, A History of the United States, from the Discovery of America to
the Inauguration of Washington (1834-74; rev. in 1876 and 1883-85), is considered a classic. After teaching at Harvard and at the Round Hill School in Northampton, Mass., he began a writing career. _^<N__^<N_A series of partisan essays,
published in the North American Review in the 1820s and '30s, in which he defended the positions of the Jacksonian Democrats, drew Bancroft into politics. In 1844 he ran unsuccessfully for the governorship of Massachusetts. As secretary of the
navy (1845-46) under James K. Polk, Bancroft actively supported American expansion even at the cost of war with Mexico. He then served (1846-49) as U.S. minister in London. Opposed to slavery, he abandoned his party during the sectional crisis
to support Abraham Lincoln, whose eulogy he delivered before Congress following the president's assassination. From 1867 to 1874 he served as the U.S. minister in Berlin. In addition to his history of the United States, Bancroft also wrote a
History of the Formation of the Constitution of the United States (2 vols., 1882) and a biography of Martin Van Buren (1889). _^<N__^<N_Joel Colton _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Canary, Robert H., George Bancroft (1974); Howe, M. De Wolfe, Life and
Letters of George Bancroft, 2 vols. (1908; repr. 1971).
-END-
-C-
813
CAT
-A-
Bancroft, Hubert Howe
-T-
Bancroft, Hubert Howe_^<N__^<N_Hubert Howe Bancroft, b. Granville, Ohio, May 5, 1832, d. Mar. 2, 1918, was an American historian, bookseller, and publisher. In 1856 he opened a bookstore in San Francisco and began to take an active interest in
the region's history. Bancroft compiled and published several volumes on the history of American Indians, Spanish settlements, and the early years of the West. Although they were issued as the Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft (1883-1890), little of
the writing was actually done by Bancroft. His collection of maps, manuscripts, and rare books was donated to the University of California and forms the nucleus of the Bancroft Library. _^<N__^<N_Joel Colton _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Caughey, John
W., Hubert Howe Bancroft, Historian of the West (1946); Clark, Harry. A Venture in History (1973).
-END-
-C-
587
CAT
-A-
Bancroft, Sir Squire
-T-
Bancroft, Sir Squire_^<N__^<N_Sir Squire Bancroft, b. May 4, 1841, d. Apr. 19, 1926, was a British actor who, with his actress wife, Marie Effie Wilton (1839-1921), was partly responsible for the popularity of drawing-room comedy on the 19th-century
English stage. As managers of the Prince of Wales Theatre from 1865, the couple employed the then-innovative boxset and raised actors' pay scales. Bancroft was knighted (1897) in recognition of these achievements. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bancroft,
Marie and Squire, The Bancrofts: Recollections of Sixty Years (1909); Bancroft, Squire, Empty Chairs (1925).
-END-
-C-
2084
CAT
-A-
band
-T-
band_^<N__^<N_Bands originated in the outdoor ensembles of the Renaissance. In modern usage, the term band denotes an instrumental ensemble consisting mainly or entirely of WIND INSTRUMENTS and PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS. In its broadest sense, the term
may designate almost any instrumental group, such as a JAZZ band, dance band, or BALALAIKA band. The various types of bands include brass, marching, military, and concert or symphonic. The largest of these, the concert band, usually includes a full
complement of woodwinds (piccolos, flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons, and saxophones), a large brass section (cornets, trumpets, horns, trombones, and tubas), and a large percussion section. Cellos and double basses are sometimes used to reinforce
the bass. _^<N__^<N_Notable concert bands were the Grand Boston Band founded by Patrick S. Gilmore in 1859 and the famous John Philip SOUSA band founded in 1892. Gilmore, who took his 22d Regiment Band of New York on a world tour, is regarded as
the father of the concert band in the United States. _^<N__^<N_Marching bands use neither oboes nor bassoons, the number of clarinets and saxophones is much reduced, and flutes are usually replaced by fifes. Brass bands are smaller yet, eliminating
all woodwind instruments except, sometimes, the alto saxophone. The modern brass band dates from the 1830s, when valves began to be used in brass instruments, greatly increasing their versatility. Military bands are usually larger than marching
bands but smaller than concert bands; today's larger groups, connected with various branches of the armed services, are highly polished ensembles capable of playing the most difficult music written for wind instruments. The size and instrumentation
of each type of band varies, particularly among the amateur groups in the United States. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Binns, P. L., A Hundred Years of Military Music (1959); Goldman, R. F., The Concert Band (1946) and The Wind Band: Its Literature and
Technique (1961); Hind, H. C., The Brass Band, rev. ed. (1952); Simon, George, The Big Bands (1981); Taylor, Arthur R., Brass Bands (1979).
-END-
-C-
1359
CAT
-A-
Banda, H. Kamuzu
-T-
Banda, H. Kamuzu_^<N__^<N_{ban'-duh, kah-moo'-zoo} _^<N__^<N_Hastings Kamuzu Banda, b. 1906?, is president of Malawi, formerly Nyasaland, which he led to full independence in 1964. The son of poor peasants who named him Kamuzu, he later adopted
Hastings as his first name. In 1923, Banda went to the United States, where he received a medical degree. He continued his studies in Scotland and practiced medicine in England and the Gold Coast (Ghana). Long active in the African independence
movement, Banda returned to Nyasaland in 1958 and was soon imprisoned (1959-60) for his nationalist activities. In 1961, under a constitution he had helped negotiate, Banda's Malawi Congress party won a majority in the legislature. Banda became
prime minister in 1963, when Britain granted Nyasaland internal self-government, and retained the post after independence. _^<N__^<N_When Malawi became a republic in 1966, Banda became president; he was sworn in as president-for-life in 1971.
During his years in office he gained complete control of the political and economic life of the country and his regime was criticized for human rights violations. Antigovernment protests erupted in Malawi in mid-1992, with demonstrators demanding
Banda's resignation. A national referendum held in June 1993 resulted in victory for opposition groups demanding an end to Banda's one-party, one-man rule.
-END-
-C-
718
CAT
-A-
Bandaranaike, Sirimavo
-T-
Bandaranaike, Sirimavo_^<N__^<N_{bahn-drah-ny'-kee, see-ree-mah'-voh} _^<N__^<N_Sirimavo Bandaranaike, B. Apr. 17, 1916, twice the prime minister of Sri Lanka (Ceylon), was the world's first woman prime minister. She married political leader
Solomon W. R. D. Bandaranaike in 1940. After her husband, then prime minister, was assassinated in 1959, she decided to enter politics herself. She led her husband's Sri Lanka Freedom party to victory in the general election of 1960 and served
as prime minister until 1965. She returned to office in 1970 at the head of a left-wing coalition. In the general election of 1977 her party suffered a heavy defeat, and she was retired from office. J. R. JAYAWARDENE became prime minister.
-END-
-C-
1065
CAT
-A-
Bandaranaike, Solomon W. R. D.
-T-
Bandaranaike, Solomon W. R. D._^<N__^<N_Solomon West Ridgeway Dias Bandaranaike, b. Jan. 8, 1899, d. Sept. 26, 1959, was a political leader and prime minister of Sri Lanka (Ceylon). The son of a wealthy landowner, he was educated at Oxford and
became a lawyer. Returning to Ceylon, he was elected (1931) to the legislative assembly. When Ceylon became independent (1947), he was a leader in the new House of Representatives and became minister of health and local government. Bandaranaike
subsequently resigned (1951) from the ruling United National party and the government to found the Sri Lanka Freedom party, and in 1956 he formed the People's United Front, an alliance of four leftist parties, which won the elections of 1956. As
prime minister, Bandaranaike adopted a neutralist position in international affairs. At home he fostered Sinhalese nationalism, provoking the hostility of the large Tamil population; he was also beset by economic problems. He was assassinated by
a Buddhist monk in 1959; his widow, Sirimavo Bandaranaike, became prime minister.
-END-
-C-
472
CAT
-A-
Bandello, Matteo
-T-
Bandello, Matteo_^<N__^<N_{bahn-del'-loh, maht-tay-'oh} _^<N__^<N_Matteo Bandello, b. c.1485, d. Sept. 13, 1561, is considered the most important short-story writer of the Italian Renaissance. Each of his 214 short stories is preceded by a
dedicatory letter to a famous personality of the time; written between 1510 and 1560, the stories are collected under the title Novelle. His work was a source for the writings of Lord BYRON, Alfred de MUSSET, SHAKESPEARE, and Lope de VEGA.
_^<N__^<N_Oscar Budel
-END-
-C-
1296
CAT
-A-
bandicoot
-T-
bandicoot_^<N__^<N_A bandicoot is any of 8 genera and about 19 species of MARSUPIAL mammals that constitute the family Peramelidae. Bandicoots are found in Australia, New Guinea, and several South Pacific islands. The name was first applied by the
explorer George Bass in 1799 because of the animals' supposed resemblance to India's bandicoot rat--from Telegu words meaning "pig-rat." _^<N__^<N_The bandicoot's coarsely haired body is from 28 to 76 cm (11 to 30 in) long, including the usually
ratlike tail. The muzzle is long and pointed, and the hind legs are longer than the forelegs. The forefeet look three-toed because the outer toes are vestigial. The second and third toes of the hind feet are fused, and the first toes are sometimes
absent. The female usually bears a litter of two to six young, and her marsupial pouch opens backward and downward. _^<N__^<N_Bandicoots are solitary, lively, mainly nocturnal animals that feed on insects, worms, and plants and build grassy nests
in burrows. Their digging can damage crops, and some species have been considered pests. Several species are endangered or perhaps extinct; in Australia, however, bandicoots are now protected. _^<N__^<N_Everett Sentman _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Sherman, Geraldine, Animals with Pouches: The Marsupials (1978); Tyndale-Biscoe, Hugh, Life of Marsupials (1973).
-END-
-C-
1548
CAT
-A-
Bandinelli, Baccio
-T-
Bandinelli, Baccio_^<N__^<N_{bahn-dee-nel'-lee} _^<N__^<N_Baccio (or Bartolomeo) Bandinelli, b. Nov. 12, 1493, d. Feb. 7, 1560, was a Florentine Mannerist sculptor, painter, and goldsmith. He was trained by his father, an eminent goldsmith, and
later entered the workshop of the sculptor Giovanni Francesco Rustici. Bandinelli worked mostly for the MEDICI family, producing, among numerous other works, a copy of the LAOCOON (completed 1525, Uffizi Gallery, Florence), tombs of the popes Leo X
and Clement VII (after 1536; both in Santa Maria sopra Minerva, Rome), and a portrait bust of Cosimo I de'Medici (c.1544; Bargello, Florence). His life was marked by intense rivalry with Benvenuto CELLINI and MICHELANGELO. Bandinelli boasted that
his major sculpture, Hercules and Cacus (1525-34; Piazza della Signoria, Florence) would surpass Michelangelo's DAVID, then standing nearby. Instead, it appeared labored and awkward in comparison and was much criticized. The choir screen that
Bandinelli began in 1547 for the Duomo (Cathedral) of Florence was not successful either, for it was later altered and partially dismantled. His best work is probably Dead Christ Supported by Nicodemus (1554-59), begun by his son Clemente in his
own memorial chapel in the church of Santissimo Annunziata, Florence. _^<N__^<N_Giulia Bartrum _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Pope-Hennessy, John, Italian High Renaissance and Baroque Sculpture (1963); Vasari, Giorgio, The Lives of the Painters,
Sculptors, and Architects, trans. by A. B. Hinds (1963). _^<N__^<N_See also: ITALIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE; MANNERISM; SCULPTURE.
-END-
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1127
CAT
-A-
Bandung
-T-
Bandung_^<N__^<N_Bandung (1990 pop., 2,058,122) is the capital city of West Java province on the island of JAVA, Indonesia. About 120 km (75 mi) southeast of Jakarta, the city is a Sundanese cultural and educational center and has a relatively
moderate climate because of its altitude of 768 m (2,520 ft). Bandung's average annual temperature is 22 deg C (72 deg F), and its rainfall averages 2,150 mm (85 in). The city is hemmed in by a series of volcanic peaks covered with tangled upland
vegetation. Bandung is the center of Indonesia's quinine industry, with cinchona grown on nearby plantations. It is also noted for its ceramics and textiles. _^<N__^<N_Settled around 1810, the city has grown rapidly in the 20th century. It is the
home of the Institute for Technical Research, the Padjadjaran State University, and a nuclear research center. Just outside the city is the Tangkubanprahu (Upside-Down Boat), a volcanic crater that can be entered. _^<N__^<N_In 1955, Bandung was
the site of a conference of 29 African and Asian nations--the first of its kind--which helped prepare the way for the establishment of the NONALIGNED NATIONS MOVEMENT.
-END-
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399
CAT
-A-
baneberry
-T-
baneberry_^<N__^<N_The baneberry is any plant of the genus Actaea in the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae. They are perennial herbs with terminal clusters of small, white flowers. The baneberry is found in rich, shady woods in temperate North America
and northern Eurasia. The white berries on the white baneberry, or snakeroot, and the red berries on the red baneberry, or cohosh, are poisonous. _^<N__^<N_Hugh M. Raup
-END-
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553
CAT
-A-
Banff (Alberta)
-T-
Banff (Alberta)_^<N__^<N_Banff is an unincorporated Canadian town on the Bow River in southwestern Alberta, near the British Columbian border. It is situated in the Rocky Mountains at an altitude of 1,382 m (4,534 ft) and is mainly a tourist center
with a seasonally fluctuating population. The town is the headquarters of Banff National Park (established 1885), renowned for its magnificent mountain and glacier scenery, including Lake Louise, and for its abundant wildlife. The Banff School of
Fine Arts, part of the University of Alberta, is located there.
-END-
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966
CAT
-A-
Banff (Scotland)
-T-
Banff (Scotland)_^<N__^<N_Banff (also called Banffshire) was a county in northeastern Scotland until 1975, when it became part of the Grampian administrative region. On the south shore of Moray Firth, it is between the North Sea coast, to the
north, and the Cairngorm Mountains, a range of the Grampian Mountains, to the south. Banff, a seaport at the mouth of the Deveron River, was the county town. The rivers Avon, Deveron, and Spey drain the mainly livestock-raising and dairy-farming
region. Marble and granite are quarried, and fishing and tourism are important in the coastal river towns. Industries include distilling, boatbuilding, food processing, and textile manufacturing. The remains of an ancient castle, built as a
defense against Viking raids, still stand. _^<N__^<N_Because of the commercial advantages afforded by membership in the HANSEATIC LEAGUE, Banff was an important port during the Middle Ages. The entire county was a center of the JACOBITES after
1689.
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965
CAT
-A-
Bang, Herman
-T-
Bang, Herman_^<N__^<N_The Danish writer Herman Joachim Bang, b. Apr. 20, 1857, d. Jan. 29, 1912, was noted for his critical essays, verse, impressionistic short stories, and psychologically insightful provincial novels. While studying at the
University of Copenhagen, he began writing stories and essays and published his first novel, Hablose Slaegter (Hopeless Generations), in 1880. Bang began a career as a journalist and from 1884 was chief correspondent for the paper National-Tidende.
He continued writing, however, and produced novels probing the depression, frustration, and loneliness of life. Among these are Tine (1889), which was greatly admired by Ibsen; Ida Brandt (1896; Eng. trans., 1928); Det hvide hus (The White House,
1898); and Denied a Country (1906; Eng. trans., 1927). _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Mitchell, Philip M., A History of Danish Literature, 2d ed. (1971); Rossei, Sven, A History of Scandinavian Literature: 1870 to 1980, trans. by A. Culmer (1982).
-END-
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1441
CAT
-A-
Bangalore
-T-
Bangalore_^<N__^<N_{bang'-guh-lohr} _^<N__^<N_Bangalore, the capital of the Karnataka (formerly Mysore) state of India, is situated on a ridge in the southern Mysore Plateau at an elevation of 949 m (3,113 ft). The city comprises an area of 175 sq
km (67 sq mi) and has a population of 2,650,659 (1991). As a result of its elevation, the city has a pleasant climate, which has made it a noted retirement site. Average annual temperature is 24 deg C (75 deg F), and rainfall is a moderate 889 mm
(35 in). _^<N__^<N_After World War II, the city experienced rapid growth and rose in rank to one of the largest cities in India, mainly because of rapid industrialization. Bangalore is a center of diversified industries, producing cotton textiles,
electronics, machinery, and aircraft. The city has several institutes of learning, including the Indian Institute of Science. _^<N__^<N_Kempe Gowda, founder of the city in 1537, erected a mud fort, which was rebuilt in stone in 1761. Some remains
of the palace of TIPPU SULTAN are in the center of the oval fort. Lord CORNWALLIS captured the fort in 1791 for the British. It became the administrative capital in 1831 and was the center of British rule until 1881. Surrounding the fort, the
old city is congested, but the planned gridiron suburbs in the north and south, along with the cantonment area in the east, are open and gardenlike. The notable botanic gardens of Lal Bagh were laid out in the 18th century. _^<N__^<N_Ashok K. Dutt
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2720
CAT
-A-
Bangkok
-T-
Bangkok_^<N__^<N_{bang'-kahk} _^<N__^<N_Bangkok is the capital and chief port of Thailand and one of the most important cities in Southeast Asia. It is located on the east bank of the Chao Phraya River 40 km (24 mi) upstream from the Gulf of
Thailand. Bangkok's Thai name is Krung Thep ("City of Angels"). The population of Bangkok Metropolis, which includes that of the industrial city of Thon Buri on the west bank of the river, is 5,876,000 (1990 est.). _^<N__^<N_Bangkok was known
during the 19th century as the Venice of the East because of its many canals, which served as streets and commercial thoroughfares. The city has undergone extensive development in recent years, however, and many of the canals have been paved over.
The surrounding region, the river's delta plain, is flat and swampy, and heavy rains frequently cause flooding during the rainy season (May to October). _^<N__^<N_Most of the citizens of contemporary Bangkok are Thais, although a significant number
of Chinese, many of whom are merchants, also live there. Houses perched on stilts lining the banks of the canals can still be seen. Although the city has many modern skyscrapers and buildings that reflect a European influence, perhaps its most
distinctive features are the approximately 400 Buddhist temples, called wats. Bangkok is a regional center for many United Nations agencies and the site of Chulalongkorn, Kasetsart, Thammasat, Mahidol, and other universities. _^<N__^<N_Bangkok is
Thailand's economic center. The city's industries are based primarily on the products of the surrounding region. Processed rice and lumber are most important. Others include sugar, paper, textiles, cigarettes, soap, matches, metal, and processed
foods. Tourism is also important. _^<N__^<N_Bangkok is the center of Thailand's transportation system. The modern port of Klongtoi, 7 km (4 mi) downstream from central Bangkok, handles about 90 percent of Thailand's foreign trade. Much of the local
commerce was long distributed by canals--the city's first road was not built until 1860. The busy Don Muang international airport is nearby. _^<N__^<N_At first a small agricultural community, Bangkok became the capital of Siam in 1782 when Chao
Phraya Chakkri (Rama I), founder of the Chakkri dynasty, moved his government from Thon Buri. Rama I built the walled Grand Palace, which contains the Wat Po and the Wat Emerald Buddha. The first major secular construction projects were undertaken
during the reign (1851-68) of Mongkut (Rama IV). During the 20th century, and especially since World War II, the city has grown rapidly. _^<N__^<N_Ashok K. Dutt _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Baedeker's Bangkok, rev. ed. (1987); Hookin, John, Bangkok
(1991); Hurliman, Martin, Bangkok (1963); Seidenfaden, Erik, Guide to Bangkok with Notes on Siam (1985).
-END-
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14460
CATO
4742
9451
14285
-A-
Bangladesh
-O-
000000|Bangladesh
001163| THE LAND AND RESOURCES
002464| Climate
003076| Vegetation and Animal Life
003538| Natural Resources
004255| THE PEOPLE
004745| Demography
005512| Education
005876| The Arts
006195| ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
006815| Agriculture
007672| Manufacturing
008248| Transportation and Trade
009130| GOVERNMENT
009584| HISTORY
-T-
Bangladesh_^<N__^<N_{bahng-glah-desh'} _^<N__^<N_Bangladesh (formerly East Pakistan) is an independent country in southern Asia located on the Bay of Bengal, bounded on most of its borders by India and to the southeast by Myanmar (Burma); it
occupies a total area of 143,998 sq km (55,598 sq mi). Bangladesh is one of the world's most densely populated and fastest-growing countries. DHAKA (Dacca) is the capital city. Bangladesh is an overwhelmingly agricultural country, with rich
farmland and major crops of rice and jute. _^<N__^<N_Before 1947, most of the territory now in Bangladesh was part of the province of British-ruled India known as East Bengal which in 1947 joined with the Sylhet district of Assam and became East
Pakistan in the new state of Pakistan. Growing economic and political differences with West Pakistan led East Pakistan to declare independence in 1971 as the new nation of Bangladesh. The name Bangladesh means "the Bengal nation." Not all who
speak the Bengali language and otherwise identify with the cultural history of Bengal, however, are included within Bangladesh boundaries; many Bengalis live to the west of Bangladesh in the Indian province of West Bengal. _^<N__^<N_ THE LAND AND
RESOURCES_^<N__^<N_The Chittagong Hills in eastern and southeastern Bangladesh include the highest and most rugged parts of the nation, with elevations rising to more than 1,200 m (4,000 ft) above sea level. The remainder of Bangladesh is
generally low-lying, with elevations approaching only 300 m (900 ft) in the hills of the northwest and northeast and considerably lower on the vast deltaic plains on the BRAHMAPUTRA, GANGES, and Meghna rivers. The lowlands of the delta region are
crisscrossed by numerous distributaries of the main rivers. _^<N__^<N_About 6% of the total land area of Bangladesh is permanently under water, and two-thirds is flooded for part of the year. The floods often result in great loss of life, crops,
and property damage but are, nonetheless, of special value to agricultural Bangladesh for the sediments (alluvium) that the muddy floodwaters deposit on the land. These alluvial soils are rich in minerals and other nutrients needed for plant
growth. The fertility of the soil has attracted thousands of landless laborers to shifting silt islands off the coast, despite their vulnerability to natural disasters. This vulnerability was graphically illustrated in April 1991, when a violent
cyclone struck the nation's coastal region and claimed an estimated 125,000 lives. _^<N__^<N_ Climate_^<N__^<N_Bangladesh has a tropical monsoon-type climate, with a hot and rainy summer and a pronounced dry season in the cooler months. January is
the coolest month of the year, with temperatures averaging near 26 deg C (78 deg F), and April the warmest month, with temperatures ranging between 33 deg C and 36 deg C (91 deg F and 96 deg F). The climate is one of the wettest in the world;
most places receive more than 1,525 mm (60 in) of rain a year, and areas near the hills receive 5,080 mm (200 in). Most rain falls during the monsoon (June-September) and little during the dry season (November-February). _^<N__^<N_ Vegetation and
Animal Life_^<N__^<N_About 15% of Bangladesh is still forested; the three principal forest regions are the Madhupur jungle, the tidal forest in the coastal Sundarbans (a swamp region in the Ganges delta), and the tropical rain forest of the
Chittagong Hills. Bamboo and rattan are abundant. Tigers and other game are found in the Madhupur jungle and Sundarbans, crocodiles in the Sundarbans, and elephants, rhinoceroses, and leopards in the hill areas. _^<N__^<N_ Natural
Resources_^<N__^<N_The principal resources of Bangladesh are the fertile soils of the delta region, the long growing season, and the heavy rainfall suitably distributed over the year for growing rice and jute. The nation's abundant water supplies
are used to produce hydroelectric power and for irrigating farmlands during the dry season. A pact with India, signed in 1977, provides Bangladesh with a share of the waters of the Ganges. _^<N__^<N_Although minerals have traditionally been
economically unimportant, the country has large reserves of natural gas and some petroleum deposits. Natural gas is piped into Dhaka and CHITTAGONG for industrial use. There are also large deposits of low-grade coal, mined at Jamalpur. _^<N__^<N_
THE PEOPLE_^<N__^<N_About 98% of the people of Bangladesh are Bengalis, a generally short, brown-skinned people; most of the remainder are tribal peoples, who have distinctly Mongoloid features and live mainly in the hills. About 85% of the
population is Muslim and, except for the tribal peoples who are mainly animistic in religious outlook, most of the remaining people are Hindu. Bengali, the national language, is spoken by all but the tribal hill people, who speak a a variety of
languages. _^<N__^<N_ Demography_^<N__^<N_Bangladesh has one of the highest birthrates and population densities in the world. The average life expectancy for both men and women is about 46 years. Cholera, tuberculosis, leprosy, and malaria occur
widely, aided by the generally unsanitary conditions; and, despite a doubling of facilities in recent years, medical personnel, facilities, and supplies are in chronically short supply. _^<N__^<N_Most people live in the countryside. The largest
cities are Dhaka and the port of Chittagong. Villages are often located on the highest available ground, with houses further raised on earthen plinths. A large percentage of the rural population is landless, and the number of landless laborers is
rising steadily as landholdings become increasingly fragmented. _^<N__^<N_ Education_^<N__^<N_About one-fourth of the population is literate; and for each literate woman, three men can read and write. Literacy rates are higher in urban areas.
About 60% of all children attend primary schools; far fewer attend a technical school or one of the six universities. The largest university is the University of Dhaka (see SOUTH ASIAN UNIVERSITIES). _^<N__^<N_ The Arts_^<N__^<N_Bengali
literature--rooted in folk legend, ballads, and religious stories--has long flourished. Rabindranath TAGORE, the renowned Bengali poet who won the NOBEL PRIZE for literature in 1913, remains popular today. Art and architectural traditions conform
distinctly to 16th- and 17th-century Islamic styles. _^<N__^<N_ ECONOMIC ACTIVITY_^<N__^<N_Before the Industrial Revolution, Bangladesh was known for its fine cotton textiles, but this industry was eclipsed in the 18th and 19th centuries by the
production of cheaper mill cloth overseas in Europe. Thereafter, the economy of Bangladesh was primarily agricultural, with major exports in the 18th and 19th centuries of opium and indigo and, in the 20th century, of jute and jute products.
Industrial development was not encouraged by the British, and many factories established following partition from India in 1947 were subsequently destroyed in the struggle for independence from Pakistan. _^<N__^<N_ Agriculture_^<N__^<N_The economy
today remains primarily agricultural, and nearly two-thirds of the land area is under cultivation. Double and triple crops are obtained where water is available for irrigation during the dry season. Farms are generally small, and many are so
small that normal agricultural crises, such as floods, other natural disasters, and price fluctuations, have forced many small landowners to sell their land and seek other employment. Rice, planted on 90% of the cultivated land, is the leading
crop, but even in good years the output is insufficient for the needs of the rapidly growing population. The government is encouraging increased planting of wheat as a food crop. The principal cash crops are jute, which is grown in flooded fields
on the delta, and tea, which is produced mainly in the Sylhet and the Chittagong Hills regions. _^<N__^<N_ Manufacturing_^<N__^<N_Jute processing is the principal factory industry. Bangladesh supplies more than half of the world's jute, but the
paper and plastic-packaging revolution has reduced world demand for jute products, and the Bangladesh economy has suffered accordingly. Other manufactures include textiles, cigarettes, steel, cement, fertilizers and chemicals. Many of the
industries nationalized by the government in 1972 have since been returned to private ownership. _^<N__^<N_The chief sources of power are natural gas and thermal electricity produced from oil, natural gas, and coal. _^<N__^<N_ Transportation and
Trade_^<N__^<N_The transportation and communication system was severely damaged during the war of independence, and in 1988 and 1991, when flooding left three-quarters of the country under water. The economy was dealt a further blow by the 1990
Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and the PERSIAN GULF WAR in 1991, which cost the nation an estimated 3 percent of its gross national product in increased oil prices, trade losses, and lost remittances from Bangladeshi workers formerly employed in the
Persian Gulf region. _^<N__^<N_Bangladesh has an unfavorable balance of trade and depends heavily on international aid and large economic development loans from overseas to feed its large population and finance economic development. The principal
export commodities are jute and jute products, tea, leather goods and fish. Imports include food, chemicals, manufactured goods, and machinery. _^<N__^<N_ GOVERNMENT_^<N__^<N_Bangladesh's constitution of 1972 provided for a parliamentary
government headed by a prime minister; it was revised in 1975 to a presidentialial system, with a strong, elected president as chief executive. After the first president, Sheikh MUJIBUR RAHMAN, was assassinated, periods of military rule
alternated with elected governments. A constitutional referendum in September 1991 approved a return to a parliamentary form of government. _^<N__^<N_ HISTORY_^<N__^<N_Bangladesh, independent only since 1971 and thus one of the world's youngest
nations, has a long history of domination by larger political entities. In the late 16th century much of the area that is now Bangladesh was conquered by the Mogul emperor AKBAR, and, under Mogul rule, most of the population, which had hitherto
been predominantly Buddhist, was converted to Islam. After 1707, Mogul control weakened, and Bangladesh was caught up in the struggle by European trading and financial interests, including the British EAST INDIA COMPANY, for control of the Indian
subcontinent. In 1757, Robert CLIVE led British forces in the famous victory over the nawab of Plassey, and in 1764 the Mogul emperor acknowledged the dominance of the British, who remained in control until 1947. _^<N__^<N_In the early 20th
century, conflicts between Hindu and Muslim interests became intense. In 1947, when the British withdrew, the two independent nations of Pakistan, which was predominantly Muslim and included modern Bangladesh, and India, which was largely Hindu,
were created. In this partition, East Bengal, where most of the jute was produced, became part of East Pakistan, and West Bengal, where the jute-processing factories were located, became part of India. _^<N__^<N_The two provinces of the new
Pakistan nation had almost nothing in common other than the shared Islamic faith; moreover, East Pakistan was separated by more than 1,600 km (1,000 mi) from West Pakistan, and, with more than half the population of the new nation, it felt
underrepresented in a government dominated by West Pakistan. In the 1970 national elections, East Pakistan's Awami League, under Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, won a majority of seats in the Pakistan National Assembly but was denied power by delays in the
opening of the assembly. On Mar. 26, 1971, East Pakistan proclaimed its independence as the new state of Bangladesh. The national government of Pakistan responded by invading the eastern province, but, with assistance from India, the Pakistani
army was driven back before the end of 1971 (see INDIA-PAKISTAN WARS). _^<N__^<N_Sheikh Mujibur Rahman became the first prime minister and, under the amended constitution of 1975, the first president. Mujibur was overthrown and assassinated on Aug.
15, 1975, in a military coup led by Khondaker Moshtaque Ahmed, who was in turn overthrown in a military counter coup in November 1975. Gen. Ziaur Rahman then assumed power and was president from 1977 until his assassination in an unsuccessful
military coup in May 1981. Former vice-president Abdus Sattar, elected president in November 1981, was deposed in March 1982 in a bloodless military coup led by Lt. Gen. Hossain Mohammad ERSHAD. _^<N__^<N_Ershad formed his own political party and
proclaimed himself head of state and chief martial law administrator in December 1983. In a March 1985 referendum, voters approved Ershad's policies and his continuation in office until elections under the suspended constitution could be held.
The elections were finally held in May 1986, but they were marked by substantial violence; Ershad supporters in the Jatiya party were accused of fraud and vote-rigging. The Jatiya party won a majority in parliament and Ershad won the presidency
in an election boycotted by the opposition. New parliamentary elections held in 1988 after a wave of antigovernment protests were also boycotted by the opposition, and there was further violence when Islam was declared the state religion later
that year. _^<N__^<N_In December 1990, Ershad suddenly resigned under pressure. A caretaker government was formed, and Ershad was later placed under house arrest and charged with corruption and misuse of power. New elections were held in February
1991. Begum Khaleda Ziaur Rahman, head of the center-right Bangladesh Nationalist party and widow of former president Ziaur Rahman, became the nations' first woman prime minister on Mar. 20, 1991. On Apr. 30, 1991, the fragile new democracy was
severely tested when a devastating cyclone left more than 125,000 people dead and thousands more threatened by famine and disease. _^<N__^<N_David Dickason _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Baxter, Craig, Bangladesh (1985); Bhuiyan, Abdul W., Emergence of
Bangladesh and the Role of the Awami League (1982); Faaland, Just, ed., Aid and Influence: The Case of Bangladesh (1980); Franda, Marcus, Bangladesh: The First Decade (1982); Jansen, E. G., Rural Bangladesh (1987); Kahn, A. R., and Hossain,
M., The Strategy of Development in Bangladesh (1990); Kahn, M. T., and Thorp, J. P., Bangladesh (1985); Karim, A. Nazmul, The Dynamics of Bangladesh Society (1980); Maniruzzaman, Talukdar, Bangladesh Revolution and Its Aftermath (1981); Novak,
James J., Bangladesh: Reflections on the Water (1993); O'Donnell, Charles P., Bangladesh (1984); Rashid, H. E., Geography of Bangladesh (1978). _^<N__^<N__^<N__^<N_See also: INDIA, HISTORY OF.
-END-
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625
CAT
-A-
Bangor
-T-
Bangor_^<N__^<N_Bangor is a city in east central Maine and the seat of Penobscot County. The city has a population of 33,181 (1990 census) and the metropolitan area has a population of 88,745 (1990 census). A port of entry, it is located at the
head of navigation on the Penobscot River, 29 km (18 mi) from the Atlantic Ocean. Bangor is a commercial and industrial center that manufactures paper, electronics equipment, and machinery. It is surrounded by Maine's vast timber stands and is a
leading lumber port. Settled in 1769, it grew considerably after 1830 with the advent of shipbuilding and expansion of the lumber industry.
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32
CAT
-A-
Bang's disease:
-T-
Bang's disease:_^<N__^<N_see BRUCELLOSIS.
-END-
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413
CAT
-A-
Bangui
-T-
Bangui_^<N__^<N_{bahn-gee'} _^<N__^<N_Bangui (1988 est. pop., 596,776) is the capital city of the Central African Republic in central Africa and lies at the head of navigation of the Ubangi River. Bangui has many small industries and handles the
country's exports, mainly timber, cotton, sisal, and coffee. A network of road and rail lines connects it with Cameroon, Chad, and Sudan. The University of Bangui was founded in 1969.
-END-
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411
CAT
-A-
Bangweulu, Lake
-T-
Bangweulu, Lake_^<N__^<N_{bang'-wee-oo-loo} _^<N__^<N_Lake Bangweulu is an 80-by-40-km (50-by-25-mi) lake in northeast ZAMBIA, about 65 km (40 mi) east of Mansa. The lake, at an altitude of 1,140 m (3,740 ft), has an area of 9,840 sq km (3,800 sq
mi). It is surrounded by swamps, which flood during the rainy season, and is drained by the Luapula River. David LIVINGSTONE first visited the lake in 1868, and he died there in 1873.
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653
CAT
-A-
Bani-Sadr, Abolhassan
-T-
Bani-Sadr, Abolhassan_^<N__^<N_{bah'-nee-sah'-duhr, ah-bohl-hah'-sahn} _^<N__^<N_The Iranian economist Abolhassan Bani-Sadr, b. 1931, was president of Iran from 1980 to 1981. Bani-Sadr returned to Iran in 1979 after 16 years' exile in Paris and was
elected president in January 1980. Although he gained 75 percent of the popular vote, he lacked the necessary support in parliament, in which the fundamentalist clerics had a majority. In his power struggle with the fundamentalists, he eventually
lost the support of the Ayatollah KHOMEINI. In June 1981 he was declared politically incompetent by parliament and subsequently dismissed by Khomeini. He fled to Paris in July.
-END-
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469
CAT
-A-
Banjarmasin
-T-
Banjarmasin_^<N__^<N_Banjarmasin is a port city on Borneo and the capital of South Kalimantan province, Indonesia. The city has a population of 437,000 (1983 est.), and it is a port of call for large vessels and a trade center for locally produced
minerals, timber, and rubber. Settled by Hindus about the 14th century, Banjarmasin came under Muslim influence about 1500. The Dutch began trade in 1606 and occupied the city in 1711. The city was held by the Japanese in 1942-45.
-END-
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855
CAT
-A-
banjo
-T-
banjo_^<N__^<N_The banjo is a plucked string instrument that has a long fretted neck piercing a circular frame over which a membrane is tightened with thumb screws, often containing a resonator over the open back. A descendant of the West African
long-necked lute, it came to the Americas with the slave trade. In the 19th century, a more highly developed banjo, popular especially in blackface minstrel shows, was exported to England. In the early 20th century, it became an important rhythmic
instrument of the jazz band, and it is now cultivated as a folk instrument. The standard form is the finger-style banjo, originally gut-strung, its five strings plucked with bare fingers. A plectrum banjo with four metal strings is among the other
types that have been manufactured. _^<N__^<N_Robert A. Warner _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Marcuse, Sybil, A Survey of Musical Instruments (1975).
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712
CAT
-A-
Banjul
-T-
Banjul_^<N__^<N_{bahn'-jool} _^<N__^<N_Banjul (formerly Bathurst) is the capital city of GAMBIA. It has a population of 40,000 (1986 est.), 90 percent of which is Muslim. The city is located on St. Mary's Island at the mouth of the Gambia River
and is connected to the mainland by ferry. It is the economic center and major port of the country, capable of handling over 300 ships each year. Its major industry is groundnut processing, and Banjul's beaches and abundant birdlife are the
foundation of a growing tourist industry. Founded as a British trading post in 1816, the city was a British crown colony until it achieved independence in 1965. An international airport is located at Yundum, 16 km (10 mi) outside the city.
-END-
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668
CAT
-A-
Bank of Canada
-T-
Bank of Canada_^<N__^<N_The Bank of Canada is that country's CENTRAL BANK. Founded in 1934 and nationalized in 1938, it was assigned the task of regulating credit and currency in the national interest. Although Canada's highly centralized banking
system consists of only 8 Canadian-owned commercial banks (1990), these have a total of almost 7,000 branches. The Bank of Canada is both the note-issuing authority and the holder of reserve deposits for the commercial banks. It can therefore
influence the national economy by adjusting interest rates on the loans it makes to commercial banks, by changing the banks' reserve requirements, and by buying and selling securities.
-END-
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1968
CAT
-A-
Bank of Credit and Commerce International
-T-
Bank of Credit and Commerce International_^<N__^<N_Founded in 1972 with Middle Eastern capital, the Bank of Credit and Commerce International (BCCI) was based in Luxembourg and the Cayman Islands and managed by Pakistani financiers from London. In
1991 it achieved notoriety when bank regulators on several continents seized its assets, charging that it had concealed losses for years. Its illegal acquisition of First American Bankshares, Inc., the holding company for one of the largest bank
chains in the southeastern United States and the largest bank in the District of Columbia, led to the forced resignation of First American's chairman, Clark CLIFFORD, and indictments for fraud, larceny, bribery, and money laundering. Clifford was
alleged to have borrowed money on highly favorable terms from BCCI to purchase First American shares that were then sold by a BCCI subsidiary in the Caymans for three times their purchase price. An audit meanwhile had shown that several of the
original investors in First American had paid for their stock with undisclosed loans from BCCI that were never repaid, in effect making BCCI the hidden owner of the shares, a federal offense. A 1986 CIA report on BCCI's illegal acquisition of
First American came to light in July 1991, raising questions as to why the Department of Justice and the Federal Reserve took no action, especially as the CIA had been using First American as a cover for secret arms payments from Iran (see
IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIR). _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Adams, James Ring, and Frantz, Douglas, A Full Service Bank: How BCCI Stole Billions Around the World (1992); Beaty, Jonathan, and Gwynne, S. C., The Outlaw Bank: A Wild Ride into the Secret Heart of
BCCI (1993); Potts, Mark, Kochan, Nicholas, and Whittington, Robert, Dirty Money: BCCI: The Inside Story of the World's Sleaziest Bank (1992); Truell, Peter, and Gurwin, Larry, False Profits: The Inside Story of BCCI, the World's Most Corrupt
Financial Empire (1993).
-END-
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682
CAT
-A-
Bank of England
-T-
Bank of England_^<N__^<N_The Bank of England was the first CENTRAL BANK. It serves as the banker to the government of the United Kingdom, with sole authority to issue notes in England and Wales, and also as the banker to the country's commercial
banks. Until 1946 the bank was privately owned, but it had long governed its operations in the national interest. Chartered as a joint-stock company in 1694, the bank helped fund the national debt arising from William III's wars in Ireland and
against France. Today the bank is able to adjust the country's supply of money through the purchase and sale of securities. It also controls interest rates and sets limits on the amount of bank credit.
-END-
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769
CAT
-A-
Bank for International Settlements
-T-
Bank for International Settlements_^<N__^<N_The Bank for International Settlements (BIS) was established in 1930 in Basel, Switzerland, to promote cooperation among CENTRAL BANKS and generally to facilitate international operations by acting as a
"central bank's bank." The bank's authorized capital is 1.5 billion gold francs, divided into 600,000 shares. Subscribing to these shares are the central banks (or surrogate institutions) of 24 European countries and 5 other nations, which exercise
the right of representation and voting at annual meetings in proportions to their shares (some shares are in private hands with no participation at annual meetings). The BIS is thus a limited-share company, but it is also an international
organization governed by international law.
-END-
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2546
CAT
-A-
Bank of the United States
-T-
Bank of the United States_^<N__^<N_The first Bank of the United States was established in 1791. A private corporation operating under a federal charter, the bank was designed by Secretary of the Treasury Alexander HAMILTON as a way to secure the
safety of public funds, stabilize the currency, and provide a source of credit for the federal government and private business. _^<N__^<N_The federal government subscribed for 20 percent of the bank's stock of $10 million. In return the bank
served as the government's fiscal agent. Although it had no direct legal power to regulate state banks, the Bank of the United States was able to prevent abuses by state-chartered banks by collecting their notes and demanding redemption in specie.
Doubts about the constitutional power of the federal government to charter a private corporation, however, had been raised by Thomas JEFFERSON in 1791, and despite the bank's excellent record in the handling of public funds and in stabilizing the
currency, these doubts persisted. In 1811, when the bank's charter expired, it was not renewed. _^<N__^<N_The instability of state banks, however, led to the chartering of the Second Bank of the United States in 1816. The charter of the second
bank resembled the first, but the U.S. president was now empowered to name 5 of the bank's 25 directors. Under its first president, William Jones, the bank engaged in inflationary lending policies that undermined the bank's stability. The second
president, Langlon Cheves (1819-23), created ill will by foreclosing on bank loans, but he restored the bank's role as a conservative influence in the nation's economy. He was succeeded in 1823 by Nicholas BIDDLE. _^<N__^<N_President Andrew
JACKSON, disturbed by misgivings about the bank's constitutionality and angered by political opposition from some of the bank's officers, opposed renewal of the bank's charter. Biddle's efforts to defeat Jackson through an alliance with Henry CLAY
were unavailing. Jackson vetoed a recharter bill, won reelection in 1832, and by executive order withdrew all federal deposits from the bank in 1833. Crippled by loss of government patronage, the bank had ceased to be an effective force for
national economic stability by the time its charter expired in 1836. _^<N__^<N_Alfred A. Cave _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Holdsworth, John T., and Dewey, Davis R., First and Second Banks of the United States (1910); Remini, Robert V., Andrew Jackson
and the Bank War (1967); Taylor, G.R., ed., Jackson versus Biddle's Bank (1972); Wilburn, Jean A., Biddle's Bank: The Crucial Years (1967).
-END-
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631
CAT
-A-
Bankhead, Tallulah
-T-
Bankhead, Tallulah_^<N__^<N_Tallulah Brockman Bankhead, b. Huntsville, Ala., Jan. 31, 1903, d. Dec. 12, 1968, was an American actress who starred in numerous New York and London stage productions and intermittently in films. She won the New York
Drama Critics best actress awards for The Little Foxes (1939) and The SKIN OF OUR TEETH (1942). Her most memorable film role was in Alfred HITCHCOCK's Lifeboat (1943), for which she won the New York Film Critics top award in 1944. Her autobiography
Tallulah (1952) was a bestseller. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Israel, Lee, Miss Tallulah Bankhead (1973); Tunney, Kieran, Tallulah: Darling of the Gods (1974).
-END-
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13622
CATO
4841
9672
-A-
banking systems
-O-
000000|banking systems
003776| Fractional Reserve System
005072| History
006802| Banking in the United States
009265| Banking in Other Countries
010321| International Banking
010829| Unresolved Issues and Developments
-T-
banking systems_^<N__^<N_Commercial banks, usually called just "banks," in the United States are institutions that provide checking accounts to the public and have a substantial proportion of their assets invested in loans to business firms. Owing
to deregulation in the 1980s and 1990s, the difference between commercial banks and savings banks (see SAVINGS INDUSTRY) has been disappearing. Commercial banks now offer individual savings services, and savings institutions increasingly offer
checking services, while both kinds of institutions have extended their lending to each other's traditional markets. _^<N__^<N_Banks today accept checkable deposits, such as a DEMAND DEPOSIT or a NOW (Negotiable Order of Withdrawal) account, as
well as time deposits, and use their depositors' funds mainly to make loans and buy securities. (Currently about one-quarter of their total portfolio of loans and securities consists of securities, close to one-quarter of commercial and industrial
loans, almost a third of real estate loans, and about one-eighth of consumer loans.) _^<N__^<N_Banks thus operate as financial intermediaries, standing between the primary lenders (depositors) and the ultimate borrowers. In this way they provide
many services. One is the pooling of risks. A bank that makes many loans is spreading its risks. It is highly likely to experience losses on a few loans but most unlikely to experience losses on all or most. (In contrast, someone who makes only
a single loan faces an all-or- nothing situation.) Another service of banks is providing liquidity. Someone who opens a checking account in a bank can get his or her money back whenever required. The bank meanwhile can make loans with his or her
deposits and others' deposits, while keeping only a small fraction of such deposits as a liquid reserve. Because it has many depositors, who usually want to withdraw deposits at different times, a bank normally can meet the demands of those
depositors who want to withdraw their deposits. _^<N__^<N_Another service that banks provide is expert judgment in making loans. Most savers cannot evaluate the creditworthiness of those who wish to borrow. Hence, instead of lending directly to
the ultimate borrowers, they "lend" their savings to banks, by depositing them, and the banks then use those savings to make loans to the ultimate borrowers. Banks have a particular advantage in making loans to corporate accounts that are
constrained in borrowing directly from the public (through issuance of a BOND or other security) because the public cannot judge whether they are creditworthy. Banks generally are expert in evaluating the credit standing of such borrowers, partly
because they specialize in lending to local businesses, about which they have information that distant lenders do not have. Moreover, once they have made loans, banks are in a good position to ensure compliance with terms of the loans.
_^<N__^<N_Banks have an incentive to take risks because risky loans have a higher rate of return. All of these higher earnings accrue to the banks. But most of the funds at risk belong to depositors. Accordingly, much of the risk that banks take
is borne by depositors and by the FEDERAL DEPOSIT INSURANCE CORPORATION (FDIC), which insures their deposits. This is one reason why banks are heavily regulated by the government. Another, perhaps even more important reason is that banks are
custodians of the checkable deposits that make up most of society's circulating medium of exchange. If banks fail, and there is no deposit insurance, then depositors have to reduce their expenditures. As a result, sales fall, and firms have to
throw employees out of work. The widespread bank failures of the DEPRESSION OF THE 1930S may well have accounted for much of the severity of that depression. _^<N__^<N_ Fractional Reserve System_^<N__^<N_The banking system can create more than one
dollar of deposits for every dollar of reserves it has. This is possible because deposits are not physical objects but, rather, abstract property rights documented by entries on computer tape. No physical object is created; it is all a matter of
accounting. Suppose someone deposits $1,000 of currency in a bank. The bank credits the $1,000 to the depositor's account and then lends most of it out. It cannot lend all of it, however. The law and prudence require that it keep a reserve
against the deposit--say 10 percent. It therefore lends out only $900. The borrower then buys something with this $900, and the seller deposits his or her $900 check in the bank. The bank then keeps $90 as a reserve against this $900 deposit, and
lends out $810, which then becomes a deposit and so on. Ultimately, all of the original $1,000 is held in reserves in one bank or another. And because reserves are 10 percent of deposits, total deposits will then be ten times the original
deposit, or 10,000. This hypothetical example overstates the actual case--the actual "deposit multiplier" is closer to 2 than to 10--in large part because at each stage the public withdraws some of its deposits in order to hold more currency.
_^<N__^<N_ History_^<N__^<N_Banking existed in ancient Babylon, and imperial Rome had an extensive banking system. In medieval Europe banking declined, largely because the Roman Catholic church condemned the practice of USURY. Banking revived in
Renaissance Italy by the early 14th century, and government supervision of banking was established in 1502. During the 14th century the Florentine Bardi and Peruzzi banks had agencies in many countries. The most famous of the Florentine bankers
were the Medici. English banking developed from the custom of goldsmiths safekeeping their customers' precious metals. In doing so, the goldsmiths discovered that they could safely lend these metals out. They gave their customers receipts, which
the customers used to pay their own bills. The BANK OF ENGLAND was established privately in 1694 and chartered by the government in return for a loan. The bank was allowed, among other things, to issue its own notes. Although started as a private
bank, it gradually evolved into a CENTRAL BANK. _^<N__^<N_In the United States the first bank, in the modern sense, was established in 1782. In 1791, Congress established a national bank, the First BANK OF THE UNITED STATES, but its charter lapsed
in 1811. In 1816 the Second Bank of the United States was chartered, but its charter was not renewed in 1836. Subsequently the states allowed the establishment of banks, with little restraint, and many of those banks failed, often because of
defaults on the states' bonds that they were holding. In 1863 the federal government started a system of nationally chartered banks that were required to back their notes with federal government securities. In 1913 this system was superseded by
the FEDERAL RESERVE SYSTEM. _^<N__^<N_ Banking in the United States_^<N__^<N_To open a NATIONAL BANK one needs a charter from the federal government and to open a state bank a charter from a state. All national banks must, and state banks may
(though few do), become Federal Reserve member banks and be regulated by the Federal Reserve. Nearly all banks are members of the FDIC, which insures their deposits up to $100,000 and also regulates them. About one-third of all U.S. banks are
national banks. They hold about 60 percent of all deposits. Frequently, when a bank fails, the FDIC, instead of paying off depositors, merges the failing bank with another bank. In that case even deposits over $100,000 are protected.
Traditionally, branch banking has been tightly regulated. Most states limited or altogether prohibited branching, and banks could not open branches in other states. As a result, the United States, unlike most industrialized countries, has a great
number of small banks. Recently the limitations on branch banking have been greatly eased. Within-state branching is now standard, and as of 1991 all states except Hawaii and Montana have entered into compacts with other states, usually in their
own regions, that allow bank holding companies located in one of the states to own banks in the other states. _^<N__^<N_As noted, commercial banks compete with other institutions that offer some of the same services. Savings and loan associations,
savings banks (also called mutual savings banks), and credit unions (see CREDIT UNION) compete with banks for deposits of households and nonprofit institutions. Their accounts are also insured up to $100,000 by government agencies. Savings and
loan associations and savings banks invest most of their funds in mortgages (see MORTGAGE) and compete with commercial banks in this market. Along with credit unions and finance companies (see FINANCE COMPANY), they also compete with banks for
consumer loans and are now allowed to make business loans within certain limits. _^<N__^<N_Money market funds also compete with banks. They invest in very short-term, extremely safe securities and generally allow their customers to write large
checks against their accounts. Competition among banks is strong in cities with many banks, as it is for the business of firms that are large enough and well enough known to borrow outside their localities. However, small borrowers located in
cities with just a few banks may find that banks have considerable market power. _^<N__^<N_ Banking in Other Countries_^<N__^<N_The banking systems of many countries differ sharply from the U.S. system by being much more concentrated. For example,
in Britain four banks hold the great bulk of domestic deposits, and in Canada there are only eight chartered banks. Control over banks also differs. The United States, with about 15,000 banks, relies on formal regulation. In contrast, Britain
relies primarily on moral suasion. Another way in which banks differ in various countries is in the types of assets they hold. U.S. commercial banks make business loans in more or less arm's-length transactions, whereas in many other countries
ordinary banking activities and INVESTMENT BANKING activities are carried out by the same institutions. Thus, German banks finance firms by making loans and by buying stock in them and place their managers on the boards of those companies. In
many less developed countries (LDCs) much of the banking activity is carried out by branches of large multinational banks, although some countries prohibit foreign banks. _^<N__^<N_ International Banking_^<N__^<N_In recent years banking has become
much more internationalized. U.S. banks have many branches and subsidiaries in foreign countries, while foreign banks account for a significant share of all industrial and commercial bank loans in the United States. Some small islands, such as the
Cayman Islands, along with Luxembourg, have become "monetary havens," akin to tax havens. Their relaxed business regulations have attracted, for example, the BANK OF CREDIT AND COMMERCE INTERNATIONAL. _^<N__^<N_ Unresolved Issues and
Developments_^<N__^<N_In the 1970s, mainly owing to the OPEC oil shocks, large U.S. banks made very large loans to the LDCs, both to oil importers and to oil exporters. Many of these countries, particularly Latin American ones, which had borrowed
massively, in effect defaulted on these loans. The banks avoided formal defaults only by devices such as rescheduling repayment of the loans, reducing the interest rates, or lending the debtors additional funds that they could then use to pay the
interest on the previous loans. The banks then built up their reserves for loan losses and their capital sufficiently that they would no longer be ruined by defaults on these debts. _^<N__^<N_Then, in the 1980s, as oil prices fell, U.S. banks,
particularly those in the Southwest, took large losses on loans they had made to the faltering oil industry and to real estate developers. When, owing to massive overbuilding of commercial real estate, the real estate slump spread to other
regions, banks in those regions also suffered large losses, and some failed. _^<N__^<N_Bank failures, which for the four previous decades had been rare and usually involved only small banks, rose substantially in the 1970s. Then in the 1980s and
early 1990s they rose very steeply, as some large banks failed along with small ones. In 1984, when Continental Illinois, then the eighth-largest U.S. bank, was about to fail, the FDIC stepped in, protected all of its creditors, and, in effect,
temporarily nationalized it. Subsequently the FDIC had to deal with the failures of several large Texas banks. With the FDIC insurance fund falling rapidly, Congress in 1991 provided that the FDIC could borrow up to $75 billion from the Treasury.
How much it will actually have to borrow and whether it will be able to repay all it borrows is uncertain. _^<N__^<N_Extensive failures are not the only problem that the U.S. banking industry faces. As a result of increased sophistication and
falling costs of gathering, processing, and communicating information, the bank's advantage as repository of specialized knowledge about borrowers is being eroded, while at the same time cheaper communications and automated teller machines expose
it to more competition in the deposit market. One response of banks has been to offer various new services to customers, such as guaranteeing their credit, another to seek permission to enter other industries. _^<N__^<N_Thomas Mayer
_^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Benston, George J., et al., Perspectives on Safe and Sound Banking: Past, Present, and Future (1986); Klebaner, Benjamin J., Commercial Banking in the United States: A History (1974); Mayer, Martin, The Money Bazaars:
Understanding the Banking Revolution around Us (1984); Mayer, Thomas, et al., Money, Banking and the Economy, 4th ed. (1990).
-END-
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3361
CATO
-A-
bankruptcy
-O-
000000|bankruptcy
000515| Major Types
001591| Procedure
002647| England and Canada
-T-
bankruptcy_^<N__^<N_Bankruptcy, in law, is a system of procedures by which an insolvent debtor may be released from, or can modify, DEBT obligations. Under the U.S. Constitution, bankruptcy is a matter of federal law and is presently governed by
the Bankruptcy Reform Acts of 1978 and 1984; the latter chiefly restructured the bankruptcy courts and curtailed some liberal 1978 provisions concerning consumer bankruptcy. Generally, individuals, corporations, and associations whose assets are
less than their liabilities can file. _^<N__^<N_ Major Types_^<N__^<N_The Bankruptcy Code provides for three major types of bankruptcy proceedings. In Chapter 7, or liquidation, cases, the debtor's property is sold off by a trustee to pay the
debts owed to creditors. An individual debtor can keep a modest amount of household property or realty under federal or state exemptions. Individuals with a regular income who cannot pay their debts can, instead of liquidation, elect adjustment
(Chapter 13) proceedings. In these cases, claims of creditors are frozen until the individual, with the assistance of a trustee, presents a plan to pay off the creditors from income. With court and creditor approval, debts may be stretched out or
compromised and repossessions prevented, while the debtor still retains all property. In Chapter 11, or business reorganizations, the business is continued by its management or a trustee while creditors' claims are frozen pending approval of a
plan. With court approval, the plan can modify or forgive debts, recapitalize a corporation, provide for mergers or takeovers, or dispose of assets. _^<N__^<N_ Procedure_^<N__^<N_The 1984 law gave U. S. district courts original jurisdiction over
all Title 11 bankruptcy proceedings. It also authorized the regional federal appeals courts to appoint a total of 232 bankruptcy judges, who are adjuncts of the district courts and have 14-year terms. Trustees are either elected by the creditors
in a particular proceeding or appointed by the government. Almost all U. S. bankruptcy cases are voluntarily instituted by the debtors, although creditors can force a debtor into involuntary liquidation. _^<N__^<N_In liquidations the trustee
inventories the debtor's assets and lists creditors and their claims. The trustee can void unperformed contracts and leases or recover property the debtor has transferred fraudulently to others or preferentially to creditors. The trustee also
administers the property and distributes the proceeds. In nonliquidation cases the trustee and the debtor split these duties. A debtor in liquidation or one who completes a plan may be discharged from the obligation to repay a prebankruptcy debt.
_^<N__^<N_ England and Canada_^<N__^<N_English law follows a similar approach. Creditors may petition a court to appoint an official receiver as a trustee of the insolvent debtor's estate. The receiver will try to arrange a settlement among the
parties. If this fails, a formal adjudication of bankruptcy will follow. Canadian law also allows both voluntary and involuntary bankruptcy. _^<N__^<N_Thomas Dunfee _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Drake, W. Homer, and Herzog, Richard B., Bankruptcy: A
Concise Guide for Debtors and Creditors (1983); Jackson, Thomas, The Logic and Limits of Bankruptcy Law (1986); Stein, Sol, A Feast for Lawyers: Inside Chapter 11--An Expose (1989); Tay, Catherine S. K., Bankruptcy: The Law and Practice (1987).
-END-
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1256
CAT
-A-
Banks, Sir Joseph
-T-
Banks, Sir Joseph_^<N__^<N_Sir Joseph Banks, b. Feb. 13, 1743, d. June 19, 1820, was an English botanist, a patron of the sciences, and president of the Royal Society of London for 42 years, during which time he influenced European scientific
investigation. A member of the wealthy landed gentry, Banks was educated at Harrow, Eton, and Oxford. His interest in botany and the natural sciences prompted him to make voyages of scientific exploration. From his first, to Labrador and
Newfoundland in 1766, he brought back botanical specimens that were the beginning of the Banks Herbarium, a collection now in the British Museum. In 1768 he financed and accompanied a botanical expedition to the South Seas with Capt. James COOK and
collected more than 800 previously unknown specimens. As honorary director of the Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew, Banks was instrumental in efforts to grow tropical crops throughout the British Empire. At Banks's suggestion the ship BOUNTY
attempted to bring breadfruit to the West Indies. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Beaglehole, J.C., ed., The Endeavour Journal of Joseph Banks, 1768-1771, 2 vols. (1962); Cameron, Hector C., Sir Joseph Banks, K.B., P.R.S., The Autocrat of the
Philosophers (1952); O'Brian, Patrick, Joseph Banks: A Life (1993).
-END-
-C-
712
CAT
-A-
Banks, Nathaniel Prentiss
-T-
Banks, Nathaniel Prentiss_^<N__^<N_Nathaniel Prentiss Banks, b. Jan. 30, 1816, d. Sept. 1, 1894, was Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives (1856-57) and an inept Union general during the Civil War. He also served in the Massachusetts
legislature (1849-53) and as governor (1858-60). Banks, an abolitionist, was appointed a general in the Union army. Although pugnacious and combative, he was not a capable army commander and suffered military defeats in the Shenandoah Valley, at
Cedar Mountain, and in Louisiana; he did, however, capture Port Hudson, Miss., in 1863. After the war Banks again served in Congress. _^<N__^<N_Warren W. Hassler, Jr. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Harrington, Fred Harvey, Fighting Politician (1948).
-END-
-C-
247
CAT
-A-
Banks Island
-T-
Banks Island_^<N__^<N_Banks Island, the seventh largest island in North America, is in the western Canadian Arctic Archipelago, a part of the Northwest Territories. It is 177-290 km (110-180 mi) wide and 402 km (250 mi) long and is inhabited by the
ESKIMO.
-END-
-C-
669
CAT
-A-
banksia
-T-
banksia_^<N__^<N_{bank'-see-uh} _^<N__^<N_The banksia is any of a number of Australian evergreen trees or shrubs of the genus Banksia in the family Proteaceae. The leaves are lance-shaped or linear and are variously toothed or incised. They are
leathery, dark green above and whitish or brown pubescent beneath. The yellowish and occasionally reddish flowers are borne in densely crowded spikes that are terminal or rise from the axils of the leaves; they mature as conelike structures. The
genus is characteristic of the scrub vegetation found in the Blue Mountains of southeastern Australia, in the Mount Lofty ranges of southern Australia, and also in southwest Australia. _^<N__^<N_Hugh M. Raup
-END-
-C-
689
CAT
-A-
Banneker, Benjamin
-T-
Banneker, Benjamin_^<N__^<N_Benjamin Banneker, b. near Ellicott's Lower Mills, Md., Nov. 9, 1731, d. Oct. 9, 1806, achieved fame as a compiler of almanacs. A free black tobacco farmer, he acquired his astronomical knowledge through
self-teaching, aided by the loan of books by George Ellicott, a Quaker millowner. He served (1791) as scientific assistant to Maj. Andrew Ellicott in surveying the boundaries for the new District of Columbia. Banneker's series of six almanacs
(1791-1802) were widely distributed to counter the prevailing opinion that blacks were inherently intellectually inferior to whites. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Bedini, Silvio A., The Life of Benjamin Banneker (1972, repr. 1984).
-END-
-C-
540
CAT
-A-
Bannister, Roger
-T-
Bannister, Roger_^<N__^<N_Roger Gilbert Bannister, b. Mar. 23, 1929, an English runner, made track history on May 6, 1954, when he became the first person to run a mile in less than 4 minutes. Then an Oxford medical student, he broke the so-called
4-minute barrier with a time of 3:59.4. John Landy set a new record (3:58.0) just 46 days later, but Bannister beat Landy on August 7 in a historic Commonwealth Games mile, retired shortly thereafter, and then wrote First Four Minutes (1955).
Bannister, who became a neurologist, was knighted in 1975.
-END-
-C-
1179
CAT
-A-
Bannock
-T-
Bannock_^<N__^<N_The Bannock are a North American Indian people whose traditional homeland was the Snake River drainage basin in present-day Idaho and neighboring states. They spoke a Shoshonian language related to that of the Northern PAIUTE of
eastern Oregon. A hunting and gathering people, the Bannock lived in small, seminomadic bands; their population probably never exceeded 2,000. They exploited bison herds, fished for salmon, and gathered roots and pine nuts. They sometimes gathered
in large groups for ceremonial events or to ally with the SHOSHONI against their enemies, the BLACKFOOT. _^<N__^<N_The Bannock remained only loosely united until threatened by white encroachment. Several outbreaks of hostility toward the whites
occurred between 1859 and 1863. In 1866, Fort Hall Reservation was established for the Bannock and the Shoshoni. NEZ PERCE resistance in 1877 incited the Bannock to further conflict with the U.S. government. In 1878, Buffalo Horn, a former cavalry
scout, led the uprising known as the Bannock War. Today the combined Bannock/Shoshoni population at Fort Hall numbers about 6,900. _^<N__^<N_Ernest L. Schusky _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Madsen, Brigham D., The Bannock of Idaho (1958).
-END-
-C-
492
CAT
-A-
Bannockburn, Battle of
-T-
Bannockburn, Battle of_^<N__^<N_The Battle of Bannockburn, which took place in Stirlingshire, Scotland, on June 24, 1314, was a major victory for the Scottish king ROBERT I over the much larger English forces of EDWARD II. The English army,
attempting to relieve the siege of Stirling Castle, suffered heavy losses against the Scottish pikemen and were routed by supporting Scottish troops. _^<N__^<N_Robin Buss _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Barrow, G. W. S., Robert the Bruce and the Community
of the Realm of Scotland (1965).
-END-
-C-
666
CAT
-A-
Banpocun (Pan-p'o-ts'un)
-T-
Banpocun (Pan-p'o-ts'un)_^<N__^<N_{bahn-poh-tsoon} _^<N__^<N_Banpocun (Pan-p'o-ts'un), near the modern city of Xi'an (Sian), in Shenxi (Shensi) province, northern China, was the site of a large settlement occupied (c.4100-3600 BC) during the Painted
Pottery, or Yangshao, phase of the Neolithic in China (see CHINESE ARCHAEOLOGY). Although only a small portion of the site has been excavated, about 50 separate dwellings have been found, along with more than 100 burials nearby. Originally
excavated in 1954-57, much of the site has been preserved as a museum and is open to public view. _^<N__^<N_Charles E. Dewar _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Chang, K. C., The Archaeology of Ancient China, 3d ed. (1977).
-END-
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176
CAT
-A-
banshee
-T-
banshee_^<N__^<N_In Gaelic folklore, a banshee is a female spirit whose wailing warns of an impending death in a family. She is sometimes a beautiful maiden and sometimes a hideous hag.
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499
CAT
-A-
banteng
-T-
banteng_^<N__^<N_The banteng, Bos banteng, is a wild OX belonging to the family Bovidea, order Artiodactyla; this family includes other wild and domestic CATTLE. The banteng is about 200 cm (6.5 ft) long and 120 to 150 cm (4 to 5 ft) tall at the
shoulder. It has slender, curved horns and a black to reddish-brown coat. These shy cattle roam in herds through lowlands and forested hills of Southeast Asia. They eat grass, bamboo shoots, and other plants. Some bantengs have been domesticated.
_^<N__^<N_Everett Sentman
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847
CAT
-A-
Banting, Sir Frederick G.
-T-
Banting, Sir Frederick G._^<N__^<N_Canadian physician Sir Frederick Grant Banting, b. Alliston, Ontario, Nov. 14, 1891, d. Feb. 21, 1941, extracted, with Charles H. BEST, the hormone INSULIN from the pancreas, making possible the treatment of
DIABETES mellitus, a disease in which an abnormal buildup of glucose takes place in the body. Earlier work had shown that the pancreas produced a substance that regulates glucose metabolism. In 1922, Banting and Best successfully isolated this
substance, insulin, from the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. Insulin was given to diabetic dogs and restored their health. Insulin also proved effective in treating human diabetes mellitus. Banting was a corecipient of the 1923 Nobel Prize
for physiology or medicine. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Abbott, David, ed., The Biographical Dictionary of Scientists: Biologists (1985).
-END-
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2085
CAT
-A-
Bantu
-T-
Bantu_^<N__^<N_{ban'-too} _^<N__^<N_Bantu, meaning "the people," is the name of a major linguistic group in Africa. In Africa to the south of a line drawn roughly from Douala, Cameroon, on the Atlantic coast to Kenya's Tana River on the Indian
Ocean, more than 90 million people speak Bantu languages, which number nearly 700 and include numerous dialects. _^<N__^<N_Linguists have tried to explain the enormous geographical spread along with the considerable degree of linguistic convergence
in Bantu grammar and vocabulary. According to one theory, the ultimate source of the Bantu people was in the central Benue Valley in eastern Nigeria. Migration then took Bantu speakers southward and eastward into the Congo Basin and ultimately
across the continent. Another theory is that their origins were in the north, perhaps central Cameroon or the Central African Republic. From there a major center was established in the LUBA country of northern Shaba, Zaire, in an area of light
woodland. Gradually, areas of higher rainfall were colonized as the Bantu speakers, who subsisted mainly by fishing and agriculture, spread south and east of the equatorial forest. _^<N__^<N_Archaeological evidence for the latter part of the last
millennium BC points to expansion by Iron Age invaders cultivating sorghum and millet at the expense of indigenous Late Stone Age hunter-gatherers. At least by the 5th century AD the invaders, presumably Bantu speakers, had brought the Iron Age as
far south as Swaziland and, by the 9th century, into northern Namibia. Archaeologists generally agree that the ancestors of such Bantu speakers as the Kalanga, Karanga, and Venda achieved a peak of material cultural development in the 10th-15th
centuries and built the elegant structures, terraces, pits, and fortresses (including the ZIMBABWE RUINS) that appear across Zimbabwe into Botswana and at MAPUNGUBWE in the Transvaal. _^<N__^<N_Richard P. Werbner _^<N__^<N_Bibliography:
Hammond-Tooke, W. D., ed., The Bantu-Speaking Peoples of Southern Africa (1974; repr. 1980); Vasina, J., Paths in the Rainforests (1990). _^<N__^<N_See also: AFRICAN LANGUAGES; AFRICAN PREHISTORY.
-END-
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665
CAT
-A-
Banville, Theodore de
-T-
Banville, Theodore de_^<N__^<N_{bahn-veel'} _^<N__^<N_Theodore Faullain de Banville, b. Mar. 14, 1823, d. Mar. 13, 1891, was a French poet, dramatist, and member of the PARNASSIAN movement. His verse, particularly in the volumes Les Cariatides (The
Caryatids, 1842) and Odes funambulesques (Fantastic Odes, 1857), shows his skill with a new style of French versification. He wrote a valuable treatise on poetics, Petit traite de poesie francaise (Small Treatise Concerning French Poetry, 1872). He
was also a critic, principally of theater, noted for his witty observations. His Ballades (1873) was translated in 1913, and his most famous play, Gringoire (1866), was produced in 1888.
-END-
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830
CAT
-A-
banyan
-T-
banyan_^<N__^<N_The banyan, Ficus benghalensis, is a large fig tree belonging to the mulberry family, Moraceae. It grows in India and Bangladesh and is held sacred in both places. The tree begins life as an epiphyte on a host tree, gathering its
nourishment and water from the air. As it grows, its lateral branches send down aerial supporting roots that become absorbing roots when they reach the ground. Eventually, the host tree is smothered as the banyan continues to send out more branches
and roots. The mature banyan's canopy may cover an area more than 300 m (1,000 ft) in diameter. The stems below the canopy form a kind of columned room, sometimes used as a market shelter by merchants called banians in India. The leathery,
evergreen leaves are up to 20 cm (8 in) long. The reddish figs are eaten by birds and bats. _^<N__^<N_Hugh M. Raup
-END-
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370
CAT
-A-
Banzer Suarez, Hugo
-T-
Banzer Suarez, Hugo_^<N__^<N_{bahn-sair' swah'-res, oo'-goh} _^<N__^<N_Gen. Hugo Banzer Suarez, b. May 10, 1926, served as president of Bolivia from 1971 to 1978. Director of the Military College from 1969 to 1971, he rose to power in a military
coup that ousted Juan Jose Torres. Banzer himself was overthrown by the military in 1978; he unsuccessfully sought reelection in 1979 and 1980.
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666
CAT
-A-
Bao Dai, Emperor of Annam
-T-
Bao Dai, Emperor of Annam_^<N__^<N_{bow dy} _^<N__^<N_Bao Dai, b. Oct. 22, 1913, was emperor of France's Indochinese protectorate of ANNAM (now part of Vietnam) from 1925 to 1945. During World War II he was forced to collaborate with the Japanese
occupation forces. He abdicated in 1945 under pressure from the nationalist-Communist leader HO CHI MINH. Later made (1949) Vietnam's chief of state by France, he was deposed in 1955, when NGO DINH DIEM became South Vietnam's president.
_^<N__^<N_Richard Butwell _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Fall, Bernard, The Two Vietnams: A Political and Military Analysis, 2d ed. (1967 repr. 1985); Marr, David G., Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, 1920 to 1945 (1981).
-END-
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639
CAT
-A-
baobab
-T-
baobab_^<N__^<N_{bow'-bab} _^<N__^<N_The baobab tree, Adansonia digitata, is one of the most unusual deciduous trees of Africa. The interior of its trunk, which may reach 9 m (30 ft) in diameter, and the lower branches are soft and spongy and can
store large quantities of water. Baobabs are specially adapted for long dry seasons. They are leafless during this time of year, thus reducing transpiration, or water loss. The baobab is an extremely slow-growing tree, reaching up to 18 m (60 ft)
in height, and giant specimens may be several thousand years old. Pollination of the flowers is performed by bats. Many animals use the baobab for food and shelter.
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1644
CAT
-A-
baptism
-T-
baptism_^<N__^<N_Baptism is a SACRAMENT of the Christian church in which candidates are immersed in water or water is poured over them in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. It is derived from the practice of John the Baptist, who
baptized Jesus, and probably from the Jewish tebilah (a ritual bath). Matthew 28:19 calls upon Christians to make disciples and to baptize them. In the early church, baptism was administered after a period of preparation (catechumenate),
preferably at Easter. It was performed in conjunction with the rites later called confirmation and Eucharist. The effects of baptism were believed to be union with Jesus in his death and RESURRECTION, forgiveness of sin, the gift of the Holy
Spirit, membership in the church, and rebirth to new life in Christ. Some scholars believe infants were included among the candidates from the beginning; others believe that infant baptism began in the 3d century. Today BAPTISTS and DISCIPLES OF
CHRIST do not practice infant baptism and do insist on immersion. Most other churches baptize infants and permit the pouring of water. A few Protestant groups, such as the Quakers (see FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF), reject outward baptism altogether. The
Christian rite is in some ways similar to rites of purification used in other religions. _^<N__^<N_L. L. Mitchell _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Beasley-Murray, G. R., Baptism in the New Testament (1973); Eastman, A., Theodore, The Baptizing Community
(1982); Fahey, Michael, ed., Catholic Perspectives on Baptism, Eucharist, and Ministry (1986); Schmemann, Alexander, Of Water and the Spirit (1974); Wainwright, Geoffrey, Christian Initiation (1969).
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2208
CAT
-A-
baptistery
-T-
baptistery_^<N__^<N_A baptistery is a building adjacent or attached to a church, or sometimes a chamber within a church, in which the ritual of BAPTISM takes place. Baptisteries probably derived their form from ancient Greek and Roman tholoi, or
round temples, such as the Temple of the Vestal Virgins (see VESTA) in the Roman Forum. One of the oldest surviving examples is the domed octagonal baptistery adjoining the basilica of Saint John in the Lateran in Rome. Built during the reign
(430-40) of Pope Sixtus III and subsequently altered many times, the building nevertheless was the prototypical baptistery for many centuries. Since total immersion was widely practiced at this time, the central feature was usually a large basin
or pool directly beneath the dome. As affusion (pouring water over the head) replaced immersion in some baptismal rites, the basins became much smaller, were usually placed on pedestal bases, and were called baptismal FONTS. _^<N__^<N_The
octagonal form for baptisteries persisted as the preferred one through the Romanesque and Gothic periods, particularly in Italy. The Florence Baptistery (consecrated in 1059) is perhaps the best known: sheathed in white marble with green marble
trim, the large slant-roofed octagon is directly opposite the central door of the Duomo (Cathedral), a symbolic reminder that baptism is the first rite of Christian life. Inside the baptistery a huge octagonal dome is revealed, completely covered
with mosaics, part of an exceedingly rich decorative scheme. _^<N__^<N_As baptismal practices became simplified, separate baptisteries became a rarity. They survive most frequently today as a font placed near the church door, although some
contemporary churches include separate baptisteries. In churches of religious groups that practice baptismal immersion, the basin or pool is usually placed prominently behind the chancel. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Davies, John G., The Architectural
Setting of Baptism (1962); Krautheimer, Richard, Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture (1965). _^<N__^<N_See also: Various articles on BYZANTINE, CAROLINGIAN, EARLY CHRISTIAN, GOTHIC, and ROMANESQUE ART AND ARCHITECTURE; CATHEDRALS AND
CHURCHES; GREEK ARCHITECTURE; ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
-END-
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4317
CAT
-A-
Baptists
-T-
Baptists_^<N__^<N_The Baptists form one of the largest Protestant denominations, with worldwide membership of nearly 35 million. The following distinguish the Baptists from other Protestant communions: (1) their insistence on baptism of adult
believers only; (2) their concern for freedom of speech and conscience and for freedom from interference by any civil or ecclesiastical authority; (3) the primacy they seek to give to Scripture in matters of faith, doctrine, and morals; and (4)
the authority they give to the congregation in church affairs. _^<N__^<N_The forerunners of present-day Baptists were the ANABAPTISTS of the REFORMATION period. Some Anabaptist congregations were settled in Holland in the early 17th century when
groups of Puritan Independents, or Congregationalists, fled from England to Holland. Influenced by the Anabaptists, some of these Independents were persuaded that Christian baptism was appropriate only for adults with a personal faith and
commitment. Returning to England, this group formed the first Baptist congregation in 1611. Shortly thereafter, Roger WILLIAMS formed (1639) the first Baptist congregation in Providence, R.I. The Baptists grew rapidly in the United States. The
democratic, informal, Scripture-centered, relatively untheological mode of Baptist service was ideal for any unsettled, rural, or frontier situation. Thus the South, the Midwest, and the Far West were heavily populated--more than were the
Northeast or the Middle Atlantic--by Baptists, a pattern that remains true to this day. _^<N__^<N_Baptists view the Christian life as one of personal faith and of serious dedication to live according to the highest Christian precepts. Each person
is thus to be born again, converted into a new life, and gathered into the church community. For Baptists, the church is essentially the result of conversion and of GRACE, a gathered community of committed believers; it is not the mother of
Christian experience or the source (rather than the effect) of grace, as in the Catholic tradition. The church is, therefore, holy only because the faith and life of its people are holy; conceptually, the church has in itself (at least in
principle) no authority over its members, over their freedom of conscience, or over their churchly affairs. _^<N__^<N_More than most church groups, Baptists have manifested startlingly opposite characteristics in their history. Because of their
emphasis on the Bible, on a strict puritan, or Victorian, ethic, and on the absolute necessity of personal faith and personal holiness, most Baptists around the world have remained conservative, even fundamentalist, in matters of both faith and
morals (see FUNDAMENTALISM). They have been impatient with theological compromises with science, with modern philosophy, and with liberal politics. The pure gospel, that is, the Bible interpreted literally, traditional Baptist principles, and a
pure Christian ethic are fundamentals that many Baptist groups will not relinquish. For this reason, many Baptist conventions still refuse to join the ECUMENICAL MOVEMENT in any official way; they have largely ignored the social gospel (a concern
for establishing social justice in political, social, and economic life) while retaining a deep loyalty to the efficacy of individualistic REVIVALISM. On the other hand, because of their emphasis on freedom of conscience and of personal believing,
on the importance of Christian life and works rather than on ritual, on their distaste for creeds, dogmas, and ecclesiastical authority, Baptists have also been leaders in theological and social liberalism. Many Baptist seminaries and churches are
known for their liberal theology, style of worship, and social attitudes; and Baptists were consistently important leaders in establishing the ecumenical movement of the early 20th century. In those controversies that have dominated 20th-century
American religion--the modernist-fundamentalist, the social gospel-individualist, and the ecumenical-exclusivist controversies--Baptists have appeared in leading roles on both sides. _^<N__^<N_Langdon Gilkey _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Barnhart, Joe,
The Southern Baptist Holy War (1986); Hill, Samuel, Baptists North and South (1964); Torbet, R. G., A History of the Baptists, rev. ed. (1966); Tull, J. E., Shapers of Baptist Thought (1972).
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682
CAT
-A-
bar, offshore
-T-
bar, offshore_^<N__^<N_Most sandy beaches have one or more offshore bars, long and narrow ridges of sand and gravel that parallel the trend of the coastline. The most pronounced bars are found where the WATER WAVES break as they approach the shore.
If the waves are able to re-form and break for a second time, or if the breaker position is different at high TIDE from at low tide, separate offshore bars will appear for each position. Bars increase in size when waves become larger, generally
in winter, and shrink in summer, when sand moves onshore to the BERM, or backshore portion of a beach. _^<N__^<N_Paul D. Komar _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Dyer, Keith R., Coastal and Estuarine Sediment Dynamics (1986).
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249
CAT
-A-
Bar Harbor
-T-
Bar Harbor_^<N__^<N_The town of Bar Harbor (1990 census, 4,443), on Mount Desert Island in southeast Maine, was settled in 1763 and became a famous 19th-century resort. In 1947 most of the town was destroyed by fire. Acadia National Park is
located nearby.
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835
CAT
-A-
Bar Kochba
-T-
Bar Kochba_^<N__^<N_{bar kohk'-buh} _^<N__^<N_Bar Kochba, also known as Simeon ben Koseva, d. AD 135, was the leader of the Jewish rebellion against Rome, AD 132-35. Although most contemporary scholars considered a revolt futile, Rabbi AKIBA BEN
JOSEPH saw in him "the Son of the Star" (Bar Kochba) and supported the uprising. The rebels avoided open battles, fighting instead from underground fortifications. Jerusalem was conquered. Emperor HADRIAN recalled Severus from Britain to oppose
Bar Kochba. After a lengthy and heroic defense, the rebellion failed. Fifty fortresses and a thousand villages were destroyed; Jerusalem was renamed Aelia Capitolina (Hadrian's name was Aelius); and a temple to Jupiter was built on the ruins of
Solomon's Temple. Bar Kochba died in battle. _^<N__^<N_Nahum N. Glatzer _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Yadin, Yigael, Bar-Kokhba (1971).
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1259
CAT
-A-
bar mitzvah
-T-
bar mitzvah_^<N__^<N_A bar mitzvah ("son of the commandment") is a male Jew who has reached his 13th birthday and is recognized as fully responsible for his own religious and moral actions. A bat mitzvah is the corresponding female Jew. A rite in
the synagogue, which is also commonly referred to as bar mitzvah, marks the attainment of the status of bar mitzvah. In Conservative and Reform JUDAISM, a similar rite is used for the bat mitzvah as well. When reaching puberty, a young man or
woman is called upon to read a prophetic passage from Scripture to the synagogue congregation. Thereupon, he or she is recognized as a full member of the congregation, able to count as a member of the required quorum of ten. On that occasion the
parents say a blessing: "Blessed is God who has now freed me from bearing full responsibility for this person." In the 19th century, Reform Judaism created the rite of confirmation, either instead of, or in addition to, the bar mitzvah
celebration. It is held on the festival of SHAVUOTH, or Pentecost, which marks the revelation of the TORAH. This rite is now common in Reform and Conservative synagogues. _^<N__^<N_Jacob Neusner _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Katsh, A. I., ed., Bar
Mitzvah (1955); Schoenfeld, Stuart, et al., Bar Mitzvah (1985).
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476
CAT
-A-
Bar Sauma, Rabban
-T-
Bar Sauma, Rabban_^<N__^<N_Rabban Bar Sauma, a Nestorian Christian monk, b. Peking, c.1220, d. Baghdad, 1294, traveled (1287-88) to Europe at the direction of the Mongol emperor KUBLAI KHAN. He visited Rome, Genoa, and Florence and met England's
Edward I and France's Philip IV, as well as Pope Nicholas IV. In many respects he was the Asian counterpart of Marco POLO. _^<N__^<N_Richard Butwell _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Budge, E.A.T.W., The Monks of Kublai khan, Emperor of China (1928; repr.
1973).
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625
CAT
-A-
Bara, Theda
-T-
Bara, Theda_^<N__^<N_Theda Bara was the stage name of Theodosia Goodman, b. July 20, 1890, d. Apr. 7, 1955, who was molded by Hollywood into the screen's first sex symbol. A tailor's daughter from Cincinnati, Ohio, she was hired by producer William
Fox to play a femme fatale in the silent film A Fool There Was (1914) and was immediately dubbed "the vamp." A vast publicity campaign continued to promote this image. Even after leaving Hollywood in 1919, she could not escape typecasting. Bara
retired from show business in the late 1920s. _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Walker, Alexander, The Celluloid Sacrifice: Aspects of Sex in the Movies (1967).
-END-
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252
CAT
-A-
Barabbas
-T-
Barabbas_^<N__^<N_{buh-rab'-uhs} _^<N__^<N_In the Bible, Barabbas was the prisoner who, by popular choice of the Jews, was released instead of Christ (Matt. 27, Mark 15, Luke 23, John 18). The Roman governor customarily granted one such pardon each
year at PASSOVER time.
-END-
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1443
CAT
-A-
Baraga, Frederick
-T-
Baraga, Frederick_^<N__^<N_{bahr'-uh-guh} _^<N__^<N_Frederick Baraga, b. June 29, 1797, d. Jan. 19, 1868, was an Austrian-born Catholic missionary to the American Indians in the Great Lakes region. Educated in Vienna, he sought ordination to the
priesthood and volunteered for missionary work in the United States. Baraga had a great talent with languages, and shortly after reaching Cincinnati in 1831 he began mastering the Ottawa dialect of the Algonquian tongue. That same year he was
assigned to an Ottawa town at Harbor Springs, Mich. He endured fatigue and great physical hardships to reach all the Indians of the area. _^<N__^<N_After learning the Ojibway (Chippewa) dialect, Baraga published an important grammar of that
language (1850) and a comprehensive dictionary (1853). As whites came into the Keweenaw Bay area of Michigan to mine copper, he befriended all of them, ministering to Protestants and Catholics alike. Recognition of his many personal sacrifices
came in 1853 when Baraga was made bishop and vicar-apostolic of Upper Michigan. In the following years he traveled widely, recruiting clergy, raising funds, and preaching several times a day in a number of languages. In 1865 he became the first
bishop of Marquette and moved his residence from Sault Ste. Marie to that northern Michigan town. Preliminary steps have been taken toward his canonization. _^<N__^<N_Henry Warner Bowden _^<N__^<N_Bibliography: Gregorich, J., The Apostle of the
