Microsoft Bookshelf 1991/TheConciseColumbiaEncyclopedia.txt

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 The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia




   Aachen

 Aachen or Aix-la-Chapelle, city (1986 pop. 238,600), North
 Rhine-Westphalia, W West Germany. It is an industrial center producing
 textiles, machinery, and other manufactures. Its mineral baths have been
 famous since Roman times. CHARLEMAGNE made it his northern capital,
 building a palace and cathedral there, and the city was (936-1531) the
 coronation place of German kings. Later it was taken by France (1801) and
 then by Prussia (1815). After WORLD WAR I Aachen was occupied by the
 Allies, and two thirds of it was destroyed during WORLD WAR II.

   Aakjaer, Jeppe

 Aakjaer, Jeppe, 1866-1930, Danish poet. His lyric gift is apparent in
 Songs of the Rye (1906) and Heimdal's Wanderings (1924). He also wrote
 novels, mostly about his native Jutland, e.g., The Peasant's Son (1899).

   Aalto, Alvar

 Aalto, Alvar, 1896-1976, Finnish architect. He adapted Finnish building
 traditions to modern technology. Among his buildings are the Maison Carre
 in Paris and Baker House in Cambridge, Mass. (1947-48). He was also
 famous for his designs for laminated-wood furniture.

   aardvark

 aardvark, nocturnal MAMMAL (genus Orycteropus) found in Africa. About 6
 ft (180 cm) long, it has a long snout, large, erect ears, a body almost
 devoid of hair, and a long tail. It claws open ant and termite nests with
 its forefeet and uses its long, sticky tongue to capture insects.

   Aaron

 Aaron, in the BIBLE, the first high priest, the brother of MOSES, and his
 spokesman. Through him Jehovah performed miracles, although Aaron had
 made the GOLDEN CALF and allowed its worship. His descendants became
 temple priests.

   Aaron, Hank

 Aaron, Hank (Henry Louis Aaron), 1934-, American baseball player; b.
 Mobile, Ala. A right-handed batter, he played with the Braves (1954-74)
 in Milwaukee and Atlanta and with the Milwaukee Brewers (1975-76). In
 1974 he broke Babe RUTH'S career record for home runs, finishing with
 755. He set records for runs batted in, extra-base hits, and total bases.

   abacus

 abacus, an ancient computing device using movable beads strung on a
 number of parallel wires within a frame. Each wire represents a decimal
 place: ones, tens, hundreds, and so on. The beads are grouped to form
 numbers and shifted in specified patterns to add, subtract, multiply, or
 divide.

   Abadan

 Abadan, city (1976 pop. 294,068), Khuzestan prov., SW Iran, on Abadan
 Island, in the SHATT AL ARAB delta, at the head of the PERSIAN GULF.
 After oil was discovered (1908) nearby, Abadan became the terminus of oil
 pipelines and an oil-refining and shipping center. Iraqi forces damaged
 its major oil refinery in their invasion of Khuzestan in 1980.

   abalone

 abalone, marine GASTROPOD mollusk (genus Haliotis), covered by a single
 ear-shaped shell perforated with respiratory holes on one side. The
 abalone is hunted for its large, edible muscular foot and the iridescent
 MOTHER-OF-PEARL lining of its shell, used for buttons. It feeds by
 scraping the substrate with its rasping tongue (radula).

   abandonment

 abandonment, in U.S. law, voluntary, intentional, and absolute
 relinquishment of rights or property without conveying them to any other
 person. Abandonment also means willfully leaving one's spouse or
 children, intending not to return. In many states the abandonment of a
 child is a criminal offense.

   Abbas I

 Abbas I (Abbas the Great), 1557-1629, shah of PERSIA (1587-1628), of the
 Safavid dynasty. He broke the power of the tribal chiefs, ended the Uzbek
 threat, and extended his domain at the expense of the Turks and
 Portuguese.

   Abbasid

 Abbasid or Abbaside, Arabic family descended from Abbas, d.653, the uncle
 of MUHAMMAD. They rose to power by massacring the ruling Umayyad family
 and held the CALIPHATE from 749 to 1258. Prominent Abbasid caliphs
 include al-MANSUR and HARUN AR-RASHID, under whom the caliphate reached
 its greatest power. The long Abbasid decline ended with their overthrow
 (13th cent.) by the Seljuk Turks.

   Abbey Theatre

 Abbey Theatre: see THEATER.

   Abbott, George

 Abbott, George, 1889-, American theatrical director and playwright; b.
 Forestville, N.Y. He was a master of FARCE and MUSICALS. His hits include
 Three Men on a Horse (1935), Damn Yankees (1955), and Fiorello! (1960;
 Pulitzer).

   Abbott and Costello

 Abbott and Costello, American comedy team. Its members were William "Bud"
 Abbott, 1898-1974, and Lou (Cristillo) Costello 1908-59. They performed
 (1931-57) routines ("Who's on First") on the stage, radio, and television
 and in a series of successful films, including Buck Privates (1941).

   abbreviation

 abbreviation, in writing, arbitrary shortening of a word, usually by
 cutting off letters from the end, as in U.S. and Gen. (General).
 Contraction serves the same purpose but is understood strictly to be the
 shortening of a word by cutting out letters in the middle, the omission
 sometimes being indicated by an apostrophe, as in the word don't. Most
 abbreviations are followed by a period. Usage, however, differs widely,
 and recently omission of periods has become common, as in NATO and UN. A
 period is never used when apostrophes appear. A list of abbreviations
 used in this encyclopedia may be found at the front of the book.

   Abd al-Hamid

 Abd al-Hamid, sultans of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE (Turkey). Abd al-Hamid I,
 1725-89 (r.1774-89), witnessed the decline of Turkey and the rise of
 Russia as the foremost power in the area. Abd al-Hamid II, 1842-1918
 (r.1876-1909), suspended (1876) the constitution and ruled as an absolute
 monarch. The last RUSSO-TURKISH WAR was a disaster, resulting in a great
 loss of Turkish lands. He was eventually deposed by the Young Turks.

   Abd ar-Rahman

 Abd ar-Rahman, Muslim rulers of Spain. Abd ar-Rahman, d. 732, governor of
 Spain (721-32), fought the Franks and was defeated by CHARLES MARTEL. Abd
 ar-Rahman I,  d.788, first Umayyad emir of Cordoba (756-88), escaped to
 Spain after his family's massacre by the Abbasid. There he defeated (756)
 the emir of Cordoba and established himself in power. Abd ar-Rahman III
 (891-961), Umayyad emir and first caliph (929-61) of Cordoba, regained
 lands lost by his predecessors, maintained a powerful military force, and
 made Cordoba one of the greatest cities in the West.

   Abdias

 Abdias: see OBADIAH.

   abdomen

 abdomen, in vertebrates, portion of the trunk between the diaphragm and
 lower pelvis. In humans the abdominal cavity is lined with a thin
 membrane, the peritoneum, which encloses the STOMACH, intestines, LIVER,
 and GALL BLADDER. The PANCREAS, KIDNEYS, urinary bladder, and, in the
 female, reproductive organs are also located within the abdominal cavity.
 In insects and some other invertebrates the term abdomen refers to the
 rear portion of the body.

   Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem

 Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem, 1947-, American basketball player; b. N.Y.C. as
 Ferdinand Lewis ("Lew") Alcindor. He led the Univ. of California, Los
 Angeles, to three national titles (1967-69) and played center for the
 Milwaukee Bucks (1969-75) and Los Angeles Lakers (1975-88). The 7 ft 2
 in. (218 cm) Abdul-Jabbar won most-valuable-player honors six times and
 scored a total of 37,639 points (breaking the all-time record).

   Abdullah

 Abdullah, 1882-1951, emir of Transjordan (1921-46) and king of JORDAN
 (1946-51). In the first ARAB-ISRAELI WAR he commanded the Arab Legion and
 annexed those portions of Palestine not assigned to Israel.

   a Becket, Thomas

 a Becket, Thomas: see  THOMAS A BECKET, SAINT.

   Abe Kobo

 Abe Kobo, 1924-, Japanese novelist and dramatist. Often compared to
 KAFKA, he treats the contemporary human predicament in a realistic yet
 symbolic style. His minute descriptions of surrealistic situations often
 lend his works a nightmarish quality. Among Abe's novels are Woman in the
 Dunes (tr. and film 1964) and Secret Rendezvous (tr. 1979). His plays
 include Friends (tr. 1969).

   Abel

 Abel, in the BIBLE, son of ADAM and EVE. A shepherd, he was killed by his
 brother CAIN. Gen. 4.1-8.

   Abel, I(orwith) W(ilbur)

 Abel, I(orwith) W(ilbur), 1908-87, American labor leader; b. Magnolia,
 Ohio. He worked in a Canton rolling mill at 17 and was appointed (1937)
 staff representative of the organization that became the United
 Steelworkers of America. He was an Ohio district director of the union
 (1942-52), became (1953) secretary-treasurer, and served (1965-77) as
 president.

   Abel, Niels Henrik

 Abel, Niels Henrik, 1802-29, Norwegian mathematician. One of the greatest
 mathematicians of the 19th cent., he pioneered in the theory of elliptic
 functions, investigated generalizations of the binomial theorem, and
 proved the impossibility of representing a solution of a general equation
 of fifth degree or higher by a radical expression.

   Abelard, Peter

 Abelard, Peter, 1079-1142, French philosopher. Because his fame as a
 dialectician drew so many students, he is regarded as the founder of the
 Univ. of Paris. His secret marriage to a pupil, Heloise, ended when her
 uncle, Canon Fulbert of Notre Dame, hired ruffians to emasculate him.
 Becoming a monk, he built a hermitage and monastery, the Paraclete, which
 he later presented to Heloise, who had become an abbess. Abelard's first
 theological work had been burned (1121) as heretical; in 1140 the mystic
 St. BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX secured his condemnation by the council of Sens,
 and he retired in submission to Cluny. Following PLATO in theology,
 Abelard espoused the method of ARISTOTLE'S dialectic, holding that the
 system of LOGIC could be applied to the truths of faith. His view of
 universals anticipated the conceptualism of St. THOMAS AQUINAS. His most
 influential and controversial work, Sic et non, collected contradictory
 writings of the Church fathers.

   Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th earl of

 Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th earl of, 1784-1860, British
 statesman. He served in the cabinets of WELLINGTON and PEEL as foreign
 secretary (1828-30; 1841-46). In 1842 he settled the Northeast Boundary
 Dispute with the U.S. by the WEBSTER-ASHBURTON TREATY. As prime minister
 (1852-55) he was quite successful in home affairs, but he resigned after
 failing to prevent British involvement in the unpopular CRIMEAN WAR.

   Aberhart, William

 Aberhart, William, 1878-1943, premier of ALBERTA (1935-43). He helped to
 organize (c.1932) the SOCIAL CREDIT movement to make direct payments to
 all citizens and headed the first Social Credit government.

   Abernathy, Ralph

 Abernathy, Ralph, 1926-, American civil rights leader; b. Linden, Ala. A
 Baptist minister, he helped organize the Montgomery bus boycott (1955).
 He was treasurer, vice president, and, after the assassination of Martin
 Luther KING, Jr., president of the Southern Christian Leadership
 Conference. An advocate of nonviolence as the only acceptable means to
 social change, he led the Poor People's Campaign on Washington, D.C.,
 after King's death. He resigned (1977) from the SCLC and has worked with
 CIVIL RIGHTS and peace groups.

   aberration

 aberration, in optics, condition that causes a blurring and loss of
 clearness in the images produced by lenses or mirrors. Spherical
 aberration is the failure of a LENS or MIRROR of spherical section to
 bring parallel rays of light to a single focus; it can be prevented by
 using a more complex parabolic section. Chromatic aberration, the blurred
 coloring at the edge of an image, arises because some colors of light are
 bent, or refracted, more than others after passing through a lens; it can
 be cured by using a corrective lens.

   aberration of starlight

 aberration of starlight, angular displacement, caused by the earth's
 orbital motion, of the apparent path of light from a star, resulting in a
 displacement of its apparent position from its true position.

   Abidjan

 Abidjan, city (1982 est. pop. 951,216), former capital of Ivory Coast, on
 the Gulf of Guinea. It is the largest city and administrative center of
 Ivory Coast. Its port is on an island connected with the rest of the city
 by two bridges. Coffee, cocoa, timber, pineapples, and plantains are the
 chief exports. Processed food, textiles, automobiles, and chemicals are
 among the manufactures. One of Africa's most modern cities, it has an
 international airport nearby and growing tourism. Abidjan became (1934)
 the capital of France's Ivory Coast colony, but the capital was moved to
 Yamousoukro in the 1980s.

   Abilene

 Abilene, city (1986 est. pop. 112,430), seat of Taylor co., W central
 Texas; inc. 1882. First settled (1881) by buffalo hunters, it grew as a
 cattle-shipping point. It is a center of industry (e.g., petroleum,
 aircraft, electronics) and agriculture (e.g., cattle, cotton, sorghum)
 and serves as headquarters for regional oil interests. It is the site of
 Abilene Christian Univ., Hardin-Simmons Univ., and McMurry College.

   ablative

 ablative: see CASE.

   ablaut

 ablaut [Ger.,=off-sound], in INFLECTION, vowel variation (as in English
 sing, sang, sung, song) caused by former differences in syllabic accent.
 In a prehistoric period the corresponding forms of the language (known
 through scientific reconstruction) had differences in accent, not
 differences in vowel.

   ABM

 ABM (antiballistic missile): see MISSILE, GUIDED.

   abolitionists

 abolitionists, in U.S. history, especially from 1830 to 1860, advocates
 of the compulsory emancipation of black slaves. Abolitionists are to be
 distinguished from free-soilers, who opposed the extension of SLAVERY.
 The active campaign had its mainspring in the revival (1820s) in the
 North of evangelical religion, with its moral urgency to end sinful
 practices. It reached crusading stage in the 1830s, led by Theodore D.
 Weld, the brothers Arthur and Lewis Tappan, and William Lloyd GARRISON.
 The American Anti-Slavery Society, established in 1833, flooded the slave
 states with abolitionist literature and lobbied in Washington, D.C.
 Writers like J.G. WHITTIER and orators such as Wendell PHILLIPS lent
 strength to the cause. Despite unanimity on their goal, abolitionists
 were divided over the method of achieving it, Garrison advocating moral
 suasion, others direct political action. Uncle Tom's Cabin, by Harriet B.
 STOWE, became an effective piece of abolitionist propaganda, and the
 KANSAS question aroused both North and South. The culminating act of
 abolitionism was John BROWN'S raid on Harpers Ferry. Abolitionist demands
 for immediate freeing of the slaves after the outbreak of the CIVIL WAR
 resulted in Pres. Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation. The abolitionist
 movement was one of high moral purpose and courage; its uncompromising
 temper hastened the demise of slavery in the U.S.

   abominable snowman

 abominable snowman or yeti,manlike creature associated with the
 Himalayas. Known through tracks ascribed to it and alleged encounters, it
 is supposedly 6 to 7 ft (1.8 to 2.1 m) tall and covered with long hair.
 While many scholars dismiss it as a myth, others claim it may be a kind
 of ape.

   abortion

 abortion, expulsion of the embryo or fetus before it is viable outside
 the uterus, i.e., before the 28th week after conception, in humans (see
 REPRODUCTION). Spontaneous abortion, or miscarriage, may be caused by
 death of the fetus due to abnormality or disease or by trauma to the
 expectant mother. Abortion may also be induced, the fetus removed from
 the uterus by such procedures as vacuum suction, dilation and curettage,
 intrauterine saline injection, and hysterotomy (surgical incision of the
 uterus). Abortion was long practiced as a form of BIRTH CONTROL until
 pressure from the Roman Catholic Church and changing opinion led in the
 19th cent. to the passage of strict antiabortion laws. Attitudes toward
 abortion have become more liberal in the 20th cent. By the 1970s,
 abortion had been legalized in most European countries, the USSR, and
 Japan; in the U.S., according to a 1973 Supreme Court ruling (see ROE V.
 WADE), abortions are permitted during the first six months of pregnancy.
 Abortion remains a controversial issue in the U.S., however, and in 1977
 Congress barred the use of Medicaid funds for abortion except for
 therapeutic reasons and in certain other specified instances.

   Abraham

 Abraham or Abram,progenitor of the Hebrews. He is an example of the man
 devoted to God, as in his willingness to sacrifice his son ISAAC. Revered
 by several religions, he is principally important as the founder of
 JUDAISM. He received the promise of CANAAN for his people, who are
 descended from Isaac. Gen. 11-25. Through another son, ISHMAEL, he is
 considered by Muslims an ancestor of the Arabs.

   Abram

 Abram: see ABRAHAM.

   Abrams, Creighton Williams

 Abrams, Creighton Williams, 1914-74, U.S. military officer; b.
 Springfield, Mass. He served with distinction in World War II, in Korea
 (1953-54), and in West Germany (1960-62). In 1964 he was promoted to
 general. After serving as deputy commander of the U.S. forces in the
 VIETNAM WAR under Gen. William C. WESTMORELAND, he was commanding general
 (1968-72). He was also U.S. army chief of staff (1972-74).

   abrasive

 abrasive, material used to grind, smooth, cut, or polish another
 substance. Natural abrasives include SAND, PUMICE, CORUNDUM, and ground
 QUARTZ. Carborundum (SILICON CARBIDE) and ALUMINA (aluminum oxide) are
 major synthetic abrasives. The hardest abrasives are natural or synthetic
 DIAMONDS, used in the form of dust or minuscule stones.

   Abravanel

 Abravanel or Abarbanel, Judah,c.1460-c.1523, Jewish philosopher, also
 known as Leone Ebreo; b. Lisbon. He was influenced by the scholars of the
 Platonic Academy of Florence and by MAIMONIDES and IBN GABIROL. His
 Philosophy of Love (pub. posthumously, 1535), a classic exposition of
 platonic love, had a profound effect on philosophers of the 16th and 17th
 cent., notably BRUNO and SPINOZA.

   Absalom

 Absalom, beloved son of DAVID. He murdered his brother AMNON and fled.
 After being forgiven by David, Absalom stirred up a rebellion, in which
 he died. 2 Sam. 13-19.

   Abscam

 Abscam, U.S. scandal resulting from an investigation begun in 1978 by the
 Federal Bureau of Investigation. The FBI created a front (Abdul
 Enterprises, Ltd., hence, Abscam) for its agents, who, posing as
 associates of an Arab sheik, offered selected public officials money or
 other considerations in exchange for special favors. The videotaped
 meetings resulted in the indictments (1980) and convictions of one
 senator and four congressmen on charges including bribery and conspiracy;
 another congressman was convicted on lesser charges. The FBI's tactics
 raised questions about entrapment, and the conviction of Florida
 Congressmen Richard Kelly was overturned (1982).

   abscess

 abscess, accumulation of pus in tissues as a result of infection.
 Characterized by inflammation and painful swelling, it may occur in
 various parts of the body, e.g., skin, gum, eyelid, and middle ear. Many
 abscesses respond to treatment with ANTIBIOTICS; others require surgical
 drainage.

   absentee ownership

 absentee ownership, system under which a person (or a corporation)
 controls and owns capital, such as land or factories, in a region where
 that person does not reside and employs others to supervise and work it.
 Revolution and reform have abolished or greatly reduced the amount of
 absentee control throughout the world. In the U.S. the term has been
 applied to the concentration of economic power through various corporate
 devices.

   absolute value

 absolute value, magnitude of a mathematical expression, disregarding its
 sign; thus the absolute value is always positive. In symbols, if |a|
 denotes the absolute value of a number a, then |a|=a for a>0 and |a|=-a
 for a<0.

   absolute zero

 absolute zero, the zero point of the ideal gas temperature scale, denoted
 by 0 degrees on the KELVIN and Rankine temperature scales (-273.15 deg
 C.; -459.67 deg F). At this point, the volume of an ideal gas would be
 zero and, theoretically, all molecular motion would cease. In actuality,
 all gases condense well above this point. See also TEMPERATURE.

   absorption

 absorption, taking of molecules of one substance directly into another
 substance. Absorption may be either a physical or a chemical process.
 Physical absorption depends on the solubility of the substance absorbed,
 and chemical absorption involves chemical reactions between the absorbed
 substance and the absorbing medium. See also ADSORPTION.

   abstract expressionism

 abstract expressionism, movement in painting that emerged in New York
 City in the mid-1940s and attained prominence in American art in the
 following decade; also called action painting and the New York School.
 Given impetus by the work of Arshile GORKY, abstract expressionism is
 marked by an attention to surface qualities, i.e., brushstroke and
 texture; the use of huge canvases; the harnessing of accidents that occur
 while painting; and the glorification of the act of painting itself. The
 first important school in American painting to declare independence from
 European styles and to influence art abroad, abstract expressionism
 enormously affected the kinds of art that followed it, especially in the
 use of color and material. Major artists in the movement include Jackson
 POLLOCK, Willem DE KOONING, Hans HOFMANN, Robert MOTHERWELL, Franz KLINE
 and Mark ROTHKO.

   Abu al-Ala al-Maari

 Abu al-Ala al-Maari, 973-1057, Arabic poet. He was blind from childhood.
 Brilliantly original, he discarded classicism for intellectual urbanity.
 Later he favored ascetic purity and wrote more stereotypical poetry.

   Abu al-Faraj Ali of Esfahan

 Abu al-Faraj Ali of Esfahan, 897-967, Arabic scholar. He is mainly known
 for his poetic anthology Kitab al-Aghani [book of songs], an important
 source for information on medieval Islamic society.

   Abu Bakr

 Abu Bakr, 573-634, 1st caliph, father-in-law and successor of MUHAMMAD.
 He was probably the Prophet's first convert. During his critical two-year
 caliphate (632-34), ISLAM began the phenomenal growth that was to make it
 a world religion.

   Abu Dhabi

 Abu Dhabi, city (1980 pop. 265,702), capital of the UNITED ARAB EMIRATES.

   Abu Hanifa

 Abu Hanifa, c.699-767, Muslim theologian. A wealthy merchant from Kufa,
 Iraq, he founded Hanifi, the first of Islam's four orthodox schools of
 law. His thinking reflects a concern for the solidarity of the Muslim
 community. Accorded official status in many countries formerly under
 Ottoman administration, Hanifi is the most widespread of Islamic legal
 systems.

   Abuja

 Abuja, designated federal capital of Nigeria. Plans to move the capital
 from LAGOS were approved in 1976, and a 3,000-sq mi (7,770-sq km) capital
 territory was created near the old town of Abuja (now renamed Sulaija).
 The site, near the center of the country, has a good climate and is
 sparsely populated. The move is to be completed about 1990.

   Abu Nuwas

 Abu Nuwas, d. c.810, Arabic poet. A favorite of the caliphs HARUN
 AR-RASHID and Amin, he spent much time in Baghdad. His exquisite poetry
 echoes the extravagance of court life.

   Abu Said ibn Abi al-Khair

 Abu Said ibn Abi al-Khair, 967-1049, Persian poet, a Sufi and a DERVISH.
 He was the first to write rubaiyat (quatrains) in the Sufistic strain
 that OMAR KHAYYAM made famous.

   Abu Simbel

 Abu Simbel or Ipsambul,village, S Egypt, on the NILE R. Its two temples,
 hewn (c.1250 BC) out of rock cliffs in the reign of RAMSES II, were
 dismantled and raised over 200 ft (61 m) to avoid waters rising behind
 the ASWAN HIGH DAM. The project was completed (1966) with UNESCO aid.

   Abu Tammam Habib ibn Aus

 Abu Tammam Habib ibn Aus, c.805-c.845, Arabic poet, compiler of the
 HAMASA. Often describing historical events, his poems of valor are
 important as source material.

   Abyssinian cat

 Abyssinian cat: see under CAT.

   Ac

 Ac, chemical symbol of the element ACTINIUM.

   AC

 AC: see ELECTRICITY; GENERATOR; MOTOR, ELECTRIC.

   acacia

 acacia, plant (genus Acacia) of the PULSE family, mostly tropical and
 subtropical thorny shrubs and trees. Some have a feathery foliage
 composed of leaflets; others have no leaves but have flattened leaflike
 stems containing chlorophyll. Various species yield lac (for shellac),
 catechu (a dye), gum arabic, essential oils, tannins, and hardwood
 timber.

   academic freedom

 academic freedom, right of scholars to study, inquire, teach, and publish
 without control or restraint from the institutions that employ them. The
 concept is based on the notion that truth is best discovered through open
 investigation of all data. Its less clearly developed corollary is the
 obligation to pursue open and thorough inquiry regardless of personal
 considerations. Initiated during the ENLIGHTENMENT by scholars outside
 the university, academic freedom gained general acceptance only after
 university education was secularized.

   Acadia

 Acadia, region and former French colony, centered on NOVA SCOTIA, but
 including also PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND and much of the mainland coast from
 Quebec to Maine. In 1605 the French founded Port Royal (now ANNAPOLIS
 ROYAL), the first and chief town. During the FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS, the
 Peace of Utrecht (1713) gave Britain possession of the Nova Scotian
 peninsula, and, by the Treaty of PARIS (1763), all of Acadia fell to
 Britain. Doubting the loyalty of the French inhabitants (called
 Acadians), the British expelled many of them in 1755 and 1758. Most were
 scattered among the British colonies to the south, many of them later
 returning to the area. Other exiles found havens elsewhere, notably the
 Cajuns of S Louisiana, who still preserve a separate folk culture. The
 sufferings of the expulsion are depicted in LONGFELLOW'S poem Evangeline.

   Acadia National Park

 Acadia National Park: see NATIONAL PARKS.

   acanthus

 acanthus, common name for the Acanthaceae, a family of chiefly perennial
 herbs and shrubs, mostly tropical. Many members have decorative spiny
 leaves and are cultivated as ornamentals, e.g., bear's breech, whose
 ornate leaves provided a motif often used in Greek and Roman art and
 architecture. In Christian art, the acanthus symbolizes heaven.

   Acapulco

 Acapulco, city (1980 pop. 409,335), winter resort on the tropical Pacific
 coast of S Mexico, known for its fine beaches, luxury hotels and villas,
 and deep-sea fishing. Founded (1550) on a natural harbor, it was a base
 for Spanish explorers and was important in trade with the Philippines. It
 became a favored haunt of wealthy vacationers in the 1920s.

   acceleration

 acceleration: see MOTION.

   accelerator

 accelerator: see PARTICLE ACCELERATOR.

   accounting

 accounting, classification, analysis, and interpretation of the
 financial, or bookkeeping, records of an enterprise, used to evaluate the
 progress or failures of a business and to recognize the factors that
 determine its true condition. In the U.S. accountants who pass a required
 examination are granted the title Certified Public Accountant (CPA). A
 branch of accounting is auditing, the examination of accounts by persons
 who have had no part in their preparation. Annual audits are required for
 all publicly held businesses.

   Accra

 Accra, city (1984 pop. 964,879), capital of Ghana, on the Gulf of Guinea.
 The nation's largest city and its administrative and economic center,
 Accra is linked by road and rail with KUMASI, in the interior, and with
 the seaport of Tema. Manufactures include processed food, timber, and
 textiles. The city became (1876) the capital of the British Gold Coast
 colony and grew economically after completion (1923) of a railroad to the
 interior. Riots in the city (1948) accelerated the movement for Ghana's
 independence. Today Accra is a sprawling, modern city with wide avenues;
 points of interest include a 17th-cent. Danish castle.

   acculturation

 acculturation, the more or less continuous interaction between social
 groups brought about by accommodation and resulting in the intermixture
 of shared, learned behavior patterns. It may result in almost complete
 absorption of the CULTURE of one of the groups or a relatively equal
 merging of traits and patterns from both cultures. Not infrequently,
 acculturative processes result in social disturbance and individual
 psychological maladjustment.

   accusative

 accusative: see CASE.

   acetaminophen

 acetaminophen, an ANALGESIC and fever-reducing medicine similar in effect
 to ASPIRIN. Gentler to the stomach than aspirin, it lacks aspirin's
 anti-inflammatory effect.

   acetone, dimethyl ketone

 acetone, dimethyl ketone, or 2-propanone(CH3COCH3), colorless, flammable
 liquid. Acetone is widely used in industry as a solvent for many organic
 substances and is a component of most paint and varnish removers. It is
 used in making synthetic RESINS and fillers, smokeless powders, and many
 other organic compounds.

   acetylcholine

 acetylcholine, organic compound containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
 nitrogen, essential for the conduction of nerve impulses in animals. It
 is found in highest concentrations on neuron surfaces and is liberated at
 nerve cell endings. There is strong evidence that acetylcholine is the
 transmitter substance that conducts impulses from one cell to another in
 the parasympathetic nervous system, and from nerve cells to smooth
 muscle, skeletal muscle, and exocrine glands.

   acetylene

 acetylene or ethyne(HC=CH), a colorless gas and the simplest alkyne (see
 HYDROCARBON). Explosive on contact with air, it is stored dissolved under
 pressure in ACETONE. It is used to make neoprene RUBBER, PLASTICS, and
 RESINS. The oxyacetylene torch mixes and burns oxygen and acetylene to
 produce a very hot flame-as high as 6300 degF (3480 degC)-that can cut
 steel and weld iron and other metals.

   Achaea

 Achaea, region of ancient GREECE, in the N Peloponnesus on the Gulf of
 Corinth, home of the Achaeans, the ruling class in the PELOPONNESUS from
 c.1250 BC Before the 5th cent. BC the Achaean cities joined in the First
 Achaean League, which was dissolved after it opposed (338 BC) PHILIP II
 of Macedon. The Second Achaean League, formed in 280 BC, almost drove
 MACEDON from Achaea but was stopped by SPARTA. In 198 BC, with Roman aid,
 the league won power. Later, suspecting pro-Macedonian sympathies, Rome
 deported many Achaeans (168 BC) to Italy. In 146 BC Achaea waged a
 suicidal war against Rome, which easily won, dissolved the league, and
 ended Greek liberty.

   Achaemenids

 Achaemenids, dynasty of ancient PERSIA. The Achaemenid rulers (c.550-330
 BC) included CYRUS THE GREAT, Cambyses, DARIUS I, Xerxes I, and
 ARTAXERXES I. The dynasty ended with DARIUS III.

   Achebe, Chinua

 Achebe, Chinua, 1930-, Nigerian novelist. His novels, written in English,
 depict Ibo society and the impact of colonialism, e.g., Things Fall Apart
 (1958) and A Man of the People (1966). A former broadcaster and diplomat
 for Biafra, he has also published poetry, e.g., Christmas in Biafra
 (1973).

   Acheson, Dean Gooderham

 Acheson, Dean Gooderham, 1893-1971, U.S. secretary of state (1949-53); b.
 Middletown, Conn. Serving Pres. TRUMAN, he established the policy of
 containment of Communist expansion. He also helped to establish the NORTH
 ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION.

   Achilles

 Achilles, in Greek mythology, foremost hero of the TROJAN WAR; son of
 Peleus and Thetis. Thetis attempted to make him immortal by bathing him
 in the river STYX, but the heel she held remained vulnerable. Knowing
 Achilles was fated to die at Troy, Thetis disguised him as a girl and hid
 him at Skyros. He was found by ODYSSEUS, who persuaded him to go to war.
 At Troy he quarreled with AGAMEMNON and sulked in his tent until his
 friend Patroclus was killed by HECTOR. Filled with grief and rage,
 Achilles slew Hector and dragged his body to the Greek camp. He was later
 killed by PARIS, who wounded his heel.

   acidophilus milk

 acidophilus milk: see FERMENTED MILK.

   acid rain

 acid rain, form of precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, or hail) containing
 high levels of sulfuric or nitric acids (pH below 5.5-5.6). Produced when
 sulfur dioxide and various nitrogen oxides combine with atmospheric
 moisture, acid rain can contaminate drinking water, damage vegetation and
 aquatic life, and erode buildings and monuments. It has been an
 increasingly serious problem since the 1950s, particularly in the NE
 U.S., Canada, and W Europe, especially Scandinavia. Automobile exhausts
 and the burning of high-sulfur industrial fuels are thought to be the
 main causes, but natural sources, e.g., volcanic gases and forest fires,
 may also be significant. See also ECOLOGY; POLLUTION; WASTE DISPOSAL.

   acid rock

 acid rock: see ROCK MUSIC.

   acids and bases

 acids and bases, two related classes of chemicals; the members of each
 class have a number of common properties when dissolved in a solvent,
 usually water. Acids in water solutions exhibit the following common
 properties: they taste sour; turn LITMUS paper red; and react with
 certain metals, such as zinc, to yield hydrogen gas. Bases in water
 solutions exhibit these common properties: they taste bitter; turn litmus
 paper blue; and feel slippery. When a water solution of acid is mixed
 with a water solution of base, a SALT and water are formed; this process,
 called neutralization, is complete only if the resulting solution has
 neither acidic nor basic properties. When an acid or base dissolves in
 water, a certain percentage of the acid or base particles will break up,
 or dissociate, into oppositely charged ions. The Arrhenius theory of
 acids and bases defines an acid as a compound that can dissociate in
 water to yield hydrogen ions (H+) and a base as a compound that can
 dissociate in water to yield hydroxyl ions (OH-). The Bronsted-Lowry
 theory defines an acid as a proton donor and a base as a proton acceptor.
 The Lewis theory defines an acid as a compound that can accept a pair of
 electrons and a base as a compound that can donate a pair of electrons.
 Each of the three theories has its own advantages and disadvantages; each
 is useful under certain conditions. Strong acids, such as HYDROCHLORIC
 ACID, and strong bases, such as potassium hydroxide, have a great
 tendency to dissociate in water and are completely ionized in solution.
 Weak acids, such as acetic acid, and weak bases, such as AMMONIA, are
 reluctant to dissociate in water and are only partially ionized in
 solution. Strong acids and strong bases make very good ELECTROLYTES (see
 ELECTROLYSIS), i.e., their solutions readily conduct electricity. Weak
 acids and weak bases make poor electrolytes. See also AMPHOTERISM;
 BUFFER; CATALYST; INDICATORS, ACID-BASE; TITRATION; article on pH.

   ACLU

 ACLU: see AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION.

   Acmeists

 Acmeists, school of Russian poets that arose in 1912 in reaction to the
 SYMBOLISTS; it emphasized concreteness of imagery and clarity of
 expression. The leading Acmeists were Nikolai Gumilev, Anna AKHMATOVA,
 and Osip MANDELSTAM.

   acne

 acne, inflammatory disease of the sebaceous glands, characterized by
 blackheads, cysts, and pimples. The lesions appear on the face, neck,
 chest, back, and arms, and may be mild to severe. Most prevalent during
 adolescence, acne may appear in adulthood. Its cause is unknown, but
 contributing factors include genetic predisposition and hormonal changes
 during puberty. Treatment includes use of cleansers, ANTIBIOTICS,
 surgical drainage of lesions, and, for severe cases, retinoic acid
 derivatives.

   Acoma

 Acoma or Acoma,pueblo in W central New Mexico, situated atop a
 steep-sided 357-ft (109-m) MESA. Founded c.1100-1250, it is considered
 the oldest continuously inhabited community in the U.S. The resident
 PUEBLO INDIANS retain aspects of their 700-year-old culture; the men are
 weavers, the women highly skilled and renowned potters.

   Aconcagua

 Aconcagua, mountain 22,835 ft (6,960 m) high, in the ANDES of Argentina.
 It is the highest peak in the Americas.

   acorn

 acorn: see OAK.

   acoustics

 acoustics, the science of SOUND, including its production, propagation,
 and effects. An important practical application of acoustics is in the
 designing of auditoriums, which requires a knowledge of the
 characteristics of sound WAVES. Reflection of sound can cause an ECHO,
 and repeated reflections in an enclosed space can cause reverberation,
 the persistence of sound. Some reverberation in auditoriums is desirable
 to avoid deadening the sound of music. Reflection can be reduced through
 the proper configuration and texture of walls, and by the use of
 sound-absorbent materials. Another acoustical problem is INTERFERENCE,
 which can create "dead spots" in auditoriums for certain frequencies.

   acquired characteristics

 acquired characteristics, modifications produced in an individual plant
 or animal as a result of mutilation, disease, use and disuse, or any
 distinctly environmental influence. Belief in the inheritability of
 acquired characteristics was accepted by LAMARCK but ultimately rejected
 by modern geneticists, who have affirmed that inheritance is determined
 solely by reproductive cells and unaffected by somatic (body) cells.

   acquired immune deficiency syndrome

 acquired immune deficiency syndrome: see AIDS.

   acropolis

 acropolis, elevated, fortified section of ancient Greek cities. The
 Acropolis of Athens was adorned in the 5th cent. BC with some of the
 world's greatest architectural monuments. The remains of the PARTHENON,
 ERECHTHEUM, and Propylaea still stand.

   acrylic

 acrylic, more common name for polyacrylonitrile. Acrylic is a polymer
 composed of the acrylonitrile monomer CH2:CHCN. It is used as a fiber in
 SYNTHETIC TEXTILE FIBERS such as Arilan and Orlon.

   Actaeon

 Actaeon, in Greek mythology, a hunter. Because he saw ARTEMIS bathing
 naked, she changed him into a stag, and he was killed by his own dogs.

   actinide series

 actinide series, the radioactive metals, with atomic numbers 89 through
 103, in group IIIb of the PERIODIC TABLE. They are ACTINIUM, THORIUM,
 PROTACTINIUM, URANIUM, NEPTUNIUM, PLUTONIUM, AMERICIUM, CURIUM
 , BERKELIUM, CALIFORNIUM, EINSTEINIUM, FERMIUM, MENDELEVIUM
 , NOBELIUM, and LAWRENCIUM. All members of the series have chemical
 properties similar to actinium. Those elements with atomic numbers
 greater than 92 are called TRANSURANIUM ELEMENTS.

   actinium

 actinium (Ac), radioactive element; discovered in 1899 by Andre Debierne
 in uranium residues from pitchblende. Actinium, a silver-white metal, is
 the first member of the ACTINIDE SERIES. The most stable isotope has a


   action painting

 action painting: see ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM.

   activation energy

 activation energy: see CATALYST.

   active

 active: see VOICE.

   Acts of the Apostles

 Acts of the Apostles, fifth book of the NEW TESTAMENT, between the
 GOSPELS and the EPISTLES. The only contemporary historical account of
 CHRISTIANITY'S early expansion, it was written between AD 60 and 80 as a
 sequel to the Gospel of St. LUKE, who is its traditional author. The Acts
 chiefly deal with the work of St. PETER (1-12) and St. PAUL (13-21).

   acupuncture

 acupuncture, technique of medical treatment, based on traditional Chinese
 medicine, in which a number of very fine metal needles are inserted into
 the skin at any of some 800 specially designated points. In China it has
 long been used for pain relief and treatment of such ailments as
 ARTHRITIS, HYPERTENSION, and ULCERS. More recently it has been used as an
 ANESTHESIA for childbirth and some surgery. (Unlike conventional
 anesthesia, it does not lower blood pressure or depress breathing.) It
 has been suggested that acupuncture works by stimulating the production
 of ENDORPHINS. U.S. research on acupuncture has focused on its use in
 pain relief and anesthesia.

   ADA

 ADA: see PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE.

   Adam

 Adam [Heb.,=man], in the BIBLE, the first man. His story, from his
 creation to his expulsion (with EVE, his wife) from the Garden of EDEN,
 is told in Gen. 1.26-5.5. To St. PAUL, Adam represented the earthy side
 of man, as in 1 Cor. 15.20-22, 42-58.

   Adam, Adolphe Charles

 Adam, Adolphe Charles, 1803-56, French composer. His more than 50 stage
 works include the ballet Giselle (1841). He also wrote the popular song
 Cantique de Noel.

   Adam, Robert

 Adam, Robert, 1728-92, and James Adam, 1730-94, Scottish architects,
 brothers. Robert possessed the great creative talents. They designed
 public and private buildings in England and Scotland, and numerous
 interiors, pieces of furniture, and decorative objects. Robert's light,
 elegant style was a personal reconstitution of Palladian, Renaissance,
 and antique elements. The Adam manner grew vastly popular and has never
 disappeared. Interesting examples of Adam planning and decoration are at
 Osterly Park (1761-80) and Syon House (1762-69), both near London.

   Adams

 Adams, family of distinguished Americans from Massachusetts. John Adams
 was president of the U.S. (see separate article). He and his wife,
 Abigail (Smith) Adams, were the parents of John Quincy Adams, who was
 also president of the U.S. (see separate article). His son, Charles
 Francis Adams, 1807-86, b. Boston, was U.S. minister to Great Britain
 (1861-68). He maintained the Northern cause with a wisdom and dignity
 that won British respect, and he is credited with preventing British
 recognition of the CONFEDERACY. Later he represented the U.S. in the
 settlement of the ALABAMA CLAIMS. His son Charles Francis Adams,
 1835-1915, b. Boston, was an economist and historian. An expert on
 railroad financing, he was president of the Union Pacific RR (1884-90).
 His works include Three Episodes of Massachusetts History (1892). His
 brother Brooks Adams, 1848-1927, b. Quincy, Mass., was a historian. His
 belief that civilizations rose and fell according to the growth and
 decline of commerce was first developed in The Law of Civilization and
 Decay (1895). Among his other important works are America's Economic
 Supremacy (1900) and Theory of Social Revolutions (1913). His ideas
 influenced another brother, Henry Adams, 1838-1918, b. Boston, who was
 also a writer and historian. In developing a philosophy of history he
 found a unifying principle in force, or energy, and applied it in two
 books, Mont-Saint-Michel and Chartres (1913) and The Education of Henry
 Adams (1918). He also wrote History of the United States of America (9
 vol., 1889-91).

   Adams, Ansel

 Adams, Ansel, 1902-84, American photographer; b. San Francisco. Working
 against the aesthetic of the 1930s, he produced superb regional
 landscapes, notably of the American Southwest. He also wrote technical
 manuals and helped to found the first museum and college photography
 departments.

   Adams, James Truslow

 Adams, James Truslow, 1878-1949, American historian; b. Brooklyn, N.Y.
 His works include The Founding of New England (1921; Pulitzer), The Adams
 Family (1930), and The Epic of America (1931). He was editor of the
 Dictionary of American History (6 vol., 1940).

   Adams, John

 Adams, John, 1735-1826, 2d president of the U.S. (1797-1801); b. Quincy
 (then in Braintree), Mass.; father of John Quincy ADAMS. He graduated
 from Harvard Univ. in 1755 and became a lawyer. As a moderate but
 forceful leader of the group who opposed British measures leading to the
 AMERICAN REVOLUTION, he later served in both CONTINENTAL CONGRESSES and
 argued eloquently for the DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, which he signed.
 Adams served the new nation as a diplomat, negotiating the Treaty of
 PARIS (1783) to end the Revolution and serving (1785-88) as envoy to
 Great Britain. He became Pres. WASHINGTON'S vice president (1789-97) and
 in 1797 succeeded him as president. Adams's administration as president
 revealed his honest and stubborn integrity. Although allied with
 Alexander HAMILTON and the conservative, property-respecting Federalists,
 he was not dominated by them in their struggle with the Jeffersonians
 (see JEFFERSON, THOMAS). By conciliation he prevented war with France
 (see XYZ AFFAIR). He did not wholly support the ALIEN AND SEDITION ACTS.
 After 1801 he lived in retirement in Quincy. His wife, Abigail (Smith)
 Adams, 1744-1818, b. Weymouth, Mass., was the chief figure in the social
 life of her husband's administration. Lively and intelligent, she was one
 of the most distinguished and influential of American first ladies.

   Adams, John Couch

 Adams, John Couch, 1819-92, English astronomer. By mathematical
 calculation based on irregularities in the motion of the planet Uranus,
 he and U.J.J. LEVERRIER independently and accurately predicted (1845-46)
 the position of the then unknown planet NEPTUNE. Adams also made valuable
 studies of the moon's motions, of the great meteor shower of 1866, and of
 terrestrial magnetism.

   Adams, John Quincy

 Adams, John Quincy, 1767-1848, 6th president of the U.S. (1825-29); b.
 Quincy (then in Braintree), Mass; son of John and Abigail ADAMS; father
 of Charles Francis Adams (see ADAMS, family). As U.S. senator from
 Massachusetts (1803-8), he angered his fellow Federalists by supporting
 Jeffersonian policies (see JEFFERSON, THOMAS). He gained fame as
 secretary of state (1817-25) for Pres. James MONROE, his greatest
 achievement being the MONROE DOCTRINE. Elected president (1825) in the
 House of Representatives through the support of Henry CLAY, Adams had an
 unhappy, ineffective administration, despite his attempts to institute a
 program of internal improvements. He won new respect as a U.S.
 representative from Massachusetts (1831-48), eloquently attacking all
 measures that would extend SLAVERY.

   Adams, Samuel

 Adams, Samuel, 1722-1803, American Revolutionary patriot; b. Boston. His
 speeches and writings helped to spark the AMERICAN REVOLUTION. He signed
 the DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, was a member (1774-81) of the
 CONTINENTAL CONGRESS, and was governor (1794-97) of Massachusetts.

   Adana

 Adana, city (1985 pop. 776,000), capital of Adana prov., S Turkey, on the
 Seyhan R. Turkey's fourth largest city, it is the commercial center of a
 farming region where cotton, grains, and other crops are grown. The
 city's manufactures include processed food and textiles. An ancient city
 probably founded by the HITTITES, it prospered from 66 BC as a Roman
 colony. It later declined but was revived (AD c.782) by HARUN AR-RASHID.
 In the 16th cent. it passed to the Ottoman Turks. Near Adana is a Hittite
 archaeological site.

   adaptation

 adaptation, in biology, the adjustment of living matter to environmental
 conditions, including other living things. Animals and plants are adapted
 for securing food and surviving even in conditions of drought, great
 heat, or extreme cold. Adaptations are believed to arise when genetic
 variations that increase an organism's chances of survival are passed on
 to succeeding generations. See also ECOLOGY; EVOLUTION; GENETICS.

   adaptive radiation

 adaptive radiation, in biology, the evolution of an ancestral species
 adapted to a particular way of life into several species, each adapted to
 a different habitat. Illustrating the principle are the 14 species of
 DARWIN'S finches, small land birds of the Galapagos Islands: 3 are
 ground-dwelling seedeaters, 3 live on cactus plants and are seedeaters, 1
 is a tree-dwelling seedeater, 7 are tree-dwelling insect eaters, but all
 derive from a single species of ground-dwelling, seedeating finch that
 probably emigrated from the South American mainland.

   Addams, Charles Samuel

 Addams, Charles Samuel, 1912-88, American cartoonist; b. Westfield, N.J.
 His work, best known from The New Yorker magazine, is famed for its wit,
 fantasy, and sense of the macabre.

   Addams, Jane

 Addams, Jane, 1860-1935, American social worker; b. Cedar ville, Ill. In
 1889 she and Ellen Gates Starr founded Hull House, a Chicago settlement
 house that served the neighborhood poor and became a center for social
 reform activities. A leader of the WOMAN SUFFRAGE and pacifist movements,
 Addams shared the 1931 Nobel Peace Prize. She wrote several books on
 social issues and two autobiographical volumes.

   addax

 addax: see ANTELOPE.

   adder

 adder: see VIPER.

   addiction

 addiction: see DRUG ADDICTION AND DRUG ABUSE.

   Addis Ababa

 Addis Ababa, city (1984 est. pop. 1,412,575), capital of Ethiopia. Addis
 Ababa is Ethiopia's largest city, its administrative and communications
 center, and the main trade center for coffee (Ethiopia's chief export),
 tobacco, grains, and hides; much of its commerce is shipped by rail to
 the port of DJIBOUTI. Addis Ababa became (1889) Ethiopia's capital and
 was captured (1936) by the Italians and made the capital of ITALIAN EAST
 AFRICA. It was retaken by the Allies in 1941 and returned to Ethiopian
 rule. A modern city, it has been the site of many international
 conferences and organizations, including the ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN
 UNITY. Notable buildings include Coptic and Roman Catholic cathedrals.

   Addison, Joseph

 Addison, Joseph, 1672-1719, English essayist, poet, and statesman. His
 Remarks on Italy (1705) recorded early travels. The prominence he
 attained with the epic Campaign (1704) on MARLBOROUGH'S victory at
 Blenheim led to political appointments, and he served in Parliament
 (1708-19). Addison contributed to his friend Richard STEELE'S periodical
 the Tatler after 1710. There, and in the SPECTATOR and Guardian, he
 raised the English essay to an unequaled height. In prose marked by
 simplicity, order, and precision, Addison advocated reason and moderation
 in life.

   Addison's disease

 Addison's disease, progressive disease brought about by atrophy of the
 outer layer (cortex) of the adrenal gland; also called chronic
 adrenocortical insufficiency. The deterioration of this tissue causes a
 decrease in the secretion of vital steroid hormones, producing such
 symptoms as ANEMIA, weakness, abnormal skin pigmentation, and weight
 loss. The cause of the disease is unknown. Once thought inevitably fatal,
 the disease is treated with adrenocortical hormones that enable its
 victims to lead a nearly normal life.

   Adelaide

 Adelaide, city (1986 est. pop. 993,100), capital and chief port of South
 Australia, at the mouth of the Torrens R., on Gulf St. Vincent. It has
 automotive, textile, and other industries, and exports grains, wool,
 dairy products, and fruit. Founded in 1836, it was named for William IV's
 consort. The biennial Adelaide Festival of the Arts, begun in 1960, is
 held in the Adelaide Festival Centre (opened 1977). It is also known for
 its parks.

   Aden

 Aden, city (1984 est. pop. 318,000), capital and chief port of Southern
 Yemen (People's Democratic Republic of Yemen), on the Gulf of Aden near
 the southern entrance to the Red Sea. The city is built on two
 peninsulas, each with a high volcanic headland. Most of the population
 lives on Aden peninsula; Little Aden peninsula has an oil refinery and
 other industries. Aden has been the chief trade center of S ARABIA since
 ancient times. It declined with the discovery (15th cent.) of an
 all-water route around Africa to India, but revived when the SUEZ CANAL
 opened in 1869. The region was held by Muslim Arabs (7th-16th cent.) and
 by the Ottoman Turks (from 1538). The British captured Aden in 1839 and
 made it a crown colony in 1935. In 1967 Southern Yemen became
 independent; Aden has been its capital since 1970.

   Aden, Gulf of

 Aden, Gulf of, western arm of the Arabian Sea, 550 mi (885 km) long,
 between E Africa and SW Asia. It is connected with the RED SEA by the BAB
 EL MANDEB and is an important link in the MEDITERRANEAN SEA-SUEZ
 CANAL-INDIAN OCEAN sea lane.

   Adenauer, Konrad

 Adenauer, Konrad, 1876-1967, West German chancellor (1949-63). He was a
 member of the Catholic Center party until 1933, when he was imprisoned by
 the NAZIS. After World War II he was a founder and president of the
 Christian Democratic Union. As chancellor, he presided over the
 spectacular rebirth of West GERMANY'S economy, and guided that nation's
 reentry into the European community and recovery in 1955 of its full
 sovereignty.

   adenoids

 adenoids: see TONSILS.

   adenosine triphosphate

 adenosine triphosphate (ATP), compound composed of adenine (a PURINE),
 ribose, and three phosphate units; one of the most important
 low-molecular-weight molecules in living matter. It is a rich source of
 the chemical energy necessary for the success of a vast number of
 chemical reactions in the cell. ATP also plays a role in kidney function,
 transmission of nerve impulses, muscle contraction, active transport of
 materials through cell membranes, and synthesis of NUCLEIC ACIDS and
 other large molecules.

   adhesion and cohesion

 adhesion and cohesion, attractive forces between material bodies.
 Adhesive forces act between different substances, whereas cohesive forces
 act within a single substance, holding its atoms, ions, or molecules
 together. Without these forces, solids and liquids would act as gases.
 SURFACE TENSION in liquids results from cohesion, and CAPILLARITY results
 from a combination of adhesion and cohesion. FRICTION between two solid
 bodies depends in part on adhesion.

   Adirondack Mountains

 Adirondack Mountains, forested mountain wilderness area, NE New York,
 with many scenic gorges, waterfalls, and lakes. The Adirondacks rise to a
 high point of 5,344 ft (1,629 m) at Mt. Marcy and are geologically a
 southern extension of the CANADIAN SHIELD. Lake Placid and Lake George
 are important area resorts.

   adjective

 adjective: see PART OF SPEECH.

   Adler, Alfred

 Adler, Alfred, 1870-1937, Austrian psychiatrist, early associate of
 Sigmund FREUD and founder of the school of individual psychology.
 Rejecting Freud's emphasis on sex, Adler maintained that personality
 difficulties are rooted in a feeling of inferiority (see COMPLEX)
 deriving from restrictions on the individual's need for self-assertion.
 His best-known work is The Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology
 (1923).

   Adler, Cyrus

 Adler, Cyrus, 1863-1940, American Jewish educator; b. Van Buren, Ark.
 Founder of the American Jewish Historical Society, American Jewish
 Committee, and Jewish Welfare Board, he was president of Dropsie College
 (1908-40) and the Jewish Theological Seminary (1924-40). He was an editor
 of the Jewish Encyclopedia, and wrote articles and books.

   Adler, Felix

 Adler, Felix, 1851-1933, American educator and leader in social welfare;
 b. Germany. Founder of the ETHICAL CULTURE MOVEMENT (1876) and Society,
 he also organized the Workingmen's Lyceum, the Workingmen's School, and
 the Manhattan Trade School for Girls. He was for many years chairman of
 the National Child Labor Committee, and wrote Creed and Deed (1877) and
 An Ethical Philosophy of Life (1918), among other books.

   Adler, Larry

 Adler, Larry, 1914-, American harmonica player; b. Baltimore. He played
 with the world's major symphony orchestras and is generally credited with
 elevating the harmonica to concert status in the classical music world.

   adolescence

 adolescence, time of life from onset of puberty to full adulthood.
 Falling approximately between the ages of 12 and 21, adolescence is
 characterized by physical changes leading to sexual maturity, problems of
 sex-role identification and achievement, and movement toward personal
 independence. Psychologists regard adolescence as a period of social
 pressure specifically related to the society, not as a unique biological
 period.

   Adonis

 Adonis, in Greek mythology, beautiful youth loved by APHRODITE and
 PERSEPHONE. When he was killed by a boar, both goddesses claimed him.
 ZEUS decreed that he spend half the year above the ground with Aphrodite,
 the other half in the underworld with Persephone. His death and
 resurrection, symbolic of the seasonal cycle, were celebrated at the
 festival Adonia.

   adoption

 adoption, act creating the legal relation of parent and child. It was
 known in antiquity but was not part of the English COMMON LAW. In the
 U.S. it is governed by statute. Adoption's historical roots include the
 need to continue a family line where there is no natural heir. Today the
 usual focus is the child's welfare. A hearing before a judge is generally
 required, as is consent of the natural parent or guardian and that of the
 child if he or she is above a certain age. The natural parents generally
 lose their rights and duties toward the child; the adoptive parents
 assume them. Many states now permit adoption by unmarried adults.
 Adoption by relatives is most common; in adoption by unrelated adults,
 the courts attempt to ease adjustment to the adoptive family by
 maintaining secrecy regarding the child's origin. In recent years,
 however, a growing number of adopted children have attempted to identify
 their natural parents. FOSTER CARE is an arrangement in which a family or
 institution provides a home for a child whose parents cannot care for him
 (or her); unlike adoption, foster care is temporary.

   Adorno, Theodor Wiesengrund

 Adorno, Theodor Wiesengrund, 1903-69, German philosopher, sociologist,
 and music critic. From 1928, he was closely associated with the Frankfurt
 Institute for Social Research. When the Nazis came to power, he emigrated
 to Britain (1934) and then the U.S. (1938), where with Max Horkheimer he
 wrote the Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947) and collaborated on The
 Authoritarian Personality (1950), a study of fascism. He returned to
 Frankfurt (1949) and was director (1958-69) of the institute.

   adrenal glands

 adrenal glands, pair of small endocrine glands (see ENDOCRINE SYSTEM)
 situated atop the kidneys. The outer yellowish layer (cortex) secretes
 about 30 steroid hormones, most importantly aldosterone, which regulates
 water and salt balance in the body, and cortisol, which controls
 carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism. The inner reddish portion
 (medulla) of the adrenals secretes the emergency-response hormones
 EPINEPHRINE (adrenaline) and norepinephrine.

   adrenaline

 adrenaline: see EPINEPHRINE.

   Adrian I

 Adrian I, d. 795, pope (772-95). A Roman, he successfully urged
 CHARLEMAGNE to defeat the LOMBARDS and acquired from him additional lands
 for the PAPAL STATES. He supported the Byzantine empress Irene in her
 struggle against ICONOCLASM.

   Adrian IV

 Adrian IV, d. 1159, pope (1154-59). The only Englishman to become pope,
 he was originally named Nicholas Breakspear. In 1155 he defeated the
 opposition of Arnold of Brescia and crowned Holy Roman Emperor FREDERICK
 I. He later quarreled with Frederick and William I of Sicily. His
 donation of Ireland as a fief to Henry II of England is disputed.

   Adrian

 Adrian, Roman emperor: see HADRIAN.

   Adrian, Gilbert

 Adrian, Gilbert: see FASHION.

   Adriatic Sea

 Adriatic Sea, arm of the MEDITERRANEAN SEA, c.500 mi (800 km) long,
 between Italy (W) and Yugoslavia and Albania (E). It is 58-140 mi (93-225
 km) wide, with a maximum depth of c.4,100 ft (1,250 m). VENICE is the
 chief port.

   adsorption

 adsorption, the adhesion of molecules to the surfaces of solids, as
 opposed to ABSORPTION, in which the molecules actually enter the
 absorbing medium. Charcoal, for example, which has a great surface area
 because of its porous nature, can adsorb large volumes of gases,
 including most of the poisonous ones, and thus is used in gas masks and
 filters.

   adult education

 adult education or continuing education,organized instruction provided to
 men and women beyond the age of general public education. The range of
 emphasis in adult education has come to include everything from the
 job-oriented (see VOCATIONAL EDUCATION) to the purely academic. Modern
 adult education probably began with European political groups and
 vocational classes. In the U.S., some forms date from colonial times;
 Benjamin FRANKLIN was among those who established debating and discussion
 groups. In the 19th cent. the LYCEUM and the CHAUTAUQUA MOVEMENT
 contributed to the growth of adult education. Public lectures were
 popular, and the establishment of LAND-GRANT COLLEGES stimulated the
 demand for education in the developing heartland. By the end of the
 century other forms, among them labor colleges, correspondence schools,
 and factory and other vocational classes, had come into being. The GREAT
 DEPRESSION brought an increased demand for practical training, and after
 World War II the G.I. Bill of Rights enabled thousands to attend schools
 and colleges. Adult education today faces an increasing demand created by
 expanding leisure time, a highly competitive labor market, and greater
 population growth, especially among young adults and those past
 traditional retirement age. The field now embraces such diverse areas as
 high-school equivalency; physical and emotional development; practical
 arts; applied science; recreation; and academic, business, and
 professional subjects; the courses are provided in schools, colleges,
 libraries, work places, and other facilities.

   Advent

 Advent, Christian penitential season, lasting in the West from the Sunday
 nearest Nov. 30 until Christmas. It is the first season of the church
 calendar.

   Advent Christian Church

 Advent Christian Church: see ADVENTISTS.

   Adventists

 Adventists, members of a group of religious denominations whose
 distinctive doctrine centers in their belief concerning the imminent
 second coming of Christ. Adventism is specifically applied to the
 teachings of William Miller. The largest group, the Seventh-Day
 Adventists, were formally organized in 1863 and are fundamentally
 evangelical. Other Adventist groups are the Church of God, the Advent
 Christian Church, and the Primitive Advent Christian Church.

   adverb

 adverb: see PART OF SPEECH.

   advertising

 advertising, in general, any openly sponsored offering of goods,
 services, or ideas through any medium of public communication. The main
 advertising media include newspapers, magazines, television, radio, and
 direct mail. The advertising agency, working on a commission basis, has
 been largely responsible for the development of modern advertising.
 Defenders of advertising say that it is meant to sell products, not
 create values, and that it furthers product improvement through
 competition, while critics contend that it creates false values and
 impels people to buy things they neither need nor want. The U.S. is the
 world leader in advertising expenditures, and the term "Madison Avenue"
 (the street in N.Y.C. where many advertising agencies have had
 headquarters) has come to symbolize the industry.

   A.E.

 A.E.: see RUSSELL, GEORGE WILLIAM.

   Aegean civilization

 Aegean civilization, cultures of pre-Hellenic GREECE. MINOAN CIVILIZATION
 flourished on Crete and MYCENAEAN CIVILIZATION on the Greek mainland.
 Sites of other cultures have been found at TROY and in the Cyclades.

   Aegean Sea

 Aegean Sea, arm of the MEDITERRANEAN SEA, off SE Europe, between Greece
 and Turkey, center of the classical Greek world. The island-studded sea
 is c.400 mi (640 km) long, 200 mi (320 km) wide, and more than 6,600 ft
 (2,010 m) deep off N CRETE at its southern limit. Major islands include
 EVVOIA, the Sporades, the CYCLADES, SAMOS, KHIOS, LESBOS, Thasos, and th
 DODECANESE. Sardines and sponges are taken from the sea, and some natural
 gas has been found off NE Greece.

   Aegisthus

 Aegisthus, in Greek mythology, son of Thyestes. Aegisthus revenged his
 brothers' murder by killing his uncle ATREUS. He was later CLYTEMNESTRA'S
 lover, helped her to slay AGAMEMNON, and was himself killed by ORESTES.

   Aeken, Jerom van

 Aeken, Jerom van: see BOSCH, HIERONYMUS.

   Aemilian Way

 Aemilian Way: see ROMAN ROADS.

   Aeneas

 Aeneas, in classical legend, a Trojan; son of Anchises and VENUS. After
 Troy's fall he escaped, tarried with DIDO at CARTHAGE, then went to
 Italy, where his descendants founded Rome. His deeds are celebrated in
 VERGIL'S Aeneid.

   Aeolians

 Aeolians: see GREECE.

   aerial

 aerial: see ANTENNA.

   aerobics

 aerobics [from Gr. meaning=with oxygen], endurance exercises in which the
 volume of breathing is increased and the heart is forced to beat faster
 than usual for a prolonged period of time, thereby pumping an increased
 amount of oxygen-rich blood to the muscles being used. Such aerobic
 activities as running, swimming, and cycling can strengthen the
 cardiovascular system, improving the body's use of oxygen and allowing
 the heart to work less strenuously.

   aerodynamics

 aerodynamics, study of gases in motion. Because the principal application
 of aerodynamics is the design of AIRPLANES, air is the principal gas with
 which this science is concerned. Bernoulli's principle, which states that
 the pressure of a moving gas decreases as its velocity increases, has
 been used to explain the lift produced by a wing having a curved upper
 surface and a flat lower surface (see AIRFOIL). Because the flow is
 faster across the curved surface than across the plane one, a greater
 pressure is exerted in the upward direction. Aerodynamics is also
 concerned with the drag caused by air friction, which is reduced by
 making the surface area of the craft as small as possible. At speeds
 close to the speed of sound, or Mach 1 (see MACH NUMBER), there is also a
 large, sudden increase of drag, which has been called the sonic, or
 sound, barrier. Aerodynamics is also used in designing automobile bodies
 and trains for minimum drag and in computing wind stresses on bridges,
 buildings, and the like. The WIND TUNNEL is one of the basic experimental
 tools of the aerodynamicist. See SHOCK WAVE; SONIC BOOM.

   aeronautics

 aeronautics: see AERODYNAMICS; AIRPLANE; AVIATION.

   aerosol

 aerosol, a COLLOID in which small solid or liquid particles are suspended
 in a gas. Natural aerosols such as fog or smoke occur throughout the
 ATMOSPHERE, which is itself an aerosol. The term is also used to describe
 a container of paint, insecticide, or other substance held under pressure
 by a propellant, which releases the substance in the form of a fine spray
 or foam. The fluorocarbon FREON was until recently the most common
 aerosol propellant, but its use has diminished because it is thought to
 contribute to the destruction of the OZONE layer of the stratosphere.

   Aeschines

 Aeschines, c.390-314? BC, Athenian orator. He became politically powerful
 through his oratorical gifts. Opposing resistance to PHILIP II of
 Macedon, he was the bitter rival of DEMOSTHENES.

   Aeschylus

 Aeschylus, 525-456 BC, Athenian tragic poet. First of the three great
 Greek tragedians, he preceded SOPHOCLES and EURIPIDES. He wrote perhaps
 90 plays, of which seven survive intact. Often credited with inventing
 TRAGEDY, he added an actor to what had been a dialogue, thus increasing
 its possibilities. His choral lyrics rank with those of PINDAR. Among his
 best-known plays are The Seven against Thebes and Prometheus Bound. His
 only extant trilogy, the Oresteia, a history of the house of ATREUS, is
 considered by many the greatest Attic tragedy.

   Aesop

 Aesop, semilegendary ancient Greek fabulist, supposedly a slave. The
 FABLES called Aesop's were preserved by various writers and include "The
 Fox and the Grapes" and "The Tortoise and the Hare."

   aesthetics

 aesthetics, branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art and the
 criteria of artistic judgment. The conception of art as imitation of
 nature was formulated by PLATO and developed by ARISTOTLE, both of whom
 held that beauty inheres in the object itself and may be judged
 objectively. KANT held that the subject may have universal validity,
 while other thinkers, e.g., HUME, identified beauty with that which
 pleases the observer. Modern philosophers especially concerned with
 aesthetic questions have included CROCE, CASSIRER, John DEWEY, and
 SANTAYANA.

   AEthelbert

 AEthelbert, d. 616, king of Kent (560?-616). Although he was defeated
 (568) by the West Saxons, he later became the strongest ruler in S
 England. In 597 he was converted to Christianity by St. AUGUSTINE OF
 CANTERBURY and became the first Christian king of Anglo-Saxon England.

   AEthelbert

 AEthelbert, d. 865, king of WESSEX (860-65), son of AETHELWULF. After his
 father's death in 858, he ruled KENT, Surrey, SUSSEX, and ESSEX,
 reuniting them with Wessex when in 860 he succeeded his brother
 AEthelbald in that kingdom.

   AEthelflad

 AEthelflad or Ethelfleda , d. 918, daughter of ALFRED and wife of
 AEthelred, ealdorman of MERCIA. After her husband's death in 911, she
 ruled the semi-independent Mercia alone and was known as the Lady of the
 Mercians.

   AEthelred

 AEthelred, 965-1016, king of England (978-1016), called AEthelred the
 Unready [Old Eng., without counsel]. He was the son of EDGAR, and the
 half brother and successor of Edward the Martyr. A weak king, he reigned
 at the height of Danish power. Although he began paying tribute through
 the DANEGELD to the Danes in 991, they returned in 997 to plunder his
 realm, staying until 1000. In 1002 AEthelred married Emma, sister of the
 duke of Normandy, possibly hoping to gain an ally. Although by 1009 a
 navy existed, the treason of its commanders rendered it useless. In 1013
 the Danish king Sweyn returned to conquer; he was well received in the
 DANELAW and London capitulated. AEthelred fled to Normandy but was
 restored in 1014 on Sweyn's death. In 1016 AEthelred's son EDMUND
 IRONSIDE succeeded him, made a treaty with CANUTE, son of Sweyn, and
 died. Canute succeeded him and married AEthelred's widow.

   AEthelstan

 AEthelstan: see ATHELSTAN.

   AEthelwulf

 AEthelwulf, d. 858, king of WESSEX (839-56), son of EGBERT and father of
 AETHELBERT and ALFRED. With his son AEthelbald, he won a notable victory
 over the Danes at Aclea (851). He married Judith of France in 856. A man
 of great piety, he learned while on a pilgrimage in Rome that AEthelbald
 would resist his return. He left his son as king in Wessex and ruled in
 Kent and its dependencies.

   aether

 aether: see ETHER, in physics.

   Aetna

 Aetna: see ETNA.

   Aetolia

 Aetolia, region of ancient GREECE, N of the gulfs of Corinth and Calydon,
 E of the Achelous R. It was the center of the Aetolian League, formed in
 the 4th cent. BC to oppose the Achaean League (see under ACHAEA) and the
 Macedonians. With Rome it defeated PHILIP V of Macedon (197 BC), but then
 it allied itself against Rome with ANTIOCHUS III of Syria. His defeat
 (189 BC) marked the end of the league's power.

   affirmative action

 affirmative action, U.S. program to overcome the effects of past
 discrimination by giving some form of preferential treatment to ethnic
 minorities and women. The term is usually applied to those plans that set
 forth goals and time tables, required since the early 1970s of government
 contractors and universities receiving public funds. The Equal Employment
 Opportunities Act (1972) set up a commission to enforce such plans. The
 establishment of racial quotas in the name of affirmative action brought
 charges of so-called reverse discrimination in the late 1970s. The U.S.
 Supreme Court accepted such an argument in 1978 in the UNIVERSITY OF
 CALIFORNIA REGENTS V. BAKKE, but in 1979 the Court approved the use of
 quotas in a case involving voluntary affirmative-action programs in
 unions and private businesses. In the 1980s, under the Reagan
 administration, the federal government's role in affirmative action was
 considerably diluted.

   affluent society

 affluent society, a term coined by John Kenneth GALBRAITH in The Affluent
 Society (1958) to describe the U.S. economy after World War II. Such a
 society is rich in private resources but poor in public services because
 of a misplaced priority on increasing production in the private sector.
 This derives from the conventional economic theory that resources are
 always scarce. The term has lost its original ironic meaning and is now
 used simply to indicate widespread prosperity.

   Afghan hound

 Afghan hound, tall, swift HOUND; shoulder height, 24-28 in. (61-71.1 cm);
 weight, 50-60 lb (22.7-27.2 kg). Its long, silky coat may be any color.
 The breed originated in Egypt c.5,000 years ago, was perfected in
 Afghanistan, and was brought to England after World War I.

   Afghanistan

 Afghanistan, officially the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, republic
 (1982 est. pop. 15,163,000), 249,999 sq mi (647,497 sq km), S central
 Asia, bordered by Iran (W), Pakistan (E and S), the USSR (N), and China
 (NE). Principal cities include KABUL (the capital), KANDAHAR, and HERAT.
 Most of Afghanistan is mountainous, and the towering ranges of the HINDU
 KUSH reach a height of more than 24,000 ft (7,315 m); fertile valleys and
 plains, home of most of the population, nestle in the mountains. The land
 is mainly dry, and the rivers (unnavigable for the most part) are used
 for irrigation. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy, although less
 than 10% of the land is cultivated; corn, barley, rice, and fruit are
 grown, and sheep are raised for skins, wool, and meat. Industry and
 development of minerals are still in the beginning stages. Imports
 (mostly manufactured goods) greatly exceed exports (wool, hides, fruit).
 The population is diverse, including Afghans, Pathans, Hazararas,
 Tadzhiks, Uzbeks, and nomadic Turkmen; almost all are Muslims. Afghan and
 Iranian are the principal languages.

 History Afghanistan, astride the land route to India (through the famed
 KHYBER PASS), has fallen to many conquerors through the ages, e.g.,
 DARIUS I (c.500 BC); ALEXANDER THE GREAT (329-327 BC); and numerous Arab
 invaders (from the 7th cent. AD), who established Islam as the dominant
 culture. Mahmud of Ghazni, who conquered (11th cent.) an empire
 stretching from Iran to India, was the greatest of Afghanistan's rulers.
 The country was later conquered by JENGHIZ KHAN (c.1220) and TAMERLANE
 (14th cent.). Afghanistan became a united state (1747) under Ahmad Shah,
 who founded the Durani dynasty. During the 19th cent. Britain, to protect
 its Indian empire from Russia, tried to establish authority in
 neighboring Afghanistan; the result was two British-Afghan Wars (1838-42,
 1878-80). An agreement (1907) gave Britain control over Afghanistan's
 foreign affairs, but the emir Amanullah engaged Britain in a third Afghan
 War (1919), which gave Afghanistan full independence. Amanullah embarked
 on a modernization program, and in 1926 proclaimed a monarchy to replace
 the emirate. The last king, Muhammad Zahir Shah, was overthrown in 1973
 in a military coup led by Lt. Gen. Muhammad Daoud Khan, who proclaimed a
 republic. Daoud was killed in a coup in 1978 and a pro-Soviet regime
 installed. In 1979 a Soviet-backed coup, supported by an invasion of
 Soviet troops, killed then-president Hafizulla Amin and replaced him with
 Babrak Karmal, leader of a rival faction. Over 2 million Afghans fled to
 Iran and Pakistan, but strong resistance from rebel forces within the
 country continued. Despite international pressure, Soviet troops remained
 in Afghanistan until early 1989.

   AFL-CIO

 AFL-CIO: see AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR AND CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL
 ORGANIZATIONS.

   Africa

 Africa, second largest continent, c.11,677,240 sq mi (30,244,050 sq km)
 including Madagascar and smaller offshore islands. It is connected to
 Asia by the narrow Isthmus of Suez. Mt. Kibo (19,340 ft/5,895 m), a peak
 of KILIMANJARO, in Tanzania, is the highest point; the lowest point, 436
 ft (133 m) below sea level, is the Qattarah Depression, in Egypt. E
 Africa's lake-filled GREAT RIFT VALLEY is the continent's most
 spectacular feature. Mountain ranges include the ATLAS MTS. (N), the
 Ethiopian Highlands and Ruwenzori Mts. (E), and the Drakensberg Mts. (S).
 Chief rivers are the NILE, CONGO (Zaire), NIGER, and ZAMBEZI. Climatic
 conditions range from hot and rainy all year near the equator, through
 tropical savanna with alternating wet and dry seasons immediately north
 and south of the equatorial region, to hot and dry in the great SAHARA
 desert, in the north, and the smaller KALAHARI desert, in the south. At
 its north and south extremities the continent has a Mediterranean-type
 climate. The countries of Africa are Algeria, Angola, Benin, Botswana,
 Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Cape Verde, the Central African
 Republic, Chad, The Comoros, the Congo Republic, Djibouti, Egypt,
 Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau,
 Ivory Coast, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali,
 Mauritania, Mauritius, Morocco, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Sao
 Tome and Principe, Senegal, the Seychelles, Sierra Leone, the Somali
 Republic, the Republic of South Africa, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Togo,
 Tunisia, Uganda, Zaire, Zambia, and Zimbabwe; other political units are
 Namibia and Western Sahara (see separate articles). African peoples, who
 make up about 10% of the world's population, are divided into more than
 50 nations and are further fragmented into numerous ethnic and linguistic
 groups (see AFRICAN LANGUAGES). See map of Africa in separate section.

   African art

 African art, traditional art created by peoples S of the Sahara. The
 predominant art forms are MASKS and figures, which were generally used in
 religious ceremonies. The decorative arts, especially in TEXTILES and in
 the ornamentation of everyday tools, were a vital art in nearly all
 African cultures. Established forms evolved long before the arrival (15th
 cent.) of the Portuguese in Africa, but most works older than 150 years
 have perished. Their creators valued them for ritual use rather than
 aesthetic accomplishment. Wood-often embellished with clay, shells,
 beads, ivory, metal, feathers, and shredded raffia-was the dominant
 material. In the Sudan and on the Guinea coast the wood-carving style was
 highly abstract. Distortion often emphasized features of cultic
 significance. The Bambara of W Mali are famous for their striking wooden
 headdresses in the form of antelope heads. In NW Guinea the Baga made
 snake carvings, drums supported by small standing figures, and
 spectacular masks. The southern groups of Senufu of the Ivory Coast made
 masks representing human features with geometric projections and legs
 jutting out of each side of the face. During the 18th and 19th cent. the
 ASHANTI kingdom of Ghana used a system of brass weights to weigh gold
 dust; these weights were small figures cast in CIRE PERDUE. From N
 Nigeria, the remarkable Nok terra-cotta heads are the earliest African
 sculpture yet found (c.500-200 BC). The art of the Yoruba of S Nigeria is
 often brilliantly polychromed. On the banks of the Middle Cross R. are
 about 300 monolithic carvings, supposedly Ekoi ancestor figures from
 between 1600 and 1900. The small tribes of the Cameroon did woodcarvings
 and sculptures that include large house posts and ritual objects. Among
 the Fang tribes of Gabon, decorative motifs on stringed musical
 instruments emphasized the human figure. The Bapende of the W Congo made
 ivory pendants portraying human faces, while the Baluba of the SE Congo
 produced bowls and stools supported by slender figures. The dynamic and
 expressive free-standing figures of the Badjokwe of S Congo and Angola
 are particularly outstanding. African art came to European notice c.1905,
 and such artists as PICASSO and MODIGLIANI were influenced by it. The
 Museum of Primitive Art (N.Y.C.) and the Field Museum of Natural History
 (Chicago) have fine collections of African art.

   African languages

 African languages, geographic rather than linguistic classification of
 languages spoken on the African continent. These languages do not belong
 to a single family but are divided among several distinct linguistic
 stocks having no common origin. The principal linguistic families of
 Africa are now generally said to be Hamito-Semitic; Niger-Kordofanian
 (including Niger-Congo); Nilo-Saharan; and Khoisan, or Click. Two other
 stocks, Indo-European and Malayo-Polynesian, are also represented.

╓┌─────────────────────────────────────┌─────────────────────────────────────╖
 MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk
 indicates a dead language)
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
 Hamito-Semitic or Afroasiatic
 Languages (for Hamito-Semitic
 languages that were or are spoken in
 W Asia, see the Hamito-Semitic
 classification in the table "Major
 Languages of Europe, Asia and Some
 Islands of the Pacific and Indian
 Oceans" accompanying the LANGUAGE
 article)

 SEMITIC (spoken in North Africa and
 Ethiopia)

 Arabic                                Egyptian Arabic, Western Arabic

 Ethiopic                              Amharic (or Abyssinian), Geez
 MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk
 indicates a dead language)
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
Ethiopic                              Amharic (or Abyssinian), Geez
                                       (Classical Ethiopic),* Tigre,
                                       Tigrinya

 HAMITIC

 Egyptian (was spoken in Egypt)        Ancient Egyptian,* Coptic*

 Berber (spoken throughout North       Kabyle, Modern Berber, Rif, Siwi,
 Africa except Egypt)                  Tamachek, Tuareg, Zanaga

 Cushitic (spoken in Ethiopia and      Agau, Beja, Burji, Galla, Geleba,
 adjoining regions)                    Gimira, Janjaro, Kaffa, Konso, Maji,
                                       Saho-Afar, Sidamo, Somali

 CHAD (spoken near Lake Chad, central  Angas, Bolewa, Gwandara, Hausa, Hiji,
 Africa, and in W Africa)              Kuseri, Mandara, Ngala, Ron, Shirawa,
                                       Sokoro
 MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk
 indicates a dead language)
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
                                      Sokoro

 Indo-European Languages (for a full
 presentation of the Indo-European
 language family, see table
 accompanying the LANGUAGE article)

 GERMANIC

 West Germanic

 Low German                            Afrikaans (spoken in the Republic of
                                       South Africa), English (spoken in
                                       the Republic of South Africa,
                                       Zimbabwe, and a number of other
                                       African countries)

 ITALIC
 MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk
 indicates a dead language)
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
ITALIC

 Romance (spoken in a number of        French, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish
 African countries)

 Khoisan or Click Languages (spoken
 in S and E Africa)

                                       Hatsa (or Hadzapi)   Sandawe

 SOUTH AFRICAN KHOISAN                 Bushman, Hottentot

 Malayo-Polynesian Languages (spoken
 in Madagascar; for a full
 presentation of the
 Malayo-Polynesian language family,
 see table accompanying the LANGUAGE
 article)
 MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk
 indicates a dead language)
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
article)

 WESTERN                               Malagasy

 Niger-Kordofanian Languages

 NIGER-CONGO (spoken in S and central
 Africa and in W Africa below the
 Sahara)

 West Atlantic                         Dyola, Fulani, Gola, Kissi, Temne,
                                       Wolof

 Mande                                 Dyula, Malinke, Mende

 Gur (or Voltaic)                      Dagomba, Mamprusi, Mossi

 Kwa                                   Akan, Ashanti, Bini, Ewe, Ibo, Ijo,
 MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk
 indicates a dead language)
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
Kwa                                   Akan, Ashanti, Bini, Ewe, Ibo, Ijo,
                                       Nupe, Yoruba

 Benue-Congo

 Bantu                                 Bemba, Ganda, Kikuyu, Kongo, Lingala,
                                       Luba, Makua, Mbundu, Ruanda, Rundi,
                                       Shona, Sotho, Swahili, Thonga, Xhosa,
                                       Zulu

 Non-Bantu                             Efik, Jukun, Tiv

 Adamawa-Eastern                       Banda, Sango, Zande

 KORDOFANIAN (spoken in Sudan)

 Katla                                 Katla

 MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk
 indicates a dead language)
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────

 Koalib                                Koalib

 Talodi                                Talodi

 Tegali                                Tegali

 Tumtum                                Tumtum

 Nilo-Saharan Languages

 SONGHAI (spoken in Mali)              Songhai

 SAHARAN (spoken near Lake Chad and    Daza, Kanuri, Teda, Zaghawa
 in the central Sahara)

 MABAN (spoken east of Lake Chad)      Maba

 MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk
 indicates a dead language)
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────

 FURIAN (spoken in Sudan)              Fur

 KOMAN (spoken in Ethiopia and Sudan)  Ganza, Gule, Gumuz, Koma, Mao, Uduk

 CHARI-NILE (spoken in Sudan, Zaire,
 Uganda, Cameroon, Chad, Central
 African Republic, mainland Tanzania,
 and Ethiopia)

 Eastern Sudanic

 Nubian                                Birked, Midobi

 Nilotic                               Dinka, Masai, Nandi, Nuer, Shilluk,
                                       Suk, Turkana

 Central Sudanic                       Bongo-Bagirmi, Efe, Mangbetu
 MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk
 indicates a dead language)
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
Central Sudanic                       Bongo-Bagirmi, Efe, Mangbetu

                                       Berta, Kunama






   African Methodist Episcopal Church

 African Methodist Episcopal Church, a leading black American denomination
 of METHODISM, founded (1816) by Richard Allen. In 1988 the church
 reported a membership of 2,210,000.

   African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church

 African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, one of the largest African
 Methodist bodies, founded (1796) by black American Methodists. The church
 reported a U.S. membership of 1,195,173 in 1988.

   African music

 African music. Sub-Saharan African music, ranging from highly functional
 tribal music to stylized entertainment, is distinguished by striking
 polyrhythmic counterpoint, realized by handclaps, xylophones, and drums,
 and by pitch polyphony, performed by voice and on wind and string
 instruments. Diatonic scales are generally used. To what extent this
 music influenced JAZZ and the black American SPIRITUAL is debated.

   African National Congress

 African National Congress, the oldest non-White political organization in
 South Africa. It was founded in 1912 and was dedicated to reform through
 political action. After the violence at Sharpeville in 1960, the party
 was banned. In 1964, its leader, Nelson MANDELA, was sentenced to life in
 prison and the active leadership has lived in exile. During the late
 1970s, with the South African government's continued exclusion of black
 Africans from political participation, and with the renewal of youth-led
 militant protest, the party, though outlawed, became the popularly
 acknowledged vehicle of mass resistance. See also APARTHEID.

   African Negro literature

 African Negro literature. Although ancient African Muslim books in
 Swahili and Arabic exist, African literature before the 19th cent. is
 almost entirely an oral tradition. The continent's seemingly
 inexhaustible supply of myths, tales, legends, riddles, and proverbs
 continues to enrich African writing, which appears in native, especially
 Bantu, languages, and in French, English, and Portuguese. The African
 writer best known before the 1930s was the South African Thomas Mofolo,
 whose novels (in Sesotho) included Chaka (tr. 1931). French-African
 writers in Paris in the 1930s, led by the poet-statesman Leopold Sedar
 SENGHOR, espoused negritude, a rejection of French assimilationist
 policy. After World War II, writers focused on decaying colonialism and
 on the "new" Africa. National literatures began to appear, notably in
 Nigeria with the work of Chinua ACHEBE, Wole SOYINKA, Amos TUTUOLA, and
 others, and in Senegal and Cameroon. Major African writers in English
 include Ezekiel Mphahlele and Oswald Mtshali (South Africa), Bessie Head
 (Botswana), Ayi Kwei Armah (Ghana), and Ngugiwa Thiong'o and Okot p'Bitek
 (Kenya). Among leading writers in French are Mongo Beti (Cameroon);
 Camara Laye (Guinea); Birago Diop, Sembene Ousmane, and Mariama Ba
 (Senegal); David Diop (born in France), and Tchicaya U Tamsi (Congo). One
 of the best-known writers in Portuguese was Agostinho Neto (1922-79),
 president of Angola (1975-79).

   African violet

 African violet, common name for plants (mostly hybrids of Saintpaulia
 ionantha) of the GESNERIA family, grown chiefly as houseplants for their
 colorful flowers and fuzzy foliage.

   Afrikaans

 Afrikaans, one of the official languages of South Africa. It is a
 Germanic language of the Indo-European family. See AFRICAN LANGUAGES.

   Afro-Americans

 Afro-Americans: see BLACK AMERICANS.

   Ag

 Ag, chemical symbol of the element SILVER.

   Aga Khan III

 Aga Khan III, 1877-1957, Muslim leader. As hereditary ruler of the Muslim
 Ismaili sect he was born to great power and wealth. He supported the
 British in India, founded (1906) the All-India Muslim League, and
 represented India in various international bodies.

   Agamemnon

 Agamemnon, in Greek mythology, leader of the Greeks in the TROJAN WAR;
 brother of MENELAUS; son of ATREUS. His children by CLYTEMNESTRA were
 IPHIGENIA, ELECTRA, and ORESTES. To obtain favorable winds for the fleet
 against Troy, he sacrificed Iphigenia to ARTEMIS, incurring
 Clytemnestra's hatred. At Troy he quarreled with ACHILLES; that dispute
 forms a main theme of HOMER'S Iliad. He withdrew from the war and
 returned to Mycenae, where he was murdered by Clytemnestra and her lover,
 AEGISTHUS. To avenge his death, Orestes and Electra killed Aegisthus and
 their mother.

   Aga Muhammad Khan

 Aga Muhammad Khan or Agha Muhammad Khan,1742-97, shah of PERSIA
 (1796-97), founder of the Kajar, or Qajar, dynasty. In 1794 he killed the
 last ruler of the Zand dynasty and climaxed his campaign for the throne
 with a wholesale massacre. Hated by his subjects for his brutality, he
 was assassinated.

   agar

 agar, product consisting of the sugar galactose, obtained from some red
 ALGAE species (see SEAWEED). Dissolved in boiling water and cooled, agar
 becomes gelatinous; it is used as a culture medium (especially for
 BACTERIA), a laxative, and a food thickener.

   Agassiz, Louis

 Agassiz, Louis(Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz) , 1807-73, Swiss-American
 zoologist and geologist. In 1832 he became professor of natural history
 at the Univ. of Neuchatel, which he made a center for scientific study.
 He also examined glacial movements and deposits before coming to the U.S.
 in 1846, where he taught at Harvard (from 1848) and strongly influenced a
 generation of scientists. His writings include Research on Fossil Fish (5
 vol., 1833-44) and Contributions to the Natural History of the United
 States (4 vol., 1857-62).

   agate

 agate, extremely fine-grained variety of CHALCEDONY, banded in two or
 more colors. The banding occurs because agates are formed by the slow
 deposition of silica from solution into cavities of older rocks. Agates
 are found primarily in Brazil, Uruguay, India, Mexico, and the U.S. They
 are valued as semiprecious GEMS and are used in the manufacture of
 grinding equipment.

   agave

 agave: see AMARYLLIS.

   Agee, James

 Agee, James, 1909-55, American writer; b. Knoxville, Tenn. His works
 include Let Us Now Praise Famous Men (1941), a telling commentary on
 Depression-era tenant farmers, and A Death in the Family (1957;
 Pulitzer), a poetic novel. His movie criticism and scripts are collected
 in Agee on Film (2 vol., 1958-60).

   Agency for International Development

 Agency for International Development (AID), federal agency in the Dept.
 of State, created by Congress (1961) to consolidate U.S. nonmilitary
 foreign-aid programs to developing countries. AID offers technical,
 capital, and commodity assistance, giving priority to programs in
 agriculture, health, population planning, and education. Among its
 specific concerns are a long-term development plan for the Sahelian
 region of W Africa and the coordination of international disaster
 assistance. All of AID's programs stress maximum involvement by the
 people of developing nations.

   Agent Orange

 Agent Orange: see HERBICIDE.

   Aggeus

 Aggeus, Vulgate form of HAGGAI.

   agglutination

 agglutination, in linguistics: see INFLECTION.

   aggression

 aggression, a form of behavior characterized by verbal or physical
 attack. It may be either appropriate and self-protective or destructive.
 When aggression in adults is not a response to a clear threat, it is
 often considered a symptom of mental disorder. It may be directed
 outward, against others, as in explosive personality disorders, or
 inward, against oneself, leading to self-damaging acts. Some
 investigators of human behavior, such as Sigmund FREUD and Konrad LORENZ,
 have argued that aggressive behavior is innate, while others have
 proposed that it is learned.

   Agincourt

 Agincourt, village, N France, where in 1415 Henry V of England defeated
 an army of French knights in the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. The victory of
 Henry's longbow men made obsolete the warfare methods of the age of
 chivalry and enabled England to conquer much of France.

   aging

 aging: see GERONTOLOGY.

   Agnew, Spiro Theodore

 Agnew, Spiro Theodore, 1918-, 39th vice president of the U.S.; b.
 Baltimore, Md. Governor of Maryland (1967-69), he was vice president
 (1969-73) in the administration of Pres. Richard M. NIXON. A critic of
 liberals and VIETNAM WAR protestors, he resigned (Oct. 10, 1973) after
 evidence revealed political corruption during his years in Maryland
 politics. He pleaded no contest to the charge of evading income tax, was
 sentenced to probation, and fined. In 1981 a state court ordered Agnew to
 repay Maryland over $248,000, for bribes he took while in state office.

   Agnon, S(hmuel) Y(osef)

 Agnon, S(hmuel) Y(osef), 1888-1970, Israeli writer; b. Poland as Samuel
 Josef Czaczkes. Regarded as the greatest modern writer of fiction in
 Hebrew, he shared the 1966 Nobel Prize in literature. His novels and
 stories explore Jewish life; they include the novels The Bridal Canopy
 (1919) and The Day Before Yesterday (1945).

   agnosticism

 agnosticism, form of skepticism that holds that the existence of God
 cannot be logically proved or disproved. Agnosticism is not to be
 confused with ATHEISM, which denies the existence of God. KANT and
 Herbert SPENCER considered themselves agnostics.

   Agra

 Agra, former province, N central India. The presidency, or province, of
 Agra was created in 1833 by the British. In 1902 it became part of the
 United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. The city of Agra (1981 pop. 723,676),
 Uttar Pradesh state, is on the Jumna R. A district administrative
 headquarters, it produces shoes, glassware, carpets, and other goods.
 AKBAR founded Agra, and it was a MOGUL capital until 1658. The British
 annexed it in 1836. It is noted for its architecture, especially the TAJ
 MAHAL.

   agrarian laws

 agrarian laws, in ancient Rome, the laws regulating the disposition of
 public lands. Wealthy patricians tended to gain and hold large areas of
 public land, nominally as state tenants. The poorer classes' desire to
 gain public land gave rise to laws, beginning in the 5th cent. BC, that
 included the Licinian Rogations (367 BC; see LICINIUS, fl. 375 BC), and
 the Sempronian Law (133 BC; revived 123 BC). They were often violated or
 ignored. The reform movement ended with DOMITIAN'S edict (AD c.82)
 assigning title to public land in Italy to those who held it. This
 confirmed the long trend toward the dependency of the poor upon the
 powerful.

   agriculture

 agriculture, science of producing crops and livestock; it aims to
 increase production and protect the land from deterioration. Branches
 include AGRONOMY, HORTICULTURE, ENTOMOLOGY, animal husbandry, and
 DAIRYING. Historically, agriculture has been linked with social,
 economic, and political organization. Its development among early peoples
 encouraged stable settlements, and it later became associated with
 landholding, SLAVERY, and FEUDALISM. During the agricultural revolution
 (16th and 17th cent.), horticultural knowledge expanded, and crops and
 farming methods were exchanged internationally. The invention of machines
 such as McCormick's reaper (1831) and the general-purpose tractor
 (c.1924) led to mechanized, large-scale farming. Modern Western
 agriculture also depends on breeding programs; FERTILIZERS and
 PESTICIDES; food processing techniques, e.g., REFRIGERATION; efficient
 marketing; agricultural colleges and research centers; and, in many
 nations, government subsidies. See also GREEN REVOLUTION; ORGANIC
 FARMING.

   Agriculture, United States Department of

 Agriculture, United States Department of, federal executive department
 established (1862) to administer all federal programs related to food
 production and rural life. It assists farmers through its research,
 planning, and service agencies, and aids consumers by inspecting and
 grading many products; it also administers the Food Stamp Program and
 issues a wide range of publications on farming and horticulture. The
 Forest Service and the Soil Conservation Service are part of the
 department.

   agronomy

 agronomy, branch of AGRICULTURE concerned with soil management and with
 the breeding, physiology, and production of major field crops. It deals
 mainly with large-scale crops (e.g., cotton, soybeans, and wheat), while
 HORTICULTURE concerns fruits, vegetables, and ornamentals.

   Aguinaldo, Emilio

 Aguinaldo, Emilio, 1869-1964, Philippine leader. After leading (1896) a
 rebellion against Spanish rule, he cooperated with U.S. forces in the
 SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. He later rebelled (1899-1901) against U.S. rule.

   Ahab

 Ahab, d. c.853 BC, king of Israel (c.874-c.853 BC), son and successor of
 Omri. One of the greatest kings of the northern kingdom, he was killed in
 a war against Damascus. The biblical account of Ahab's reign (1 Kings
 16.28-22.40) is mostly concerned with its religious aspects, especially
 his marriage to Jezebel, a willful woman of Tyre who was attached to
 foreign cults and behavior. To the devout she represented evil, and she
 met her match in ELIJAH.

   Ahad Ha-Am

 Ahad Ha-Am [Heb.,=one of the people], 1856-1927, pseud. of Asher
 Ginsberg, Jewish thinker and Zionist leader; b. Russia. A critic of those
 who sought immediate settlement in Palestine, he saw Palestine as a
 "spiritual center" giving strength and direction to Jews in the Diaspora.
 Some of his essays appear in Selected Essays of Ahad Ha-Am (tr. 1912).

   Ahasuerus

 Ahasuerus: see ESTHER.

   Ahaz

 Ahaz, d. c.727 BC, king of Judah (c.731-727 BC). His reign marked the end
 of the real independence of Judah. In the BIBLE he is opposed by ISAIAH
 for his alliance with Assyria against Israel and Syria, and denounced for
 having heathen abominations and for using the Temple gold to pay tribute
 to Assyria. 2 Kings 16; 2 Chron. 28; Isa. 7.

   Ahmed

 Ahmed, sultans of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE (Turkey). Ahmed I, 1589-1617
 (r.1603-17), made peace (1606) with Austria, agreeing to Transylvania's
 independence and recognizing other European rulers as his equals for the
 first time. Ahmed II, 1642-95 (r.1691-95), saw the beginning of the
 Turks' forced retreat from Hungary. Ahmed III, 1673-1736 (r.1703-30),
 seized (1715) the Peloponnesus and the Ionian Isles (except Corfu) from
 Venice, but he lost important Balkan territories to Austria. He was
 overthrown by the JANISSARIES and died in prison.

   Ahmedabad

 Ahmedabad or Ahmadabad,city (1981 pop. 2,515,000), capital of Gujarat
 state, NW India, on the Sabarmati R. It is an industrial center noted for
 its cotton mills. Founded in 1412 by the Sultan Ahmad Shah, it fell to
 AKBAR in 1573 and prospered under the MOGULS, who controlled the city
 until 1758 when it came under the MAHRATTAS. It has many mosques, tombs,
 and temples. It came under British control in 1818.

   Ahvenanmaa Islands

 Ahvenanmaa Islands or Aland Islands,Finland, strategically important
 group of c.7,000 islands (less than 100 inhabited) at the entrance to the
 Gulf of Bothnia in the Baltic Sea. Originally colonized as part of
 Sweden, the islands were ceded (1809) to Russia, demilitarized (1856) by
 international agreement, and confirmed (1921) as part of Finland by the
 League of Nations. Finland renounced the League's guarantee of autonomy
 in 1951, but accorded rights of self-government to the islanders, who are
 largely Swedish.

   AIDS

 AIDS, or acquired immune deficiency syndrome,a fatal disease caused by a
 virus, known as HIV or human immunodeficiency virus that attacks blood
 cells. The disease suppresses the body's immune system, allowing other
 diseases, including cancer and pneumonia, to infect the patient. Spread
 through the exchange of body fluids, it has primarily affected male
 homosexuals, drug users, prostitutes, and hemophiliacs. See also AZT.

   Aiken, Conrad

 Aiken, Conrad, 1889-1973, American writer; b. Savannah, Ga. Often
 concerned with the quest for self-knowledge, he is best known for his
 richly musical verse, e.g., Selected Poems (1929, Pulitzer), A Letter
 from Li Po (1955). His other works include the novels Blue Voyage (1927)
 and Great Circle (1933), short stories, critical essays, and an
 autobiography (1952).

   ailanthus

 ailanthus, tree (genus Ailanthus) of the family Simarubaceae. Ailanthus
 is native to warm regions of Asia and Australia. Its wood is used in
 cabinetmaking and for charcoal manufacture. The bark and leaves are used
 medicinally, and the leaves provide food for silkworms. Females of a
 species called tree of heaven are cultivated for their attractive foliage
 and their resistance to smoke and soot; the flowers of the male plant,
 however, have a disagreeable odor.

   Ailey, Alvin

 Ailey, Alvin, 1931-, American modern dancer and choreographer; b. Rogers,
 Tex. He studied with Lester Horton. In the late 1950s, he formed his own
 company, Alvin Ailey's American Dance Theater, which is noted for its use
 of African motifs. His best-known works include Creation of the World
 (1954) and Revelations (1960).

   Ainu

 Ainu, aborigines of Japan, possibly of Caucasoid descent, having both
 European and Asian physical traits. Oriental invaders forced the Ainu to
 the N Japanese island of HOKKAIDO and to Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands,
 in the USSR. Their animistic religion centers on a bear cult. They live
 by hunting, fishing, farming, and selling crafts to tourists.

   air, law of the

 air, law of the, law connected with the use of the air (including radio
 and telegraph communication); more commonly, body of laws governing civil
 aviation. Spurred by the growth of air transport, the victorious nations
 of World War I, meeting in Paris in 1919, drew up the International
 Convention for Air Navigation, commonly called the Paris Convention; this
 agreement recognized national claims to air space and established rules
 for aircraft registration and operating safety. U.S. air laws are modeled
 on the Convention, and are administered by the FEDERAL AVIATION
 ADMINISTRATION. There are also many general conventions and bilateral
 agreements between nations. In 1944 a conference of 52 nations (not
 including the USSR) established the International Civil Aviation
 Organization (see UNITED NATIONS), to ensure the orderly growth of
 international aviation.

   air conditioning

 air conditioning, mechanical process for controlling the temperature,
 humidity, cleanliness, and circulation of air in buildings and rooms.
 Most air conditioners operate by ducting air across the colder,
 heat-absorbing side of a REFRIGERATION apparatus, and directing the
 cooled air back into the air-conditioned space. Small window conditioners
 vent heat outdoors. Larger systems use circulating water to remove heat.
 Air conditioning provides the heat, humidity, and contamination controls
 essential in the manufacture of such products as chemicals and
 pharmaceuticals.

   aircraft carrier

 aircraft carrier, ship designed to carry aircraft and to permit takeoff
 and landing of planes. Its distinctive features are a flat upper deck
 (flight deck) that functions as a takeoff and landing field, and a main
 deck (hangar deck) beneath the flight deck for storing and servicing the
 aircraft. The aircraft carrier remained an experimental and untested war
 vessel until WORLD WAR II, when the Japanese wreaked havoc on the
 British, Dutch, and U.S. navies with carrier-borne aircraft. By 1942 the
 aircraft carrier had replaced the battleship as the major unit in a
 modern fleet, and during the war it was indispensable in naval operations
 against a sea- or shore-based enemy, with two major battles (Coral Sea
 and Midway, 1942) being fought entirely by aircraft, and the opposing
 fleets never coming within gunshot range of each other. U.S. carriers of
 the Essex class spearheaded the island-hopping campaign in the Pacific. A
 new era in carrier design opened when the U.S. launched (1960) the
 nuclear-powered Enterprise, a vessel capable of lengthy voyages without
 refueling. A nuclear-powered successor, the Nimitz, was the largest ship
 afloat when launched in 1975.

   air-cushion vehicle

 air-cushion vehicle (ACV), ground-effect machine,or  Hovercraft, vehicle
 designed to travel at a short distance above ground or water, moving on a
 cushion of air that is held in a chamber beneath the vehicle. ACVs offer
 the potential for very high speeds. The maximum size of ACVs is now over
 100 tons; some of them travel at over 100 mph (160 km/hr).

   airedale terrier

 airedale terrier, largest of the TERRIER group; shoulder height, c.23 in.
 (58.4 cm); weight, 40-50 lb (18.1-22.7 kg). Its dense, wiry, close-lying
 coat is a mixture of tan, black, and grizzle. The breed was probably
 produced from crosses of the extinct black-and-tan terrier and the
 otterhound.

   airfoil

 airfoil, surface designed to develop a desired force by reaction with a
 fluid, especially air, that is flowing across the surface. Examples of
 airfoils are the fixed wings of AIRPLANES, which produce lift (see
 AERODYNAMICS), and control surfaces, such as ailerons, elevators,
 rudders, and flaps, that are manipulated to produce variable forces.
 Other airfoils include spoilers, propeller blades, and the blades
 utilized in turbojet engines.

   air force

 air force, national military organization for air warfare. Although
 balloons were used by French forces in Italy in 1859 and by the Union in
 the U.S. Civil War, air forces in the modern sense date from WORLD WAR I,
 when the offensive capabilities of the AIRPLANE were first demonstrated.
 Airplanes were first controlled by national armies and used for
 reconnaissance and support of ground forces, but as their effectiveness
 as tactical weapons increased, independent air forces were called for.
 Arguing that future wars would be won by strategic bombing of an enemy's
 industrial centers, military leaders, including Italian Gen. Giulio
 Douhet, U.S. Gen. William MITCHELL, and British Air Chief Marshal Sir
 Hugh Trenchard urged intensive development of air power. By WORLD WAR II,
 control of the air over both land and sea proved crucial in most major
 engagements, and the air force became a separate branch of the armed
 services in many countries. The first great air battle in history was the
 Battle of Britain (1940), in which the British Royal Air Force stood off
 the German Luftwaffe over England. The effect of air power in
 revolutionizing naval warfare was demonstrated in the 1941 surprise
 attack by Japanese aircraft, launched from AIRCRAFT CARRIERS, on PEARL
 HARBOR. Air forces on both sides engaged in strategic and tactical
 bombing, attacks on naval and merchant ships, transportation of personnel
 and cargo, mining of harbors and shipping lanes, antisubmarine patrols,
 and photo reconnaissance, as well as support of ground, naval, and
 amphibious operations. After World War II, the airplane was superseded by
 the missile as a strategic weapon, but with helicopters joining the
 traditional fighter planes, bombers, and cargo planes of the modern air
 force, air power continued to be of primary importance in tactical
 operations, particularly in "limited" wars such as those in Southeast
 Asia and the Middle East. It is also argued that air forces function as
 deterrents to a major war by maintaining ready second-strike retaliatory
 capabilities.

   air navigation

 air navigation, science and technology of determining the position of an
 aircraft with respect to the surface of the earth and accurately
 maintaining a desired course (see navigation). The two most common
 methods are governed by visual flight regulations (VFR) and instrument
 flight regulations (IFR). Small airborne computer systems can now give
 the pilot the plane's position and can carry out dead reckoning by
 monitoring all course and speed changes. The automatic pilot also
 interprets data on direction, speed, and altitude to maintain an aircraft
 in straight, level flight. For landing, the pilot is often guided by
 radio communication from a controller observing the plane via
 ground-based radar. Some systems actually land the plane automatically,
 although the pilot always has the option of overriding manually.

   airplane, aeroplane

 airplane, aeroplane, or aircraft,heavier-than-air vehicle, mechanically
 driven and fitted with fixed wings that support it in flight through the
 dynamic action of the air. On Dec. 17, 1903, Americans Orville and Wilbur
 WRIGHT flew the first airplane near Kitty Hawk, N.C. The machine was a
 biplane with two propellers chain-driven by a gasoline motor. Modern
 airplanes are monoplanes (airplanes with one set of wings). Airplanes may
 further be classified as driven by propeller, JET PROPULSION, or ROCKET.
 The airplane has six main parts: fuselage, wings, stabilizer (or tail
 plane), rudder, one or more engines, and landing gear. The fuselage is
 the main body, usually streamlined in form. The wings are the main
 supporting surfaces. The airplane's lift, or force supporting it in
 flight, is basically the result of the direct action of air against the
 surfaces of the wings (see AERODYNAMICS). With the use of jet engines and
 the resulting higher speeds, airplanes have become less dependent on
 large values of lift from the wings. Consequently wings have been
 shortened and swept back so as to produce less drag, especially at
 supersonic speeds. At the trailing edge of the wings are attached movable
 surfaces, called ailerons (see AIRFOIL) that are used to gain lateral
 control and to turn the plane. Directional stability is provided by the
 tail fin, a fixed vertical airfoil at the rear of the airplane. The
 stabilizer is a fixed horizontal airfoil at the rear of the airplane used
 to suppress undesired pitching motion. The elevators, which are movable
 auxiliary surfaces attached to the stabilizers, are used to produce
 controlled pitching. The rudder, generally at the rear of the tail fin,
 is a movable auxiliary airfoil that gives the craft a yawing movement in
 normal flight. The landing gear is the understructure that supports the
 weight of the craft when on the ground or on the water and that reduces
 the shock on landing. See AVIATION; SEAPLANE; SHORT TAKEOFF AND LANDING
 AIRCRAFT; VERTICAL TAKEOFF AND LANDING AIRCRAFT.

   air plant

 air plant: see EPIPHYTE.

   air pollution

 air pollution: see POLLUTION.

   airship

 airship or dirigible,aircraft consisting of a cigar-shaped balloon that
 carries a propulsion system (propellers), a steering mechanism, and
 accomodations for passengers, crew, and cargo. The balloon section is
 filled with a lighter-than-air gas-either helium, which is nonflammable,
 or hydrogen-to give the airship its lift. The balloon maintains its form
 by the internal gas pressure in the nonrigid (blimp) and semirigid types
 of airships; the latter in addition has a rigid keel. The rigid type
 maintains its form by having a metal framework that holds its shape
 regardless of the internal gas pressure; inside the hull are a number of
 small gas-filled balloons. The first successful power-driven airship was
 built by the French inventor Henri Giffard in 1852. Count Ferdinand von
 ZEPPELIN of Germany invented the first rigid airship, which was completed
 in 1900. The German airship Hindenburg burned at its mooring mast at
 Lakehurst, N.J., in 1937. No rigid airship survived World War II.

   Aix-la-Chapelle

 Aix-la-Chapelle: see AACHEN, West Germany.

   Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of

 Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of: see AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE.

   Ajax

 Ajax, in Greek mythology.1The Telamonian Ajax, hero of the TROJAN WAR. In
 the Iliad he is a huge man, slow of thought and speech, but very
 courageous. He and ODYSSEUS rescued the corpse of ACHILLES. When Odysseus
 was awarded Achilles' armor the disappointed Ajax went mad and committed
 suicide.2The Locrian Ajax, who violated CASSANDRA in the sack of Troy.
 Shipwrecked by ATHENA, he was saved by POSEIDON, but struck dead by
 lightning for his defiance.

   Akbar

 Akbar, 1542-1605, Mogul emperor of INDIA (1556-1605). An outstanding
 general, Akbar added AFGHANISTAN, Baluchistan, and N India to his
 domains. This reign was marked by administrative reform, religious
 toleration, and the flowering of art and literature.

   Akhenaton

 Akhenaton: see IKHNATON.

   Akhmatova, Anna

 Akhmatova, Anna, pseud. of Anna Andreyevna Gorenko, 1889-1966, Russian
 poet of the ACMEIST school. Her brief, highly emotional lyrics are simply
 and musically written. Among her most important volumes are The Rosary
 (1914) and The Course of Time (1966).

   Akiba ben Joseph

 Akiba ben Joseph, AD c.50-c.135, Palestinian rabbi. He compiled a
 collection of Hebrew Oral Law, Mishna of Rabbi Akiba (see MISHNA). After
 siding with BAR KOKBA in his revolt against Rome, Akiba was imprisoned
 and, it is said, tortured to death by the Romans.

   Akihito

 Akihito, 1933-, Japanese emperor designate, son of HIROHITO. Following
 Hirohito's death (1989), he assumed the duties of emperor. He will
 officially assume his father's title in Nov., 1990. He was the first
 member of the royal family to marry (1959) a commoner, Michiko Shodar.

   Akkad

 Akkad, northern part of later BABYLONIA, in Mesopotamia; the southern
 part was SUMER. In the 4th millennium BC a Semitic city-state appeared,
 and under Sargon (c.2340 BC) Akkad became an imperial power. Akkad and
 Sumer were united as Babylonia by HAMMURABI. The name Akkad also appears
 as Accad.

   Akkadian

 Akkadian, language belonging to the Semitic subfamily of the
 Hamito-Semitic family of languages. Also called Assyro-Babylonian,
 Akkadian was current in ancient MESOPOTAMIA (now IRAQ) from about 3000 BC
 until the time of Christ. See LANGUAGE.

   Akron

 Akron, city (1986 est. pop. 222,060), seat of Summit co., NE Ohio, on the
 Little Cuyahoga R. and the Ohio and Erie Canal; settled 1825; inc. as a
 city 1865. It is a port of entry and an important industrial and
 transportation center. From the opening of the first plant in 1870, Akron
 became the rubber capital of the U.S.; corporate and research
 headquarters of the major producers are located there. Metalworking,
 aerospace industries, and polymer research are important. Akron's Art
 Institute is well known.

   Akte

 Akte: see ATHOS.

   Akutagawa Ryunosuke

 Akutagawa Ryunosuke, 1892-1927, Japanese author. One of Japan's finest
 short-story writers, he derived many of his tales from historical
 Japanese sources, but told them with psychological insights in an
 individualistic style. "Rashomon" (1915) and "In a Grove" (1921) were
 made into the classic 1950 film Rashomon, directed by KUROSAWA AKIRA.

   al-

 al-. For Arabic names beginning thus, see the second part of the name,
 e.g., SADAT, ANWAR AL-.

   Al

 Al, chemical symbol of the element ALUMINUM.

   Alabama

 Alabama, state in the SE U.S.; bordered by Tennessee (N), Georgia (E),
 Florida and the Gulf of Mexico (S), and Mississippi (W).

 Area, 51,609 sq mi (133,677 sq km). Pop. (1986 est.) 4,052,000, a 4.1%
 increase over 1980 pop. Capital, Montgomery. Statehood, Dec. 14, 1819
 (22d state). Highest pt., Cheaha Mt., 2,407 ft (734 m); lowest pt., sea
 level. Nickname, Heart of Dixie. Motto, We Dare Defend Our Rights. State
 bird, yellowhammer. State flower, camellia. State tree, Southern
 (longleaf) pine. Abbr., Ala.; AL.

 Land and People Except for the southern edge of the APPALACHIAN
 MOUNTAINS, in the northeast, Alabama consists mostly of rolling plains
 drained by the Alabama and Tombigbee rivers. The fertile Black Belt is
 located in central Alabama. The climate is subtropical and humid. More
 than 60% of the population lives in metropolitan areas, principally in
 BIRMINGHAM, a steel center; MOBILE, a major U.S. port; MONTGOMERY, the
 capital; and HUNTSVILLE, an aerospace center.

 Economy Although cotton is still grown, it has been supplanted in revenue
 earned by cattle and poultry, soybeans, and peanuts. Dams on the
 TENNESSEE R., in the north, provide power for the state's industries,
 whose leading products are iron and steel, paper and wood products,
 chemicals, and processed foods. Oil is produced in the south, and fishing
 is important along the coast. Lumbering is a major industry throughout
 Alabama. The population (1984) was 73% white and 27% black and other
 groups.

 Government According to the constitution of 1901, the government is
 headed by a governor elected to a four-year term. The legislature is
 composed of a 35-member senate and 105-member house of representatives
 elected to four-year terms. Alabama sends seven representatives and two
 senators to the U.S. Congress and has nine electoral votes.

 History When Spanish explorers, including Hernando DE SOTO, visited the
 region during the 16th cent., they found the CREEK, CHEROKEE, CHOCTAW,
 and CHICKASAW tribes. In 1702 the French established the first white
 settlement. Andrew JACKSON defeated (1814) the Creek Confederacy at
 Horseshoe Bend, ushering in a period of rapid settlement. Subsequently,
 huge plantations utilizing slave labor were established to cultivate
 cotton. Alabama seceded from the Union in 1861. Following the CIVIL WAR
 the defeated state was placed under military rule; it was readmitted to
 the Union in 1868. Alabama slowly recovered from the war and the
 corruption of RECONSTRUCTION, a process made easier by the beginning of
 industrialization. Agricultural diversification began after the boll
 weevil infested the cotton fields during the early 20th cent. The 1954
 Supreme Court decision outlawing school segregation ushered in a painful
 period of INTEGRATION and the growth of the CIVIL RIGHTS movement.
 Despite opposition by Gov. George WALLACE and a few acts of racial
 violence in the state, most public schools in Alabama had been
 successfully desegregated by the early 1970s. In the late 1970s and early
 1980s public attention shifted to assuring the state's economic growth by
 encouraging further diversification of manufacturing industries.

   Alabama claims

 Alabama claims, claims by the U.S. against Great Britain after the U.S.
 CIVIL WAR for damage to merchant ships caused by British-built
 Confederate cruisers. A tribunal (1871-72) at Geneva awarded the U.S.
 $15.5 million for damage caused by the Confederate ships Alabama,
 Florida, and Shenandoah.

   alabaster

 alabaster, fine-grained, translucent variety of the mineral GYPSUM, pure
 white or streaked with reddish brown. Its softness makes it easily carved
 but also easily broken, soiled, and weathered. Quarried in England and
 Italy, it is used to make statuary and other decorative objects. The
 Oriental alabaster of ancient Egyptian and Roman tombs is actually
 MARBLE, a calcium carbonate, whereas gypsum is a calcium sulfate.

   Alain-Fournier

 Alain-Fournier, 1886-1914, French novelist; b. Henri Alban Fournier. His
 single full-length work, The Wanderer (1913), about a youthful search for
 the ideal, is a delicate blend of symbolism and realism.

   Alamein, El

 Alamein, El,or Al Alamayn, town, N Egypt, on the Mediterranean Sea.
 During WORLD WAR II it was the site of a decisive British victory (1942)
 against the Germans. The victory saved Egypt for the Allies and led to
 the defeat (1943) of the Axis powers in North Africa.

   Alamo, the

 Alamo, the [Span.,=cottonwood], chapel-fort in San Antonio, Tex., built
 c.1744. It was held by Davy CROCKETT, Jim Bowie, W. TRAVIS, and about 180
 other Texans against a siege by an army of several thousand Mexicans
 under Gen. SANTA ANNA (Feb. 24-Mar. 6, 1836) during the Texas Revolution.
 While the defenders died, their resistance rallied others who defeated
 the Mexicans six weeks later, crying "Remember the Alamo!"

   Aland Islands

 Aland Islands: see AHVENANMAA ISLANDS.

   Alarcon, Pedro Antonio de

 Alarcon, Pedro Antonio de, 1833-91, Spanish writer and diplomat. His
 novels, witty and often realistic, include The Three-Cornered Hat (1874),
 on which FALLA based a ballet, and Captain Venom (1881).

   Alarcon y Mendoza, Juan Ruiz de

 Alarcon y Mendoza, Juan Ruiz de, 1581?-1639, Spanish dramatic poet; b.
 Mexico. His brilliant and lively comedies (2 vol., 1628-34) make him a
 major literary figure of Spain's GOLDEN AGE. The most famous, The
 Suspicious Truth, was the model for The Liar by CORNEILLE.

   Alaric I

 Alaric I, c.370-410, Visigothic king. After the death of Roman Emperor
 THEODOSIUS I he ravaged the Balkans until stopped by STILICHO, invaded
 Italy, and sacked Rome (410).

   Alas, Leopoldo

 Alas, Leopoldo, pseud. Clarin, 1852-1901, Spanish writer. He was a
 professor of law at the Univ. of Oviedo. His masterpiece is the
 naturalistic novel The Regent's Wife (1885), a detailed analysis of
 provincial life.

   Alaska

 Alaska, least populous but largest state in area of the U.S., occupying
 the northwest extremity of the North American continent, separated from
 the coterminous U.S. by NW Canada. It is bordered by British Columbia and
 Yukon Territory (E), the Pacific Ocean (S), the Bering Sea (W), and the
 Arctic Ocean (N).

 Area, 586,412 sq mi (1,518,800 sq km). Pop. (1986 est.) 534,000, a 32.8%
 increase over 1980 pop. Capital, Juneau. Statehood, Jan. 3, 1959 (49th
 state). Highest pt., Mt. McKinley, 20,320 ft (6,198 m); lowest pt., sea
 level. Motto, North to the Future. State bird, willow ptarmigan. State
 flower, forget-me-not. State tree,  Sitka spruce. Abbr., AK.

 Land and People Along the heavily indented coast are two peninsulas, the
 Seward Peninsula to the west, and, farther south, the Alaska Peninsula,
 from which the ALEUTIAN ISLANDS extend. The interior is dominated by
 rugged mountains, including the Alaska Range, where Denali, or Mount
 MCKINLEY (20,320 ft/6,198 m), the highest point in North America, is
 located. Many tourists are attracted by the state's dramatic scenery,
 some of the most spectacular located in its eight NATIONAL PARKS. Winters
 in the interiors are very cold; summers are brief but hot. The COAST
 RANGES dominate the more temperate panhandle region, in the southeast,
 where the Inside Passage traverses the Alexander Archipelago, located
 just offshore. Principal lowlands are in the central region-drained by
 the YUKON R.-and, in the far north, the North Slope, along the Arctic
 coast. The largest city is ANCHORAGE, followed by FAIRBANKS and JUNEAU;
 about 45% of the population lives in metropolitan areas. In 1984 the
 population, the fastest growing in the U.S., was 79% white, 21% other
 races, mostly ESKIMO and ALEUTS and some blacks.

 Economy The economy has been transformed since the discovery (1968) of
 North Slope oil and natural gas deposits, and their exploitation
 dominates the economy. The Alaska pipeline (built 1974-77) carries oil
 from PRUDHOE BAY to the port of Valdez, in the south. Coal, platinum,
 copper, gold, and uranium are among other minerals mined. Alaska has the
 largest fishing industry in the U.S.; the small manufacturing sector is
 dominated by the processing of fish and lumber. Fur export is important.
 Because of the harsh climate and terrain there is little agriculture.

 Government The constitution (adopted 1956) provides for a governor
 elected to a four-year term. The state legislature is composed of a
 senate whose 20 members serve four-year terms and a house whose 40
 members serve two-year terms. Alaska sends two senators and one
 representative to the U.S. Congress and has three electoral votes.

 History The first white settlers were Russians who crossed the BERING
 STRAIT in search of furs and established (1784) the first permanent
 settlement on Kodiak Island. In 1867 Russia sold Alaska to the U.S. for
 $7.2 million. The first influx of Americans came in the gold rush of the
 1890s and the 1900s. During WORLD WAR II the Japanese occupied (1942)
 Attu and Kiska, in the Aleutian Islands, but were driven out (1943) by
 U.S. forces. The war contributed to Alaska's economic development through
 construction of the Alaska highway and of defense installations. The
 state's greatest economic boom occurred after the extensive oil
 discoveries of 1968, and huge off-shore deposits found in 1980 promised
 future development. Against strong opposition by state residents favoring
 private control of resources, the U.S. Congress approved (1980) the
 Alaska lands bill, which designated more than 104 million acres (42
 million hectares) of national parks, wildlife refuges, and wilderness
 areas. In 1989 an oil tanker bringing oil from PRUDHOE BAY spilled
 10-million gallons of oil near the port of Valdez causing severe economic
 and environmental damage.

   Alaskan malamute

 Alaskan malamute, strong, compact WORKING DOG; shoulder height, c.23 in.
 (58.2 cm); weight, 70-85 lb (31.75-38.5 kg). Its coarse coat, composed of
 oily, woolly underhairs and a thick cover coat, may be any shade of gray
 or black, with white markings. The malamute has been raised for centuries
 as a sled dog.

   Alba

 Albaor Alva, Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, duque de , 1507?-82, Spanish
 governor general and regent of the NETHERLANDS (1567-73). A ruthless
 absolutist, he crushed the rebellious provinces, executing some 18,000
 Netherlanders, and defeated (1572) the invading army of WILLIAM THE
 SILENT. Recalled to Spain, he completed the conquest (1580) of PORTUGAL
 by capturing Lisbon.

   albacore

 albacore: see TUNA.

   Albania

 Albania, Albanian Shqipnija or Shqiperia, officially People's Socialist
 Republic of Albania, republic (1982 pop. 2,786,000), 11,101 sq mi (28,752
 sq km), SE Europe, on the Adriatic coast of the Balkan Peninsula;
 bordered by Yugoslavia (N and E) and Greece (S). TIRANE is the capital.
 Except for the fertile ADRIATIC coast, Albania is mountainous, rising to
 9,066 ft (2,763 m) at Mt. Korab. Albania is rich in mineral resources,
 notably chromium, coal, copper, oil, and nickel, and mining is the
 largest source of income. Only one tenth of the land is cultivated, and
 half of that is in vineyards and olive groves; grains, cotton, tobacco,
 and livestock are also important. The leading industries include food
 processing, textiles, and the manufacture of petroleum products,
 footwear, and building materials. Industry, mines, and agriculture are
 nationalized. About 97% of the population is ethnic Albanian. Albania is
 officially an atheist country, but the population is predominantly
 Muslim, with Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox minorities.

 History Albania was settled in ancient times by Illyrians and Thracians;
 the area then comprised parts of ILLYRIA and EPIRUS. The Greeks colonized
 the coast, and the entire region came under Roman and Byzantine rule.
 SCANDERBEG (d. 1468), Albania's national hero, delayed but did not stop
 the OTTOMAN EMPIRE'S conquest of the area, which was complete by 1478.
 More than four centuries of Turkish Islamic rule followed, and national
 aspirations were suppressed until, during the First BALKAN WAR, Albania
 proclaimed independence (1912). In 1913 an international commission
 assigned large areas claimed by Albania to MONTENEGRO, SERBIA, and
 GREECE. The scene of political chaos and a battleground for contending
 European and Balkan forces after WORLD WAR I, the country came (1925)
 under the rule of Ahmed Zogu, who proclaimed himself (1928) King ZOG.
 Italy invaded Albania in 1939, setting up a puppet government that fought
 with the Axis powers in WORLD WAR II. After 1944, power passed to
 antifascist guerrilla leader Enver HOXHA, a Communist, who proclaimed a
 republic in 1946. Opposed to de-Stalinization, Albania broke with the
 USSR in 1961. It became a close ally of China, but that friendship ended
 in 1978. Hoxhe died in 1985 and was succeeded by Ramiz Alia.

   Albany, Alexander Stuart

 Albany, Alexander Stuart or Stewart, duke of:see STUART, ALEXANDER, DUKE
 OF ALBANY.

   Albany

 Albany, city (1986 est. pop. 97,020), state capital and seat of Albany
 co., E N.Y., on the Hudson R.; settled 1624, inc. 1686. A deepwater port
 and trading center for a farm and resort area, it has diversified
 manufactures, including textiles, paper, chemicals, and automotive parts.
 The Dutch built (1613) a fur trading post there; the English took control
 and named the city in 1664. State capital from 1797, it grew with the
 opening of the Erie and Champlain canals (1820s). The state capitol
 (1867-98) and many old houses and new state office buildings are
 prominent in the city, which was redeveloped in the 1960s.

   Albany Congress

 Albany Congress, 1754, a meeting of British colonial representatives in
 Albany, N.Y. Because of the impending war with France, a treaty was made
 between seven British colonies and the Iroquois Indians. Benjamin
 FRANKLIN'S Plan of Union for the colonies was also approved, but was
 later rejected by the colonial legislatures and by the crown.

   Albany Regency

 Albany Regency, informal group of Democratic party leaders in New York
 state after 1820. Developed by Martin VAN BUREN, the Regency was among
 the first effective political machines. It used the SPOILS SYSTEM and
 maintained strict party discipline. After 1842 it split into factions
 (BARNBURNERS and HUNKERS) over internal improvements and slavery.

   albatross

 albatross, sea BIRD (family Diomedeidae) with tapered wings that enable
 it to excel at gliding and flying. Most are found in the South Pacific,
 although a few, e.g., the black-footed albatross (Diomedea nigripes),
 frequent the north Pacific. The wandering albatross (D. exulans), with a
 wingspan of 10 to 12 ft (305 to 366 cm), was made famous by COLERIDGE'S
 Rime of the Ancient Mariner.

   Albee, Edward

 Albee, Edward, 1928-, American playwright; b. Washington, D.C. His
 clever, often satiric plays include the one-act The Zoo Story (1959), and
 the full-length Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (1962), widely regarded
 as his finest work; A Delicate Balance (1967; Pulitzer); and Seascape
 (1975; Pulitzer).

   Albemarle, George Monck

 Albemarle, George Monck or Monk,1st duke of:see  MONCK, George.

   Albeniz, Isaac

 Albeniz, Isaac, 1860-1909, Spanish pianist and composer. Influenced by
 LISZT and DEBUSSY, he is best remembered for his later piano works,
 especially Iberia (1906-9), which combine Spanish folk material with
 brilliant pianistic idiom.

   Alberdi, Juan Bautista

 Alberdi, Juan Bautista, 1810-84, Argentine political philosopher and
 diplomat. Suggestions in his Bases and Starting Points for the Political
 Organization of the Argentine Republic (1852) were incorporated into the
 constitution of 1853. He served on several diplomatic missions.

   Albers, Josef

 Albers, Josef, 1888-1976, German-American artist, designer, and teacher;
 b. Germany. After working at the BAUHAUS (1920-23), he came to the U.S.
 As director of the Yale School of Art (1950-58), he was a major figure in
 American art education. He is best-known for a series of paintings,
 Homage to the Square, which portrays colors in quasi-concentric squares.

   Albert I

 Albert I, 1875-1934, king of the Belgians (1909-34), nephew and successor
 of LEOPOLD II. During WORLD WAR I he led his country in resisting the
 German invasion (1914). He also improved social conditions in Belgium and
 the Belgian CONGO. His son, LEOPOLD III, succeeded him.

   Albert

 Albert, 1819-61, prince consort of VICTORIA of Great Britain; son of
 Ernest I, duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. His initial unpopularity as an alien
 prince was modified by his devotion to the queen and his concern with
 public affairs, particularly diplomacy. His insistence on a moderate
 approach to the TRENT AFFAIR may have avoided war with the U.S.

   Alberta

 Alberta, province (1986 pop. 2,365,825), 255,284 sq mi (661,185 sq km), W
 Canada, bordered by Saskatchewan (E), the Northwest Territories (N),
 British Columbia (W), and Montana (S). Alberta is a high plateau, rising
 in the west to the ROCKY MOUNTAINS and the CONTINENTAL DIVIDE. Although
 it is one of the Prairie Provinces, only about 25% of Alberta's area,
 chiefly in the south, is treeless. Central Alberta is partly wooded, and
 the north is principally timberland. The province is drained by the
 Athabasca, the Saskatchewan, the Red Deer, and other rivers. The
 population is centered in S and central Alberta, and the principal cities
 are EDMONTON, the capital, and CALGARY. Until recently, agriculture was
 Alberta's basic industry. Grain, especially wheat, is the dominant crop,
 and livestock raising, dairying, lumbering, and manufacturing are also
 important. Since the early 1960s, however, mineral exploitation has been
 the major industry. Alberta is believed to have some of the richest oil
 deposits in the world-notably the tar beds of the Athabasca River-and has
 abundant natural gas. Its coal beds contain about one half of Canada's
 known reserves. Tourists are attracted to the province's outstanding
 national parks-Jasper, Banff, Waterton Lakes, and Wood Buffalo.

 History Alberta was part of the territory granted (1670) to the HUDSON'S
 BAY COMPANY and was dominated by the fur trade. In 1870 the company sold
 the area to the newly created confederation of Canada and in 1872 the
 mounted police established Fort Macleod in S Alberta. In 1882 the region
 became an administrative division, and the Canadian Pacific Railway
 opened the area to settlement. Alberta became a province in 1905. Oil was
 discovered in 1914, but only when a find was made near Edmonton in 1947
 did Alberta's economy begin to change. Politically, Albertans turned to
 William ABERHART and the SOCIAL CREDIT party in 1935. In 1971 the
 Progressive Conservatives gained control of the Provincial Assembly.
 Alberta sends 6 senators (appointed) and 21 representatives (elected) to
 the national parliament.

   Alberti, Leone Battista

 Alberti, Leone Battista, 1404-72, Italian architect, musician, painter,
 and humanist. His treatise De re aedificatoria (c.1450), though dependent
 on the Roman architect Vitruvius, was the first modern work on
 architecture, and influenced the development of RENAISSANCE architectural
 style. Among the notable buildings erected from his designs is the
 Palazzo Rucellai, Florence. Alberti's treatises on painting (1436) and
 sculpture (c.1464) were also influential.

   Albertus Magnus, Saint

 Albertus Magnus, Saint, or Saint Albert the Great,b. 1193 or 1206, d.
 1280, scholastic philosopher, Doctor of the Church, called the Universal
 Doctor. A DOMINICAN, he attempted in his Summa theologiae to reconcile
 Aristotelianism with Christian thought. St. THOMAS AQUINAS was his pupil.
 Albertus was also deeply interested in natural science and was the first
 to produce arsenic in a free form. Feast: Nov. 15. See also ARISTOTLE;
 SCHOLASTICISM.

   Albigenses

 Albigenses, religious sect of S France (12th-13th cent.), whose beliefs
 were similar in many ways to MANICHAEISM. They were Christian heretics
 who believed in the coexistence of good and evil. They held that matter
 was evil and that Jesus only seemed to have a body. Ascetic and
 enthusiastic, they persisted despite papal opposition. The murder of a
 papal legate led INNOCENT III to declare (1208) the Albigensian Crusade,
 which was soon redirected toward political ends. In 1233 the INQUISITION
 was formed to halt Albigensianism, and slowly over 100 years the movement
 died.

   albino

 albino, animal or plant lacking normal pigmentation. The albino body
 covering (skin, hair, and feathers) and eyes lack pigment. In humans and
 other animals albinism is inherited as a recessive trait. Breeding has
 established albino races in some domestic animals.

   Albinus

 Albinus: see ALCUIN.

   albumin

 albumin, member of a class of water-soluble, heat-coagulating PROTEINS.
 Albumins are widely distributed in plant and animal tissues, e.g.,
 ovalbumin of egg, lactalbumin of milk, and leucosin of wheat. Some
 contain carbohydrates. Normally constituting about 55% of the plasma
 proteins, albumins adhere chemically to various substances in the blood,
 e.g., AMINO ACIDS, and thus play a role in their transport. Albumins and
 other blood proteins aid in regulating the distribution of water in the
 body. Albumins are also used in textile printing, the fixation of dyes,
 sugar refining, and other important processes.

   Albuquerque, Afonso de

 Albuquerque, Afonso de, 1453-1515, Portuguese admiral, founder of the
 Portuguese empire in the East. He captured Goa (1510), Malacca (1511),
 and Hormuz (1513), built a series of forts in INDIA, and established
 shipbuilding and other industries. Control of the spice trade and of
 trade routes were nearly accomplished during his tenure.

   Albuquerque

 Albuquerque, city (1986 est. pop. 366,750), seat of Bernalillo co., W
 central N. Mex., on the upper Rio Grande; inc. 1890. It is the largest
 city in the state, and the industrial and commercial center of a timber
 and farm area. Its diverse industries include electronics, and nuclear
 research and weapons development conducted by federal agencies. The
 city's downtown was the site of a 1980s urban renewal project.
 Albuquerque is also noted as a health resort and medical center. The city
 was founded by the Spanish in 1706 and grew with the arrival (1880) of
 the railroad.

   Alcaeus

 Alcaeus, d. c.580 BC, Greek poet, early personal lyric writer.
 Traditionally an associate of SAPPHO, he wrote both light and political
 verse. The Alcaic strophe was admired and adapted by HORACE.

   Alcala Zamora, Niceto

 Alcala Zamora, Niceto, 1877-1949, president of Spain (1931-36). He helped
 to lead the republican revolution of 1931 and became the first president
 of the second Spanish republic. He was deposed (1936) by the CORTES on a
 Socialist motion and went into exile.

   alcalde

 alcalde, Spanish title designating a town mayor who also acts as justice
 of the peace. It originated in the 11th cent. to designate a judge with
 administrative functions. In the Spanish colonies it was used for a
 provincial administrator who presided over the Cabildo or municipal
 council.

   Alcatraz

 Alcatraz, island in San Francisco Bay, W Calif. Discovered (1769) and
 fortified by the Spanish, it was (1859-1933) the site of a U.S. military
 prison and then (1933-63) federal maximum security prison, called "The
 Rock." It became part of the Golden Gate National Recreational Area in
 1972.

   Alcestis

 Alcestis, in Greek mythology, the devoted wife of a Thessalian king,
 Admetus. She willingly died in his place, to ensure his immortality. In
 some myths HERCULES rescued her from the dead; in others PERSEPHONE
 reunited husband and wife. EURIPIDES dramatized the legend in his
 Alcestis.

   alchemy

 alchemy, ancient art or pseudoscience that sought to turn base metals
 into gold or silver through the agency of a secret substance known by
 various names (philosopher's stone, elixir, grand magistry). Emerging in
 China and Egypt by the 3d cent. BC, alchemy was cloaked in mysticism and
 allegory, and in time degenerated into superstition. Revived (8th cent.)
 in Alexandria by the Arabs, it reached W Europe by the Middle Ages. In
 the 15th-17th cent. experimentation again fell into disrepute, but the
 base had been laid for modern CHEMISTRY, which has in fact accomplished
 the transmutation of elements.

   Alcibiades

 Alcibiades, c.450-404 BC, Athenian statesman and general. A leader
 against SPARTA in the PELOPONNESIAN WAR, he was defeated at Mantinea (418
 BC). He promoted the Sicilian campaign (415) but was accused (probably
 falsely) of sacrilege. Called home for trial, he fled to Sparta, where he
 aided Agis I, and then to Persia (413). Recalled to ATHENS, he won a
 brilliant naval victory (410) and recovered Byzantium (408). Blamed
 unjustly for the defeat of the Athenian fleet at Notium (c.406), he was
 sent into exile, and LYSANDER had him murdered.

   Alcindor, Lew

 Alcindor, Lew: see ABDUL-JABBAR, KAREEM.

   alcohol

 alcohol, any of a class of organic compounds with the general formula
 R-OH, where R is an alkyl group made up of carbon and hydrogen and -OH is
 one or more hydroxyl groups, each made up of one atom of oxygen and one
 of hydrogen. Although the term alcohol ordinarily refers to ETHANOL, the
 alcohol in alcoholic beverages, the class of alcohols also includes
 METHANOL and the amyl, butyl, and propyl alcohols, all with one hydroxyl
 group; the glycols, with two hydroxyl groups; and glycerol, with three.
 Many of the characteristic properties and reactions of alcohols are due
 to the polarity, or unequal distribution, of electric charges in the
 C-O-H portion of the molecule.

   Alcoholics Anonymous

 Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), worldwide organization dedicated to the curing
 of alcoholics; est. 1935 by two former alcoholics. The organization,
 which functions through local groups, is based on a philosophy of life
 that has enabled countless numbers of people to recover from alcoholism.
 In 1988 there were 1 million members worldwide. Al-Anon, for spouses,
 relatives, and friends of alcoholics, and Al-Ateen, for their adolescent
 children, function similarly.

   alcoholism

 alcoholism, chronic illness characterized by the habitual consumption of
 alcohol to a degree that interferes with physical or mental health, or
 with normal social or occupational behavior. A widespread health problem,
 it produces both physical and psychological addiction (see DRUG ADDICTION
 AND DRUG ABUSE). Alcohol is a central nervous system DEPRESSANT that
 reduces anxiety, inhibition, and feelings of guilt; lowers alertness;
 impairs perception, judgment, and muscular coordination; and, in high
 doses, can cause unconsciousness and even death. Long-term alcoholism
 damages the brain, liver (see CIRRHOSIS), heart, and other organs.
 Symptoms of alcohol withdrawal can range from a simple hangover to severe
 delirium tremens (a condition characterized by deliriousness, violent
 trembling, hallucinations, and seizures). Treatment includes use of
 disulfiram (Antabuse), a drug that produces discomfort if alcohol is
 consumed; anti-anxiety drugs to suppress withdrawal symptoms;
 psychological counseling; and support from groups such as ALCOHOLICS
 ANONYMOUS.

   Alcott, (Amos) Bronson

 Alcott, (Amos) Bronson, 1799-1888, American educational and social
 reformer; b. near Wolcott, Conn. Despite his meager formal education, he
 became a teacher and founded Temple School in Boston. A leading exponent
 of TRANSCENDENTALISM, he was (1843) one of the founders of a cooperative
 vegetarian community, "Fruitlands," and then, as superintendent, reformed
 the Concord public schools. The poverty that plagued his life was
 eventually alleviated by the writings of his daughter Louisa May ALCOTT.

   Alcott, Louisa May

 Alcott, Louisa May, 1832-88, American writer; b. Germantown, Pa.;
 daughter of Bronson ALCOTT. Educated by her father, she was also
 influenced by her friends EMERSON and THOREAU. Alcott received notice for
 Hospital Sketches (1863), a collection of letters written while she was a
 Civil War nurse. She achieved fame with Little Women (1868-69), a largely
 autobiographical novel for young people that portrays Victorian American
 family life. Its sequels are Little Men (1871) and Jo's Boys (1886).

   Alcuin

 Alcuin or Albinus,735?-804, English churchman and educator. Invited
 (781?) to CHARLEMAGNE'S court at Aachen, he was the moving spirit of the
 CAROLINGIAN renaissance. Alcuin established the study of the seven
 liberal arts, which became the curriculum for medieval Europe, and
 encouraged the preservation of ancient texts. His letters are extant.

   Aldanov, Mark

 Aldanov, Mark, pseud. of Mark Aleksandrovich Landau, 1886-1957, Russian
 novelist. Aldanov emigrated to France in 1919 and to the U.S. in 1941.
 His works include The Thinker (1923-27), about the era from 1793 to 1821
 in France; The Tenth Symphony (1931), set in the Vienna of BEETHOVEN'S
 time; and The Fifth Seal (1939), which portrays the decay of
 revolutionary idealism during the SPANISH CIVIL WAR.

   alder

 alder, deciduous tree or shrub (genus Alnus) of the BIRCH family, widely
 distributed, especially in mountainous, moist areas of the north
 temperate zone and in the Andes. The bark of the black alder (A.
 glutinosa), once used medicinally, is still used for dyes and tanning.
 Red alder (A. rubra) is the most important hardwood on the Pacific coast
 of North America.

   Aldington, Richard

 Aldington, Richard, 1892-1962, English poet and novelist. A leading
 IMAGIST, he was married to Hilda DOOLITTLE. His poetry, e.g., Images
 (1915), is remarkable for verbal precision; his novels, e.g., Death of a
 Hero (1929) are bitter satires.

   Aldrich, Thomas Bailey

 Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, 1836-1907, American author; b. Portsmouth, N.H.
 He is most widely known for his autobiographical The Story of a Bad Boy
 (1870). A skillful writer of light verse, he also served (1881-90) as
 editor of the Atlantic Monthly.

   Aldrin, Buzz

 Aldrin, Buzz (Edwin Eugene Aldrin, Jr.), 1930-, American astronaut; b.
 Montclair, N.J. During the Apollo 11 lunar-landing mission (July 16-24,
 1969), Neil ARMSTRONG (the commander) and Aldrin (the lunar-module pilot)
 became the first and second persons, respectively, to walk on the moon
 (see SPACE EXPLORATION,). Aldrin was pilot of Gemini 12 (Nov. 11-15,
 1966) and, after retiring from NASA, served (1971-72) as commandant of
 the Aerospace Research Pilots' School at Edwards Air Force Base, Calif.

   Aldus Manutius

 Aldus Manutius or Aldo Manuzio,1450-1515, Venetian printer. A humanist
 scholar, he printed Greek and Roman classics in editions noted for
 accuracy, e.g., a five-volume set of the works of ARISTOTLE (completed
 1498). To produce small, low-cost books for scholars, he designed the
 first complete font of the Greek alphabet and the first italic TYPE
 (1501). Books produced by him are called Aldine and bear his mark, a
 dolphin and an anchor.

   ale

 ale: see BEER.

   Aleichem, Sholom

 Aleichem, Sholom: see SHOLOM ALEICHEM.

   Aleixandre, Vicente

 Aleixandre, Vicente, 1898-1984, Spanish poet. His verse includes the
 surrealist Destruction of Love (1935) and A Longing for the Light (tr.
 1979). He was awarded the 1977 Nobel Prize in literature.

   Aleman, Mateo

 Aleman, Mateo, 1547-1614?, Spanish novelist. He led a turbulent life and
 was twice jailed for debt; at 60 he settled in Mexico. His fame rests on
 the picaresque novel Guzman de Alfarache (1599-1604).

   Aleman Valdes, Miguel

 Aleman Valdes, Miguel,  1902-, president of MEXICO (1946-52). The first
 civilian president after MADERO, he initiated a vigorous program of
 modernization.

   Alembert, Jean le Rond d'

 Alembert, Jean le Rond d', 1717-83, French mathematician and philosopher,
 a leading figure of the ENLIGHTENMENT. His treatise on DYNAMICS (1743)
 enunciated d'Alembert's principle, which permitted the reduction of a
 problem in dynamics to one in STATICS. He did important work on the
 mechanics of rigid bodies, the motions of fluids and vibrating strings,
 and the three-body problem in CELESTIAL MECHANICS. Diderot made him
 coeditor of the ENCYCLOPEDIE, for which he wrote the "preliminary
 discourse" (1751) and mathematical, philosophical, and literary articles.

   Alepoudelis, Odysseus

 Alepoudelis, Odysseus: see ELYTIS, ODYSSEUS.

   Aleppo

 Aleppo or Alep,city (1981 pop. 976,727), NW Syria. Located in a
 semidesert region where grains, cotton, and fruit are grown, the city
 produces silk, dried fruits, and other goods. It was settled perhaps as
 early as the 6th millennium BC and passed to the Assyrians, Persians, and
 Seleucids. By the 4th cent. AD it was a center of Christianity in the
 Byzantine Empire. The Arabs, Seljuk Turks, and others later held it.
 Aleppo prospered under the Ottoman Turks (from 1517) and the French (from
 1918), and as part of independent Syria (from 1941). Historic structures
 include the Great Mosque (715) and the Byzantine citadel (12th cent.).

   Aleutian Islands

 Aleutian Islands, strategically important chain of rugged, volcanic
 islands, W Alaska, curving westward c.1,200 mi (1,900 km) between the
 Bering Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Unalaska, the most populous island, is
 part of the easternmost group, the Fox Islands. Extending west to a point
 near the USSR are the Andreanof, Rat, Near, and Semichi island groups.
 The Aleutians were discovered in 1741 by Vitus BERING and bought by the
 U.S. from Russia in 1867 as part of the Alaska purchase. Three western
 islands-Attu, Agattu, and Kiska-were occupied (1942-43) by Japan.

   Aleuts

 Aleuts, native inhabitants of the ALEUTIAN ISLANDS and W Alaska. They
 speak an Eskimo-Aleut language (see AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES) and, like
 the ESKIMO, resemble Siberian peoples. Their skill in hunting sea mammals
 was exploited by Russian fur traders, and wars with mainland tribes
 helped to reduce their numbers from the 20,000-25,000 estimated by Vitus
 BERING to around 1,800 today.

   Alexander III

 Alexander III, d. 1181, pope (1159-81), a Sienese born Orlando
 Bandinelli. His rule was contested by antipopes until 1178. He backed the
 LOMBARD LEAGUE in opposing Holy Roman Emperor FREDERICK I, who exiled him
 to France until 1176. A learned canon lawyer, he issued many rules for
 governing the church. In 1179 he convened the Third Lateran Council.

   Alexander VI

 Alexander VI, 1431?-1503, pope (1492-1503), a Spaniard named Rodrigo de
 Borja (Ital., Borgia). Notorious in later centuries as a corrupt and
 worldly pope, he showered his illegitimate children, Cesare and Lucretia
 BORGIA, with money and favors. Girolamo SAVONAROLA was his outspoken
 critic. Alexander opposed CHARLES VIII of France and proclaimed (1494)
 the line of demarcation between Spanish and Portuguese colonial
 possessions.

   Alexander

 Alexander, czars of Russia. Alexander I, 1777-1825 (r.1801-25), was the
 son of PAUL I. He began his reign by relaxing political repression to a
 degree. In 1805 he joined the coalition against NAPOLEON I, but after
 Russian defeats he made a tenuous alliance with France by signing the
 Treaty of Tilsit (1807). After the French invasion of Russia (1812) was
 repulsed he created the HOLY ALLIANCE, joining with METTERNICH to
 suppress national and liberal movements. His reactionary domestic
 policies led to opposition, and when his brother NICHOLAS I succeeded him
 in 1825 a revolt took place (see DECEMBRISTS). Alexander II, 1818-81
 (r.1855-81), son of Nicholas I, negotiated an end to the CRIMEAN WAR
 (1853-56; see PARIS, TREATY OF) and adopted important reforms,
 principally the emancipation of the serfs (1861; see EMANCIPATION, EDICT
 OF) and the introduction of limited local self-government. His foreign
 policy included the suppression of the Polish uprising of 1863; the
 annexation of Central Asia (1865-76); and the RUSSO-TURKISH WARS
 (1877-78). His domestic reforms were seen as insufficient by the
 intelligentsia, some of whom formed populist groups. Increasing
 repression led to terrorism, and in 1881 Alexander was assassinated.
 Alexander III, 1845-94 (r.1881-94), was the son of Alexander II.
 Surrounded by reactionary advisors, he increased police power and
 censorship; weakened the zemstvos; imposed controls on the peasantry;
 forced Russification on national minorities; and persecuted the Jews. His
 foreign policy culminated in the TRIPLE ALLIANCE AND TRIPLE ENTENTE. His
 son NICHOLAS II succeeded him.

   Alexander

 Alexander, 1893-1920, king (1917-20) of the Hellenes (Greece). He became
 Greek king when his father, CONSTANTINE I, was forced by the Allies to
 abdicate because of his pro-German sympathies. After Alexander's death,
 his father was restored to the throne.

   Alexander III

 Alexander III, king of Macedon: see ALEXANDER THE GREAT.

   Alexander

 Alexander, kings of Scotland. Alexander I, 1078?-1124 (r. 1107-24), was
 the son of MALCOLM III. He opposed English efforts to rule the church in
 Scotland and established abbeys at Inchcolm and Scone. Alexander II,
 1198-1249 (r.1214-49), joined the English barons in their revolt against
 King JOHN but made a tenuous peace with HENRY III. Alexander III, 1241-86
 (r.1249-86), acquired for Scotland the HEBRIDES and also the Isle of MAN,
 already claimed from Norway by his father.

   Alexander

 Alexander, rulers of SERBIA and YUGOSLAVIA. Alexander (Alexander
 Karadjordjevic), 1806-85, prince of Serbia (1842-58), was the son of
 KARAGEORGE. An ineffectual ruler, he was deposed in favor of MILOs
 Obrenovic. Alexander (Alexander Obrenovic), 1876-1903, king of Serbia
 (1889-1903), instituted a conservative regime but, after accepting a
 somewhat liberal constitution, was assassinated by a clique of army
 officers. Alexander, 1888-1934, king of Yugoslavia (1921-34), the son and
 successor of PETER I, became (1918) regent of the kingdom of Serbs,
 Croats, and Slovenes, which he renamed (1929) Yugoslavia. He was
 assassinated by a Yugoslav terrorist.

   Alexander, Harold Rupert Leofric George, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis

 Alexander, Harold Rupert Leofric George, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis,
 1891-1969, British field marshal. In WORLD WAR II, he commanded the
 retreats at Dunkirk (1940) and Burma (1942) and the triumphs in N Africa
 and Sicily (1943). Later he was governor general of Canada (1946-52) and
 minister of defense (1952-54) in Winston CHURCHILL'S cabinet.

   Alexander Nevsky

 Alexander Nevsky, 1220-63, Russian hero. As prince of Novgorod (1236-52)
 he earned his surname by his victory (1240) over the Swedes on the Neva
 R. He later defeated the Livonian Knights, invading from Germany (1242),
 and the Lithuanians (1245). When the TATARS occupied Russia he was made
 grand duke of Vladimir-Suzdal (1252).

   Alexander the Great

 Alexander the Great or Alexander III,356-323 BC, king of MACEDON. The son
 of PHILIP II, he was tutored by ARISTOTLE. Upon succeeding to the throne
 in 336 BC he won ascendancy over all of GREECE by putting down uprisings
 in THRACE and ILLYRIA, and by sacking THEBES. As head of an allied Greek
 army, viewing himself as the champion of pan-HELLENISM, he started east
 (334) on what was to be the greatest conquest of ancient times. He
 defeated the Persians at the battles of Granicus (334) and Issus (333).
 Tyre and Gaza fell after a year's struggle, and he entered Egypt (332),
 where he founded ALEXANDRIA. Moving to Mesopotamia, he overthrew the
 Persian Empire of DARIUS III at the battle of Gaugamela (331). Pushing on
 through eastern PERSIA (330-327), he invaded northern INDIA (326), but
 there his men would go no further. The fleet was sent back to the head of
 the Persian Gulf, and Alexander himself led his men through the desert,
 reaching Susa in 324 BC He died of a fever a year later, at age 33. He
 was incontestably one of the greatest generals of all time and one of the
 most powerful personalities of antiquity.

   Alexandra

 Alexandra, 1844-1925, queen consort of EDWARD VII of Great Britain, whom
 she married in 1863. She was the daughter of CHRISTIAN IX of Denmark.

   Alexandra Feodorovna

 Alexandra Feodorovna, 1872-1918, czarina of Russia, consort of NICHOLAS
 II. A granddaughter of Queen VICTORIA and princess of Hesse, she
 encouraged the czar's reactionary policies under the influence of
 RASPUTIN. With her family she was shot by the Bolsheviks (see
 BOLSHEVISM).

   Alexandria

 Alexandria, city (1985 pop. 2,821,000), N Egypt, on the Mediterranean
 Sea, W of the Nile R. delta. The city is Egypt's leading port, a
 commercial and transportation center, and the heart of a major industrial
 area with such manufactures as refined petroleum, textiles, and
 automobiles. Founded in 332 BC by ALEXANDER THE GREAT, Alexandria was
 (304 BC-30 BC) the capital of the PTOLEMIES. The city was the greatest
 center of Hellenistic and Jewish culture. It had a great university and
 two celebrated royal libraries, but their valuable collections have not
 survived. Alexandria became part of the empire of ROME in 30 BC and later
 of the BYZANTINE EMPIRE. The Muslim Arabs took the city in 642 AD After
 Cairo became (969) Egypt's capital, Alexandria declined. It fell to
 NAPOLEON I in 1798 and to the British in 1801. During WORLD WAR II the
 city was the chief Allied naval base in the E Mediterranean. At a 1944
 meeting in Alexandria, plans for the ARAB LEAGUE were drawn up. A few of
 Alexandria's ancient monuments are still visible. The Greco-Roman Museum
 houses a vast collection of Coptic, Roman, and Greek art.

   Alexandria

 Alexandria, city (1986 est. pop. 107,800), N Va., on the Potomac R.; inc.
 1779. A residential suburb of WASHINGTON, D.C., it also has railroad
 yards, varied industries, government buildings, and research firms. It
 was part of the DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA from 1789 to 1847. Nearby is MOUNT
 VERNON; in the city are many sites associated with George Washington.

   alexandrine

 alexandrine, in VERSIFICATION, a line of 12 syllables (or 13 if the last
 is unstressed), probably named after medieval poems in this meter about
 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. In French, rhymed alexandrine couplets are the
 classic poetic form. English iambic hexameter is often called
 alexandrine. Alexander POPE'S "Essay on Criticism" contains what is
 probably the most quoted alexandrine in literature:A needless alexandrine
 ends the song
 That like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along.

   Alexius

 Alexius, Byzantine emperors. Alexius I (Comnenus), 1048-1118
 (r.1081-1118), nephew of ISAAC I, obtained the crown by overthrowing
 Nicephorus III. He withstood the Normans under ROBERT GUISCARD and
 BOHEMOND I, and defeated the Pechenegs (1091) and CUMANS (1095). During
 the First CRUSADE he persuaded the leaders to pledge to him their
 Byzantine conquests. In 1108 he forced Bohemond, who had seized Antioch,
 to acknowledge his suzerainty. In his last years his daughter, Anna
 Comnena, intrigued against his son, JOHN II. Alexius restored Byzantine
 power but drained the empire's resources. Alexius II (Comnenus), 1168-83
 (r.1180-83), son of MANUEL I, ruled under the regency of his mother, Mary
 of Antioch. His cousin procured the deaths of Mary and Alexius and became
 Andronicus I. Alexius III (Angelus), d. after 1210 (r.1195-1203), deposed
 his brother ISAAC II, but the act served as pretext for the leaders of
 the Fourth Crusade to attack (1203) Constantinople and to restore Isaac,
 with his son Alexius IV, d. 1204, as co-emperor. Alexius V (Ducas
 Mourtzouphlos), d. 1204, son-in-law of Alexius III, overthrew Isaac and
 Alexius IV but was killed soon afterward by the Crusaders, who set up the
 Latin empire of Constantinople.

   alfalfa

 alfalfa or lucern,perennial plant (Medicago sativa) of the PULSE family,
 probably native to Persia and now widely cultivated. It is an important
 pasture and hay plant. Alfalfa is valued for its high yield of protein,
 its effectiveness in weed control, its role in crop rotation and nitrogen
 fixation, and as a source of chlorophyll and carotene.

   Al Fatah

 Al Fatah: see ARAFAT, YASIR; PALESTINE LIBERATION ORGANIZATION.

   Alfieri, Vittorio, Conte

 Alfieri, Vittorio, Conte, 1749-1803, Italian tragic poet. A Piedmontese,
 he traveled widely and returned to Italy with a desire to revive national
 spirit. He wrote 19 tragedies, among them Philip the Second, Saul, and
 Antigone, all in the French classical tradition; comedies; satire; and an
 autobiography. His collected works, published (1805-15) by his friend the
 countess of Albany, contributed greatly to the rise of Italian
 nationalism.

   Alfonso

 Alfonso,  kings of ARAGON. Alfonso I, d. 1134, king of Aragon and Navarre
 (1104-34), captured many towns from the Moors. Alfonso II, 1152-96, king
 of Aragon (1162-96), inherited Provence and conquered (1171) Teruel.
 Alfonso V (the Magnanimous), 1396-1458, king of Aragon and Sicily
 (1416-58), conquered NAPLES and was recognized by the pope as its king
 (1443-58). He maintained a splendid court there and tried to introduce
 Spanish institutions.

   Alfonso

 Alfonso, kings of Portugal. Alfonso I, 1109?-85, the first king
 (r.1139-85), extended his territories by defeating (1139) the MOORS and,
 with the help of allies, captured (1147) Lisbon. His grandson, Alfonso II
 (the Fat), 1185-1223 (r.1211-23), tried to confiscate Roman Catholic
 Church holdings and was excommunicated (1219). His army won major
 victories (1212, 1217) over the Moors. His son, Alfonso III, 1210-79
 (r.1248-79), completed (1249) the reconquest of Portugal from the Moors,
 instituted many reforms, and encouraged commerce and the development of
 towns. Alfonso IV, 1291-1357 (r.1325-57), warred fruitlessly against
 CASTILE before both kingdoms combined forces to defeat (1340) the Moors.
 He countenanced the murder of Ines de CASTRO. Alfonso V, 1432-81
 (r.1438-81), put down a civil war (1449), invaded Morocco to capture
 Tangier (1471), and lost a war (1476-79) with Castile. Alfonso VI,
 1643-83 (r.1656-83), ousted (1662) his mother as regent and appointed as
 her successor the count of Castelho Melhor, who won the war (1663-65)
 that secured Spain's recognition (1668) of Portugal's independence.

   Alfonso

 Alfonso, Spanish kings. Alfonso I (the Catholic), 693?-757, Spanish king
 of ASTURIAS (739-57), extended its territory with the help of the
 BERBERS' revolt (740-41) against the MOORS. His grandson, Alfonso II (the
 Chaste), 759-842, king of Asturias (791-842), established his capital at
 Oviedo and continued the struggle against the Moors. Alfonso III (the
 Great), 838?-911?, king of Asturias (866-911?) recovered LEON from the
 Moors, but after his forced abdication it was divided among his sons.
 Alfonso V (the Noble), 994?-1027, king of Leon (999-1027), chartered
 (1020) the city of Leon, but he was killed in the siege of Viseu. Alfonso
 VI, 1030-1109, king of Leon (1065-1109) and CASTILE (1072-1109), took
 Galicia (1073) and became the most powerful Christian ruler in Spain. He
 conquered (1085) Toledo and other cities, but was defeated twice (1086,
 1108) by Muslim armies. Alfonso VII (the Emperor), 1104-57, king of
 Castile and Leon (1126-57), gained supremacy over other Christian states
 and had himself crowned emperor (1135). But his conquests of CORDOBA
 (1146) and Almeria (1147) from the Moors were soon lost. Alfonso VIII
 (the Noble), 1155-1214, king of Castile (1158-1214), restored order in
 his kingdom and won a great victory (1212) over the Moors. Alfonso X (the
 Wise), 1221-84, king of Castile and Leon (1252-84), took CADIZ from the
 Moors (1262). His subjection of the nobles led to a revolt, and a civil
 war broke out over the succession during his last years. He was a great
 patron of science and the arts. The Alfonsine Tables of astronomical data
 were published under his aegis. Alfonso XI, 1311-50, king of Castile and
 Leon (1312-50), lost Gibraltar to the Moors (1333) but won the great
 victory of Tarifa (1340) and conquered Algeciras (1344). Alfonso XII,
 1857-85, king of Spain (1874-85), was a popular monarch who consolidated
 the monarchy, suppressed republican agitation, and restored order.
 Alfonso XIII, 1886-1941, king of Spain (1886-1931), supported the
 military dictatorship (1923-30) of Miguel PRIMO DE RIVERA, but social
 unrest and a republican election victory led to his deposition and exile
 (1931).

   Alfred

 Alfred, 849-99, king of WESSEX (871-99), sometimes called Alfred the
 Great. The son of AETHELWULF, he shared his father's piety. When his
 brother AETHELRED took the Wessex throne (865), Alfred aided him in
 battles against the Danes, who threatened to overrun England. Unable to
 establish a clear victory, Alfred rid Wessex of the Danes by paying the
 DANEGELD when he became king in 871. In 878, however, the Danes returned,
 and Alfred's flight to Somerset at that time is the basis for the legend
 about the king and a peasant woman's burned cakes. In May 878, Alfred
 triumphed over the Danes at Edington. This victory produced relative
 security, and Alfred began to institute reforms, including a code of laws
 combining Christian doctrine with a strong, centralized monarchy. His
 greatest achievements were the creation of a navy, the revival of
 learning among the clergy, the education of youths and nobles at court,
 the establishment of Old English literary prose, his own English
 translation of Latin works, and his influence on the extant form of the
 ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE.

   algae

 algae, primitive plants that contain CHLOROPHYLL and carry on
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS but lack true roots, stems, and leaves. They are the chief
 aquatic plant life both in the sea and freshwater; nearly all SEAWEEDS
 are marine algae. Algae occur as microscopic single cells (e.g., DIATOMS)
 and more complex forms of many cells grouped in spherical colonies (e.g.,
 Volvox), in ribbonlike filaments (e.g., Spirogyra), and in giant forms
 (e.g., the marine kelps). The cells of colonies are generally similar,
 but some are specialized for reproduction and other functions. The
 blue-green and green algae include most of the freshwater forms, such as
 pond scum, a green slime found in stagnant water. Brown and red algae are
 more complex-chiefly marine forms whose green chlorophyll is masked by
 the presence of other pigments. Algae are primary food producers in the
 food chain and also provide oxygen for aquatic life.

   algebra

 algebra, branch of MATHEMATICS concerned with operations on sets of
 numbers or other elements that are often represented by symbols. In
 elementary algebra, letters are used to stand for numbers, e.g., in the
 POLYNOMIAL equation ax2+bx+c=0, the letters a, b, and c are called the
 coefficients of the EQUATION and stand for fixed numbers, or constants.
 The letter x stands for an unknown number, or variable, whose value
 depends on the values of a, b, and c and may be determined by solving the
 equation. Much of classical algebra is concerned with finding solutions
 to equations or systems of equations, i.e., finding the ROOTS, or values
 of the unknowns, that upon substitution into the original equation will
 make it a numerical identity. Algebra is a generalization of ARITHMETIC
 and gains much of its power from dealing symbolically with elements and
 operations (chiefly addition and multiplication) and relationships (such
 as equality) connecting the elements. Thus a+a=2a and a+b=b+a no matter
 what numbers a and b represent.

   Alger, Horatio

 Alger, Horatio, 1834-99, American writer of boys' stories; b. Revere,
 Mass. The heroes of his over 100 books, e.g., Ragged Dick (1867), gain
 success by leading exemplary lives and struggling valiantly against
 poverty and adversity.