The descriptions below offer some information about each of the scenes included in the Virtus VR Archaeology Gallery. If you'd like to explore more on your own, a good starting point may be the bibliography sections that follow many of the descriptions.
CASA RINCONADA
Casa Rinconada is a classic example of an Anasazi great kiva. Built in the 11th or 12th century by the Anasazi, forefathers of the Navajo, the kiva was a center for cultural and religious life. The kiva at Casa Rinconada seated 100.
Between 1 A.D. and 500 A.D., the Anasazi settled North America's southwest. The Anasazi, which means “Ancient Ones” in Navajo, were also called “basket weavers.” Their graves, which yielded many artifacts, included numerous baskets.
By 700 B.C., the Anasazi had evolved from nomadic hunters and gatherers to farmers. As farming tied them to the land, the Anasazi began to build pueblos. (Pueblo is a Spanish word meaning a structure that holds many people.) To build these dwellings, the Anasazi used hammers to chip sandstone into chunks that were later fitted together and mortared with mud. The walls were strong enough to support the weight of additional floors. By the golden age of the pueblo, about 1050 to 1300 A.D., these structures had grown quite large and complex.
The center of the pueblo cultural life was the kiva. This round, partially buried structure had a flat roof supported by four wooden columns. Essential elements were the entrance, fire pit, deflector, ventilator and Sipapu. The fire pit and deflector heated the structure, while the ventilator removed the smoke. The Sipapu, religious in nature, consisted of a hole in the floor through which spirits of ancestors could enter this world.
Reasons why the Anasazi gathered in these extensive structures probably included psychological and communal needs, including a desire to practice religious rites and an effort to form a common defense against an enemy.
The Anasazi flourished until the end of the 13th Century. Then, in a period of 25 years, they deserted the Pueblos and migrated to the south. The reasons for this are unknown, but some think it was caused by the climate; others maintain that enemies drove them out. Neither theory can be proven.
In the mid 16th Century, the Anasazi came into contact with the Spanish. The combined influences of Spanish subjugation, slavery and missionary fervor brought an end to the traditions and ended even the definition of the Anasazi people. Many of the American Indian tribes of the great southwest are descended from the Anasazi.
The Chimney Rock Pueblo scene is an example of Anasazi architecture.
Originally the capital of the Mayan state, Chichen Itza is located in the northern portion of the Yucatan peninsula. During the 10th Century, the Toltecs moved into the area, subjugated the Maya and continued construction of the site. The height of the development of Chichen Itza occurred during the 11th and 12th centuries.
The city's ruins are famous for the sacrificial well from which the site takes its name—Chichen Itza means “mouth of the well of the Itza.” Men, women and treasure were often thrown into the well as offerings to the gods.
A mix of Mayan and Toltec culture and religion, the city is notable for its many structures—most adorned with intricate carvings—including temples, causeways and dance platforms. The Observatory is one of the most advanced of its kind in the Americas.
The ball court modeled here was used for a game similar to modern soccer. The court consists of two parallel walls about 300 feet long, 30 feet tall and 100 feet apart. The walls were richly decorated with battle scenes as well as with manifestations of the Mayan gods. A temple is located at each end of the playing field.
Paintings found on vases from the period indicate that the game was played with a large solid rubber ball, somewhat larger than a basketball. The idea was to knock the ball, without using hands, through the stone hoops set in the walls on both sides of the court. Players wore protective knee or hip pads that were probably made of leather, wood or wicker. The protection was necessary because the ball was solid and dangerous when in motion.
Game rules varied among the sites where the courts were built. Legend says that if a team scored a goal—a rare occurrence—they won all the clothing and jewelry of the observers. In some places, including Chichen Itza, sacrifice was the fate of the the losing side.
Near the end of the 12th Century, the Maya revolted against their Toltec overloads. The city was sacked and never regained prominence.
Anasazi Indians, probably from Chaco Canyon, built Chimney Rock Pueblo around the year 1075. They carried tons of rock and stone from the valley 1,000 feet below to the top of the mesa. This site is one of the most impressive pueblos ever built. Occupied for a mere 50 years, it was believed to have been used for ceremonial purposes only. Why the Indians abandoned it after that is not known. The ruins of this site are located near Pagosa Springs in Colorado.
DELPHI
Myth has it that Apollo—Greek god of light, reason, prophesy and healing—spoke to his priestess, the Pythia, in the temple at Delphi. Built in 390 B.C., this temple rests on the southern slope of Mount Parnassus in Greece.
Religion was an important aspect of Greek culture. Great decisions required consultation with the gods, which was handled by an oracle (much like today's spiritual medium). Apollo, who spoke through the Pythia, was that oracle. The pronouncements of the Pythia were received while she was in a trance, then written down. This was necessary because much of what she said was in riddle form, requiring an extensive staff just to divine the meaning.
The Delphi site includes several items that were sacred to the Greeks, including a fountain and a steaming volcanic crevasse—the Pythia used both in making prophecies. Branches of the laurel tree growing on the site became the victory crown for heroes in the Olympics. The shrine gained and maintained prominence for 400 years. Although there were other oracles—even in Rome—the oracle at Delphi is the most famous.
Standing high above the Nile on the plateau of Giza, near modern Cairo, is the Great Pyramid. It is without question one of the great works of man. Covering 275 square yards (13 acres), it stands 479 feet tall. There is more stone in this structure than in all of the churches of Europe.
The Great Pyramid is the Pyramid of Pharaoh Khufu. It is made of more than two million limestone and granite blocks, most weighing 2 1/2 tons each. The blocks were cut from quarries near Aswan and transported by boat down the Nile to the Giza site. Assembly occurred within the 23-year reign of Khufu (in the 26th Century) and without the aid of the wheel.
There are several schools of thought as to how labor was organized for this project. One theory is that each village in Egypt was tasked by the pharaoh to provide a quota of men. Other scholars maintain that the laborers came of their own volition as an act of faith and pilgrimage, and there is some evidence to support this. (The theory that the pyramid was built by slaves has been largely discounted.) However it was done, the Pharaoh managed to assemble—according to Greek historians—100,000 quarry men, engineers and laborers.
Engineers guided the pyramid's assembly. The foundation was laid with an amazing precision that rivals the accomplishments of modern engineers and instruments. It was made level by constructing a grid of interconnecting trenches filled with water. The uniform level of the water was used in tandem with poles and string to provide a broad level reference for the work.
Stones were moved up ramps, built of sand, that encircled the structure. Once the stones were in place, these were covered with limestone and cut smooth. Near the top, the final stones were put in place using levers and supports.
The intricate interior corridors and chambers rival the exterior as a engineering feat. There were two incomplete burial chambers, and a large main one. The large burial chamber was reached through a downward narrow tunnel, a tunnel that eventually changed direction and sloped upward. At one point, the narrow corridor splits and remains level. The upward tunnel becomes a grand gallery that ends at the large chamber, the tomb of the pharaoh. All of the tunnels were plugged with massive blocks of granite; the Pharaoh wanted his pyramid to be an unassailable tomb. As a fortress, the pyramid was eventually breached, but the structure is an enduring monument to Khufu that has withstood the ages.
When the Pharaoh died, his complex also included many lesser buildings, but none survives today. All of them—and much of the outer layer of limestone used on the pyramid—were removed and used in the construction of modern Cairo.
On the island of Malta, located south of Sicily in the Mediterranean Sea, inhabitants once set out stone slabs to mark the graves of their dead. Double rows of these upright slabs were topped with horizontal slabs. This construction method formed a passageway in which visitors passed under and between the slabs to arrive at a burial site.
There are numerous temples that utilize the same construction on Malta, and some archaeologists think that the elaborate temples evolved from Malta's passage graves. Much remains a mystery regarding these structures, and very few artifacts associated with the temples and graves have survived.
Construction of the graves, which were built in the bronze age, is similar to the megaliths found in England. The mysterious people who built the megalith structures vanished around 2400 B.C.
Quarai Mission, just outside Mountainair in New Mexico, is located in the Salinas National Monument complex. In the mid 1600s, Spanish friars built the mission during the conquest of "New Mexico." Then in the late 1600s, the local Pueblo Indians revolted and drove out the Spaniards.
ROMAN AQUEDUCT
The infrastructure of public works that includes aqueducts, roads and bridges was a by-product of Roman military might. Choices of material and construction techniques by Roman engineers left impressive structures, some of which are still used.
In the Roman Empire, the army was used for numerous military construction projects. By the 2nd Century, the Roman Army had a corps of engineers with a reputation for doing quality work.
The Army used engineering feats in battling its enemies. One example: Julius Caesar had a bridge built across the Rhine in just 10 days so that the retreating Gauls—who thought the river was impassable—could be chased. Caesar crossed the river, put on an effective show of force and then crossed back over, destroying the bridge behind him.
An aqueduct is a complex system of ditches, tunnels and bridges that carries water from a remote source. While the aqueduct is not a Roman invention, the Romans refined its use to an art. Roman aqueducts—most covered by roofs—were of three types: 1) the flat slab (a slab was placed horizontally atop two supporting vertical walls), 2) the more popular twin slab (two slabs set on walls and leaning together to make a pointed roof), and 3) the graceful half-rounded arch (the last design to be adopted by the empire).
The first step in building an aqueduct was to find a reliable source of running water. When a source wasn't obvious, a Roman engineer would simply watch in the early morning light for water vapor to rise from the land. Where the vapor was spotted, the Romans dug for water.
There were four major Aqueducts feeding the city of Rome by 53 A.D.. These were Aqua Anio Vestus, Aqua Marcia, Aqua Claudia and Aqua Anio Novus. And by the time the empire fell, there were nine major aqueducts.
Since Roman engineers were soldiers, the security of a water source was an important concern to them. Also, protecting the water's course reduced the possibility of poison or other matter being introduced by an enemy.
Building Roman bridges grew out of military necessity—the Roman army needed to cross rivers. So bridges became an integral part of the Roman road system.
Originally, bridges were built of timber. First, piles were fastened together and pointed on one end, then lowered into the river and set with a pile driver. The piles on the lee side of the bridge were reinforced with additional piles angled into the current, and the piles were joined by a crosspiece. Timbers were then lashed across the span, and smaller poles were stacked at a 90-degree angle. Finally, a woven mesh was added and covered with soil.
Later, the Roman Army began to build bridges from stone, so new construction techniques were adopted. First, a coffer dam—timbers set tightly together and driven into the river bed—was constructed. Then the timbers were sealed, producing what was essentially a “hole” in the water (the water was removed with a screw pump). Once a foundation was completed, stone blocks were placed on it and the coffer dam was removed. The procedure was repeated for each support of the bridge.
Each span of the bridge was supported by an arch of stone blocks; the blocks were cut precisely to fit the various parts of the arch. To begin construction of a span, an arch of wood was constructed across the span and a stone arch was built over the wood. When a stone arch was completed, the wooden support was removed and used on the next span.
ROMAN HOUSES 1 AND 2 - POMPEII
In 79 A.D., the Roman resort city of Pompeii was destroyed by tons of volcanic ash produced by Mount Vesuvius.
Preceding the city's demise, the earth shook violently and a mushroom-shaped cloud rose 12 miles into the air to blacken the sky. Hot gasses, molten lava and volcanic ash flashed into the atmosphere; large chunks of ash fell into the harbor and onto the ground at a rate of six inches per hour for two hours. Roofs caved in, ships were trapped in the port by floating ash, and the nearby city of Herculaneum was buried in hot volcanic mud. A wave of hot volcanic gas rolled over Pompeii at speeds of up to 180 mph. People fell to the ground and died after choking on the ash and gas. When it was over, only the top of an occasional roof could be seen and the area was deserted. Pompeii—soon grown over by grass—was then forgotten for more than a millennium.
In 1748, Pompeii was uncovered by Roque de Alcubierre, a Spanish officer. For many years, excavation activities closely resembled looting until an Italian archaeologist instituted a scientific approach to the process in 1869.
We know that Pompeii inhabitants are entombed in the city. Cavities found in the ash—when filled with plaster and then dug from the earth—yield statues with faces that reveal the last moments of life. We also know that the city offered well-planned streets, markets, places of business and entertainment areas. Streets were narrow and designed to be washed cleaned by rain, so the sidewalks were built high off the ground. Served by an extensive system of aqueducts, everyone had access to running water—the difference was that water for the rich arrived through lead pipes, while the poor drank from ceramic pipes.
Houses were grouped in neat blocks, and the city had an extensive network of roads and sewers. The houses reflected the station of their owners: One block might be filled with numerous merchant houses, another block might be covered by a single opulent house owned by a rich resident, and yet another might be filled with the slums of the poor.
Generally, the Pompeii home was built with security in mind; the windows were small, the doors were sturdy and easy to bar from the inside. Because there was no window glass available at the time, street-level windows were covered by strong grates. Something that the rich and poor areas shared was wall graffiti—messages were found that included love notes, threats, political statements and obscenities.
At the center of a Roman home was an atrium, an opening in the roof that let sun into the house's center; all rooms opened onto this area. In the homes of the rich, there was usually a fountain or pool in this central area—perhaps even numerous atriums and open gardens. In Pompeii, the atrium served as a reception room for guests and was the first room seen when entering the dwelling.
In Pompeii, most houses were two-story structures. In a rich man's house, bedrooms were generally found on the first floor, while slave quarters were cramped areas located on upper floors. Many houses had more than one dining room where the inhabitants ate while reclining on couches.
Most businesses were small and owned by a family living over the business or shop. On the first floor, doors opened to the street to receive customers. Roman House 1 is an example of a modest tradesman's home, while Roman House 2 depicts the home of a rich merchant.
The Romans created the most extensive road system in ancient history. By the time the Roman Empire fell, some 50,000 miles of road had been constructed. These roads extended north as far as Germany, east to Spain and France, and west to Constantinople (Istanbul) in modern Turkey; there are even Roman roads in Egypt. Many of the roads still exist.
In ancient times, the saying "all roads lead to Rome" was true. The Roman road system was the basis of the empire's ability to project military power and to maintain commerce.
STONEHENGE
Stonehenge is in the county of Wiltshire in southwest England. When it was actually built is unknown, but estimates range from 1800 B.C. to 1400 B.C. Its construction is widely credited to the Druids, whose name comes from the old Saxon language and means “stone hang.”
The first serious attempt to learn about Stonehenge was initiated by Inigo Jones in the mid 1600s. His book, published in 1655, contained many illustrations and measurements. Jones credited its construction to ancient Britons, while other scholars later credited the structure to Romanized Britons.
In 1846, Reverend E. Duke published a paper in which he claimed that the facility was an astronomical observatory. He was correct. The sun rises and sets at specific points on the horizon throughout the year. On the longest and shortest days of the year, the sun rises due east; these days are called the equinox (March 21 and June 21). The builders set the stones in locations that marked the year's progress. A stone, named the Heel Stone, was set in the northeastern quadrant of Stonehenge; at equinox, the sun rises directly over it.
The observatory was also used to track the moon. In the center of the ring at Stonehenge is a large gray-green stone that is different from the other stones in the circle. This stone was originally 16 feet long and horizontal to the ground, but it is now broken into two pieces and called the Altar Stone. The inner circle of Stonehenge is surrounded by an outer circle of holes called Aubrey Holes. Stones were moved into the Aubrey Holes to indicate and allow predictions regarding the moon's position.
The construction of Stonehenge was not a single event. Rather, the site developed over a period of about 2,000 years. Originally, the upright markers may have been timber, then were replaced with stone. The site was improved six times.; for example, in 1920, several stones were set upright and the arch stones were restored.
Oddly, not one of the distinctive blue stones that make up Stonehenge are from the area. (One legend says that Merlin, the wizard, created the structure from distinctive blue stones that he magically transported through the air from Ireland.) The 82 stones—each weighing up to four tons—were mined 240 miles away, then dragged and floated to the site. It is believed that these stones were mined in the Preseli Mountains of Wales, transported overland to Milford Haven, transported by water along the coast of Wales to Bristol, then moved overland to the River Wylye.
No one knows why these stones were chosen, and modern science has found no unusual properties in them. Transportation of the stones has been replicated in modern times. However, the effort to move a single stone using ropes and log rollers was considerable and took months. Also, each stone presented unique transportation problems because each was shaped differently from the others.
In modern times, Stonehenge became a center stone to the New Age movement; there are gatherings of New Age Druids in midsummer to watch the sun rise over the Heel Stone.
Paestum, a Greek colony founded in 7th Century B.C., is located near the mouth of the Sele river on the western coast of Italy. At that time, the gulf of Sorento was known as Poseidunia and the city as Poseidonia in honor of Poseidon, the Greek god.
As a center of agriculture and trade with the Etruscans, the city prospered until about 400 B.C. Then the Lucanians, who lived in the mountains to the east, attacked the city, captured it and renamed it Paistos. A nephew of Alexander the Great fought a battle at the city in 322 B.C. and briefly relinquished Lucanian control. In 273 B.C., the city fell to the Romans, who created a Latin colony on the site and called it Paestum.
Several temples have made this city famous. Standing in one large area near the center of the town, the temples constitute the sacred area that was once surrounded by a limestone wall. The Temple of Neptune is located in the southern portion of this area.
The foundation of the temple, a classic example of Greek construction, dates to 450 B.C. and is the oldest structure on the site. Although it was thought by archaeologists that the temple was built to honor Poseidon, modern excavation indicates that the temple was dedicated to Hera Argive, the Goddess of Fertility, who was worshiped at the mouth of the nearby Sele River.
Although the proportions of the temple are ideal, measuring 24.30 meters by 59.90 meters, the structure's horizontal lines are not perfectly straight. This is because the Greeks made horizontal lines slightly convex—and corner columns sightly inclined toward the center—to correct divergence. This correction principle, later used by the Romans, overcomes the illusion of collapse.
The temple has two parts, the exterior enclosure (the first set of columns) and the interior (enclosed by a second set of columns). The interior segment is called the cella; its only light comes from the opening entrance.
Construction is of limestone, although the walls and some interior columns were covered with stucco to make them resemble marble. Stucco was also used to cover cracks and fill holes in the limestone blocks.
The interior roof was flat, and sockets for five long timbers are still visible; the exterior roof was gabled and covered with tile. Outside of Rome, the Temple of Neptune is the best preserved Doric temple in existence.
Trellebourg, located on the Danish island of Zealand in the North Sea, was a major Viking military and naval base in the 10th Century. The name means “slave fort.” Although it is a generic term used in the Viking language to describe bases, this site retained the word as an official part of its name.
The base was laid out with 16 longhouses in squares of four each. A circle, protected by an earthen rampart, enclosed the longhouses. Four gates were cut at 90-degree intervals in the circle to allow access. The entrance doors to each longhouse were not placed directly in front of each other, an attempt to keep Vikings from exiting the buildings and running into each other. An additional 15 longhouses were placed outside the circle; these served as barns and storehouses.
Each house held about 75 men who ate around a central hearth and slept on a raised platform along both walls. Some think each longhouse was dedicated to an individual Viking ship crew; each longhouse was boat-shaped and reminiscent of the dreaded Viking longship.
The longhouses are generally thought to have been used as a barracks where soldiers were marshalled by Harald Blue Tooth for creation of the Danish Viking State. It is also assumed that Trellebourg was used by Harald's son, Sevin Fork Beard, to invade England in 1013.
VIKING HOUSE
As a rule, Vikings did not live in organized military communities. Most lived in simple villages in Denmark, Sweden and Norway. And not all Vikings went on long raiding trips—some stayed home to farm.
Whenever the winter snow melted each year, farming began. Each month in the Viking calendar had a name that roughly described its events; for example, from mid May to mid June was called Lamb’s Fold Time. Vikings also raised cattle and sheep, and much of their winters were spent weaving.
The Viking house of the 11th Century was not an elaborate structure; it was usually a single room built of wooden timbers. The space between the timbers was filled with stones, but no mortar. Boards were used for the inside walls and the roof was covered with thatch. Cooking was done inside the house; the smoke escaped through a hole in the roof.
Before the great pyramids of Egypt, there were the Ziggurats of Babylon. These consisted of stepped layers in pyramid shape, topped with a small shrine dedicated to a god. The shape and the scope of the Ziggurat influenced the Egyptians centuries later; its influence also extended to the Bible. Ziggurats may also have been the basis for the design of the Tower of Babel.
The building techniques of the Babylonians were simple. Ziggurats were constructed of mud bricks that were later covered with colorful tiles. Endless maintenance was required to keep the structures in repair. Once a site had been selected and consecrated, it would be necessary to rebuild or replace the structure on it many times.
Scholars of the 19th Century maintained that these structures were used as astronomical observatories. This may be, but the structures did not contain astronomical reference points (markers for sunrises and moon positions) similar to those found in the Egyptian Pyramids or other sites.
Ziggurats incorporated numerous mathematical formulas in their construction. Cuneiform tablets indicate that each level had a specific area that related to units of land measurement.
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