Microsoft Bookshelf 1991/TheConciseColumbiaEncyclopedia.txt

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 The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia




   Aachen

 Aachen or Aix-la-Chapelle, city (1986 pop. 238,600), North
 Rhine-Westphalia, W West Germany. It is an industrial center producing
 textiles, machinery, and other manufactures. Its mineral baths have been
 famous since Roman times. CHARLEMAGNE made it his northern capital,
 building a palace and cathedral there, and the city was (936-1531) the
 coronation place of German kings. Later it was taken by France (1801) and
 then by Prussia (1815). After WORLD WAR I Aachen was occupied by the
 Allies, and two thirds of it was destroyed during WORLD WAR II.

   Aakjaer, Jeppe

 Aakjaer, Jeppe, 1866-1930, Danish poet. His lyric gift is apparent in
 Songs of the Rye (1906) and Heimdal's Wanderings (1924). He also wrote
 novels, mostly about his native Jutland, e.g., The Peasant's Son (1899).

   Aalto, Alvar

 Aalto, Alvar, 1896-1976, Finnish architect. He adapted Finnish building
 traditions to modern technology. Among his buildings are the Maison Carre
 in Paris and Baker House in Cambridge, Mass. (1947-48). He was also
 famous for his designs for laminated-wood furniture.

   aardvark

 aardvark, nocturnal MAMMAL (genus Orycteropus) found in Africa. About 6
 ft (180 cm) long, it has a long snout, large, erect ears, a body almost
 devoid of hair, and a long tail. It claws open ant and termite nests with
 its forefeet and uses its long, sticky tongue to capture insects.

   Aaron

 Aaron, in the BIBLE, the first high priest, the brother of MOSES, and his
 spokesman. Through him Jehovah performed miracles, although Aaron had
 made the GOLDEN CALF and allowed its worship. His descendants became
 temple priests.

   Aaron, Hank

 Aaron, Hank (Henry Louis Aaron), 1934-, American baseball player; b.
 Mobile, Ala. A right-handed batter, he played with the Braves (1954-74)
 in Milwaukee and Atlanta and with the Milwaukee Brewers (1975-76). In
 1974 he broke Babe RUTH'S career record for home runs, finishing with
 755. He set records for runs batted in, extra-base hits, and total bases.

   abacus

 abacus, an ancient computing device using movable beads strung on a
 number of parallel wires within a frame. Each wire represents a decimal
 place: ones, tens, hundreds, and so on. The beads are grouped to form
 numbers and shifted in specified patterns to add, subtract, multiply, or
 divide.

   Abadan

 Abadan, city (1976 pop. 294,068), Khuzestan prov., SW Iran, on Abadan
 Island, in the SHATT AL ARAB delta, at the head of the PERSIAN GULF.
 After oil was discovered (1908) nearby, Abadan became the terminus of oil
 pipelines and an oil-refining and shipping center. Iraqi forces damaged
 its major oil refinery in their invasion of Khuzestan in 1980.

   abalone

 abalone, marine GASTROPOD mollusk (genus Haliotis), covered by a single
 ear-shaped shell perforated with respiratory holes on one side. The
 abalone is hunted for its large, edible muscular foot and the iridescent
 MOTHER-OF-PEARL lining of its shell, used for buttons. It feeds by
 scraping the substrate with its rasping tongue (radula).

   abandonment

 abandonment, in U.S. law, voluntary, intentional, and absolute
 relinquishment of rights or property without conveying them to any other
 person. Abandonment also means willfully leaving one's spouse or
 children, intending not to return. In many states the abandonment of a
 child is a criminal offense.

   Abbas I

 Abbas I (Abbas the Great), 1557-1629, shah of PERSIA (1587-1628), of the
 Safavid dynasty. He broke the power of the tribal chiefs, ended the Uzbek
 threat, and extended his domain at the expense of the Turks and
 Portuguese.

   Abbasid

 Abbasid or Abbaside, Arabic family descended from Abbas, d.653, the uncle
 of MUHAMMAD. They rose to power by massacring the ruling Umayyad family
 and held the CALIPHATE from 749 to 1258. Prominent Abbasid caliphs
 include al-MANSUR and HARUN AR-RASHID, under whom the caliphate reached
 its greatest power. The long Abbasid decline ended with their overthrow
 (13th cent.) by the Seljuk Turks.

   Abbey Theatre

 Abbey Theatre: see THEATER.

   Abbott, George

 Abbott, George, 1889-, American theatrical director and playwright; b.
 Forestville, N.Y. He was a master of FARCE and MUSICALS. His hits include
 Three Men on a Horse (1935), Damn Yankees (1955), and Fiorello! (1960;
 Pulitzer).

   Abbott and Costello

 Abbott and Costello, American comedy team. Its members were William "Bud"
 Abbott, 1898-1974, and Lou (Cristillo) Costello 1908-59. They performed
 (1931-57) routines ("Who's on First") on the stage, radio, and television
 and in a series of successful films, including Buck Privates (1941).

   abbreviation

 abbreviation, in writing, arbitrary shortening of a word, usually by
 cutting off letters from the end, as in U.S. and Gen. (General).
 Contraction serves the same purpose but is understood strictly to be the
 shortening of a word by cutting out letters in the middle, the omission
 sometimes being indicated by an apostrophe, as in the word don't. Most
 abbreviations are followed by a period. Usage, however, differs widely,
 and recently omission of periods has become common, as in NATO and UN. A
 period is never used when apostrophes appear. A list of abbreviations
 used in this encyclopedia may be found at the front of the book.

   Abd al-Hamid

 Abd al-Hamid, sultans of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE (Turkey). Abd al-Hamid I,
 1725-89 (r.1774-89), witnessed the decline of Turkey and the rise of
 Russia as the foremost power in the area. Abd al-Hamid II, 1842-1918
 (r.1876-1909), suspended (1876) the constitution and ruled as an absolute
 monarch. The last RUSSO-TURKISH WAR was a disaster, resulting in a great
 loss of Turkish lands. He was eventually deposed by the Young Turks.

   Abd ar-Rahman

 Abd ar-Rahman, Muslim rulers of Spain. Abd ar-Rahman, d. 732, governor of
 Spain (721-32), fought the Franks and was defeated by CHARLES MARTEL. Abd
 ar-Rahman I,  d.788, first Umayyad emir of Cordoba (756-88), escaped to
 Spain after his family's massacre by the Abbasid. There he defeated (756)
 the emir of Cordoba and established himself in power. Abd ar-Rahman III
 (891-961), Umayyad emir and first caliph (929-61) of Cordoba, regained
 lands lost by his predecessors, maintained a powerful military force, and
 made Cordoba one of the greatest cities in the West.

   Abdias

 Abdias: see OBADIAH.

   abdomen

 abdomen, in vertebrates, portion of the trunk between the diaphragm and
 lower pelvis. In humans the abdominal cavity is lined with a thin
 membrane, the peritoneum, which encloses the STOMACH, intestines, LIVER,
 and GALL BLADDER. The PANCREAS, KIDNEYS, urinary bladder, and, in the
 female, reproductive organs are also located within the abdominal cavity.
 In insects and some other invertebrates the term abdomen refers to the
 rear portion of the body.

   Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem

 Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem, 1947-, American basketball player; b. N.Y.C. as
 Ferdinand Lewis ("Lew") Alcindor. He led the Univ. of California, Los
 Angeles, to three national titles (1967-69) and played center for the
 Milwaukee Bucks (1969-75) and Los Angeles Lakers (1975-88). The 7 ft 2
 in. (218 cm) Abdul-Jabbar won most-valuable-player honors six times and
 scored a total of 37,639 points (breaking the all-time record).

   Abdullah

 Abdullah, 1882-1951, emir of Transjordan (1921-46) and king of JORDAN
 (1946-51). In the first ARAB-ISRAELI WAR he commanded the Arab Legion and
 annexed those portions of Palestine not assigned to Israel.

   a Becket, Thomas

 a Becket, Thomas: see  THOMAS A BECKET, SAINT.

   Abe Kobo

 Abe Kobo, 1924-, Japanese novelist and dramatist. Often compared to
 KAFKA, he treats the contemporary human predicament in a realistic yet
 symbolic style. His minute descriptions of surrealistic situations often
 lend his works a nightmarish quality. Among Abe's novels are Woman in the
 Dunes (tr. and film 1964) and Secret Rendezvous (tr. 1979). His plays
 include Friends (tr. 1969).

   Abel

 Abel, in the BIBLE, son of ADAM and EVE. A shepherd, he was killed by his
 brother CAIN. Gen. 4.1-8.

   Abel, I(orwith) W(ilbur)

 Abel, I(orwith) W(ilbur), 1908-87, American labor leader; b. Magnolia,
 Ohio. He worked in a Canton rolling mill at 17 and was appointed (1937)
 staff representative of the organization that became the United
 Steelworkers of America. He was an Ohio district director of the union
 (1942-52), became (1953) secretary-treasurer, and served (1965-77) as
 president.

   Abel, Niels Henrik

 Abel, Niels Henrik, 1802-29, Norwegian mathematician. One of the greatest
 mathematicians of the 19th cent., he pioneered in the theory of elliptic
 functions, investigated generalizations of the binomial theorem, and
 proved the impossibility of representing a solution of a general equation
 of fifth degree or higher by a radical expression.

   Abelard, Peter

 Abelard, Peter, 1079-1142, French philosopher. Because his fame as a
 dialectician drew so many students, he is regarded as the founder of the
 Univ. of Paris. His secret marriage to a pupil, Heloise, ended when her
 uncle, Canon Fulbert of Notre Dame, hired ruffians to emasculate him.
 Becoming a monk, he built a hermitage and monastery, the Paraclete, which
 he later presented to Heloise, who had become an abbess. Abelard's first
 theological work had been burned (1121) as heretical; in 1140 the mystic
 St. BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX secured his condemnation by the council of Sens,
 and he retired in submission to Cluny. Following PLATO in theology,
 Abelard espoused the method of ARISTOTLE'S dialectic, holding that the
 system of LOGIC could be applied to the truths of faith. His view of
 universals anticipated the conceptualism of St. THOMAS AQUINAS. His most
 influential and controversial work, Sic et non, collected contradictory
 writings of the Church fathers.

   Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th earl of

 Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th earl of, 1784-1860, British
 statesman. He served in the cabinets of WELLINGTON and PEEL as foreign
 secretary (1828-30; 1841-46). In 1842 he settled the Northeast Boundary
 Dispute with the U.S. by the WEBSTER-ASHBURTON TREATY. As prime minister
 (1852-55) he was quite successful in home affairs, but he resigned after
 failing to prevent British involvement in the unpopular CRIMEAN WAR.

   Aberhart, William

 Aberhart, William, 1878-1943, premier of ALBERTA (1935-43). He helped to
 organize (c.1932) the SOCIAL CREDIT movement to make direct payments to
 all citizens and headed the first Social Credit government.

   Abernathy, Ralph

 Abernathy, Ralph, 1926-, American civil rights leader; b. Linden, Ala. A
 Baptist minister, he helped organize the Montgomery bus boycott (1955).
 He was treasurer, vice president, and, after the assassination of Martin
 Luther KING, Jr., president of the Southern Christian Leadership
 Conference. An advocate of nonviolence as the only acceptable means to
 social change, he led the Poor People's Campaign on Washington, D.C.,
 after King's death. He resigned (1977) from the SCLC and has worked with
 CIVIL RIGHTS and peace groups.

   aberration

 aberration, in optics, condition that causes a blurring and loss of
 clearness in the images produced by lenses or mirrors. Spherical
 aberration is the failure of a LENS or MIRROR of spherical section to
 bring parallel rays of light to a single focus; it can be prevented by
 using a more complex parabolic section. Chromatic aberration, the blurred
 coloring at the edge of an image, arises because some colors of light are
 bent, or refracted, more than others after passing through a lens; it can
 be cured by using a corrective lens.

   aberration of starlight

 aberration of starlight, angular displacement, caused by the earth's
 orbital motion, of the apparent path of light from a star, resulting in a
 displacement of its apparent position from its true position.

   Abidjan

 Abidjan, city (1982 est. pop. 951,216), former capital of Ivory Coast, on
 the Gulf of Guinea. It is the largest city and administrative center of
 Ivory Coast. Its port is on an island connected with the rest of the city
 by two bridges. Coffee, cocoa, timber, pineapples, and plantains are the
 chief exports. Processed food, textiles, automobiles, and chemicals are
 among the manufactures. One of Africa's most modern cities, it has an
 international airport nearby and growing tourism. Abidjan became (1934)
 the capital of France's Ivory Coast colony, but the capital was moved to
 Yamousoukro in the 1980s.

   Abilene

 Abilene, city (1986 est. pop. 112,430), seat of Taylor co., W central
 Texas; inc. 1882. First settled (1881) by buffalo hunters, it grew as a
 cattle-shipping point. It is a center of industry (e.g., petroleum,
 aircraft, electronics) and agriculture (e.g., cattle, cotton, sorghum)
 and serves as headquarters for regional oil interests. It is the site of
 Abilene Christian Univ., Hardin-Simmons Univ., and McMurry College.

   ablative

 ablative: see CASE.

   ablaut

 ablaut [Ger.,=off-sound], in INFLECTION, vowel variation (as in English
 sing, sang, sung, song) caused by former differences in syllabic accent.
 In a prehistoric period the corresponding forms of the language (known
 through scientific reconstruction) had differences in accent, not
 differences in vowel.

   ABM

 ABM (antiballistic missile): see MISSILE, GUIDED.

   abolitionists

 abolitionists, in U.S. history, especially from 1830 to 1860, advocates
 of the compulsory emancipation of black slaves. Abolitionists are to be
 distinguished from free-soilers, who opposed the extension of SLAVERY.
 The active campaign had its mainspring in the revival (1820s) in the
 North of evangelical religion, with its moral urgency to end sinful
 practices. It reached crusading stage in the 1830s, led by Theodore D.
 Weld, the brothers Arthur and Lewis Tappan, and William Lloyd GARRISON.
 The American Anti-Slavery Society, established in 1833, flooded the slave
 states with abolitionist literature and lobbied in Washington, D.C.
 Writers like J.G. WHITTIER and orators such as Wendell PHILLIPS lent
 strength to the cause. Despite unanimity on their goal, abolitionists
 were divided over the method of achieving it, Garrison advocating moral
 suasion, others direct political action. Uncle Tom's Cabin, by Harriet B.
 STOWE, became an effective piece of abolitionist propaganda, and the
 KANSAS question aroused both North and South. The culminating act of
 abolitionism was John BROWN'S raid on Harpers Ferry. Abolitionist demands
 for immediate freeing of the slaves after the outbreak of the CIVIL WAR
 resulted in Pres. Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation. The abolitionist
 movement was one of high moral purpose and courage; its uncompromising
 temper hastened the demise of slavery in the U.S.

   abominable snowman

 abominable snowman or yeti,manlike creature associated with the
 Himalayas. Known through tracks ascribed to it and alleged encounters, it
 is supposedly 6 to 7 ft (1.8 to 2.1 m) tall and covered with long hair.
 While many scholars dismiss it as a myth, others claim it may be a kind
 of ape.

   abortion

 abortion, expulsion of the embryo or fetus before it is viable outside
 the uterus, i.e., before the 28th week after conception, in humans (see
 REPRODUCTION). Spontaneous abortion, or miscarriage, may be caused by
 death of the fetus due to abnormality or disease or by trauma to the
 expectant mother. Abortion may also be induced, the fetus removed from
 the uterus by such procedures as vacuum suction, dilation and curettage,
 intrauterine saline injection, and hysterotomy (surgical incision of the
 uterus). Abortion was long practiced as a form of BIRTH CONTROL until
 pressure from the Roman Catholic Church and changing opinion led in the
 19th cent. to the passage of strict antiabortion laws. Attitudes toward
 abortion have become more liberal in the 20th cent. By the 1970s,
 abortion had been legalized in most European countries, the USSR, and
 Japan; in the U.S., according to a 1973 Supreme Court ruling (see ROE V.
 WADE), abortions are permitted during the first six months of pregnancy.
 Abortion remains a controversial issue in the U.S., however, and in 1977
 Congress barred the use of Medicaid funds for abortion except for
 therapeutic reasons and in certain other specified instances.

   Abraham

 Abraham or Abram,progenitor of the Hebrews. He is an example of the man
 devoted to God, as in his willingness to sacrifice his son ISAAC. Revered
 by several religions, he is principally important as the founder of
 JUDAISM. He received the promise of CANAAN for his people, who are
 descended from Isaac. Gen. 11-25. Through another son, ISHMAEL, he is
 considered by Muslims an ancestor of the Arabs.

   Abram

 Abram: see ABRAHAM.

   Abrams, Creighton Williams

 Abrams, Creighton Williams, 1914-74, U.S. military officer; b.
 Springfield, Mass. He served with distinction in World War II, in Korea
 (1953-54), and in West Germany (1960-62). In 1964 he was promoted to
 general. After serving as deputy commander of the U.S. forces in the
 VIETNAM WAR under Gen. William C. WESTMORELAND, he was commanding general
 (1968-72). He was also U.S. army chief of staff (1972-74).

   abrasive

 abrasive, material used to grind, smooth, cut, or polish another
 substance. Natural abrasives include SAND, PUMICE, CORUNDUM, and ground
 QUARTZ. Carborundum (SILICON CARBIDE) and ALUMINA (aluminum oxide) are
 major synthetic abrasives. The hardest abrasives are natural or synthetic
 DIAMONDS, used in the form of dust or minuscule stones.

   Abravanel

 Abravanel or Abarbanel, Judah,c.1460-c.1523, Jewish philosopher, also
 known as Leone Ebreo; b. Lisbon. He was influenced by the scholars of the
 Platonic Academy of Florence and by MAIMONIDES and IBN GABIROL. His
 Philosophy of Love (pub. posthumously, 1535), a classic exposition of
 platonic love, had a profound effect on philosophers of the 16th and 17th
 cent., notably BRUNO and SPINOZA.

   Absalom

 Absalom, beloved son of DAVID. He murdered his brother AMNON and fled.
 After being forgiven by David, Absalom stirred up a rebellion, in which
 he died. 2 Sam. 13-19.

   Abscam

 Abscam, U.S. scandal resulting from an investigation begun in 1978 by the
 Federal Bureau of Investigation. The FBI created a front (Abdul
 Enterprises, Ltd., hence, Abscam) for its agents, who, posing as
 associates of an Arab sheik, offered selected public officials money or
 other considerations in exchange for special favors. The videotaped
 meetings resulted in the indictments (1980) and convictions of one
 senator and four congressmen on charges including bribery and conspiracy;
 another congressman was convicted on lesser charges. The FBI's tactics
 raised questions about entrapment, and the conviction of Florida
 Congressmen Richard Kelly was overturned (1982).

   abscess

 abscess, accumulation of pus in tissues as a result of infection.
 Characterized by inflammation and painful swelling, it may occur in
 various parts of the body, e.g., skin, gum, eyelid, and middle ear. Many
 abscesses respond to treatment with ANTIBIOTICS; others require surgical
 drainage.

   absentee ownership

 absentee ownership, system under which a person (or a corporation)
 controls and owns capital, such as land or factories, in a region where
 that person does not reside and employs others to supervise and work it.
 Revolution and reform have abolished or greatly reduced the amount of
 absentee control throughout the world. In the U.S. the term has been
 applied to the concentration of economic power through various corporate
 devices.

   absolute value

 absolute value, magnitude of a mathematical expression, disregarding its
 sign; thus the absolute value is always positive. In symbols, if |a|
 denotes the absolute value of a number a, then |a|=a for a>0 and |a|=-a
 for a<0.

   absolute zero

 absolute zero, the zero point of the ideal gas temperature scale, denoted
 by 0 degrees on the KELVIN and Rankine temperature scales (-273.15 deg
 C.; -459.67 deg F). At this point, the volume of an ideal gas would be
 zero and, theoretically, all molecular motion would cease. In actuality,
 all gases condense well above this point. See also TEMPERATURE.

   absorption

 absorption, taking of molecules of one substance directly into another
 substance. Absorption may be either a physical or a chemical process.
 Physical absorption depends on the solubility of the substance absorbed,
 and chemical absorption involves chemical reactions between the absorbed
 substance and the absorbing medium. See also ADSORPTION.

   abstract expressionism

 abstract expressionism, movement in painting that emerged in New York
 City in the mid-1940s and attained prominence in American art in the
 following decade; also called action painting and the New York School.
 Given impetus by the work of Arshile GORKY, abstract expressionism is
 marked by an attention to surface qualities, i.e., brushstroke and
 texture; the use of huge canvases; the harnessing of accidents that occur
 while painting; and the glorification of the act of painting itself. The
 first important school in American painting to declare independence from
 European styles and to influence art abroad, abstract expressionism
 enormously affected the kinds of art that followed it, especially in the
 use of color and material. Major artists in the movement include Jackson
 POLLOCK, Willem DE KOONING, Hans HOFMANN, Robert MOTHERWELL, Franz KLINE
 and Mark ROTHKO.

   Abu al-Ala al-Maari

 Abu al-Ala al-Maari, 973-1057, Arabic poet. He was blind from childhood.
 Brilliantly original, he discarded classicism for intellectual urbanity.
 Later he favored ascetic purity and wrote more stereotypical poetry.

   Abu al-Faraj Ali of Esfahan

 Abu al-Faraj Ali of Esfahan, 897-967, Arabic scholar. He is mainly known
 for his poetic anthology Kitab al-Aghani [book of songs], an important
 source for information on medieval Islamic society.

   Abu Bakr

 Abu Bakr, 573-634, 1st caliph, father-in-law and successor of MUHAMMAD.
 He was probably the Prophet's first convert. During his critical two-year
 caliphate (632-34), ISLAM began the phenomenal growth that was to make it
 a world religion.

   Abu Dhabi

 Abu Dhabi, city (1980 pop. 265,702), capital of the UNITED ARAB EMIRATES.

   Abu Hanifa

 Abu Hanifa, c.699-767, Muslim theologian. A wealthy merchant from Kufa,
 Iraq, he founded Hanifi, the first of Islam's four orthodox schools of
 law. His thinking reflects a concern for the solidarity of the Muslim
 community. Accorded official status in many countries formerly under
 Ottoman administration, Hanifi is the most widespread of Islamic legal
 systems.

   Abuja

 Abuja, designated federal capital of Nigeria. Plans to move the capital
 from LAGOS were approved in 1976, and a 3,000-sq mi (7,770-sq km) capital
 territory was created near the old town of Abuja (now renamed Sulaija).
 The site, near the center of the country, has a good climate and is
 sparsely populated. The move is to be completed about 1990.

   Abu Nuwas

 Abu Nuwas, d. c.810, Arabic poet. A favorite of the caliphs HARUN
 AR-RASHID and Amin, he spent much time in Baghdad. His exquisite poetry
 echoes the extravagance of court life.

   Abu Said ibn Abi al-Khair

 Abu Said ibn Abi al-Khair, 967-1049, Persian poet, a Sufi and a DERVISH.
 He was the first to write rubaiyat (quatrains) in the Sufistic strain
 that OMAR KHAYYAM made famous.

   Abu Simbel

 Abu Simbel or Ipsambul,village, S Egypt, on the NILE R. Its two temples,
 hewn (c.1250 BC) out of rock cliffs in the reign of RAMSES II, were
 dismantled and raised over 200 ft (61 m) to avoid waters rising behind
 the ASWAN HIGH DAM. The project was completed (1966) with UNESCO aid.

   Abu Tammam Habib ibn Aus

 Abu Tammam Habib ibn Aus, c.805-c.845, Arabic poet, compiler of the
 HAMASA. Often describing historical events, his poems of valor are
 important as source material.

   Abyssinian cat

 Abyssinian cat: see under CAT.

   Ac

 Ac, chemical symbol of the element ACTINIUM.

   AC

 AC: see ELECTRICITY; GENERATOR; MOTOR, ELECTRIC.

   acacia

 acacia, plant (genus Acacia) of the PULSE family, mostly tropical and
 subtropical thorny shrubs and trees. Some have a feathery foliage
 composed of leaflets; others have no leaves but have flattened leaflike
 stems containing chlorophyll. Various species yield lac (for shellac),
 catechu (a dye), gum arabic, essential oils, tannins, and hardwood
 timber.

   academic freedom

 academic freedom, right of scholars to study, inquire, teach, and publish
 without control or restraint from the institutions that employ them. The
 concept is based on the notion that truth is best discovered through open
 investigation of all data. Its less clearly developed corollary is the
 obligation to pursue open and thorough inquiry regardless of personal
 considerations. Initiated during the ENLIGHTENMENT by scholars outside
 the university, academic freedom gained general acceptance only after
 university education was secularized.

   Acadia

 Acadia, region and former French colony, centered on NOVA SCOTIA, but
 including also PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND and much of the mainland coast from
 Quebec to Maine. In 1605 the French founded Port Royal (now ANNAPOLIS
 ROYAL), the first and chief town. During the FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS, the
 Peace of Utrecht (1713) gave Britain possession of the Nova Scotian
 peninsula, and, by the Treaty of PARIS (1763), all of Acadia fell to
 Britain. Doubting the loyalty of the French inhabitants (called
 Acadians), the British expelled many of them in 1755 and 1758. Most were
 scattered among the British colonies to the south, many of them later
 returning to the area. Other exiles found havens elsewhere, notably the
 Cajuns of S Louisiana, who still preserve a separate folk culture. The
 sufferings of the expulsion are depicted in LONGFELLOW'S poem Evangeline.

   Acadia National Park

 Acadia National Park: see NATIONAL PARKS.

   acanthus

 acanthus, common name for the Acanthaceae, a family of chiefly perennial
 herbs and shrubs, mostly tropical. Many members have decorative spiny
 leaves and are cultivated as ornamentals, e.g., bear's breech, whose
 ornate leaves provided a motif often used in Greek and Roman art and
 architecture. In Christian art, the acanthus symbolizes heaven.

   Acapulco

 Acapulco, city (1980 pop. 409,335), winter resort on the tropical Pacific
 coast of S Mexico, known for its fine beaches, luxury hotels and villas,
 and deep-sea fishing. Founded (1550) on a natural harbor, it was a base
 for Spanish explorers and was important in trade with the Philippines. It
 became a favored haunt of wealthy vacationers in the 1920s.

   acceleration

 acceleration: see MOTION.

   accelerator

 accelerator: see PARTICLE ACCELERATOR.

   accounting

 accounting, classification, analysis, and interpretation of the
 financial, or bookkeeping, records of an enterprise, used to evaluate the
 progress or failures of a business and to recognize the factors that
 determine its true condition. In the U.S. accountants who pass a required
 examination are granted the title Certified Public Accountant (CPA). A
 branch of accounting is auditing, the examination of accounts by persons
 who have had no part in their preparation. Annual audits are required for
 all publicly held businesses.

   Accra

 Accra, city (1984 pop. 964,879), capital of Ghana, on the Gulf of Guinea.
 The nation's largest city and its administrative and economic center,
 Accra is linked by road and rail with KUMASI, in the interior, and with
 the seaport of Tema. Manufactures include processed food, timber, and
 textiles. The city became (1876) the capital of the British Gold Coast
 colony and grew economically after completion (1923) of a railroad to the
 interior. Riots in the city (1948) accelerated the movement for Ghana's
 independence. Today Accra is a sprawling, modern city with wide avenues;
 points of interest include a 17th-cent. Danish castle.

   acculturation

 acculturation, the more or less continuous interaction between social
 groups brought about by accommodation and resulting in the intermixture
 of shared, learned behavior patterns. It may result in almost complete
 absorption of the CULTURE of one of the groups or a relatively equal
 merging of traits and patterns from both cultures. Not infrequently,
 acculturative processes result in social disturbance and individual
 psychological maladjustment.

   accusative

 accusative: see CASE.

   acetaminophen

 acetaminophen, an ANALGESIC and fever-reducing medicine similar in effect
 to ASPIRIN. Gentler to the stomach than aspirin, it lacks aspirin's
 anti-inflammatory effect.

   acetone, dimethyl ketone

 acetone, dimethyl ketone, or 2-propanone(CH3COCH3), colorless, flammable
 liquid. Acetone is widely used in industry as a solvent for many organic
 substances and is a component of most paint and varnish removers. It is
 used in making synthetic RESINS and fillers, smokeless powders, and many
 other organic compounds.

   acetylcholine

 acetylcholine, organic compound containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
 nitrogen, essential for the conduction of nerve impulses in animals. It
 is found in highest concentrations on neuron surfaces and is liberated at
 nerve cell endings. There is strong evidence that acetylcholine is the
 transmitter substance that conducts impulses from one cell to another in
 the parasympathetic nervous system, and from nerve cells to smooth
 muscle, skeletal muscle, and exocrine glands.

   acetylene

 acetylene or ethyne(HC=CH), a colorless gas and the simplest alkyne (see
 HYDROCARBON). Explosive on contact with air, it is stored dissolved under
 pressure in ACETONE. It is used to make neoprene RUBBER, PLASTICS, and
 RESINS. The oxyacetylene torch mixes and burns oxygen and acetylene to
 produce a very hot flame-as high as 6300 degF (3480 degC)-that can cut
 steel and weld iron and other metals.

   Achaea

 Achaea, region of ancient GREECE, in the N Peloponnesus on the Gulf of
 Corinth, home of the Achaeans, the ruling class in the PELOPONNESUS from
 c.1250 BC Before the 5th cent. BC the Achaean cities joined in the First
 Achaean League, which was dissolved after it opposed (338 BC) PHILIP II
 of Macedon. The Second Achaean League, formed in 280 BC, almost drove
 MACEDON from Achaea but was stopped by SPARTA. In 198 BC, with Roman aid,
 the league won power. Later, suspecting pro-Macedonian sympathies, Rome
 deported many Achaeans (168 BC) to Italy. In 146 BC Achaea waged a
 suicidal war against Rome, which easily won, dissolved the league, and
 ended Greek liberty.

   Achaemenids

 Achaemenids, dynasty of ancient PERSIA. The Achaemenid rulers (c.550-330
 BC) included CYRUS THE GREAT, Cambyses, DARIUS I, Xerxes I, and
 ARTAXERXES I. The dynasty ended with DARIUS III.

   Achebe, Chinua

 Achebe, Chinua, 1930-, Nigerian novelist. His novels, written in English,
 depict Ibo society and the impact of colonialism, e.g., Things Fall Apart
 (1958) and A Man of the People (1966). A former broadcaster and diplomat
 for Biafra, he has also published poetry, e.g., Christmas in Biafra
 (1973).

   Acheson, Dean Gooderham

 Acheson, Dean Gooderham, 1893-1971, U.S. secretary of state (1949-53); b.
 Middletown, Conn. Serving Pres. TRUMAN, he established the policy of
 containment of Communist expansion. He also helped to establish the NORTH
 ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION.

   Achilles

 Achilles, in Greek mythology, foremost hero of the TROJAN WAR; son of
 Peleus and Thetis. Thetis attempted to make him immortal by bathing him
 in the river STYX, but the heel she held remained vulnerable. Knowing
 Achilles was fated to die at Troy, Thetis disguised him as a girl and hid
 him at Skyros. He was found by ODYSSEUS, who persuaded him to go to war.
 At Troy he quarreled with AGAMEMNON and sulked in his tent until his
 friend Patroclus was killed by HECTOR. Filled with grief and rage,
 Achilles slew Hector and dragged his body to the Greek camp. He was later
 killed by PARIS, who wounded his heel.

   acidophilus milk

 acidophilus milk: see FERMENTED MILK.

   acid rain

 acid rain, form of precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, or hail) containing
 high levels of sulfuric or nitric acids (pH below 5.5-5.6). Produced when
 sulfur dioxide and various nitrogen oxides combine with atmospheric
 moisture, acid rain can contaminate drinking water, damage vegetation and
 aquatic life, and erode buildings and monuments. It has been an
 increasingly serious problem since the 1950s, particularly in the NE
 U.S., Canada, and W Europe, especially Scandinavia. Automobile exhausts
 and the burning of high-sulfur industrial fuels are thought to be the
 main causes, but natural sources, e.g., volcanic gases and forest fires,
 may also be significant. See also ECOLOGY; POLLUTION; WASTE DISPOSAL.

   acid rock

 acid rock: see ROCK MUSIC.

   acids and bases

 acids and bases, two related classes of chemicals; the members of each
 class have a number of common properties when dissolved in a solvent,
 usually water. Acids in water solutions exhibit the following common
 properties: they taste sour; turn LITMUS paper red; and react with
 certain metals, such as zinc, to yield hydrogen gas. Bases in water
 solutions exhibit these common properties: they taste bitter; turn litmus
 paper blue; and feel slippery. When a water solution of acid is mixed
 with a water solution of base, a SALT and water are formed; this process,
 called neutralization, is complete only if the resulting solution has
 neither acidic nor basic properties. When an acid or base dissolves in
 water, a certain percentage of the acid or base particles will break up,
 or dissociate, into oppositely charged ions. The Arrhenius theory of
 acids and bases defines an acid as a compound that can dissociate in
 water to yield hydrogen ions (H+) and a base as a compound that can
 dissociate in water to yield hydroxyl ions (OH-). The Bronsted-Lowry
 theory defines an acid as a proton donor and a base as a proton acceptor.
 The Lewis theory defines an acid as a compound that can accept a pair of
 electrons and a base as a compound that can donate a pair of electrons.
 Each of the three theories has its own advantages and disadvantages; each
 is useful under certain conditions. Strong acids, such as HYDROCHLORIC
 ACID, and strong bases, such as potassium hydroxide, have a great
 tendency to dissociate in water and are completely ionized in solution.
 Weak acids, such as acetic acid, and weak bases, such as AMMONIA, are
 reluctant to dissociate in water and are only partially ionized in
 solution. Strong acids and strong bases make very good ELECTROLYTES (see
 ELECTROLYSIS), i.e., their solutions readily conduct electricity. Weak
 acids and weak bases make poor electrolytes. See also AMPHOTERISM;
 BUFFER; CATALYST; INDICATORS, ACID-BASE; TITRATION; article on pH.

   ACLU

 ACLU: see AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION.

   Acmeists

 Acmeists, school of Russian poets that arose in 1912 in reaction to the
 SYMBOLISTS; it emphasized concreteness of imagery and clarity of
 expression. The leading Acmeists were Nikolai Gumilev, Anna AKHMATOVA,
 and Osip MANDELSTAM.

   acne

 acne, inflammatory disease of the sebaceous glands, characterized by
 blackheads, cysts, and pimples. The lesions appear on the face, neck,
 chest, back, and arms, and may be mild to severe. Most prevalent during
 adolescence, acne may appear in adulthood. Its cause is unknown, but
 contributing factors include genetic predisposition and hormonal changes
 during puberty. Treatment includes use of cleansers, ANTIBIOTICS,
 surgical drainage of lesions, and, for severe cases, retinoic acid
 derivatives.

   Acoma

 Acoma or Acoma,pueblo in W central New Mexico, situated atop a
 steep-sided 357-ft (109-m) MESA. Founded c.1100-1250, it is considered
 the oldest continuously inhabited community in the U.S. The resident
 PUEBLO INDIANS retain aspects of their 700-year-old culture; the men are
 weavers, the women highly skilled and renowned potters.

   Aconcagua

 Aconcagua, mountain 22,835 ft (6,960 m) high, in the ANDES of Argentina.
 It is the highest peak in the Americas.

   acorn

 acorn: see OAK.

   acoustics

 acoustics, the science of SOUND, including its production, propagation,
 and effects. An important practical application of acoustics is in the
 designing of auditoriums, which requires a knowledge of the
 characteristics of sound WAVES. Reflection of sound can cause an ECHO,
 and repeated reflections in an enclosed space can cause reverberation,
 the persistence of sound. Some reverberation in auditoriums is desirable
 to avoid deadening the sound of music. Reflection can be reduced through
 the proper configuration and texture of walls, and by the use of
 sound-absorbent materials. Another acoustical problem is INTERFERENCE,
 which can create "dead spots" in auditoriums for certain frequencies.

   acquired characteristics

 acquired characteristics, modifications produced in an individual plant
 or animal as a result of mutilation, disease, use and disuse, or any
 distinctly environmental influence. Belief in the inheritability of
 acquired characteristics was accepted by LAMARCK but ultimately rejected
 by modern geneticists, who have affirmed that inheritance is determined
 solely by reproductive cells and unaffected by somatic (body) cells.

   acquired immune deficiency syndrome

 acquired immune deficiency syndrome: see AIDS.

   acropolis

 acropolis, elevated, fortified section of ancient Greek cities. The
 Acropolis of Athens was adorned in the 5th cent. BC with some of the
 world's greatest architectural monuments. The remains of the PARTHENON,
 ERECHTHEUM, and Propylaea still stand.

   acrylic

 acrylic, more common name for polyacrylonitrile. Acrylic is a polymer
 composed of the acrylonitrile monomer CH2:CHCN. It is used as a fiber in
 SYNTHETIC TEXTILE FIBERS such as Arilan and Orlon.

   Actaeon

 Actaeon, in Greek mythology, a hunter. Because he saw ARTEMIS bathing
 naked, she changed him into a stag, and he was killed by his own dogs.

   actinide series

 actinide series, the radioactive metals, with atomic numbers 89 through
 103, in group IIIb of the PERIODIC TABLE. They are ACTINIUM, THORIUM,
 PROTACTINIUM, URANIUM, NEPTUNIUM, PLUTONIUM, AMERICIUM, CURIUM
 , BERKELIUM, CALIFORNIUM, EINSTEINIUM, FERMIUM, MENDELEVIUM
 , NOBELIUM, and LAWRENCIUM. All members of the series have chemical
 properties similar to actinium. Those elements with atomic numbers
 greater than 92 are called TRANSURANIUM ELEMENTS.

   actinium

 actinium (Ac), radioactive element; discovered in 1899 by Andre Debierne
 in uranium residues from pitchblende. Actinium, a silver-white metal, is
 the first member of the ACTINIDE SERIES. The most stable isotope has a


   action painting

 action painting: see ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM.

   activation energy

 activation energy: see CATALYST.

   active

 active: see VOICE.

   Acts of the Apostles

 Acts of the Apostles, fifth book of the NEW TESTAMENT, between the
 GOSPELS and the EPISTLES. The only contemporary historical account of
 CHRISTIANITY'S early expansion, it was written between AD 60 and 80 as a
 sequel to the Gospel of St. LUKE, who is its traditional author. The Acts
 chiefly deal with the work of St. PETER (1-12) and St. PAUL (13-21).

   acupuncture

 acupuncture, technique of medical treatment, based on traditional Chinese
 medicine, in which a number of very fine metal needles are inserted into
 the skin at any of some 800 specially designated points. In China it has
 long been used for pain relief and treatment of such ailments as
 ARTHRITIS, HYPERTENSION, and ULCERS. More recently it has been used as an
 ANESTHESIA for childbirth and some surgery. (Unlike conventional
 anesthesia, it does not lower blood pressure or depress breathing.) It
 has been suggested that acupuncture works by stimulating the production
 of ENDORPHINS. U.S. research on acupuncture has focused on its use in
 pain relief and anesthesia.

   ADA

 ADA: see PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE.

   Adam

 Adam [Heb.,=man], in the BIBLE, the first man. His story, from his
 creation to his expulsion (with EVE, his wife) from the Garden of EDEN,
 is told in Gen. 1.26-5.5. To St. PAUL, Adam represented the earthy side
 of man, as in 1 Cor. 15.20-22, 42-58.

   Adam, Adolphe Charles

 Adam, Adolphe Charles, 1803-56, French composer. His more than 50 stage
 works include the ballet Giselle (1841). He also wrote the popular song
 Cantique de Noel.

   Adam, Robert

 Adam, Robert, 1728-92, and James Adam, 1730-94, Scottish architects,
 brothers. Robert possessed the great creative talents. They designed
 public and private buildings in England and Scotland, and numerous
 interiors, pieces of furniture, and decorative objects. Robert's light,
 elegant style was a personal reconstitution of Palladian, Renaissance,
 and antique elements. The Adam manner grew vastly popular and has never
 disappeared. Interesting examples of Adam planning and decoration are at
 Osterly Park (1761-80) and Syon House (1762-69), both near London.

   Adams

 Adams, family of distinguished Americans from Massachusetts. John Adams
 was president of the U.S. (see separate article). He and his wife,
 Abigail (Smith) Adams, were the parents of John Quincy Adams, who was
 also president of the U.S. (see separate article). His son, Charles
 Francis Adams, 1807-86, b. Boston, was U.S. minister to Great Britain
 (1861-68). He maintained the Northern cause with a wisdom and dignity
 that won British respect, and he is credited with preventing British
 recognition of the CONFEDERACY. Later he represented the U.S. in the
 settlement of the ALABAMA CLAIMS. His son Charles Francis Adams,
 1835-1915, b. Boston, was an economist and historian. An expert on
 railroad financing, he was president of the Union Pacific RR (1884-90).
 His works include Three Episodes of Massachusetts History (1892). His
 brother Brooks Adams, 1848-1927, b. Quincy, Mass., was a historian. His
 belief that civilizations rose and fell according to the growth and
 decline of commerce was first developed in The Law of Civilization and
 Decay (1895). Among his other important works are America's Economic
 Supremacy (1900) and Theory of Social Revolutions (1913). His ideas
 influenced another brother, Henry Adams, 1838-1918, b. Boston, who was
 also a writer and historian. In developing a philosophy of history he
 found a unifying principle in force, or energy, and applied it in two
 books, Mont-Saint-Michel and Chartres (1913) and The Education of Henry
 Adams (1918). He also wrote History of the United States of America (9
 vol., 1889-91).

   Adams, Ansel

 Adams, Ansel, 1902-84, American photographer; b. San Francisco. Working
 against the aesthetic of the 1930s, he produced superb regional
 landscapes, notably of the American Southwest. He also wrote technical
 manuals and helped to found the first museum and college photography
 departments.

   Adams, James Truslow

 Adams, James Truslow, 1878-1949, American historian; b. Brooklyn, N.Y.
 His works include The Founding of New England (1921; Pulitzer), The Adams
 Family (1930), and The Epic of America (1931). He was editor of the
 Dictionary of American History (6 vol., 1940).

   Adams, John

 Adams, John, 1735-1826, 2d president of the U.S. (1797-1801); b. Quincy
 (then in Braintree), Mass.; father of John Quincy ADAMS. He graduated
 from Harvard Univ. in 1755 and became a lawyer. As a moderate but
 forceful leader of the group who opposed British measures leading to the
 AMERICAN REVOLUTION, he later served in both CONTINENTAL CONGRESSES and
 argued eloquently for the DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, which he signed.
 Adams served the new nation as a diplomat, negotiating the Treaty of
 PARIS (1783) to end the Revolution and serving (1785-88) as envoy to
 Great Britain. He became Pres. WASHINGTON'S vice president (1789-97) and
 in 1797 succeeded him as president. Adams's administration as president
 revealed his honest and stubborn integrity. Although allied with
 Alexander HAMILTON and the conservative, property-respecting Federalists,
 he was not dominated by them in their struggle with the Jeffersonians
 (see JEFFERSON, THOMAS). By conciliation he prevented war with France
 (see XYZ AFFAIR). He did not wholly support the ALIEN AND SEDITION ACTS.
 After 1801 he lived in retirement in Quincy. His wife, Abigail (Smith)
 Adams, 1744-1818, b. Weymouth, Mass., was the chief figure in the social
 life of her husband's administration. Lively and intelligent, she was one
 of the most distinguished and influential of American first ladies.

   Adams, John Couch

 Adams, John Couch, 1819-92, English astronomer. By mathematical
 calculation based on irregularities in the motion of the planet Uranus,
 he and U.J.J. LEVERRIER independently and accurately predicted (1845-46)
 the position of the then unknown planet NEPTUNE. Adams also made valuable
 studies of the moon's motions, of the great meteor shower of 1866, and of
 terrestrial magnetism.

   Adams, John Quincy

 Adams, John Quincy, 1767-1848, 6th president of the U.S. (1825-29); b.
 Quincy (then in Braintree), Mass; son of John and Abigail ADAMS; father
 of Charles Francis Adams (see ADAMS, family). As U.S. senator from
 Massachusetts (1803-8), he angered his fellow Federalists by supporting
 Jeffersonian policies (see JEFFERSON, THOMAS). He gained fame as
 secretary of state (1817-25) for Pres. James MONROE, his greatest
 achievement being the MONROE DOCTRINE. Elected president (1825) in the
 House of Representatives through the support of Henry CLAY, Adams had an
 unhappy, ineffective administration, despite his attempts to institute a
 program of internal improvements. He won new respect as a U.S.
 representative from Massachusetts (1831-48), eloquently attacking all
 measures that would extend SLAVERY.

   Adams, Samuel

 Adams, Samuel, 1722-1803, American Revolutionary patriot; b. Boston. His
 speeches and writings helped to spark the AMERICAN REVOLUTION. He signed
 the DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, was a member (1774-81) of the
 CONTINENTAL CONGRESS, and was governor (1794-97) of Massachusetts.

   Adana

 Adana, city (1985 pop. 776,000), capital of Adana prov., S Turkey, on the
 Seyhan R. Turkey's fourth largest city, it is the commercial center of a
 farming region where cotton, grains, and other crops are grown. The
 city's manufactures include processed food and textiles. An ancient city
 probably founded by the HITTITES, it prospered from 66 BC as a Roman
 colony. It later declined but was revived (AD c.782) by HARUN AR-RASHID.
 In the 16th cent. it passed to the Ottoman Turks. Near Adana is a Hittite
 archaeological site.

   adaptation

 adaptation, in biology, the adjustment of living matter to environmental
 conditions, including other living things. Animals and plants are adapted
 for securing food and surviving even in conditions of drought, great
 heat, or extreme cold. Adaptations are believed to arise when genetic
 variations that increase an organism's chances of survival are passed on
 to succeeding generations. See also ECOLOGY; EVOLUTION; GENETICS.

   adaptive radiation

 adaptive radiation, in biology, the evolution of an ancestral species
 adapted to a particular way of life into several species, each adapted to
 a different habitat. Illustrating the principle are the 14 species of
 DARWIN'S finches, small land birds of the Galapagos Islands: 3 are
 ground-dwelling seedeaters, 3 live on cactus plants and are seedeaters, 1
 is a tree-dwelling seedeater, 7 are tree-dwelling insect eaters, but all
 derive from a single species of ground-dwelling, seedeating finch that
 probably emigrated from the South American mainland.

   Addams, Charles Samuel

 Addams, Charles Samuel, 1912-88, American cartoonist; b. Westfield, N.J.
 His work, best known from The New Yorker magazine, is famed for its wit,
 fantasy, and sense of the macabre.

   Addams, Jane

 Addams, Jane, 1860-1935, American social worker; b. Cedar ville, Ill. In
 1889 she and Ellen Gates Starr founded Hull House, a Chicago settlement
 house that served the neighborhood poor and became a center for social
 reform activities. A leader of the WOMAN SUFFRAGE and pacifist movements,
 Addams shared the 1931 Nobel Peace Prize. She wrote several books on
 social issues and two autobiographical volumes.

   addax

 addax: see ANTELOPE.

   adder

 adder: see VIPER.

   addiction

 addiction: see DRUG ADDICTION AND DRUG ABUSE.

   Addis Ababa

 Addis Ababa, city (1984 est. pop. 1,412,575), capital of Ethiopia. Addis
 Ababa is Ethiopia's largest city, its administrative and communications
 center, and the main trade center for coffee (Ethiopia's chief export),
 tobacco, grains, and hides; much of its commerce is shipped by rail to
 the port of DJIBOUTI. Addis Ababa became (1889) Ethiopia's capital and
 was captured (1936) by the Italians and made the capital of ITALIAN EAST
 AFRICA. It was retaken by the Allies in 1941 and returned to Ethiopian
 rule. A modern city, it has been the site of many international
 conferences and organizations, including the ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN
 UNITY. Notable buildings include Coptic and Roman Catholic cathedrals.

   Addison, Joseph

 Addison, Joseph, 1672-1719, English essayist, poet, and statesman. His
 Remarks on Italy (1705) recorded early travels. The prominence he
 attained with the epic Campaign (1704) on MARLBOROUGH'S victory at
 Blenheim led to political appointments, and he served in Parliament
 (1708-19). Addison contributed to his friend Richard STEELE'S periodical
 the Tatler after 1710. There, and in the SPECTATOR and Guardian, he
 raised the English essay to an unequaled height. In prose marked by
 simplicity, order, and precision, Addison advocated reason and moderation
 in life.

   Addison's disease

 Addison's disease, progressive disease brought about by atrophy of the
 outer layer (cortex) of the adrenal gland; also called chronic
 adrenocortical insufficiency. The deterioration of this tissue causes a
 decrease in the secretion of vital steroid hormones, producing such
 symptoms as ANEMIA, weakness, abnormal skin pigmentation, and weight
 loss. The cause of the disease is unknown. Once thought inevitably fatal,
 the disease is treated with adrenocortical hormones that enable its
 victims to lead a nearly normal life.

   Adelaide

 Adelaide, city (1986 est. pop. 993,100), capital and chief port of South
 Australia, at the mouth of the Torrens R., on Gulf St. Vincent. It has
 automotive, textile, and other industries, and exports grains, wool,
 dairy products, and fruit. Founded in 1836, it was named for William IV's
 consort. The biennial Adelaide Festival of the Arts, begun in 1960, is
 held in the Adelaide Festival Centre (opened 1977). It is also known for
 its parks.

   Aden

 Aden, city (1984 est. pop. 318,000), capital and chief port of Southern
 Yemen (People's Democratic Republic of Yemen), on the Gulf of Aden near
 the southern entrance to the Red Sea. The city is built on two
 peninsulas, each with a high volcanic headland. Most of the population
 lives on Aden peninsula; Little Aden peninsula has an oil refinery and
 other industries. Aden has been the chief trade center of S ARABIA since
 ancient times. It declined with the discovery (15th cent.) of an
 all-water route around Africa to India, but revived when the SUEZ CANAL
 opened in 1869. The region was held by Muslim Arabs (7th-16th cent.) and
 by the Ottoman Turks (from 1538). The British captured Aden in 1839 and
 made it a crown colony in 1935. In 1967 Southern Yemen became
 independent; Aden has been its capital since 1970.

   Aden, Gulf of

 Aden, Gulf of, western arm of the Arabian Sea, 550 mi (885 km) long,
 between E Africa and SW Asia. It is connected with the RED SEA by the BAB
 EL MANDEB and is an important link in the MEDITERRANEAN SEA-SUEZ
 CANAL-INDIAN OCEAN sea lane.

   Adenauer, Konrad

 Adenauer, Konrad, 1876-1967, West German chancellor (1949-63). He was a
 member of the Catholic Center party until 1933, when he was imprisoned by
 the NAZIS. After World War II he was a founder and president of the
 Christian Democratic Union. As chancellor, he presided over the
 spectacular rebirth of West GERMANY'S economy, and guided that nation's
 reentry into the European community and recovery in 1955 of its full
 sovereignty.

   adenoids

 adenoids: see TONSILS.

   adenosine triphosphate

 adenosine triphosphate (ATP), compound composed of adenine (a PURINE),
 ribose, and three phosphate units; one of the most important
 low-molecular-weight molecules in living matter. It is a rich source of
 the chemical energy necessary for the success of a vast number of
 chemical reactions in the cell. ATP also plays a role in kidney function,
 transmission of nerve impulses, muscle contraction, active transport of
 materials through cell membranes, and synthesis of NUCLEIC ACIDS and
 other large molecules.

   adhesion and cohesion

 adhesion and cohesion, attractive forces between material bodies.
 Adhesive forces act between different substances, whereas cohesive forces
 act within a single substance, holding its atoms, ions, or molecules
 together. Without these forces, solids and liquids would act as gases.
 SURFACE TENSION in liquids results from cohesion, and CAPILLARITY results
 from a combination of adhesion and cohesion. FRICTION between two solid
 bodies depends in part on adhesion.

   Adirondack Mountains

 Adirondack Mountains, forested mountain wilderness area, NE New York,
 with many scenic gorges, waterfalls, and lakes. The Adirondacks rise to a
 high point of 5,344 ft (1,629 m) at Mt. Marcy and are geologically a
 southern extension of the CANADIAN SHIELD. Lake Placid and Lake George
 are important area resorts.

   adjective

 adjective: see PART OF SPEECH.

   Adler, Alfred

 Adler, Alfred, 1870-1937, Austrian psychiatrist, early associate of
 Sigmund FREUD and founder of the school of individual psychology.
 Rejecting Freud's emphasis on sex, Adler maintained that personality
 difficulties are rooted in a feeling of inferiority (see COMPLEX)
 deriving from restrictions on the individual's need for self-assertion.
 His best-known work is The Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology
 (1923).

   Adler, Cyrus

 Adler, Cyrus, 1863-1940, American Jewish educator; b. Van Buren, Ark.
 Founder of the American Jewish Historical Society, American Jewish
 Committee, and Jewish Welfare Board, he was president of Dropsie College
 (1908-40) and the Jewish Theological Seminary (1924-40). He was an editor
 of the Jewish Encyclopedia, and wrote articles and books.

   Adler, Felix

 Adler, Felix, 1851-1933, American educator and leader in social welfare;
 b. Germany. Founder of the ETHICAL CULTURE MOVEMENT (1876) and Society,
 he also organized the Workingmen's Lyceum, the Workingmen's School, and
 the Manhattan Trade School for Girls. He was for many years chairman of
 the National Child Labor Committee, and wrote Creed and Deed (1877) and
 An Ethical Philosophy of Life (1918), among other books.

   Adler, Larry

 Adler, Larry, 1914-, American harmonica player; b. Baltimore. He played
 with the world's major symphony orchestras and is generally credited with
 elevating the harmonica to concert status in the classical music world.

   adolescence

 adolescence, time of life from onset of puberty to full adulthood.
 Falling approximately between the ages of 12 and 21, adolescence is
 characterized by physical changes leading to sexual maturity, problems of
 sex-role identification and achievement, and movement toward personal
 independence. Psychologists regard adolescence as a period of social
 pressure specifically related to the society, not as a unique biological
 period.

   Adonis

 Adonis, in Greek mythology, beautiful youth loved by APHRODITE and
 PERSEPHONE. When he was killed by a boar, both goddesses claimed him.
 ZEUS decreed that he spend half the year above the ground with Aphrodite,
 the other half in the underworld with Persephone. His death and
 resurrection, symbolic of the seasonal cycle, were celebrated at the
 festival Adonia.

   adoption

 adoption, act creating the legal relation of parent and child. It was
 known in antiquity but was not part of the English COMMON LAW. In the
 U.S. it is governed by statute. Adoption's historical roots include the
 need to continue a family line where there is no natural heir. Today the
 usual focus is the child's welfare. A hearing before a judge is generally
 required, as is consent of the natural parent or guardian and that of the
 child if he or she is above a certain age. The natural parents generally
 lose their rights and duties toward the child; the adoptive parents
 assume them. Many states now permit adoption by unmarried adults.
 Adoption by relatives is most common; in adoption by unrelated adults,
 the courts attempt to ease adjustment to the adoptive family by
 maintaining secrecy regarding the child's origin. In recent years,
 however, a growing number of adopted children have attempted to identify
 their natural parents. FOSTER CARE is an arrangement in which a family or
 institution provides a home for a child whose parents cannot care for him
 (or her); unlike adoption, foster care is temporary.

   Adorno, Theodor Wiesengrund

 Adorno, Theodor Wiesengrund, 1903-69, German philosopher, sociologist,
 and music critic. From 1928, he was closely associated with the Frankfurt
 Institute for Social Research. When the Nazis came to power, he emigrated
 to Britain (1934) and then the U.S. (1938), where with Max Horkheimer he
 wrote the Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947) and collaborated on The
 Authoritarian Personality (1950), a study of fascism. He returned to
 Frankfurt (1949) and was director (1958-69) of the institute.

   adrenal glands

 adrenal glands, pair of small endocrine glands (see ENDOCRINE SYSTEM)
 situated atop the kidneys. The outer yellowish layer (cortex) secretes
 about 30 steroid hormones, most importantly aldosterone, which regulates
 water and salt balance in the body, and cortisol, which controls
 carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism. The inner reddish portion
 (medulla) of the adrenals secretes the emergency-response hormones
 EPINEPHRINE (adrenaline) and norepinephrine.

   adrenaline

 adrenaline: see EPINEPHRINE.

   Adrian I

 Adrian I, d. 795, pope (772-95). A Roman, he successfully urged
 CHARLEMAGNE to defeat the LOMBARDS and acquired from him additional lands
 for the PAPAL STATES. He supported the Byzantine empress Irene in her
 struggle against ICONOCLASM.

   Adrian IV

 Adrian IV, d. 1159, pope (1154-59). The only Englishman to become pope,
 he was originally named Nicholas Breakspear. In 1155 he defeated the
 opposition of Arnold of Brescia and crowned Holy Roman Emperor FREDERICK
 I. He later quarreled with Frederick and William I of Sicily. His
 donation of Ireland as a fief to Henry II of England is disputed.

   Adrian

 Adrian, Roman emperor: see HADRIAN.

   Adrian, Gilbert

 Adrian, Gilbert: see FASHION.

   Adriatic Sea

 Adriatic Sea, arm of the MEDITERRANEAN SEA, c.500 mi (800 km) long,
 between Italy (W) and Yugoslavia and Albania (E). It is 58-140 mi (93-225
 km) wide, with a maximum depth of c.4,100 ft (1,250 m). VENICE is the
 chief port.

   adsorption

 adsorption, the adhesion of molecules to the surfaces of solids, as
 opposed to ABSORPTION, in which the molecules actually enter the
 absorbing medium. Charcoal, for example, which has a great surface area
 because of its porous nature, can adsorb large volumes of gases,
 including most of the poisonous ones, and thus is used in gas masks and
 filters.

   adult education

 adult education or continuing education,organized instruction provided to
 men and women beyond the age of general public education. The range of
 emphasis in adult education has come to include everything from the
 job-oriented (see VOCATIONAL EDUCATION) to the purely academic. Modern
 adult education probably began with European political groups and
 vocational classes. In the U.S., some forms date from colonial times;
 Benjamin FRANKLIN was among those who established debating and discussion
 groups. In the 19th cent. the LYCEUM and the CHAUTAUQUA MOVEMENT
 contributed to the growth of adult education. Public lectures were
 popular, and the establishment of LAND-GRANT COLLEGES stimulated the
 demand for education in the developing heartland. By the end of the
 century other forms, among them labor colleges, correspondence schools,
 and factory and other vocational classes, had come into being. The GREAT
 DEPRESSION brought an increased demand for practical training, and after
 World War II the G.I. Bill of Rights enabled thousands to attend schools
 and colleges. Adult education today faces an increasing demand created by
 expanding leisure time, a highly competitive labor market, and greater
 population growth, especially among young adults and those past
 traditional retirement age. The field now embraces such diverse areas as
 high-school equivalency; physical and emotional development; practical
 arts; applied science; recreation; and academic, business, and
 professional subjects; the courses are provided in schools, colleges,
 libraries, work places, and other facilities.

   Advent

 Advent, Christian penitential season, lasting in the West from the Sunday
 nearest Nov. 30 until Christmas. It is the first season of the church
 calendar.

   Advent Christian Church

 Advent Christian Church: see ADVENTISTS.

   Adventists

 Adventists, members of a group of religious denominations whose
 distinctive doctrine centers in their belief concerning the imminent
 second coming of Christ. Adventism is specifically applied to the
 teachings of William Miller. The largest group, the Seventh-Day
 Adventists, were formally organized in 1863 and are fundamentally
 evangelical. Other Adventist groups are the Church of God, the Advent
 Christian Church, and the Primitive Advent Christian Church.

   adverb

 adverb: see PART OF SPEECH.

   advertising

 advertising, in general, any openly sponsored offering of goods,
 services, or ideas through any medium of public communication. The main
 advertising media include newspapers, magazines, television, radio, and
 direct mail. The advertising agency, working on a commission basis, has
 been largely responsible for the development of modern advertising.
 Defenders of advertising say that it is meant to sell products, not
 create values, and that it furthers product improvement through
 competition, while critics contend that it creates false values and
 impels people to buy things they neither need nor want. The U.S. is the
 world leader in advertising expenditures, and the term "Madison Avenue"
 (the street in N.Y.C. where many advertising agencies have had
 headquarters) has come to symbolize the industry.

   A.E.

 A.E.: see RUSSELL, GEORGE WILLIAM.

   Aegean civilization

 Aegean civilization, cultures of pre-Hellenic GREECE. MINOAN CIVILIZATION
 flourished on Crete and MYCENAEAN CIVILIZATION on the Greek mainland.
 Sites of other cultures have been found at TROY and in the Cyclades.

   Aegean Sea

 Aegean Sea, arm of the MEDITERRANEAN SEA, off SE Europe, between Greece
 and Turkey, center of the classical Greek world. The island-studded sea
 is c.400 mi (640 km) long, 200 mi (320 km) wide, and more than 6,600 ft
 (2,010 m) deep off N CRETE at its southern limit. Major islands include
 EVVOIA, the Sporades, the CYCLADES, SAMOS, KHIOS, LESBOS, Thasos, and th
 DODECANESE. Sardines and sponges are taken from the sea, and some natural
 gas has been found off NE Greece.

   Aegisthus

 Aegisthus, in Greek mythology, son of Thyestes. Aegisthus revenged his
 brothers' murder by killing his uncle ATREUS. He was later CLYTEMNESTRA'S
 lover, helped her to slay AGAMEMNON, and was himself killed by ORESTES.

   Aeken, Jerom van

 Aeken, Jerom van: see BOSCH, HIERONYMUS.

   Aemilian Way

 Aemilian Way: see ROMAN ROADS.

   Aeneas

 Aeneas, in classical legend, a Trojan; son of Anchises and VENUS. After
 Troy's fall he escaped, tarried with DIDO at CARTHAGE, then went to
 Italy, where his descendants founded Rome. His deeds are celebrated in
 VERGIL'S Aeneid.

   Aeolians

 Aeolians: see GREECE.

   aerial

 aerial: see ANTENNA.

   aerobics

 aerobics [from Gr. meaning=with oxygen], endurance exercises in which the
 volume of breathing is increased and the heart is forced to beat faster
 than usual for a prolonged period of time, thereby pumping an increased
 amount of oxygen-rich blood to the muscles being used. Such aerobic
 activities as running, swimming, and cycling can strengthen the
 cardiovascular system, improving the body's use of oxygen and allowing
 the heart to work less strenuously.

   aerodynamics

 aerodynamics, study of gases in motion. Because the principal application
 of aerodynamics is the design of AIRPLANES, air is the principal gas with
 which this science is concerned. Bernoulli's principle, which states that
 the pressure of a moving gas decreases as its velocity increases, has
 been used to explain the lift produced by a wing having a curved upper
 surface and a flat lower surface (see AIRFOIL). Because the flow is
 faster across the curved surface than across the plane one, a greater
 pressure is exerted in the upward direction. Aerodynamics is also
 concerned with the drag caused by air friction, which is reduced by
 making the surface area of the craft as small as possible. At speeds
 close to the speed of sound, or Mach 1 (see MACH NUMBER), there is also a
 large, sudden increase of drag, which has been called the sonic, or
 sound, barrier. Aerodynamics is also used in designing automobile bodies
 and trains for minimum drag and in computing wind stresses on bridges,
 buildings, and the like. The WIND TUNNEL is one of the basic experimental
 tools of the aerodynamicist. See SHOCK WAVE; SONIC BOOM.

   aeronautics

 aeronautics: see AERODYNAMICS; AIRPLANE; AVIATION.

   aerosol

 aerosol, a COLLOID in which small solid or liquid particles are suspended
 in a gas. Natural aerosols such as fog or smoke occur throughout the
 ATMOSPHERE, which is itself an aerosol. The term is also used to describe
 a container of paint, insecticide, or other substance held under pressure
 by a propellant, which releases the substance in the form of a fine spray
 or foam. The fluorocarbon FREON was until recently the most common
 aerosol propellant, but its use has diminished because it is thought to
 contribute to the destruction of the OZONE layer of the stratosphere.

   Aeschines

 Aeschines, c.390-314? BC, Athenian orator. He became politically powerful
 through his oratorical gifts. Opposing resistance to PHILIP II of
 Macedon, he was the bitter rival of DEMOSTHENES.

   Aeschylus

 Aeschylus, 525-456 BC, Athenian tragic poet. First of the three great
 Greek tragedians, he preceded SOPHOCLES and EURIPIDES. He wrote perhaps
 90 plays, of which seven survive intact. Often credited with inventing
 TRAGEDY, he added an actor to what had been a dialogue, thus increasing
 its possibilities. His choral lyrics rank with those of PINDAR. Among his
 best-known plays are The Seven against Thebes and Prometheus Bound. His
 only extant trilogy, the Oresteia, a history of the house of ATREUS, is
 considered by many the greatest Attic tragedy.

   Aesop

 Aesop, semilegendary ancient Greek fabulist, supposedly a slave. The
 FABLES called Aesop's were preserved by various writers and include "The
 Fox and the Grapes" and "The Tortoise and the Hare."

   aesthetics

 aesthetics, branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art and the
 criteria of artistic judgment. The conception of art as imitation of
 nature was formulated by PLATO and developed by ARISTOTLE, both of whom
 held that beauty inheres in the object itself and may be judged
 objectively. KANT held that the subject may have universal validity,
 while other thinkers, e.g., HUME, identified beauty with that which
 pleases the observer. Modern philosophers especially concerned with
 aesthetic questions have included CROCE, CASSIRER, John DEWEY, and
 SANTAYANA.

   AEthelbert

 AEthelbert, d. 616, king of Kent (560?-616). Although he was defeated
 (568) by the West Saxons, he later became the strongest ruler in S
 England. In 597 he was converted to Christianity by St. AUGUSTINE OF
 CANTERBURY and became the first Christian king of Anglo-Saxon England.

   AEthelbert

 AEthelbert, d. 865, king of WESSEX (860-65), son of AETHELWULF. After his
 father's death in 858, he ruled KENT, Surrey, SUSSEX, and ESSEX,
 reuniting them with Wessex when in 860 he succeeded his brother
 AEthelbald in that kingdom.

   AEthelflad

 AEthelflad or Ethelfleda , d. 918, daughter of ALFRED and wife of
 AEthelred, ealdorman of MERCIA. After her husband's death in 911, she
 ruled the semi-independent Mercia alone and was known as the Lady of the
 Mercians.

   AEthelred

 AEthelred, 965-1016, king of England (978-1016), called AEthelred the
 Unready [Old Eng., without counsel]. He was the son of EDGAR, and the
 half brother and successor of Edward the Martyr. A weak king, he reigned
 at the height of Danish power. Although he began paying tribute through
 the DANEGELD to the Danes in 991, they returned in 997 to plunder his
 realm, staying until 1000. In 1002 AEthelred married Emma, sister of the
 duke of Normandy, possibly hoping to gain an ally. Although by 1009 a
 navy existed, the treason of its commanders rendered it useless. In 1013
 the Danish king Sweyn returned to conquer; he was well received in the
 DANELAW and London capitulated. AEthelred fled to Normandy but was
 restored in 1014 on Sweyn's death. In 1016 AEthelred's son EDMUND
 IRONSIDE succeeded him, made a treaty with CANUTE, son of Sweyn, and
 died. Canute succeeded him and married AEthelred's widow.

   AEthelstan

 AEthelstan: see ATHELSTAN.

   AEthelwulf

 AEthelwulf, d. 858, king of WESSEX (839-56), son of EGBERT and father of
 AETHELBERT and ALFRED. With his son AEthelbald, he won a notable victory
 over the Danes at Aclea (851). He married Judith of France in 856. A man
 of great piety, he learned while on a pilgrimage in Rome that AEthelbald
 would resist his return. He left his son as king in Wessex and ruled in
 Kent and its dependencies.

   aether

 aether: see ETHER, in physics.

   Aetna

 Aetna: see ETNA.

   Aetolia

 Aetolia, region of ancient GREECE, N of the gulfs of Corinth and Calydon,
 E of the Achelous R. It was the center of the Aetolian League, formed in
 the 4th cent. BC to oppose the Achaean League (see under ACHAEA) and the
 Macedonians. With Rome it defeated PHILIP V of Macedon (197 BC), but then
 it allied itself against Rome with ANTIOCHUS III of Syria. His defeat
 (189 BC) marked the end of the league's power.

   affirmative action

 affirmative action, U.S. program to overcome the effects of past
 discrimination by giving some form of preferential treatment to ethnic
 minorities and women. The term is usually applied to those plans that set
 forth goals and time tables, required since the early 1970s of government
 contractors and universities receiving public funds. The Equal Employment
 Opportunities Act (1972) set up a commission to enforce such plans. The
 establishment of racial quotas in the name of affirmative action brought
 charges of so-called reverse discrimination in the late 1970s. The U.S.
 Supreme Court accepted such an argument in 1978 in the UNIVERSITY OF
 CALIFORNIA REGENTS V. BAKKE, but in 1979 the Court approved the use of
 quotas in a case involving voluntary affirmative-action programs in
 unions and private businesses. In the 1980s, under the Reagan
 administration, the federal government's role in affirmative action was
 considerably diluted.

   affluent society

 affluent society, a term coined by John Kenneth GALBRAITH in The Affluent
 Society (1958) to describe the U.S. economy after World War II. Such a
 society is rich in private resources but poor in public services because
 of a misplaced priority on increasing production in the private sector.
 This derives from the conventional economic theory that resources are
 always scarce. The term has lost its original ironic meaning and is now
 used simply to indicate widespread prosperity.

   Afghan hound

 Afghan hound, tall, swift HOUND; shoulder height, 24-28 in. (61-71.1 cm);
 weight, 50-60 lb (22.7-27.2 kg). Its long, silky coat may be any color.
 The breed originated in Egypt c.5,000 years ago, was perfected in
 Afghanistan, and was brought to England after World War I.

   Afghanistan

 Afghanistan, officially the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, republic
 (1982 est. pop. 15,163,000), 249,999 sq mi (647,497 sq km), S central
 Asia, bordered by Iran (W), Pakistan (E and S), the USSR (N), and China
 (NE). Principal cities include KABUL (the capital), KANDAHAR, and HERAT.
 Most of Afghanistan is mountainous, and the towering ranges of the HINDU
 KUSH reach a height of more than 24,000 ft (7,315 m); fertile valleys and
 plains, home of most of the population, nestle in the mountains. The land
 is mainly dry, and the rivers (unnavigable for the most part) are used
 for irrigation. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy, although less
 than 10% of the land is cultivated; corn, barley, rice, and fruit are
 grown, and sheep are raised for skins, wool, and meat. Industry and
 development of minerals are still in the beginning stages. Imports
 (mostly manufactured goods) greatly exceed exports (wool, hides, fruit).
 The population is diverse, including Afghans, Pathans, Hazararas,
 Tadzhiks, Uzbeks, and nomadic Turkmen; almost all are Muslims. Afghan and
 Iranian are the principal languages.

 History Afghanistan, astride the land route to India (through the famed
 KHYBER PASS), has fallen to many conquerors through the ages, e.g.,
 DARIUS I (c.500 BC); ALEXANDER THE GREAT (329-327 BC); and numerous Arab
 invaders (from the 7th cent. AD), who established Islam as the dominant
 culture. Mahmud of Ghazni, who conquered (11th cent.) an empire
 stretching from Iran to India, was the greatest of Afghanistan's rulers.
 The country was later conquered by JENGHIZ KHAN (c.1220) and TAMERLANE
 (14th cent.). Afghanistan became a united state (1747) under Ahmad Shah,
 who founded the Durani dynasty. During the 19th cent. Britain, to protect
 its Indian empire from Russia, tried to establish authority in
 neighboring Afghanistan; the result was two British-Afghan Wars (1838-42,
 1878-80). An agreement (1907) gave Britain control over Afghanistan's
 foreign affairs, but the emir Amanullah engaged Britain in a third Afghan
 War (1919), which gave Afghanistan full independence. Amanullah embarked
 on a modernization program, and in 1926 proclaimed a monarchy to replace
 the emirate. The last king, Muhammad Zahir Shah, was overthrown in 1973
 in a military coup led by Lt. Gen. Muhammad Daoud Khan, who proclaimed a
 republic. Daoud was killed in a coup in 1978 and a pro-Soviet regime
 installed. In 1979 a Soviet-backed coup, supported by an invasion of
 Soviet troops, killed then-president Hafizulla Amin and replaced him with
 Babrak Karmal, leader of a rival faction. Over 2 million Afghans fled to
 Iran and Pakistan, but strong resistance from rebel forces within the
 country continued. Despite international pressure, Soviet troops remained
 in Afghanistan until early 1989.

   AFL-CIO

 AFL-CIO: see AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR AND CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL
 ORGANIZATIONS.

   Africa

 Africa, second largest continent, c.11,677,240 sq mi (30,244,050 sq km)
 including Madagascar and smaller offshore islands. It is connected to
 Asia by the narrow Isthmus of Suez. Mt. Kibo (19,340 ft/5,895 m), a peak
 of KILIMANJARO, in Tanzania, is the highest point; the lowest point, 436
 ft (133 m) below sea level, is the Qattarah Depression, in Egypt. E
 Africa's lake-filled GREAT RIFT VALLEY is the continent's most
 spectacular feature. Mountain ranges include the ATLAS MTS. (N), the
 Ethiopian Highlands and Ruwenzori Mts. (E), and the Drakensberg Mts. (S).
 Chief rivers are the NILE, CONGO (Zaire), NIGER, and ZAMBEZI. Climatic
 conditions range from hot and rainy all year near the equator, through
 tropical savanna with alternating wet and dry seasons immediately north
 and south of the equatorial region, to hot and dry in the great SAHARA
 desert, in the north, and the smaller KALAHARI desert, in the south. At
 its north and south extremities the continent has a Mediterranean-type
 climate. The countries of Africa are Algeria, Angola, Benin, Botswana,
 Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Cape Verde, the Central African
 Republic, Chad, The Comoros, the Congo Republic, Djibouti, Egypt,
 Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau,
 Ivory Coast, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali,
 Mauritania, Mauritius, Morocco, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Sao
 Tome and Principe, Senegal, the Seychelles, Sierra Leone, the Somali
 Republic, the Republic of South Africa, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Togo,
 Tunisia, Uganda, Zaire, Zambia, and Zimbabwe; other political units are
 Namibia and Western Sahara (see separate articles). African peoples, who
 make up about 10% of the world's population, are divided into more than
 50 nations and are further fragmented into numerous ethnic and linguistic
 groups (see AFRICAN LANGUAGES). See map of Africa in separate section.

   African art

 African art, traditional art created by peoples S of the Sahara. The
 predominant art forms are MASKS and figures, which were generally used in
 religious ceremonies. The decorative arts, especially in TEXTILES and in
 the ornamentation of everyday tools, were a vital art in nearly all
 African cultures. Established forms evolved long before the arrival (15th
 cent.) of the Portuguese in Africa, but most works older than 150 years
 have perished. Their creators valued them for ritual use rather than
 aesthetic accomplishment. Wood-often embellished with clay, shells,
 beads, ivory, metal, feathers, and shredded raffia-was the dominant
 material. In the Sudan and on the Guinea coast the wood-carving style was
 highly abstract. Distortion often emphasized features of cultic
 significance. The Bambara of W Mali are famous for their striking wooden
 headdresses in the form of antelope heads. In NW Guinea the Baga made
 snake carvings, drums supported by small standing figures, and
 spectacular masks. The southern groups of Senufu of the Ivory Coast made
 masks representing human features with geometric projections and legs
 jutting out of each side of the face. During the 18th and 19th cent. the
 ASHANTI kingdom of Ghana used a system of brass weights to weigh gold
 dust; these weights were small figures cast in CIRE PERDUE. From N
 Nigeria, the remarkable Nok terra-cotta heads are the earliest African
 sculpture yet found (c.500-200 BC). The art of the Yoruba of S Nigeria is
 often brilliantly polychromed. On the banks of the Middle Cross R. are
 about 300 monolithic carvings, supposedly Ekoi ancestor figures from
 between 1600 and 1900. The small tribes of the Cameroon did woodcarvings
 and sculptures that include large house posts and ritual objects. Among
 the Fang tribes of Gabon, decorative motifs on stringed musical
 instruments emphasized the human figure. The Bapende of the W Congo made
 ivory pendants portraying human faces, while the Baluba of the SE Congo
 produced bowls and stools supported by slender figures. The dynamic and
 expressive free-standing figures of the Badjokwe of S Congo and Angola
 are particularly outstanding. African art came to European notice c.1905,
 and such artists as PICASSO and MODIGLIANI were influenced by it. The
 Museum of Primitive Art (N.Y.C.) and the Field Museum of Natural History
 (Chicago) have fine collections of African art.

   African languages

 African languages, geographic rather than linguistic classification of
 languages spoken on the African continent. These languages do not belong
 to a single family but are divided among several distinct linguistic
 stocks having no common origin. The principal linguistic families of
 Africa are now generally said to be Hamito-Semitic; Niger-Kordofanian
 (including Niger-Congo); Nilo-Saharan; and Khoisan, or Click. Two other
 stocks, Indo-European and Malayo-Polynesian, are also represented.

╓┌─────────────────────────────────────┌─────────────────────────────────────╖
 MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk
 indicates a dead language)
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
 Hamito-Semitic or Afroasiatic
 Languages (for Hamito-Semitic
 languages that were or are spoken in
 W Asia, see the Hamito-Semitic
 classification in the table "Major
 Languages of Europe, Asia and Some
 Islands of the Pacific and Indian
 Oceans" accompanying the LANGUAGE
 article)

 SEMITIC (spoken in North Africa and
 Ethiopia)

 Arabic                                Egyptian Arabic, Western Arabic

 Ethiopic                              Amharic (or Abyssinian), Geez
 MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk
 indicates a dead language)
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
Ethiopic                              Amharic (or Abyssinian), Geez
                                       (Classical Ethiopic),* Tigre,
                                       Tigrinya

 HAMITIC

 Egyptian (was spoken in Egypt)        Ancient Egyptian,* Coptic*

 Berber (spoken throughout North       Kabyle, Modern Berber, Rif, Siwi,
 Africa except Egypt)                  Tamachek, Tuareg, Zanaga

 Cushitic (spoken in Ethiopia and      Agau, Beja, Burji, Galla, Geleba,
 adjoining regions)                    Gimira, Janjaro, Kaffa, Konso, Maji,
                                       Saho-Afar, Sidamo, Somali

 CHAD (spoken near Lake Chad, central  Angas, Bolewa, Gwandara, Hausa, Hiji,
 Africa, and in W Africa)              Kuseri, Mandara, Ngala, Ron, Shirawa,
                                       Sokoro
 MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk
 indicates a dead language)
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
                                      Sokoro

 Indo-European Languages (for a full
 presentation of the Indo-European
 language family, see table
 accompanying the LANGUAGE article)

 GERMANIC

 West Germanic

 Low German                            Afrikaans (spoken in the Republic of
                                       South Africa), English (spoken in
                                       the Republic of South Africa,
                                       Zimbabwe, and a number of other
                                       African countries)

 ITALIC
 MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk
 indicates a dead language)
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
ITALIC

 Romance (spoken in a number of        French, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish
 African countries)

 Khoisan or Click Languages (spoken
 in S and E Africa)

                                       Hatsa (or Hadzapi)   Sandawe

 SOUTH AFRICAN KHOISAN                 Bushman, Hottentot

 Malayo-Polynesian Languages (spoken
 in Madagascar; for a full
 presentation of the
 Malayo-Polynesian language family,
 see table accompanying the LANGUAGE
 article)
 MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk
 indicates a dead language)
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
article)

 WESTERN                               Malagasy

 Niger-Kordofanian Languages

 NIGER-CONGO (spoken in S and central
 Africa and in W Africa below the
 Sahara)

 West Atlantic                         Dyola, Fulani, Gola, Kissi, Temne,
                                       Wolof

 Mande                                 Dyula, Malinke, Mende

 Gur (or Voltaic)                      Dagomba, Mamprusi, Mossi

 Kwa                                   Akan, Ashanti, Bini, Ewe, Ibo, Ijo,
 MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk
 indicates a dead language)
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
Kwa                                   Akan, Ashanti, Bini, Ewe, Ibo, Ijo,
                                       Nupe, Yoruba

 Benue-Congo

 Bantu                                 Bemba, Ganda, Kikuyu, Kongo, Lingala,
                                       Luba, Makua, Mbundu, Ruanda, Rundi,
                                       Shona, Sotho, Swahili, Thonga, Xhosa,
                                       Zulu

 Non-Bantu                             Efik, Jukun, Tiv

 Adamawa-Eastern                       Banda, Sango, Zande

 KORDOFANIAN (spoken in Sudan)

 Katla                                 Katla

 MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk
 indicates a dead language)
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────

 Koalib                                Koalib

 Talodi                                Talodi

 Tegali                                Tegali

 Tumtum                                Tumtum

 Nilo-Saharan Languages

 SONGHAI (spoken in Mali)              Songhai

 SAHARAN (spoken near Lake Chad and    Daza, Kanuri, Teda, Zaghawa
 in the central Sahara)

 MABAN (spoken east of Lake Chad)      Maba

 MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk
 indicates a dead language)
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────

 FURIAN (spoken in Sudan)              Fur

 KOMAN (spoken in Ethiopia and Sudan)  Ganza, Gule, Gumuz, Koma, Mao, Uduk

 CHARI-NILE (spoken in Sudan, Zaire,
 Uganda, Cameroon, Chad, Central
 African Republic, mainland Tanzania,
 and Ethiopia)

 Eastern Sudanic

 Nubian                                Birked, Midobi

 Nilotic                               Dinka, Masai, Nandi, Nuer, Shilluk,
                                       Suk, Turkana

 Central Sudanic                       Bongo-Bagirmi, Efe, Mangbetu
 MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk
 indicates a dead language)
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
Central Sudanic                       Bongo-Bagirmi, Efe, Mangbetu

                                       Berta, Kunama






   African Methodist Episcopal Church

 African Methodist Episcopal Church, a leading black American denomination
 of METHODISM, founded (1816) by Richard Allen. In 1988 the church
 reported a membership of 2,210,000.

   African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church

 African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, one of the largest African
 Methodist bodies, founded (1796) by black American Methodists. The church
 reported a U.S. membership of 1,195,173 in 1988.

   African music

 African music. Sub-Saharan African music, ranging from highly functional
 tribal music to stylized entertainment, is distinguished by striking
 polyrhythmic counterpoint, realized by handclaps, xylophones, and drums,
 and by pitch polyphony, performed by voice and on wind and string
 instruments. Diatonic scales are generally used. To what extent this
 music influenced JAZZ and the black American SPIRITUAL is debated.

   African National Congress

 African National Congress, the oldest non-White political organization in
 South Africa. It was founded in 1912 and was dedicated to reform through
 political action. After the violence at Sharpeville in 1960, the party
 was banned. In 1964, its leader, Nelson MANDELA, was sentenced to life in
 prison and the active leadership has lived in exile. During the late
 1970s, with the South African government's continued exclusion of black
 Africans from political participation, and with the renewal of youth-led
 militant protest, the party, though outlawed, became the popularly
 acknowledged vehicle of mass resistance. See also APARTHEID.

   African Negro literature

 African Negro literature. Although ancient African Muslim books in
 Swahili and Arabic exist, African literature before the 19th cent. is
 almost entirely an oral tradition. The continent's seemingly
 inexhaustible supply of myths, tales, legends, riddles, and proverbs
 continues to enrich African writing, which appears in native, especially
 Bantu, languages, and in French, English, and Portuguese. The African
 writer best known before the 1930s was the South African Thomas Mofolo,
 whose novels (in Sesotho) included Chaka (tr. 1931). French-African
 writers in Paris in the 1930s, led by the poet-statesman Leopold Sedar
 SENGHOR, espoused negritude, a rejection of French assimilationist
 policy. After World War II, writers focused on decaying colonialism and
 on the "new" Africa. National literatures began to appear, notably in
 Nigeria with the work of Chinua ACHEBE, Wole SOYINKA, Amos TUTUOLA, and
 others, and in Senegal and Cameroon. Major African writers in English
 include Ezekiel Mphahlele and Oswald Mtshali (South Africa), Bessie Head
 (Botswana), Ayi Kwei Armah (Ghana), and Ngugiwa Thiong'o and Okot p'Bitek
 (Kenya). Among leading writers in French are Mongo Beti (Cameroon);
 Camara Laye (Guinea); Birago Diop, Sembene Ousmane, and Mariama Ba
 (Senegal); David Diop (born in France), and Tchicaya U Tamsi (Congo). One
 of the best-known writers in Portuguese was Agostinho Neto (1922-79),
 president of Angola (1975-79).

   African violet

 African violet, common name for plants (mostly hybrids of Saintpaulia
 ionantha) of the GESNERIA family, grown chiefly as houseplants for their
 colorful flowers and fuzzy foliage.

   Afrikaans

 Afrikaans, one of the official languages of South Africa. It is a
 Germanic language of the Indo-European family. See AFRICAN LANGUAGES.

   Afro-Americans

 Afro-Americans: see BLACK AMERICANS.

   Ag

 Ag, chemical symbol of the element SILVER.

   Aga Khan III

 Aga Khan III, 1877-1957, Muslim leader. As hereditary ruler of the Muslim
 Ismaili sect he was born to great power and wealth. He supported the
 British in India, founded (1906) the All-India Muslim League, and
 represented India in various international bodies.

   Agamemnon

 Agamemnon, in Greek mythology, leader of the Greeks in the TROJAN WAR;
 brother of MENELAUS; son of ATREUS. His children by CLYTEMNESTRA were
 IPHIGENIA, ELECTRA, and ORESTES. To obtain favorable winds for the fleet
 against Troy, he sacrificed Iphigenia to ARTEMIS, incurring
 Clytemnestra's hatred. At Troy he quarreled with ACHILLES; that dispute
 forms a main theme of HOMER'S Iliad. He withdrew from the war and
 returned to Mycenae, where he was murdered by Clytemnestra and her lover,
 AEGISTHUS. To avenge his death, Orestes and Electra killed Aegisthus and
 their mother.

   Aga Muhammad Khan

 Aga Muhammad Khan or Agha Muhammad Khan,1742-97, shah of PERSIA
 (1796-97), founder of the Kajar, or Qajar, dynasty. In 1794 he killed the
 last ruler of the Zand dynasty and climaxed his campaign for the throne
 with a wholesale massacre. Hated by his subjects for his brutality, he
 was assassinated.

   agar

 agar, product consisting of the sugar galactose, obtained from some red
 ALGAE species (see SEAWEED). Dissolved in boiling water and cooled, agar
 becomes gelatinous; it is used as a culture medium (especially for
 BACTERIA), a laxative, and a food thickener.

   Agassiz, Louis

 Agassiz, Louis(Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz) , 1807-73, Swiss-American
 zoologist and geologist. In 1832 he became professor of natural history
 at the Univ. of Neuchatel, which he made a center for scientific study.
 He also examined glacial movements and deposits before coming to the U.S.
 in 1846, where he taught at Harvard (from 1848) and strongly influenced a
 generation of scientists. His writings include Research on Fossil Fish (5
 vol., 1833-44) and Contributions to the Natural History of the United
 States (4 vol., 1857-62).

   agate

 agate, extremely fine-grained variety of CHALCEDONY, banded in two or
 more colors. The banding occurs because agates are formed by the slow
 deposition of silica from solution into cavities of older rocks. Agates
 are found primarily in Brazil, Uruguay, India, Mexico, and the U.S. They
 are valued as semiprecious GEMS and are used in the manufacture of
 grinding equipment.

   agave

 agave: see AMARYLLIS.

   Agee, James

 Agee, James, 1909-55, American writer; b. Knoxville, Tenn. His works
 include Let Us Now Praise Famous Men (1941), a telling commentary on
 Depression-era tenant farmers, and A Death in the Family (1957;
 Pulitzer), a poetic novel. His movie criticism and scripts are collected
 in Agee on Film (2 vol., 1958-60).

   Agency for International Development

 Agency for International Development (AID), federal agency in the Dept.
 of State, created by Congress (1961) to consolidate U.S. nonmilitary
 foreign-aid programs to developing countries. AID offers technical,
 capital, and commodity assistance, giving priority to programs in
 agriculture, health, population planning, and education. Among its
 specific concerns are a long-term development plan for the Sahelian
 region of W Africa and the coordination of international disaster
 assistance. All of AID's programs stress maximum involvement by the
 people of developing nations.

   Agent Orange

 Agent Orange: see HERBICIDE.

   Aggeus

 Aggeus, Vulgate form of HAGGAI.

   agglutination

 agglutination, in linguistics: see INFLECTION.

   aggression

 aggression, a form of behavior characterized by verbal or physical
 attack. It may be either appropriate and self-protective or destructive.
 When aggression in adults is not a response to a clear threat, it is
 often considered a symptom of mental disorder. It may be directed
 outward, against others, as in explosive personality disorders, or
 inward, against oneself, leading to self-damaging acts. Some
 investigators of human behavior, such as Sigmund FREUD and Konrad LORENZ,
 have argued that aggressive behavior is innate, while others have
 proposed that it is learned.

   Agincourt

 Agincourt, village, N France, where in 1415 Henry V of England defeated
 an army of French knights in the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. The victory of
 Henry's longbow men made obsolete the warfare methods of the age of
 chivalry and enabled England to conquer much of France.

   aging

 aging: see GERONTOLOGY.

   Agnew, Spiro Theodore

 Agnew, Spiro Theodore, 1918-, 39th vice president of the U.S.; b.
 Baltimore, Md. Governor of Maryland (1967-69), he was vice president
 (1969-73) in the administration of Pres. Richard M. NIXON. A critic of
 liberals and VIETNAM WAR protestors, he resigned (Oct. 10, 1973) after
 evidence revealed political corruption during his years in Maryland
 politics. He pleaded no contest to the charge of evading income tax, was
 sentenced to probation, and fined. In 1981 a state court ordered Agnew to
 repay Maryland over $248,000, for bribes he took while in state office.

   Agnon, S(hmuel) Y(osef)

 Agnon, S(hmuel) Y(osef), 1888-1970, Israeli writer; b. Poland as Samuel
 Josef Czaczkes. Regarded as the greatest modern writer of fiction in
 Hebrew, he shared the 1966 Nobel Prize in literature. His novels and
 stories explore Jewish life; they include the novels The Bridal Canopy
 (1919) and The Day Before Yesterday (1945).

   agnosticism

 agnosticism, form of skepticism that holds that the existence of God
 cannot be logically proved or disproved. Agnosticism is not to be
 confused with ATHEISM, which denies the existence of God. KANT and
 Herbert SPENCER considered themselves agnostics.

   Agra

 Agra, former province, N central India. The presidency, or province, of
 Agra was created in 1833 by the British. In 1902 it became part of the
 United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. The city of Agra (1981 pop. 723,676),
 Uttar Pradesh state, is on the Jumna R. A district administrative
 headquarters, it produces shoes, glassware, carpets, and other goods.
 AKBAR founded Agra, and it was a MOGUL capital until 1658. The British
 annexed it in 1836. It is noted for its architecture, especially the TAJ
 MAHAL.

   agrarian laws

 agrarian laws, in ancient Rome, the laws regulating the disposition of
 public lands. Wealthy patricians tended to gain and hold large areas of
 public land, nominally as state tenants. The poorer classes' desire to
 gain public land gave rise to laws, beginning in the 5th cent. BC, that
 included the Licinian Rogations (367 BC; see LICINIUS, fl. 375 BC), and
 the Sempronian Law (133 BC; revived 123 BC). They were often violated or
 ignored. The reform movement ended with DOMITIAN'S edict (AD c.82)
 assigning title to public land in Italy to those who held it. This
 confirmed the long trend toward the dependency of the poor upon the
 powerful.

   agriculture

 agriculture, science of producing crops and livestock; it aims to
 increase production and protect the land from deterioration. Branches
 include AGRONOMY, HORTICULTURE, ENTOMOLOGY, animal husbandry, and
 DAIRYING. Historically, agriculture has been linked with social,
 economic, and political organization. Its development among early peoples
 encouraged stable settlements, and it later became associated with
 landholding, SLAVERY, and FEUDALISM. During the agricultural revolution
 (16th and 17th cent.), horticultural knowledge expanded, and crops and
 farming methods were exchanged internationally. The invention of machines
 such as McCormick's reaper (1831) and the general-purpose tractor
 (c.1924) led to mechanized, large-scale farming. Modern Western
 agriculture also depends on breeding programs; FERTILIZERS and
 PESTICIDES; food processing techniques, e.g., REFRIGERATION; efficient
 marketing; agricultural colleges and research centers; and, in many
 nations, government subsidies. See also GREEN REVOLUTION; ORGANIC
 FARMING.

   Agriculture, United States Department of

 Agriculture, United States Department of, federal executive department
 established (1862) to administer all federal programs related to food
 production and rural life. It assists farmers through its research,
 planning, and service agencies, and aids consumers by inspecting and
 grading many products; it also administers the Food Stamp Program and
 issues a wide range of publications on farming and horticulture. The
 Forest Service and the Soil Conservation Service are part of the
 department.

   agronomy

 agronomy, branch of AGRICULTURE concerned with soil management and with
 the breeding, physiology, and production of major field crops. It deals
 mainly with large-scale crops (e.g., cotton, soybeans, and wheat), while
 HORTICULTURE concerns fruits, vegetables, and ornamentals.

   Aguinaldo, Emilio

 Aguinaldo, Emilio, 1869-1964, Philippine leader. After leading (1896) a
 rebellion against Spanish rule, he cooperated with U.S. forces in the
 SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. He later rebelled (1899-1901) against U.S. rule.

   Ahab

 Ahab, d. c.853 BC, king of Israel (c.874-c.853 BC), son and successor of
 Omri. One of the greatest kings of the northern kingdom, he was killed in
 a war against Damascus. The biblical account of Ahab's reign (1 Kings
 16.28-22.40) is mostly concerned with its religious aspects, especially
 his marriage to Jezebel, a willful woman of Tyre who was attached to
 foreign cults and behavior. To the devout she represented evil, and she
 met her match in ELIJAH.

   Ahad Ha-Am

 Ahad Ha-Am [Heb.,=one of the people], 1856-1927, pseud. of Asher
 Ginsberg, Jewish thinker and Zionist leader; b. Russia. A critic of those
 who sought immediate settlement in Palestine, he saw Palestine as a
 "spiritual center" giving strength and direction to Jews in the Diaspora.
 Some of his essays appear in Selected Essays of Ahad Ha-Am (tr. 1912).

   Ahasuerus

 Ahasuerus: see ESTHER.

   Ahaz

 Ahaz, d. c.727 BC, king of Judah (c.731-727 BC). His reign marked the end
 of the real independence of Judah. In the BIBLE he is opposed by ISAIAH
 for his alliance with Assyria against Israel and Syria, and denounced for
 having heathen abominations and for using the Temple gold to pay tribute
 to Assyria. 2 Kings 16; 2 Chron. 28; Isa. 7.

   Ahmed

 Ahmed, sultans of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE (Turkey). Ahmed I, 1589-1617
 (r.1603-17), made peace (1606) with Austria, agreeing to Transylvania's
 independence and recognizing other European rulers as his equals for the
 first time. Ahmed II, 1642-95 (r.1691-95), saw the beginning of the
 Turks' forced retreat from Hungary. Ahmed III, 1673-1736 (r.1703-30),
 seized (1715) the Peloponnesus and the Ionian Isles (except Corfu) from
 Venice, but he lost important Balkan territories to Austria. He was
 overthrown by the JANISSARIES and died in prison.

   Ahmedabad

 Ahmedabad or Ahmadabad,city (1981 pop. 2,515,000), capital of Gujarat
 state, NW India, on the Sabarmati R. It is an industrial center noted for
 its cotton mills. Founded in 1412 by the Sultan Ahmad Shah, it fell to
 AKBAR in 1573 and prospered under the MOGULS, who controlled the city
 until 1758 when it came under the MAHRATTAS. It has many mosques, tombs,
 and temples. It came under British control in 1818.

   Ahvenanmaa Islands

 Ahvenanmaa Islands or Aland Islands,Finland, strategically important
 group of c.7,000 islands (less than 100 inhabited) at the entrance to the
 Gulf of Bothnia in the Baltic Sea. Originally colonized as part of
 Sweden, the islands were ceded (1809) to Russia, demilitarized (1856) by
 international agreement, and confirmed (1921) as part of Finland by the
 League of Nations. Finland renounced the League's guarantee of autonomy
 in 1951, but accorded rights of self-government to the islanders, who are
 largely Swedish.

   AIDS

 AIDS, or acquired immune deficiency syndrome,a fatal disease caused by a
 virus, known as HIV or human immunodeficiency virus that attacks blood
 cells. The disease suppresses the body's immune system, allowing other
 diseases, including cancer and pneumonia, to infect the patient. Spread
 through the exchange of body fluids, it has primarily affected male
 homosexuals, drug users, prostitutes, and hemophiliacs. See also AZT.

   Aiken, Conrad

 Aiken, Conrad, 1889-1973, American writer; b. Savannah, Ga. Often
 concerned with the quest for self-knowledge, he is best known for his
 richly musical verse, e.g., Selected Poems (1929, Pulitzer), A Letter
 from Li Po (1955). His other works include the novels Blue Voyage (1927)
 and Great Circle (1933), short stories, critical essays, and an
 autobiography (1952).

   ailanthus

 ailanthus, tree (genus Ailanthus) of the family Simarubaceae. Ailanthus
 is native to warm regions of Asia and Australia. Its wood is used in
 cabinetmaking and for charcoal manufacture. The bark and leaves are used
 medicinally, and the leaves provide food for silkworms. Females of a
 species called tree of heaven are cultivated for their attractive foliage
 and their resistance to smoke and soot; the flowers of the male plant,
 however, have a disagreeable odor.

   Ailey, Alvin

 Ailey, Alvin, 1931-, American modern dancer and choreographer; b. Rogers,
 Tex. He studied with Lester Horton. In the late 1950s, he formed his own
 company, Alvin Ailey's American Dance Theater, which is noted for its use
 of African motifs. His best-known works include Creation of the World
 (1954) and Revelations (1960).

   Ainu

 Ainu, aborigines of Japan, possibly of Caucasoid descent, having both
 European and Asian physical traits. Oriental invaders forced the Ainu to
 the N Japanese island of HOKKAIDO and to Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands,
 in the USSR. Their animistic religion centers on a bear cult. They live
 by hunting, fishing, farming, and selling crafts to tourists.

   air, law of the

 air, law of the, law connected with the use of the air (including radio
 and telegraph communication); more commonly, body of laws governing civil
 aviation. Spurred by the growth of air transport, the victorious nations
 of World War I, meeting in Paris in 1919, drew up the International
 Convention for Air Navigation, commonly called the Paris Convention; this
 agreement recognized national claims to air space and established rules
 for aircraft registration and operating safety. U.S. air laws are modeled
 on the Convention, and are administered by the FEDERAL AVIATION
 ADMINISTRATION. There are also many general conventions and bilateral
 agreements between nations. In 1944 a conference of 52 nations (not
 including the USSR) established the International Civil Aviation
 Organization (see UNITED NATIONS), to ensure the orderly growth of
 international aviation.

   air conditioning

 air conditioning, mechanical process for controlling the temperature,
 humidity, cleanliness, and circulation of air in buildings and rooms.
 Most air conditioners operate by ducting air across the colder,
 heat-absorbing side of a REFRIGERATION apparatus, and directing the
 cooled air back into the air-conditioned space. Small window conditioners
 vent heat outdoors. Larger systems use circulating water to remove heat.
 Air conditioning provides the heat, humidity, and contamination controls
 essential in the manufacture of such products as chemicals and
 pharmaceuticals.

   aircraft carrier

 aircraft carrier, ship designed to carry aircraft and to permit takeoff
 and landing of planes. Its distinctive features are a flat upper deck
 (flight deck) that functions as a takeoff and landing field, and a main
 deck (hangar deck) beneath the flight deck for storing and servicing the
 aircraft. The aircraft carrier remained an experimental and untested war
 vessel until WORLD WAR II, when the Japanese wreaked havoc on the
 British, Dutch, and U.S. navies with carrier-borne aircraft. By 1942 the
 aircraft carrier had replaced the battleship as the major unit in a
 modern fleet, and during the war it was indispensable in naval operations
 against a sea- or shore-based enemy, with two major battles (Coral Sea
 and Midway, 1942) being fought entirely by aircraft, and the opposing
 fleets never coming within gunshot range of each other. U.S. carriers of
 the Essex class spearheaded the island-hopping campaign in the Pacific. A
 new era in carrier design opened when the U.S. launched (1960) the
 nuclear-powered Enterprise, a vessel capable of lengthy voyages without
 refueling. A nuclear-powered successor, the Nimitz, was the largest ship
 afloat when launched in 1975.

   air-cushion vehicle

 air-cushion vehicle (ACV), ground-effect machine,or  Hovercraft, vehicle
 designed to travel at a short distance above ground or water, moving on a
 cushion of air that is held in a chamber beneath the vehicle. ACVs offer
 the potential for very high speeds. The maximum size of ACVs is now over
 100 tons; some of them travel at over 100 mph (160 km/hr).

   airedale terrier

 airedale terrier, largest of the TERRIER group; shoulder height, c.23 in.
 (58.4 cm); weight, 40-50 lb (18.1-22.7 kg). Its dense, wiry, close-lying
 coat is a mixture of tan, black, and grizzle. The breed was probably
 produced from crosses of the extinct black-and-tan terrier and the
 otterhound.

   airfoil

 airfoil, surface designed to develop a desired force by reaction with a
 fluid, especially air, that is flowing across the surface. Examples of
 airfoils are the fixed wings of AIRPLANES, which produce lift (see
 AERODYNAMICS), and control surfaces, such as ailerons, elevators,
 rudders, and flaps, that are manipulated to produce variable forces.
 Other airfoils include spoilers, propeller blades, and the blades
 utilized in turbojet engines.

   air force

 air force, national military organization for air warfare. Although
 balloons were used by French forces in Italy in 1859 and by the Union in
 the U.S. Civil War, air forces in the modern sense date from WORLD WAR I,
 when the offensive capabilities of the AIRPLANE were first demonstrated.
 Airplanes were first controlled by national armies and used for
 reconnaissance and support of ground forces, but as their effectiveness
 as tactical weapons increased, independent air forces were called for.
 Arguing that future wars would be won by strategic bombing of an enemy's
 industrial centers, military leaders, including Italian Gen. Giulio
 Douhet, U.S. Gen. William MITCHELL, and British Air Chief Marshal Sir
 Hugh Trenchard urged intensive development of air power. By WORLD WAR II,
 control of the air over both land and sea proved crucial in most major
 engagements, and the air force became a separate branch of the armed
 services in many countries. The first great air battle in history was the
 Battle of Britain (1940), in which the British Royal Air Force stood off
 the German Luftwaffe over England. The effect of air power in
 revolutionizing naval warfare was demonstrated in the 1941 surprise
 attack by Japanese aircraft, launched from AIRCRAFT CARRIERS, on PEARL
 HARBOR. Air forces on both sides engaged in strategic and tactical
 bombing, attacks on naval and merchant ships, transportation of personnel
 and cargo, mining of harbors and shipping lanes, antisubmarine patrols,
 and photo reconnaissance, as well as support of ground, naval, and
 amphibious operations. After World War II, the airplane was superseded by
 the missile as a strategic weapon, but with helicopters joining the
 traditional fighter planes, bombers, and cargo planes of the modern air
 force, air power continued to be of primary importance in tactical
 operations, particularly in "limited" wars such as those in Southeast
 Asia and the Middle East. It is also argued that air forces function as
 deterrents to a major war by maintaining ready second-strike retaliatory
 capabilities.

   air navigation

 air navigation, science and technology of determining the position of an
 aircraft with respect to the surface of the earth and accurately
 maintaining a desired course (see navigation). The two most common
 methods are governed by visual flight regulations (VFR) and instrument
 flight regulations (IFR). Small airborne computer systems can now give
 the pilot the plane's position and can carry out dead reckoning by
 monitoring all course and speed changes. The automatic pilot also
 interprets data on direction, speed, and altitude to maintain an aircraft
 in straight, level flight. For landing, the pilot is often guided by
 radio communication from a controller observing the plane via
 ground-based radar. Some systems actually land the plane automatically,
 although the pilot always has the option of overriding manually.

   airplane, aeroplane

 airplane, aeroplane, or aircraft,heavier-than-air vehicle, mechanically
 driven and fitted with fixed wings that support it in flight through the
 dynamic action of the air. On Dec. 17, 1903, Americans Orville and Wilbur
 WRIGHT flew the first airplane near Kitty Hawk, N.C. The machine was a
 biplane with two propellers chain-driven by a gasoline motor. Modern
 airplanes are monoplanes (airplanes with one set of wings). Airplanes may
 further be classified as driven by propeller, JET PROPULSION, or ROCKET.
 The airplane has six main parts: fuselage, wings, stabilizer (or tail
 plane), rudder, one or more engines, and landing gear. The fuselage is
 the main body, usually streamlined in form. The wings are the main
 supporting surfaces. The airplane's lift, or force supporting it in
 flight, is basically the result of the direct action of air against the
 surfaces of the wings (see AERODYNAMICS). With the use of jet engines and
 the resulting higher speeds, airplanes have become less dependent on
 large values of lift from the wings. Consequently wings have been
 shortened and swept back so as to produce less drag, especially at
 supersonic speeds. At the trailing edge of the wings are attached movable
 surfaces, called ailerons (see AIRFOIL) that are used to gain lateral
 control and to turn the plane. Directional stability is provided by the
 tail fin, a fixed vertical airfoil at the rear of the airplane. The
 stabilizer is a fixed horizontal airfoil at the rear of the airplane used
 to suppress undesired pitching motion. The elevators, which are movable
 auxiliary surfaces attached to the stabilizers, are used to produce
 controlled pitching. The rudder, generally at the rear of the tail fin,
 is a movable auxiliary airfoil that gives the craft a yawing movement in
 normal flight. The landing gear is the understructure that supports the
 weight of the craft when on the ground or on the water and that reduces
 the shock on landing. See AVIATION; SEAPLANE; SHORT TAKEOFF AND LANDING
 AIRCRAFT; VERTICAL TAKEOFF AND LANDING AIRCRAFT.

   air plant

 air plant: see EPIPHYTE.

   air pollution

 air pollution: see POLLUTION.

   airship

 airship or dirigible,aircraft consisting of a cigar-shaped balloon that
 carries a propulsion system (propellers), a steering mechanism, and
 accomodations for passengers, crew, and cargo. The balloon section is
 filled with a lighter-than-air gas-either helium, which is nonflammable,
 or hydrogen-to give the airship its lift. The balloon maintains its form
 by the internal gas pressure in the nonrigid (blimp) and semirigid types
 of airships; the latter in addition has a rigid keel. The rigid type
 maintains its form by having a metal framework that holds its shape
 regardless of the internal gas pressure; inside the hull are a number of
 small gas-filled balloons. The first successful power-driven airship was
 built by the French inventor Henri Giffard in 1852. Count Ferdinand von
 ZEPPELIN of Germany invented the first rigid airship, which was completed
 in 1900. The German airship Hindenburg burned at its mooring mast at
 Lakehurst, N.J., in 1937. No rigid airship survived World War II.

   Aix-la-Chapelle

 Aix-la-Chapelle: see AACHEN, West Germany.

   Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of

 Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of: see AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE.

   Ajax

 Ajax, in Greek mythology.1The Telamonian Ajax, hero of the TROJAN WAR. In
 the Iliad he is a huge man, slow of thought and speech, but very
 courageous. He and ODYSSEUS rescued the corpse of ACHILLES. When Odysseus
 was awarded Achilles' armor the disappointed Ajax went mad and committed
 suicide.2The Locrian Ajax, who violated CASSANDRA in the sack of Troy.
 Shipwrecked by ATHENA, he was saved by POSEIDON, but struck dead by
 lightning for his defiance.

   Akbar

 Akbar, 1542-1605, Mogul emperor of INDIA (1556-1605). An outstanding
 general, Akbar added AFGHANISTAN, Baluchistan, and N India to his
 domains. This reign was marked by administrative reform, religious
 toleration, and the flowering of art and literature.

   Akhenaton

 Akhenaton: see IKHNATON.

   Akhmatova, Anna

 Akhmatova, Anna, pseud. of Anna Andreyevna Gorenko, 1889-1966, Russian
 poet of the ACMEIST school. Her brief, highly emotional lyrics are simply
 and musically written. Among her most important volumes are The Rosary
 (1914) and The Course of Time (1966).

   Akiba ben Joseph

 Akiba ben Joseph, AD c.50-c.135, Palestinian rabbi. He compiled a
 collection of Hebrew Oral Law, Mishna of Rabbi Akiba (see MISHNA). After
 siding with BAR KOKBA in his revolt against Rome, Akiba was imprisoned
 and, it is said, tortured to death by the Romans.

   Akihito

 Akihito, 1933-, Japanese emperor designate, son of HIROHITO. Following
 Hirohito's death (1989), he assumed the duties of emperor. He will
 officially assume his father's title in Nov., 1990. He was the first
 member of the royal family to marry (1959) a commoner, Michiko Shodar.

   Akkad

 Akkad, northern part of later BABYLONIA, in Mesopotamia; the southern
 part was SUMER. In the 4th millennium BC a Semitic city-state appeared,
 and under Sargon (c.2340 BC) Akkad became an imperial power. Akkad and
 Sumer were united as Babylonia by HAMMURABI. The name Akkad also appears
 as Accad.

   Akkadian

 Akkadian, language belonging to the Semitic subfamily of the
 Hamito-Semitic family of languages. Also called Assyro-Babylonian,
 Akkadian was current in ancient MESOPOTAMIA (now IRAQ) from about 3000 BC
 until the time of Christ. See LANGUAGE.

   Akron

 Akron, city (1986 est. pop. 222,060), seat of Summit co., NE Ohio, on the
 Little Cuyahoga R. and the Ohio and Erie Canal; settled 1825; inc. as a
 city 1865. It is a port of entry and an important industrial and
 transportation center. From the opening of the first plant in 1870, Akron
 became the rubber capital of the U.S.; corporate and research
 headquarters of the major producers are located there. Metalworking,
 aerospace industries, and polymer research are important. Akron's Art
 Institute is well known.

   Akte

 Akte: see ATHOS.

   Akutagawa Ryunosuke

 Akutagawa Ryunosuke, 1892-1927, Japanese author. One of Japan's finest
 short-story writers, he derived many of his tales from historical
 Japanese sources, but told them with psychological insights in an
 individualistic style. "Rashomon" (1915) and "In a Grove" (1921) were
 made into the classic 1950 film Rashomon, directed by KUROSAWA AKIRA.

   al-

 al-. For Arabic names beginning thus, see the second part of the name,
 e.g., SADAT, ANWAR AL-.

   Al

 Al, chemical symbol of the element ALUMINUM.

   Alabama

 Alabama, state in the SE U.S.; bordered by Tennessee (N), Georgia (E),
 Florida and the Gulf of Mexico (S), and Mississippi (W).

 Area, 51,609 sq mi (133,677 sq km). Pop. (1986 est.) 4,052,000, a 4.1%
 increase over 1980 pop. Capital, Montgomery. Statehood, Dec. 14, 1819
 (22d state). Highest pt., Cheaha Mt., 2,407 ft (734 m); lowest pt., sea
 level. Nickname, Heart of Dixie. Motto, We Dare Defend Our Rights. State
 bird, yellowhammer. State flower, camellia. State tree, Southern
 (longleaf) pine. Abbr., Ala.; AL.

 Land and People Except for the southern edge of the APPALACHIAN
 MOUNTAINS, in the northeast, Alabama consists mostly of rolling plains
 drained by the Alabama and Tombigbee rivers. The fertile Black Belt is
 located in central Alabama. The climate is subtropical and humid. More
 than 60% of the population lives in metropolitan areas, principally in
 BIRMINGHAM, a steel center; MOBILE, a major U.S. port; MONTGOMERY, the
 capital; and HUNTSVILLE, an aerospace center.

 Economy Although cotton is still grown, it has been supplanted in revenue
 earned by cattle and poultry, soybeans, and peanuts. Dams on the
 TENNESSEE R., in the north, provide power for the state's industries,
 whose leading products are iron and steel, paper and wood products,
 chemicals, and processed foods. Oil is produced in the south, and fishing
 is important along the coast. Lumbering is a major industry throughout
 Alabama. The population (1984) was 73% white and 27% black and other
 groups.

 Government According to the constitution of 1901, the government is
 headed by a governor elected to a four-year term. The legislature is
 composed of a 35-member senate and 105-member house of representatives
 elected to four-year terms. Alabama sends seven representatives and two
 senators to the U.S. Congress and has nine electoral votes.

 History When Spanish explorers, including Hernando DE SOTO, visited the
 region during the 16th cent., they found the CREEK, CHEROKEE, CHOCTAW,
 and CHICKASAW tribes. In 1702 the French established the first white
 settlement. Andrew JACKSON defeated (1814) the Creek Confederacy at
 Horseshoe Bend, ushering in a period of rapid settlement. Subsequently,
 huge plantations utilizing slave labor were established to cultivate
 cotton. Alabama seceded from the Union in 1861. Following the CIVIL WAR
 the defeated state was placed under military rule; it was readmitted to
 the Union in 1868. Alabama slowly recovered from the war and the
 corruption of RECONSTRUCTION, a process made easier by the beginning of
 industrialization. Agricultural diversification began after the boll
 weevil infested the cotton fields during the early 20th cent. The 1954
 Supreme Court decision outlawing school segregation ushered in a painful
 period of INTEGRATION and the growth of the CIVIL RIGHTS movement.
 Despite opposition by Gov. George WALLACE and a few acts of racial
 violence in the state, most public schools in Alabama had been
 successfully desegregated by the early 1970s. In the late 1970s and early
 1980s public attention shifted to assuring the state's economic growth by
 encouraging further diversification of manufacturing industries.

   Alabama claims

 Alabama claims, claims by the U.S. against Great Britain after the U.S.
 CIVIL WAR for damage to merchant ships caused by British-built
 Confederate cruisers. A tribunal (1871-72) at Geneva awarded the U.S.
 $15.5 million for damage caused by the Confederate ships Alabama,
 Florida, and Shenandoah.

   alabaster

 alabaster, fine-grained, translucent variety of the mineral GYPSUM, pure
 white or streaked with reddish brown. Its softness makes it easily carved
 but also easily broken, soiled, and weathered. Quarried in England and
 Italy, it is used to make statuary and other decorative objects. The
 Oriental alabaster of ancient Egyptian and Roman tombs is actually
 MARBLE, a calcium carbonate, whereas gypsum is a calcium sulfate.

   Alain-Fournier

 Alain-Fournier, 1886-1914, French novelist; b. Henri Alban Fournier. His
 single full-length work, The Wanderer (1913), about a youthful search for
 the ideal, is a delicate blend of symbolism and realism.

   Alamein, El

 Alamein, El,or Al Alamayn, town, N Egypt, on the Mediterranean Sea.
 During WORLD WAR II it was the site of a decisive British victory (1942)
 against the Germans. The victory saved Egypt for the Allies and led to
 the defeat (1943) of the Axis powers in North Africa.

   Alamo, the

 Alamo, the [Span.,=cottonwood], chapel-fort in San Antonio, Tex., built
 c.1744. It was held by Davy CROCKETT, Jim Bowie, W. TRAVIS, and about 180
 other Texans against a siege by an army of several thousand Mexicans
 under Gen. SANTA ANNA (Feb. 24-Mar. 6, 1836) during the Texas Revolution.
 While the defenders died, their resistance rallied others who defeated
 the Mexicans six weeks later, crying "Remember the Alamo!"

   Aland Islands

 Aland Islands: see AHVENANMAA ISLANDS.

   Alarcon, Pedro Antonio de

 Alarcon, Pedro Antonio de, 1833-91, Spanish writer and diplomat. His
 novels, witty and often realistic, include The Three-Cornered Hat (1874),
 on which FALLA based a ballet, and Captain Venom (1881).

   Alarcon y Mendoza, Juan Ruiz de

 Alarcon y Mendoza, Juan Ruiz de, 1581?-1639, Spanish dramatic poet; b.
 Mexico. His brilliant and lively comedies (2 vol., 1628-34) make him a
 major literary figure of Spain's GOLDEN AGE. The most famous, The
 Suspicious Truth, was the model for The Liar by CORNEILLE.

   Alaric I

 Alaric I, c.370-410, Visigothic king. After the death of Roman Emperor
 THEODOSIUS I he ravaged the Balkans until stopped by STILICHO, invaded
 Italy, and sacked Rome (410).

   Alas, Leopoldo

 Alas, Leopoldo, pseud. Clarin, 1852-1901, Spanish writer. He was a
 professor of law at the Univ. of Oviedo. His masterpiece is the
 naturalistic novel The Regent's Wife (1885), a detailed analysis of
 provincial life.

   Alaska

 Alaska, least populous but largest state in area of the U.S., occupying
 the northwest extremity of the North American continent, separated from
 the coterminous U.S. by NW Canada. It is bordered by British Columbia and
 Yukon Territory (E), the Pacific Ocean (S), the Bering Sea (W), and the
 Arctic Ocean (N).

 Area, 586,412 sq mi (1,518,800 sq km). Pop. (1986 est.) 534,000, a 32.8%
 increase over 1980 pop. Capital, Juneau. Statehood, Jan. 3, 1959 (49th
 state). Highest pt., Mt. McKinley, 20,320 ft (6,198 m); lowest pt., sea
 level. Motto, North to the Future. State bird, willow ptarmigan. State
 flower, forget-me-not. State tree,  Sitka spruce. Abbr., AK.

 Land and People Along the heavily indented coast are two peninsulas, the
 Seward Peninsula to the west, and, farther south, the Alaska Peninsula,
 from which the ALEUTIAN ISLANDS extend. The interior is dominated by
 rugged mountains, including the Alaska Range, where Denali, or Mount
 MCKINLEY (20,320 ft/6,198 m), the highest point in North America, is
 located. Many tourists are attracted by the state's dramatic scenery,
 some of the most spectacular located in its eight NATIONAL PARKS. Winters
 in the interiors are very cold; summers are brief but hot. The COAST
 RANGES dominate the more temperate panhandle region, in the southeast,
 where the Inside Passage traverses the Alexander Archipelago, located
 just offshore. Principal lowlands are in the central region-drained by
 the YUKON R.-and, in the far north, the North Slope, along the Arctic
 coast. The largest city is ANCHORAGE, followed by FAIRBANKS and JUNEAU;
 about 45% of the population lives in metropolitan areas. In 1984 the
 population, the fastest growing in the U.S., was 79% white, 21% other
 races, mostly ESKIMO and ALEUTS and some blacks.

 Economy The economy has been transformed since the discovery (1968) of
 North Slope oil and natural gas deposits, and their exploitation
 dominates the economy. The Alaska pipeline (built 1974-77) carries oil
 from PRUDHOE BAY to the port of Valdez, in the south. Coal, platinum,
 copper, gold, and uranium are among other minerals mined. Alaska has the
 largest fishing industry in the U.S.; the small manufacturing sector is
 dominated by the processing of fish and lumber. Fur export is important.
 Because of the harsh climate and terrain there is little agriculture.

 Government The constitution (adopted 1956) provides for a governor
 elected to a four-year term. The state legislature is composed of a
 senate whose 20 members serve four-year terms and a house whose 40
 members serve two-year terms. Alaska sends two senators and one
 representative to the U.S. Congress and has three electoral votes.

 History The first white settlers were Russians who crossed the BERING
 STRAIT in search of furs and established (1784) the first permanent
 settlement on Kodiak Island. In 1867 Russia sold Alaska to the U.S. for
 $7.2 million. The first influx of Americans came in the gold rush of the
 1890s and the 1900s. During WORLD WAR II the Japanese occupied (1942)
 Attu and Kiska, in the Aleutian Islands, but were driven out (1943) by
 U.S. forces. The war contributed to Alaska's economic development through
 construction of the Alaska highway and of defense installations. The
 state's greatest economic boom occurred after the extensive oil
 discoveries of 1968, and huge off-shore deposits found in 1980 promised
 future development. Against strong opposition by state residents favoring
 private control of resources, the U.S. Congress approved (1980) the
 Alaska lands bill, which designated more than 104 million acres (42
 million hectares) of national parks, wildlife refuges, and wilderness
 areas. In 1989 an oil tanker bringing oil from PRUDHOE BAY spilled
 10-million gallons of oil near the port of Valdez causing severe economic
 and environmental damage.

   Alaskan malamute

 Alaskan malamute, strong, compact WORKING DOG; shoulder height, c.23 in.
 (58.2 cm); weight, 70-85 lb (31.75-38.5 kg). Its coarse coat, composed of
 oily, woolly underhairs and a thick cover coat, may be any shade of gray
 or black, with white markings. The malamute has been raised for centuries
 as a sled dog.

   Alba

 Albaor Alva, Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, duque de , 1507?-82, Spanish
 governor general and regent of the NETHERLANDS (1567-73). A ruthless
 absolutist, he crushed the rebellious provinces, executing some 18,000
 Netherlanders, and defeated (1572) the invading army of WILLIAM THE
 SILENT. Recalled to Spain, he completed the conquest (1580) of PORTUGAL
 by capturing Lisbon.

   albacore

 albacore: see TUNA.

   Albania

 Albania, Albanian Shqipnija or Shqiperia, officially People's Socialist
 Republic of Albania, republic (1982 pop. 2,786,000), 11,101 sq mi (28,752
 sq km), SE Europe, on the Adriatic coast of the Balkan Peninsula;
 bordered by Yugoslavia (N and E) and Greece (S). TIRANE is the capital.
 Except for the fertile ADRIATIC coast, Albania is mountainous, rising to
 9,066 ft (2,763 m) at Mt. Korab. Albania is rich in mineral resources,
 notably chromium, coal, copper, oil, and nickel, and mining is the
 largest source of income. Only one tenth of the land is cultivated, and
 half of that is in vineyards and olive groves; grains, cotton, tobacco,
 and livestock are also important. The leading industries include food
 processing, textiles, and the manufacture of petroleum products,
 footwear, and building materials. Industry, mines, and agriculture are
 nationalized. About 97% of the population is ethnic Albanian. Albania is
 officially an atheist country, but the population is predominantly
 Muslim, with Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox minorities.

 History Albania was settled in ancient times by Illyrians and Thracians;
 the area then comprised parts of ILLYRIA and EPIRUS. The Greeks colonized
 the coast, and the entire region came under Roman and Byzantine rule.
 SCANDERBEG (d. 1468), Albania's national hero, delayed but did not stop
 the OTTOMAN EMPIRE'S conquest of the area, which was complete by 1478.
 More than four centuries of Turkish Islamic rule followed, and national
 aspirations were suppressed until, during the First BALKAN WAR, Albania
 proclaimed independence (1912). In 1913 an international commission
 assigned large areas claimed by Albania to MONTENEGRO, SERBIA, and
 GREECE. The scene of political chaos and a battleground for contending
 European and Balkan forces after WORLD WAR I, the country came (1925)
 under the rule of Ahmed Zogu, who proclaimed himself (1928) King ZOG.
 Italy invaded Albania in 1939, setting up a puppet government that fought
 with the Axis powers in WORLD WAR II. After 1944, power passed to
 antifascist guerrilla leader Enver HOXHA, a Communist, who proclaimed a
 republic in 1946. Opposed to de-Stalinization, Albania broke with the
 USSR in 1961. It became a close ally of China, but that friendship ended
 in 1978. Hoxhe died in 1985 and was succeeded by Ramiz Alia.

   Albany, Alexander Stuart

 Albany, Alexander Stuart or Stewart, duke of:see STUART, ALEXANDER, DUKE
 OF ALBANY.

   Albany

 Albany, city (1986 est. pop. 97,020), state capital and seat of Albany
 co., E N.Y., on the Hudson R.; settled 1624, inc. 1686. A deepwater port
 and trading center for a farm and resort area, it has diversified
 manufactures, including textiles, paper, chemicals, and automotive parts.
 The Dutch built (1613) a fur trading post there; the English took control
 and named the city in 1664. State capital from 1797, it grew with the
 opening of the Erie and Champlain canals (1820s). The state capitol
 (1867-98) and many old houses and new state office buildings are
 prominent in the city, which was redeveloped in the 1960s.

   Albany Congress

 Albany Congress, 1754, a meeting of British colonial representatives in
 Albany, N.Y. Because of the impending war with France, a treaty was made
 between seven British colonies and the Iroquois Indians. Benjamin
 FRANKLIN'S Plan of Union for the colonies was also approved, but was
 later rejected by the colonial legislatures and by the crown.

   Albany Regency

 Albany Regency, informal group of Democratic party leaders in New York
 state after 1820. Developed by Martin VAN BUREN, the Regency was among
 the first effective political machines. It used the SPOILS SYSTEM and
 maintained strict party discipline. After 1842 it split into factions
 (BARNBURNERS and HUNKERS) over internal improvements and slavery.

   albatross

 albatross, sea BIRD (family Diomedeidae) with tapered wings that enable
 it to excel at gliding and flying. Most are found in the South Pacific,
 although a few, e.g., the black-footed albatross (Diomedea nigripes),
 frequent the north Pacific. The wandering albatross (D. exulans), with a
 wingspan of 10 to 12 ft (305 to 366 cm), was made famous by COLERIDGE'S
 Rime of the Ancient Mariner.

   Albee, Edward

 Albee, Edward, 1928-, American playwright; b. Washington, D.C. His
 clever, often satiric plays include the one-act The Zoo Story (1959), and
 the full-length Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (1962), widely regarded
 as his finest work; A Delicate Balance (1967; Pulitzer); and Seascape
 (1975; Pulitzer).

   Albemarle, George Monck

 Albemarle, George Monck or Monk,1st duke of:see  MONCK, George.

   Albeniz, Isaac

 Albeniz, Isaac, 1860-1909, Spanish pianist and composer. Influenced by
 LISZT and DEBUSSY, he is best remembered for his later piano works,
 especially Iberia (1906-9), which combine Spanish folk material with
 brilliant pianistic idiom.

   Alberdi, Juan Bautista

 Alberdi, Juan Bautista, 1810-84, Argentine political philosopher and
 diplomat. Suggestions in his Bases and Starting Points for the Political
 Organization of the Argentine Republic (1852) were incorporated into the
 constitution of 1853. He served on several diplomatic missions.

   Albers, Josef

 Albers, Josef, 1888-1976, German-American artist, designer, and teacher;
 b. Germany. After working at the BAUHAUS (1920-23), he came to the U.S.
 As director of the Yale School of Art (1950-58), he was a major figure in
 American art education. He is best-known for a series of paintings,
 Homage to the Square, which portrays colors in quasi-concentric squares.

   Albert I

 Albert I, 1875-1934, king of the Belgians (1909-34), nephew and successor
 of LEOPOLD II. During WORLD WAR I he led his country in resisting the
 German invasion (1914). He also improved social conditions in Belgium and
 the Belgian CONGO. His son, LEOPOLD III, succeeded him.

   Albert

 Albert, 1819-61, prince consort of VICTORIA of Great Britain; son of
 Ernest I, duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. His initial unpopularity as an alien
 prince was modified by his devotion to the queen and his concern with
 public affairs, particularly diplomacy. His insistence on a moderate
 approach to the TRENT AFFAIR may have avoided war with the U.S.

   Alberta

 Alberta, province (1986 pop. 2,365,825), 255,284 sq mi (661,185 sq km), W
 Canada, bordered by Saskatchewan (E), the Northwest Territories (N),
 British Columbia (W), and Montana (S). Alberta is a high plateau, rising
 in the west to the ROCKY MOUNTAINS and the CONTINENTAL DIVIDE. Although
 it is one of the Prairie Provinces, only about 25% of Alberta's area,
 chiefly in the south, is treeless. Central Alberta is partly wooded, and
 the north is principally timberland. The province is drained by the
 Athabasca, the Saskatchewan, the Red Deer, and other rivers. The
 population is centered in S and central Alberta, and the principal cities
 are EDMONTON, the capital, and CALGARY. Until recently, agriculture was
 Alberta's basic industry. Grain, especially wheat, is the dominant crop,
 and livestock raising, dairying, lumbering, and manufacturing are also
 important. Since the early 1960s, however, mineral exploitation has been
 the major industry. Alberta is believed to have some of the richest oil
 deposits in the world-notably the tar beds of the Athabasca River-and has
 abundant natural gas. Its coal beds contain about one half of Canada's
 known reserves. Tourists are attracted to the province's outstanding
 national parks-Jasper, Banff, Waterton Lakes, and Wood Buffalo.

 History Alberta was part of the territory granted (1670) to the HUDSON'S
 BAY COMPANY and was dominated by the fur trade. In 1870 the company sold
 the area to the newly created confederation of Canada and in 1872 the
 mounted police established Fort Macleod in S Alberta. In 1882 the region
 became an administrative division, and the Canadian Pacific Railway
 opened the area to settlement. Alberta became a province in 1905. Oil was
 discovered in 1914, but only when a find was made near Edmonton in 1947
 did Alberta's economy begin to change. Politically, Albertans turned to
 William ABERHART and the SOCIAL CREDIT party in 1935. In 1971 the
 Progressive Conservatives gained control of the Provincial Assembly.
 Alberta sends 6 senators (appointed) and 21 representatives (elected) to
 the national parliament.

   Alberti, Leone Battista

 Alberti, Leone Battista, 1404-72, Italian architect, musician, painter,
 and humanist. His treatise De re aedificatoria (c.1450), though dependent
 on the Roman architect Vitruvius, was the first modern work on
 architecture, and influenced the development of RENAISSANCE architectural
 style. Among the notable buildings erected from his designs is the
 Palazzo Rucellai, Florence. Alberti's treatises on painting (1436) and
 sculpture (c.1464) were also influential.

   Albertus Magnus, Saint

 Albertus Magnus, Saint, or Saint Albert the Great,b. 1193 or 1206, d.
 1280, scholastic philosopher, Doctor of the Church, called the Universal
 Doctor. A DOMINICAN, he attempted in his Summa theologiae to reconcile
 Aristotelianism with Christian thought. St. THOMAS AQUINAS was his pupil.
 Albertus was also deeply interested in natural science and was the first
 to produce arsenic in a free form. Feast: Nov. 15. See also ARISTOTLE;
 SCHOLASTICISM.

   Albigenses

 Albigenses, religious sect of S France (12th-13th cent.), whose beliefs
 were similar in many ways to MANICHAEISM. They were Christian heretics
 who believed in the coexistence of good and evil. They held that matter
 was evil and that Jesus only seemed to have a body. Ascetic and
 enthusiastic, they persisted despite papal opposition. The murder of a
 papal legate led INNOCENT III to declare (1208) the Albigensian Crusade,
 which was soon redirected toward political ends. In 1233 the INQUISITION
 was formed to halt Albigensianism, and slowly over 100 years the movement
 died.

   albino

 albino, animal or plant lacking normal pigmentation. The albino body
 covering (skin, hair, and feathers) and eyes lack pigment. In humans and
 other animals albinism is inherited as a recessive trait. Breeding has
 established albino races in some domestic animals.

   Albinus

 Albinus: see ALCUIN.

   albumin

 albumin, member of a class of water-soluble, heat-coagulating PROTEINS.
 Albumins are widely distributed in plant and animal tissues, e.g.,
 ovalbumin of egg, lactalbumin of milk, and leucosin of wheat. Some
 contain carbohydrates. Normally constituting about 55% of the plasma
 proteins, albumins adhere chemically to various substances in the blood,
 e.g., AMINO ACIDS, and thus play a role in their transport. Albumins and
 other blood proteins aid in regulating the distribution of water in the
 body. Albumins are also used in textile printing, the fixation of dyes,
 sugar refining, and other important processes.

   Albuquerque, Afonso de

 Albuquerque, Afonso de, 1453-1515, Portuguese admiral, founder of the
 Portuguese empire in the East. He captured Goa (1510), Malacca (1511),
 and Hormuz (1513), built a series of forts in INDIA, and established
 shipbuilding and other industries. Control of the spice trade and of
 trade routes were nearly accomplished during his tenure.

   Albuquerque

 Albuquerque, city (1986 est. pop. 366,750), seat of Bernalillo co., W
 central N. Mex., on the upper Rio Grande; inc. 1890. It is the largest
 city in the state, and the industrial and commercial center of a timber
 and farm area. Its diverse industries include electronics, and nuclear
 research and weapons development conducted by federal agencies. The
 city's downtown was the site of a 1980s urban renewal project.
 Albuquerque is also noted as a health resort and medical center. The city
 was founded by the Spanish in 1706 and grew with the arrival (1880) of
 the railroad.

   Alcaeus

 Alcaeus, d. c.580 BC, Greek poet, early personal lyric writer.
 Traditionally an associate of SAPPHO, he wrote both light and political
 verse. The Alcaic strophe was admired and adapted by HORACE.

   Alcala Zamora, Niceto

 Alcala Zamora, Niceto, 1877-1949, president of Spain (1931-36). He helped
 to lead the republican revolution of 1931 and became the first president
 of the second Spanish republic. He was deposed (1936) by the CORTES on a
 Socialist motion and went into exile.

   alcalde

 alcalde, Spanish title designating a town mayor who also acts as justice
 of the peace. It originated in the 11th cent. to designate a judge with
 administrative functions. In the Spanish colonies it was used for a
 provincial administrator who presided over the Cabildo or municipal
 council.

   Alcatraz

 Alcatraz, island in San Francisco Bay, W Calif. Discovered (1769) and
 fortified by the Spanish, it was (1859-1933) the site of a U.S. military
 prison and then (1933-63) federal maximum security prison, called "The
 Rock." It became part of the Golden Gate National Recreational Area in
 1972.

   Alcestis

 Alcestis, in Greek mythology, the devoted wife of a Thessalian king,
 Admetus. She willingly died in his place, to ensure his immortality. In
 some myths HERCULES rescued her from the dead; in others PERSEPHONE
 reunited husband and wife. EURIPIDES dramatized the legend in his
 Alcestis.

   alchemy

 alchemy, ancient art or pseudoscience that sought to turn base metals
 into gold or silver through the agency of a secret substance known by
 various names (philosopher's stone, elixir, grand magistry). Emerging in
 China and Egypt by the 3d cent. BC, alchemy was cloaked in mysticism and
 allegory, and in time degenerated into superstition. Revived (8th cent.)
 in Alexandria by the Arabs, it reached W Europe by the Middle Ages. In
 the 15th-17th cent. experimentation again fell into disrepute, but the
 base had been laid for modern CHEMISTRY, which has in fact accomplished
 the transmutation of elements.

   Alcibiades

 Alcibiades, c.450-404 BC, Athenian statesman and general. A leader
 against SPARTA in the PELOPONNESIAN WAR, he was defeated at Mantinea (418
 BC). He promoted the Sicilian campaign (415) but was accused (probably
 falsely) of sacrilege. Called home for trial, he fled to Sparta, where he
 aided Agis I, and then to Persia (413). Recalled to ATHENS, he won a
 brilliant naval victory (410) and recovered Byzantium (408). Blamed
 unjustly for the defeat of the Athenian fleet at Notium (c.406), he was
 sent into exile, and LYSANDER had him murdered.

   Alcindor, Lew

 Alcindor, Lew: see ABDUL-JABBAR, KAREEM.

   alcohol

 alcohol, any of a class of organic compounds with the general formula
 R-OH, where R is an alkyl group made up of carbon and hydrogen and -OH is
 one or more hydroxyl groups, each made up of one atom of oxygen and one
 of hydrogen. Although the term alcohol ordinarily refers to ETHANOL, the
 alcohol in alcoholic beverages, the class of alcohols also includes
 METHANOL and the amyl, butyl, and propyl alcohols, all with one hydroxyl
 group; the glycols, with two hydroxyl groups; and glycerol, with three.
 Many of the characteristic properties and reactions of alcohols are due
 to the polarity, or unequal distribution, of electric charges in the
 C-O-H portion of the molecule.

   Alcoholics Anonymous

 Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), worldwide organization dedicated to the curing
 of alcoholics; est. 1935 by two former alcoholics. The organization,
 which functions through local groups, is based on a philosophy of life
 that has enabled countless numbers of people to recover from alcoholism.
 In 1988 there were 1 million members worldwide. Al-Anon, for spouses,
 relatives, and friends of alcoholics, and Al-Ateen, for their adolescent
 children, function similarly.

   alcoholism

 alcoholism, chronic illness characterized by the habitual consumption of
 alcohol to a degree that interferes with physical or mental health, or
 with normal social or occupational behavior. A widespread health problem,
 it produces both physical and psychological addiction (see DRUG ADDICTION
 AND DRUG ABUSE). Alcohol is a central nervous system DEPRESSANT that
 reduces anxiety, inhibition, and feelings of guilt; lowers alertness;
 impairs perception, judgment, and muscular coordination; and, in high
 doses, can cause unconsciousness and even death. Long-term alcoholism
 damages the brain, liver (see CIRRHOSIS), heart, and other organs.
 Symptoms of alcohol withdrawal can range from a simple hangover to severe
 delirium tremens (a condition characterized by deliriousness, violent
 trembling, hallucinations, and seizures). Treatment includes use of
 disulfiram (Antabuse), a drug that produces discomfort if alcohol is
 consumed; anti-anxiety drugs to suppress withdrawal symptoms;
 psychological counseling; and support from groups such as ALCOHOLICS
 ANONYMOUS.

   Alcott, (Amos) Bronson

 Alcott, (Amos) Bronson, 1799-1888, American educational and social
 reformer; b. near Wolcott, Conn. Despite his meager formal education, he
 became a teacher and founded Temple School in Boston. A leading exponent
 of TRANSCENDENTALISM, he was (1843) one of the founders of a cooperative
 vegetarian community, "Fruitlands," and then, as superintendent, reformed
 the Concord public schools. The poverty that plagued his life was
 eventually alleviated by the writings of his daughter Louisa May ALCOTT.

   Alcott, Louisa May

 Alcott, Louisa May, 1832-88, American writer; b. Germantown, Pa.;
 daughter of Bronson ALCOTT. Educated by her father, she was also
 influenced by her friends EMERSON and THOREAU. Alcott received notice for
 Hospital Sketches (1863), a collection of letters written while she was a
 Civil War nurse. She achieved fame with Little Women (1868-69), a largely
 autobiographical novel for young people that portrays Victorian American
 family life. Its sequels are Little Men (1871) and Jo's Boys (1886).

   Alcuin

 Alcuin or Albinus,735?-804, English churchman and educator. Invited
 (781?) to CHARLEMAGNE'S court at Aachen, he was the moving spirit of the
 CAROLINGIAN renaissance. Alcuin established the study of the seven
 liberal arts, which became the curriculum for medieval Europe, and
 encouraged the preservation of ancient texts. His letters are extant.

   Aldanov, Mark

 Aldanov, Mark, pseud. of Mark Aleksandrovich Landau, 1886-1957, Russian
 novelist. Aldanov emigrated to France in 1919 and to the U.S. in 1941.
 His works include The Thinker (1923-27), about the era from 1793 to 1821
 in France; The Tenth Symphony (1931), set in the Vienna of BEETHOVEN'S
 time; and The Fifth Seal (1939), which portrays the decay of
 revolutionary idealism during the SPANISH CIVIL WAR.

   alder

 alder, deciduous tree or shrub (genus Alnus) of the BIRCH family, widely
 distributed, especially in mountainous, moist areas of the north
 temperate zone and in the Andes. The bark of the black alder (A.
 glutinosa), once used medicinally, is still used for dyes and tanning.
 Red alder (A. rubra) is the most important hardwood on the Pacific coast
 of North America.

   Aldington, Richard

 Aldington, Richard, 1892-1962, English poet and novelist. A leading
 IMAGIST, he was married to Hilda DOOLITTLE. His poetry, e.g., Images
 (1915), is remarkable for verbal precision; his novels, e.g., Death of a
 Hero (1929) are bitter satires.

   Aldrich, Thomas Bailey

 Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, 1836-1907, American author; b. Portsmouth, N.H.
 He is most widely known for his autobiographical The Story of a Bad Boy
 (1870). A skillful writer of light verse, he also served (1881-90) as
 editor of the Atlantic Monthly.

   Aldrin, Buzz

 Aldrin, Buzz (Edwin Eugene Aldrin, Jr.), 1930-, American astronaut; b.
 Montclair, N.J. During the Apollo 11 lunar-landing mission (July 16-24,
 1969), Neil ARMSTRONG (the commander) and Aldrin (the lunar-module pilot)
 became the first and second persons, respectively, to walk on the moon
 (see SPACE EXPLORATION,). Aldrin was pilot of Gemini 12 (Nov. 11-15,
 1966) and, after retiring from NASA, served (1971-72) as commandant of
 the Aerospace Research Pilots' School at Edwards Air Force Base, Calif.

   Aldus Manutius

 Aldus Manutius or Aldo Manuzio,1450-1515, Venetian printer. A humanist
 scholar, he printed Greek and Roman classics in editions noted for
 accuracy, e.g., a five-volume set of the works of ARISTOTLE (completed
 1498). To produce small, low-cost books for scholars, he designed the
 first complete font of the Greek alphabet and the first italic TYPE
 (1501). Books produced by him are called Aldine and bear his mark, a
 dolphin and an anchor.

   ale

 ale: see BEER.

   Aleichem, Sholom

 Aleichem, Sholom: see SHOLOM ALEICHEM.

   Aleixandre, Vicente

 Aleixandre, Vicente, 1898-1984, Spanish poet. His verse includes the
 surrealist Destruction of Love (1935) and A Longing for the Light (tr.
 1979). He was awarded the 1977 Nobel Prize in literature.

   Aleman, Mateo

 Aleman, Mateo, 1547-1614?, Spanish novelist. He led a turbulent life and
 was twice jailed for debt; at 60 he settled in Mexico. His fame rests on
 the picaresque novel Guzman de Alfarache (1599-1604).

   Aleman Valdes, Miguel

 Aleman Valdes, Miguel,  1902-, president of MEXICO (1946-52). The first
 civilian president after MADERO, he initiated a vigorous program of
 modernization.

   Alembert, Jean le Rond d'

 Alembert, Jean le Rond d', 1717-83, French mathematician and philosopher,
 a leading figure of the ENLIGHTENMENT. His treatise on DYNAMICS (1743)
 enunciated d'Alembert's principle, which permitted the reduction of a
 problem in dynamics to one in STATICS. He did important work on the
 mechanics of rigid bodies, the motions of fluids and vibrating strings,
 and the three-body problem in CELESTIAL MECHANICS. Diderot made him
 coeditor of the ENCYCLOPEDIE, for which he wrote the "preliminary
 discourse" (1751) and mathematical, philosophical, and literary articles.

   Alepoudelis, Odysseus

 Alepoudelis, Odysseus: see ELYTIS, ODYSSEUS.

   Aleppo

 Aleppo or Alep,city (1981 pop. 976,727), NW Syria. Located in a
 semidesert region where grains, cotton, and fruit are grown, the city
 produces silk, dried fruits, and other goods. It was settled perhaps as
 early as the 6th millennium BC and passed to the Assyrians, Persians, and
 Seleucids. By the 4th cent. AD it was a center of Christianity in the
 Byzantine Empire. The Arabs, Seljuk Turks, and others later held it.
 Aleppo prospered under the Ottoman Turks (from 1517) and the French (from
 1918), and as part of independent Syria (from 1941). Historic structures
 include the Great Mosque (715) and the Byzantine citadel (12th cent.).

   Aleutian Islands

 Aleutian Islands, strategically important chain of rugged, volcanic
 islands, W Alaska, curving westward c.1,200 mi (1,900 km) between the
 Bering Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Unalaska, the most populous island, is
 part of the easternmost group, the Fox Islands. Extending west to a point
 near the USSR are the Andreanof, Rat, Near, and Semichi island groups.
 The Aleutians were discovered in 1741 by Vitus BERING and bought by the
 U.S. from Russia in 1867 as part of the Alaska purchase. Three western
 islands-Attu, Agattu, and Kiska-were occupied (1942-43) by Japan.

   Aleuts

 Aleuts, native inhabitants of the ALEUTIAN ISLANDS and W Alaska. They
 speak an Eskimo-Aleut language (see AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES) and, like
 the ESKIMO, resemble Siberian peoples. Their skill in hunting sea mammals
 was exploited by Russian fur traders, and wars with mainland tribes
 helped to reduce their numbers from the 20,000-25,000 estimated by Vitus
 BERING to around 1,800 today.

   Alexander III

 Alexander III, d. 1181, pope (1159-81), a Sienese born Orlando
 Bandinelli. His rule was contested by antipopes until 1178. He backed the
 LOMBARD LEAGUE in opposing Holy Roman Emperor FREDERICK I, who exiled him
 to France until 1176. A learned canon lawyer, he issued many rules for
 governing the church. In 1179 he convened the Third Lateran Council.

   Alexander VI

 Alexander VI, 1431?-1503, pope (1492-1503), a Spaniard named Rodrigo de
 Borja (Ital., Borgia). Notorious in later centuries as a corrupt and
 worldly pope, he showered his illegitimate children, Cesare and Lucretia
 BORGIA, with money and favors. Girolamo SAVONAROLA was his outspoken
 critic. Alexander opposed CHARLES VIII of France and proclaimed (1494)
 the line of demarcation between Spanish and Portuguese colonial
 possessions.

   Alexander

 Alexander, czars of Russia. Alexander I, 1777-1825 (r.1801-25), was the
 son of PAUL I. He began his reign by relaxing political repression to a
 degree. In 1805 he joined the coalition against NAPOLEON I, but after
 Russian defeats he made a tenuous alliance with France by signing the
 Treaty of Tilsit (1807). After the French invasion of Russia (1812) was
 repulsed he created the HOLY ALLIANCE, joining with METTERNICH to
 suppress national and liberal movements. His reactionary domestic
 policies led to opposition, and when his brother NICHOLAS I succeeded him
 in 1825 a revolt took place (see DECEMBRISTS). Alexander II, 1818-81
 (r.1855-81), son of Nicholas I, negotiated an end to the CRIMEAN WAR
 (1853-56; see PARIS, TREATY OF) and adopted important reforms,
 principally the emancipation of the serfs (1861; see EMANCIPATION, EDICT
 OF) and the introduction of limited local self-government. His foreign
 policy included the suppression of the Polish uprising of 1863; the
 annexation of Central Asia (1865-76); and the RUSSO-TURKISH WARS
 (1877-78). His domestic reforms were seen as insufficient by the
 intelligentsia, some of whom formed populist groups. Increasing
 repression led to terrorism, and in 1881 Alexander was assassinated.
 Alexander III, 1845-94 (r.1881-94), was the son of Alexander II.
 Surrounded by reactionary advisors, he increased police power and
 censorship; weakened the zemstvos; imposed controls on the peasantry;
 forced Russification on national minorities; and persecuted the Jews. His
 foreign policy culminated in the TRIPLE ALLIANCE AND TRIPLE ENTENTE. His
 son NICHOLAS II succeeded him.

   Alexander

 Alexander, 1893-1920, king (1917-20) of the Hellenes (Greece). He became
 Greek king when his father, CONSTANTINE I, was forced by the Allies to
 abdicate because of his pro-German sympathies. After Alexander's death,
 his father was restored to the throne.

   Alexander III

 Alexander III, king of Macedon: see ALEXANDER THE GREAT.

   Alexander

 Alexander, kings of Scotland. Alexander I, 1078?-1124 (r. 1107-24), was
 the son of MALCOLM III. He opposed English efforts to rule the church in
 Scotland and established abbeys at Inchcolm and Scone. Alexander II,
 1198-1249 (r.1214-49), joined the English barons in their revolt against
 King JOHN but made a tenuous peace with HENRY III. Alexander III, 1241-86
 (r.1249-86), acquired for Scotland the HEBRIDES and also the Isle of MAN,
 already claimed from Norway by his father.

   Alexander

 Alexander, rulers of SERBIA and YUGOSLAVIA. Alexander (Alexander
 Karadjordjevic), 1806-85, prince of Serbia (1842-58), was the son of
 KARAGEORGE. An ineffectual ruler, he was deposed in favor of MILOs
 Obrenovic. Alexander (Alexander Obrenovic), 1876-1903, king of Serbia
 (1889-1903), instituted a conservative regime but, after accepting a
 somewhat liberal constitution, was assassinated by a clique of army
 officers. Alexander, 1888-1934, king of Yugoslavia (1921-34), the son and
 successor of PETER I, became (1918) regent of the kingdom of Serbs,
 Croats, and Slovenes, which he renamed (1929) Yugoslavia. He was
 assassinated by a Yugoslav terrorist.

   Alexander, Harold Rupert Leofric George, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis

 Alexander, Harold Rupert Leofric George, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis,
 1891-1969, British field marshal. In WORLD WAR II, he commanded the
 retreats at Dunkirk (1940) and Burma (1942) and the triumphs in N Africa
 and Sicily (1943). Later he was governor general of Canada (1946-52) and
 minister of defense (1952-54) in Winston CHURCHILL'S cabinet.

   Alexander Nevsky

 Alexander Nevsky, 1220-63, Russian hero. As prince of Novgorod (1236-52)
 he earned his surname by his victory (1240) over the Swedes on the Neva
 R. He later defeated the Livonian Knights, invading from Germany (1242),
 and the Lithuanians (1245). When the TATARS occupied Russia he was made
 grand duke of Vladimir-Suzdal (1252).

   Alexander the Great

 Alexander the Great or Alexander III,356-323 BC, king of MACEDON. The son
 of PHILIP II, he was tutored by ARISTOTLE. Upon succeeding to the throne
 in 336 BC he won ascendancy over all of GREECE by putting down uprisings
 in THRACE and ILLYRIA, and by sacking THEBES. As head of an allied Greek
 army, viewing himself as the champion of pan-HELLENISM, he started east
 (334) on what was to be the greatest conquest of ancient times. He
 defeated the Persians at the battles of Granicus (334) and Issus (333).
 Tyre and Gaza fell after a year's struggle, and he entered Egypt (332),
 where he founded ALEXANDRIA. Moving to Mesopotamia, he overthrew the
 Persian Empire of DARIUS III at the battle of Gaugamela (331). Pushing on
 through eastern PERSIA (330-327), he invaded northern INDIA (326), but
 there his men would go no further. The fleet was sent back to the head of
 the Persian Gulf, and Alexander himself led his men through the desert,
 reaching Susa in 324 BC He died of a fever a year later, at age 33. He
 was incontestably one of the greatest generals of all time and one of the
 most powerful personalities of antiquity.

   Alexandra

 Alexandra, 1844-1925, queen consort of EDWARD VII of Great Britain, whom
 she married in 1863. She was the daughter of CHRISTIAN IX of Denmark.

   Alexandra Feodorovna

 Alexandra Feodorovna, 1872-1918, czarina of Russia, consort of NICHOLAS
 II. A granddaughter of Queen VICTORIA and princess of Hesse, she
 encouraged the czar's reactionary policies under the influence of
 RASPUTIN. With her family she was shot by the Bolsheviks (see
 BOLSHEVISM).

   Alexandria

 Alexandria, city (1985 pop. 2,821,000), N Egypt, on the Mediterranean
 Sea, W of the Nile R. delta. The city is Egypt's leading port, a
 commercial and transportation center, and the heart of a major industrial
 area with such manufactures as refined petroleum, textiles, and
 automobiles. Founded in 332 BC by ALEXANDER THE GREAT, Alexandria was
 (304 BC-30 BC) the capital of the PTOLEMIES. The city was the greatest
 center of Hellenistic and Jewish culture. It had a great university and
 two celebrated royal libraries, but their valuable collections have not
 survived. Alexandria became part of the empire of ROME in 30 BC and later
 of the BYZANTINE EMPIRE. The Muslim Arabs took the city in 642 AD After
 Cairo became (969) Egypt's capital, Alexandria declined. It fell to
 NAPOLEON I in 1798 and to the British in 1801. During WORLD WAR II the
 city was the chief Allied naval base in the E Mediterranean. At a 1944
 meeting in Alexandria, plans for the ARAB LEAGUE were drawn up. A few of
 Alexandria's ancient monuments are still visible. The Greco-Roman Museum
 houses a vast collection of Coptic, Roman, and Greek art.

   Alexandria

 Alexandria, city (1986 est. pop. 107,800), N Va., on the Potomac R.; inc.
 1779. A residential suburb of WASHINGTON, D.C., it also has railroad
 yards, varied industries, government buildings, and research firms. It
 was part of the DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA from 1789 to 1847. Nearby is MOUNT
 VERNON; in the city are many sites associated with George Washington.

   alexandrine

 alexandrine, in VERSIFICATION, a line of 12 syllables (or 13 if the last
 is unstressed), probably named after medieval poems in this meter about
 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. In French, rhymed alexandrine couplets are the
 classic poetic form. English iambic hexameter is often called
 alexandrine. Alexander POPE'S "Essay on Criticism" contains what is
 probably the most quoted alexandrine in literature:A needless alexandrine
 ends the song
 That like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along.

   Alexius

 Alexius, Byzantine emperors. Alexius I (Comnenus), 1048-1118
 (r.1081-1118), nephew of ISAAC I, obtained the crown by overthrowing
 Nicephorus III. He withstood the Normans under ROBERT GUISCARD and
 BOHEMOND I, and defeated the Pechenegs (1091) and CUMANS (1095). During
 the First CRUSADE he persuaded the leaders to pledge to him their
 Byzantine conquests. In 1108 he forced Bohemond, who had seized Antioch,
 to acknowledge his suzerainty. In his last years his daughter, Anna
 Comnena, intrigued against his son, JOHN II. Alexius restored Byzantine
 power but drained the empire's resources. Alexius II (Comnenus), 1168-83
 (r.1180-83), son of MANUEL I, ruled under the regency of his mother, Mary
 of Antioch. His cousin procured the deaths of Mary and Alexius and became
 Andronicus I. Alexius III (Angelus), d. after 1210 (r.1195-1203), deposed
 his brother ISAAC II, but the act served as pretext for the leaders of
 the Fourth Crusade to attack (1203) Constantinople and to restore Isaac,
 with his son Alexius IV, d. 1204, as co-emperor. Alexius V (Ducas
 Mourtzouphlos), d. 1204, son-in-law of Alexius III, overthrew Isaac and
 Alexius IV but was killed soon afterward by the Crusaders, who set up the
 Latin empire of Constantinople.

   alfalfa

 alfalfa or lucern,perennial plant (Medicago sativa) of the PULSE family,
 probably native to Persia and now widely cultivated. It is an important
 pasture and hay plant. Alfalfa is valued for its high yield of protein,
 its effectiveness in weed control, its role in crop rotation and nitrogen
 fixation, and as a source of chlorophyll and carotene.

   Al Fatah

 Al Fatah: see ARAFAT, YASIR; PALESTINE LIBERATION ORGANIZATION.

   Alfieri, Vittorio, Conte

 Alfieri, Vittorio, Conte, 1749-1803, Italian tragic poet. A Piedmontese,
 he traveled widely and returned to Italy with a desire to revive national
 spirit. He wrote 19 tragedies, among them Philip the Second, Saul, and
 Antigone, all in the French classical tradition; comedies; satire; and an
 autobiography. His collected works, published (1805-15) by his friend the
 countess of Albany, contributed greatly to the rise of Italian
 nationalism.

   Alfonso

 Alfonso,  kings of ARAGON. Alfonso I, d. 1134, king of Aragon and Navarre
 (1104-34), captured many towns from the Moors. Alfonso II, 1152-96, king
 of Aragon (1162-96), inherited Provence and conquered (1171) Teruel.
 Alfonso V (the Magnanimous), 1396-1458, king of Aragon and Sicily
 (1416-58), conquered NAPLES and was recognized by the pope as its king
 (1443-58). He maintained a splendid court there and tried to introduce
 Spanish institutions.

   Alfonso

 Alfonso, kings of Portugal. Alfonso I, 1109?-85, the first king
 (r.1139-85), extended his territories by defeating (1139) the MOORS and,
 with the help of allies, captured (1147) Lisbon. His grandson, Alfonso II
 (the Fat), 1185-1223 (r.1211-23), tried to confiscate Roman Catholic
 Church holdings and was excommunicated (1219). His army won major
 victories (1212, 1217) over the Moors. His son, Alfonso III, 1210-79
 (r.1248-79), completed (1249) the reconquest of Portugal from the Moors,
 instituted many reforms, and encouraged commerce and the development of
 towns. Alfonso IV, 1291-1357 (r.1325-57), warred fruitlessly against
 CASTILE before both kingdoms combined forces to defeat (1340) the Moors.
 He countenanced the murder of Ines de CASTRO. Alfonso V, 1432-81
 (r.1438-81), put down a civil war (1449), invaded Morocco to capture
 Tangier (1471), and lost a war (1476-79) with Castile. Alfonso VI,
 1643-83 (r.1656-83), ousted (1662) his mother as regent and appointed as
 her successor the count of Castelho Melhor, who won the war (1663-65)
 that secured Spain's recognition (1668) of Portugal's independence.

   Alfonso

 Alfonso, Spanish kings. Alfonso I (the Catholic), 693?-757, Spanish king
 of ASTURIAS (739-57), extended its territory with the help of the
 BERBERS' revolt (740-41) against the MOORS. His grandson, Alfonso II (the
 Chaste), 759-842, king of Asturias (791-842), established his capital at
 Oviedo and continued the struggle against the Moors. Alfonso III (the
 Great), 838?-911?, king of Asturias (866-911?) recovered LEON from the
 Moors, but after his forced abdication it was divided among his sons.
 Alfonso V (the Noble), 994?-1027, king of Leon (999-1027), chartered
 (1020) the city of Leon, but he was killed in the siege of Viseu. Alfonso
 VI, 1030-1109, king of Leon (1065-1109) and CASTILE (1072-1109), took
 Galicia (1073) and became the most powerful Christian ruler in Spain. He
 conquered (1085) Toledo and other cities, but was defeated twice (1086,
 1108) by Muslim armies. Alfonso VII (the Emperor), 1104-57, king of
 Castile and Leon (1126-57), gained supremacy over other Christian states
 and had himself crowned emperor (1135). But his conquests of CORDOBA
 (1146) and Almeria (1147) from the Moors were soon lost. Alfonso VIII
 (the Noble), 1155-1214, king of Castile (1158-1214), restored order in
 his kingdom and won a great victory (1212) over the Moors. Alfonso X (the
 Wise), 1221-84, king of Castile and Leon (1252-84), took CADIZ from the
 Moors (1262). His subjection of the nobles led to a revolt, and a civil
 war broke out over the succession during his last years. He was a great
 patron of science and the arts. The Alfonsine Tables of astronomical data
 were published under his aegis. Alfonso XI, 1311-50, king of Castile and
 Leon (1312-50), lost Gibraltar to the Moors (1333) but won the great
 victory of Tarifa (1340) and conquered Algeciras (1344). Alfonso XII,
 1857-85, king of Spain (1874-85), was a popular monarch who consolidated
 the monarchy, suppressed republican agitation, and restored order.
 Alfonso XIII, 1886-1941, king of Spain (1886-1931), supported the
 military dictatorship (1923-30) of Miguel PRIMO DE RIVERA, but social
 unrest and a republican election victory led to his deposition and exile
 (1931).

   Alfred

 Alfred, 849-99, king of WESSEX (871-99), sometimes called Alfred the
 Great. The son of AETHELWULF, he shared his father's piety. When his
 brother AETHELRED took the Wessex throne (865), Alfred aided him in
 battles against the Danes, who threatened to overrun England. Unable to
 establish a clear victory, Alfred rid Wessex of the Danes by paying the
 DANEGELD when he became king in 871. In 878, however, the Danes returned,
 and Alfred's flight to Somerset at that time is the basis for the legend
 about the king and a peasant woman's burned cakes. In May 878, Alfred
 triumphed over the Danes at Edington. This victory produced relative
 security, and Alfred began to institute reforms, including a code of laws
 combining Christian doctrine with a strong, centralized monarchy. His
 greatest achievements were the creation of a navy, the revival of
 learning among the clergy, the education of youths and nobles at court,
 the establishment of Old English literary prose, his own English
 translation of Latin works, and his influence on the extant form of the
 ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE.

   algae

 algae, primitive plants that contain CHLOROPHYLL and carry on
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS but lack true roots, stems, and leaves. They are the chief
 aquatic plant life both in the sea and freshwater; nearly all SEAWEEDS
 are marine algae. Algae occur as microscopic single cells (e.g., DIATOMS)
 and more complex forms of many cells grouped in spherical colonies (e.g.,
 Volvox), in ribbonlike filaments (e.g., Spirogyra), and in giant forms
 (e.g., the marine kelps). The cells of colonies are generally similar,
 but some are specialized for reproduction and other functions. The
 blue-green and green algae include most of the freshwater forms, such as
 pond scum, a green slime found in stagnant water. Brown and red algae are
 more complex-chiefly marine forms whose green chlorophyll is masked by
 the presence of other pigments. Algae are primary food producers in the
 food chain and also provide oxygen for aquatic life.

   algebra

 algebra, branch of MATHEMATICS concerned with operations on sets of
 numbers or other elements that are often represented by symbols. In
 elementary algebra, letters are used to stand for numbers, e.g., in the
 POLYNOMIAL equation ax2+bx+c=0, the letters a, b, and c are called the
 coefficients of the EQUATION and stand for fixed numbers, or constants.
 The letter x stands for an unknown number, or variable, whose value
 depends on the values of a, b, and c and may be determined by solving the
 equation. Much of classical algebra is concerned with finding solutions
 to equations or systems of equations, i.e., finding the ROOTS, or values
 of the unknowns, that upon substitution into the original equation will
 make it a numerical identity. Algebra is a generalization of ARITHMETIC
 and gains much of its power from dealing symbolically with elements and
 operations (chiefly addition and multiplication) and relationships (such
 as equality) connecting the elements. Thus a+a=2a and a+b=b+a no matter
 what numbers a and b represent.

   Alger, Horatio

 Alger, Horatio, 1834-99, American writer of boys' stories; b. Revere,
 Mass. The heroes of his over 100 books, e.g., Ragged Dick (1867), gain
 success by leading exemplary lives and struggling valiantly against
 poverty and adversity.

   Algeria

 Algeria, Arab. Al Djazair, Fr. Algerie, officially Democratic and Popular
 Republic of Algeria, republic (1986 est. pop. 22,600,000), 919,590 sq mi
 (2,381,741 sq km), NW Africa, bordered by Mauritania, Morocco, and
 Western Sahara (W), the Mediterranean Sea (N), Tunisia and Libya (E), and
 Niger and Mali (S). The principal cities are ALGIERS (the capital) and
 ORAN. The ATLAS MTS. divide northern Algeria into a coastal lowland strip
 (the Tell) and a semiarid plateau. In the south is the much larger, but
 arid and sparsely populated, Saharan region; Algeria's highest point, Mt.
 Tahat (9,541 ft/2,908 m), in the Ahaggar Mts., is located here. About
 half of Algeria's work force are farmers, producing cereals, wine, and
 citrus fruits, but mining and manufacturing, developed since the 1960s,
 contribute the bulk of the national income. Petroleum is the leading
 export, and much natural gas is produced, with proven reserves that are
 among the world's largest. The state plays a leading role in planning the
 economy and owns many important industrial concerns. The great majority
 of the population are Sunni Muslim Berbers and Arabs; Europeans, who
 before independence accounted for 10% of the total, now are only 1% of
 the population. Arabic is the official language, but French is widely
 spoken, and a sizable minority (15%) speaks a Berber language.

 History The earliest known inhabitants of the region that is now Algeria
 were Berber-speaking nomads who were settled there by the 2d millennium
 BC As NUMIDIA, it became (9th cent. BC) a province of Carthage and then
 (106 BC) of Rome; during the Christian era, St. AUGUSTINE (354-430) was
 bishop at Hippo (now Annaba). With Rome's decline in the 5th cent. AD,
 Algeria was conquered by the Vandals (430-31), the Byzantine Empire (6th
 cent.), and finally, in the late 7th and early 8th cent., by the Arabs,
 whose introduction of Islam profoundly altered the character of the area.
 Spain captured the coastal cities in the 15th cent. but was expelled
 (mid-16th cent.) with the help of the Ottoman Turks, who assumed control.
 During this period the Algerian coast was a stronghold of pirates and a
 center of the slave trade. France invaded Algeria in 1830 and declared it
 a colony in 1848. Europeans began to arrive in large numbers, dominating
 the government and the economy, and leaving the native Muslim population
 with scant political or economic power. A nationalist movement began to
 develop after World War I, and a war for independence, led by the
 National Liberation Front (FLN), broke out in 1954. After more than seven
 years of bitter fighting, in which at least 100,000 Muslim and 10,000
 French soldiers were killed, Algeria became independent on July 3, 1962.
 Since independence, Algeria has been a prominent nonaligned state and a
 champion of the movements against white minority rule in Africa. It
 supported the protracted struggle of the Polisario Front for the
 independence of WESTERN SAHARA (formerly Spanish Sahara) from Morocco,
 and in 1981 it acted as intermediary between the U.S. and Iran in
 negotiations for the release of American hostages seized in 1979.

   Algiers

 Algiers, city (1983 pop. 1,721,607), capital of Algeria, N Algeria, on
 the Bay of Algiers of the Mediterranean Sea. It is a major North African
 port, a winter resort, and a commercial center. Industries include
 metallurgy, oil refining, and automotive construction. Founded by the
 Phoenicians, the city disappeared after the fall of the Roman Empire and
 was reestablished in the late 10th cent. by the Muslims. The French
 captured the port in 1830. During WORLD WAR II Algiers was Allied
 headquarters in North Africa. The city played an important role in the
 Algerian independence struggle (1954-62). Algiers is divided into the
 newer, French-built sector and the original Muslim quarter, with its
 16th-cent. casbah fortress.

   ALGOL

 ALGOL: see PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE.

   Algonquian

 Algonquian, branch of the Algonquian-Wakashan linguistic family of North
 America. See AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES.

   Alhazen

 Alhazen: see IBN AL-HAYTHAM.

   Ali, Muhammad

 Ali, Muhammad, 1942-, American boxer; b. Louisville, Ky., as Cassius
 Marcellus Clay, Jr. He changed (1964) his name when he became a BLACK
 MUSLIM. After winning (1960) an Olympic gold medal, he defeated (1964)
 Sonny Liston for the heavyweight crown, but was stripped of the title in
 1967 when he refused induction into the U.S. armed forces on religious
 grounds. In 1971 the U.S. Supreme Court upheld his draft appeal. Ali
 regained the title in 1974 by defeating George Foreman, lost it to Leon
 Spinks in 1978, but won it a third time (from Spinks) later that year.
 Ali lost to Larry Holmes in 1980.

   Alice Springs

 Alice Springs, town (1986 pop. 22,759), Northern Territory, central
 Australia. It is the center of an area with cattle ranches and aborigine
 reservations. Gold, copper, wolfram, and mica are mined nearby. The town
 was called Stuart until 1933.

   alien

 alien, in law, a resident of a state who is not a national or citizen of
 that state. A country may exclude individuals or groups it deems
 undesirable; most, for example, bar criminals, paupers, and the diseased.
 With some exceptions, e.g., diplomats, aliens are subject to the laws of
 the country in which they reside. Permanent residents may be liable to
 taxation and military conscription. In the U.S., aliens are required to
 register each year; an alien may acquire citizenship by a legal procedure
 known as NATURALIZATION.

   Alien and Sedition Acts

 Alien and Sedition Acts, 1798, four laws passed by the
 Federalist-controlled U.S. Congress in response to the threat of war with
 France (see XYZ AFFAIR). Designed to destroy the Jeffersonian Republicans
 who expressed sympathy for France, the laws lengthened the residency
 requirement for citizenship, empowered the president to expel "dangerous"
 aliens, and proscribed spoken or written criticism of the government. The
 Acts provoked the KENTUCKY AND VIRGINIA RESOLUTIONS.

   aliens, illegal

 aliens, illegal, citizens of foreign countries who lack legal status in
 the country in which they are living. In the U.S., most illegal ALIENS
 came from Latin America. A 1986 law to stop the flow and end the
 underground lives of these aliens made it illegal for employers to hire
 them and granted legal status to those who could prove continuous
 residence in the U.S. since before Jan. 1, 1982. Special allowances were
 made for seasonal farm workers. Although an estimated 3.9 million aliens
 were eligible, only about half applied before the May 1988 deadline.

   Ali ibn Abu Talib

 Ali ibn Abu Talib, d. 661, cousin and son-in-law of MUHAMMAD, fourth
 caliph of the Islamic community, and martyred hero and first imam of the
 SHIITE movement in Islam. As a child, he became one of Muhammad's first
 converts. He married Muhammad's youngest daughter, Fatima, and twice
 commanded the Prophet's armies. During the civil war that broke out (656)
 between various factions of the early Muslim community, he was elevated
 to the caliphate. His murder at Kufa, Iraq, inspired the Shiite movement
 (shi'ah="party," i.e., of Ali), which regards Ali as Muhammad's chosen
 successor.

   alimony

 alimony: see DIVORCE.

   Ali Pasha

 Ali Pasha, 1744?-1822, Turkish governor of Yannina (1787-1820), a Greek
 province of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE. He ruled as a quasi-independent despot
 over most of Albania and Epirus. He resisted (1820) Turkish military
 efforts to depose him, tying up troops needed against the rebels in the
 Greek War of Independence. He was assassinated.

   alkali

 alkali, HYDROXIDE of an ALKALI METAL. Alkalies are soluble in water and
 form strongly basic solutions. They neutralize acids, forming salts and
 water. Strong alkalies (e.g., those of sodium or potassium) are called
 caustic alkalies. The term alkali is sometimes applied to sodium or
 potassium carbonate or to the hydroxide of an ALKALINE-EARTH METAL.

   alkali metals

 alkali metals, elements in group Ia of the PERIODIC TABLE. In order of
 increasing atomic number, they are LITHIUM, SODIUM, POTASSIUM, RUBIDIUM,
 CESIUM, and FRANCIUM. They are softer than other metals, and have lower
 melting points and densities. All react violently with water, releasing
 hydrogen and forming hydroxides. They tarnish rapidly, even in dry air.
 They never occur uncombined in nature.

   alkaline-earth metals

 alkaline-earth metals, elements in group IIa of the PERIODIC TABLE. In
 order of increasing atomic number, they are BERYLLIUM, MAGNESIUM,
 CALCIUM, STRONTIUM, BARIUM, and RADIUM. They are softer than most other
 metals and react readily with water. Their properties are exceeded by the
 corresponding ALKALI METAL.

   alkaline earths

 alkaline earths, oxides of the ALKALINE-EARTH METALS. They are not
 readily soluble in water and form solutions less basic than those of
 ALKALIES.

   alkaloid

 alkaloid, any of a class of organic compounds composed of carbon,
 hydrogen, nitrogen, and usually oxygen, that are often derived from
 plants. The name means alkalilike, but some alkaloids do not exhibit
 alkaline properties. Many alkaloids, though poisons, have physiological
 effects that render them valuable as medicines. For example, curarine,
 found in the deadly extract CURARE, is a powerful muscle relaxant;
 atropine is used to dilate the pupils of the eye; and physostigmine is a
 specific for certain muscular diseases. Narcotic alkaloids used in
 medicine include MORPHINE and CODEINE for pain relief and COCAINE as a
 local anesthetic. Other common alkaloids include CAFFEINE, LSD, QUININE,
 SEROTONIN, STRYCHNINE, and nicotine.

   alkane, alkene

 alkane, alkene, and alkyne:see HYDROCARBON.

   Allah

 Allah: see ISLAM.

   allegory

 allegory, in literature, symbolic story that serves as a disguised
 representation for meanings other than those indicated on the surface.
 Its characters are often mere embodiments of moral qualities. Allegory is
 closely related to PARABLE and FABLE. EVERYMAN, John BUNYAN'S Pilgrim's
 Progress, and Edmund SPENSER'S Faerie Queen are notable allegories.

   Allen, Ethan

 Allen, Ethan, 1738-89, American Revolutionary hero; b. Litchfield (?),
 Conn. In 1775 he led the GREEN MOUNTAIN BOYS at the capture of Fort
 TICONDEROGA and was captured by the British in an expedition against
 Canada. Exchanged in 1778, he promoted independence and statehood for
 Vermont. His brother, Ira Allen, 1751-1814, was a political leader in
 Vermont.

   Allen, Gracie

 Allen, Gracie: see BURNS, GEORGE.

   Allen, Woody

 Allen, Woody, 1935-, American film director, writer, and actor; b.
 Brooklyn, N.Y., as Allen Stewart Konigsberg. His film comedies, which
 often depict neurotic urban characters preoccupied with sex, death, and
 psychiatry, include Sleeper (1973), Annie Hall (1977; Academy Award),
 Broadway Danny Rose (1984), and Hannah and Her Sisters (1987).

   Allende Gossens, Salvador

 Allende Gossens, Salvador, 1908-73, president of CHILE (1970-73). A
 founder of the Chilean Socialist party (1933), he was elected president
 of Chile by a narrow plurality (1970)-the first freely elected Marxist
 leader in the Americas. His socialist program disrupted the economy and
 led to inflation and widespread strikes. During the army coup that
 overthrew (1973) his regime, he either was murdered or committed suicide.

   Allentown

 Allentown, city (1986 est. pop. 104,360), seat of Lehigh co., E Pa., on
 the Lehigh R.; founded 1762, inc. as a city 1867. It is a commercial and
 industrial center in the agricultural Lehigh Valley. Trucks, chemicals,
 and machinery are manufactured; food products include potatoes, feed
 grains, and beer. The city was settled by members of various German
 religious groups. Muhlenberg is one of several colleges located there.

   allergy

 allergy, adverse physical reaction of some people to substances that are
 not toxic per se and are innocuous to other people. Allergens, or
 allergy-producing substances, cause the release of histamine, an organic
 compound responsible for allergic symptoms. There are various types of
 allergens: airborne (e.g., pollen), which may cause sneezing, as with
 hayfever, or asthma; contactants (e.g., poison ivy and dyes), which often
 cause rashes; food (e.g., chocolate or fish), which may cause a rash,
 such as eczema or hives, or a respiratory reaction; or drugs (e.g., sulfa
 drugs), which in the allergic person can cause a violent reaction.
 Treatment includes desensitization (injections), antihistamine drugs, and
 avoidance of allergens.

   Alleyn, Edward

 Alleyn, Edward, 1566-1626, English actor. The only rival of Richard
 BURBAGE, he played the title roles in Christopher MARLOWE'S Tamburlaine,
 Jew of Malta, and Faustus.

   Alliance for Progress

 Alliance for Progress: see ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES.

   alligator

 alligator, aquatic REPTILE (genus Alligator) in the same order as the
 CROCODILE. The American alligator (A. mississipiensis) is found in swamps
 and streams from North Carolina to Florida and along the Gulf Coast. The
 young are brown or black with yellow bands; adults are solid black. Males
 commonly reach a length of 9 ft (2.7 m) and a weight of 250 lb (110 kg).
 The alligator is protected by law.

   Alliluyeva, Svetlana

 Alliluyeva, Svetlana, 1926-, only daughter of Soviet leader Joseph
 STALIN. In 1966 she defected to the West, becoming a U.S. citizen. She
 has written Twenty Letters to a Friend (1967) and Only One Year (1969).

   allotropy

 allotropy, the occurrence of certain chemical elements in two or more
 forms; the forms are called allotropes. Allotropes generally differ in
 physical properties, such as color and hardness; they may also differ in
 molecular structure or in chemical activity but are usually alike in most
 chemical properties. DIAMOND and GRAPHITE are two allotropes of the
 element CARBON.

   alloy

 alloy, substance with metallic properties consisting of a METAL fused
 with one or more metals or nonmetals. An alloy may be a homogeneous solid
 solution, a heterogeneous mixture of tiny crystals, a true chemical
 compound, or a mixture of these. Alloys generally have properties
 different from those of their constituent elements and are used more
 extensively than pure metals. Alloys of IRON and CARBON are among the
 most widely used and include CAST IRON and STEEL. Brass and BRONZE are
 important alloys of COPPER. Because pure GOLD and SILVER are too soft for
 many uses, they are often alloyed, either with each other or with other
 metals, e.g., copper or PLATINUM. Amalgams are alloys that contain
 MERCURY. Other alloys include BRITANNIA METAL, DURALUMIN, and SOLDER.

   All Saints' Day

 All Saints' Day, Nov. 1, feast of the Roman Catholic and Anglican
 churches, the day God is glorified for all his saints, known and unknown.
 Roman Catholics are obliged to hear Mass on this day. In medieval England
 it was called All Hallows; hence the name Halloween (Hallows' eve) for
 the preceding day (Oct. 31).

   allspice

 allspice: see PIMENTO.

   Allston, Washington

 Allston, Washington, 1779-1843, American painter; b. Georgetown co., S.C.
 Allston traveled to London, where he studied with Benjamin WEST. Many of
 his greatest works, marked by a controlled romanticism, were done in
 England (1810-18). Allston's finest paintings are lyrical landscapes,
 e.g., Moonlit Landscape (1819; Mus. Fine Arts, Boston).

   Almagest

 Almagest: see PTOLEMY (Claudius Ptolemaeus).

   Almagro, Diego de

 Almagro, Diego de, c.1475-1538, Spanish CONQUISTADOR, partner of
 Francisco PIZARRO in the exploration and conquest (after 1532) of the
 INCA civilization in Peru. He was later executed for rebellion by order
 of Hernando Pizarro.

   Al Manamah

 Al Manamah, city (1987 est. pop. 121,986), capital of Bahrain, on the
 PERSIAN GULF. It has oil refineries and light industries and is a free
 port.

   Almeida, Francisco de

 Almeida, Francisco de, c.1450-1510, Portuguese admiral, first viceroy of
 Portuguese India (1505-9). He developed Portugal's trade with India by
 making alliances with Indian rulers and other tactics. He thwarted
 Egypt's commercial challenge by winning a great sea battle.

   Almohads

 Almohads, Berber Muslim dynasty that ruled Morocco and Spain in the 12th
 and 13th cent. It had its origins in the puritanical sect founded c.1120
 by ibn Tumart. By 1174 the Almohads had completely displaced the ruling
 ALMORAVIDS. The Almohads, in turn, were defeated in Spain by the Spanish
 and Portuguese in 1212, and in Morocco by the Merenid dynasty in 1269.

   almond

 almond, name for a small tree (Prunus amygdalus) of the ROSE family and
 for the nutlike edible seed of its drupe fruit. Almonds are now
 cultivated mainly in the Orient, Italy, Spain, and California. Almond
 fruit is fleshless; otherwise, the tree closely resembles the peach tree.
 Almond oil, pressed from the nut, is used for flavoring and in soaps and
 cosmetics.

   Almoravids

 Almoravids, Berber Muslim dynasty that ruled Morocco and Muslim Spain in
 the 11th and 12th cent. They founded MARRAKESH as the capital of their
 powerful empire. Called on for help by the Moors in Spain, they defeated
 (1086) ALFONSO VI of Castile and displaced the local Moorish rulers.
 Never entirely stable, the dynasty was overthrown by the ALMOHADS in
 1174.

   Almquist, Carl Jonas Love

 Almquist, Carl Jonas Love, 1793-1866, Swedish author. The Book of the
 Thorn Rose (14 vol., 1832-51) contains most of his novels, stories,
 plays, and poems, which range from a bizarre romanticism to realism. A
 clergyman, teacher, and socialist, he was accused of forgery and
 suspected of murder. He fled to the U.S. and after 1865 lived in Germany
 under an assumed name.

   aloe

 aloe, succulent perennials (genus Aloe) of the LILY family, native
 chiefly to Africa, but cultivated elsewhere. The leaves contain aloin, a
 purgative. Various drug-yielding species are used medicinally, as well as
 for X-ray-burn treatment, insect repellent, and transparent pigment.
 Biblical aloes is unrelated. American and false aloe are agaves of the
 AMARYLLIS family.

   Alonso, Alicia

 Alonso, Alicia (ale'sya alon'so), 1921-, Cuban ballerina and
 choreographer. She danced on Broadway before soloing with several
 companies. She had a huge repertoire that ranged from classical to MODERN
 DANCE. Her own works, e.g., La Tinaja (1942), were created for her Cuban
 company, founded in 1948, which is now the National Ballet.

   Alorese

 Alorese,  inhabitants of the mountainous forest interiors of Alor and
 Panta, two Indonesian-controlled islands in the Lesser Sunda chain. They
 cultivate maize, rice, and root crops and maintain their traditional
 ways, which include polygamy and an animalistic religion. Their
 population is about 100,000.

   alpaca

 alpaca, partially domesticated South American hoofed MAMMAL. The highland
 tribes of Bolivia, Chile, and Peru breed the alpaca for its wool, which
 is shaded from black through brown to white and has been exported since
 1836. Alpacas feed on grasses and require a pure water supply. Like the
 LLAMA, the alpaca belongs to the CAMEL family.

   Alp Arslan

 Alp Arslan, 1029-72, Seljuk sultan of PERSIA (1063-72). He won great
 victories over the Byzantine Christians, especially at Manzikert (1071),
 and conquered Syria. He was murdered by one of his prisoners of war.

   alphabet

 alphabet, system of WRITING, theoretically having a one-for-one relation
 between character (or letter) and phoneme (see PHONETICS AND PHONEMICS).
 Few alphabets have achieved an ideal exactness. A system of writing is
 called a syllabary when one character represents a syllable rather than a
 phoneme, e.g., the kana used in Japanese. The precursors of the alphabet
 were the iconographic and ideographic writing of ancient man, such as
 CUNEIFORM and the HIEROGLYPHIC writing of the Egyptians. The alphabet of
 modern Western Europe is the Roman alphabet. Russian, Serbian, Bulgarian,
 and many languages of the USSR are written in the Cyrillic alphabet, an
 augmented Greek alphabet. Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic all have their own
 alphabets. The most important writing of India is the Devanagari, an
 alphabet with syllabic features. The Roman alphabet is derived from the
 Greeks, who had imitated the Phoenician alphabet. The exact steps are
 unknown, but the Phoenician, Hebrew, Arabic, and Devanagari systems are
 based ultimately on signs of Egyptian hieroglyphic writing. Two European
 alphabets of the late Roman era were the RUNES and the ogham. An exotic
 modern system is the Cherokee syllabary of SEQUOYAH.

   alphanumeric

 alphanumeric or alphameric,the alphabetic, numeric, and special
 characters-such as mathematical symbols and punctuation marks-used in
 COMPUTER input and output.

   alpha particle

 alpha particle, a particle emitted in one of the three forms of natural
 RADIOACTIVITY.

   Alps

 Alps, great mountain system of S central Europe, c.500 mi (800 km) long
 and c.100 mi (160 km) wide, curving in a great arc through parts of
 France, Italy, Switzerland, Germany, and Austria. The mountains are known
 for their towering, snowcapped peaks, deep U-shaped glacial valleys,
 modern glaciers, and many fine lakes such as Geneva, Lucerne, Como,
 Garda, and Maggiore. Famous winter sports centers in the Alps include
 Chamonix, SAINT MORITZ, Kitzbuhel, Cortina d'Ampezzo, and INNSBRUCK. The
 principal peaks include MONT BLANC (15,771 ft/4,807 m), the highest; Gran
 Paradiso; MATTERHORN; Jungfrau; and Grossglockner. The Alps are crossed
 by three of the world's longest tunnels-the Simplon, St. Gotthard, and
 Mont Cenis-and by many routes such as the BRENNER PASS and the Great and
 Little St. Bernard passes.

   Alsace-Lorraine

 Alsace-Lorraine, region of NE France, bounded by Belgium, Luxembourg, and
 West Germany (N and E). Alsace lies to the east of Lorraine. Hops are
 grown, and vineyards are numerous. Potassium, iron, and coal deposits are
 exploited, and Lorraine leads France in steel output. STRASBOURG is
 Alsace's leading industrial center. Most of the population speaks French,
 but German is also spoken, especially around Metz. Both Alsace and
 Lorraine were included in the HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE. Lorraine emerged as a
 duchy, and Alsace was divided into many fiefs and free cities by the 13th
 cent. France gradually acquired both regions in the 17th and 18th cent.
 As a result of the FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR (1870-71) much of the area was
 annexed to Germany and formed the "imperial land" of Alsace-Lorraine.
 After WORLD WAR I Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France, but it was
 again annexed (1940-45) to Germany during WORLD WAR II.

   Altaic

 Altaic, subfamily of the URALIC AND ALTAIC family of languages. See
 LANGUAGE.

   Altamira

 Altamira: see PALEOLITHIC ART.

   Altdorfer, Albrecht

 Altdorfer, Albrecht, 1480-1538, German painter and engraver. His romantic
 allegorical and biblical works, e.g., Susannah at the Bath (1526; Alte
 Pinakothek, Munich), vibrate with intense movement. He was perhaps the
 first German to paint pure landscape.

   alternating current

 alternating current: see ELECTRICITY; GENERATOR; MOTOR, ELECTRIC.

   alternator

 alternator: see GENERATOR.

   Altgeld, John Peter

 Altgeld, John Peter, 1847-1902, American politician, governor (1892-96)
 of Illinois; b. Germany. A Democrat and a staunch defender of human
 rights, he pardoned three men convicted for the HAYMARKET SQUARE RIOT of
 1886, and protested the sending of federal troops to end the Pullman
 strike (1894). His liberal actions lost him reelection (1896).

   Althing

 Althing, parliament of ICELAND. The oldest assembly in Europe, first
 convened in 930, it voted Iceland's independence from Denmark in 1944. It
 comprises a lower house (two thirds of members) and an upper house (one
 third). Members are elected by a system of proportional representation.

   altimeter

 altimeter, device for measuring altitude. The most common type, used in
 airplanes and balloons and by mountain climbers, consists of an aneroid
 BAROMETER, calibrated so that the drop in atmospheric pressure indicates
 the linear elevation. The radio altimeter indicates the actual altitude
 over the earth's surface by measuring the time it takes for a radio
 signal to travel to earth and back.

   altiplano

 altiplano, densely populated upland plateau (alt. c.12,000 ft/3,660 m) in
 the ANDES of Bolivia and Peru. It has a cool climate and bleak aspect.
 Potatoes and hardy grains are the chief crops; mining is the principal
 industry. LA PAZ and Oruro, in Bolivia, are the largest cities.

   altitude, in astronomy

 altitude, in astronomy: see ASTRONOMICAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS.

   alto

 alto: see VOICE.

   alumina

 alumina or aluminum oxide, chemical compound (Al2O3) that is widely
 distributed in nature and occurs combined with silica and other minerals
 in clays, feldspars, and micas, and in almost pure form in CORUNDUM. It
 is the major component of BAUXITE and is used in the production of
 ALUMINUM metal. Alumina is also used as an ABRASIVE, in ceramics, in
 pigments, and in the manufacture of chemicals.

   aluminum

 aluminum (Al), metallic element, used in antiquity but first isolated by
 Friedrich WOHLER in 1827; also called aluminium. The silver-white metal
 is ductile and malleable, and conducts heat and electricity. Although
 very reactive chemically, aluminum resists corrosion by forming a
 protective oxide (alumina) coating. The most abundant metal in the
 earth's crust (about 8% by weight), it occurs combined with other
 elements in such minerals as alum, BAUXITE, CORUNDUM, CRYOLITE, FELDSPAR,
 and MICA. Aluminum and its compounds are used in paints, foil, jewelry,
 and welding. Aluminum wire, cheaper and lighter than copper wire, is used
 in high-tension power transmission. The strong, hard alloy DURALUMIN is
 used in aircraft. See ELEMENT; PERIODIC TABLE.

   aluminum oxide

 aluminum oxide: see ALUMINA.

   Alvarado, Pedro de

 Alvarado, Pedro de, 1486-1541, Spanish CONQUISTADOR. A chief lieutenant
 of Hernan CORTES during the conquest of MEXICO, Alvarado conquered
 GUATEMALA in 1523 and served as governor until his death. Exercising
 absolute control, he founded many cities and developed the colony while
 searching for the fabled Seven Cities of Cibola. He was killed quelling
 an Indian rebellion in W Mexico.

   Alvarez, Luis Walter

 Alvarez, Luis Walter, 1911-88, American physicist; b. San Francisco. He
 was awarded the 1968 Nobel Prize in physics for the development of the
 liquid-hydrogen bubble chamber (see PARTICLE DETECTOR). He also helped
 develop the ground-control approach system for aircraft in the 1940s and
 played an important part in the MANHATTAN PROJECT.

   alyssum

 alyssum, chiefly annual and perennial herb (genus Alyssum) of the MUSTARD
 family, native to the Mediterranean. Some species, with masses of yellow
 or white flowers, are cultivated as rock-garden and border ornamentals.
 The annual sweet alyssum has fragrant white or lilac blossoms. Once
 called madwort or healbite, alyssum was thought to cure rabies.

   Alzheimer's disease

 Alzheimer's disease, degenerative disease of the brain cells producing
 loss of memory and general intellectual impairment. It usually affects
 people in their forties, fifties, and sixties. As the disease progresses,
 a variety of symptoms may become apparent, including confusion,
 irritability, and restlessness, as well as disorientation and impaired
 judgment and concentration. The cause is unknown, and there is no known
 treatment, although tranquilizers are sometimes used to reduce agitation
 and unpredictable behavior.

   Am

 Am, chemical symbol of the element AMERICIUM.

   AM

 AM: see MODULATION.

   Amadeus VIII

 Amadeus VIII, 1383-1451, duke (from 1416) of Savoy and antipope (1439-49)
 with the name Felix V. The last of the antipopes, he was elected at the
 Council of BASEL, but had few supporters. He yielded his claim when
 Nicholas V became pope.

   Amado, Jorge

 Amado, Jorge, 1912-, Brazilian novelist. His vibrant novels of the lives
 of ordinary Brazilians include The Violent Land (1942), Gabriela, Clove
 and Cinnamon (1958), the ebullient Dona Flor and Her Two Husbands (1966),
 and Pen, Sword, Camisole (1985).

   Amalekites

 Amalekites, aboriginal people of CANAAN and the Sinai peninsula. They
 waged war against the Hebrews, until dispersed by SAUL and DAVID. Ex.
 17.8-16; 1 Sam. 30.1-20.

   amalgam

 amalgam: see ALLOY.

   Amalric

 Amalric or Amaury,Latin kings of Jerusalem. Amalric I, c.1137-1174
 (r.1162-74), lost the suzerainty of Egypt to the Turkish sultan Nur
 ad-Din and eventually to SALADIN. Amalric II, c.1155-1205 (r.1197-1205),
 married the daughter of Amalric I. He was also king of Cyprus
 (1194-1205).

   Amalthea

 Amalthea, in astronomy, natural satellite of JUPITER.

   amaranth

 amaranth, common name for the family Amaranthaceae (also called the
 pigweed family), herbs, trees, and vines found mainly in warm regions of
 the Americas and Africa. The genus Amaranthus includes several species
 called amaranth, characterized by a lasting red pigment in the stems and
 leaves; common weeds, e.g., the green amaranth (A. retroflexus); and
 various plants known as TUMBLEWEED and pigweed. Some species have long
 been used as potherbs and cereals in the Old and New World. The globe
 amaranth, or BACHELOR'S BUTTON (genus Gomphrenia), and the cockscomb
 (genus Celosia) are tropical annuals that are dried and used in
 everlasting bouquets.

   Amarillo

 Amarillo, city (1986 est. pop. 165,850), seat of Potter co., N Tex.; inc.
 1899. A plains city, it is the commercial and industrial center of the
 Texas Panhandle. Oil, gas, helium, and zinc are produced, along with
 various manufactures. The city handles grains and livestock raised in the
 area. It grew with the coming (1887) of the railroad and became an
 industrial city after the discovery of gas (1918) and oil (1921).

   amaryllis

 amaryllis, common name for some members of the Amaryllidaceae, a family
 of mostly perennial plants with flat, narrow leaves and lilylike flowers
 borne on separate, leafless stalks. Widely distributed, they are found
 especially in tropical and subtropical lowlands. Ornamentals of the
 family are mistaken for plants of the LILY family, which differ in the
 position of the ovary (see FLOWER). The family includes the
 showy-blossomed true amaryllis, or belladonna lily (Amaryllis
 belladonna); NARCISSUS; and the snowdrops (genus Galanthus), whose small,
 early-blooming flowers are symbolic of consolation and promise. The genus
 Agave, the tropical American counterpart of the African genus ALOE,
 contains the most economically important plants in the family. Different
 agaves provide soap, food, beverages, and fiber (see SISAL HEMP).

   Amaury

 Amaury. For persons thus named, see AMALRIC.

   Amazon

 Amazon, world's second longest river, flowing c.3,900 mi (6,280 km) west
 across N South America to enter the Atlantic Ocean through a wide delta
 in N Brazil. It is formed by the junction in N Peru of the Ucayili and
 Maranon rivers. It has more than 500 tributaries, drains c.40% of the
 continent, and carries more water than any other river in the world. The
 Amazon traverses a sparsely populated and largely undeveloped region that
 contains the world's largest rain forest (selva). There are no waterfalls
 or other obstructions along its course, and ships of 14-ft (4-m) draft
 can travel very nearly its full length (to Iquitos, Peru). Belem and
 Manaus in Brazil are other ports.

   Amazon

 Amazon, in Greek mythology, one of a tribe of warlike women from Asia
 Minor. The Amazons had a matriarchal society, in which women governed and
 fought while men performed the household tasks. Several Greek heroes
 proved their mettle against Amazons, e.g., HERCULES and THESEUS.

   amber

 amber, yellow to brown fossil RESIN exuded by coniferous trees now
 extinct; the best amber is transparent. Highly polished amber is used to
 make small decorative objects, e.g., beads and amulets. When rubbed with
 a cloth, amber becomes charged with static electricity. Bubbles of air,
 leaves, bits of wood, or insects, sometimes of extinct species, are often
 found trapped in amber. The chief source of the world's amber is the
 Baltic coast of Germany.

   ambergris

 ambergris, a waxlike substance that is formed in the intestine of the
 sperm whale. It is found floating on tropical seas or cast up on the
 shore in yellow, gray, black, or variegated masses. Greatly valued from
 earliest times, ambergris is now used as a fixative in perfumes.

   Ambler, Eric

 Ambler, Eric, 1909-, English novelist. He is the author of popular
 suspense stories, usually involving international intrigue, e.g., A
 Coffin for Dimitrios (1939), To Catch a Spy (1964), and The Care of Time
 (1981).

   Amboise, Jacques d'

 Amboise, Jacques d': see D'AMBOISE, JACQUES.

   Ambrose, Saint

 Ambrose, Saint, 340?-397, bishop of MILAN, Doctor of the Church. A
 popular governor in Milan, Ambrose was made (374) bishop by popular
 demand. He opposed ARIANISM and was an adviser to Emperor Gratian, whom
 he persuaded to outlaw (379) heresy in the West. His preaching helped to
 convert St. AUGUSTINE. Ambrose wrote many theological works and is
 associated with the type of PLAINSONG called Ambrosian chant. Feast: Dec.
 7.

   Ambrosian Library

 Ambrosian Library: see LIBRARY.

   ameba

 ameba: see AMOEBA.

   Ameling, Elly

 Ameling, Elly, 1938-, Dutch soprano. Although she has sung opera, she is
 noted for her sensitive interpretations of French and German art songs,
 particularly the LIEDER of Schubert. She made her U.S. debut in New York
 City in 1968.

   Amen

 Amen: see AMON.

   Amenemhet I

 Amenemhet I, d. 1970 BC, king of EGYPT founder of the XII dynasty that
 initiated the Middle Kingdom. He centralized the government in a
 virtually feudal form. The dynasty enabled the arts and science to
 flourish.

   Amenhotep I

 Amenhotep I or Amenophis I, fl. 1570 BC, king of EGYPT of the XVIII
 dynasty. A great military leader, he extended Egypt's power E to the
 Euphrates and S to the second cataract of the NILE. THUTMOSE I succeeded
 him.

   Americana

 Americana, term for material printed in or about the Americas, or written
 by Americans; usually restricted to the formative period in the history
 of the two continents. Thus the COLUMBUS letter (1493) announcing the
 discovery of the Indies is the earliest item. Early American books are
 also important Americana. The New York Public Library (see LIBRARY,) has
 one of several major collections.

   American Association for the Advancement of Science

 American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), est. 1848 to
 foster scientific freedom, improve the effective application of science
 for human needs, and increase public understanding of science.
 Headquartered in Washington, D.C., it has over 133,000 members in all
 fields and 300 affiliated groups. Among its publications is the weekly
 newsmagazine and journal Science.

   American Ballet Theatre

 American Ballet Theatre (ABT), a foremost international dance company of
 the 20th cent. It was founded as the Mordkin Ballet (1937-40) and was
 known (1940-56) as the Ballet Theater. It presents newly staged classics
 and dances with American themes. Choreographers have included George
 BALANCHINE, Agnes DE MILLE, Jerome ROBBINS, and Antony TUDOR; dancers
 have included Alicia ALONSO, Erik BRUHN, Maria Tallchief, and Igor
 YOUSKEVITCH.

   American Bar Association

 American Bar Association (ABA), organization of lawyers admitted to any
 state bar; est. 1878. It promotes professional activities as well as
 uniformity of U.S. laws, high professional standards, and improved
 judicial administration. ABA committees address such topics as legal
 education, professional ethics, and legal aid for the poor. In 1981 the
 organization had more than 270,000 members.

   American Civil Liberties Union

 American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), nonpartisan organization devoted
 to protecting basic rights set forth in the U.S. CONSTITUTION; est. 1920
 by Jane ADDAMS, Roger BALDWIN, Norman THOMAS, and others. Its special
 concerns are expression of opinion, equality before the law, and due
 process. The ACLU has argued or supported nearly every major U.S. civil
 liberties case since its founding. In 1982 the ACLU had 200,000 members.

   American Colonization Society

 American Colonization Society, organized (Dec. 1816-Jan. 1817) to
 transport free blacks from the U.S. and settle them in Africa. Land
 purchases (1821) in Africa by the society led to the foundation of
 LIBERIA, and more than 11,000 blacks were sent there before 1860. The
 colonization movement was attacked by ABOLITIONISTS and was unpopular
 with many blacks; it declined after 1840.

   American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations

 American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations
 (AFL-CIO), a federation of autonomous trade unions in the U.S., Canada,
 Mexico, Panama, and U.S. territories. It was formed in 1955 by the merger
 of the AFL and the CIO. Although it does not participate directly in
 COLLECTIVE BARGAINING, the AFL-CIO serves as the leading voice of
 American trade unionism, actively lobbying on the national and state
 levels and supporting political candidates. From its founding in 1886,
 the AFL emphasized organization of skilled workers on a craft rather than
 an industrial basis. Under the successive leadership of Samuel GOMPERS,
 William GREEN, and George MEANY, the AFL secured higher wages, shorter
 hours, workmen's compensation, child labor laws, and exemption of labor
 from antitrust legislation. In the early 1930s a strong minority faction
 within the AFL advocated the organization of workers in basic industries
 (such as steel, autos, and rubber) on an industry-wide basis. John L.
 LEWIS led this militant group in forming a Committee for Industrial
 Organization, which, after expulsion from the parent body in 1938,
 changed its name to the Congress of Industrial Organizations. The CIO,
 under the presidency of Lewis and later of Philip MURRAY, enjoyed
 considerable success. In 1955, however, at a time of growing labor
 concern over the perceived anti-union policies of the Eisenhower
 administration, the two organizations merged, with Meany as president,
 and adopted the present name. Ultimate authority in the AFL-CIO is vested
 in a biennial convention; the executive council governs between
 conventions. In 1988 the federation had 105 national affiliates, 51
 state-level federations (including Puerto Rico), and 741 city central
 bodies and direct affiliates. Membership totaled about 14,100,000. See
 also UNION, LABOR.

   American foxhound

 American foxhound: see FOXHOUND.

   American Fur Company

 American Fur Company, chartered (1808) by John Jacob ASTOR to rival
 Canadian fur companies. The company gained a virtual monopoly of the
 Great Lakes trade and expanded W into the Missouri valley and Rocky
 Mountain areas.

   American Indian languages

 American Indian languages, languages of the native peoples of the Western
 Hemisphere and their descendants. The classification "American Indian
 languages" is geographical rather than linguistic, since these languages
 do not belong to a single linguistic family, or stock, such as the
 Indo-European language family. The American Indian languages cannot be
 differentiated as a linguistic unit from other languages of the world,
 but are grouped into a number of separate linguistic stocks having
 significantly different phonetics, vocabulary, and grammars. There is no
 part of the world with as many distinctly different native languages as
 the Western Hemisphere.

   American Indian Movement

 American Indian Movement (AIM), activist organization of the American
 Indian civil rights movement, est. 1968. After briefly occupying (Nov.
 1972) the Bureau of INDIAN AFFAIRS to protest programs controlling Indian
 development, in 1973 AIM members led 200 SIOUX in a 71-day takeover of
 WOUNDED KNEE, S.Dak., to demand a review of 300 treaties with the U.S.
 government. AIM also sponsored talks resulting in the 1977 International
 Treaty Conference with the UN in Geneva, Switzerland.

   American Indians

 American Indians: see MIDDLE AMERICAN INDIANS; NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS;
 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS; and individual tribes. See also AMERICAN INDIAN
 LANGUAGES; AMERICAN INDIANS, PREHISTORY OF.

   American Indians, prehistory of

 American Indians, prehistory of. It is generally agreed that the first
 humans to inhabit the Americas crossed the BERING STRAIT from NE Asia in
 migration waves beginning before 30,000 BC By 8000 BC, Indians had spread
 throughout the Americas. Major Paleolithic cultures were created c.20,000
 BC by seminomadic big-game hunters of the Great Plains of North America.
 Earliest evidence of human occupation in Middle and South America dates
 from 30,000 BC Between 5000 BC and 1000 BC, agriculture, pottery, and
 complex social systems throughout the Americas marked the end of the
 STONE AGE and the rise of the high Indian civilizations. See MIDDLE
 AMERICAN INDIANS; NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS; SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS; and
 articles on individual tribes.

   American Museum of Natural History

 American Museum of Natural History, New York City, inc. 1869; est. to
 promote the study of natural science and related subjects. Buildings on
 its present site were opened in 1877. The Hayden Planetarium was added in
 1935 and the Roosevelt Memorial building in 1936. The museum's
 explorations and research programs have provided it with specimens and
 data of great value; it maintains exhibitions in all branches of natural
 history.

   American Negro spiritual

 American Negro spiritual: see SPIRITUAL.

   American party

 American party: see KNOW-NOTHING MOVEMENT.

   American Revolution

 American Revolution, 1775-83, struggle by which the THIRTEEN COLONIES
 that were to become the United States won independence from Britain. By
 the middle of the 18th cent., differences in life, thought, and economic
 interests had formed between the colonies and the mother country. The
 British government, favoring a policy of MERCANTILISM, tried to regulate
 colonial commerce in the British interest, and provoked colonial
 opposition. The STAMP ACT passed by Parliament in 1765 roused a violent
 colonial outcry as an act of taxation without representation. The
 TOWNSHEND ACTS (1767) led to such acts of violence as the BOSTON MASSACRE
 (1770), the burning of the H.M.S. Gaspee (1772), and the BOSTON TEA PARTY
 (1773). In 1774 Britain responded with the coercive INTOLERABLE ACTS. The
 colonists convened the CONTINENTAL CONGRESS and petitioned the king for
 redress of their grievances. Fighting erupted on Apr. 19, 1775, at
 LEXINGTON AND CONCORD, and was followed by the capture of Fort
 Ticonderoga from the British, the battle of BUNKER HILL, and the
 unsuccessful colonial assault on Quebec (1775-76). The Continental
 Congress appointed (1775) George WASHINGTON to command the Continental
 army and, on July 4, 1776, adopted the DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. Many
 colonists, however, remained pro-British Loyalists. The colonial victory
 in the SARATOGA CAMPAIGN (1777) helped forge a French-American alliance
 (1778), bringing vital aid to the colonists. Following the terrible
 ordeal of Washingon's army at VALLEY FORGE and the indecisive battle of
 MONMOUTH (1778), the war shifted to the South during the Carolina

 close of the YORKTOWN CAMPAIGN ended the fighting, and the Treaty of
 Paris (1783) recognized the U.S. as a nation.

   American Samoa

 American Samoa, unincorporated territory of the U.S. (1987 est. pop.
 38,400), 76 sq mi (197 sq km), comprising the eastern half of the Samoa
 island chain in the South Pacific. The major islands are Tutuila, the
 Manu'a group, Rose and Sand, and Swains. Pago Pago, the capital, is on
 Tutuila. The islands are mountainous and wooded; agriculture, fish
 canning, and some light industry are conducted. The Polynesian natives,
 considered U.S. nationals, elect a governor and legislature, and send a
 nonvoting delegate to Congress. American Samoa, defined by treaty in
 1899, was administered by the U.S. Dept. of the Navy until 1951, when it
 passed to Dept. of the Interior jurisdiction.

   American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals

 American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA),
 founded (1866) in the U.S. to shelter homeless animals, assist in
 livestock care, and help to enforce game laws. It is modeled on England's
 Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (founded 1824).

   americium

 americium (Am), synthetic radioactive element, discovered by Glenn
 SEABORG and colleagues in 1944 by neutron bombardment of plutonium. The
 silver-white metal is in the ACTINIDE SERIES. Half-lives of the many
 isotopes range from 1.3 hr to over 7,000 years. See ELEMENT; PERIODIC
 TABLE.

   amethyst

 amethyst, most highly valued variety of QUARTZ, violet to purple in
 color, used as a GEM. Amethyst is found in Brazil, Uruguay, Sri Lanka,
 Siberia, and North America. It has superstitious associations, being
 regarded as a love charm, a sleeping aid, and a guard against thieves and
 drunkenness.

   Amharic

 Amharic, language of ETHIOPIA. It belongs to the Ethiopic group of
 Hamito-Semitic languages. See AFRICAN LANGUAGES.

   Amherst, Jeffrey Amherst, Baron

 Amherst, Jeffrey Amherst, Baron, 1717-97, British army officer. During
 the last of the FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS, he commanded British forces at
 the capture of Louisbourg, N.S. (1758), TICONDEROGA (1759), and Montreal
 (1760). Amherst, Mass., and Amherst College are named for him.

   Amiens

 Amiens, city (1982 pop. 136,358), capital of Somme dept., N France. A
 textile and farm-market center, it has been occupied by many invaders;
 after being devastated in both world wars the city was rebuilt. Its
 Cathedral of Notre Dame (begun c.1220) is France's largest Gothic
 cathedral.

   Amiens, Treaty of

 Amiens, Treaty of: see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS.

   Amin, Idi

 Amin, Idi, c.1925-, president of UGANDA (1971-79). Seizing control of the
 government from Milton OBOTE in 1971, he instituted a harsh and brutal
 regime and expelled Uganda's Asian population. He was driven into exile
 in 1979.

   amino acid

 amino acid, any of a class of organic compounds having a carboxyl group
 (COOH) and an amino group (NH2). Some 22 amino acids are commonly found
 in animals and more than 100 less common forms are found in nature,
 chiefly in plants. When the carboxyl carbon atom of one amino acid binds
 to the nitrogen of another with the release of a water molecule, a
 linkage called a peptide bond is formed. Chains of amino acids, joined
 head-to-tail in this manner, are synthesized by living systems and are
 called polypeptides (up to about 50 amino acids) and PROTEINS (over 50
 aminoacids). The process of digestion (see DIGESTIVE SYSTEM) releases
 individual amino acids from food protein by cleaving the peptide bonds.

   Amis, Kingsley

 Amis, Kingsley, 1922-, English novelist. He is best known for Lucky Jim
 (1953), a brilliant satire on academic life. Later novels include That
 Certain Feeling (1955), Jake's Thing (1979), and Stanley and the Women
 (1985). Amis also writes espionage novels, poetry, and nonfiction.

   Amman

 Amman, city (1984 est. pop. 777,500), capital of Jordan, N central
 Jordan, on the Jabbok R. Jordan's largest city and industrial and
 commercial heart, Amman is a transportation hub, especially for pilgrims
 en route to MECCA. It is noted for its colored marble; textiles, cement,
 and other manufactures are produced. Amman is the biblical Rabbah, the
 Ammonite capital. It fell to King David, Assyria, Rome, and other
 conquerors. After the Arab conquest (635) it declined, reviving as the
 capital of Trans-Jordan after 1921. Palestinian refugees swelled the
 population after the Arab-Israel Wars of 1948 and 1967. The city's
 historic structures include a Roman amphitheater.

   ammeter

 ammeter, instrument used to measure, in AMPERES, the magnitude of an
 electric current. An ammeter is usually combined with a VOLTMETER and an
 OHMMETER in a multipurpose instrument. Although most ammeters are based
 on the d'Arsonval GALVANOMETER and are of the analog type, digital
 ammeters are becoming increasingly common.

   Ammon

 Ammon: see AMON.

   ammonia

 ammonia, chemical compound (NH3), colorless gas with a characteristic
 pungent, penetrating odor. It is extremely soluble in water. Ammonia
 solutions are used to clean, bleach, and deodorize; to etch aluminum; to
 saponify oils and fats; and in chemical manufacture. Ammonia and ammonia
 vapors are irritating-prolonged exposure and inhalation cause serious
 injury and may be fatal. Water-free ammonia is used in REFRIGERATION. The
 major use of ammonia and its compounds is as FERTILIZERS. Ammonia is
 usually produced by direct combination of nitrogen with hydrogen at high
 temperature and pressure in the presence of a catalyst.

   amnesia

 amnesia, condition characterized by loss of memory for long or short
 intervals. It may be caused by physical injury, SHOCK, senility, or
 severe illness. In other cases, a painful experience and everything
 remindful of it, including the individual's identity, is unconsciously
 repressed (see DEFENSE MECHANISM). Attempts to cure this type of amnesia
 include efforts to establish associations with the past through
 suggestion and HYPNOSIS.

   amnesty

 amnesty, in law, exemption from prosecution for some criminal action. It
 is distinguished from a pardon (see SENTENCE), which is an act of
 forgiveness following conviction. Amnesties are usually extended to
 groups of persons involved in disorders or insurrections; after the Civil
 War the U.S. granted a qualified amnesty to the Confederate forces.

   Amnesty International

 Amnesty International (AI), organization (est. 1961) that campaigns
 against the detention of political prisoners and against other human
 rights violations throughout the world. It was awarded the Nobel Peace
 Prize in 1977 after effecting the release of more than 10,000 prisoners.
 In 1988 the organization had 300,000 members.

   amniocentesis

 amniocentesis, diagnostic procedure in which a sample of the amniotic
 fluid surrounding the fetus is removed from the uterus with a fine needle
 inserted through the abdomen of the pregnant woman (see PREGNANCY). Fetal
 cells in the fluid can be grown in the laboratory and studied to detect
 the presence of certain genetic disorders (e.g., DOWN'S SYNDROME,
 TAY-SACHS DISEASE) or physical abnormalities. Generally recommended when
 there is a family history of genetic disorders or when the woman is over
 age 35, the procedure is usually carried out around the 14th or 15th week
 of pregnancy, when there is sufficient amniotic fluid and ABORTION is
 still an option. See also BIRTH DEFECTS.

   Amnon

 Amnon, DAVID'S eldest son. He raped his half sister Tamar and was killed
 for it by her brother ABSALOM. 2 Sam. 13.

   amoeba

 amoeba or ameba,one-celled organism (class Sarcodina) in the phylum
 PROTOZOA. Amoebas constantly change their body shape as they form
 temporary extensions called pseudopods, or false feet, used for feeding
 and locomotion. Most amoebas range from 5 to 20 microns in diameter. They
 engulf their prey (diatoms, algae, bacteria) with their pseudopods,
 forming vacuoles in which food is digested by ENZYMES. Reproduction is
 usually by binary fission (splitting) to produce two daughter amoebas,
 the nucleus dividing by MITOSIS; some also reproduce sexually. Amoebas
 live in fresh and marine waters and the upper layers of soil. Many are
 PARASITES of aquatic and terrestrial animals, and some cause disease,
 e.g., amoebic dysentery.

   Amon

 Amon, Ammon , or Amen , ancient Egyptian deity. Originally the chief god
 of Thebes, Amon grew increasingly important in Egypt, and eventually, as
 Amon Ra, he was identified with RA as the supreme deity. He was also
 identified with the Greek ZEUS (the Roman JUPITER).

   Amos

 Amos, book of the OLD TESTAMENT, 30th in order in the Authorized Version,
 third of the Minor PROPHETS. The shepherd-prophet preached in the
 northern kingdom of Israel under Jeroboam II (r. c.793-753 BC). The book
 falls into three parts: God's judgment on Gentile nations, finally on
 Israel; three sermons on the doom of Israel; five visions of destruction,
 the last promising redemption.

   Amoy

 Amoy: see XIAMEN.

   Ampere, Andre Marie

 Ampere, Andre Marie, 1775-1836, French physicist, mathematician, and
 natural philosopher. He extended the work of Hans OERSTED on the
 relationship of electricity and magnetism, formulated Ampere's law
 describing the contribution of a current element to magnetic induction,
 and invented the astatic needle. The basic unit of electric current, the
 AMPERE, is named for him.

   ampere

 ampere (amp or A), basic unit of electric current and the fundamental
 electrical unit used with the mks system of units of the METRIC SYSTEM.
 The ampere is officially defined as the current in a pair of equally
 long, parallel, straight wires 1 meter apart that produces a force of
 0.0000002 newton between the wires for each meter of their length.

   amphetamine

 amphetamine, any of a class of powerful drugs that act as stimulants (see
 DRUGS) on the central nervous system. Popularly known as "bennies,"
 "speed," or "uppers," amphetamines enhance mental alertness and the
 ability to concentrate; cause wakefulness, talkativeness, and euphoria;
 and temporarily reverse the effects of fatigue. They have been used to
 treat obesity, narcolepsy and minimal brain dysfunction. Amphetamines can
 produce insomnia, hyperactivity, and irritability, as well as such severe
 systemic disorders as cardiac irregularities, elevated blood pressure,
 and gastric disturbances. The drugs are addictive and easily abused;
 addiction can result in psychosis or death from overexhaustion or cardiac
 arrest (see DRUG ADDICTION AND DRUG ABUSE).

   amphibian

 amphibian, cold-blooded animal of the class Amphibia, the most primitive
 of terrestrial VERTEBRATES. Unlike REPTILES, the amphibians, which
 include FROGS and TOADS, SALAMANDERS and newts, and the limbless
 CAECILIANS, have moist skins without scales or with small, hidden scales.
 Most amphibians deposit their eggs in water or a moist, protected place.
 The young undergo METAMORPHOSIS from aquatic, water-breathing, limbless
 TADPOLES to terrestrial or partly terrestrial, air-breathing, four-legged
 adults.

   amphibious warfare

 amphibious warfare, use of combined land and sea forces to take a
 military objective, typically through an air-supported assault on an
 enemy coastline. Although the strategy is ancient, e.g., the Athenian
 attack on Sicily in 415 BC, the term came into widespread use during
 WORLD WAR II. Early in the war, coordinated land, sea, and air attacks by
 the Japanese in the SW Pacific met little opposition. By contrast, Allied
 attacks on Europe and the Pacific islands were mounted against heavily
 defended coasts, requiring construction of special vessels (called
 landing craft) that were seaworthy and yet capable of allowing TANKS and
 fully equipped INFANTRY to disembark in shallow water. Such landings were
 preceded and accompanied by continuous air and naval bombardment of
 coastal defenses. By this method the Allies were able to invade such
 Pacific strongholds as Saipan (1944), Iwo Jima (1945), and Okinawa
 (1945), and to launch the most spectacular amphibious invasion in
 history, on the coast of Normandy, France, on June 6, 1944. Amphibious
 landings later occurred in the KOREAN WAR and VIETNAM WAR and in the
 British attack (1982) on the FALKLAND ISLANDS.

   amphitheater

 amphitheater, open structure for the exhibition of gladiatorial contests
 and spectacles, built in cities throughout the Roman Empire, e.g., at
 Rome (see COLOSSEUM), Arles (France), and Cirencester (England). The
 typical amphitheater was elliptical, with seats rising around a central
 arena; quarters for the gladiators and animals were under the arena. The
 word is now used for various quite unrelated structures.

   amphoterism

 amphoterism, in chemistry, the property of certain compounds of acting
 either as acids or as bases (see ACIDS AND BASES), depending on the
 reaction in which they are involved. Many hydroxide compounds and organic
 molecules that contain both acidic (e.g., carboxyl) and basic (e.g.,
 amino) FUNCTIONAL GROUPS are usually amphoteric.

   amplifier

 amplifier, device in which a varying input signal controls a flow of
 energy to produce an output signal that varies in the same way but has a
 larger amplitude; the input signal may be a current, a voltage, a
 mechanical motion, or any other signal, and the output signal is usually
 of the same nature. The ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage
 is called the voltage gain. The most common types of amplifiers are
 electronic and have TRANSISTORS as their principal components. In most
 cases today, transistors are incorporated into INTEGRATED-CIRCUIT chips.
 Most amplifiers include more than one transistor. Transistor amplifiers
 are used in RADIO and TELEVISION transmitters and receivers, stereophonic
 RECORD PLAYERS, and intercoms.

   amplitude modulation

 amplitude modulation: see MODULATION.

   Amru al-Kais

 Amru al-Kais, fl. 6th cent., Arabic poet, long esteemed by Arabs as the
 model for erotic poetry. Like much pre-Islamic poetry, his verse is
 subjective and stylistically perfect.

   Amsterdam

 Amsterdam, constitutional capital and largest city (1987 pop. 682,702) of
 the Netherlands, on the Ij and Amstel rivers. It is a major port joined
 with the North Sea and the Rhine by canals. One of Europe's great
 commercial, intellectual, and artistic capitals, it has a major stock
 exchange and is a diamond-cutting center. It is built on piles and is cut
 by some 40 canals crossed by about 400 bridges. Chartered c.1300, it
 joined the HANSEATIC LEAGUE in 1369 and the anti-Spanish Netherland
 provinces in 1578. An influx of refugees contributed to its growth, and
 the city reached its apex in the 17th cent. After French rule (1795-1814)
 it became the Dutch capital. Amsterdam suffered greatly under German
 occupation (1940-45) during WORLD WAR II. Points of interest include the
 city hall (16th cent.); the university (est. 1632); the Rijks Museum,
 with its Rembrandts and other Dutch master paintings; and the municipal
 museum, with its Van Gogh collection.

   Amu Darya

 Amu Darya, river, central Asian USSR, known to the ancient Greeks and
 Persians as the Oxus. It is c.1,600 mi (2,580 km) long and flows
 generally northwest from sources in the snow-capped Pamirs through the
 Kara-Kum desert to a large delta on the ARAL SEA. In the early 1980s the
 Soviet government announced a plan to increase the flow of the river,
 which irrigates parts of Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, by diverting to it
 some of the waters of the IRTYSH R.

   Amundsen, Roald

 Amundsen, Roald, 1872-1928, Norwegian explorer. He commanded the first
 single ship to sail through the NORTHWEST PASSAGE (1903-6) and was the
 first man to reach the South Pole (1911). In 1926, with the aviator
 Umberto Nobile and the financier Lincoln ELLSWORTH, Amundsen took part in
 the first airplane flight over the North Pole. When Nobile crashed in the
 Arctic in 1928, Amundsen was killed in the rescue attempt. His works,
 which include The South Pole (1913), have added much to knowledge of the
 polar regions.

   Amur

 Amur, river, c.1,800 mi (2,900 km) long, NE Asia. It flows generally
 southeast, forming for more than 1,000 mi (1,610 km) the border between
 the Soviet Union and China, then northeast through the Far Eastern USSR,
 entering the Tartar Strait opposite SAKHALIN Island. Its chief
 tributaries are the USSURI and SUNGARI. The river is navigable by small
 craft for its entire length during the ice-free season (May-Nov.)

   Amurath

 Amurath. For Ottoman sultans thus named, see MURAD.

   Anabaptists

 Anabaptists, name applied, originally in scorn, to certain Christian
 sects holding that infant baptism is not authorized in Scripture, but
 that baptism should be administered only to believers. Prominent in
 Europe during the 16th cent., they were persecuted everywhere. Their
 chief leaders were Thomas MUNZER and JOHN OF LEIDEN. MENNONITES and
 Hutterites are descended from them.

   Anabasis

 Anabasis: see XENOPHON.

   anaconda

 anaconda: see BOA.

   Anacreon

 Anacreon, fl. c.521 BC, Greek LYRIC poet, celebrator of love and wine.
 The Anacreontics, in his style, were written from Hellenistic to late
 Byzantine times.

   anae-

 anae-. For words beginning thus, see ane-.

   Anaheim

 Anaheim, city (1986 est. pop. 240,730), Orange co., S Calif., SE of LOS
 ANGELES; founded 1857, inc. 1876. A major tourist center, Anaheim
 contains the amusement complex Disneyland (opened 1955); Anaheim Stadium,
 home of the California Angels baseball team; and the Anaheim Convention
 Center. It is also the site of a large electronic equipment industry.

   analgesic

 analgesic, a drug used to relieve pain. Analgesics include nonnarcotics,
 such as ASPIRIN and other salicylates, which also reduce fever and
 inflammation; NARCOTICS, such as MORPHINE and CODEINE; and synthetic
 narcotics with morphinelike action, such as propoxyphene (Darvon) and
 meperidine (Demerol). Acetaminophen (Tylenol) is often given to
 individuals sensitive or allergic to salicylates.

   analog circuit

 analog circuit, ELECTRIC CIRCUIT in which the output voltage and current
 values are considered significant over a continuum. Analog circuits may
 be used for such purposes as amplifying signals corresponding to sound
 waves. See also DIGITAL CIRCUITS.

   analog computer

 analog computer: see COMPUTER.

   analog-to-digital conversion

 analog-to-digital conversion, the process of changing continuously
 varying data into digital quantities that represent the magnitude of the
 data at the moment the conversion is made. The most common use is to
 change analog signals into a form that can be manipulated by digital
 COMPUTER, as in data communications. See also DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG
 CONVERSION.

   analysis

 analysis, branch of MATHEMATICS that uses the concepts and methods of the
 CALCULUS. It includes basic calculus; advanced calculus, in which such
 underlying concepts as that of a LIMIT are subjected to rigorous
 examination; differential and integral equations, in which the unknowns
 are FUNCTIONS rather than numbers; VECTOR and tensor analysis;
 differential geometry; and many other fields.

   analytical chemistry

 analytical chemistry: see CHEMISTRY.

   analytic geometry

 analytic geometry, branch of GEOMETRY in which points are represented
 with respect to a coordinate system, such as CARTESIAN COORDINATES.
 Analytic geometry was introduced by Rene DESCARTES in 1637 and was of
 fundamental importance in the development of the CALCULUS by Sir Isaac
 NEWTON and G.W. LEIBNIZ in the late 17th cent. Its most common
 application-the representation of EQUATIONS involving two or three
 variables as curves in two or three DIMENSIONS or surfaces in three
 dimensions-allows problems in ALGEBRA to be treated geometrically and
 geometric problems to be treated algebraically. The methods of analytic
 geometry have been generalized to four or more dimensions and have been
 combined with other branches of geometry.

   anarchism

 anarchism, political philosophy and movement that seeks the abolition of
 government, arguing that people, although naturally good, are corrupted
 by artificial institutions. Anarchism dates from the ancient Greeks, but
 its modern form was outlined (18th and 19th cent.) by William GODWIN,
 P.J. PROUDHON, and others. In Russia, given a violent and collectivist
 tone by Mikhail BAKUNIN, it was outlawed by the Bolsheviks after the
 RUSSIAN REVOLUTION. Only in the Latin countries of Europe, where it was
 linked to SYNDICALISM, did it gain a mass following by the end of the
 19th cent. After the HAYMARKET SQUARE RIOT (1886) and the assassination
 of Pres. MCKINLEY, fear of anarchism caused the U.S. in 1901 to forbid
 anarchists from entering the country. Today anarchism remains important
 as a philosophical and political theory, not as an active political
 movement.

   Anatolia

 Anatolia, Asian part of Turkey, usually synonymous with ASIA MINOR.

   Anatolian languages

 Anatolian languages, subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages.
 See LANGUAGE.

   anatomy

 anatomy, branch of biology concerned with the study of the body structure
 of plants and animals. Comparative anatomy considers structural
 similarities and differences of various organisms, forming the basis of
 CLASSIFICATION. Human anatomy emphasizes individual systems composed of
 groups of TISSUES and organs. See also PHYSIOLOGY.

   Anaxagoras

 Anaxagoras, c.500-428 BC, Greek philosopher, thought to have been the
 teacher of SOCRATES. He held that an all-pervading nous (world-mind)
 ordered the physical world by combining particles from the
 undifferentiated mass of the universe.

   Anaximander

 Anaximander, c.611-c.547 BC, pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. His notions
 of the infinite or indefinite (apeiron) and its processes prefigured the
 later concept of the indestructibility of matter, while other views
 anticipated the theory of evolution and certain laws of astronomy.

   ancestor worship

 ancestor worship, ritualized propitiation and invocation of dead kin,
 based on the belief that spirits influence the fate of the living. A
 widespread ancient practice, it reached its most elaborate forms in W
 Africa and China. It also exists in the Japanese SHINTO cult and among
 peoples of Melanesia.

   Anchises

 Anchises, in Greek mythology, Trojan shepherd; father of AENEAS by
 APHRODITE.

   Anchorage

 Anchorage, city (1986 est. pop. 235,000), Anchorage Borough, S central
 Alaska, at the head of Cook Inlet; inc. 1920. Founded (1915) as a
 railroad town, it has grown into the state's largest city as well as the
 administrative and commercial heart of S central and W Alaska. It is one
 of the nation's major defense centers and a transportation hub. Tourism
 is important, and there is a busy international airport. The city's rapid
 growth is due largely to its position as the focus of Alaska's expanding
 coal, oil, and gas industries.

   anchovy

 anchovy: see HERRING.

   Ancren Riwle

 Ancren Riwle or Ancrene Wisse  [Mid. Eng.,=anchoresses' rule], anonymous
 English tract, c.1200, instructing young ladies about to become religious
 recluses. Realistic and humorous, it reveals much about the manners of
 the time.

   Andalusia

 Andalusia, region (33,675 sq mi/87,218 sq km), on the Mediterranean Sea,
 the Strait of Gibraltar, and the Atlantic Ocean. Spain's largest and most
 populous region, it occupies all of S Spain. Grapes, olives, citrus, and
 other crops are grown in its subtropical climate. Mineral resources
 include copper, iron, and zinc. It was settled (11th cent. BC) by the
 Phoenicians and later ruled by Carthage (6th cent. BC), Rome (3d cent.
 BC), and the Visigoths (5th cent. AD). In 711 the MOORS conquered
 Andalusia. Christian Spain ended the long reconquest of the region when
 GRANADA fell in 1492. In 1713 Spain ceded GIBRALTAR to Britain.

   Andersen, Hans Christian

 Andersen, Hans Christian, 1805-75, Danish writer of fairy tales.
 Poverty-ridden and a failure as an actor, Andersen won the generous
 patronage of King Frederick VI with his poetry. Though noted for a time
 as a novelist, e.g., The Improvisatore (1835), it was his later fairy
 tales that established him as Denmark's greatest author and a storyteller
 without peer. His sense of fantasy, power of description, and acute
 sensitivity contributed to his mastery of the genre. Among his many
 widely beloved tales are "The Little Match Girl," "The Ugly Duckling,"
 "The Snow Queen," and "The Red Shoes."

   Andersen Nexoo, Martin

 Andersen Nexoo, Martin, 1869-1954, Danish novelist. His famous
 proletarian novels Pelle the Conqueror (1906-10) and Ditte, Daughter of
 Mankind (1917-21) focus attention on conditions of poverty in Denmark.

   Anderson, Carl David

 Anderson, Carl David, 1905-, American physicist; b. N.Y.C. For his
 discovery of the positron in 1932, he shared the 1936 Nobel Prize in
 Physics with V.F. Hess. He is also credited as one of the discoverers of
 the muon (see ELEMENTARY PARTICLES) in 1936.

   Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett

 Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett, 1836-1917, English physician. After
 obtaining a private medical education under accredited physicians and in
 London hospitals and becoming licensed (1865) in Scotland, she opened
 (1866) a dispensary, later a small hospital, for women and children in
 London, the first in England to be staffed by women physicians. Largely
 through her efforts, British examining boards opened their examinations
 to women.

   Anderson, Marian

 Anderson, Marian, 1902-, black American contralto; b. Philadelphia. She
 was the first black to be named (1955) a permanent member of the
 METROPOLITAN OPERA COMPANY, and was also the first black to perform in
 the White House. In 1958 she was an alternate delegate to the UN.

   Anderson, Maxwell

 Anderson, Maxwell, 1888-1959, American dramatist; b. Atlantic, Pa. His
 plays, many written in verse, usually concern social and moral problems.
 His dramas include What Price Glory? (1924), Elizabeth the Queen (1930),
 Winterset (1935), Anne of the Thousand Days (1948), and The Bad Seed
 (1954).

   Anderson, Sherwood

 Anderson, Sherwood, 1876-1941, American writer; b. Camden, Ohio. He was a
 strongly American writer, experimental and poetic, whose greatest novel,
 Winesburg, Ohio (1919), explores the loneliness and frustration of
 small-town lives. His other novels include Poor White (1920) and Dark
 Laughter (1925). Some of his finest work is in his compassionate and
 penetrating short stories, e.g., the collections The Triumph of the Egg
 (1921) and Death in the Woods (1933).

   Andersonville

 Andersonville, village (1980 pop. 267), SW Georgia, inc. 1881. It was the
 site of a notorious Confederate prison, now a national historic site,
 where dreadful conditions led to the death of over 12,000 Union soldiers.
 Andersonville National Cemetery, with over 13,000 soldiers' graves, is
 nearby.

   Andersson, Dan

 Andersson, Dan, 1888-1920, Swedish poet and novelist, one of the
 country's foremost writers. His works, treating religious and
 metaphysical themes, include the tales in The Charcoal-Burner's Tales
 (1914) and the novel Three Homeless Ones (1918).

   Andes

 Andes, great mountain system, extending c.4,500 mi (7,200 km) north to
 south in South America, generally parallel to the Pacific coast. The
 mountains reach a high point of 22,835 ft (6,960 m) in ACONCAGUA (highest
 point in the Western Hemisphere) and include many other snow-capped peaks
 over 22,000 ft (6,700 m). The system widens in Bolivia and Peru to form
 multiple ranges and a high, densely populated plateau (ALTIPLANO), where
 the great civilization of the INCAS had its home. Copper, silver, and tin
 are mined, and oil has been found in the northern foothills. The Andes
 are geologically young and still rising. Volcanic eruptions and
 earthquakes are common.

   Ando Hiroshige

 Ando Hiroshige: see HIROSHIGE.

   Andorra

 Andorra, Fr. Andorre, autonomous principality (1984 pop. 42,712), 191 sq
 mi (495 sq km), SW Europe, between France and Spain, comprising several
 high valleys in the E Pyrenees. The capital is Andorra la Vella.
 Sheep-raising, minerals (iron, lead, marble), timber, and a growing
 tourist trade are the principal sources of income for the
 Catalan-speaking, Roman Catholic population. In 1278 Andorra was put
 under the joint suzerainty of a French count, whose rights passed to the
 president of France, and the bishop of Urgel (Spain). In fact it is
 independent, governed by an elected council and syndic.

   Andrassy, Julius, Count

 Andrassy, Julius, Count, 1823-90, Hungarian politician. A leading figure
 in the unsuccessful Hungarian revolution of 1848-49, he lived in exile
 until 1858. He later took part (1867) in the creation of the
 AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY. As premier of Hungary (1867-71) Andrassy
 established Magyar supremacy over the Slavs in Hungary. He was foreign
 minister of the Dual Monarchy (1871-79) and signed (1879) the Dual
 Alliance with Germany. His son Julius, Count Andrassy, 1860-1929, also
 foreign minister, tried (1918) to obtain a separate peace for
 Austria-Hungary in WORLD WAR I.

   Andre, Carl

 Andre, Carl, 1935-, American sculptor; b. Quincy, Mass. His classic,
 elemental sculptures reflect the philosophy of MINIMAL ART. Andre is well
 known for his floor pieces, e.g., 144 Pieces of Lead (Mus. of Modern Art,
 N.Y.C.).

   Andre, John

 Andre, John, 1751-80, British spy in the AMERICAN REVOLUTION. He was
 captured and hanged after negotiating with Benedict ARNOLD for the
 surrender of WEST POINT to the British.

   Andrea del Sarto

 Andrea del Sarto: see SARTO, ANDREA DEL.

   Andrew, Saint

 Andrew, Saint, one of the Twelve Disciples, brother of Simon PETER. He is
 patron saint of Russia and Scotland.

   Andrew II

 Andrew II, d. 1235, king of HUNGARY (1205-35). He was forced to issue
 (1222) the Golden Bull, the "Magna Carta" of Hungary, which extended
 privileges to the lesser nobles. He took part (1217) in the Fifth
 CRUSADE.

   Andreyev, Leonid Nikolayevich

 Andreyev, Leonid Nikolayevich, 1871-1919, Russian writer. His early
 stories, realistic studies of everyday life, were praised by GORKY, but
 when the Bolsheviks took power in 1917 he broke with Gorky politically
 and emigrated to Finland. His popularity declined when he turned to
 mysticism and allegory. His fiction includes The Red Laugh (1905) and The
 Seven That Were Hanged (1908). His best-known play is the expressionistic
 He Who Gets Slapped (1916).

   Andric, Ivo

 Andric, Ivo, 1892-1975, Yugoslav writer. His work includes poetry,
 essays, short stories, and novels, the best known being his Bosnian
 historical trilogy (1945) The Bridge on the Drina, Bosnian Story, and
 Young Miss. In 1961 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in literature.

   Andromache

 Andromache, in Greek myth, wife of HECTOR of Troy; mother of Astyanax.
 After the TROJAN WAR, ACHILLES' son Neoptolemus abducted her; EURIPIDES
 and RACINE dramatized her captivity. Later she married Hector's brother
 Helenus.

   Andromeda

 Andromeda, in Greek myth, princess of Ethiopia; daughter of Cepheus and
 Cassiopeia. POSEIDON, angered by her mother's claim that her beauty
 outshone that of the nereids, sent a sea monster that could be appeased
 only by her sacrifice. She was rescued by PERSEUS, who slew the monster
 and married her. Andromeda and her parents became constellations.

   Andromeda Galaxy

 Andromeda Galaxy, closest spiral GALAXY (2 million LIGHT-YEARS distant)
 to our MILKY WAY galaxy. They are similar in shape and composition. The
 Andromeda galaxy, visible to the naked eye as a faint patch in the
 constellation Andromeda, is about 120,000 light-years in diameter and
 contains at least 200 billion stars.

   Andropov, Yuri Vladimirovich

 Andropov, Yuri Vladimirovich, 1914-84, Soviet public official, general
 secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1982-). He was head
 of the K.G.B. (1967-82), became (1973) a member of the Politburo, and
 succeeded to the USSR's most powerful office on the death of Leonid
 BREZHNEV. He was an ideological conservative and potential bureaucratic
 reformer.

   Andros, Sir Edmund

 Andros, Sir Edmund, 1637-1714, British colonial governor in America. He
 was bitterly criticized for his high-handedness as governor (1674-81) of
 New York. Named (1686) governor of the Dominion of New England, Andros
 was deposed (1689) by Boston colonists. He was later governor (1692-97)
 of VIRGINIA.

   anemia

 anemia, condition resulting from a reduction in HEMOGLOBIN content or in
 number of red blood cells (erythrocytes). Although the causes of anemia
 vary, because of the blood's reduced capacity to carry oxygen all types
 exhibit similar symptoms-pallor, weakness, dizziness, fatigue, and, in
 severe cases, breathing difficulties and heart abnormalities. Therapy
 includes identifying and treating the underlying cause. See SICKLE-CELL
 ANEMIA.

   anemone

 anemone or windflower,wild or cultivated perennial herb (genus Anemone)
 of the BUTTERCUP family. Anemones, which contain a poisonous compound
 (anemonin), were once used to treat fevers, bruises, and freckles; they
 are often associated with evil and death. The purple- or white-blossomed
 wood anemone A. quinquefolia is also called windflower.

   anesthesia

 anesthesia, loss of sensation, especially that of pain, induced by drugs.
 General anesthesia, first used in surgical procedures in the 1840s,
 induces unconsciousness; halothane and sodium pentothal are two widely
 used general anesthetics. Localized or regional anesthesia is used to
 desensitize the area around the site of application without loss of
 consciousness. Regional anesthetics include spinal anesthetics, primarily
 for lower body surgery; epidural anesthetics for childbirth; and local
 anesthetics (e.g., novocaine and lidocaine) for dental procedures.
 Various anesthetics are often used in combination. See also ACUPUNCTURE.

   angel

 angel, bodiless, immortal spirit, limited in knowledge and power,
 accepted in the traditional belief of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
 The three choirs of angels appear early in the Christian era; the classes
 are, from the highest: seraphim, cherubim, thrones; dominations, virtues,
 powers; principalities, archangels, angels. Angels appear in the Bible,
 often in critical roles, e.g., visiting Abraham and Lot (Gen. 18; 19) and
 announcing the Incarnation to Mary (Luke 1). The cult of guardian angels
 who protect individuals or nations is especially strong in the West. The
 angels of HELL, or devils, led by SATAN, are viewed as initiators of evil
 temptations.

   Angel Falls

 Angel Falls, waterfall, 3,212 ft (979 m) high, on the Churun R., in the
 Guiana Highlands, SE Venezuela. It has the world's highest uninterrupted
 fall (2,648 ft/807 m).

   Angelico, Fra

 Angelico, Fra, c.1400-1455, Florentine painter; b. Guido, or Guidolino,
 di Pietro; also known as Giovanni da Fiesole. First influenced by GENTILE
 DA FABRIANO and then MASACCIO, Fra Angelico developed a style remarkable
 for its purity of line and color. He treated none but religious subjects.
 His works, including the frescoes Annunciation and Noli mi Tangere (both:
 St. Mark's Convent, Florence), show spatial depth and sculptural clarity
 of form-the artistic innovations of his time. Among his paintings in the
 U.S. are the Crucifixion and Nativity (both: Metropolitan Mus.).

   Angel Island

 Angel Island, largest island in San Francisco Bay, Calif. It was
 (1863-1946) a U.S. army base and became a missile and radar site in 1952.
 From 1910 to 1940 it was the entry point for Asian immigrants to the U.S.

   Angell, Sir Norman

 Angell, Sir Norman, 1872?-1967, British internationalist and economist,
 b. Ralph Norman Angell Lane. He gained fame with The Great Illusion
 (1910), in which he proposed that the common economic interests of
 nations make war futile. After World War I he worked for a international
 cooperation and peace. Knighted in 1931, he was awarded the Nobel Peace
 Prize in 1933.

   Angelou, Maya

 Angelou, Maya, 1928-, black American author; b. St. Louis as Marguerite
 Johnson. Although a playwright, poet, and short-story writer, she is best
 known for her four-part autobiography (1970-81).

   Angelus

 Angelus, family name and dynasty of Byzantine emperors (1185-1204) Isaac
 II, ALEXIUS III, and ALEXIUS IV.

   angina pectoris

 angina pectoris: see under CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE.

   angiosperm

 angiosperm, plant in which the ovules, or young seeds, are enclosed
 within an ovary (that part of a FLOWER specialized for seed production),
 in contrast to the GYMNOSPERMS. Also known as the flowering plants,
 angiosperms have LEAVES, ROOTS, and STEMS, and vascular, or conducting
 tissue. Constituting the plant division Magnoliophyta, they are divided
 into dicotyledons (class Magnoliopsida), which have two seed leaves
 (cotyledons) and CAMBIUM tissue in the stems, and monocotyledons (class
 Liliatae), which have one seed leaf and generally lack cambium tissue.
 The most important plant group economically, angiosperms include all
 agricultural crops and cereal GRAINS, all garden flowers, and almost all
 broad-leaved trees and shrubs.

   Angkor

 Angkor, site of several capitals of the KHMER EMPIRE, N of Tonle Sap, NW
 CAMBODIA. The ruins extend over 40 sq mi (104 sq km). The first capital
 was established by Yasovarman I (889-900). A new temple complex, Angkor
 Wat, was built under Suryavarman II (1113-50). This impressive temple,
 surrounded by a vast moat, is approached by a causeway. Its extensive
 sculptural ornament exhibits impeccable craftsmanship. In 1177 Angkor was
 sacked by the Chams and fell into ruins. Jayavarman VII (1181-c.1218)
 established a new capital, Angkor Thom, which was abandoned in 1434. The
 ruins, overgrown by jungle, were discovered by the French in 1861.

   angle

 angle, in mathematics, figure formed by two straight lines meeting at a
 point; the point is known as the vertex of the angle, and the lines are
 its sides. Angles are commonly measured in degrees ( deg) or in radians.
 If the two sides form a single straight line but do not coincide, the
 angle is a straight angle, measuring 180 deg or c radians (see PI). If
 the sides are perpendicular, i.e., if they form half of a straight angle,
 the angle is a right angle, measuring 90 deg or c/2 radians. An acute
 angle is greater than 0 deg but less than 90 deg; an obtuse angle is
 greater than 90 deg but less than 180 deg; and a reflex angle is greater
 than 180 deg. See also TRIGONOMETRY.

   Angles

 Angles: see ANGLO-SAXONS.

   Anglican Communion

 Anglican Communion, the worldwide body of churches that are in communion
 with the Church of England (see ENGLAND, CHURCH OF). Composed of regional
 churches, provinces, and separate dioceses, the Communion is bound
 together by mutual loyalty as expressed in the Lambeth Conference of
 1930. Member churches include the Protestant Episcopal Church in America
 (see EPISCOPAL CHURCH, PROTESTANT), the Scottish Episcopal Church, the
 Church in Wales, and the Church of England in Australia and Tasmania.
 Doctrinally all member churches are similar, having a ministry of three
 orders: deacons, priests, and bishops. Worship, though varied in form, is
 liturgical and sacramental, and regulated by the BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER.

   Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, collective name for English monastic chronicles in
 Anglo-Saxon, stemming from a compilation (c.891) of earlier sources
 inspired by King ALFRED. The account, from the beginning of the Christian
 era through 1154, draws on BEDE and adds much original material. Mostly
 prose, it includes such poems as The Battle of Brunanburh.

   Anglo-Saxon literature

 Anglo-Saxon literature, writings in Old English, c.650-1150. Old English
 poetry is heroic, drawing on Germanic myth and custom, or Christian.
 Nearly all of it survives in only four manuscripts, and it is the
 literature closest to Germanic oral sources. Widsith (7th cent.) is an
 early example. The epic Beowulf, based on oral sagas, survives in an
 8th-cent. Christian version. The elegiac undercurrent in Beowulf is
 central to such poems as Deor, The Wanderer, and The Seafarer, which
 contrast a happy past with a desolate present. Heroic battles are the
 theme of The Battle of Maldon and The Battle of Brunanburh. Of the
 Christian poets, CAEDMON and CYNEWULF are known by reputation. The Dream
 of the Rood is the earliest dream vision poem in English. Old English
 verse is alliterative and unrhymed. Prose was written in Latin before
 King ALFRED, who had many works translated. The ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE,
 begun in his time, continued for three centuries. Two preeminent prose
 writers were AElfric and Wulfstan, authors of homiletic sermons.

   Anglo-Saxons

 Anglo-Saxons, name given to the Germanic-speaking peoples who settled in
 England at the decline of Roman rule there. The Angles probably came from
 Schleswig late in the 5th cent. and formed foundations for the later
 kingdoms of EAST ANGLIA, MERCIA, and NORTHUMBRIA. The Saxons, a Germanic
 tribe, settled in England at the same time; the kingdoms of SUSSEX,
 WESSEX, and ESSEX were outgrowths of their settlements. The Jutes, a
 tribe probably from the area at the mouth of the Rhine, settled in Kent
 and on the Isle of Wight. The term "Anglo-Saxons," denoting non-Celtic
 settlers of England, dates from the 16th cent. It is now used more
 loosely to denote any people (or their descendants) of the British Isles.

   Angola

 Angola, officially People's Republic of Angola, republic (1986 est. pop.
 8,960,000), 481,351 sq mi (1,246,700 sq km), SW Africa, formerly also
 Portuguese West Africa, bordered by the Atlantic Ocean (W), Zaire (N),
 Zambia (E), and Namibia, South West Africa (S). It includes the province
 of CABINDA, on the Atlantic coast, from which it is separated by a strip
 of land belonging to Zaire. Major cities include LUANDA (the capital) and
 LOBITO. Nearly all of the land is desert or savanna, except for the
 densely forested valleys of the northeast and a narrow coastal strip in
 the west. The most prominent physical feature is the Bie Plateau (average
 altitude, 6,000 ft/1,830 m), which rises abruptly from the coastal
 lowland and slopes eastward to the CONGO and ZAMBEZI river basins.
 Formerly dependent on agriculture, Angola today receives over two thirds
 of its export earnings from oil production, chiefly from reserves
 offshore of Cabinda. Diamonds and iron ore are also important. Principal
 crops include coffee (the second largest export), sugarcane, corn, and
 wheat. Among the leading industries are food processing (notably cereals,
 fish, palm oil, and meat) and the manufacture of jute, cotton textiles,
 and paper. The population is overwhelmingly black African, and most of
 the people speak a Bantu language; the Mbundu are the largest ethnic
 group. (The great majority of the estimated 500,000 European residents
 left Angola after independence was achieved.) Traditional religious
 beliefs prevail, but there is a large minority of Roman Catholics and
 other Christians.

 History The first Portuguese colony in Angola was established in Luanda
 in 1575, and, except for a short Dutch occupation (1641-48), Angola
 remained under Portuguese control until its independence in 1975. (The
 Mbundu kingdom in central Angola was not subjugated by the Portuguese
 until 1902). For the Portuguese, Angola was a source of slaves for their
 colony in Brazil. Modern industrial development began after World War II,
 and Angola was upgraded from its colonial status to an overseas province
 in 1951. Repression of the African population continued, and in 1961 a
 revolt began. When this failed, guerrilla warfare was undertaken from
 neighboring countries, intensifying in the early 1970s, when more than
 50,000 Portuguese troops were engaged against the rebels. In 1972 Angola
 was made an "autonomous state," and in 1973 elections were held for a
 legislative assembly. Independence was proclaimed in Nov. 1975, touching
 off a power struggle among rival nationalist groups. Civil war ensued,
 and by early 1976 the Popular Liberation Movement of Angola (MPLA),
 supported by the USSR and aided by Cuban troops, defeated the
 U.S.-supported factions and proclaimed a people's republic. Openly
 sympathetic to black nationalist movements, since 1979 Angola has been
 the object of military raids by South African troops in NAMIBIA (South
 West Africa), ostensibly striking at bases of a guerrilla organization
 seeking Namibian independence. In 1988 Cuba, S. Africa, and Angola agreed
 in principle to the removal of Cuban troops from Angola and S. African
 troops from Namibia.

   Angstrom, Anders Jons

 Angstrom, Anders Jons, 1814-74, Swedish physicist. Noted for his study of
 light, especially SPECTRUM analysis, he mapped the sun's spectrum,
 discovered hydrogen in the solar atmosphere, and was the first to examine
 the spectrum of the AURORA borealis. The length unit ANGSTROM is named
 for him.

   angstrom

 angstrom, unit of length equal to 10-10 m. It is used to measure the
 wavelengths of light and of other forms of electromagnetic radiation.
 Scientists now prefer to use the nanometer (nm); 1 nm=10 A.

   Anguilla

 Anguilla, island (1984 est. pop. 7,000), 35 sq mi (91 sq km), West
 Indies, one of the Leeward Islands. Fishing, stock-raising, and salt
 production are the principal activities. Formerly part of the associated
 state of St. Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla, the island seceded in 1967 and
 returned to British rule in 1971.

   animal

 animal, any member of the animal kingdom (Animalia) as distinguished from
 the plant kingdom (Plantae). The major difference between animals and
 plants is their method of obtaining nourishment-animals must secure food
 as already organized organic substances, while plants manufacture their
 own food from inorganic sources (usually by PHOTOSYNTHESIS). Most animals
 have nervous systems, sense organs, and specialized modes of locomotion,
 and are adapted for securing, ingesting, and digesting food. Animals and
 plants are interdependent: green plants use carbon dioxide and provide
 oxygen (a by-product of photosynthesis) and food; animals (and plants)
 provide carbon dioxide (through respiration and the decomposition of
 their dead bodies). The scientific study of animals is called ZOOLOGY.

   animism

 animism, belief that a spirit or force residing in every animate and
 inanimate object, every dream and idea, gives individuality to each. The
 related Polynesian concept of mana holds that the spirit in all things is
 responsible for the good and evil in the universe. See FETISH; SHAMAN;
 TOTEM.

   anion

 anion: see ION.

   anise

 anise, annual plant (Pimpinella anisum) of the CARROT family, native to
 the Mediterranean but widely cultivated for its aromatic and medicinal
 qualities. The seedlike fruits (aniseed) are used as flavoring and
 provide anise oil, which is used in medicinals, perfumes, beverages, and
 dentifrices. Biblical anise is DILL.

   Anjou

 Anjou, region and former province, W France. Angers, the historic
 capital, and Saumur are the chief towns in this fertile lowland traversed
 by several rivers. Its vineyards produce renowned wines. Occupied by the
 Andecavi, a Gallic people, Anjou was conquered by the Romans and later
 (5th cent.) by the FRANKS. By the 10th cent. it was held by the counts of
 the first Angevin dynasty; it came under English rule when its ruler
 became (1154) king of England as HENRY II. PHILIP II of France seized
 (1204) Anjou from the English, and in 1246 LOUIS IX of France gave it to
 his brother, later CHARLES I of Naples. In 1360 Anjou became a duchy and
 in 1487 it was definitively annexed to France.

   Ankara

 Ankara, city (1985 pop. 2,251,533), capital of Turkey, W central Turkey.
 The second largest city in Turkey, it is an administrative, commercial,
 and cultural center. Manufactures include processed food and farm
 equipment. Grains, vegetables, and fruits are grown nearby. A Hittite
 trade center (18th cent. BC), it became (1st cent. AD) the capital of a
 Roman province; in the ruins of a temple in Ankara have been found
 tablets valuable as a record of AUGUSTUS' reign. The city fell to the
 Ottoman Turks in the 14th cent. It declined in the 19th and 20th cent.,
 until Kemal ATATURK made it the capital of Turkey in 1923. Ataturk's
 massive limestone tomb can be seen from most of the city.

   Anna

 Anna, 1693-1740, czarina of Russia (1730-40); daughter of Ivan V and
 niece of PETER I. She succeeded her cousin Peter II. Allied with Holy
 Roman Emperor CHARLES VI, she intervened in the War of the POLISH
 SUCCESSION (1733-35) and attacked Turkey (1736). Her grandnephew, Ivan
 VI, succeeded her.

   Annam

 Annam, historic region (c.58,000 sq mi/150,200 sq km) and former state,
 central Vietnam. The region extended nearly 800 mi (1,290 km) along the
 South China Sea between Tonkin (N) and Cochin China (S). The capital was
 HUE. After more than 2,000 years of contact with the Chinese the peoples
 of the Red R. valley came under Chinese rule in 111 BC The Annamese drove
 out the Chinese in AD 939 and maintained their independence until the
 French conquest in the 19th cent. Conflict between ruling dynasties
 dominated this long period, ending with the establishment (1802) of the
 empire of VIETNAM by Nguyen-Anh, who had procured French military aid by
 ceding the port of DA NANG and the Con Son islands. His authority as
 emperor was recognized by the Chinese in 1803. Mistreatment of French
 nationals and Vietnamese Christians by his successor provided an excuse
 for French military operations, which began in 1858 and resulted in the
 establishment of the French colony of COCHIN CHINA and the protectorates
 of TONKIN and Annam. The three territories were occupied by the Japanese
 during WORLD WAR II. After an independence struggle against the French,
 most of Annam became part of South Vietnam in 1954; the rest went to
 North Vietnam. Annam was incorporated into united Vietnam after the
 VIETNAM WAR.

   Annapolis

 Annapolis, city (1986 est. pop. 33,360), state capital and seat of Anne
 Arundel co., central Md., on the Severn R. It is a port of entry and a
 farm-produce shipping center with seafood and boat-building industries.
 Settled in 1649, it has a rich history, including a period (1783-84) as
 the capital of the U.S.; it has been Maryland's capital since 1694. The
 city has many 18th-cent. buildings and is the site of the U.S. Naval
 Academy and St. John's College.

   Annapolis Convention

 Annapolis Convention, 1786, interstate convention to discuss U.S.
 commerce, held at Annapolis, Md. Its call for a meeting to discuss
 changes in the Articles of CONFEDERATION brought about the FEDERAL
 CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION.

   Annapolis Royal

 Annapolis Royal, town (1986 pop. 631), W Nova Scotia, E Canada, on the
 Annapolis R. One of Canada's oldest settlements, it was founded as Port
 Royal by the French in 1605, destroyed (1613) by the British, and rebuilt
 to become the chief town of French ACADIA. Often fought over in the 1600s
 by the English and the French, it was finally taken (1710) by colonists
 from New England and renamed in honor of Queen Anne. The ruins of its
 fort are in Fort Anne Historic National Park.

   Ann Arbor

 Ann Arbor, city (1986 est. pop. 107,810), seat of Washtenaw co., S Mich.,
 on the Huron R.; settled 1824, inc. 1851. It is a research and
 educational center, with government and industrial research firms and the
 huge Univ. of Michigan. Products include lasers, computers, and precision
 machinery. The city is also a medical center with several hospitals.

   Anne

 Anne, 1665-1714, queen of England, Scotland, and Ireland (1702-7), later
 queen of Great Britain and Ireland (1707-14); daughter of JAMES II;
 successor to WILLIAM III. The last STUART ruler and a devout Protestant,
 in 1683 she married Prince George of Denmark. Her reign was one of
 transition to parliamentary government, but intrigue and the queen's
 favor could still make and unmake cabinets. The dominant event was the
 War of the SPANISH SUCCESSION (1702-13). Despite victories won by the
 duke of MARLBOROUGH (whose wife was long a favorite of the queen), the
 war's high cost caused political friction. None of Anne's children
 survived her, and by the Act of SETTLEMENT (1701) GEORGE I succeeded her.
 Despite her personal mediocrity, Anne's reign was marked by intellectual
 awakening, the popularization of Palladian architecture, and the growth
 of parliamentary government.

   Anne

 Anne, 1950-, British princess; daughter of ELIZABETH II. In 1973 she
 married a British army officer, Mark Phillips. They have two children.

   annealing

 annealing, process in which glass, metals, and other materials are
 treated to render them less brittle and more workable. The material is
 heated and then cooled very slowly and uniformly, with the time and
 temperature set according to the properties desired. Annealing increases
 ductility and relieves internal strains that lead to failures in service.

   Anne Boleyn, queen of England

 Anne Boleyn, queen of England: see  BOLEYN, ANNE.

   annelid worm

 annelid worm, member of the phylum Annelida, which includes the
 EARTHWORMS, LEECHES, and marine worms. Also called segmented worms; they
 are soft-bodied, bilaterally symmetrical, and segmented. Distributed
 worldwide, they live in protected habitats, often in tubes manufactured
 by their own secretions. Reproduction is sexual or asexual; some species
 are HERMAPHRODITES. They range from 1/32 in. (0.5 mm) to 10 ft (3 m) in
 length.

   Anne of Austria

 Anne of Austria, 1601-66, queen consort of France. The daughter of PHILIP
 III of Spain, she married (1615) the French king LOUIS XIII and gained
 the enmity of Cardinal RICHELIEU, Louis's chief minister. As regent
 (1643-51) for her son LOUIS XIV, she entrusted the government to Cardinal
 MAZARIN.

   Anne of Brittany

 Anne of Brittany, 1477-1514, queen of France, consort of CHARLES VIII
 (1491-98) and LOUIS XII (1499-1514). As duchess of Brittany from 1488,
 she tried to preserve independence from France by marrying by proxy
 (1490) Maximilian of Austria (later Holy Roman Emperor MAXIMILIAN I).
 Besieged (1491) by the French, she was forced to annul her marriage and
 to wed Charles VIII. Widowed in 1498, she then married Louis XII, and
 Brittany was eventually incorporated (1532) by France.

   Anne of Cleves

 Anne of Cleves, 1515-57, fourth queen consort of HENRY VIII of England.
 She was the daughter of a powerful German Protestant prince, and Henry
 married her in 1540 for political reasons. Finding her dull and
 unattractive, he divorced her that same year.

   Anne of Denmark

 Anne of Denmark, 1574-1619, queen consort of JAMES I of England.

   annexation

 annexation, in international law, formal act by which a state asserts its
 sovereignty over a territory previously outside its jurisdiction. It also
 describes the process by which municipalities in the U.S. extend their
 legal control over surrounding areas. Under the UN charter,
 self-determination by inhabitants of a territory is the only basis for
 transfer of sovereignty.

   annual

 annual, plant that propagates itself by seed and undergoes its entire
 life cycle within one growing season, as distinguished from a BIENNIAL or
 PERENNIAL. Some cultivated annuals will blossom during a season only if
 started under glass and set out as young plants; others bloom where sown.

   annual rings

 annual rings, growth layers of WOOD produced yearly in the stems and
 roots of trees and shrubs. When well-marked alteration of seasons occurs
 (e.g., either cold and warm or wet and dry), a sharp contrast exists
 between the early- and late-season growth-the wood cells are larger
 earlier when growing conditions are better. In uniform climates, there is
 little visible difference between annual rings. The number of annual
 rings reflects the age of a tree; the thickness of each ring reflects
 environmental and climatic conditions.

   Annunzio, Gabriele D'

 Annunzio, Gabriele D': see D'ANNUNZIO, GABRIELE.

   anode

 anode: see ELECTRODE.

   anointing of the sick

 anointing of the sick, SACRAMENT of the ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH and the
 ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH; formerly known as extreme unction. In it a person
 who is in danger of death is anointed on the eyes, ears, nostrils, lips,
 hands, and feet by a priest while he recites absolutions for sins. In the
 Eastern churches it is normally given by three priests and maybe
 administered to the healthy to prevent sickness.

   anomie

 anomie, a social condition characterized by instability, the breakdown of
 social norms, institutional disorganization, and a divorce between
 socially valid goals and available means for achieving them. Introduced
 into sociology by Emile DURKHEIM in his study Suicide (1897), anomie also
 refers to the psychological condition-of rootlessness, futility, anxiety,
 and amorality-afflicting individuals who live under such conditions. The
 importance of anomie as a cause of deviant behavior received further
 elaboration by Robert K. MERTON.

   anorexia nervosa

 anorexia nervosa: see EATING DISORDERS.

   Anouilh, Jean

 Anouilh, Jean, 1910-87, French dramatist. His works contrast romantic
 dreams with harsh reality. Among his dramas are Antigone (1944), The
 Waltz of the Toreadors (1952), and Becket (1959).

   Anselm, Saint

 Anselm, Saint, 1033?-1109, Italian prelate, archbishop of Canterbury,
 Doctor of the Church. He succeeded (1093) his friend LANFRANC as
 archbishop of Canterbury. In England, he quarreled with WILLIAM II and
 HENRY I over lay INVESTITURE and was exiled twice. An influential
 theologian, he was a founder of SCHOLASTICISM. His famous ontological
 proof deduces God's existence from man's notion of a perfect being in
 whom nothing is lacking. Feast: Apr. 21.

   Anshan

 Anshan, city (1986 est. pop. 1,280,000) central Liaoning prov., NE China,
 on the South Manchurian RR. Its huge integrated iron and steel complex is
 one of the largest in China. Other manufactures include machinery,
 chemicals, and construction materials.

   Ansky, Shloime

 Ansky, Shloime, pseud. of Solomon Seinwil Rapoport, 1863-1920, Russian
 Yiddish author. He incorporated folk elements into his stories of
 peasants and HASIDIM, e.g., The Dybbuk (1916), a tale of demonic
 possession.

   ant

 ant, INSECT (family Formicidae) belonging to the same order as the BEE
 and WASP. Ants have a narrow stalk joining the abdomen and thorax, and
 biting mouthparts (sometimes used for defense). Some ants have stings,
 and some can spray poison from the end of the abdomen. All ants show some
 degree of social organization; many nest in a system of tunnels in the
 soil, in constructed mounds, or in wood. Ant colonies usually include
 three castes: winged, fertile females; wingless, infertile females, or
 workers; and winged males. In some species workers may become soldiers or
 other specialized types. Army ants travel in columns, overrunning and
 devouring any animals in their path; fire ants are stinging ants that are
 serious pests in parts of the S U.S.

   Antakya

 Antakya: see ANTIOCH.

   Antananarivo

 Antananarivo or Tananarive,city (1985 est. pop. 662,585), capital of
 Madagascar. The country's largest city and economic and communications
 center, it is a productive agricultural region whose main crop is rice. A
 railroad connects the city with Tamatave, the chief port. Manufactures
 include meat products and cigarettes. Founded c.1625, it became (1797)
 the residence of the Merina rulers. It was taken by the French in 1895.
 Today it is a modern city, built on a ridge; at its top stands the old
 royal residence.

   Antarctica

 Antarctica, 5th largest continent, c.5,500,000 sq mi (14,245,000 sq km),
 asymmetrically centered on the SOUTH POLE and located almost entirely S
 of the ANTARCTIC CIRCLE (66 deg 30'S). It consists of two major regions:
 W Antarctica, including the mountainous Antarctic Peninsula, which is
 structurally related to the ANDES of South America and connected to them
 by way of the Scotia Arc (South Georgia, South Orkney, and South Sandwich
 islands); and E Antarctica, a continental shield area (see PLATE
 TECTONICS) with a rock surface near sea level. These two regions are
 joined into a single continental mass by an ice cap up to 13,000 ft
 (4,000 m) thick that covers more than 95% of Antarctica. Vinson Massif
 (16,066 ft/4,897 m) is the continent's highest peak. Great ice shelves up
 to 4,000 ft (1,220 m) thick block the ROSS and WEDDELL seas, and a belt
 of nearly continuous pack ice surrounds the rest of the continent. Summer
 temperatures (Jan.) are unlikely to be warmer than 0 degF (-18 degC);
 winter mean temperatures are -70 degF (-57 degC). Roald AMUNDSEN was the
 first explorer to reach the South Pole on Dec. 14, 1911, followed by R.F.
 SCOTT on Jan. 18, 1912. The first to fly over the pole was Richard E.
 BYRD, on Nov. 29, 1929. The success of international scientific
 cooperation in Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year (IGY)
 of 1957-58 led to the signing (1959) of the Antarctic Treaty, which
 prohibits military operations, nuclear explosions, and the disposal of
 radioactive wastes south of latitude 60 degS, exclusive of the high seas.
 See map in separate section. In 1985, 32 nations signed an agreement
 limiting human access to research zones in Antarctica.

   Antarctic Circle

 Antarctic Circle, imaginary circle on the earth's surface at 66 deg 30'S
 lat., marking the southernmost point at which the sun can be seen at the
 summer SOLSTICE (about June 22) and the northernmost point of the
 southern polar regions at which the midnight sun is visible.

   Antarctic peninsula

 Antarctic peninsula, glaciated mountain region of W ANTARCTICA, extending
 c.1,200 mi (1,930 km) north toward South America. It was originally named
 Palmer Land for Nathaniel Palmer, a U.S. captain who explored the region
 in 1820. The British claimed the peninsula in 1832 and it was later
 claimed by Argentina (1940) and by Chile (1942). In 1964, by
 international agreement it was named the Antarctic Peninsula.

   anteater

 anteater, toothless MAMMAL of three genera of the order Edentata found in
 tropical Central and South America. It feeds on ants, termites, and other
 insects. The great anteater, or ant bear (Myrmecophaga), has an elongated
 snout, a coarse-haired body about 4 ft (1.2 m) long, and a long, broad
 tail; the arboreal collared, or lesser, anteater (Tamandua) is less than
 half the size of the great anteater; and the arboreal two-toed anteater
 (Cyclopes) is about the size of a squirrel.

   antelope

 antelope, any of various hoofed ruminant MAMMALS of the CATTLE family.
 True antelopes are found only in Africa and Asia. Antelopes usually stand
 3-4 ft (90-120 cm) at the shoulder, but range from the 12-in. (30-cm)
 pygmy antelope to the 6-ft (180-cm) giant eland. Antelope horns, unlike
 DEER horns, are unbranched and are not shed. Species of antelope include
 the bushbuck, with its spiral horns and oxlike body; the addax, a large
 desert antelope of N Africa; the horselike oryx, found in Africa and
 Arabia; the GNU and its close relative the hartebeest, a swift, horselike
 animal with U-shaped horns; and the GAZELLE.

   antenna

 antenna or aerial,system of wires or other conductors used to transmit or
 receive radio or other electromagnetic waves (see RADIO; TELEVISION). In
 a transmitting antenna, the signal from an ELECTRIC CIRCUIT causes
 electrons in the antenna to oscillate; these moving electric charges
 generate ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION, which is then transmitted through
 space. The distribution pattern of the transmitted wave depends on the
 design of the antenna; radio broadcast-station antennas are frequently
 designed to emit waves in all directions, whereas those used for RADAR
 and for certain communication systems focus the waves in a single
 direction. In a receiving antenna, electromagnetic waves cause the
 electrons in the antenna to oscillate, inducing a signal that can be
 detected by an electric circuit. In general, a longer antenna is used to
 transmit or receive signals of longer wavelengths. Theoretically, the
 same antenna can be used both for sending and for receiving signals, but
 in practice, transmitting antennas are constructed to handle higher power
 loads than receiving antennas.

   Antheil, George

 Antheil, George, 1900-1959, American composer; b. Trenton, N.J. His early
 work reveals the influence of JAZZ. In 1927 a performance of his Ballet
 mecanique, scored for player piano, car horns, airplane propellers, etc.,
 caused a furor in New York City. Other works include the opera
 Transatlantic (1930), symphonies, and film scores.

   anthem

 anthem, short nonliturgical choral composition used in Protestant
 services, usually accompanied and with an English text. Early anthems,
 which arose in the Anglican Church, included those by Thomas Tallis and
 William BYRD. In the 17th cent. Henry PURCELL and John Blow wrote anthems
 including solo parts (verse anthems); G.F. HANDEL composed full anthems,
 for voice only. The term anthem also means "national anthem," e.g., The
 STAR-SPANGLED BANNER.

   Anthony, Saint

 Anthony, Saint, 251?-c.350, Egyptian hermit. Living in seclusion, he
 resisted the many temptations of the devil. A colony of hermits grew up
 about him, and he ruled them as a community before going away to the
 desert. He was the father of Christian MONASTICISM. Feast: Jan. 17.

   Anthony, Marc

 Anthony, Marc: see ANTONY.

   Anthony, Susan B(rownell)

 Anthony, Susan B(rownell), 1820-1906, American leader of the WOMAN
 SUFFRAGE movement; b. Adams, Mass. She organized the first women's
 temperance association, the Daughters of Temperance, and with Elizabeth
 Cady STANTON secured the first laws in New York guaranteeing women rights
 over their children and control of property and wages. In 1863 she was
 coorganizer of the Women's Loyal League to support Lincoln's government,
 but after the Civil War she opposed granting suffrage to freedmen without
 also giving it to women. She was president (1892-1900) of the National
 American Woman Suffrage Association and helped compile vols. 1-3 of The
 History of Woman Suffrage (1881-86).

   anthrax

 anthrax, infectious disease of animals that can be transmitted from
 animals to humans through contact or the inhalation of spores. Primarily
 affecting sheep, horses, hogs, cattle, and goats, anthrax is usually
 restricted to people who handle hides of animals (e.g., farmers,
 butchers, and veterinarians) or sort wool. The disease, usually fatal to
 animals but not humans, is caused by Bacillus anthracis, discovered by
 Robert KOCH in 1876. Louis PASTEUR developed a method of vaccinating
 sheep and cattle against anthrax, and the disease is now relatively rare
 in the U.S.

   anthropological linguistics

 anthropological linguistics, study of the relationship between language
 and CULTURE, often focusing on cultures with no written language, e.g.,
 American Indians. The precise relationship of language to culture is,
 however, a subject of controversy. See also ANTHROPOLOGY; LINGUISTICS.

   anthropology

 anthropology, study of the origin, development, and varieties of human
 beings and their societies. Emerging as an independent science in the
 late 18th cent., it developed two divisions: physical anthropology, which
 focuses on human EVOLUTION and variation (see RACE), using methods of
 PHYSIOLOGY, anthropometry, GENETICS, and ECOLOGY; and cultural
 anthropology (see CULTURE), which includes ARCHAEOLOGY, ethnology, social
 anthropology, and LINGUISTICS.

   antianxiety drug

 antianxiety drug, drug administered for the relief of ANXIETY; in larger
 doses, antianxiety drugs produce sleep, sedation, and anesthesia. Those
 frequently prescribed in the U.S. include diazepam (Valium),
 chlordiazepoxide (Librium), and meprobamate (Miltown). Side effects
 include drowsiness and, with prolonged use, possible dependence.

   antibiotic

 antibiotic, any of a variety of substances, usually obtained from
 microorganisms, that inhibit the growth of or destroy certain other
 microorganisms. The foundation for the development and understanding of
 antibiotics was laid during the 19th cent. when Louis PASTEUR proved that
 one species of microorganism can kill another and Paul EHRLICH developed
 the idea of selective toxicity: that a specific substance can be toxic to
 some organisms, e.g., infectious bacteria, but harmless to others, e.g.,
 human hosts. Further pioneering work in the 20th cent. by Alexander
 FLEMING, Rene DUBOS, and Selman WAKSMAN led to the discovery of
 PENICILLIN (1939) and streptomycin (1944). Mass production of antibiotic
 drugs began during World War II with streptomycin and penicillin. Today
 antibiotics are produced by various methods, including staged
 fermentation in huge tanks of nutrient media, synthesis in the
 laboratory, and chemical modification of natural substances. Antibiotics
 can be classified according to chemical structure, microbial origin, mode
 of action, or effective range. The tetracyclines are broad-spectrum
 drugs, effective against a wide range of bacteria (both gram-positive and
 gram-negative; see GRAM'S STAIN), rickettsias, and the psittacosis VIRUS.
 The antibiotics bacitracin, penicillin, the erythromycins, and the
 cephalosporins work primarily against Gram-positive organisms. Polymyxins
 and other narrow-range antibiotics are effective against only a few
 species. Antibiotic drugs may be injected, given orally, or applied to
 the skin. Some, like penicillin, are allergenic and can cause rashes or
 shock. Others, like the tetracylines, can alter the intestinal
 environment, encouraging superinfection by fungi or other microorganisms.
 Many antibiotics are less effective than formerly because resistant
 strains of microorganisms have evolved. Antibiotics have been used to
 enhance the growth of animals used as food, but some authorities question
 the practice because it encourages the development of resistant strains
 of bacteria infecting animals, and because continuous low exposure to
 antibiotics can sensitize human beings, making them unable to take such
 drugs later to treat infection.

   antibody

 antibody: see IMMUNITY.

   Antichrist

 Antichrist, in Christian belief, a person who will lead the forces of
 evil on earth against the forces of Christ. He will be destroyed by
 Christ at the Second Coming (1 John 2.18-22; 4.3; 2 John 7; and Rev. 13).

   anticline

 anticline: see FOLD.

   anticoagulant

 anticoagulant, substance, such as heparin or derivatives of coumarin,
 that inhibits blood clotting. Anticoagulants are used to treat blood
 clots in leg and pelvic veins, in order to reduce the risk of the clots
 traveling and obstructing blood flow to vital organs (e.g., the heart and
 lungs) and causing THROMBOSIS or STROKE.

   Anti-Corn-Law League

 Anti-Corn-Law League, organization formed in 1839 to work for repeal of
 the English CORN LAWS. Its leading figures were Richard COBDEN and John
 BRIGHT. The laws were repealed in 1846.

   antidepressant

 antidepressant, drug used to treat psychic depression. Antidepressants,
 such as imipramine, are given to elevate mood, counter suicidal thoughts,
 and increase the effectiveness of psychotherapy, although the exact
 mechanisms of their action are unknown. Side effects include dry mouth,
 dizziness, and fatigue. See also LITHIUM.

   Antietam campaign

 Antietam campaign, Sept. 1862, in the U.S. CIVIL WAR. Attempting to
 invade Maryland and Pennsylvania, R.E. LEE sent Stonewall JACKSON to
 capture Harpers Ferry, which fell on Sept. 15. Lee's own advance was
 halted by MCCLELLAN, who attacked him at Antietam Creek, Md., on Sept.
 17, the bloodiest day of the war. It was a Union victory only in that
 Lee's advance was stopped.

   Anti-Federalists

 Anti-Federalists, in U.S. history, the opponents to the adoption of the
 Federal CONSTITUTION. Leading Anti-Federalists included George Mason,
 Elbridge Gerry, Patrick Henry, and George Clinton, and later, supporters
 of states' rights. Under Pres. Washington, many opposed the policies of
 the FEDERALIST PARTY and Alexander Hamilton. Under Thomas Jefferson's
 leadership, they formed the core of the opposition party, known as the
 Democratic-Republican Party, subsequently the DEMOCRATIC PARTY.

   antifreeze

 antifreeze, substance added to a solvent to lower its freezing point.
 Antifreeze is typically added to water in the cooling system of internal
 combustion engines so that it may be cooled below the freezing point of
 pure water (32 deg F or 0 deg C) without freezing. Automotive antifreezes
 include ethylene glycol (the most widely used), methanol, ethanol,
 isopropyl alcohol, and propylene glycol.

   antigen

 antigen: see IMMUNITY.

   Antigone

 Antigone, in Greek legend, daughter of OEDIPUS. When her brothers
 Eteocles and Polynices killed each other, Creon, king of THEBES, forbade
 the rebel Polynices' burial. Antigone disobeyed him, performed the rites,
 and was condemned to death. SOPHOCLES tells her story in Antigone.

   Antigua

 Antigua or Antigua Guatemala,town (1983 est. pop. 26,631), S central
 Guatemala. Now a trading center in a coffee-growing area, it was once the
 capital of Spanish Guatemala and, in the 16th cent., one of the richest
 cities in the New World. Antigua was founded in 1542, after a flood and
 earthquake destroyed the earlier capital, Ciudad Vieja, but was itself
 leveled by earthquakes in 1773. The capital was then moved to GUATEMALA
 City. Today Antigua is a major tourist center with fine Spanish
 buildings.

   Antigua and Barbuda

 Antigua and Barbuda, island nation (1986 est. pop. 81,500), 171 sq mi
 (442 sq km), West Indies, in the Leeward Islands. It consists of Antigua
 (108 sq mi/280 sq km) and two smaller islands, sparsely populated Barbuda
 and uninhabited Redonda. The capital is St. John's. Antigua is a hilly
 island with farms that grow mainly sugarcane and cotton. The population
 is predominantly of black African origin. The island was discovered by
 Christopher COLUMBUS in 1493. Following brief periods under the Spanish
 and French, it was successfully settled in 1632 by the British, who
 introduced sugar planting; the industry declined with the abolition of
 slavery in 1834. Antigua, with Barbuda and Redonda as dependencies,
 became an associated state of the Commonwealth in 1967 and achieved full
 independence in 1981. The U.S. maintains two military bases there.

   antihistamine

 antihistamine: see ALLERGY; HISTAMINE.

   Antilles

 Antilles: see WEST INDIES.

   Anti-Masonic party

 Anti-Masonic party, American political party founded to counter the
 supposed political influence of FREEMASONRY. It arose in W New York state
 after the disappearance (1826) of William Morgan, a former Mason who had
 written a book purporting to reveal Masonic secrets. Freemasons were
 said, without proof, to have murdered him. At Baltimore, in 1831,
 Anti-Masons held the first national nominating convention of any party,
 and issued the first written party platform. In 1834 they helped form the
 WHIG PARTY.

   antimatter

 antimatter, material composed of antiparticles, which correspond to
 ordinary protons, electrons, and neutrons but have the opposite
 electrical charge and magnetic moment. When matter and antimatter
 collide, both may be annihilated, and other ELEMENTARY PARTICLES, such as
 photons and pions, are produced. In 1932 Carl D. Anderson, while studying
 cosmic rays, discovered the positron, or antielectron, the first known
 antiparticle. Any antimatter in our part of the universe is necessarily
 very short-lived because of the overwhelming preponderance of ordinary
 matter, by which the antimatter is quickly annihilated.

   antimony

 antimony (Sb), semimetallic element, first described by Nicolas Lemery in
 1707. Silvery blue-white, brittle, and easily powdered, it conducts heat
 and electricity poorly. Chief uses are as alloys and compounds in storage
 batteries, cable sheathing, and paint pigments. See ELEMENT; PERIODIC
 TABLE.

   antinuclear movement

 antinuclear movement, coalition of those opposed to the production of
 nuclear weapons and, to a lesser extent, nuclear power plants. With
 origins in the Ban the Bomb campaign of the late 1950s and the
 environmental movement of the late 1960s, the current movement emerged
 after the THREE MILE ISLAND Nuclear Station accident (1979) and U.S.
 planned deployment of new medium-range missiles in Western Europe (1981).
 Major demonstrations occurred in Europe and the U.S. An antinuclear peace
 rally (N.Y.C.; 1982) drew nearly 1 million people. In 1985, the
 International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War was awarded
 the Nobel Peace Prize. Related organizations include SANE: A Citizens'
 Organization for a Sane World, Physicians for Social Responsibility, and
 the Union of Concerned Scientists. See also DISARMAMENT, NUCLEAR.

   Antioch

 Antioch or Antakya,city (1980 pop. 94,942), S Turkey, on the Orontes R.,
 near the Mediterranean Sea. It is a trade center for a farm area where
 grains, cotton, and vegetables are grown. Founded (c.300 BC) by SELEUCUS
 I, king of ancient Syria, it was a military, commercial, and cultural
 center under Rome and an early center of Christianity. It fell (AD 637)
 to the Arabs but was retaken (1098) by the Crusaders and became a
 powerful principality under BOHEMOND I. It later became (1516) part of
 the OTTOMAN EMPIRE, was incorporated into the French mandate of Syria
 after World War I, and was restored to Turkey in 1939. Many important
 archaeological finds have been made in or near the city.

   Antiochus I

 Antiochus I, 324-261 BC, Seleucid emperor. The son of ALEXANDER'S general
 SELEUCUS, he acceded to the throne in 281. He made peace with Macedonia,
 but lost territories in Asia Minor to Egypt in wars (274-71; 263-61). He
 led (273) a successful campaign against Gallic invaders in Asia Minor.

   Antiochus III

 Antiochus III, c.242-187 BC, Seleucid emperor, known as Antiochus the
 Great. Succeeding (223) his father, Seleucus II, he conquered Parthia,
 Bactria, Syria, and Palestine, entered into an alliance with PHILIP V of
 Macedonia, and invaded Thrace. He also gave refuge to HANNIBAL and
 aroused the enmity of Rome, which checked his western expansion in
 battles at Thermopylae and Magnesia.

   Antiochus IV

 Antiochus IV, c.215-163 BC, known as Antiochus Epiphanes. Son of
 Antiochus II, he became king in 175. He is remembered for his infamous
 attempt to impose Hellenic culture on Judea, which instigated the
 Maccabean (see MACCABEES) Revolt (167). His preemptive war against
 Ptolemaic Egypt in 169-68 was lost by the intervention of Rome.

   antiparticle

 antiparticle: see ANTIMATTER.

   Antipas

 Antipas, in the Bible: see HEROD.

   Antipater

 Antipater, d. 319 BC, Macedonian general under ALEXANDER THE GREAT;
 regent of MACEDON (334-323 BC). After Alexander's death he defeated
 Perdiccas in a struggle for the regency (321). He held the kingdom
 together; his death was followed by the wars of the DIADOCHI.

   Antipater

 Antipater, in the Bible: see HEROD.

   antipope

 antipope, person elected pope whose election was later declared
 uncanonical and in opposition to a canonically chosen legitimate pontiff
 (see PAPACY).

   antique

 antique, term formerly applied only to objects of preclassical and
 classical cultures of the ancient world, but now applied in common usage
 to artifacts of historic, aesthetic, and monetary value that are more
 than 100 years old. Antique collecting began with the preservation of
 religious objects in antiquity, but today includes a vast range of
 decorative objects and memorabilia.

   Anti-Saloon League

 Anti-Saloon League, U.S. organization working for the prohibition of the
 sale of alcoholic beverages. Founded in 1893, it helped to secure the
 18th amendment to the CONSTITUTION, establishing PROHIBITION (1919-33).
 In 1950 it merged with the National Temperance League.

   anti-Semitism

 anti-Semitism, prejudice against JEWS. Before the 19th cent.
 anti-Semitism was largely religious, based on the belief that Jews were
 responsible for Christ's crucifixion. It was expressed in the later
 Middle Ages by sporadic persecutions and expulsions (e.g., the expulsion
 of Jews from Spain in 1492), economic restrictions (e.g., the restriction
 of Jews to unpopular or taboo occupations), and personal restrictions
 (see GHETTO). After the Jews' emancipation during the ENLIGHTENMENT,
 religious and economic anti-Semitism was slowly replaced in the 19th
 cent. by racial prejudice, stemming from the idea of Jews as a distinct
 race. The cultural isolation of Orthodox Jews, rising NATIONALISM,
 pseudoscientific theories of Aryan racial superiority, and spurious
 charges of Jewish domination encouraged anti-Semitism (see POGROM). These
 beliefs, incorporated into Adolf Hitler's NATIONAL SOCIALISM, contributed
 to the extermination of 6 million Jews in the HOLOCAUST of World War II.
 Anti-Semitism still exists in the USSR, the Middle East, and elsewhere.

   antislavery movement

 antislavery movement: see ABOLITIONISTS; SLAVERY.

   antitoxin

 antitoxin: see TOXIN.

   antitrust laws

 antitrust laws, legislation under which the U.S. government has acted to
 break up any large business combination alleged to be acting
 monopolistically to suppress competition (see TRUST, corporate;
 MONOPOLY). The first of these laws, which were based on the
 constitutional power of Congress to regulate interstate commerce, was the
 Sherman Antitrust Act (1890). It declared illegal every contract,
 combination, or conspiracy in restraint of interstate and foreign trade.
 It was supplemented (1914) by the Clayton Antitrust Act, which prohibited
 exclusive sales contracts, intercorporate stock holdings, and unfair
 price cutting to freeze out competitors. The last provision was
 strengthened under the terms of the Robinson-Patman Act of 1936.
 Corporate trusts grew rapidly in the U.S. from 1880 to 1905, by which
 time Pres. Theodore ROOSEVELT had launched his famous "trust-busting"
 campaigns. An early federal success came with the Supreme Court decision
 of 1911 that forced the giant Standard Oil Co. to split up into
 independent entities. Antitrust action declined in the 1920s, but was
 vigorously resumed in the 1930s under Pres. F.D. ROOSEVELT. In recent
 years enforcement of antitrust legislation has been complicated by the
 growth of huge CONGLOMERATES that control many companies in various,
 sometimes interrelated, industries.

   Antoine, Andre

 Antoine, Andre, 1858-1943, French theater director, manager, and critic.
 In 1887 he founded the Theatre Libre (see THEATER,) to present works of
 NATURALISM. His work became a model for experimental theaters.

   Antonello da Messina

 Antonello da Messina, c.1430 1479, Italian painter. His handling of oils
 shows strong Flemish influence. Messina's works include Ecce Homo
 (Metropolitan Mus.) and Pieta (Venice). He was also an excellent
 portraitist.

   Antonescu, Ion

 Antonescu, Ion, 1882-1946, Rumanian marshal and dictator. King CAROL II
 named him premier in 1940, and he promptly forced the king's abdication
 in favor of Carol's son, MICHAEL. In WORLD WAR II Antonescu led the
 nation into the AXIS camp and gave HITLER virtual control of the country.
 He was executed at the end of the war.

   Antonioni, Michelangelo

 Antonioni, Michelangelo, 1912-, Italian film director. In such films as
 L'Avventura (1959), Red Desert (1964), Blow-Up (1966), and The Passenger
 (1975) he depicted modern alienation, subordinating dialogue to visual
 images.

   Antony

 Antony or Marc Antony,Lat. Marcus Antonius, c.83 BC-30 BC, Roman
 politician and soldier. He was of a distinguished family related to
 Julius CAESAR, who made him a protege. In 49 BC Antony became tribune. He
 and Quintus Cassius Longinus (see CASSIUS, family), another tribune,
 vetoed the bill to deprive Caesar of his army. Caesar then crossed the
 Rubicon, and the civil war began. After Caesar's assassination (44 BC),
 Antony, then consul, aroused the mob against the conspirators. Octavian
 (later AUGUSTUS) joined forces with him, but they soon fell out. However,
 Octavian arranged the Second Triumvirate with Antony and Marcus Aemilius
 Lepidus (see LEPIDUS, family). At Philippi, in 42 BC, Antony and Octavian
 crushed the republicans, and the triumvirate ruled the empire for five
 years. Antony met CLEOPATRA in 42 BC, and their love affair began. When
 Antony's wife, Fulvia, died (40 BC), he married Octavian's sister,
 OCTAVIA. In 37 BC, Antony settled in Alexandria as the acknowledged lover
 of Cleopatra. In 32 BC the senate deprived Antony of his powers, thus
 making civil war inevitable. In the following year Octavian's forces
 defeated Antony and Cleopatra in the naval battle at Actium, and Antony
 returned to Egypt. When Octavian came there (30 BC), Antony committed
 suicide, and Cleopatra killed herself soon afterward. Of the many dramas
 on the tragedy, the best known by far is SHAKESPEARE'S Antony and
 Cleopatra.

   Antwerp

 Antwerp, city (1987 pop. 479,748, including Berchem, Borgerhout, Deurne,
 Hoboken, Merksem, and Wilrijk), Flemish N Belgium, on the Scheldt R. It
 is one of the busiest European ports and a major center of finance,
 industry, and the diamond trade. Europe's chief commercial city by the
 mid-16th cent., it declined after its sacking (1576) by the Spanish and
 the closing (1648) of the Scheldt to navigation. Its modern expansion
 dates from 1863. In the 20th cent. it was twice occupied and heavily
 damaged by the Germans. Antwerp has many notable buildings, e.g., its
 Gothic cathedral (14th-16th cent.), and houses many important paintings,
 e.g., by RUBENS, MASSYS, VAN DYCK.

   anxiety

 anxiety, anticipatory tension or vague dread persisting in the absence of
 a specific threat. It is characterized by increased pulse rate and blood
 pressure, quickened breathing, perspiration, and dryness of the mouth. It
 has been defined as the tension resulting from a sense of failure in
 interpersonal relations or as a reaction to unresolved conflicts that
 threaten the personality.

   Anza, Juan Bautista de

 Anza, Juan Bautista de, 1735-88, Spanish explorer; b. Mexico. Accompanied
 by a small expedition, he blazed (1774) a route from Sonora to
 California. In 1776 he founded SAN FRANCISCO. He later served (1777-88)
 as governor of New Mexico.

   Apache Indians

 Apache Indians, NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS of the Southwest, six culturally
 related groups; most spoke dialects of the ATHABASCAN branch of the
 Nadene linguistic stock (see AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES). Their ancestors
 entered the area c.1100. The NAVAHO INDIANS were once joined to the
 Apaches. Historically the Apaches subsisted on wild game, seed and fruit
 gathering, livestock, and some horticulture. Men lived with and worked
 for their wives' families. The Apaches, known as fierce fighters,
 resisted the Spanish advance but increasingly fought the COMANCHES and
 other tribes with captured Spanish horses and arms. After the mid-19th
 cent. COCHISE, GERONIMO, MANGAS COLORADAS, and others led them in strong
 but futile efforts to stop white expansion westward. Today they live on
 reservations totaling over 3 million acres in Arizona and New Mexico and
 retain many tribal customs. Cattle, timber, tourism, and the development
 of mineral resources provide income. In 1982 the Apaches won a major
 Supreme Court test of their right to tax resources extracted from their
 lands.

   apartheid

 apartheid [Afrik.,=apartness], system of racial segregation and white
 supremacy peculiar to the Republic of SOUTH AFRICA. First formalized in
 the 1948 Afrikaner Nationalist party platform, apartheid separates whites
 from nonwhites, non whites-Coloureds (mulattoes), Asiatics (mainly of
 Indian ancestry), and Africans (called Bantu)-from each other, and one
 group of Bantu from another. Under Prime Min. Hendrik VERWOERD a policy
 of "separate development" established nine BANTUSTANS, or homelands,
 totaling about 14% of the country's land, most of it too poor in quality
 to support the designated population (roughly 70% of all South Africans).
 On the reservations Bantu can exercise certain rights; elsewhere their
 activities are strictly curtailed. They cannot vote, own land, travel, or
 work without permits, and spouses are often forbidden to accompany
 workers to urban areas. The policy, which is destructive of African
 family life, has generated international and domestic protest. In 1961
 South Africa withdrew from the British Commonwealth in dispute over
 apartheid. Economic and political pressure has since led to some
 improvements for Africans, but many feel that apartheid will end only by
 force-from within or without.

   apatite

 apatite, phosphate mineral (Ca,Pb)5(PO4)3(F,Cl,OH), transparent to opaque
 in shades of green, brown, yellow, white, red, and purple. Apatite, a
 minor constituent of many types of rock, is mined in Florida, Tennessee,
 Montana, N Africa, Europe, and the USSR. Large deposits are mined for use
 in making phosphatic fertilizers, and two varieties are used to a limited
 extent in jewelry.

   ape

 ape, PRIMATE of the family Pongidae, or Simiidae, closely related to
 human beings. The small apes, the GIBBON and siamang, and the smallest of
 the great apes, the ORANGUTAN, are found in SE Asia; the other great
 apes, the GORILLA and the CHIMPANZEE, are found in Africa. They vary in
 size from the 3-ft (1.8-m), 15-lb (6.8-kg) gibbon to the 6-ft (1.8-m),
 500-lb (227-kg) gorilla. All are forest dwellers and spend at least some
 time in trees; unlike MONKEYS, they can swing hand-over-hand. Their
 brains, similar in structure to the human brain, are capable of fairly
 advanced reasoning.

   Apelles

 Apelles, fl. 330 BC, Greek painter, the most famous in antiquity, now
 known only through descriptions. Perhaps his most famous work was a
 painting of Aphrodite rising from the sea. BOTTICELLI painted Apelles'
 Calumny (Uffizi) from ALBERTI'S description.

   Apennines

 Apennines, mountain system c.840 mi (1,350 km) long and up to c.80 mi
 (130 km) wide, extending the entire length of the Italian Peninsula and
 continuing into Sicily. The earth-quake-prone mountains, long since
 denuded of their original forest cover, reach a high point of 9,560 ft
 (2,914 m) in Mt. Corno.

   aphasia

 aphasia, language disturbance caused by a lesion of the brain, causing
 partial or total impairment in the individual's ability to speak, write,
 or comprehend the meaning of spoken or written words. Treatment consists
 of reeducation; the methods used include those employed in education of
 the deaf.

   aphelion

 aphelion: see APSIS.

   aphid

 aphid or plant louse,tiny, usually green, pear-shaped INSECT injurious to
 vegetation. Aphids feed by sucking plant juices through their beaks. Most
 species live in large colonies; some species live symbiotically with
 ants. Many inhabit swellings of plant tissues (galls) that they form with
 their secretions.

   Aphrodite

 Aphrodite, in Greek mythology, goddess of love, beauty, and fertility.
 She was either the daughter of ZEUS and Dione, or she emerged from the
 sea foam. Married to HEPHAESTUS, she loved and had children by other gods
 and mortals, e.g., Harmonia was fathered by ARES, and AENEAS was the son
 of Anchises. Aphrodite was awarded the apple of discord by PARIS, leading
 to the TROJAN WAR. Probably of Eastern origin, she was similar in
 attributes to the goddesses ASTARTE and ISHTAR. The Romans identified her
 with VENUS.

   Apia

 Apia, city (1981 est. pop. 33,170), capital and chief port of WESTERN
 SAMOA.

   APL

 APL: see PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE.

   Apocrypha

 Apocrypha, appendix to the Authorized (King James) Version of the Old
 Testament, containing the following books or parts of books: First and
 Second ESDRAS; TOBIT; JUDITH; ESTHER 10.4-16.24; WISDOM; ECCLESIASTICUS
 ; BARUCH; DANIEL3.24-90, 13, 14; Prayer of Manasses (see under MANASSEH);
 and First and Second MACCABEES. All except the Prayer of Manasses and
 First and Second Esdras are included in the Western canon. Protestants
 follow the Jewish tradition in treating these books as uncanonical.
 Jewish and Christian works resembling biblical books but not in the
 Western or Hebrew canon are called pseudepigrapha.

   apogee

 apogee: see APSIS.

   Apollinaire, Guillaume

 Apollinaire, Guillaume, 1880-1918, French poet and critic; b. Wilhelm
 Apollinaris de Kostrowitzky. He was an influential innovator, whose lyric
 poems, e.g., Alcools (1913) and Calligrammes (1918), blend modern and
 traditional verse techniques. He is credited with introducing CUBISM to
 literature. The Breasts of Tiresias (1918), a play, is an early example
 of SURREALISM.

   Apollo

 Apollo, in Greek mythology, one of the most important OLYMPIAN gods; son
 of ZEUS and Leto, twin brother of ARTEMIS. He was concerned with
 prophecy, medicine (he was the father of ASCLEPIUS), music and poetry (he
 was also the father of ORPHEUS and the patron of the MUSES), and the
 pastoral arts. A moral god of high civilization, he was associated with
 law, philosophy, and the arts. He was widely known as a god of light,
 Phoebus Apollo; after the 5th cent. BC he was often identified with the
 sun god HELIOS. Apollo's oracles had great authority; his chief shrine
 was at DELPHI, where he was primarily a god of purification. In art he
 was portrayed as the perfection of youth and beauty. The most celebrated
 statue of him is the Apollo Belvedere, a marble copy of the original
 Greek bronze, now in the Vatican in Rome.

   Apollo, Project

 Apollo, Project: see SPACE EXPLORATION.

   Apollo asteroid

 Apollo asteroid: see ASTEROID.

   Apollonius Rhodius

 Apollonius Rhodius, fl. 3d cent. BC, epic poet of ALEXANDRIA and RHODES;
 librarian at Alexandria. His Argonautica is a four-book Homeric imitation
 on the Argonaut theme (see GOLDEN FLEECE; JASON).

   Apollo-Soyuz Test Project

 Apollo-Soyuz Test Project: see SPACE EXPLORATION.

   apostle

 apostle [Gr.,=envoy], one of the prime missionaries of Christianity. The
 disciples of JESUS who were chosen to be his Twelve Apostles were PETER,
 ANDREW, JAMES (the Greater), JOHN, THOMAS, JAMES (the Less), JUDE
  (or Thaddaeus), PHILIP, BARTHOLOMEW, MATTHEW, SIMON, and JUDAS ISCARIOT
 , who was later replaced by MATTHIAS. St. PAUL and sometimes a few others,
 e.g., St. BARNABAS, are also classed as apostles.

   apostrophe

 apostrophe: see PUNCTUATION.

   apothecaries' weights

 apothecaries' weights: see ENGLISH UNITS OF MEASUREMENT; WEIGHTS AND
 MEASURES.

   Appalachian Mountains

 Appalachian Mountains, major North American mountain system extending
 c.1,600 mi (2,570 km) SW from Canada's Quebec prov. to Alabama, with Mt.
 Mitchell (6,684 ft/2,037 m), in North Carolina, the highest point. Their
 rugged hills and valleys, the much-eroded remnants of a very old mountain
 mass, posed a major barrier to westward expansion in the early years of

 APPALACHIAN TRAIL; BLUE RIDGE; Shenandoah and Great Smoky mountains under
 NATIONAL PARKS,.

   Appalachian Trail

 Appalachian Trail, world's longest continuous hiking trail, in the
 Appalachian Mts., extending 2,050 mi (3,299 km) from Mt. Katahdin (Me.)
 to Springer Mt. (Ga.) and passing through 14 states. It was completed in
 1937.

   appeal

 appeal, legal procedure by which a superior court reviews and, if it
 thinks fit, alters, a lower court decision. Ordinarily, only errors in
 applying legal rules, not factual findings, maybe reviewed. The reviewing
 court may affirm, modify, or reverse the lower court's decision, or may
 dismiss the case. If an error is found, a retrial may ensue.

   appendix

 appendix, small, worm-shaped blind tube projecting from the large
 intestine into the lower right abdominal cavity. It has no function and
 is considered a remnant of a previous digestive organ. Appendicitis can
 occur if accumulated and hardened waste matter becomes infected; rupture
 of such an appendix can spread infection to the peritoneum (abdominal
 membrane), causing peritonitis.

   Appia, Adolphe

 Appia, Adolphe, 1862-1928, Swiss theorist of stage lighting and decor.
 His employment of light and shade when staging WAGNER'S operas
 revolutionized modern scene design and stage lighting.

   Appian Way

 Appian Way, most famous of the ROMAN ROADS, built (312 BC) under Appius
 Claudius Caecus (see CLAUDIUS, Roman gens). It connected Rome with Capua
 and was later extended to Brundisium (Brindisi). It was the chief highway
 to Greece and the East.

   Appius Claudius

 Appius Claudius: see CLAUDIUS, Roman gens.

   apple

 apple, any tree (and its fruit) of the genus Malus of the ROSE family.
 The common apple (M. sylvestris) is the best-known and commercially most
 important temperate fruit. It is native to W Asia, but has been widely
 cultivated from prehistoric times. Thousands of varieties exist, e.g.,
 Golden Delicious, Winesap, Jonathan, and McIntosh. The fruit is consumed
 fresh or cooked, or is used for juice. Partial fermentation of apple
 juice (sweet cider) produces hard cider (from which applejack liquor is
 made); fully fermented juice yields vinegar. The hardwood is used in
 cabinetmaking and as fuel. The fruit of crab apple trees (which are
 cultivated as ornamentals) is used for preserves and jellies.

   Appleseed, Johnny

 Appleseed, Johnny: see CHAPMAN, JOHN.

   Appomattox

 Appomattox, town (1980 pop. 1,345), seat of Appomattox co., central Va.;
 inc. 1925. Confederate Gen. Robert E. LEE surrendered to Union Gen. U.S.
 GRANT at nearby Appomattox Courthouse on April 9, 1865, virtually ending
 the CIVIL WAR. The surrender site has been made a national historical
 park.

   apprenticeship

 apprenticeship, system of learning a craft or trade from a practitioner
 and paying for the instruction by working a given number of years. The
 practice was known in ancient Babylon, Egypt, Greece, and Rome, modern
 Europe and, to some extent, the U.S. In medieval Europe, the GUILDS
 supervised the relation of master and apprentice. Although the INDUSTRIAL
 REVOLUTION put an end to most guilds, apprenticeship continues in highly
 skilled trades, at times competing with technical schools. The terms of
 apprenticeship are regulated by trade unions and by law.

   apricot

 apricot, tree (Prunus armeniaca) of the ROSE family and its fruit, native
 to Asia. In the U.S., it is cultivated chiefly in California. The fruit
 is used raw, canned, preserved, and dried, and in making a cordial and a
 brandy.

   April

 April: see MONTH.

   apse

 apse, the termination at the sanctuary end of a church, generally
 semicircular, sometimes square or polygonal. In Roman TEMPLES and
 BASILICAS, it was a recess holding the statue of the deity. Early
 Christian churches placed the altar in the apse, at the eastern end.
 Because of its function, the apse became the architectural climax of the
 interior, and was often highly decorated. Chapels sometimes radiated from
 it.

   apsis

 apsis, point in the ORBIT of a smaller body where it is at its greatest
 or least distance from a larger body to which it is attracted. In an
 elliptical orbit these points are called the apocenter and pericenter;
 corresponding terms for elliptical orbits around the sun, the earth, and
 a star are, respectively, aphelion and perihelion, apogee and perigee,
 and apastron and periastron. The line of apsides, an imaginary
 straightline connecting the two apsides of an elliptical orbit, may shift
 because of gravitational influences of other bodies or relativistic
 effects (see RELATIVITY).

   Apuleius, Lucius

 Apuleius, Lucius, fl. 2d cent., Latin writer. His romance The Golden Ass
 or Metamorphoses is the only entire Latin novel surviving. The story of a
 man transformed into an ass, it influenced the development of the NOVEL.

   Aqaba, Gulf of

 Aqaba, Gulf of, northern arm of the RED SEA, 118 mi (190 km) long and
 c.10 mi (16 km) wide, between ARABIA and Egypt's SINAI peninsula. The
 gulf, which gives Israel direct access to the INDIAN OCEAN, is entered
 through the Straits of Tiran. It was declared an international waterway
 by the UN in 1958 after Arab states opposed to Israel blockaded it
 (1949-56). It was blockaded again in the ARAB-ISRAELI WAR of 1967.

   aquamarine

 aquamarine, transparent blue to bluish-green variety of the mineral
 BERYL, used as a GEM. Sources include Brazil, the USSR, Madagascar, and
 parts of the U.S. Oriental aquamarine is a transparent bluish variety of
 CORUNDUM.

   aqua regia

 aqua regia [Lat.,=royal water], corrosive, fuming yellow liquid prepared
 by mixing one volume of concentrated NITRIC ACID with three to four
 volumes of concentrated HYDROCHLORIC ACID. It was so named by the
 alchemists because it dissolves gold and platinum, the "royal" metals,
 which do not dissolve in nitric and hydrochloric acid alone.

   aquarium

 aquarium, name for any supervised exhibit of living aquatic animals and
 plants. Aquariums are known to have been built in ancient Rome, Egypt,
 and the Orient. Large, modern public aquariums were made possible by the
 development of glass exhibit tanks capable of holding over 100,000 gal
 (378,500 liters) of water. Aquarium maintenance requires careful
 regulation of temperature, light, food, oxygen, and water flow; removal
 of injurious waste and debris; and attention to the special requirements
 of the individual species. Freshwater and saltwater aquariums are often
 maintained for research and breeding purposes by universities, marine
 stations, and wildlife commissions.

   aquatint

 aquatint, ETCHING technique. A metal plate is coated with resin through
 which acid bites an evenly pocked surface. When printed, it produces
 tonal effects that resemble wash drawings. Said to have been invented in
 the 1760s by J.B. Le Prince, aquatint is often combined with other types
 of etchings, as in GOYA'S series of mixed aquatint etchings.

   aqueduct

 aqueduct, conduit for conveying water, built chiefly to bring fresh
 drinking water into cities. Aqueduct types include tunnels cut through
 rock, pipelines, and the conduits that top the arched, bridgelike
 structures that stand in many parts of Europe and are legacies of the
 ancient Roman water supply system. Modern aqueducts utilize gravity,
 pumps, and the propulsive force of very high pressures in underground
 tunnels to move water over great distances.

   aquifer

 aquifer: see ARTESIAN WELL.

   Aquino, Corazon

 Aquino, Corazon, 1933-, Philippine politician. Her husband, Benigno
 Aquino, was an outspoken opponent of Pres. Ferdinand MARCOS, whose agents
 assassinated (1983) Aquino. When the accused agents were acquitted,
 Corazon Aquino declared her candidacy for the presidency. After the
 election (1986), both sides claimed victory. When Marcos refused to step
 down, Aquino organized strikes and boycotts. With the nation on the brink
 of civil war, Marcos accepted asylum in the U.S. and Aquino assumed the
 presidency.

   Aquitaine

 Aquitaine, former duchy and kingdom in SW France. Conquered (56 BC) by
 the Romans, it fell to the VISIGOTHS in the 5th cent. In 507 Aquitaine
 was added to the Frankish kingdom by CLOVIS I, but later regained some
 independence. CHARLEMAGNE made (781) Aquitaine into a kingdom that was
 ruled by his son Louis (later Emperor LOUIS I). Late in the 9th cent. it
 became a duchy enfeoffed to the French crown. ELEANOR OF AQUITAINE'S
 marriage (1152) to the future HENRY II of England gave Henry and his
 heirs control of the duchy as vassals of the French crown. France
 completed the recapture of Aquitaine from the English during the HUNDRED
 YEARS WAR.

   Ar

 Ar, chemical symbol of the element ARGON.

   Arabia

 Arabia, peninsula, c.1,000,000 sq mi (2,590,000 sq km), SW Asia,
 containing the world's largest known reserves of oil and natural gas. It
 is politically divided between SAUDI ARABIA (the largest and most
 populous nation), YEMEN, Southern Yemen (see YEMEN, SOUTHERN), OMAN, the
 UNITED ARAB EMIRATES, QATAR, BAHRAIN, KUWAIT, and several neutral zones.
 JORDAN and IRAQ are to the north, the RED SEA to the west, and the
 PERSIAN GULF to the east. Rugged mountains rising to c.12,000 ft (3,700
 m) in the southwest catch what little moisture is available, making the
 basin-shaped interior of the peninsula one of the world's driest deserts,
 with less than 4 in. (10 cm) of precipitation annually.

   Arabian art and architecture

 Arabian art and architecture: see ISLAMIC ART AND ARCHITECTURE.

   Arabian music

 Arabian music, the music of the Islamic peoples in Arabia, N Africa, and
 Persia. The chief characteristics are modal homophony, florid
 ornamentation, and modal RHYTHM, based primarily on the vocal meters of
 poetry. The principal form is the nauba, a "suite" of vocal pieces with
 instrumental preludes. The principal instrument was the lute. A
 specifically Arabian musical culture, first influenced by Persian and
 Syrian elements, developed from the 7th cent. but declined from the 11th
 cent. under Turkistan influence. With the destruction of Baghdad in 1258
 it came to an end.

   Arabian Nights

 Arabian Nights: see THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS.

   Arabian Sea

 Arabian Sea, ancient Mare Erythraeum, northwestern marginal sea of the
 INDIAN OCEAN, between Arabia and India. Its principal arms include the
 Gulf of ADEN, extended by the RED SEA, and the Gulf of Oman, extended by
 the PERSIAN GULF. ADEN, KARACHI, and BOMBAY are the chief ports.

   Arabic languages

 Arabic languages, members of the Semitic subdivision of the
 Hamito-Semitic family of languages. See AFRICAN LANGUAGES.

   Arabic literature

 Arabic literature, literature written in Arabic by Egyptians, Turks,
 Persians, Syrians, Africans, and Jews, as well as Arabs. The first
 significant Arabic literature was the lyric poetry of the 4th to 7th
 cent., strongly personal qasida (odes) that treat tribal life and the
 themes of love, combat, and the chase. The Prophet MUHAMMAD was not
 interested in poetry, so with the rise of ISLAM, Arabic poetry declined,
 replaced by the study of the KORAN. Literature again flourished in the
 Arabic-Persian culture of BAGHDAD in the 8th and 9th cent. A group of
 young poets, including ABU NUWAS, established a new, sophisticated court
 poetry; typical is the precise, formal, yet exaggerated work of Mutanabbi
 (d. 965). In the work of later poets, such as HARIRI (11th cent.), the
 style approached preciosity, and eventually the prose romance became the
 principal literary form. The THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS is the greatest
 example of this genre. During the Middle Ages Masudi and IBN KHALDUN
 produced great works on history and geography, Al Ghazali on theology and
 philosophy, and AVICENNA on medicine. The Arabic culture of Spain also
 produced fine poets and scholars, but they were dwarfed by the great
 philosophers AVERROES and Ibn Tufayl. After 1300 Arabic literature again
 declined. In the late 1800s growing Western influences stimulated a
 nationalistic vernacular literature in Syria and Egypt. Since then, the
 novel and drama have been adopted and developed, in spite of a reaction
 against Western models in modern Arabic literature. Notable 20th-cent.
 writers include the novelist Nagib MAHFUZ, the playwrights Ahmad Shawqi
 and Tawfiq al-Hakim, and the poets Hafiz Ibrahim and Nazik al-Malaikah.

   Arabic numeral

 Arabic numeral: see NUMERAL.

   Arab-Israeli Wars

 Arab-Israeli Wars, conflicts in 1948-49, 1956, 1967, 1973-74, and 1982
 between Israel and the Arabs.1The 1948-49 war reflected the opposition of
 the Arab states to the formation of a Jewish state in what they
 considered Arab territories. Newly created Israel was invaded by forces
 from Egypt, Syria, Transjordan (later Jordan), Lebanon, and Iraq. A
 UN-sponsored truce was arranged, but fighting has broken out periodically
 since then over the basic issue of the existence of Israel.2In 1956
 Israel, joined by France and Great Britain, attacked Egypt after that
 country had nationalized the Suez Canal. Intervention by the UN,
 supported by the United States and the Soviet Union, forced a
 cease-fire.3In 1967, in the Six-Day War, Israel responded to Egyptian
 provocation with air attacks and ground victories. The result was a
 humiliating defeat for Egypt. 4 In the Yom Kippur War of 1973-74, Egypt,
 Syria, and Iraq attacked Israel on the Jewish holy Day of Atonement,
 catching the Israelis off guard. Israel recouped quickly and forced the
 Arab troops back from their initial gains, but at great cost to both
 sides. Again, a cease-fire stopped the fighting. 5 In 1978 Palestinian
 guerrillas, from their base in LEBANON, launched an air raid on Israel;
 in retaliation, Israel sent troops into S Lebanon to occupy a 16-mi
 (10-km) strip and thus protect Israel's border. Eventually a UN
 peace-keeping force was set up there, but occasional fighting continued.
 In 1982 Israel launched a massive attack to destroy all military bases of
 the PALESTINE LIBERATION ORGANIZATION in S Lebanon and, after a 10-week
 siege of the Muslim sector of West BEIRUT, a PLO stronghold, forced the
 Palestinians to accept a U.S.-sponsored plan whereby the PLO guerrillas
 would evacuate Beirut and go to several Arab countries that had agreed to
 accept them.

   Arab League

 Arab League, association of states formed (1945) to give common
 expression to the political interests of Arab nations. Its members
 include nearly all of the Arab states, and the PALESTINE LIBERATION
 ORGANIZATION. Opposed to the formation of a Jewish state in Palestine,
 league members jointly attacked Israel in 1948 (see ARAB-ISRAELI WARS).
 In 1979 Egypt was suspended after its peace agreement with Israel.
 Attempts to coordinate Arab economic life are among the league's chief
 activities; the Arab Common Market was set up in 1965.

   Arabs

 Arabs, name originally applied to the Semitic peoples of the Arabian
 peninsula (see SEMITE); now used also for populations of countries whose
 primary language is Arabic, e.g., Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon,
 Libya, Morocco, Syria, and Yemen. Socially, Arabs are divided into the
 settled fellahin (villagers) and the nomadic BEDOUIN. The invasions of
 Muslims from Arabia in the 6th and 7th cent. diffused the Arabic language
 and ISLAM, the Arabic religion. At its peak the Arab empire extended from
 the Atlantic Ocean across North Africa and the Middle East to central
 Asia. A great Arab civilization emerged in which education, literature,
 philosophy, medicine, mathematics, and science were highly developed. In
 Europe the Arab conquests were particularly important in Sicily, from the
 9th to late 11th cent., and in Spain, in the civilization of the MOORS.
 In the 20th cent., Arab leaders have attempted to unite the Arab-speaking
 world into an Arab nation. Since 1945 most Arab countries have joined the
 ARAB LEAGUE. In 1982 member nations had a total population estimated at
 43 million. Several of these countries control two thirds of the world's
 oil reserves and are members of OPEC (see ORGANIZATION OF PETROLEUM
 EXPORTING COUNTRIES). Since 1948 disputes with the state of ISRAEL have
 resulted in ARAB-ISRAELI WARS.

   arachnid

 arachnid, mainly terrestrial ARTHROPOD of the class Arachnida, including
 the SPIDER, SCORPION, MITE, tick, and DADDY LONGLEGS. The arachnid's body
 is divided into a cephalothorax with six pairs of appendages and an
 abdomen. Most are carnivorous, and some use the first two pairs of
 appendages to crush and kill prey; the others are for walking. Arachnids
 have simple eyes and sensory bristles; they have no antennae. Respiration
 is through air tubes or primitive structures called book lungs.

   Arafat, Yasir

 Arafat, Yasir, 1929-, Palestine commando leader; b. Jerusalem. Head of
 the guerrilla group Al Fatah, he became (1969) leader of the PALESTINE
 LIBERATION ORGANIZATION. (PLO). The PLO was weakened when Arafat and his
 guerrillas were forced to leave their stronghold in West BEIRUT, Lebanon,
 after the 1982 Israeli siege (see ARAB-ISRAELI WARS). In recent years,
 Arafat has been more conciliatory toward the West and has made tentative
 peace overtures to the Israelis.

   Aragon, Louis

 Aragon, Louis, 1897-1982, French writer. A founder of SURREALISM, he
 later turned to realistic social and political fiction after becoming a
 Communist. His works include the surrealist novel Nightwalker (1926), the
 war poems in Heartbreak (1941), and the series of love poems (1953, 1959,
 1963) to his wife, the novelist Elsa Triolet.

   Aragon

 Aragon, region (18,382 sq mi/47,609 sq km) and former kingdom, NE Spain,
 bordered in the north by France. Much of Aragon is sparsely populated and
 desertlike. Grains, sugar beets, and other crops are grown in oases and
 irrigated areas. Sugar refining is the only important industry. The
 kingdom was founded (1035) on land won from the MOORS, and in the 12th
 cent. ZARAGOZA became its capital. Aragon annexed NAVARRE in 1076 and was
 united with CATALONIA in 1137. Its rulers (see ARAGON, HOUSE OF) pursued
 (13th-15th cent.) an expansionist policy in the Mediterranean. The
 marriage (1479) of Ferdinand of Aragon (later Spanish King FERDINAND V)
 to ISABELLA I of Castile led to the union of Aragon and Castile.

   Aragon, house of

 Aragon, house of, ruling family of ARAGON and other territories in the
 Middle Ages. Founded (1035) by Ramiro I, the house during the 12th cent.
 conquered much territory from the MOORS in Spain and also in S France. In
 the 13th to 15th cent. it acquired SICILY, SARDINIA, and the kingdom of
 NAPLES. These possessions were usually held by various branches of the
 house and were seldom united under one ruler as they were under ALFONSO V
 in 1443-58. The union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile took place in
 1479, after the Spanish king FERDINAND V married ISABELLA I of Castile.

   Arakcheev, Aleksey Andreiyvich

 Arakcheev, Aleksey Andreiyvich, 1769-1834, Russian soldier and statesman.
 He reorganized the army in the 1790s, and as minister of war (1808-10)
 under ALEXANDER I was responsible for the attack that led to the
 annexation of Finland from Sweden (1809). He later came to dominate
 Russia's internal affairs.

   Aral Sea

 Aral Sea, inland sea, the world's fourth largest lake, c.26,000 sq mi
 (67,300 sq km), in the central Asian USSR. The sea, which is fed by the
 AMU DARYA and SYR DARYA rivers, is generally less than 220 ft (70 m) deep
 and is only slightly saline. It was known to medieval Arab geographers as
 the Khorezm or Khwarazm Sea and to early Russian explorers, who reached
 it in the 17th cent., as the Sine (Blue) Sea.

   Aramaic

 Aramaic, Hamito-Semitic language that flourished in SYRIA and the FERTILE
 CRESCENT around the time of Christ. See LANGUAGE.

   Aramburu, Pedro Eugenio

 Aramburu, Pedro Eugenio, 1903-70, president of Argentina (1955-58). An
 army general, he participated in the overthrow of Juan PERON. As
 president, he ruled by decree, removed Peronists from important posts,
 and returned the country to constitutional democracy. He was kidnapped
 and murdered by Peronist guerrillas in 1970.

   Arapaho Indians

 Arapaho Indians, NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS of the Plains, who speak an
 Algonquian-Wakashan language (see AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES). Sometimes
 called "dog eaters" by other tribes, they are divided into the Northern
 Arapaho (considered the parent group), the Southern Arapaho, and the GROS
 VENTRE INDIANS. They stressed age-graded societies, the SUN DANCE, and
 later the GHOST DANCE. Today the Arapaho lead an agricultural life, and
 obtain income from leasing land for oil and gas development.

   Ararat

 Ararat, mountain, E Turkey, with two peaks, Little Ararat (12,877
 ft/3,925 m) and Great Ararat (16,945 ft/5,165 m). According to tradition,
 it was the landing place of Noah's ark. The kingdom of Ararat (fl.
 c.9th-7th cent. BC), called in Assyrian Urartu, was located near Lake Van
 in present-day E Turkey.

   Araucanian Indians

 Araucanian Indians, many tribes of South American agricultural people
 (see SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS) occupying most of S central Chile before the
 Spanish conquest (1540) and speaking languages of the Araucanian group
 (see AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES). The INCA invaded them (c.1448-82) but
 were never a strong influence. The Araucanians stoutly resisted the
 Spanish, rebelling periodically until 1881. Some Araucanians, especially
 in the 18th cent., had fled to Argentina, where with captured wild horses
 they became plains wanderers. The Araucanians in Chile today number over
 200,000; they are divided between assimilated urban dwellers and those
 who retain many of their traditional ways.

   arbitration, industrial

 arbitration, industrial: see under COLLECTIVE BARGAINING.

   Arblay, Madame d'

 Arblay, Madame d': see BURNEY, FANNY.

   arboretum

 arboretum: see BOTANICAL GARDEN.

   arborvitae

 arborvitae, aromatic evergreen tree (genus Thuja) of the CYPRESS family,
 native to Asia and North America. Arborvitaes have tiny cones and
 flattened branchlets with scalelike leaves. The white cedar (T.
 occidentalis), popular for hedges, and the red cedar (T. plicata),
 important for lumber, both have decay-resistant wood.

   Arbuthnot, John

 Arbuthnot, John, 1667-1735, Scottish author, scientist, and physician. He
 is best remembered for his five "John Bull" pamphlets (1712), satires on
 Whig policy that introduced the character John Bull, the typical
 Englishman. A member of the SCRIBLERUS CLUB, he also wrote medical works.

   arbutus, trailing

 arbutus, trailing: see TRAILING ARBUTUS.

   arc

 arc, in mathematics, any part of a CURVE that does not intersect itself;
 in particular, a portion of the circumference of a CIRCLE.

   Arcadia

 Arcadia, region of ancient GREECE, in the central PELOPONNESUS. Its
 inhabitants, the Arcadians, lived a pastoral life. The largest city was
 Megalopolis.

   Arcadius

 Arcadius, c.377-408, Roman emperor of the East (395-408); son of
 THEODOSIUS I. His brother HONORIUS inherited the West, which began the
 division of the empire. During Arcadius's weak reign ALARIC I invaded
 Greece (395-97).

   Arcagnolo

 Arcagnolo: see ORCAGNA.

   Arcaro, Eddie

 Arcaro, Eddie, 1916-, American jockey; b. Cincinnati. During his career
 (1931-62) he won 4,779 races (third-best record in the U.S.), and his
 mounts won $30,039,543 in purses. He rode five Kentucky Derby winners
 between 1938 and 1952.

   Arc de Triomphe de l'Etoile

 Arc de Triomphe de l'Etoile, triumphal arch in Paris, in the center of
 the Place de l'Etoile, which is formed by the intersection of 12 avenues,
 one of them the Champs Elysees. It was built (1806-36) to commemorate
 NAPOLEON I'S victories, from designs of J.F. Chalgrin. In 1920 the body
 of an unknown French soldier was buried there.

   arch

 arch, the spanning of a wall opening by means of separate units (e.g.,
 bricks or blocks) assembled into an upward curve that maintains stability
 through the mutual pressure of a load and the separate pieces. The weight
 of the load is converted into downward pressures (thrusts) received by
 the piers (abutments) flanking the opening. The blocks forming the arch
 are usually wedge-shaped. The arch was used by the Egyptians,
 Babylonians, and Greeks, chiefly for drains, and by the Assyrians in
 vaulted and domed chambers. The oldest known arch in Europe is a Roman
 drain, the Cloaca Maxima (c.578 BC). The Roman semicircular arch, drawn
 from Etruscan structures, was continued in early Christian, Byzantine,
 and Romanesque architecture. The pointed arch (used by the Assyrians)
 came into general use in the 13th cent. Possibly rediscovered
 independently in Europe, it became essential to the Gothic system of
 design. The round arch regained dominance in the RENAISSANCE. The
 19th-cent. invention of steel beams for wide spans relegated the arch to
 a decorative function.

   archaeology

 archaeology, scientific study of material remains of human cultures to
 derive knowledge about prehistoric times and to supplement documentary
 evidence of historic times. Research into the life and culture of the
 past began in 15th-cent. Italy with the excavation of ancient Greek
 sculpture. It was advanced in the 18th cent. by excavations at
 HERCULANEUM and POMPEII. In the 19th cent. public interest was stimulated
 by the acquisition of the ELGIN MARBLES and by the excavations of
 Heinrich SCHLIEMANN at Troy and in Greece and those of Arthur EVANS at
 Crete; Egyptology was born with the recovery of the ROSETTA stone.
 Stratigraphic excavation of such sites as BARROWS, mounds, and kitchen
 middens unearthed levels of material culture of the past. Scientific
 analysis of these material remains led Danish archaeologist Christian
 Thomsen to classify cultures according to the principal materials used
 for weapons and tools: STONE AGE, BRONZE AGE, IRON AGE. Realizing that an
 exact equation of technical tradition with cultural development was too
 rigid, later interpreters emphasized ECOLOGY and food production.
 Improved field techniques, new DATING methods, and the study of existing
 aboriginal groups have enhanced the knowledge of prehistory. Important
 archaeological work is currently being done in Africa (see LEAKEY
 family), China, and the Americas. See also MAN, PREHISTORIC; BIBLICAL
 ARCHAEOLOGY.

   archery

 archery, sport of shooting with bow and arrow. The four main types are
 target, field, flight, and crossbow shooting. In target shooting, the
 object is to score the most points with arrows aimed at the
 "bull's-eye"-the innermost of five to ten concentric circles. Once an
 important military and hunting skill, archery was revived as a sport in
 Europe in the 17th cent. and became popular in the U.S. in the late
 1800s.

   Arches National Park

 Arches National Park: see NATIONAL PARKS.

   Archimedes

 Archimedes, c.287 BC-212 BC, Greek mathematician, physicist, and
 inventor. His reputation in antiquity was based on several mechanical
 contrivances, e.g., ARCHIMEDES' SCREW; which he is alleged to have
 invented. One legend states that during the Second PUNIC WAR he protected
 his native Syracuse from the besieging armies of Marcus Claudius
 MARCELLUS for three years by inventing machines of war, e.g., various
 ballistic instruments and mirrors that set Roman ships on fire by
 focusing the sun's rays on them. In modern times, however, he is best
 known for his work in mathematics, mechanics, and hydrostatics. In
 mathematics, he calculated that the value of c (see PI) is between 310/71
 and 31/7; devised a mathematical exponential system to express extremely
 large numbers; proved that the volume of a sphere is two thirds the
 volume of a circumscribed cylinder; and, in calculating the areas and
 volumes of various geometrical figures, carried the method of exhaustion
 invented by EUDOXUS OF CNIDUS far enough in some cases to anticipate the
 invention (17th cent.) of the CALCULUS. One of the first to apply
 geometry to mechanics and hydrostatics, he proved the law of the lever
 entirely by geometry and established ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE. In another
 legendary story, the ruler Hiero II requested him to find a method for
 determining whether a crown was pure gold or alloyed with silver.
 Archimedes realized, as he stepped into a bath, that a given weight of
 gold would displace less water than an equal weight of silver (which is
 less dense than gold); and he is said, in his excitement at his
 discovery, to have run home naked, shouting "Eureka! Eureka!" ("I have
 found it! I have found it!"). He was killed by a Roman soldier,
 supposedly while absorbed in mathematics.

   Archimedes' principle

 Archimedes' principle, principle that states that a body immersed in a
 fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.
 The principle applies to both floating and submerged bodies, and to all
 fluids. It explains not only the buoyancy of ships but also the rise of a
 helium-filled balloon and the apparent loss of weight of objects
 underwater.

   Archimedes' screw

 Archimedes' screw, a simple mechanical device used to lift water and such
 light materials as grain or sand, and believed to have been invented by
 ARCHIMEDES in the 3d cent. BC It consists of a large continuous screw
 inside a cylindrical chamber. To lift water-for example, from a river to
 its bank-the lower end is placed in the river, and water rises up the
 spiral threads of the screw as it is revolved.

   Archipenko, Alexander

 Archipenko, Alexander, 1887-1964, Ukrainian-American sculptor. He
 recognized the aesthetic value of negative form (the void), as in the
 hollowed-out masses of his marble Madonna (Mus. Mod. Art, N.Y.C.). He
 taught cubist sculpture (see CUBISM) in Paris, Berlin, and New York City.

   Arctic, the

 Arctic, the, northernmost area of the earth, centered on the NORTH POLE.
 It can be defined as embracing all lands located N of the ARCTIC CIRCLE
 (lat. 66 deg31'N) or all lands located N of the 50 degF (10 degC) July
 isotherm, which is roughly equivalent to the tree line. It therefore
 generally includes the ARCTIC OCEAN; the northern reaches of Canada,
 Alaska, the USSR, and Norway; and most of Greenland, Iceland, and
 Svalbard. Ice sheets and permanent snow cover regions where average
 monthly temperatures remain below 32 degF (0 degC) all year; TUNDRA,
 which flourishes during the short summer season, covers areas where
 temperatures are between 32 degF and 50 degF (0 deg-10 degC) for at least
 one month. The Arctic is of great strategic value as the shortest route
 between the U.S. and USSR. Its rich oil and natural gas deposits have
 been discovered since the International Geophysical Year (1957-58) on
 Alaska's North Slope (see PRUDHOE BAY), Canada's Ellesmere Island (1972),
 and the northern areas of Siberia, in the USSR. Traditionally, Robert E.
 PEARY was credited with being the first explorer to reach (1909) the
 North Pole, but recent evidence suggests he may have missed by 20 miles.

   Arctic Circle

 Arctic Circle, imaginary circle on the earth's surface at 66 deg33'N
 lat., marking the northernmost point at which the sun can be seen at the
 winter SOLSTICE (about Dec. 22) and the southernmost point of the
 northern polar regions at which the midnight sun is visible.

   Arctic Ocean

 Arctic Ocean, the world's smallest ocean, c.5,400,000 sq mi (13,986,000
 sq km), centering on the NORTH POLE and connecting with the Pacific
 through the Bering Strait and with the Atlantic through the Greenland
 Sea. It is covered with ice up to 14 ft (4 m) thick all year, except in
 fringe areas.

   Ardashir I

 Ardashir I, d. 240, king of PERSIA (226?-240), founder of the Sassanid
 dynasty. He reunited Persia and established ZOROASTRIANISM as the state
 religion. His costly victory (232) over Roman Emperor Alexander Severus
 consolidated Persian power.

   Ardennes

 Ardennes, wooded plateau, from 1,600 to 2,300 ft (488 to 701 m) high, in
 SE Belgium, N Luxembourg, and N France. A traditional battleground, the
 Ardennes saw heavy fighting in both world wars, especially in the Battle
 of the Bulge (1944-45).

   Arecibo Ionospheric Observatory

 Arecibo Ionospheric Observatory, radio-astronomy facility (completed
 1963) located at Arecibo, Puerto Rico; it is operated by Cornell Univ.
 under contract with the U.S. National Science Foundation. Its fixed
 antenna of spherical section, 1,000 ft (305 m) in diameter, is the
 largest radio-telescope antenna in the world.

   Arendt, Hannah

 Arendt, Hannah, 1906-75, German-American political theorist; b. Germany.
 Fleeing the Nazis in 1941, she came to the U.S. and taught at leading
 universities. In The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951), which established
 her as a major political thinker, Arendt traced Nazism and Communism to
 19th cent. IMPERIALISM and ANTI-SEMITISM. Other works include The Human
 Condition (1958), Eichmann in Jerusalem (1963), and The Life of the Mind
 (1977).

   Arensky, Anton Stepanovich

 Arensky, Anton Stepanovich, 1861-1906, Russian composer. A pupil of
 RIMSKY-KORSAKOV, he taught at the Moscow Conservatory and became (1895)
 conductor of the Imperial Chapel Choir. He wrote operas, symphonic music,
 songs, and piano works.

   Arequipa

 Arequipa, city (1981 pop. 447,431), capital of Arequipa dept., S Peru.
 The commercial center of S Peru and N Bolivia, it produces leather goods,
 alpaca wool, textiles, and foodstuffs. Founded in 1540 on an INCA site,
 it was largely destroyed by an earthquake in 1868 but has been restored.
 It is called "the white city" because of the light-colored stone, sillar,
 used as a building material.

   Ares

 Ares, in Greek mythology, OLYMPIAN god of war; son of ZEUS and HERA. The
 Romans identified him with MARS.

   Argentina

 Argentina, officially Argentine Republic, republic (1986 est. pop.
 31,060,000), 1,072,157 sq mi (2,776,889 sq km), S South America, bordered
 by Chile (W); Bolivia (N); Paraguay, Brazil, and Uruguay (NE); and the
 Atlantic Ocean (SE). The second largest nation of South America, it
 stretches c.2,300 mi (3,700 km) from the subtropics south to TIERRA DEL
 FUEGO. Major cities include BUENOS AIRES (the capital), CORDOBA, and
 ROSARIO. Argentina consists of six geographical regions: (1) the Parana
 Plateau in the northeast, a wet, forested area; (2) the GRAN CHACO, a
 flat alluvial plain; (3) the Pampa (see under PAMPAS), a vast grassland
 between the Atlantic and the Andean foothills; (4) the Monte, an arid
 region dotted with oases; (5) PATAGONIA, in the south, a bleak plateau
 that is the chief oil-producing region; and (6) the ANDES Mts., extending
 the length of the western border and including ACONCAGUA (22,835 ft/6,960
 m), the highest point of South America. Most important of these is the
 Pampa, the chief agricultural and industrial area and site of most of the
 main cities. Argentina's economy is a mix of agriculture and industry.
 Grains and livestock are the basis of the nation's wealth; wheat corn,
 flax, oats, beef, mutton, hides, and wool are the major exports. Domestic
 oil and gas production makes the nation self-sufficient in energy. The
 industrial base is highly developed, providing nearly all of its consumer
 goods. Food processing (meat packing, flour milling, canning) is the
 principal industry; leather goods and textiles are also important. The
 population is overwhelmingly of European descent (especially Spanish and
 Italian), and about 90% are Roman Catholic. Spanish is the official
 language.

 History The first European explorers, notably Juan Diaz de Solis,
 Ferdinand MAGELLAN, and Sebastian Cabot (see under CABOT, JOHN), arrived
 in the early 16th cent. Buenos Aires was founded in 1536, abandoned after
 Indian attacks, and refounded in 1580. The city was made the capital of a
 Spanish viceroyalty in 1776. The successful struggle for independence
 (1810-16) was led by generals Manuel BELGRANO, J.M. de Pueyrredon, and
 Jose de SAN MARTIN. A protracted period of civil war ensued, lasting
 until the dictatorship of J.M. de ROSAS (1829-52). A new constitution was
 adopted in 1853 and, with major amendments, remained in effect until
 1949, but Argentina continued to suffer political instability and
 military coups. It belatedly entered (1945) WORLD WAR II on the Allied
 side after four years of pro-Axis "neutrality." Juan PERON, an army
 colonel who, with a group of colonels, seized power in 1944, won the
 elections of 1946 and established a popular dictatorship with the support
 of the army, nationalists, and the Roman Catholic Church. His second
 wife, the popular Eva Duarte de Peron (see under PERON, JUAN) won the
 backing of trade unions; her popularity among the industrial working
 class was the major pillar of support for the Peron regime. Her death in
 1952, followed by an economic downturn, led to Peron's ouster (1955) by
 the military. Government during the next 18 years had to contend with the
 continuing popularity of the Peronist movement. In 1973, Peron returned
 from exile and won election as president. His third wife, Isabel Martinez
 de Peron, was elected vice president; she succeeded him upon his death in
 1974. During her presidency terrorism by the left and right grew, and
 inflation worsened; in 1976 she was overthrown in a military coup that
 established a repressive military junta. In 1982, with Gen. Leopoldo
 GALTIERI as president, Argentina occupied the FALKLAND ISLANDS, which it
 had long disputed with Britain. The Argentine defeat in the ensuing war
 with Britain led to Galtieri's resignation and to strong public criticism
 of the military government. In the late 1980s, the government was unable
 to curb an annual inflation rate of more than 1000%, and in 1989, a
 Peronist, Carlos Raul Menem, was elected president.

   argon

 argon (Ar), gaseous element, discovered in 1894 by Sir William RAMSAY and
 Lord RAYLEIGH. An odorless, tasteless, and colorless INERT GAS, it makes
 up 0.93% of the atmosphere by volume. Argon is used in light bulbs and
 neon signs, in refining reactive elements, and for protection in arc
 welding. See ELEMENT; PERIODIC TABLE.

   Argonauts

 Argonauts: see GOLDEN FLEECE; JASON.

   Argus

 Argus or Argos,in Greek mythology.1Many-eyed monster who guarded IO after
 she was changed into a heifer.2Builder of the ship on which JASON and the
 Argonauts sailed in quest of the GOLDEN FLEECE.

   Arhus

 Arhus, city (1987 pop. 255,932), central Denmark, on Arhus Bay. Founded
 by the 10th cent., it is a prosperous cultural center and a commercial
 and shipping center, manufacturing beer, textiles, and machinery. Among
 its landmarks are its theater and the 12th-cent. Cathedral of St.
 Clemens.

   aria

 aria, elaborate and often lengthy solo SONG with instrumental
 accompaniment, especially in an OPERA, ORATORIO, or CANTATA. The
 three-part aria da capo was developed in the 17th and 18th cent. by A.
 SCARLATTI, J.S. BACH, and others. The arias of W.A. MOZART often combined
 dramatic and lyrical elements. Later composers fused aria and RECITATIVE.

   Ariadne

 Ariadne, in Greek mythology, Cretan princess; daughter of MINOS and
 Pasiphae. With her help THESEUS killed the MINOTAUR and escaped from the
 Labyrinth. He left with her but deserted her at Naxos. There she married
 DIONYSUS, who is said to have set her bridal crown among the stars.

   Arianism

 Arianism, Christian heresy arising from the teaching of the Alexandrian
 priest Arius, c.256-336. To Arius, Jesus was a supernatural being, not
 quite human, not quite divine, who was created by God. Arianism spread
 and was condemned by the First Council of NICAEA (325). The conflict went
 on, however, and several bishops and emperors sided with Arius. The
 Catholic tenets of Rome and ATHANASIUS finally triumphed, and the First
 Council of CONSTANTINOPLE (381) upheld the decrees of Nicaea.

   Arias de Avila, Pedro

 Arias de Avila, Pedro, known as Pedrarias c.1440-1531, Spanish colonial
 administrator. He succeeded (1514) BALBOA as governor of Darien (now in
 PANAMA), quarreled with him, and ordered (1517) his execution. He founded
 (1519) Panama City and extended Spanish dominions.

   Arias Sanchez, Oscar

 Arias Sanchez, Oscar, 1941-, Costa Rican politician. He was financial
 adviser to the president (1970-72), minister of national planning
 (1972-77), a congressman (1978-82), and president (1986-). Because of his
 concern for regional peace, he refused to allow U.S.-backed Nicaraguan
 contras to operate from Costa Rica and negotiated an accord (1987) with
 other Latin American leaders calling for a cease-fire and government
 talks with opposition groups. In 1987 he was awarded the Nobel Peace
 Prize.

   Ariel

 Ariel, in astronomy, natural satellite of URANUS.

   Arion

 Arion, Greek poet, fl. 7th cent.? BC, inventor of the DITHYRAMB. His
 rescue from drowning by a dolphin charmed by his music is told by
 HERODOTUS.

   Ariosto, Ludovico

 Ariosto, Ludovico, 1474-1533, Italian epic and lyric poet, in the service
 of the Duke of Ferrara. His Orlando Furioso (1532), an epic treatment of
 the ROLAND story intended to glorify the ESTE family, greatly influenced
 SHAKESPEARE, MILTON, and BYRON.

   Aristarchus of Samos

 Aristarchus of Samos, fl.c.310-c.230 BC, Greek astronomer. He is said to
 have been the first to propose a heliocentric theory of the universe,
 anticipating Copernicus by 18 centuries (see COPERNICAN SYSTEM). His only
 surviving work, On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and Moon, is
 celebrated for its geometric argument, even though crude observation data
 led to faulty estimates.

   Aristogiton

 Aristogiton: see HARMODIUS AND ARISTOGITON.

   Aristophanes

 Aristophanes , b. c.448 BC, d. after 388 BC, Athenian comic poet, the
 greatest ancient writer of COMEDY. His plays mix political, social, and
 literary SATIRE. Invective, burlesque, and direct attack on persons made
 them suitable for the festival of DIONYSUS. Typically, his characters act
 naturally in preposterous circumstances; his language is economical and
 beautiful. Eleven surviving plays include The Clouds, The Wasps,
 Lysistrata, and The Frogs.

   Aristotle

 Aristotle, 384-322 BC, Greek philosopher. He studied (367-347 BC) under
 PLATO and later (342-339 BC) tutored ALEXANDER THE GREAT at the
 Macedonian court. In 335 BC he opened a school in the Athenian Lyceum.
 During the anti-Macedonian agitation after Alexander's death Aristotle
 fled (323 BC) to Chalcis, where he died. His extant writings, largely in
 the form of lecture notes made by his students, include the Organum
 (treatises on logic); Physics; Metaphysics; De Anima [on the soul];
 Nicomachean Ethics and Eudemian Ethics; Politics; De Poetica; Rhetoric;
 and works on biology and physics. Aristotle held philosophy to be the
 discerning, through the use of systematic LOGIC as expressed in
 SYLLOGISMS, of the self-evident, changeless first principles that form
 the basis of all knowledge. He taught that knowledge of a thing requires
 an inquiry into causality and that the "final cause"-the purpose or
 function of the thing-is primary. The highest good for the individual is
 the complete exercise of the specifically human function of rationality.
 In contrast to the Platonic belief that a concrete reality partakes of a
 form but does not embody it, the Aristotelian system holds that, with the
 exception of the Prime Mover (God), form has no separate existence but is
 immanent in matter. Aristotle's work was lost following the decline of
 Rome but was reintroduced to the West through the work of Arab and Jewish
 scholars, becoming the basis of medieval SCHOLASTICISM.

   arithmetic

 arithmetic, branch of mathematics (and the part of ALGEBRA) concerned
 with the fundamental operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
 and division of numbers. Conventionally, the term arithmetic covers
 simple numerical skills used for practical purposes, e.g., computation of
 areas or costs. The study of arithmetic also deals abstractly with the
 laws and properties (e.g., the ASSOCIATIVE LAW, the COMMUTATIVE LAW, and
 the DISTRIBUTIVE LAW) governing the various operations.

   arithmetic progression

 arithmetic progression: see PROGRESSION.

   Arizona

 Arizona, state in the SW U.S.; bordered by Utah (N), New Mexico (E),
 Mexico (S), and, across the Colorado R., Nevada and California (W).

 Area, 113,909 sq mi (295,024 sq km). Pop. (1986 est.) 3,317,000, a 22.1%
 increase over 1980 pop. Capital, Phoenix. Statehood, Feb. 14, 1912 (48th
 state). Highest pt., Humphreys Peak, 12,633 ft (3,853 m); lowest pt.,
 Colorado R., 70 ft (21 m). Nickname, Grand Canyon State. Motto, Ditat
 Deus God Enriches. State bird, cactus wren. State flower, blossom of the
 saguaro cactus. State tree, paloverde. Abbr., Ariz.; AZ.

 Land and People  Most of northern and eastern Arizona lies within the
 arid COLORADO PLATEAU region, and most of the south and west in the flat
 desert basins (many now irrigated) and jagged mountain ranges of the
 Basin and Range region. Major rivers are the COLORADO, Gila, and Salt. A
 total of 20,036,000 acres (8,108,000 hectares), or 38% of all U.S. Indian
 tribal lands, are in Arizona; the largest are the NAVAHO, HOPI, Fort
 APACHE, and PAPAGO Indian reservations. PHOENIX, TUCSON, and TEMPE are
 the principal cities. In 1984 Arizona was 91% white, 9% native American
 and others.

 Economy Manufacturing is the leading economic activity, with machinery,
 electronic and aeronautical products, and electrical and transportation
 equipment the major manufactures. Cotton is the chief irrigated crop, and
 some lettuce, hay, oranges, and grapefruit are also grown in the
 subtropical south. Large cattle and sheep ranges produce livestock and
 dairy products. Arizona is a leading U.S. producer of copper (at Morenci
 and Bisbee), and there is a small lumber industry near Flagstaff. The
 state is also known for its Indian handicrafts. The hot, dry climate,
 spectacular scenic attractions such as the GRAND CANYON and the Petrified
 Forest (see NATIONAL PARKS,), and many Indian reservations attract large
 numbers of tourists.

 Government The constitution provides for a governor and for a state
 legislature of 30 senators and 60 representatives elected for two-year
 terms. Arizona elects two senators and five representatives to the U.S.
 Congress and has seven electoral votes.

 History Early Spanish explorers included CABEZA DE VACA (1536), Marcos de
 Niza (1539), and Francisco Vasquez de CORONADO (1540), and several
 Spanish missions were founded in the late 17th cent. The region came
 under Mexican control after 1821, and lands north of the Gila R. passed
 to the U.S. territory of New Mexico at the end of the MEXICAN WAR
 (1846-48). Lands between the Gila R. and today's southern boundary were
 added through the GADSDEN PURCHASE (1853). Arizona became a separate
 territory in 1863, and settlement accelerated after the surrender (1866)
 of GERONIMO ended 25 years of Apache Indian wars. Rapid development of
 irrigated agriculture, spurred by construction of the Roosevelt dam
 (1911), and industrial and urban expansion beginning during World War II
 strained limited water resources. A 1963 U.S. Supreme Court decision to
 increase Arizona's allocation of water from the Colorado R. was followed
 in 1968 by congressional authorization of the huge Central Arizona
 project, to divert water from the Colorado at Parker Dam and carry it
 across Arizona for use in the Phoenix-Tucson area.

   ark

 ark, in the BIBLE. 1 Boat built by NOAH at God's command to save his
 family and certain animals from the Flood. Gen. 6-9. 2 Ark of the
 Covenant, the sacred, gold-covered, wooden chest, identified by the
 Hebrews with God. Touching it meant death. It was carried into battle, as
 its presence implied victory, and was once captured by the Philistines.
 Restored many years later, it was placed in SOLOMON'S temple. Ex.
 25.10-21; 1 Sam. 4-7; 1 Chron. 13; 15; 16; 2 Chron. 5.

   Arkansas

 Arkansas, state in the S central U.S.; bordered by Tennessee and
 Mississippi, across the Mississippi R. (E), Louisiana (S), Texas and
 Oklahoma (W), and Missouri (N).

 Area, 53,104 sq mi (137,539 sq km). Pop. (1986 est.) 2,372,000, an 3.8%
 increase over 1980 pop. Capital, Little Rock. Statehood, June 15, 1836
 (25th state). Highest pt., Magazine Mt., 2,753 ft (840 m); lowest pt.,
 Ouachita R., 55 ft (17 m). Nickname, Land of Opportunity. Motto, Regnat
 Populus The People Rule. State bird, mockingbird. State flower, apple
 blossom. State tree, pine. Abbr., Ark.; AR.

 Land and People The higher terrain of the Ozark Plateau (see OZARKS) and
 Ouachita Mts., in the west, give way to lowlands in the east, drained
 mostly by the ARKANSAS and Ouachita rivers. There are many lakes, and the
 mineral waters of Hot Springs are preserved in the NATIONAL PARK there,
 contributing to the state's well-developed tourist industry. Arkansas has
 long, hot summers and mild winters. About 38% of the population lives in
 metropolitan areas. LITTLE ROCK is the leading city; other important
 cities are FORT SMITH and PINE BLUFF. In 1984 the population was 82%
 white, 18% black and other.

 Economy Manufacturing, the leading contributor to the state's income,
 includes processed foods (especially beef and poultry), electronic
 equipment, and paper and wood products utilizing state-grown lumber.
 Leading agricultural commodities are soybeans, rice, cotton, poultry, and
 cattle. Although it boasts the country's only active diamond mine,
 Arkansas's most valuable mineral resources are oil, bromine, natural gas,
 and bauxite.

 Government According to the constitution of 1874, the government is
 headed by a governor elected to a two-year term. The legislature consists
 of 35 senators serving four-year terms and 100 representatives elected to
 two-year terms. Arkansas sends two senators and four representatives to
 the U.S. Congress and has six electoral votes.

 History The Quapaw, OSAGE, and Caddo Indians inhabited the region when it
 was visited by Spanish explorers, including Hernando DE SOTO (1541-42).
 The French explorer Robert Cavelier, sieur de LA SALLE, founded (1682)
 the first permanent white settlement, Arkansas Post. In 1803 the area
 passed from France to the U.S. through the LOUISIANA PURCHASE, and many
 new settlers established cotton plantations. Arkansas soon became a
 separate territory (1819) and a state (1836). The state seceded from the
 Union in 1861 and joined the CONFEDERACY. It was readmitted to the Union
 in 1868 and experienced a turbulent RECONSTRUCTION era. Around the turn
 of the century its population grew substantially. The discovery of oil in
 1921 resulted in new prosperity for Arkansas, but farmers were severely
 affected by the GREAT DEPRESSION of the 1930s. In 1957 Gov. Orval Faubus
 became the focus of world attention when he resisted the federal
 desegregation of Little Rock's public schools. The enrollment of black
 students was subsequently enforced by the federal government. In 1981
 Arkansas passed a controversial law mandating the equal teaching of
 CREATIONISM and EVOLUTION in the public schools. The law was overturned
 in federal court the following year.

   Arkansas

 Arkansas, river, flowing SE c.1,450 mi (2,330 km) from the Rocky Mts. of
 Colorado to the Mississippi R. in SE Arkansas. Controlled by more than 25
 dams, it is navigable to Tulsa, Okla.

   Arkhangelsk

 Arkhangelsk or Archangel, city (1987 est. pop. 416,000), NW European
 USSR, on the Northern Dvina near its mouth on the White Sea. It is a
 leading port; though icebound much of the year, it can be made usable by
 icebreakers. Major exports are timber and wood products; other industries
 are fishing and shipbuilding. Founded as Novo-Kholmogory (1584), it was
 renamed (1613) for the monastery of the Archangel Michael. An Allied
 supply port in World Wars I and II, it was occupied (1918-20) by Allied
 and anti-Bolshevik forces.

   Arkwright, Sir Richard

 Arkwright, Sir Richard, 1732-92, English inventor. His construction
 (1769) of a SPINNING machine, the water frame, was an early step in the
 INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION. Arkwright's spinning machine led to the
 establishment of huge cotton mills and to the beginnings of the factory
 system.

   Arles, kingdom of

 Arles, kingdom of, was formed in 933, when Rudolf II united his kingdom
 of Transjurane BURGUNDY with Provence or Cisjurane Burgundy. Holy Roman
 Emperor CONRAD II annexed the kingdom to the empire in 1034, but its
 component parts gradually broke away. In 1378 Holy Roman Emperor CHARLES
 IV ceded the realm to the French dauphin (later CHARLES VI), and the
 kingdom for all practical purposes ceased to exist.

   Arlington

 Arlington, county (1986 est. pop. 158,700), N Va., across the POTOMAC R.
 from WASHINGTON, D.C. A residential suburb of Washington, the county is
 governed as a single unit without subdivisions. Within its boundaries are
 Arlington National Cemetery, the PENTAGON, Marymount Univ., and
 Washington National Airport. Arlington was part of the DISTRICT OF
 COLUMBIA from 1790 to 1847.

   Arlington

 Arlington, city (1986 est. pop. 249,770), Tarrant co., N Tex., midway
 between DALLAS and FORT WORTH; inc. 1884. Located in a rapidly growing
 industrial area, it produces automobile parts, containers, rubber
 products, and other manufactures. Arlington is the home of Six Flags over
 Texas, a huge historical amusement park, and the Texas Rangers baseball
 team. The city has a branch of the Univ. of Texas.

   Armada, Spanish

 Armada, Spanish, 1588, fleet launched by PHILIP II of Spain for the
 invasion of England. Commanded by the duque de Medina Sidonia and
 consisting of 130 ships and about 30,000 men, the Armada was delayed by
 storms and finally set sail from Lisbon in May. The English fleet, under
 Charles Howard, sailed from Plymouth and inflicted long-range damage on
 the Armada but did not break its formation. Anchoring off Calais, Medina
 Sidonia intended to pick up Alessandro FARNESE'S army in Flanders and
 convey it to England. But on Aug. 7 the English sent fire ships into the
 anchorage to scatter the Armada and then attacked the fleeing ships at
 close range off Gravelines. The battered Armada escaped northward, sailed
 around Scotland and Ireland while buffeted by storms, and returned to
 Spain after losing about half its ships.

   armadillo

 armadillo, armored MAMMAL (order Edentata) found in the S U.S. and Latin
 America. The head and body are almost entirely covered by an armor of
 bony, horny plates. Armadillos are usually nocturnal and, although
 omnivorous, eat mostly insects. The largest species, the giant armadillo
 (Priodontes giganteus), is about 4 ft (120 cm) long; the smallest, the
 fairy armadillo (Chlamyphorus truncatus), about 6 in. (15 cm) long. The
 only U.S. species is the nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus),
 about 30 in. (76 cm) long and weighing about 15 lb (6.4 kg).

   armature

 armature: see GENERATOR; MOTOR, ELECTRIC.

   Armenia

 Armenia, region and former kingdom of Asia Minor. It includes NE TURKEY,
 the ARMENIAN SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLIC, and parts of Iranian Azerbaijan.
 Under Persian rule from the 6th to the 4th cent. BC, it was conquered in
 330 by ALEXANDER THE GREAT but after his death fell to Syria. Armenia was
 independent from 189 BC to 67 BC, when it became tributary to Rome.
 Christianity was adopted in the 3d cent. AD; under Persian rule later in
 that century many Christians were martyred. Persia and Rome partitioned
 the kingdom in 387; it achieved autonomy in 886 but was invaded in the
 mid-11th cent. by the Byzantines, Seljuk Turks, and Mongols. Pushed
 westward, one group founded Little Armenia, in CILICIA. In 1386-94 the
 Mongols, under TAMERLANE, seized Greater Armenia and massacred much of
 the population. The Ottoman Turks invaded in 1405 and by the 16th cent.
 held all of Armenia. Though most Armenians experienced religious
 persecution, Armenian merchants played an important role in the economy
 of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE. Eastern Armenia was long disputed by Turkey and
 Persia; in 1828 Persia ceded to Russia the present Armenian SSR. From
 1894 on, a plan for Armenian extermination was pursued under Sultan ABD
 AL-HAMID II, culminating in the massacre of 1915. In 1918 Russian Armenia
 became independent under German auspices (see BREST-LITOVSK, TREATY OF),
 but in 1920 an autonomous Greater Armenia was created from the Turkish
 and Soviet Russian areas. In that year, however, Russian Armenia fell to
 the Communists and was made a Soviet republic; the 1921 Russo-Turkish
 Treaty established the present boundaries, ending Armenian independence.

   Armenian language

 Armenian language, member of the Thraco-Phrygian sub-family of the
 Indo-European family of languages. See LANGUAGE.

   Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic

 Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic, constituent republic (1987 est. pop.
 3,400,000), 11,500 sq mi (29,785 sq km), SE European USSR, in the S
 Caucasus. The smallest Soviet republic, it is a mountainous region
 bounded by Turkey (W); the Azerbaijan Republic (E); Iran (S); and the
 Georgian Republic (N). YEREVAN is the capital. Major bodies of water are
 Lake SEVAN and the Araks and Razdan rivers. Industries include fishing,
 mining, and wine-making. Grapes, cotton, and tobacco are important
 agricultural products. In addition to the Armenian majority there are
 Azerbaijani, Russian, and Kurdish minorities. For history, see ARMENIA.
 In 1988 Armenian discontent with the Azerbaijan Republic's policies with
 respect to the Armenian minority in the Nagorno-Karabakh region
 intensified. Later that year a devastating earthquake killed almost
 35,000 people.

   armor

 armor, protective covering for persons, steeds, or vehicles. Early body
 armor of leather, shells, wood, or basketwork was replaced by metal in
 the ancient Middle East; by the Middle Ages the metal helmet, cuirass,
 and greaves of the Greeks and Romans had evolved into full body armor of
 chain mail or plate. Heavy and cumbersome, it disappeared after warfare
 became more mobile and firearms more effective. Steel helmets and
 protective clothing (e.g., bullet-proof vests) were reintroduced in the
 20th cent., and armor is still used extensively on ships, TANKS, and
 aircraft.

   Armory Show

 Armory Show, art exhibition held in 1913 at the 69th-regiment armory in
 New York City. Including works of the European avant-garde, e.g.,
 DUCHAMP'S Nude Descending a Staircase, it was a sensational introduction
 of modern art into the U.S. One of the most important art shows ever held
 in the country, it helped to change the direction of American painting.

   arms, coats of

 arms, coats of: see BLAZONRY; HERALDRY.

   Armstrong, (Daniel) Louis "Satchmo"

 Armstrong, (Daniel) Louis "Satchmo", 1900-1971, black American JAZZ
 trumpeter, singer, and bandleader; b. New Orleans. He became known for
 improvisational genius and strongly influenced the melodic development of
 jazz. Armstrong was in large part responsible for the rise of the soloist
 in jazz.

   Armstrong, Neil Alden

 Armstrong, Neil Alden, 1930-, American astronaut; b. Wapakoneta, Ohio. He
 was the command pilot for Gemini 8 (Mar. 16, 1966) and deputy associate
 administrator for aeronautics (1970-71) at NASA. During the Apollo 11
 mission (July 16-24, 1969), which he commanded, he and Buzz ALDRIN (the
 lunar-module pilot) became the first and second persons, respectively, to
 walk on the moon (see SPACE EXPLORATION,). He taught aeronautical
 engineering (1971-79) at the Univ. of Cincinnati and was appointed (1985)
 to the National Commission on Space by Pres. Reagan (1985).

   Armstrong, Samuel Chapman

 Armstrong, Samuel Chapman, 1839-93, American educator and philanthropist;
 b. Hawaiian Islands. Appointed an agent of the Freedmen's Bureau after
 the Civil War, he realized the need for vocational training of
 emancipated slaves and helped found (1868) the Hampton Inst., which he
 headed until 1893, to advance that purpose.

   army

 army, armed land force under regular military organization, as
 distinguished from the horde, or armed mass of all ablebodied men in a
 tribe. The earliest known professional army was that of Egypt, followed
 by those of Assyria and Persia. Military service became obligatory for
 citizens of Greece. The Roman army evolved from a citizen soldiery into a
 professional standing army increasingly composed of barbarian
 mercenaries. In the Middle Ages, the armed KNIGHT and YEOMAN owed a set
 number of days of military service each year to a great lord; but with
 the decline of FEUDALISM and the advent of firearms, this system also
 gave way to the service of mercenaries. In the 17th cent. Louis XIV of
 France organized a national standing army that set the pattern for all of
 Europe: a highly disciplined, professional body set apart from civilian
 life. The concept reached a harsh perfection under Frederick II of
 Prussia. It was the introduction of CONSCRIPTION during the French
 Revolutionary Wars that set in motion the development of modern mass
 armies built around a professional nucleus and organized into specialized
 units for combat and support. Although conscription was used in the U.S.
 CIVIL WAR and WORLD WAR I, the U.S., until 1940, traditionally relied in
 emergencies on its citizen militia, the NATIONAL GUARD, and on voluntary
 enlistment in the armed forces; the peacetime draft was again lifted in
 1973. The term army generally applies to all armed land forces of a
 nation (e.g., the French army); it can also designate a self-contained
 fighting force in a given area (e.g., the Army of the Potomac in the U.S.
 Civil War) or a unit of c.100,000 men composed of two or more corps. A
 corps in turn is composed of two or more divisions (usually about 15,000
 men). Traditionally, an army was made up of major INFANTRY, CAVALRY, and
 ARTILLERY commands, but these gave way to more complex forms of
 organization. Today, each division typically includes infantry, airborne,
 mechanized, and other specialized battalions or brigades. See also
 MILITARY SCIENCE.

   Arnim, Achim

 Arnim, Achimor Joachim von, 1781-1831, German writer of the romantic
 school. He is best remembered for his work with his brother-in-law,
 Clemens BRENTANO, on the folk-song collection The Boy's Magic Horn
 (1806-8) and for his historical novels, notably Isabella of Egypt (1812).
 His wife, Bettina von Arnim, 1785-1859, b. Elisabeth Brentano, was also a
 writer. She corresponded with BEETHOVEN and GOETHE; her publication of
 Goethe's Correspondence with a Child (1835) reflects her own poetic
 imagination.

   Arnold, Benedict

 Arnold, Benedict, 1741-1801, American Revolutionary general and traitor;
 b. Norwich, Conn. After excellent service in the colonial assault on
 Quebec (1775-76) and the SARATOGA CAMPAIGN, he felt slighted regarding
 promotion. His plot with John ANDRE to betray (1780) the American post at
 WEST POINT was discovered, but Arnold escaped and later fought for the
 British.

   Arnold, Matthew

 Arnold, Matthew, 1822-88, English poet and critic; son of Thomas Arnold.
 He was an inspector of schools (1851-86) and professor of poetry at
 Oxford (1857-67). Arnold wrote superb poetry, usually dealing with the
 themes of loneliness and pessimism. Among his best-known verses are
 "Isolation: To Marguerite" (1852), "The Scholar Gypsy" (1853), and "Dover
 Beach" (1867). His books of literary criticism include On Translating
 Homer (1861) and Essays in Criticism (1865; Ser. 2, 1888). Culture and
 Anarchy (1869) is a volume of social criticism. Arnold stressed the
 necessity for objectivity and advocated a culture based on the best that
 has been thought and said in the world.

   aromatic compound

 aromatic compound, any of a large class of organic compounds including
 BENZENE and compounds that resemble benzene in chemical properties.
 Aromatic compounds contain unusually stable ring structures, often made
 up of six carbon atoms arranged hexagonally. Some of the compounds,
 however, have rings with more or fewer atoms, not necessarily all carbon.
 Furan, for example, has a ring with four atoms of carbon and one of
 oxygen. Also, two or more rings can be fused, as in naphthalene. The
 characteristic properties of the class, notably the stability of the
 compounds, derive from the fact that aromatic rings permit the sharing of
 some electrons by all the atoms of the ring, which increases the strength
 of the bonds.

   Aroostook War

 Aroostook War, brief conflict, 1838-39, between the U.S. and Canada
 concerning the Maine-New Brunswick border. An agreement (March 1839)
 averted full-scale war. The boundary was settled (1842) by the
 WEBSTER-ASHBURTON TREATY.

   Arp, Jean

 Arp, Jean or Hans,1887-1966, French sculptor and painter. A member of
 avant-garde groups in Europe, Arp created abstract, organic, witty works
 in various media. A monumental wood relief (1950) is at Harvard Univ.

   Arrhenius, Svante August

 Arrhenius, Svante August, 1859-1927, Swedish chemist. For his theory of
 electrolytic dissociation, or ionization (see ACIDS AND BASES), he won
 the 1903 Nobel Prize in chemistry. He also investigated osmosis and
 toxins and antitoxins. He became (1905) director of the Nobel Institute
 for Physical Chemistry, Stockholm.

   arrowroot

 arrowroot, plant (genus Maranta) of the family Marantaceae, found mainly
 in warm, swampy forests of the Americas. The term arrowroot also applies
 to the easily digested starch obtained from the true, or West Indian,
 arrowroot (M. arundinacea). Plants from other families produce similar
 starches, e.g., East Indian arrowroot (GINGER family); Queensland
 arrowroot (Canna family); Brazilian arrowroot, or tapioca (SPURGE
 family); and Florida arrowroot, or sago.

   arrowworm

 arrowworm, common name for Chaetognatha, a phylum of slender-bodied,
 transparent marine invertebrate animals widely distributed, but
 preferring warm, shallow seas. Most are less than 1 in. (2.5 cm) long.
 The head is well-developed, with eyes and other sensory organs, grasping
 spines, teeth, and a protective hood. Arrowworms reproduce sexually.

   Arsaces

 Arsaces, fl. 250 BC, founder of the Parthian dynasty of the Arsacids,
 which ruled Persia from c.250 BC to AD 226.

   arsenic

 arsenic (As), semimetallic element, first described by ALBERTUS MAGNUS in
 the 13th cent. Arsenic has several allotropic forms (see ALLOTROPY); the
 most stable is a silver-gray, brittle, crystalline solid that tarnishes
 in air. Arsenic ores include realgar and arsenopyrite. Combined with
 other elements, arsenic forms strong poisons; organic compounds of
 arsenic were widely used medically to treat syphilis and yaws. The metal
 is used in the manufacture of lead shot and transistorized circuits. See
 ELEMENT; PERIODIC TABLE.

   Artaxerxes

 Artaxerxes, name of several ancient Persian kings. Artaxerxes I, d. 425
 BC (r.464-425 BC), was a member of the ACHAEMENID dynasty. Artaxerxes is
 the Greek form of the name Ardashir the Persian. He succeeded his father,
 Xerxes I, in whose assassination he had no part. The later weakness of
 the Persian empire is commonly traced to his reign. Artaxerxes II, d. 358
 BC (r.404-358 BC), was the son and successor of DARIUS II. CYRUS THE
 YOUNGER attempted to assassinate him but was crushed (401 BC). During his
 reign the provinces of the empire became restless. His son, Artaxerxes
 III, d. 338 BC (r.358-338 BC), gained the throne by a general massacre of
 his brother's family. Throughout his reign he continued a policy of
 terror, and he was finally poisoned by one of his ministers.

   art deco

 art deco, design style popular during the 1920s and 30s, characterized by
 slender forms, straight lines, and a sleekness expressive of "modern"
 technology. The style regained popularity in the 1970s and 80s.

   Artemis

 Artemis, in Greek mythology, goddess of the hunt. She was the daughter of
 ZEUS and Leto and the twin sister of APOLLO. Artemis is associated with
 chastity, marriage, children, wildlife, and, as a complement to the sun
 god Apollo, with the moon. The Romans identified her with DIANA.

   arteriosclerosis

 arteriosclerosis, general term for a condition characterized by
 thickening, hardening, and loss of elasticity of the walls of the
 arteries. In its most common form, atherosclerosis, fatty deposits, e.g.,
 CHOLESTEROL, build up on the inner artery walls; in some cases calcium
 deposits also form. The blood vessels narrow, and blood flow decreases;
 THROMBOSIS, HEART DISEASE, and STROKE may result. Surgical treatment is
 sometimes effective, but there is no specific cure. A low-cholesterol
 diet and control of predisposing factors, such as HYPERTENSION, smoking,
 DIABETES, and obesity, are usually recommended.

   artesian well

 artesian well, deep well drilled into an inclined aquifer (layer of
 water-bearing porous rock or sediment), where water is trapped under
 pressure between impervious rock layers. When a well is drilled into the
 aquifer through the overlying impervious rock, pressure forces water to
 rise in the well. Artesian water is usually desirable for drinking. In
 North America, artesian systems supply water to the Great Plains and many
 East Coast cities. The largest artesian system is in Australia.

   Artevelde, Jacob van

 Artevelde, Jacob van, c.1290-1345, Flemish statesman. A conflict between
 the count of Flanders and EDWARD III of England cut off English wool
 imports, ruining the Flemish weavers and merchants. Ghent rebelled, and
 Artevelde, as head of its government, signed a commercial treaty with
 England (1338). In 1340 he had the Flemish towns recognize Edward as king
 of France and thus suzerain of Flanders. He was killed in a riot. His
 son, Philip van Artevelde, 1340-82, led a weavers' revolt against the
 count of Flanders (1381), taking Bruges and most of Flanders before being
 killed by the French.

   art history

 art history, the study of works of art and architecture. It was raised to
 an academic discipline in the mid-19th cent. by Jacob BURCKHARDT, who
 related art to its cultural environment, and by idealists such as
 Heinrich Wolfflin, who explored art in terms of formal analysis. Both
 approaches remain important in contemporary art history. Major 20th-cent.
 art historians include Bernard BERENSON, Henri Focillon, Ernst Gombrich,
 Emile Male, and Erwin PANOFSKY.

   arthritis

 arthritis, inflammation of one or more joints of the body, usually
 producing pain, redness, and stiffness. It disables more people than any
 other chronic disorder. A common form is osteoarthritis, a degenerative
 disease of the joints that commonly occurs with aging. Rheumatoid
 arthritis, an AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE of unknown cause, is a progressive,
 crippling joint disorder most common in women between 25 and 50. Initial
 treatment for arthritis includes use of heat, physical therapy, and
 ASPIRIN; in more severe cases, gold salts and CORTISONE are given, but
 they often have undesirable side effects. See also GOUT.

   arthropod

 arthropod, invertebrate animal, having a segmented body covered by a
 jointed exoskeleton with paired jointed appendages; member of the phylum
 Arthropoda, the largest and most diverse invertebrate phylum. The
 exoskeleton is periodically shed (molted) to permit growth and
 METAMORPHOSIS. Arthropods make up more than 80% (800,000) of all known
 animal species; they include TRILOBITES, HORSESHOE CRABS, ARACHNIDS, SEA
 SPIDERS, CRUSTACEANS, INSECTS, CENTIPEDES, and MILLIPEDES.

   Arthur

 Arthur, king of Britain: see ARTHURIAN LEGEND.

   Arthur

 Arthur, dukes of Brittany. Arthur I, 1187-1203?, duke 1196-1203?, was the
 son of Geoffrey, fourth son of HENRY II of England. After the death of
 RICHARD I of England, Arthur's claim to the English crown was passed over
 in favor of his uncle JOHN. Arthur allied himself with PHILIP II of
 France, who invested Arthur with Richard's fiefs in France. Fighting
 ensued, and Arthur was captured (1202) by John, who is suspected of
 murdering him. Arthur's story is told in Shakespeare's King John. Arthur
 III, 1394-1458, duke 1457-58, was known as comte de Richemont before his
 accession. As constable of France in the HUNDRED YEARS WAR, he captured
 (1436) Paris from the English and helped to regain Normandy for France.

   Arthur, Chester Alan

 Arthur, Chester Alan, 1830?-86, 21st president of the U.S. (1881-85); b.
 Fairfield, Vt. A lawyer, he was appointed (1871) collector of the port of
 New York. His removal (1878) by Pres. HAYES angered Sen. Roscoe CONKLING
 and other New York Republicans, but they were placated in 1880 by
 Arthur's nomination as vice president on the Republican ticket with James
 A. GARFIELD. Succeeding to the presidency after Garfield's assassination,
 Arthur had an honest, efficient, and dignified administration. He
 supported the civil service reform act of 1883 and vetoed a Chinese
 exclusion bill that violated a treaty with China.

   Arthurian legend

 Arthurian legend, mass of stories, popular in medieval lore, concerning
 King Arthur of Britain and his knights. The earliest reference to Arthur
 is in the Welsh poem Gododdin (c.600), although later sources place him
 at the Battle of Mt. Badon, mentioned by Gildas c.540. In Nennius (c.800)
 he appears as a Celtic victor over Saxon invaders. The legend was greatly
 elaborated by GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH in his Historia (c.1135), which
 represents Arthur as the conqueror of Western Europe. Wace's Roman de
 Brut (c.1155) infuses the story with the spirit of chivalric romance, and
 the Brut of LAYAMON (c.1200) pictures Arthur as national hero. The
 12th-cent. French poet CHRETIEN DE TROYES introduced in Perceval the
 theme of the quest for the Holy Grail. GOTTFRIED VON STRASSBURG, a
 medieval German poet, wrote the first great treatment of the TRISTRAM AND
 ISOLDE story. The Middle English Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (c.1370)
 embodied the ideal of chivalric knighthood. Sir Thomas MALORY'S Morte
 d'Arthur (1485) was the last important medieval treatment. Since Malory,
 the legend has appeared in the work of TENNYSON, SWINBURNE, William
 MORRIS, T.H. WHITE, and others. It is generally accepted that the
 Arthurian legend developed out of Celtic mythology, as collected in the
 Welsh MABINOGION. The stories may have coalesced around Irish hero tales
 and were probably carried to the Continent by Breton minstrels before
 1000. Despite innumerable variations, the basic story has remained the
 same. Arthur, the illegitimate son of Uther Pendragon, king of Britain,
 wins recognition after his father's death by removing a sword from a
 stone. Merlin, the court magician, then reveals his parentage. Reigning
 at CAMELOT, Arthur proves a mighty and noble king. He possesses the great
 sword Excalibur, given him by the mysterious Lady of the Lake. His
 enemies include his sorceress sister, Morgan le Fay, and Sir Mordred,
 usually his nephew, who fatally wounds him. The dying king is borne away
 to Avalon, whence he will someday return. Among the knights in Arthur's
 court are Sir Launcelot and Sir Tristram, both involved in illicit and
 tragic unions, Launcelot with Arthur's wife, Guinevere, and Tristram with
 Isolde, the wife of his uncle, King Mark. Other figures include Sir
 Pelleas and Sir Gawain; Sir Galahad, Launcelot's son; Sir Percivale (or
 Parsifal); and other knights of the Round Table.

   artichoke

 artichoke, name for two plants of the COMPOSITE family, both having
 edible parts. The French, or globe, artichoke (Cynara scolymus), of S
 Europe, is a thistlelike plant whose immature, globular flower heads are
 used as vegetables; only the lower parts of the fleshy bracts ("leaves")
 and the center ("heart") are eaten. The other artichoke plant is the
 JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE.

   artificial insemination

 artificial insemination, technique of artificially injecting
 sperm-containing semen from a male into a female to cause pregnancy. The
 technique is widely used in the propagation of cattle, especially to
 produce many offspring from one prize bull. Artificial insemination is
 also used in humans when normal fertilization cannot be achieved, as with
 STERILITY or IMPOTENCE in the male or anatomical disorders in the female
 (see IN VITRO FERTILIZATION).

   artificial intelligence

 artificial intelligence (AI), the use of COMPUTERS to model the
 behavioral aspects of human reasoning and learning. Research in AI is
 concentrated in some half-dozen areas. In problem solving, one must
 proceed from a beginning (the initial state) to the end (the goal state)
 via a limited number of steps; AI here involves an attempt to model the
 reasoning process in solving a problem, such as the proof of a theorem in
 EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY. In game theory (see GAMES, THEORY OF), the computer
 must choose among a number of possible "next" moves to select the one
 that optimizes its probability of winning; this type of choice is
 analogous to that of a chess player selecting the next move in response
 to an opponent's move. In pattern recognition, shapes, forms, or
 configurations of data must be identified and isolated from a larger
 group; the process here is similar to that used by a doctor in
 classifying medical problems on the basis of symptoms. Natural language
 processing is an analysis of current or colloquial language usage without
 the sometimes misleading effect of formal grammars; it is an attempt to
 model the learning process of a translator faced with the phrase "throw
 mama from the train a kiss." CYBERNETICS is the analysis of the
 communication and control processes of biological organisms and their
 relationship to mechanical and electrical systems; this study could
 ultimately lead to the development of "thinking" robots (see ROBOTICS).
 Machine learning occurs when a computer improves its performance of a
 task on the basis of its programmed application of AI principles to its
 past performance of that task.

   artificial kidney

 artificial kidney: see DIALYSIS.

   artificial life support

 artificial life support, systems that use medical technology to aid,
 support, or replace a vital function of the body that has been seriously
 damaged. Such techniques include artificial pacemakers, dialysis
 machines, and oxygenators. The use of these systems to prolong the life
 of a patient who has suffered apparently irreversible damage to a vital
 organ system may raise such ethical issues as the quality of life,
 EUTHANASIA, and the right to die.

   artificial respiration

 artificial respiration, any measure that causes air to flow in and out of
 a person's lungs when natural breathing is inadequate or ceases.
 Respiration can be taken over by mechanical devices, e.g., the artificial
 lung; in emergency situations, mouth-to-mouth (or, for a small child,
 mouth-to-nose) procedures are often used. The victim's mouth is cleared
 of foreign material, and the head is tilted back. Holding the nostrils
 tightly shut, the person administering artificial respiration places his
 (or her) mouth over that of the victim and blows air into the lungs,
 allowing for exhalation after each breath. Twelve vigorous breaths are
 administered per minute for an adult, twenty shallow breaths per minute
 for a child.

   Artigas, Jose Gervasio

 Artigas, Jose Gervasio, 1764-1850, Uruguayan independence leader. He
 joined (1811) the revolution against Spanish rule and became leader in
 the Banda Orientale (now URUGUAY). Artigas agitated against the
 territory's annexation (1820) by Brazil and went into exile.

   artillery

 artillery, a term now applied to heavy firearms, as distinguished from
 SMALL ARMS. It came into use in the mid-14th cent. with the introduction
 in Europe of GUNPOWDER, which had been discovered many centuries earlier
 in China. First employed mainly against fortifications, artillery was
 increasingly used in the field from the early 17th cent. It was
 characteristically smooth-bore and muzzle-loaded, firing solid, round
 shot, until the late 19th cent., when breech-loaded, rifled, and
 shell-firing artillery became standard. Modern artillery includes a
 variety of long-range guns that fire their shells with rapid
 muzzle-velocity in a low arc; howitzers, which fire on a high trajectory
 at relatively nearby targets; antiaircraft guns, which fire rapidly and
 at high angles; armor-piercing antitank guns; and many field-artillery
 pieces used in support of infantry and other ground operations. Mobility
 has become a key factor in the usefulness of heavy firearms, most of
 which now either are self-propelled or can be towed.

   art nouveau

 art nouveau, decorative art movement begun in Western Europe that lasted
 from the 1880s to World War I. It was characterized by a richly
 ornamental, asymmetrical style of whiplash linearity, reminiscent of
 twining plant tendrils, and was most successful in furniture, jewelry,
 and book design and illustration. Its themes were symbolic and often
 erotic. Chief exponents included the illustrators Aubrey BEARDSLEY and
 Walter Crane in England; the architects Henry van de Velde and Victor
 HORTA in Belgium; the architect Hector Guimard and the jewelry designer
 Rene Lalique in France; the painter Gustav KLIMT in Austria; the
 architect Antonio GAUDI in Spain; the illustrator Otto Eckmann and the
 architect Peter BEHRENS in Germany; and the glassware designer Louis C.
 TIFFANY and the architect Louis SULLIVAN in the U.S.

   arts and crafts

 arts and crafts, term for the field of the designing and hand fabrication
 of functional and decorative objects. The term was invented in
 late-19th-cent. England to refer to a movement, begun by William MORRIS
 and others, to revive the hand techniques almost obliterated by
 industrialization.

   Aruba

 Aruba, island (1985 est. pop. 61,000) 69 sq mi (179 sq km) in the
 NETHERLANDS ANTILLES. Tourism and the refining of oil from nearby
 Venezuela are the major sources of revenue. Oranjestad is the capital.

   arum

 arum, common name for the Araceae, a family of chiefly tropical and
 subtropical herbaceous herbs. The characteristic inflorescence consists
 of a single fleshy spike (spadix), which bears small flowers, and a
 typically showy flowerlike bract or modified leaf (spathe) surrounding
 the spadix. The largest plant inflorescence known belongs to the Sumatran
 krubi (Amorphophallus titanum) of this family; its spadix reaches a
 height of 15 ft (4.6 m). Among other members of the family are the
 decorative arum lily, or calla (genus Zantedeschia); the smaller, showy
 water arum, or wild calla (Calla palustris); the climbing shrub
 philodendron (genus Philodendron), a popular houseplant; and the
 decorative Anthurium and Caladium. Some species in this family have
 large, starchy edible rootstocks (corms). A major food source in the
 Pacific and Far East, the corms of elephant's ear (Colocasia esculenta),
 or taro, are the main ingredient of poi. Corms of the arum Indian bread
 were eaten by natives of E North America.

   Aryans

 Aryans, speakers of Indo-European or Indo-Iranian languages. In the 2d
 millennium BC, waves of warlike nomadic Aryan tribes spread from S Russia
 and Turkistan through Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. They invaded India
 c.1500 BC, colonizing the PUNJAB. The subsequent Indo-European period was
 characterized by a pastoral-agricultural economy and the use of bronze
 objects and horse-drawn chariots. In the 20th cent., NAZI racist
 propaganda idealized the Aryan conquest and claimed German descent from
 the Aryans.

   As

 As, chemical symbol of the element ARSENIC.

   asbestos

 asbestos, common name for any of a group of fibrous silicate minerals
 resistant to acid and fire. Asbestos usually occurs as veins in rocks and
 seems to be a product of METAMORPHISM. Chrysotile asbestos (H4Mg3Si2O9),
 a form of SERPENTINE, is the main commercial asbestos. Asbestos is
 produced chiefly in Canada; asbestos products include yarn and rope, pipe
 covering, brake linings, fire-fighting equipment, and insulating
 materials. Studies have shown that asbestos particles in the air can
 cause lung cancer and the lung disease asbestosis.

   Ascension

 Ascension, volcanic, largely barren island (1980 est. pop. 1,013), 34 sq
 mi (88 sq km), in the S Atlantic, part of the British colony of SAINT
 HELENA. It is the site of a U.S. air base, and a missile- and
 satellite-tracking station.

   Ascension

 Ascension, name given to the departure of JESUS from earth. Ascension
 Thursday, a major feast for most Christians, commemorates the event and
 occurs on the 40th day after Easter.

   Asch, Sholem

 Asch, Sholem, 1880-1957, American Yiddish novelist and playwright; b.
 Poland. His writings often depict Jewish life in Europe and the U.S., as
 in Three Cities (1933) and East River (1946). Later works, e.g., Mary
 (1949), reflect the common spiritual heritage of Jews and Christians.

   Ascham, Roger

 Ascham, Roger, 1515-68, English humanist. A leading intellectual figure
 of the Tudor period, he tutored Princess Elizabeth (ELIZABETH I) in the
 classics and later served as her secretary; he was also Latin secretary
 to MARY I. He wrote Toxophilus (1557), an essay on archery, and The
 Scholemaster (1570), a treatise on the teaching of Latin.

   Asclepius

 Asclepius, legendary Greek physician and god of medicine; son of APOLLO
 and Coronis. The sick were treated in his temples; the serpent and cock
 were sacred to him.

   ascorbic acid

 ascorbic acid: see VITAMIN.

   ASEAN

 ASEAN: see ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS.

   Asgard

 Asgard, in Norse mythology, home of the gods. Also called Aesir, it
 consisted of luxurious palaces and halls. One of the most beautiful was
 Valhalla, the hall of dead heroes.

   Asgeirsson, Asgeir

 Asgeirsson, Asgeir, 1894-1972, president of ICELAND (1952-68). He was a
 member of parliament (1923-52), held various cabinet posts, and served
 (1946-52) as governor of the International Monetary Fund.

   ash

 ash, tree or shrub (genus Fraxinus) of the OLIVE family, mainly of north
 temperate regions. The ashes have small clusters of greenish flowers and
 long-winged, wind-dispersed fruits. The white ash (F. americana) is a
 source of durable hardwood timber used for sporting goods, furniture, and
 tool handles; the blue ash (F. quadrangulata) provides a blue dye. The
 mountain ash and prickly ash are not true ashes.

   Ashanti

 Ashanti, or Asante,historic and present-day region in central GHANA,
 inhabited by the Ashanti, one of Ghana's major ethnic groups. In the 17th
 cent. the Ashanti confederation was forged, with its capital at KUMASI
 and with the chieftain of the Oyoko clan as king. Ashanti came into
 conflict with the British colonies along the coast, and the Anglo-Ashanti
 wars (19th cent.) resulted in the dissolution of the confederation in
 1896. In 1901 Ashanti became part of the British colony of the Gold
 Coast. The people are noted for their goldwork and colorful Kente cloth.
 (See also GHANA, ancient empire.)

   Ashbery, John

 Ashbery, John, 1927-, American poet and art critic; b. Rochester, N.Y.
 His poems are experimental, narrative, and strongly visual. His
 collections include Some Trees (1956), Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror
 (1975; Pulitzer), Shadow Train (1981), and A Wave (1984).

   ashcan school

 ashcan school: see EIGHT, THE.

   Ashe, Arthur (Robert)

 Ashe, Arthur (Robert), 1943-, American tennis player; b. Richmond. He was
 (1968) the first black to win the U.S. Open. He also took the Australian
 (1970) and Wimbledon (1975) titles.

   Asher

 Asher: see ISRAEL, TRIBES OF.

   Ashton, Sir Frederick

 Ashton, Sir Frederick, 1906-1988, British choreographer and dancer; b.
 Ecuador. He studied in England with Leonid MASSINE and Maria Rambert. He
 joined (1935) the Sadler's Wells Ballet (now the Royal Ballet) as
 choreographer and later became director (1963-70). His precise, lyrical
 works include Cinderella, Ondine, and A Month in the Country.

   Ashurbanipal

 Ashurbanipal: see ASSURBANIPAL.

   Ashurnasirpal II

 Ashurnasirpal II, d. 860? BC, king of ancient ASSYRIA (884-860? BC). He
 conquered considerable territory and helped to create a centralized
 state.

   Ash Wednesday

 Ash Wednesday: see LENT.

   Asia

 Asia, the world's largest continent, c.17,139,000 sq mi (44,390,000 sq
 km), joined in the west with Europe (which may be considered a peninsula
 of Asia) to form the great Eurasian land mass. It ranges in elevation
 from 29,028 ft (8,848 m) at Mt. EVEREST, the world's highest mountain, to
 1,292 ft (394 m) below sea level at the DEAD SEA, the world's lowest
 point. It is traversed from east to west by a massive central highland
 region containing the Tibetan Plateau, the HIMALAYAS, the HINDU KUSH, and
 other great mountain systems. The continent has every type of climate,
 from tropical to polar and from desert to rainy. The countries of Asia
 are Afghanistan, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burma, Cambodia
 (Kampuchea), China, Cyprus, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Japan,
 Jordan, North Korea, South Korea, Kuwait, Laos, Lebanon, Malaysia, the
 Maldives, the Mongolian People's Republic, Nepal, Oman, Pakistan, the
 Republic of the Philippines, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Sri Lanka,
 Syria, Taiwan (the Republic of China), Thailand, Asian Turkey, the Asian
 USSR, the United Arab Emirates, Vietnam, Yemen, and Southern Yemen; other
 political units are Brunei, Hong Kong, and Macao (see separate articles).
 Asia was the site of some of the world's earliest civilizations and today
 contains nearly 60% of the world's population. Some of the world's
 greatest population densities are found in S and E Asia, particularly in
 the great alluvial river valleys of the GANGES, in India, and the YANGTZE
 and HUANG HE, in China. See map of Asia in separate section.

   Asia Minor

 Asia Minor, peninsula, W Asia, forming the Asian part of Turkey. Most of
 the peninsula is occupied by the Anatolian plateau, which is crossed by
 numerous mountains interspersed with lakes. The first civilization
 established there (c.1800 BC) was that of the HITTITES. The site of TROY
 and other ancient cities, Asia Minor was subjugated by many invaders,
 including the Persians, Macedonians, Romans, and Crusaders. Conquered by
 the Turks between the 13th and 15th cent. AD, it was part of the OTTOMAN
 EMPIRE until the establishment of modern Turkey after WORLD WAR I.

   Asimov, Isaac

 Asimov, Isaac, 1920-, American biochemist and author; b. USSR. He taught
 biochemistry at Boston Univ., but he is best known as a prolific author
 of science fiction, e.g., The Foundation Trilogy (1951-83).

   Asmara

 Asmara, city (1984 est. pop. 275,385), capital of Eritrea prov., N
 Ethiopia. A commercial and industrial center, it is connected by rail
 with the Red Sea port of Massawa. Manufactures include textiles and beer.
 The city was occupied (1889) by the Italians, became (1900) the capital
 of their colony of Eritrea, and was a base for the Italian invasion of
 Ethiopia (1935-36). It was taken by the British in 1941. In the late
 1970s Asmara was briefly besieged by Eritrean guerrillas fighting to
 secede from Ethiopia.

   Asmoneans

 Asmoneans: see MACCABEES.

   Asoka

 Asoka, d. c.232 BC, Indian emperor (c.273-c.232 BC) of the MAURYA
 dynasty. One of the greatest of the ancient rulers, he brought nearly all
 of INDIA together. However, he sickened of war, turned (c.257 BC) to
 BUDDHISM, and thereafter professed nonviolence. He sent Buddhist
 missionaries as far afield as Greece and Egypt, and was largely
 responsible for transforming Buddhism into a world religion.

   asp

 asp, popular name for several species of VIPER, one of which, the
 European asp (Vipera aspis), is native to S Europe. It is also a name for
 the Egyptian COBRA.

   asparagus

 asparagus, perennial garden vegetable (Asparagus officinalis) of the LILY
 family, native to the E Mediterranean area, cultivated from antiquity and
 now grown in much of the world. Its green stems function as leaves, and
 the true leaves are reduced to scales. Its edible shoots are cut in the
 spring. Related species, the asparagus fern (A. plumosus) and smilax (A.
 asparagoides), are used for decoration.

   Aspen

 Aspen, city (1986 est. pop. 3,320), alt. 7,850 ft (2,390 m), seat of
 Pitkin co., S central Colo., on the Roaring Fork R.; inc. 1881. Once a
 booming silver-mining town, it has been transformed into a modern,
 cosmopolitan ski resort. The Aspen Inst. for Humanistic Studies and Aspen
 Music School (which has held an annual music festival since 1949) are
 located there.

   aspen

 aspen: see WILLOW.

   Aspen Music Festival

 Aspen Music Festival: see MUSIC FESTIVAL.

   asphalt

 asphalt, brownish-black substance used in road making, roofing, and
 waterproofing. A naturally occurring mixture of HYDROCARBONS, it is
 commercially obtained as a residue in the DISTILLATION or refining of
 PETROLEUM. Asphalt varies in consistency from a solid to a semisolid,
 melts when heated, and has great tenacity. Used in paints and varnishes,
 it imparts an intense black color. Crushed asphalt rock, a natural
 mixture of asphalt, sand, and limestone, is used as road-building
 material.

   asphodel

 asphodel, hardy, stemless herbs (genera Asphodelus and Asphodeline) of
 the LILY family, native to India and the Mediterranean. Both have showy
 flower spikes. Other asphodels include the false asphodel (genus
 Tofieldia) and the mountain asphodel, or turkeybeard (Xerophyllum
 asphodeliodes).

   aspirin

 aspirin, acetyl derivative of salicylic acid, commonly used to lower
 fever; relieve headache, muscle, and joint pain; and reduce inflammation,
 particularly that caused by rheumatic fever and arthritis. Known side
 effects are nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and gastrointestinal bleeding.
 Acetaminophen (Tylenol) is often substituted for aspirin. See also
 ANALGESIC.

   Asquith, Herbert Henry

 Asquith, Herbert Henry: see OXFORD AND ASQUITH, HERBERT HENRY ASQUITH,
 1ST EARL OF.

   ass

 ass, hoofed, herbivorous MAMMAL (genus Equus), related to, but smaller
 than, the HORSE. Unlike the horse, the ass has a large head, long ears,
 and small hooves. The two living species are the sandy-colored wild Asian
 ass (E. hemonius), now endangered, and the larger, gray African ass (E.
 asinus), from which domestic donkeys are descended.

   Assad, Hafez al-

 Assad, Hafez al-, 1928-, president of SYRIA. He was defense minister
 before leading the 1965 military coup that made him president. A strong
 anti-Zionist, he is a major supporter of the PALESTINE LIBERATION
 ORGANIZATION. In 1976 he committed Syrian troops as part of a
 peace-keeping force in LEBANON, but they were soon supporting the PLO
 guerrillas.

   Assamese

 Assamese, language belonging to the Indic group of the Indo-Iranian
 subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See LANGUAGE.

   assault

 assault, in law, intentional attempt to use violence to do bodily harm to
 another. The victim must reasonably believe the perpetrator capable of
 such violence. See BATTERY.

   assemblage

 assemblage: see COLLAGE.

   Assemblies of God

 Assemblies of God: see PENTECOSTALISM.

   Assis, Joaquim Maria Machado de

 Assis, Joaquim Maria Machado de: see MACHADO DE ASSIS, JOAQUIM MARIA.

   Associated Press

 Associated Press: see NEWS AGENCY.

   Association of Southeast Asian Nations

 Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), organization established
 by the Bangkok Declaration (1967), linking the nations of Indonesia,
 Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. It seeks to promote
 socioeconomic progress and regional stability through cooperation in
 banking, trade, technology, agriculture, industry, and tourism. Its
 headquarters are in Djakarta.

   associative law

 associative law, in mathematics, law holding that for a given operation
 combining three quantities, two at a time, the initial pairing is
 arbitrary. Addition and multiplication are associative; thus
 (a+b)+c=a+(b+c) and (a*b)*c=a*(b*c) for any three members a, b, c.
 Subtraction and division, however, are not associative.

   assonance

 assonance: see RHYME.

   Assurbanipal

 Assurbanipalor Ashurbanipal, d. 626? BC, king of ancient ASSYRIA (669-633
 BC), son and successor of Esar-Haddon. He was the last of the great kings
 of Assyria. Under him Assyria reached the height of sumptuous living, and
 art and learning flourished. A few years after his reign ended, Assyria
 succumbed to the Medes and the Persians. His great expenditures in wars
 to preserve the state contributed somewhat to its collapse.

   Assyria

 Assyria, ancient empire of W Asia, originating around the city of Ashur,
 on the upper Tigris R., S of its later capital, NINEVEH. At first a small
 Semitic city-state, Assyria flourished briefly under Tiglathpileser I (d.
 c.1074 BC). Its real importance, however, began in the 9th cent. with the
 conquests of ASHURNASIRPAL II, who set up an imperial administration.
 Later kings such as Shalmaneser III, Tiglathpileser III, and Sargon
 gained hegemony in the Middle East. SENNACHERIB consolidated their
 holdings, and Esar-Haddon (r.681-668 BC) defeated the Chaldaeans and
 conquered Egypt. Under his successor, ASSURBANIPAL (r.669-633 BC),
 Assyria reached its height of learning, art, and splendor. But Egypt
 broke away, and Assyria's decline was rapid. Soon after Assurbanipal's
 death Nineveh was sacked (612 BC) and Assyria was absorbed, first by
 Babylonia and then by the Persian empire.

   Assyrian art

 Assyrian art.  An Assyrian artistic style, distinct from that of
 BABYLONIA, began to emerge c.1500 BC and lasted until the fall of NINEVEH
 in 612 BC It took the form of precisely delineated, polychrome carved
 stone reliefs. These concerned royal affairs, chiefly hunting and war
 making. Predominance was given to animal forms, particularly horses and
 lions, which are represented in great detail. Human figures are
 comparatively rigid and static, but also minutely detailed. Among the
 best-known Assyrian reliefs are the lion-hunt alabaster carvings showing
 ASHURNASIRPAL II (9th cent. BC) and ASSURBANIPAL (7th cent. BC), both of
 which are in the British Museum. Guardian animals, usually lions and
 winged beasts with bearded human heads, were sculpted partially in the
 round for fortified royal gateways. Exquisite examples of Assyrian relief
 carving may be seen at the British and Metropolitan museums.

   Assyrian language

 Assyrian language, Hamito-Semitic language of ancient times, in the
 Akkadian group. See LANGUAGE.

   Astaire, Fred

 Astaire, Fred, 1899-1987, American dancer; b. Omaha, Nebr., as Frederick
 Austerlitz. After dancing in VAUDEVILLE with his sister, Adele, he made
 many films, often with Ginger Rogers, in which he displayed an elegant
 style of ballroom dance and tap. He also danced in movies with Eleanor
 Powell, Rita Hayworth, and Cyd Charisse, and on television with Barrie
 Chase. His influence on dancing is incalculable. Many classical dancers,
 notably NUREYEV and BARYSHNIKOV, acknowledge their debt to him.

   Astarte

 Astarte, Semitic goddess of fertility and love. Dominant in ancient
 Eastern religions, she was the most important goddess of the Phoenicians,
 corresponding to the Babylonian ISHTAR and the Greek Aphrodite. See also
 GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS.

   astatine

 astatine (At), semimetallic radioactive element, discovered in 1931 by
 Fred Allison and E.J. Murphy. The heaviest known HALOGEN, it is believed
 to be similar to iodine in its chemical properties. Astatine-211
 (half-life: 7.21 hr) is used as a radioactive tracer because it collects
 in the thyroid gland. See ELEMENT; PERIODIC TABLE.

   aster

 aster, widely distributed, wild and cultivated perennial flowering plants
 (genus Aster) of the COMPOSITE family. Most species have white, pink,
 blue, or purple flowers that bloom in the fall. The China aster
 (Callistephus chinensis), the common aster of florists and flower
 gardens, and the golden asters (genus Chrysopsis) are in the same family.

   asteroid, planetoid

 asteroid, planetoid, or minor planet,small, usually irregularly shaped
 body orbiting the sun, most often at least partially between the orbits
 of Mars and Jupiter. Ceres is the largest asteroid (diameter: 470 mi/750
 km) and was the first discovered (1801). Of the more than 2,000 asteroids
 known, most have been discovered photographically; their paths appear as
 short lines in a time exposure. Asteroids may be fragments of a planet
 shattered in the remote past; material that failed to condense into a
 single planet; or material from the nuclei of old comets. The Trojan
 asteroids revolve in the same orbit as Jupiter, kept by perturbation
 effects in two groups 60 deg ahead of and 60 deg behind Jupiter. The
 Apollo asteroids cross the earth's orbit; they may be the cause of the
 earth's several meteorite craters and are a possible location for future
 mining.

   asthma

 asthma, chronic respiratory disorder characterized by labored breathing
 and wheezing resulting from obstructed and constricted air passages.
 Although asthma usually results from an allergic reaction (see ALLERGY),
 specific allergens are not always identifiable. Illness and stress may
 precipitate an attack. For acute attacks EPINEPHRINE injections and
 oxygen therapy bring immediate relief. Long-term control includes use of
 bronchodilators, STEROIDS, breathing exercises, and, if possible, the
 identification and avoidance of allergens.

   astigmatism

 astigmatism, visual defect resulting from irregular curvature of the
 cornea or lens, preventing light rays from converging on the retina (see
 EYE). With astigmatism, some light rays focus on the retina, while others
 focus in front of or behind it. Congenital or caused by disease or
 injury, astigmatism can occur in addition to FARSIGHTEDNESS and
 NEARSIGHTEDNESS. It may be alleviated with corrective lenses.

   Astor, John Jacob

 Astor, John Jacob, 1763-1848, American merchant; b. Germany. At 21 he
 arrived in Baltimore, penniless; later he opened a small fur shop in New
 York City. Shrewd and ambitious, he became a leader of the China trade.
 His AMERICAN FUR COMPANY (1808) exercised a virtual monopoly on the fur
 trade in U.S. territories, and at his death Astor was the wealthiest man
 in the country. His great-grandson William Waldorf Astor, 1st Viscount
 Astor, 1848-1919, b. N.Y.C., was an American-British financier. In 1890
 he moved to England, where he contributed huge sums to public causes. He
 was made baron in 1916 and viscount in 1917. His elder son, Waldorf
 Astor, married Nancy Witcher (Langhorne) Astor, Viscountess Astor,
 1879-1964, a British political leader who became the first woman to sit
 in PARLIAMENT. As a Conservative member (1919-45) she espoused temperance
 and reforms in women's and children's welfare, and in the 1920s she and
 her husband were leaders in the "Tory democracy" reform program.

   astrolabe

 astrolabe, instrument of ancient origin that measured altitudes of
 celestial bodies and determined their positions and motions. It typically
 consisted of a wooden or metal disk with the circumference marked off in
 degrees, suspended from an attached ring. Angular distances were
 determined by sighting with the alidade-a movable pointer pivoted at the
 disk's center-and taking readings of its position on the graduated
 circle. Skilled mariners used astrolabes up to the 18th cent. to
 determine latitude, longitude, and time of day.

   astrology

 astrology, form of DIVINATION based on the theory that movements of the
 celestial bodies (stars, planets, sun, and moon) influence human affairs
 and determine events. The Chaldaeans and Assyrians, believing all events
 to be predetermined, developed a nondeistic system of divination. The
 spread of astrological practice was arrested by the rise of CHRISTIANITY,
 with its emphasis on divine intervention and free will; but in the
 RENAISSANCE astrology regained popularity, in part due to rekindled
 interest in science and ASTRONOMY. Christian theologists warred against
 astrology, and in 1585 SIXTUS V condemned it. At the same time the work
 of KEPLER and others undermined astrology's tenets, although the practice
 has continued. One's horoscope is a map of the heavens at the time of
 one's birth, showing the positions of the heavenly bodies in the ZODIAC.

   astronaut

 astronaut or cosmonaut,crew member on a U.S. or Soviet manned spaceflight
 mission. The early astronauts and cosmonauts were generally trained
 aircraft test pilots; later astronauts and cosmonauts, however, have
 included scientists and physicians. As far as is possible, all conditions
 to be encountered in space, e.g., the physiological disorientation
 arising from weightlessness (see SPACE MEDICINE), are simulated in ground
 training. Using trainers and mock-ups of actual spacecraft, astronauts
 and cosmonauts rehearse every maneuver from liftoff to recovery; every
 conceivable malfunction and difficulty is anticipated and prepared for.
 Prominent Soviet cosmonauts include Yuri GAGARIN, Valentina TERESHKOVA,
 and Aleksei LEONOV. Prominent U.S. astronauts include Alan SHEPARD, John
 GLENN, Edward WHITE, Neil ARMSTRONG, Buzz ALDRIN, and John YOUNG.

   astronomical coordinate systems

 astronomical coordinate systems, four basic systems used to indicate the
 positions of celestial bodies on the celestial sphere. The latter is an
 imaginary sphere that has the observer at its center and all other
 celestial bodies imagined as located on its inside surface.

 Equatorial The celestial equator is the projection of the earth's EQUATOR
 onto the celestial sphere, and the celestial poles are the points where
 the earth's axis, if extended, intersects the celestial sphere. Right
 ascension (R.A.) is the angle (in hours, minutes, and seconds, with 1
 h=15 deg) measured eastward from the vernal EQUINOX to the point where
 the hour circle (the great circle passing through the celestial poles and
 the body) intersects the celestial equator. Declination is the angle (in
 degrees, minutes, and seconds, as are all other angles defined hereafter)
 measured north (+) or south (-) along the body's hour circle between the
 celestial equator and the body.

 Horizon or Altazimuth Altitude is the angle measured above (+) or below
 (-) the observer's celestial horizon (the great circle on the celestial
 sphere midway between the points-zenith and nadir-directly above and
 below the observer) to the body along the vertical circle passing through
 the body and the zenith. Azimuth is the angle measured along the
 celestial horizon from the observer's celestial meridian (the vertical
 circle passing through the nearest celestial pole and the zenith) to the
 point where the body's vertical circle intersects the horizon. The
 earth's rotation constantly changes a body's altitude and azimuth for an
 observer.

 Ecliptic or Celestial The ecliptic poles are the two points at which a
 line perpendicular to the plane of the ECLIPTIC and passing through the
 earth's center intersects the celestial sphere. Celestial latitude is the
 angle measured north (+) or south (-) from the ecliptic to the body along
 the latitude circle through the body and the ecliptic poles. Celestial
 longitude is the angle measured along the ecliptic from the vernal
 equinox to the latitude circle, in the same sense as R.A.

 Galactic The galactic equator is the intersection of the mean plane of
 our galaxy with the celestial sphere, and the galactic poles are the two
 points at which a line perpendicular to the mean galactic plane and
 passing through the earth's center intersects the celestial sphere.
 Galactic latitude is the angle measured north (+) or south (-) from the
 galactic equator to the body along the great circle passing through the
 body and the galactic poles. Galactic longitude is the angle measured
 eastward along the galactic equator from the galactic center.

   astronomical unit

 astronomical unit (AU), mean distance between the earth and the sun. One
 AU is c.92,960,000 mi (149,604,970 km).

   astronomy

 astronomy, branch of science that studies the motions and natures of
 celestial bodies, such as PLANETS, STARS, and GALAXIES; more generally,
 the study of matter and energy in the universe at large. Astronomy is
 perhaps the oldest of the pure sciences. In many primitive civilizations
 the regularity of celestial motions was recognized, and attempts were
 made to keep records and predict events. Astronomical observations
 provided a basis for the CALENDAR by determining the units of MONTH and
 YEAR. Later, astronomy served in navigation and timekeeping. The earliest
 astronomers were priests, and no attempt was made to separate astronomy
 from the pseudoscience of ASTROLOGY. Astronomy reached its highest
 development in the ancient world with the Greeks of the Alexandrian
 school in the Hellenistic period. ARISTARCHUS OF SAMOS determined the
 sizes and distances of the MOON and SUN and advocated a heliocentric
 (sun-centered) cosmology. ERATOSTHENES made the first accurate
 measurement of the actual size of the earth. The greatest astronomer of
 antiquity, HIPPARCHUS, devised a geocentric system of cycles and
 epicycles (a compounding of circular motions) to account for the
 movements of the sun and moon. Using such a system, PTOLEMY predicted the
 motions of the planets with considerable accuracy (see PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM).
 One of the landmarks of the scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th
 cent. was Nicholas COPERNICUS' revival (1543) of the heliocentric theory
 (see COPERNICAN SYSTEM). The next great astronomer, Tycho BRAHE, compiled
 (1576-97) the most accurate and complete astronomical observations yet
 produced. Johannes KEPLER'S study of Brahe's observations led him to the
 three laws of planetary motion that bear his name (see KEPLER'S LAWS).
 GALILEO Galilei, the first to make astronomical use of the

 moons of JUPITER and the phases of VENUS) for the Copernican cosmology.
 Sir Isaac NEWTON, possibly the greatest scientific genius of all time,
 succeeded in uniting the sciences of astronomy and PHYSICS. His laws of
 motion and theory of universal GRAVITATION, published in 1687, provided a
 physical, dynamic basis for the merely descriptive laws of Kepler. By the
 early 19th cent. the science of CELESTIAL MECHANICS had reached a highly
 developed state through the work of Alexis Clairaut, Jean d'ALEMBERT,
 Leonhard EULER, Joseph LAGRANGE, Pierre LAPLACE, and others. In 1838,
 Friedrich BESSEL made the first measurement of the distance to a star
 (see PARALLAX). Astronomy was revolutionized in the second half of the
 19th cent. by techniques based on photography and the SPECTROSCOPE.
 Interest shifted from determining the positions and distances of stars to
 studying their physical composition (see STELLAR EVOLUTION). With the
 construction of ever more powerful telescopes (see OBSERVATORY), the
 boundaries of the known universe constantly increased. Harlow SHAPLEY
 determined the size and shape of our galaxy, the MILKY WAY. Edwin
 HUBBLE'S study of the distant galaxies led him to conclude that the




 observations in new parts of the spectrum, e.g., gamma-ray astronomy,
 RADIO ASTRONOMY, ultraviolet astronomy, and X-ray astronomy. The new
 observational techniques have led to the discovery of strange new
 astronomical objects, e.g., PULSARS, QUASARS, and black holes (see
 GRAVITATIONAL COLLAPSE).

   astrophysics

 astrophysics, application of the theories and methods of physics to the
 study of stellar structure, STELLAR EVOLUTION, the origin of the SOLAR
 SYSTEM, and related problems of COSMOLOGY.

   Asturias, Miguel Angel

 Asturias, Miguel Angel, 1899-1974, Guatemalan writer. His major works are
 his novels, including The President (1946), a study of a dictatorship;
 The Green Pope (1954); and The Eyes of the Interred (1960), about banana
 exploitation in the Caribbean. He also wrote stories and poetry. He
 received the 1967 Nobel Prize in literature.



 Asturias, region and former kingdom, NW Spain, S of the Bay of Biscay.
 The major occupations are the mining of coal, iron, and other resources;
 steel-making; cattle-raising; fishing; and the growing of apples for
 cider. When the MOORS conquered 8th-cent. Spain, Christian nobles fled to
 the Asturian mountains, formed a kingdom, and began the long reconquest
 of Spain. In the 10th cent. Leon became the capital of the kingdom, then
 known as Asturias and Leon. The kingdom was united (1230) with CASTILE.

   Asuncion

 Asuncion, city (1982 est. pop. 455,517), S Paraguay, capital of Paraguay,
 on the Paraguay R. It is the nation's principal port and chief industrial
 and cultural center. Meat-packing is the largest industry. One of the
 oldest cities in South America, founded in 1537, it retains a colonial
 aspect. It became a center of early Jesuit missionary activity and was
 the most important town in the Rio de la PLATA region until it was
 partially eclipsed by BUENOS AIRES during the 18th cent.

   Aswan High Dam

 Aswan High Dam, one of the world's largest dams, on the Nile R., in
 Egypt, built (1960-70) c.4 mi (6.4 km) south of the smaller Aswan Dam
 (completed, 1902; enlarged, 1934). It is 375 ft (114 m) high and 11,811
 ft (3,600 m) long. The dam has a hydroelectricity capacity of 10 billion
 kwh and stores sufficient water in impounded Lake Nasser to irrigate more
 than 7 million acres (2,809,400 hectares) of farmland. The USSR provided
 funding and engineers for the project.

   asylum

 asylum, refuge, most often granted by a nation to a fugitive from another
 nation. It is usually reserved for victims of political, religious, or
 other discrimination. See also EXTRADITION.

   At

 At, chemical symbol of the element ASTATINE.

   Atacama, Desert of

 Atacama, Desert of, extremely arid plateau, c.2,000 ft (610 m) high, in N
 Chile. It is c.600 mi (970 km) long and has great nitrate and copper
 wealth. Chile gained sole control of the area from Bolivia in the 1880s
 (see PACIFIC, WAR OF THE).

   Atalanta

 Atalanta, in Greek mythology, fleet huntress who joined the Calydonian
 boar hunt (see MELEAGER). She demanded that each of her suitors race her,
 the winner to be rewarded with marriage, the losers to die. Hippomenes
 finally won her by dropping three golden apples that she stopped to
 retrieve.

   Ataturk, Kemal

 Ataturk, Kemal, 1881-1938, Turkish leader, founder of modern Turkey,
 first president of TURKEY (1923-38). Originally known as Mustafa Kemal,
 he was an army officer who took part (1908) in the Young Turk movement,
 distinguished himself in World War I, and, after the collapse of Ottoman
 power, founded the Turkish Nationalist Party. With the Allies controlling
 the government at Constantinople (Istanbul), he set up a rival government
 at Ankara. He expelled the Greeks who were occupying Anatolia (1921-22),
 abolished the sultanate (1922), and forced the European powers to
 recognize the Turkish republic. He ruled for 15 years as a virtual
 dictator. He instituted widespread internal reforms in his efforts to
 Westernize his nation; those changes included abolishing the CALIPHATE
 (1924), which in effect disestablished Islam. In foreign affairs he
 pursued a moderate policy, maintaining friendly relations with Turkey's
 neighbors, especially Russia, with whom he established the Balkan
 Entente.

   Atget, Eugene

 Atget, Eugene, 1857-1927, French photographer. At 47 he began to produce
 his evocative record of Paris and its environs. He sold his work to
 printers and to the Paris historical monuments society. His images of the
 parks, vendors, bridges, and prostitutes of Paris go beyond
 documentation.

   Athabascan

 Athabascan, group of related North American Indian languages forming a
 branch of the Nadene linguistic family, or stock. See AMERICAN INDIAN
 LANGUAGES.

   Athanasius, Saint

 Athanasius, Saint, c.297-373, patriarch of ALEXANDRIA (328-73), Doctor of
 the Church. At the first Council of NICAEA (325) he took part in the
 debate against the heresy of ARIANISM. He continued to defend the Nicene
 orthodoxy, especially in Discourses Against the Arians, and was exiled
 from his see five times between 335 and 365. The Athanasian CREED is no
 longer ascribed to him but to a 4th-cent. Western writer. Feast: May 2.

   atheism

 atheism, denial of the existence of God or gods and of any supernatural
 existence, to be distinguished from AGNOSTICISM, which holds that the
 existence cannot be proved. Since the 19th cent. atheism has been
 professed by many individuals and groups.

   Athelstan

 Athelstanor AEthelstan, d. 939, king of WESSEX (924-39). He built his
 kingdom on foundations laid by his grandfather ALFRED and by 937 he was
 overlord of all England. Popular and able, he issued laws that attempted
 to impose royal authority on customary law.

   Athena

 Athena or Pallas Athena,in Greek mythology, one of the most important
 OLYMPIAN deities, sprung from the forehead of ZEUS. She was the goddess
 of war and peace, a patron of arts and crafts, a guardian of cities
 (notably Athens), and the goddess of wisdom. Her most important temple
 was the PARTHENON and her primary festival the Panathenaea. A virgin
 goddess, Athena is represented in art as a stately figure, armored, and
 wielding her breastplate, the aegis. The Romans identified her with
 MINERVA.

   Athens

 Athens, city (1981 pop. 885,737), capital of Greece, E central Greece.
 Greater Athens, a transportation hub including the Aegean port of
 PIRAIEVS, accounts for most of the country's industry, including
 textiles, machine tools, and ships. Tourism is also important. Early
 Athens, the center of ancient Greek civilization, was rigidly governed by
 aristocratic archons until the reforms of SOLON (594 BC) and CLEISTHENES
 (506 BC) established a democracy of its freemen. It emerged from the
 PERSIAN WARS (500-449 BC) as the strongest Greek city-state, and reached
 its cultural and imperial zenith in the time of PERICLES (443-429 BC).
 Its citizens included SOCRATES, AESCHYLUS, SOPHOCLES, and EURIPIDES.
 After defeat by its arch-rival Sparta in the PELOPONNESIAN WAR (431-404
 BC) it began a long decline that continued under the Macedonians and
 Romans; yet it could still boast such citizens as ARISTOTLE,
 ARISTOPHANES, and PLATO. Captured (395 AD) by Visigoths, it became the
 capital of the BYZANTINE EMPIRE, then came in turn under French, Spanish,
 and Ottoman Turkish rule before becoming (1834) the capital of newly
 independent Greece. The city escaped damage in World War II. The first
 modern OLYMPIC GAMES were held there in 1896. Overlooking the city is its
 foremost landmark, the ACROPOLIS, where the ruins of the PARTHENON, the
 Propylaea, and the ERECHTHEUM are located.

   Athens

 Athens,

 the Univ. of Georgia. Industries include poultry processing and the
 manufacture of clocks, electronic equipment, and textiles. The CLASSIC
 REVIVAL houses of numerous Georgia statesmen are notable.

   athlete's foot

 athlete's foot: see RINGWORM.

   Athos

 Athos or Akte,peninsula, NE Greece, in the Aegean Sea. At its southern
 tip is Mount Athos, also called Hagion Oros, a religious community (c.30
 sq mi/80 sq km) of about 20 Eastern Orthodox monasteries of the Order of
 St. Basil. Founded c.963, it enjoyed administrative independence under
 the Byzantine and Ottoman empires and was made (1927) a theocratic
 republic under Greek suzerainty. Women and female animals are barred.

   Atlanta

 Atlanta, capital and largest city (1986 est. pop. 421,910; met. area
 2,560,300) of Georgia, seat of Fulton co.; settled 1837, inc. as a city
 1847. Located in one of America's fastest-growing urban areas, it is the
 largest commercial, industrial, and financial center in the SE U.S. and
 the largest city in Georgia, as well as a transportation hub and a
 convention center. Many facilities of the federal government are located
 in the area, which also produces textiles, chemicals, automobiles,
 aircraft, clothing, and a wide variety of other goods. The city is also a
 center of international trade and commerce. Atlanta was captured and
 burned (1864) by Gen. William T. SHERMAN; rebuilt, it prospered and
 became the state capital in 1868. Among its educational institutions are
 Emory Univ., the Georgia Inst. of Technology, and Atlanta Univ. Points of
 interest include the Atlanta Memorial Arts Center, Grant Park, and the
 grave of Martin Luther KING, Jr. Atlanta has a symphony orchestra and
 teams in all major sports.

   Atlanta campaign

 Atlanta campaign, May-Sept. 1864, of the U.S. CIVIL WAR. W.T. SHERMAN
 concentrated Union forces around Chattanooga, Tenn., and on May 6 moved
 south with two objectives: to destroy J.E. JOHNSTON'S Confederate army
 and to capture ATLANTA. Sherman repeatedly outflanked the Confederates,
 forcing them back to the Chattahoochee R. by July. J.B. HOOD, who had
 replaced Johnston, counterattacked but failed to halt the Union advance.
 Atlanta's communications were cut on Sept. 1, and Hood withdrew that
 night. Sherman took the city on Sept. 2.

   Atlantic Charter

 Atlantic Charter, program of peace aims enunciated on Aug. 14, 1941, by
 U.S. Pres. F.D. ROOSEVELT and British Prime Min. Winston CHURCHILL.
 Included among the aims was the list of human rights known as the FOUR
 FREEDOMS.

   Atlantic City

 Atlantic City, city (1986 est. pop. 35,980), SE N.J., an Atlantic resort
 and convention center; inc. 1854. On Absecon Island, a sandbar 10 mi (16
 km) long, it was a fishing village until 1854, when the railroad began to
 transform it into a fashionable resort. It is known for its 6-mi (9.7-km)
 boardwalk, its convention hall, and its Steel Pier (built 1898; burned
 1982). After the state legalized casino gambling there (1976), the city
 entered a new era of prosperity.

   Atlantic Ocean

 Atlantic Ocean, world's second largest ocean, c.31,800,000 sq mi
 (82,362,000 sq km), separating North and South America from Europe and
 Africa. It is narrowest (c.1,600 mi/2,575 km) off NE Brazil and deepest
 (c.28,000 ft/8,530 m) in the Milwaukee Deep, N of Puerto Rico. The
 generally narrow continental shelf reaches its greatest widths off NE
 North America, SE South America, and NW Europe. The ocean is divided
 lengthwise by the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a submarine mountain range
 c.300-600 mi (480-970 km) wide that extends c.10,000 mi (16,100 km) from
 Iceland to near the Antarctic Circle. This ridge, which has a few peaks
 that emerge as islands, is constantly widening, filling with molten rock,
 and pushing the bordering continents farther apart (see PLATE TECTONICS).

   Atlantis

 Atlantis, in Greek mythology, large island in the western sea. PLATO
 describes it as a UTOPIA destroyed by an earthquake. Questions as to its
 existence have provoked speculation over the centuries. One theory holds
 that it was a part of the Aegean island of THERA that sank c.1500 BC

   Atlas

 Atlas, in Greek mythology, a TITAN. After the defeat of the Titans by the
 OLYMPIANS, he was condemned to hold the sky upon his shoulders for all
 eternity.

   Atlas Mountains

 Atlas Mountains, mountain system, NW Africa, c.1,500 mi (2,410 km) long.
 It is widest and most rugged in Morocco, where Jebel Toubkal reaches a
 high point of 13,671 ft (4,167 m). The mountains are rich in phosphates,
 coal, iron, and oil.

   atmosphere

 atmosphere, the mixture of gases and other substances surrounding a
 celestial body with sufficient gravity to maintain it. Although some
 details about the atmospheres of the other planets and some satellites
 are known (see articles on individual planets), a complete description is
 available only for the earth's atmosphere, the study of which is called
 METEOROLOGY. The gaseous constituents of the earth's atmosphere are not
 chemically combined, and thus each retains its own physical and chemical
 properties. Within the first 40 to 50 mi (64 to 80 km) above the earth,
 the mixture is of uniform composition (except for a high concentration of
 OZONE at 30 mi/50 km). This whole region contains more than 99% of the
 total mass of the earth's atmosphere. Based on their relative volumes,
 the gaseous constituents are nitrogen (78.09%), oxygen (20.95%), argon
 (0.93%), carbon dioxide (0.03%), and minute traces of neon, helium,
 methane, krypton, hydrogen, xenon, and ozone. Additional atmospheric
 constituents include water vapor and particulate matter, such as various
 forms of dust and industrial pollutants. The earth's atmosphere is
 separated into certain distinct regions, each having a different
 temperature range. The troposphere, where air is in constant motion (see
 WIND), extends from the earth's surface to an altitude of 5 mi (8 km) at
 the poles and 10 mi (16 km) at the equator. Clouds and other WEATHER
 phenomena occur here (see also CLIMATE). All forms of the earth's animal
 and plant life exist in the troposphere or in the waters beneath it.
 Above the troposphere, the stratosphere extends to about 30 mi (50 km),
 followed by the mesosphere, up to about 50 mi (80 km), the thermosphere,
 up to about 400 mi (640 km), and finally the exosphere. The ionosphere is
 in the range (50 to 400 mi/80 to 640 km) that contains a high
 concentration of electrically charged particles (ions), which are
 responsible for reflecting radio signals. Above it, out to about 40,000
 mi (64,400 km) in a region called the magnetosphere, electrically charged
 particles are trapped by the earth's magnetic field (see AURORA; VAN
 ALLEN RADIATION BELTS). The atmosphere protects the earth by absorbing
 and scattering harmful radiation and causing extraterrestrial solid
 matter (see METEOR) to burn from the heat generated by air friction.

   atoll

 atoll: see CORAL REEFS; ISLAND.

   atom

 atom, the smallest unit of a chemical ELEMENT having the properties of
 that element. An atom contains several kinds of particles. Its central
 core, the nucleus, consists of positively charged particles, called
 PROTONS, and uncharged particles, called NEUTRONS. Surrounding the
 nucleus and orbiting it are negatively charged particles, called
 ELECTRONS. Each atom has an equal number of protons and electrons. The
 nucleus occupies only a tiny fraction of an atom's volume but contains
 almost all of its mass. Electrons in the outermost orbits determine the
 atom's chemical and electrical properties. The number of protons in an
 atom's nucleus is called the ATOMIC NUMBER. All atoms of an element have
 the same atomic number and differ in atomic number from atoms of other
 elements. The total number of protons and neutrons combined is the atom's
 MASS NUMBER. Atoms containing the same number of protons but different
 numbers of neutrons are different forms, or ISOTOPES, of the same
 element. See also ATOMIC WEIGHT.

 History In the 5th cent. BC the Greek philosophers DEMOCRITUS and
 Leucippus proposed that matter was made up of tiny, indivisible particles
 in constant motion. Aristotle, however, did not accept the theory, and it
 was ignored for centuries. Modern atomic theory began with John DALTON,
 who proposed (1808) that all atoms of an element have exactly the same
 size and weight, and that atoms of elements unite chemically in simple
 numerical ratios to form compounds. In 1911 Ernest RUTHERFORD explained
 an atom's structure in terms of a positively charged nucleus surrounded
 by negatively charged electrons orbiting around it. In 1913 Niels BOHR
 used QUANTUM THEORY to explain why electrons could remain in certain
 allowed orbits without radiating energy. The development of quantum
 mechanics during the 1920s resulted in a satisfactory explanation of all
 phenomena related to the role of electrons in atoms and of all aspects of
 their associated spectra (see SPECTRUM). The quantum theory has shown
 that all particles have certain wave properties. As a result, electrons
 in an atom cannot be pictured as localized in space but rather should be
 viewed as a cloud of charge spread out over the entire orbit. The
 electron clouds around the nucleus represent regions in which the
 electrons are most likely to be found. Physicists are currently studying
 the behavior of large groups of atoms (see SOLID-STATE PHYSICS), and the
 nature of and relations among the hundreds of ELEMENTARY PARTICLES that
 have been discovered in addition to the proton, neutron, and electron.

   atomic bomb

 atomic bomb, weapon deriving its great explosive force from the sudden
 release of NUCLEAR ENERGY through the fission, or splitting, of heavy
 atomic nuclei. The first atomic bomb was successfully tested by the U.S.
 near Alamogordo, N.Mex., on July 16, 1945 (see MANHATTAN PROJECT). In the
 final stages of WORLD WAR II the U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima
 on Aug. 6, 1945, and on Nagasaki three days later to force Japan to
 surrender. Atomic bombs were subsequently developed by the USSR (1949),
 Great Britain (1952), France (1960), China (1964), and India (1974).
 Practical fissionable nuclei for atomic bombs are the isotopes
 URANIUM-235 and PLUTONIUM-239, which are capable of undergoing chain
 reaction. If the mass of the fissionable material exceeds the critical
 mass, the chain reaction multiplies rapidly into an uncontrollable
 release of energy. An atomic bomb is detonated by bringing together very
 rapidly (e.g., by means of a chemical explosion) two subcritical masses
 of fissionable material. The ensuing explosion produces great amounts of
 heat, a shock wave, and intense neutron and gamma radiation. The region
 of the explosion becomes radioactively contaminated, and wind-borne
 radioactive products may be deposited elsewhere as fallout. See also
 DISARMAMENT, NUCLEAR; HYDROGEN BOMB.

   atomic clock

 atomic clock: see CLOCK.

   atomic energy

 atomic energy: see NUCLEAR ENERGY.

   Atomic Energy Commission

 Atomic Energy Commission: see NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION.

   atomic mass

 atomic mass: see ATOMIC WEIGHT.

   atomic number

 atomic number, often represented by the symbol Z, the number of PROTONS
 in the nucleus of an ATOM. Atoms with the same atomic number make up a
 chemical ELEMENT. The elements are arranged in the PERIODIC TABLE in the
 order of their atomic numbers.

   atomic weight

 atomic weight, mean (weighted average) of the masses of all the naturally
 occuring ISOTOPES of a chemical ELEMENT; the atomic mass is the mass of
 any individual isotope. Atomic weight is usually expressed in atomic mass
 units (amu); the atomic mass unit is defined as exactly 1/12 the mass of
 a carbon-12 atom. Each proton or neutron weighs about 1 amu, and thus the
 atomic mass is always very close to the MASS NUMBER (total number of
 protons and neutrons in the nucleus). Because most naturally occurring
 elements have one principal isotope and only insignificant amounts of
 other isotopes, most atomic weights are also very nearly whole numbers.
 For the atomic weight of individual elements, see PERIODIC TABLE.

   atonality

 atonality, systemic avoidance of harmonies and melodies that imply a
 keynote (see KEY). The term designates a method of composition in which
 the composer deliberately rejects the principle of TONALITY in favor of
 another principle of order, such as the 12-tone system (see SERIAL
 MUSIC). The move toward atonality has been apparent since the 19th cent.,
 when WAGNER, Richard STRAUSS, and DEBUSSY obscured basic tonalities in
 their music. Atonal composers of the 20th cent. include SCHOENBERG, BERG,
 and IVES.

   Atonement, Day of

 Atonement, Day of: see JEWISH HOLIDAYS.

   ATP

 ATP: see ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE.

   Atreus

 Atreus, in Greek mythology, king of Mycenae; son of PELOPS, father of
 AGAMEMNON and MENELAUS. In retaliation for his brother Thyestes'
 seduction of his wife, Atreus murdered three of Thyestes' sons and served
 them to him at a feast. Thyestes then laid a curse on the house of
 Atreus. Thyestes' son AEGISTHUS killed Atreus, and Thyestes became king.

   atrium

 atrium, term for an interior court in Roman domestic architecture; also a
 type of entrance court in early Christian churches. The Roman atrium was
 an unroofed or partially roofed area with rooms opening from it. In early
 times it held a hearth in its center; later a tank collected rainwater.
 In more luxurious Roman dwellings, individual chambers had courts of
 their own, called peristyles. The ruins of POMPEII display atria in
 various forms.

   Attar

 Attar: see FARID AD-DIN ATTAR.

   Attila

 Attila, d. 453, king of the HUNS (434-53). From 434 he extorted tribute
 from the Eastern and Western Roman emperors. In 450 MARCIAN of the East
 and VALENTINIAN III of the West refused to pay. Valentinian's sister
 Honoria proposed an alliance with Attila, who took this as a marriage
 offer and demanded half the Western empire as dowry. Refused, he attacked
 Gaul but was defeated (451) by the Romans. He invaded (452) Italy but
 spared Rome, apparently because of a shortage of supplies and an outbreak
 of pestilence in his army. Although feared for his savagery, he was a
 just ruler.

   Attlee, Clement Richard, 1st Earl

 Attlee, Clement Richard, 1st Earl, 1883-1967, British statesman. A lawyer
 and social worker, he became leader of the Labour party in 1935. During
 World War II he served in Winston CHURCHILL'S coalition cabinet
 (1940-45), and in 1945 became prime minister. His government nationalized
 the Bank of England and much of British industry; enacted social reforms,
 including the National Health Service; and granted independence to Burma,
 India, Pakistan, Ceylon, and Palestine. Attlee left office in 1951. He
 led the opposition until 1955, when he received the title Earl Attlee.

   Atwood, Margaret

 Atwood, Margaret, 1939-, Canadian poet and novelist. Her powerful novels
 treat the destructiveness of human relations. They include The Edible
 Woman (1969), Surfacing (1972), Bodily Harm (1981), and The Handmaid's
 Tale (1986). Among her volumes of poetry is Selected Poems (1978).

   Au

 Au, chemical symbol of the element GOLD.

   Aubrey, John

 Aubrey, John, 1626-97, English antiquarian and writer. Friendly with many
 famous people, he left copious letters and memoranda. His most celebrated
 work, Lives of Eminent Men, was published in 1813. Only his Miscellanies
 (1696) appeared in his lifetime.

   Auckland

 Auckland, city (1987 pop. 889,200), NW North Island, New Zealand, on an
 isthmus between the Pacific Ocean and the Tasman Sea. It is the country's
 largest city and its chief port, industrial center, and naval base.
 Frozen meats and dairy products are important exports. Industries include
 shipbuilding, food processing, oil refining, and the manufacture of
 automobiles and chemicals. Auckland was founded in 1840 and was the
 capital of New Zealand until replaced (1865) by WELLINGTON. The Univ. of
 Auckland is among the city's educational institutions.

   Auden, W(ystan) H(ugh)

 Auden, W(ystan) H(ugh), 1907-73, Anglo-American poet, a major 20th-cent.
 literary figure. In the 1930s he was associated with Spender, MACNEICE,
 and ISHERWOOD; with the last he wrote the verse plays The Dog Beneath the
 Skin (1935), The Ascent of F6 (1936), and On the Frontier (1938). Some of
 Auden's most original poetry appeared in the early 1930s. Later volumes,
 ranging in subject from politics to psychology to Christianity, include
 The Double Man (1941), Collected Poetry (1945), The Age of Anxiety (1947;
 Pulitzer), Nones (1951), and About the House (1965). He also wrote
 critical essays and opera librettos. A U.S. resident from 1939 and
 citizen from 1946, Auden divided his last years among England, Italy,
 Austria, and New York.

   audiovisual instruction

 audiovisual instruction, the use of nonverbal as well as verbal
 materials, particularly pictures and sounds, to promote learning.
 Audiovisual devices, formerly limited to static materials such as maps,
 graphs, and textbook illustrations, were used successfully as
 instructional tools by the U.S. armed forces during World War II. As
 technology developed, audiovisual instruction began to include films,
 photographs, sound and video recordings, and television, as well as
 PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION provided through computers and other types of
 teaching machines. Instructional television is widely used in schools,
 industry, and the military; with the use of cable television and
 electronic audio and video equipment, it can be available in the home as
 well.

   auditing

 auditing: see under ACCOUNTING.

   Audubon, John James

 Audubon, John James, 1785-1851, American ornithologist; b. Les Cayes,
 Santo Domingo (now Haiti). After arriving in the U.S. in 1803, he began
 the extensive ornithological observations that would lead to the
 publication of his bird drawings and paintings as The Birds of America
 (1827-38). The accompanying text, called the Ornithological Biography (5
 vol., 1831-39), was written in collaboration with the Scottish naturalist
 William MacGillivray. Audubon's drawings and paintings remain one of the
 great achievements of American intellectual history.

   Aue, Hartmann von

 Aue, Hartmann von: see HARTMANN VON AUE.

   August

 August: see MONTH.

   Augusta

 Augusta. 1 City (1986 est. pop. 45,440), seat of Richmond co., E Ga., on
 the Savannah R.; inc. 1798. The trade center for a large area of Georgia
 and South Carolina, it has diversified industries, including textiles and
 paper. A river trading port as early as 1717, it grew with tobacco and
 cotton trade. During the CIVIL WAR it housed the chief Confederate powder
 works. The city, a popular resort, is known for its golf tournaments and
 many fine old houses. 2 City (1986 est. pop. 20,640), state capital and
 seat of Kennebec co., SW Me., on the Kennebec R.; inc. as a city 1849.
 Shoes, fabrics, and paper products are among its manufactures. The
 Plymouth Company established a trading post on the site in 1628; Fort
 Western was built in 1754. In 1837 manufacturing began with the building
 of a dam. The Capitol building (1829) was designed by Charles BULFINCH
 and later enlarged.

   Augustine, Saint

 Augustine, Saint, 354-430, Doctor of the Church, bishop of Hippo (near
 present-day Annaba, Algeria); b. near Hippo. Brought up as a Christian by
 his mother, St. Monica, Augustine gave up his religion while at school in
 Carthage, then converted to MANICHAEISM. He taught rhetoric in Rome
 (after 376) and Milan (after 384). In Milan he was drawn to the teachings
 of St. AMBROSE and to NEOPLATONISM, and finally embraced Christianity,
 returning (387) to a monastic life in Tagaste. In 391 he was ordained a
 priest in Hippo, where he remained for the rest of his life, serving as
 bishop from 396. St. Augustine's influence on Christianity was immense,
 and theologians, both Roman Catholic and Protestant, look upon him as the
 founder of theology. His polemics against Manichaeism, Donatism, and
 Pelagianism are well known, and his autobiographical Confessions is a
 classic of Christian mysticism. On the Trinity systematized Christian
 doctrine, and The City of God, his monumental defense of Christianity
 against paganism, is famous for its Christian view of history. Feast:
 Aug. 28.

   Augustine of Canterbury, Saint

 Augustine of Canterbury, Saint, d. c.605, Italian missionary, called the
 Apostle of the English, first archbishop of Canterbury (from 601). A
 BENEDICTINE, he was sent by Pope GREGORY I to England, where he converted
 King AETHELBERT and introduced Roman monastic practices. Feast: May 27
 (May 26 in England and Wales).

   Augustus

 Augustus, 63 BC-AD 14, first Roman emperor; a grandnephew of Julius
 CAESAR. Born Caius Octavius, he became on adoption by the Julian gens (44
 BC) Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus (Octavian); Augustus was a title of
 honor granted (27 BC) by the senate. Caesar made the boy his heir without
 his knowledge, and after Caesar was killed (44 BC), Octavian became
 dominant at Rome. He made an alliance with ANTONY and Lepidus (d. 13 BC;
 see LEPIDUS, family) known as the Second Triumvirate and with Antony
 defeated the army of Marcus Junius Brutus (see BRUTUS, family) and Caius
 Cassius Longinus (see CASSIUS, family) at Philippi (42 BC). Octavian's
 forces next defeated POMPEY at Mylae (36 BC). After the naval victory at
 Actium (31 BC) over Antony and CLEOPATRA, Octavian controlled all of the
 Roman territories. The senate in 29 BC made him imperator
 [Lat.,=commander; from it is derived emperor] and in 27 BC augustus
 [august, reverend]. The month Sextilis was renamed Augustus (August) in
 his honor. He enacted many reforms in Rome and in the provinces and tried
 to hold the Roman borders set by Caesar. His attempt to make a buffer
 state in German territory led to the revolt of Arminius, in which a Roman
 army was destroyed. Augustus built ROMAN ROADS, beautified Rome, and was
 munificent to arts and letters. He was a patron of VERGIL, OVID, LIVY,
 and HORACE. He also established the concept of the Pax Romana [Roman
 peace]. He was succeeded by his stepson TIBERIUS.

   Augustus

 Augustus, Polish kings. Augustus II, 1670-1733, was king of POLAND
 (1697-1733) and, as Frederick Augustus I, elector of Saxony (1694-1733).
 He succeeded John III as king by becoming a Catholic and by giving the
 nobility unprecedented powers. In 1700 he involved Poland in the NORTHERN
 WAR. He was highly unpopular, and his death began the War of the POLISH
 SUCCESSION. One of its results was that his son, Augustus III, 1696-1763,
 succeeded him as king of Poland (1735-63). He was also, as Frederick
 Augustus II, elector of Saxony (1733-63). One of the unsuccessful
 claimants of the Hapsburg lands, he opposed Maria Theresa in the War of
 the AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION.

   auk

 auk, swimming and diving BIRD of the family Alcidae, which includes the
 PUFFIN and guillemot. Clumsy on land, auks seldom leave the water except
 to nest; they return to the same nesting site every year. The largest
 species, the flightless great auk (Pinguinus impennis), was hunted for
 its flesh, feathers, and oil; it became extinct c.1844.

   Aurangzeb

 Aurangzebor Aurangzib, 1618-1707, Mogul emperor of INDIA (1658-1707), son
 and successor of SHAH JAHAN. He ascended the throne after defeating his
 three brothers and imprisoning his father. The MOGUL Empire reached its
 greatest extent under him, but he was fanatically devoted to Islam and
 persecuted the Hindus (see HINDUISM) and SIKHS, thus fatally weakening
 Mogul control over the Indian population.

   Aurelian

 Aurelian (Lucius Domitius Aurelianus), c.212-275, Roman emperor (270-75).
 He succeeded Claudius II and defended the empire against the barbarians
 and ambitious rulers (e.g., Zenobia of Palmyra). One of Rome's greatest
 emperors, he regained Britain, Gaul, Spain, Egypt, Syria, and Mesopotamia
 and revived the glory of Rome. He was murdered, and Marcus Claudius
 Tacitus succeeded him.

   Auriol, Vincent

 Auriol, Vincent, 1884-1966, French statesman, first president (1947-54)
 of the Fourth Republic. A Socialist until 1959, he was finance minister
 (1936-37) under Leon BLUM and a member of the provisional government
 (1945).

   aurochs

 aurochs: see CATTLE.

   Aurora

 Aurora, city (1986 est. pop. 217,090), N central Colo., a residential
 suburb of DENVER; inc. 1903. It is the fast-growing trade center for a
 large livestock and farming area. Electrical products, aircraft parts,
 and oil-field equipment are manufactured. Tourism, construction, and
 nearby military bases are important to the local economy.

   aurora

 aurora, luminous display of various forms and colors in the night sky.
 The aurora borealis (northern lights) and aurora australis (southern
 lights) are usually visible at latitudes within, respectively, the Arctic
 Circle and Antarctic Circle, but they are sometimes seen in middle
 latitudes. Both are seen most frequently at the time of the equinoxes and
 at times of great sunspot activity. Auroras occur at altitudes of 35 to
 600 mi (56 to 970 km) and are thought to be caused by high-speed
 particles from the sun excited to luminosity after colliding with air
 molecules.

   Auschwitz

 Auschwitz, now Oswiecim, Poland: see CONCENTRATION CAMPS.

   Ausgleich

 Ausgleich: see AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY.

   Ausonius

 Ausonius (Decimus Magnus Ausonius), c.310-c.395, Latin poet; b. Bordeaux.
 His travel verses (Mosella), family sketches (Parentalia), and Order of
 Noble Cities, on 20 Roman cities, give portraits of people and places.

   Austen, Jane

 Austen, Jane, 1775-1817, English novelist. She spent her first 25 years
 at her father's Hampshire vicarage, writing novels published much later.
 Northanger Abbey, written early, appeared posthumously (with Persuasion)
 in 1818. Published in her lifetime were Sense and Sensibility (1811),
 Pride and Prejudice (1813), Mansfield Park (1814), and Emma (1816),
 comedies of manners, depicting the self-contained world of the English
 counties. Providing husbands for marriageable daughters is a central
 theme. Austen's work is noted for polished irony, moral firmness, and
 vivid characterization. She received little notice during her life, but
 today she is regarded as one of the masters of the English novel.

   Austerlitz

 Austerlitz, Czech Slavkov u Brna, town, S Czechoslovakia, in Moravia. An
 agricultural center with sugar refineries and cotton mills, it was a seat
 of the ANABAPTISTS from 1528. At Austerlitz, NAPOLEON I won (Dec. 2,
 1805) his greatest victory by defeating the Russian and Austrian armies.
 The town has an 18th-cent. castle and a 13th-cent. church.

   Austin, Stephen Fuller

 Austin, Stephen Fuller, 1793-1836, Texas colonizer, known as the Father
 of Texas; b. Wythe co., Va. He took up the colonizing plans of his
 father, Moses Austin, 1761-1828, and began (1822) planting settlements in
 Texas between the Brazos and Colorado rivers. He later forwarded the
 Texas Revolution (1836) and was briefly secretary of state of the
 Republic of Texas.

   Austin

 Austin, city (1986 est. pop. 466,550), state capital and seat of Travis
 co., S central Tex., on the Colorado R.; inc. 1839. It is the commercial
 heart of a ranching, poultry, dairy, cotton, and grain area.
 Hydroelectric development (beginning in the 1930s) has spurred enormous
 industrial growth; the city now manufactures a wide variety of products,
 and is a center for electronic and scientific research. The Univ. of
 Texas' main campus is in Austin. State capital since 1870, it was capital
 (1839-42) of the Texas Republic.

   Australasia

 Australasia, islands of the South Pacific, including AUSTRALIA, NEW
 ZEALAND, NEW GUINEA, and adjacent islands. The term sometimes includes
 all of OCEANIA.

   Australia

 Australia, smallest continent, c.2,400 mi (3,860 km) east to west and
 c.2,000 mi (3,220 km) north to south, only continent occupied by a single
 nation, the Commonwealth of Australia (1987 est. pop. 16,249,000),
 2,967,877 sq mi (7,686,810 sq km). Subdivisions of the nation include the
 offshore island state of TASMANIA; the five mainland states of
 QUEENSLAND, NEW SOUTH WALES, VICTORIA, SOUTH AUSTRALIA, and WESTERN
 AUSTRALIA; the NORTHERN TERRITORY; and the AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY,
 containing CANBERRA, the federal capital. External territories include
 CHRISTMAS ISLAND, the COCOS (KEELING) ISLANDS, the CORAL SEA ISLANDS,
 NORFOLK ISLAND, Heard and McDonald islands, and the Australian Antarctic
 Territory. See map in separate section.

 Geography Australia is the flattest and driest of the continents, as well
 as the oldest and most isolated. Elevations range from 39 ft (12 m) below
 sea level at Lake EYRE, the lowest point, to a high point of 7,316 ft
 (2,230 m) at Mt. KOSCIUSKO, in the AUSTRALIAN ALPS near the New South
 Wales-Victoria border; much of the ancient western plateau is under 2,000
 ft (610 m). Two thirds of the continent is either desert or semiarid.
 Humid climates are restricted to eastern coastal areas and to Tasmania.
 Alternating wet winters (June-August) and dry summers (November-March)
 occur in small areas of South Australia and Western Australia, and dry
 winters and wet summers alternate along the tropical northeastern coast.
 The MURRAY R. and its major tributaries, the DARLING and MURRUMBIDGEE,
 form the principal river system. Plant and animal life is distinctive,
 including many species, such as the giant EUCALYPTUS, KOALA, KANGAROO,



 bauxite, and a significant supplier of iron ore, wheat, meat, dairy
 products, sugar, and fruit. Manufacturing is highly developed and
 concentrated mainly in the coastal regions of Victoria and New South
 Wales. Iron, steel, automobiles, aircraft, electrical equipment and
 appliances, chemicals, and textiles are leading manufactures. SYDNEY,
 MELBOURNE, BRISBANE, ADELAIDE, and NEWCASTLE, all located along the
 southeastern coast, are the largest commercial and industrial centers.
 New South Wales and Victoria are the most populous states. Most
 Australians are of British ancestry. The indigenous population, the
 Australian aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders, totaled 159,897 in
 1981. Immigration contributes significantly to population growth; in 1984
 slightly more than 20% of the population had been born in Australia.
 Racially discriminatory immigration policies were officially ended in
 1973, and recent years have seen increased Asian immigration.

 History and Government The aborigines are thought to have come from
 Southeast Asia c.20,000 years ago. The area was first visited by
 Europeans in the 17th cent. but attracted little interest until Capt.
 James COOK sailed (1770) into BOTANY BAY and claimed the entire eastern
 coast for Great Britain. The first settlement, a penal colony for
 "transported" British convicts, was established in 1788 where Sydney now
 stands. By the middle of the 19th cent. free colonization had replaced
 the old penal settlements, and the colonies of Tasmania (1825), Western
 Australia (1829), South Australia (1834), Victoria (1851), and Queensland
 (1859) had been established. Wool and wheat were early exports, and gold
 rushes in 1851 and 1892 attracted new settlers. In 1901 the colonies were
 federated as states of the Commonwealth of Australia, and in 1927 the
 seat of government was transferred from Melbourne to Canberra. Australia
 fought on the side of Britain in both world wars. In WORLD WAR II the
 Japanese bombed or shelled DARWIN, Port Jackson, and Newcastle, and the
 Allied victory in the battle of the CORAL SEA (1942) probably averted an
 invasion of Australia. Australia joined regional defense pacts after the
 war and sent troops to aid the U.S. in the VIETNAM WAR. The nation has a
 popularly elected bicameral parliament. Executive power rests with the
 governor general (representing the crown) and a cabinet and prime
 minister. British intervention in Australian affairs was formally
 abolished in 1986.

   Australian Alps

 Australian Alps, mountain chain, SE Australia, forming the southern part
 of the EASTERN HIGHLANDS. It reaches a high point of 7,316 ft (2,230 m)
 at Mt. KOSCIUSKO, the highest peak in Australia.

   Australian Ballet

 Australian Ballet, founded in Melbourne (1962). It drew on the tradition
 established (1940) by Edouard Borovansky of the Ballets Russes (see
 DIAGHILEV) and is linked to the ROYAL BALLET in style and repertoire.
 Performances include a film version (1973) of Rudolf NUREYEV'S Don
 Quixote.

   Australian Capital Territory

 Australian Capital Territory (1983 pop. 240,100), 939 sq mi (2,432 sq
 km), SE Australia, an enclave within NEW SOUTH WALES containing CANBERRA,
 the capital of Australia. Most of it was ceded to the federal government
 by New South Wales in 1911 for use as the future capital; a small section
 on the east coast, at Jervis Bay, was ceded for use as a port in 1915.
 The territory is administered by the federal government and has an
 18-member elected House of Assembly with advisory responsibilities.

   Australian languages

 Australian languages, aboriginal languages spoken by perhaps 130,000
 persons on the continent of Australia. These languages, estimated at 100
 to 600 in number, do not seem to be related to any other linguistic
 family and have no writing of their own. Many are already or nearly
 extinct.

   Australopithecus

 Australopithecus: see MAN, PREHISTORIC.

   Austria

 Austria, Ger. Osterreich, officially Republic of Austria, federal
 republic (1987 est. pop. 7,573,000), 32,374 sq mi (83,849 sq km), central
 Europe; bordered by Yugoslavia and Italy (S), Switzerland and
 Liechtenstein (W), West Germany and Czechoslovakia (N), and Hungary (E).
 VIENNA is the capital; principal cities include SALZBURG, INNSBRUCK,
 GRAZ, and LINZ. The ALPS traverse Austria from west to east and occupy
 three fourths of the country; the highest peak is the Grossglockner
 (12,460 ft/3,798 m). Austria is drained by the DANUBE R. and its
 tributaries. Forestry, cattle-raising, and dairying are the main sources
 of livelihood in the alpine provinces. In the rest of the country tillage
 agriculture predominates; the chief crops are potatoes, sugar beets,
 barley, wheat, rye, and oats. Manufacturing (steel, chemicals,
 foodstuffs, textiles, and machinery) and mining (graphite, iron,
 magnesium, and lignite) employ nearly half of the labor force. Tourism is
 very important. Divided into nine provinces, Austria has a mixed
 presidential-parliamentary form of government. The population is
 predominantly German-speaking and Roman Catholic.

 History Located at the crossroads of Europe, Austria has been from
 earliest times a thoroughfare and a battleground. Settled by Celts, the
 area was conquered (15 BC-AD 10) by Rome; overrun (from the 5th cent.) by
 Huns, Goths, Lombards, and Bavarians; conquered (788) by CHARLEMAGNE;
 taken (after 814) by the Moravians (see MORAVIA) and then the MAGYARS;
 and reconquered (955) by Holy Roman Emperor OTTO I, who bestowed it (976)
 on the house of Babenberg. Acquired in 1251 by Ottocar II of BOHEMIA, it
 was claimed (1282) by RUDOLF I of Hapsburg, king of the Germans, and from
 that time until its fall in 1918, Austrian history is that of the house
 of HAPSBURG. (See AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE; AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN
 MONARCHY; AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR; CONGRESS OF VIENNA; FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY
 WARS; GERMAN CONFEDERATION; HOLY ALLIANCE; HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE; METTERNICH
 SEVEN YEARS WAR; THIRTY YEARS WAR.) Following the collapse of the
 Austro-Hungarian monarchy at the end of WORLD WAR I, German Austria was
 proclaimed (1918) a republic. The Treaty of Saint-Germain (1919), which
 fixed its boundaries, reduced it to a small country of 7 million
 inhabitants, and deprived it of its raw materials, food, and markets.
 Unemployment, bankruptcy, and political unrest followed, and in 1934 a
 corporative totalitarian regime was established under Engelbert DOLLFUSS
 (who was assassinated) and his successor, Kurt von SCHUSCHNIGG. The
 nation became part of the German Third Reich in 1938, when it was
 occupied by German troops. After its capture (1945) by U.S. and Soviet
 troops, Austria was restored as a republic. Divided into zones, it was
 occupied by the Allies until 1955, when a peace treaty declared it a
 sovereign and neutral power. By the 1960s the country enjoyed
 unprecedented prosperity. Politically, a nearly equal balance of power
 between conservatives and socialists resulted in a succession of
 coalition governments until 1966, when the conservative People's party
 won a clear majority. The party was ousted in the 1970 elections by the
 Socialists, who, under Chancellor Bruno KREISKY, held power into the



   Austrian Succession, War of the

 Austrian Succession, War of the, 1740-48, European war precipitated by
 the succession of MARIA THERESA to the Hapsburg lands by virtue of the
 PRAGMATIC SANCTION. She was challenged by the elector of Bavaria (who
 became Emperor CHARLES VII in 1742), PHILIP V of Spain, and AUGUSTUS III
 of Poland. FREDERICK II of Prussia, claiming part of Silesia, opened
 hostilities by invading that region. Prussia was joined by France, Spain,
 Bavaria, and Saxony. After being promised its Silesian claim, Prussia
 made a separate peace in 1742. Saxony went over to Austria in 1743, and
 England (at war with Spain), Holland, and Sardinia became Austrian
 allies. Fearing Maria Theresa's growing power, Prussia reentered the war
 in 1744. Maria Theresa's husband was elected emperor, as FRANCIS I, in
 1745, on the death of Charles VII. France defeated the English at
 Fontenoy, and GEORGE II sued for peace. The war dragged on in other
 areas, including North America (see FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS). In 1748 the
 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ended the war. Maria Theresa's throne was safe,
 but Prussia had emerged as a major European power.

   Austro-Hungarian Monarchy

 Austro-Hungarian Monarchy or Dual Monarchy,the HAPSBURG empire from the
 constitutional compromise (Ausgleich) of 1867 until its fall in 1918. The
 empire was divided into two states. Cisleithania (lands W of the Leitha
 River) comprised Austria proper, Bohemia, Moravia, Austrian Silesia,
 Slovenia, and Austrian Poland. Transleithania included Hungary,
 Transylvania, Croatia, and part of Dalmatia. The Hapsburg monarch ruled
 Cisleithania as emperor of Austria and ruled Transleithania as king of
 Hungary. Both states elected separate parliaments for internal affairs
 and had independent ministries. A common cabinet dealt with foreign
 affairs, common defense, and common finances. The monarchy was weakened
 by this ethnic diversity. Czech, Italian, Slavic, and Rumanian minorities
 desired autonomy and later sought to break free of the empire. Archduke
 FRANCIS FERDINAND apparently had a plan for a South Slavic partner in the
 monarchy, but his assassination (1914) cut short this hope and
 precipitated WORLD WAR I. In foreign affairs Austria-Hungary allied
 (1879) with Germany (see TRIPLE ALLIANCE AND TRIPLE ENTENTE) and in 1908
 angered SERBIA by annexing BOSNIA AND HERCEGOVINA. The empire was
 dissolved at the end of World War I, and Emperor CHARLES I abdicated
 (1918). The Treaty of VERSAILLES and other treaties established the
 boundaries of the successor states.

   Austronesian

 Austronesian, name sometimes used for the Malayo-Polynesian languages.
 See LANGUAGE.

   Austro-Prussian War

 Austro-Prussian War or Seven Weeks War,June 15-Aug. 23, 1866, between
 Austria (seconded by the various German states) and Prussia (allied with
 Italy). It was provoked by BISMARCK as a way of expelling Austria from
 the GERMAN CONFEDERATION, thereby assuring Prussian hegemony there. The
 pretext was a dispute between Prussia and Austria over the administration
 of SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN. Prussia quickly overran Holstein and the German
 states allied with Austria, and was victorious in Bohemia and Italy. The
 Treaty of Prague ended the war. Austria was excluded from German affairs
 and forced to cede Venetia to Italy. Prussia demanded no territory from
 Austria but annexed Hanover, Hesse, Nassau, and Frankfurt, laying the
 groundwork for the establishment (1871) of the German empire.

   auteur

 auteur,  a term in film criticism. It is applied to a director who so
 dominates the film-making process that it is appropriate to call the
 director the auteur, or author, of the movie.

   authentic modes

 authentic modes: see MODE, in music.

   autism

 autism, in psychology, a condition-characterized by withdrawal,
 fantasies, delusions, and hallucinations-stemming from an inability to
 relate to and perceive the environment realistically. The symptoms of
 infantile autism include delay in the acquisition of speech, resistance
 to change of any kind, and obsessive and stereotyped body movements.
 Treatment is still experimental, and relatively few autistic children
 show significant remission of symptoms.

   autoimmune disease

 autoimmune disease, general term for several disorders in which the body
 produces antibodies (see IMMUNITY) against its own substances, resulting
 in tissue injury. For example, in systemic lupus erythematosus,
 individuals develop antibodies to their own nucleic acids and cell
 structures, causing dysfunction of many organs, including the heart,
 kidneys, and joints. Autoimmune diseases are treated by a variety of
 nonspecific IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE DRUGS and STEROIDS.

   automation

 automation, automatic operation and control of machinery or processes by
 devices that make and execute decisions without human intervention. Such
 devices use self-correcting control systems that employ feedback; i.e.,
 they use part of their output to control their input. Because of their
 ability to store, select, record, and present data, COMPUTERS are widely
 used to direct automated systems. See also DATA PROCESSING; ROBOTICS.

   automobile

 automobile, self-propelled vehicle used for travel on land. The
 fundamental structure of the automobile consists of seven basic systems:
 the engine, usually mounted in front and driving either the two front or
 the two back wheels; the fuel system, using a CARBURETOR to produce the
 optimal combustible mixture of fuel and air; the electrical system,
 including a battery that provides a power source to the ignition; the
 cooling, steering and suspension, and BRAKE systems; and the
 TRANSMISSION, which transmits power from the engine crankshaft to the
 wheels by means of a series of gears. Evolving from earlier experiments
 with steam-powered vehicles, models using the gasoline-fueled
 INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE were first developed by the German engineers
 Karl BENZ (1885) and Gottlieb DAIMLER (1886). U.S. leadership in
 automobile production began with Henry FORD'S founding (1903) of the Ford
 Motor Co., its production (1908) of the inexpensive Model T, and its
 development of assembly-line techniques. General Motors, Ford's principal
 competitor, became the world's largest automobile manufacturer in the
 1920s, and U.S. dominance of the field continued until the 1970s, when it
 was challenged by growing sales of Japanese and German cars. See also
 AUTOMOBILE RACING; DIESEL ENGINE; POLLUTION; SMOG.

   automobile racing

 automobile racing, sport in which high-speed, specially constructed
 automobiles are raced on outdoor or indoor courses. The five basic types
 of competition are the grand prix, a series of races in several countries
 that leads to the designation of a world-champion driver; stock car,
 using standard cars with special equipment; midget car; sports car; and
 drag racing, involving acceleration tests over 1/4-mi. (.4025-km) tracks.
 The sport originated in France in 1894. The best-known U.S. race is the
 Indianapolis 500, first held in 1911.

   autumnal equinox

 autumnal equinox: see EQUINOX.

   Averroes

 Averroes, Arabic Ibn Rushd, 1126-98, Spanish-Arabian philosopher. His
 greatest work, his commentaries on ARISTOTLE, remained influential in the
 West well into the Renaissance. Averroes held that the domains of faith
 and reason did not conflict, and that philosophic truth derives from
 reason rather than faith (see SCHOLASTICISM). In this he was opposed by
 St. THOMAS AQUINAS.

   Avery, Milton

 Avery, Milton, 1893-1965, American painter; b. Altmar, N.Y. A master
 colorist in the tradition of MATISSE, he is known for figurative works
 that display bold massing of forms and for landscapes that verge on
 complete abstraction, e.g., Dunes and Sea II (1960; Whitney Mus.,
 N.Y.C.).

   Avestan

 Avestan, language belonging to the Iranian group of the Indo-Iranian
 subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See LANGUAGE.

   aviation

 aviation, operation of heavier-than-air aircraft and related activities.
 Aviation can be divided into military aviation (see AIRCRAFT CARRIER; AIR
 FORCE), air transport (commercial airline operations), and general
 aviation (agricultural, business, charter, instructional, and pleasure
 flying). The first successful flights of a motor-powered airplane
 carrying a human were made by Orville and Wilbur WRIGHT near Kitty Hawk,
 N.C. on Dec. 17, 1903. The first successful SEAPLANE was constructed in
 1911-12. During the early 1900s, aviators demonstrated the feasibility of
 air travel to various parts of the world. World War I provided additional
 motivation for aviation research and development. The availability of
 cheap, surplus aircraft in the U.S. after the war encouraged barnstorming
 and stunt-flying; the result was a more airplane-conscious public.
 Private companies in America contracted the carrying of airmail after
 1925. Technological improvements in WIND TUNNEL testing, engine and
 airframe design, and maintenance equipment combined in the 1930s to
 provide faster, larger, and more durable airplanes. The transportation of
 passengers became profitable, and routes were extended to include several
 foreign countries. Transpacific airmail service began in 1934, and was
 soon followed by a similar service for passengers. In 1939 the first
 transatlantic service for mail and passengers was inaugurated. The
 application of JET PROPULSION to commercial air transportation began in
 1952. The first supersonic transports (SST) for passenger service were
 put into service during the mid-1970s. See also AIRSHIP; BALLOON; GLIDER;
 HELICOPTER.

   Avicenna

 Avicenna, Arabic Ibn Sina, 980-1037, Persian philosopher and physician,
 the most renowned philosopher of medieval Islam. His interpretation of
 ARISTOTLE followed that of the NEOPLATONISTS. Avicenna's Canon of
 Medicine, a classic text, was particularly influential from 1100 to 1500.

   Avignon

 Avignon, city (1982 pop. 91,474), capital of Vaucluse dept., SE France,
 on the Rhone R. It has a wine trade and many manufactures. The papal see
 during the Babylonian Captivity (1309-78), it was later (1378-1408) the
 residence of several antipopes (see PAPACY and SCHISM, GREAT). Avignon
 was joined to France after a plebiscite (1791). Medieval ramparts and the
 papal palace are highlights of the city.

   avionics

 avionics, the electronics used for the navigation and running of an
 airplane, missile, or space ship. Avionics are only those systems carried
 aboard the craft. They may include RADAR, guidance systems, and
 stabilization systems. The term also refers to the industry of producing
 avionic components, as well as the research and development of such
 systems.

   avocado

 avocado, tropical American broad-leaved evergreen tree (genus Persea) of
 the LAUREL family, and its pear-shaped fruit. The fruit has a tough,
 inedible, usually dark green skin and an oily flesh surrounding a large,
 hard seed. The flesh is eaten fresh, chiefly in salads.

   Avogadro, Amadeo, conte di Quaregna

 Avogadro, Amadeo, conte di Quaregna, 1776-1856, Italian physicist. In
 1811 he advanced the hypothesis (since known as Avogadro's law) that
 equal volumes of gases under identical conditions of pressure and
 temperature contain the same number of molecules. This hypothesis led to
 the determination by other physicists of the value of Avogadro's number,
 i.e., the number of molecules in one MOLE, or gram-molecular weight, of
 any gas.

   Avogadro's number

 Avogadro's number: see MOLE, in chemistry.

   avoirdupois weights

 avoirdupois weights: see ENGLISH UNITS OF MEASUREMENT; WEIGHTS AND
 MEASURES,.

   Awami League

 Awami League, political party in PAKISTAN and BANGLADESH. Founded in
 1949, it became the vehicle for the political interests of East Pakistan.
 When East Pakistan won independence (1971) as Bangladesh, the league
 became the new nation's dominant political party. However, in 1981 the
 National party defeated the league in national elections.

   axiom

 axiom, in MATHEMATICS and LOGIC, general statement accepted without proof
 as the basis for logically deducing other statements (THEOREMS). Examples
 of axioms used widely in mathematics are those related to equality (e.g.,
 "If equals are added to equals, the sums are equal") and those related to
 operations (e.g., the ASSOCIATIVE LAW). A postulate, like an axiom, is a
 statement that is accepted without proof; it deals, however, with
 specific subject matter (e.g., properties of geometrical figures), not
 general statements.

   Axis

 Axis, 1936-45, coalition of countries in WORLD WAR II headed by Germany,
 Italy, and Japan. They were opposed, and defeated, by the Allies, headed
 by the United States, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and China.

   Ayacucho

 Ayacucho, city (1981 pop. 69,533), capital of Ayacucho dept., S central
 Peru. It is a commercial and tourist center in a region of rich gold,
 silver, and nickel mines. On the nearby plains of Ayacucho, Antonio Jose
 de SUCRE won (1824) a military victory that secured Peru's independence
 from Spain and assured the liberation of South America.

   Ayala, Ramon Perez de

 Ayala, Ramon Perez de: see PEREZ DE AYALA, RAMON.

   Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini

 Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini: see KHOMEINI, AYATOLLAH RUHOLLAH.

   Ayckbourn, Alan

 Ayckbourn, Alan, 1939-, English playwright. He is known for such
 ingenious antibourgeois FARCES as How the Other Half Loves (1970); Absurd
 Person Singular (1973); The Norman Conquests (1974), a trilogy; and
 Bedroom Farce (1975).

   Aymara

 Aymara, SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS of the Lake TITICACA basin in Peru and
 Bolivia. Their language is classified as a separate unit (see AMERICAN
 INDIAN LANGUAGES). Believed to be the originators of the great culture
 seen in the ruins of TIAHUANACO, they were subjugated by the INCA (15th
 cent.) and by the Spanish (16th cent.) but retained their pastoral
 civilization and patrilineal society. Still dominant in the region today,
 the Aymara have adopted some aspects of Spanish culture and Christian
 belief.

   Ayub Khan, Muhammad

 Ayub Khan, Muhammad, 1907-74, president (1958-69) of PAKISTAN. After 1951
 he was commander of the Pakistani armed forces, and in 1958 he led a
 military coup and became president. Although he inaugurated far-reaching
 reforms and a new constitution, unrest grew; despite his reelection in
 1965, he bowed to pressure and resigned in 1969.

   azalea

 azalea, shrubs (genus Rhododendron) of the HEATH family, distinguished by
 typically deciduous leaves and large clusters of pink, red, orange,
 yellow, purple, or white flowers. Most grow in damp acid soils of hills
 and mountains, and are native to North America and Asia. Native American
 azaleas include the flame azalea (R. calendulacea) and the fragrant white
 azalea (R. viscosa), also called swamp honeysuckle. Most of the
 brilliantly flowered garden varieties are from China and Japan.

   Azana, Manuel

 Azana, Manuel, 1880-1940, president of Spain (1936-39). A leader of the
 republican revolution of 1930, he served as premier (1931-33) in the
 first republic. He headed the Loyalist government in the SPANISH CIVIL
 WAR but held little real power.

   Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic

 Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republicor Azerbaidzhan, constituent republic
 (1987 est. pop. 6,811,000), 33,428 sq mi (86,579 sq km), SE European
 USSR, in Transcaucasia; capital: BAKU. It is bounded by the Dagestan
 Republic (N); Iran (S), where the Araks R. divides it from Iranian
 Azerbaijan; the Caspian Sea (E); and the Armenian Republic (W). The area
 is rich in oil and other minerals. Manufactures include cement and steel.
 Grapes, cotton, and tobacco are major crops. In addition to the
 Turkic-speaking Shiite Muslim Azerbaijani majority, there are Russian,
 Armenian, and other minorities. Under Persian and Mongol rule from
 ancient times, the region was acquired by Russia from Persia between 1813
 and 1828. It became a Soviet republic in 1920.

   azidothymide

 azidothymide: see AZT.

   azimuth

 azimuth: see ASTRONOMICAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS.

   Azoic time

 Azoic time: see GEOLOGIC ERA.

   Azores

 Azores, island group belonging to Portugal (1986 est. pop. 253,500), 905
 sq mi (2,344 sq km), located in the Atlantic Ocean, c.900 mi (1,448 km)
 west of mainland Portugal. The nine main islands are Sao Miguel (the
 largest) and Santa Maria in the southeast; Terceira, Pico, Fayal, Sao
 Jorge, and Graciosa in the center; and Flores and Corvo in the northwest.
 Ponta Delgado, on Sao Miguel, is the largest city. The islands are
 divided into three districts named after their capitals: Ponta Delgado,
 Angra do Heroismo (on Terceira), and Horta (on Fayal).

   Azorin

 Azorin: see MARTINEZ RUIZ, JOSE.

   AZT

 AZT  or azidothymide,a drug used to treat AIDS. Although it does not cure
 AIDS, it inhibits the virus's ability to reproduce, prolonging the lives
 of most patients. Among its possible adverse effects are anemia,
 dementia, and blindness.

   Aztec

 Aztec, MIDDLE AMERICAN INDIANS dominating central Mexico at the time of
 the Spanish conquest (16th cent.), with a Nahuatlan language of the
 Uto-Aztecan stock (see AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES). Until the founding of
 their capital, Tenochtitlan (c.1325), the Aztec were a poor nomadic tribe
 in the valley of Mexico. In the 15th cent. they became powerful,
 subjugating the Huastec to the north and the MIXTEC and ZAPOTEC to the
 south, and achieving a composite civilization based on a TOLTEC and
 Mixteca-Puebla heritage. Engineering, architecture, art, mathematics,
 astronomy, sculpture, weaving, metalwork, music, and picture writing were
 highly developed; agriculture and trade flourished. The nobility,
 priesthood, military, and merchant castes predominated. War captives were
 sacrificed to the many Aztec gods, including the god of war,
 Huitzilopochti. In 1519, when CORTES arrived, many subject peoples
 willingly joined the Spanish against the Aztecs. Cortes captured
 MONTEZUMA, who was subsequently murdered, and razed Tenochtitlan.

   B

 B, chemical symbol of the element BORON.

   Ba

 Ba, chemical symbol of the element BARIUM.

   Baade, Walter

 Baade, Walter, 1893-1960, German-American astronomer. He presented
 evidence for the existence of two different stellar populations of older
 and newer stars. Baade knew that, at the then-accepted distance of the
 Andromeda galaxy, cluster-type variable stars should have appeared on
 photographs that he took with the 200-in. (5.08-m) telescope at Palomar
 Observatory. Because they did not, he correctly reasoned (1952) that the
 distances to this galaxy and other extragalactic systems must be doubled.

   Baal

 Baal, plural Baalim [Semitic,=possessor], the OLD TESTAMENT term for the
 deity or deities of CANAAN. First applied to local gods, it was later the
 name of the chief deity. His cult practiced holy PROSTITUTION and child
 sacrifice. In Israel it was denounced by Hebrew Prophets. The name is
 synonymous with evil, hence Beelzebub (see SATAN).

   Baal-Shem-Tov

 Baal-Shem-Tov [Heb.,=master of the good name, i.e., the name of God,]
 c.1698-1760, Jewish founder of modern HASIDISM; b. Poland as Israel ben
 Eliezer. He was called Baal-Shem-Tov because of his reputation as a
 miracle healer. Central to his teachings is the notion that one must
 worship God in all activities-and with joy. From his large circle of
 followers developed communities of modern HASIDIM.

   Babbage, Charles

 Babbage, Charles, 1792-1871, English mathematician and inventor, famous
 for his attempts to develop a mechanical computational aid he called the
 "analytical engine." Although it was never constructed and was decimal
 rather than binary in conception, it clearly anticipated the modern
 digital COMPUTER. A scientist with extremely broad interests, Babbage
 probed the roles of learned societies and government in advancing
 science, and wrote on mass production and on what is now called
 operational research.

   Babbitt, Irving

 Babbitt, Irving, 1865-1933, American scholar; b. Dayton, Ohio. A
 professor of French literature at Harvard (1912-33), he helped initiate
 New Humanism, a movement based on classical moderation. His works include
 The New Laokoon (1910) and On Being Creative (1932).

   Babbitt, Milton

 Babbitt, Milton, 1916-, American composer; b. Philadelphia. His "total
 serialization" attempts to apply 12-tone principles to all the elements
 of composition: dynamics, timbre, and rhythm, as well as melody and
 harmony (see SERIAL MUSIC; TWELVE-TONE MUSIC). In 1959 he became director
 of the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center (N.Y.C.).

   Babel, Isaac Emmanuelovich

 Babel, Isaac Emmanuelovich, 1894-1941, Russian writer. A brilliant
 stylist, he won fame with Odessa Tales (1923-24), depicting Jewish ghetto
 life, and Red Cavalry (1926), which drew on his Civil War experiences.
 His also wrote the novel Benia Krik (1927) and the play Sunset (1928). He
 was arrested in 1939 and died in a labor camp.

   Babel

 Babel, in the BIBLE, Babylonian city where NOAH'S descendants (who spoke
 one language) tried to build a tower reaching to heaven. For this
 presumption they lost the ability to speak intelligibly to each other.
 Gen. 11.1-9.

   Bab el Mandeb

 Bab el Mandeb, strategic strait between Arabia and NE Africa, 17 mi (27
 km) wide, connecting the RED SEA with the Gulf of ADEN. It is a vital
 link in the MEDITERRANEAN SEA-SUEZ CANAL-INDIAN OCEAN sea lane.

   Babeuf, Francois Noel

 Babeuf, Francois Noel, 1760-97, French revolutionary activist. In 1794 he
 founded a political journal that argued for economic and political
 equality. Imprisoned in 1795, he grew surer of his communist views. He
 formed a secret society called the Conspiracy of Equals and plotted to
 overthrow the government of the DIRECTORY. The plot was discovered, and
 Babeuf was executed.

   Babington, Anthony

 Babington, Anthony, 1561-86, English conspirator. He was executed for
 plotting the murder of ELIZABETH I and the freeing of MARY QUEEN OF
 SCOTS. The proof against him convinced Elizabeth that it was necessary to
 behead Mary.

   Babism

 Babism, a 19th-cent. Persian sect, an outgrowth of SHIITE Islam that was
 founded by Mirza Ali Muhammad of Shiraz, who proclaimed himself the Bab
 gate in 1844. Babism, incorporating elements of SUFISM, GNOSTICISM, and
 Shiite Islam, centered on a belief in the coming of the Promised One.
 Oppressed from 1845, the movement declared its complete secession from
 ISLAM in 1848, and in 1863 the Babists were expelled from Persia. After
 1868 a division had its center in Acre, under the leadership of BAHA
 ULLAH, the founder of BAHA'ISM.

   baboon

 baboon, large, powerful, ground-living MONKEY (genus Papio), also called
 dog-faced monkey, related to the MANDRILL. Found in the open country of
 Africa and Asia, baboons have close-set eyes under heavy brow ridges,
 long, heavy muzzles, powerful jaws, cheek pouches for storing food, and
 sharp, tusklike upper canine teeth. Baboons have a highly developed
 social structure.

   Babur

 Babur, 1483-1530, founder of the MOGUL empire in INDIA. A descendant of
 TAMERLANE, he invaded India from Afghanistan. He defeated (1526) the
 sultan of Delhi, captured Agra and Delhi, and later conquered most of N
 India. Babur was a poet; his autobiography is his major work.

   Babylon

 Babylon, ancient city of Mesopotamia, on the Euphrates R. It became one
 of the most important cities of the ancient Near East when HAMMURABI made
 it the capital of his kingdom of BABYLONIA. The city was destroyed (c.689
 BC) by the Assyrians under SENNACHERIB, but it was rebuilt. The brilliant
 color and luxury of Babylon became legendary from the days of
 NEBUCHADNEZZAR (d. 562 BC). The Hanging Gardens were one of the SEVEN
 WONDERS OF THE WORLD. The Persians captured the city in 538 BC

   Babylonia

 Babylonia, ancient empire of Mesopotamia. Historically the name refers to
 the first dynasty of Babylon established by HAMMURABI (c.1750 BC) and to
 the Neo-Babylonian period after the fall of the Assyrian empire.
 Hammurabi, who had his capital at BABYLON, issued a famous code of laws
 for the management of the empire. Babylonian religion and cuneiform
 writing were derived from the older culture of SUMER and the quasi-feudal
 society was divided into classes. These Babylonian institutions
 influenced ASSYRIA and so contributed to the later history of the Middle
 East and of Western Europe. Babylonia degenerated into anarchy (c.1180
 BC), but flourished once again as a subsidiary state of the Assyrian
 empire after the 9th cent. BC Later, Nabopo lassar established (625 BC)
 what is generally known as the Chaldean or New Babylonian empire, which
 reached its height under his son NEBUCHADNEZZAR. In 538 BC the last of
 the Babylonian rulers surrendered to CYRUS THE GREAT of Persia.

   Babylonian art

 Babylonian art: see SUMERIAN AND BABYLONIAN ART.

   Babylonian captivity

 Babylonian captivity, in the history of Israel, the period from the fall
 of Jerusalem (586 BC) to the reconstruction in Palestine of a new Jewish
 state (after 538 BC). Following the capture of the city by the
 Babylonians, thousands of JEWS were deported to Mesopotamia. In 538 BC
 the Persian King CYRUS THE GREAT decreed the restoration of worship at
 Jerusalem. The century following this decree was the time of Jewish
 reintegration into a national and religious unit.

   baby's breath

 baby's breath, name for a plant of the PINK family, for the white
 bedstraw of the MADDER family, and for grape hyacinth of the LILY family.

   Bacchanalia

 Bacchanalia, in Roman religion, festival honoring BACCHUS, god of wine.
 Originally a religious ceremony, it led to drunken, licentious excesses
 and was outlawed (186 BC).

   Bacchus

 Bacchus, in Greek and Roman religion, god of wine, vegetation, and
 fertility. His worship was celebrated in orgiastic rites such as the
 Bacchanalia.

   Bacchylides

 Bacchylides, fl. c.470 BC, Greek lyric poet. He was a competent writer of
 dithyrambs, but he lacked the inspiration of his contemporary PINDAR.

   Bach

 Bach, German family of distinguished musicians who flourished from the
 16th through the 18th cent., its most renowned member being Johann
 Sebastian Bach (see separate article). Johannes, or Hans, Bach,
 1580-1626, was a carpet weaver and musical performer at festivals. His
 sons and descendants were noted organists and composers. One grandson,
 Johann Ambrosia Bach, 1645-95, a musician, was the father of Johann
 Sebastian Bach. Johann Christoph Bach, 1671-1721, Johann Sebastian's
 eldest brother, was an organist; he took his younger brother in and
 taught him after their parents' death. Of the 20 children of Johann
 Sebastian, several were noted as musicians. The eldest son, Wilhelm
 Friedemann Bach, 1710-84, was a brilliant organist and well-known
 composer, but his life ended in poverty and dissolution. A younger son
 was Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, 1714-88, also a composer and for 28 years
 (1740-68) the harpsichordist of Frederick the Great. He wrote an
 important treatise, Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments
 (1753). The youngest son, Johann Christian Bach, 1735-82, known as the
 "English Bach," became (1762) music master to King GEORGE III. A popular
 composer in the rococo style, he influenced the young MOZART.

   Bach, Alexander

 Bach, Alexander, 1813-93, Austrian politician. As minister of the
 interior (1849-59) he instituted the Bach system for the centralization
 and Germanization of Hapsburg lands. It also ended internal tariffs. The
 system met opposition, especially in Hungary, and was replaced after
 1859.

   Bach, Johann Sebastian

 Bach, Johann Sebastian, 1685-1750, German composer and organist, one of
 the greatest composers of the Western world. Born into a gifted family,
 Bach was trained in music from childhood by his father, Johann Ambrosia,
 and later by his brother Johann Christoph. He held a variety of posts,
 serving as organist in Arnstadt (1703-7), Muhlhausen (1707-8), and Weimar
 (1708-17) before becoming (1717) musical director for Prince Leopold at
 Cothen. After the death (1720) of his first wife, Maria Barbara Bach, he
 married (1721) Anna Magdalena Wulken. He had in all 20 children, several
 of whom became noted as musicians (see separate article). In 1723, Bach
 became cantor and music director of St. Thomas Church, Leipzig, a
 distinguished post that he held until his death. In his instrumental and
 choral works, Bach perfected the art of POLYPHONY and brought the era of
 BAROQUE music to its culmination. During his lifetime he was better known
 as a virtuoso organist than as a composer, but since the 19th cent. his
 genius has been recognized, and his reputation has grown steadily. In his
 early years as organist, he composed a series of works for organ that
 culminated in the great preludes and FUGUES written at Weimar. At Cothen
 he focused on instrumental compositions, such as the Brandenburg
 Concertos, and keyboard works, such as Book I of the celebrated
 Well-Tempered Clavier. His superb religious compositions from the Leipzig
 period include the St. John Passion and the Mass in B Minor, and some 300
 sacred CANTATAS, of which nearly 200 are extant. His last notable pieces
 are the Musical Offering, composed (1747) for Frederick the Great, and
 the Art of the Fugue (1749).

   bachelor's button

 bachelor's button, popular name for several plants usually characterized
 by rounded flowers, such as the CORNFLOWER and globe AMARANTH.

   Bach system

 Bach system: see under BACH, ALEXANDER.

   backgammon

 backgammon, game of chance and skill played by two persons on a specially
 marked board divided by a space (bar) into two "tables," each of which
 has 12 alternately colored points (elongated triangular spaces) on which
 each player places 15 pieces (disks) in a prescribed formation. Two dice
 are thrown to determine moves. The object is to be the first to move
 one's pieces around and off the board. The game has very ancient roots in
 the Middle East.

   Bacon, Francis

 Bacon, Francis, 1561-1626, English philosopher, essayist, and statesman.
 After his opposition (1584) to Queen Elizabeth I's tax program retarded
 his political advancement, he was favored by the earl of Essex, whom
 Bacon later helped to prosecute (1601). Under James I he advanced from
 knight (1603) to attorney general (1613) to lord chancellor (1618). In
 1621 he pleaded guilty to charges of accepting bribes and was fined and
 banished from office; he spent the rest of his life writing in
 retirement. Bacon's best-known writings are his aphoristic Essays
 (1597-1625). He projected a major philosophical work, the Instauratio
 Magna, but completed only two parts: the Advancement of Learning (1605),
 later expanded in Latin as De Augmentis Scientarum (1623); and the Novum
 Organum (1620). His major contribution to philosophy was his application
 of INDUCTION, the approach used by modern science, rather than the a
 priori method of medieval SCHOLASTICISM.

   Bacon, Francis

 Bacon, Francis, 1909-, English painter; b. Ireland. Self-taught, he
 expresses the satirical, horrifying, and hallucinatory in such works as
 Three Studies for the base of Crucifixion (1944; Tate Gall., London).

   Bacon, Nathaniel

 Bacon, Nathaniel, 1647-76, leader of Bacon's Rebellion in colonial
 Virginia. Dissatisfied with the government of Sir William BERKELEY, and
 its neglect of frontier defense, Bacon led (1676) a popular uprising. He
 drove Berkeley from JAMESTOWN, but his death from malaria ended the
 revolt.

   Bacon, Roger

 Bacon, Roger, c.1214-94?, English scholastic philosopher and scientist, a
 FRANCISCAN. A celebrated teacher at Oxford, Bacon had an interest far in
 advance of his times in natural science and accurate observation of
 phenomena, without, however, abandoning his faith. Three of his most
 important works, summarizing his studies, were written for Pope CLEMENT I
 in one year (1267-68): the Opus majus, Opus minor, and the Opus tertium.
 Deeply interested in alchemy, Bacon was credited by contemporaries with
 great learning in magic. Many discoveries have been attributed to him,
 including the invention of gunpowder and the first examination of cells
 through a microscope, but much doubt has been cast on the authenticity of
 such claims.

   bacteria

 bacteria, microscopic, unicellular organisms having three typical forms:
 rod-shaped (bacillus), round (coccus), and spiral (spirillum). The
 cytoplasm of most bacteria is surrounded by a cell wall; the nucleus
 contains DNA but lacks the nuclear membrane found in higher plants and
 animals. Many forms are motile, propelled by movements of a filamentlike
 appendage (flagellum). Reproduction is chiefly by transverse fission
 (MITOSIS), but conjugation (transfer of nucleic acid between two cells)
 and other forms of genetic recombination also occur. Some bacteria
 (aerobes) can grow only in the presence of free or atmospheric oxygen;
 others (anaerobes) cannot grow in its presence; and a third group
 (facultative anaerobes) can grow with or without it. In unfavorable
 conditions, many species form resistant spores. Different types of
 bacteria are capable of innumerable chemical metabolic transformations,
 e.g., PHOTOSYNTHESIS and the conversion of free nitrogen and sulfur into
 AMINO ACIDS. Bacteria are both useful and harmful to humans. Some are
 used for soil enrichment with leguminous plants (see NITROGEN CYCLE), in
 pickling, and alcohol and cheese fermentation, to decompose organic
 wastes (in septic tanks and the soil), and in GENETIC ENGINEERING.
 Others, called pathogens, cause a number of plant and animal diseases,
 including CHOLERA, SYPHILIS, TYPHOID FEVER, and TETANUS.

   bacteriological warfare

 bacteriological warfare: see BIOLOGICAL WARFARE.

   bacteriophage

 bacteriophage or phage,VIRUS that infects BACTERIA, sometimes destroying
 them. A phage has a head composed of PROTEIN and an inner core of NUCLEIC
 ACID. It infects a host by attaching itself by its tail to the bacterial
 cell wall and injecting nucleic acid (DNA) into its host, in which it
 produces new phage particles. Eventually the bacterial cell is destroyed
 by lysis, or dissolution, releasing the phage particles to infect other
 cells. Phages are highly specific, with a particular phage infecting only
 certain species of bacteria; they are important tools in studies of
 bacterial genetics and cellular mechanisms.

   Bactria

 Bactria, ancient Greek kingdom in central Asia. Its capital was Bactra
 (now Balkh, in N Afghanistan). A satrapy of the Persian Empire, it fell
 to ALEXANDER THE GREAT in 328 BC It declared its independence in 256 BC
 and became a powerful state, carrying its conquests deep into N India.
 Later Bactria fell (c.1301 BC) to the nomadic Sakas and did not rise
 again as a state.

   Baden-Powell of Gilwell, Robert Stephenson Smyth Baden-Powell, 1st
   Baron

 Baden-Powell of Gilwell, Robert Stephenson Smyth Baden-Powell, 1st Baron,
 1857-1941, British soldier, founder of the BOY SCOUTS. For his work in
 organizing (1908) the Boy Scout and Girl Guide movements, he received a
 peerage in 1929.

   badger

 badger, any of several related members of the WEASEL family. Most are
 large, nocturnal burrowers with broad, heavy bodies, long snouts, sharp
 claws, and long, grizzled fur. The Old World badger (Meles meles), found
 in Europe and N Asia, weighs about 30 lb (13.6 kg) and feeds on rodents,
 insects, and plants. The smaller American badger (Taxidea taxus) has
 short legs and a white stripe over the forehead and around each eye; a
 swift burrower, it will pursue prey into their holes and may construct
 its own living quarters 30 ft (9.1 m) below ground level.

   Badlands National Park

 Badlands National Park: see NATIONAL PARKS .

   badminton

 badminton, game played by two or four persons in which a shuttlecock
 (small, cork hemisphere with feathers) is volleyed over a net with light,
 gut-strung rackets. For singles play the court measures 17 ft (5.18 m) by
 44 ft (13.40 m) ; the doubles court is 3 ft (.91 m) wider. The game,
 which is generally similar to tennis, probably originated in India. It
 was introduced into the U.S. in the 1890s.

   Badoglio, Pietro

 Badoglio, Pietro, 1871-1956, Italian soldier and premier (1943-44). In
 1936 he victoriously ended the conquest of Ethiopia. After MUSSOLINI'S
 fall he became premier and negotiated an armistice (1943) with the
 Allies.

   Baeda

 Baeda: see BEDE, SAINT.

   Baedeker, Karl

 Baedeker, Karl, 1801-59, German publisher of travel guides. Issued in
 many editions, the "Baedekers" provided historical data. Auto touring
 guides were issued after 1950.

   Baer, Karl Ernst von

 Baer, Karl Ernst von, 1792-1876, Estonian biologist. Considered a founder
 of modern embryology, he discovered the notochord and the mammalian egg
 in the ovary. His History of the Development of Animals (2 vol., 1828-37)
 presented the theory of embryonic germ layers (consisting of cells from
 which body tissues and organs develop) and showed that early embryonic
 development is similar in all animals.

   Baez, Joan

 Baez, Joan, 1941-, American folk singer; b. N.Y.C. Singing ballads and
 SPIRITUALS in a clear, soprano voice, she greatly influenced the
 popularity of FOLK SONG in the 1960s. She was also involved in nonviolent
 social action.

   Baffin, William

 Baffin, William, c.1584-1622, British arctic explorer. Although he failed
 to find the NORTHWEST PASSAGE on two expeditions (1615-16), he discovered
 BAFFIN BAY. His belief that the Northwest Passage did not exist delayed
 arctic exploration for a time.

   Baffin Bay

 Baffin Bay, ice-clogged body of water with hazardous icebergs, c.700 mi
 (1,130 km) long, between Greenland and Baffin Island (NE Canada), linked
 with the N Atlantic Ocean by the Davis Strait. Visited (1585) by John
 Davis and explored (1616) by William BAFFIN, it was an important whaling
 station in the 19th cent.

   Baffin Island

 Baffin Island, 183,810 sq mi (476,068 sq km), NE Canada, largest island
 in the Arctic Archipelago and fifth largest in the world. Largely tundra
 in the west and mountains in the east, it is inhabited mainly by ESKIMOS.
 Iqaluit, in the southeast, is the largest settlement. Early explorers
 were Martin FROBISHER (1576-78) and William BAFFIN (1616).

   Baganda

 Baganda, also called Ganda, the largest ethnic group in Uganda. Bagandas
 comprise about 30% of the population and have the country's highest
 standard of living and literacy rate. Their traditional homeland is
 Buganda, an area of central and southern Uganda.

   Bagehot, Walter

 Bagehot, Walter, 1826-77, English social scientist. Editor (1860-77) of
 the highly regarded Economist, he studied the English banking system
 (Lombard Street, 1873) and economy (Economic Studies, 1880). His classic
 English Constitution (1867) distinguished effective government
 institutions from those in decay, while Physics and Politics (1872) was
 an early application of DARWINISM to the social sciences. He was also a
 noted literary critic.

   Baghdad

 Baghdad or Bagdad,city (1981 est. pop. 3,500,000), capital and largest
 city of Iraq, central Iraq, on both banks of the Tigris R. Most of Iraq's
 industries are in Baghdad; they include the making of carpets, leather,
 textiles, and cement. The present city was founded (AD 762) by the
 ABBASIDS and became their capital. Under the caliph HARUN AR-RASHID it
 developed into one of the great cities of Islam. The Mongols sacked
 Baghdad in 1258; it became (1638) part of the Ottoman Empire, and during
 World War I it was captured (1917) by the British. In 1921 the city was
 made the capital of newly created Iraq. Baghdad is rich in archaeological
 remains and has several museums.

   Bagot, Sir Charles

 Bagot, Sir Charles, 1781-1843, British diplomat. As minister to the U.S.
 (1815-20), he negotiated the RUSH-BAGOT CONVENTION, which limited
 armaments on the U.S.-Canadian border. He was later governor general of
 Canada (1841-43).

   bagpipe

 bagpipe, musical instrument, most widely used in Ireland and Scotland,
 consisting of an inflated bag, usually leather; one or two chanters (or
 chaunters), melody pipes with finger holes; and one or more drones, which
 produce one tone each. The bagpipe is an ancient instrument, probably
 carried E and W from Mesopotamia by Celtic migrations.

   Baha'ism

 Baha'ism, religion founded by BAHA ULLAH, a doctrinal outgrowth of
 BABISM, with Baha Ullah as the Promised One of the earlier religion.
 Emphasizing simplicity and charity, Baha'ists believe in the unity of all
 religions, in universal education, in world peace, and in the equality of
 men and women, and also advocate an international language and
 government. In the 20th cent. Baha'i teachings have spread across the
 world, particularly to Africa. The administrative center of the world
 faith is in Haifa, Israel; its U.S. headquarters is in Wilmette, Ill.

   Bahamas

 Bahamas, officially Commonwealth of the Bahamas, independent nation (1986
 est. pop. 235,000), 4,403 sq mi (11,404 sq km), in the Atlantic Ocean,
 consisting of some 700 islands and islets and about 2,400 cays, beginning
 c.50 mi (80 km) off SE Florida and extending c.600 mi (970 km) SE, nearly
 to Haiti. Most of the islands are low, flat, and river less, and many are
 uninhabited. The capital is NASSAU, on New Providence island, which,
 although smaller than many of the other islands, is the major population
 center. Other islands, called "out islands," include Grand Bahama, Great
 and Little Abaco, the Biminis, and Great and Little Inagua. The Bahamas'
 fine beaches, lush vegetation, and colorful coral reefs have made it one
 of the hemisphere's most popular winter resort areas. Tourism is the
 major industry, although sugar and oil refining industries have been
 added to diversify the economy. The population is about 85% black and
 mulatto, and the language is English.

 History Christopher COLUMBUS set foot in the New World in the Bahamas
 (1492), presumably on San Salvador. The British settled the Bahamas in
 the 1600s and imported blacks to work cotton plantations, which
 disappeared in the mid-19th cent., after the slaves were freed. Black
 Bahamians won control of the government from the white minority in the
 1960s, and independence was granted in 1973. In the early 1980s the
 government sought to preserve the character of the islands by restricting
 property sales to foreigners and stemming immigration from HAITI.

   Bahasa Indonesia

 Bahasa Indonesia, another name for Indonesian, one of the
 Malayo-Polynesian languages. See LANGUAGE .

   Baha Ullah

 Baha Ullah or Baha Allah,1817-92, Persian religious leader, originally
 named Mirza Husayn Ali Nuri. One of the first disciples of BABISM, in
 1863 (shortly before being exiled to Constantinople) he declared himself
 to be the Promised One expected by Babists. He then founded BAHA'ISM and
 wrote its fundamental book, Kitabi Ikan (tr. The Book of Certitude,
 1943).

   Bahrain

 Bahrainor Bahrein, officially the State of Bahrain, independent sheikhdom
 (1987 est. pop. 416,275), 231 sq mi (598 sq km), an archipelago in the
 PERSIAN GULF between the Qatar Peninsula and Saudi Arabia. The two main
 islands are Bahrain and Al Muharraq. The capital and chief port is AL
 MANAMAH. Flat and sandy, with a few low hills, Bahrain has a hot, humid
 climate. The economy is based on oil, and oil revenues have financed
 modernization projects, particularly in health and education. However,
 oil reserves are expected to be depleted during the 1990s, and steps are
 being taken to diversify the nonagricultural sector of the economy. The
 majority of the population are Muslim Arabs. Ruled successively by
 Portugal (16th cent.) and Persia (intermittently from 1602), Bahrain
 became a sheikhdom in 1783 and a British protected state in 1861.
 Independence was declared in 1971. A constitution, adopted in 1973,
 limited the sheikh's powers and gave women the vote, but in 1975 the
 sheikh dissolved the National Assembly. In the early 1980s Bahrain
 established closer ties with other Persian Gulf states, particularly
 Saudi Arabia, with which it is connected by a causeway built in the
 1980s.

   Baikal, Lake

 Baikal, Lake: see BAYKAL.

   Baird, Spencer Fullerton

 Baird, Spencer Fullerton, 1823-87, American zoologist; b. Reading, Pa.
 While at the Smithsonian Institution (from 1850; as secretary from 1878)
 he supervised the building of a museum that housed the great collection
 of North American fauna amassed under his guidance. He set up the Marine
 Biological Station at Woods Hole, Mass., organized expeditions of the
 research ship Albatross, and initiated studies on wildlife preservation.
 His most important scientific papers were taxonomic studies of birds and
 mammals.

   Bairiki

 Bairiki, town (1979 est. pop. 1,800) on TARAWA atoll, capital of
 KIRIBATI.

   Baja California

 Baja California or Lower California, peninsula, NW Mexico, separating the
 Gulf of California from the Pacific Ocean. It is c.760 mi (1,220 km) long
 and 30 to 150 mi (48 to 241 km) wide, and is divided between the states
 of Baja California (N) and Baja California Sur (S). The peninsula is
 generally mountainous and arid, with some irrigated agriculture in the
 north, around Mexicali. Resort ranches, new roads, and deep-sea fishing
 facilities along the scenic coasts support a growing tourist industry.
 U.S. forces occupied (1847-48)) the peninsula during the MEXICAN WAR.

   Bakelite

 Bakelite for its inventor, Leo Baekeland, a synthetic thermosetting
 phenol-formaldehyde RESIN with an unusually wide variety of industrial
 applications ranging from billiard balls to electrical insulation.

   Baker, Howard Henry, Jr.

 Baker, Howard Henry, Jr., 1925-, U.S. public official; b. Huntsville,
 Tenn. As a conservative moderate Republican senator (1966-87) from
 Tennessee, he gained (1973) national attention as a member of the Senate
 committee investigating the WATERGATE AFFAIR. He became (1977) Senate
 minority leader, Senate majority leader after the 1980 elections, and
 White House Chief of Staff (1987-88) under Pres. Reagan.

   Bakersfield

 Bakersfield, city (1986 est. pop. 150,400), seat of Kern co., S central
 Calif., at the S end of the SAN JOAQUIN valley; inc. 1898. Petroleum was
 discovered in the area in 1899. The city is an oil drilling and refining,
 mining, and agricultural center. Cotton, citrus fruits, grapes, and roses
 are grown.

   baking soda

 baking soda: see SODIUM BICARBONATE.

   Bakke Case

 Bakke Case: see UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA REGENTS V. BAKKE.

   Bakst, Leon Nicolaevich

 Bakst, Leon Nicolaevich, 1866-1924, Russian painter, b. Lev Samuilovich
 Rosenberg. A painter of the eclectic school, he sought closer ties with
 the West before the Revolution through his involvement with the artists'
 group known as Mir Iskusstva or "World of Art." He is noted for his
 elaborate stage and costume designs for the Russian ballet, e.g.,
 L'Apres-midi d'un Faune (1912).

   Baku

 Baku, city (1987 est. pop. 1,741,000), capital of the AZERBAIJAN SOVIET
 SOCIALIST REPUBLIC, SE European USSR, on the Caspian Sea. Baku is a major
 Soviet port and a center for oil drilling, refining, and shipbuilding.
 Until World War II it was the leading source of Soviet oil. Under
 independent Shirvan shahs the city was a medieval center of trade and
 crafts. It was under Persian rule from 1509 to 1806 when it was annexed
 by Russia. In 1920 it became part of the USSR.

   Bakunin, Mikhail

 Bakunin, Mikhail, 1814-76, Russian revolutionary and leading exponent of
 ANARCHISM. After taking part (1848-49) in revolutions in France and
 Saxony, he was exiled to Siberia. He escaped (1861) to London, where he
 worked with Aleksandr HERZEN. In the first International Workingmen's
 Association he clashed with Karl MARX and was expelled (1872); their
 philosophical split led the International to dissolve (1876). Bakunin
 held that human beings are inherently good and deserve absolute freedom;
 he advocated the violent overthrow of existing governments. His works
 include God and the State (1882).

   Balaguer, Joaquin

 Balaguer, Joaquin, 1907-, president of the Dominican Republic (1960-62,
 1966-78). He served in dictator TRUJILLO MOLINA'S government as vice
 president (1957-60) and president until ousted (1962) by the military.
 During his second tenure, he restored financial stability, but political
 chaos led him to resort to repression. He ran unsuccessfully for
 president in 1982.

   Balakirev, Mili Alekseyevich

 Balakirev, Mili Alekseyevich, 1837-1910, Russian composer and conductor,
 leader of the group called the FIVE. His music, combining ROMANTICISM
 with Russian folk songs, includes the symphonic poem Tamara.

   balalaika

 balalaika: see STRINGED INSTRUMENT.

   balance of payments

 balance of payments, relation between all payments in and out of a
 country over a given period. It is an outgrowth of the concept of BALANCE
 OF TRADE, which it includes; it also includes the movement of government
 and private capital between countries (e.g., investments and debt
 payments). The INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND was created (1945) to deal
 with problems relating to the balance of payments. The U.S., which has
 generally experienced an unfavorable balance of payments since the late
 1950s, sought to improve the balance in the early 1970s through
 DEVALUATION of the dollar.

   balance of power

 balance of power, system of international relations in which nations
 shift alliances to maintain an equilibrium of power and prevent dominance
 by any single state. Its modern development began in the 17th cent. with
 efforts of European countries to contain the France of LOUIS XIV. The
 balance of power was of primary concern to European nations from 1815 to
 1914, particularly to contain the rising power of GERMANY, and was
 attacked as a cause of WORLD WAR I. It declined with the rise of the U.S.
 and the USSR as superpowers after 1945, but after the 1960s, with the
 emergence of China, the THIRD WORLD, and a revived Europe, it seemed to
 be reemerging as a component of international relations.

   balance of trade

 balance of trade, relation between the value of a nation's exports and
 imports. The concept first became important in the 16th and 17th cent.
 with the growth of MERCANTILISM, whose theorists held that a nation
 should have an excess of exports over imports (i.e., a favorable
 balance); although challenged by Adam SMITH and other economists, the
 idea is still widely believed. The balance of trade is a major element in
 a nation's BALANCE OF PAYMENTS.

   Balanchine, George

 Balanchine, George, 1904-83, American choreographer and ballet dancer; b.
 Russia. A member of Sergei Pavlovich DIAGHILEV'S BALLETS RUSSES
 (1924-28), he moved (1933) to the U.S. and helped to found (1934) the
 School of American Ballet. In 1948 he became artistic director and
 principal choreographer of the NEW YORK CITY BALLET. His many works,
 e.g., Serenade, Agon, emphasize form, often abstract. He was one of the
 most important figures in ballet in the 20th cent.

   Balboa, Vasco Nunez de

 Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, c.1475-1519, Spanish CONQUISTADOR, discoverer of
 the PACIFIC OCEAN. Fleeing HISPANIOLA in 1510, he hid in a vessel that
 took the explorer Enciso to Panama. After reaching Darien, he seized
 command from Enciso and, with the aid of friendly Indians, marched across
 the isthmus. He reached the Pacific in Sept. 1513, claiming it and its
 shores for Spain. He was later accused of treason and beheaded.

   Balch, Emily Green

 Balch, Emily Green, 1867-1961, American economist and pacifist; b.
 Jamaica Plain, Mass. She taught at Wellesley College until her dismissal
 (1918) for opposing U.S. involvement in World War I. Co-founder (with
 Jane ADDAMS) of the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom,
 Balch shared the 1946 Nobel Peace Prize with J.R. Mott.

   bald cypress

 bald cypress, common name for the Taxodiaceae, a family of deciduous or
 evergreen CONIFERS with needlelike or scalelike leaves and woody cones.
 Most species are native to the Far East; some, e.g., the big trees and
 redwoods (see SEQUOIA) and bald cypresses, are native to North America.
 Almost all are cultivated for ornament. The common bald cypress (Taxodium
 distichum), valued for its softwood, forms dense forests in the SE U.S.
 and is common in the EVERGLADES. Bald cypresses are called "bald" because
 of their deciduous character, unusual in conifers. True CYPRESSES belong
 to a separate family.

   Balder

 Balder, beautiful and gracious Norse god of light; son of Odin (see
 WODEN) and FRIGG. Invulnerable to everything but mistletoe, he was killed
 by a mistletoe dart made by LOKI.

   Baldung

 Baldungor Baldung-Grien, Hans, c.1484-1545, German religious and
 mythological painter. His style reveals his interest in brilliant color,
 light, and twisted forms. He is best known as a painter of disturbing
 subjects, e.g., Death and the Maiden (Basel, Switzerland).

   Baldwin

 Baldwin, Latin emperors of CONSTANTINOPLE. Baldwin I, 1171-1205 (r.
 1204-05), was a leader in the Fourth CRUSADE as count of Flanders.
 Elected emperor of Constantinople, he was taken in battle by the
 Bulgarians (1205) and died in captivity. His brother, HENRY OF FLANDERS,
 succeeded him. Baldwin II, 1217-73 (r. 1228-61), was the last Latin
 emperor of Constantinople. To obtain funds, he sold part of the True
 Cross to LOUIS IX of France and pawned his own son to the Venetians. When
 MICHAEL VIII of Nicaea stormed Constantinople, Baldwin fled to Italy.

   Baldwin

 Baldwin, Latin kings of Jerusalem. Baldwin I, 1058?-1118 (r.1100-18), was
 a brother of GODFREY OF BOUILLON, whom he accompanied in the First
 CRUSADE. He gained the chief ports of Palestine and aided other Latin
 rulers against the Muslims. His cousin and successor, Baldwin II, d. 1131
 (r.1118-31), was also in the First Crusade. As king he warred with the
 Turks in N Syria. During his reign TYRE and Antioch became Jerusalem's
 dependents. Baldwin III, 1130-62 (r. 1143-62), the son of Fulk of Anjou,
 ruled as Latin power in the East began to decay. Edessa fell (1144) to
 the Muslims, the Second Crusade failed, and the Turkish sultan Nur ad-Din
 took (1154) N Syria. His nephew Baldwin IV (the Leper), c.1161-85
 (r.1174-85), defended his kingdom constantly against SALADIN. When his
 leprosy became worse, he had his child-nephew crowned (1183) Baldwin V
 (d. 1186).

   Baldwin, James

 Baldwin, James, 1924-87, black American author; b. N.Y.C. His works,
 dealing with American blacks and relations between the races, include
 novels, e.g., Go Tell It on the Mountain (1953) and Just Above My Head
 (1979); essay collections, e.g., Notes of a Native Son (1955); plays; and
 short stories.

   Baldwin, Robert

 Baldwin, Robert, 1804-58, Canadian statesman. A reform leader in Upper
 CANADA, he proposed (1836) representative government for the entire
 country. After the reunion (1841) of Upper and Lower Canada, Baldwin and
 LA FONTAINE formed a coalition government (1842), and won an overwhelming
 victory in the 1847 election. Their second coalition (1847-51), called
 the "great ministry," implemented responsible government. Among its
 accomplishments was the Baldwin Act, which reformed local government in
 ONTARIO.

   Baldwin, Roger Nash

 Baldwin, Roger Nash, 1884-1981, American civil libertarian; b. Wellesley,
 Mass. He helped to found (1920) the AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION and
 was its director until 1950 and its adviser on international affairs
 thereafter. He also taught at the New School for Social Research
 (1938-42) and the Univ. of Puerto Rico (1966-74).

   Baldwin, Stanley

 Baldwin, Stanley, 1867-1947, British statesman. A Conservative, he was
 three times prime minister (1923-24; 1924-29; 1935-37). He broke the 1926
 general strike and secured the abdication of EDWARD VIII. An able
 politician, Baldwin has been criticized for his apparent blindness to the
 threat to peace indicated by the rise of fascism in Europe.

   Balearic Islands

 Balearic Islands, archipelago (1986 pop. 754,777) in the W Mediterranean
 Sea, forming Baleares prov. of Spain. The three principal islands are
 Majorca, Minorca, and Ibiza. All have a mild climate and are popular
 tourist centers. The Balearics were occupied by Moors in the 8th cent.
 and captured (1229-35) by James I of Aragon. They were included
 (1276-1343) in the independent kingdom of Majorca and reverted to the
 Aragonese crown under Peter IV.

   Balenciaga, Cristobal

 Balenciaga, Cristobal: see FASHION .

   Balfour, Arthur James Balfour, 1st earl of

 Balfour, Arthur James Balfour, 1st earl of, 1848-1930, British statesman.
 A Conservative, he held many cabinet positions and was prime minister
 from 1902 to 1905. As foreign secretary under LLOYD GEORGE (1916-19), he
 issued the Balfour Declaration (1917), pledging British support for a
 Jewish national home in Palestine.

   Bali

 Bali, island and (with two offshore islets) province (1980 pop.
 2,469,930), S Indonesia, c.2,200 sq mi (5,700 sq km), separated from JAVA
 (W) by the narrow Bali Strait. The fertile, scenic, and densely populated
 island is largely mountainous and volcanic, reaching a high point of
 10,308 ft (3,142 m) at Mt. Agung. Rice, vegetables, fruits, and coffee
 are grown, and livestock is important. Industries include food
 processing, tourism, and handicrafts. The Balinese people retain their
 Hindu religion in a predominantly Muslim nation and are known for their
 uniquely ritualistic and beautiful music, folk drama, dancing, and
 architecture.

   Balinese music

 Balinese music, a survival of the pre-Islamic music of Java, uses the
 tonal systems of JAVANESE MUSIC. The orchestras of tuned percussion
 instruments (gamelans) include xylophones, gongs, flutes, fiddles,
 rattles, cymbals, and drums. Each of various forms of dance and drama has
 a gamelan that specializes in its music.

   Baliol, John de

 Baliol, John de, d. 1269, English nobleman; founder of Balliol College,
 Oxford. A regent for ALEXANDER III of Scotland, he was removed from
 office and later fought for HENRY III of England in the BARONS' WAR. His
 third son, John de Baliol, 1249-1315, king of Scotland (1292-96), claimed
 the throne at the death of MARGARET MAID OF NORWAY. EDWARD I of England
 supported him over ROBERT I in return for feudal overlordship, and he was
 crowned. In 1296 he renounced his oath of fealty, was defeated, and
 surrendered to Edward. He was imprisoned until 1299, when he retired to
 France. His son, Edward de Baliol, d. 1363, king of Scotland, invaded
 Scotland (1332) with the aid of EDWARD III and defeated supporters of
 DAVID II. After David's return from France (1341), he never held power.

   Balkan Peninsula

 Balkan Peninsula, generally mountainous land area, SE Europe, projecting
 south from the line of the Sava and Danube rivers between the Black,
 Aegean, Mediterranean, Ionian, and Adriatic seas. It comprises all or
 parts of six nations-Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Yugoslavia, and
 Romania-collectively referred to as the Balkan states. The peninsula,
 which was at times part of ancient Greece and the Roman and Byzantine
 empires, was ruled by Turks as part of the Ottoman Empire from the late
 15th cent. until the end of the BALKAN WARS in 1913.

   Balkan Wars

 Balkan Wars, two short wars (1912, 1913) fought for possession of the
 European territories of the deteriorating OTTOMAN EMPIRE (Turkey). In the
 first war, Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro expelled Turkey from
 all of its European possessions except Constantinople (now Istanbul). The
 second war was brought on by Serbia (joined by Greece, Rumania, and
 Turkey), which demanded that Bulgaria cede to it the larger part of
 Macedonia. Bulgaria lost and was forced to cede territories to all four
 victors. The nationalism heightened by the Balkan Wars was one of the
 causes of WORLD WAR I.

   Ball, Lucille

 Ball, Lucille, 1911-89, American actress and producer; b. Jamestown, N.Y.
 An accomplished comedienne, she starred (1951-74) in three popular
 television series, beginning with "I Love Lucy." She also headed Desilu
 Productions (1962-67) and Lucille Ball Productions (1967-89). Her films
 include Stage Door (1937) and Mame (1974).

   ballad

 ballad, in literature, short narrative poem usually relating a dramatic
 event. Folk ballads date from c. 12th cent., literary ballads from the
 18th. The anonymous folk ballad was originally sung, passed along orally,
 and changed in transmission. It was short, simple, and formulaic, often
 with a stock refrain. From the late 18th cent. hundreds were
 collected-historical, romantic, supernatural, nautical, or heroic.
 American ballads deal with cowboys, outlaws, folk heroes, and blacks.
 Mid-20th cent. FOLK MUSIC has drawn on the tradition. The literary ballad
 is more elaborate, a prime example being S.T. COLERIDGE'S Rime of the
 Ancient Mariner.

   ballade

 ballade, in literature, French 14th-15th cent. verse form, usually
 consisting of three eight-line stanzas and a concluding four-line envoy
 (a summary or address). Ballades by Francois VILLON and, in English, by
 Geoffrey CHAUCER are famous.

   ballet

 ballet [Ital. ballare,=to dance], classic, formalized solo or ensemble
 dancing of a disciplined, dramatic nature, performed to music.
 Foreshadowed in mummeries and masquerades, it emerged as a distinct form
 in Italy before the 16th cent. The first ballet combining dance, decor,
 and special effects was presented in 1581 at the French court of
 CATHERINE DE' MEDICI. The 17th-cent. court ballets, danced until 1681 by
 males only, incorporated OPERA and drama. In 1708 the first ballet for
 public performance marked the appearance of a separate art form.
 Choreographic notation came into being and mythological themes were
 explored. Italian influence brought elevated and less horizontal
 movement, and Pierre Beauchamps established the five basic foot positions
 (see diagram). Marie Camargo introduced a shortened skirt, tights, and
 the first ballet slippers, allowing great freedom of movement. Her rival,
 Marie Salle (the first female choreographer), wore a liberating,
 Grecian-style costume. The ballet d'action, developed c.1760 by Jean
 Georges Noverre, told a story through movement and facial expression.
 Modern ballet technique, stressing the turned-out leg and resulting
 variety of movement, was set down in 1820 by Carlo Blasis. With La
 Sylphide (1832) the romantic period began. Brilliant choreography
 emphasized the beauty and virtuosity of the prima ballerina; the male
 dancer functioned only as her partner until the 20th cent., when virtuoso
 male dancing revived. Conflicts of reality and illusion, flesh and spirit
 were revealed in romantic love stories and fairy tales. Under the
 pressure of NATURALISM in the theater, ballet declined through the
 mid-19th cent., but after 1875 a renaissance in romantic ballet began in
 Russia, where Marius Petipa and other European masters created many of
 the great standard ballets, e.g., Sleeping Beauty and Swan Lake. In 1909
 the Russian impresario Sergei DIAGHILEV brought his Ballets Russes to
 Paris. In the following 20 years the Russian style, with the
 revolutionary music of composers like STRAVINSKY and modified by the
 MODERN DANCE influences of Isadora DUNCAN and others, brought a ballet
 renaissance to Europe and America. Paris, London, and New York City
 became major centers. Today Russian and English ballet continue to
 exemplify one major trend, toward storytelling and lavish production.
 American ballet, under the influence of George BALANCHINE, displays an
 opposing tendency toward abstraction in theme and simplicity in design.
 See articles on major dance companies and individual dancers.

   Ballet Folklorico de Mexico

 Ballet Folklorico de Mexico, Mexico's national dance company. It was
 founded (1952) by Amalia Hernandez at the National Institute of Fine
 Arts, Mexico City, to produce dances based on Mexican folklore for
 television. Artistic excellence led to its recognition as one of the
 world's finest "ethnic" ballets.

   Ballets Russes

 Ballets Russes: see DIAGHILEV, SERGEI PAVLOVICH.

   ballistics

 ballistics, science of projectiles, such as bullets, bombs, rockets, and
 missiles. Interior ballistics deals with the propulsion and motion of a
 projectile within a gun or firing device. Exterior ballistics is
 concerned with the motion of the projectile while in flight, and includes
 the study of the trajectory, or curved flight path, of the projectile.
 Terminal ballistics is concerned with the phenomena occurring at the
 termination of the projectile's flight; such termination may result from
 impact on a solid target or explosion of the projectile. In criminology,
 the term ballistics is applied to the identification of the weapon from
 which a bullet was fired. Microscopic imperfections in a gun barrel make
 characteristic scratches and grooves on bullets fired through it.

   balloon

 balloon, lighter-than-air craft without a propulsion system, lifted by
 inflation of one or more containers with a gas lighter than air or with
 heated air. During flight, altitude is gained by discarding ballast,
 e.g., bags of sand, and lost by releasing some of the lifting gas from
 its container. In some late designs using air heated by a gas-fired
 burner, the altitude is controlled by varying the temperature of the
 heated air. The balloon was invented by the French brothers Joseph and
 Jacques Etienne MONTGOLFIER, who in 1783 caused a linen bag about 100 ft
 (30 m) in diameter to rise in the air. Using a Montgolfier balloon,
 Pilatre de Rozier and the marquis d'Arlandes made the first manned
 balloon flight on Nov. 21, 1783. The Americans Ben Abruzzo, Maxie
 Anderson, and Larry Newman made (1978) the first successful transatlantic
 balloon crossing. Today WEATHER BALLOONS equipped with radio transmitters
 (see RADIOSONDE) and other instruments transmit meteorological readings
 to ground stations at regular intervals. High-altitude balloons are used
 in astronomy, especially in the study of cosmic rays and the photography
 of other planets. See also AIRSHIP; PICCARD, AUGUSTE.

   balsa

 balsa: see BOMBAX.

   Balthazar

 Balthazar: see WISE MEN OF THE EAST.

   Baltic languages

 Baltic languages, a subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages.
 See LANGUAGE .

   Baltic Sea

 Baltic Sea, N Europe, arm of the Atlantic Ocean, c.163,000 sq mi (422,170
 sq km), bordered by Denmark, Finland, Germany, Poland, Sweden, and the
 USSR. Shallow and partly frozen in winter, it is connected to the
 Atlantic by several straits, including the KATTEGAT and SKAGGERAK, and by
 the Kiel Canal. Principal arms of the Baltic are the gulfs of Bothnia,
 Finland, and Riga.

   Baltimore, George Calvert, 1st Baron

 Baltimore, George Calvert, 1st Baron: see CALVERT, GEORGE.

   Baltimore

 Baltimore, city (1986 est. pop. 752,800), N Md., on the Patapsco R.
 estuary, a branch of CHESAPEAKE BAY; settled early 17th cent., inc. 1745.
 One of the ten largest U.S. cities, Baltimore is a major seaport,
 industrial center, and railhead. Shipbuilding, food processing, metal and
 oil refining, and the production of aircraft, missiles and chemicals are
 among the leading industries. The city grew phenomenally with the opening
 (1818) of the NATIONAL ROAD and the founding (1827) of the Baltimore &
 Ohio Railroad. Largely rebuilt after a fire in 1904, it became famous for
 its white-stepped, red-brick row houses. Johns Hopkins Univ., Goucher
 College, and the Peabody Conservatory of Music are among the city's many
 educational institutions. Cultural features include the Baltimore Museum
 of Art and the Enoch Pratt Free Library. H.L. MENCKEN, Babe RUTH, and
 Billie HOLIDAY were among Baltimore's best-known natives. The city's
 sights include the U.S.S. Constellation; the first U.S. Roman Catholic
 cathedral (1806-21), designed by B.H. LATROBE; and the Inner Harbor, part
 of a major urban redevelopment scheme for the downtown area.

   Balts

 Balts, peoples of the E coast of the Baltic Sea, namely the Latvians,
 Lithuanians, and now-extinct Old Prussians. The Estonians are related to
 the Finns rather than to the Balts. In the 13th cent. the TEUTONIC
 KNIGHTS and Livonian Brothers of the Sword conquered and Christianized
 Estonia and Latvia, which remained under German economic dominance until
 the 20th cent. The Lithuanians, who resisted annexation and adopted
 Christianity in 1387, formed a powerful state that united (1569) with
 Poland. Estonia passed in 1561 to Sweden and in 1721 to Russia, which by
 1795 controlled all the Baltic lands. Independent after World War I,
 LATVIA, LITHUANIA, and ESTONIA were incorporated into the USSR in 1940.

   Baluchi

 BaluchiLANGUAGE .

   Balzac, Honore de

 Balzac, Honore de, 1799-1850, French writer, among the great masters of
 the NOVEL. Half starving in a Paris garret, he began his career by
 writing sensational novels to order under a pseudonym. His great work,
 called "The Human Comedy," written over a 20-year period, is a collection
 of novels and stories recreating French society of the time, picturing in
 precise detail individuals of every class and profession. Chief among
 them are Pere Goriot (1835) and Cousin Bette (1847). His short stories
 include some of the best in the language.

   Bamako

 Bamako, city (1976 pop. 404,022), capital of Mali, a port on the Niger R.
 It is a major regional trade center connected by rail to DAKAR, on the
 Atlantic Ocean. Manufactures include processed meat, textiles, and metal
 goods. Bamako was a center of Muslim learning under the MALI empire
 (c.11th-15th cent.). It became (1908) the capital of the Sudan, a
 province of French West Africa. It has a botanical and zoological park,
 gardens, and several educational institutions.

   bamboo

 bamboo, plant (genus Bambusa) of the GRASS family, chiefly of warm or
 tropical regions. The genus contains the largest grasses, sometimes
 reaching 100 ft (30 m). Bamboo stalks are hollow, usually round, and
 jointed, with deciduous leaves. Bamboo is used as wood, and for
 construction work, furniture, utensils, fiber, paper, fuel, and
 innumerable other articles. Bamboo sprouts and the grains of some species
 are eaten. Native American bamboo is a CANE.

   banana

 banana, name for a family of tropical herbs (the Musacae), for a genus
 (Musa) of herbaceous plants, and for the fruits they produce. Bananas are
 probably native to tropical Asia, but are widely cultivated. They are
 related to the economically valuable MANILA HEMP and to the
 BIRD-OF-PARADISE FLOWER. Banana plants have a palmlike aspect and large
 leaves, the overlapping bases of which form the so-called false trunk.
 Only female flowers develop into the banana fruit (botanically, a berry),
 each plant bearing fruit only once. The seeds are sterile; propagation is
 through shoots from the rhizomes. Bananas are an important food staple in
 the tropics.

   Bancroft, George

 Bancroft, George, 1800-1891, American historian and public official; b.
 Worcester, Mass. Bancroft was secretary of the navy (1845-46) under Pres.
 POLK and established the U.S. Naval Academy. Later he was minister to
 Britain (1846-49) and Prussia (1867-74). He supported Pres. LINCOLN in
 the CIVIL WAR. His History of the United States (10 vol., 1834-74) is
 anti-British and intensely patriotic but remains valuable because of its
 extensive use of source materials.

   Bancroft, Hubert Howe

 Bancroft, Hubert Howe, 1832-1918, American historian; b. Granville, Ohio.
 A wealthy publisher, he produced, with a staff of researchers and
 writers, a prodigious history of the U.S. West, Central America, and
 Mexico (39 vol., 1874-90). In 1905 he presented his collection of 60,000
 books, manuscripts, maps, and personal narratives to the Univ. of
 California, and as the Bancroft Library it remains an outstanding
 repository of the history of the West.

   band

 band, in music, a group of musicians playing mainly on WIND and
 PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS, often outdoors. Such groupings in medieval and
 Renaissance Europe were the town and military bands, integral to the
 civic and social life of the community. The U.S. Marine Band, founded
 1798, was the first important band in the U.S. In the mid-19th cent. the
 concert band developed, with a repertory including marches, flourishes,
 and music transcribed from other mediums. Leading bandmasters include
 J.P. SOUSA and E.F. GOLDMAN. Modern bands include marching bands, dance
 bands, JAZZ bands, and rock bands (see ROCK MUSIC).

   Banda, Hastings Kamuzu

 Banda, Hastings Kamuzu, 1902?-, president of MALAWI (1966-). A physician,
 he was a leading nationalist in Nyasaland. He became president for life
 when it became independent as Malawi.

   Bandaranaike, Sirimavo

 Bandaranaike, Sirimavo, 1916-, prime minister (1960-65, 1970-77) of SRI
 LANKA (formerly Ceylon). She was largely responsible for the constitution
 of 1972 that transformed Ceylon into the republic of Sri Lanka. In 1980

 of abuses as prime minister.

   Bandung

 Bandung or Bandoeng,city (1980 pop. 1,462,637), capital of West Java
 prov., Indonesia, 75 miles (120 km) SE of DJAKARTA. Founded by the Dutch
 in 1810, it became the administrative and military headquarters of the
 Netherlands East Indies. Third largest city in Indonesia, Bandung is an
 industrial hub, a famous educational and cultural center, and a tourist
 resort. It is a textile center and site of the country's quinine
 industry.

   Bandung Conference

 Bandung Conference, 1955, meeting of diplomats from 29 African and Asian
 countries held at BANDUNG, Indonesia. It promoted economic and cultural
 cooperation and opposed colonialism. Communist China played a prominent
 part.

   Bangalore

 Bangalore, city (1981 pop. 2,914,000), capital of Karnataka state, S
 central India. It is an industrial center producing electronic equipment,
 aircraft, textiles, and other manufactures. Founded in 1537, it became
 the administrative seat of Mysore (now Karnataka) in 1831. The city has
 many parks and several institutes of learning.

   Bangkok

 Bangkok, city (1986 pop. 5,446,708), capital of Thailand, S central
 Thailand, on the east bank of the Chao Phraya R., near the Gulf of Siam.
 Thailand's largest city, its financial and industrial hub, and a leading
 city of Southeast Asia, Bangkok lies in the rice-growing region. Rice,
 tin, teak, and rubber are shipped from the city's port. Industrial plants
 include rice mills, textile mills, sawmills, oil refineries, and
 shipyards. The city is also a famous jewelry-trading center. Ethnic
 Chinese dominate commerce and industry. A city that contrasts ancient and
 modern structures, Bangkok contains the vast, walled Grand Palace and
 over 400 Buddhist temples. It is the site of five universities, as well
 as the National Museum. It became the nation's capital in 1782. Thon
 Buri, part of metropolitan Bangkok, is an industrial city on the river's
 west bank. It was the capital of Siam (1769-82).

   Bangladesh

 Bangladesh, officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh, republic,
 formerly East Pakistan (1986 est. pop. 102,563,000), 55,126 sq mi
 (142,776 sq km), S Asia, bordered by India (W, N, and E), Burma (SE), and
 the Bay of Bengal (S). Principal cities include DACCA (the capital) and
 CHITTAGONG. A low-lying alluvial region, Bangladesh is composed mainly of
 the combined delta of the GANGES, BRAHMAPUTRA, and Meghna rivers. The
 climate is tropical monsoonal, and there are frequent, devastating
 floods. The economy is agricultural; jute (of which Bangladesh produces
 over 50% of the world supply), rice, and tea are the principal crops.
 Bangladesh has the highest population density in the world. The majority
 of the people are Bengalis, and about 80% are Sunni Muslims.

 History Governed for centuries by Afghan, Mogul, and Muslim rulers, the
 area that is now Bangladesh became part of British India in the late 18th
 cent. When Pakistan achieved independence in 1947, Bangladesh, then
 called East Bengal and, after 1955, East Pakistan, became an eastern
 province of Pakistan, from which it is separated by more than 1,000
 miles. A movement for greater autonomy was spearheaded by Sheikh Mujibar
 Rahman, whose AWAMI LEAGUE won a majority in the federal Pakistani
 assembly in 1970. The government postponed assembly sessions, and on Mar.
 26, 1971, the Awami League declared the province independent as
 Bangladesh. Civil war ensued, and an estimated 1 million Bengalis were
 killed before India intervened on Bangladesh's behalf and Pakistan was
 defeated in Dec. 1971. Widespread famine and political unrest have
 plagued the new nation. Rahman was assassinated in a military coup in
 1975. Two countercoups quickly followed, bringing to power Gen. Ziaur
 Rahman, who was elected president in 1978. He brought some stability to
 the country and reintroduced civilian rule, but was killed in an abortive
 coup in 1981. Another coup, and the introduction of martial law, followed
 in 1982. Lt. Gen. H.M. Ershad became president in 1987.

   Bangor

 Bangor, city (1980 pop. 31,643), seat of Penobscot co., S Me., at the
 confluence of the Penobscot and Kenduskeag rivers; inc. as a city 1834.
 It is a port of entry, commercial center, and gateway to a large resort
 and lumber area. Shoes, paper, lumber, and electronic equipment are
 produced. Settled in 1769 (as Sunbury), it was an important 19th-cent.
 shipbuilding center with a trade in ice, lumber, and stone.

   Bangui

 Bangui, city (1984 pop. 473,817), capital of the Central African
 Republic. A port and light industrial center on the Ubangi R., it handled
 most of the country's international trade until 1978, when an overland
 route was opened through Cameroon. The city is being developed as a
 tourist center for the country's large wildlife reserves and national
 parks. Bangui was founded (1889) by French explorers. It has a university
 (est. 1970).

   banjo

 banjo: see STRINGED INSTRUMENT.

   Banjul

 Banjul, formerly Bathurst, port city (1983 pop. 44,188), capital of
 Gambia, on St. Mary's Island where the Gambia R. enters the Atlantic
 Ocean. It is Gambia's only large city and its administrative and economic
 center. Peanut processing, the chief industry, provides the leading
 export. The city was founded (1816) by the British as a trading post and
 a base for suppressing the slave trade.

   Bank for International Settlements

 Bank for International Settlements (BIS), financial institution
 established (1930) in Basel, Switzerland, by bankers and diplomats of
 Europe and the U.S. As a meeting place for the governors of West European
 central banks, the BIS serves to promote international financial
 cooperation. It is the representative of several important West European
 financial enterprises and holds the accounts of the European Coal and
 Steel Community (see EUROPEAN COMMUNITY). The BIS is run by a board
 composed of eight West European central bank governors and five other
 financiers. Officials of the U.S. FEDERAL RESERVE SYSTEM attend BIS
 meetings.

   banking

 banking, primarily the business of dealing in money and instruments of
 credit. Banks are usually differentiated from other financial
 institutions by their principal functions of accepting deposits-subject
 to withdrawal or transfer by check-and of making loans. In recent years,
 however, this distinction has become blurred, as more and more nonbanking
 companies have moved to take over the traditional business of banks.
 Banking, in the form of making loans at interest, dates back to
 antiquity. It developed rapidly in the 18th and 19th cent. to support the
 expansion of industry and trade. The first bank in the U.S. was the Bank
 of North America, established (1781) in Philadelphia. Congress chartered
 the first BANK OF THE UNITED STATES in 1791 to engage in commercial
 banking and to act as fiscal agent of the government but failed to renew
 its charter in 1811. A similar fate attended the second Bank of the
 United States. In 1838 New York adopted the Free Banking Act, which
 permitted anyone to engage in banking, upon compliance with certain
 charter provisions. The idea spread rapidly, and from 1840 to 1863 all
 banking business was done by state-chartered institutions (state banks).
 The National Bank Act (1863) created a system of banks to be chartered by
 the federal government (national banks). Both types of banks continue in
 existence today. The FEDERAL RESERVE SYSTEM was established in 1913 to
 oversee the U.S. banking system. The Federal Deposit Insurance
 Corporation (FDIC; 1933) provides for insurance of bank deposits.
 International banking grew in importance after World War II. The
 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) makes
 loans to governments and private investors, and the International
 Monetary Fund provides members with technical assistance in international
 banking. Many of the world's major banks operate branches in other
 countries. Two major types of banks in the U.S. are commercial banks and
 mutual savings banks. The 14,000 commercial banks are the mainstay of the
 U.S. banking system. Known as full-service banks, they render a wide
 range of services, in addition to their primary functions of making loans
 and investments and handling demand (checking) as well as savings and
 other time deposits. Savings banks, which are exclusively
 state-chartered, until recently accepted only savings deposits and made
 loans mainly for home mortgages. Today they have the right to offer
 checking accounts, either as a result of legislation or indirectly
 through NOW (negotiable order of withdrawal) accounts. A similar thrift
 institution is the SAVINGS AND LOAN ASSOCIATION. Types of financial
 institutions that perform one or more banking functions include building
 and loan associations, mortgage companies, finance companies, brokers or
 dealers in securities, CREDIT UNIONS, and investment bankers. By the
 early 1980s, sweeping changes brought about by improved communications
 and computers enabled the nation's 29,000 nonbank financial institutions
 to pose a serious challenge to the traditional banks. The sharp rise of
 MONEY-MARKET FUNDS, the widespread use of COMMERCIAL PAPER for loans, and
 the creation of financial conglomerates siphoned off billions of dollars
 of banking business.

   Bank of the United States

 Bank of the United States, name of two national banks created by the U.S.
 Congress. The first bank (1791-1811), proposed by Alexander HAMILTON and
 the Federalists, aroused opposition, especially from the West, for its
 conservative policies. Its charter was allowed to expire. Difficulties in
 financing the WAR OF 1812 caused the creation of a second bank (1816-36).
 It prospered under the management of Nicholas BIDDLE, but was viewed as a
 tool of Eastern commercial interests by the Jacksonians. Pres. JACKSON
 vetoed its rechartering and in 1833 began depositing government funds in
 state banks.

   bankruptcy

 bankruptcy, legal proceeding to deal with the liabilities of an insolvent
 debtor (individual or business). Its purpose is to distribute the
 bankrupt's assets equitably among the creditors and, in most cases, to
 free the bankrupt from further liability. Bankruptcy may be instituted by
 the debtor (voluntary) or by the creditors (involuntary). In the U.S.,
 bankruptcy is governed by federal laws.

   Banks, Sir Joseph

 Banks, Sir Joseph, 1743-1820, English naturalist and patron of the
 sciences. He accompanied Capt. James COOK on his voyage (1768-71) around
 the world, collecting biological specimens, most previously unclassified.
 He was chiefly responsible for making Kew Gardens an important botanical
 center and was president (1778-1820) of the Royal Society.

   Bannister, Sir Roger (Gilbert)

 Bannister, Sir Roger (Gilbert), 1929-, British athlete. He was the first
 man to run the mile in under 4 min, clocking 3 min 59.4 sec at Oxford,
 England, in 1954. He was knighted in 1975.

   Banting, Sir Frederick Grant

 Banting, Sir Frederick Grant, 1891-1941, Canadian physician. He and John
 MACLEOD won the 1923 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine for isolating
 (1921), together with Charles BEST, the pancreatic hormone later called
 INSULIN. He made valuable studies of the cortex of the adrenal glands, of
 cancer, and of silicosis. He was knighted in 1934.

   Bantu

 Bantu, ethnic and linguistic group of Africa, numbering about 70 million.
 They inhabit most of Africa S of the Congo R., except the extreme
 southwest. The classification is primarily linguistic, and there are
 almost 100 Bantu languages, including Luganda, Zulu, and Swahili. Few
 cultural generalizations concerning the Bantu can be made. There were
 some highly developed Bantu states, and several Bantu confederations were
 formed in the 19th cent., e.g., the Zulu and the Basuto. Other Bantu
 tribes include the Matabele and the Mashona. In South Africa the term
 Bantu is commonly used to refer to the native African population, which
 is subject to the policies of APARTHEID.

   Bantu languages

 Bantu languages, group of African languages forming a subdivision of the
 Benue-Niger division of the Niger-Congo branch of the Niger-Kordofanian
 language family. See AFRICAN LANGUAGES .

   bantustan

 bantustan, territory set aside by the Union of South Africa for blacks
 and given nominal independence in stages. The 10 bantustans, covering 14%
 of the country's land, were created from the former "native reserves."
 Four of them have been proclaimed independent: TRANSKEI (1976),
 BOPHUTHATSWANA (1977), VENDA (1979), and CISKEI (1981). No foreign
 government has recognized the new "states," and the policy has been
 condemned as an extension of APARTHEID because blacks in the independent
 bantustans (8 million thus far) lose their limited rights as South
 African citizens.

   baobab

 baobab, huge tree (Adansonia digitata) of the BOMBAX family, native to
 India and Africa. The trunk diameter of this relatively short tree is
 exceeded only by that of the SEQUOIA, and the trunks of living trees are
 hollowed out for dwellings. The bark is used for rope and cloth, the
 leaves yield condiments and medicines, and the gourdlike fruit
 (monkeybread) is eaten.

   Bao Dai

 Bao Dai, 1913-, emperor (1926-45) of ANNAM. He was emperor under French
 colonial rule and cooperated with the Japanese in World War II. He
 abdicated (1945) but returned (1949) as chief of state of VIETNAM. Bao
 Dai was ousted (1955) by Ngo Dinh DIEM, who became president of South
 Vietnam.

   baptism

 baptism [Gr.,=dipping], in most Christian churches a SACRAMENT. Usually
 required for membership in a church, it is a rite of purification by
 water, invoking the grace of God to regenerate a person and cleanse him
 or her of sin. Formal baptism is performed by immersion (as among the
 BAPTISTS) or by pouring or sprinkling water on the person to be baptized.
 Some churches baptize infants; others withhold baptism until a relatively
 mature age.

   baptistery

 baptistery, part of a church, or a separate connected building, used for
 administering BAPTISM. At first it was simply a pool or basin set in the
 floor. Later a separate structure was set aside for the ceremony; the
 earliest extant is in the Lateran basilica at Rome. Most early
 baptisteries, found in Italy and in Asia Minor, were circular or
 octagonal. When immersion was no longer practiced, standing fonts took
 their place. In Italy separate baptisteries continued to be built, e.g.,
 at Florence, in the 12th to 15th cent.

   Baptists

 Baptists, denomination of Protestant Christians holding that baptism is
 only for believers and solely by immersion. Begun (c.1608) by English
 SEPARATISTS in Amsterdam, it now has a membership of over 31 million
 worldwide. The first American congregation was founded (1639) by Roger
 WILLIAMS in Providence, R.I. The churches are congregational, with
 nongoverning general associations, e.g., the Southern Baptist Convention
 and the National Baptist Convention, U.S.A., Inc.

   Bar, Confederation of

 Bar, Confederation of (1768-72), union formed at Bar, Podolia (now W
 Ukraine, USSR), by a faction of Polish nobles and the Roman Catholic
 clergy for the purpose of defending Polish independence and Roman
 Catholicism, and of opposing Russian interference in Polish affairs. It
 also opposed the Russian-backed king, STANISLAUS II. In 1772 the
 confederation fought a bitter war against Russia; it ended with the
 dissolution of the confederation and the First Partition of Poland.

   Barabbas

 Barabbas, bandit whose release was granted to the mob by PONTIUS PILATE
 instead of JESUS. Mat. 27.15-18; Mark 15.6-15; Luke 23.13-25; John 18.39,
 40.

   Baraka, Imamu Amiri

 Baraka, Imamu Amiri, 1934-, black American author and political activist;
 b. Newark, N.J., as LeRoi Jones. His works often express the black man's
 hatred for white society. Among his plays are Dutchman, The Toilet, and
 The Slave (all: 1964). He has also published a volume of selected poetry,
 another of plays and prose (both 1979), and an autobiography (1984)

   Baranov, Aleksandr Andreyevich

 Baranov, Aleksandr Andreyevich, 1747-1819, Russian trader. He governed
 (1800-1818) operations in Alaska for the Russian American Company. His
 dogged determination kept Russian activity in Alaska prosperous despite
 British and U.S. competition.

   Barbados

 Barbados, island state (1985 pop. 253,055), 166 sq mi (430 sq km), WEST
 INDIES, E of St. Vincent in the Windward Islands. The capital is
 Bridgetown. The easternmost of the major islands in the Windward chain,
 Barbados is generally low-lying, rising to no more than 1,104 ft (336 m),
 with no rivers, but ample rainfall from June to December. The porous soil
 and moderate warmth are ideal for the growing of sugarcane, traditionally
 the island's major occupation. Rum and molasses are exported, there is
 commercial fishing, and some light industry was introduced in the 1970s
 and early 1980s. However, the largest source of foreign exchange is
 tourism, the island having long been a favorite resort area. The
 population is mostly rural and about 95% of black African origin. The
 Portuguese probably discovered and named Barbados, but it was settled in
 the early 1600s by the British. The sugar economy that they introduced
 survived the abolition of slavery in 1834, and for a time Barbados served
 as the administrative capital of the Windward Islands. It became a
 separate colony of Britain in 1885 and an independent associated state of
 the Commonwealth in 1966.

   Barbarossa

 Barbarossa, c.1483-1546, Turkish corsair. He and his brother Aruj seized
 Algiers from Spain in 1518, and placed it and the other BARBARY STATES
 under Turkish suzerainty. As admiral of the Turkish fleet under SULAYMAN
 I, he twice defeated (1533, 1544) the Italian admiral DORIA and ravaged
 the coasts of Greece, Italy, and Spain.

   Barbarossa, Frederick

 Barbarossa, Frederick: see frederick i under FREDERICK, rulers of the
 Holy Roman Empire.

   Barbary States

 Barbary States, term historically applied to the North African states of
 Tripolitania, TUNISIA, ALGERIA and MOROCCO. In the 16th cent., led by the
 corsair BARBAROSSA, they came under Turkish suzerainty despite efforts by
 Holy Roman Emperor Charles V to defeat the Turks. As Turkish hold on them
 weakened, they became the home base for pirates who demanded booty,
 ransom, and slaves from raids on Mediterranean (and occasionally
 Atlantic) shipping and ports. The major European naval powers in general
 found it more convenient to pay tribute to the Barbary States than to try
 to destroy them. By the 19th cent., however, opposition to them was
 strong, and the TRIPOLITAN WAR reflected U.S. opposition. In 1830 France
 captured Algiers, and c.1835 Morocco was forced to abandon plans to
 rebuild its fleet-in effect ending Barbary Coast piracy.

   Barber, Samuel

 Barber, Samuel, 1910-81, American composer; b. West Chester, Pa. His
 music is lyrical and generally tonal. Among his major compositions are
 Adagio for Strings (1936); Knoxville: Summer of 1915 (1947), for soprano
 and orchestra; and the operas Vanessa (1956; Pulitzer) and Antony and
 Cleopatra (1966), commissioned to open the new METROPOLITAN OPERA House,
 at LINCOLN CENTER (N.Y.C.).

   Barbie, Klaus

 Barbie, Klaus, 1913-87, Nazi war criminal known as the "Butcher of
 Lyons." Gestapo chief in Lyons (1942-44), he was responsible for the
 deaths of French Resistance members and thousands of Jews. After the war
 he secretly served as a U.S. army agent in Germany. In 1951, he escaped
 and settled in Bolivia. When a civilian government took power, he was
 extradited to France (1983), found guilty of crimes against humanity, and
 sentenced to life imprisonment.

   Barbirolli, Sir John

 Barbirolli, Sir John, 1899-1970, English conductor and cellist. He
 succeeded TOSCANINI as conductor of the New York Philharmonic (1937-42)
 and later conducted (1960-67) the Houston Symphony Orchestra (see
 ORCHESTRA, ).

   barbiturate

 barbiturate, any depressant drug derived from barbituric acid. In low
 doses, barbiturates have a tranquilizing effect. Increased doses are
 hypnotic or sleep-inducing, and still larger doses act as anticonvulsants
 and anesthetics. Barbiturates are commonly taken as sleeping pills; such
 use may lead to psychological dependency, physiological tolerance, and
 even death by overdose (see DRUG ADDICTION AND DRUG ABUSE). Barbiturates
 do not relieve pain.

   Barbizon school

 Barbizon school, an informal association of French landscape painters
 that flourished c.1830-c.1870. Its name derives from the village of
 Barbizon, a favorite residence of members of the group. Theodore ROUSSEAU
 led the group, which also included Jules Dupre, Narciso Diaz de la Pena,
 Constant Troyon, and Charles DAUBIGNY. They rendered landscape from
 direct observation of nature, in a straightforward, anticlassical manner
 much influenced by 17th-cent. Dutch masters, including RUISDAEL and
 HOBBEMA. COROT and MILLET, although often linked with the group, stand
 outside its main line of development. The Barbizon school influenced
 late-19th- and early-20th-cent. American LANDSCAPE PAINTING.

   Barbuda

 Barbuda: see ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA.

   Barca

 Barca, surname of members of a powerful Carthaginian family: see HAMILCAR
 BARCA; HANNIBAL; HASDRUBAL.

   Barcelona

 Barcelona, city (1981 pop. 1,754,900), capital of Barcelona prov. and the
 chief city of CATALONIA, NE Spain, on the Mediterranean Sea. It is
 Spain's second largest city and largest port. Among its manufactures are
 textiles and machinery. Founded by settlers from CARTHAGE, it was held by
 the Romans and Visigoths; fell to the MOORS (8th cent.) and to
 CHARLEMAGNE (801); and was ruled from the 9th cent. by the counts of
 Barcelona. It reached its peak c.1400 as a center of trade, banking, and
 cloth-making. The center of the Catalan revolt against Spain (1640-52),
 it was the capital of the Catalan autonomous government (1932-39) and the
 seat of the Spanish Loyalist government (1938-39). Barcelona is a modern
 city with striking new buildings. Notable older structures include the
 Cathedral of Santa Eulalia (14th-15th cent.) and the Church of the
 Sagrada Familia (begun 1882), designed by Antonio GAUDI. The 1992 summer
 Olympic games are scheduled to be held in Barcelona.

   bar code

 bar code, an input/output device that identifies food and other products.
 It is an identifying code (it does not provide pricing information). The
 most common is the Universal Product Code (UPS), which provides for 12
 numeric characters, each of which consists of two dark bars and two light
 bars. Bar codes are decoded by scanning the symbol optically in an
 X-shaped pattern.

   Bardeen, John

 Bardeen, John, 1908-, American physicist; b. Madison, Wis. He is known
 for his studies of semiconductivity and other aspects of SOLID-STATE
 PHYSICS. The first to win a Nobel Prize twice in the same field, Bardeen
 shared the 1956 physics prize with Walter Brattain and William Shockley,
 for work in developing the TRANSISTOR, and the 1972 physics prize with
 Leon Cooper and John Schreiffer, for their theory of SUPERCONDUCTIVITY.

   Barenboim, Daniel

 Barenboim, Daniel, 1942-, Israeli pianist and conductor; b. Argentina. He
 made his debut in Buenos Aires at seven. In 1967 he married the English
 cellist Jacqueline du Pre. He has played CHAMBER MUSIC and recorded
 widely. He was music director of the Orchestre de Paris from 1975 until
 1989, when he disagreed with a public official about the orchestra.

   Barents Sea

 Barents Sea, arm of the Arctic Ocean, off N Norway and E USSR, partially
 enclosed by Franz Josef Land (N), Novaya Zemlya (E), and Svalbard (W).
 Remnants of the North Atlantic Drift, a continuation of the GULF STREAM,
 keep its ports, including MURMANSK and Vardo, ice-free throughout the
 year.

   Barentz

 Barentz or Barents, Willem,d. 1597, Dutch navigator. He made three
 expeditions to the arctic (1594, 1595, 1596-97) in search of the
 NORTHWEST PASSAGE. His importance lies in the extent of his explorations
 and the accuracy of his charts.

   Bar Harbor

 Bar Harbor, town (1986 est. pop. 4,120), SE Me., on Mount Desert Island
 and Frenchman Bay; settled 1763, inc. 1796. One of the most famous
 19th-cent. resorts, it is near Acadia National Park (see NATIONAL PARKS,
 ) and has summer ferry service to Nova Scotia. A 1947 fire destroyed much
 of Bar Harbor. The renowned Jackson Laboratory for biological research
 (est. 1929) is located there.

   barite, barytes

 barite, barytes, or heavy spar,white, yellow, blue, red, or colorless
 barium sulfate mineral (BaSO4). Abundant worldwide in tabular crystals or
 in granular or massive form, barite is used as a commercial source of the
 element BARIUM, as a filler in the manufacture of linoleum, oilcloth,
 rubber, and plastics, and as a mud for sealing oil wells during drilling.

   baritone

 baritone: see VOICE.

   barium

 barium (Ba), metallic element, isolated by electrolysis in 1808 by Sir
 Humphry DAVY. It is a soft, silver-white ALKALINE-EARTH METAL. Its
 principal ore is BARITE. Various barium compounds are used as paint
 pigments, rat poison, a drying agent, and a water softener, and in
 pyrotechnics. See ELEMENT ; PERIODIC TABLE.

   bark

 bark, outer covering of the STEM of woody plants, composed of waterproof
 CORK cells (the outer bark) protecting a layer of food-conducting tissue
 (the inner bark or phloem). As the stem grows in size (see CAMBIUM), the
 outer bark gives way by splitting, shredding, or peeling in patterns
 typical of the species. Various barks are sources of textile fibers
 (e.g., HEMP, FLAX, and JUTE), tannin, cork, dyes, flavorings (e.g.,
 CINNAMON), and drugs (e.g., QUININE).

   Barker, Harley Granville-

 Barker, Harley Granville-: see GRANVILLE-BARKER.

   Bar Kokba, Simon

 Bar Kokba, Simon, d. AD 135, Hebrew hero and leader of a major but
 unsuccessful revolt against Rome (AD132-135). In recent excavations at
 MASADA, Israeli archaeologists have found letters in his handwriting.

   Barlach, Ernst

 Barlach, Ernst, 1870-1938, pioneer German expressionist sculptor, graphic
 artist, and writer. He produced compact, angular sculptures and WOODCUTS
 that convey intense emotion and compassion. The NAZIS destroyed much of
 his work. He illustrated his own poems and plays.

   barley

 barley, annual cereal plant (Hordeum vulgare) of the GRASS family, widely
 cultivated except in hot and humid climates. Barley was known to the
 ancients and was the chief bread grain in Europe as late as the 16th
 cent. Today, each of the many varieties grown has a special purpose,
 e.g., for stock feed, for malting, as a minor source of flour, and in
 soups.

   Barlow, Joel

 Barlow, Joel, 1754-1812, American writer and diplomat; b. Redding, Conn.
 A CONNECTICUT WIT, he is known for his verse epic The Vision of Columbus
 (1787; rev. ed., The Columbiad, 1807) and his mock heroic eulogy The
 Hasty-Pudding (1793). His prose works include Advice to the Privileged
 Orders (1792) and a critique of the French Constitution of 1791. Barlow
 served as U.S. consul to Algiers, where he negotiated several treaties.
 He was killed during Napoleon I's retreat from Moscow.

   bar mitzvah

 bar mitzvah, Jewish ceremony in which a young male (traditionally at age
 13) is initiated into the religious community and performs his first act
 as an adult, reading in the synagogue from the weekly portion of the
 TORAH. The bat (or bas) mitzvah is a comparable 20th-cent. ceremony for
 girls of 12 or 13.

   Barnabas, Saint

 Barnabas, Saint, Cypriot Christian apostle, relative of St. MARK;
 companion of St. PAUL on his first missionary journey. An epistle
 attributed to him is in the pseudepigrapha.

   barnacle

 barnacle, sedentary marine animal (subclass Cirripedia), a CRUSTACEAN.
 Barnacles permanently attach themselves to a substrate by means of an
 adhesive cement. They secrete a calcareous shell around themselves and
 form conspicuous encrusting colonies on rocks, pilings, boats, and some
 marine animals (e.g., whales, turtles). The attached end of the animal is
 the head; jointed legs (cirri) sweep food particles through the shell
 opening to the mouth. Some barnacles lack shells and are PARASITES of
 other invertebrates.

   Barnard, Christiaan Neethling

 Barnard, Christiaan Neethling, 1923-, South African surgeon. In 1958 he
 was appointed director of surgical research at Groote Schuur Hospital,
 Cape Town, where on Dec. 3, 1967, he completed the first human heart
 transplant. Barnard has designed artificial heart valves and developed
 surgical procedures for organ transplants.

   Barnard, Edward Emerson

 Barnard, Edward Emerson, 1857-1923, American astronomer; b. Nashville. An
 astronomer at Lick and Yerkes observatories, he discovered 16 comets,
 Jupiter's satellite Amalthea (1892), and Barnard's star (1916), a star
 having the largest observed proper motion. He took important photographs
 of comets, planets, nebulae, and the Milky Way.

   Barnard, Frederick Augustus Porter

 Barnard, Frederick Augustus Porter, 1809-89, American educator; b.
 Sheffield, Mass. While president (1864-89) of Columbia College (now
 Columbia Univ.) Barnard expanded the curriculum, added departments, and
 increased the enrollment from 150 to 1,500 students, turning a small
 undergraduate college into what would become (1896) a great university.
 He advocated equal education for men and women, and wrote extensively on
 education and other topics. He encouraged N.M. BUTLER in the founding of
 Teachers College, Columbia. Barnard College, for undergraduate women, is
 named for him.

   Barnard, Henry

 Barnard, Henry, 1811-1900, American educator; b. Hartford, Conn. As a
 member (1837-39) of the Connecticut legislature he secured passage in
 1838 of an act providing better supervision of the common schools. He and
 Horace MANN became leaders in the reform of the country's common schools,
 and Barnard did pioneer work in school inspection, recommendation of
 textbooks, and organization of teachers' institutes and parent-teacher
 associations. The first U.S. commissioner of education (1867-70), he
 edited and published the American Journal of Education (31 vol.,
 1855-81).

   Barnard College

 Barnard College: see COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY.

   Barnburners

 Barnburners, radical element in the New York state Democratic party
 (1842-48), opposed to the conservative HUNKERS. The name derives from a
 fabled Dutchman who burned his barn to kill the rats; by implication,
 Barnburners favored destroying corporations and public works to rid them
 of abuses. They opposed the extension of slavery. Among their number were
 Martin VAN BUREN and S.J. TILDEN. After 1848 some Barnburners joined the
 FREE-SOIL PARTY.

   Barnes, Djuna

 Barnes, Djuna, 1892-1982, American author; b. Cornwall, N.Y. She is best
 known for Nightwood (1936), a novel marked by horror and decay. Other
 works include poetry, short stories, and a verse tragedy, Antiphon
 (1958).

   Barneveldt, Johan van Olden

 Barneveldt, Johan van Olden: see OLDENBARNEVELDT, JOHAN VAN.

   Barnum, P(hineas) T(aylor)

 Barnum, P(hineas) T(aylor), 1810-91, American showman; b. Bethel, Conn.
 In 1842 he opened his American Museum in New York City and immediately
 became famous for his extravagant advertising and his exhibits of freaks,
 including "Gen. TOM THUMB" and the original SIAMESE TWINS. Barnum managed
 the hugely successful U.S. tour of the Swedish singer Jenny LIND in 1850.
 In 1871 (after a brief political career) he opened his famous circus,
 "The Greatest Show on Earth." Merged with its chief competitor in 1881,
 it continued as Barnum & Bailey.

   Barocchio, Giacomo

 Barocchio, Giacomo: see VIGNOLA, GIACOMO DA.

   Baroja y Nessi, Pio

 Baroja y Nessi, Pio, 1879-1956, Spanish novelist from the BASQUE
 PROVINCES. His popular cyclical works include The Struggle for Existence
 (3 vol., 1904), about the Madrid underworld, and Memoirs of a Man of
 Action (22 vol., 1913-34), about 19th-cent. Spain.

   barometer

 barometer, instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure. The mercurial
 barometer consists of a mercury-filled glass tube that is sealed at one
 end and inverted in a cup of mercury. Pressure on the surface of the
 mercury in the cup supports the mercury in the tube, which varies in
 height depending on variations in atmospheric pressure. At 32 deg F (0
 deg C), standard sea-level pressure (1 standard atmosphere) is 14.7
 lb/in.2 (1,030 g/cm2), which is equivalent to a column of mercury 29.92
 in. (76 cm) in height. The aneroid barometer contains a sealed, partially
 evacuated metallic box. As the air pressure on it varies, one of its
 surfaces expands or contracts; this motion is transmitted by a train of
 levers to a pointer, which shows the pressure on a graduated scale. In
 WEATHER forecasting, a rising barometer usually indicates fair weather; a
 rapidly falling barometer, stormy weather.

   Baron, Salo Wittmayer

 Baron, Salo Wittmayer, 1895-, American Jewish historian and educator; b.
 Galicia, Austria-Hungary. He taught at Columbia from 1930 to 1963,
 holding the first professorship of Jewish history in a U.S. university.
 His major work is the monumental Social and Religious History of the Jews
 (vol. I-XVII, 2d ed., 1952-80).

   Barons' War

 Barons' War, in English history, war of 1263-67 between HENRY III and his
 barons. In 1261 Henry reasserted his power and renounced the PROVISIONS
 OF OXFORD. Led by Simon de MONTFORT, the barons resorted to arms. They
 failed to establish control over the crown but helped prepare for the
 constitutional developments in the reign of EDWARD I.

   baroque

 baroque, in art and architecture, style developed in Europe, England, and
 Latin America during the 17th and 18th cent. Its essential characteristic
 is an emphasis on unity, a balance among diverse parts. Architecture took
 on the plastic aspects of sculpture and, along with sculpture, was
 enhanced by the chiaroscuro (high-contrast) effects of painting. Works in
 all media were produced on a grand scale. Illusionism increased an
 unequaled sense of drama, energy, and mobility of form. Baroque
 buildings, e.g., VERSAILLES, Christopher WREN'S churches, compelled order
 upon overwhelming multiple forms. Throughout Europe undulating facades
 and complex ground plans abounded. Fountains burst forth as joyous
 geysers and cascades. Deep PERSPECTIVE was developed in painting, e.g.,
 by RUISDAEL and de HOOCH. Chiaroscuro intensified the works of
 CARAVAGGIO, ZURBARAN, Georges de LA TOUR, and REMBRANDT. Color was
 superbly exploited to diverse effect by VERMEER, RUBENS, CLAUDE LORRAIN,
 and Pietro da CORTONA. Sculptors used multiple materials for a single
 work, e.g., BERNINI'S Ecstasy of St. Theresa, which also exemplifies the
 baroque fascination with intense emotional states. Landscape subjects
 were ennobled by the CARRACCI, Ruisdael, HOBBEMA, Rembrandt, Salvator
 ROSA and Claude Lorrain, and GENRE and STILL LIFE by Vermeer, STEEN, de
 Hooch, and the LE NAINS. In the Early Baroque (c.1590-c.1625), the Roman
 artists Caravaggio, the Carracci, DOMENICHINO, and Guido RENI were





 position to France. Painters such as MURILLO used lighter colors and
 softer forms, and the baroque style gradually gave way to the ROCOCO.

   baroque

 baroque, in music, the period and style of composition and performance
 prevailing from the last decades of the 16th cent. to the beginning of
 the 18th cent. The 16th-cent. revolt against the POLYPHONY of the
 Renaissance gave rise to an emphasis on the character of individual
 voices and instruments and also on the use of HARMONY in composition. Use
 of the older church modes was replaced by major and minor TONALITY as the
 basis of composition. Principal forms of vocal writing of the period
 included the OPERA, ORATORIO, and CANTATA; instrumental writing included
 the SONATA, CONCERTO, and OVERTURE







 Barozzi, Giacomo: see VIGNOLA, GIACOMO DA.

   barracuda

 barracuda, slender, elongated, ferocious FISH (family Sphyraenidae) with
 a long snout and projecting lower jaw edged with large, sharp teeth.
 Found in tropical seas, barracudas will strike at anything that gleams
 and are excellent game fish. The great barracuda (Sphyraena barracuda),
 up to 10 ft (3 m) in length, is dangerous to swimmers.

   Barranquilla

 Barranquilla, city (1985 pop. 920,695), N Colombia, on the Magdalena R.,
 8 mi (12.9 km) from the Caribbean Sea. Founded in 1629, it developed as a
 port in the mid-19th cent., with the advent of steam navigation, and is
 now Colombia's principal port. Manufactures include aluminum sheets,





 Barrie, Sir J(ames) M(atthew), 1860-1937, Scottish playwright and
 novelist. Best remembered for his play Peter Pan (1904), a fantasy about
 a boy who refused to grow up, Barrie was a journalist and published
 Scottish sketches before the success of his novel The Little Minister
 (1891). Its dramatization (1897) established him as a playwright.

   Barron, James

 Barron, James, 1769-1851, U.S. naval officer; b. Hampton, Va. He was
 court-martialed for failing to clear his ship, the Chesapeake, for action
 during an 1807 incident with the British ship Leopard. In 1820 he
 mortally wounded Stephen DECATUR in a duel.

   Barrow, Sir John

 Barrow, Sir John, 1764-1848, British geographer. As second secretary of
 the admiralty, he promoted scientific voyages and instigated arctic
 expeditions by John ROSS and William Parry. He helped found (1830) the
 Royal Geographical Society. Point Barrow, Cape Barrow, and Barrow Strait
 bear his name.

   Barrow

 Barrow, city (1980 pop. 2,207), N Alaska, inc. 1958. The main trade
 center of N Alaska, it has government and military facilities. The
 population is predominantly ESKIMO, and the area has been inhabited for
 centuries. Hunting, fishing and whaling, and Eskimo crafts are important.
 North Slope oil production is beginning to affect the local economy.

   barrow

 barrow, in archaeology, burial mound, built usually of earth and stone or
 timber, perhaps to simulate cave burial. In W Europe long barrows date
 from the New STONE AGE and round barrows from the BRONZE AGE. More recent
 Asian round barrows (STUPAS) usually house Buddhist relics. See also
 MOUND BUILDERS.

   Barry, Philip

 Barry, Philip, 1896-1949, American playwright; b. Rochester, N.Y. He is
 primarily known for his satirical comedies, e.g., Holiday (1928),
 Tomorrow and Tomorrow (1931), The Animal Kingdom (1932), and The
 Philadelphia Story (1939).

   Barrymore

 Barrymore, Anglo-American family of actors. The first of the name,
 Maurice Barrymore, 1847-1905, was an Englishman; b. India as Herbert
 Blythe. A handsome leading man, he came to the U.S. in 1875 to appear
 with Augustin Daly's company. His wife, Georgiana Drew Barrymore,
 1856-93, b. Philadelphia, was a great comedienne. She began her career
 with the company of her parents, Louisa and John DREW, and acted with her
 husband in Mme Modjeska's troupe. Their elder son, Lionel Barrymore,
 1878-1954, b. Philadelphia, was a much admired character actor remembered
 for his film roles in A Free Soul (1931; Academy Award) and Dinner at
 Eight (1933), and for his annual radio portrayal of Scrooge in A
 Christmas Carol. His sister, Ethel Barrymore, 1879-1959, an actress of
 dignity and warmth, achieved success in Captain Jinks of the Horse
 Marines (1901) and is remembered for The Corn Is Green (1940) and the
 film None but the Lonely Heart (1944; Academy Award). Their brother, John
 Barrymore, 1882-1942, a tempestuous matinee idol, was also a
 distinguished actor, famous for his electrifying Hamlet (1922). His films
 include Grand Hotel (1932) and Twentieth Century (1934).

   Barth, Karl

 Barth, Karl, 1886-1968, Swiss Protestant theologian, one of the leading
 thinkers of 20th-cent. Protestantism. A Swiss minister, he became a
 professor (1921-35) in Germany, and opposed the Nazi regime. Deported to
 Switzerland, he later taught at Basel, where he continued to expound his
 views, known as dialectical theology or theology of the word. Barth
 sought to reassert the principles of the Reformation. He saw the central
 concern of theology as the word of God and His revelation in Jesus
 Christ, which he thought was the only means for God to reveal Himself to
 humans, who must listen in awe, trust, and obedience. Among his many
 works is his Church Dogmatics (vol. I-IV, 1932-62).

   Barthelme, Donald

 Barthelme, Donald, 1931-, American writer; b. Philadelphia. He uses
 idiosyncratic language and symbol to fit his vision of an absurd reality.
 His work includes the novels Snow White (1967) and The Dead Father (1975)
 and the short-story collections City Life (1971) and Sixty Stories
 (1981).

   Barthes, Roland

 Barthes, Roland, 1915-80, French literary critic, the major theorist of
 semiology (see SEMIOTICS; STRUCTURALISM). In Writing Degree Zero (1953)
 he attempted to distinguish "scription," the act of writing, from
 conventional categories of language and style. He followed that work with
 controversial studies of aspects of French culture. In Elements of
 Semiology (1964), Barthes systematized the study of signs proposed
 earlier by Ferdinand de SAUSSURE. In his other works he applied his
 linguistic theories to cliches of national culture, the work of
 individual writers, photography, and other topics.

   Bartholdi, Frederic Auguste

 Bartholdi, Frederic Auguste, 1834-1904, French sculptor; b. Alsace. He
 produced numerous monumental sculptures, including the Lion of Belfort
 and his most famous work, Liberty Enlightening the World, on Liberty
 Island, New York Bay (see LIBERTY, STATUE OF).

   Bartholomew, Saint

 Bartholomew, Saint, one of the Twelve Disciples; identified with
 NATHANAEL. By tradition he was a missionary in India.

   Bartok, Bela

 Bartok, Bela, 1881-1945, Hungarian composer and collector of folk music.
 Utilizing folk elements, ATONALITY, and traditional techniques, he
 achieved an original modern style that has had great influence on
 20th-cent. music. Bartok became known for his compositions for piano,
 e.g., Mikrokosmos (1926-27); for violin, e.g., Music for Strings,
 Percussion, and Celesta (1936), and for orchestra, e.g., Concerto for
 Orchestra (1943). In 1940 he emigrated to the U.S. and was commissioned
 by Columbia Univ. to transcribe a large collection of Yugoslav folk
 melodies.

   Barton, Clara

 Barton, Clara, 1821-1912, American humanitarian; b. Oxford, Mass. Called
 the Angel of the Battlefield, she set up a supply service during the
 CIVIL WAR, was nurse in army camps and on battlefields, and led searches
 for the missing. After working behind German lines for the International
 Red Cross in the FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR, she organized (1881) the American
 RED CROSS, which she headed until 1904.

   Bartram, John

 Bartram, John, 1699-1777, pioneer American botanist; b. near Darby, Pa.
 He planted the first botanical garden in the U.S. His exchange of many
 plants with the great European botanists introduced many American plants
 into Europe and established some European species in the New World. In
 search of new plants he made many journeys around the North American
 continent, including trips to the Alleghenies, the Catskills, the
 Carolinas, and Florida.

   Baruch, Bernard Mannes

 Baruch, Bernard Mannes, 1870-1965, U.S. financier and government adviser;
 b. Camden, S.C. An industrial and economic adviser to the government
 during both world wars, Baruch was U.S. representative (1946) to the UN
 Atomic Energy Commission.

   Baruch

 Baruch, book included in the OLD TESTAMENT of the Western canon and the
 Septuagint but not in the Hebrew Bible, and placed in the APOCRYPHA in
 the Authorized Version. Named for a Jewish prince, Baruch (fl. 600 BC), a
 friend of the prophet JEREMIAH and the editor of his book, it includes a
 message from exiled Jews to those still at home, a famous messianic
 allusion, a consolation, and a letter of Jeremiah.

   baryon

 baryon: see ELEMENTARY PARTICLES.

   Baryshnikov, Mikhail

 Baryshnikov, Mikhail (mi'khail bariy'shnikak'v) 1948-, Russian-American
 dancer and choreographer; b. Riga, Latvia. He studied in Riga and
 performed with the KIROV BALLET (1966-74). He defected (1974) to the
 West, danced with the AMERICAN BALLET THEATRE (1974-78) and the NEW YORK
 CITY BALLET (1978-79), and became director of the ABT. He acted in the
 movie The Turning Point (1977).

   barytes

 barytes: see BARITE.

   Barzun, Jacques

 Barzun, Jacques, 1907-, American scholar; b. France. He began teaching
 history at Columbia Univ. in 1928. Later he was dean of the graduate
 faculties (1955-58) and dean of faculties and provost (1958-67). He has
 written on a variety of subjects, e.g., Darwin, Marx, Wagner (1941).

   basal metabolism

 basal metabolism: see METABOLISM.

   basalt

 basalt, fine-grained igneous ROCK of volcanic origin, with a high
 percentage of iron and magnesium, in a range of dark colors. Its texture
 varies depending on conditions of cooling. Most of the world's great LAVA
 flows (e.g., the COLUMBIA PLATEAU in the NW U.S.) are basalt. It
 underlies the sediment cover in the world's oceans and is believed to
 underlie the CONTINENTS as well. Many of the lunar rocks obtained by the
 Apollo astronauts are basalt.

   base

 base, in chemistry: see ACIDS AND BASES.

   baseball

 baseball, the "national game" of the U.S., popular also in Japan and in
 Cuba, Puerto Rico, Mexico, and other Latin American countries. It derives
 its name from the four bases, spaced 90 ft (27.43 m) apart on the inner
 playing field (the diamond). Cowhide-covered hard balls, wooden bats, and
 padded gloves constitute the basic equipment. A game is played by two
 opposing teams of nine players each-a pitcher, a catcher, four
 infielders, and three outfielders. To win, a team must score more runs in
 nine innings than its opponent, a run being a complete circuit of the
 bases. Extra innings are played to resolve ties. A form of baseball,
 doubtless derived from the English games of CRICKET and rounders, was
 played in the early 19th cent. The belief that Abner Doubleday invented
 the modern game in 1839 has been largely refuted. In the U.S., two main
 professional associations form the major leagues. The National League
 (organized in 1876) and the American League (1900) comprise a total of 26
 teams representing U.S. and two Canadian cities. Champions of each league
 meet annually in the World Series. Major-league baseball became truly
 national in scope with the westward migration of several franchises,
 beginning in 1953, when the Boston Braves moved to Milwaukee. During the
 1960s the number of clubs expanded from 16 to 24, with two divisions in
 each league. The game's greatest figures are elected to the National
 Baseball Hall of Fame, at Cooperstown, N.Y. (opened 1939). Baseball is
 also played by minor-league professional clubs and by semiprofessional,
 amateur, college, and school teams.

   Basel

 Baselor Basle, city (1985 est. pop. 174,600), N Switzerland, divided by
 the Rhine R. A river port and financial center, it is the seat of the
 Swiss chemical and pharmaceutical industries. Founded by the Romans, it
 became (7th cent.) an episcopal see and (11th cent.) a free imperial
 city. It was the residence of prince-bishops, expelled after Basel
 accepted (1523) the Reformation. Its university attracted ERASMUS (who is
 buried in the 11th-cent. cathedral), HOLBEIN the Younger, John CALVIN,
 and NIETZSCHE. The city houses a valuable collection of Holbein's work.

   Basel, Council of

 Basel, Council of, 1431-49, council of the Roman Catholic Church. Called
 primarily to discuss the HUSSITE heresy it accepted the conciliar theory
 that ultimate authority in the church rests in the council and not with
 the pope. After being denounced (1437) by Pope EUGENE IV, the council
 deposed him and elected (1439) AMADEUS VIII (antipope Felix V). Lacking
 support, Felix resigned (1449); the council then recognized Eugene's
 successor and dissolved.

   basenji

 basenji, medium-sized HOUND; shoulder height, c.17 in. (43.2 cm); weight,
 c.23 lb (10.4 kg). Its short, silky coat is chestnut, red, black, or
 black and tan, with white markings. Bred in ancient Africa and at the
 courts of Egypt's pharaohs, it whines rather than barks and cleans itself
 like a cat.

   Basho

 Basho, 1644-94, usually considered the foremost Japanese HAIKU poet. He
 did not in fact write haiku but composed stanzas of haikai no renga (a
 sequence of linked verses, usually by a group of poets). The 17-syllable
 opening, and most important, stanza (hokku) was later separated as the
 verse form haiku. A master of both hokku and the integration of verses in
 a sequence, Basho imbued what was formerly a social pastime with the
 spirit of ZEN BUDDHISM, attending to the often lowly details of everyday
 life in the context of the eternal.

   BASIC

 BASIC: see PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE.

   Basie, Count

 Basie, Count (William Basie), 1904-84, black American JAZZ pianist and
 bandleader; b. Red Bank, N.J. He worked in New York City and Kansas City,
 where he formed (1935) a highly influential band that continues to
 present a powerful yet relaxed style of music featuring his own laconic
 piano.

   Basil

 Basil, Byzantine emperors. Basil I (the Macedonian), c.813-86 (r.867-86),
 was the favorite of and co-ruler (866) with MICHAEL III, whose murder
 (867) he ordered. Basil reformed finance and law, protected the poor, and
 restored the empire's military prestige. Art and architecture flourished
 during his rule. He tried to prevent an open break between the Eastern
 and Western churches. Basil II, c.958-1025 (r.976-1025), followed the
 usurpers NICEPHORUS II and JOHN I as co-ruler with his debauched brother,
 Constantine VIII. Basil suppressed rebellious landowners and strengthened
 the laws against them. He annexed (1018) Bulgaria and extended the empire
 east to the Caucasus. The schism between the Eastern and Western churches
 increased during his reign.

   basil

 basil, tender herb or small shrub (genus Ocimum) of the MINT family,
 cultivated for the aromatic leaves. Common, or sweet, basil (O.
 basilicum) is used for seasoning. Holy basil and bush basil are related
 plants.

   basilica

 basilica, large Roman building used to transact business and legal
 matters. Often rectangular, with a roofed hall, it usually had an
 interior colonnade, with an APSE at one or both ends. The wide central
 aisle was usually higher than the flanking aisles, so that light could
 penetrate through the clerestory windows. Early examples are in Rome and
 Pompeii. In the 4th cent. Christians began to build places of worship
 related in form in Europe and the Middle East, e.g., the Church of the
 Nativity at Bethlehem (6th cent.). The massive Romanesque churches still
 retained the fundamental plan of the basilica.

   Baskerville, John

 Baskerville, John, 1706-75, English printer and, with CASLON, one of two
 great 18th-cent. English TYPE designers. His type faces introduced the
 modern pseudoclassical style, emphasizing the contrast of light and heavy
 lines. His books are typically large, with wide margins, and made with
 excellent paper and ink. Printer for Cambridge Univ. after 1758, he
 produced a famous folio Bible (1763).

   basketball

 basketball, game played generally indoors by two opposing teams of five
 players each. At each end of the court-usually about 92 ft (28 m) long
 and 50 ft (15 m) wide-is a bottomless basket made of cord net and
 suspended from a metal ring attached 10 ft (3.05 m) above the floor to a
 backboard. The ball may be passed, batted, or dribbled (bounced), but the
 players may not run with it. Players of one team attempt to shoot the
 ball through one basket while seeking to keep the opposition from scoring
 through the other basket. Each field goal, or basket, scores two points
 (sometimes three points in professional basketball); foul shots, awarded
 mostly for illegal body contact, count one point. Overtime periods are
 played to break ties. Basketball was originated (1891) in Springfield,
 Mass., by Dr. James Naismith of the YMCA. It quickly grew into a leading
 U.S. school and college sport and spread throughout the world, becoming
 (1936) a part of the OLYMPIC GAMES. Professional basketball gained great
 popularity in the U.S. after the formation (1949) of the National
 Basketball Association (NBA). U.S. women's basketball developed rapidly
 in the 1970s on professional, collegiate, and high school levels.

   basketry

 basketry, art of weaving or coiling flexible materials to form utensils
 for the preparation, storage, or serving of food; boats; huts; traps;
 apparel; and other objects. Twigs, roots, hide, bamboo, cane, raffia,
 grass, or straw are used. In antiquity, Egyptians (4000-5000 BC) used
 baskets for storing grain, and North American Indians of the Southwest
 (c.1500 BC) covered baskets with clay and baked them to create fireproof
 cooking vessels, anticipating pottery. In some parts of the world pottery
 preceded basketry.

   Baskin, Leonard

 Baskin, Leonard, 1922-, American artist; b. New Brunswick, N.J. Known for
 his powerful figurative graphics and sculpture, e.g., Man with a Dead
 Bird (Mus. Mod. Art, N.Y.C.), Baskin is also an influential teacher.

   Basque Provinces

 Basque Provinces, comprising the provinces of Alava, Guipuzcoa, and
 Vizcaya, N Spain, on the Bay of Biscay, bordering France in the
 northeast. In Alava and Guipuzcoa the major occupations are the mining of
 iron, lead, copper, and zinc; shipbuilding; metalworking; and fishing.
 Alava is largely agricultural. Nationalism is strong among the BASQUES,
 and in 1980 the provinces were granted regional autonomy. Basque
 terrorists, however, continue to press for total independence.

   Basques

 Basques, people of N Spain and SW France, numbering 2 million. Probably
 the oldest ethnic group in Europe, they preserve their ancient, unique
 language, and their customs and traditions. Since Paleolithic times the
 Basques have been genetically and culturally distinct. Mostly peasants,
 shepherds, fishermen, navigators, miners, and metalworkers, they have
 produced such famous figures as St. IGNATIUS OF LOYOLA and St. FRANCIS
 XAVIER. The Basques accepted Christianity late (3d-5th cent.). In the 6th
 cent. they expanded northward into Gascony, to which they gave their
 name. The kingdom of NAVARRE, founded in 824, united almost all Basques,
 but after its conquest (1512) by CASTILE Basque prosperity declined. Of
 the Basque provinces, only Navarre supported the Franco forces in the
 SPANISH CIVIL WAR (1936-39). Basque nationalism in Spain, often involving
 violent incidents, continued into the 1980s.

   Basra

 Basra, city (1970 est. pop. 333,684), SE Iraq, on the SHATT AL ARAB.
 Iraq's only port, it has a commercially advantageous location near oil
 fields and 75 mi (121 km) from the PERSIAN GULF. Since 1948 many oil
 refineries have been built in the city. Basra was founded (AD 636) by the
 caliph Umar I and was a cultural center under HARUN AR-RASHID. In 1982
 the area around Basra was the scene of heavy fighting in the IRAN-IRAQ
 WAR.

   bass

 bass, any of various FISHES of the families Serranidae (sea basses) and
 Centrarchidae (black basses and sunfishes). Sea basses, a large, diverse
 family of fishes with oblong, rather compressed bodies, inhabit warm and
 temperate seas worldwide and are highly valued as food and game fish. The
 largest sea basses are GROUPERS. Sunfishes, spiny-finned, freshwater
 fishes with flattened bodies, are found in North America. Black basses,
 averaging 2 to 3 lb (.9 to 1.4 kg), are the most valuable American
 freshwater game fishes.

   bass

 bass: see VOICE.

   Bassano, Jacopo

 Bassano, Jacopo, c.1515-1592, Venetian mannerist painter (see MANNERISM);
 b. Jacopo da Ponte. Primarily a painter of biblical themes, he introduced
 vignettes of country life into his works, e.g., Annunciation to the
 Shepherds (National Gall., Wash., D.C.). His sons Francesco Bassano,
 1549-92, and Leandro Bassano, 1558-1623, were also painters.

   basset hound

 basset hound, short-legged, long-bodied HOUND; shoulder height, 12-15 in.
 (30.1-38.1 cm); weight, 25-50 lb (11.3-22.7 kg). Its short, dense coat is
 black, tan, or white, or a combination. The breed was developed centuries
 ago in France to hunt game in heavy ground cover.

   bassoon

 bassoon: see WIND INSTRUMENT.

   basswood

 basswood: see LINDEN.

   Bastille

 Bastille, fortress and prison in Paris, begun c.1369, now demolished. The
 Bastille became a hated symbol of absolutism because it was used for
 arbitrary and secret imprisonment by the crown. On July 14, 1789, a
 Parisian mob stormed the prison, hoping to seize its store of ammunition,
 but found only seven prisoners. This marked the start of lower-class
 participation in the FRENCH REVOLUTION. July 14-Bastille Day-became a
 national holiday in France.

   bat

 bat, the only MAMMAL (order Chiroptera) capable of true flight. Numbering
 between 1,000 and 2,000 species, bats range in size from less than 1 in.
 (2.5 cm) to 15 in. (45 cm), with a wingspan of from less than 2 in. (5
 cm) to 5 ft (150 cm). The body is furry and mouselike, with the forelimbs
 and extensions of the skin of the back and belly modified to form wings.
 Bats are most abundant in the tropics, and temperate species often
 hibernate or migrate to warmer areas in the winter. Most species frequent
 crevices, caves, or buildings, and are active at night or twilight; they
 roost during the day, often in large numbers and usually hanging by their
 feet. Most bats see well but depend on echolocation to navigate in the
 dark. Bats are fruit-eaters (fruit, nectar, pollen) or insect-eaters
 (fruit, insects, small animals, and fish); one species, the South
 American vampire bat, feeds exclusively on the blood of living animals,
 chiefly mammals.

   Bataan

 Bataan, peninsula and province (1981 pop. 321,860), W Luzon, the
 Philippines, between Manila Bay and the South China Sea. The capital is
 Batanga. A mountainous jungle region with bamboo forests, Bataan has a
 pulp and paper mill, fertilizer plant, and oil refinery. Subsistence
 farming is also carried on. U.S. and Filipino troops captured on Bataan
 (April 1942) by the Japanese in WORLD WAR II underwent a brutal "death
 march" to a prison camp; thousands died.

   Batavian Republic

 Batavian Republic, name for the United Provinces of the Netherlands
 (1795-1806) after their conquest by the French in the FRENCH
 REVOLUTIONARY WARS. In 1806 NAPOLEON I made Batavia into the kingdom of
 Holland under his brother Louis Bonaparte (see BONAPARTE family).

   Bates, Henry Walter

 Bates, Henry Walter, 1825-92, English naturalist and explorer. His
 pioneering theory of mimicry, explaining similarity among species, was
 used by Charles DARWIN as a proof of his theory of natural selection.
 During travels (1848-59) along the upper Amazon R., he collected
 specimens of nearly 15,000 animal species (mostly insects), more than
 8,000 previously unclassified.

   Bath

 Bath, city (1986 est. pop. 84,400), Avon, SW England. In the 1st cent. AD
 the Romans built elaborate baths at the natural hot springs. Bath became
 England's most fashionable spa in the 18th cent., and the Georgian
 architecture and Roman baths remain tourist attractions.

   Bath, Order of the

 Bath, Order of the: see DECORATIONS, CIVIL AND MILITARY.

   batholith

 batholith, enormous mass of igneous ROCK, granitic in composition, with
 steep walls and without visible floors. Batholiths commonly extend over
 thousands of square miles. Their method of formation is controversial;
 most appear to have moved up through the earth's crust in a molten state,
 shattering and incorporating the overlying country rock.

   Bathory

 Bathory, Hungarian noble family. Stephen Bathory, 1477-1534, a supporter
 of JOHN I of Hungary, was made (1529) voivode governor of Transylvania.
 His younger son, STEPHEN BATHORY, became (1575) king of Poland and was
 succeeded as prince of Transylvania by his brother, Christopher Bathory,
 1530-81. Christopher's son and successor, Sigismund Bathory, 1572-1613,
 was mentally unbalanced. He abdicated (1597, 1599) for brief periods, and
 finally in 1602. Other family members included Elizabeth Bathory, d.
 1614, who was reputed to be a werewolf. To renew her youth, she is said
 to have slaughtered virgins and bathed in their blood. Gabriel Bathory,
 1589-1613, became (1608) prince of Transylvania and was killed in a
 revolt by nobles against his rule.

   Bath-sheba

 Bath-sheba, in the BIBLE, wife of Uriah the Hittite. DAVID seduced her,
 effected the death of her husband, and married her. She was the mother of
 SOLOMON. 2 Sam. 11;12; I Kings 1-2.

   batik

 batik, method of decorating fabric used for centuries in Indonesia. With
 melted wax, a design is applied to the cloth (cotton or, sometimes,
 silk), which is then dipped in cool vegetable dye. Areas covered by wax
 do not receive the dye and display a light pattern on the colored ground.
 The process may be repeated several times. When the design is complete,
 the wax is removed in hot water. A crackling effect occurs if dye has
 seeped into cracks of hardened wax. The same or similar patterns have
 been used for c.1,000 years. Batik was brought to Europe by Dutch
 traders, was adopted in the 19th cent. by Western craftsmen, and is still
 widely used.

   Batista y Zaldivar, Fulgencio

 Batista y Zaldivar, Fulgencio, 1901-73, Cuban dictator (1933-44,
 1952-59). An army sergeant, he took part in the 1933 military coup and,
 as army chief of staff, became de facto ruler of CUBA and its elected
 president (1940-44). He accepted his candidate's defeat in 1944, but in
 1952 he seized power and had himself elected president (1954, 1958). His
 corrupt rule caused popular discontent, and he fled (1959) the country
 during the CASTRO revolution.

   bat mitzvah

 bat mitzvah: see under BAR MITZVAH.

   Baton Rouge

 Baton Rouge [Fr., = red stick], city (1986 est. pop. 369,250), state
 capital and seat of East Baton Rouge parish, SE La., on the Mississippi
 R.; inc. 1817. A deepwater port and trade hub, it is a major center of
 petrochemical production with large refineries and machine shops. The
 city was founded in 1719 and was alternately French, English, and
 Spanish. Acquired by the U.S. in 1815, it became state capital in 1849.
 The old (1882) and new (1932) capitols, many antebellum homes, and
 Louisiana State Univ. are among the points of interest.

   Batory

 Batory: see STEPHEN BATHORY and BATHORY, family.

   Battenberg

 Battenberg, German princely family, issued from the morganatic union of
 Alexander, a younger son of Louis II, grand duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, and
 countess Julia von Hauke, who was created princess of Battenberg in 1858.
 Their oldest son, Louis (1854-1921), an admiral in the British navy, was
 created marquess of Milford Haven and married a granddaughter of Queen
 VICTORIA. During World War I, he anglicized his name to Mountbatten. He
 was the father of Louis MOUNTBATTEN and the grandfather of Philip, duke
 of EDINBURGH. Alexander's second son was Prince Alexander of Bulgaria. A
 third son, Henry, married Beatrice, daughter of Queen Victoria; their
 daughter, Victoria, married ALFONSO XIII of Spain.

   battery, electric

 battery, electric: see CELL, in electricity.

   Battle above the Clouds

 Battle above the Clouds: see CHATTANOOGA CAMPAIGN.

   Battle of Britain

 Battle of Britain: see WORLD WAR II.

   baud

 baud, a measure of the speed with which a signal travels over a
 telecommunications link. It is expressed in terms of the number of events
 that take place in one second, e.g., in COMPUTER input/output, one baud
 is equal to one bit per second.

   Baudelaire, Charles

 Baudelaire, Charles, 1821-67, French poet whose work has been a major
 influence on Western poetry. His poems, classical in form, introduced
 symbolism (see SYMBOLISTS). Baudelaire was moody and rebellious, imbued
 with an intense religious mysticism, and his work reflects an unremitting
 inner despair. His main theme is the inseparable nature of beauty and
 corruption. His major work, The Flowers of Evil (1857), originally
 condemned as obscene, is recognized as a masterpiece, especially
 remarkable for the brilliant phrasing, rhythm, and expressiveness of its
 lyrics.

   Baudouin

 Baudouin, 1930-, king of the Belgians (1951-). He joined his father,
 LEOPOLD III, in exile (1945-50) in Switzerland and became king when
 Leopold abdicated.

   Bauhaus

 Bauhaus, school of art and architecture in Germany. It was founded at
 Weimar in 1919 and headed by Walter GROPIUS; its faculty included Paul
 KLEE, Lyonel FEININGER, Wassily KANDINSKY, Laszlo MOHOLY-NAGY, and Marcel
 BREUER. The teaching concentrated on functional craftsmanship applied to
 industrial problems of mass production. Bauhaus style was characterized
 by severely economic, geometric design and by respect for materials.
 Enormously controversial and unpopular, the school moved in 1925 to
 Dessau. Gropius resigned in 1928 and was succeeded by Johannes Meyer, who
 was replaced in 1930 by MIES VAN DER ROHE. The Bauhaus moved again to
 Berlin in 1932 and was closed by the NAZIS in 1933. Its influence in
 design of architecture, furniture, typography, and weaving found
 international acclaim and continued to flourish in the U.S., especially
 at the Chicago Institute of Design, founded by Moholy-Nagy.

   Baum, L(yman) Frank

 Baum, L(yman) Frank, 1856-1919, American journalist, playwright, and
 author of juvenile stories; b. Chittenango, N.Y. His most famous work is
 The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1900), which was made into a movie in 1938.
 Baum published 13 more Oz books.

   bauxite

 bauxite, mixture of hydrated aluminum oxides usually containing oxides of
 iron and silicon. A noncrystalline substance formerly thought to be a
 mineral, bauxite is claylike, ranging from white to brown or red in
 color, and is the chief source of ALUMINUM and its compounds. It is
 widely distributed, with important deposits in Africa, South America,
 France, the USSR, the West Indies, and the U.S.

   Bavaria

 Bavaria, Ger. Bayern, state (1986 pop. 10,993,400), 27,239 sq mi (70,549
 sq km), S West Germany. It is the largest state of West Germany. Forestry
 and agriculture are important occupations, and much of its industry is
 centered in MUNICH, the capital. The region, whose boundaries have often
 varied, was conquered (15 BC) by the Romans and invaded (6th cent. AD) by
 the Baiuoarii, who set up a duchy. In 788 CHARLEMAGNE added Bavaria to
 his empire. It was ruled (788-911) by the CAROLINGIANS and in 1070 passed
 to the GUELPH family. In 1180 the Holy Roman Emperor bestowed the duchy
 on the WITTELSBACH family, who ruled it until 1918. In 1806 it became a
 kingdom. Bavaria joined the German Empire in 1871 and became the chief
 German state after Prussia. The monarchy was overthrown in 1918, and
 Bavaria later joined the Weimar Republic. Following World War II, Bavaria
 became (1949) part of West Germany.

   Bavarian Succession, War of the

 Bavarian Succession, War of the, between Austria and PRUSSIA, 1778-79. In
 1777 Charles Theodore, the duke of Bavaria, in a secret treaty with
 JOSEPH II, the Holy Roman emperor, ceded Lower BAVARIA to Austria. The
 Bavarian heir apparent, advised by FREDERICK II of Prussia, protested the
 transfer. The resulting war, with no significant engagements, ended with
 Austria's renunciation of all but a small portion of Lower Bavaria.

   Bax, Sir Arnold Edward Trevor

 Bax, Sir Arnold Edward Trevor, 1883-1953, English composer. He studied
 piano at the Royal Academy of Music. Known for his symphonic poems, The
 Garden of Fand (1916) and Tintagel (1917), he also wrote seven
 symphonies, each dedicated to a favorite composer. He became (1941)
 Master of the King's Music. Influenced by Irish folklore, he wrote poetry
 and prose in Ireland under the name Dermot O'Byrne.

   Bayamon

 Bayamon, city (1980 pop. 185,087), NE Puerto Rico, a residential and
 industrial suburb of San Juan. Bayamon was established in 1772. Fruit is
 a major product; manufactures include clothing, furniture, and metal
 products.

   bayberry

 bayberry, common name for the Myricaceae, a family of chiefly temperate
 and subtropical aromatic trees and shrubs. The waxy gray berries of some
 species (mainly Myrica cerifera) are used to make bayberry candles,
 scented soap, and sealing wax. Sweet gale (M. gale) yields tannic acid;
 sweet fern (Comptonia peregrina) is used for medicines and tea.

   Bayeux tapestry

 Bayeux tapestry, an embroidery chronicling the Norman conquest of England
 (see under WILLIAM, kings of England). It is a strip of linen, 230 ft by
 20 in. (70 m by 51 cm) in the Bayeux Museum, France. Attributed to
 William's wife, Queen Matilda, it is a valuable document on the history
 and costumes of the time.

   Baykal

 Baykalor Baikal, lake, SE Siberian USSR. Nearly 400 mi (650 km) long, it
 is the largest (12,160 sq mi/31,494 sq km) freshwater lake in Eurasia. It
 is also believed to be the deepest lake in the world, its maximum known
 depth being 5,714 ft (1,742 m). The lake is in danger of pollution
 because of recent industrial development near its shores.

   Bay of Pigs Invasion

 Bay of Pigs Invasion, 1961, unsuccessful invasion of Cuba by U.S.-backed
 Cuban exiles. On Apr. 17, 1961, about 1,500 Cuban exiles landed in the
 Bahia de Cochinos (Bay of Pigs) with the aim of ousting the Communist
 regime of Fidel CASTRO. They had been trained in Guatemala by the CIA,
 supplied with U.S. arms. Most were captured or killed by the Cuban army.
 The U.S. government was severely criticized for the attack at home and
 abroad. In December 1962, Cuba traded 1,113 captured rebels for $53
 million in food and medicine raised by private donations in the U.S.

   Bayreuth Festival

 Bayreuth Festival: see MUSIC FESTIVAL .

   bazooka

 bazooka, military weapon consisting of a portable, lightweight tube that
 serves as a rocket launcher, usually operated by two men. Developed by
 the U.S. as an INFANTRY weapon for use against TANKS, pillboxes, and
 bunkers, it was widely employed during World War II and the Korean War
 but was later superseded by more powerful, accurate weapons, notably
 recoilless weapons and antitank missiles.

   Be

 Be, chemical symbol of the element BERYLLIUM.

   Beach, Moses Yale

 Beach, Moses Yale, 1800-1868, American journalist; b. Wallingford, Conn.
 As owner of the New York Sun, Beach vied with his chief competitor, James
 Gordon BENNETT of the Herald, in employing ingenious means of getting
 news fast, e.g., carrier pigeons. Rising costs led to the formation of
 the New York Associated Press, partly at Beach's instigation (see NEWS
 AGENCY). His weekly American Sun was the first European edition of an
 American paper.

   Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st earl of

 Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st earl of: see DISRAELI, BENJAMIN.

   Beadle, George Wells

 Beadle, George Wells, 1903-, American geneticist; b. Wahoo, Nebr. For
 their work on the bread mold Neurospora crassa, which showed that genes
 control cellular production of enzymes and thus the basic chemistry of
 cells, Beadle and Edward TATUM shared the 1958 Noble Prize in physiology
 or medicine with Joshua LEDERBERG.

   beagle

 beagle, small, compact HOUND; shoulder height, 10-15 in. (25.4-38.1 cm);
 weight, 20-40 lb (9.1-18.1 kg). Its short, close-lying, harsh coat is
 usually black, tan, and white. Developed in England to hunt hares, it was
 introduced into the U.S. in the 1870s.

   bean

 bean, name for seeds of trees and shrubs of the PULSE family, and for
 various plants of the family having edible seeds or seed pods. True beans
 are in the genus Phaseolus. The COWPEA, CAROB, and CHICK-PEA are
 sometimes considered beans. Cultivated worldwide, beans are an important
 food staple. They are high in protein and often used as a meat
 substitute.

   bear

 bear, large MAMMAL of the family Ursidae, found almost exclusively in the
 Northern Hemisphere. Bears have large heads, bulky bodies, short,
 powerful, clawed limbs, and coarse, thick fur; almost all are omnivorous.
 In cold climates, bears do not hibernate (see HIBERNATION) but sleep most
 of the winter; their metabolism remains normal, and they may wake and
 emerge during warm spells. North American brown bears include the Kodiak
 bear and the grizzly. The Kodiak, the largest bear, sometimes stands 9 ft
 (2.7 m) high and weighs over 1,600 lb (730 kg). The grizzly,
 characterized by silver-tipped (grizzled) fur, is more highly carnivorous
 than most bears and preys on large mammals such as deer. The most
 widespread North American bear is the black bear, smaller than the brown
 bears and ranging in color from light brown to black. The large, white
 polar bear is an arctic species. A solitary, fearless hunter, it is a
 powerful swimmer and feeds mostly on marine animals.

   Beard, Charles A(ustin)

 Beard, Charles A(ustin), 1874-1948, American historian; b. near
 Knightstown, Ind. As a professor at Columbia Univ. he taught that history
 encompasses all aspects of civilization. He was particularly interested
 in the relationship of economics and politics and in 1913 published An
 Economic Interpretation of the Constitution. Beard helped to found the
 New School for Social Research. With his wife, Mary Ritter Beard
 (1876-1958), he wrote The Rise of American Civilization (2 vol., 1927)
 and its sequels (vol. 3 and vol. 4),America in Midpassage (1939) and The
 American Spirit (1943).

   Bearden, Romare

 Bearden, Romare, 1914-88, American painter; b. Charlotte, N.C., raised in
 Harlem. Rendered in vibrant, flat planes, often with collage, his works
 deal with the black experience in America. His work appears in many
 museum collections.

   Beardsley, Aubrey Vincent

 Beardsley, Aubrey Vincent, 1872-98, English illustrator and writer. His
 unique, largely self-taught work was influenced by Greek vase painting,
 Japanese woodcuts, and the French ROCOCO. He developed a superbly
 artificial, flat, linear, black-and-white style, illustrating macabre,
 often erotic themes for books, e.g., Oscar WILDE'S Salome (1894), and
 periodicals, e.g., The Yellow Book (1894-96), for which he was art
 editor. He died at 26 of tuberculosis.

   bearing

 bearing, machine part used to reduce FRICTION between moving surfaces and
 to support moving loads. There are two principal types. A plain, or
 journal, bearing is a cylinder that supports a rotating shaft such as a
 motor shaft; its inner lining, the bushing, is usually made of a metal
 softer than that of the shaft, so that any slight misalignment of the
 shaft can be adjusted by an equivalent wearing of the bushing. An
 antifriction bearing is a cylinder containing a movable inner ring of
 small steel balls (the ball bearings used primarily in light machinery)
 or larger cylindrical rollers. The rotating machine part fits into a
 center of the ring, which takes up the motion of the rotating part,
 distributing and reducing friction through the movement of its bearings.

   beat frequency

 beat frequency, half of the difference of the frequencies of two sets of
 waves traveling in the same direction. Sets of waves combine to form a
 beat, which has a varying amplitude and a fixed frequency. The number of
 beats occurring in one second is equal to twice the beat frequency. Beats
 are an example of interference, and, in sound waves, can be used for
 practical purposes, such as piano tuning.

   beat generation

 beat generation, certain American artists and writers popular in the
 1950s. Influenced by Eastern religions, e.g., ZEN BUDDHISM, and the
 rhythms of "progressive" JAZZ, they rejected traditional forms and sought
 expression in intense experiences and beatific illumination. Novelists in
 the movement included William Burroughs and Jack KEROUAC. Among the
 "beat" poets were Allen GINSBERG and Lawrence FERLINGHETTI.

   Beatitudes

 Beatitudes, eight blessings spoken by Jesus at the beginning of the
 Sermon on the Mount (Mat. 5.3-12). Luke 6.20-26, a parallel passage,
 names four blessings and four woes.

   Beatles, The

 Beatles, The, English rock music group (1959-69). Members were John
 Lennon (1940-80), Paul McCartney (1942-), George Harrison (1943-), and
 Ringo Starr (Richard Starkey) (1940-). Influenced by Americans like Elvis
 PRESLEY, the Beatles dominated ROCK MUSIC in the 1960s with their wit,
 stage presence, and music that evolved from tight rhythm and blues to
 allusive lyricism. The lyrics and music for their songs were written
 mostly by Lennon and McCartney. The group recorded numerous albums, made
 films, and toured widely.

   Beaton, Sir Cecil

 Beaton, Sir Cecil, 1904-80, English stage and costume designer,
 photographer, writer, and painter. His credits include the designs for
 the Broadway shows My Fair Lady (1956) and Coco (1969), and photographic
 portraits of many famous people.

   Beatrice Portinari

 Beatrice Portinari, 1266-90, Florentine woman thought to be the Beatrice
 of DANTE'S Divine Comedy and Vita nuova.

   Beatrix

 Beatrix, 1938-, queen of the Netherlands (1980-). She ascended the throne
 upon the abdication of her mother, JULIANA. She is married to a German,
 Claus von Amsberg, and has three sons.

   Beaubourg

 Beaubourg, popular name for the Centre National d'Art et de Culture
 Georges Pompidou, derived from the district of Paris in which the
 cultural center is located. Proposed by French Pres. POMPIDOU in 1969,
 the center was designed by Renzo Piano and Richard Rogers and completed
 in 1977. Its industrial style, with architectural elements such as the
 steel superstructure, escalator tunnels of clear plastic, and brightly
 colored elevators and utility pipes exposed on the outside of the
 building, has generated much controversy. The Beaubourg contains a modern
 art museum, a public library, and music and industrial design centers.

   Beaufort scale

 Beaufort scale, a scale of wind velocity. It was devised by Admiral Sir
 Francis Beaufort of the British navy and an adaptation is used by the
 U.S. National Weather Service. It employs numbers from 0 to 12,
 representing calm, light air, light breeze, gentle breeze, moderate
 breeze, fresh breeze, strong breeze, moderate gale, fresh gale, strong
 gale, whole gale, storm, and hurricane. Zero (calm) is a wind velocity of
 less than 1 mi (q.6 km) per hour and 12 (hurricane) represents a velocity
 of over 75 mi (120 km) per hour.

   Beaufort Sea

 Beaufort Sea, an arm of the Arctic ocean between Point Barrow, Alaska,
 and the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. The MACKENZIE R. flows into the sea,
 which is always covered with pack ice.

   Beauharnais, Alexandre, vicomte de

 Beauharnais, Alexandre, vicomte de, 1760-94, French general. He fought in
 the AMERICAN REVOLUTION and in the FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS. After he
 was guillotined in the REIGN OF TERROR, his widow married NAPOLEON I and
 became the Empress JOSEPHINE. His son, Eugene de Beauharnais, 1781-1824,
 was also a French general who served with distinction under his
 stepfather, Napoleon. Made viceroy of Italy in 1805, he retired to Munich
 after Napoleon's fall. Eugene's sister, Hortense de Beauharnais,
 1783-1837, married Louis BONAPARTE and was queen of Holland (1806-10).

   Beaumarchais, Pierre Augustin Caron de

 Beaumarchais, Pierre Augustin Caron de, 1732-99, French dramatist. His
 brilliant comedies, The Barber of Seville (1775) and The Marriage of
 Figaro (1784), are the bases for celebrated operas by ROSSINI and MOZART,
 respectively. Distinguished by their clever dialogue and intricate plots,
 they satirize the upper class. Beaumarchais was frequently in litigation,
 and the pamphlets he wrote about his cases were witty and effective.

   Beaumont, Francis

 Beaumont, Francis, 1584?-1616, English dramatist, best known for
 collaborations with John FLETCHER. Beaumont is generally considered the
 superior dramatist, and to him sole authorship of The Woman Hater (1607)
 and the burlesque Knight of the Burning Pestle (c.1607) is usually
 ascribed.

   Beaumont, William

 Beaumont, William, 1785-1853, American physician; b. Lebanon, Conn. He
 was the author of Experiments and Observations on the Gastric Juice and
 the Physiology of Digestion (1833), an exhaustive account of a famous
 medical case involving a youth whose abdomen, opened by a gunshot, would
 not close. Realizing that this situation afforded a unique opportunity to
 study the digestive process, Beaumont conducted about 238 experiments
 over several years that revolutionized knowledge of this process.

   Beaumont

 Beaumont, city (1986 est. pop. 119.900), seat of Jefferson co., E Tex.;
 settled 1827, inc. 1838. A port of entry with deepwater facilities on a
 ship channel, Beaumont is a major oil-refining center. The world's first
 great oil gusher came in (1901) at nearby Spindletop, revolutionizing
 what is still, to a degree, a farming and lumbering economy. Lamar Univ.
 is located in the city.

   Beauregard, Pierre Gustave Toutant

 Beauregard, Pierre Gustave Toutant, 1818-93, Confederate general in the
 U.S. CIVIL WAR; b. St. Bernard parish, La. In 1861, after directing the
 bombardment of FORT SUMTER, he was second in command at the first battle
 of BULL RUN. He became (1862) Confederate commander at the battle of
 SHILOH after the death of A.S. JOHNSTON. He later (1863) defended
 Charleston.

   Beauvoir, Simone de

 Beauvoir, Simone de, 1908-86, French author. An exponent of
 EXISTENTIALISM, she was a close associate of SARTRE. Her novels include
 The Mandarins (1955), which interprets the existential dilemma, The
 Second Sex (1949-50), a profound analysis of the status of women, and The
 Coming of Age (1970), a study of society's treatment of the aged. She
 also wrote a lively series of memoirs.

   beaver

 beaver, large, aquatic RODENT (Castor fiber). Once widespread in the
 Northern Hemisphere, beavers are from 3 to 4 ft (91 to 120 cm) long,
 including the distinctive broad, flattened tail; they usually weigh about
 60 lb (27 kg). Known for their engineering feats, beavers create ponds by
 building dams of sticks, logs, and mud; they build habitations, or
 lodges, in the same way.

   Beaverbrook, William Maxwell Aitken, 1st Baron

 Beaverbrook, William Maxwell Aitken, 1st Baron, 1879-1964, British
 statesman and newspaper owner; b. Canada. He amassed a fortune in
 business before going to England in 1910. There he gained control of the
 Daily Express (1916) and the Evening Standard (1923), and began the
 Sunday Express (1918); these newspapers trumpeted his imperialist,
 isolationist views. A Conservative, he held several posts in Winston
 CHURCHILL'S wartime cabinet (1940-45).

   Beccaria, Cesare Bonesana, marchese di

 Beccaria, Cesare Bonesana, marchese di, 1738-94, Italian criminologist,
 economist, and jurist. His famous Essay on Crimes and Punishments (1764),
 arguing against CAPITAL PUNISHMENT and cruel treatment of criminals,
 influenced Jeremy BENTHAM and the utilitarians and stimulated penal
 reform throughout Europe. As an economist, Beccaria anticipated the wage
 and labor theories of Adam SMITH.

   Becket, Thomas

 Becket, Thomas: see THOMAS A BECKET, SAINT.

   Beckett, Samuel

 Beckett, Samuel, 1906-, French novelist and playwright; b. Ireland. He
 won the 1969 Nobel Prize in literature. His novels, e.g., Murphy (1938)
 and Molloy (1951), portray an individual's entrapment by grotesque
 situations in an apparently normal world. In his theater of the absurd,
 typified by the popular but controversial Waiting for Godot (1952) and
 Endgame (1957), Beckett combines poignant humor with an overwhelming
 sense of anguish and loss.

   Becquer, Gustavo Adolfo

 Becquer, Gustavo Adolfo, 1836-70, Spanish romantic poet and prose writer.
 His Rhymes (1871), published after his death, are among the finest
 19th-cent. LYRIC poetry. His prose includes Legends (1860-64).

   Becquerel, Antoine Henri

 Becquerel, Antoine Henri, 1852-1908, French physicist. Professor at the
 Ecole polytechnique, Paris, from 1895, he discovered RADIOACTIVITY in
 URANIUM in 1896. Further investigations of the phenomenon were made by
 Pierre and Marie CURIE, and the three shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in
 physics.

   bedbug

 bedbug, small, flatbodied, blood-sucking BUG of the family Cimicidae.
 Distributed worldwide, bedbugs are parasites of warm-blooded animals.
 They are reddish-brown and about 1/4 in. (6 mm) long.

   Beddoes, Thomas Lovell

 Beddoes, Thomas Lovell, 1803-49, English poet and dramatist. His
 writings, inclined toward the macabre and grotesque, include the verse
 work The Improvisatore (1821) and two plays, The Bride's Tragedy (1822)
 and Death's Jest-Book (1850).

   Bede, Saint

 Bede, Saint or Baeda,673?-735, English historian, a Benedictine monk,
 also called the Venerable Bede. His Ecclesiastical History of the English
 Nation, in Latin, is still an important primary source for English
 history from 597 to 731.

   Bedford, John of Lancaster, duke of

 Bedford, John of Lancaster, duke of, 1389-1435, English nobleman, son of
 HENRY IV of England and brother of HENRY V. Made protector of HENRY VI in
 1422, he devoted himself to English affairs in France.

   Bedlington terrier

 Bedlington terrier, long-legged TERRIER; shoulder height, c.16 in. (40.6
 cm); weight, 22-24 lb (9.9-10.8 kg). When its thick, wiry outercoat is
 trimmed to the fleecy undercoat for exhibition, it resembles a lamb. It
 may be blue, liver, or sandy, solid or marked with tan. It was developed
 (19th cent.) by cross-breeding in England's Border districts.

   Bedouin

 Bedouin [Arab.,=desert dwellers], primarily nomad Arab peoples of the
 Middle East. Of Semitic stock, they are devout believers in ISLAM. Camel-
 and sheep-breeding provide their main livelihood. Roving tribal groups,
 headed by a sheikh, traditionally traveled a defined area of land.
 However, the settlement policies of various governments in the 20th cent.
 have forced many Bedouins into a sedentary life.

   bee

 bee, flying INSECT of the superfamily Apoidae, having enlarged hind feet
 for pollen gathering and a dense coat of feathery hairs on the head and
 thorax. Bees feed on POLLEN and nectar; the latter is converted to HONEY
 in the digestive tract. Most have stings connected to a poison gland.
 Bees may be social, solitary, or parasitic in the nests of other bees.
 Social bees include bumblebees, stingless bees, and honeybees. A typical
 colony of social bees has an egg-laying queen, sexually undeveloped
 females (workers), and fertile males (drones). Workers gather nectar,
 make and store honey, and protect the hive. They care for the queen and
 larvae and perform complex patterned dances to communicate the location
 of pollen sources to one another. After being fertilized by a drone, the
 queen spends her life (usually several years) laying eggs. Honeybees are
 raised commercially for honey and for the WAX they produce for their
 nests (combs). Bees are invaluable for cross-POLLINATION.

   beech

 beech, common name for the Fagaceae, a family of trees and shrubs mainly
 of temperate and subtropical regions in the Northern Hemisphere. The
 principal genera, CHESTNUT, chinquapin, beech, and OAK, are dominant
 forest trees valued for their hardwood timber. Some species are also
 grown for their fruits and as ornamentals. The beeches have smooth,
 silvery gray bark and pale green leaves. The American beech (F.
 grandifolia) grows over much of the NE U.S. and Canada. The European
 beech (F. sylvatica) is an important forest tree, prized for its wood and
 nut oil. Several of its varieties, e.g., purple and copper beeches, are
 cultivated in America as ornamental trees.

   Beecham, Sir Thomas

 Beecham, Sir Thomas, 1879-1961, English conductor of international fame.
 He organized (1932) the London Philharmonic Orchestra and (1946) the
 Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, also of London, and appeared in the U.S.
 with the New York Philharmonic and the METROPOLITAN OPERA (see ORCHESTRA,
 ).

   Beecher, Lyman

 Beecher, Lyman, 1775-1863, American Presbyterian minister; b. New Haven,
 Conn. A preacher on temperance, he served congregations in New York,
 Connecticut, and Massachusetts. He was a founder of the American Bible
 Society (1816) and later president (1832-52) of Lane Theological
 Seminary, Cincinnati. Among his 13 children were Harriet Beecher STOWE
 and Henry Ward Beecher, 1813-87, American Congregational preacher,
 orator, and lecturer, b. Litchfield, Conn. After serving congregations in
 Indiana, he became pastor of the Congregational Plymouth Church in
 Brooklyn, N.Y., in 1847. He championed reforms, especially the abolition
 of slavery and woman suffrage, and advocated the theory of evolution. He
 was accused of adultery by Theodore Tilton. The trial (1875) ended in
 jury disagreement, and Beecher continued in his influential position for
 the rest of his life.

   Beefeaters

 Beefeaters, popular name for the YEOMAN of the Guard and the warders of
 the TOWER OF LONDON. They wear colorful uniforms modeled after those of
 the Elizabethan period.

   Beelzebub

 Beelzebub, in the Bible: see SATAN.

   beer

 beer, one of the oldest known alcoholic beverages. At first brewed
 chiefly in the household and monastery, it has been a commercial product
 since late medieval times and is made today in most industrialized
 countries. Color, flavor, and alcoholic content (usually 3%-6%) may vary,
 but the process in brewing is similar: A mash of malt (usually barley),
 cereal adjunct (e.g., rice and corn), and water is heated and agitated.
 The liquid is boiled with hops and cooled. Yeast is then added, and
 fermentation occurs. In England ale is any light-colored beer; in the
 U.S. it is a pale, strongly hopped beverage. Porter is a strong, dark ale
 brewed with roasted malt; stout is darker, stronger, and maltier than
 porter. Bock beer is dark, heavy, and usually drunk in the spring. Light,
 or low-calorie, beer is lower in alcohol content.

   Beerbohm, Sir Max

 Beerbohm, Sir Max, 1872-1956, English essayist, caricaturist, and
 parodist. Best known today for his witty caricatures of late Victorian
 writers, e.g., D.G. ROSSETTI and WILDE, he also wrote brilliant parodies,
 e.g., A Christmas Garland (1912), and a popular satire on Oxford, Zuleika
 Dobson (1911).

   Beersheba

 Beersheba, city (1986 est. pop. 115,000), S Israel, principal city of the
 NEGEV Desert. Beersheba is a trading center, and its manufactures include
 chemicals and textiles. Once one of the southernmost towns of biblical
 PALESTINE, Beersheba contains a well believed to have been dug by
 ABRAHAM. It is the seat of the Arid Zone Research Institute.

   beeswax

 beeswax: see WAX.

   beet

 beet, biennial or annual root vegetable (Beta vulgaris) of the goosefoot
 family, cultivated since pre-Christian times. Numerous varieties exist,
 e.g., red, or garden, beet; sugar beet; and Swiss chard. Both the roots
 and foliage of the red beet are edible, as is the foliage of the Swiss
 chard. The widely cultivated sugar beet, containing up to 20% sucrose,
 provides about one third of the world's sugar supply.

   Beethoven, Ludwig van

 Beethoven, Ludwig van, 1770-1827, German composer, universally recognized
 as one of the greatest composers who ever lived. Young Beethoven's
 musical gifts were acknowledged by MOZART and HAYDN, and his piano
 virtuosity and extraordinary compositions won him the generous support of
 the Viennese aristocracy despite his notoriously boorish manners. Despite
 the onset (1801) of deafness, which became progressively worse and was
 total by 1817, his creative work was never restricted. Beethoven's work
 may be divided into three distinct periods. The early works, influenced
 by the tradition of Mozart and Haydn, include the First and Second
 Symphonies, the first three piano concertos, and a number of piano
 sonatas, including the Pathetique. From 1802, his work broke the formal
 conventions of classical music. This most productive middle period
 included the Third Symphony (Eroica); the Fourth through Eighth
 Symphonies; his one Violin Concerto; and his sole opera, Fidelio.
 Beethoven's final period, dating from about 1816, is characterized by
 works of greater depth, including the Hammerklavier Sonata; the
 monumental Ninth Symphony, with its choral finale based on SCHILLER'S Ode
 to Joy; the Missa Solemnis; and the last five string quartets. A prolific
 composer, Beethoven produced numerous smaller works besides his major
 symphonies, concertos, sonatas, and quartets. His work crowned the
 classical period and initiated the romantic era in music.

   beetle

 beetle, mainly terrestrial INSECT (order Coleoptera). Beetles have
 chewing mouthparts; well-developed antennae; and a pair of hard, opaque,
 waterproof wings (elytra) which cover and protect the flight wings and
 the body. Some species are brilliantly colored and patterned, but most
 are dull. They range in size from less than 1/32 in. (1 mm) to more than
 6 in. (15 cm) in length. Beetles are generally plant eaters, but some are
 parasitic.

   beet sugar

 beet sugar: see BEET; SUCROSE.

   Begin, Menachem

 Begin, Menachem, 1913-, Israeli prime minister (1977-83); b. Poland.
 Before Israeli independence, he commanded the Irgun, an anti-British
 terrorist group. He sat in the Knesset after 1949. In 1977 he formed a
 right-wing coalition government. Begin signed a peace treaty with Egypt
 in 1979 (see CAMP DAVID ACCORDS), and he and Egyptian President Anwar
 al-SADAT shared the 1978 Nobel Peace Prize. In 1982 he authorized a
 massive Israeli invasion of LEBANON in order to destroy military bases of
 the PALESTINE LIBERATION ORGANIZATION located there (see ARAB-ISRAELI
 WARS). Israeli soldiers then occupied West BEIRUT, and Begin's government
 (particularly Defense Minister Ariel SHARON) was criticized for allowing
 the massacre of hundreds of Palestinian civilians by Israel's Lebanese
 Christian allies.

   begonia

 begonia, common name for the Begoniaceae, a family of succulent,
 perennial herbs of the American tropics, and for members of the genus
 Begonia. Begonia species are common houseplants, some grown for their
 showy, variously colored leaves and others for their white, pink, or
 yellow flowers.

   Behan, Brendan

 Behan, Brendan, 1923-64, Irish dramatist. An outspoken man jailed for
 Irish Republican Army activities, he is noted for his prison drama The
 Quare Fellow (1956); The Hostage (1958), a farce; and his autobiography,
 Borstal Boy (1958).

   behaviorism

 behaviorism, school of psychology seeking to explain behavior entirely in
 terms of observable responses to environmental stimuli. Influenced by the
 conditioned-reflex experiments of PAVLOV, behaviorism was introduced in
 1913 by J.B. WATSON, who, denying both the value of introspection and the
 concept of consciousness, emphasized laboratory techniques. B.F. SKINNER,
 the major modern proponent, has concerned himself exclusively with the
 relationship of observable responses to stimuli and rewards.

   behavior modification

 behavior modification, treatment of human behavioral disorders through
 the reinforcement of acceptable behavior and suppression (by
 nonreinforcement) of undesirable behavior. Practiced by means of various
 techniques of reward and/or punishment (e.g., aversion therapy,
 desensitization), it has been used to treat such disorders as DRUG
 ADDICTION, ALCOHOLISM, and PHOBIAS. A form of PSYCHOTHERAPY developed
 from the work of B.F. SKINNER and others, behavior modification is used
 in private and institutional therapy in group and individual settings.
 The method has been criticized for treating symptoms rather than causes.

   Behmen, Jakob

 Behmen, Jakob: see BOEHME, JAKOB.

   Behn, Aphra

 Behn, Aphra, 1640-89, first professional English female author. She wrote
 verse under the pseudonym Astrea, adopted during a career as a spy. The
 Rover (1677), bawdy and humorous, brought her fame as a playwright.
 Oroonoko (1688) was the first English philosophical novel. Behn led a
 notoriously bohemian life.

   Behrens, Peter

 Behrens, Peter, 1868-1940, German architect. His utilitarian style was
 both clear and impressive. He is known for his factory buildings, which
 based a simple, effective design on the frank terms of modern
 construction. LE CORBUSIER, GROPIUS, and MIES VAN DER ROHE were his
 students.

   Behring, Emil Adolph von

 Behring, Emil Adolph von, 1854-1917, German physician. A pioneer in serum
 therapy, he received the 1901 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine for
 his work on immunization against diphtheria (1890) and tetanus (1892) by
 injections of antitoxins (a word he introduced).

   Behrman, S(amuel) N(athaniel)

 Behrman, S(amuel) N(athaniel), 1893-1973, American dramatist; b.
 Worcester, Mass. His sophisticated comedies include The Second Man (1927)
 and Lord Pengo (1962). He also wrote film scripts and biographies.

   Beijing

 Beijing: see PEKING.

   Beirut

 Beirut, city (1980 pop. 702,000), W Lebanon, capital of Lebanon, on the
 Mediterranean Sea. An important port, Beirut became a major financial
 center with food-processing industries. It was a Phoenician city and was
 called Berytus in ancient times. A prominent city under both the
 Seleucids and Rome, Beirut was captured by the Arabs in AD 635. It was
 part of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem from 1110 to 1291. After 1517 the
 DRUSES controlled the city under the OTTOMAN EMPIRE. It fell (1918) to
 France in World War I and became the capital of Lebanon in 1920 under the
 French mandate. Beirut suffered severe damage during the Lebanese civil
 war (1975-76) between Muslims and Christians and ceased to be an
 important financial center. In 1982 a siege by invading Israeli forces
 led to the expulsion of thousands of PLO guerrillas from its western
 sector and left much of Beirut in ruins. A multinational peacekeeping
 force was established after some 1,000 Palestinian were massacred by
 Lebanese Christian troops. France and the U.S. withdrew from Beirut
 (1983) after losing nearly 300 troops in terrorist attacks.

   Bejart

 Bejartor Bejard, French family of actors in a company associated (after
 1643) with MOLIERE. The eldest was Joseph Bejart, c.1616-1659. His sister
 Madeleine Bejart, 1618-72, a fine actress, was Moliere's mistress. Their
 sister, Genevieve Bejart, 1624-75, and brother, Louis Bejart, 1630-78,
 also acted in the company. Armande Gresinde B;aaejart, c.1640-1700,
 Madeleine's sister or daughter, married Moliere in 1662 and played most
 of his heroines. After merging with two other companies, the troupe
 became the Comedie Francaise (see THEATER, ).

   Bejart, Maurice

 Bejart, Maurice, 1928-, French BALLET and opera director; b. Maurice
 Berger. His style incorporates JAZZ and avant-garde music, nontraditional
 dance forms, e.g., acrobatics, and unusual settings. He headed the
 Ballets de l'Etoile, Paris, from 1954; in 1959 he organized in Brussels,
 Belgium, his highly influential Ballet of the 20th Century.

   Bekaa

 Bekaa, valley: see BIQA, AL.

   Bela Kun

 Bela Kun: see KUN, BELA.

   Belau

 Belau, formerly Palau, self-governing Micronesian island group (1987 est.
 pop. 15,000), c.192 sq mi (497 sq km), in the W Pacific Ocean at the
 extreme western end of the Caroline Islands, until 1987 administratively
 part of the U.S. Trust Territory of the PACIFIC ISLANDS. It consists of
 c.200 small islands (8 are inhabited), of which Babelthaup (the largest)
 and Koror (the capital) are the most important. Most of the population is
 Micronesian. The economy is based on subsistence farming, with some
 commercial production of tuna fish and copra. Spain held the islands for
 about 300 years and sold them to Germany in 1899. Japan seized them in
 WORLD WAR I, administered them as a mandate for the League of Nations,
 and in WORLD WAR II used them as a major naval base. U.S. forces captured
 the islands in 1944, and in 1947 they became part of the trust territory.
 Voters approved (1979) a local constitution, and the islands became
 (1981) self-governing as the Republic of Belau. A 1987 referendum ended
 Belau's status as the last UN trust territory and gave the U.S. control
 of the island group's defense.

   Belaunde Terry, Fernando

 Belaunde Terry, Fernando, 1912-, president of Peru (1963-68, 1980-). An
 architect, he effected social, educational, and land reforms in his first
 term as president. In 1968 he was deposed by an army coup and went into
 exile. Restored to the presidency in 1980, he attempted to combat
 inflation by denationalizing industries and encouraging foreign
 investment in the petroleum industry.

   Belem

 Belem or Para,city (1980 pop. 758,117), N Brazil, capital of Para state,
 on the Para R. It is the chief commercial center and port of the AMAZON
 R. basin. Founded by the Portuguese in 1616, it prospered during the
 rubber boom of the late 19th cent. and again after World War II with the
 development of rail and highway links. The Goeldi museum holds
 ethnological and zoological collections of the region.

   Belfast

 Belfast, capital city (1986 est. pop. 303,600) of Northern Ireland, on an
 inlet of the Irish Sea, at the mouth of the Lagan R. A port and
 industrial center, Belfast is known for its shipyards and linen industry.
 Agricultural and livestock products are the chief exports. The city was
 founded in 1177. French HUGUENOT settlers, who arrived in the late 17th
 cent., stimulated the growth of the linen industry. Since the 19th cent.
 the city has been scarred by violent strife between the majority
 Protestants and the minority Catholics. In recent years there has been
 frequent guerrilla fighting between the IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY and British
 troops.

   Bel Geddes, Norman

 Bel Geddes, Norman: see GEDDES, NORMAN BEL.

   Belgium

 Belgium, Flemish Belgie, Fr. La Belgique, officially the Kingdom of
 Belgium, constitutional kingdom (1986 est. pop. 9,860,000), 11,781 sq mi
 (30,513 sq km), NW Europe; bordered by the Netherlands and the North Sea
 (N), West Germany and Luxembourg (E), and France (W and SW). BRUSSELS is
 the capital and ANTWERP the chief commercial center and port. Low-lying,
 except for the forested Ardennes Mts. in the south, Belgium is crossed by
 the MEUSE and Scheldt rivers and a network of canals. It is one of the
 most densely populated, heavily industrialized nations in Europe, but
 while the emphasis is on heavy industry, such as production of steel,
 chemicals, and petrochemicals, the traditional industries of lace-making
 and diamond-cutting continue to flourish. Coal, zinc, copper, and lead
 are important minerals. Belgium is a leader in shipping, and its economy
 depends on its exports. Agricultural activities include cattle-raising
 and dairying; cereals are the chief crops, and food processing is a major
 source of income. Tourism is important. The economy entered a recession
 in 1974,but rebounded in the 1980s. Belgium is divided culturally and
 ethnically into Flemish-speaking Flanders in the north and
 French-speaking Wallonia, or Wallony, in the south. Virtually the entire
 population is Roman Catholic.

 History The Franks first appeared in the Roman province of Belgica in the
 3d cent. AD, and the area became the cradle of the CAROLINGIAN dynasty.
 After the death (814) of CHARLEMAGNE, most of the region was made part of
 LOTHARINGIA and, later, of Lower Lorraine. By the 12th cent. this had
 broken up into the duchies of Brabant and LUXEMBOURG, and the histories
 of these feudal states and of FLANDERS and Hainaut constitute the
 medieval history of Belgium. In the 15th cent. the area of present-day
 Belgium passed to the dukes of Burgundy and then to the HAPSBURGS (see
 NETHERLANDS, AUSTRIAN AND SPANISH). Annexed by France in 1797, the region
 was given to the Netherlands by the Treaty of Paris (1815). Resentment of
 Dutch rule led (1830) to rebellion, and an independent (1831),
 "perpetually neutral" (1838) state was established. Under LEOPOLD I and
 LEOPOLD II there was rapid industrialization and also colonization,
 notably in the Congo (see ZAIRE). Belgian neutrality was violated by the
 Germans, who occupied the country in WORLD WAR I and WORLD WAR II.
 Following World War II the unpopular LEOPOLD III, who had surrendered the
 country unconditionally to the Germans in 1940, abdicated (1951) in favor
 of his son BAUDOUIN. Postwar recovery was rapid, but crises arising from
 longstanding tensions between the Flemish- and French-speaking elements
 toppled several governments in the 1960s. A constitutional reform (1971)
 in effect federalized the country by creating three partially autonomous
 regions (Flanders, Wallonia, and Brussels), but ethnic discord has
 continued. Belgium is a member of the BENELUX ECONOMIC UNION, and
 Brussels is headquarters for the European COMMON MARKET, Supreme
 Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE), and NATO.

   Belgrade

 Belgrade, Serbo-Croatian Beograd, city (1981 pop. 1,470,073), capital and
 largest city of Yugoslavia and of its constituent republic SERBIA, at the
 confluence of the Danube and Sava rivers. It is the industrial,
 political, and cultural center of the country. Manufactures include
 metals, chemicals, and textiles. A harbor for Rome's Danubian fleet, it
 was later held by the Byzantines, Bulgars, and Serbs. After 1521 it was a
 major fortress of the Ottoman Turks. Belgrade became the capital of the
 kingdom of Serbia in 1882 and the capital of Yugoslavia after World War
 I. In World War II it was severely damaged by the German occupation
 (1941-44). Belgrade is noted for its fine parks, palaces, museums, and
 churches. The Kalemegdan citadel is now a military museum.

   Belgrano, Manuel

 Belgrano, Manuel, 1770-1820, Argentine revolutionist. A political figure
 and journalist, he was a leader of the May 1810 revolution and a member
 of the first patriot governing junta. Later he commanded the Army of the
 North (1812-14, 1816-19).

   Belinsky, Vissarion Grigoryevich

 Belinsky, Vissarion Grigoryevich, 1811-48, Russian literary critic.
 Although he championed the works of GOGOL, LERMONTOV, and DOSTOYEVSKY,
 his repudiation of art for art's sake and his emphasis on the social and
 political uses of literature laid the foundation for later Soviet
 critical theory and SOCIALIST REALISM.

   Belisarius

 Belisarius, c.505-565, Byzantine general under JUSTINIAN I. He suppressed
 (532) the Nika riot caused by internal political strife, and defeated
 (533-34) the Vandals, a Germanic tribe. In command (535) of the war
 against the OSTROGOTHS in Italy, he took NAPLES and ROME (536), as well
 as MILAN and RAVENNA (540). Justinian replaced him (548) with Narses, but
 Belisarius returned (559) to drive the Bulgarians out of Constantinople.
 After a brief political imprisonment (562) he returned to favor.

   Belize

 Belize, formerly British Honduras, independent nation (1986 est. pop.
 171,000), 8,867 sq mi (22,965 sq km), Central America; bordered by Mexico
 (N), Guatemala (S and W), and the Caribbean Sea (E). The land is
 generally low-lying, forested, and undercultivated, with a swampy
 coastline and some low mountains in the south. The capital is BELMOPAN,
 and the chief port is Belize. The major products are sugarcane, chicle,
 and citrus fruits. The traditional exports, mahogany and other woods, are
 declining due to overharvesting. The population is mostly of black
 African descent, with sizable Spanish-American and Mayan Indian
 minorities. Once a part of the MAYA civilization, the region was probably
 traversed by CORTES on his way to HONDURAS, but the Spanish made no
 attempt at colonization. Buccaneers founded Belize city in the early
 1600s and were followed by British Jamaicans who exploited its timber.
 Spain long contested British possession. British Honduras was granted
 internal self-government in 1964, but full independence was delayed by
 GUATEMALA'S claim that it had inherited the territory from Spain. The
 dispute was settled by negotiation with the British, and on Sept. 21,
 1981, British Honduras, as Belize, became the last British crown colony
 on the American mainland to achieve full independence.

   Bell, Alexander Graham

 Bell, Alexander Graham, 1847-1922, Scottish-American scientist, inventor
 of the TELEPHONE. For many years he studied and experimented in the area
 of teaching the deaf to speak, conducting his own school of vocal
 physiology in Boston. As early as 1865 he conceived the idea of
 transmitting speech by electric waves, and in 1876 he perfected and
 demonstrated the first telephone apparatus. Under Bell's influence the
 magazine Science was founded (1880); his patronage of scientists
 interested in aviation resulted in the development of the HYDROFOIL.

   Bell, Daniel

 Bell, Daniel, 1919-, U.S. sociologist. After 20 years as a journalist, he
 took a degree in sociology and went on to teach at Columbia and Harvard.
 He has written on contemporary capitalist society and the individual's
 place within it.

   Bell, Gertrude Margaret Lowthian

 Bell, Gertrude Margaret Lowthian, 1868-1926, English traveler and author,
 one of the builders of the modern state of IRAQ. As liaison officer of
 the Arab Bureau in Iraq she was largely responsible for the selection of
 FAISAL I as king.

   bell

 bell, in music, a PERCUSSION INSTRUMENT consisting of a hollow metal
 vessel set into vibration by a blow from a clapper within or a hammer
 without. Apparently originating in Asia, bells have been used in
 connection with all major religions except Islam. A portable set of bells
 tuned to the intervals of the major scale is called a chime. A carillon
 is a larger stationary set of up to 70 bells with chromatic intervals
 played from a keyboard. It developed in the Low Countries and reached a
 peak there in the 17th cent., while in England the art of CHANGE RINGING
 evolved. Carillon playing declined at the end of the 18th cent., but was
 revived in the 20th cent. following the rediscovery of older tuning
 secrets and the development of improvements in construction.

   belladonna

 belladonna or deadly nightshade,poisonous perennial plant (Atropa
 belladona) of the NIGHTSHADE family. Native to Europe and now wild in the
 U.S., the plant has reddish, bell-shaped flowers and shining black
 berries. Extracts of the leaves and roots dilate the pupils of the eye
 and were once so used by women-hence the name belladonna, meaning
 "beautiful lady" in Italian. Belladonna has also been employed as a
 poison, a sedative, and, in medieval times, a HALLUCINOGENIC DRUG. The
 ALKALOID drug atropine, an extract of belladonna, is frequently used to
 relax muscles and suppress glandular and mucous secretions.

   Bellamy, Edward

 Bellamy, Edward, 1850-98, American author; b. Chicopee Falls, Mass. He
 became famous with the influential Looking Backward, 2000-1887 (1888), a
 utopian romance of the future under state socialism. His other works
 include short stories and the novels Miss Ludington's Sister (1884) and
 Equality (1897), a sequel to Looking Backward.

   Bellay, Du

 Bellay, Du: see DU BELLAY.

   Bellerophon

 Bellerophon, hero in Greek mythology. Given a number of seemingly
 impossible tasks by King Iobates, he performed them all. Most notable was
 the killing of the monster Chimera, accomplished with the aid of the
 winged horse PEGASUS. Grown proud, Bellerophon attempted to ride Pegasus
 to Mt. OLYMPUS, but was thrown, crippled, and blinded.

   Bellini

 Bellini, illustrious family of Venetian painters of the RENAISSANCE.
 Jacopo Bellini, c.1400-1470, was the father and teacher of Giovanni and
 Gentile. Few of his works survive, but two of his notebooks dealing with
 problems of perspective, landscapes, and antiquity are his most important
 legacy. Gentile Bellini, 1429-1507, painted contemporary Venetian life.
 After his visit to Constantinople in 1479, a distinct Oriental flavor
 appeared in his paintings, including the portrait of Muhammad II
 (National Gall., London). Giovanni Bellini, c.1430-1516, became the
 teacher of TITIAN and GIORGIONE. His works are characterized by serenity,
 majesty, and luminous color. They include the altarpieces of the Frari
 and San Zaccaria in Venice; St. Job (Acad., Venice); St. Francis in
 Ecstasy (Frick Coll., N.Y.C.); and many mythological scenes.

   Bellini, Vincenzo

 Bellini, Vincenzo, 1801-35, Italian opera composer. His most celebrated
 works, La Sonnambula and Norma (both: 1831), exemplify the virtuosic bel
 canto tradition of 18th-century vocal composition (see VOICE). His last
 OPERA, I Puritani (1835), was influenced by the dramatic style of French
 grand opera.

   Belloc, Hilaire

 Belloc, Hilaire, 1870-1953, English author; b. France. A Catholic
 apologist, he wrote poetry, satire, and essays, including The Bad Child's
 Book of Beasts (1896) and The Path to Rome (1902). With G.K. CHESTERTON
 he propounded distributionism, a medieval socialist philosophy.

   Bellow, Saul

 Bellow, Saul, 1915-, American novelist; b. Canada. Moral in tone, his
 novels are concerned with the individual in an indifferent society. They
 include Herzog (1964), Mr. Sammler's Planet (1970), Humboldt's Gift
 (1975; Pulitzer), and More Die of Heartbreak (1987). Bellow was awarded
 the 1976 Nobel Prize in literature.

   Bellows, George Wesley

 Bellows, George Wesley, 1882-1925, American painter; b. Columbus, Ohio. A
 student of Robert HENRI, Bellows is known for his direct realism.
 Forty-two Kids (Corcoran Gall., Wash., D.C.) and Stag at Sharkey's (Mus.
 Art, Cleveland) are characteristic paintings. Bellows was also noted for
 his lithographs (see LITHOGRAPHY), e.g., Dempsey and Firpo.

   Belmonte, Juan

 Belmonte, Juan, 1892-1962, Spanish matador. Often called the greatest
 matador of all time, he is said to have "invented" modern BULLFIGHTING
 with his daring style. He retired in 1936 after a 24-year career.

   Belmopan

 Belmopan, city (1986 est. pop. 3,500), E Belize, capital of Belize
 (formerly British Honduras) since 1970. A new city, it was constructed on
 the Belize R., 50 mi (80 km) inland from the former capital, the port
 city of Belize, after that city's near destruction by a hurricane in
 1961. The National Assembly Building's design is based on an ancient
 Mayan motif.

   Belo Horizonte

 Belo Horizonte, city (1980 pop. 1,442,483), E Brazil, capital of Minas
 Gerais state. It is a distribution and processing center for agricultural
 goods and the gold, manganese, and precious stones mined in the state; a
 banking center; and the hub of a burgeoning industrial complex, with
 steel, automobile, and textile manufacturing. Brazil's first planned
 metropolis (built 1895-97), laid out with spacious avenues and plazas, it
 is a cultural center and a popular resort.

   Belorussia

 Belorussia or Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, constituent republic
 (1987 pop. 10,100,000), c.80,150 sq mi (207,600 sq km), W central
 European USSR; capital: MINSK. It borders Poland (W); the Russian Soviet
 Federated Socialist Republic (E); the Ukraine (S); and the Lithuanian and
 Latvian republics (N). Peat and lumber are leading natural resources.
 Crops include potatoes, flax, sugar beets, and grains. Industrial
 products include machinery and chemicals. The majority of the people are
 Belorussians; Russians and Ukrainians are among the minorities. Settled
 by East Slavic tribes (5th-8th cent.), the region became part of KIEVAN
 RUSSIA (12th cent.), of the grand duchy of Lithuania (14th cent.), and of
 the Russian Empire (18th cent.). Belorussia was devastated by the
 Russian-Polish wars (16th-18th cent.), the Napoleonic invasion (1812),
 World War I (1914-18), and the Soviet-Polish war (1919-20), which ended
 with W Belorussia ceded to Poland and the eastern part becoming the
 Belorussian SSR. In 1939, W Belorussia was occupied by Soviet troops.
 During the German occupation (1941-44), Belorussia's large Jewish
 population (dating from the 14th cent.) was decimated. After 1945 most of
 W Belorussia remained part of the Belorussian SSR. The republic has its
 own UN seat. It is sometimes called White Russia.

   Belshazzar

 Belshazzar, in the BIBLE, the son of NEBUCHADNEZZAR and the last king of
 Babylon. At his feast, handwriting appeared on the wall that was
 interpreted by DANIEL as a sign of doom. That night Babylon fell to
 Cyrus. Dan. 5.

   Belvedere

 Belvedere, court of the VATICAN connecting it to a villa built (1485-87)
 for INNOCENT VIII. It was designed (1503-4) by BRAMANTE for JULIUS II,
 and was to include a number of buildings. It was only partially
 completed. Now a museum, the Belvedere contains the Laocoon and the
 Apollo Belvedere as well as other rare works of classical antiquity.

   Bely, Andrei

 Bely, Andrei, pseud. of Boris Nikolayevich Bugayev, 1880-1934, Russian
 writer of the SYMBOLIST school. He attempted to fuse all the arts in the
 poetic Symphonies (4 vol., 1901-8). His best prose is contained in the
 novels The Silver Dove (1910), Petersburg (1912), and the experimental,
 Joycean Kotik Letayev (1917).

   Bemis Heights, battle of

 Bemis Heights, battle of: see SARATOGA CAMPAIGN.

   Benares

 Benares: see VARANASI.

   Benavente y Martinez, Jacinto

 Benavente y Martinez, Jacinto, 1866-1954, Spanish dramatist. Of his
 sparkling social SATIRES, the best known are Bonds of Interest (1907) and
 The Passion Flower (1913). His plays introduced a more natural diction.
 He received the 1922 Nobel Prize in literature.

   Ben Bella, Ahmed

 Ben Bella, Ahmed, 1919-, Algerian prime minister (1962-65). A leader of
 the Algerian nationalist movement, he headed Algeria's first government
 after independence. In 1965 his government was toppled in a coup led by
 BOUMEDIENNE. He was imprisoned from 1965 until 1980.

   Benchley, Robert Charles

 Benchley, Robert Charles, 1889-1945, American humorist; b. Worcester,
 Mass. Drama critic for Life (1920-29) and the New Yorker (1929-40), he is
 best remembered as the writer and star of short, satirical films, e.g.,
 The Treasurer's Report (1928). His wry commentary appears in My Ten Years
 in a Quandary (1936) and Benchley beside Himself (1943).

   bends

 bends: see DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS.

   Benedict, Saint

 Benedict, Saint, d. c.547, Italian monk, founder of the BENEDICTINES,
 called Benedict of Nursia. He became a hermit and later founded the first
 Benedictine monastery, at Monte Cassino. He devised the Rule of St.
 Benedict, the chief rule of Western MONASTICISM. Feast: July 11.

   Benedict XIII, antipope

 Benedict XIII, antipope: see LUNA, PEDRO DE.

   Benedict XIV

 Benedict XIV, 1675-1758, pope (1740-58), an Italian named Prospero
 Lambertini. Renowned for his learning, he protected Eastern Catholic
 rites from Latinization. He denounced the cruelty in the disbanding of
 the Indian settlements established by the JESUITS in Paraguay.

   Benedict XV

 Benedict XV, 1854-1922, pope (1914-22), an Italian named Giacomo della
 Chiesa. In World War I he kept the Vatican neutral and worked strenuously
 to restore peace. He founded the Vatican service for prisoners of war.

   Benedict, Ruth Fulton

 Benedict, Ruth Fulton, 1887-1948, American anthropologist; b. N.Y.C. A
 student and colleague of Franz BOAS at Columbia Univ., she did field work
 among the American Indians, and studied contemporary European and Asian
 cultures. Stressing the role of CULTURE in personality formation, her
 books attacked racism and ethnocentrism. Among her writings are Patterns
 of Culture (1934), Race (rev. ed. 1943), and The Chrysanthemum and the
 Sword (1946).

   Benedictines

 Benedictines, monks of the Roman Catholic Church following the rule of
 St. BENEDICT [Lat. abbr.,=O.S.B.]. Unlike earlier groups, they stress
 moderation rather than austerity. Their waking hours are spent in worship
 and work, chiefly manual labor. The first Benedictine abbey was at Monte
 Cassino (founded c.529), Italy. Benedictines such as St. GREGORY I, St.
 AUGUSTINE OF CANTERBURY, and St. BONIFACE spread the order's influence
 across Europe. The Cluniac and the Cistercian orders resulted from 10th-
 and 11th-cent. reforms among the Benedictines.

   Benelux Economic Union

 Benelux Economic Union, economic treaty entered into (1958) by Belgium,
 Luxembourg, and the Netherlands to promote economic integration among
 themselves through free movement of workers, capital, goods, and
 services.

   Benes, Eduard

 Benes, Eduard, 1884-1948, Czechoslovakian president (1935-38, 1946-48).
 He was a follower of T.G. MASARYK and succeeded him as president in 1935.
 A liberal and a nationalist, he resigned after the MUNICH PACT. After
 World War II he again headed the nation, but the Communist coup of 1948
 brought his presidency to an end.

   Benet, Stephen Vincent

 Benet, Stephen Vincent, 1898-70, American writer; b. Bethlehem, Pa. He is
 known for his vivid literary treatments of American folklore and history.
 Benet is famous for John Brown's Body (1928; Pulitzer), a long narrative
 ballad of the Civil War, several volumes of verse, including Heaven and
 Earth (1920) and The Burning City (1936), and masterful short stories,
 particularly "The Devil and Daniel Webster."

   Ben Ezra

 Ben Ezra: see IBN EZRA, ABRAHAM BEN MEIR.

   Bengal

 Bengal, region, 77,442 sq mi (200,575 sq km), E India and Bangladesh, on
 the Bay of Bengal. Its inland mountains slope to the fertile
 GANGES-BRAHMAPUTRA alluvial plains and delta. The heavy monsoon rains and
 warm climate make possible two harvests a year. From the empire of ASOKA
 (3d cent. BC) Bengal passed to the Buddhist Pala kings, the Hindu Sena
 dynasty, and Muslims of Turkic descent. It was in MOGUL hands when
 Portuguese and British traders arrived (16th-17th cent.). The latter,
 under Robert CLIVE, defeated the Muslims in 1757 and formed the Bengal
 presidency. When India became independent in 1947, West Bengal (1981 pop.
 54,580,647), 33,928 sq mi (87,874 sq km), primarily Hindu, was created as
 a state in India, with CALCUTTA as its capital. It has jute mills, steel
 plants, chemical industries, and mineral reserves. East Bengal,
 overwhelmingly Muslim, became East Pakistan in 1947 and gained
 independence as BANGLADESH in 1971.

   Bengal, Bay of

 Bengal, Bay of, arm of the INDIAN OCEAN, off E India and W Burma,
 separated from the Andaman Sea by the Andaman and Nicobar islands. It is
 some 1,300 mi (2,090 km) long and 1,000 mi (1,610 km) wide, and is
 generally shallow. Coastal areas are subject to heavy monsoon rains and
 destructive cyclones. MADRAS, CALCUTTA, and CHITTAGONG are the chief
 ports.

   Bengali

 Bengali, language belonging to the Indic group of the Indo-Iranian
 subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See LANGUAGE .

   Bengasi

 Bengasi or Benghazi,city (1984 pop. 485,386), a Mediterranean seaport, NE
 Libya. It is an administrative and commercial center. Manufactures
 include processed food, textiles, and cement. Bengasi was cocapital (with
 TRIPOLI) of Libya (1951-72). The site of Hesperides, a Greek colony (7th
 cent. BC), the city was conquered by the Romans (1st cent. BC), Vandals
 (5th cent. AD), Arabs (7th cent.), and Ottoman Turks (mid-16th cent.).
 Italy held Bengasi from 1911 until it fell (1942) to the British during
 WORLD WAR II.

   Ben-Gurion, David

 Ben-Gurion, David, 1886-1973, Israeli statesman and 1st prime minister
 (1949-53, 1955-63); b. Poland as David Grun. He settled in Palestine in
 1906, devoted his life to ZIONISM, and was a founder of the Mapai (later
 Labor) party. During the struggle (1947-48) for independence he headed
 Israel's defense efforts, and once independence was achieved he became
 prime minister.

   Benin

 Benin, former kingdom, situated in present-day SW Nigeria. Ruled by the
 oba (to whose family human sacrifices were made) and by a sophisticated
 bureaucracy, the black African state flourished (14th-17th cent.). Benin
 sold slaves as well as ivory, pepper, and cloth to Europeans. After a
 period of decline, it revived (19th cent.) with a trade in palm products.
 The modern Nigerian city of Benin (1983 est. pop. 165,900) served as the
 capital and was conquered and burned by the British in 1898. Iron work,
 carved ivory, and bronze busts made in Benin rank with the finest art of
 Africa.

   Benin

 Benin, officially People's Republic of Benin, republic (1987 est. pop.
 4,150,000), 43,483 sq mi (112,622 sq km), W Africa, formerly Dahomey,
 bordered by Togo (W), Burkina Faso and Niger (N), Nigeria (E), and the
 Bight of Benin, an arm of the Gulf of Guinea (S). PORTO-NOVO is the
 capital; COTONOU is the largest city and chief port. There are four major
 geographical zones: a narrow, lagoon-fringed coastal area in the south; a
 flat, fertile area crossed by the wide Lama marsh further north; forested
 mountains in the northwest; and savanna-covered highlands in the
 northeast. Benin's economy is largely agricultural, with most workers
 engaged in subsistence farming. Chief crops are cassava, yams, and corn;
 palm oil is a major export. Although there are rich mineral deposits,
 notably of offshore petroleum, chromite, and iron ore, only limestone is
 extracted on a large scale. Manufacturing accounts for less than 10% of
 total output. The population is made up of black Africans of four main
 linguistic groups-the Ewe, the Yoruba, the Voltaic, and the Fulani.
 French is the official language. Most of the people follow traditional
 religions, but there are large Roman Catholic and Muslim minorities.

 History According to oral tradition, southern Dahomey (now Benin) was
 settled (12th or 13th cent.) by a group of Ewe-speaking people called the
 Aja. The kingdom they founded, Great Ardra, reached its height in the
 16th and early 17th cent. The Aja gradually mixed with the local people
 to form the Fon, or Dahomey, ethnic group. By the late 17th cent. the
 Dahomey were raiding their neighbors for slaves to be sold to European
 traders, a practice that continued until the late 19th cent. Dahomey came
 under French influence in 1851 and was made part of FRENCH WEST AFRICA in
 1899. Under the French, a port was constructed at Cotonou, railroads were
 built, and the output of palm products increased. In 1958 Dahomey became
 an autonomous state within the FRENCH COMMUNITY; it gained full
 independence in 1960. Independent Dahomey has been plagued by government
 instability caused by economic insufficiency, ethnic rivalries, and
 social unrest. Beginning in 1963 a series of military coups produced
 several short-lived regimes. A three-man presidential council was
 established in 1970 but overthrown by the army, led by Maj. Mathieu
 Kerekou, in 1972. The country was renamed the People's Republic of Benin
 in 1975. A new constitution was promulgated, providing for a national
 revolutionary assembly, but Benin remained essentially a one-party
 military dictatorship under the leadership of Kerekou, who was elected
 president in 1980.

   Benjamin

 Benjamin, in the BIBLE, youngest son of JACOB and RACHEL, ancestor of one
 of the 12 tribes of Israel (See ISRAEL, TRIBES OF). He was the favorite
 of his family. The name survived in the High Gate of Benjamin of the
 Temple at Jerusalem. SAUL was the most noted son of the House of
 Benjamin. Gen. 35.18;42-46.

   Benn, Anthony Wedgwood

 Benn, Anthony Wedgwood, 1925-, British politician. The Peerage Act (1963)
 enabled him to renounce his title, Viscount Stansgate, and retain his
 Labour seat in the House of Commons. He held several cabinet posts under
 Harold WILSON, including those of minister of technology (1966-70) and
 secretary for energy (1975-79), a post he also held under James
 CALLAGHAN. He is the leader of the Labour party's radical left wing.

   Bennett, Arnold

 Bennett, Arnold, 1867-1931, English novelist and dramatist, noted for
 realistic novels about the industrial Midlands. Influenced by ZOLA'S
 NATURALISM, Bennett depicted regional life in The Old Wives' Tale (1908)
 and These Twain (1916). His plays include Mile stones (1912, with Edward
 Knoblock).

   Bennett, James Gordon

 Bennett, James Gordon, 1795-1872, American newspaper proprietor; b.
 Scotland. His New York Herald, started in 1835 as a penny paper of four
 four-column pages, made many innovations in American
 journalism-editorials critical of all political parties; new fields of
 news, notably Wall Street finance; use of European correspondents (1838);
 extensive use of the TELEGRAPH; and illustrations for news articles. It
 gained an excellent reputation for accurate reporting, especially in the
 CIVIL WAR. His son, James Gordon Bennett, 1841-1918, b. N.Y.C., took over
 management of the Herald in 1867 and maintained its reputation. He
 financed (1869-71) Henry M. STANLEY'S expedition to find David
 LIVINGSTONE in Africa and also supported (1879-81) the ill-fated
 expedition of the explorer George Washington De Long to the Arctic. In
 addition he established London and Paris daily editions of the Herald and
 helped organize (1883) the Commercial Cable Company to handle European
 dispatches.

   Bennett, Richard Bedford

 Bennett, Richard Bedford, 1870-1947, Canadian prime minister (1930-35).
 As Conservative leader during the GREAT DEPRESSION, he signed (1932)
 preferential trade agreements with Britain and the dominions, and
 proposed (1934) reform social legislation at home. In 1941 he was created
 a viscount.

   Benny, Jack

 Benny, Jack, 1894-1974, American comedian; b. Waukegan, Ill., as Benjamin
 Kubelsky. His shows on radio (1932-55) and television (1950-65) made
 famous his miserliness, reproachful silences, and violin. His films
 include To Be or Not to Be (1942).

   Benozzo Gozzoli

 Benozzo Gozzoli: see GOZZOLI, BENOZZO.

   Bent, Charles

 Bent, Charles, 1799-1847, American fur trader; b. Charleston, Va. He
 helped build a prominent trading firm in the Southwest and was chosen
 governor of New Mexico after the U.S. occupation in the Mexican War. His
 brother William Bent, 1809-69, managed BENT'S FORT, the company's famous
 trading post.

   Bentham, Jeremy

 Bentham, Jeremy, 1748-1832, English philosopher, jurist, political
 theorist; founder of UTILITARIANISM. Educated as a lawyer, Bentham
 devoted himself to the scientific analysis of morals and law. His
 Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789) held that
 the greatest happiness of the greatest number should govern our judgment
 of every institution and action. The 19th-cent. reforms of criminal law,
 of judicial organization, and of the parliamentary electorate owe much to
 Bentham's active work in English legislative reform, and his thought
 strongly influenced that of John Stuart MILL.

   Bentley, Eric

 Bentley, Eric, 1916-, American critic, editor, and translator; b.
 England. Particularly noted for his drama criticism, he is the author of
 such books as The Playwright as Thinker (1946) and What Is Theatre?
 (1956). Bentley is also known for his translations of BRECHT and
 PIRANDELLO.

   Bentley, Richard

 Bentley, Richard, 1662-1742, English critic and philologist, considered
 the greatest of English classical scholars. His exposure of the 4th-cent.
 forgery The Epistles of Phalaris is his most celebrated work.

   Benton, Thomas Hart

 Benton, Thomas Hart, 1782-1858, U.S. statesman; b. Hillsboro, N.C. As a
 Democratic senator (1821-51) from Missouri, he supported currency
 measures to benefit the common man, and drew up Pres. JACKSON'S Specie
 Circular (1836). Benton favored Western development and opposed the
 extension of slavery. He served as U.S. representative (1853-55).

   Benton, Thomas Hart

 Benton, Thomas Hart, 1889-1975, American painter; b. Neosho, Mo.;
 grandnephew of Sen. Thomas Hart BENTON. The best-known American muralist
 of the 1930s and early 40s, he won fame for such murals as those at the
 New School for Social Research (N.Y.C.). Benton is noted for his
 dramatization of American themes, as in July Hay (1943; Metropolitan
 Mus.).

   Bentsen, Lloyd

 Bentsen, Lloyd, 1921-, U.S. politician, b. Mission, Tex. He was in the
 Army Air Corps during World War II, served in the House of
 Representatives (1949-55), started a successful insurance business, and
 was elected (1970) to the U.S. Senate. In 1988, he ran unsuccessfully for
 vice president on the Democratic ticket.

   Bent's Fort

 Bent's Fort, noted American trading post on the Arkansas R., in
 present-day Colorado. The trading company of Charles BENT and Ceran St.
 Vrain completed the fort in 1833. On a branch of the SANTA FE TRAIL, it
 was used by many famous MOUNTAIN MEN and by the U.S. Army during the
 MEXICAN WAR. By 1852 it was abandoned; its manager, William BENT, erected
 Bent's New Fort downstream in 1853.

   Ben Yehudah, Eliezer

 Ben Yehudah, Eliezer, 1858-1922, Jewish scholar; b. Lithuania. He settled
 in Palestine in 1881. A leader in the revival of Hebrew as the national
 language, he compiled the Dictionary of Ancient and Modern Hebrew (16
 vol.).

   Benz, Karl

 Benz, Karl, 1844-1929, German engineer, credited with building (1885) the
 first AUTOMOBILE powered by an INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE. His car had
 three wheels, an electric ignition, and differential gears. In 1926,
 Benz's company merged with that of Gustave DAIMLER and became the
 manufacturer of the Mercedes-Benz automobile.

   benzene

 benzene (C6H6), colorless, flammable toxic liquid with a pleasant
 aromatic odor. A HYDROCARBON, benzene is the parent substance of the
 AROMATIC COMPOUNDS. It consists of an unusually stable hexagonal ring of
 six carbon atoms, each of which is attached to a hydrogen atom.
 Derivative compounds include toluene, phenol, and aniline. Obtained from
 coal tar and petroleum, benzene and its derivatives are used in making
 dyes, drugs, and plastics.

   Ben-Zvi, Yizhak

 Ben-Zvi, Yizhak, 1884-1963, president of ISRAEL (1952-63); b. Russia as
 Issac Shimshelevitz. He settled in Palestine in 1907 and was one of the
 creators of the Jewish state. In 1952 he succeeded WEIZMANN as president.
 He was an historian and a scholar in the field of Jewish ethnology.

   Beowulf

 Beowulf, oldest English epic, probably composed in the early 8th cent. by
 a Northumbrian bard, and drawn from Scandinavian history and folk
 sources. It recounts Beowulf's struggle with the water monster Grendel
 and Grendel's mother; the hero's victory in old age over a dragon; and
 his death and funeral. The poem, in alliterative verse, fuses Christian
 elements with a picture of old Germanic life.

   Berbers

 Berbers, aboriginal Caucasoid peoples of N Africa who form a large part
 of the populations of Libya, Algeria, and Morocco. Except for the nomadic
 Tuareg, they are small farmers living in loosely joined tribal villages.
 Local industries are mining, pottery, weaving, and embroidery. They are
 SUNNI Muslims, speaking languages of the Hamitic group. Despite a history
 of conquests, their culture dates back before 2400 BC In classical times
 they formed such states as MAURETANIA and NUMIDIA. Most were Christians
 until the 7th-cent. Arab conquest. In the 9th cent. they supported the
 FATIMID dynasty; when the Fatimids left N Africa, fighting among the
 Berbers reduced the region to anarchy until the ALMORAVIDS and ALMOHADS
 imposed order. The plains Berbers were eventually absorbed by the Arabs;
 the mountain Berbers retained their warlike traditions, fiercely
 resisting French and Spanish occupation of N Africa and in the 1960s
 helping to drive the French from ALGERIA.

   Berenson, Bernard

 Berenson, Bernard, 1865-1959, American art critic and connoisseur; b.
 Lithuania. A conversationalist, wit, and arbiter of taste, Berenson
 selected work for many art collectors, much of it now in museums, e.g.,
 the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum. Many of his judgments in art
 history, made in his early books, have been criticized by later scholars.
 His works include Venetian Painters of the Renaissance (1894) and Rumor
 and Reflection (1952).

   Berg, Alban

 Berg, Alban, 1885-1935, Austrian composer. A pupil and close friend of
 Arnold SCHOENBERG, he adopted ATONALITY and later combined the 12-tone
 system (see TWELVE-TONE MUSIC) with the lyric and dramatic qualities of
 the Viennese romantic tradition. His masterpiece, the opera Wozzeck
 (based on the play by BUCHNER, 1925) aroused protest, but has since been
 acclaimed as a major 20th-century work. His unfinished opera Lulu (based
 on two plays by WEDEKIND) adhered more strictly to the 12-tone principle.

   Bergen

 Bergen, city (1987 pop. 208,809), SW Norway. On North Sea inlets, it is a
 major shipping and shipbuilding center. Founded c.1070 by OLAF III, it
 was medieval Norway's largest city and a royal residence. From c.1350 to
 1560 the HANSEATIC LEAGUE imposed unpopular rule on the city. Bergen was
 Norway's foremost city until the rise of OSLO in the 19th cent.
 Impressive monuments of its medieval past include Haakon's Hall (1261;
 largely rebuilt after World War II) and several churches.

   Berger, Thomas

 Berger, Thomas, 1924-, American novelist; b. Cincinnati. He writes comic
 novels about the chasm between the American dream and middle-class
 reality. They include Crazy in Berlin (1958), Reinhart in Love (1962),
 and Reinhart's Women (1981), Little Big Man (1963); and Nowhere (1985).

   Berger, Victor Louis

 Berger, Victor Louis, 1860-1929, U.S. socialist leader; b.
 Austria-Hungary. A Milwaukee journalist, Berger was (1911-13) the first
 socialist member of Congress. He was reelected (1918, 1919), but Congress
 excluded him for sedition, for which he was sentenced to a 20-year prison
 term. The U.S. Supreme Court reversed (1921) that decision, and he
 returned (1923-29) to Congress.

   Bergman, Ingmar

 Bergman, Ingmar, 1918-, Swedish film director. His films, often treating
 man's search for God, are usually studies of human loneliness. They
 include The Seventh Seal (1956), The Silence (1963), Cries and Whispers
 (1972), Autumn Sonata (1978), and Fanny and Alexander (1982).

   Bergman, Ingrid

 Bergman, Ingrid, 1915-82, Swedish film actress. A radiant, gifted
 actress, she made such films as Casablanca (1942), For Whom the Bell
 Tolls (1943), Notorious (1946), Anastasia (1956; Academy Award), and
 Autumn Sonata (1978).

   Bergson, Henri

 Bergson, Henri, 1859-1941, French philosopher. He became a professor at
 the College de France in 1900. Bergson's dualistic philosophy holds that
 the world contains two opposing tendencies, the life force and the
 resistance of matter against that force. The individual knows matter
 through intellect but through intuition perceives the life force and the
 reality of time, which is not a unit of measurement but duration in terms
 of life experience. Bergson was awarded the 1927 Nobel Prize in
 literature. Among his works are Time and Free Will (1889) and The
 Creative Mind (1934).

   Beria, Lavrenti Pavlovich

 Beria, Lavrenti Pavlovich, 1899-1953, Soviet leader. He became Communist
 party secretary in Georgia and the Transcaucasus in 1931, head of the
 Soviet secret police (NKVD) in 1938, and a member of the politburo in
 1946. In the power struggle following the death of Joseph STALIN he was
 executed.

   beriberi

 beriberi, disease caused by a deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B1),
 resulting in neurological and gastrointestinal disturbances.  VITAMIN.

   Bering, Vitus Jonassen

 Bering, Vitus Jonassen, 1681-1741, Danish explorer in Russian employ. He
 explored the far northeast of SIBERIA for PETER I. In 1728 he sailed
 through the BERING STRAIT. In 1741 Bering landed a party on the Alaskan
 coast. The expedition was later wrecked on Bering Island, where he died.

   Bering Sea

 Bering Sea, c.878,000 sq mi (2,274,000 sq km), northern arm of the
 Pacific Ocean, screened from the Pacific proper by the ALEUTIAN ISLANDS.
 It is usually frozen from October to June. Its migratory seal herd,
 threatened with extinction at the time of the Bering Sea Fur-Seal
 Controversy (1886), has gradually been rebuilt following an international
 agreement (1911) regulating open-ocean sealing.

   Bering Strait

 Bering Strait, c.55 mi (90 km) wide, connecting the Arctic Ocean and the
 Bering Sea and separating Siberia and Alaska. The Diomede Islands are in
 the strait, which is usually frozen from October to June.

   Berio, Luciano

 Berio, Luciano, 1925-, Italian composer. He was introduced to SERIAL
 MUSIC by Luigi DALLAPICCOLA in 1952 and composed ELECTRONIC MUSIC from
 1954. His works include a series of Sequences (1957-1975), each for a
 different instrument; Sinfonia (1968) and Choro (1976), for orchestra and
 voices.

   Berkeley, Busby

 Berkeley, Busby, 1895-1975, American film director; b. Los Angeles as
 William Busby Enos. In such musicals as 42nd Street (1933), Footlight
 Parade (1933), and The Gang's All Here (1942), directing either the dance
 sequences or the entire production, he created a striking, often surreal
 visual style.

   Berkeley, George

 Berkeley, George, 1685-1753, Anglo-Irish philosopher and clergyman; b.
 Ireland. Going beyond the teachings of John LOCKE, Berkeley's subjective
 IDEALISM holds that there is no existence of matter independent of
 perception; the observing mind of God makes possible the continued
 apparent existence of material objects. Among his more important works
 are his Essay towards a New Theory of Vision (1709), A Treatise
 Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge (1710), and Three Dialogues
 between Hylas and Philonous (1713).

   Berkeley, Sir William

 Berkeley, Sir William, 1606-77, British colonial governor of Virginia
 (1642-52, 1660-77). Poor frontier defense and favoritism to his friends
 in his second term led to the rebellion (1676) of Nathaniel BACON, which
 he ruthlessly suppressed.

   Berkeley

 Berkeley, city (1986 est. pop. 104,110), W Calif., on the eastern shore
 of San Francisco Bay; inc. 1878. The city is the site of the main campus
 of the Univ. of California. Manufactures include pharmaceuticals,
 chemicals, and metal and other products.

   berkelium

 berkelium (Bk), synthetic radioactive element, discovered in 1949 by
 Glenn SEABORG, S.G. Thompson, and Albert Ghiorso by alpha-particle
 bombardment of americium-241. It is in the ACTINIDE SERIES; nine isotopes
 exist. See ELEMENT ; PERIODIC TABLE.

   Berkman, Alexander

 Berkman, Alexander, 1870?-1936, U.S. anarchist; b. Russia. He emigrated
 to the U.S. c.1887 and attempted (1892) to kill industrialist H.C. FRICK.
 He was imprisoned for 14 years. Deported (1919) to Russia with Emma
 GOLDMAN for obstructing the draft, he became disillusioned with the
 Bolsheviks, left Russia, and later committed suicide in France.

   Berkshire Festival

 Berkshire Festival: see MUSIC FESTIVAL .

   Berle, Milton

 Berle, Milton, 1908-, American entertainer; b. N.Y.C. as Milton
 Berlinger. His success came with television, where his comedy routines
 had such broad appeal that his show is credited with contributing to the
 growing popularity of the medium. His extremely successful "Texaco Star
 Theater" (1948-54) earned him the nickname "Mr. Television."

   Berlin, Irving

 Berlin, Irving, 1888-, American songwriter; b. Russia as Irving Baline.
 Of nearly 1,000 songs, "Alexander's Ragtime Band" (1911) was his first
 big hit. He wrote for Broadway reviews, musicals, and film. "God Bless
 America" is perhaps his best-known song.

   Berlin, Sir Isaiah

 Berlin, Sir Isaiah, 1909-, English political scientist; b. Latvia. He was
 a professor of social and political theory at Oxford Univ. (1957-67). His
 writings include The Hedgehog and the Fox (1953)-an exploration of
 TOLSTOY'S view of irresistible historical forces-and books on MARXISM.

   Berlin

 Berlin, city, former capital of Germany and Prussia, located within the
 German Democratic Republic (East Germany), on the Spree and Havel rivers.
 In 1945 it was divided into British, American, and French occupation
 zones (now West Berlin) and a Soviet sector (now East Berlin). Formed
 from two villages chartered in the 13th cent., Berlin was a leading
 member of the HANSEATIC LEAGUE and became prominent as a commercial,
 cultural, and communications center of Central Europe. It was the capital
 of the German Empire after 1871 and of the Weimar Republic (see GERMANY)
 after WORLD WAR I. In WORLD WAR II it was badly damaged by Allied bombing
 and a Soviet artillery attack. The status of divided Berlin became a
 major COLD WAR issue, and in 1948-49 the Western powers carried out a
 large-scale airlift to supply West Berlin during a Soviet land and water
 blockade. In 1949 East Berlin wias made the capital of East Germany; in
 1950 West Berlin was established as a state within, and the de jure
 capital of, the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany), with BONN as
 the de facto capital. In Aug. 1961 East German authorities erected a
 29-mi (47-km) wall along the line of partition to halt the exodus of
 refugees to the West. Accords between the two Germanies were finally
 reached in 1972. West Berlin (1986 est. pop. 1,868,700), over 100 mi (161
 km) inside East Germany, has such industries as electrical equipment,
 clothing, and tourism. Its cultural institutions include the Berlin
 Philharmonic and the gallery of the Charlottenberg Palace, with its many
 Rembrandts. East Berlin (1986 pop. 1,223,309), slower to recover from the
 war, has electrical, chemical, and other industries. Among its museums is
 the Pergamum, known for classical art.

   Berlin, Conference of

 Berlin, Conference of, 1884-85, international meeting aimed at settling
 colonial problems in Africa. Attending were all European nations, with
 the U.S. and Turkey. In effect, the conference legitimized the
 sovereignty these nations were already exercising over their African
 colonies.

   Berlin, Congress of

 Berlin, Congress of, 1878, international meeting called primarily to
 thwart Russian expansion in the OTTOMAN EMPIRE (Turkey). Included were
 all the European powers, RUSSIA, and Turkey, with Otto von BISMARCK as
 the chairman. The treaty that resulted significantly changed the existing
 political situation in eastern Europe. Montenegro, Serbia, and Rumania
 were recognized as independent; Bosnia and Hercegovina were assigned to
 Austria-Hungary; the boundary lines between Greece and Turkey were
 redrawn; S Bessarabia was ceded to Russia; and Cyprus was put under
 British occupation. Russia was angered at Bismarck's handling of the
 conference, thus ending the first THREE EMPERORS' LEAGUE.

   Berlinguer, Enrico

 Berlinguer, Enrico, 1922-84, Italian politician. A member of the Italian
 Communist party since 1944, he entered the Italian chamber of deputies in
 1958, and became secretary general of the party in 1972. He is noted for
 his willingness to cooperate with other political parties.

   Berlioz, Louis-Hector

 Berlioz, Louis-Hector, 1803-69, French romantic composer. He abandoned
 medical study to enter the Paris Conservatory. His Symphonie fantastique
 (1830) marked a new development in program music, and that year Berlioz
 won the Prix de Rome. In the next decade he wrote the symphonies Harold
 in Italy and Romeo and Juliet. Other works included the operas The
 Damnation of Faust (1846) and The Trojans (1856-59) and the successful
 ORATORIO The Childhood of Christ. Berlioz's ideas of orchestration
 influenced many later composers.

   Bermuda

 Bermuda, British dependency (1985 pop. 57,145), 20 sq mi (52 sq km),
 comprising 300 coral rocks, islets and islands, in the Atlantic Ocean,
 c.650 mi (1,050 km) SE of Cape Hatteras, N.C. The capital is Hamilton.
 Tourism is the mainstay of Bermuda's economy. Probably discovered by the
 Spanish in the early 16th cent., the islands remained uninhabited until
 colonists bound for Virginia were shipwrecked there in 1609. Bermuda's
 government became the responsibility of the British crown in 1684;
 internal self-government was granted in 1968. The U.S. operates a naval
 and air force base there.

   Bermuda Triangle

 Bermuda Triangle, area in the Atlantic Ocean off Florida where a number
 of ships and aircraft have vanished. Also known as the Devil's Triangle,
 it is bounded at its points by Melbourne, Fla.; Bermuda; and Puerto Rico.
 Storms are common in the region, and investigations to date have not
 produced scientific evidence of any unusual phenomena involved in the
 disappearances.

   Bern

 Bern or Berne,city (1985 est. pop. 138,600), capital of Switzerland and
 of Bern canton, W central Switzerland, within a loop of the Aare R. A
 university, administrative, and industrial center, it manufactures such
 products as precision instruments, textiles, and machinery. It is the
 seat of the Universal Postal Union, the International Copyright Union,
 and other world agencies. Said to have been founded in 1191, it joined
 the Swiss Confederation in 1353 and became its leading member. Bern
 accepted the REFORMATION in 1528 and adopted a liberal constitution in
 1831. It became the Swiss capital in 1848. Its historic buildings include
 a medieval clock tower and a 15th-cent. town hall.

   Bernadotte, Count Folke

 Bernadotte, Count Folke, 1895-1948, Swedish internationalist. Active in
 the Swedish RED CROSS, which he headed after 1946, he arranged (1945) the
 evacuation of Danish and Norwegian prisoners from Germany. He was
 assassinated by Jewish extremists while serving as UN mediator in
 Palestine.

   Bernadotte, Jean Baptiste Jules (Charles XIV)

 Bernadotte, Jean Baptiste Jules (Charles XIV): see under  CHARLES, kings
 of Sweden.

   Bernanos, Georges

 Bernanos, Georges, 1888-1948, French author. His novels The Star of Satan
 (1926) and The Diary of a Country Priest (1936) reflect his mystical,
 Catholic bent. A Royalist until the Spanish civil war, Bernanos condemned
 FRANCO'S policies in A Diary of My Times (1938).

   Bernard, Saint

 Bernard, Saint: see BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX, SAINT.

   Bernard, Claude

 Bernard, Claude, 1813-78, French physiologist. One of the great
 scientific investigators, he is known as the founder of experimental
 medicine through his work on the digestive process and on the vasomotor
 mechanism.

   Bernard of Clairvaux, Saint

 Bernard of Clairvaux, Saint, 1090?-1153, French churchman, Doctor of the
 Church. He founded (1115) a Cistercian monastery at Clairvaux, where he
 remained as abbot for the rest of his life, despite efforts to move him
 higher. His holiness, intellect, and eloquence made him one of the most
 powerful figures of his day; he brought about the condemnation of Peter
 ABELARD and preached the Second CRUSADE. His writings exerted a profound
 influence on Roman Catholic spirituality, especially that known as
 devotio moderna. He was canonized in 1174. Feast: Aug. 20.

   Bernhardt, Sarah

 Bernhardt, Sarah, 1844-1923, French actress; b. Rosine Bernard. Called
 "the divine Sarah" by Oscar WILDE, she was the queen of French romantic
 and classical tragedy. She became famous for her superb portrayals in
 Phedre (1874), in Victor HUGO'S Ruy Blas (1872), and in Adrienne
 Lecouvreur (1880). She also starred in works by SARDOU and ROSTAND, and
 wrote some of her own vehicles. She made tours of Europe and the U.S.,
 including many "farewell tours" after her leg was amputated in 1915. She
 played Hamlet at her own Theatre Sarah Bernhardt in 1899.

   Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo

 Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo or Gianlorenzo,1598-1680, Italian sculptor and
 architect, the dominant figure of the Italian BAROQUE. Working for the
 major patrons of his day, he produced brilliantly vital, dynamic
 sculpture in reaction against mannerist traditions (see MANNERISM) and
 dramatic, impressive works of architecture enriched with sculpture. For
 Cardinal Borghese he produced David (pre-1620), Rape of Proserpine
 (1622), and Apollo and Daphne (1625; all: Borghese Gallery, Rome). He
 designed churches, chapels, fountains, monuments, tombs, and statues for
 the popes. In 1629 he became architect of SAINT.PETER'S.CHURCH, designing
 interior details and the great, embracing, elliptical piazza in front of
 the church. His other Roman works include the Churches of Santa Maria
 della Vittoria (which houses his great sculpture the Ecstasy of St.
 Theresa) and Sant'Andrea al Quirinale, and the fountains of the Piazza
 Navona.

   Bernoulli

 Bernoulli, Swiss family distinguished in scientific and mathematical
 history. Jakob, Jacques, or James Bernoulli, 1654-1705, was one of the
 chief developers of both the ordinary calculus and the calculus of
 variations. His Ars conjectandi (1713) was an important treatise on the
 theory of probability. His brother, Johann, Jean, or John Bernoulli,
 1667-1748, was famous for his work on integral and exponential calculus;
 he was also a founder of the calculus of variations and contributed to
 the study of geodesics, complex numbers, and trigonometry. His son,
 Daniel Bernoulli, 1700-1782, has often been called the first mathematical
 physicist. His greatest work was his Hydrodynamica (1738), which included
 the principle now known as Bernoulli's principle and anticipated the law
 of conservation of energy and the kinetic-molecular theory of gases
 developed a century later. He also made important contributions to
 probability theory, astronomy, and the theory of differential equations.
 Other members of the family were noted in the fields of mathematics,
 physics, astronomy, and geography.

   Bernoulli's principle

 Bernoulli's principle: see AERODYNAMICS.

   Bernstein, Leonard

 Bernstein, Leonard, 1918-, American composer and conductor; b. Lawrence,
 Mass. He has composed symphonic works (Kaddish Symphony, 1963); CHAMBER
 MUSIC; ballets (Fancy Free, 1944); MUSICALS (On the Town, 1944; Candide,
 1956; West Side Story, 1957); and choral music (Chichester Psalms, 1965).
 His Mass (1971), "a theater piece for singers, dancers, and players," was
 performed at the opening of the John F. Kennedy Cultural Center,
 Washington, D.C. From 1958 to 1969 he was musical director of the New
 York Philharmonic (see ORCHESTRA, ).

   Berrettini, Pietro

 Berrettini, Pietro: see CORTONA, PIETRO DA.

   Berryman, John

 Berryman, John, 1914-72, American poet; b. McAlester, Okla. His verse is
 complex, dramatic, and personal, often mirroring the anguish of a trivial
 age. Among his works are Homage to Mistress Bradstreet (1956), 77 Dream
 Songs (1964; Pulitzer), His Toy, His Dream, His Rest (1968), and
 Delusions, etc. (1972).

   Berthelot, Pierre Eugene Marcelin

 Berthelot, Pierre Eugene Marcelin, 1827-1907, French chemist. Professor
 at the Ecole Superieure de Pharmacie and later at the College de France,
 he became a member of the French Academy in 1900. A founder of modern
 organic chemistry, he was the first to synthesize organic compounds
 (e.g., methanol, ethanol, benzene, and acetylene), thereby dispelling the
 old theory of a vital force inherent in organic compounds. He also worked
 in thermochemistry and in explosives.

   Berthollet, Claude Louis, Comte

 Berthollet, Claude Louis, Comte, 1748-1822, French chemist. Noted for his
 ideas on chemical affinity and his discovery of the reversibility of
 reactions, he supported Antoine LAVOISIER'S theory of combustion and
 collaborated with him in reforming chemical nomenclature. He analyzed
 ammonia and prussic acid and discovered the bleaching properties of
 chlorine.

   beryl

 beryl, extremely hard beryllium and aluminum silicate mineral
 (Be3Al2Si6O18), occurring in crystals that may be of enormous size and
 are usually white, yellow, blue, green, or colorless. It is commonly used
 as a GEM, the most valued variety being the greenish EMERALD; the blue to
 bluish-green variety is AQUAMARINE. Beryl is the principal raw material
 for the element BERYLLIUM and its compounds.

   beryllium

 beryllium (Be), metallic element, first isolated in 1828 independently by
 Friedrich WOHLER and Antoine Bussy. The silver-gray, ALKALINE-EARTH METAL
 is light, strong, high-melting, and resistant to corrosion. It is used as
 a window material for X-ray tubes and as a shield and a moderator in
 nuclear reactors. See ELEMENT ; PERIODIC TABLE.

   Berzelius, Jons Jakob, Baron

 Berzelius, Jons Jakob, Baron, 1779-1848, Swedish chemist. He developed
 the modern system of symbols and formulas in chemistry, made a remarkably
 accurate table of atomic weights, analyzed many chemical compounds, and
 discovered the elements SELENIUM, THORIUM, and CERIUM. He coined the
 words isomerism, allotropy, and protein.

   Besant, Annie (Wood)

 Besant, Annie (Wood), 1847-1933, English theosophist and reformer.
 Rejecting Christianity and advocating free thought and socialism, Besant
 edited the National Reformer with Charles Bradlaugh. Her atheism and
 unconventionality led the courts in 1879 to take away her children. After
 embracing THEOSOPHY in 1889, she went to India, where she campaigned for
 nationalism, founded (1898) the Central Hindu College (1898) and the
 Indian Home Rule League (1916), and became president (1917) of the Indian
 National Congress. In 1926-27, Besant proclaimed the Indian mystic Jiddu
 Krishnamurti to be the new Messiah. She published prolifically,
 particularly works on theosophy.

   Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm

 Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm, 1784-1846, German astronomer and
 mathematician. His discovery of the parallax of the fixed star 61 Cygni,
 announced in 1838, was the first fully authenticated measurement of a
 star's distance from the earth. By 1833 Bessel had increased to 50,000
 the number of stars whose positions and proper motions were accurately
 determined. He established a class of mathematical functions, named for
 him, as a result of his work on planetary perturbation.

   Bessemer process

 Bessemer process, industrial process for the manufacture of STEEL from
 molten PIG IRON. The process is carried out in a large steel container,
 called the Bessemer converter. IRON is introduced through an opening in
 the narrow upper end. When air is forced upward through perforations in
 the bottom, impurities such as manganese, silicon, and carbon unite with
 oxygen to form oxides. The carbon monoxide burns off, and the other
 impurities form slag. The steel is then poured from the upper opening
 into molds, and the slag is left behind. Bessemer steel is used to make
 machinery, tools, wire, and nails, and is the essential modern structural
 steel used in steel-framework buildings.

   Best, Charles Herbert

 Best, Charles Herbert, 1899-1978, Canadian physiologist; b. West
 Pembroke, Me. He, Sir Frederick BANTING, and John MACLEOD were the first
 to isolate (1921) the hormone INSULIN from the pancreas and demonstrate
 its use in the treatment of diabetes mellitus. Best discovered the
 antiallergic enzyme histaminase, the blood-clotting substance heparin,
 and the vitamin choline.

   beta blocker

 beta blocker or beta adrenergic blocking agent,drug that reduces the
 symptoms connected with HYPERTENSION, cardiac arrhythmias, MIGRAINE
 headaches, and other disorders related to the central NERVOUS SYSTEM.
 Within the central nervous system, beta receptors are located mainly in
 the heart, lungs, kidneys, and blood vessels. Beta blockers compete with
 EPINEPHRINE for these receptor sites and interfere with the action of
 epinephrine, lowering blood pressure and heart rate, stopping
 arrhythmias, and preventing migraine headaches. Propranolol is a commonly
 used beta blocker.

   Betancourt, Romulo

 Betancourt, Romulo, 1908-81, president of VENEZUELA (1945-48, 1959-64).
 He founded (1935) the left-wing party that became Accion Democratica.
 When he came to power (1945) by a military coup, he instituted universal
 suffrage, social reforms, and oil royalties for the government. After his
 exile (1948-58) by a junta, he was elected president (1959) and continued
 to promote his reforms.

   beta particle

 beta particle, a particle emitted in one of the three forms of natural
 RADIOACTIVITY.

   betel

 betel, masticatory made from seeds of the betel palm (Areca catechu).
 Slices of the seeds (also called betel nuts), together with other
 aromatic flavorings and lime paste, are smeared onto a betel pepper
 (Piper betle) leaf, which is then rolled up and chewed. Betel contains a
 narcotic stimulant and has been chewed in S Asia since ancient times.

   Bethany

 Bethany, village at the southeastern foot of the Mount of Olives, modern
 Al Ayzariyah (Jordan), 2 mi (3.2 km) E of Jerusalem. Home of LAZARUS,
 Martha, and MARY, it was frequently visited by JESUS and is closely
 associated with the final scenes of his life. John 11.

   Bethe, Hans Albrecht

 Bethe, Hans Albrecht, 1906-, American physicist; b. Germany; came to U.S.
 in 1935. He was director (1943-46) of the theoretical physics division of
 the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory and scientific adviser (1958) to the
 U.S. at the Geneva nuclear test-ban talks. Known for his brilliant
 theories on atomic properties, Bethe received the 1967 Nobel Prize in
 physics for work on the origin of solar and stellar energy.

   Bethlehem

 Bethlehem, town (1980 est. pop. 14,500), Jordan, on the WEST BANK; the
 birthplace of JESUS. It is a place of pilgrimage and the trade center of
 a farming area. The biblical book of RUTH is set in Bethlehem, and it was
 DAVID'S home. CONSTANTINE I built the Church of the Nativity (completed
 333) on the traditional site of Jesus' birth. There St. JEROME produced
 the Vulgate text of the BIBLE. Crusaders held the town from 1099 to 1187.
 Annexed to the Ottoman Empire in 1571, it was part of Britain's Palestine
 mandate (1922-48) and then of Jordan. Israel occupied it in 1967.

   Bethlehem

 Bethlehem, city (1980 pop. 70,419), E Pa., on the Lehigh R.; settled
 1740-41, inc. as a city 1917. One of the most important U.S. steel
 centers, it is the site of the Bethlehem Steel Corp.; cement, textiles,
 and foods are also produced. Bethlehem was settled by MORAVIAN CHURCH
 members and contains several early Moravian buildings. The city is noted
 for its Bach Choir, and Lehigh Univ. and Moravian College are located
 there.

   Bethune, Mary McCleod

 Bethune, Mary McCleod, 1875-1955, black American educator; b. Mayesville,
 S.C.; grad. Moody Bible Institute, Chicago, 1895. The 17th child of
 former slaves, she taught (1895-1903) in a series of southern mission
 schools until founding (1904) the Daytona Normal and Industrial Inst. for
 Negro Girls (later Bethune-Cookman College) and the National Council of
 Negro Women (1935). She was special adviser on minority affairs to
 Franklin D. ROOSEVELT.

   Betjeman, Sir John

 Betjeman, Sir John, 1906-84, English poet. He combines a witty appraisal
 of the present with nostalgia, especially for the Victorian era. His
 works include Mt. Zion (1933) and Collected Poems (1971). He was named
 POET LAUREATE in 1972.

   Bettelheim, Bruno

 Bettelheim, Bruno, 1903-, American psychologist; b. Austria. In the same
 year that he earned his Ph.D. from the Univ. of Vienna (1938) he was
 interned in the Dachau and Buchenwald CONCENTRATION CAMPS. Released in
 1939, he emigrated to the U.S., where he published (1943) a world-famous
 article about the camps, "Individual and Mass Behavior in Extreme
 Situations." He treated the subject in his book The Informed Heart
 (1960). He was (1944-73) director of a school for the rehabilitation of
 emotionally disturbed children, many of them autistic (see AUTISM), at
 the Univ. of Chicago. His numerous works on child psychology and
 child-rearing include Love Is Not Enough (1950), The Empty Fortress
 (1967), and The Uses of Enchantment (1976).

   Betterton, Thomas

 Betterton, Thomas, 1635?-1710, English actor and manager of the
 RESTORATION stage. He was a great Hamlet and Macbeth with the producer
 William D'Avenant's company. As a manager he presented and played in
 adaptations of SHAKESPEARE, notably by DRYDEN and himself. His company
 opened the Haymarket Theatre in 1705. His wife, Mary Saunderson
 Betterton, d. 1711, was the first woman to play Shakespeare's great
 female roles.

   Betti, Ugo

 Betti, Ugo, 1892-1953, Italian dramatist and poet. A judge who gained
 literary recognition late in life, he is ranked second only to PIRANDELLO
 among 20th-cent. Italian dramatists. His plays, often pessimistic and
 moralizing, include The Mistress (1927), The Flood (1943), and Crime on
 Goat Island (1950).

   Bevan, Aneurin

 Bevan, Aneurin, 1897-1960, British politician. A coal miner and trade
 unionist, he served as a Labour member in Parliament (1929-60). As
 minister of health (1945-51), he administered the National Health
 Service. He was leader (1951-60) of the Labour party's left wing.

   Beveridge, William Henry

 Beveridge, William Henry, 1879-1963, British economist; b. India;
 knighted in 1919. An authority on social problems and unemployment,
 Beveridge was the director of the London School of Economics (1919-37).
 In Social Insurance and Allied Services (1942), he proposed a social
 security system "from the cradle to the grave" for all British citizens.
 He was made 1st Baron Beveridge of Tugwell in 1946.

   Beverly Hills

 Beverly Hills, city (1986 est. pop. 33,690), S Calif., completely
 surrounded by the city of LOS ANGELES; inc. 1914. Mainly residential, it
 is the home of many film and television personalities.

   Bevin, Ernest

 Bevin, Ernest, 1881-1951, British labor leader and statesman. He was an
 orphan who had earned his living from childhood. In 1921 he merged his
 dock workers' union with others to form the powerful Transport and
 General Workers' Union. A member of the Labour party, he was minister of
 labor in Winston CHURCHILL'S wartime cabinet (1940-45). As foreign
 minister in the Labour government (1945-51), he worked to build up
 Western Europe and to establish NATO.

   Beyazid

 Beyazid, sultans of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE (Turkey), also spelled Bayazid,
 Bajazet, and Bayazit. Beyazid I, 1347-1403 (r.1389-1402), triumphed over
 Byzantine Emperor Manuel II, the Turkish rulers of E Anatolia, and
 Sigismund of Hungary, who was on a crusade, but he was defeated (1402) by
 TAMERLANE, who routed his armies and took him prisoner. Beyazid II,
 1447-1513 (r.1481-1512), was a peace-loving monarch who did little to
 advance Ottoman power but much to further Ottoman culture. With the aid
 of the JANISSARIES he putdown a revolt of his brother Jem, but he lost
 Cilicia to the Mamelukes of Egypt and Cyprus to Venice.

   Beyle, Marie Henri

 Beyle, Marie Henri: see STENDHAL.

   Bhagavad-Gita

 Bhagavad-Gita [Skt.,=song of the Lord], Sanskrit poem incorporated into
 the MAHABHARATA, one of the classics of HINDUISM, consisting of a
 dialogue between Lord KRISHNA and Prince Arjuna on the eve of the battle
 of Kurukshetra. Arjuna is overcome with anguish when he sees his kinsmen
 and friends in the opposing army, but Krishna persuades him to fight by
 instructing him in spiritual wisdom and the means of attaining union with
 God (see YOGA) through selfless action, knowledge, and devotion. The Gita
 is essentially related to the UPANISHADS in content.

   Bhave, Vinoba

 Bhave, Vinoba 1895-1982, Indian religious figure. He was a disciple of
 Mohandas GANDHI and after Gandhi's death (1948) was widely accepted as
 his successor. In 1951 he founded the Bhoodan, or land-gift, movement,
 seeking donations of land for redistribution to the landless.

   Bhopal

 Bhopal, city in Central India (1981 pop. 672,329). On Dec. 3, 1984, it
 became the site of the worst industrial accident in history when a toxic
 gas leak from a Union Carbide insecticide plant killed more than 8,000
 people and injured approximately 150,000. Although Indian officials held
 the company responsible, charging a history of safety problems, Union
 Carbide officials claimed sabotage. The Indian government filed suit on
 behalf of the victims in both the U.S. (where the courts rejected the
 suit) and India and refused Union Carbide's offers of a $350 million
 settlement. In 1989 the Indian Supreme Court ordered Union Carbide to pay
 $470 million in damages. Many of the survivors are expected to experience
 life-long medical problems.

   Bhutan

 Bhutan, officially the Kingdom of Bhutan, kingdom (1986 est. pop.
 1,300,000), 18,147 sq mi (47,000 sq km), E Asia, in the Himalayas,
 bordered by India (S and E), the Tibet region of China (N), and Sikkim
 (W). The capital is Thimbu. Bhutan is a land of great mountain ranges,
 rising in the north to Kula Kangri (24,784 ft/7,554 m), and intensively
 cultivated valleys. The climate ranges from humid subtropical at the
 lower altitudes to temperate in the high mountains. Small-scale
 subsistence farming, with rice the main crop, and the raising of
 livestock dominate the economy. Metal, wood, and leather working;
 papermaking; and weaving are also important. Bhutan's people are mostly
 Bhotias, ethnically related to Tibetans. Their religion is closely
 related to TIBETAN BUDDHISM; many Bhutanese live in monasteries.

 History In the 16th cent. the Tibetans conquered Bhutan's native tribes,
 and in 1720 China claimed suzerainty over the area. British interests in
 Bhutan dated from the arrival of a trade mission in 1774. Britain annexed
 part of Bhutan in 1865, and in 1910 Bhutan's first hereditary king agreed
 to let Britain direct the country's foreign affairs; this role was
 assumed by India in 1949. After Communist forces occupied (1950) Tibet,
 Bhutan became a point of contest between China and India, and the
 China-Bhutan border was closed. Jigme Singhe Wangchuk became king in 1972
 (crowned 1974). Bhutan became a member of the UN in 1971 and of the
 Nonaligned Movement in 1973.

   Bhutto, Benazir

 Bhutto, Benazir, 1953-, prime minister (1988-) of PAKISTAN. The daughter
 of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, she led the Pakistan People's Party in exile from
 1984 with her mother, Nusrat Bhutto. After the lifting (1986) of martial
 law, she returned to Pakistan. Upon her election in 1988, she became the
 first female leader of a Muslim nation.

   Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali

 Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali, 1928-79, president (1971-73) and prime minister
 (1973-77) of PAKISTAN. He came to power after Pakistan's defeat in the
 war over BANGLADESH'S independence. He was overthrown (1977), tried for
 state crimes, and executed (1979).

   Bi

 Bi, chemical symbol of the element BISMUTH.

   Biafra, Republic of

 Biafra, Republic of, former African secessionist state, formed in SW
 Nigeria. Biafra was established in 1967 by Ibos, an ethnic group who
 feared they could not survive within Nigeria. The new state was led by
 Lt. Col. C.O. Ojukwu. Soon after secession, fighting erupted between
 Nigerian and Biafran forces. More than one million Biafran civilians are
 believed to have died of starvation during the war, which ended with
 Biafra's defeat in 1970.

   Bialik, Hayyim Nahman

 Bialik, Hayyim Nahman, 1873-1934, Ukrainian poet and novelist who wrote
 mainly in Hebrew. His style-some times majestic, sometimes simple-had a
 great effect on modern Hebrew literature. His poems include "In the City
 of Slaughter" (1903). As an editor and publisher in Odessa, Berlin, and
 Tel Aviv, Bialik spread the ideas of the Haskalah, the renaissance of
 Jewish culture.

   biathlon

 biathlon, a sporting event composed of two activities. The best-known
 type of biathlon is the winter event, combining cross-country skiing and
 target shooting, which has been part of Olympic competition since 1960. A
 combined running and swimming event, instituted in Great Britain in 1968,
 is also called a biathlon.

   Bible

 Bible, name of the Christian Scriptures. (For the composition and canon
 of the Bible, see OLD TESTAMENT, NEW TESTAMENT, APOCRYPHA, and articles
 on individual books.) The traditional Christian view is that the Bible
 was written under the guidance of God and is, therefore, entirely true,
 literally or couched in allegory. Interpretation of the Bible is a main
 point of difference between Protestantism, which holds that individuals
 have the right to interpret the Bible for themselves, and Roman
 Catholicism, which teaches that individuals may read the Bible only as
 interpreted by the church. In recent times, many Protestants have been
 influenced by biblical criticism that has applied scientific and
 historical methods to Bible study ("higher criticism"); FUNDAMENTALISM,
 on the other hand, emphasizes the absolute inerrancy of the Bible. Noted
 extant manuscripts of the Bible include Codex Vaticanus (Greek, 4th
 cent.), at the Vatican; Codex Alexandrinus (Greek, 5th cent.), in the
 British Museum; and Codex Bezae (Greek and Latin, 6th cent.), at
 Cambridge, England. Among the DEAD SEA SCROLLS are the oldest fragments
 of the Hebrew text known; the New Testament has come down to us in Greek.
 The first great translation of the whole Bible was the Latin Vulgate of
 St. JEROME. The Greek text generally accepted in the East is, for the Old
 Testament, the Septuagint. Great names in the history of the English
 Bible are John WYCLIF (d. 1384), whose name appears on two translations;
 William TYNDALE, whose New Testament (1525-26) was the first English
 translation to be printed; and Miles Coverdale, who published (1535) a
 translation of the entire Bible. The greatest English translation was the
 Authorized Version (AV), or King James Version (KJV), of 1611, made by a
 group of churchmen and scholars led by Lancelot Andrewes. The
 Rheims-Douay Version was produced by Roman Catholic scholars at Rheims
 (New Testament, 1582) and Douai (Old Testament, 1610), France. In the
 19th cent., the Authorized Version was revised as the English Revised
 Version and the American Revised Version (pub. 1880-90). American
 scholars published (1952) the influential Revised Standard Version (RSV).
 New translations are the New English Bible (1970) and such Roman Catholic
 translations as the Westminster Version and the New American Bible
 (1970); an English translation of the French Catholic Bible de Jerusalem
 appeared as the Jerusalem Bible (1966).

   biblical archaeology

 biblical archaeology, ARCHAEOLOGY of the biblical lands, especially the
 ancient Middle East; its artifacts augment extant texts to recreate the
 cultural setting of biblical times. Developed by the British biblical
 scholar Edward Robinson in the early 19th cent., biblical archaeology
 first focused on ancient PALESTINE (see MEGIDDO and SAMARIA). Because few
 written materials or monuments survive in that area, the system of dating
 pottery developed by Flinders PETRIE at Tel-el-Hesy was especially
 significant. Israeli archaeologists excavated a number of major tells.
 Outside Palestine, important excavations in ancient EGYPT, SUMER,
 ASSYRIA, and JORDAN have also greatly increased understanding of the
 Bible (see especially UR and EBLA). More recent findings of biblical
 archaeology indicate that historically the Old Testament is unexpectedly
 accurate and that the GOSPELS are of greater antiquity than had been
 thought (see DEAD SEA SCROLLS).

   bibliography

 bibliography, listing of writings based on some organizational principle,
 such as a subject, an author, a library or collection. The earliest
 examples, lists of the contents of early libraries, have been found at
 NINEVEH, ALEXANDRIA, and PERGAMUM. Modern bibliography began with the
 invention of the PRINTING press and the trade lists issued by publishing
 houses, comparable to today's Trade List Annual and the various "books in
 print" volumes. By the 19th cent. there had developed an interest in
 descriptive bibliography, i.e., the description of a book as a physical
 object, which in turn led to textual bibliography, the critical
 examination of the book and its production history to determine the
 authority of the text. Mechanization has introduced machines to aid the
 bibliographer, e.g., the COMPUTER and the Hinman collator. Bibliographies
 of holdings are now published by national libraries, e.g., the British
 Library and the Library of Congress. Bibliographies of bibliographies
 include Theodore Besterman's World Bibliography of Bibliography and the
 Bibliographic Index, issued semiannually.

   Bibliotheque nationale

 Bibliotheque nationale: see LIBRARY .

   bicameral system

 bicameral system: see LEGISLATURE.

   bicarbonate of soda

 bicarbonate of soda: see SODIUM BICARBONATE.

   bicycle

 bicycle, light, two-wheeled vehicle driven by pedals. A model using
 pedals, cranks, drive rods, and handlebars was introduced c.1839 in
 Scotland; it was followed by the development of the hollow steel frame,
 ball bearings, metal wheel spokes, and rubber-rimmed wheels. The front
 wheel, directly powered by the pedals, was at one time much larger than
 the rear wheel. The first bicycle with a sprocket-chain drive powering an
 equal-size rear wheel was made in England in 1885; the pneumatic tire was
 invented in Scotland in 1888. Later improvements included
 handlebar-mounted brake cables and gearshift systems to facilitate
 changes in speed. The bicycle's popularity brought about major
 improvements in roads in 19th-cent. Europe and America, and the vehicle
 continues to be far more widely used than the automobile in many parts of
 the world today.

   Bidault, Georges

 Bidault, Georges, 1899-83, French political leader. A leader of the
 French underground in WORLD WAR II, Bidault was a postwar premier
 (1949-50) and several times foreign minister. He joined the terrorist
 opponents of Algerian independence and fled (1962) into exile. He
 returned to France in 1968.

   Biddle, John

 Biddle, John, 1516-62, founder of English UNITARIANISM. After losing his
 belief in the TRINITY, he stated his conclusions in Twelve Arguments
 Drawn Out of Scripture, for which he was imprisoned (1645). He was
 banished for publishing his Two-fold Catechism (1654). Returning in 1658,
 he taught and preached until again imprisoned (1662).

   Biedermeier

 Biedermeier, style of German furniture, 1816-48. The name derives from a
 humorous pseudonym used by several German poets. Comfortable and
 inexpensive, it featured simplified forms of the EMPIRE STYLE and the
 DIRECTOIRE STYLE and of some 18th-cent. English styles. Black lacquer
 substituted for costly ebony, and peasant-style painted decoration was
 applied.

   biennial

 biennial, plant requiring two growing seasons to complete its life cycle,
 as distinguished from an ANNUAL or PERENNIAL. In the first year the plant
 produces leaves and a fleshy root; in the second year it produces flowers
 and seeds, and then dies. Some biennials will bloom in the same growing
 season if sown early.

   Bierce, Ambrose Gwinett

 Bierce, Ambrose Gwinett, 1842-1914?, American writer; b. Meigs co., Ohio.
 After Civil War service he turned to journalism, eventually becoming the
 literary arbiter of the West Coast. Bierce achieved real distinction in
 his short stories, collected in such volumes as In the Midst of Life
 (1891) and Can Such Things Be? (1893). He is equally famous for a
 collection of sardonic definitions, The Devil's Dictionary (1906). His
 work is marked by distilled satire, crisply precise language, and a
 realistically developed sense of horror. He disappeared in Mexico in
 1913.

   big bang theory

 big bang theory: see COSMOLOGY.

   Big Ben

 Big Ben, the bell in Parliament tower (Westminster Palace), London; also
 the tower clock. Installed in 1856, it was named for the commissioner of
 works, Sir Benjamin Hall.

   Big Bend National Park

 Big Bend National Park: see NATIONAL PARKS .

   Bigelow, John

 Bigelow, John, 1817-1911, American editor, author, and diplomat; b.
 Malden, N.Y. As joint owner and editor (1848-61), with William Cullen
 BRYANT, of the New York Evening Post, he wrote vigorous anti-SLAVERY
 editorials. Appointed consul general at Paris (1861) and later (1865-66)
 U.S. minister to France, he was largely instrumental in preventing French
 recognition of the CONFEDERACY during the CIVIL WAR.

   Bigfoot

 Bigfoot or Sasquatch, apelike creature reportedly sighted hundreds of
 times in the U.S. and Canada (most often in the Pacific Northwest) since
 the mid-19th cent. Similar to Asia's ABOMINABLE SNOWMAN, Bigfoot is
 variously described as standing 7-10 ft (2-3 m) tall and weighing over
 500 lb (227 kg), with footprints 17 in. (43 cm) long. Most scientists
 discount the existence of such a creature.

   Biggs, E(dward George) Power

 Biggs, E(dward George) Power, 1906-77, American organist; b. England.
 Through his many performances and recordings, he introduced the ORGAN as
 a serious concert instrument to the American public, most notably with
 music of the BAROQUE period and the 20th cent.

   bighorn

 bighorn or Rocky Mountain sheep, wild SHEEP (Ovis canadensis) of W North
 America. It is a heavy, grayish brown animal with a white patch on the
 hindquarters; the male has curling horns. Once plentiful, it is
 diminishing in number as a result of indiscriminate hunting.

   bignonia

 bignonia, common name for the Bignoniaceae, a family of woody vines,
 shrubs, and trees of the American tropics. Members of the family include
 the tropical calabash tree, which bears large fruits used as carrying
 gourds (called calabashes) and whose wood is used to make pipes; and the
 ornamental shade trees of the genus Catalpa, whose wood is used for
 lumber.

   Bigordi, Domenico

 Bigordi, Domenico: see GHIRLANDAIO, DOMENICO.

   Bikini

 Bikini, atoll, c.2 sq mi (5.2 sq km), W central Pacific Ocean, in the
 MARSHALL ISLANDS, U.S. Trust Territory of the PACIFIC ISLANDS. Comprising
 36 islets on a reef 25 mi (40 km) long, it was used (1946-58) for U.S.
 nuclear-bomb tests. Bikinians were evacuated (1946), allowed to return
 (1969), and reevacuated (1978) when new data showed high levels of
 residual radioactivity. A U.S.-assisted clean-up effort began in 1988.

   Biko, Steven

 Biko, Steven, 1946-77, South African political leader. A leader of the
 radical "black consciousness" movement, he helped found the all-black
 South African Students Organization (1969) and the Black People's
 Convention (1972). When the government banned him in 1973, he was already
 a hero to young black students. In Aug. 1977, he was arrested for
 subversion and died brutally in police custody. As a result, he became a
 figure of international importance. His funeral was attended by diplomats
 from 13 nations and prompted a boycott by 200,000 students. See also
 APARTHEID.

   Bilderdijk, Willem

 Bilderdijk, Willem, 1756-1831, Dutch poet. Ranked among the great Dutch
 poets, he is best known for an unfinished epic, The Destruction of the
 First Creation (1820), and other religious verse. His translations
 catalyzed the romantic movement in Dutch literature.

   bile

 bile, bitter, alkaline fluid of a yellow, brown, or green color that aids
 in the digestion of fats (see DIGESTIVE SYSTEM). Composed of water, bile
 salts, bilirubin (a pigment), cholesterol, and lecithin, bile is secreted
 by the LIVER and stored in the GALL BLADDER. It is emptied into the upper
 intestine to breakdown fats and enable them (and fat-soluble VITAMINS) to
 be absorbed through the intestinal wall. Bile is also a route of
 excretion for cholesterol, heme, and many drugs. JAUNDICE may result if
 the flow of bile is impeded.

   bilingual education

 bilingual education, the sanctioned use of more than one language in U.S.
 education. The Bilingual Education Act (1968), confirmed by a Supreme
 Court decision (1974) and mandating help for students with limited
 English proficiency, requires instruction in the native languages of
 students. Critics, maintaining that some students never join the
 mainstream culture, have attempted to make English the "official"
 language; proponents emphasize the preservation of ethnic heritage and
 culture in language.

   billiards

 billiards, any of several games played with a leather-tipped stick (cue)
 and various numbers of balls on an oblong, cloth-covered table with
 raised, cushioned edges. The three main types are carom billiards, played
 with three balls on a pocketless table; pocket billiards (or pool), using
 a cue ball and 15 object balls on a table with six pockets; and snooker,
 similar to pool but with 21 object balls. Variants were popular in
 England and France in the 16th cent.

   Billings, John Shaw

 Billings, John Shaw, 1838-1913, American surgeon and librarian; b.
 Switzerland co., Ind. Under his direction (1864-95) the National Library
 of Medicine became one of the great medical library systems in the world.
 He initiated the Index Catalogue and Index Medicus and compiled (1889)
 the National Medical Dictionary. He also directed development of the New
 York Public Library (see LIBRARY, ); suggested what became punched-card
 technology; and supervised the 1880 and 1890 U.S. censuses.

   Billings, Josh

 Billings, Josh, pseud. of Henry Wheeler Shaw, 1818-85, American humorist;
 b. Lanesboro, Mass. His popular, humorous sketches in rural dialect
 appeared annually in the Farmer's Allminax (1869-80).

   Billings

 Billings, city (1986 est. pop. 80,310), seat of Yellowstone co., S Mont.,
 on the Yellowstone R.; inc. as a city 1885. Founded in 1882 by the
 Northern Pacific RR, it became a shipping and fur-trading center. Oil and
 sugar refining, meat packing, and flour milling are now its main
 industries. The center of a recreational area, it is surrounded by seven
 mountain ranges; Yellowstone National Park (see NATIONAL PARKS, ) is
 nearby.

   Bill of Rights

 Bill of Rights, 1689, in British history, one of the fundamental
 instruments of constitutional law. It incorporated by statute the
 Declaration of Rights accepted by WILLIAM III and MARY II, and registered
 the results of the struggle between the STUART kings and PARLIAMENT. The
 Bill of Rights stated that no Roman Catholic would rule England; it gave
 inviolable civil and political rights to the people and political
 supremacy to Parliament. It was supplemented (1701) by the Act of
 SETTLEMENT.

   Bill of Rights

 Bill of Rights, in U.S. history: see under CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED
 STATES.

   Billy the Kid

 Billy the Kid, 1859-81, American outlaw; b. N.Y.C. A large-scale cattle
 rustler in Lincoln co., N.M., from 1878, he was hunted and fatally shot
 by Sheriff Pat Garrett. Billy's real name was William H. Bonney.

   Biloxi

 Biloxi, city (1986 est. pop. 47,750), SE Miss., on a peninsula between
 Biloxi Bay and Mississippi Sound, on the Gulf of MEXICO; settled 1699,
 inc. as a city 1896. Almost tropical in climate, it is a popular resort.
 Fishing, especially for shrimp and shellfish, is a major industry, as is
 boat-building. French Old Biloxi (est. 1699) was the first white
 settlement in the lower Mississippi valley; New Biloxi (est. 1719) was
 the capital of French Louisiana until 1722. Beauvoir, the last home of
 Jefferson DAVIS, is nearby.

   bimetallism

 bimetallism, in economic history, a monetary system in which two
 commodities, usually gold and silver, were used as a standard and coined
 at a fixed ratio. The system was designed to create a monetary unit with
 more stability than one based on a single metal. In a bimetallic system,
 the ratio, which is determined by law, is expressed in terms of weight,
 e.g., 16 oz of silver equal 1 oz of gold, or a ratio of 16 to 1. The
 legal ratio has no relationship to the commercial value of the metals,
 which fluctuates constantly. This discrepancy between the commercial and
 face values of the two metals made bimetallism too unstable for most
 modern nations. The system was practiced in the U.S. and other countries
 (except England, where gold was used) in the 18th and 19th cent.

   binary star

 binary star, pair of stars that are held together by their mutual
 gravitational attraction and revolve about their common center of mass.
 True binary stars are distinct from optical doubles-pairs of stars that
 lie along nearly the same line of sight from the earth but are not
 physically associated. A visual binary is a pair of stars that can be
 seen be direct telescopic observation to be a distinct pair with shared
 motion. A spectroscopic binary cannot be distinguished telescopically as
 two separate stars, but spectral lines from the pair show a periodic
 DOPPLER EFFECT that indicates mutual revolution. An eclipsing binary has
 the plane of its orbit lying in the line of sight and shows a periodic
 fluctuation in brightness (see VARIABLE STAR) as one star passes in front
 of the other.

   binary system

 binary system: see NUMERATION.

   bindweed

 bindweed: see MORNING-GLORY.

   Binet, Alfred

 Binet, Alfred, 1857-1911, French psychologist. With Theodore Simon, Binet
 devised (1905-11) a series of tests of human INTELLIGENCE that, with
 revisions, came into wide use in schools, industry, and the army.

   Bingham, George Caleb

 Bingham, George Caleb, 1811-79, American painter and politician; b.
 Augusta co., Va. His vigorous GENRE scenes accurately picture their time
 and locale. They include Fur Traders Descending the Missouri
 (Metropolitan Mus.) and Raftsmen Playing Cards (City Art Mus., St.
 Louis). Bingham was elected to the Missouri legislature in 1848, served
 as state treasurer (1862-65), and became state adjutant general in 1875.

   Bingham, Hiram

 Bingham, Hiram, 1789-1869, American Congregationalist missionary; b.
 Bennington, Vt. In 1819 he founded the first Protestant mission in the
 Hawaiian Islands. He adapted the Hawaiian language to writing and
 translated the Bible into Hawaiian. His son Hiram Bingham, 1831-1908, b.
 Honolulu, was also a missionary. In 1857 he founded a mission in the
 Gilbert Islands and later adapted the island language to writing.

   Bingham, Hiram

 Bingham, Hiram, 1875-1956, American archaeologist and statesman; b.
 Honolulu. At Yale Univ. (1907-23), he led expeditions that discovered the
 Inca cities of Vitcos and Machu Picchu. He was governor of Connecticut
 (1925) and U.S. senator (1925-33).

   binoculars

 binoculars, small optical instrument, consisting of a pair of TELESCOPES
 mounted on a single, usually adjustable frame, that is used for
 magnifying distant objects. Light entering each telescope through its
 objective LENS is bent by a pair of prisms before passing through one or
 more additional lenses in the eyepiece. The prisms turn the
 image-inverted by the objective lens-right side up again and allow the
 distance between the objective lenses to be twice as far apart as that
 between the eyepieces, thus enhancing the viewer's depth perception. The
 usually less powerful opera and field glasses are also classed as
 binoculars, although both use Galilean telescopes, which do not employ
 prisms.

   biochemistry

 biochemistry, science concerned chiefly with the chemistry of biological
 processes. From its roots in chemistry, chiefly organic and physical
 chemistry, biochemistry has broadened to encompass any biological problem
 amenable to the investigative techniques of both chemistry and physics. A
 milestone in the growth of the field was the elucidation of the structure
 of DNA.

   bioengineering

 bioengineering, use of engineering and biological principles for the
 identification of the functions of living systems and for the development
 of (1) therapeutic devices, especially artificial body parts and systems,
 e.g., artificial blood vessels, PACEMAKERS, DIALYSIS equipment, and
 artificial limbs that function like their prototypes; and (2) equipment
 for monitoring the performance of healthy and diseased organisms.

   biofeedback

 biofeedback, method for learning to increase one's ability to control
 biological responses, such as blood pressure, muscle tension, and heart
 rate. Sophisticated instruments are often used to measure physiological
 responses and make them apparent to the patient, who then tries to alter
 and ultimately control them without the aid of monitoring devices.
 Biofeedback programs have been used to teach patients to relax muscles or
 adjust blood flow in the case of headache, to help partially paralyzed
 stroke victims activate muscles, and to alleviate anxiety in dental
 patients.

   biography

 biography, reconstruction in print of the lives of real people. With the
 autobiography-an individual's interpretation of his own life-it shares a
 venerable tradition. Ancient Egyptian and Assyrian inscriptions
 proclaimed the deeds of kings. Among the first biographies of ordinary
 men, the Dialogues of PLATO (4th cent. BC) reveal their subject,
 SOCRATES, by letting him speak for himself. A balanced assessment of
 character is achieved in PLUTARCH'S Parallel Lives (2d cent. AD), where
 subjects are paired, e.g., DEMOSTHENES with CICERO. In the medieval lives
 of saints, human flaws were bypassed for saintly traits, but the few
 secular biographies of the period, e.g., EINHARD'S Life of Charlemagne
 (9th cent.), contain lively portraits of real people. The RENAISSANCE
 interest in worldly power and self-assertion is reflected in CELLINI'S
 Autobiography (16th cent.). By the 17th cent. informality and intimacy
 had been introduced, e.g., John AUBREY'S Brief Lives. In the 18th cent.
 Dr. JOHNSON'S Lives of the Poets (1780-81) set the example for literary
 biographies, notably James BOSWELL'S Life of Samuel Johnson (1791). The
 first definitive biography, it was drawn from personal recollection,
 letters, memoirs, and interviews. Later developments include the
 psychoanalytic biography, e.g., Sigmund FREUD'S Leonardo Da Vinci (1910);

 (1918); and the thematic biography, e.g., Thomas MERTON'S Seven Storey
 Mountain (1948), which follows the analogue of DANTE'S Inferno.

   biological warfare, bacteriological warfare

 biological warfare, bacteriological warfare, or germ warfare,employment
 in war of microorganisms to injure or destroy human beings, animals, or
 crops. Although "first use" of both biological and chemical weapons (see
 CHEMICAL WARFARE) was prohibited by the 1925 Geneva Convention, several
 nations subsequently conducted research into detection and defense
 systems, and developed microorganisms (including strains of smallpox and
 the plague) suitable for military retaliation. Such organisms can be
 delivered by animals, especially rodents or insects, or by AEROSOL
 packages-built into artillery shells or the warheads of ground-to-ground
 or air-to-ground missiles and released into the atmosphere to infect by
 inhalation. Research in this area did not end after 1972, despite an
 agreement that year by more than 100 nations, including the U.S. and the
 USSR, to prohibit the development, testing, and stockpiling of biological
 weapons.

   biology

 biology, science dealing with living things, broadly divided into
 ZOOLOGY, the study of animal life, and BOTANY, the study of plant life.
 Subdivisions include ANATOMY and PHYSIOLOGY; GENETICS; molecular biology,
 the study of cells (cytology), tissues (histology), embryonic development
 (see EMBRYO), and microscopic forms of life; as well as CLASSIFICATION,
 EVOLUTION, and paleontology (the study of FOSSILS).

   bioluminescence

 bioluminescence, production of light by living organisms resulting from
 the conversion of chemical energy to light energy. Bioluminescent plants
 include certain MUSHROOMS and BACTERIA that emit light continuously. The
 dinoflagellates, a group of marine algae, produce light only when
 disturbed. Bioluminescent animals include such organisms as COMB JELLIES,
 annelid worms, MOLLUSKS, insects such as FIREFLIES, and FISH. Some
 animals seem to use luminescence in courtship and mating, to divert
 predators, or to attract prey.

   biomass energy

 biomass energy: see ENERGY, SOURCES OF.

   biome

 biome: see ECOLOGY.

   Bion

 Bion, fl. 2d cent.? BC, Greek bucolic poet, an imitator of THEOCRITUS.
 The Lament for Adonis (attributed to him) was the model for P.B.
 SHELLEY'S Adonais.

   bionics

 bionics, study of living systems with the intention of applying their
 principles to the design of engineering systems. Drawing on
 interdisciplinary research in the mechanical and life sciences, bionics
 has been used to develop audiovisual equipment based on human eye and ear
 function, to design air and naval craft patterned after the biological
 structure of birds and fish, and to incorporate principles of the human
 neurological system in data-processing systems.

   biophysics

 biophysics, application of various tools, methods, and principles of
 physical science to the study of biological problems. In biophysics,
 physical mechanisms and mathematical and physical models have been used
 to explain life processes such as the transmission of nerve impulses, the
 muscle contraction mechanism, and the visual mechanism.

   biopsy

 biopsy, examination of cells or tissues removed from a living organism to
 aid medical diagnosis. Samples may be removed surgically, as in excision
 of breast tissue, or by aspiration of cells through a special needle, as
 in the case of bone marrow.

   biorhythm

 biorhythm or biological rhythm,cyclic pattern of changes in physiology or
 in activity of living organisms, often synchronized with daily, monthly,
 or yearly environmental changes. Rhythms that vary according to the time
 of day (circadian rhythms), in part a response to daylight or dark,
 include the opening and closing of flowers and the nighttime increase in
 activity of nocturnal animals. Circadian rhythms also include activities
 that occur often during a 24-hour period, such as blood pressure changes
 and urine production. Annual cycles, called cirannual rhythms, respond to
 changes in the relative length of periods of daylight and include such
 activities as migration and animal mating. Marine organisms are affected
 by tide cycles. Although the exact nature of the internal mechanism is
 not known, various external stimuli-including light, temperature, and
 gravity-influence the organism's internal clock; in the absence of
 external cues, the internal rhythms gradually drift out of phase with the
 environment.

   biosphere

 biosphere, irregularly shaped envelope of the earth's air, water, and
 land, encompassing the heights and depths at which living things exist.
 The biosphere is a closed and self-regulating system (see ECOLOGY)
 sustained by grand-scale cycles of energy and materials.

   biotechnology

 biotechnology, the industrial exploitation of biological knowledge,
 particularly by genetic engineering, a technique for creating
 custom-designed foods, new drugs, fertilizers, and pesticides as well as
 genetically enhanced livestock and therapies to repair genetic defects.
 Because biotechnology in effect involves techniques for patenting life
 itself, new developments are raising legal, environmental, and moral
 issues.

   Biqa, Al

 Biqa, Al, upland valley of Lebanon and Syria, 75 mi (121 km) long and 5-9
 mi (8-14.5 km) wide, between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon ranges. It is
 also spelled El Bika, El Bekaa, or El Baqa. It is a continuation in Asia
 of Africa's GREAT RIFT VALLEY. The southern part of Al Biqa, drained and
 irrigated by the Litani R., is one of the most productive farming areas
 in the Middle East. Wars have been fought for its control since the dawn
 of history.

   birch

 birch, common name for some members of the Betulaceae, a family of
 deciduous trees or shrubs widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere.
 Growing mainly in the Northeast, the genera native to the U.S. are the
 birches, ALDER, HAZEL, and hornbeam and hop hornbeam (both called
 ironwood). Some birches are valued for their fine hardwoods, e.g., the
 yellow birch (Betula lutea). White-barked birches are often used as
 ornamentals, notably the paper birch (B. papyrifera) of the N United
 States and Canada, whose bark was used by Indians for canoes and baskets.
 Various birches produce edible fruits, sugar, vinegar, tea from leaves,
 and birch beer from sap.

   Bird, Larry Joe

 Bird, Larry Joe, 1956-, American basketball player; b. French Lick, Ind.
 Beginning in 1979, he starred for the Boston Celtic team that won the
 National Basketball Association Championships in 1981, 1984, and 1986. He
 was voted the NBA's Most Valuable Player from 1984 to 1986.

   bird

 bird, warm-blooded, egg-laying VERTEBRATE of the class Aves, having its
 body covered with FEATHERS and its forelimbs modified into wings. Like
 MAMMALS, birds have a four-chambered heart; they have a relatively large
 brain and acute hearing but little sense of smell. Believed to have
 evolved from REPTILES, birds are highly adapted for flight. Their
 feathers, though light, protect against cold and wet and have great
 strength. Intricate courtship displays are performed by many species
 during breeding season, when birdsong is most pronounced; singing ability
 is usually restricted to, or superior in, the male. Most birds build some
 kind of nest for their eggs, which vary in size, shape, color, and number
 according to species. The chief domestic birds are the CHICKEN, DUCK,
 GOOSE, TURKEY, and guinea fowl. Among the game birds hunted for food and
 sport are GROUSE, PHEASANT, QUAIL, and duck.

   bird-of-paradise flower

 bird-of-paradise flower, large tropical herb (Strelitzia reginae) of the
 BANANA family, native to S Africa. Its blue and orange blossom resembles
 an exotic bird of that name.

   Birdseye, Clarence

 Birdseye, Clarence, 1886-1956, American inventor and founder of the
 frozen-food industry; b. Brooklyn, N.Y. His successful experiments with
 food-freezing processes led to the founding (1924) of the General Foods
 Co. By 1949, Birdseye had perfected the anhydrous process, which reduces
 the time needed for food freezing from 18 to 11/2 hr.

   Bird Woman

 Bird Woman: see SACAJAWEA.

   Birkhoff, George David

 Birkhoff, George David, 1884-1944, American mathematician; b. Overisel,
 Mich. He is known for his work on linear differential equations and
 difference equations. His introduction of the concepts of minimal or
 recurrent sets of motion and establishment of their existence under
 general conditions began a new era in the study of dynamical systems. He
 also wrote on the foundations of relativity and quantum mechanics.

   Birmingham

 Birmingham, second largest British city (1986 est. pop. 1,004,100), W
 Midlands, England. It is a major industrial and transportation center
 with such manufactures as automobiles, motorcycles, and bicycles. A
 market town by the 15th cent., Birmingham developed rapidly in the 17th
 and 18th cent. because of nearby deposits of iron and coal. In the 1870s
 the city underwent extensive municipal improvement, and much of the
 center was rebuilt after being bombed in WORLD WAR II.

   Birmingham

 Birmingham, city (1980 pop. 284,413), seat of Jefferson co., N central
 Ala., in the Jones Valley, near the southern end of the Appalachians;
 inc. 1871. The largest city in Alabama, it is the leading iron and steel
 center in the South. The area's coal, iron, and other resources supply
 its plants and factories. Its industry has diversified, and it
 manufactures a wide range of products, including transportation
 equipment, chemicals, and processed food. Birmingham is also a
 governmental, research, and trade center, connected by canal with the
 Gulf of Mexico. It is the site of several colleges and cultural
 institutions.

   Birney, James Gillespie

 Birney, James Gillespie, 1792-1857, American abolitionist; b. Danville,
 Ky. After freeing (1834) his inherited slaves, he helped organize (1835)
 the Kentucky Anti-Slavery Society and was active in the American
 Anti-Slavery Society. The acknowledged leader of ABOLITIONISTS favoring
 political action, he ran for president on the Liberty Party line in 1840
 and 1844.

   birth control

 birth control, practice of preventing conception for the purpose of
 limiting the number of births; also called contraception and family
 planning. The modern movement for birth control began in Britain, where
 the writings of MALTHUS stirred interest in the problems of
 overpopulation. The first birth-control clinic in the U.S. was opened in
 1916 by birth-control leader Margaret SANGER. On an international level,
 birth control is led by the International Planned Parenthood Federation
 (founded 1952), and in some countries (e.g., Sweden, Japan, and many
 Communist nations) the government provides birth-control assistance to
 its people in order to limit population growth. The Roman Catholic Church
 has provided the main opposition to the birth control movement, approving
 only the so-called rhythm method, or abstinence from intercourse around
 the time of ovulation. Other contraceptive methods include, for males,
 withdrawal before ejaculation; use of a condom, or rubber sheath over the
 penis; and sterilization by VASECTOMY. Contraception for women includes
 precoital use of spermicidal vaginal suppositories, foams, and jellies;
 use of a diaphragm, a cup-shaped rubber device inserted into the vagina
 before intercourse to prevent sperm from traveling to the egg; use of an
 INTRAUTERINE DEVICE; and "the pill" (see ORAL CONTRACEPTIVE). Surgical
 sterilization for women includes tubal ligation (severing or sealing of
 the Fallopian tubes). See also ABORTION; POPULATION.

   birth defects

 birth defects, abnormalities in physical and/or mental structure or
 function that are present at birth. They range from minor to seriously
 deforming and/or life-threatening, with some major defect occurring in
 approximately 3% of births. Defects may be genetic in origin (as in
 DOWN'S SYNDROME, TAY-SACHS DISEASE, SICKLE-CELL ANEMIA, and HEMOPHILIA)
 or maybe caused by infectious agents (e.g., HERPES SIMPLEX, RUBELLA,
 VENEREAL DISEASES). Other teratogenic (malformation-causing) agents
 include drugs or hormones taken by the mother (e.g., THALIDOMIDE; DES)
 and maternal illnesses (e.g., DIABETES). The mother's nutrition, alcohol
 and smoking habits, and exposure to radiation can also affect the
 developing fetus. Certain birth defects can now be detected prenatally
 through the procedure of AMNIOCENTESIS, and surgical procedures are being
 explored to correct certain disorders before birth.

   birthstone

 birthstone: see MONTH.

   Biscayne National Park

 Biscayne National Park: see NATIONAL PARKS .

   Bishop, Elizabeth

 Bishop, Elizabeth, 1911-79, American poet; b. Worcester, Mass. Her
 penetrating and detached poetic vision is evident in such volumes as
 Poems: North and South-A Cold Spring (1955; Pulitzer) and Geography III
 (1976).

   Bishops' Wars

 Bishops' Wars, two brief campaigns (1639, 1640) of the Scots against
 CHARLES I of England. Opposing his attempt to impose episcopacy, the
 COVENANTERS pledged a return to Presbyterianism. They invaded England and
 forced Charles to sign the Treaty of Ripon (Oct. 1640). See also ENGLISH
 CIVIL WAR.

   Bismarck, Otto von

 Bismarck, Otto von, 1815-98, German statesman, known as the Iron
 Chancellor; premier of Prussia (1862-90) and chancellor of Germany
 (1871-90). Upon becoming premier, following the wishes of WILLIAM I, he
 unconstitutionally dissolved parliament and illegally levied taxes for
 the army. In order to expel Austria from the GERMAN CONFEDERATION (as a
 first step toward unification of the German states), he provoked war with
 Denmark (1864) and Austria itself (1866) over the SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN
 question. The Austro-Prussian war resulted in a quick defeat of Austria,
 and Bismarck then formed the North German Confederation, from which
 Austria was excluded. He exploited the German states' fears of France in
 order to bring them into the Prussian orbit. He provoked the
 FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR (1870-71), which ended in France's humiliating
 defeat. Bismarck now easily brought the German states under the crown of
 Prussia, and William was proclaimed emperor. Bismarck became the empire's
 first chancellor, and ruled thereafter as virtual dictator. His system of
 alliance and alignments made him the acknowledged leader of Europe (see
 THREE EMPERORS' LEAGUE; BERLIN, CONGRESS OF; TRIPLE ALLIANCE AND TRIPLE
 ENTENTE). Domestically, the German economy flourished. Bismarck's
 struggle with the Church resulted in his cooperation with the liberals.
 Partly to weaken the appeal of the socialists, he initiated (1883-87)
 revolutionary social reforms, including child labor laws, maximum hours
 legislation, and extensive old age, illness, and unemployment insurance.
 Bismarck's economic policies resulted in the rapid growth of German
 industry and the acquisition of overseas colonies. The accession (1888)
 of WILLIAM II, a longtime enemy, brought Bismarck's career to a close;
 the new emperor dismissed him in 1890.

   Bismarck

 Bismarck, city (1986 est. pop. 48,040), state capital and seat of
 Burleigh co., S central N.Dak., on hills over the Missouri R.; inc. 1873,
 territorial capital from 1883. Bismarck developed in the 1870s when the
 Northern Pacific RR reached a steamboat port there. The trade center for
 the region, it is a major wheat, grain, and livestock producer.

   bismuth

 bismuth (Bi), metallic element, established as a separate element by
 Claud J. Geoffroy in 1753. The silver-white element is the poorest heat
 conductor of all the metals except mercury. Its soluble compounds are
 poisonous; its insoluble compounds are used to treat certain gastric
 disorders and skin injuries. See ELEMENT ; PERIODIC TABLE.

   bison

 bison, hoofed MAMMAL (genus Bison) of the CATTLE family, with short horns
 and heavy, humped shoulders. The European wisent (B. bonasus) is larger
 than the North American bison (B. bison), commonly called BUFFALO, which
 may reach a shoulder height of 5 ft (1.5 m) and a weight of 2,500 lb
 (1,130 kg). Bison roamed America in vast herds until slaughter by
 settlers for sport and meat reduced them to near extinction; they are now
 protected and thriving.

   Bissau

 Bissau, city (1987 est. pop. 109,214), capital of Guinea-Bissau, on the
 Geba estuary, off the Atlantic Ocean. It is the country's largest city,
 major port, and administrative center. Exports include peanuts, hardwood,
 palm oil, coconuts, and shellfish, and there is some transit trade. Food
 and beverage processing is the main industry. Founded (1687) by the
 Portuguese as a fortified port and trading center, the city was the
 capital (1942-74) of Portuguese Guinea.

   bit

 bit: see COMPUTER.

   Bithynia

 Bithynia, ancient country of NW Asia Minor, in present-day Turkey. At
 first an independent Thracian state, it became an autonomous part of the
 Persian empire, and after the death of ALEXANDER THE GREAT, it was an
 independent kingdom (3d-1st cent. BC). King Nicomedes IV willed it to
 Rome (74 BC). Joined with Pontus as a single colony soon afterward,
 Bithynia declined in the 2d cent. AD

   bittern

 bittern, migratory marsh BIRD of the HERON family. The American bittern,
 widely distributed in E North America, is 2 to 3 ft (61 to 91 cm) tall.
 When pursued, the bittern escapes detection by standing motionless with
 uplifted bill, its yellow and brown markings blending with the marsh
 grasses.

   bitterroot

 bitterroot: see PURSLANE.

   bittersweet

 bittersweet, name for two unrelated fall-fruiting, woody vines. One
 (Solanum dulcamara) belongs to the NIGHTSHADE family. Its twigs and stems
 yield a medicinal narcotic poison similar to belladonna. The more popular
 bittersweet (Celastrus scandens) is in the staff tree family. Both grow
 in North America.

   bivalve

 bivalve, MOLLUSK (class Pelecypoda) with a laterally compressed body and
 an external shell consisting of two dorsally hinged valves. Bivalves lack
 eyes and tentacles; inmost, a muscular foot, used for burrowing,
 protrudes from the valves in front of the body. Shells range in size from
 1/16 in. (2 mm) to over 4 ft (120 cm). Bivalves are an important food
 source and include CLAMS, COCKLES, SHIPWORMS, SCALLOPS, MUSSELS, and
 OYSTERS.

   Bizet, Georges

 Bizet, Georges, 1838-75, French operatic composer. He is celebrated for
 his immensely popular opera Carmen (1875), based on a story by MERIMEE.
 His other works include the opera The Pearlfishers (1863), the Symphony
 in C Major (1868), and incidental music to DAUDET'S L'Arlesienne.

   Bjerknes, Vilhelm Frimann Koren

 Bjerknes, Vilhelm Frimann Koren, 1862-1951, Norwegian physicist and
 pioneer in modern meteorology. He applied hydrodynamic and thermodynamic
 theories to atmospheric and hydrospheric conditions in order to predict
 future weather conditions. His work in meteorology and on electric waves
 was important in the early development of wireless telegraphy. He and his
 son Jakob Bjerknes, 1897-1975, evolved the polar-front theory of
 cyclones.

   Bjornsone, Bjornstjerne

 Bjornsone, Bjornstjerne, 1832-1910, Norwegian writer, a seminal figure in
 19th-cent. Norwegian literature and a lifelong champion of liberal
 causes. He sought to free the Norwegian theater from Danish influence and
 to revive Norwegian as a literary language. As director of Bergen's Ole
 Bull Theater (1857-59) and of the Oslo Theater (1863-67), he recreated
 Norway's epic past in sagalike dramas, e.g., the trilogy Sigurd Slembe
 (1862). He was named national poet of Norway, and his poem Yes, We Love
 This Land of Ours became the national anthem. Other major works include
 the novel The Fisher Girl (1868), the epic poem Arnljot Gelline (1870),
 and the play Pastor Sang (1893). He received the 1903 Nobel Prize in
 literature.

   Bjornsson, Sveinn

 Bjornsson, Sveinn, 1881-1952, Icelandic diplomat and political leader. He
 served as minister to Denmark (1920-41), regent of Iceland (1941-44),
 and, after independence from Denmark, Iceland's first president
 (1944-52).

   Bk

 Bk, chemical symbol of the element BERKELIUM.

   Black, Hugo Lafayette

 Black, Hugo Lafayette, 1886-1971, associate justice of the U.S. SUPREME
 COURT (1937-71); b. Harlan, Ala.; LL.B., Univ. of Alabama (1906). As a
 U.S. senator (1927-37), he was an ardent supporter of the NEW DEAL.
 Although his appointment to the Supreme Court was strongly opposed
 because he had been a member of the KU KLUX KLAN, Black led the Court in
 the battle for civil rights.

   Black, Joseph

 Black, Joseph, 1728-99, Scottish chemist and physician; b. France.
 Professor of chemistry at Glasgow and then at Edinburgh, he is best known
 for his theories of latent heat and specific heat. He discovered carbon
 dioxide ("fixed air") and helped establish chemistry as an exact science.

   black Americans

 black Americans or Afro-Americans,people of the U.S. whose ancestors came
 from sub-Saharan Africa; referred to historically as Negroes or colored
 people. In 1980 there were c.26.5 million blacks in the U.S., forming
 11.7% of the population. Black people have been in the Americas since the
 early 16th cent., when Spanish planters began to transport them from
 Africa to the West Indies as slaves. The first blacks on the North
 American mainland were brought to Virginia (1619) as indentured servants.
 With the success of tobacco planting, Negro SLAVERY was legalized in
 Virginia and Maryland, becoming the foundation of the Southern agrarian
 economy. Although there were also slaves in the Northern colonies, the
 institution there did not become especially profitable. A black man,
 Crispus Attucks, died in the BOSTON MASSACRE (1770), and c.5,000 blacks
 fought beside whites in the AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Slavery was gradually
 abolished in the North, but the U.S. Constitution (ratified 1788)
 protected the importation of slaves, and the invention of the COTTON GIN
 (1793) greatly increased the demand for them in the South. By 1830 there
 were more than 2 million black slaves in the U.S. Slave revolts were led
 by Nat TURNER and other ABOLITIONISTS. Although some slaves escaped north
 via the UNDERGROUND RAILROAD and a few purchased their freedom or
 received testamentary manumission (freedom granted under the terms of a
 master's will), the total slave population continued to grow. During the
 U.S. CIVIL WAR nearly 200,000 blacks fought in the Union Army-in
 segregated units led by white officers-and some 38,000 lost their lives.
 Pres. Abraham LINCOLN'S EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION (1863) and Union
 victory (1865) freed almost 4 million slaves. During RECONSTRUCTION
 (1865-77) 16 blacks served in Congress, but extreme poverty became the
 lot of most black Americans under the SHARE CROPPING system in the South.
 Resented by poor whites as economic competitors, they were often harassed
 and sometimes killed (see LYNCHING) by mobs or vigilante groups such as
 the KU KLUX KLAN. Tennessee was (1875) the first of many states to enact
 segregationist laws, and blacks were also disenfranchised by such devices
 as the POLL TAX, the GRANDFATHER CLAUSE, and arbitrary literacy tests.

 that it was legal if equal accommodations were provided for blacks and
 whites (see PLESSY V. FERGUSON). By the early 1900s many blacks were
 seeking better conditions by migrating to northern cities, where they
 found work chiefly as domestics and unskilled laborers and lived in
 crowded, segregated GHETTOS. After World War I black Americans began to
 make some progress in business, the professions, and the arts, aided by
 the NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF COLORED PEOPLE (founded
 1910) and the National Urban League (1911). Some northern ghettos,
 notably HARLEM, in New York City, became centers of a growing black
 middle class (see HARLEM RENAISSANCE). World War II stimulated a new wave
 of black migration to metropolitan areas, where many worked in defense
 plants. The postwar era brought the end of segregation in the armed
 services (1953), but economic progress remained slow. The CIVIL RIGHTS
 movement gained impetus when the Supreme Court ordered (1954) the
 elimination of segregation in schools, overturning the separate-but-equal
 rule (see BROWN V. BOARD OF EDUCATION). In 1955 the Montgomery (Ala.) bus
 boycott brought Dr. Martin Luther KING, Jr., to the forefront of the
 fight for equal rights, and growing white support led to congressional
 passage (1964, 1965) of sweeping civil rights and voting rights bills.
 Nonetheless, many young blacks were drawn in the 1960s to the black

 Tension and frustration produced riots in Rochester, N.Y. (1964), the
 Watts district of Los Angeles (1965), Detroit (1967), and, after Dr.
 King's assassination (1968), in more than 100 U.S. cities. The civil
 rights movement of the 1970s increasingly became a struggle for economic
 advancement, and, in the 1980s, such measures as AFFIRMATIVE ACTION and
 school BUSING to achieve racial balance were tested in the courts with
 considerable success. However, with the median income of blacks far below
 that of whites and unemployment much higher (especially among youth),
 full equality of opportunity remains a distant goal. See also biographies
 of individual black Americans.

   Blackbeard

 Blackbeard, d. 1718, English pirate. His name was probably Edward Teach
 or Thatch. Originally a privateer in the War of the SPANISH SUCCESSION,
 he preyed on the West Indies and along the Atlantic coast. He was killed
 by the British.

   blackberry

 blackberry: see BRAMBLE.

   blackbird

 blackbird, perching BIRD belonging to the family Icteridae, related to
 the BOBOLINK and ORIOLE. Except during breeding season, blackbirds travel
 in flocks; these may number as many as 5 million birds and often do
 serious crop damage. Common species are the red-winged, yellow-headed,
 and brewer blackbirds. The European blackbird is a THRUSH.

   blackbody

 blackbody, in physics, an ideal substance that absorbs all and reflects
 none of the radiant energy falling on it. An approximate blackbody is
 lampblack, which reflects less than 2% of incoming radiation. A study of
 blackbody radiation led Max PLANCK to develop QUANTUM THEORY in 1900.

   Black Death

 Black Death: see PLAGUE.

   Black English

 Black English. Long considered merely substandard English, the DIALECT
 spoken at times by as many as 80% to 90% of BLACK AMERICANS is in fact a
 distinct form. African slaves confronting white culture, and themselves
 speaking many different languages, developed a PIDGIN, mixing for the
 most part English vocabulary and African syntax, that developed into
 Black English. Much in Black English that seems grammatically incorrect
 actually represents consistent application of African structural
 principles. A social, rather than regional, dialect, it is similar in all
 parts of the U.S., as research since the 1960s has shown. Its role in
 public education is a source of controversy, because its effect on the
 process of learning to read and write is not clearly understood. See also
 GULLAH.

   black-eyed bean

 black-eyed bean or black-eyed pea: see COWPEA.

   black-eyed Susan

 black-eyed Susan or yellow daisy, weedy biennial North American daisylike
 wildflower (Rudbeckia hirta) of the COMPOSITE family, with yellow rays
 and a dark brown center. This and other species in the genus are also
 called yellow coneflowers.

   Blackfoot Indians

 Blackfoot Indians, NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS of the Plains, who spoke an
 Algonquian language of the Algonquian-Wakashan stock (see AMERICAN INDIAN
 LANGUAGES). The Blackfoot, so called because they wore black-dyed
 moccasins, were unremittingly hostile to most other tribes and usually to
 white men, efficiently repelling intrusion. In the early 19th cent. they
 lived in a large territory around the upper Missouri and N Saskatchewan
 rivers, ranging W to the Rocky Mts. They developed a nomadic Plains
 culture, based on the horse and buffalo. Their only crop was tobacco,
 employed in such rituals as the SUN DANCE. The killing off of the buffalo
 by the white man brought the Blackfoot almost to starvation. Today they
 are mostly farmers and ranchers, living in Montana and Canada.

   Black Forest

 Black Forest, block mountain range, SW West Germany, extending c.90 mi
 (145 km) along the Rhine rift valley. It is named for its cover of dark
 pine forests. A popular resort area, it is known for its cuckoo clock and
 toy industries. Baden-Baden and Freiburg are the chief cities.

   Black Friday

 Black Friday, Sept. 24, 1869, in U.S. history, day of financial panic. To
 corner the gold market, speculators, including Jay GOULD and James FISK,
 sought the support of federal officials of the GRANT administration. The
 attempt failed when government gold was released for sale. The drive
 ended on a Friday, when thousands were ruined. Other days of financial
 panic have also been called Black Friday.

   black gum

 black gum, ornamental deciduous tree (Nyssa sylvatica), native to E North
 America. The tough wood is used for wheel hubs. Black gum is also called
 sour gum, tupelo, and pepperidge. The genus Nyssa may be derived from an
 ancestral dogwood and is sometimes classified in the DOGWOOD family.

   Black Hawk War

 Black Hawk War, 1832, conflict between the U.S. and the SAC AND FOX
 INDIANS. An 1831 treaty compelled the Sac and Fox to move W of the
 Mississippi, but in 1832, under Chief Black Hawk, a group returned to
 Illinois. Fighting ensued, and most of Black Hawk's band were killed on
 the Bad Axe R. (in present-day Wisconsin) by a force under Henry
 Atkinson.

   Black Hills

 Black Hills, forested mountains rising above the GREAT PLAINS in SW South
 Dakota and NE Wyoming. Harney Peak (7,242 ft/2,207 m) is the highest
 point. Gold mining (begun in 1874) and tourism are chief industries.

   black hole

 black hole: see GRAVITATIONAL COLLAPSE.

   black lead

 black lead: see GRAPHITE.

   blackleg

 blackleg or black quarter,acute infectious bacterial disease of cattle
 and sometimes sheep, characterized by muscle inflammation and pain in the
 affected areas. TOXINS formed by the BACTERIA (genus Clostridium) produce
 severe muscle damage, and mortality is high.

   black lung disease

 black lung disease: see PNEUMOCONIOSIS.

   black magic

 black magic: see MAGIC.

   blackmail

 blackmail: see EXTORTION.

   black market

 black market, trading in commodities above legal price or quantity
 ceilings. To circumvent rationing and price controls, World War II black
 marketeers traded in clothing and liquor in Britain and meat, sugar, and
 gasoline in the U.S.; during PROHIBITION, BOOTLEGGING was also a
 black-market operation. Fears of inflation or unrealistic official rates
 have led to black-market currency exchange in many countries. Black
 marketeering is a chronic problem for nations with state-controlled
 economies and for those developing countries attempting to implement
 balanced programs of economic growth.

   Black Monday

 Black Monday, Oct. 19, 1987, in U.S. history, day of financial panic. The
 DOW-JONES AVERAGE fell 508.32 points. It was the greatest one-day decline
 since 1914. The point decline as well as the volume, 604.33 million
 shares, also exceeded previous records. Among the possible causes listed
 by the Presidential Task Force on Market Mechanisms and by the Securities
 and Exchange Commission were investors' anxiety about U.S. international
 trade and federal deficits, U.S. criticism of West Germany's economic
 policies, the cascading effect of the automatic selling of stocks, and
 the drop in stock-index futures triggered by computerized trading
 programs. Stocks throughout the world joined the slide. By the spring of
 1988, the U.S. economy and the stock market had recovered.

   Blackmore, Richard Doddridge

 Blackmore, Richard Doddridge, 1825-1900, English novelist. Though he
 wrote many novels, he is famous for Lorna Doone (1869), a romance about
 17th-cent. outlaws.

   Blackmun, Harry Andrew

 Blackmun, Harry Andrew: see SUPREME COURT, UNITED STATES .

   Black Muslims

 Black Muslims, popular name for members of a black nationalist movement
 in the U.S. Founded (1930) in Detroit, the sect, then called the Nation
 of Islam, was led (1934-75) by Elijah MUHAMMAD, under whom the sect
 greatly expanded. In the 1960s tension between Muhammad and MALCOLM X, a
 Black Muslim minister, developed. Malcolm X's assassination (1965) may
 have been instigated by Muhammad's followers. The Black Muslims live
 austerely and advocate a separate autonomous nation within the U.S. for
 their adherents. Wallace D. Muhammad succeeded his father as leader in
 1975 and steered the sect (renamed the World Community of Islam in the
 West and later the American Muslim Mission) away from these beliefs and
 toward orthodox Islam. A splinter group, known by the original name, the
 Nation of Islam, has continued to follow the teachings of Elijah
 Muhammad.

   Black Panther party

 Black Panther party, U.S. black militant political organization (founded
 1966) advocating violent revolution to achieve black liberation. Its
 members became involved (late 1960s) in clashes with the police, and,
 after close FBI scrutiny, Huey Newton and Bobby Seale, the party's
 founders, were tried in a number of court cases, but were acquitted.
 Another leader, Eldridge Cleaver, left (1975) the party, which was torn
 by rival factions. By the 1980s the Black Panther party had ceased to
 play an important part in the black movement.

   Black Prince

 Black Prince: see EDWARD THE BLACK PRINCE.

   black quarter

 black quarter: see BLACKLEG.

   Black Sea

 Black Sea, c.159,600 sq mi (413,360 sq km), SE Europe, connected with the
 MEDITERRANEAN SEA via the DARDANELLES and BOSPORUS. Bordered by the USSR
 (N,E), Turkey (S), and Bulgaria and Rumania (W), it is c.750 mi (1,200
 km) wide at its greatest extent and has a maximum depth of 7,364 ft
 (2,245 m). Almost tideless, it is ice-free in winter. The CRIMEA, a
 peninsula on its northern shore, is a major Soviet resort area. ODESSA
 and Constanta are the chief ports.

   Blackstone, Sir William

 Blackstone, Sir William, 1723-80, British jurist. At Oxford, after 1758,
 he was the first at a British university to teach English, as opposed to
 Roman, law. In his great work Commentaries on the Laws of England
 (1765-69) Blackstone ordered and elucidated the bulk of English law,
 showing it to be comparable to Roman law and to the civil law of the
 Continent. Although criticized, by BENTHAM among others, for a failure to
 analyze social and historical factors, Blackstone's work had tremendous
 effect on the profession and study of law, both in Britain and in the
 U.S.

   black studies

 black studies: see ETHNIC STUDIES.

   Black Watch

 Black Watch or Royal Highland Regiment,Scottish infantry regiment. It was
 formed (1739-40) to watch Scottish rebels and keep the peace. It became
 known as the Black Watch because of the dark colors of the regimental
 tartan.

   Blackwell, Alice Stone

 Blackwell, Alice Stone: see under STONE, LUCY.

   Blackwell, Elizabeth

 Blackwell, Elizabeth, 1821-1910, American physician; b. England. An 1849
 graduate of the Geneva (N.Y.) Medical College, she was the first woman in
 the U.S. to receive a medical degree. She helped to found the New York
 Infirmary for Women and Children (1857) and its Women's Medical College
 (1868).

   Blackwell, Henry Brown

 Blackwell, Henry Brown: see under STONE, LUCY.

   black widow

 black widow, poisonous SPIDER (genus Latrodectus) found in the Americas.
 Adults are black with a red to orange hour glass-shaped abdominal
 marking. The female is not quite 1/2 in. (1.3 cm) long; she may eat the
 smaller male after mating. The bite venom, a neurotoxin, is sometimes
 fatal to children.

   bladder

 bladder: see URINARY SYSTEM.

   Blaine, James Gillespie

 Blaine, James Gillespie, 1830-93, American politician; b. West
 Brownsville, Pa. He was a U.S. representative from Maine (1863-76),
 Speaker of the House (1869-75), U.S. senator (1876-81), and U.S.
 secretary of state (1881, 1889-92). Blaine failed to capture the 1876
 Republican presidential nomination after a scandal; it was alleged that
 he had improperly secured a land grant for an Arkansas railroad. The
 leader of the "Half-Breed" Republicans who opposed the regular or
 "Stalwart" faction, he was the party's nominee in 1884. He was defeated
 by Grover CLEVELAND, in part because he failed to disavow a supporter's
 remark that characterized the New York Democrats as the party of "rum,
 Romanism, and rebellion." As secretary of state, he fostered close
 U.S.-Latin American relations and brought about the first Pan-American
 Congress.

   Blair, Eric Arthur

 Blair, Eric Arthur: see ORWELL, GEORGE.

   Blair, Francis Preston

 Blair, Francis Preston, 1791-1876, American journalist and politician; b.
 Abington, Va. Blair was an ardent supporter of Andrew JACKSON and a
 member of the KITCHEN CABINET. In 1830 he founded the Washington Globe.
 He was also among the founders of the REPUBLICAN PARTY and was an adviser
 to Pres. LINCOLN. His son Francis Preston Blair, 1821-75, was a Union
 general in the U.S. CIVIL WAR and a U.S. senator (1871-73). Another son,
 Montgomery Blair, 1813-83, was the first U.S. solicitor in the Court of
 Claims (1855-57), in which capacity he served as counsel to Dred Scott in
 the DRED SCOTT CASE. He was also Lincoln's postmaster general (1861-64).

   Blake, Eubie

 Blake, Eubie (James Hubert Blake), 1883-1983, black American pianist and
 composer; b. Baltimore. His career has extended from ragtime (see JAZZ)
 to the 1980s. With the songwriter Noble Sissle he produced early black
 Broadway musicals, e.g., Shuffle Along (1921). His most famous songs are
 "Memories of You" and "I'm Just Wild about Harry."

   Blake, Nicholas

 Blake, Nicholas: see DAY LEWIS, CECIL.

   Blake, William

 Blake, William, 1757-1827, English poet and artist who exerted a great
 influence on English ROMANTICISM. His first book, Poetical Sketches
 (1783), was the only one published conventionally during his life. With
 the help of his wife, Catherine Boucher, he illustrated and published all
 his other major poetry himself. Songs of Innocence (1789) and Songs of
 Experience (1794), containing "The Lamb," "The Tyger," and "London," are
 written from a child's point of view, directly, simply, and
 unsentimentally. Blake was a visionary and a mystic, and in his
 "Prophetic Books," including The Book of Thel (1789), The Marriage of
 Heaven and Hell (c.1790), Milton (1804-8), and Jerusalem (1804-20), he
 created his own mythology in which love, energy, and imagination vie with
 the forces of reductive rationalism and repression. Blake's paintings and
 engravings, notably his illustrations of his own works, works by Milton,
 and the Book of Job, are realistic in their representation of human
 anatomy and other natural forms, but also radiantly imaginative, often
 depicting fanciful creatures in exacting detail. All of Blake's works
 were ignored or dismissed until long after his death.

   Blanc, Louis

 Blanc, Louis, 1811-82, French socialist and journalist; b. Spain. In his
 Organization of Work (1840) he outlined an ideal social order based on
 the principle "From each according to his abilities, to each according to
 his needs." As a first stage he advocated a system of "social workshops"
 controlled by workers. A member of the 1848 provisional government, he
 was implicated in a workers' revolt and fled to England, where he wrote
 his History of the French Revolution (12 vol., 1847-64). On his return to
 France (1871) he became a member of the national assembly.

   Blanco, Antonio Guzman

 Blanco, Antonio Guzman: see GUZMAN BLANCO.

   Bland-Allison Act

 Bland-Allison Act, 1878, passed by the U.S. Congress to provide freer
 coinage of silver. Offered by Rep. Richard P. Bland and amended by Sen.
 William B. Allison, the act required the U.S. Treasury to purchase
 between $2 million and $4 million worth of silver bullion monthly, to be
 coined into silver dollars. Attempts of the Western FREE SILVER forces to
 replace the act with provision for unlimited coinage failed, as did
 attempts of the gold-standard forces to repeal it altogether. It remained
 law until passage (1890) of the SHERMAN SILVER PURCHASE ACT.

   blank verse

 blank verse: see PENTAMETER.

   Blantyre

 Blantyre, city (1985 est. pop. 355,200), S Malawi, in the Shire
 Highlands. It is Malawi's main commercial and industrial center and is
 connected by rail to the Indian Ocean port of Beira, Mozambique.
 Manufactures include cement and textiles. Founded in 1876 by Scottish
 missionaries, it was named for the birthplace of the explorer David
 LIVINGSTONE.

   Blasco Ibanez, Vicente

 Blasco Ibanez, Vicente, 1867-1928, Spanish novelist and politician. For
 his anti-monarchist activities he was imprisoned 30 times. His World War
 I novel The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (1916), the best known of his
 many in the naturalistic vein, made him world famous.

   Blass, Bill

 Blass, Bill: see FASHION .

   blast furnace

 blast furnace, structure used chiefly in SMELTING, i.e., extracting
 METALS, mainly IRON and COPPER, from their ORES. The principle involved
 is that of the reduction of the ores by the action of CARBON MONOXIDE,
 i.e., the removal of oxygen from the metal oxide in order to obtain the
 metal. PIG IRON prepared in the blast furnace is converted to STEEL by
 the BESSEMER PROCESS. Copper ore treated in a blast furnace yields a
 copper sulfide mixture, which is usually further refined by electrolytic
 methods (see ELECTROLYSIS).

   Blau, Joseph Leon

 Blau, Joseph Leon, 1909-86, American Jewish scholar and educator; b.
 Brooklyn, N.Y. Professor of religion (1962-77) at Columbia, he examined
 cross-cultural influences on Judaism's development in The Story of Jewish
 Philosophy (1962), The Jews of the United States (ed. with S.W. BARON,
 1963), and Judaism in America (1976).

   Blaue Reiter, Der

 Blaue Reiter, Der [Ger.,=the blue rider], German expressionist art
 movement (see EXPRESSIONISM) lasting from 1911 to 1914. It was named for
 KANDINSKY'S painting Le cavalier bleu. The movement was led by Kandinsky,
 KLEE, MARC, and MACKE, in Munich. Their works ranged from pure
 abstraction to romantic imagery, attempting to express spiritual truths.
 Common to the group was a philosophical spirit, an intellectual approach
 to technique, and a lyrical spontaneity. A number of their illustrations
 and articles were published as the "Blaue Reiter" Album (1911).

   blazonry

 blazonry, science of describing or depicting armorial bearings. Since the
 Middle Ages the science has grown very complicated. Its chief part is the
 description of the shield of a coat of arms, including the color of the
 field on which devices are displayed. Arms are identified by their
 charges; the most common of these, the ordinaries, have lines of
 division, heraldic animals, and flowers. Blazonry also involves
 descriptions of the crest above the shield and of the motto. In England
 blazonry is regulated by the HERALDS' COLLEGE. See also HERALDRY.

   bleaching

 bleaching, the process of whitening a substance by exposure to the sun,
 or by chemical processes. Chemical methods include OXIDATION AND
 REDUCTION and ADSORPTION. In 1799 Charles Macintosh invented the first
 modern chemical bleach, chloride of lime, known as bleaching powder.
 Previous bleaching agents included chlorine, sulfuric acid, and milk.
 Bleaching is applied to a variety of products, including textiles, wood
 pulp, wood, and flour.

   Bleriot, Louis

 Bleriot, Louis, 1872-1936, French aviator and inventor. He invented an
 automobile searchlight, then turned to designing and constructing
 monoplanes. On July 25, 1909, he was the first person to cross the
 English Channel in a heavier-than-air machine.

   Bligh, William

 Bligh, William, 1754-1817, British admiral. He is chiefly remembered for
 the mutiny on his ship, the BOUNTY, in 1789. He was later governor of NEW
 SOUTH WALES (1805-8).

   blight

 blight, any sudden, severe plant disease characterized by the withering
 and death of the plant; also, the causative agent of such a disease. Most
 blights are caused by BACTERIA (e.g., bean blights), VIRUSES, (e.g.,
 soybean bud blight), or FUNGI (e.g., chestnut blight).

   blimp

 blimp: see AIRSHIP.

   blindness

 blindness, partial or complete loss of sight. Blindness may be congenital
 or caused by injury or disease. Lesions of the brain, CATARACT, GLAUCOMA,
 or retinal detachment can result in loss of vision, as can changes in the
 EYE associated with disorders such as DIABETES and HYPERTENSION. In
 retinitis pigmentosa, a genetically transmitted disorder, visual
 impairment develops in childhood and gradually progresses to complete
 blindness. The BRAILLE system enables the blind to read and write. See
 GUIDE DOG; see also BIRTH DEFECTS; COLOR BLINDNESS.

   blitzkrieg

 blitzkrieg: see MECHANIZED WARFARE.

   Blixen, Karen

 Blixen, Karen: see DINESEN, ISAK.

   Bloch, Ernest

 Bloch, Ernest, 1880-1959, Swiss-American composer; b. Switzerland. He
 taught in the U.S. and Switzerland. His music is classical, but personal
 and Hebraic in tone, e.g., the Hebrew rhapsody Schelomo, the symphonic
 poem Israel (both: 1916), and Cinq pieces Hebraique (1951). He also wrote
 concertos, string quartets, and pieces for chorus and orchestra.

   Bloch, Konrad Emil

 Bloch, Konrad Emil, 1912-, American biochemist; b. Germany. For his
 discoveries concerning the mechanism and regulation of cholesterol and
 fatty-acid metabolism, he shared with Feodor Lynen the 1964 Nobel Prize
 in physiology or medicine.

   Bloch, Marc

 Bloch, Marc, 1886-1944, French historian. An authority on medieval
 feudalism, he wrote Feudal Society (1939, 1940), a brilliant synthesis on
 the subject. His other works include French Rural History (1931), and The
 Historian's Craft (1949). Active in the French Resistance during World
 War II, he was executed by the Germans.

   Block, Herbert Lawrence

 Block, Herbert Lawrence: see HERBLOCK.

   block book

 block book, book printed from engraved wooden blocks, one for each page.
 Although produced in Europe before and after the invention of PRINTING,
 block books have a richer history in China and Japan, where the large
 number of written characters made printing from movable type impractical.

   Bloemfontein

 Bloemfontein, city (1980 pop. 230,688), capital of the Orange Free State
 and judicial capital of South Africa. It is a transportation and
 industrial center. The city was founded in 1846 by Boer settlers and was
 captured (1900) by the British during the SOUTH AFRICAN WAR. It was the
 site of negotiations that led to the founding (1910) of the Union of
 South Africa and the conference (1912) founded the AFRICAN NATIONAL
 CONGRESS.

   Blois

 Blois, town (1982 pop. 49,422), capital of Loir-et-Cher dept., central
 France, known for its trade in wine and brandies. From the 10th cent. the
 counts of Blois were France's most powerful lords. With the accession
 (1498) of Louis XII (who was born in its Renaissance chateau), Blois
 passed to the French crown.

   Blok, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich

 Blok, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich, 1880-1921, Russian poet, considered the
 leading Russian SYMBOLIST. Influenced by Soloviev, he voiced mysticism
 and idealistic passion inVerses about the Beautiful Lady (1904). The
 Unknown Woman (1906) expresses his later despair. He celebrated the
 Bolshevik Revolution in The Twelve (1918) and The Scythians (1920).

   blood

 blood, fluid that is pumped by the HEART and circulates through the body
 via arteries, veins, and capillaries, carrying oxygen and nutrients to
 the body tissues, and carbon dioxide and wastes away from them (see
 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM). It is also involved in tissue repair, cell
 METABOLISM, infection resistance, and other life-sustaining activities.
 Blood is made up of plasma, a colorless fluid containing red blood cells
 (erythrocytes), which carry on oxygen-carbon dioxide exchange; white
 blood cells (leukocytes), which defend the body from foreign agents;
 platelets that function in blood clotting; HORMONES; and essential salts
 and PROTEINS. There are about 6 quarts (5.6 liters) of blood in an
 average-sized adult male human. Blood is classified into BLOOD GROUPS. A
 deficiency of red blood cells is ANEMIA; abnormal proliferation of
 leukocytes is known as LEUKEMIA. See also BLOOD BANK; BLOOD TRANSFUSION.

   blood bank

 blood bank, site for collecting, processing, typing, and storing whole
 BLOOD and blood products. Whole blood may be preserved up to 21 days
 without losing its usefulness in BLOOD TRANSFUSIONS; an anticoagulant is
 added to it to prevent clotting. Blood plasma, the fluid portion of the
 blood, may be frozen and stored indefinitely.

   blood groups

 blood groups, classifications of human BLOOD based on immunological
 properties. The most widely used blood classification system is the ABO
 system, described by LANDSTEINER. It divides blood into A, B, AB, and O
 groups, depending on the presence of specific chemical substances on the
 surface of the red blood cells (A, B, or AB), or their absence (O). These
 substances act antigenically, i.e., to cause the formation of specific
 antibodies when injected into a recipient (see IMMUNITY). Because the
 formation of antibodies can create a potentially dangerous condition in
 an individual receiving a BLOOD TRANSFUSION, the blood of a donor must be
 compatible with that of the recipient. Another blood-group system
 important in blood transfusion compatibility is the RH FACTOR.

   bloodhound

 bloodhound, large HOUND; shoulder height, c.25 in. (63.5 cm); weight,
 80-110 lb (36.3-49.9 km). Its short, smooth coat is black and tan, red
 and tan, or tawny. The skin hangs infolds on the face. The oldest hound,
 known in Europe over 2,000 years ago, it was brought to the U.S. in the
 19th cent. It has a superb sense of smell and is used for tracking.

   blood poisoning

 blood poisoning: see SEPTICEMIA.

   blood pressure

 blood pressure, force exerted by blood upon the walls of the arteries. It
 is initiated by the pumping action of the heart, and pressure waves can
 be felt at the wrist and other PULSE points. Blood pressure is strongest
 in the aorta, where the blood leaves the HEART, and diminishes
 progressively in the smaller vessels. Contraction of the heart (systole)
 produces the highest pressure, while heart relaxation (diastole) reduces
 the pressure to its lowest point. Pressure is measured at the brachial
 artery in the forearm (for consistency) in millimeters of mercury;
 pressures of about 120/80 (systolic/ diastolic) are considered normal in
 young people. Conditions involving high blood pressure include
 HYPERTENSION and STROKE.

   bloodstone

 bloodstone or heliotrope,green CHALCEDONY spotted with red, used as a
 GEM. It is found in India, the U.S., Brazil, and Australia.

   blood transfusion

 blood transfusion, transfer of blood from the venous system of one person
 to that of another, or from one animal to another of the same species.
 Transfusions are performed to replace a large loss of blood (as in
 hemorrhage, SHOCK, and severe BURNS) and as supportive treatment in
 certain disorders (e.g., HEMOPHILIA). In whole blood transfusions, the
 BLOOD GROUPS (including the RH FACTOR) must be compatible with that of
 the recipient; if not, red blood cells will rupture and clump, a
 condition that can result in JAUNDICE, kidney damage, and death. People
 with blood group O are universal donors, having blood that is compatible
 with all other groups; those with blood group AB are universal
 recipients, able to accept blood from all other groups. When whole blood
 is not needed or is unavailable, the fluid part of the blood (plasma) may
 be given.

   Bloody Assizes

 Bloody Assizes: see JEFFREYS OF WEM, GEORGE JEFFREYS, 1st BARON.

   Bloomer, Amelia Jenks

 Bloomer, Amelia Jenks, 1818-94, American reformer; b. Homer, N.Y. She
 edited (1848-54) the Lily, dedicated to women's rights and temperance. In
 1851 she adopted the full trousers that became known as the Bloomer
 costume, or bloomers.

   Bloomfield, Leonard

 Bloomfield, Leonard, 1887-1949, American linguist; b. Chicago. His
 masterpiece, Language (1933), a standard text, is a clear statement of
 principles that have become axiomatic: that language study must always be
 centered in the spoken language; that the definitions used in grammar
 should be based on the forms of the language; and that a given language
 at a given time is a complete system of sounds and forms existing
 independently of the past, so that the history of a form does not explain
 its meaning.

   Bloomsbury group

 Bloomsbury group, influential literary and intellectual group (fl.
 1904-c.1939) that made Bloomsbury Square, London, its center. Its members
 included Lytton Strachey, Virginia WOOLF, Leonard Woolf, E.M. FORSTER, V.
 SACKVILLE-WEST, Roger Fry, Clive Bell, and John Maynard KEYNES.

   Blount, William

 Blount, William, 1749-1800, U.S. political leader; b. near Windsor, N.C.
 He was a member of the CONTINENTAL CONGRESS (1782-83, 1786-87) and the
 U.S. Constitutional Convention (1787). Elected (1796) to the Senate from
 Tennessee, he was expelled for plotting to help the British seize Spanish
 Florida.

   Blucher, Gebhard Leberecht von

 Blucher, Gebhard Leberecht von, 1742-1819, Prussian field marshal. He
 helped to defeat NAPOLEON I at Leipzig (1813) and at Laon (1814).
 Napoleon defeated him at Ligny (June 15, 1815), but Blucher's timely
 arrival at WATERLOO three days later helped the duke of WELLINGTON to
 turn that battle into a great victory.

   blueberry

 blueberry, widely distributed shrubs or small trees (genus Vaccinium) of
 the HEATH family, usually found in acid soils. They are related to
 HUCKLEBERRY and CRANBERRY. Blueberries are a popular food and are
 commercially important. The most cultivated are the high-bush blueberry
 (V. cerymbosum) and the low-bush blueberry (V. augustifolium).

   bluebird

 bluebird, migratory BIRD of the THRUSH family. The Eastern bluebird
 (Sialia sialis), vivid blue with a red breast, usually nests in orchards
 or on the edge of woodlands; it eats insects and wild fruits.

   bluefish

 bluefish, stout-bodied, delicately flavored marine FISH of the family
 Pomatomidae, resembling the POMPANO but more closely related to the sea
 BASS. Averaging 30 in. (75 cm) in length and 10 to 12 lb (4.5 to 5.5 kg)
 in weight, the bluefish is found in warm waters of the Atlantic and
 Indian oceans and Mediterranean Sea. It is an excellent game fish.

   blue jay

 blue jay: see JAY.

   blue laws

 blue laws, U.S. state laws regulating private and public conduct and
 morals, especially Sabbath observance. The term is derived from the blue
 paper on which some 17th-cent. laws were printed. Blue laws, which
 usually forbade work or sport on Sunday, were most common and most strict
 in Puritan New England. They declined after the American Revolution but
 many were revived in the 20th cent. during PROHIBITION. Many states
 retain blue laws today.

   Blue Rider

 Blue Rider: see BLAUE REITER, DER.

   Blue Ridge

 Blue Ridge, eastern range of the APPALACHIAN MTS., extending S from S
 Pennsylvania to N Georgia. Heavily forested and long a barrier to early
 colonial expansion, the area is noted for its resorts and its scenery.

   blues

 blues: see JAZZ.

   Blum, Leon

 Blum, Leon, 1872-1950, French Socialist statesman. He was premier
 (1936-37) in the first Popular Front government (a coalition of Radical
 Socialists, Socialists, and Communists) and passed important labor
 reforms. Arrested (1940) by the VICHY government, he was imprisoned by
 the Germans until 1945. Blum grew more moderate in his later years and
 was again premier (1946-47) in a Socialist government.

   Blunt, Anthony Frederick

 Blunt, Anthony Frederick, 1907-83, English art historian. He was director
 of the Courtauld Institute, professor of art at the Univ. of London, and
 Surveyor of the Queen's Pictures. His major writings include Artistic
 Theory in Italy, 1450-1600 (1940) and Art and Architecture in France,
 1500-1700 (1953). Knighted in 1956, he was divested of the title in 1979,
 when it became known that he had been a Soviet agent.

   Bly, Robert

 Bly, Robert, 1926-, American poet; b. Madison, Minn. His personal,
 precisely observant poems are collected in such volumes as The Light
 Around the Body (1967) and Loving a Woman in Two Worlds (1985). Also a
 publisher, he has printed translations of lesser-known foreign poets.

   B'nai B'rith

 B'nai B'rith, American Jewish service organization, est. 1843. Its
 broad-based program includes orphanage and hospital work, disaster
 relief, and vocational training. The Hillel Foundation (for Jewish
 students), the Anti-Defamation League (est. 1913 to combat
 ANTI-SEMITISM), and B'nai B'rith Women are branches. It has over 500,000
 members.

   boa

 boa, live-bearing constrictor SNAKE of the family Boidae, which also
 includes the PYTHONS, found mostly in the Americas. Boas suffocate their
 prey by squeezing it. Best known are the boa constrictor (Constrictor
 constrictor), which lives in terrestrial habitats from S Mexico to
 central Argentina and averages 6 to 9 ft (1.8 to 2.7 m); and the South
 American anaconda, the longest (up to 25 ft/7.9 m) and thickest (3 ft/90
 cm in girth) boa.

   Boadicea

 Boadicea, d. AD 61, British queen of the Iceni (of Norfolk). She led the
 Iceni in revolt against the Romans. Her army was crushed, and she took
 poison.

   boar

 boar: see SWINE.

   Boas, Franz

 Boas, Franz, 1858-1942, German-American anthropologist; b. Germany. No
 one has more greatly influenced American anthropology. Boas reexamined
 the premises of physical anthropology and pioneered in the use of
 statistical methods. His field work began with observations of the
 Central Eskimos (1883) and of British Columbian Indians (1886).
 Associated with the American Museum of Natural History from 1895 to 1905,
 he became (1899) the first professor of anthropology at Columbia Univ., a
 position he held for 37 years. In his studies of AMERICAN INDIAN
 LANGUAGES Boas stressed the importance of internal linguistic structure,
 and the strict methodology of his contributions gave them scientific
 value. Among his works are The Mind of Primitive Man (1911, rev. ed.
 1938), Primitive Art (1927, repr. 1955), Race, Language and Culture
 (1940), and Race and Democratic Society (1945).

   boat people

 boat people, term applied to people who escape political oppression by
 going to sea in makeshift boats. Most recently, it has described
 thousands of Indochinese refugees who fled Communist rule after the
 Vietnam War (1975) in small boats. Many perished, and others, upon
 reaching other countries, discovered they could not remain permanently.
 The U.S. and Canada admitted thousands of these people.

   Boaz

 Boaz: see RUTH.

   bobcat

 bobcat: see LYNX.

   bobolink

 bobolink, American songbird (Dolichonyx oryzivorus) of the family
 Icteridae. The spring plumage of the male is black and white; after the
 breeding season, it is yellowish and brown-streaked like the female. In
 the north, bobolinks are insectivorous, but may feed on rice crops during
 southern migration; once hunted because of this destructive feeding
 habit, they are now protected.

   bobsledding

 bobsledding, sport in which a bobsled (an open, steel-bodied vehicle with
 runners) hurtles down an icy, steeply banked, twisting course. Sleds
 accommodate either two or four persons, including a driver and brakeman
 in each type, and can attain speeds of 90 mi (145 km) per hr. It has been
 an Olympic event since the first Winter Games (1924).

   bobwhite

 bobwhite, American henlike BIRD of the PHEASANT family. Bobwhites feed on
 insects and travel in coveys, sleeping at night in a tight circle, tails
 to center. In spring the coveys disperse, and each male selects a nesting
 territory. The characteristic call of "bob-white" functions to attract a
 mate and warn off other males. Hunted as game birds, bobwhites are often
 called QUAIL or PARTRIDGE. The eastern bobwhite quail (Colinus
 virginianus) is c.10 in. (25 cm) long; the male has mixed brown, black,
 and white plumage.

   Boccaccio, Giovanni

 Boccaccio, Giovanni, 1313-75, Italian poet, storyteller, and humanist; b.
 Paris. His early works include Filocolo (c.1340), a vernacular prose
 romance; Filostrato, a poem infusing the Troilus and Cressida legend with
 a Neapolitan court atmosphere; the allegorical Amorosa visione, imitative
 of DANTE; and a psychological romance, Amorous Fiametta. From 1348 to
 1353 he wrote his secular classic, the Decameron, a collection of 100
 witty and sometimes licentious tales set against the somber backdrop of
 the Black Death. In the Decameron, medieval courtly themes began to give
 way to modern society; the masterful style of the work became a model for
 later Italian prose. In Florence after 1341, Boccaccio met PETRARCH, who
 inspired him to devote his later life to the study of Greek and other
 humanistic concerns, producing important critical works in anthropology,
 biography, and mythology.

   Boccherini, Luigi

 Boccherini, Luigi, 1743-1805, Italian composer and cellist. His masterful
 classical style is often compared to that of HAYDN. Boccherini wrote more
 than 400 works, including 4 cello concertos, some 90 string quartets, and
 about 125 string quintets.

   Boccioni, Umberto

 Boccioni, Umberto, 1882-1916, Italian futurist, painter and sculptor. He
 was the major figure of FUTURISM (1910-14). His principal works include
 the painting The City Rises (1910) and the sculpture Unique Forms of
 Continuity in Space (1913; both: Mus. Mod. Art, N.Y.C.).

   Bocskay, Stephen

 Bocskay, Stephen, 1557-1606, Hungarian noble, voivode governor (1604-6)
 and prince (1605-6) of Transylvania. In 1604, with Turkish support, he
 led a revolt against Holy Roman Emperor RUDOLF II'S attempt to impose
 Roman Catholicism on Hungary. In 1606 he negotiated a treaty at Vienna
 legalizing the partition of Hungary among the HAPSBURGS, the Turkish
 sultan, and the prince of Transylvania. It guaranteed constitutional and
 religious freedom to Hungary.

   Bode's law

 Bode's law: see TITIUS-BODE LAW.

   Bodin, Jean

 Bodin, Jean, 1530?-1596, French social and political philosopher. A
 lawyer, he was dismayed by the chaos resulting from conflict between
 Roman Catholics and Huguenots (see RELIGION, WARS OF) and argued in his
 most important work, Six Bookes of the Commonweale (1576), that the
 well-ordered state required religious toleration and a fully sovereign
 monarch. His writings made a major theoretical contribution to the rise
 of the modern nation-state.

   Bodleian Library

 Bodleian Library: see LIBRARY .

   Bodley, Sir Thomas

 Bodley, Sir Thomas, 1545-1613, English scholar and diplomat, organizer of
 the Bodleian Library at Oxford Univ. (see LIBRARY, ). He offered (1598)
 to restore Duke Humphrey's library and spent most of his life and fortune
 on it.

   Bodoni, Giambattista

 Bodoni, Giambattista, 1740-1813, Italian printer. His stately quartos and
 folios, in pseudoclassical typefaces, with impressive title pages and
 luxurious margins, were coldly elegant and frankly made to be admired
 rather than read. He was relatively indifferent to the accuracy of the
 text.

   body language

 body language, nonverbal communication by means of facial expressions,
 eye behavior, gestures, posture, and other bodily signs. This form of
 language expresses emotions, feelings, and attitudes. Some nonverbal
 expressions are understood by people in all cultures; other expressions
 are particular to certain cultures. Kinesics, the scientific study of
 body language, was pioneered by anthropologist Ray L. Birdwhistell, who
 wrote Introduction to Kinesics (1952).

   body-marking

 body-marking, painting, tattooing, or scarification (cutting or burning)
 of the body for ritual, aesthetic, medicinal, magic, or religious
 purposes. Evidence indicates that body-marking existed in ancient times;
 ethnographic studies show that it is still practiced. Markings may
 indicate religious dedication or alliance with a particular god; they may
 also serve as protection against some evil such as disease, as
 identification with a certain group, such as a tribe, or as evidence of
 personal rank or status within the group.

   Boece (Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius)

 Boece (Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius): see BOETHIUS.

   Boehme

 Boehme, Bohme, or Behmen, Jakob, 1575-1624, German religious mystic. In
 De signatura rerum and Mysterium magnum, he describes God as the abyss,
 the nothing and the all, from which the creative will struggles to find
 manifestation and self-consciousness. Evil results when single elements
 of the Deity strive to become the whole. Boehme had many followers in
 Germany, Holland, and England.

   Boeotia

 Boeotia, region of ancient GREECE, N of the Gulf of Corinth. The Boeotian
 League, formed (c.7th cent. BC) by the cities of the region, was
 dominated by THEBES, which fought many battles to prevent encroachment by
 the other great CITY-STATES. The league was disbanded when the Greeks
 besieged Thebes (479) and after a brief revival was defeated by ATHENS
 (457), which annexed the Boeotian cities. Thebes resumed leadership of
 the league in 446; after Thebes defeated Sparta (371) the history of
 Boeotia was absorbed into that of Thebes. Boeotia was the home of the
 poets HESIOD and PINDAR.

   Boer

 Boer, inhabitant of SOUTH AFRICA of Dutch or French Huguenot descent.
 Boers are also known as Afrikaners.

   Boerhaave, Hermann

 Boerhaave, Hermann, 1668-1738, Dutch physician and humanist. An
 influential clinician and teacher, he helped to revive the Hippocratic
 method of bedside instruction. Through post-mortem examinations he
 demonstrated the relation of symptoms to lesions, thereby instituting the
 clinico-pathological conference still in use today. His works include
 Institutiones Medicinae (1708) and Elementa Chemiae (1732), long used as
 standard texts.

   Boer War

 Boer War: see SOUTH AFRICAN WAR.

   Boethius

 Boethius, Boetius , or Boece (Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius),
 c.475-525, Roman philosopher and statesman. A consul (510) in Rome, he
 became minister under Emperor Theodoric, but was falsely accused of
 treason, imprisoned, and sentenced to death. While awaiting execution he
 wrote his great work, The Consolation of Philosophy. His treatise on
 ancient music was for many centuries the unquestioned authority on
 Western music.

   Bogan, Louise

 Bogan, Louise, 1897-1970, American poet; b. Livermore, Me. Her verse,
 intense, personal, and metaphysical in tone, is included in such volumes
 as Collected Poems (1954) and The Blue Estuaries (1968). She also wrote
 literary criticism.

   Bogardus, James

 Bogardus, James, 1800-1874, American architect; b. Catskill, N.Y. He was
 among the first to use cast iron in constructing facades. The Iron
 Building, N.Y.C., is the best known of his commercial building designs.

   Bogart, Humphrey (DeForest)

 Bogart, Humphrey (DeForest), 1899-1957, American film actor; b. N.Y.C. He
 played tough, cynical heroes in such films as The Maltese Falcon (1941),
 Casablanca (1942), and The African Queen (1954; Academy Award).

   Bogazkoy

 Bogazkoyor Boghazkeui , village, N central Turkey. Bogazkoy was the chief
 center of the HITTITE empire (1400-1200 BC). Hugo WINCKLER found Hittite
 inscriptions there that greatly added to the knowledge of Hittite
 civilization.

   Bogota

 Bogota, city (1985 pop. 4,185,174), central Colombia, capital of
 Colombia. Built on a high plateau (c.8,560 ft/2,610 m), it is the
 financial, political, and cultural center of the republic. Manufactures
 include beverages, foodstuffs, and metal goods. Founded in 1538, it was
 long the capital of the Spanish colonial viceroyalty of New Granada and a
 leading Latin American religious and intellectual center. It became the
 capital of the independent confederation called Greater Colombia in 1819
 and of what was later called Colombia in 1830. A picturesque city, it is
 known for its colonial architecture, its collection of pre-Colombian gold
 art, and its bookshops.

   Bohemia

 Bohemia, historic region (20,368 sq mi/52,753 sq km) and former kingdom,
 W Czechoslovakia, bordered by Austria (SE), West and East Germany (W,
 NW), Poland (N, NE), and Moravia (E). The traditional capital is PRAGUE.
 Bohemia is Czechoslovakia's most urbanized and industrialized area, with
 such manufactures as machinery, munitions, and textiles. Grains, sugar
 beets, hops, and other crops are grown, and coal, silver, and other
 resources are mined. Bohemia emerged (9th cent.) under the Premysl
 dynasty and became part (950) of the HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE. It became a
 kingdom within the empire in 1198 and under Emperor CHARLES IV
 (r.1355-78) was the empire's seat. In the 15th cent. Bohemia was the
 scene of the HUSSITE religious movement. The HAPSBURG dynasty of Austria
 dominated the kingdom after 1526; a revolt (1618) against Hapsburg rule
 began the THIRTY YEARS WAR. In 1627 the kingdom was demoted to an
 imperial crown land. After WORLD WAR I it became the core of the new
 nation of Czechoslovakia. The MUNICH PACT (1938) transferred the SUDETEN
 area of Bohemia to Germany, which occupied (1939-45) all of Bohemia
 during WORLD WAR II. Bohemia was abolished as a province of
 Czechoslovakia in 1948; in 1960 it was divided into five regions and the
 city of Prague.

   Bohemond I

 Bohemond I, c.1056-1111, prince of Antioch, Turkey (1099-1111), the son
 of ROBERT GUISCARD and a leader in the First CRUSADE. Breaking his oath
 of fealty to Byzantine Emperor ALEXIUS I, he made himself prince of
 Antioch. Defeated (1108) in a crusade against Alexius, he acknowledged
 the emperor's suzerainty. He retired and TANCRED became regent.

   Bohm, Karl

 Bohm, Karl, 1894-1981, Austrian conductor. He directed the Vienna State
 Opera (1943-45; 1954-56) and the Salzburg Festival (see MUSIC FESTIVALS,
 ), and appeared internationally with many orchestras, specializing in the
 works of Mozart and Richard Strauss.

   Bohr, Niels Henrik David

 Bohr, Niels Henrik David, 1885-1962, Danish physicist and one of the
 foremost scientists in modern physics. He was professor of theoretical
 physics at the Univ. of Copenhagen and was later director of its
 Institute for Theoretical Physics, which he helped to found. Bohr was
 awarded the 1922 Nobel Prize in physics for his work on atomic structure.
 Classical theory had been unable to explain the stability of the nuclear
 model of the ATOM, but Bohr solved the problem by postulating that
 electrons move in restricted orbits around the atom's nucleus and
 explaining how the atom emits and absorbs energy. He thus combined the
 QUANTUM THEORY with this concept of atomic structure.

   Boileau-Despreaux, Nicolas

 Boileau-Despreaux, Nicolas, 1636-1711, French critic and poet, known for
 his poetic satires on the clergy, on life in Paris, and on women. His
 critical precepts, embodied in L'Art poetique (1674), established him as
 the champion of CLASSICISM.

   boiler

 boiler, device for generating steam. Two types are common: fire-tube
 boilers, containing long steel tubes through which the hot gases from a
 furnace pass and around which the water to be changed to steam
 circulates, and water-tube boilers, in which the conditions are reversed.
 A boiler must be equipped with a safety valve for venting the steam if
 pressure becomes too great.

   boiling point

 boiling point, the temperature at which a substance boils, or changes
 from a liquid to a vapor or gas (see STATES OF MATTER), through the
 formation and rise to the surface of bubbles of vapor within the liquid.
 In a stricter sense, the boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at
 which its vapor pressure is equal to the local atmospheric pressure.
 Decreasing (or increasing) the pressure of the surrounding gases thus
 lowers (or raises) the boiling point of a liquid. The quantity of heat
 necessary to change 1 g of any substance from liquid to gas at its
 boiling point is known as its latent heat of vaporization.

   Boise

 Boise, city (1986 est. pop. 108,390), state capital and seat of Ada co.,
 SW Idaho, on the Boise R.; inc. 1864. It is the largest city in Idaho,
 and a trade and transportation center. Food processing, steel, lumber,
 light manufacturing, and government offices provide employment. In its
 early years a gold-mining trade center, it later became oriented toward
 the agriculture of the region.

   Boito, Arrigo

 Boito, Arrigo, 1842-1918, Italian composer and librettist. His opera
 Mefistofele (1868, rev. 1875), influenced by Richard WAGNER'S
 music-drama, became very popular. Boito wrote the LIBRETTOS for VERDI'S
 Otello and Falstaff.

   Bok, Edward William

 Bok, Edward William, 1863-1930, American editor; b. the Netherlands. He
 founded the Brooklyn Magazine (later Cosmopolitan) in 1883. As editor
 (1889-1919), he made The Ladies' Home Journal a leading woman's magazine.
 His autobiographical Americanization of Edward Bok (1920) won a PULITZER
 PRIZE.

   Bokassa, Jean Bedel

 Bokassa, Jean Bedel, 1921-, president of the CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC
 (1966-79). An army officer, he overthrew David DACKO in 1966, assumed the
 presidency, and declared (1976) the country the Central African Empire,
 calling himself Emperor Bokassa I. He was thrown out of office in 1979.
 In 1987, he was convicted of murdering several political opponents. His
 death sentence was commuted to a life term.

   Boleslaus

 Boleslaus, Polish rulers. Boleslaus I, c.966-1025, king of POLAND
 (992-1025), was the first Polish ruler to style himself king. He
 succeeded his father, Mieszko I, duke of Poland. As king, he greatly
 expanded Polish territories. Boleslaus II, c.1039-1081, duke (1058-76)
 and king (1076-79) of Poland, sided with the pope against the Holy Roman
 emperor but was deposed after killing the bishop of Krakow. Boleslaus
 III, 1085-1138, duke of Poland (1102-38), reunited Poland by defeating
 (1109) his brother Zbigniew, who had the support of Holy Roman Emperor
 HENRY V. He added (1135) Pomerania and Rugen to his domains.

   Boleyn, Anne

 Boleyn, Anne, 1505-36, second queen consort of HENRY VIII of England;
 mother of ELIZABETH I. Henry divorced KATHARINE OF ARAGON to marry her.
 The marriage was unpopular, and when she did not produce a male heir, his
 ardor cooled. She was executed for alleged adultery and incest.

   Bolingbroke, Henry of

 Bolingbroke, Henry of: see HENRY IV under HENRY, kings of England.

   Bolivar, Simon

 Bolivar, Simon, 1783-1830, revolutionary leader who liberated much of
 South America from Spanish rule; b. Caracas, Venezuela. He joined (1810)
 the Venezuelan revolution against Spain and won notable victories in
 COLOMBIA before a royalist army crushed (1815) his forces. After fleeing
 to Jamaica and Haiti, he invaded (1816) VENEZUELA and met disaster,
 forcing his return to Haiti. Recalled (1817) to command the rebel forces,
 he seized the lower Orinoco basin. In 1819 he boldly defeated the Spanish
 at Boyaca, and he became president of Greater Colombia. Cooperating with
 such other rebel leaders as SUCRE and SAN MARTIN, he won further
 victories, culminating (1824) in PERU at Junin and AYACUCHO, which sealed
 the triumph of the revolution. Now the most powerful man of the
 continent, Bolivar organized (1824) the government of Peru and created
 (1825) BOLIVIA. His vision of a united South America was not to be,
 however, for his dictatorial methods were widely resented and separatist
 movements shook the union. Venezuela and ECUADOR seceded from Greater
 Colombia, and he resigned (1830) as president. Although bitterly hated at
 the time of his death, today Bolivar is revered as Latin America's
 greatest hero and as its liberator.

   Bolivia

 Bolivia, officially Republic of Bolivia, republic (1987 est. pop.
 6,797,000), 424,162 sq mi (1,098,581 sq km), W South America. One of the
 two inland countries of the continent, it is bordered by Chile and Peru
 (W), Brazil (E, N), Paraguay (SE), and Argentina (S). SUCRE is the legal
 capital, but LA PAZ is the administrative capital and seat of government.
 Bolivia's topography is one of sharp contrasts. In the west are the
 ANDES, whose snow-capped peak of Illampu reaches 21,276 ft (6,485 m), and
 a high plateau (ALTIPLANO), 12,000 ft (3,660 m) above sea level, which is
 the population center of the country. The east is dominated by tropical
 rain forests, which, in the southeast, merge into the plains of the GRAN
 CHACO. In the north, on the border with Peru, is Lake TITICACA, the
 largest freshwater lake in South America; this region, with its ruins of
 TIAHUANACO, was the home of one of the great pre-Columbian civilizations.
 Bolivia has some of the richest mineral resources in the world; it is one
 of the leading producers of tin; and silver, copper, tungsten, bismuth,
 antimony, and zinc are also produced. Despite these mineral riches, most
 Bolivians are subsistence farmers, raising sugarcane, potatoes, corn,
 wheat, and rice. More than half the population is pure Indian, although
 the whites and those of mixed blood maintain hegemony. Most of the people
 are Roman Catholic.

 History The Aymara Indians of Bolivia had been absorbed into the INCA
 empire long before the Spanish conquest of Bolivia (1538) by Gonzalo and
 Hernando PIZARRO. Attracted by Bolivia's mineral wealth, Spanish
 exploiters poured into the area, developing mines, textile mills, and
 great estates-all with forced Indian labor. Bolivia was attached to the
 viceroyalty of Peru until 1776 and later to that of La Plata. Revolt
 against Spanish rule first erupted in 1809, but Bolivia remained Spanish
 until the campaigns of Jose de SAN MARTIN and Simon BOLIVAR and the
 victory by Antonio Jose de SUCRE at AYACUCHO in 1824. Independence was
 formally proclaimed in 1825. A series of disastrous border wars,
 including the War of the Pacific (1879-84) against Chile and the Chaco
 War (1932-35) against Paraguay, cost Bolivia valuable territory,
 including its outlet to the sea. In 1952 the nationalistic, pro-miner
 Nationalist Revolutionary Movement (MNR) won control of the government,
 nationalizing the tin mines and launching a program of agrarian reform.
 They were overthrown by the military in 1964, and Bolivia resumed its
 history of political strife and instability, marked by recurring military
 coups that continued into the early 1980s. In 1982, however, a civilian
 government headed by Pres. Hernan Siles Zuazo assumed leadership. Paz
 Estenssoro became president in 1985 after Zuazo resigned.

   Boll, Heinrich

 Boll, Heinrich, 1917-85, German writer. His novels and stories present
 his critical, antimilitarist view of modern society. Among his works are
 the story collection Traveller, If You Come to Spa (1950) and the novels
 Billiards at Half Past Nine (1959) and The Safety Net (tr. 1982). Boll
 was awarded the Nobel Prize in literature in 1972.

   Bologna, Giovanni

 Bologna, Giovanni,or Giambologna, 1524-1608, Flemish mannerist sculptor
 (see MANNERISM); b. Jean Bologne or Boulogne. Identified with the Italian
 RENAISSANCE, he is best known for The Rape of the Sabines (Florence),
 with its spiralling forms, and Flying Mercury (Bargello, Florence).

   Bologna

 Bologna, city (1986 pop. 432,406), capital of Emilia-Romagna, N central
 Italy, at the foot of the Apennines. It is a commercial and industrial
 center, with such manufactures as steel and food products. An Etruscan
 town, it came under Roman (189 BC), Byzantine (6th cent.), and papal
 rule. Its famous university (founded c.1088) made it an intellectual
 center. Political control turned on rivalries among great families
 (13th-15th cent.) until papal rule was restored, lasting, nearly
 unbroken, from 1506 until Italian unification (1860). There are many
 notable medieval and Renaissance buildings.

   Bologne, Jean

 Bologne, Jean: see BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI.

   Bolshevism and Menshevism

 Bolshevism and Menshevism, the two main branches of Russian socialism
 from 1903 to 1918. In 1903 the Russian Social-Democratic Workers' party
 split into two factions. One, led by LENIN, had a temporary majority and
 was thereafter known as the Bolsheviki majority members; their opponents,
 led by PLEKHANOV, were dubbed Mensheviki minority members. The Bolsheviks
 favored a small party of professional revolutionaries and the
 establishment of a dictatorship of the proletariat and peasantry. The
 Mensheviks wanted a loosely organized mass party and held that before
 reaching socialism Russia must develop a bourgeois-democratic stage. In
 the 1917 RUSSIAN REVOLUTION the Mensheviks took part in the KERENSKY
 provisional government, which was overthrown by the Bolsheviks in the
 October Revolution. The Bolsheviks became the Russian Communist party in
 1918 and had suppressed all rival political groups by 1921. In 1952 the
 party adopted its present name, Communist party of the Soviet Union.

   Bolshoi Ballet

 Bolshoi Ballet,  the principal ballet company of the USSR. It began
 (1773) as a dancing school for the Moscow Orphanage. Opened in 1856, the
 Bolshoi Theatre at first competed with the Maryinsky Theatre of St.
 Petersburg. Alexander Gorsky revitalized it in the early 20th cent. In
 the 1930s, Igor Moiseyev (see MOISEYEV DANCE COMPANY) experimented with
 folk-dance ballets at the theater. The company is internationally
 acclaimed and tours with such classics as Giselle and Swan Lake.

   Boltzmann, Ludwig

 Boltzmann, Ludwig, 1844-1906, Austrian physicist, known for his important
 contributions to the KINETIC-MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES. By investigating
 the relationship between the temperature and the energy distribution of
 molecules in a gas, he laid the foundations of statistical mechanics. In
 1883 he demonstrated theoretically a law (sometimes called the
 Stefan-Boltzmann law) describing the radiation from a BLACK BODY that had
 earlier been found experimentally by the Austrian physicist Josef Stefan.

   Bolyai, Janos

 Bolyai, Janosor Johann, 1802-60, Hungarian mathematician. In 1823 he
 independently developed hyperbolic geometry, a form of NON-EUCLIDEAN
 GEOMETRY. His father, Farkas, or Wolfgang, Bolyai, 1775-1856, was also a
 Hungarian mathematician. Farkas's Tentamen (1823-33), a systematic
 treatment of geometry, arithmetic, algebra, and analysis, contains as an
 appendix his son's theory of absolute space.

   bombax

 bombax, common name for the Bombacaceae, a family of tall, thick-trunked
 deciduous trees, found chiefly in the American tropics. Many members of
 the family are commercially important, e.g., the BAOBAB; balsa, or
 corkwood, which yields the lightest lumber in the world; and the ceiba
 tree, source of KAPOK.

   Bombay

 Bombay, city and former province of British India, on the Arabian Sea.
 The region was ruled by dynasties from Central India. In the 18th cent.
 it came under the control of the MAHRATTAS. The islands on which the city
 is built were under Portuguese control from 1534, and came under the
 British in 1661. The surrounding areas were incorporated into Bomby
 Presidency (or province) after the defeat of the Mahrattas in the early
 19th cent. Bombay became a state when India gained independence in 1947;
 it was split into the states of Gujarat and Maharashtra in 1960. The city
 of Bombay (1981 pop. 8,227,332), India's largest city and the capital of
 Maharashtra state, occupies two islands off the coast. It has the only
 natural deepwater harbor in W India. Manufactures include textiles,
 chemicals, and petroleum products, and the city is the center of the
 Indian film industry. It has the largest community of PARSIS in India.

   Bonaparte

 Bonaparte, Ital. Buonaparte, family name of NAPOLEON I of France. Besides
 Napoleon, this Corsican family produced many other notable figures.
 Napoleon's older brother, Joseph Bonaparte, 1768-1844, was king of Naples
 (1806-08), but he proved to be an inefficient administrator. As king of
 Spain (1808-13), he failed to cope with the PENINSULAR WAR and was forced
 to abdicate. He lived from 1815 to 1841 in the U.S., but died in Italy.
 Napoleon's brother Lucien Bonaparte, 1775-1840, helped Napoleon to
 overthrow the DIRECTORY in the coup of 18 Brumaire (1799), but later
 criticized him. They were reconciled while Napoleon was on Elba, and
 Lucien supported his brother during the Hundred Days. Another brother,
 Louis Bonaparte, 1778-1846, reluctantly married (1802) Hortense de
 BEAUHARNAIS; their son became NAPOLEON III. Louis was king of Holland
 (1806-10), but Napoleon forced him to abdicate for ignoring France's
 Continental System in favor of Dutch interests. Napoleon's youngest
 brother, Jerome Bonaparte, 1784-1860, king of Westphalia (1807-13), was
 extravagant and irresponsible. On a visit to the U.S. he married (1803)
 Elizabeth Patterson, but Napoleon had the marriage annulled and married
 him to a German princess. Jerome commanded a division at Waterloo and
 later received honors at the court of his nephew, Napoleon III.

   Bonaventure

 Bonaventure or Bonaventura, Saint,1221-74, Italian scholastic theologian,
 cardinal, Doctor of the Church, called the Seraphic Doctor. After
 teaching at the Univ. of Paris, he was made (1257) general of the
 FRANCISCANS. His writings reconcile ARISTOTLE'S learning with Augustinian
 Christianity. His later mystical works bring the teachings of BERNARD OF
 CLAIRVAUX to full flower. Feast: July 15. See also AUGUSTINE, SAINT;
 SCHOLASTICISM.

   bond

 bond, in finance, a formal certificate of indebtedness issued by
 governments or business corporations in return for loans. It bears a
 fixed rate of interest and promises to repay the funds borrowed after a
 certain period, usually 10 years or more. A bond is generally protected
 by security; debentures are bonds unsecured by a pledge against specific
 assets. Bonds were sold by the U.S. government to help finance both world
 wars and are still an important money-raising device. Bonds issued by
 city and state governments are exempt from federal income taxes.

   bone

 bone, hard substance that forms the SKELETON in vertebrate animals. Bone
 consists of a gelatinous organic material called collagen, together with
 minerals (mainly calcium and phosphorus). In the very young, the mineral
 content is low and the bones are mostly cartilage, which is pliable. With
 age, as their mineral content increases, bones become more brittle. Bone
 tissue has a three-layered structure: the spongy inner layer; the compact
 layer surrounding the inner layer, providing support for the body; and
 the tough outer membrane. The inner spaces of long bones, as those in the
 arms and legs, are filled with marrow, important in the formation of
 BLOOD cells.

   Bonhoeffer, Dietrich

 Bonhoeffer, Dietrich, 1906-45, German Protestant theologian. Influenced
 by Karl BARTH, he urged a conformation to the form of Christ as the
 suffering servant in a total commitment of self to others. He was
 imprisoned for two years and hanged for his role in a plot to overthrow
 HITLER. His writings were published posthumously.

   Bon Homme Richard

 Bon Homme Richard: see JONES, JOHN PAUL.

   Boniface, Saint

 Boniface, Saint, c.675-754?, English missionary monk and martyr, called
 the Apostle of Germany. From 718 he devoted himself to the conversion of
 pagan Germany, where he founded many bishoprics and abbeys. He was named
 metropolitan of Germany (731) and archbishop of Mainz (745). He was
 martyred by pagans in Friesland. Feast: June 5.

   Boniface VIII

 Boniface VIII, 1235-1303, pope (1294-1303), an Italian named Benedetto
 Caetani. Boniface became pope after the abdication of CELESTINE V, and,
 to avoid schism, he imprisoned Celestine for life. Trying to assert papal
 authority, Boniface interfered unsuccessfully in Sicily and further
 aggravated the quarrel of the GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES. He was involved in
 a bitter struggle with PHILIP IV of France. The pope tried to prevent
 Philip from his illegal levies on the clergy with the bull Clericis
 laicos (1296), but was forced to back down. The struggle was renewed
 after new troubles, and Boniface issued Ausculta fili (1301) and Unam
 sanctam (1302), the latter being an extreme statement regarding the duty
 of princes to be subject to the pope. As a result, Philip sent an agent
 to depose Boniface at Anagni, but after the agent's companion struck the
 pope, the outraged townspeople drove the emissaries out. Boniface died
 soon afterward and was succeeded by Benedict XI. Philip later forced Pope
 CLEMENT V to repudiate many of the acts of Boniface. An able canon
 lawyer, Boniface issued (1298) a new revision of the code called the
 Sext.

   Boniface

 Boniface, d. 432, Roman general. In AFRICA as a semi-in dependent
 governor, he was named count of Africa by VALENTINIAN III. Recalled to
 Rome in 427, he rebelled, causing a civil war between Africa and Rome.
 The struggle prepared the way for the invasion of Africa by the Vandals
 under GAISERIC. After a truce was arranged, Boniface attacked the Vandals
 and was defeated and beseiged (430) at Hippo. He died of wounds received
 in a battle with a rival Roman general, Aetius.

   Bonifacio, Jose

 Bonifacio, Jose, 1763-1838, Brazilian scientist and architect of
 Brazilian independence. An eminent geologist, he influenced the
 Portuguese prince regent, Dom Pedro, to declare (1822) Brazil an
 independent monarchy with himself as Emperor PEDRO I. Bonifacio served as
 first minister (1822-23) of the new empire, and many of his ideas were
 included in the 1824 constitution.

   Bonin Islands

 Bonin Islands, volcanic island group, c.40 sq mi (100 sq km), in the W
 Pacific Ocean, c.500 mi (800 km) S of Tokyo. Principal products of the
 sparsely populated archipelago are sugarcane, cocoa, bananas, and
 pineapples. The islands were claimed by Britain (1827) and Japan (1875).
 A Japanese stronghold in WORLD WAR II, the Bonins were captured (1945) by
 the U.S. They were returned to Japan in 1968.

   Bonn

 Bonn, city (1986 est. pop. 290,800), capital of the Federal Republic of
 Germany, North Rhine-Westphalia, W West Germany, on the Rhine R. It is
 the administrative center of West Germany. Manufactures include chemicals
 and pharmaceuticals. Founded (1st cent. AD) by the Romans, it was later
 (1238-1794) the residence of the electors of Cologne. In 1949 it became
 the capital of West Germany (see under GERMANY). BEETHOVEN was born in
 Bonn.

   Bonnard, Pierre

 Bonnard, Pierre, 1867-1947, French painter, lithographer, and
 illustrator. He excelled at domestic interiors that emphasized light
 effects similar in exuberance to IMPRESSIONISM, e.g., Bowl of Fruit
 (1933; Philadelphia Mus. Art). His late works are intensely colorful.

   Bonneville Salt Flats

 Bonneville Salt Flats, desert area in Tooele co., NW Utah, c.14 mi (22.5
 km) long and 7 mi (11.2 km) wide. It is part of Great Salt Lake Desert,
 the former bed of Lake Bonneville, whose area, once c.19,500 sq mi
 (50,500 sq km), shrank at the end of the Pleistocene epoch. The smooth
 salt surface of the Flats is ideal for auto racing, and several world
 speed records have been set there.

   Bonnie Prince Charlie

 Bonnie Prince Charlie: see under STUART, JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD>.

   bonsai

 bonsai, the art of cultivating dwarf trees, and the plants developed by
 this method. Bonsai, developed over 1,000 years ago in Japan, derives
 from the Chinese practice of growing miniature plants. In bonsai
 cultivation, the plants are kept small and in true proportion to their
 natural models by growing them in small containers, feeding and watering
 only enough for healthy growth, pruning, and forming branches to the
 desired shape by applying wire coils. The selection of containers, the
 plant's position in a container, and the choice of single plants or a
 group are important aesthetic considerations.

   Bontemps, Arna

 Bontemps, Arna, 1902-73, black American writer; b. Alexandria, La. He is
 best remembered as the author of the novel God Sends Sunday (1931), the
 basis of the play St. Louis Woman (1946); and of Black Thunder (1936), a
 tragic account of the slave insurrection led by Gabriel Prosser in
 Richmond, Va., in 1800. Bontemps was also an editor, anthologizer, and
 historian.

   booby

 booby, large, streamlined sea BIRD of the family Sulidae, called gannets
 in northern waters. Boobies have heavy bodies, long, pointed wings, long,
 wedge-shaped tails, and short, stout legs. They fish by diving on their
 prey from great heights and pursuing it under water. Gullible and unwary,
 as its name indicates, the booby is easy prey for hunters and is
 diminishing in number.

   bookbinding

 bookbinding. The practice of bookbinding began with the protection of
 parchment manuscripts with boards. Parchment sheets had been folded and
 sewn together from the 2d cent. AD In the Middle Ages, the art of fine
 binding rose to great heights. Books were rare and precious and many were
 covered exquisitely. Techniques of folding and sewing sheets together in
 small lots, taping the lots together, and adding outside protection
 changed little from the medieval monastery to the modern bindery. The
 invention of PRINTING greatly increased the demand for binding, however.
 In machine binding, called casing, the cover, or case, is made separately
 from the book and then glued to it. With the development of
 mass-production processes and new materials, new methods of binding have
 become popular; "perfect" binding uses glue without sewing. The finest
 binding is still done by hand, often to restore damaged books.

   Book of Changes (I Ching)

 Book of Changes (I Ching), classic ancient Chinese book of prophecy and
 wisdom. Its earliest parts are thought to date from the century before
 CONFUCIUS. It consists of eight trigrams, corresponding to the powers of
 nature. They are used to interpret the future with the textual help of
 supplementary definitions, intuitions, and Confucian commentary.

   Book of Common Prayer

 Book of Common Prayer, title given to the service book used in the Church
 of ENGLAND and in other churches of the ANGLICAN COMMUNION. The first
 Prayer Book (1549), mainly the work of Thomas CRANMER, was essentially
 derived from the breviary and the missal. This was revised (1552), but
 was suppressed under MARY I. Revised under ELIZABETH I, it was again
 suppressed (1645-60) by the Commonwealth and the Protectorate. A new
 revision was made compulsory by the Act of Uniformity (1662). The first
 U.S. revision was adopted by the Episcopal Church in 1789; the latest
 edition is that of 1979.

   book of hours

 book of hours, form of devotional book developed in the 14th cent.
 containing prayers and meditations appropriate to seasons, months, days,
 and hours. Many are masterpieces of ILLUMINATION; among the greatest is
 Tres Riches Heures (c.1415; Musee Conde, Chantilly), made by the LIMBOURG
 BROTHERS and other artists for the renowned collector Jean, duc de Berry.

   Book of the Dead

 Book of the Dead, Egyptian funerary literature. The texts consist of
 charms, spells, and formulas for use by the deceased in the afterworld.
 At first inscriptions, the texts were later papyrus rolls placed inside
 the mummy case. Essential ideas of Egyptian religion are known through
 them. The earliest collection is from the XVIII dynasty (1580-1350 BC).

   book publishing

 book publishing. The term publishing usually means the issuing of printed
 materials, such as books, magazines, and PERIODICALS, and is therefore
 closely related both to PRINTING and to the retailing of printed
 materials. Although the practice of making extra copies of manuscripts
 goes back to ancient times, it was the introduction of printing into
 Europe in the 15th cent. that caused publishing to spring into existence
 (see TYPE). The differentiation of printer, publisher, and bookseller
 began very early. In 1583 the first important publishing house, that of
 the Elzevir family in Holland (see ELZEVIR, LOUIS), published its first
 book. With a steadily broadening readership, great publishing houses
 slowly appeared in Leipzig, Vienna, Florence, Zurich, Paris, London, and
 Edinburgh. In the U.S., Boston, Philadelphia, and especially New York
 City took the lead. During the 19th cent. specialization became
 increasingly evident. Music publishing became almost a separate business,
 as did map publishing. UNIVERSITY PRESSES began to be established in the
 U.S. Specialization also grew within the houses in the 20th cent.
 Editorial departments became distinct from production departments, and
 both were quite separate from the sales, promotion, and distribution
 departments. Publishers also specialized according to the subject matter
 of their books and the means by which they were distributed. Thus, trade
 books are fiction and nonfiction books sold to readers primarily through
 bookstores (or the trade), whereas textbooks are directed toward college
 professors and school boards for use by students in the classroom.
 Moreover, with the proliferation of book clubs (supported by individuals
 who order through the mail), many books are issued with this market in
 mind. During the 1930s and 40s the paperbound, pocket-sized book rose
 meteorically in popularity in English-speaking countries; by the 1980s
 one third of all books sold in the U.S. were paperbacks. Publishing has
 traditionally been an industry of small, family-owned firms. After the
 1960s, however, American firms were continually being bought by and
 consolidated with other companies; often they were taken over by
 conglomerate companies in quite different lines of business. By the 1970s
 the advent of new technologies for the transmission, storage, and
 distribution of data, once the prerogative of book publishing, had become
 a problem for the industry; television screens and data bases became
 symbols of the challenges to editors and publishers alike (see COMPUTER;
 INFORMATION STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL). The increasing use of sophisticated
 copying machines posed new problems to the need of publishers and authors
 to protect their property by COPYRIGHT, and in 1976 the U.S. Congress
 passed a major revision to the federal copyright law that attempted to
 define to what extent published material could be reproduced without
 payment of royalties.

   Boole, George

 Boole, George, 1815-64, English mathematician and logician. Boolean
 algebra, his form of symbolic LOGIC, is central to the study of the
 foundations of pure mathematics and is the basis of computer technology.
 Boole wrote An Investigation of the Laws of Thought (1854), as well as
 works on calculus and differential equations.

   Boolean algebra

 Boolean algebra, an abstract mathematical system primarily used in
 COMPUTER science and in expressing the relationships between SETS (groups
 of objects or concepts). The notational system was developed by the
 English mathematician George BOOLE about 1850 to permit an algebraic
 manipulation of logical statements. Such manipulation can demonstrate
 whether or not a statement is true and show how a complicated statement
 can be rephrased in a simpler, more convenient form without changing its
 meaning. When used in set theory, Boolean algebra can demonstrate the
 relationship between groups, indicating what is in each set alone, what
 is jointly contained in both, and what is contained in neither. The
 expression of electrical networks in Boolean notation has aided the
 development of switching theory and the design of computers.

   Boone, Daniel

 Boone, Daniel, 1734-1820, American frontiersman; b. near Reading, Pa. In
 March 1775, as advance agent for the TRANSYLVANIA COMPANY, he blazed the
 WILDERNESS ROAD and founded Boonesboro, Ky. In 1779 he helped defend
 Boonesboro against the Indians. Boone moved (1799) to Missouri after his
 land titles in Kentucky were overturned. His legendary adventures, many
 disproved by historical scholarship, were popularized in a so-called
 autobiographical account (1784) by John Filson.

   Booth

 Booth, family prominent in the SALVATION ARMY. William Booth, 1829-1912,
 was an evangelist in London, where he and his wife, Catherine Mumford
 Booth, 1829-90, established (1865) a movement that became (1878) the
 Salvation Army. Their eldest son, Bramwell Booth, 1856-1929, succeeded
 his father in 1912 as general of this organization. Another son,
 Ballington Booth, 1859-1940, was commander of the Salvation Army in
 Australia (1885-87) and in the U.S. (1887-96), withdrawing (1896) to
 found the Volunteers of America. A daughter, Evangeline Cory Booth,
 1865-1950, commander of the Salvation Army in Canada (1895-1904) and the
 U.S. (1904-34), was general (1934-39) of the international Salvation
 Army.

   Booth, Junius Brutus

 Booth, Junius Brutus, 1796-1852, Anglo-American actor. He came from
 England to the U.S. in 1821 and became the foremost tragic actor of his
 day. His son Edwin Booth, 1833-93, b. near Bel Air, Md., toured with his
 father and scored great successes in Shakespearean tragedies. His
 100-night run of Hamlet in New York City in 1864 was famous. The next
 year he retired briefly from the stage because of the scandal involving
 his brother (see below). He built Booth's Theatre in New York City (1869)
 and was the founder (1888) and first president of the Players' Club.
 Another son, John Wilkes Booth, 1838-65, won acclaim in Shakespearean
 roles but is best known as the assassin of Abraham LINCOLN. A Southern
 sympathizer (unlike the rest of his family) during the CIVIL WAR, he
 plotted with six fellow conspirators to assassinate Union leaders. On
 Apr. 14, 1865, he shot Pres. Lincoln during a performance of Our American
 Cousin at Ford's Theater in Washington, D.C., vaulted to the stage
 (breaking a leg), and escaped. A search party cornered him in a burning
 barn near Bowling Green, Va., on Apr. 26, and Booth was fatally shot,
 either by himself or by one of his pursuers.

   bootlegging

 bootlegging, the illegal production or distribution of proscribed or
 highly taxed goods. Historically, the term is most often applied to
 illegal dealing in liquor during PROHIBITION in the U.S. By 1930, liquor
 bootlegging had become a large industry dominated by gangsters such as Al
 CAPONE. Its association with graft and violence was a major factor in
 Prohibition's repeal.

   Bophuthatswana

 Bophuthatswana, black African homeland or BANTUSTAN (1985 est. pop.
 1,660,000), 15,571 sq mi (40,330 sq km), declared independent by the
 Republic of South Africa in 1977. Mmabatho is the capital. The "state,"
 which has seven separate areas (six along the Botswana border), is the
 designated homeland for the Tswana people. South Africa forcibly
 reinstated Kgosi Lucas Mangope as president after a 1988 coup attempt.

   borage

 borage, common name for the Boraginaceae, a family of widely distributed
 herbs and tropical shrubs and trees characterized by rough or hairy
 stems; four-part fruits; and, usually, fragrant blossoms. Species of
 forget-me-not (Myosotis) and species of heliotrope (Heliotropium) are
 cultivated in and native to North America.

   Borah, William Edgar

 Borah, William Edgar, 1865-1940, U.S. senator from Idaho (1907-40); b.
 near Fairfield, Ill. Sometimes called "the great opposer," he was a
 Republican noted for his independent stands and his interest in foreign
 policy. He opposed the LEAGUE OF NATIONS, but advocated disarmament.
 Borah also opposed economic monopolies and the growth of big government.

   borax

 borax or sodium tetraborate decahydrate,chemical compound (Na2B4O7.10H2O)
 occurring as a colorless, crystalline salt or a white powder. Borax is
 used as an antiseptic, cleansing agent, water softener, corrosion
 inhibitor in anti freeze, and flux for silver soldering, and in the
 manufacture of fertilizers, Pyrex glass, and pharmaceuticals.

   Bordeaux

 Bordeaux, city (1982 pop. 211,197), capital of Gironde dept., SW France,
 on the Garonne R. It is a busy port, accessible to the Atlantic, with
 important shipyards and industries. Wine is its major product, with
 Bordeaux the generic name of the region's wine. A prosperous Roman city,
 it flourished (11th cent.) as the seat of the dukes of AQUITAINE. ELEANOR
 OF AQUITAINE precipitated war between France and the English, who ruled
 the city (1154-1453). The city reached its height of prosperity in the
 18th cent. It was the temporary seat of French government in 1914 and
 1940.

   Borden, Gail

 Borden, Gail, 1801-74, American inventor; b. Norwich, N.Y. His process
 (patented 1856) of evaporating MILK was of great value for the army
 during the Civil War, and its use spread rapidly afterwards. Borden also
 patented processes for concentrating fruit juices and other beverages.

   Borden, Lizzie Andrew

 Borden, Lizzie Andrew, 1860-1927, American woman tried for the ax murders
 (1892) of her father and stepmother; b. Fall River, Mass. Claiming that
 she was out of the house when the murders occurred, she was acquitted.
 The case is unsolved.

   Borden, Sir Robert Laird

 Borden, Sir Robert Laird, 1854-1937, Canadian prime minister (1911-20).
 He headed the Conservative government (1911-17) and a Union coalition
 (1917-20) during World War I. It was largely through his efforts that
 CANADA and other British dominions attained new self-governing status.

   Bordet, Jules

 Bordet, Jules, 1870-1961, Belgian serologist and immunologist. He
 received the 1919 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine for his work in
 immunity. With Octave Gengou he devised (1900) the technique of the
 complement-fixation reaction (applied by August WASSERMANN to the
 diagnosis of syphilis) and discovered (1906) the bacillus of whooping
 cough.

   Borg, Bjorn

 Borg, Bjorn, 1956-, Swedish tennis player. As a teenage star he led
 (1975) Sweden to its first Davis Cup victory. Before losing to John
 McEnroe in 1981, he captured five successive Wimbledon titles, a
 tournament record. He retired in 1983.

   Borges, Jorge Luis

 Borges, Jorge Luis, 1899-86, Argentine poet, critic, and short-story
 writer. Perhaps the foremost contemporary Spanish-American author, he
 wrote his early poetry, beginning with Fervor of Buenos Aires (1923),
 under the influence of ultraismo, a movement for pure poetry that
 followed MODERNISMO. He was director of the National Library and
 professor of English at the Univ. of Buenos Aires. His imaginative poetry
 is collected in Selected Poems: 1923-1967 (1967). His philosophical and
 literary essays appear in such collections as Other Inquisitions (1952).
 He is known for his original short fiction, e.g., A Universal History of
 Infamy (1935), Ficciones (1944), The Book Of Imaginary Beings (1957), and
 The Book of Sand (1975).

   Borghese

 Borghese, noble Roman family. It produced one pope, Paul V; several
 cardinals; and many prominent citizens.

   Borgia

 Borgia, Spanish-Italian family whose members included the popes CALIXTUS
 III and ALEXANDER VI, and Saint Francis Borgia. Cesare Borgia, 1476-1507,
 a son of Pope Alexander VI, was an outstanding figure of the Italian
 Renaissance. A cardinal by 1493, Cesare resigned after the death (1498)
 of his elder brother (in whose murder he was probably involved) and
 entered politics. An ally of LOUIS XII of France, he overran the cities
 of Romagna. He then lured his chief enemies to a castle, where he had
 some of them strangled. He hoped to make his position independent of the
 papacy, but the death of his father and the election of Pope JULIUS II
 were fatal to his plans. Louis XII turned against him, and Julius
 demanded the surrender of Cesare's lands. Cesare was imprisoned in Spain,
 escaped, and found refuge (1506) with the king of Navarre, for whom he
 died fighting at Viana. Intelligent, cruel, treacherous, and
 opportunistic, he has long been considered the model of the Renaissance
 prince, the prototype of MACHIAVELLI'S Prince. His sister was Lucretia
 Borgia, 1480-1519. Her first marriage was annulled (1497), and her second
 husband, Alfonso of Aragon, was murdered (1500) by her brother, Cesare
 Borgia. She then married (1501) Alfonso d'Este, who became (1505) the
 duke of Ferrara, and set up a brilliant court. Her beauty and kindness
 won her much esteem. The stories of her crimes and vices are unfounded,
 although she is best known for her wicked legend portrayed in dramas and
 operas.

   Borgia, Rodrigo

 Borgia, Rodrigo: see ALEXANDER VI.

   Borglum, (John) Gutzon (de la Mothe)

 Borglum, (John) Gutzon (de la Mothe), 1867-1941, American sculptor; b.
 Idaho. His first commission was a statue of Abraham Lincoln (Capitol,
 Wash., D.C.). A figurative sculptor, Borglum is famous for the monumental
 works he designed for, and helped to carve on, mountainsides, especially
 the enormous busts of four U.S. presidents at MOUNT RUSHMORE NATIONAL
 MEMORIAL, S.D., begun in 1927.

   Boris

 Boris, rulers of Bulgaria. Boris I, d. 907, khan ruler of Bulgaria
 (852-89), was a Christian convert and introduced Byzantine Christianity
 into Bulgaria. In 889 he abdicated, entering a monastery. Boris III,
 1894-1943, czar (1918-43), ruled constitutionally until 1935 and
 thereafter as a dictator. He joined the Axis in 1940 and died
 mysteriously soon after visiting HITLER in Berlin.

   Boris Godunov

 Boris Godunov: see GODUNOV, BORIS.

   Borlaug, Norman Ernest

 Borlaug, Norman Ernest, 1914-, American agronomist; b. Cresco, Iowa.
 Associated with the Rockefeller Foundation in Mexico from 1944, he headed
 a team of scientists experimenting with improvement of grains. He won the
 1970 Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to eradicate hunger and build
 international prosperity. His "green revolution," using improved wheat
 seed, new types of higher-yield rice, and more efficient use of
 fertilizers and water, improved food production in many less-developed
 countries.

   Bormann, Martin

 Bormann, Martin, 1900-1945, German NAZI leader. In 1942 he became
 HITLER'S private secretary. Although he was rumored to have escaped to
 Argentina in 1945, his skeleton was unearthed and identified in West
 Berlin in 1973.

   Born, Max

 Born, Max, 1882-1970, German physicist. For his statistical
 interpretation of quantum mechanics (see QUANTUM THEORY), he shared the
 1954 Nobel Prize in physics. Born was head (1921-33) of the physics
 department at the Univ. of Gottingen. After Nazi policies forced him to
 leave Germany, he taught at Cambridge Univ. and the Univ. of Edinburgh
 before returning to Germany in 1954.

   Borneo

 Borneo, island (1980 pop. 9,233,504), SE Asia, world's third largest
 island, c.287,000 sq mi (743,330 sq km), in the Malay Archipelago. It is
 divided among Indonesia, which holds about 70% of the island (called
 Kalimantan), Brunei, and the Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak. Dense
 jungles and rain forests cover much of the mountainous island, which
 reaches a high point of 13,455 ft (4,101 m) at Mt. Kinabalu. The hot,
 humid climate has a prolonged monsoon season lasting from Nov. to May.
 Primitive DYAKS occupy the sparsely populated interior; Malays
 predominate in coastal regions. Oil, discovered in 1888, is the chief
 resource.

   Borodin, Aleksandr Porfirevich

 Borodin, Aleksandr Porfirevich, 1833-87, Russian composer. He was one of
 the group known as The FIVE. His principal works include the SYMPHONIC
 POEM In the Steppes of Central Asia (1880) and the unfinished opera
 Prince Igor.

   Boroimhe, Brian

 Boroimhe, Brian: see BRIAN BORU.

   boron

 boron (B), nonmetallic element, isolated by Sir Humphry DAVY in 1807. As
 a dark-brown to black amorphous powder, boron is more reactive than its
 jet-black to silver-gray crystalline metallike form. BORAX and boric acid
 are common compounds. Boron is used in the shielding material and in some
 control rods of nuclear reactors. See ELEMENT ; PERIODIC TABLE.

   Borromini, Francesco

 Borromini, Francesco, 1599-1677, major Italian BAROQUE architect. His
 innovations in palace and church architecture were influential in Italy
 and N Europe. Among his buildings is San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane,
 Rome, noted for its undulating rhythm of architectural elements within a
 geometric plan.

   Borrow, George Henry

 Borrow, George Henry, 1803-81, English writer. A wanderer, he distributed
 Bibles on the Continent and was a friend of the gypsies. His books, all
 of which are based on his travels, include The Bible in Spain (1843),
 Lavengro (1851), and Romany Rye (1857).

   Boru, Brian

 Boru, Brian: see BRIAN BORU.

   borzoi

 borzoi, tall, swift HOUND; shoulder height, 26-31 in. (66-81.2 cm);
 weight, c.85 lb (38.6 kg). Its long, silky coat may be flat, wavy, or
 curly, and any color (usually white with markings). Developed in Russia
 in the early 17th cent. to hunt wolves and hares, it is also called a
 Russian wolfhound.

   Bos, Jerom

 Bos, Jerom: see BOSCH, HIERONYMUS.

   Bosch, Hieronymus

 Bosch, Hieronymus,or Jerom Bos, c.1450-1516, Flemish painter. His surname
 was van Aeken. A great influence on Pieter Brueghel, the Elder (see
 BRUEGEL, family), and hailed in the 20th cent. as a forerunner of
 SURREALISM, Bosch had a passion for the grotesque and macabre. His
 paintings, e.g., Adoration of the Magi (Metropolitan Mus.), are filled
 with bizarre plants, animals, and figures suggested perhaps by folk
 legends or moralizing religious literature. He was a favorite of PHILIP
 II of Spain, who collected such works as Garden of Earthly Delights
 (Prado) and the Temptation of St. Anthony (Lisbon).

   Bose, Sir Jagadis Chunder

 Bose, Sir Jagadis Chunder, 1858-1937, Indian physicist and plant
 physiologist. Professor of physical science (1885-1915) at Presidency
 College, Calcutta, he is noted for his researches in plant life,
 especially his comparison of the responses of plant and animal tissue to
 various stimuli. One of his inventions is the crescograph, a device for
 measuring plant growth.

   Bosnia and Hercegovina

 Bosnia and Hercegovina, constituent republic of Yugoslavia (1985 pop.
 4,310,000), 19,741 sq mi (51,129 sq km), W central Yugoslavia. Bosnia is
 to the north of Hercegovina. The capital is SARAJEVO. Despite rich
 mineral deposits, the republic remains one of the poorer areas of
 Yugoslavia. About half of the land is forested; one fourth is cultivated,
 with grains, tobacco, and cotton among the major crops. The region was
 settled (7th cent.) by the Serbs and ruled from the 15th to 19th cent. by
 the Turks. Bosnia and Hercegovina were placed (1878) under
 Austro-Hungarian administration, and Austria annexed the region in 1908.
 The assassination (1914) of Austrian Archduke FRANCIS FERDINAND by a
 Serbian nationalist in Sarajevo precipitated WORLD WAR I. Bosnia and
 Hercegovina were annexed to Serbia in 1918. During WORLD WAR II they were
 (1941-45) part of the German puppet state of CROATIA. In 1946 they were
 combined as one of the six constituent republics of Yugoslavia.

   Bosporus

 Bosporus, strait, c.20 mi (30 km) long and c.2,100 ft (640 m) wide at its
 narrowest, separating European and Asian Turkey. The fortified strait
 connects the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmara. As a part (with the
 DARDANELLES) of a passage linking the BLACK and MEDITERRANEAN seas, it is
 a critically important shipping lane for the USSR. A bridge (3,524 ft/
 1,074 m long) spans the Bosporus at Istanbul, near the southern end of
 the strait.

   Boston

 Boston, city (1986 est. pop. 573,600; met. area 2,824,200), state capital
 and seat of Suffolk co., E Mass., on Boston Bay; inc. 1822. The largest
 city of New England, it is a major financial, government, and educational
 center, and a leading port. Industries include publishing, food
 processing, and the manufacture of shoes, textiles, machinery, and
 electronic equipment. Established by John WINTHROP as the main colony of
 the MASSACHUSETTS BAY COMPANY in 1630, Boston was an early center of
 American PURITANISM, with a vigorous intellectual life. A focus of
 opposition to the British, it was the scene of several actions in the
 AMERICAN REVOLUTION. The city prospered in the 19th cent., and
 shipbuilding, commercial, and industrial magnates such as the Cabots,
 Lowells, and Lodges patronized the arts, making Boston the "Athens of
 America." The arrival of many immigrants (at first mainly Irish) helped
 transform Boston into an industrial metropolis with expanded city limits.
 Today the city cherishes its landmarks, among them Paul REVERE'S house,
 Old North Church, and Faneuil Hall. Boston's great cultural institutions
 include its Museum of Fine Arts, Symphony Orchestra, Public Library, and
 Athenaeum. Boston Univ., Northeastern Univ., New England Medical Center,
 and Harvard Medical School are among the institutions that make Boston
 world famous as an educational, medical, and research center.

   Boston Massacre

 Boston Massacre, 1770, incident prior to the AMERICAN REVOLUTION in which
 five members of a rioting crowd were killed by British soldiers sent to
 Boston to maintain order and enforce the TOWNSHEND ACTS.

   Boston Public Library

 Boston Public Library: see LIBRARY .

   Boston Tea Party

 Boston Tea Party, Boston, Mass., Dec. 16, 1773, a protest against the
 British tea tax retained after the repeal of the TOWNSHEND ACTS. Angry
 colonists disguised as Indians boarded three tea ships and threw the tea
 into Boston harbor.

   Boston terrier

 Boston terrier, small, lively NONSPORTING DOG; shoulder height, 14-17 in.
 (35.6-43.2 cm); weight, 13-25 lb (5.9-11.3 kg). Its short, smooth coat
 may be brindle or black, with white markings. One of the few breeds
 native to the U.S., it was developed by cross-breeding in the mid-19th
 cent.

   Boswell, James

 Boswell, James, 1740-95, Scottish author; b. Edinburgh. The son of a
 judge, he reluctantly studied law and practiced throughout his life. His
 true interest was in a literary career and in associating with the great
 men of the time. He met Samuel JOHNSON in 1763 and, having himself
 achieved fame with his Account of Corsica (1768), produced Journal of a
 Tour of the Hebrides with Samuel Johnson, LL.D. (1785). His great work,
 The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D. appeared in 1791. Boswell recorded
 Johnson's conversation so minutely that Johnson is better remembered
 today for his sayings than for his own literary works. The curious
 combination of Boswell's own character (he was vainglorious and
 dissolute) and his genius at biography has led later critics to call him
 the greatest of all biographers. Masses of Boswell manuscript, discovered
 in the 20th cent. near Dublin, have enhanced his reputation.

   botanical garden

 botanical garden, public place where plants are grown both for display
 and for scientific study. An arboretum is a botanical garden devoted
 chiefly to woody plants, which are often arranged in cultural or habitat
 groups such as rock gardens, desert gardens, and tropical gardens.
 Botanical gardens collect and cultivate plants from all over the world,
 conduct experiments in plant breeding and hybridization (see HYBRID), and
 maintain libraries and herbariums. The Missouri Botanical Garden (St.
 Louis), founded c.1860, was the first botanical garden in the U.S.

   botany

 botany, science devoted to the study of plants, a major branch of
 BIOLOGY. In the 17th cent. the work of LINNAEUS on the CLASSIFICATION of
 organisms contributed greatly to the growth of the science, and the
 introduction of the MICROSCOPE marked the beginning of the study of plant
 anatomy and cells. Modern botany has expanded into all areas of biology,
 e.g., plant breeding and GENETICS. Practical areas of botanical study
 include AGRICULTURE, AGRONOMY, FORESTRY, and HORTICULTURE.

   Botany Bay

 Botany Bay, inlet, New South Wales, SE Australia, just S of Sydney. It
 was visited in 1770 by Capt. James COOK and named for the interesting
 flora on its shores. Australia's first penal colony, often called Botany
 Bay, was at Sydney.

   Botev, Khristo

 Botev, Khristo, 1848-76, Bulgarian poet. As a student in Russia he
 absorbed socialist ideas. In 1875 a volume of his patriotic lyrics and
 ballads appeared. He was killed leading a band of rebels against Turkish
 rule.

   Botha, Louis

 Botha, Louis, 1862-1919, South African soldier and statesman. He
 commanded the Boer troops in the SOUTH AFRICAN WAR (1899-1902). He was
 prime minister (1907-10) of the Transvaal and, as leader of the Unionist
 party, prime minister (1910-19) of the Union of SOUTH AFRICA.

   Botha, Pieter Willem

 Botha, Pieter Willem, 1916-, South African politician and prime minister
 (1978-). A member of the National party, he has worked for limited
 reforms in his nation's policy of APARTHEID and has continued the
 creation of BANTUSTANS as homelands for the black population. Botha also
 served (1965-80) as defense minister.

   Bothwell, James Hepburn, 4th earl of

 Bothwell, James Hepburn, 4th earl of, 1536?-1578, Scottish nobleman,
 third husband of MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS. After the murder of her secretary
 RIZZIO by conspirators, among them her husband, Lord DARNLEY, Mary
 trusted only Bothwell. Accused of murdering Darnley, Bothwell was
 acquitted in a rigged trial and married Mary (1567). The Scottish
 aristocracy attacked him and forced Mary to give him up. He fled to
 Denmark, where he was imprisoned and died insane.

   Botswana

 Botswana, officially Republic of Botswana, republic (1987 pop.
 1,169,000), 231,804 sq mi (600,372 sq km), S central Africa, formerly
 Bechuanaland, bordered by Namibia (South West Africa; W and N), Zambia
 (N), Zimbabwe (E), and South Africa (S and E). Gabarone is the capital.
 The terrain is mostly an arid plateau (c.3,000 ft/910 m high) of rolling
 land, with hills in the east, the KALAHARI Desert in the south and west,
 and the Okavango Swamp in the northwest. Cattle-raising and the export of
 beef are the chief economic activities. Farm production is severely
 hampered by lack of water. Botswana has vast mineral resources,
 discovered in the 1960s, and mining is being rapidly developed. Diamonds
 have become the principal export, and copper, nickel, asbestos,
 manganese, and coal are also being extracted. Because of its landlocked
 location, however, the country remains economically dependent on its
 neighbors, SOUTH AFRICA and ZIMBABWE (which controls the railroad through
 Botswana). The population is mainly Tswana, who are divided into eight
 Bantu-speaking groups. English and Tswana are the official languages, and
 traditional religions are dominant, although there is a small Christian
 minority.

 History The region was originally inhabited by the San (Bushmen), who
 were supplanted by the Tswana in the 18th cent. In the early 1800s Khama,
 chief of the largest Tswana tribe, curbed expansion by Zulu and Ndebele
 tribesmen into the territory and established a fairly unified state. A
 new threat arose in the late 19th cent. when, after gold was discovered
 in the region (1867), neighboring Transvaal sought to annex parts of
 Botswana. This move was opposed by the British, who took the area under
 supervision (1885) as a protectorate called Bechuanaland. A British plan
 to incorporate Bechuanaland into the Union of South Africa was eventually
 abandoned because of South Africa's apartheid policy, and in 1966, as
 Botswana, it gained full independence. Led by its first president, Sir
 Seretse Khama (grandson of Khama) until his death (1980), Botswana has
 won respect as a stable, democratic, nonracialist nation committed to a
 moderate foreign policy.

   Bottger, Johann Friedrich

 Bottger, Johann Friedrich, 1682-1719, German chemist and originator of
 Dresden china. He developed various glazes, used gold and silver
 decoration, and in 1715 perfected white PORCELAIN.

   Botticelli, Sandro

 Botticelli, Sandro, c.1444-1510, Florentine RENAISSANCE painter; b.
 Alessandro di Mariano Filipepi. He was a student of Fra Filippo LIPPI,
 whose influence can be seen in the delicate coloration of his early work;
 this later gave way to the more vigorous style of Pollaiuolo (see
 POLLAIUOLO, family) and VERROCCHIO, e.g., Portrait of a Young Man
 (Uffizi). He became a favorite of the MEDICI and was influenced by their
 Neoplatonic circle. Botticelli was one of the great colorists and a
 master of rhythmic line. His enchanting mythological scenes, Spring,
 Birth of Venus, and Mars and Venus allude to the triumph of love and
 reason over brutal instinct. In his last years, his popularity probably
 declined, and he turned to religious scenes. His piety is evident in the
 Nativity (National Gall., London) and Last Communion of St. Jerome
 (Metropolitan Mus.). In the 19th cent. he was rediscovered by the
 PRE-RAPHAELITES.

   botulism

 botulism, acute, often fatal food poisoning from ingestion of food
 containing toxins produced by Clostridium botulinum bacteria. Most cases
 are caused by canned food that has been improperly processed. The disease
 causes disturbances in vision, speech, and swallowing and, ultimately,
 paralysis of respiratory muscles, leading to suffocation. Treatment
 involves the administration of antitoxin as soon as possible after
 exposure to contaminated food.

   Bouake

 Bouake, city (1975 pop. 175,264), central Ivory Coast. It is a commercial
 and transportation center linked by rail to ABIDJAN. Tobacco is processed
 in the town, and gold and manganese are found nearby. A variant spelling
 is Bwake.

   Boucher, Francois

 Boucher, Francois, 1703-70, French painter. Boucher's art reflected the
 spirit of his day: elegant, frivolous, and artificial. A prodigy, he was
 influenced by WATTEAU and became the most fashionable and prolific artist
 of his day, producing a vast number of pictures, decorations, tapestry
 designs, stage settings for ballet and opera, and fine ETCHINGS. His
 best-known works are brilliant, voluptuous decorations, e.g., those in
 the Frick Collection (N.Y.C.). FRAGONARD was his pupil.

   Boudin, Eugene Louis

 Boudin, Eugene Louis, 1824-98, French painter. His small paintings of
 Brittany beach scenes are noted for their pervasive clarity and
 directness. He painted from nature and greatly influenced MONET. Examples
 of his work are in the Metropolitan Museum.

   Bougainville, Louis Antoine de

 Bougainville, Louis Antoine de, 1729-1811, French navigator. He was an
 aide-de-camp to Gen. MONTCALM in Canada. From 1767 to 1769 he made a
 voyage around the world, rediscovering the SOLOMON ISLANDS, the largest
 of which is named for him. In the AMERICAN REVOLUTION he fought Adm. Hood
 at Martinique. His Description of a Voyage around the World (2 vol.,
 1771-72) popularized the theories of ROUSSEAU.

   bougainvillea

 bougainvillea or bougainvillaea, chiefly tropical plant (genus
 Bougainvillaea) of the four-o'clock family. Bougainvilleas are woody
 vines with brilliant purple or red bracts.

   Boulanger, Georges Ernest

 Boulanger, Georges Ernest, 1837-91, French general and reactionary
 politician. He served in the FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR and was minister of war
 (1886-87). Envisioning himself as a dictator, he attracted opponents of
 the Third Republic and was elected (1889) as a parliamentary deputy. A
 military coup seemed probable, but Boulanger failed to act. Accused of
 treason, he fled into exile and killed himself.

   Boulanger, Nadia

 Boulanger, Nadia, 1887-1979, French conductor and musician. As the
 teacher of such American composers as Aaron COPLAND and Virgil THOMSON,
 she profoundly influenced American music. She was noted for her teaching
 of composition and for her conducting of choral works.

   Boulder

 Boulder, city (1986 est. pop. 76,480), seat of Boulder co., N central
 Colo.; inc. 1871. It is a major ROCKY MOUNTAIN resort, and the site of
 the Univ. of Colo. and the National Center for Atmospheric Research.
 Manufactures include aircraft and electronic equipment.

   Boulez, Pierre

 Boulez, Pierre, 1925-, French composer and conductor. His works apply the
 techniques of SERIAL MUSIC not only to melody and COUNTERPOINT but also
 to RHYTHM and dynamics. They include Pli selon pli (1962) and Memoriales
 (1975). From 1971 to 1977 he was music director of the New York
 Philharmonic (see ORCHESTRA, ).

   Boulogne, Jean

 Boulogne, Jean: see BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI.

   Boult, Sir Adrian

 Boult, Sir Adrian, 1889-1983, English conductor. He led the BBC Symphony
 Orchestra (1930-50) and the London Philharmonic (1950-57). His handbook
 on the technique of conducting appeared in 1968.

   Boumedienne, Houari

 Boumedienne, Houari, 1932?-78, Algerian president and prime minister
 (1965-78). He came to power in a coup that toppled Ahmed BEN BELLA. His
 government assumed a rigorous anti-Israeli stance.

   Bounty

 Bounty, British naval ship, scene of a noted mutiny (1789) while on a
 trading voyage in the Pacific. Capt. BLIGH and 18 crew members were set
 adrift in a small boat; they sailed 3,618 mi (5,822 km) to TIMOR. Some of
 the mutineers were captured; others settled on PITCAIRN ISLAND.

   Bourassa, Henri

 Bourassa, Henri, 1868-1952, Canadian politician and publisher. He founded
 the opposition Nationalist party in QUEBEC, which caused the fall (1911)
 of the Liberal government of Sir Wilfrid LAURIER. He also founded (1910)
 and edited a Montreal daily newspaper, Le Devoir.

   Bourbaki, Nicolas

 Bourbaki, Nicolas, collective pseudonym of a group of French
 mathematicians who in 1939 began publishing a highly influential general
 survey of mathematics. The writers, whose identities remain secret, have
 attempted to develop mathematics from a few broad axioms and have divided
 it into general structural categories, rather than adhering to
 traditional mathematical classifications.

   Bourbon

 Bourbon, royal family that ruled in France, Spain, the TWO SICILIES, and
 Parma; a cadet branch of the CAPETIANS. It takes its name from the now
 ruined castle of Bourbon in France. In 1272 Robert of Clermont, sixth son
 of LOUIS IX of France, married the heiress of Bourbon. His son Louis was
 created (1327) 1st duc de Bourbon. A younger son of the first duke
 founded the line of Bourbon-Vendome. His descendant Antoine de Bourbon,
 1518-62, duke of Vendome, became king of Navarre by marrying (1548)
 Jeanne d'Albret, later queen of NAVARRE. From his brother Louis descend
 the houses of CONDE and Conti. Antoine's son became (1589) the first
 Bourbon king of France as HENRY IV. His direct descendants ruled France
 (except from 1792 to 1814) until 1830, when CHARLES X was deposed, and
 died out in 1883 with Henri, comte de Chambord. The younger branch of
 Bourbon-Orleans gave France King LOUIS PHILIPPE. The house of
 Bourbon-Spain began in 1700 when LOUIS XIV'S grandson PHILIP V ascended
 the Spanish throne. The succession in Spain was contested (19th cent.) by
 the CARLISTS against ISABELLA II. Alfonso XIII was deposed in 1931, but
 the monarchy was restored in 1975 with his grandson JUAN CARLOS I. The
 house of Bourbon-Sicily, sprung from the Spanish line, was founded (1759)
 by Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies and ceased to rule when Francis II was
 deposed (1860). The house of Bourbon-Parma was founded (1748) in the
 duchy of Parma by a younger son of Philip V of Spain. Robert, the fifth
 duke in the line, was deposed in 1859.

   bourbon

 bourbon: see WHISKEY.

   Bourdelle, Emile Antoine

 Bourdelle, Emile Antoine, 1861-1929, French sculptor. He studied with
 RODIN and achieved his greatest success with Greek- and Gothic-inspired
 heroic monuments, e.g., Hercules (cast; Metropolitan Mus.), and with
 portrait heads.

   bourgeoisie

 bourgeoisie, name given in Europe to the middle class. Emerging among the
 merchants and craftsmen of medieval cities, it played a major role in the
 16th cent. in uprooting vestiges of FEUDALISM and from the late 18th
 cent. in spearheading democratic reform. Following the INDUSTRIAL
 REVOLUTION, the high bourgeoisie (industrialists and bankers) came to be
 distinguished from the petty bourgeoisie (tradespeople and white-collar
 workers). From the time of MOLIERE, the bourgeoisie was ridiculed by some
 for its preoccupation with status and material gain. In Karl MARX'S
 theory of class struggle, it was seen as a reactionary force trying to
 prevent the ascendancy of the wage-earning proletariat.

   Bourget, Paul

 Bourget, Paul, 1852-1935, French novelist. Catholic and conservative, he
 is noted for works of psychological analysis. Representative of his more
 than 60 novels are Love's Cruel Enigma (1885) and The Night Cometh
 (1915).

   Bourguiba, Habib

 Bourguiba, Habib, 1903-, president of TUNISIA (1957-). As leader of
 Tunisia's nationalist movement after 1934, he was several times
 imprisoned and forced to leave the country. He became premier when
 Tunisia achieved independence in 1956. A year later he deposed the bey;
 he was president from 1957 to 1987.

   Bourke-White, Margaret

 Bourke-White, Margaret, 1904-71, American photojournalist; b. N.Y.C. On
 the staff of Fortune, Life, and Time, she produced notable photographs of
 World War II, the rural South during the Great Depression, mining in
 South Africa, and guerrilla warfare in Korea, as well as portraits of
 world leaders.

   Bournonville, Auguste

 Bournonville, Auguste (ugust' boornoNvel'l), 1805-79, Danish ballet
 dancer, choreographer, and teacher. He studied in Copenhagen and Paris
 before joining (1828) the ROYAL DANISH BALLET. As a soloist, he developed
 a distinctive style. He choreographed over 50 works.

   bourse

 bourse: see STOCK EXCHANGE.

   Bovet, Daniele

 Bovet, Daniele, 1907-, Italian pharmacologist; b. Switzerland. He was
 awarded the 1957 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine for work in
 developing antihistamines, sulfa drugs, and curare derivatives and other
 muscle relaxants for use in surgery. He also studied the effects of
 mental illness on the brain's chemistry.

   Bow Bells

 Bow Bells, in the church of St. Mary-le-Bow, London, England. Tradition
 says that only one who is born within their sound is a true Londoner, or
 Cockney.

   Bowdler, Thomas

 Bowdler, Thomas, 1754-1825, English editor. His prudish textual
 expurgations, especially of Shakespeare and the Bible, gave rise to the
 term bowdlerize.

   Bowen, Elizabeth

 Bowen, Elizabeth, 1899-1973, Anglo-Irish author; b. Dublin. Her complex
 psychological novels include The Hotel (1927), The House in Paris (1936),
 The Death of the Heart (1938), and The Heat of the Day (1949). She also
 wrote short stories and reminiscences.

   Bowie, James

 Bowie, James, c.1796-1836, Texas hero; b. Logan co., Ky. He was a leader
 of the Americans in TEXAS who opposed Mexican rule. A colonel in the
 Texas Revolution (1835-36), he died at the ALAMO. Legend credits him with
 inventing the bowie knife.

   Bowles, Paul

 Bowles, Paul, 1910-, American author; b. N.Y.C. Originally a composer, he
 is best known for his fiction. A longtime resident of Morocco, Bowles
 often records the collision between the civilized and the primitive.
 Among his many works are the novel The Sheltering Sky (1949) and the
 short-story collection The Delicate Prey (1950). His wife, Jane Auer
 Bowles, 1917-73, b. N.Y.C., was also a writer. Her original,
 idiosyncratic works include Two Serious Ladies (1943), a novel, and In
 the Summer House (1954), a play.

   Bowles, Samuel

 Bowles, Samuel, 1797-1851, American newspaper editor; b. Hartford, Conn.
 He founded (1824) the Springfield (Mass.) Republican, a weekly. In 1844
 it became a daily under the influence of his son, Samuel Bowles, 1826-78,
 b. Springfield, Mass., who took control at 25 and made it one of the
 half-dozen most influential newspapers in the U.S. He aided the
 anti-SLAVERY movement and helped found the REPUBLICAN PARTY in New
 England. In later life he wrote reports and books about his travels. His
 son, Samuel Bowles, 1851-1915, the third of the family to edit the
 Republican, maintained its high quality.

   bowling

 bowling, indoor sport, also called tenpins, in which a ball is rolled at
 10 maple pins down an alley of polished wood. A regulation alley is 41 to
 42 in. (104.1 to 106.7 cm) wide and 60 ft (18.3 m) from the foul line to
 the head pin. A ball, usually weighing 16 lb (7.26 kg) and having three
 finger holes, is rolled at the pins, set up in a triangular array.
 Scoring is based on the number of pins knocked down; a perfect game is
 300 points. Bowling originated in ancient Germany and was introduced in
 America by the Dutch. The American Bowling Congress (founded 1895) and
 the Women's International Bowling Congress (1916) hold yearly
 championships. Duck pins, candle pins, and barrel pins are similar games
 played with much smaller balls and pins.

   Bowman, Isaiah

 Bowman, Isaiah, 1878-1950, American geographer; b. Canada. He taught at
 Yale (1905-15), was director of the American Geographical Society
 (1915-35), and was president of Johns Hopkins Univ. (1935-48). He was an
 adviser to Pres. Wilson at Versailles and an adviser to the Dept. of
 State in World War II. One of the great modern authorities on political
 geography, he wrote on many subjects, including the Andes, the Atacama
 desert, and forest physiography.

   box

 box, common name for the Buxaceae, a family of trees and shrubs with
 leathery green leaves, native to tropical and subtropical regions of the
 Old World and Central America. Boxes (genus Buxus) are widely cultivated
 as hedge plants and for their close-grained, strong hardwood. Boxwood
 takes a high polish and is used for wood engraving, carving, and turning,
 and for making musical instruments.

   boxer

 boxer, medium-sized, muscular WORKING DOG; shoulder height, 21-25 in.
 (53.3-63.5 cm); weight, 60-75 lb (27.2-34 kg). Its short, smooth coat is
 fawn or brindle, often with white markings. First used for fighting, the
 breed originated in 16th-cent. Europe and was perfected in 19th-cent.
 Germany.

   Boxer Uprising

 Boxer Uprising, 1898-1900, antiforeign movement in China. By the late
 19th cent. the West and Japan had wide interests in China. The dowager
 empress TZ'U HSI favored expelling the foreigners and encouraged an
 antiforeign society called I Ho Ch'uan [Chinese,=righteous, harmonious
 fists] or, in English, the Boxers. The movement grew menacing in 1899,
 and in June 1900 some 140,000 Boxers occupied Peking and besieged
 Westerners and Chinese Christians there. The siege was lifted in August
 by an international force of British, French, Russian, U.S., German, and
 Japanese troops. In 1901 China was compelled to pay an indemnity of $333
 million, to amend commercial treaties in favor of foreign nations, and to
 allow foreign troops to be posted in Peking.

   boxing

 boxing, sport of fighting with fists, also called pugilism and
 prizefighting. Boxers compete in a roped-off area, or ring, about 20 ft
 (6.1 m) square, and fight for a prescribed number of 3-min rounds,
 separated by 1-min rest periods. Bouts maybe decided by a knockout, when
 a floored contestant is unable to rise within 10 sec, or by the decision
 of the officials. Professional boxers are divided into eight weight
 classes, ranging from flyweight (under 112 lb/50.81 kg) to heavyweight
 (over 175 lb/79.38 kg). One of the oldest forms of competition known,
 boxing died out after the fall of Rome but was revived in England in the
 early 18th cent. Modern boxing began with the code of rules introduced
 (1865) by the marquess of QUEENSBERRY, which called for the use of
 gloves. In the U.S., boxing was illegal for many years before New York
 became the first state to legalize it (1896). Today professional boxing
 is regulated in each state by an athletic or boxing commission. Boxing
 has been an Olympic sport since 1904.

   boyars

 boyars, upper nobility in Russia from the 10th to the 17th cent. They
 occupied the highest state offices, advising the princes of Kiev through
 a council. Although they retained their influence after power shifted
 (14th-15th cent.) to Moscow, it was gradually eroded; PETER I abolished
 the rank.

   Boyce, William

 Boyce, William, c.1710-1779, English composer. The major English-born
 composer of his day, he wrote symphonies, stage works, and much vocal
 music. His Cathedral Music (3 vol., 1760-68) is a compilation of English
 church music.

   boycott

 boycott, usually, concerted economic ostracism exercised by one group
 against another. In the U.S. it is often a weapon in labor disputes.
 Boycotts may be primary or secondary. A primary boycott occurs when, for
 example, a labor union urges its members and supporters not to buy goods
 produced by a company against which it is striking. A secondary boycott
 is directed at a third party, e.g., a retail chain that stocks the
 company's products, and is illegal under U.S. LABOR LAWS. The term was
 coined (1880) when Capt. Charles Boycott, a ruthless English land agent
 in Ireland, was ostracized by his victims.

   Boyd, Louise Arner

 Boyd, Louise Arner, 1887-1972, American arctic explorer; b. San Rafael,
 Calif. She led a series of scientific explorations on the east coast of
 GREENLAND (1933-41). In 1955 she became the first woman to fly over the
 NORTH POLE.

   Boyd Orr, John Boyd Orr, 1st Baron

 Boyd Orr, John Boyd Orr, 1st Baron, 1880-1971, British nutritionist and
 agronomist. He made notable contributions to the science of nutrition and
 to the solution of world food problems, winning the 1949 Nobel Peace
 Prize for advocating a world food policy based on need rather than trade
 interests. He was director general (1946-47) of the UN Food and
 Agriculture Organization.

   Boyle, Robert

 Boyle, Robert, 1627-91, Anglo-Irish physicist and chemist. Often referred
 to as the father of modern chemistry, he separated chemistry from alchemy
 and gave the first precise definitions of a chemical element, a chemical
 reaction, and chemical analysis. He invented a vacuum pump and used it in
 the discovery (1662) of what is known as Boyle's law (see GAS LAWS). His
 diverse experimental and theoretical work supplemented Sir Isaac NEWTON'S
 achievements in establishing the dominance of mechanistic theory.

   Boy Scouts

 Boy Scouts, organization of boys from 7 to 18 years of age, founded
 (1908) in Great Britain by Sir Robert BADEN-POWELL, incorporated 1910 in
 the U.S. Activities of the Boy Scouts aim at mental, moral, and physical
 development, stressing outdoor skills and training in citizenship and
 life-saving. The basic scout unit is a troop of about 15 boys, under the
 leadership of an adult scoutmaster. There is also a coeducational program
 for young adults between the ages of 14 and 21. In 1982 there were nearly
 4.5 million Boy Scouts in the U.S. See also GIRL SCOUTS.

   boysenberry

 boysenberry: see BRAMBLE.

   Bozeman Trail

 Bozeman Trail, a shortcut through Indian lands from the East to the
 goldfields of Colorado and Montana, made by John M. Bozeman in 1862-63.
 The trail was used by a few parties, but after the Fetterman Massacre
 (1866) it was abandoned.

   Br

 Br, chemical symbol of the element BROMINE.

   brackets

 brackets: see PUNCTUATION.

   Bracton, Henry de

 Bracton, Henry de, d. 1268, English writer on law. His On the Laws and
 Customs of England is often considered the most important English legal
 treatise before that of BLACKSTONE.

   Braddock, Edward

 Braddock, Edward, 1695-1755, British general in the FRENCH AND INDIAN
 WARS. While on an expedition (1755) to take Fort Duquesne from the
 French, he was set upon by a force of some 900 French and Indians at the
 Monongahela R. Many of his men bolted; more than half were killed, and he
 was mortally wounded.

   Bradford, William

 Bradford, William, 1590-1657, governor of Plymouth Colony; b. England. He
 succeeded John CARVER as governor in 1621 and was reelected 30 times. He
 was largely responsible for the success of the colony. His History of
 Plymouth Plantation (first published 1856) is famous.

   Bradford, William

 Bradford, William, 1663-1752, English printer in the American colonies.
 He emigrated (1685) and set up the first press in Philadelphia. Moving to
 New York City (c.1693), he became royal printer, and issued some 400
 items over 50 years, including the first American BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
 (1710). In 1725 he began the Gazette, the first New York newspaper. His
 son, Andrew Bradford, 1686-1742, b. Philadelphia, established his own
 press in 1712. In 1719 he began the American Weekly Mercury, the first
 Pennsylvania newspaper. Imprisoned for political publishing, he defended
 himself, establishing a precedent for ZENGER. William Bradford, 1722-91,
 grandson of William and nephew of Andrew, founded in Philadelphia the
 anti-British Weekly Advertiser, and became a leader of the SONS OF
 LIBERTY and printer to the first CONTINENTAL CONGRESS.

   Bradford

 Bradford, city (1986 pop. 463,100), West Yorkshire, N central England. A
 center of the worsted industry since the Middle Ages, Bradford now also
 produces synthetic fabrics, machinery, automobiles, and other
 manufactures.

   Bradley, Francis Herbert

 Bradley, Francis Herbert, 1846-1924, English philosopher. His metaphysics
 was influenced by HEGEL. In Appearance and Reality (1893) he held that
 IDEALISM, in which the world of appearance is characterized by apparent
 contradictions, is opposed to the absolute, in which all contradictions
 are transcended.

   Bradley, James

 Bradley, James, 1693-1762, English astronomer. He discovered the
 ABERRATION OF STARLIGHT (announced in 1729) and the NUTATION, or
 "nodding," of the earth's axis (announced in 1748). Bradley became
 astronomer royal and director of the Royal Greenwich Observatory in 1742.

   Bradley, Omar Nelson

 Bradley, Omar Nelson, 1893-1981, U.S. general; b. Clark, Mo. During WORLD
 WAR II, he led the U.S. 1st Army in the invasion of Normandy (1944). He
 was chairman (1949-53) of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and became general of
 the army in 1950.

   Bradley, William (Bill)

 Bradley, William (Bill), 1943-, U.S. politician; b. Crystal City, Mo.
 After a successful basketball career with the New York Knicks (1967-77),
 he was elected (1978) Democratic senator from New Jersey. He actively
 supported passage of the tax reform act of 1986.

   Bradstreet, Anne (Dudley)

 Bradstreet, Anne (Dudley), c.1612-1672, American poet; b. Northampton,
 England; came to Massachusetts with her father and husband, both later
 governors of the colony. The first important woman author in America, she
 is known for poems that, while derivative and formal, are often realistic
 and genuine. Her volumes of verse include The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up
 in America (1650) and Several Poems (1678).

   Brady, Diamond Jim

 Brady, Diamond Jim (James Buchanan Brady), 1856-1917, American financier;
 b. N.Y.C. After amassing a fortune selling railroad supplies, he
 collected diamonds and other jewels and became famous for his lavish
 life-style. He funded (1912) the Brady Urological Institute at Johns
 Hopkins Hospital (Baltimore).

   Brady, Mathew B.

 Brady, Mathew B., c.1823-1896, American photographer; b. Warren co., N.Y.
 Brady opened his New York City studio in 1844 and gained widespread fame
 as a portraitist. He photographed Pres. LINCOLN often and produced an
 invaluable record of the CIVIL WAR, now in the Library of Congress.

   Braga, Teofilo

 Braga, Teofilo, 1843-1924, Portuguese intellectual and political leader.
 His teachings and writings, e.g., his general history of Portuguese
 literature (10 vol., 1870-71), exerted a great influence on Portuguese
 intellectual life. A republican and anticlericalist, he was the first
 president of the new republic of Portugal (1910-11; 1915).

   Braganza

 Braganza, royal house that ruled PORTUGAL (1640-1910) and BRAZIL
 (1822-89). The line was descended from Alfonso, the natural son of JOHN
 I, and its first king was JOHN IV. The family's Brazilian rulers were
 PEDRO I and his son, PEDRO II.

   Bragg, Braxton

 Bragg, Braxton, 1817-76, Confederate general in the U.S. CIVIL WAR; b.
 Warrenton, N.C. As commander of the Army of Tennessee, he tried
 unsuccessfully (1862) to invade Kentucky. In the CHATTANOOGA CAMPAIGN, he
 was defeated (1863) by Gen. GRANT. He then became military adviser to
 Jefferson DAVIS.

   Bragg, Sir William Henry

 Bragg, Sir William Henry, 1862-1942, English physicist. He was on the
 faculties of the Univ. of Adelaide, Australia, the Univ. of Leeds, and
 the Univ. of London and director from 1923 of the Royal Institution's
 research laboratory. With his son, Sir William Lawrence Bragg, 1890-1971,
 he shared the 1915 Nobel Prize in physics for studies, with the X-ray
 spectrometer, of X-ray spectra and of crystal structure. The younger
 Bragg was professor of physics at Victoria Univ. (Manchester) and
 Cambridge and was director (1938-53) of the Cavendish Laboratory at
 Cambridge.

   Brahe, Tycho

 Brahe, Tycho, 1546-1601, Danish astronomer. His exact observations of the
 planets were the basis for KEPLER'S LAWS of planetary motion. Studies of
 the moon's motion and of a supernova (1572) and improvements of
 instruments were among his contributions. Brahe never fully accepted the
 COPERNICAN SYSTEM, compromising between that and the PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM. In
 his system, the earth was the immobile body around which the sun
 revolved, and the five planets then known revolved around the sun.

   Brahma

 Brahma, one of the supreme gods of HINDUISM; in the Hindu trinity he is
 the creator (see also SHIVA; VISHNU).

   Brahman

 Brahman or Brahma,in VEDANTA, the ultimate reality or Self from which the
 world has come into being. See HINDUISM.

   Brahman

 Brahman or Brahmin,member of the highest, or priestly, caste of the
 Hindus; see HINDUISM.

   Brahmaputra

 Brahmaputra, major river of S Asia, flowing c.1,800 mi (2,900 km) from
 the Kailas range of the Himalayas to join the GANGES R. at a vast delta
 on the Bay of BENGAL. It is called Yarlung Zangbo in Tibet (where it
 forms the principal river valley), the Brahmaputra in Assam (NE India),
 and the Jamuna in Bangladesh. The river's lower course is sacred to
 Hindus. Large craft navigate the river c.800 mi (1,290 km) upstream.

   Brahms, Johannes

 Brahms, Johannes, 1833-97, German composer, ranked among the foremost
 masters. He earned a living in Vienna as a moderately successful
 composer, incorporating the romantic impulse with classical spirit. His
 conservative style sparked controversy between his supporters (among them
 Robert and Clara SCHUMANN) and those of the dramatic romantic style of
 LISZT and Richard WAGNER. His four SYMPHONIES are considered among the
 greatest in symphonic music. Other well-known works are the German
 Requiem (1866), the Violin Concerto in D (1878), and the Piano Concerto
 in B Flat (1878-81). He composed in almost every genre except opera,
 devoting special attention to chamber music and song. His LIEDER are
 worldwide favorites.

   Brahui

 Brahui, Dravidian language of Baluchistan. See LANGUAGE .

   Braille, Louis

 Braille, Louis, 1809?-1852, French inventor of the Braille system of
 printing and writing for the blind. Blind from an accident at age three,
 he attended and later taught at the Institution des Jeunes Aveugles,
 Paris. He evolved a system of writing with points based on Charles
 Barbier's method, though much simpler. The Braille system consists of six
 raised points used in 63 possible combinations; it is in use, in modified
 form, for printing, writing, and musical notation.

   brain

 brain, supervisory center of the NERVOUS SYSTEM in all vertebrates. The
 brain controls both conscious behavior (e.g., walking and thinking) and
 most involuntary behavior (e.g., heartbeat and breathing). In higher
 animals, it is also the site of emotions, memory, self-awareness, and
 thought. It functions by receiving information via nerve cells (neurons)
 from every part of the body, evaluating the data, and then sending
 directives to muscles and glands or simply storing the information.
 Information, in the form of electrical and chemical signals, moves
 through complex brain circuits, which are networks of the billions of
 nerve cells in the nervous system. A single neuron may receive
 information from as many as 1,000 other neurons. Anatomically, the brain
 occupies the skull cavity (cranium) and is enveloped by three protective
 membranes (meninges). The adult brain weighs 21/4 to 31/4 lb (1-1.5 kg).
 It has several parts, each with a loosely associated function. The
 brainstem (hindbrain), monitoring involuntary activity (e.g., breathing),
 and the cerebellum, coordinating muscular movements and posture, are
 together the basic machinery for survival and reproduction. The
 forebrain, composed of the limbic system and cerebral cortex, regulates
 higher functions. The limbic system (including the thalamus,
 hypothalamus, pituitary, amygdala and hippocampus, and olfactory cortex)
 is associated with vivid emotions, memory, sexuality, and smell. The
 forebrain's cerebral cortex, in the uppermost portion of the skull, has
 some areas concerned with muscle control and the senses and others
 concerned with language and anticipation of action. The cerebral cortex
 is split into two hemispheres, each controlling the side of the body
 opposite to it. In addition, the right hemisphere is associated with
 perception of melody, nonverbal visual patterns, and emotion, while the
 left hemisphere is associated with verbal skills. Brain function is
 monitored by ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY.

   Braine, John

 Braine, John, 1922-86, English author. His first novel, Room at the Top
 (1957), was a bitter analysis of class structure in an English factory
 town. His other works include Writing a Novel (1974).

   Brain Trust

 Brain Trust, an academic group of close advisers to Franklin Delano
 ROOSEVELT as N.Y. governor and as U.S. president. His advisers on the NEW
 DEAL included Columbia professors Raymond Moley, Adolf A. Berle, Jr., and
 Rexford G. Tugwell.

   brake

 brake, device used to slow or stop the motion of a mechanism or vehicle.
 Friction brakes, the most common kind, operate on the principle that
 friction can be used to convert the mechanical energy of a moving object
 into heat energy, which is absorbed by the brake. Friction brakes consist
 of a rotating part-such as a wheel, axle, disk, or brake drum-and a
 stationary part that is pressed against the rotating part to slow it or
 stop it. The stationary part usually has a lining, called a brake lining,
 that can generate a great amount of friction yet give long wear. The
 simplest brake form is the single-block brake, a wooden block shaped to
 fit against the rim of a wheel or drum. In disk brakes, two blocks press
 against either side of a disk that rotates with the wheel. Drum brakes
 have two semicircular brake shoes inside a rotating brake drum; when
 actuated, they press against the inner wall of the drum. Automobiles use
 hydraulic pressure to power disk and drum brakes (see HYDRAULIC
 MACHINERY). Additional braking pressure may be supplied by a "power"
 brake, which utilizes the vacuum created within the running engine to
 hold a brake shoe away from a drum. The air brake, invented (1868) by
 George WESTINGHOUSE, uses compressed air to power block brakes on trains.

   Bramante, Donato

 Bramante, Donato, 1444-1514, Italian architect and painter. His buildings
 in Rome are the most characteristic examples of High Renaissance style.
 He favored central plans and a sense of noble severity. He designed much
 of Santa Maria presso San Satiro, Milan, painting its choir in
 perspective to give the illusion of depth. From 1499 he was in Rome,
 where his works include the Tempietto in the courtyard of San Pietro in
 Montorio; the Belvedere courtyard at the Vatican; and the original
 central plan for St. Peter's.

   bramble

 bramble, plants (genus Rubus) of the ROSE family, with representatives
 worldwide. Members include the blackberries, raspberries, loganberries,
 boysenberries, and dewberries. The plants are typically shrubs with
 prickly stems (canes) and edible fruits that botanically are not berries
 but aggregates of drupelets (see FRUIT). The underground parts of
 brambles are perennial and the canes biennial; only second-year canes
 bear flowers and fruits. Berries are grown commercially for sale as
 fresh, frozen, and canned fruit, and for use in preserves, beverages, and
 liqueurs. Other thorny shrubs are also called brambles.

   Brampton

 Brampton, town (1985 pop. 177,675), S Ontario, Canada, part of the
 regional municipality of Peel (1980 est. pop. 464,491). It is one of
 Canada's chief automobile-producing centers.

   bran

 bran, outer coat of cereal GRAINS such as wheat, rye, and corn. Various
 brans are used as food and livestock feed, and are important in dyeing
 and calico printing.

   Brancusi, Constantin

 Brancusi, Constantin, 1876-1957, Rumanian sculptor. The radical,
 economical style of his abstract sculptures, e.g., The Kiss (1908),
 Sleeping Muse (1910), and the portrait of Mlle Pogany (1923; Musee
 national d'art moderne, Paris), caused much controversy. Bird in Space
 (1919; Mus. Mod. Art, N.Y.C.) exemplifies his simple forms and organic,
 symbolic characterization.

   Brandao, Raul

 Brandao, Raul, 1867-1930, Portuguese novelist. His major theme was the
 tragic lives of poor people, and he often depicted a nightmare world of
 suffering ruled by inexplicable forces. His major works of fiction
 include the short-story collection Impressions and Landscapes (1890) and
 the novels The Poor (1906) and Reduced to Begging (1931).

   Brandeis, Louis Dembitz

 Brandeis, Louis Dembitz, 1856-1941, associate justice of the U.S. SUPREME
 COURT (1916-39); b. Louisville, Ky.; LL.B., Harvard Univ. (1877). A
 Boston public interest attorney, he revolutionized legal practice by
 introducing sociological and economic facts-the "Brandeis brief"-in his
 arguments before the Supreme Court in Muller v. Oregon (1908). An enemy
 of industrial and financial monopoly, he formulated the economic doctrine
 of Woodrow Wilson's New Freedom. He earned a high reputation for judicial
 liberalism, and after 1933 he was one of the few justices who voted to
 uphold most of the NEW DEAL legislation.

   Brandenburg

 Brandenburg, former state, central East Germany. POTSDAM was the capital.
 A Slavic principality, it was acquired (12th cent.) by the German
 margrave Albert the Bear and was later ruled by electors of the HOLY
 ROMAN EMPIRE. In 1417 it passed to the HOHENZOLLERN family, who added
 (1618) the duchy of Prussia (later EAST PRUSSIA) to their holdings. The
 later history of Brandenburg is that of PRUSSIA.

   Brandes, Georg Morris Cohen

 Brandes, Georg Morris Cohen, 1842-1927, Danish literary critic. He
 exposed Scandinavia to contemporary European thought. A disciple of Taine
 and an opponent of ROMANTICISM, he helped direct Scandinavian literature
 toward REALISM and social consciousness. A major work is Main Currents in
 Nineteenth-Century Literature (6 vol., 1872-90).

   Brando, Marlon

 Brando, Marlon, 1924-, American film actor; b. Omaha, Nebr. He is noted
 for the naturalism of his acting. His films include A Streetcar Named
 Desire (1952), On the Waterfront (1954; Academy Award), The Godfather
 (1972; Academy Award), and Apocalypse Now (1979).

   Brandt, Willy

 Brandt, Willy, 1913-, German political leader; b. Herbert Ernst Karl
 Frahm. A Social Democrat, he opposed HITLER and fled (1933) to Norway.
 Returning after World War II, he was elected mayor of West Berlin (1957).
 He became chancellor of West Germany in 1969 and instituted peace talks
 with Eastern European countries, including East Germany. He was awarded
 the 1971 Nobel Peace Prize. Brandt resigned in 1974 after an East German
 spy was discovered within his administration.

   brandy

 brandy, strong alcoholic spirit distilled from wine. Manufactured in many
 countries, brandy is most notable in the form of cognac, made from white
 grapes in the Charente district of France. Most fine brandies are
 distilled in pot stills, blended and flavored, and stored in casks
 (preferably oak) to mellow. Brandies are also made from fruits other than
 the grape, such as plum (slivovitz) or peach.

   Brandywine, battle of the

 Brandywine, battle of the, in the AMERICAN REVOLUTION, fought Sept. 11,
 1777, along the Brandywine Creek in SE Pennsylvania, between Sir William
 Howe (see under HOWE, RICHARD HOWE, EARL) and Gen. WASHINGTON. Howe's
 strategy of attacking the American right flank forced Washington to
 retreat, and the advancing British took Philadelphia.

   Brant, Joseph (Thayendanegea)

 Brant, Joseph (Thayendanegea), 1742-1807, influential Mohawk (see
 IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY) chief who bound Indians to the British side in the
 AMERICAN REVOLUTION. He fought at Oriskany (1777) in the SARATOGA
 CAMPAIGN and joined Walter Butler in the Cherry Valley Massacre (1778).
 After the war he failed to settle Indian land claims in the U.S. but
 gained land and subsidies for Mohawks in Canada. An educated man and a
 Christian, Brant translated the BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER and the Gospel of
 MARK into Mohawk.

   Braque, Georges

 Braque, Georges, 1882-1963, French painter. Among the developers of
 FAUVISM, he later met PICASSO, and the two explored form and structure,
 which in turn led to CUBISM. Nude (1907-8; Cuttoli Coll., Paris),
 exemplifies the analytical stage of that movement, with its orderly
 decomposing of objects. After leading the way to COLLAGE, he produced
 works, e.g., The Table (Pulitzer Coll., St. Louis), that are more
 curvilinear in style.

   Brasilia

 Brasilia, city and federal district (1980 pop. 411,305), E central
 Brazil, capital of Brazil. One of the world's newest cities, it was laid
 out (1957) in the shape of an airplane by the Brazilian architect Lucio
 Costa and replaced RIO DE JANEIRO as capital in 1960. The sparsely
 settled region is dominated by ultramodern public buildings designed by
 Oscar NIEMEYER. Extensive residential developments were built in the
 1960s, and highways linking Brasilia with the major cities of southern
 and central Brazil were completed in 1982.

   Brasov

 Brasov, city (1985 pop. 630,455), central Rumania, in Transylvania, at
 the foot of the Transylvanian Alps. It is an industrial center known for
 motor vehicles and textiles, and a winter sports center. Founded in the
 13th cent., Brasov was ceded to Rumania by Hungary in 1920. It has
 several old churches and the remains of a 17th-cent. citadel.

   brass

 brass, ALLOY having COPPER (55% to 90%) and ZINC (10% to 45%) as its
 essential components. Its properties vary with the proportion of copper
 and zinc and with the addition of small amounts of other elements.
 Cartridge brass is used for cartridge cases, plumbing and lighting
 fixtures, rivets, screws, and springs. Aluminum brass has greater
 resistance to corrosion than ordinary brass. Brass containing tin (naval
 brass) resists seawater corrosion. Brass can be forged or hammered into
 various shapes, rolled into thin sheets, drawn into wires, and machined
 and cast. See also SOLDER.

   brasses, monumental

 brasses, monumental or sepulchral,memorials to the dead, in use in
 European churches in the 13th cent. and for several centuries thereafter.
 Engraved with a figure of the deceased, they are usually set in the
 pavement. Those that still exist are of native design and show costumes
 and genealogy of the time.

   Bratislava

 Bratislava, Ger. Pressburg, Hung. Pozsony, city (1986 est. pop. 417,000),
 S Czechoslovakia, on the Danube R. near the Austrian and Hungarian
 borders. The third largest Czechoslovak city and the traditional capital
 of SLOVAKIA, it is a major Danubian port, with industries such as
 mechanical engineering and oil refining. A Roman outpost by the 1st cent.
 AD, it was later ruled (9th cent.) by MORAVIA. From 1541 to 1784 it was
 the capital of Hungary. It became part of Czechoslovakia in 1918.
 Landmarks include several 13th-cent. buildings, e.g., St. Martin's
 Cathedral.

   Braudel, Fernand

 Braudel, Fernand, 1902-85, French historian. He studied under Lucien
 Febvre and was a founder of the Annales school of historiography. As a
 German prisoner-of-war during World War II, he wrote his monumental The
 Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II (1949).
 After the war, he was professor at the College de France in Paris,
 (1949-72), editor of the journal Annales, a founder (1963) of the Maison
 des Sciences de l'Homme, and president of the VIth Section of the Ecole
 des Hautes Etudes (1952-56).

   Braun, Eva

 Braun, Eva, 1912-45, mistress and later wife of German dictator Adolf
 HITLER. She entered Hitler's household in 1936, but they were married
 just a few days before their double suicide. She had no influence on the
 Nazi government.

   Brautigan, Richard

 Brautigan, Richard, 1935-84, American novelist and poet; b. Tacoma, Wash.
 He is a countercultural hero of the 1960s. His work is an indictment of
 the cultural environment of America. His novel, Trout Fishing in America
 (1967), examines the American landscape.

   Brauwer, Adriaen

 Brauwer, Adriaen: see BROUWER, ADRIAEN.

   Brazil

 Brazil, Port. Brasil, officially Federative Republic of Brazil, republic
 (1987 est. pop. 141,300,000), 3,286,470 sq mi (8,511,965 sq km), E South
 America, bordered by Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana (N);
 Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia (W); Paraguay, Argentina, and Uruguay (SW);
 ands the Atlantic Ocean (E). It is a federation of 22 states, four
 territories, and the federal district of Brasilia. The capital is
 BRASILIA, and principal cities include SAO PAULO, RIO DE JANEIRO, RECIFE,
 BELO HORIZONTE, and SALVADOR. The largest South American country, Brazil
 occupies nearly half the continent and has a varied topography and
 climate, ranging from tropical in the rain forests of the great AMAZON
 basin in the north to temperate in the highlands of the heavily populated
 east and south, which make up two thirds of the country's land and
 contain its chief economic centers. Despite rapid industrialization
 beginning in the 1960s, Brazil still depends heavily on agriculture,
 which accounts for nearly 50% of its exports. It is an important cattle
 producer; major commercial crops are coffee (of which it is the world's
 leading producer), cocoa, cotton, sugarcane, citrus fruit, corn, tobacco,
 bananas, and soybeans. Industrial production is led by motor vehicles,
 steel, cotton textiles, paper, fertilizer, cement, and machinery. The
 country's vast mineral wealth includes some of the finest iron resources
 in the world, as well as quartz, coal, manganese, chromium, industrial
 diamonds, uranium, and platinum. Petroluem deposits have not been fully
 developed; petroleum accounts for 40% of imports. The population is
 diverse in origin, and Brazil boasts that the new "race" of Brazilians is
 a successful amalgam of Indian, black, and European strains. About
 200,000 Indians of several tribes live in the Amazon basin. Portuguese is
 the official language and Roman Catholicism the predominant religion.

 History Although the Spaniard Vicente Yanez Pinzon (see under PINZON,
 M.A.) and possibly others visited the coast earlier, the Portuguese,
 under Pedro Alvares CABRAL, claimed the land in 1500. The first permanent
 settlement, at Sao Vicente in present-day Sao Paulo, was not made until
 1532; development of the region now known as the Northeast began at the
 same time. Portuguese claims did not go unchallenged: French HUGUENOTS
 had to be expelled from a base in Rio de Janeiro harbor in 1567, and the
 Dutch held the Northeast for almost 20 years before they were driven out
 in 1654. When NAPOLEON invaded Portugal, Portugal's king, JOHN VI, fled
 (1807) to Brazil, and on his arrival (1808) in Rio de Janeiro that city
 became the capital of the Portuguese empire. In 1821 John returned to
 Portugal, leaving behind as regent his son, who in 1822 declared Brazil
 independent and himself Emperor PEDRO I. Forced by his restrictive
 policies to abdicate, he was succeeded by his son, the popular PEDRO II,
 whose long reign (1831-89) saw the development of Brazil as a modern
 nation; wars with Argentina (1851-52) and Paraguay (1865-70) brought
 little benefit to Brazil, however. The abolition of slavery (1888) helped
 bring on a bloodless revolution that established Brazil as a republic in
 1889. Large-scale European immigration, an expanding coffee market, and a
 wild-rubber boom brought wealth to Brazil in the late 19th and early 20th
 cent. Later, under the presidency of Getulio VARGAS (1930-45, 1950-54),
 who came to power in a revolution (1930), industrial expansion and
 diversification of agriculture was stressed. Brazil joined the Allies in
 World War II (as in World War I), enjoying a new boom (chiefly in rubber
 and minerals). To spur development of the interior, Juscelino KUBITSCHEK,
 elected president in 1955, undertook the building of the planned city of
 Brasilia, which replaced Rio de Janeiro as the national capital in 1960;
 he also inaugurated an ambitious program of highway and dam construction.
 Political strife and economic chaos led to a coup in 1964 and the
 installation of a rightist military regime, which, headed by a succession
 of generals who served as president, still rules. In the 1980s Brazil
 experienced severe economic recession, with inflation rates approaching
 600%, and had the largest foreign debt of any developing nation.

   Brazil nut

 Brazil nut, common name for the Lecythidaceae, a family of tropical
 trees. Members include the West Indian anchovy pear (Grias cauliflora);
 several lumber trees of South America, e.g., the cannonball; and the
 Brazil nut trees (genus Bertholletia). Brazil nut trees are found chiefly
 along the Amazon and Orinoco rivers. The edible nuts are oil-rich seeds
 that grow clumped together in hard, grapefruit-sized, woody seed pods.

   Brazzaville

 Brazzaville, city (1984 pop. 595,102), capital of the People's Republic
 of the Congo. The country's largest city, and an important port on the
 Congo R., it receives wood, rubber, and agricultural products from the
 region and ships them by rail to POINTE-NOIRE on the Atlantic Ocean. The
 city was founded (1880) by French explorers and was the capital (1910-58)
 of FRENCH EQUATORIAL AFRICA. It was an important outpost of Free France
 in the Vichy period. A meeting there in 1944 began the process of
 independence for France's African colonies.

   breadfruit

 breadfruit: see MULBERRY.

   Breakspear, Nicholas

 Breakspear, Nicholas: see ADRIAN IV.

   breast

 breast: see MAMMARY GLAND.

   Breasted, James Henry

 Breasted, James Henry, 1865-1935, American Egyptologist; b. Rockford,
 Ill. While Egyptology professor (1905-33) at the Univ. of Chicago and
 director (1895-1901) of its Haskell Oriental Museum and (after 1919)
 Oriental Institute, he directed research in Mesopotamia and made
 important discoveries in Egypt. His many books include History of Egypt
 from the Earliest Times to the Persian Conquest (rev. ed. 1928), Dawn of
 Conscience (1933), and translations of Egyptian historical records.

   Brebeuf, Jean de, Saint

 Brebeuf, Jean de, Saint, 1593-1649, French Roman Catholic missionary, one
 of the JESUIT Martyrs of North America. A missionary to the HURON
 INDIANS, Brebeuf with his colleague Gabriel Lalemant was killed by the
 Iroquois. Feast: Oct. 19 (in the U.S.).

   Brecht, Bertolt

 Brecht, Bertolt, 1898-1956, German dramatist and poet; b. Berthold
 Brecht. In the late 1920s he turned to EXPRESSIONISM, as in Man is Man
 (1926), and began to develop his revolutionary "epic theater," designed
 to create-through the use of effects such as bright lights, films, and
 mottoes displayed on cards-a politically conscious distance between the
 spectator and the stage. The Threepenny Opera (1928), with music by Kurt
 WEILL, reflects Brecht's social views. During the NAZI period he went
 into exile in Denmark and then settled in the U.S. His later works
 include Mother Courage and Her Children (1941), The Good Woman of Setzuan
 (1943), and The Caucasian Chalk Circle (1955). A Marxist, Brecht lived
 from 1948 in East Berlin, where he directed the state-supported Berliner
 Ensemble.

   Breckinridge, John

 Breckinridge, John, 1760-1806, American statesman; b. Augusta co., Va. In
 the Kentucky legislature, he won passage (1798) of the Kentucky
 Resolutions (see KENTUCKY AND VIRGINIA RESOLUTIONS). In the U.S. Senate
 (1801-5), he sponsored Western interests. He was attorney general (1805)
 under Pres. JEFFERSON. His grandson, John Cabell Breckinridge, 1821-75,
 b. Lexington, Ky., was vice president of the U.S. under Pres. BUCHANAN.
 He later served the CONFEDERACY as a brigadier general and as secretary
 of war (1865).

   breeder reactor

 breeder reactor: see NUCLEAR REACTOR.

   breeding

 breeding, the deliberate selection of certain parent plants and animals
 for propagation in order to adapt them to human needs. Plants and animals
 have been bred selectively since their domestication in the Neolithic
 period. Among plants, pure lines are established by self-pollination,
 planting the resultant seed, and repeating the process through several
 generations. Crosses of pure lines produce hybrids of great vigor and
 uniformity. Pure-bred animals show a breeding uniformity approaching that
 of pure-line plants. New varieties are developed by hybridization and by
 breeding individuals that have developed MUTATIONS. See GENETICS; HYBRID.

   Breed's Hill

 Breed's Hill: see BUNKER HILL, BATTLE OF.

   Bremen

 Bremen, city (1986 est. pop. 524,700), N West Germany, on the Weser R. It
 is the oldest German port city and West Germany's second largest port.
 Shipbuilding and steel-making are among its industries. Made an
 archbishopric in 845, it became a leading member (1358) of the HANSEATIC
 LEAGUE and a free imperial city (1646). It prospered as an overseas
 trading center during the 18th and 19th cent. During WORLD WAR II it was
 badly damaged, but such structures as the Gothic city hall (1405-9) and
 the Romanesque-Gothic cathedral (begun 1043) remain.

   Brennan, William Joseph, Jr.

 Brennan, William Joseph, Jr.: see SUPREME COURT, UNITED STATES .

   Brenner Pass

 Brenner Pass, Alpine Pass, 4,495 ft (1,370 m) high, connecting Innsbruck,
 Austria, with Bolzano, Italy. The lowest of the principal passes in the
 ALPS, it was an important Roman route through which many invasions of
 Italy were made.

   Brentano, Clemens

 Brentano, Clemens, 1778-1842, German poet of the romantic school; brother
 of Bettina von Arnim. With Achim von ARNIM he collaborated on The Boy's
 Magic Horn (1806-8), a folk-song collection that influenced Eichendorff,
 HEINE, and the brothers GRIMM. Brentano wrote plays, lyric poems, fairy
 tales, and novellas.

   Brentano, Franz

 Brentano, Franz, 1838-1917, German philosopher and psychologist. He
 believed that mental processes are the data of psychology, to be regarded
 as acts rather than as passive processes. In Psychology from an Empirical
 Standpoint (1874) he tried to establish psychology as an independent
 science. His students included HUSSERL and FREUD.

   Bresson, Robert

 Bresson, Robert, 1907-, French film director. His austere films on
 spiritual themes include Diary of a Country Priest (1950), The Trial of
 Joan of Arc (1961), and Lancelot of the Lake (1976).

   Brest

 Brest, city (1982 pop. 160,355), Finistere dept., NW France, on an inlet
 of the Atlantic Ocean. It is a commercial port and naval station.
 Clothing and electronics equipment are the chief manufactures, and there
 is a national engineering school. The spacious, landlocked harbor was
 created in 1631. During WORLD WAR II Brest was a major German submarine
 base and was almost completely destroyed by Allied bombing.

   Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of

 Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of, separate peace treaty of WORLD WAR I, signed by
 Soviet Russia and the Central Powers on Mar. 3, 1918, at present-day
 Brest, USSR. It followed the removal of Russia from the war by the
 Bolsheviks after they seized power in Nov. 1917. By its terms, considered
 humiliating to the Russians, Russia ceded large areas to the Central
 Powers and recognized the independence of Poland, the Baltic states,
 Georgia, and the Ukraine. Later Russia agreed to pay a large indemnity.
 In the general armistice of Nov. 1918, the Allies forced the Central
 Powers to renounce the treaty.

   Brethren

 Brethren, German Baptist sect. Known also as Dunkers (from Ger., "to
 dip"), they practice baptism by triple immersion. Organized in 1708, the
 Brethren are opposed to war and advocate a simple life. In the U.S. there
 are several denominations, of which the largest is the Church of the
 Brethren.

   Breton, Andre

 Breton, Andre, 1896-1966, French writer. At first a Dadaist, he later
 became the founder of SURREALISM, for which he wrote three manifestos
 (1924, 1930, 1934) and opened a studio for "surrealist research."

   Breuer, Josef

 Breuer, Josef, 1842-1925, Austrian physician. His cathartic method of
 therapy and his theory of HYSTERIA, when developed by Sigmund FREUD,
 became the basis for PSYCHOANALYSIS. Together with Freud, Breuer wrote
 Studies in Hysteria (1895).

   Breuer, Marcel Lajos

 Breuer, Marcel Lajos, 1902-81, American architect and furniture designer;
 b. Hungary. In the 1920s he was associated with the BAUHAUS and won fame
 for his tubular chair. In the U.S. he was associated (1937-41) with
 Walter GROPIUS in building houses. Among his well-known buildings is the
 Whitney Museum, N.Y.C. (1966).

   Breughel

 Breughel, family of painters: see BRUEGEL.

   Brewster, Sir David

 Brewster, Sir David, 1781-1868, Scottish physicist and natural
 philosopher. His invention of the kaleidoscope was one result of his
 notable light-polarization studies. He improved the spectroscope and
 devised the dioptic system of lighthouse illumination. Among his many
 writings is a major biography (1855) of Sir Isaac NEWTON.

   Brezhnev, Leonid Ilyich

 Brezhnev, Leonid Ilyich, 1906-82. Soviet leader. Rising through the
 Communist party, he became chairman of the presidium of the Supreme
 Soviet in 1960 and, when Nikita KHRUSHCHEV fell in 1964, first secretary
 (later general secretary) of the party. He shared power with Alexei
 KOSYGIN but emerged as the chief Soviet leader. In 1977, retaining his
 party post, he became president of the USSR. Brezhnev's hard line toward
 democratic or independent trends in neighboring countries, evidenced by
 the Soviet invasions of Czechoslovakia (1968) and Afghanistan (1979),
 often conflicted with his attempts at DETENTE with the West.

   Brian Boru

 Brian Boruor Brian Boroimhe, 940?-1014, king of Ireland. A clan prince,
 he became high king by subjugating all Ireland. He annihilated the
 coalition of the Norse and his Irish enemies at Clontarf in 1014, but he
 was murdered soon after. His victory ended Norse power in Ireland, but
 the nation fell into anarchy.

   Briand, Aristide

 Briand, Aristide, 1862-1932, French statesman. He was premier 10 times
 between 1909 and 1921. After WORLD WAR I, he emerged as a leading
 proponent of international peace and cooperation. As foreign minister
 (1925-32) Briand was the chief architect of the LOCARNO PACT (1925) and
 the KELLOGG-BRIAND PACT (1928). He shared the 1926 Nobel Peace Prize with
 Gustav STRESEMANN and advocated a plan for a United States of Europe.

   brick

 brick, building material made by shaping clay into blocks and then
 hardening them in a KILN. Sun-dried bricks are among the most ancient
 building materials. Examples from c.5,000 years ago have been discovered
 in the Tigris-Euphrates basin. The Romans faced brick buildings with
 stone or marble, but Byzantine and later European builders used the brick
 itself to provide a decorative surface. The many varieties of modern
 brick include firebrick, made of special clays that can be fired at very
 high temperatures.

   bridge

 bridge, structure spanning and giving passage over a waterway, a
 depression, or some other obstacle. Early bridges ranged from suspended
 rope walkways to arched structures of stone or brick. The mid-19th-cent.
 development of steel allowed for longer spans, the use of the steel truss
 in place of stone or masonry arches, and steel-wire suspension CABLES of
 great tensile strength. Movable bridges, whose center portions can be
 raised, are generally constructed over waterways where it is impossible
 to build a fixed bridge high enough for water traffic to pass under it.
 Military bridges-temporary structures that can be erected rapidly-include
 the pontoon bridge, which uses air-filled floats called pontoons to
 support the roadway. See also AQUEDUCT; BROOKLYN BRIDGE; GOLDEN GATE
 BRIDGE; VERRAZANO-NARROWS BRIDGE.

   bridge

 bridge, card game derived from whist, played with 52 cards by four
 players in two partnerships. It probably originated in the Middle East.
 In contract bridge, a now popular form, the cards rank from ace down to
 two; in bidding, suits rank spades, hearts, diamonds, and clubs. After
 all the cards are dealt, the auction begins. Players bid to win a stated
 number of tricks over six (a trick being the three cards played in
 rotation after the lead) with a named suit as trump or with no-trump. The
 highest bid becomes the contract after three consecutive passes end the
 bidding. The player who first named the suit (or no-trump) is the
 declarer; his partner's hand is the dummy and is played by the declarer
 face-up as he attempts to win at least enough tricks to fulfill his
 contract. Duplicate bridge, in which prearranged hands are played, is the
 main form of competitive bridge. The governing principles of bidding were
 delineated by Ely CULBERTSON, and the currently popular point-counting
 system in bidding was introduced by Charles H. Goren.

   Bridgeport

 Bridgeport, city (1986 est. pop. 141,860), SW Conn., on Long Island
 Sound; inc. 1836. A port, it is Connecticut's largest city and chief
 industrial center. Manufactures include electrical appliances, firearms,
 helicopters, turbine engines, trucks, and aerosol sprays. Settled in
 1639, it grew as a fishing community. Noteworthy is the Barnum Inst.,
 commemorating the city's resident, P.T. BARNUM.

   Bridger, James

 Bridger, James, 1804-81, American fur trapper, one of the most noted of
 the MOUNTAIN MEN; b. Virginia. A fur trader and guide, with Louis Vasquez
 he opened (1843) Fort Bridger on the OREGON TRAIL. He was a picturesque
 figure who won fame for his "tall tales."

   Bridges, Harry

 Bridges, Harry, 1901-, American labor leader; b. Australia, as Alfred
 Renton Bridges. Arriving in San Francisco in 1920, he became a
 longshoreman and militant labor organizer. In 1937 he set up the
 International Longshoremen's and Warehousemen's Union (ILWU), serving as
 its president for the next 40 years. Efforts by the U.S. government to
 deport him as a Communist alien failed, and he became a citizen in 1945.
 Bridges was convicted and sentenced (1950) to prison for perjury in
 denying Communist party membership, but the U.S. Supreme Court overturned
 the conviction in 1953. Bridges led his last major strike in 1971-72.

   Bridges, Robert Seymour

 Bridges, Robert Seymour, 1844-1930, English lyric poet. The philosophical
 poem The Testament of Beauty (1929) is considered his greatest work.
 Bridges also wrote two major works on prosody and published the poems of
 his friend G.M. HOPKINS.

   Bridgetown

 Bridgetown, city (1985 est. pop. 7,466), capital of BARBADOS.

   Bridgman, Percy Williams

 Bridgman, Percy Williams, 1882-1961, American physicist; b. Cambridge,
 Mass. A professor at Harvard, he won the 1946 Nobel Prize in physics for
 his work in high pressures. He also studied electrical conduction in
 metals and the properties of crystals, and wrote on the philosophy of
 modern science.

   Bright, John

 Bright, John, 1811-89, English statesman and orator. Noted for his
 LAISSEZ FAIRE views, he was, with COBDEN, the greatest 19th-cent.
 champion of the middle class. In 1839 he helped found the ANTI-CORN-LAW
 LEAGUE and used his formidable oratory to urge repeal of the CORN LAWS. A
 member of Parliament for many years (1847-57, 1858-89), he also served in
 GLADSTONE'S cabinets (1868-70, 1873-74, 1880-82).

   brimstone

 brimstone: see SULFUR.

   Brinkley, David McClure

 Brinkley, David McClure, 1920-, American television journalist; b.
 Wilmington, N.C. From 1956-70 he and Chet Huntley coanchored the
 Huntley-Brinkley Report, the popular nightly news program. Since then he
 has hosted weekly news programs examining national politics.

   Brisbane

 Brisbane, city (1986 est. pop. 702,500; est. urban agglomeration
 1,171,300), capital and chief port of Queensland, E Australia, on the
 Brisbane R., above Moreton Bay. The third-largest city in Australia, it
 has shipyards; oil refineries; and food-processing, textile, and
 automotive industries. Sugar, bananas, and bauxite are exported. Brisbane
 was first settled (1824) as a penal colony. The Univ. of Queensland is
 here.

   Bristol

 Bristol, city (1986 est. pop. 391,500), Avon, SW England. A leading
 international port, Bristol has been a trading center since the 12th
 cent. It now manufactures a wide range of general and nuclear machinery,
 aircraft, and tobacco and food products. Although the city was heavily
 bombed during WORLD WAR II, many historic buildings remain.

   Britain

 Britain: see GREAT BRITAIN.

   britannia metal

 britannia metal, ALLOY of TIN with ANTIMONY, COPPER,
 and, sometimes, BISMUTH and ZINC. Similar in appearance to pewter but
 harder, it is used in manufacturing tableware.

   British Columbia

 British Columbia, province (1986 pop. 2,883,367), 366,252 sq mi (948,596
 sq km), W Canada, bounded by Alberta (E), Montana, Idaho, and Washington
 (S), the Pacific Ocean and Alaska (W), and the Yukon and Northwest
 Territories (N). The province is almost totally mountainous, with the
 ROCKY MOUNTAINS in the east and the COAST MOUNTAINS along the Pacific;
 hydroelectric power is highly developed. The coast is deeply indented
 with many offshore islands, including VANCOUVER ISLAND. The chief rivers
 include the FRASER, the upper COLUMBIA, and the Skeena. Nearly 75% of the
 land is covered with forests, and lumbering and related enterprises are
 the major industries. The province is also rich in minerals, including
 silver, gold, iron ore, zinc, and lead. It ranks first among the
 provinces in fishing. Large areas of N and central British Columbia are
 sparsely settled, and almost 75% of the population is crowded into the
 southwestern coastal strip. VANCOUVER and VICTORIA, the capital, are the
 chief cities.

 History The area was originally inhabited by Indians of the Pacific
 Northwest. In 1774 the Spaniard Juan Perez probably sailed along the
 coast, and in 1778 James COOK explored the shoreline and claimed the area
 for Britain. Rival British and Spanish claims were resolved (1790) and
 George VANCOUVER mapped (1792-94) the coast for Britain. In the early
 19th cent. fur traders of the NORTH WEST COMPANY and the HUDSON'S BAY
 COMPANY established posts in the area, and in 1846 the border with the
 U.S. was set at the 49th parallel. Vancouver Island became (1849) a crown
 colony and a new colony was formed (1858) on the mainland. The two were
 merged (1866) and in 1871 British Columbia voted to join the Canadian
 confederation. The Canadian Pacific Railway reached Vancouver in 1885,
 making the city a busy port. The Alaskan boundary dispute with the U.S.
 was settled in 1903. British Columbian politics were dominated (1952-72)
 by the SOCIAL CREDIT party. In 1972 the New Democratic party won control
 of the provincial assembly, but in 1975 Social Credit was returned to
 power. The province sends 6 senators (appointed) and 28 representatives
 (elected) to the national parliament.

   British East India Company

 British East India Company: see EAST INDIA COMPANY, BRITISH.

   British Empire

 British Empire, overseas territories linked to Great Britain in a variety
 of constitutional relationships. Established over three centuries, the
 empire resulted primarily from commercial and political motives, and from
 emigration. At its height in the late 19th and early 20th cent. it
 included 25% of the world's population and area.

 The First British Empire The foundations of the empire were laid in the
 late 16th cent. by the chartered companies, commercial ventures
 encouraged by the crown. In the 17th cent. sugar and tobacco plantations
 were founded in the Caribbean and in SE North America, and religious
 dissenters emigrated to NE North America. An integrated imperial trade
 arose, involving the exchange of African slaves for West Indian molasses
 and sugar, English cloth and manufactures, and American fish and timber.
 The theories of MERCANTILISM were implanted by the NAVIGATION ACTS. The
 British EAST INDIA COMPANY furthered expansion into India, and during the
 SEVEN YEARS WAR (1756-63) Britain ousted France from Canada and India.
 The financial burdens of the war, however, caused difficulties in the
 American colonies, and the success of the AMERICAN REVOLUTION marked the
 end of the first British Empire.

 The Second British Empire The voyages of James COOK and further conquests
 in India began a new phase of British expansion. The FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY
 WARS and Napoleonic Wars (see NAPOLEON I) added further possessions,
 e.g., the Cape Colony, Ceylon, British Guiana, and Malta, and Britain's
 INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION lent greater force to the ideas of free TRADE.
 Humanitarian concerns led to the abolition of the slave trade (1807) and
 of slavery (1833). The BRITISH NORTH AMERICA ACT of 1867, which granted
 CANADA internal self-rule as a dominion, inaugurated a pattern by which
 Britain surrendered its direct governing powers in European-settled
 colonies, e.g., AUSTRALIA and NEW ZEALAND. Concurrently, Britain assumed
 greater responsibility in Africa and India.

 From Empire to Commonwealth WORLD WAR I brought the British Empire to the
 peak of its expansion. Imperial contributions had considerably
 strengthened the British war effort, and victory brought Britain mandates
 over new territories, e.g., Palestine, Iraq, and German territories in
 Africa. In 1931 the statute of Westminster officially recognized the
 independent and equal status under the crown of the former dominions
 within a British COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS. After WORLD WAR II,
 self-government advanced rapidly in all parts of the empire. In 1947
 India was partitioned and independence was granted to the new states of
 INDIA and PAKISTAN. Other parts of the empire, notably in AFRICA, gained
 independence and subsequently joined the British Commonwealth. Britain
 still administers many dependencies throughout the world, e.g., BERMUDA,
 GIBRALTAR, and HONG KONG.

   British Honduras

 British Honduras: see BELIZE.

   British Imperial System of weights and measures

 British Imperial System of weights and measures: see ENGLISH UNITS OF
 MEASUREMENT; WEIGHTS AND MEASURES .

   British Indian Ocean Territory

 British Indian Ocean Territory, archipelago (1981 est. pop. 2,500),
 c.1,180 mi (1,900 km), NE of Mauritius, in the central Indian Ocean. The
 islands, which form the Chagos Archipelago, were administered by
 MAURITIUS before they became a British dependency in 1965. Their
 importance is strategic; the U.S. maintains a major naval facility on the
 main island, DIEGO GARCIA.

   British Museum

 British Museum, the national repository in London for treasures in
 science and art. It has departments of archaeology, antiquities, prints
 and drawings, coins and medals, and ethnography. Established (1753) with
 the acquisition of several collections, its exhibits now include the
 ROSETTA STONE, the ELGIN MARBLES, the caryatid from the ERECHTHEUM, and
 the remains of a Saxon ship (c.660), with its gold and silver treasures,
 from the English archaeological site at Sutton Hoo. The British Library,
 a non-lending, reference library is a copyright depository. It houses one
 of the world's outstanding collections of rare books and manuscripts,
 including BEOWULF and MAGNA CARTA. The great domed reading room was
 finished in 1857. The library has plans to expand at a site in Euston.

   British North America Act

 British North America Act, 1867, law providing for the unification of
 CANADA that functioned as the dominion's constitution until 1982. It
 spelled out provisional powers and granted residual authority to the
 dominion government. Under it, the power of amendment was nominally
 vested in the British Parliament, which in practice acted only at the
 request of Canada's Parliament. It was superseded by the CONSTITUTION
 ACT.

   British thermal unit

 British thermal unit (Btu), unit of energy required to raise the
 temperature of 1 lb of water by one degree Fahrenheit (from 59.5 deg to
 60.5 degF). 1 Btu=251.996 calories=778.26 foot-pounds=1054.8 joules.

   Brittany

 Brittany, region and former province, NW France, a peninsula between the
 English Channel and the Bay of Biscay. Its economy is based on farming,
 fishing, and tourism. Breton, a Celtic language, is spoken in some rural
 traditionalist areas. Brittany got its modern name when it was settled
 (c.500) by Britons whom the ANGLO-SAXONS had driven from Britain. It
 struggled for independence from the FRANKS (5th-9th cent.), from the
 dukes of Normandy and the counts of Anjou (10th-12th cent.), and finally
 from England and France. Brittany was absorbed by France after the
 accession (1488) of ANNE OF BRITTANY and formally incorporated into
 France in 1532.

   Brittany spaniel

 Brittany spaniel, medium-sized SPORTING DOG; shoulder height, c.19 in.
 (48.3 cm); weight, 30-40 lb (13.6-18.1 kg). Its dense, flat or wavy coat
 is dark orange and white or liver and white. It dates back hundreds of
 years, to France and Spain, and is the only spaniel that points its
 quarry.

   Britten, Benjamin, Baron Britten of Aldeburgh

 Britten, Benjamin, Baron Britten of Aldeburgh, 1913-76, English composer.
 His most popular works, all written in a traditional vein, include A
 Ceremony of Carols (1942), A Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra
 (1945), and the great War Requiem (1962). His operas include Peter Grimes
 (1945), The Turn of the Screw (1954), and Death in Venice (1973). In 1976
 Queen Elizabeth II named him a life peer.

   brittle star

 brittle star, marine invertebrate animal (class Ophiuroidea). An
 ECHINODERM, it has five long, slender arms that radiate from a central
 disk, and the water-vascular system and tube feet common to echinoderms.
 Their arms break off readily, but new arms are easily regenerated. Most
 brittle stars are less than 1 in. (2.5 cm) across the central disk.

   Brno

 Brno, Ger. Brunn, city (1986 est. pop. 385,000), central Czechoslovakia,
 at the confluence of the Svratka and Svitava rivers. The second largest
 Czechoslovak city and MORAVIA'S chief city, it produces textiles,
 tractors, and other manufactures. Brno flourished (13th-14th cent.) as a
 free city within the kingdom of BOHEMIA. The Spielberg castle in Brno was
 a notorious HAPSBURG prison (1740-1855).

   broadcasting

 broadcasting, transmission of sound or images to a large number of RADIO
 or TELEVISION receivers. The first regularly scheduled radio broadcasts
 in the U.S. began in 1920. The sale of advertising began in 1922,
 establishing commercial broadcasting as an industry. A coast-to-coast
 hookup began early in 1924, and expansion of both audience and
 transmission facilities continued rapidly. By 1980 4,498 AM and 3,057 FM
 commercial radio stations existed in the U.S. Experiments in broadcasting
 television began in the 1920s but were interrupted by World War II. By
 1988, the U.S. had 1017 commercial and 325 educational television
 stations, and CABLE TELEVISION systems in the U.S. served 42,296,110
 subscribers.

   Broadway

 Broadway, street in New York City. One of the world's longest streets, it
 extends c.150 mi (241 km) from lower Manhattan N to Albany. Its theater
 district is known as the "Great White Way" for its dazzling electric
 lights and signs. The world-famous intersection of Times Square is formed
 by Broadway, Seventh Ave., and 42d St.

   broccoli

 broccoli, variety of CABBAGE grown for the edible immature flower
 panicles. It is the same variety as cauliflower (Brassica oleracea
 botrytis) and similarly cultivated.

   Brock, Sir Isaac

 Brock, Sir Isaac, 1769-1812, British general in Canada. As the commander
 (1806-12) of British forces, he defeated an American army and captured
 (1812) DETROIT early in the WAR OF 1812. Brock died in battle while
 defending the Niagara frontier.

   Brodsky, Joseph

 Brodsky, Joseph, 1940-, Russian poet. He has lived in the U.S. since
 1972. Brodsky is highly regarded for the formal technique, depth, irony,
 and wit displayed in his poetry, which often treats the themes of loss
 and exile. Among his works in English translation are A Part of Speech
 (tr. 1980) and Less Than One (tr. 1986). He was awarded the 1987 Nobel
 Prize in Literature.

   Broglie, Louis Victor, prince de

 Broglie, Louis Victor, prince de, 1892-87, French physicist. From his
 hypothesis that particles should exhibit certain wavelike properties,
 wave mechanics, a form of quantum mechanics, was developed (see QUANTUM
 THEORY). Experiments proved (1927) the existence of these waves; he was
 awarded the 1929 Nobel Prize in physics for his theory.

   Broken Hill

 Broken Hill, city (1985 est. pop. 26,650), New South Wales, SE Australia,
 near the South Australia border. It is the site of one of the world's
 richest silver-lead and zinc deposits (first developed in 1884).

   bromeliad

 bromeliad, common name for some members of the family Bromeliaceae,
 chiefly epiphytic herbs and small shrubs native to the American tropics
 and subtropics. A typical bromeliad has strap-shaped leaves clustered in
 a rosette around a central cup; the flowers are found in the central cup
 or above it on a spike. The central cup retains water, enabling tropical
 bromeliads to survive dry spells. Bromeliad species such as those of the
 genus Aechmea and Cryptanthus are often grown as house and conservatory
 plants for their colorful flowers and foliage. Other members of the
 family include SPANISH MOSS and the PINEAPPLE.

   bromine

 bromine (Br), volatile liquid element, discovered in 1826 by Antoine J.
 Balard. A HALOGEN, it is a reddish-brown fuming liquid with an offensive
 odor. Bromine corrodes the skin, and its vapor irritates the eyes and the
 membranes of the nose and throat. The only nonmetallic element that is
 liquid under ordinary conditions, bromine occurs in compounds in
 seawater, mineral springs, and salt deposits. Its compounds are used in
 photographic film, in flame retardants, and in conjunction with an
 anti-knock compound in gasoline. See ELEMENT ; PERIODIC TABLE.

   bronchitis

 bronchitis, inflammation of the bronchial tubes caused by viral or
 bacterial infection or by the inhalation of irritating fumes (e.g.,
 tobacco smoke, air pollutants). Symptoms include cough, fever, and chest
 pains. Acute bronchitis may subside, or, particularly with continued
 exposure to irritants, may persist and progress to chronic bronchitis or
 PNEUMONIA. Bronchitis can be treated with antihistamines, cough
 suppressants, bronchodilators, or ANTIBIOTICS.

   Bronte, Charlotte

 Bronte, Charlotte, 1816-55, Emily Jane Bronte, 1818-48, and Anne Bronte,
 1820-49, English novelists and poets. As children in a Yorkshire
 parsonage, the sisters created an imaginary literary world. In 1846 they
 published a pseudonymous collection of their poems, and in 1847 Anne's
 novel Agnes Grey, Emily's Wuthering Heights, and Charlotte's Jane Eyre
 all appeared. Soon after, tragedy struck: Emily died in Dec. 1848, and
 Anne (whose Tenant of Wildfell Hall came out in 1848) died in 1849, both
 from tuberculosis. Charlotte's career, however, burgeoned with Shirley
 (1849) and Villette (1853). She married her father's curate, Arthur Bell
 Nichols, in 1854 but died a year later. The Professor was published in
 1857. Charlotte's Jane Eyre, the strong, violently emotional story of a
 governess and her passionate love for her employer, Mr. Rochester,
 articulates the theme of a woman's need for both love and independence;
 it ranks among the great English novels. Emily's Wuthering Heights, the
 intense story of the almost demonic love between Catherine Earnshaw and
 Heathcliff-less characters than forces-is considered a work of genius.
 Her lyric poems are among the best in English poetry.

   bronze

 bronze, ALLOY of COPPER, PHOSPHORUS, TIN, ZINC
 , and, sometimes, small amounts of other elements. It is harder than
 BRASS, and its properties depend on the proportions of its components.
 ALUMINUM bronze, with its high strength and corrosion resistance, is used
 for bearings, valve seats, and machine parts; leaded bronze is cast into
 heavy-duty bushings and bearings; silicon bronze is used for telegraph
 wires and chemical containers; and bronze with 20% to 24% tin is used for
 casting bells. Bronze is used for coins, medals, steam fittings, and
 GUNMETAL, and in artistic castings, engravings, and forgings.

   Bronze Age

 Bronze Age, technological period when metals were first used to make
 tools and weapons. The earliest stage, when pure copper and bronze were
 used interchangeably, has been called the Copper Age. CASTING was well
 established in the Middle East by 3500 BC; in the New World the first
 bronze was cast AD c.1100. Development of a metallurgical industry
 coincided with urbanization, support of an artisan class, and trade for
 raw materials, laying the foundation for the IRON AGE.

   bronze sculpture

 bronze sculpture. Bronze is an ideal alloy for casting, engraving, and
 repousse work. When melted, it flows into the crevices of a mold,
 reproducing every detail; once hardened, it is easily worked with a tool.
 The ancient Egyptians used bronze for utensils, armor, and statuary, and
 outstanding Oriental bronzes have been made since ancient times.
 Unexcelled in bronze sculpture, the Greeks created such masterpieces as
 The Zeus of Artemesium (National Mus., Athens) and The Delphic Charioteer
 (Delphi Mus.). Copying Greek models, the Romans made thousands of bronze
 sculptures, as well as utilitarian objects. Most medieval bronzes were
 utensils and ornaments. During the RENAISSANCE, Italian sculptors wrought
 magnificent bronzes, such as the GHIBERTI doors to the baptistery of
 Florence and sculpture by DONATELLO, VERROCCHIO, and CELLINI. In the 18th
 cent. France was well known for gilded bronze furniture mounts. Major
 modern sculptors who have worked in bronze include RODIN, EPSTEIN,
 BRANCUSI, Henry MOORE, and Lipschitz.

   Brook, Peter

 Brook, Peter, 1925-, English theatrical director. Since 1962 he has been
 codirector of the Royal Shakespeare Company (see THEATER, ). His
 innovative, controversial productions include Peter WEISS'S Marat/Sade
 (1965) and A Midsummer Night's Dream (1970). He has also directed films,
 e.g., Lord of the Flies (1963) and King Lear (1971).

   Brooke, Edward William

 Brooke, Edward William, 1919-, U.S. senator from Massachusetts (1967-79),
 the first black U.S. senator since RECONSTRUCTION; b. Washington, D.C. A
 Republican, he served (1967) on the President's Commission on Civil
 Disorders, which investigated the causes of race riots. Although he was
 defeated for reelection (1978) in part because his fiscal records were
 investigated by the Senate Ethics Committee, he was later exonerated of
 any wrongdoing.

   Brooke, Sir James

 Brooke, Sir James, 1803-68, rajah of Sarawak on BORNEO. He was made
 (1841) rajah for helping the sultan of Brunei to suppress rebel tribes.
 He was succeeded by his nephew, Sir Charles Anthony Johnson Brooke,
 1829-1917, who made the country prosperous. His son and successor, Sir
 Charles Vyner Brooke, 1874-1963, was forced out of Sarawak by the
 Japanese in WORLD WAR II. He ceded (1946) the country to Britain.

   Brooke, Rupert

 Brooke, Rupert, 1887-1915, English poet. His social charm, wit, and
 tragic death during World War I made him a legend. He wrote Poems (1911)
 and 1914 and Other Poems (1915). The romantic patriotism of his war poems
 contrasts sharply with the bitterness of OWEN and Sassoon.

   Brook Farm

 Brook Farm, 1841-47, experimental farm at West Roxbury, Mass.; founded by
 the Unitarian minister George RIPLEY. It was based on cooperative living
 and the principles of TRANSCENDENTALISM and fostered shared manual labor
 and a stimulating intellectual life. Nathaniel HAWTHORNE was a member,
 and visitors included R.W. EMERSON, Margaret FULLER, and Horace GREELEY.
 Brook Farm adopted the ideas of Charles FOURIER in 1844. It was disbanded
 shortly after its central building burned in 1846.

   Brookhaven National Laboratory

 Brookhaven National Laboratory, scientific research center, Upton, Long
 Island, N.Y.; founded (1947) and operated by Associated Universities Inc.
 under contract to the U.S. Dept. of Energy. The laboratory's equipment
 includes a number of highly sophisticated nuclear reactors, particle
 accelerators, and electronic computers; there is also a medical research
 center for work in nuclear medicine.

   Brookings Institution

 Brookings Institution, at Washington, D.C.; chartered in 1927 as a
 consolidation of the Inst. for Government Research (est. 1916), the Inst.
 of Economics (est. 1922), and the Robert S. Brookings Graduate School of
 Economics and Government (est. 1924). The institution makes social
 science research available to government and business by financing
 projects and publishing findings, sometimes working under government
 contract.

   Brooklyn

 Brooklyn, borough of NEW YORK CITY (1986 est. pop. 2,293,200), 71 sq mi
 (184 sq km), coextensive with Kings co., SE N.Y., at the SW extremity of
 LONG ISLAND; settled 1636, chartered as part of New York City 1898. The
 largest of New York's five boroughs, it has diverse industries and a
 waterfront handling foreign and domestic commerce. From Dutch and Walloon
 settlements it became the village of Brooklyn Ferry (1816) and the city
 of Brooklyn (1834), absorbing as it grew settlements like Flatbush and
 Gravesend; it became (1855) the third largest U.S. city. Points of
 interest include Prospect Park, the Brooklyn Botanic Garden, and Coney
 Island.

   Brooklyn Bridge

 Brooklyn Bridge, the first steel-wire suspension bridge in the world,
 built 1869-83, over the East R., linking the boroughs of Manhattan and
 Brooklyn in New York City. Designed by J.A. and W.A. ROEBLING, it was the
 world's longest suspension bridge at the time of its completion.

   Brookner, Anita

 Brookner, Anita, 1928-, English writer and art critic. After establishing
 an academic career at London's Courtauld Institute of Art, she began
 (1980) writing fiction. Her novels are usually about middle-aged women
 unable to establish relationships with those around them, e.g., Hotel du
 Lac (1984) and A Misalliance (1986).

   Brooks, Gwendolyn

 Brooks, Gwendolyn, 1917-, black American poet; b. Topeka, Kans. Treating
 the black American experience, her poems are in such volumes as Annie
 Allen (1949; Pulitzer) and Riot (1970). She is also the author of Maud
 Martha (1953), a novelette. Brooks was the first black woman to win the
 Pulitzer Prize for poetry.

   Brooks, Mel

 Brooks, Mel, 1927-, American film director, writer, and actor; b. N.Y.C.
 as Melvin Kaminsky. His comic movies, often parodies of popular film
 genres, include The Producers (1968), Blazing Saddles (1974), Young
 Frankenstein (1975), and History of the World, Part I (1981).

   Brooks, Phillips

 Brooks, Phillips, 1835-93, American Episcopal bishop; b. Boston. He began
 (1869) his ministry at Trinity Church, Boston, and became one of the most
 influential ministers of his time. In 1891 he was consecrated bishop of
 Massachusetts. Brooks wrote the hymn "O Little Town of Bethlehem."

   Brooks, Van Wyck

 Brooks, Van Wyck, 1886-1963, American critic; b. Plainfield, N.J. An
 extremely prolific writer, he concentrated in his early work on the
 influence of Puritanism on American culture, e.g., The Wine of the
 Puritans (1909), and on critical biography, e.g., The Ordeal of Mark
 Twain (1920). His masterpiece, the series Makers and Finders: A History
 of the Writer in America, 1800-1915, which began with the Pulitzer
 Prize-winning The Flowering of New England (1936), is a humanistic
 interpretation of American literary history.

   Brouwer

 Brouweror Brauwer, Adriaen, c.1606-38, Flemish painter. His later
 depictions of peasant life and humorous single figures, such as Drinkers
 at a Table (Brussels) and The Smokers (Metropolitan Mus.), were often
 monochromatic.

   Browder, Earl Russell

 Browder, Earl Russell, 1891-1973, American Communist leader; b. Wichita,
 Kan. He was the Communist party's candidate for president in 1936 and
 1940. In 1946 the party expelled him for urging Soviet cooperation with
 the West.

   Brown, Charles Brockden

 Brown, Charles Brockden, 1771-1810, considered America's first
 professional novelist; b. Philadelphia. His most popular work, Wieland
 (1799), foreshadowed the psychological novel. His other works include
 Edgar Huntley and Ormond (both: 1799).

   Brown, Ford Madox

 Brown, Ford Madox, 1821-93, English historical painter; b. France.
 Closely affiliated with the PRE-RAPHAELITES, he painted Work (1852-63;
 Manchester Art Gall.) and 12 FRESCOES (in the town hall of Manchester)
 showing the city's history.

   Brown, George

 Brown, George, 1818-80, Canadian journalist and statesman. After
 emigrating from Scotland at the age of 24 he founded (1844) the Toronto
 Globe and made it a powerful political journal. A member of the Canadian
 assembly (1851-67), he worked for political representation by population
 and for the confederation of CANADA.

   Brown, Jerry

 Brown, Jerry (Edmund Gerald Brown, Jr.), 1938-, American politician,
 governor of California (1975-83); b. San Francisco. He studied to become
 a Jesuit, became a lawyer, and served (1970-74) as California's secretary
 of state. Although basically a liberal Democrat, as governor he gained a
 reputation for austerity, frugality, and unpredictability. He ran
 unsuccessfully for the U.S. Senate in 1982. His father, Edmund Gerald
 (Pat) Brown, 1905-, b. San Francisco, was also governor of California
 (1959-67).

   Brown, Jimmy

 Brown, Jimmy, 1936-, American football player; b. St. Simon Island, Ga.
 An All-American (1956) at Syracuse Univ., he became one of the greatest
 fullbacks in the game's history while with the Cleveland Browns (1957-65)
 of the National Football League (NFL). He set NFL lifetime records for
 most touchdowns (126), yards gained rushing (12,312), and highest rushing
 average (5.22). After 1965 he became a movie actor.

   Brown, John

 Brown, John, 1800-1859, American ABOLITIONIST; b. Torrington, Conn.
 Raised in Ohio, he moved to Kansas in 1855. In 1856, in retaliation for
 the sack of LAWRENCE, he led the slaughter of five proslavery men on the
 banks of the Pottawatamie R., asserting that he was an instrument in the
 hand of God. On Oct. 16, 1859, having initiated a plan to liberate
 Southern slaves through armed intervention, Brown and 21 followers
 captured the U.S. arsenal at HARPERS FERRY, Va. (now W.Va.). It was taken
 the next morning by Robert E. LEE, and Brown was hanged on Dec. 2. The
 dignity and sincerity that he displayed during his widely reported trial
 led many to regard him as a martyr.

   Brown, John Carter

 Brown, John Carter, 1797-1874, American book collector and
 philanthropist; b. Providence. His collection of AMERICANA, 5,600
 volumes, was enlarged after his death and donated to Brown Univ. as the
 John Carter Brown Library.

   Brown, Robert

 Brown, Robert, 1773-1858, Scottish botanist and botanical explorer. He
 went as a naturalist and collector to Australia (1801) and described its
 flora in his Prodromus florae Novae Hollandiae (1810). Librarian to the
 Linnaean Society and British Museum curator, he observed BROWNIAN
 MOVEMENT in 1827 and discovered the cell nucleus in 1831.

   Browne, Charles Farrar

 Browne, Charles Farrar: see WARD, ARTEMUS.

   Browne, Sir Thomas

 Browne, Sir Thomas, 1605-82, English author and physician. In Religio
 Medici (c.1635) he attempted to reconcile science and religion. Other
 works, including Hydriotaphia: Urn Burial (1656), express a philosophy
 now chiefly of historical interest. The quality of Browne's faith and his
 mode of expression make him an outstanding figure in English literary
 history.

   brown hematite

 brown hematite: see LIMONITE.

   Brownian movement

 Brownian movement or motion, irregular, zigzag motion of minute particles
 of matter suspended in a fluid. First observed (1827) by the botanist
 Robert Brown, the effect is a result of collisions between the particles
 and the fluid molecules, which are in constant thermal motion.

   Browning, Robert

 Browning, Robert, 1812-89, English poet. His psychological portraits in
 verse and his experiments in diction and rhythm have made him an
 important influence on 20th-cent. poetry. Browning was master of the
 dramatic monologue, e.g., "My Last Duchess," "Fra Lippo Lippi," "Andrea
 del Sarto," "The Bishop Orders His Tomb." In 1846, after a secret
 courtship, he married the poet Elizabeth Barrett and took her to Italy,
 where they lived until her death in 1861. He returned to England and
 published Dramatis Personae (1864), Dramatic Idylls (1879-80), and
 Asolando (1889). His masterpiece is The Ring and the Book (4 vol.,
 1868-69). His wife, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, 1806-61, published Poems
 in 1844. This volume brought her both fame and Browning's attention.
 Defying her poor health and a tyrannical father, she married Browning in
 1846. E.B. Browning's highly individual gift for lyric poetry is shown in
 Sonnets from the Portuguese (1850), her greatest work. Other works
 include Casa Guidi Windows (1851) and Aurora Leigh (1857), a novel in
 verse.

   Brownson, Orestes Augustus

 Brownson, Orestes Augustus, 1803-76, American author and clergyman; b.
 Stockbridge, Vt. At first a Presbyterian, he later became a Universalist,
 a Unitarian minister, head of his own church, a transcendentalist, and
 finally (1844) a Roman Catholic. As a writer and magazine editor,
 Brownson dealt with religious questions and fought social injustice.

   Brownsville

 Brownsville, city (1986 est. pop. 102,110), seat of Cameron co., extreme
 S Tex., on the Rio Grande near the Gulf of Mexico, across the river from
 Matamoras, Mexico; inc. 1850. A deep water channel accommodates seagoing
 vessels, and the city has oil and gas, shrimp, and electronics
 industries. Fort Texas was attacked (1846) by the Mexicans, precipitating
 the MEXICAN WAR; it was renamed Fort Brown for its defender, Major Jacob
 Brown. Brownsville grew around the fort. In 1906 a group of black
 soldiers were blamed for a gun raid that killed a resident. Their
 controversial dishonorable discharge by Pres. Theodore ROOSEVELT was
 reversed in 1972.

   Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas

 Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, case decided in 1954 by
 the U.S. SUPREME COURT, holding that de jure segregation in public
 schools was a violation of the equal protection clause of the 14th
 amendment to the U.S. CONSTITUTION. A unanimous Court stated that racial
 separation, no matter how equal the facilities, branded minority children
 as inferior, thus hindering their development. The "separate but equal"
 doctrine of PLESSY V. FERGUSON was reversed. In 1955 the Court added that
 schools must desegregate "with all deliberate speed." The Brown decision
 gave impetus to the civil-rights movement of the 1950s and 60s, and
 hastened the end of segregation in all public facilities.

   Bruce

 Bruce, Scottish royal family, descended from an 11th-cent. Norman duke,
 Robert de Brus, who aided WILLIAM I in his conquest of England. In the
 struggle following the death of MARGARET MAID OF NORWAY, the Bruces
 claimed succession to the Scottish throne. Robert the Bruce was a
 claimant in 1290, rivaled by John de BALIOL. His grandson was the famous
 Robert the Bruce, ROBERT I of Scotland. Edward Bruce, brother of Robert
 I, was crowned king of Ireland in 1316. The youngest son of Robert I
 succeeded him as DAVID II. He was succeeded by his nephew, ROBERT II, the
 first STUART king.

   Bruce, earls of Elgin

 Bruce, earls of Elgin: see ELGIN, THOMAS BRUCE, 7TH EARL OF.

   Bruce of Melbourne, Stanley Melbourne, Viscount

 Bruce of Melbourne, Stanley Melbourne, Viscount, 1883-1967, Australian
 prime minister (1923-29). He advocated close relations between Australia
 and the empire and was later Australian delegate to the LEAGUE OF
 NATIONS. He was Australian high commissioner in London (1933-45).

   Bruch, Max

 Bruch, Max, 1838-1920, German composer. His Violin Concerto in G Minor
 (1868) and his variations on the Kol Nidre (1881) for cello and orchestra
 are well known.

   Brucke, Die

 Brucke, Die [Ger.,=the bridge], German Expressionist art movement lasting
 from 1905 to 1913 (see EXPRESSIONISM). Founded in Dresden by KIRCHNER,
 SCHMIDT-ROTTLUFF, and the painter Erich Heckel, the group at first lived
 and worked communally, developing an intense, violent style with
 primitive and demonic qualities. Their exhibits, influenced by Jugendstil
 (the German equivalent of ART NOUVEAU) and VAN GOGH, displayed brutally
 deformed, boldly colored subjects, a reaction against IMPRESSIONISM and
 REALISM. Unlike contemporaneous FAUVISM, Die Brucke lacked coherent
 definition; the group disbanded because of disagreements over a statement
 of its aims.

   Bruckner, Anton

 Bruckner, Anton, 1824-96, Austrian composer and organist. Influenced by
 Richard WAGNER'S orchestral grandeur and use of the chromatic SCALE, he
 employed complex, extended melody in such works as the MASSES in D Minor
 (1864), E Minor (1866), and F Minor (1867-71); a Te Deum (1881-84); and
 nine symphonies.

   Bruegel, Brueghel

 Bruegel, Brueghel,or Breughel, outstanding family of Flemish GENRE and
 landscape painters. The foremost, Pieter Bruegel, the Elder, c.1525-69,
 portrayed in vibrant colors the living world of field and forest in which
 lively, robust peasants work and play, e.g., The Harvesters (Metropolitan
 Mus.) and Peasant Wedding (Vienna). BOSCH'S influence is seen in The Fall
 of the Rebel Angels (Brussels). Bruegel also painted religious histories,
 parables, and rhythmic landscapes based on diagonal lines unfolding into
 the distance. Pieter Bruegel, the Younger, 1564-1637, often copied his
 father's works and was known for his pictures of the infernal regions.
 His brother Jan Bruegel, 1568-1625, called Velvet Bruegel, specialized in
 still life and landscapes. He occasionally supplied floral ornament for
 works from RUBENS'S shop and shared his father's popularity.

   Bruges

 Bruges, city (1987 est. pop. 117,755), NW Flemish Belgium, connected by
 canal to the North Sea. Founded in the 9th cent., it was (13th cent.) a
 major port of the HANSEATIC LEAGUE. At its zenith (14th cent.) it was a
 great commercial center, particularly for the wool industry. It has
 revived as a commercial and tourist center in this century. Once
 (14th-15th cent.) the cradle of Flemish art, its churches and museums
 house many works by such masters as Jan van EYCK and Gerard David.

   Bruhn, Erik

 Bruhn, Erik (er'ik broon), 1928-1986, Danish ballet dancer. He joined
 (1947) the ROYAL DANISH BALLET and was (1953-58) a permanent member of
 the American Ballet Theatre. He was known for his dramatic, precise style
 in such ballets as Giselle and Swan Lake.

   Brumaire

 Brumaire: see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY CALENDAR.

   Brummell, Beau

 Brummell, Beau (George Bryan Brummell), 1778-1840, English dandy and wit.
 A friend of the prince regent (later George IV), he popularized dark,
 simply cut clothes, elaborate neckwear, and trousers rather than
 breeches.

   Brunehaut, Frankish queen

 Brunehaut, Frankish queen: see BRUNHILDA.

   Brunei

 Brunei, sultanate (1985 est. pop. 221,900), 2,226 sq mi (5,765 sq km), NW
 Borneo, surrounded by SARAWAK, Malaysia. The capital and major port is
 Bandar Seri Begawan. A British protectorate since 1888, it was granted
 self-government in 1971 and full independence in 1983. Oil is the chief
 export. Although a majority of the population are Malays, the small
 Chinese community dominates the economy.

   Brunel, Sir Marc Isambard

 Brunel, Sir Marc Isambard, 1769-1849, English engineer and inventor; b.
 France. His most important work was the construction of the Thames Tunnel
 (begun 1825), in which a shield was used for the first time (see TUNNEL).
 His son, Isambard Kingdom Brunel, 1806-59, an English civil engineer, is
 best known for his designing and construction of three oceangoing
 STEAMSHIPS: the Great Western (1838), the first transatlantic steam
 vessel; the Great Britain (1845), the first ocean screw steamship; and
 the Great Eastern (1858), the largest steam vessel of its time.

   Brunelleschi, Filippo

 Brunelleschi, Filippo, 1377-1446, first great Italian Renaissance
 architect, a Florentine. After his trial panel (1401) for the bronze
 doors of the Florence baptistery was not accepted, he concentrated on
 architectural planning. His Church of San Lorenzo, Florence, with its
 systematic use of perspective, and his Foundling Hospital, with its
 series of arches supported on columns, were tremendously influential. In
 1420 he began a great octagonal ribbed DOME for the cathedral in
 Florence, one of the great domical constructions in architectural
 history.

   Brunhild

 Brunhild, Brunnehilde , or Brynhild , in Germanic mythology and
 literature, mighty female warrior. In the medieval NIBELUNGEN epic she is
 the queen of Iceland, defeated by SIEGFRIED, whose death she contrives.
 In the Icelandic VOLSUNGASAGA she is Brynhild, chief of the VALKYRIES.
 Loved and later deserted by Sigurd, she brings about his death, and
 destroys herself on his funeral pyre. As Brunnehilde, a Valkyrie, she
 figures in Richard WAGNER'S operatic cycle Ring of the Nibelungs.

   Brunhilda

 Brunhilda or Brunehaut,d. 613, Frankish queen, wife of Sigebert I of
 Austrasia. She was the real ruler, through her son and grandsons, of
 Austrasia and BURGUNDY. She played a leading part in the bloody war
 (567-613) against Neustria. Clotaire I of Neustria, her nephew, put her
 to death.

   Brunhoff, Jean de

 Brunhoff, Jean de,  1899-1937, French author and illustrator of
 children's books. Beginning with The Story of Babar, the Little Elephant
 (1932), he published several books about an elephant who runs away from
 the jungle to live in Paris. His son Laurent de Brunhoff (1925-) has
 continued the series.

   Bruno, Giordano

 Bruno, Giordano, 1548-1600, Italian philosopher. A Dominican, Bruno was
 accused of heresy, left the order (c.1576), and became a wandering
 scholar. His works were regarded as heretical, and he was arrested
 (1591), tried before the INQUISITION, and burned at the stake. His major
 metaphysical works, On the Infinite Universe and Worlds and The Infinite
 (both 1584), drew heavily from Hermetic gnosticism and other works on
 magic and the occult. His defense of Copernicus was based not on
 mathematics but on animist and religious grounds. Bruno held that there
 are many possible modes of viewing the world, because we cannot postulate
 absolute truth. He was the first to state what is now called the cosmic
 theory: that the physical world is composed of irreducible elements
 (monads) inconstant motion, and that the universe is infinite in scope.
 This view, reflected in the works of LEIBNIZ and SPINOZA, accounts for
 Bruno's position as a forerunner of modern science.

   Brussels

 Brussels, Fr. Bruxelles, city (1982 est. pop. 128,893), capital of
 Belgium. An important manufacturing center, it is also the seat of the
 European COMMON MARKET and of NATO. Brussels was inhabited by the Romans
 and later (7th cent.) by the Franks. It developed into a center of the
 wool trade in the 13th cent. and became (1430) the seat of the dukes of
 Burgundy and later (1477) of the governors of the Spanish (after 1714,
 Austrian) Netherlands. In 1830 it became the capital of an independent
 Belgium. Its historic buildings include the Maison du Roi (13th cent.),
 Gothic city hall (15th cent.), and parliament building (18th cent.).

   Brussels sprouts

 Brussels sprouts, variety (gemmifera) of CABBAGE, producing small edible
 heads (sprouts) along the stem. Cultivated like cabbage, it was first
 developed in Belgium and France in the 18th cent.

   Brustein, Robert

 Brustein, Robert, 1927-, American educator and drama critic; b. N.Y.C. As
 dean of the Yale Univ. Drama School (1966-78) he made Yale one of the
 major American drama schools. In 1979 he became head of the Loeb Drama
 Center at Harvard Univ. Brustein is an exacting critic of the modern
 American theater. His books include Seasons of Discontent (1965),
 Revolution as Theatre (1971), and Making Scenes (1981).

   Brut, Brute

 Brut, Brute, or Brutus,a Trojan, the legendary first king of England, a
 descendant of AENEAS. His name titles long poems by Wace and LAYAMON.

   Brutus

 Brutus, in ancient Rome, a surname of the Junian gens. Lucius Junius
 Brutus, fl. 510 BC, was the founder of the Roman Republic. Roman
 historians tell how he led the Romans in expelling the TARQUINS after the
 rape of Lucrece and how he executed his sons for plotting a Tarquinian
 restoration. Marcus Junius Brutus, 85? BC-42 BC, was the principal
 assassin of Julius CAESAR. He had sided with POMPEY, but after the battle
 of Pharsala (48 BC), Caesar pardoned him. Nevertheless, he joined Caius
 Cassius Longinus (see CASSIUS, family) in the plot against Caesar. After
 Caesar's murder (44 BC), Brutus went east and was defeated at Philippi in
 42 BC by Octavian (later AUGUSTUS) and Antony. Brutus then committed
 suicide. His character has long been disputed. A lesser member of the
 conspiracy was Decimus Junius Brutus, d. 43 BC, a partisan of Caesar
 against Pompey and a favorite of the dictator. After Caesar's death,
 Brutus was killed by ANTONY.

   Bryan, William Jennings

 Bryan, William Jennings, 1860-1925, American political leader; b. Salem,
 Ill. He was a member (1891-95) of the U.S. House of Representatives. At
 the 1896 Democratic national convention he made his famous "Cross of
 Gold" speech in defense of FREE SILVER. He was nominated for president
 but lost to MCKINLEY that year and in 1900; in 1908 he lost to W.H. TAFT.
 In 1912 he helped to elect Woodrow WILSON, who named him secretary of
 state (1913-15). Bryan negotiated treaties with some 30 nations providing
 for investigation of disputes. An advocate of religious FUNDAMENTALISM,
 he appeared for the prosecution in the 1925 SCOPES TRIAL. Many of the
 reforms he urged were later adopted, e.g., the INCOME TAX and WOMAN
 SUFFRAGE.

   Bryant, William Cullen

 Bryant, William Cullen, 1794-1878, American poet and editor; b.
 Cummington, Mass. In his youth he was well known for his poems, e.g.,
 "Thanatopsis," and "To a Waterfowl." He practiced law until 1825, when he
 moved to New York City. He became editor (1826), then part owner
 (1829-78) of the Evening Post, in which he advocated free trade,
 abolition of slavery, and other reforms. The earliest American theorist
 on poetry, Bryant also translated the Iliad (1870) and the Odyssey
 (1872).

   Bryce, James Bryce, Viscount

 Bryce, James Bryce, Viscount, 1838-1922, British historian and statesman;
 b. Northern Ireland. A professor of law at Oxford, he wrote monumental
 works in several fields; the first was his History of the Holy Roman
 Empire (1864). He became a leader of the Liberal party, held several
 government posts, and was a popular ambassador to the U.S. (1907-13). His
 treatise The American Commonwealth (1888) is still used.

   Bryce Canyon National Park

 Bryce Canyon National Park: see NATIONAL PARKS .

   Bryn Mawr College

 Bryn Mawr College, at Bryn Mawr, Pa.; founded 1885 by the Society of
 Friends. The first women's college in the U.S. to offer graduate degrees,
 Bryn Mawr now has a coeducational graduate school. Its library includes
 famous medieval and rare book collections. It shares many facilities with
 Haverford College, a coeducational institution nearby.

   Bryophyta

 Bryophyta, division of the plant kingdom consisting of the MOSSES,
 LIVERWORTS, and hornworts.

   Brythonic

 Brythonic, group of languages belonging to the Celtic subfamily of the
 Indo-European family of languages. See LANGUAGE .

   Brzezinski, Zbigniew

 Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 1928-, American political scientist and public
 official; b. Poland. While teaching (1960-77) at Columbia Univ., he
 became an acknowledged expert on political affairs in the Communist
 world. As Pres. CARTER'S national security adviser (1977-81), he
 advocated a harder line toward the USSR. He returned to Columbia in 1981.

   Btu

 Btu: see BRITISH THERMAL UNIT.

   bubble chamber

 bubble chamber: see PARTICLE DETECTOR.

   Buber, Martin

 Buber, Martin, 1878-1965, Jewish philosopher; b. Austria. He taught
 Jewish philosophy and religion in Germany until he was forced (1938) to
 leave the country; he settled in Jerusalem. The mysticism of the HASIDIM
 and the Christian existentialism of KIERKEGAARD influenced him. His major
 work, I and Thou (1923), which posited a personal and direct dialogue
 between God and the individual, has had a great impact on contemporary
 Christian and Jewish theology.

   bubonic plague

 bubonic plague: see PLAGUE.

   Bucer

 Buceror Butzer, Martin, 1491-1551, German Protestant reformer. Influenced
 by LUTHER'S preaching, he joined (1523) the REFORMATION movement in
 Strasbourg. He promoted Protestant education and brought about (1536) the
 Wittenberg Concord on the doctrine of the Eucharist. At the invitation of
 Thomas CRANMER, he spent his last years in England, teaching at
 Cambridge.

   Buchan, John

 Buchan, John, 1st Baron Tweedsmuir, 1875-1940, Scottish author and
 statesman. He wrote history, biography, and popular adventure novels,
 including The Thirty-nine Steps (1915). In 1935 he was appointed governor
 general of Canada.

   Buchanan, Franklin

 Buchanan, Franklin, 1800-1874, U.S. naval officer; b. Baltimore. The
 first superintendent (1845-47) of the U.S. Naval Academy, he was the
 ranking officer in the Confederate navy in the CIVIL WAR. Wounded at
 Hampton Roads (1863), he surrendered to Adm. FARRAGUT in the battle of
 Mobile Bay (1864).

   Buchanan, James

 Buchanan, James, 1791-1868, 15th president of the U.S. (1857-61); b. near
 Mercersburg, Pa. A learned lawyer, he was a congressman (1821-31) and
 senator (1834-45) from Pennsylvania. At first a Federalist, he became a
 conservative Democrat and was Pres. POLK'S secretary of state (1845-49)
 during the MEXICAN WAR. Under Pres. PIERCE, he was (1853-56) minister to
 Great Britain and helped draft the OSTEND MANIFESTO. In 1856 he was
 elected president. Believing slavery was morally wrong but not
 unconstitutional, he tried to keep the "sacred balance" between
 proslavery and antislavery factions, but his views alienated radicals in
 both North and South. After the 1860 election was won by Abraham LINCOLN,
 Buchanan was faced with the crisis of secession. Believing that states
 did not have the right to secede nor the federal government the right to
 coerce them, he promised there would be no hostile moves during
 negotiations. U.S. troops were, however, moved to FORT SUMTER; shortly
 after he left office, gunfire there set off the CIVIL WAR.

   Bucharest

 Bucharest, Rum. Bucuresti, city (1985 est. pop. 1,975,808), capital and
 largest city of Rumania, SE Rumania, on the Dimbovita R., a tributary of
 the Danube. It is Rumania's chief industrial center and produces
 machines, petroleum products, and textiles. Founded in the 14th cent., it
 became the capital of WALACHIA in 1698 and of Rumania in 1861. During
 World War I the city was occupied (1916-18) by the Central Powers. After
 Rumania's surrender to the Allies (Aug. 1944) in World War II, the
 Germans bombed it severely. Soon after, Soviet troops entered the city.
 Bucharest contains many old churches, e.g., Metropolitan Church (1649).

   Buchman, Frank Nathan Daniel

 Buchman, Frank Nathan Daniel, 1878-1961, American evangelist; b.
 Pennsburg, Pa. After preaching "world-changing through life-changing" at
 Oxford in 1921, he became the head of a movement called the Oxford Group
 or Buchmanism. In 1938 he founded the controversial Moral Re-Armament
 movement (MRA).

   Buchner, Georg

 Buchner, Georg, 1813-37, German dramatist. A student of medicine and a
 political agitator, Buchner wrote a powerful drama, Danton's Death
 (1835); the fragmentary tragedy Wozzeck (1850), which Alban BERG adapted
 for his opera; and a comedy, Leonce and Lena (1850).

   Buchwald, Art

 Buchwald, Art, 1925-, American newspaper columnist; b. Mount Vernon, N.Y.
 Specializing in political and social satire, his columns appear in about
 500 newspapers. He was awarded the Pulitzer prize for commentary in 1982.

   Buck, Pearl S(ydenstricker)

 Buck, Pearl S(ydenstricker), 1892-1973, American author; b. Hillsboro,
 W.Va. Until 1924 she lived in China, where she, her parents, and her
 first husband were missionaries. She is famous for her vivid,
 compassionate novels about life in China, the finest of which is thought
 to be The Good Earth (1931; Pulitzer). Buck published over 85 books,
 including novels, children's books, plays, biographies, and non-fiction.
 She was awarded the Nobel Prize in literature in 1938.

   buckeye

 buckeye: see HORSE CHESTNUT.

   Buckingham, George Villiers, 1st duke of

 Buckingham, George Villiers, 1st duke of, 1592-1628, English nobleman, a
 royal favorite. He arrived (1614) at the English court as JAMES I was
 tiring of Robert Carr and rose rapidly, becoming lord high admiral in
 1619. By 1620 he was dispensing the king's patronage. He gained
 popularity with Parliament by urging war with Spain, then lost it by
 negotiating CHARLES I'S marriage to HENRIETTA MARIA, a Catholic princess
 of France. He remained powerful after Charles came to the throne. After
 the failure of several expeditions, notably one against Cadiz (1625), he
 was impeached by Parliament, but the king dissolved Parliament to prevent
 his trial. Villiers was at Portsmouth preparing an expedition to relieve
 the HUGUENOTS at La Rochelle when he was killed by a discontented naval
 officer. His son, George Villiers, 2d duke of Buckingham, 1628-87, was a
 royalist in the ENGLISH CIVIL WAR. He served CHARLES II in exile, but
 intrigues and his marriage to the daughter of a Puritan lord caused
 estrangement. He regained favor after the RESTORATION and became an
 extremely powerful courtier. Vain and ambitious, he was noted for his
 temper, recklessness, and dissoluteness. He was a member of the CABAL but
 was dismissed for misconduct in 1674. Despite earlier opposition to JAMES
 II, he regained favor in 1684. A scholar with exquisite tastes, he wrote
 poetry and plays, including The Rehearsal (1671).

   Buckingham Palace

 Buckingham Palace, residence of British sovereigns since 1837,
 Westminster, London. Built (1703) by the Duke of Buckingham, it was
 purchased (1761) by GEORGE III and remodeled (1825) by John NASH. The
 palace has nearly 600 rooms.

   Buckle, Henry Thomas

 Buckle, Henry Thomas, 1821-62, English historian. Using a scientific
 method, he undertook the ambitious plan of writing a history of
 civilization rather than of battles and wars. At the time of his death,
 he had completed the first two volumes of his History of Civilization in
 England (1857-61), which profoundly influenced liberal thought and later
 historians.

   Buckley, William F., Jr.

 Buckley, William F., Jr., 1925-, American editor and writer; b. N.Y.C. A
 witty spokesman for the conservative viewpoint, he founded the magazine
 National Review in 1955, hosted the weekly television show "Firing Line"
 from 1966, and wrote a syndicated newspaper column. His books include God
 and Man at Yale (1951) and Marco Polo, If You Can (1982), an espionage
 novel.

   buckthorn

 buckthorn, common name for some members of the Rhamnaceae, a family of
 widely distributed woody shrubs, small trees, and climbing vines. The
 buckthorns (some species of the genus Rhamnus) and the jujube (Zizyphus
 jujuba) are cultivated as ornamentals. Jujube was also used as a
 flavoring and in confectionery. Some members of the family yield dyes;
 others are used for lumber, e.g., cogwood. Other American species of
 Rhamnus are the redberry, the Indian cherry, and R. purshiana, which
 yields the purgative cascara sagrada.

   buckwheat

 buckwheat, common name for some members of the Polygonaceae, a family of
 herbs and shrubs found chiefly in north temperate areas and having a
 characteristic pungent juice containing oxalic acid. Members of the
 family include the knotweeds and smartweeds (genus Polygonum or
 Persicaria), some sorrels (the common name used also for the unrelated
 OXALIS), and the economically important rhubarb (genus Rheum) and
 buckwheat (genus Fagopyrum).

   bucolics

 bucolics: see PASTORAL.

   Budapest

 Budapest, city (1985 est. pop. 2,089,000), capital and largest city of
 Hungary, N central Hungary, on both banks of the Danube R. About half of
 Hungary's industrial output comes from Budapest and its suburbs; major
 products include machinery, chemicals, and iron and steel. One of the
 capitals of the AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY, the city was formed in 1873 by
 the union of Buda and Obuda, on the right bank of the Danube, with Pest,
 on the left bank. The area may have been settled in the Neolithic era.
 Under Roman rule from the 1st cent. AD, the cities were destroyed by the
 Mongols in 1241. Buda became the capital of Hungary in 1361 and fell to
 the Turks in 1541. After 1686 the cities were under HAPSBURG rule. During
 World War II Budapest was occupied (1944-45) by the Germans and was
 largely destroyed during a 14-week siege by Soviet troops. It became the
 capital of the Hungarian People's Republic in 1949. In 1956 it was the
 center of an unsuccessful uprising against the Communist regime.

   Buddha

 Buddha [Skt.,=the enlightened one], title given to the founder of
 BUDDHISM, Siddhartha Gautama, c.563-c.483 BC; b. S Nepal. A soothsayer is
 said to have predicted at Siddhartha's birth that he would become a world
 ruler or a world teacher. His father, King Suddhodana, of the warrior
 caste, raised him in great luxury, but at the age of 29 Siddhartha
 renounced the world to become a wandering ascetic and search for a
 solution to the problems of death and human suffering. After six years of
 spiritual discipline, he achieved supreme enlightenment at the age of 35
 while meditating under a pipal tree at Bodh Gaya. He spent the rest of
 his life teaching his doctrines and establishing a community of monks,
 the sangha, to continue his work.

   Buddhism

 Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India in the 6th and 5th
 cent. BC by Siddhartha Gautama, called the BUDDHA. One of the great Asian
 religions, it teaches the practice of MEDITATION and the observance of
 moral precepts. The basic doctrines include the "four noble truths"
 taught by the Buddha: existence is suffering; the cause of suffering is
 desire; there is a cessation of suffering, called NIRVANA, or total
 transcendence; and there is a path leading to the end of suffering, the
 "eightfold noble path" of right views, right resolve, right speech, right
 action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right
 concentration. Buddhism defines reality in terms of cause-and-effect
 relations, thus accepting the doctrine common to Indian religions of
 samsara, or bondage to the repeating cycle of births and deaths according
 to one's physical and mental actions (see KARMA). The ideal of early
 Buddhism was the perfected saint, arahant or arhat, purified of all
 desires. Of the various Buddhist schools and sects that arose, the
 Theravada [doctrine of the elders] school of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) is
 generally accepted as representative of early Buddhist teaching. Mahayana
 great vehicle Buddhism has as a central concept the potential Buddhahood
 innate in all beings. Its ideal for both layman and monk is the
 bodhisattva, the perfected one who postpones entry into nirvana (although
 meriting it) until all others may be similarly enlightened. Buddhism was
 greatly strengthened in the 3d cent. BC by the support of the Indian
 emperor ASOKA, but it declined in India in succeeding centuries and was
 virtually extinct there by the 13th cent., while it spread and flourished
 in Ceylon (3d cent. AD) and Tibet (7th cent. AD). In the 1st cent. AD
 Buddhism entered China, where it encountered resistance from CONFUCIANISM
 and TAOISM, and from there spread to Korea (4th cent. AD) and to Japan
 (6th cent. AD). Two important sects that became established in the 5th
 cent. AD and have greatly increased in popularity are ZEN BUDDHISM,
 featuring the practice of meditation to achieve "sudden enlightenment,"
 and Pure Land Buddhism, or Amidism, a devotional Mahayana sect centered
 on the worship of the Buddha Amitabha, who vowed to save all sentient
 beings by bringing them to rebirth in his realm, the "Western Paradise."
 Buddhism still flourishes in Asia and has an influence in the modern
 Western world.

   Budge, Don

 Budge, Don (John Donald Budge), 1915-, American tennis player; b.
 Oakland, Calif. He won the U.S. and Wimbledon singles titles in 1937 and
 1938, and in 1938 he was the first to achieve the tennis grand slam
 (U.S., British, Australian, and French championships). He turned
 professional in 1939.

   budget

 budget, a list of proposed expenditures and expected receipts for a
 definite period, usually one year. The governmental budget originated in
 England during the late 18th cent. In the U.S., a 1921 law requires that
 the president annually submit a federal budget to CONGRESS. The Bureau of
 the Budget, in the executive office, scrutinizes the expenditure
 estimates submitted by all government services and recommends changes to
 increase economy and efficiency. The U.S. budget has grown enormously
 since World War II, and large deficits have occurred. The 1982 budget,
 totaling $695 billion, was over 75 times as large as the $9.1 billion
 budget of 1940.

   Buenos Aires

 Buenos Aires, city and federal district (1983 est. pop. 3,000,000), E
 Argentina, capital of Argentina, on the Rio de la Plata. It is one of the
 largest cities of Latin America, a major world port, and Argentina's
 commercial and social center. Heavily industrialized, the city is one of
 the world's leading exporters of processed foods. It was founded in 1536,
 abandoned, then resettled in 1580, and was the first Latin American city
 to revolt (1810) against Spanish rule. Officially independent in 1816, it
 became the capital of a united Argentina in 1862. It grew into an urban
 colossus in the late 19th cent., when railroads into the agriculturally
 abundant PAMPA to the west began to supplement the great inland river
 transportation system that linked the city with Uruguay, Paraguay, and
 Brazil, and immigration from Europe increased. Famous landmarks include
 the 19th-cent. cathedral, the opera house, and the many beautiful
 municipal parks.

   Buffalo

 Buffalo, city (1980 pop. 357,870; met. area 1.2 million), seat of Erie
 co., W N.Y., on Lake Erie and the Niagara and Buffalo rivers; inc. 1832.
 One of the major grain-distributing ports in the U.S. and a railroad hub,
 it has automobile, electrochemical, electrometallurgical, and steel
 industries. Laid out in 1803, it was almost entirely destroyed by fire in
 the WAR OF 1812. Transportation, particularly after the opening (1825) of
 the ERIE CANAL, was primary to the city's development. Its downtown area
 underwent major renewal in the 1970s and 80s. Buffalo is the site of a
 branch of the State Univ. of N.Y., the Albright-Knox Art Gallery, and
 other noted institutions. The Peace Bridge (1927) connects it with Fort
 Erie, Canada.

   buffalo

 buffalo, name commonly applied to the North American BISON but correctly
 restricted to related African and Asian hoofed MAMMALS of the CATTLE
 family. The water, or Indian, buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) is a large,
 strong, dark gray animal with widespread curved horns, domesticated for
 draft. Wild forms live near rivers, where they wallow; they feed on grass
 and have fierce tempers.

   Buffalo Bill

 Buffalo Bill (William Frederick Cody), 1846-1917, American scout and
 showman; b. near Davenport, Iowa. He worked as an army scout and hunted
 buffalo for railroad camps. He organized (1883) and then toured with
 Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show.

   buffer

 buffer, solution that can keep its pH, i.e., its relative acidity or
 alkalinity, constant despite the addition of strong acids or bases (see
 ACIDS AND BASES). Buffer solutions contain either a weak acid or weak
 base and one of their salts. See article on pH.

   Buffon, George Louis Leclerc, comte de

 Buffon, George Louis Leclerc, comte de, 1707-88, French naturalist and
 author. From 1739 he was keeper of the Jardin du Roi (later Jardin des
 Plantes) in Paris, making it a center of research during the
 Enlightenment. His works include his monumental compendium on natural
 history, Histoire naturelle (44 vol., 1749-1804). On his reception into
 the French Academy in 1753, he delivered his famous Discours sur le
 style.

   bug

 bug, name correctly applied to INSECT of the order Hemiptera, although
 other insects are also referred to as bugs. True bugs have partially
 thickened, partially membranous front wings and piercing-sucking
 mouthparts in the form of a beak. Most bugs are terrestrial but many are
 aquatic (e.g., WATER BUGS). Most suck plant juices (e.g., squash bug);
 some suck the blood of other insects and spiders. Others feed on humans
 and other animals (e.g., BEDBUG).

   Buganda

 Buganda: see UGANDA.

   bugle

 bugle: see WIND INSTRUMENT.

   building and loan association

 building and loan association: see SAVINGS AND LOAN ASSOCIATION.

   Buisson, Ferdinand Edouard

 Buisson, Ferdinand Edouard, 1841-1932, French educator and 1927 Nobel
 Peace Prize winner. A professor of pedagogy at the Sorbonne, he produced
 the Dictionnaire de pedagogie (1882-93) and was an ardent pacifist and
 civil-liberties worker.

   Bujumbura

 Bujumbura, city (1986 est. pop. 272,600), capital of Burundi, W Burundi.
 A port on Lake TANGANYIKA, it is the country's largest city and economic
 center, and has a growing tourist industry. Coffee, cotton, hides, and
 skins are shipped via the lake to Tanzania and Zaire. The city became
 (1899) a military post in German East Africa. After World War I it was
 the administrative center of Ruanda-Urundi, a Belgian MANDATE. It was
 called Usumbura until 1962.

   Bukharin, Nikolai Ivanovich

 Bukharin, Nikolai Ivanovich, 1888-1938, Soviet Communist leader and
 theoretician. After the 1917 RUSSIAN REVOLUTION he edited the newspaper
 Pravda and was a COMINTERN leader. A full member of the politburo after
 1924, he lost his major party posts in 1929 for advocating slow
 agricultural collectivization, in opposition to the Stalinist majority.
 In 1938 he was tried for treason and executed.

   Bulawayo

 Bulawayo, city (1982 est. pop. 414,800), SW Zimbabwe. The country's
 second largest city, it is an important commercial, railroad, and
 industrial center that produces textiles, motor vehicles, and metal
 products. The city was founded by the British in 1893. Nearby are the
 18th-cent. ruins of Khami.

   bulb

 bulb, thickened, fleshy plant bud, usually formed below the soil surface,
 which stores food from one blooming season to the next. Bulbs have either
 layers (e.g., onion and hyacinth) or scales (e.g., some lilies).
 Structures that serve similar functions include the TUBER of the potato
 and the RHIZOMES of some irises. All are specialized STEMS.

   Bulfinch, Charles

 Bulfinch, Charles, 1763-1844, American architect; b. Boston. He was
 chairman of the Boston board of selectmen (equivalent to mayor) from 1799
 to 1818. He designed the first theater in New England, the Federal Street
 Theater (1794; now demolished). Remaining are his chief monumental
 works-the statehouse, Boston (1799); University Hall at Harvard (1815);
 and Massachusetts General Hospital (1820). Bulfinch's completion
 (1818-30) of the CAPITOL at Washington inspired state capitol architects
 throughout the U.S.

   Bulfinch, Thomas

 Bulfinch, Thomas, 1796-1867, American author; b. Newton, Mass. He wrote
 works that popularized myth and fable, e.g., The Age of Fables (1855) and
 The Age of Chivalry (1858).

   Bulgakov, Mikhail Afanasyevich

 Bulgakov, Mikhail Afanasyevich, 1891-1940, Russian author. The White
 Guard (1925), a novel, and The Days of the Turbines (1926), a play, are
 about the RUSSIAN REVOLUTION (1917). His masterpiece is The Master and
 Margarita (published in a censored edition in 1967-68; tr. 1967), a
 satiric, philosophical fantasy about Satan's visit to Moscow.

   Bulganin, Nikolai Aleksandrovich

 Bulganin, Nikolai Aleksandrovich, 1895-1975, Soviet leader. He was mayor
 of Moscow (1931-37), chairman of the state bank (1937-41), and defense
 minister under STALIN and MALENKOV, whom he succeeded as premier (1955).
 In 1958, forced from office by KHRUSHCHEV, he was expelled from the
 Communist party central committee.

   Bulgaria

 Bulgaria, officially the People's Republic of Bulgaria, republic (1987
 est. pop. 8,970,000), 42,823 sq mi (110,912 sq km), SE Europe, on the E
 BALKAN PENINSULA. It is bordered by the Black Sea (E), Rumania (N),
 Yugoslavia (W), Greece (S), and European Turkey (SE). SOFIA is the
 capital. Central Bulgaria is traversed from east to west by the Balkan
 Mts.; the Rhodope range, with the country's highest peak, Musala Mt.
 (9,592 ft/ 2,923 m), is in the southwest. The principal river is the
 DANUBE. Bulgaria has been considerably industrialized since World War II,
 but agriculture (chiefly wheat, corn, barley, sugar beets, grapes, and
 livestock) remains the principal occupation. Most of the land was
 collectivized in 1958. The leading industries are food processing,
 engineering, metallurgy, and the production of machinery, chemicals, and
 fertilizers. The population consists chiefly of Bulgars (86%) and Turks
 (9%); the ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH is the predominant religion.

 History In AD 679-80 ancient THRACE and Moesia, site of modern Bulgaria,
 were conquered by Eastern Bulgars, who gradually merged with earlier
 Slavic settlers and adopted their language. The first Bulgarian empire
 was established in 681, introduced to Christianity by BORIS I (r.852-89)
 in 865, at the height of its power under SIMEON I (r.893-927), and
 subjugated by the Byzantines in 1018. The second Bulgarian empire rose in
 1186 and reached its apex under Ivan II (r.1218-41). In 1396 it was
 absorbed by the OTTOMAN EMPIRE, which ruled it for almost five centuries.
 Turkey's suppression of a Bulgarian revolt (1876) was one of the reasons
 for the RUSSO-TURKISH WAR of 1877-78. The Treaty of San Stefano, which
 created a large, autonomous Bulgaria, was revised by the Congress of
 BERLIN, which divided Bulgaria into three parts. In 1908 FERDINAND of
 Saxe-Coburg-Gotha proclaimed Bulgarian independence, with himself as
 czar. The country's borders were changed significantly by the BALKAN
 WARS, and Bulgarian claims in MACEDONIA prompted Bulgaria to side with
 Germany in WORLD WAR I. Under Boris III (r.1918-43) Bulgaria was often in
 political turmoil, and in 1935 Boris established a personal dictatorship.
 In WORLD WAR II Bulgaria again allied (1941) with Germany. The Soviet
 Union occupied the country in 1944, and Communists took over the
 government. The monarchy was abolished, and a republic proclaimed in
 1946. Bulgaria is a member of the WARSAW TREATY ORGANIZATION. It is
 governed by a 1971 constitution that provides for a unicameral national
 assembly, council of state, and cabinet of ministers, but actual power
 resides in the Communist party.

   Bulgarian language

 Bulgarian language, member of the South Slavic group of the Slavic
 subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See LANGUAGE .

   Bulgars, Eastern

 Bulgars, Eastern, Turkic-speaking people who appeared on the middle Volga
 R., E European Russia, by the 8th cent.; also called Volga or Kama
 Bulgars. One branch moved west into Bulgaria and there merged with the
 SLAVS. The Eastern Bulgars accepted ISLAM in the 10th cent. and founded a
 powerful state; it survived the Mongol conquests of 1237 and 1361 but
 disappeared after its capture by the grand duke of Moscow in 1431.

   bulimia

 bulimia: see EATING DISORDERS.

   bull

 bull, letter containing an important pronouncement of the pope. In modern
 times encyclicals (letters to all bishops) are usually used for doctrinal
 statements, whereas bulls are employed for solemn or grave
 pronouncements.

   bulldog

 bulldog, thick-set NONSPORTING DOG; shoulder height, 13-15 in. (33-38.1
 cm); weight, 40-50 lb (18.1-22.7 kg). Its short, flat-lying coat is
 brindle, white, red, or fawn. It has a low-slung body and undershot jaw,
 and was developed in Britain for bullbaiting and pit-fighting.

   bullfighting

 bullfighting, national sport of Spain, also popular in Mexico and other
 Latin American countries. The object is for one of the bullfighters, the
 matador, to kill an untamed bull with a sword in a manner largely
 prescribed by tradition. The matador is assisted by two mounted picadors
 and three capemen on foot (banderilleros), who sting the bull with lances
 and barbed sticks to spur his charge. In the final act, the matador makes
 daring passes at the bull with his cape, or muleta, before thrusting his
 sword between the animal's shoulderblades into the heart. Although a
 matador's performance is often one of grace and beauty, critics have
 denounced bullfighting as an inhumane spectacle. The Portuguese practice
 a style of bullfighting from horseback in which the bull is not killed.

   Bull Moose party

 Bull Moose party: see PROGRESSIVE PARTY.

   Bull Run

 Bull Run, small stream, NE Va., c.30 mi (50 km) SW of Washington, D.C.;
 the site of two Union defeats in the CIVIL WAR. The first battle of Bull
 Run (or Manassas) was the first major clash of the war, on July 21, 1861.
 On July 16, Union Gen. Irvin McDowell began to move on Confederate Gen.
 P.G.T. BEAUREGARD at Manassas Junction. McDowell attacked Beauregard's
 men, who were joined by some forces of Gen. Joseph E. JOHNSTON, near the
 stone bridge over Bull Run and drove them to the Henry House Hill. But
 Confederate Gen. Stonewall JACKSON checked the Union advance and,
 reinforced, routed the raw Union troops. In the second battle of Bull
 Run, Aug. 29-30, 1862, Jackson was attacked by Union Gen. John Pope just
 as Gen. James LONGSTREET arrived with reinforcements; together they twice
 repulsed Pope, who withdrew to Washington. Both battlefields are in
 Manassas National Battlefield Park.

   bull terrier

 bull terrier, large, muscular TERRIER; shoulder height, 19-22 in.
 (48.3-55.9 cm); weight, 30-36 lb (13.6-16.3 kg). Its short, flat-lying,
 harsh coat is glossy white or brindle with white markings. It was
 developed for dogfighting in England c.1835.

   Bulow, Hans Guido, Freiherr von

 Bulow, Hans Guido, Freiherr von, 1830-94, German pianist and conductor.
 He studied with LISZT, married his daughter Cosima (who left him to marry
 Richard WAGNER), and became a champion of BRAHMS. He was the first modern
 virtuoso conductor (see CONDUCTING).

   bulrush

 bulrush: see SEDGE.

   Bultmann, Rudolf Karl

 Bultmann, Rudolf Karl, 1884-1976, German existentialist theologian.
 Influenced by Martin HEIDEGGER, he is best known for his work on the New
 Testament, which he reduced-with the exception of the Passion-to basic
 elements of myth. His approach is termed "demythologization." His classic
 work is Theology of the New Testament (tr. 1951).

   Bulwer-Lytton, Edward George Earle Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton

 Bulwer-Lytton, Edward George Earle Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton, 1803-73,
 English novelist. Best remembered for his popular, extremely
 well-researched historical novels, particularly The Last Days of Pompeii
 (1834) and Rienzi (1835), he also wrote novels of manners and successful
 plays. He served in Parliament and as colonial secretary. His son, Edward
 Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 1st earl of Lytton, pseud. Owen Meredith, 1831-91,
 was a diplomat and poet. He was viceroy of India (1876-80) and, later,
 ambassador to France. His poetry includes Lucile (1860) and the epic
 fantasy King Poppy (1892).

   Bunau-Varilla, Philippe Jean

 Bunau-Varilla, Philippe Jean, 1859-1940, French engineer. He organized
 the company that built the PANAMA CANAL. He was a leader in the
 conspiracy that successfully wrested PANAMA from Colombia. As minister of
 the new Panamanian republic, he negotiated the treaty (1903) that gave
 the U.S. control of the waterway.

   bunchberry

 bunchberry: see DOGWOOD.

   Bunche, Ralph Johnson

 Bunche, Ralph Johnson, 1904-71, U.S. diplomat; b. Detroit. He was (1945)
 the first black to be a division head in the U.S. Dept. of State. He
 entered the UN in 1946 as director of the Trusteeship Division. For his
 work (1947) as principal secretary of the UN Palestine Commission he was
 awarded (1950) the Nobel Peace Prize. He later served as undersecretary
 general for special political affairs (1958-71).

   Bundestag

 Bundestag, lower house of the parliament of the Federal Republic of
 Germany (West Germany). It is a popularly elected body that elects the
 chancellor, passes all legislation, and ratifies the most important
 treaties. It can remove the chancellor by a vote of no confidence, but
 only if it simultaneously elects a new chancellor. The Bundesrat (federal
 council), the upper house, represents the states.

   Bundy, McGeorge

 Bundy, McGeorge, 1919-, U.S. educator and official. The youngest dean
 (1953-61) of the arts and sciences faculty at Harvard, he was special
 assistant (1961-66) for national security to Pres. J.F. KENNEDY and Pres.
 Lyndon JOHNSON, and supervised the National Security Council. A major
 voice in foreign policy, he supported the BAY OF PIGS INVASION (1961) and
 the U.S. military role in the VIETNAM WAR. He served (1966-79) as head of
 the Ford Foundation.

   Bunin, Ivan Alekseyevich

 Bunin, Ivan Alekseyevich, 1870-1953, Russian writer. He came to world
 attention with The Village (1910), a pessimistic novel of peasant life.
 Best known are his short stories, e.g., the title story in the collection
 The Gentleman from San Francisco (1916), an ironic study of vanity and
 death; and his autobiographical novel The Well of Days (1930). An
 aristocrat, he lived in exile after 1919. He received the 1933 Nobel
 Prize in literature.

   Bunker Hill, battle of

 Bunker Hill, battle of, in the AMERICAN REVOLUTION, June 17, 1775;
 actually fought on nearby Breed's Hill, Charlestown, Mass. Colonial
 militia defended the height against Gen. William Howe (see under HOWE,
 RICHARD HOWE, EARL) until their powder gave out. The British victory
 failed to break the Patriots' siege of Boston, and the gallant American
 defense heightened colonial morale and resistance.

   Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm

 Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm, 1811-99, German scientist. A professor (1852-89)
 at Heidelberg, he studied organic compounds of arsenic and developed a
 method of gas analysis from studies on blast furnaces. With Gustav
 KIRCHHOFF he discovered by spectroscopy the elements CESIUM and RUBIDIUM.
 He invented and improved various kinds of laboratory equipment, e.g., the
 Bunsen burner.

   Bunshaft, Gordon

 Bunshaft, Gordon, 1909-, American architect; b. Buffalo. As chief
 designer for the firm of Skidmore, Owings, & Merrill, he was responsible
 for Lever House, New York City's first glass-wall SKYSCRAPER (1952),
 which was widely imitated. Among his other works are the Albright-Knox
 Art Gallery, Buffalo, and the HIRSHHORN MUSEUM, Washington, D.C.

   Bunuel, Luis

 Bunuel, Luis, 1900-1983, Spanish film director. His critical, often
 witty, studies of social hypocrisy include L'Age d'or (1930), Los
 Olvidados (1949), The Exterminating Angel (1962), and That Obscure Object
 of Desire (1977).

   Bunyan, John

 Bunyan, John, 1628-88, English author. A tinker by trade and a
 Parliamentary soldier, he became a Baptist lay preacher and wrote to
 defend his beliefs. Arrested in 1660 for unlicensed preaching, he spent
 12 years in prison. There he wrote his spiritual autobiography, Grace
 Abounding to the Chief of Sinners (1666), and other books. Imprisoned a
 second time, he began his masterpiece, Pilgrim's Progress from This World
 to That Which Is to Come (1678, second part 1684). The allegory of
 Christian's journey from the City of Destruction to the Celestial City is
 written in a prose that unites biblical eloquence with the clarity of
 common speech.

   Bunyan, Paul

 Bunyan, Paul, legendary American lumberjack of fantastic size and
 strength, hero of many "tall tales" popular in the Western timber
 country. His prized possession was the huge Babe the Blue Ox, whose horns
 were 42 ax handles apart.

   Buonaparte

 Buonaparte: see BONAPARTE and NAPOLEON I.

   Buonarroti, Michelangelo

 Buonarroti, Michelangelo: see MICHELANGELO BUONARROTI.

   Buoninsegna, Duccio di

 Buoninsegna, Duccio di: see DUCCIO DE BUONINSEGNA.

   buoyancy

 buoyancy: see ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE.

   Burbage, Richard

 Burbage, Richard, 1567?-1619, first great English actor. He originated
 the title roles in SHAKESPEARE'S Hamlet, King Lear, Othello, and Richard
 III. He also acted in the premieres of many plays by Thomas KYD, BEAUMONT
 and FLETCHER, Ben JONSON, and John WEBSTER.

   Burbank, Luther

 Burbank, Luther, 1849-1926, American plant breeder; b. Lancaster, Mass.
 He developed many new varieties of fruits, vegetables, and flowers,
 including the Burbank potato and the famous Shasta daisy. His methods and
 results are described in his books How Plants Are Trained to Work for Man
 (1921) and, with Wilbur Hall, Harvest of the Years (1927) and Partners of
 Nature (1939).

   Burbidge, (Eleanor) Margaret

 Burbidge, (Eleanor) Margaret, 1925-, Anglo-American astronomer. She was
 (1972-73) the first woman appointed director of the Royal Greenwich
 Observatory and was named (1982) president of the American Association
 for the Advancement of Science. Burbidge; her husband, Geoffrey Burbidge;
 William Fowler; and Sir Fred Hoyle showed (1956) how heavier elements can
 be built up from lighter ones in the interiors of stars.

   Burckhardt, Jacob Christoph

 Burckhardt, Jacob Christoph, 1818-97, Swiss historian, one of the
 founders of the cultural interpretation of history. His Civilization of
 the Renaissance in Italy (1860) remains the great classic on the
 Renaissance. He influenced his friend NIETZSCHE and the work of J.A.
 SYMONDS.

   Burgess, Anthony

 Burgess, Anthony, 1917-, English novelist. Of his surreal, darkly comic
 novels, the best known is the futuristic thriller A Clockwork Orange
 (1962). Others include Inside Mr. Enderby (1961), MF (1971), and Earthly
 Powers (1980).

   Burghley

 Burghleyor Burleigh, William Cecil, 1st Baron, 1520-98, English
 statesman. He was chief adviser to ELIZABETH I, whom he served faithfully
 for 40 years-as her chief spokesman in Parliament (1558-98) and as
 secretary (1558-72) and lord treasurer (1572-98). A supporter of the
 Anglican church, he suppressed Catholic revolts and convinced Elizabeth
 to execute MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS.

   Burgoyne, John

 Burgoyne, John, 1722-92, British general. A hero of the SEVEN YEARS WAR,
 he was elected to Parliament in 1761. In the AMERICAN REVOLUTION he led a
 poorly equipped army in the SARATOGA CAMPAIGN and surrendered (Oct.
 1777).

   Burgundy

 Burgundy, historic region, E France. Dijon is the historic capital.
 Burgundy, centered in the fertile Saone and upper Rhone river valleys, is
 famous for its fine wines. The Burgundii, a tribe from Savoy, conquered
 (c.480) the area from Rome and established the First Kingdom of Burgundy,
 comprising SE France and W Switzerland. Burgundy was partitioned after it
 fell (534) to the Franks, but it was later united to form (933) the
 kingdom of ARLES. The duchy of Burgundy, roughly the area of the present
 region, was created in 877. In 1364 JOHN II of France bestowed it upon
 his son, PHILIP THE BOLD. Under Philip and his successors, JOHN THE
 FEARLESS, PHILIP THE GOOD, and CHARLES THE BOLD, Burgundy became a great
 power and acquired vast territory, including much of the Low Countries.
 After the accession (1477) of MARY OF BURGUNDY, most of Burgundy's
 possessions came under HAPSBURG rule; the duchy itself was incorporated
 into France.

   Burke, Edmund

 Burke, Edmund, 1729-97, British political writer and statesman; b.
 Ireland. He was a member of Samuel JOHNSON'S literary circle. His early
 writings concerned aesthetics and philosophy. In 1765 he became private
 secretary to the marquess of Rockingham (then prime minister) and entered
 Parliament. In Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents (1770) he
 was the first to argue the value of political parties. As a member of
 Parliament he called for conciliation with the American colonists and
 warned against taxing them excessively. Attempting to reform the British
 EAST INDIA COMPANY in the 1780s, he instigated the impeachment of Warren
 HASTINGS, governor general of India, on corruption charges. His most
 famous work, Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), expresses
 his opposition to the Revolution. Burke's writings greatly influenced
 19th-cent. conservative political theory.

   Burke, Kenneth

 Burke, Kenneth, 1897-1986, American literary critic; b. Pittsburgh. A
 writer and music critic, he was known as a theorist of literary forms. He
 believed that literature is a form of "symbolic action," and his insights
 drew on data from the social sciences. His writings include A Grammar of
 Motives (1945) and A Rhetoric of Motives (1950).

   Burkina Faso

 Burkina Faso, formerly Upper Volta, republic (1987 est. pop. 8,330,000),
 105,869 sq mi (274,200 sq km), W Africa, bordered by Mali (W and N),
 Niger (NE), Benin (SE), and Togo, Ghana, and Ivory Coast (S). The capital
 is OUAGADOUGOU. The country is made up of vast, semidesert plains except
 in the southwest, where the low hills are covered by savanna. Rainfall is
 sparse, and the soil is of poor quality. Burkina Faso is an impoverished
 agricultural nation, with the great majority of its work force engaged in
 subsistence farming or stock-raising. Cotton, oilseeds, karite nuts, live
 animals, meat, and hides are exported. Large reserves of manganese,
 limestone, phosphates, and bauxite have not been fully exploited. The
 country is economically dependent on foreign aid and on remittances from
 some 500,000 Burkina Faso citizens who work in Ivory Coast and Ghana. The
 population consists of black Africans, of whom the Mossi is the largest
 ethnic group. French is the official language. Most people adhere to
 traditional religious beliefs, but there are about a million Muslims and
 220,000 Roman Catholics.

 History Mossi invaders from present-day Ghana conquered the region around
 AD 1100 and, although far outnumbered by their subjects, created powerful
 states that endured for more than 500 years. France gained control of the
 country in the 1890s, administering it as part of Soudan until 1919, when
 it became a separate protectorate. The country gained full independence
 in 1960. The new nation has alternated between civilian and military
 governments. A new democratic constitution was adopted in 1978, but coups
 in 1980 and 1982 reinstated military rule. The name of the nation was
 changed from Upper Volta in 1984.

   Burleigh, William Cecil, 1st Baron

 Burleigh, William Cecil, 1st Baron: see BURGHLEY.

   burlesque

 burlesque [Ital.,=mockery; from the burleschi of Francesco Berni, a
 16th-cent. Italian poet], an entertainment that, unlike COMEDY or FARCE,
 works by caricature, ridicule, and distortion, but, unlike SATIRE, has no
 ethical element. Early English burlesque often ridiculed celebrated
 literary works or sentimental drama, e.g., GAY'S Beggar's Opera (1728).
 Extravaganza and burletta were similar to burlesque; the latter was a
 musical production. American burlesque (from 1865) began as a variety
 show characterized by vulgar dialogue and broad humor; Al JOLSON, Fanny
 Brice, and W.C. FIELDS were famous stars. By 1920 the term had come to
 mean a "strip-tease" show. Burlesque fell victim to the popularity of
 nightclubs, movies, and television.

   Burlington

 Burlington, town (1985 pop. 115,593), SE Ontario, Canada, part of the
 regional municipality of Halton (1979 est. pop. 234,892). Located on Lake
 ONTARIO, it is part of the rapidly growing lakefront industrial area
 between TORONTO and HAMILTON.

   Burlington

 Burlington, city (1980 pop. 37,712), seat of Chittenden co., NW Vt., on
 Lake Champlain; settled 1773, inc. 1865. The largest city in Vermont, it
 has such manufactures as missiles and ordnance parts, data-processing
 machinery, and wood and steel products. During the WAR OF 1812, the city
 was the target of an abortive British naval attack. The Univ. of Vermont
 is in Burlington.

   Burma

 Burma, officially the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma, republic
 (1986 est. pop. 39,411,000), 261,789 sq mi (678,033 sq km), SE Asia,
 bordered by India, Bangladesh, and the Bay of Bengal (W), China (N and
 NE), Laos and Thailand (E), and the Andaman Sea (S). Principal cities
 include RANGOON, the capital, and MANDALAY. Except for the centrally
 located IRRAWADDY valley and delta, where most of the people live, the
 terrain is mountainous. The climate is mostly tropical monsoonal. About
 65% of the labor force is employed in agriculture (mostly rice
 cultivation) and forestry (especially teak and rubber production). Rich
 mineral resources, not fully exploited, include petroleum, tin, copper,
 zinc, and coal. The nationalized industrial sector is small but
 expanding. Burma's developing economy, depressed by past political
 turmoil, began to make a recovery in the 1980s. Burmans, a Mongoloid
 people, constitute about 70% of the predominantly rural population;
 important minorities are the Karens, Shans, Kachins, Chins, Indians,
 Chinese, and Bangladeshi. The majority is Buddhist. The official language
 is Burmese, but more than 100 distinct languages are spoken.

 History The Burmans established a kingdom in Upper Burma in the 9th cent.
 Under King Anawrahta, who introduced Hinayana Buddhism, they gained (11th
 cent.) supremacy over the rival Mon kingdom and the Irrawaddy delta. The
 Burmese capital, Pagan, fell (1287) to the Mongols, and the area was then
 divided among local rulers. The Burmese Toungoo dynasty united the area
 in the 16th cent. A resurgence (18th cent.) of Mon rule was checked
 (1758) by Alaungapaya, who extended Burmese influence. During three
 Anglo-Burmese Wars (1824-26, 1852, 1885) Burma was annexed piecemeal to
 British India and did not receive limited self-government until 1937.
 Occupied by Japan in World War II, Burma achieved complete independence
 in 1948, with U NU as prime minister. Economic chaos and opposition by
 insurgent minorities plagued the new government, and in 1958 leadership
 passed to Gen. NE WIN who restored order. U Nu was returned to power in
 1960, but conditions continued to deteriorate, and in 1962 Ne Win staged
 a successful military coup. A new constitution, making Burma a one-party
 socialist republic, was adopted in 1974. In 1981 Ne Win resigned the
 presidency but retained party leadership. In 1988, after continued
 popular protest, insurgent activity, and several leadership changes, U
 Maung Maung Kha was named president.

   Burma Road

 Burma Road, road extending c.700 mi (1,150 km) from Kunming, Yunnan prov,
 S China, to Lashio, a railhead in Burma. A major feat of engineering, it
 was built (1937-38) over mountainous terrain by the Chinese. It achieved
 its greatest importance during WORLD WAR II, when Japan controlled the E
 Asian coast and it served as a vital artery for the transport of Allied
 military supplies to China.

   Burmese

 Burmese, language belonging to the Tibeto-Burman subfamily of the
 Sino-Tibetan family of languages. See LANGUAGE .

   Burmese cat

 Burmese cat: see under CAT.

   burn

 burn, injury resulting from exposure to heat, electricity, radiation, or
 caustic chemicals. First-degree burns, characterized by simple reddening
 of the skin, can be treated locally with ice baths and ointments.
 Second-degree burns, characterized by formation of blisters, may require
 the care of a doctor to prevent infection. Third-degree burns, with
 destruction of upper and lower SKIN layers, are serious and often fatal;
 they require prompt medical attention to reduce pain and prevent SHOCK
 and infection. BLOOD TRANSFUSION maybe necessary to replace body fluids;
 long-term treatment may include TRANSPLANTATION of natural or artificial
 skin grafts.

   Burne-Jones, Sir Edward

 Burne-Jones, Sir Edward, 1833-98, English painter and decorator. A
 PRE-RAPHAELITE and lifelong friend of William MORRIS, he described a
 dreamlike, medieval world in such popular paintings as King Cophetua and
 the Beggar Maid (1884; Tate Gall., London) and Depths of the Sea
 (Birmingham Gall.).

   Burnet, Sir Macfarlane

 Burnet, Sir Macfarlane, 1899-1985, Australian virologist and physician.
 An expert on viruses, he contributed to the understanding of influenza
 and the development of immunity against it. For work in immunological
 tolerances, specifically the reactions of the body to the transplantation
 of foreign living tissues, he shared with Peter MEDAWAR the 1960 Nobel
 Prize in physiology or medicine.

   Burnett, Frances Eliza Hodgson

 Burnett, Frances Eliza Hodgson, 1849-1924, American author; b. England.
 She is known for her children's books, particularly Little Lord
 Fauntleroy (1886).

   Burney, Fanny

 Burney, Fanny, later Madame D'Arblay, 1752-1840, English novelist.
 Evelina (1778) made her famous, and she became part of Samuel JOHNSON'S
 circle. She later wrote Cecilia (1782), Camilla (1796), and The Wanderer
 (1814). Her theme is the entry into society and the coming of age of a
 virtuous, inexperienced young girl. Burney's diaries and letters vividly
 depict English society from 1768 to 1840.

   Burnham, Daniel Hudson

 Burnham, Daniel Hudson, 1846-1912, American architect and city planner;
 b. Henderson, N.Y. With John W. Root, he built many major buildings in
 Chicago. The 20-story Masonic Temple Building (1892) was the first
 important skeleton SKYSCRAPER. Other projects included the "Rookery," the
 first suitably planned modern office building. Other works include the
 Flatiron Building, N.Y.C., and Union Station, Washington, D.C. Burnham
 and Root designed the greatly influential general plan for the 1893
 Columbian Exposition at Chicago.

   Burns, Arthur F.

 Burns, Arthur F., 1904-87, American economist; b. Austria. While teaching
 at Rutgers (1927-44) and Columbia Univ. (1944-59), he was associated
 (from 1933) with the National Bureau of Economic Research (president,
 1957-67), where he did important work in analyzing business cycles. He
 served as chairman (1953-56) of the Council of Economic Advisers under
 Pres. Eisenhower and economic counselor (1969-70) to Pres. Nixon. As
 chairman (1970-78) of the board of governors of the FEDERAL RESERVE
 SYSTEM, he advocated fiscal and monetary restraint. He later (1981-85)
 served as ambassador to West Germany.

   Burns, George

 Burns, George, 1896-, b. N.Y.C. as Nathan Birnbaum, and Gracie Allen,
 1906-64, b. San Francisco, American comedy team (1923-58). On radio
 (1932-50) and television (1950-58) and in films, they played an endlessly
 patient husband and scatterbrained wife. For his role in The Sunshine
 Boys (1975) Burns won an Academy Award.

   Burns, Robert

 Burns, Robert, 1759-96, Scottish poet. Raised on a farm, as a boy he read
 Scottish poetry, as well as POPE, LOCKE, and SHAKESPEARE. He wrote early
 but did not publish until, in 1786, hoping to emigrate to Jamaica, he
 sold Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect, which became an immediate
 success. Burns did not emigrate and spent the rest of his life in
 Scotland, failing as a farmer but producing hundreds of songs, among them
 "Flow Gently, Sweet Afton," "My Heart's in the Highlands," "Auld Lang
 Syne," and "Comin' thro' the Rye." Burns is noted for his humor and
 humanitarianism, and for the descriptive power he brings to bear on
 Scottish rural life. His use of dialect brought needed freshness into
 English poetry, but his scope far exceeds his apparent regionalism.

   Burr, Aaron

 Burr, Aaron, 1756-1836, American political leader; b. Newark, N.J. After
 service in the AMERICAN REVOLUTION, he was (1791-97) U.S. senator from
 New York. He tied with Thomas JEFFERSON in the presidential election of
 1800. Through the efforts of Alexander HAMILTON, the House of
 Representatives named Jefferson president and Burr vice president.
 Hamilton's hostility also figured in Burr's defeat (1804) for governor of
 N.Y. His political career ended when he mortally wounded Hamilton in a
 duel. Burr plotted with Gen. James WILKINSON to colonize the Southwest
 and was tried (1807) for treason; he was found not guilty and retired
 from public life.

   Burroughs, Edgar Rice

 Burroughs, Edgar Rice, 1875-1950, American novelist. He wrote Tarzan of
 the Apes (1914) and many other thrillers.

   bursitis

 bursitis, acute or chronic inflammation of a bursa, a fluid-filled sac
 located close to a joint. Caused by infection, injury, or diseases like
 ARTHRITIS and GOUT, the inflammation produces pain, tenderness, and
 restricted motion. Treatment includes rest, application of heat, use of
 ANALGESICS and other drugs, and occasionally surgery.

   Burton, Richard

 Burton, Richard, 1925-84, Anglo-American actor; b. Wales as Richard
 Jenkins. He starred in Shakespeare plays; in the musical Camelot (1960,
 1980); and in films, e.g., The Robe (1953) and Becket (1964).

   Burton, Sir Richard Francis

 Burton, Sir Richard Francis, 1821-90, English explorer, linguist, and
 writer. Fluent in Arabic, he journeyed (1853) in disguise to the
 forbidden cities of MECCA and MEDINA. In 1858 he and J.H. SPEKE tried
 unsuccessfully to find the source of the NILE R. In 1865 he explored
 Santos, in Brazil. His works include a translation of the Arabian Nights
 (1885-88).

   Burton, Robert

 Burton, Robert, 1577-1640, English clergyman and scholar. His Anatomy of
 Melancholy (1621), on the causes and effects of melancholy, ranged widely
 into social and historical questions in an idiosyncratic, anecdotal
 style.

   Burundi

 Burundi, officially Republic of Burundi, republic, (1987 est. pop.
 5,001,000), 10,747 sq mi (27,834 sq km), E central Africa, formerly part
 of Ruanda-Urundi, bordered by Rwanda (N), Tanzania (E), Lake Tanganyika
 (SW), and Zaire (W). BUJUMBURA is the capital. The three main geographic
 zones are a narrow area, part of the GREAT RIFT VALLEY, in the west; a
 central region of mountains reaching a height of c.8,800 ft (2,680 m);
 and, in the east, an area of broken plateaus and somewhat lower
 elevations (c.4,500-6,000 ft/ 1,370-1,830 m), where most of the people
 live. Burundi is one of the smallest, most densely populated, and poorest
 countries in Africa. It relies almost exclusively on coffee for its
 income. Deposits of nickel and vanadium could be important in the future.
 The two main ethnic groups are the Hutu (about 85% of the population) and
 the Tutsi (about 14%), who, despite their relatively small numbers,
 dominate the government and maintain a virtual lord-serf relationship
 with the Hutu. The remaining 1% are the Twa, who are PYGMIES. French and
 Kurundi are the official languages. About half the people are Christian
 (mostly Roman Catholic); the rest follow traditional religions.

 History The original inhabitants, the Twa (Pygmies), were followed
 (c.1200) and then outnumbered by the Hutu, who in turn gave way to the
 migrating Tutsi in the 15th cent. By the 19th cent. the Tutsi had
 established dominance, and a Tutsi king (mwami) ruled the country. In
 1890 Burundi was incorporated into German East Africa. During WORLD WAR I
 it was occupied by Belgian forces, and in 1919 it became part of the
 Belgian League of Nations mandate of RUANDA-URUNDI (made a UN trust
 territory in 1946). Burundi became an independent kingdom in 1962, but
 the monarchy was overthrown in 1966 and a military republic established.
 The years following independence have been marked by bitter fighting
 between the Tutsi and Hutu, resulting in thousands of Hutu deaths in the
 1970s. The early 1980s saw reduced military influence and efforts at
 Tutsi-Hutu reconciliation, but a military coup in 1987 brought Maj.
 Pierre Buyoya to power, and in 1988 there were serious ethnic clashes.

   Bush, George Herbert Walker

 Bush, George Herbert Walker, 1924-, 41st president of the U.S. (1989-);
 b. Milton, Mass. A graduate of Yale Univ., he was a Navy fighter pilot in
 World War II and after 1953 headed an oil drilling firm in Texas. In 1966
 he began the first of two terms in the U.S. House of Representatives. He
 was ambassador to the UN (1971-73), chairman of the Republican National
 Committee (1973-74), chief of the U.S. liaison office in China (1974-75),
 and director of the CIA (1976-77). After losing the 1980 Republican
 presidential nomination to Ronald REAGAN, Bush served as vice president
 (1981-88). In 1988, Bush and his running mate Daniel Quayle defeated
 Michael DUKAKIS in the presidential election.

   Bush, Vannevar

 Bush, Vannevar, 1890-1974, American electrical engineer and physicist; b.
 Everett, Mass. While professor and dean of engineering at the
 Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1923-38), Bush designed the
 differential analyzer, an early computer. During World War II, he led the
 U.S. Office of Scientific Research and Development, directing such
 programs as the development of the first atomic bomb.

   bushbuck

 bushbuck: see ANTELOPE.

   Bushmen

 Bushmen, people who live in the Kalahari Desert region of Namibia and
 Botswana. Most are nomadic hunters and food-gatherers like their
 ancestors, but some work on cattle ranches or farms. Numbering about
 50,000, they travel in small groups of 25-60 and have no social classes
 and few private possessions. Their languages include clicking sounds that
 are rarely found in other languages.

   Bushnell, Horace

 Bushnell, Horace, 1802-76, American Congregational minister; b. Bantam,
 Conn. As pastor of the North Church, Hartford, Conn. (1833-59), he
 repudiated the austerity of Calvinism and stressed the divine in humanity
 and nature. He had profound influence on liberal Protestant thought.

   bushrangers

 bushrangers, bandits who terrorized the bush country of Australia in the
 19th cent. The first bushrangers were mainly escaped convicts; later
 outlaws preyed on gold convoys. Ned Kelly (d. 1880) was one of the last
 bushrangers.

   busing

 busing, in the U.S., transporting students from one area to another to
 achieve racial balance in schools. This policy grew out of the U.S.
 Supreme Court's decision in BROWN V. BOARD OF EDUCATION (1954), declaring
 public school desegregation unconstitutional. Proponents argue that
 busing is often the only way to achieve integration; opponents argue that
 children should be able to attend local neighborhood schools. See also
 INTEGRATION.

   Busoni, Ferruccio Benvenuto

 Busoni, Ferruccio Benvenuto, 1866-1924, Italian pianist and composer.
 Influenced by LISZT, he taught widely, transcribed J.S. BACH'S organ
 works for piano, edited Bach's Well-tempered Clavier, and composed piano
 music.

   Bustamante, Sir Alexander

 Bustamante, Sir Alexander, 1884-1977, Jamaican politician. Of Irish and
 black descent, he founded the country's largest trade union and (1943)
 the Jamaica Labour party. He served as chief minister (1953-55) and was
 prime minister from 1962, the year Jamaica gained independence within the
 British Commonwealth, until 1967. He launched an ambitious program of
 public works and land reform.

   Bustamante, Antonio Sanchez de

 Bustamante, Antonio Sanchez de, 1865-1951, Cuban jurist. He was a member
 of the HAGUE TRIBUNAL (from 1908) and a judge of the WORLD COURT
 (1921-39). Bustamante also served as president of the Pan American
 Congress (1928), which ratified his monumental code of private
 international law pertaining to the security of person and property.

   Buthelezi, Gatsha

 Buthelezi, Gatsha, (1928-), chief minister of the Zulu homeland. His
 Inkatha movement, which claims a membership of 900,000, is South Africa's
 largest black political group. He works within the current system of
 APARTHEID and is willing to accept a political solution to apartheid
 based on tribalism instead of a one-adult-one-vote policy. Militant black
 leaders claim that his policy would allow the South African government to
 minimize the political influence of blacks.

   Butler, Benjamin Franklin

 Butler, Benjamin Franklin, 1818-93, American politician and Union CIVIL
 WAR general; b. Deerfield, N.H. He was made military governor of NEW
 ORLEANS (1862), but his harsh rule caused his removal. He commanded
 (1864) the Union expedition to seize Fort Fisher, N.C., but it failed,
 and he was removed from command. As a U.S. representative from
 Massachusetts he favored the radical Republican policy of RECONSTRUCTION
 and led the impeachment proceedings against Pres. Andrew JOHNSON.

   Butler, Nicholas Murray

 Butler, Nicholas Murray, 1862-1947, American educator; b. Elizabeth, N.J.
 As president of the Industrial Education Association (1886) he helped
 found the institution that became Teachers College, Columbia Univ.
 Instrumental in the expansion of Columbia College into Columbia Univ., he
 was president from 1902 to 1945 and instituted the school of journalism,
 the medical center, and other units. An advocate of peace through
 education, he established the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
 (president 1925-45), and shared the 1931 Nobel Peace Prize with Jane
 ADDAMS.

   Butler, Samuel

 Butler, Samuel, 1612-80, English poet and satirist. His best-known work
 is Hudibras (in three parts-1663, 1664, 1678), a venomous satire against
 the Puritans given as the mock-heroic story of the "Presbyterian knight,"
 Sir Hudibras.

   Butler, Samuel

 Butler, Samuel, 1835-1902, English author, painter, and composer. After
 amassing a fortune in New Zealand as a sheep rancher, he returned to
 England, where he did work in the arts and in biology. He is best known
 as a writer. Erewhon, a novel in which he satirized English social and
 economic injustices, appeared in 1872 and Erewhon Revisited in 1901. His
 ironic, witty attack on Victorian life, the autobiographical The Way of
 All Flesh (1903), is ranked among the great English novels.

   Butor, Michel

 Butor, Michel, 1926-, French novelist. His experimental novels use
 shifting time sequences and the interior monologue. They include Passage
 to Milan (1954), Degrees (1960), and Third Below (1977).

   Butte

 Butte, city (1986 est. pop. 33,380), seat of Silver Bow co., SW Mont.;
 inc. 1879. The mining industry has dominated the city since its founding
 (1862). Copper is the major resource; others are silver, zinc, manganese,
 gold, lead, and arsenic. Copper was discovered c.1880, and the Anaconda
 Copper company began to exploit it. Its giant open-pit mine forced
 relocation of one fifth of the city. However, a slump in the metals
 industry caused the company to abandon (1982) the mine, precipitating an
 economic crisis in the area.

   butte

 butte, an isolated hill with steep sides and a flat top, resulting from
 the more rapid erosion of the surrounding areas. Many occur in the plains
 of the W U.S. See MESA.

   butter

 butter, dairy product obtained by churning milk or cream until its fat
 solidifies. Cow's milk is generally the basis for butter, but milk from
 goats, sheep, and mares has also been used. Butter was known by 2000 BC,
 and as it became a staple food various kinds of hand churns were
 developed. Traditional butter-making involves cooling milk in pans,
 allowing the cream to rise and skimming it off, letting the cream ripen
 by natural fermentation, then churning it. Farm-made until 1850, butter
 has since then increasingly become a factory product. Commercially made
 butter usually contains 80% to 85% milk fat, 12% to 16% water, and 2%
 salt. Butter without salt is known as sweet butter. The world's leading
 butter producers are the USSR, France, West Germany, the U.S., and India.
 Clarified butter (butterfat with milk solids removed) is widely used in
 Egypt and in India, where it is known as ghee. The high dietary value of
 butter is due to its large proportion of easily digested fat and its
 vitamin A and vitamin D content.

   butter-and-eggs

 butter-and-eggs, perennial plant (Linaria vulgaris) of the figwort
 family, originally native to Europe but now common in the U.S. It has
 small, snapdragonlike flowers of yellow and orange and is consequently
 also known as wild snapdragon. Other yellow and orange flowers are
 sometimes called butter-and-eggs.

   buttercup

 buttercup or crowfoot,common name for the Ranuncula-ceae, a family of
 chiefly annual or perennial herbs of cool regions of the Northern
 Hemisphere. Primitive plants, they typically have a simple flower
 structure. The buttercups and crowfoots comprise the largest genus
 (Ranunculus). Found mainly in the arctic, north temperate, and alpine
 regions, most have glossy yellow flowers and deeply cut leaves. A dozen
 or more species are common in every part of the U.S. The family also
 includes many other wildflowers and cultivated ornamentals. Some of these
 are the ANEMONE, CLEMATIS, COLUMBINE, LARKSPUR, and PEONY.

   butterfly

 butterfly, flying INSECT that with the MOTH comprises the order
 Lepidoptera. Butterflies have coiled, sucking mouthparts; two pairs of
 wings that function as one; and antennae with knobs at the tips. Most
 feed on nectar from flowers and are active by day. The butterfly larva
 (caterpillar) is transformed into a pupa (chrysalis) with a hardened
 outer integument within which it changes into the adult (see
 METAMORPHOSIS). Adults of most species live only about a month.

   butternut

 butternut: see WALNUT.

   buttonwood

 buttonwood: see PLANE TREE.

   buttress

 buttress, mass of masonry built against a wall to strengthen it,
 particularly when a vault or arch places a heavy load or thrust on one
 section. The decorative possibilities were known in Mesopotamia
 (3500-3000 BC). In larger Roman buildings, internal buttresses served as
 partitions; the basilica of Constantine in Rome is typical. Buttresses
 evolved from simple 11th-cent. piers to bold and complex Gothic
 structures. The flying buttress, a masonry arch, abutted the wall of a
 building. Buttresses were often enriched with gables and sculpture;
 pinnacles were added to increase their weight. In cathedrals like
 Notre-Dame de Paris, buttresses express the elasticity and equilibrium of
 Gothic architecture.

   Buxtehude, Dietrich

 Buxtehude, Dietrich, 1637-1707, Swedish composer and organist. From 1668
 he was organist at Lubeck, where his concerts attracted musicians from
 all over Germany, including J.S. BACH, whom he greatly influenced.

   buzzard

 buzzard, HAWK of the genera Buteo and Pernis. Honey buzzards (Pernis)
 feed on insects, wasp and bumblebee larvae, and small reptiles. The term
 buzzard is often incorrectly applied to various hawks and New World
 VULTURES.

   Byelorussia

 Byelorussia: see BELORUSSIA.

   Byng, Julian Hedworth George, 1st Viscount Byng of Vimy

 Byng, Julian Hedworth George, 1st Viscount Byng of Vimy, 1862-1935,
 British general. In WORLD WAR I Canadian troops under his command stormed
 (1917) Vimy Ridge, in N France. He was later governor general of Canada
 (1921-26).

   Bynkershoek, Cornelius van

 Bynkershoek, Cornelius van, 1673-1743, Dutch writer on INTERNATIONAL LAW.
 He is best known for his classic De dominio maris (1702), on maritime
 law.

   Bynner, Witter

 Bynner, Witter, 1881-1968, American poet; b. Brooklyn, N.Y. Adept at
 mimicking other writers and cultures, he was coauthor of the poetic
 parody Spectra (1916) and cotranslator (from the Chinese) of The Jade
 Mountain (1929). He wrote several volumes of lyric poetry, as well as
 plays and essays.

   Byrd, Richard Evelyn

 Byrd, Richard Evelyn, 1888-1957, American explorer; b. Winchester, Va. He
 was a naval flier. In 1926 he and Floyd Bennett became the first men to
 fly over the NORTH POLE. Byrd is remembered mainly for his five
 expeditions to ANTARCTICA: 1930, 1933, 1939-40, 1946-47, 1955-56. He was
 promoted to rear admiral in 1930 and set up a base in Antarctica; from
 there he conducted major explorations. In 1933 he spent several months
 close to the South Pole alone; Discovery (1935) and Alone (1938) are
 records of this trip. He was made commander of all U.S. Antarctic
 activities in 1955. His explorations form the basis of U.S. claims in
 Antarctica.

   Byrd, Robert Carlyle

 Byrd, Robert Carlyle, 1917-, U.S. senator from W.Va. (1959-); b. North
 Wilkesboro, N.C., as Cornelius Calvin Sale, Jr. Before entering the
 Senate, he served (1953-59) in the U.S. House of Representatives. In 1971
 he defeated Sen. Edward KENNEDY for the position of Senate majority whip
 and was later Senate minority leader (1980-87) and Senate majority leader
 (1977-79, 1987-88).

   Byrd, William

 Byrd, William, 1674-1744, American colonial writer and official. After
 inheriting extensive lands in Virginia, he served in the house of
 burgesses and as a Virginia council member. In 1737 he had the city that
 was to be Richmond laid out on one of his estates. He kept wise and witty
 journals and diaries, excerpts from which were published posthumously. At
 his death he left a library of some 4,000 volumes at his Westover estate.

   Byrne, Jane

 Byrne, Jane, 1934-, American politician; b. Chicago as Jane Margaret
 Burke. She was city consumer sales commissioner (1968-77) under Mayor
 Richard DALEY before being elected (1979) the first woman mayor of
 Chicago. Under Byrne, the city faced severe financial problems.

   Byrnes, James Francis

 Byrnes, James Francis, 1879-1972, American public official; b.
 Charleston, S.C. A Democrat, he served in the House of Representatives
 (1911-25); in the Senate (1931-41), where he advised on the NEW DEAL
 budget; and on the Supreme Court (1941-42). He headed several wartime
 agencies. As secretary of state (1945-47), Byrnes tried to mend postwar
 differences with the USSR, but later became extremely anti-Soviet. As
 governor (1951-55) of South Carolina, he opposed racial integration.

   Byron, George Gordon Noel Byron, 6th Baron

 Byron, George Gordon Noel Byron, 6th Baron, 1788-1824, one of the great
 English romantic poets. In his life and in his poetry, Lord Byron
 epitomizes ROMANTICISM. Born with a clubfoot, he grew to be a dark,
 handsome man, beloved by, but contemptuous of, women. When an early work,
 Hours of Idleness (1807), was ridiculed by the Edinburgh Review, he
 replied with English Bards and Scotch Reviewers (1809), a satire that
 made him famous. His many love affairs before and after his ill-fated
 marriage (1815-16) to Anne Isabella Milbanke (notably with Lady Caroline
 Lamb, wife of Viscount MELBOURNE, and Claire Clairmont, SHELLEY'S
 sister-in-law) made him notorious. Byron settled in Venice in 1817. After
 wandering restlessly about Europe, he died working for Greek
 independence. Byron's writings include long romances and stories in
 verse, e.g., Childe Harold (1812-18), The Bride of Abydos (1813), The
 Corsair (1814), Manfred (1817), Beppo (1818), and Mazeppa (1819); shorter
 works such as The Prisoner of Chillon; and lyrics. His masterpiece is Don
 Juan (1819-24), an epic-satire.

   byte

 byte: see COMPUTER.

   Byzantine art and architecture

 Byzantine art and architecture include not only works done in the city of
 Byzantium after it became the capital of the Roman Empire (AD 330), but
 also work done under Byzantine influence, as in Italy, Syria, Greece,
 Russia, and other Eastern countries. A blend of Hellenistic and Oriental
 traditions, Byzantine art emphasized decorativeness and flat line
 harmony. Except for the interruption of ICONOCLASM (726-843), when
 content was restricted to ornamental forms and symbols such as the cross,
 the style persisted until the fall of CONSTANTINOPLE in 1453. The
 pillaging of Constantinople in 1204 was followed by a late flowering of
 Byzantine art that brought impressive achievements in MOSAIC decoration.
 Mosaics depicting sacred personages placed in descending order of
 importance were applied to all available surfaces in Byzantine churches.
 The stylized gestures of the figures and luminous shimmer of the gold
 backgrounds made the entire church a tangible evocation of celestial
 order. The cult of icons (see ICONOGRAPHY) also played a leading role in
 Byzantine art. The icons were made using the ENCAUSTIC technique. Little
 scope was given to individuality since the effectiveness of the image was
 held to depend on its fidelity to prototype. A large group of icons has
 been preserved in the monastery of St. Catherine on Mt. Sinai. The
 development of Byzantine painting can also be seen in manuscript
 ILLUMINATION, e.g., the 9th cent. Homilies of Gregory Nazianzus and the
 10th-cent. Paris Psalter. Byzantine enamel, ivory, and metalwork objects
 such as reliquaries, devotional panels, and ivory caskets were highly
 prized throughout the Middle Ages. Byzantine architecture was based on
 the great legacy of Roman formal and technical achievements. The 5th
 cent. BASILICA of St. John of the Studion is the oldest extant church in
 Constantinople and an early example of Byzantine reliance on traditional
 Roman models. The most imposing example of Byzantine architecture is the
 Church of Holy Wisdom (HAGIA SOPHIA), which is the culmination of several
 centuries of experimentation with a unified space of monumental
 dimensions. These centrally planned religious structures were greatly
 favored and had in common a central domed space flanked by smaller domes
 and half-domes spanning the peripheral spaces. Two of the great
 achievements of Byzantine architecture are the Italian octagonal church
 of San Vitale in Ravenna (547) and ST. MARK'S CHURCH in Venice. In its
 later phases, the Byzantine prototype became more ornate, e.g., the
 Moscow Cathedral. Byzantine secular architecture has left few traces.
 Best known are the ruins of the 5th-cent. walls of Constantinople,
 consisting of an outer and an inner wall, each of which was originally
 studded with 96 towers, of which some can still be seen.

   Byzantine Empire

 Byzantine Empire, successor state to the Roman Empire (see ROME), also
 called the Eastern or East Roman Empire. It was named for ancient
 Byzantium, which CONSTANTINE I rebuilt in AD 330 as his capital,
 Constantinople. The Roman Empire split permanently (395) into East and
 West, but after the Western Empire fell (476) the Eastern Empire claimed
 the entire Roman world. Boundaries shifted, but the core of the Byzantine
 Empire was ASIA MINOR and the S BALKAN PENINSULA. Throughout its 1,000
 years of existence the empire was continually beset by invaders. Also,
 there was constant religious controversy (see ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH;
 ICONOCLASM; MONOPHYSITISM; MONOTHELETISM) and internal political strife.
 Nevertheless, despite a complex administration, gross violence, and moral
 decay, the empire carried on Graeco-Roman civilization, blended with
 Oriental influences, while the West was in chaos. It regained vigor in
 the 6th-cent. reign of JUSTINIAN I, under whom Byzantine art and
 architecture reached their peak, but his successors lost vast lands to
 the LOMBARDS and ARABS. The schism between the Eastern and Western
 churches arose soon after CHARLEMAGNE became emperor of the West (800).
 The reigns of BASIL I (9th cent.) and his successors brought renewed
 imperial splendor and vigor, until the defeat by the Seljuk TURKS (1071)
 and the loss of Asia Minor. The empire was further weakened by the
 attacks of the Norman leaders ROBERT GUISCARD and Bohemond. After a brief
 resurgence under ALEXIUS I, a century of decay ended with the Fourth
 CRUSADE, the fall of Constantinople (1204), and the breakup of the empire
 into

 Empire. Gradually, however, the empire was encircled by the OTTOMAN
 Turks, and despite a desperate defense under CONSTANTINE XI
 Constantinople fell (1453) to MUHAMMAD II. The modern era is
 traditionally reckoned from that date.


 RULERS OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE (including dates of reign)

 Constantine I (the Great), 330--37
 Constantius, 337--61
 Julian (the Apostate), 361--63
 Jovian, 363--64
 Valens, 364--78
 Theodosius I (the Great), 379--95
 Arcadius, 395--408
 Theodosius II, 408--50
 Marcian 450--57
 Leo I (the Great or the Thracian), 457--74
 Leo II, 474
 Zeno, 474--75
 Basiliscus, 475--76
 Zeno (restored), 476--91
 Anastasius I, 491--518
 Justin I, 518--27
 Justinian I (the Great), 527--65
 Justin II, 565--78
 Tiberius II Constantinus, 578--82
 Maurice, 582--602
 Phocas 602--10
 Heraclius, 610--41
 Constantine III and Heracleonas, 641
 Heracleonas, 641
 Constans II Pogonatus, 641--68
 Constantine IV, 668--85
 Justinian II Rhinotmetus, 685--95
 Leontius, 695--98
 Tiberius III, 698--705
 Justinian II (restored), 705--11
 Philippicus Bardanes, 711--13
 Anastasius II, 713--15
 Theodosius III, 716--17
 Leo III (the Isaurian or the Syrian), 717--41
 Constantine V Copronymus, 741--75
 Leo IV (the Khazar), 775--80
 Constantine VI, 780--97
 Irene, 797--802
 Nicephorus I, 802--11
 Stauracius, 811
 Michael I, 811--13
 Leo V (the Armenian), 813--20
 Michael II (the Stammerer), 820--29
 Theophilus, 829--42
 Michael III (the Drunkard), 842--67
 Basil I (the Macedonian), 867--86
 Leo VI (the Wise or the Philosopher), 886--912
 Alexander, 912--13
 Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, 913--19
 Romanus I Lecapenus, 919--44
 Constantine VII (restored), 944--59
 Romanus II, 959--63
 Basil II Bulgaroktonos, 963
 Nicephorus II Phocas, 963--69
 John I Tzimisces, 969--76
 Basil II (restored), 976--1025
 Constantine VIII, 1025--28
 Zoe and Romanus III Argyrus, 1028--34
 Zoe and Michael IV (the Paphlagonian), 1034--41
 Zoe and Michael V Calaphates, 1041--42
 Zoe and Theodora, 1042
 Zoe, Theodora, and Constantine IX Monomachus 1042--50
 Theodora and Constantine IX, 1050--55
 Theodora, 1055--56
 Michael VI Stratioticus, 1056--57
 Isaac I Comnenus, 1057--59
 Constantine X Ducas, 1059--67
 Michael VII Ducas (Parapinaces), 1067--68
 Romanus IV Diogenes, 1068--71
 Michael VII Ducas (restored), 1071--78
 Nicephorus III Botaniates, 1078--81
 Alexius I Comnenus, 1081--1118
 John II Comnenus, 1118--43
 Manuel I Comnenus, 1143--80
 Alexius II Comnenus, 1180--83
 Andronicus I Comnenus, 1183--85
 Isaac II Angelus, 1185--95
 Alexius III Angelus, 1195--1203
 Isaac II (restored) and Alexius IV Angelus, 1203--4
 Alexius V Ducas, 1204
 Theodore I Lascaris, 1204--22
 John III Vatatzes or Ducas, 1222--54
 Theodore II Lascaris, 1254--58
 John IV Lascaris, 1258--61
 Michael VIII Palaeologus, 1259--82
 Andronicus II Palaeologus, 1282--1328
 Andronicus III Palaeologus, 1328--41
 John V Palaeologus, 1341--76
 John VI Cantacuzenus (usurper), 1347--55
 Andronicus IV Palaeologus, 1376--79
 John V Palaeologus (restored), 1379--91
 John VII Palaeologus (usurper), 1390
 Manuel II Palaeologus, 1391--1425
 John VII Palaeologus (restored as coemperor), 1399--1412
 John VIII Palaeologus, 1425--48
 Constantine XI Palaeologus, 1449--53






   Byzantine music

 Byzantine music, music of the BYZANTINE EMPIRE (4th to 15th cent.),
 composed to Greek texts as ceremonial festival or church music. Elements
 were derived from Syrian, Hebrew, and Greek sources. Although Greek
 instruments were used, the ORGAN was the main one. Almost all surviving
 Byzantine music is sacred; its major form was the HYMN. Byzantine chant
 was monodic, in free RHYTHM. Notation was first a series of symbols to
 remind the singer of a melody he already knew; later a staffless notation
 indicating starting note and subsequent intervals of a melody was used
 (see MUSICAL NOTATION).

   Byzantium

 Byzantium, ancient city of Thrace, on the site of present-day Istanbul,
 Turkey. Founded by Greeks in 667 BC, it was chosen (AD 330) by
 CONSTANTINE I as the site for Constantinople, later the capital of the
 BYZANTINE EMPIRE.

   C

 C, chemical symbol of the element CARBON.

   Ca

 Ca, chemical symbol of the element CALCIUM.

   Cabal

 Cabal, inner circle of advisers to CHARLES II of England. Their initials
 form the word-Clifford of Chudleigh, Ashley (Lord Shaftesbury),
 BUCKINGHAM (George Villiers), Arlington (Henry Bennet), and Lauderdale
 (John Maitland). One or more of this group dominated court policy from
 1667 to 1673.

   cabala

 cabala [Heb.,=traditional lore], mystical Jewish system of interpretation
 of the Scriptures. Cabala is based on the belief that every word, letter,
 number, and even accent of the Scriptures contains mysteries. Cabalistic
 signs and writings are used as amulets and in magical practices. Cabala
 has two principal written sources. The first, Sefer Yezira (tr. Book of
 Creation, 1894), probably written in the 3d cent., is a series of
 monologues supposedly delivered by the patriarch Abraham. The second,
 Zohar (partial tr., 1949), is a mystical commentary on the Pentateuch
 written by Moses de Leon (13th cent.) but attributed to Simon ben Yohai,
 a great scholar of the 2d cent. The movement appears to have arisen in
 11th-cent. France and spread, most notably to Spain. After the expulsion
 of the Jews from Spain in 1492, cabala became messianic in emphasis,
 especially as developed by Isaac LURIA. This form of cabala had many
 adherents, including the pseudo-Messiah SABBATAI ZEVI. It was also a
 major influence in the development of 18th-cent. HASIDISM.

   cabbage

 cabbage, leafy garden vegetable of many widely dissimilar varieties, all
 probably descended from the wild, or sea, cabbage (Brassica oleracea) of
 the MUSTARD family, found on European coasts. Cabbage is used as food for
 humans and animals. Varieties include BROCCOLI, BRUSSELS SPROUTS,
 CAULIFLOWER, collards, KALE, and kohlrabi. All grow best in cool moist
 climates. Chinese cabbage is a separate species.

   Cabell, (James) Branch

 Cabell, (James) Branch, 1879-1958, American author; b. Richmond. Popular
 in the 1920s, many of his anti-realistic novels, e.g., Jurgen (1919), are
 set in an imaginary medieval kingdom and can be considered moral
 allegories.

   Cabeza de Vaca, Alvar Nunez

 Cabeza de Vaca, Alvar Nunez, c.1490-c.1557, Spanish explorer. During an
 expedition to FLORIDA in 1528 he was shipwrecked on a TEXAS island and
 enslaved by Indians. He escaped and wandered over the Southwest, reaching
 Mexico in 1536. His reports of the PUEBLO INDIANS gave rise to the myth
 of the Seven Cities of Cibola. He was later governor of a region of
 PARAGUAY but was deposed in 1544.

   Cabinda

 Cabinda, (1970 pop. 81,265), exclave of Angola, from which it is
 separated by Zairian territory. Situated on the Atlantic Ocean, Cabinda
 has produced oil from large offshore reserves since 1968, accounting for
 most of Angola's output. The scene of heavy fighting during the war for
 independence from Portugal (1961-75), its secessionary movement has been
 reconciled with the government of Angola.

   cabinet

 cabinet, group of advisers to the head of government who are also usually
 the heads of administrative government departments. In Great Britain,
 where cabinet ministers are drawn from the majority party in the House of
 Commons, its modern status developed after the establishment of the
 sovereignty of PARLIAMENT and the emergence of party government in the
 18th cent. In multi-party systems, e.g., that of France, coalition
 cabinets are more common. The U.S. cabinet, not specifically established
 by the Constitution, has evolved through custom and is now defined by
 statute. Its members are appointed by the president and approved by the
 Senate. The first cabinet appointments (1789) were the secretaries of
 state, treasury, and war. The executive departments whose secretaries are
 in the cabinet are (in order of establishment) the departments of STATE;
 the TREASURY; DEFENSE (formerly departments of War and Navy); the
 INTERIOR; AGRICULTURE; JUSTICE; COMMERCE; LABOR; HEALTH AND HUMAN
 SERVICES (formerly Health, Education, and Welfare); HOUSING AND URBAN
 DEVELOPMENT; TRANSPORTATION; ENERGY; EDUCATION; and VETERANS AFFAIRS.

   Cable, George Washington

 Cable, George Washington, 1844-1925, American author; b. New Orleans. He
 is chiefly known for his early works describing picturesque Louisiana
 Creole life, e.g., Old Creole Days (1879) and The Grandissimes (1880).
 His later essays, e.g., The Negro Question (1890), reflect his social
 concern.

   cable

 cable, usually, high-strength wire cord or heavy metal chain used for
 hauling, towing, supporting the roadway of a suspension bridge, or
 securing a large ship to its anchor or mooring. Electric cables are
 conductors used for the transmission of electrical signals. A coaxial
 cable, virtually immune to external electromagnetic interference,
 consists of a tube of copper or other conducting material, the center of
 which contains another conductor. The two conductors are separated by an
 insulator. By means of coaxial cables a large number of telegraph and
 telephone messages, as well as television images (see CABLE TELEVISION),
 can be simultaneously transmitted. An intertwined and insulated group of
 wires that conducts electricity from generator to consumer is also called
 a cable.

   cable television

 cable television (CATV), form of BROADCASTING that sends programs to
 paying subscribers by means of coaxial CABLE rather than through the
 airwaves. It originated (1949) to serve areas where reception was poor or
 nonexistent, and expanded rapidly in the mid-1970s with the easing of
 government restrictions and the use of COMMUNICATIONS SATELLITE
 transmission. Further programming and audience growth came in the early
 1980s, when the government moved to deregulate the industry. In addition
 to providing the programming of the local television broadcasting
 stations, CATV operators often offer additional channels of first-run
 movies, sports events, and around-the-clock news programming. The most
 advanced systems offer two-way, or interactive, communication;
 information services such as VIDEOTEX; and burglar- and fire-alarm
 protection.

   Cabot, John

 Cabot, John, fl. 1461-98, English explorer; probably b. Genoa, Italy.
 Under a patent granted by HENRY VII, he sailed W from Bristol in 1497,
 probably seeking the riches of the Far East, and touched the North
 American coast. His second expedition (1498) disappeared. English claims
 in NORTH AMERICA were based on his discovery. His son, Sebastian Cabot,
 b. 1483-86?, d. 1557, was an explorer in English and Spanish service. In
 1509 he was part of an expedition in search of the NORTHWEST PASSAGE and
 may have reached HUDSON BAY. Later he explored (1526-30) the Rio de la
 Plata region of Brazil for the Spanish. In 1548 he became governor of a
 joint-stock company in England (later the MUSCOVY COMPANY), which
 negotiated a commercial treaty with Russia.

   Cabral, Pedro Alvares

 Cabral, Pedro Alvares, c.1467-c.1520, Portuguese navigator. On an
 expedition to INDIA in 1500, he went far west of his course and reached
 BRAZIL, which he claimed for Portugal. He finally reached India, but his
 high-handed practices in trade and religion angered the Indians, and he
 returned to Portugal. His landing in Brazil, accidental or prearranged,
 was not the first European visit there, though the question of who
 actually discovered Brazil is still debated.

   Cabrini, Saint Frances Xavier

 Cabrini, Saint Frances Xavier, 1850-1917, American nun; b. Italy. She
 founded in Italy the Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart of Jesus; in
 1889 she was sent by the pope to the U.S. to aid Italian immigrants. She
 was the first U.S. citizen to be canonized (1946). Feast: Nov. 13 (in the
 U.S.).

   cacao

 cacao tropical tree (Theobroma cacao) of the sterculia family, native to
 South America and now widely cultivated in the Old World. The fruit is a
 pod that contains a sweet pulp with rows of embedded seeds (the cocoa
 "beans" of commerce). Cocoa is obtained by fermenting the pods and then
 curing and roasting the extracted seeds. The resulting clean kernels, or
 cocoa nibs, are then processed. CHOCOLATE is one product. Cacao products
 have high food value due to their fat, carbohydrate, and protein content.
 Other uses are in cosmetics and medicines.

   cactus

 cactus, common name for the Cactaceae, a family of succulent plants found
 almost entirely in the New World. Cactus plants have fleshy green stems
 that function as leaves (the leaves are typically insignificant or
 absent), and, usually, spines of various colors, shapes, and
 arrangements. The large, showy, delicate flowers are commonly yellow,
 white, red, or purple. Cactus fruits are berries, some of which are
 edible. The reduced leaf surface and fleshy stem make cacti well fitted
 for water storage and retention. An extensive, ramified root system makes
 the plants adaptable to hot, dry regions, although cacti are not
 restricted to the desert. Most cacti blossom briefly in the spring,
 sometimes for only a few hours. Blossoms are especially sensitive to
 light, and different species bloom at different times of the day, e.g.,
 the night-blooming cereus, whose fragrant blossoms unfold after sunset
 and last one night. Many species are cultivated for food or ornamentals;
 the hallucinatory drug PEYOTE comes from a cactus of that name.

   Cadillac, Antoine de la Mothe

 Cadillac, Antoine de la Mothe, c.1658-1730, French colonial governor in
 North America; founder (1701) of Detroit. In 1711 he became governor of
 Louisiana, but after quarrels in his administration he was recalled
 (1716).

   Cadiz

 Cadiz, city (1981 pop. 157,766), capital of Cadiz prov., SW Spain, in
 Andalusia, on the Bay of Cadiz. It is a port with such industries as
 shipbuilding and fishing. Founded c.1100 BC by the Phoenicians, it passed
 to Carthage (c.500 BC), Rome (3d cent. BC), the Moors (AD 711), and
 ALFONSO X of Castile (1262). It became a New World trade center but
 declined when Spain lost its American colonies. The clean, white city has
 palm-lined promenades and parks and a 13th-cent. cathedral.

   cadmium

 cadmium (Cd), metallic element, discovered in 1817 by Friedrich
 Stromeyer. Cadmium is a silver-white, lustrous, malleable, ductile metal.
 Its major use is as an electroplated coating on iron and steel to prevent
 corrosion. See ELEMENT ; PERIODIC TABLE.

   Cadmus

 Cadmus, in Greek myth, son of Agenor; founder of THEBES. He killed the
 sacred dragon that guarded the spring of ARES. As instructed by ATHENA,
 he sowed the dragon's teeth; from them sprang the Sparti, ancestors of
 the Theban nobility. He married Harmonia, daughter of Ares and APHRODITE.

   caduceus

 caduceus, wing-topped staff, wound about by two snakes, carried by
 HERMES. In earlier cultures, notably the Babylonian, the intertwined
 snakes symbolized fertility, wisdom, and healing. The staff was carried
 by Greek officials and became a Roman symbol for truce and neutrality.
 Since the 16th cent. it has served as a symbol of medicine; it is the
 insignia of the medical branch of the U.S. army.

   caecilian

 caecilian, legless, tailless tropical AMPHIBIAN (family Caecilidae). Most
 are c.1 ft (30 cm) long. Resembling earthworms superficially, but having
 vertebrate characteristics such as jaws and teeth, caecilians eat animals
 like termites and earthworms and are found in swampy places. Their eyes
 are nearly functionless; a groove on either side of the head contains a
 retractable sensory tentacle.

   Caedmon

 Caedmon, fl. 670, English poet, said by BEDE to have written early
 English versions of OLD TESTAMENT stories. A herdsman reputed to have
 received poetic powers through a vision, he later became a lay brother at
 the abbey of Whitby.

   Caesar

 Caesar, name used by a patrician family of Rome. The careers of Julius
 CAESAR and the adopted AUGUSTUS led to the name acquiring an imperial
 character. In the later Roman Empire it was the title given to the
 subemperor, who would presumably later become the emperor. The title
 reappeared later as the German kaiser and the Russian czar or tsar.

   Caesar, (Caius) Julius

 Caesar, (Caius) Julius, 102? BC-44 BC, Roman statesman and general.
 Although he was born into the Julian gens, one of the oldest patrician
 families in Rome, Caesar was always a member of the democratic or popular
 party. In 82 BC, SULLA proscribed Caesar, who fled from Rome (81 BC). On
 Sulla's death, Caesar returned (78 BC) to Rome and began his political
 career as a member of the popular party. In 69 BC he helped POMPEY to
 obtain the supreme command for the war in the East. He himself returned
 to Rome from Spain in 68 BC and continued to support the enactment of
 popular measures and to prosecute senatorial extortionists. In 63 BC, as
 pontifex maximus, he undertook the reform of the calendar with the help
 of Sosigenes; the result was one of his greatest contributions to
 history, the Julian CALENDAR. In 60 BC he organized a coalition, known as
 the First Triumvirate, made up of Pompey, commander in chief of the army;
 Marcus Licinius Crassus (see CRASSUS, family), the wealthiest man in
 Rome; and Caesar himself. In the years 58 to 49 BC he firmly established
 his reputation in the GALLIC WARS. Caesar made explorations into Britain
 in 55 and 54 BC and defeated the Britons. By the end of the wars Caesar
 had reduced all Gaul to Roman control. These campaigns proved him one of
 the greatest military commanders of all time and also developed the
 personal devotion of the Roman legions to Caesar. Crassus' death (53 BC)
 ended the First Triumvirate and set Pompey and Caesar at odds. In 50 BC
 the senate ordered Caesar to disband his army, but two tribunes faithful
 to Caesar, Marc ANTONY and Quintus Cassius Longinus, vetoed the bill.
 They fled to Caesar, who assembled his army and got the support of the
 soldiers against the senate. On Jan. 19, 49 BC, Caesar crossed the
 Rubicon, the stream bounding his province, to enter Italy, and civil war
 began. His march to Rome was a triumphal progress. At Pharsala in 48 BC,
 Caesar defeated Pompey, who fled to Egypt, where he was killed. Caesar,
 having pursued Pompey to Egypt, remained there for some time, living with
 CLEOPATRA and establishing her firmly on the Egyptian throne. On his
 return to Rome, he set about reforming the living conditions of the
 people by passing AGRARIAN LAWS and by improving housing accommodations.
 In 44 BC he became dictator for life. His dictatorial powers had aroused
 great resentment in his enemies, but when a conspiracy was formed against
 him, it was made up of his friends and proteges, among them Cimber,
 Casca, Cassius, and Marcus Junius Brutus (see BRUTUS, family). On March
 15 (the Ides of March), 44 BC, he was stabbed to death in the senate
 house. His will left everything to his 18-year-old grandnephew Octavian
 (later AUGUSTUS). Caesar made the Roman Empire possible by uniting the
 state after a century of disorder, by establishing an autocracy in place
 of the oligarchy, and by pacifying Italy and the provinces. He has always
 been one of the most controversial characters of history, either
 considered the defender of the rights of the people against an oligarchy
 or regarded as an ambitious demagogue who forced his way to power and
 destroyed the republic. That he was gifted and versatile there can be
 little doubt. His commentaries on the Gallic Wars (seven books) and on
 the civil war (three books) are literary masterpieces as well as classic
 military documents. He was married three times: to Cornelia, to Pompeia,
 and to CALPURNIA.

   Caesarean section

 Caesarean section: see CESAREAN SECTION.

   Caetano, Marcello

 Caetano, Marcello, 1906-80, Portuguese statesman. A law professor and
 close associate of Antonio SALAZAR, he helped to plan Portugal's
 corporate state and served as prime minister (1968-74). His government
 was overthrown by a military coup, and he was exiled.

   caffeine

 caffeine, odorless, slightly bitter ALKALOID found in coffee, tea, COLA
 nuts, MATE, and cocoa (see CACAO). In moderation, caffeine is a mild
 stimulant that increases urination and the heart rate and rhythm.
 Excessive intake can cause restlessness, insomnia, heart irregularities,
 and delirium.

   Cage, John

 Cage, John, 1912-, American composer; b. Los Angeles. He is famous for
 his controversial theories, experimental compositions, and performances,
 featuring percussion instruments that include a piano "prepared" with
 objects attached to the strings. Cage has also experimented with aleatory
 or "chance" music, e.g., Music of Changes (1951), in which certain
 elements were derived by use of charts from the I Ching. His famous
 Imaginary Landscape No. 4 (1951) is scored for 12 radios tuned at random.

   Cagney, James

 Cagney, James, 1904-86, American film actor; b. N.Y.C. A tough guy in
 such films as Public Enemy (1930) and White Heat (1949), he also made
 musicals, e.g., Yankee Doodle Dandy (1942; Academy Award).

   Cahan, Abraham

 Cahan, Abraham, 1860-1951, American journalist and author; b. Lithuania.
 He helped found (1897) the Jewish Daily Forward, the most influential
 Jewish newspaper in the U.S. A leader of the Socialist party, he
 encouraged the unionization of the garment workers in New York City.

   Cain

 Cain, in the BIBLE, eldest son of ADAM and EVE, a tiller of the soil. In
 jealousy he killed his brother ABEL and became a fugitive. Gen. 4.

   Cain, James M.

 Cain, James M., 1892-1977, American novelist; b. Annapolis, Md. His
 "hard-boiled" books, many made into movies, often concern middle-class
 lovers driven to violence. His novels include The Postman Always Rings
 Twice (1934) and Mildred Pierce (1941).

   cairn terrier

 cairn terrier, small working TERRIER: shoulder height, c.10 in. (25 cm);
 weight, c.14 lb (6.4 kg). Its tough double coat has a soft, furry
 underlayer and a profuse, hard outercoat of any color but white. It was
 originally bred (19th cent.) on the Isle of Skye for hunting vermin and
 otters.

   Cairo

 Cairo, city (1985 est. pop. 6,205,000), capital of Egypt, N Egypt, a port
 on the Nile R., near the head of its delta. Cairo is Egypt's
 administrative center and, along with ALEXANDRIA, the heart of its
 economy. Manufactures include textiles, food products, and chemicals. It
 was founded in AD 969 by the FATIMID dynasty as capital of Egypt. In 1517
 it became part of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE. Cairo fell to NAPOLEON I in 1798
 and to the British in 1801. During WORLD WAR II it was Allied
 headquarters in the Middle East. In the late 1970s Cairo became an
 important Middle Eastern financial and commercial center.
 Egyptian-Israeli talks took place (1977) there, and the headquarters of
 the ARAB LEAGUE was moved (1979) from Cairo to TUNIS. Cairo has many
 mosques, palaces, museums, and universities.

   caisson

 caisson, chamber of steel, wood, or concrete used in constructing
 foundations or piers in or near water. Types of caissons include open (a
 cylinder or box, open at the top and bottom, that is sunk and then filled
 with concrete) and pneumatic (a cylinder or box with an airtight bulkhead
 permitting people to work under it; air pressure is high enough to
 prevent water entry).

   Calais

 Calais, city (1982 pop. 76,935), N France, on the Strait of Dover. An
 industrial center, it has been a major seaport and communications link
 with England since the Middle Ages. England held it from 1347 to 1558,
 when the Duke of GUISE recovered it. Calais was almost razed in World War
 II.

   Calamity Jane

 Calamity Jane (Martha Jane Canary), c.1852-1903, American frontier
 character; b. Princeton, Mo. In 1876 she appeared in Deadwood, S.D.,
 dressed in men's clothes, and boasted of her exploits as a pony-express
 rider and army scout. She later toured the West in a burlesque show.

   calcia

 calcia: see CALCIUM OXIDE.

   calcite

 calcite, widely distributed calcium carbonate mineral (CaCO3) that ranges
 from white or colorless through a great variety of colors, owing to
 impurities. Its crystals are noted for their perfect cleavage. Calcite
 also occurs in a number of massive forms, including MARBLE, LIMESTONE,
 and CHALK. Other forms include ICELAND SPAR, STALACTITE AND STALAGMITE
 formations, Oriental ALABASTER, and marl. It is used as a building stone
 and is the raw material for quicklime (CALCIUM OXIDE) and CEMENT.

   calcium

 calcium (Ca), metallic element, first isolated in 1808 by Sir Humphry
 DAVY. It is a silver-white, soft, malleable ALKALINE-EARTH METAL. The
 fifth most abundant element (3.64%) of the earth's crust, it is not found
 uncombined but occurs in numerous compounds, e.g., APATITE, CALCITE,
 DOLOMITE, ICELAND SPAR, LIMESTONE, and MARBLE. Calcium acts as a reducing
 agent in the preparation of other metals. It occurs inmost plant and
 animal matter, and is essential for the formation and maintenance of
 strong bones and teeth. Calcium helps to regulate the heartbeat and is
 necessary for blood clotting. See ELEMENT ; PERIODIC TABLE.

   calcium carbonate

 calcium carbonate: see CALCITE; CHALK; LIMESTONE.

   calcium oxide

 calcium oxide or calcia,chemical compound (CaO), also called lime,
 quicklime, or caustic lime. A colorless crystalline or white amorphous
 substance, it has wide industrial uses, e.g., in making porcelain and
 glass; in purifying sugar; in preparing bleaching powder, calcium
 carbide, and calcium cyanamide; in water softeners; in mortars and
 cements; and in treating acidic soil (liming).

   calculator, electronic

 calculator, electronic, electronic device for performing numerical
 computations. Electronic calculators became available in the early 1960s,
 and in the early 70s miniature types, some pocket size, were marketed as
 consumer items. Electronic calculators have ten keys that can be used to
 enter numbers into the machine; additional keys are provided to enable
 the user to perform a range of operations, from basic arithmetic in
 simple devices to the generation of complex mathematical functions in
 more advanced types. The results are either shown on an electronic
 display or printed. Some of these machines are actually small COMPUTERS
 with limited memory and programming capabilities.

   calculus

 calculus, branch of MATHEMATICS that studies continuously changing
 quantities. It was developed in the 17th cent. independently by Sir Isaac
 NEWTON and G.W. LEIBNIZ. The calculus is characterized by the use of
 infinite processes, involving passage to a LIMIT. The differential
 calculus arises from the study of the rate at which a FUNCTION, usually
 symbolized by y or f(x), changes relative to a change in the independent
 variable, usually x. This relative rate can be computed from a new
 function-the derivative of y with respect to x, denoted by dy/dx, y', or
 f'(x)-arrived at by a process called differentiation. Formulas have been
 developed for the derivatives of all commonly encountered functions. For
 example, if y=xn for any real number n except-1, then y'=nxn-1, and if
 y=sin x, then y'=cos x (see TRIGONOMETRY). In physical applications, the
 independent variable is frequently time, e.g., if s=f(t) expresses the
 relation between the distance s traveled and the time t elapsed, then
 s'=f'(t) represents the rate of change of distance with time, i.e., the
 speed or velocity (see MOTION) at time t. Geometrically, the derivative
 is interpreted as the slope of the line tangent to a curve at a point.
 This view of the derivative yields applications, e.g., in the design of




 y=f(x) between the two values x=a and x=b is symbolized by
 A=integralbaf(x)dx, called the definite integral of f(x) from a to b. The
 area is approximated by summing the products of f(x) and dx for each of
 the infinitely small distances (dx) that comprise the measurable distance
 between a and b. This method can be used to determine the lengths of
 curves, the areas bounded by curves, and the volumes of solids bounded by
 curved surfaces. The connection between the integral and the derivative
 is known as the Fundamental Theorem of the Calculus, which, in symbols,
 is integralbaf(x)dx=F(b)-F(a), where F(x) is a function whose derivative is
 f(x). The calculus has been developed to treat functions not only of a
 single variable but also of several variables and is the foundation for
 the larger branch of mathematics known as ANALYSIS.

   Calcutta







 EAST INDIA COMPANY. In 1756 the nawab of Bengal captured the garrison,
 many of whom died when imprisoned in a small, stifling room known as the
 "black hole." Robert Clive retook the city in 1757. It became (1912) the
 capital of British India. It is one of the great cultural centers of
 India.

   Caldecott, Randolph

 Caldecott, Randolph, 1846-86, English artist. His colored illustrations
 for 16 picture books, e.g., The House That Jack Built and The Grand
 Panjandrum Himself, inspired the Caldecott Medal for children's-book
 illustration.

   Calder, Alexander

 Calder, Alexander, 1898-1976, one of the most innovative modern American
 sculptors; b. Philadelphia. Famous for his MOBILES, brightly colored
 constellations of moving shapes, he is also known for his witty wire
 portraits, imaginative jewelry, colorful and complex miniature zoo (1925;
 Whitney Mus., N.Y.C.), and abstract immobile sculptures called stabiles.

   Calderon de la Barca, Pedro

 Calderon de la Barca, Pedro, 1600-1681, Spanish dramatist, last major
 figure of the GOLDEN AGE. He wrote more than 100 plays, including 70
 autos sacramentales (one-act religious plays) for the Corpus Christi
 festival; cloak-and-dagger thrillers; and comedies of manners like The
 Mayor of Zalamea (c.1640). His philosophical drama Life Is a Dream (1635)
 is considered a masterpiece.

   Caldwell, Erskine

 Caldwell, Erskine, 1903-1987, American author; b. White Oak, Ga. His
 realistic, earthy novels of the rural South include Tobacco Road (1932)
 and God's Little Acre (1933). His short stories appear in many
 collections, e.g., Jackpot (1940).

   Caldwell, Sarah

 Caldwell, Sarah, 1924-, American opera director and conductor; b.
 Maryville, Mo. In 1957 she founded the Boston Opera Group, later renamed
 the Opera Company of Boston. Under her direction, the company became
 noted for its innovative productions of such operas as MOUSSORGSKY'S
 Boris Godunov and SCHOENBERG'S Moses and Aaron. In 1976 she became the
 first woman to conduct the METROPOLITAN OPERA.

   calendar

 calendar, system of reckoning time usually based on a recurrent natural
 cycle, such as the cycle of the sun through the seasons (see YEAR) or the
 moon through its phases (see MONTH). Because the solar year is 365 days 5
 hr 48 min 46 sec and the lunar year (12 synodic months of 29.53 days) is
 354 days 8 hr 48 min, people have been confronted from ancient times with
 the problem of the discrepancy. Because the year is not exactly divisible
 by months and days, the practice arose of making arbitrary divisions and
 inserting extra (intercalary) days or months. The Gregorian calendar,
 generally accepted today, evolved from the Roman calendar reformed (46
 BC) by Julius CAESAR. In the Julian calendar April, June, September, and
 November had 30 days, February 28 days (29 days every fourth, or leap,
 year), and all other months 31 days. The date was computed by counting
 backward from the Kalends (the 1st day), the Nones (the 7th day in March,
 May, July, and October; the 5th day in other months), and the Ides (the
 15th day in March, May, July, and October; the 13th day in other months);
 hence Jan. 10 was the 4th day of the Ides of January. Because the Julian
 year of 365 days 6 hr was too long, by the 16th cent. the vernal equinox
 was displaced from March 21 to March 11. Pope GREGORY XIII ordained that
 10 days be dropped in 1582 and that years ending in hundreds be leap
 years only if divisible by 400. The non-Roman Catholic countries were
 slow to accept the Gregorian (New Style) calendar; it was adopted in
 England in 1752 and by the Eastern Church in the 20 cent. The Christian
 ecclesiastical calendar was based on the belief that JESUS' resurrection
 was on a Sunday, hence Easter should fall on Sunday. The First Council of
 NICAEA (325) decreed that Easter be the Sunday following the first full
 moon after the vernal EQUINOX; today the date varies from the
 astronomical reckoning because certain factors of the lunar period are
 not considered. Other calendars include the Jewish calendar (12 months,
 plus intercalary months 7 times in 19 years) and the Muslim lunar
 calendar. See also FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY CALENDAR.

   Calgary

 Calgary, city (1986 pop. 636,104), S Alberta, Canada, at the confluence
 of the Bow and Elbow rivers. It is a major center for the region's
 expanding oil and natural-gas industry, and also an agricultural
 processing and wholesaling center. The Calgary Stampede, begun in 1912,
 is an annual rodeo usually held in July. Built at the site of a fort
 established (1875) by the Northwest Mounted Police, Calgary is now one of
 Canada's fastest growing cities. The 1988 Winter Olympic Games were held
 there.

   Calhoun, John Caldwell

 Calhoun, John Caldwell, 1782-1850, American statesman; b. near Abbeville,
 S.C. He was the great defender of the agrarian South against the
 industrial North, and of the sovereign power of STATES' RIGHTS. After
 serving in the House of Representatives (1811-17) and as secretary of war
 (1817-25), he was vice president (1825-32) under J.Q. ADAMS and Andrew
 JACKSON. He and Jackson disagreed, however, over the nature of the Union,
 and Calhoun directed passage (1832) of South Carolina's NULLIFICATION of
 an increased tariff inimical to its interests. As a U.S. senator
 (1832-43, 1845-50), he eloquently defended slavery and SECESSION. As
 secretary of state (1844-45) under Pres. TYLER, he secured the admission
 of Texas to the Union as a slave state.

   Cali

 Cali, city (1985 pop. 1,397,433), W Colombia, capital of Valle del Cauca
 dept., on the Cali R. It is an industrial center, shipping minerals,
 lumber, and food products and manufacturing tires, textiles, and building
 materials. Founded in 1536, it has doubled its population since 1950,
 largely because of a regional hydroelectric power project.

   Caliari, Paolo

 Caliari, Paolo: see VERONESE, PAOLO.

   California

 California, most populous state in the U.S., located in the Far West;
 bordered by Oregon (N), Nevada and Arizona, across the Colorado R. (E),
 Mexico (S), and the Pacific Ocean (W).

 Area, 158,693 sq mi (411,015 sq km). Pop. (1986 est.) 26,981,000, a 14.0%
 increase over 1980 pop. Capital, Sacramento. Statehood, Sept. 9, 1850
 (31st state). Highest pt., Mt. Whitney, 14,491 ft (4,417 m); lowest pt.,
 Death Valley, 282 ft (86 m) below sea level. Nickname, Golden State.
 Motto, Eureka I Have Found It. State bird, California valley quail. State
 flower, golden poppy. State tree, California redwood. Abbr., Calif.; CA.

 Land and People The COAST RANGES extend along the Pacific, and in the
 north are the famous giant redwood forests. The SAN ANDREAS FAULT has
 caused severe earthquakes and tremors in the coastal region. To the west
 of the Coast Ranges is the fertile Central Valley, drained by the
 SACRAMENTO and SAN JOAQUIN rivers. Farther east is the dramatic SIERRA
 NEVADA range, location of Kings Canyon, Sequoia, and Yosemite national
 parks (see NATIONAL PARKS, ), and of Mt. WHITNEY. California is also the
 site of Channel Islands, Lassen Volcanic, and Redwood national parks (see
 ). The state's eastern section, largely desert, includes DEATH VALLEY and
 Joshua Tree national monuments. The climate of California is extremely
 varied. In general, there are two seasons: a rainy period from October to
 April and a dry period from May to September. Temperatures, mainly mild,
 are warmer in the south than in the central and northern sections,
 extremely hot in the deserts, and cold in the mountains. Almost 93% of
 the population lives in metropolitan areas. LOS ANGELES proper is the
 country's third-largest city, while Los Angeles-Long Beach is the
 second-largest metropolitan area in the U.S. Other major California
 cities are SAN DIEGO, SAN FRANCISCO, SAN JOSE, LONG BEACH, OAKLAND
 SACRAMENTO. California has large, well-established Hispanic and Asian
 populations. In 1984 84% of the population was white, 16% was black,
 Asian, or others.

 Economy California's economy is dominated by manufacturing. Leading
 products are transportation equipment, including materials for the
 aerospace industry and for ships; electronic and electrical equipment;
 machinery; and processed foods. Leading the states in the value of its
 agricultural output, California produces a wide variety of fruits and
 vegetables, including grapes for wine and citrus fruits. More than two
 thirds of the farms are irrigated. The raising of cattle and the growing
 of cotton are also important. The most profitable minerals extracted are
 oil and natural gas, and California leads the nation in the production of
 asbestos, boron, gypsum, tungsten, and other minerals. Fishing is
 important along the coast. The state-and in particular, Disneyland-is a
 favorite destination for tourists.

 Government The constitution of 1879 provides for a governor serving a
 four-year term. The legislature is composed of a senate whose 40 members
 serve four-year terms and an assembly with 80 members elected every two
 years. California elects 2 senators and 45 representatives to the U.S.
 Congress and has 47 electoral votes.

 History The Spanish first explored the southern coast in 1542. Father
 Junipero SERRA, a Franciscan missionary, founded (1769) the first of many
 missions. American settlers began to move to California during the 1840s.
 After Mexico's defeat in the MEXICAN WAR California was ceded (1848) to
 the U.S. In the same year gold was discovered, bringing thousands of new
 settlers. Many Chinese laborers came to work on the Transcontinental
 Railroad (completed 1869), which linked the state with the East. Industry
 expanded rapidly during World War II. California is the nation's center
 of defense-related industries and of motion-picture and television film
 production. Since the 1960s the area around San Jose, the so-called
 SILICON VALLEY, has become a center for high-technology industries.
 Although the state's future prosperity seems assured, it faces
 environmental problems, especially involving the allocation of scarce
 water resources.

   California, Gulf of

 California, Gulf of, arm of the Pacific Ocean, NW Mexico. It is c.700 mi
 (1,130 km) long and 50-130 mi (80-209 km) wide, and it separates the
 states of BAJA CALIFORNIA and Baja California Sur from the Mexican
 mainland. The gulf, which is part of a structural depression that extends
 north to the Coachella Valley of S Calif., reaches a maximum depth of
 c.8,500 ft (2,590 m) in the south.

   California, University of

 California, University of, at nine campuses, main campus at Berkeley;
 chartered 1868. It offers a very wide range of undergraduate and graduate
 training, and operates a statewide extension service. The enrollment of
 over 125,000 is one of the largest in the U.S. The institution began by
 taking over the College of California (est. 1853) at Oakland. It moved to
 Berkeley in 1873 and acquired or established its other branches in the
 20th cent., the first being at Los Angeles (1919). The university's
 Scripps Institution of Oceanography, at La Jolla, became the nucleus of
 the campus at San Diego. Other branches are at Davis, Santa Barbara,
 Riverside, Irvine, and Santa Cruz, and a campus devoted entirely to
 medical sciences is in San Francisco. The university also operates the
 Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, the Lick Observatory, and the Lawrence
 Berkeley and Livermore laboratories.

   California holly

 California holly: see CHRISTMASBERRY.

   californium

 californium  (Cf), synthetic, radioactive, metallic element, produced in
 1950 by Glenn SEABORG and colleagues by alpha-particle bombardment of
 curium-242. It is in the ACTINIDE SERIES. Californium-252, produced in
 nuclear reactors, is a neutron source. See ELEMENT ; PERIODIC TABLE.

   Caligula

 Caligula, AD 12-41, Roman emperor (AD 37-41), son of Germanicus Caesar
 and Agrippina I. His real name was Caius Caesar Germanicus; as a small
 child he wore military boots, whence his nickname caligula=little boots.
 On the death of TIBERIUS the army helped make Caligula emperor. Shortly
 afterward he became severely ill; it is widely believed that he was
 thereafter insane. He earned a reputation for ruthless and cruel
 autocracy. He was assassinated, and CLAUDIUS I succeeded to the throne.

   caliphate

 caliphate, the rulership of ISLAM. Since Islam is theoretically a
 theocracy, the caliph is ideally both temporal and spiritual leader of
 the Muslims. When MUHAMMAD the Prophet died, ABU BAKR was chosen as the
 first caliph. After the caliphate of Ali (656-61) the caliphate split
 between the Umayyads, who ruled from Damascus, and the ABBASIDS, who
 ruled from Baghdad. The Abbasids massacred the Umayyads in 750, but one
 member escaped to Spain, where he established the Western Caliphate, or
 the Caliphate of Cordoba; it lasted until 1031. A third caliphate,
 established by the Fatimid sect in Africa, lasted from 909 to 1171. After
 the rise of the Ottoman Turks, the sultans assumed the title of caliph.
 The title died out with the last sultan in 1924.

   calisthenics

 calisthenics: see GYMNASTICS.

   Calixtus I, Callixtus I

 Calixtus I, Callixtus I, or Callistus I, Saint,c.160-c.222, pope
 (217-222), a Roman. As archdeacon to Pope Zephyrinus, he established the
 famous Calixtus Cemetery in Rome. As pope, Calixtus was opposed by the
 antipope Hippolytus and extended absolution to many classes of sinners
 thought to be unforgivable. Feast: Oct. 14.

   Calixtus II, Callixtus II

 Calixtus II, Callixtus II, or Callistus II,d. 1124, pope (1119-24), a
 Burgundian named Guy. Succeeding Gelasius II, Calixtus triumphed over the
 antipope Gregory VIII and ended the INVESTITURE controversy when Holy
 Roman Emperor HENRY V signed (1122) the Concordat of Worms. Calixtus then
 called (1123) the First Lateran Council.

   Calixtus III, Callixtus III

 Calixtus III, Callixtus III, or Callistus III,1378-1458, pope (1455-58),
 a Spaniard named Alonso de Borja (Ital., Borgia). He supplied aid to John
 Hunyadi and SCANDERBEG to fight the Turks and quarreled with ALFONSO V of
 Aragon. His nepotism established the BORGIA family in Italy.

   Callaghan, (Leonard) James

 Callaghan, (Leonard) James, 1912-, British statesman. He was elected a
 Labour member of Parliament in 1945. Later he served as chancellor of the
 exchequer (1964-67), resigning when forced to accept devaluation of the
 pound; home secretary (1967-70); and foreign secretary (1974-76). Upon
 the resignation of Harold WILSON in 1976 he became prime minister. His
 government was plagued by inflation, unemployment, and its inability to
 restrain unions' wage demands. He lost the 1979 election to Margaret
 THATCHER.

   Callao

 Callao, city (1981 pop. 260,581), capital of Callao dept., W Peru, on
 Callao Bay of the Pacific Ocean. It is 8 mi (13 km) west of the Peruvian
 capital, LIMA, and, as Peru's chief seaport, handles well over half of
 the nation's foreign trade. Callao has survived foreign attack, tidal
 waves, and at least two major earthquakes, in 1746 and 1940.

   Callas, Maria

 Callas, Maria, 1923-77, Greek-American operatic soprano; b. N.Y.C. to
 Greek parents. She made her debut at Verona, Italy, in 1947 and at the
 METROPOLITAN OPERA in 1956. Noted for her dramatic intensity, she
 excelled in Cherubini's Medea, BELLINI'S Norma, and PUCCINI'S Tosca.

   Calles, Plutarco Elias

 Calles, Plutarco Elias, 1877-1945, president of MEXICO (1924-28). His
 revolutionary administration initiated economic reforms, enforced
 anticlerical laws, and unified the government under the National
 Revolutionary party. After leaving office he remained political chieftain
 of the nation until he opposed CARDENAS and was exiled (1936-41).

   Calley, William L.

 Calley, William L.: see MY LAI INCIDENT.

   Callicrates

 Callicrates, 5th cent. BC, Greek architect. With ICTINUS he built
 (447-432 BC) the PARTHENON at Athens. At Athens he also designed (c.427)
 the Temple of Nike.

   calligraphy

 calligraphy [Gr.,=beautiful writing], skilled penmanship practiced as a
 fine art. Papyrus fragments from the 4th cent. BC show two early European
 types of handwriting: a cursive script, used for letters and records, and
 a more polished style, called uncials, used for literary works. This
 style was developed after the first cent. AD, giving rise to many
 splendid scripts throughout the RENAISSANCE. With the establishment of
 the printing press, the use of calligraphy declined until the 20th cent.,
 when interest in the art was revived by the work of Owen Jones and
 William MORRIS. Calligraphy has always been valued by Far Eastern peoples
 as a major aesthetic expression, equal in significance to painting. Fine
 examples of Islamic calligraphy are found in many beautifully copied and
 decorated KORANS.

   Callimachus

 Callimachus, fl. c.265 BC, Greek poet and critic. At ALEXANDRIA he drew
 up a catalogue constituting a full literary history. Among his over 800
 hymns, epigrams, and poems is Aetia, a collection of legends.

   Calliope

 Calliope: see MUSES.

   Callisto

 Callisto, in astronomy, natural satellite of JUPITER.

   Callistus

 Callistus: see CALIXTUS.

   Callixtus

 Callixtus: see CALIXTUS.

   Calloc'h, Jean Pierre

 Calloc'h, Jean Pierre, 1888-1917, Breton poet. Often regarded as
 Brittany's finest poet, he was important in the revival of Breton
 literature. His chief work, On Both Knees (1925), celebrates Breton
 fishermen.

   Callot, Jacques

 Callot, Jacques, c.1592-1635, French etcher and engraver. An influential
 innovator, he developed a hard varnish that allowed for more flexibility
 and finesse in etching. In the service of Cosimo de' Medici he created
 such works as the vast Fair at Impruneta (1620). Commissioned to engrave
 the sieges of Breda, Rochelle, and Re, he was deeply affected by the
 scenes of carnage and in 1633 executed Miseries of War, his masterpiece.
 Callot produced nearly 1,500 plates and 2,000 drawings, influencing such
 masters as REMBRANDT and WATTEAU.

   Calonne, Charles Alexandre de

 Calonne, Charles Alexandre de, 1734-1802, French statesman and controller
 general of finances (1783-87). His spending policy, designed to restore
 public credit, ended in disaster and hastened the FRENCH REVOLUTION.

   calorie

 calorie (cal), unit of energy required to raise the temperature of one
 gram of water one degree Centigrade (from 14.5 deg to 15.5 degC); 1
 cal=4.1840 joules. Nutritionists use the kilocalorie (1,000 cal) to state
 the heat content of food.

   Calpurnia

 Calpurnia, d. after 44 BC, Roman matron. The daughter of Lucius
 Calpurnicus Piso Caesoninus, she was married to Julius CAESAR in 59 BC
 She was loyal to him despite his many infidelities and his neglect.

   Calvary

 Calvary[Lat.,=a skull] or Golgotha , place where JESUS was crucified,
 outside the walls of JERUSALEM. Its location is not certainly known. The
 traditional site is now occupied by the Church of the Holy Sepulcher.

   Calvert, George, 1st Baron Baltimore

 Calvert, George, 1st Baron Baltimore, c.1580-1632, English colonizer in
 America. After holding high offices in England, he was granted (1623)
 Avalon peninsula in Newfoundland, but the colony he founded failed. In
 1632 James I granted him territory that eventually became Maryland, but
 he died before the colony's charter was accepted.

   Calvin, John

 Calvin, John, 1509-64, French Protestant theologian of the Reformation;
 b. Noyon, Picardy. Having studied theology and law, he experienced (1533)
 a "sudden conversion" and turned his attention to the cause of the
 REFORMATION, for which he was persecuted and hunted. His work in Geneva
 began in 1536, but the system he tried to impose was rejected, and he was
 banished (1538). After a stay at Basel and Strasbourg, he was welcomed
 back to Geneva in 1541. Calvin had begun the work of systematizing
 Protestant thought in his Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536).
 His theology diverged from Catholic doctrine in such fundamental ways as
 rejection of papal authority and acceptance of justification by faith
 alone, and the doctrine of PREDESTINATION. He also maintained that the
 Bible was the sole source of God's law, and that it was man's duty to
 interpret it and to preserve the orderly world that God had ordained. It
 was such a system that he sought to realize at Geneva by founding a
 government based solely on religious law. From his teachings grew one of
 the principal Christian religious systems, CALVINISM, whose extension to
 all spheres of human activity was extremely important in a Europe
 changing from an agrarian to a commercial economy.

   Calvinism

 Calvinism, term used in several different senses. It can mean the
 teachings of John CALVIN himself; all that developed from his doctrine
 and practice in Protestant countries in social, political, ethical, and
 theological aspects of life and thought; or the system of doctrine,
 distinctive in its rejection of consubstantiation in the Eucharist and in
 its doctrine of predestination, that was accepted by the Reformed
 churches (see PRESBYTERIANISM). Calvinism produced the church-dominated
 societies of Geneva and Puritan New England. It stressed that only those
 whom God elects are saved, and that man does nothing to effect his
 salvation. The doctrine challenged LUTHERANISM in Europe, spread to
 Scotland, and influenced the Puritans of England and New England. It
 receded under rationalism (18th-19th cent.), but found new expression in
 the Reformed theology of Karl BARTH.

   Calvino, Italo

 Calvino, Italo, 1923-85, Italian novelist; b. Cuba. He wrote in a variety
 of genres and styles. Among his works are The Path to the Nest of Spiders
 (1947), a realistic novel about World War II; Cosmicomics (1965), 12
 science fiction tales; and If on a Winter's Night a Traveler (1979), a
 novel composed of fragments of 10 stylistically different novels.

   Calvo, Carlo

 Calvo, Carlo, 1824-1906, Argentine diplomat and historian, writer on
 international law. His principle known as the Calvo Doctrine would
 prohibit diplomatic intervention to enforce private claims before local
 remedies had been exhausted. The Calvo Clause found in statutes,
 treaties, and contracts is the concrete application of his doctrine.

   Calvo Sotelo, Leopoldo

 Calvo Sotelo, Leopoldo, 1926-, Spanish engineer and political leader. He
 held (1975-77) ministerial posts before becoming (1980) deputy prime
 minister for economic affairs. After leading the Union of the Democratic
 Center to victory in 1981, he was confirmed as prime minister despite an
 abortive military coup in which the parliament was seized. He resigned
 before the 1982 elections in which the Socialist party, led by Felipe
 GONZALEZ MARQUEZ, was victorious.

   Calydonian hunt

 Calydonian hunt: see MELEAGER.

   Calypso

 Calypso, nymph, daughter of ATLAS, in HOMER'S Odyssey. She entertained
 ODYSSEUS on the island of Ogygia for seven years before he rejected her
 offer of immortality and continued home.

   Camaguey

 Camaguey, city (1986 est. pop. 260,800), E Cuba, capital of Camaguey
 prov. The island's third-largest city, it is a commercial center with
 meat-packing and other food-processing industries. Founded in the early
 16th cent., it produced salted beef for Spanish fleets and was often
 sacked by pirates. It has retained a Spanish colonial atmosphere.

   cambium

 cambium, thin layer of reproductive tissue lying between the BARK and the
 wood of a STEM, most active in woody plants. In herbaceous plants the
 cambium is usually inactive; in monocotyledons (see ANGIOSPERM) it is
 absent. Producing thin layers of phloem on the outside and xylem on the
 inside (see WOOD), cambium growth increases the diameter of the stem. Its
 seasonal growth is responsible for ANNUAL RINGS.

   Cambodia

 Cambodia or Kampuchea,country (1985 est. pop. 6,232,000), 69,898 sq mi
 (181,035 sq km), SE Asia. It is bordered by Thailand (N and W), Laos (N),
 Vietnam (E), and the Gulf of Siam (S). The capital is PHNOM PENH. The
 heart of the country consists of a large central alluvial plain, drained
 by the MEKONG R. and including the Tonle Sap (Great Lake). Mountains
 flank the plain in the northwest and southwest. Cambodia has a tropical
 monsoonal climate ideal for growing rice, the chief crop. Corn,
 vegetables, peanuts, tobacco, and sugar palm are also grown. The
 industrial sector centers on the processing of agricultural products.
 Mineral resources are limited to various kinds of stone and salt. Both
 the industrial and agricultural sectors were destroyed during the war and
 civil strife of the 1970s. About 90% of the population is ethnic Khmer
 and speaks Khmer; minorities include Chinese, Vietnamese, Cham-Malays,
 and a number of hill tribes. Buddhism is practiced, but discouraged by
 the government.

 History The early history of Cambodia is that of the KHMER EMPIRE. After
 the empire's fall (15th cent.), Cambodia fell prey to Siam and later
 (17th cent.) to ANNAM. It was declared (1863) a French protectorate and
 became (1887) part of French-ruled INDOCHINA. Cambodia was occupied by
 the Japanese in World War II. It became self-governing (1946) and gained
 full independence (1953) as the Kingdom of Cambodia. NORODOM SIHANOUK led
 the country until he was deposed (1970) in a military coup led by Gen.
 LON NOL. Cambodia became (1970) the Khmer Republic and was a major
 battlefield of the VIETNAM WAR. The ousted Sihanouk formed a government
 in exile in Peking, and the Communist KHMER ROUGE waged a successful
 full-scale civil war that overthrew (1975) the Lon Nol government.
 Sihanouk was restored as head of state, and a new socialist constitution
 (1976) renamed the country Democratic Kampuchea. However, Sihanouk was
 soon succeeded by Khieu Samphan, and POL POT became prime minister. The
 economy deteriorated following a massive collectivization drive in which
 urban populations were evacuated to work in the countryside. Many
 Cambodians fled to Thailand, and perhaps as many as 1 million or more had
 been killed or had died from enforced hardships by 1978. Border conflicts
 (1977-78) with Vietnam led to a Vietnamese invasion and the installation
 (1979) of a rebel Communist government opposed to Pol Pot. The country
 was renamed the People's Republic of Kampuchea, headed by Heng Samrin.
 The Khmer Rouge and other anti-Vietnamese groups continued to wage
 guerrilla warfare against the new regime, and in 1982 three factions
 formed a coalition government-in-exile.

   Cambrai, Treaty of

 Cambrai, Treaty of: see ITALIAN WARS.

   Cambrian period

 Cambrian period: see GEOLOGIC ERA .

   Cambridge

 Cambridge, city (1986 est. pop. 99,800), Cambridgeshire, E central
 England, on the Cam R. An ancient market town that now has some light
 industry on its outskirts, it is famous as the site of Cambridge Univ.
 (est. 13th cent.). In addition to the magnificent college buildings, the
 city abounds in medieval churches, old inns, and narrow, winding streets.

   Cambridge

 Cambridge, city (1986 est. pop. 91,260), a seat of Middlesex co., E
 Mass., across the Charles R. from BOSTON; settled 1630 as New Towne, inc.
 as a city 1846. A famous educational and research center, it is the seat
 of Harvard Univ. (est. 1636), the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
 and other colleges and seminaries. Its industries include electrical and
 scientific manufactures, and rubber and glass goods. Printing has been
 important since c.1639. The city, which was the home of such notable
 people as H.W. LONGFELLOW and J.R. LOWELL, has numerous historic sites.

   Cambridge Platform

 Cambridge Platform, declaration of principles of church government and
 discipline, forming a constitution of the Congregational churches.
 Adopted (1648) by a synod in Cambridge, Mass., it is the basis of
 temporal church government. Connecticut Congregationalists subscribed
 (1708) to more centralized church government in the Saybrook Platform.

   Cambridge University

 Cambridge University, at Cambridge, England. It originated in the early
 12th cent., possibly earlier than OXFORD UNIV., and was organized into
 residential colleges by the end of the 13th cent. There are now some 31
 colleges (including three women's colleges). Cambridge was a center of
 the new learning in the Renaissance and of Reformation theology. In
 modern times it offers a wide range of subjects, excelling in science.
 The university's famous Cavendish Laboratory of experimental physics
 (opened 1873) has had many of the world's outstanding physicists on its
 faculty. The Cambridge University Press dates from the 16th cent.

   camel

 camel, hoofed ruminant (family Camelidae). The family consists of the
 true camels of Asia, the wild guanaco and domesticated ALPACA and LLAMA
 of South America, and the vicuna of South America. The two species of
 true camel are the single-humped Arabian camel, or dromedary (Camelus
 dromedarius), a domesticated animal of Arabia and N Africa; and the
 two-humped Bactrian camel (C. bactrianus) of central Asia. Their humps
 are storage places for fat. Ranging in color from dirty white to dark
 brown, camels are well adapted for desert life and can go without water
 for several days.

   camellia

 camellia, evergreen shrub or small tree (genus Camellia) of the TEA
 family, native to Asia, now widely cultivated for the white, red, or
 variegated showy blossoms and glossy, dark-green foliage. Tea-seed oil,
 from the seeds of C. sasanqua, is used in cooking, and in soap and
 textile manufacturing.

   Camelot

 Camelot, in ARTHURIAN LEGEND, the seat of King Arthur's court, frequently
 located in Somerset of Monmouthshire.

   cameo

 cameo, small relief carving, usually on striated precious or semiprecious
 stones or on shell. The design, often a portrait head, is cut in the
 light-colored vein; the dark vein becomes the background. Glass of two
 colors in layers may also be cameo-cut. The art originated in Asia and
 spread to ancient Greece and Rome; it was revived during the Renaissance
 and in the Victorian era.

   camera

 camera, in PHOTOGRAPHY, device for recording an image on film or some
 other light-sensitive material. It consists of a lightproof box; a LENS
 through which light enters and is focused; a shutter that controls the
 size of the lens opening and the length of time it is open; a mechanism
 for moving the film between exposures; and a viewfinder, or eyepiece,
 that shows the user the image the lens sees. The camera developed from
 the camera obscura [Lat.,=dark chamber], an artist's tool dating from the
 Middle Ages. It was a light-tight box with a convex lens at one end and a
 screen that reflected the image at the other; the artist traced the
 image. Joseph Nicephore Niepce produced the first negative image in 1826.
 See also PHOTOGRAPHY, STILL; POLAROID CAMERA.

   Cameron, Julia Margaret

 Cameron, Julia Margaret, 1815-79, English pioneer photographer; b. India.
 In 1864 she began to photograph her many illustrious friends, e.g.,
 Alfred, Lord TENNYSON and Ellen TERRY. Her superb portraits appeared as
 Victorian Photographs of Famous Men and Fair Women (rev. ed. 1973).

   Cameroon, Republic of

 Cameroon, Republic of, republic (1987 est. pop. 10,822,000), 183,568 sq
 mi (475,442 sq km), W central Africa, bordered by the Gulf of Guinea (W,
 SW), Nigeria (NW), Chad (NE), the Central African Republic (E), and the
 Congo, Gabon, and Equatorial Guinea (S). Major cities are YAOUNDE (the
 capital) and DOUALA. Cameroon consists of a coastal region of swamps and
 dense rain forests, an interior plateau covered with forests and savanna,
 and an arid northern region. Volcanic peaks near the coast rise to 13,354
 ft (4,070 m). The economy is based on a varied agriculture that makes the
 country self-sufficient in food. Cameroon is a leading producer of cocoa
 which, along with crude oil, coffee, bananas, palm products, cotton,
 rubber, timber, and aluminum, constitute the chief exports.
 Aluminum-smelting, using hydroelectric power, is the principal industry.
 Cameroon's diverse population includes more than 150 ethnic groups.
 French and English are the official languages. Traditional religious
 beliefs are dominant, but there are large minorities of Christians and
 Muslims, the latter in the north.

 History The first Europeans to arrive in the region were the Portuguese
 (1472), who developed a large-scale slave trade. By the 19th cent. palm
 oil and ivory had become the main items of commerce. The British
 established commercial hegemony over the coast in the early 1800s, but
 were supplanted by the Germans, who made the area a protectorate in 1884.
 The area was occupied by French and British troops in WORLD WAR I, after
 which it was divided into French and British mandates under the League of
 Nations. These became UN trust territories in 1946. In the 1950s
 guerrilla warfare, sparked by demands for independence, raged in the
 French Cameroons; the French granted self-government in 1957 and
 independence in 1960. Following a UN plebiscite in 1961, the southern
 zone of British Cameroons was incorporated into the new country (the
 northern zone joined NIGERIA), which became a federal republic with two
 prime ministers and two legislatures but a single president. A new
 constitution adopted in 1972 created a unitary state to replace the
 federation. (See also CAMEROONS.)

   Cameroons

 Cameroons, former German colony, W Africa, in the region that is now
 Cameroon and Nigeria. After World War I the colony was divided into
 British Cameroons and French Cameroons, both League of Nations mandates.
 Both colonies became UN trust territories and then achieved independence
 after World War II. French Cameroons and the southern part of British
 Cameroons became the United Republic of CAMEROON, and the northern
 section of British Cameroons joined NIGERIA.

   Camoes

 Camoesor Camoens, Luis de, 1524?-1580, Portugal's national poet and
 greatest literary figure. Among the events of his turbulent life were
 study at the Univ. of Coimbra; banishment from court (1546); loss of an
 eye in the Moroccan campaign; imprisonment for street-fighting; military
 service in India; dismissal from an official post in Macao; and shipwreck
 on his return (1570) to Portugal. The Lusiads [Port. Os Lusiadas=sons of
 Lusus, i.e., the Portuguese] (1572), a Vergilian epic encompassing the
 voyage of Vasco da GAMA and much of Portuguese history, is his
 masterpiece. Camoes received a meager royal pension but died in poverty.
 His sonnets and lyrics appeared posthumously.

   campanile

 campanile, Italian form of bell tower, chiefly medieval. Built in
 connection with a church or town hall, it served as belfry, watch tower,
 and often civil monument. The campanile generally stands as a detached
 unit. In the 8th cent., square campaniles succeeded the earlier round
 towers. GIOTTO'S campanile in Florence (1334) is entirely faced in marble
 and ornamented with sculptures.

   Campbell, Alexander

 Campbell, Alexander, 1788-1866, clergyman, cofounder of the DISCIPLES OF
 CHRIST; b. Ireland. His father, Thomas Campbell, 1763-1854, came to the
 U.S. in 1807 and settled in Pennsylvania, where he withdrew his
 congregation from the Presbyterian Church. Alexander came to the U.S. in
 1809 and joined his father's followers, known as Campbellites. Nominally
 Baptists (c.1812-c.1827), they advocated a return to scriptural
 simplicity and became the Disciples of Christ. Alexander founded (1840)
 Bethany College in West Virginia.

   Campbell, Mrs. Patrick

 Campbell, Mrs. Patrick, 1865-1940, English actress; b. Beatrice Stella
 Tanner. She won fame in Pinero's Second Mrs. Tanqueray (1893). A friend
 of G.B. SHAW, she created the part of Eliza Doolittle in his Pygmalion
 (1913).

   Campbell, Robert

 Campbell, Robert: see ROB ROY.

   Campbell, Robert

 Campbell, Robert, 1808-94, Canadian explorer; b. Scotland. As a fur
 trader for the HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY he explored (1834-52) the Mackenzie
 R. region and discovered the Pelly R. At its junction with the Lewes R.
 to form the YUKON R. he established (1848) Fort Selkirk. Later (1850-51)
 he followed the Yukon as far as Fort Yukon.

   Campbell-Bannerman, Sir Henry

 Campbell-Bannerman, Sir Henry, 1836-1908, British statesman. A Liberal,
 he served as secretary to the admiralty (1882-84), secretary of state for
 Ireland (1884), and secretary of state for war (1886, 1892-95). As prime
 minister (1905-8), he furthered many Liberal measures, including
 self-government for the Transvaal and the Orange Free State.

   Camp David

 Camp David, woodland camp in the Catoctin Mts., Md., used as a retreat by
 U.S. presidents since F.D. Roosevelt. Many important meetings have been
 held here, e.g., the conference that produced the CAMP DAVID ACCORDS.

   Camp David accords

 Camp David accords, popular name for the 1979 peace treaty between Israel
 and Egypt, named for the U.S. presidential retreat (Camp David) in
 Maryland where the agreement was forged. It was signed Mar. 26, 1979, in
 Washington, D.C., by Menachem BEGIN of Israel and Anwar SADAT of Egypt,
 with U.S. Pres. Jimmy CARTER signing as a witness. Under the pact, which
 was denounced by other Arab states, Israel agreed to return the SINAI to
 Egypt, a transfer that was completed in 1982. In a joint letter the two
 sides also agreed to negotiate Palestinian autonomy measures in the
 occupied WEST BANK and GAZA STRIP, but virtually no progress was made on
 this issue before Sadat's assassination in 1981. After Israel's siege of
 BEIRUT in 1982 to force the PLO out of Lebanon, U.S. Pres. Ronald REAGAN
 put forth a proposal for Palestinian autonomy. See also ARAB-ISRAELI
 WARS.

   camphor

 camphor (C10H16O), white, crystalline solid with a pungent odor and
 taste. It can be obtained from the camphor tree or synthesized from oil
 of TURPENTINE. Camphor is used to make CELLULOID and lacquers. In
 medicine it is used as a stimulant, a diaphoretic, and an inhalant;
 camphor ice, a mixture chiefly of camphor and WAX, is applied externally.
 The alcoholic solution is known as spirits of camphor.

   Campi, Giulio

 Campi, Giulio, c.1500-c.1572, Italian painter and architect, founder of a
 school of painters at Cremona. Influenced by CORREGGIO and RAPHAEL, he
 did many altarpieces in Milan and Cremona. His pupils included his
 brothers Cavaliere Antonio Campi, c.1536-1591; Vincenzo Campi, 1532-91, a
 painter of portraits and still lifes; and Bernardino Campi, 1522-c.1590,
 known for frescoes in San Sigismondo, Cremona.

   Campian, Thomas

 Campian, Thomas: see CAMPION, THOMAS.

   Campin, Robert

 Campin, Robert, 1378-1444, Flemish painter who with the van EYCKS was a
 founder of the Netherlandish school. He has been identified as the Master
 of Flemalle on the basis of three panels said to have come from the abbey
 of Flemalle, near Liege, Belgium. The Merode Altarpiece (Cloisters,
 N.Y.C.) has also been attributed to him. His robust realism and concern
 for details of daily life reflected the values of the rising middle
 class.

   Campion, Saint Edmund

 Campion, Saint Edmund, c.1540-1581, English JESUIT martyr. He early found
 favor with ELIZABETH I, but had Roman Catholic leanings and fled to the
 Continent, where he joined (1573) the Society of Jesus. He returned
 (1580) to England as a missionary and converted many, but was arrested,
 tortured, and executed. He was canonized in 1970. Feast: Dec. 1.

   Campion

 Campion or Campian, Thomas,1567-1620, English poet and composer. He wrote
 poems and lute music, e.g., five Books of Airs (1601-17); a treatise on
 COUNTERPOINT; and a treatise on poetry.

   camp meeting

 camp meeting, outdoor religious gathering, held usually in the summer
 over several days. A prominent institution of the American frontier, it
 originated (c.1800) under the preaching of James McGready in Kentucky and
 spread rapidly with the revival movement. Camp meetings were held by
 evangelical sects, e.g., Methodists and Baptists, and were characterized
 by emotional fervor.

   Camus, Albert

 Camus, Albert, 1913-60, French writer and thinker; b. Algiers. His belief
 in the absurdity of the human condition identified him with
 EXISTENTIALISM, but his courageous humanism distinguished him from that
 group. The characters in his novels and plays, although keenly aware of
 the meaninglessness of the human condition, assert their humanity by
 rebelling against their circumstances. His best-known works are the
 novels The Stranger (1942), The Plague (1947), and The Fall (1956) and
 the essays The Myth of Sisyphus (1942) and The Rebel (1951). Camus was
 awarded the 1957 Nobel Prize in literature.

   Cana

 Cana, ancient town of Galilee. Here JESUS performed his first miracle by
 turning water into wine at a wedding. John 2.

   Canaan

 Canaan, name for ancient PALESTINE. It was the Promised Land of the
 Israelites, which they conquered after their delivery from Egypt. Its
 inhabitants, who were probably related to the Amorites, were called
 Canaanites.

   Canada

 Canada, independent nation (1987 est. pop. 25,652,000), second largest
 country in the world (3,831,012 sq mi/9,922,330 sq km), occupying all of
 North America east of Alaska and north of a 5,335-mi-long (8,892-km)
 border with the U.S., and including adjacent islands of the Arctic
 Archipelago. It comprises 10 provinces and 2 federal territories. The
 provinces are ALBERTA, MANITOBA, and SASKATCHEWAN, collectively known as
 the Prairie Provinces; NEW BRUNSWICK, NOVA SCOTIA, PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND,
 and NEWFOUNDLAND, known as the Atlantic Provinces (the first three also
 being called the Maritime Provinces); and BRITISH COLUMBIA; ONTARIO; and
 QUEBEC. The territories are the YUKON and the NORTHWEST TERRITORIES.
 Canada is a member of the COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS. Its capital is OTTAWA.

 Land and People Occupying more than half of the nation's land area in the
 east and north is the vast CANADIAN SHIELD, a sparsely populated expanse
 of ancient, metamorphic rocks locally rich in iron, nickel, gold, and
 other minerals. Its rim extends from Labrador in the east, along the
 northern edge of Canada's urban-industrial heartland (the SAINT LAWRENCE
 R. valley and the peninsula of S Ontario), through WINNIPEG and the GREAT
 SLAVE and Great Bear lakes to the ice-clogged ARCTIC OCEAN in the north.
 Southeast of the Shield, occupying the Maritime Provinces and the island
 of Newfoundland, are the worn-down northern ranges of the APPALACHIAN
 MOUNTAINS system. To the west, in SW Manitoba and most of Alberta and
 Saskatchewan, are the great wheat-growing, oil-rich plains, or prairies,
 underlain by sedimentary rock in the Interior Lowlands region. The plains
 continue north through the PEACE R. and Athabasca districts to the area
 at the mouth of the MACKENZIE R., in the far north. West of the plains,
 along the western boundary of Alberta and in British Columbia and the
 Yukon, is the c.500-mi-wide (800-km) complex of high mountains and
 plateaus known as the Western Cordillera. It includes the ROCKY MOUNTAINS
 (E) and COAST MOUNTAINS (W), and reaches an elevation of 19,524 ft (5,951
 m) at Mt. LOGAN, Canada's highest point, in the Yukon. Canada's climate
 ranges from temperate, with short, mild winters, in the southwest, to
 bitter, Arctic cold. It is temperate, with long, cold, and usually snowy
 winters in E Canada and the Prairie Provinces. Climatic conditions become
 progressively harsher to the north, where permafrost severely limits
 development. The population is predominantly of British or French origin,
 with smaller minorities of other Europeans, some Asians, and an
 indigenous population of c.300,000 Indians on reservations and c.23,000
 Inuit (ESKIMO). Most Canadians live along the southern edge of the
 nation, within 100 mi (160 km) of the U.S. border. More than half are
 concentrated in S Ontario and S Quebec. French (spoken by a majority in
 Quebec) and English are both official languages. TORONTO, MONTREAL,
 VANCOUVER, and EDMONTON are the largest urban areas.

 Economy Manufacturing, heavily concentrated in S Quebec and Ontario, is
 the chief economic activity, with major manufactures including motor
 vehicles, processed food, petrochemicals, aluminum, and iron and steel.
 Canada, which ranks first among world mineral exporters, produces zinc,
 asbestos, silver, and nickel for export, and also mines potash, sulfur,
 uranium, copper, and iron. Coal, oil, and natural gas are abundant in
 Alberta and to a lesser extent in Saskatchewan. Huge hydroelectric
 installations on the St. Lawrence, CHURCHILL, COLUMBIA, Peace, and other
 rivers supply additional energy in fuel-deficient regions. The extensive
 forest cover just north of the settled fringe supports large exports of
 newsprint, pulp and paper, and other forest products; and there are major
 exports of wheat and other grains from the Prairies, as well as fruit and
 meat. The U.S. is the leading trading partner and principal foreign
 investor. A trade agreement that took effect in 1989 will eliminate all
 tariffs between the U.S. and Canada by 1999. The GREAT LAKES-SAINT
 LAWRENCE SEAWAY is the chief trading artery.

 Government Canada's constitution was patriated (i.e., returned to full
 Canadian control by the British Parliament in London) in 1982. It is
 derived from the British North America Act of 1867. Under the
 constitution the head of state is the British monarch, acting in Canada
 through an appointed governor general. Legislative power is vested in a
 bicameral Canadian Parliament, consisting of a House of Commons (282
 elected members) and a Senate (104 appointed members). The head of
 government is the prime minister, a member of the House. Each province
 has its own parliament.

 History Newfoundland and the eastern seaboard were discovered for England
 in 1497 by John CABOT and the mouth of the St. Lawrence R. and the GASPE
 PENINSULA for France in 1524 by Jacques CARTIER. Port Royal (now
 ANNAPOLIS ROYAL), Canada's first known permanent mainland settlement, was
 founded by the French in 1605, and, traveling out from the colony of New
 France (made a royal colony in 1663), French fur traders, explorers, and
 missionaries rapidly extended French influence deep into the North
 American interior. British interest was sparked by the commercial efforts
 of the HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY after 1670. Through the 18th cent.
 Anglo-French hostility in Europe kept spilling over into the New World
 (see FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS). In 1713 Britain gained control of Nova
 Scotia (the heart of the French colony called ACADIA), Newfoundland, and
 the Hudson Bay region. The rest of French Canada fell to the British in
 1763, following the defeat (1759) of Gen. MONTCALM by James WOLFE on the
 Plains of Abraham, near the city of Quebec. French residents, then in the
 majority, were granted rights to their own language and religion and
 given other concessions under the Quebec Act of 1774. Tensions mounted,
 however, as British settlement accelerated, especially after the American
 Revolution, with an influx of loyalists from the former American
 colonies. In an effort to deal with the growing Anglo-French antagonism,
 Quebec was divided (1791) into English-speaking Upper Canada (now
 Ontario) and French-speaking Lower Canada (present-day Quebec). Following
 revolts in both colonies and the report by the earl of DURHAM in 1839,
 Upper and Lower Canada were again merged (1841) to form a single colony
 called Canada Province. The union lasted until confederation: the
 creation (1867), under the British North America Act, of a self-governing
 Dominion of Canada. Ontario and Quebec (as separate provinces), New
 Brunswick, and Nova Scotia were the four founding members at
 confederation. They were later joined by Manitoba (1870), British
 Columbia (1871), Prince Edward Island (1873), Alberta and Saskatchewan
 (1905), and Newfoundland (1949). The Northwest Territories were purchased
 from the Hudson's Bay Company to become (1869) a federal territory, from
 which the Yukon was created as a separate territory in 1898. A strong,
 sometimes violent French Canadian separatist movement in Quebec, seeking
 independence or sovereignty for the province, gathered momentum in the
 late 1960s. In the 1970s new regional strains arose as residents of the
 rapidly developing western provinces (especially oil-rich Alberta) chafed
 under a federal system that, in their view, deprived them of the full
 benefits of their resources. Such controversies pointed to the need for
 reform of the traditional federal-provincial power arrangement and led to
 agitation for the patriation of the constitution. In 1982 Canada's
 constitution was returned to the Canadians, together with an amending
 formula and a nationally applicable "charter of rights." In the same year
 first steps toward the redistribution of federal and provincial powers
 were taken by Prime Min. Pierre TRUDEAU'S Liberal Party government. In
 1984 Trudeau retired, and his successor, John Turner, called for a new
 election. The Conservatives won with a sweeping majority, and Brian
 MULRONEY became prime minister.


 CANADIAN PRIME MINISTERS SINCE CONFEDERATION (including party and dates
 in office)

 Sir John A. Macdonald [Conservative] 1867--73
 Alexander Mackenzie [Liberal] 1873--78
 Sir John A. Macdonald [Conservative] 1878--
 Sir John J. C. Abbott [Conservative] 1891--92
 Sir John S. D. Thompson [Conservative] 1892--94
 Sir Mackenzie Bowell [Conservative] 1894--96
 Sir Charles Tupper [Conservative] 1896
 Sir Wilfred Laurier [Liberal] 1896--1911
 Sir Robert L. Borden [Conservative/Unionist] 1911--20
 Arthur Meighen [Conservative] 1920--21
 W. L. M. King [Liberal] 1921--26
 Arthur Meighen [Conservative] 1926
 W. L. M. King [Liberal] 1926--30
 Richard B. Bennett [Conservative] 1930--35
 W. L. M. King [Liberal] 1935--48
 Louis St. Laurent [Liberal] 1948--57
 John G. Diefenbaker [Progressive Conservative] 1957--63
 Lester B. Pearson [Liberal] 1963--68
 Pierre Elliott Trudeau [Liberal] 1968--79
 Joseph Clark Progressive Conservative] 1979--80
 Pierre Elliott Trudeau [Liberal] 1980--84
 John Turner [Liberal] 1984
 Brian Mulroney [Progressive Conservative] 1984--






   Canada Company

 Canada Company, land settlement company chartered in 1826 that acquired
 government land along the Lake Huron side of the ONTARIO peninsula, and
 founded Guelph and Goderick. Its first secretary in Canada was the
 Scottish novelist John GALT. It remained in existence until the 1950s.

   Canada First movement

 Canada First movement, short-lived political party founded after Canada's
 confederation (1867) to promote Canadian nationalism, and to encourage
 immigration and native industry. Its ideals were absorbed by older
 political parties.

   Canadian football

 Canadian football: see under FOOTBALL.

   Canadian Shield

 Canadian Shield or Laurentian Plateau,a region of ancient, mostly
 metamorphic rock forming the geologic nucleus of North America. Rich in
 minerals and water-power potential, it occupies E Canada, from the Great
 Lakes and the St. Lawrence N to the Arctic Ocean. It also covers much of
 Greenland and extends S into the U.S. as the ADIRONDACK MTS. and the
 Superior Highlands.

   Canal, Antonio

 Canal, Antonio: see CANALETTO.

   canal

 canal, an artificial waterway constructed for navigation or for the
 movement of water, e.g., irrigation, drainage of wetlands, and flood
 control. Irrigation canals probably date back to the beginnings of
 agriculture. Navigation canals developed later and for a long time were
 level, shallow cuts or had inclined planes up which vessels were hauled
 from one level to the next. The canal lock, a stretch of water enclosed
 by gates at each end, provides another means of raising or lowering
 vessels. When a vessel enters a lock through one gate, the gate is closed
 behind it. Water is let into or drained out of the lock until its level
 equals that of the water ahead. The vessel then passes out through the
 forward gate. Canal locks developed separately in China (10th cent.) and
 Holland (13th cent.). The GRAND CANAL of China is the world's longest
 canal. Europe developed a complex system of canals, and in the U.S.
 canal-building boomed after the opening (1825) of the ERIE CANAL. The
 rise of railroads, however, brought a decline in the use of canals as
 inland waterways. Canals have also been built to shorten sea routes,
 e.g., the PANAMA CANAL and the SUEZ CANAL.

   Canaletto

 Canaletto, 1697-1768, Venetian painter; b. Antonio Canal. Unsurpassed as
 an architectural painter, he executed such finely detailed works as View
 on the Grand Canal (National Gall., London) and The Piazzetta, Venice
 (Metropolitan Mus.). He also produced superb etchings and drawings that
 were not preparatory but complete in themselves. His nephew and pupil,
 Bernardo Bellotto, was also called Canaletto.

   canary

 canary, small BIRD of the FINCH family, descended from either the wild
 serin finch or the wild canary (Serinus canarius) of the CANARY ISLANDS,
 MADEIRA ISLANDS, and AZORES. The wild birds are usually gray or green;
 breeding has yielded plain and variegated birds, mostly yellow and buff.
 Captive canaries are trained to sing and can live for 15 years or more.

   Canary Islands

 Canary Islands, group of seven islands, 2,808 sq mi (7,273 sq km),
 constituting two provinces of Spain, in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast
 of NW Africa. Tenerife, Palma, Gomera, and Hierro islands are part of
 Santa Cruz de Tenerife prov.; Grand Canary, Lanzarote, and Fuerteventura
 are part of Las Palmas prov. The islands are of volcanic origin and rise
 to 12,162 ft (3,707 m) in Mt. Teide, the highest point in Spain. With
 their warm climate and fine beaches, the Canaries are a popular tourist
 center.

   canasta

 canasta: see RUMMY.

   Canberra

 Canberra, city (1986 est. pop. 285,800), capital of Australia, in the
 AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY, SE Australia. The site chosen (1908) for
 the capital was developed by the American architect Walter Burley
 Griffin, whose plans won (1911) an international competition. Parliament
 first met there in 1927. The federal government is the city's largest
 employer.

   cancer

 cancer, common term for tumors (neoplasms) characterized by uncontrolled
 growth. Unlike normal cells, cancer cells are atypical in structure and
 do not have specialized functions. They compete with normal cells for
 nutrients, eventually killing normal tissue. Cancerous, or malignant,
 tissue can remain localized, invading only neighboring tissue, or can
 spread to other tissues or organs via the LYMPHATIC SYSTEM or blood
 (i.e., metastasize); virtually all tissues and organs are susceptible.
 Cancer symptoms, which are often nonspecific, include weakness and loss
 of appetite and weight. The causes are thought to include chemical agents
 that alter the cell's nucleic acids, e.g., nitrogen mustard; toxic
 substances, e.g., ASBESTOS, pollutants, substances in cigarette smoke;
 hormonal imbalances, possibly brought on by drugs, e.g., DES; genetic
 tendencies for certain types of cancer, e.g., of the breast or stomach;
 physical agents such as X rays and radioactivity; and VIRUSES. Methods of
 detection include visual observation, palpation, X-ray study, CAT SCANS,
 ULTRASOUND, and BIOPSY. Tumors caught early, before metastasis, have the
 best cure rates. Cancer is treated by surgery, CHEMOTHERAPY, and
 RADIATION. The branch of medicine concerned with diagnosis, treatment,
 and research into the causes of cancer is oncology.

   candytuft

 candytuft, low-growing Old World plant (genus Iberis) of the MUSTARD
 family, often cultivated as a rock garden and border ornamental.
 Candytufts have flat-topped or elongated clusters of variously colored
 flowers.

   cane

 cane, in botany, name for a hollow or woody, usually slender, jointed
 plant stem (e.g., RATTAN and some bamboos) and for some tall GRASSES
 (e.g., SUGARCANE and SORGHUM). Giant cane (Arundinaria macrosperma or
 gigantea), a BAMBOO grass native to the U.S., often forms impenetrable
 thickets, the canebrakes of the South.

   cane sugar

 cane sugar: see SUCROSE.

   Canetti, Elias

 Canetti, Elias, 1905-, German writer; b. Bulgaria. He has lived in
 England since 1938 and is known for two works: Auto da fe (1935), a
 searing picture of man as degraded and evil, and Crowds and Power (1960),
 a study of mass psychology. He also wrote plays; a study of KAFKA, and
 autobiographical works. He was awarded the 1981 Nobel Prize in
 literature.

   cannabis

 cannabis: see HEMP.

   cannibalism

 cannibalism, practice of eating human flesh, found in Africa, South
 America, the South Pacific islands, and the West Indies. Victims for
 rites of life- or power-transfer are usually sought among alien groups,
 although some peoples eat part of a kinsman's corpse as a gesture of
 respect for the deceased. HEADHUNTING may have evolved from cannibalism.

   Canning, George

 Canning, George, 1770-1827, British statesman. A TORY, he served (1807-9)
 as foreign minister during the wars against NAPOLEON I and was
 influential in military affairs. After CASTLEREAGH'S suicide, he was
 again foreign minister (1822-27). He refused to cooperate in the
 suppression of European revolutions, aided the MONROE DOCTRINE by
 recognizing the independence of Spanish colonies in America, and arranged
 the Anglo-French-Russian agreement that resulted in Greek independence.
 He was prime minister in 1827.

   canning

 canning, process of hermetically sealing cooked food for future use,
 including meat, poultry, fruits and vegetables, seafood, milk, preserves
 and pickles, jams and jellies. Developed early in 19th-cent. France by
 Nicolas Appert, a chef, the method spread throughout Europe and the U.S.,
 where it was patented around 1815. The process was widely used to provide
 foodstuffs to soldiers during the U.S. Civil War. The early glass and tin
 containers were later supplanted by tin-plated steel cans, mass-produced
 in America since 1847 and now the basis of a modern industry. In home as
 in factory canning, the process involves cleaning and preparing the raw
 product (with rapid handling necessary to prevent vitamin loss, bacterial
 spoilage, or enzyme changes). Once filled, the containers are thermally
 exhausted to release gases, then subjected to heat to destroy any
 microorganisms.

   Cannon, Annie Jump

 Cannon, Annie Jump, 1863-1941, American astronomer; b. Dover, Del. A
 staff assistant (from 1896) and curator of astronomical photographs
 (1911-38) at the Harvard College Observatory, she developed the
 definitive Harvard system of spectral classification (see SPECTRAL CLASS)
 and published spectral classifications of over 350,000 stars appearing on
 Harvard photographic plates. In the course of her work she discovered
 more than 300 variable stars, many through their spectral
 characteristics.

   Cannon, Joseph Gurney

 Cannon, Joseph Gurney, 1836-1926, Speaker of the U.S. House of
 Representatives (1903-11); b. Guilford co., N.C. A lawyer from Illinois,
 he ruled the House dictatorially in the interest of "Old Guard"
 Republicans until a bill reforming House rules (1910) broke his power.

   Cannon, Walter Bradford

 Cannon, Walter Bradford, 1871-1945, American physiologist. He was the
 first to use (1897) bismuth as a contrast medium in an X-ray examination
 of the gastrointestinal tract. His interest in the physiological effects
 of emotional stimuli, especially on digestion, led to publication (1919)
 of his Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage. Cannon also
 introduced (1932) the concept of homeostasis.

   cannon

 cannon, in warfare: see ARTILLERY.

   canoe

 canoe, long, narrow watercraft with sharp ends, propelled by paddle,
 sail, or, recently, outboard motor. Used by most primitive peoples,
 canoes vary in materials and construction. North American Indians used
 birchbark, stretched hides, or hollowed logs; the Oldtown, or Penobscot,
 Indians in Maine developed canvas-covered wooden craft. In the South
 Pacific, large sailing canoes with outriggers were made for ocean
 journeys. The Eskimo kayak features a sealskin covering that fits snugly
 about the paddler. Modern canoes, generally used for recreational
 journeys or fixed-distance racing, are made of aluminum alloy, wood, or
 synthetic materials. Sport canoeing is generally credited to John
 MacGregor, an English barrister who founded (1865) the Royal Canoe Club.
 There are now Olympic events for kayaks and Canadian (North American)
 canoes.

   canon

 canon, in music, a type of COUNTERPOINT in which all the instruments or
 voices have the same melody, beginning at different times, with
 successive entrances at the same or different pitches. A well-known vocal
 form is the round, of which the earliest known example is the medieval
 song Sumer is Icumen in. The Canon in D for string orchestra by the
 17th-cent. German composer Johann Pachelbel was popular in the U.S. in
 the 1970s. The canon is an essential device for SERIAL MUSIC.

   canonization

 canonization: see SAINT.

   canon law

 canon law, in the ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH, law of the church courts, based
 on legislation of councils, popes, and bishops. It deals with the
 governance of the clergy and the church, including administration of the
 sacraments. The present code was promulgated in 1917, but has been
 undergoing revision since the 1960s. It has a long development, begun
 with the early letters of the popes. The greatest figure in canon law was
 Gratian, whose compilation was the basis of all later collections. The
 Council of TRENT added much to the law.

   Canova, Antonio

 Canova, Antonio, 1757-1822, Italian sculptor. Leading examples of
 neoclassicism, his statues and bas-reliefs, e.g., the monuments to
 Clement XIV (1782-87; Church of the Apostles, Rome) and Clement XIII
 (1792; St. Peter's, Rome), are executed with grace, polish and purity of
 contour. His portraits include two nudes of Napoleon I as a Roman
 emperor.

   cantaloupe

 cantaloupe: see GOURD; MELON.

   cantata

 cantata, composite musical form similar to a short unacted opera or brief
 ORATORIO, developed in Italy in the BAROQUE period. In France and Italy
 the secular cantatas included arias and recitatives; the sacred cantatas
 of Germany had choral and instrumental sections. J.S. BACH utilized hymn
 verses in his chorale cantatas.

   Canterbury

 Canterbury, city (1986 est. pop. 127,000), Kent, SE England, on the Stour
 R. The seat of the primate of the Church of England and the spiritual
 center of the country, it is a major attraction. Following his arrival
 (597) in England, St. AUGUSTINE founded an abbey there and became the
 first archbishop of Canterbury. After the murder (1170) of THOMAS A
 BECKET, the city became the object of pilgrimage, as described in
 CHAUCER'S Canterbury Tales. The magnificent cathedral (1070-1180;
 1379-1503) embodies the styles of several periods. Although the city was
 bombed during WORLD WAR II, the cathedral and many other historic
 buildings survive.

   Canterbury Tales

 Canterbury Tales: see CHAUCER, GEOFFREY.

   Canticles

 Canticles: another name for the SONG OF SOLOMON.

   Canton

 Canton or Guangzhou,city (1986 est. pop. 3,290,000), capital of Guangdong
 prov., S China, a major deepwater port on the Pearl R. delta. Among the
 largest cities in the country, Canton is the transportation, industrial,
 and trade center of S China. It has shipyards, a steel complex, and
 factories producing many heavy and light industrial products. Its
 principal exports are textiles, paper, cement, and sugar. Canton has a
 large international airport and is linked with HONG KONG by the
 Canton-Kowloon RR and by hovercraft. It became a part of China in the 3d
 cent. BC and was later the first Chinese port regularly visited by
 European traders. The seat (1913) of SUN YAT-SEN'S revolutionary
 movement, Canton was a Nationalist center in the 1920s and its fall
 (1950) to Communist armies signalled the Communist victory in all of
 China. Foreign trade expositions have been held there since 1957. Canton
 remains a major marketplace for China's foreign trade, and for foreign
 investment in S China.

   Cantor, Georg

 Cantor, Georg, 1845-1918, German mathematician; b. Russia. His work on
 transfinite numbers (see INFINITY) and SET theory revolutionized
 mathematics and led to a critical investigation of its foundations.

   Canute

 Canute, 995?-1035, king of England, Norway, and Denmark. The younger son
 of Sweyn of Denmark, he invaded England with his father in 1013 and
 forced AETHELRED to flee to Norway. On Sweyn's death (1014) he withdrew
 to Denmark. He reinvaded England in 1015 and, after the Danish victory at
 the battle of Assendun, divided the country with EDMUND IRONSIDE. On
 Edmund's death (1016), Canute was accepted as sole king. He gave England
 peace, restored the church to a high place, and codified English law. He
 married Emma, the widow of AEthelred. In 1018 he succeeded to the throne
 of Denmark. After several expeditions to Norway, he threw out OLAF II in
 1028, thus becoming ruler of three kingdoms. He made his son Harthacanute
 king of Denmark and his son Sweyn king of Norway. Canute also established
 friendly relations with the HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE.

   Canyon de Chelly National Monument

 Canyon de Chelly National Monument, area near Chinle, Ariz., including a
 canyon known for its ruins of spectacular cliff dwellings, built in AD
 350-1300 by the Indians known as the basket makers and their successors,
 the PUEBLO INDIANS. The NAVAHO INDIANS, who now live and farm there,
 settled in the canyon c.1700.

   Canyonlands National Park

 Canyonlands National Park: see NATIONAL PARKS .

   capacitance

 capacitance, in electricity, the capability of a body, a system, or an
 ELECTRIC CIRCUIT for storing electric CHARGE. Capacitance, in units of
 farads, is expressed as the ratio of stored charge in coulombs to the
 applied potential difference in volts. In electric circuits, devices
 designed to store charge are called CAPACITORS. When alternating current
 flows through a capacitor, the capacitor produces a reactance, inversely
 proportional to the capacitance, that resists the current flow (see
 IMPEDANCE).

   capacitor

 capacitor or condenser,device for storing electric charge. Simple
 capacitors usually consist of two plates made of an electrically
 conducting material (e.g., a metal) separated by a nonconducting material
 (e.g., glass, paraffin, mica, oil, or air). If an electric POTENTIAL
 (voltage) is applied to the capacitor plates, the plates will become
 charged, one positively and one negatively. If the externally applied
 voltage is then removed, the capacitor plates remain charged, and the
 electric charge induces an electric potential between the two plates.
 This phenomenon is called electrostatic INDUCTION. The capacity of the
 device for storing electric charge (i.e., its capacitance) can be
 increased by increasing the area of the plates, by decreasing their
 separation, or by varying the substance used as an insulator. The
 DIELECTRIC constant is a measure of the increase in capacitance due to a
 particular insulator used to separate the plates. The Leyden jar, a form
 of capacitor invented at the Univ. of Leiden in the 18th cent., consists
 of a narrow-necked glass jar coated on part of its inner and outer
 surfaces with conductive metal foil.

   Cape Breton Island

 Cape Breton Island (1986 pop. 47,030), 3,970 sq mi (10,282 sq km), in NE
 Nova Scotia, separated from the Canadian mainland by the Gut (or Strait)
 of Canso. It was discovered by the English navigator John CABOT in 1497.
 Under French control (1623-1763), it was renamed Ile Royale and
 fortified (at LOUISBURG) by French loyalists (the Acadians) after the
 rest of NOVA SCOTIA passed to the English in 1713. It was a separate
 colony from 1784 to 1820, with its capital at Sydney.

   Cape Canaveral

 Cape Canaveral, low promontory, E Florida (called Cape Kennedy, 1963-73).
 Since 1947 it has been the chief U.S. launching site for long-range test
 missiles and manned space flights.

   Cape Cod

 Cape Cod, hook-shaped, sandy peninsula, SE Massachusetts, extending 65 mi
 (105 km) E and N into the Atlantic Ocean. It is a popular resort area.
 Parts of it constitute the Cape Cod National Seashore (44,600
 acres/18,050 hectares; est. 1961). Cape Cod Canal, built 1910-14, cut the
 New York-Boston shipping distance by 75 mi (121 km).

   Capek, Karel

 Capek, Karel, 1890-1938, Czech writer. He wrote two brilliant satirical
 plays attacking technological and materialist excess: R.U.R. (Rossum's
 Universal Robots, 1921), which introduced the word robot; and The Insect
 Play (1921), written with his brother Josef. His other works include The
 Makropoulos Secret (1922), a play on which JANAcEK based an opera; The
 War with the Newts (1936), a satirical science-fiction attack on
 totalitarianism; philosophical novels; travel sketches; and volumes of
 conversations with Thomas MASARYK. Josef Capek, 1887-1945, was a writer
 and painter.

   Cape Kennedy

 Cape Kennedy: see CAPE CANAVERAL.

   caper

 caper, common name for members of the family Capparidaceae, chiefly Old
 World tropical plants closely related to the MUSTARD family. The pickled
 caper, used as a condiment, is the flower bud of Capparis spinosa,
 cultivated in the Mediterranean area. The family also includes the
 spiderflower (Cleome spinosa), a common garden annual.

   Capetians

 Capetians, royal house of France, named for HUGH CAPET, who became king
 in 987. His direct descendants ruled France until the death of CHARLES IV
 in 1328. The throne then passed to the collateral branch of VALOIS.

   Cape Town

 Cape Town or Capetown,city (1980 pop. 213,830), legislative capital of
 South Africa and capital of Cape Province, an important port on the
 Atlantic Ocean. It is a commercial and industrial center, linked by road,
 rail, and airlines to other South African cities. Situated at the foot of
 Table Mt. (c.3,570 ft/1, 090 m), Cape Town is a tourist resort with fine
 beaches and a pleasant climate. The city, founded in 1652, is the site of
 a fortress, church, museum, and other buildings dating to the early Dutch
 settlement.

   Cape Verde

 Cape Verde, Port. Ilhas do Cabo Verde, officially Republic of Cape Verde,
 republic (1987 est. pop. 350,000), c.1,560 sq mi (4,040 sq km), W Africa,
 in the Atlantic Ocean, about 300 mi (480 km) W of Senegal. Cape Verde is
 an archipelago made up of 10 islands and 5 islets, divided into two main
 groups-the Barlavento, or Windward, in the north, which include Santo
 Antao, Sao Vicente, Santa Luzia, Sao Nicolau, Boa Vista, and Sal; and the
 Sotavento, or Leeward, which include Sao Tiago, Fogo, Maio, and Brava.
 Praia, the capital, is located on Sao Tiago, the largest island. The
 islands are mountainous and of volcanic origin; the only active volcano,
 and the archipelago's highest point, is Cano (c.9,300 ft/2,830 m), on
 Fogo. Farming, the main economic activity, is limited by the small annual
 rainfall. Occasionally, severe drought, as in the 1970s and 80s, further
 reduces production of the main crops (maize, bananas, sweet potatoes,
 beans, sugarcane, and coffee). Tuna and lobster are the major fishing
 catches. The mineral resources are puzzolana (used in mortar) and salt.
 Many of the islanders work in Portugal and the U.S., and their
 remittances, along with foreign assistance, help to support the weak
 economy. About 70% of the population is of mixed black African and
 European descent; most of the rest are black Africans.

 History Cape Verde was discovered in 1456 by Luigi da Cadamosto, a
 navigator in the service of Portugal. Portuguese colonists began to
 settle in the islands, which were probably uninhabited, in 1462, and soon
 began importing blacks from W Africa as slaves. Slavery was abolished in
 the islands in 1876. Cape Verde became an overseas province in 1951 and
 gained its independence in 1975. A movement for union with Guinea-Bissau
 (formerly Portuguese Guinea, administered as part of the Cape Verde
 islands until 1879), was blocked by a 1980 coup in Guineau-Bissau, which
 brought to power leaders opposed to such close ties with Cape Verde. The
 new nation has been concerned with a prolonged drought that caused
 staggering economic problems and large-scale emigration, an 80%
 unemployment rate, and the need to import nearly all of its food supply.

   capillarity

 capillarity or capillary action, phenomenon in which the surface of a
 liquid is elevated or depressed when it comes in contact with a solid.
 The result depends on the outcome of two opposing forces, ADHESION AND
 COHESION. Adhesion between glass and water causes the water to rise along
 a glass wall until this force is balanced by the cohesive force acting to
 minimize the liquid's surface area (see SURFACE TENSION). When adhesion
 is less than cohesion, as with glass and mercury, the surface is lowered.
 The upward flow of water in soil and in plants is partially caused by
 capillarity.

   capital gains tax

 capital gains tax, levy on profits earned by the sale of capital assets,
 such as stocks, bonds, and real estate. In the U.S., long-term gains on
 assets held for one year or more are taxed at a lower rate than
 short-term gains.

   capitalism

 capitalism, economic system characterized by private ownership of
 property and of the means of production. Generally the capitalist, or
 private enterprise, system embodies the concepts of individual
 initiative, competition, SUPPLY AND DEMAND, and the profit motive.
 Capitalism and SOCIALISM are the two major economic systems in the world.
 The modern importance of capitalism dates from the INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION,
 which started in the 18th cent. when bankers, merchants, and
 industrialists began to displace landowners in importance, especially in
 Britain. By the early 20th cent. capitalism had created vast credit,
 manufacturing, and distributing institutions, and the social and economic
 effects of the system had largely transformed world culture. However, it
 was also held responsible for various abuses, notably the exploitation of
 labor. Complete freedom of economic action has been circumscribed in
 recent times by the growth of strong labor UNIONS, the NATIONALIZATION in
 some countries of certain basic industries, and ANTITRUST LAWS limiting
 the power of MONOPOLIES, as well as by social reforms, ENVIRONMENTALISM,
 and legislation ensuring product safety. See also LAISSEZ-FAIRE.

   capital levy

 capital levy: see TAXATION.

   capital punishment

 capital punishment, imposition of the death penalty by the state. Applied
 from ancient times in most societies, it has been used as punishment for
 crimes ranging in gravity from petty theft to murder. Modern opposition
 to capital punishment arose in France in the 18th cent. and spread
 through W Europe, where most nations abolished such laws in the 20th
 cent. In the U.S. the death penalty was applied with decreasing frequency
 after World War II, and in 1972 the U.S. Supreme Court voided all federal
 and state laws calling for the death penalty on the grounds that
 condemned persons were being subjected to "cruel and unusual punishment,"
 in violation of the 8th amendment to the CONSTITUTION. Since then, some
 states have passed new measures imposing the penalty in specified kinds
 of murder cases.

   Capitol

 Capitol, seat of the U.S. government, at Washington, D.C., built on an
 elevated site chosen by WASHINGTON and Major Pierre L'ENFANT. The
 building is the work of several architects. William Thornton's 1792 plan
 was initiated in 1793. E.S. Hallet, George Hadfield, and James Hoban
 succeeded Thornton. In 1814 the British burned the uncompleted building,
 and B.H. LATROBE and Charles BULFINCH restored and completed it
 (1818-30). The House and Senate wings and the dome were added (1851-65)
 by T.U. Walter. The dome is 288 ft (90 m) high.

   Capitoline Hill

 Capitoline Hill or Capitol,highest of the seven hills of ancient Rome,
 historic and religious center of the city in ancient times. In the Middle
 Ages the Capitol remained the political center of Rome, and it is the
 center of municipal government in modern Rome. In the 16th cent.
 MICHELANGELO designed the Capitol's present plan.

   Capitol Reef National Park

 Capitol Reef National Park: see NATIONAL PARKS .

   Capone, Al(phonse)

 Capone, Al(phonse), 1899-1947, American gangster; b. Brooklyn, N.Y. His
 crime syndicate terrorized Chicago in the 1920s, controlling gambling and
 prostitution there. In 1931 he was sentenced to prison for federal
 income-tax evasion.

   Capote, Truman

 Capote, Truman, 1924-84, American author; b. New Orleans. His fiction
 reflected a world of grotesque and strangely innocent people. He wrote
 novels, e.g., The Grass Harp (1951); short stories, e.g., Breakfast at
 Tiffany's (1958); nonfiction; and the "nonfiction novel" In Cold Blood
 (1966).

   Cappadocia

 Cappadocia, ancient region of Asia Minor, in present E central Turkey.
 The name was applied at different times to territories of varying size.
 Before 1800 BC, Cappadocia was the heart of an old HITTITE state; later,
 it was controlled by the Persians. During the 3d cent. BC it developed as
 an independent kingdom. In AD 17 Rome annexed the region.

   Capra, Frank

 Capra, Frank, 1897-, American film director; b. Sicily. It Happened One
 Night (1934), Mr. Deeds Goes to Town (1936), and You Can't Take It with
 You (1938), mixing "screwball" comedy and populism, won Academy Awards.
 Among his other films is It's a Wonderful Life (1946).

   Caprivi Strip

 Caprivi Strip, panhandle area of NE Namibia, 300 mi (480 km) long and 50
 mi (80 km) wide, between Botswana (S) and Angola and Zambia (N). It was
 obtained from Great Britain by Germany in 1890 to give German South West
 Africa (now NAMIBIA) access to the ZAMBEZI R.

   capybara

 capybara, largest living RODENT, reaching a length of 4 ft (120 cm) and a
 weight of 75 to 100 lb (34 to 45 kg). Found in Central and much of South
 America, it has coarse, scant, brownish hair flecked with yellow. An
 expert swimmer, the capybara is also called the water hog.

   Caracalla

 Caracalla, 188-217, Roman emperor (211-17); son of Septimius SEVERUS.
 Born Marcus Aurelius Antoninus; he received his nickname from the
 caracalla, a Gallic tunic he regularly wore. His reign was infamous for
 its cruelty and bloodshed. Caracalla did pacify the German frontier and
 extended Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of the empire. In 217
 he was murdered by his successor, Macrinus.

   Caracas

 Caracas, city (1981 pop. 1,816,901), N Venezuela, capital and largest
 city of Venezuela. An extremely cosmopolitan city, it is a major
 industrial center, shipping through the nearby Caribbean port of La
 Guaira. Caracas was founded in 1567 and was the base for Spanish
 colonization of Venezuela. It was the birthplace of the liberators
 Francisco de MIRANDA and Simon BOLIVAR. Caracas retains an old section,
 with many examples of colonial architecture. The oil boom of the 1950s
 made possible massive public building projects, transforming much of
 Caracas into an ultramodern metropolis famed for such futuristic
 complexes as University City and the Centro Bolivar government center. A
 cultural hub, the city is the site of a large performing arts center
 (1981), three orchestras, an opera, a ballet, and three major art
 museums.

   Caramanlis, Constantine

 Caramanlis, Constantine: see KARAMANLIS, CONSTANTINE.

   Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi da

 Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi da or Amerigi da Caravaggio, 1573-1610,
 Italian painter. After his early years in Rome doing GENRE paintings,
 e.g., Concert of Youths (Metropolitan Mus.) and the Fortune Teller
 (Louvre), Caravaggio devoted himself to religious works and portraits.
 His use of models from lower walks of life in religious works was thought
 irreverent, but his strong chiaroscuro technique, partially illuminating
 figures against a dark background, was adopted by his contemporaries. His
 wide influence can be seen in the works of REMBRANDT and RIBERA.

   caraway

 caraway, biennial plant (Carum carvi) of the CARROT family, cultivated in
 Europe and North America for its aromatic, spicy seeds. The seeds are
 used to flavor pastry, cabbage, sausage, cheese, and liqueurs.

   carbohydrate

 carbohydrate, any member of a large class of chemical compounds that
 includes sugars, starches, cellulose, and related compounds.
 Carbohydrates are produced naturally by green plants from carbon dioxide
 and water (see PHOTOSYNTHESIS). Important as foods, they supply energy
 and are used to make fats. The three main classes of carbohydrates are
 monosaccharides, which are the simple SUGARS, e.g., FRUCTOSE and GLUCOSE;
 disaccharides, which are made up of two monosaccharide units and include
 LACTOSE, MALTOSE, and SUCROSE; and polysaccharides, which are polymers
 with many monosaccharide units and include CELLULOSE, GLYCOGEN, and
 STARCH.

   carbon

 carbon (C), nonmetallic element, known since ancient times. Pure carbon
 forms are amorphous carbon (found in such sources as CHARCOAL, COAL,
 COKE, LIGNITE, and PEAT) and the crystals GRAPHITE, a very soft,
 dark-gray or black, lustrous material, and DIAMOND, the hardest substance
 known. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY is the study of carbon compounds. All living
 organisms contain carbon. Carbon has seven isotopes; carbon-12 is the
 basis for ATOMIC WEIGHTS; carbon-14, with a half-life of 5,730 years, is
 used to trace chemical reactions and to date geologic and archeologic
 specimens (see DATING). See CARBON CYCLE; CARBON DIOXIDE; CARBON
 MONOXIDE; ELEMENT ; PERIODIC TABLE.

   carbon cycle

 carbon cycle, in biology, the exchange of carbon between living organisms


 dioxide found in air or dissolved water. Plants incorporate carbon into
 carbohydrates and other complex organic molecules by means of
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS; during RESPIRATION, or OXIDATION, they combine oxygen
 with portions of the carbohydrate molecule, releasing carbon in the form
 of carbon dioxide and water. Carbon is also returned to the environment
 when plants die and their organic material is broken down by bacteria and
 other microorganisms. Animals obtain carbon by feeding on plants and
 other animals; they release carbon through respiration and, after death,
 indirectly through the respiration of microorganisms that consume them.

   carbon dioxide

 carbon dioxide (CO2), chemical compound, occurring as a colorless,
 odorless, tasteless gas that is about 11/2 times as dense as air under
 ordinary conditions. It does not burn and will not support combustion of
 ordinary materials. Its weakly acidic aqueous solution is called CARBONIC
 ACID. The gas, easily liquefied by compression and cooling, provides the
 sparkle in carbonated beverages. Solid carbon dioxide, or dry ice, is a
 refrigerant. Dough rises because of carbon dioxide formed by the action
 of yeast and baking powder. Carbon dioxide is a raw material for
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS in green plants, and is a product of animal RESPIRATION
 and of the decay of organic matter. Carbon dioxide occurs both free and
 combined in nature, and makes up about 1% of the volume of dry air. It
 can cause death by suffocation if inhaled in large amounts.

   carbon-14 dating

 carbon-14 dating: see DATING.

   carbonic acid

 carbonic acid2CO3), a weak dibasic acid (see ACIDS AND BASES) formed when
 CARBON DIOXIDE dissolves in water; it exists only in solution. With bases
 it forms the CARBONATE and bicarbonate salts.

   Carboniferous period

 Carboniferous period: see GEOLOGIC ERA .

   carbon monoxide

 carbon monoxide, chemical compound (CO), colorless, odorless, tasteless,
 extremely poisonous gas that is less dense than air under ordinary
 conditions. It burns in air with a characteristic blue flame, producing
 carbon dioxide. It is a component of the artificial fuels producer gas
 and WATER GAS. As a reducing agent, it removes oxygen from many compounds
 and is used in the reduction of metals from ores. When air containing as
 little as 0.1% carbon monoxide by volume is inhaled, the oxygen of
 hemoglobin is replaced by the carbon monoxide, resulting in fatal oxygen
 starvation throughout the body.

   carburetor

 carburetor, device in a gasoline engine that vaporizes the gas and mixes
 it with a regulated amount of air for efficient combustion in the engine
 cylinders. Land vehicles, boats, and light aircraft have a float
 carburetor, in which a float regulates the fuel level in a reservoir from
 which the fuel is continuously sucked into the intake manifold at a
 restriction called a venturi. When there is an individual spray for each
 cylinder and the injection is an intermittent, timed, metered spurt, the
 device is called a fuel injector. See also INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE.

   carcinogen

 carcinogen: see CANCER.

   carcinoma

 carcinoma: see TUMOR.

   cardamom

 cardamom: see GINGER.

   Cardenas, Lazaro

 Cardenas, Lazaro, 1895-1970, president of MEXICO (1934-40). He fought
 (1913-17) as a general in the Mexican revolution and was elected
 president. He expropriated foreign-held properties, distributed land to
 peasants, and instituted reforms to benefit Indians and Mexican workers.
 His influence in advancing constitutional processes was great.

   Cardiff

 Cardiff, city (1986 pop. 279,500), S Glamorgan, S Wales, on the Bristol
 Channel. The capital, largest city, and chief port of Wales, it produces
 iron and steel, machinery, ships, automobiles, paper, and other
 manufactures. Cardiff was one of the world's greatest coal-shipping ports
 in the 19th and early 20th cent. The ruins of Cardiff Castle, built
 (1090) on the site of a Roman fort, are of special interest.

   cardinal

 cardinal, a member of the highest body within the Roman Catholic Church
 below the pope-the college of cardinals, having the duty of electing the
 pope (since 1059) and all the duties of a privy council to him. Its
 members are appointed by the pope and are of three classes: cardinal
 bishops, bishops of the seven sees around Rome and the Eastern rite
 patriarchs; cardinal priests, mostly archbishops outside the Roman
 province; and cardinal deacons, priests with functions within papal
 government. A cardinal's insignia resemble those of a bishop except for
 the red, broad-brimmed, tasseled hat, which is conferred by the pope but
 not subsequently worn. Pope SIXTUS V set the number of cardinals at 70,
 but since the pontificate of JOHN XXIII, the number has greatly
 increased.

   cardinal

 cardinal or redbird,North American songbird of the FINCH family. The
 eastern cardinal (Richmondena cardinalis) male is bright red with a black
 throat and face; the female is brown with red patches. Both have crests
 and red bills.

   cardiopulmonary resuscitation

 cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), emergency procedure used to treat
 victims of cardiac and respiratory arrest. Special training is
 recommended for CPR, which combines external heart massage (to keep the
 blood flowing through the body) with ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION (to keep air
 flowing in and out of the lungs). The victim is placed face up and
 prepared for artificial respiration. The person administering CPR places
 his (or her) hands (one on top of the other, with fingers interlocked)
 heel down on the victim's breastbone, leans forward, and presses down
 rhythmically about 60 times a minute. This procedure is alternated with
 mouth-to-mouth artificial respiration.

   Cardozo, Benjamin Nathan

 Cardozo, Benjamin Nathan, 1870-1938, associate justice of the U.S.
 SUPREME COURT (1932-38); b. N.Y.C.; A.B., Columbia Univ. (1889). A New
 York attorney and judge of considerable stature, on the Court he was an
 eloquent and influential supporter of liberal social and economic views.
 His published lectures are considered classics of jurisprudence.

   Carducci, Giosue

 Carducci, Giosue, 1835-1907, Italian poet and teacher. Professor of
 literature at the Univ. of Bologna from 1860 to 1904, he was a scholar,
 editor, orator, critic, and patriot. He was awarded the 1906 Nobel Prize
 in literature. His verse, classic in design, with great emotional range,
 ranks him among leading Italian poets. His works include Hymn to Satan
 (1865) and Lyrics and Rhythms (1899).

   cargo cults

 cargo cults, nativistic religious movements in Melanesia holding that at
 the millennium ancestor spirits will bring cargoes of modern goods to
 believers. Dating from the 19th cent., these cults expanded after World
 War II forces left surplus goods in the islands and contact with the West
 increased.

   Caribbean Sea

 Caribbean Sea, tropical sea, c.750,000 sq mi (1,942,500 sq km), an arm of
 the Atlantic Ocean bordered by the West Indies (N, E), South America (S),
 and Central America (W). Its waters are clear and warm (averaging 75
 degF/24 degC), with almost no tidal range. Bartlett Trench (22,788
 ft/6,946 m below sea level), between Cuba and Jamaica, is the deepest
 point. After its discovery (1493) by Christopher COLUMBUS the sea was
 controlled by Spain, but other European nations later established
 colonies on its western fringe. Since the MONROE DOCTRINE of 1823, and
 especially after the opening (1914) of the PANAMA CANAL, the U.S. has
 tried to exclude foreign powers from this strategic area (see CUBAN
 MISSILE CRISIS) and has often intervened in the region's domestic
 affairs, e.g., in the DOMINICAN REPUBLIC in 1965. See also WEST INDIES.

   caribou

 caribou, name in North America for the DEER (genus Rangifer) from which
 the REINDEER was domesticated. Found in arctic and subarctic regions,
 caribou are the only deer of which both sexes have antlers.

   caricature

 caricature, a satirical portrait in art or literature that, through
 exaggeration and distortion of features, makes its subject appear
 ridiculous. The comic tradition in art was established in 17th-cent.
 Italy by the CARRACCI. Caricature flourished in 18th-cent. England in the
 works of HOGARTH, ROWLANDSON, and Gillray. Expanding to include political
 and social satire, the genre developed into the CARTOON. Caricature was
 extremely popular in European and American periodicals of the 19th cent.,
 many of which included work by such artists as DAUMIER, CRUIKSHANK,
 TENNIEL, and Art Young. Notable modern caricaturists include BEERBOHM,
 Ronald Searle, Al Hirschfeld, and David Levine. In literature, caricature
 has been a popular form since the ancient Greeks. Perhaps the most
 striking and pervasive use of literary caricature in English is in the
 work of Charles DICKENS.

   carillon

 carillon, in music: see BELL.

   Carleton, Guy

 Carleton, Guy, 1st Baron Dorchester, 1724-1808, British governor and
 commander of QUEBEC in the AMERICAN REVOLUTION. He repelled (1775) an
 American attack on Fort Quebec and seized (1776) Crown Point, N.Y. He was
 replaced (1776-77) as commander and governor, but served as commander
 (1782-83) of British forces in America and as governor (1786-96) of
 British North America.

   Carlists

 Carlists, partisans of Don Carlos (1788-1855) and his successors in their
 claims to the Spanish throne. After FERDINAND VII changed the law to
 enable his daughter, ISABELLA II, to succeed him (1833), his brother, Don
 Carlos, claimed the throne and initiated an unsuccessful civil war
 (1833-40). The conservative, clericalist Carlists revived the claim
 (1860) for Don Carlos's son, Don Carlos, conde de Montemolin (1818-61),
 and again (1869, 1872) on behalf of the latter's nephew, Don Carlos,
 duque de Madrid (1848-1909). They seized most of the Basque provinces and
 other territory and fought another civil war (1873-76), which failed. The
 Carlists supported the Nationalists in the SPANISH CIVIL WAR (1936-39),
 but FRANCO ended their dynastic claim in 1969 by naming the Bourbon
 prince, JUAN CARLOS, as his successor.

   Carlos

 Carlos. For Spanish rulers thus named, see CHARLES.

   Carlos, Don

 Carlos, Don: see CARLISTS.

   Carlsbad Caverns National Park

 Carlsbad Caverns National Park: see NATIONAL PARKS .

   Carlson, Chester Floyd

 Carlson, Chester Floyd, 1906-68, American inventor; b. Seattle, Wash. A
 patent lawyer, he invented (1938) xerography (see PHOTOCOPYING), a method
 of electrostatic printing, and made a fortune from the Haloid Co. (later
 the Xerox Corp.). The first Xerox copier was marketed in 1959.

   Carlstadt, Karlstadt

 Carlstadt, Karlstadt, or Karolstadt,c.1480-1541, German Protestant
 reformer, originally named Andreas Rudolph Bodenstein. During LUTHER'S
 stay at Wartberg (1521-22), Carlstadt became the leader at Wittenberg and
 implemented his radical beliefs. Luther later accused him of betrayal.
 Accused of revolutionary political activity, Carlstadt fled to
 Switzerland, where he taught theology at Basel.

   Carlyle, Thomas

 Carlyle, Thomas, 1795-1881, English author; b. Scotland. He first gained
 attention as an interpreter of German ROMANTICISM with his Life of
 Schiller (1825) and a translation of Goethe's Wilhelm Meister (1824). In
 1826 he married Jane Baillie Welsh, an ambitious woman who did much to
 aid his career. A trenchant critic of materialism, he expressed his views
 in a sort of spiritual autobiography, Sartor Resartus (1833-34), and in
 his interpretative rather than historical French Revolution (1837). He
 attacked laissez-faire theory and parliamentary democracy and stressed
 his belief in strong government and great men in On Heroes, Hero-Worship,
 and The Heroic in History (1841) and Past and Present (1843), in an
 edition of the writings of Oliver CROMWELL (1845), and in a biography of
 Frederick the Great (1858-65). Carlyle had great influence on the
 literary world of his day; his style, tortuous yet effective, is unique.

   Carmelites

 Carmelites, Roman Catholic order of mendicant friars. Originating
 apparently as hermits on Mt. Carmel in Palestine, they were made into a
 Western order by St. Simon Stock (d. 1265) and became prominent in
 university life. An enclosed order of Carmelite nuns was established.
 After a decline, the Carmelites were revived by the reforms of St.
 THERESA of Avila and St. JOHN OF THE CROSS in 16th-cent. Spain. The now
 larger reformed order is known as the Discalced Carmelites.

   Carmichael, Hoagy

 Carmichael, Hoagy (Hoagland Howard Carmichael), 1899-1981, American
 songwriter; b. Bloomington, Ind. His melodies reflect early JAZZ
 influence. "Stardust" (1929) is his best-known song; others include
 "Georgia on My Mind" and "Skylark." He also appeared in films, e.g., To
 Have and Have Not (1944).

   Carnap, Rudolf

 Carnap, Rudolf, 1891-1970, German-American philosopher. One of the most
 influential of contemporary thinkers, he was a founder of LOGICAL
 POSITIVISM and made important contributions to logic, semantics, and the
 philosophy of science. He defined philosophy as `'the logic of the
 sciences" and considered it a general language whose only legitimate
 concern could be to describe and criticize the language of the particular
 sciences. Through linguistic analysis he revealed the inadequacies of
 everyday speech. Carnap later modified this extreme view, which rejects
 almost all traditional philosophy. His works include The Logical Syntax
 of Language (1934) and Introduction to Symbolic Logic (1954).

   Carnarvon, George Edward Stanhope Molyneux Herbert, 5th earl of

 Carnarvon, George Edward Stanhope Molyneux Herbert, 5th earl of,
 1866-1923, English Egyptologist who, with Howard CARTER, excavated
 (1906-22) in the Valley of the Kings, Luxor, Egypt. The tomb of
 TUTANKHAMEN was their final discovery (1922).

   carnation

 carnation: see PINK.

   Carnegie, Andrew

 Carnegie, Andrew, 1835-1919, American industrialist and philanthropist;
 b. Scotland, emigrated to the U.S. 1848. As a superintendent (1859-65)
 for the Pennsylvania RR he invested in iron manufactures. In 1873 he
 began to acquire firms that later became the Carnegie Steel Co., which by
 1900 was producing a quarter of the steel in the U.S. and controlled iron
 mines, ore ships, and railroads. His partnership with Henry C. FRICK
 aided his success. In 1901 he sold his interests to the U.S. Steel Corp.
 and retired. Believing that wealth should be used for the public good, he
 donated c.$350 million, establishing such philanthropic organizations as
 the Carnegie Corp. of New York, the Carnegie Endowment for International
 Peace, and over 2,800 libraries.

   Carnegie Corporation of New York

 Carnegie Corporation of New York: see FOUNDATION.

   carnivore

 carnivore, term applied to any animal whose diet consists primarily of
 animal matter. In animal systematics, it refers to members of the
 mammalian order Carnivora, which contains aquatic and terrestrial
 species, including the dog, cat, seal, and other families. The term
 herbivore refers to animals whose diets consist mainly of plant matter;
 omnivore refers to animals that eat animal and plant matter.

   carnivorous plants

 carnivorous plants: see PITCHER PLANT; VENUS'S-FLYTRAP.

   Carnot, Lazare Nicolas Marguerite

 Carnot, Lazare Nicolas Marguerite, 1753-1823, French revolutionary. He
 organized the republican armies and masterminded a successful strategy in
 the FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS. A member of the DIRECTORY, he later held
 high posts under NAPOLEON I and wrote a classic work on fortification
 (1810).

   Carnot, (Nicholas Leonard) Sadi

 Carnot, (Nicholas Leonard) Sadi, 1796-1832, French physicist, son of
 Lazare CARNOT. He studied the relation between heat and mechanical energy
 and devised an ideal engine whose operations showed that even under ideal
 conditions a heat engine must reject some heat energy instead of
 converting it all into mechanical energy. This illustrates the second law
 of THERMODYNAMICS, formulated later.

   Caro, Joseph ben Ephraim

 Caro, Joseph ben Ephraim, 1488-1575, Jewish codifier of law; b. Spain, d.
 Palestine. His chief work is Shulhan Arukh [the table set], still an
 authority for Orthodox religious and legal disputes. Caro was also a
 cabalist (see CABALA).

   carob

 carob, evergreen tree (Ceratonia siliqua) of the PULSE family, native to
 the Mediterranean but cultivated in other warm areas. Its large, red pods
 have been a food source since prehistoric times, and the pods and their
 extracts have many common names, e.g., St. John's bread and locust bean
 gum. Carob is used as a food stabilizer and a caffeine-free chocolate
 substitute; carob pods are used as livestock feed.

   Carol

 Carol, kings of RUMANIA. Carol I or Charles I, 1839-1914, prince
 (1866-81) and first king (1881-1914), was a Prussian of the
 Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen dynasty. He achieved full independence for
 Rumania at the Congress of BERLIN (1878). He married ELIZABETH of Wied.
 Carol II, 1893-1953, was forced (1925) to renounce his right to
 succession in favor of his infant son, MICHAEL, but in 1930 he proclaimed
 himself king, dethroning Michael. He instituted a personal dictatorship
 in 1938, but was dethroned by ANTONESCU in 1940, and Michael again became
 king.

   carol

 carol, popular, joyful HYMN, celebrating an occasion such as EASTER or
 CHRISTMAS. English carols date from the 15th cent. Like the FOLK SONG,
 the carol is characterized by simplicity of thought and expression.

   Caroline Affair

 Caroline Affair. In 1837 a group of U.S. citizens sided with a Canadian
 rebellion headed by W.L. MACKENZIE. A small American ship, the Caroline,
 carried men and supplies to the rebels, who were on Navy Island, above
 NIAGARA FALLS. Loyal Canadians set fire to the ship and sent it over the
 falls. One American was killed. After this incident, anti-British feeling
 contributed to tense U.S. relations with Britain until the
 WEBSTER-ASHBURTON TREATY of 1842.

   Caroline of Brunswick

 Caroline of Brunswick, 1768-1821, consort of GEORGE IV of England. She
 married George in 1795, separated from him in 1796, and lived abroad
 after 1814. When George became king in 1820, she returned to claim her
 rights as queen. The king instituted divorce proceedings on the grounds
 of adultery. The charges were probably true, but Caroline's persecution
 by a profligate husband aroused sympathy, and they were dropped.

   Carolingian architecture and art

 Carolingian architecture and art. In the 8th cent. under CHARLEMAGNE
 changes in Western culture and art reached their apex. In architecture,
 the small, boxlike structures of the Merovingian period gave way to
 centrally planned, spacious BASILICAS. But of incalculable importance to
 the later Middle Ages was the new emphasis given to the western facade of
 the church, called the westwork. Its function is still debated, but it
 was flanked by symmetrical towers and was several stories high. A vaulted
 vestibule was below, and the room above may have been a chapel for
 dignitaries. The outstanding Carolingian structure still in existence is
 the palatine chapel at Aachen (805), in West Germany, which may have been
 based partly on the 5th-cent. Church of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy. The
 best-preserved artistic works of the period are small objects-illuminated
 manuscripts, ivory carving, and metalwork. They show a fusion of
 Anglo-Saxon and Irish ornamental motifs with figures derived from
 antiquity, e.g., the Gospel book by Godescalc (783). The nervous,
 flickering illustrations of the Utrecht Psalter are unparalleled in early
 Western art. Carved ivory book covers are rare, and metalwork is rarer,
 but the gold altar of Sant' Ambrogio (835, Milan), the portable altar of
 Arnulf (Munich), several splendid book covers, and other sumptuously
 decorated objects provide insights into the artistic accomplishments of
 the period, which ended in the late 9th cent.

   Carolingians

 Carolingians, Frankish dynasty founded (7th cent.) by Pepin of Landen.
 They ruled as mayors of the palace under the MEROVINGIANS until 751, when
 PEPIN THE SHORT made himself king. His son, CHARLEMAGNE, who was crowned
 emperor in 800, brought the dynasty to its zenith. In 840, on the death
 of LOUIS I, the Treaty of Verdun split the empire among his three sons:
 Lotharingia went to Lothair I; Germany went to Louis the German; and
 France went to Charles II. In 870 Lotharingia was divided between Louis
 and Charles. The dynasty died out in Germany in 911 and in France in 987.

   carp

 carp, freshwater, bottom-feeding FISH (Cyprinus carpio), largest of the
 MINNOW family, native to Asia but now found throughout Europe and
 America. Carp may be up to 3 ft (90 cm) and 25 lb (11.3 kg). They have
 four "whiskers" (barbels) around the mouth, and are usually dark greenish
 or brown with red on the fins.

   Carpaccio, Vittore

 Carpaccio, Vittore, c.1450-1522, Venetian painter. He was influenced by
 Giovanni Bellini (see BELLINI, family). The rich color and wealth of
 detail in his St. George series and the Presentation in the Temple (all:
 Acad., Venice) show the pageantry of 15th-cent. Venice and a view of life
 in the Orient.

   Carpathians

 Carpathians or Carpathian Mountains,major mountain system of central and
 E Europe, c.930 mi (1,500 km) long. A continuation of the Alps, they
 curve in a great arc through Czechoslovakia, Poland, and the USSR, and
 extend into Romania as the Transylvanian Alps, or Southern Carpathians.
 Gerlachovka (8,737 ft/2,663 m) is the highest point.

   Carpeaux, Jean-Baptiste

 Carpeaux, Jean-Baptiste, 1827-75, French sculptor and painter. Freedom
 and force distinguish his sculptures, e.g., Ugolino (1860-62; Louvre) and
 Neapolitan Shellfisher (Louvre), and paintings, e.g., Bal costume aux
 Tuileries (Louvre).

   carpet

 carpet or rug,thick fabric, originally woolen but now often synthetic,
 most commonly used as a floor covering. Of ancient origin, the art of
 carpet weaving reached its height in the handloomed Oriental carpets from
 16th-cent. Persia, Turkey, and central Asia. European carpets, with many
 outstanding examples dating from the 17th cent. in France and the 18th
 cent. in England, were handmade until Erastus Bigelow introduced (1841)
 the power loom. Although handmade rugs are still produced, contemporary
 carpet manufacturing is a mechanized industry. Classifications of both
 antique and modern carpets include Oriental, European handwoven, velvet,
 chenille, rag, hooked, straw, and fiber.

   carpetbaggers

 carpetbaggers, Southern term for Northerners who went to the South during
 RECONSTRUCTION. Although regarded as transients because they carried
 their belongings in carpetbags, most intended to settle in the South and
 make money there. The black vote won them important posts in Republican
 state governments. Those who were corrupt made the term synonymous with
 outsiders who profit from an area's political troubles.

   Carracci

 Carracci, family of Italian painters, founders of an important school of
 painting. Lodovico Carracci, 1555-1619, a pupil of TINTORETTO,
 established, with his cousins and Anthony de la Tour, a school of
 painting in Bologna that sought to unite in one system the best
 characteristics of the great masters. The academy was one of the
 outstanding schools in Italy, and its noted pupils include DOMENICHINO.
 An excellent painter, Lodovico was best known for his Sermon of John the
 Baptist (Pinocoteca, Bologna) and Vision of Hyacinth (Louvre). His cousin
 Agostino Carracci, 1557-1602, at first a goldsmith, later joined the
 academy and participated in numerous joint painting commissions such as
 the Farnese Palace gallery. His best-known work, Celestial, Terrestrial
 and Venal Love, is in the Casino, Parma. Agostino's brother Annibale
 Carracci, 1560-1609, worked in the academy and also on the Farnese
 gallery, with its influential feigned architectural and sculptural forms.
 Among his best-known works are The Dead Christ (Louvre) and The
 Temptation of St. Anthony (National Gall., London).

   Carranza, Venustiano

 Carranza, Venustiano, 1859-1920, Mexican political leader. He fought in
 the Mexican revolution and helped to overthrow (1914) Gen. HUERTA. He
 became president (1914) and, aided by Gen. OBREGON, survived a civil war
 (1915). When he did not enforce the reform constitution of 1917 and tried
 to prevent Obregon from becoming president, the latter revolted (1920).
 Carranza fled the capital and was murdered.

   Carrel, Alexis

 Carrel, Alexis, 1873-1944, American surgeon and experimental biologist;
 b. France. For his work in suturing blood vessels, in transfusion, and in
 transplantation of organs, he was awarded the 1912 Nobel Prize in
 physiology or medicine. With Charles A. LINDBERGH he invented an
 artificial heart, with which he kept alive a number of different kinds of
 tissues and organs.

   Carroll, John

 Carroll, John, 1735-1815, American Roman Catholic churchman, the first
 Roman Catholic bishop in the U.S.; b. Maryland. A JESUIT, he supported
 the AMERICAN REVOLUTION and was a friend of Benjamin FRANKLIN. In 1784 he
 became superior of the missions in the U.S. In 1790 he was made bishop of
 Baltimore and in 1808 archbishop. Carroll battled anti-Catholic feeling
 in the U.S. and founded various educational institutions, including
 Georgetown Univ.

   Carroll, Lewis

 Carroll, Lewis, pseud. of Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, 1832-98, English
 writer and mathematician. He lectured on mathematics at Oxford, but his
 fame rests on the fantasy novels Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1865)
 and Through the Looking Glass (1872). These books grew out of stories he
 told to children, among them Alice Liddell, the daughter of H.G. Liddell,
 dean of Christ Church, Oxford. An amateur photographer, Carroll
 photographed children.

   carrot

 carrot, common name for some members of the Umbelliferae (also called
 parsley family), a family of mainly perennial or biennial herbs of north
 temperate areas. Most are typified by aromatic foliage, a dry fruit that
 splits when mature, and an umbellate inflorescence (in which the floret
 stems of the flattened flower cluster arise from the same point, like an
 umbrella). The seeds and leaves of many of these herbs are used for
 seasoning or as greens, e.g., ANISE, CARAWAY, CORIANDER, CUMIN, DILL,
 FENNEL, and PARSLEY. The carrot, CELERY, and PARSNIP are commercially
 important vegetables. The common carrot (Daucus carota sativa) is a root
 crop, probably derived from the wild carrot (or QUEEN ANNE'S LACE).
 Carrots are rich in carotene (vitamin A), especially when cooked; in
 antiquity they were used medicinally. Some types, e.g., button snakeroot
 and sweet cicely, are used as aromatic ornamentals. A few members of the
 family, e.g., POISON HEMLOCK, produce lethal poisons.

   Carrucci, Jacopo

 Carrucci, Jacopo: see PONTORMO, JACOPO DA.

   Carson, Kit

 Carson, Kit (Christopher Carson), 1809-68, American frontiersman; b.
 Madison co., Ky. In 1825 he went to Taos, N.Mex., and served as cook,
 guide, and hunter for exploring parties, including those of J.C. FREMONT.
 In 1853 he became an Indian agent. He was a Union general in the CIVIL
 WAR.

   Carson, Rachel Louise

 Carson, Rachel Louise, 1907-64, American writer and marine biologist; b.
 Springdale, Pa. Her book Silent Spring (1962) was an influential study on
 the dangers of insecticides. Some of her other popular works include The
 Sea Around Us (1951) and The Edge of the Sea (1954).

   Carson City

 Carson City, city (1986 est. pop. 36,900), state capital, W Nev., in the
 Carson valley; settled 1858, inc. 1875. It is a trade center for a mining
 and agricultural area. The discovery (1859) of the COMSTOCK LODE brought
 early development. The capital of the newly created (1861) Nevada
 Territory, it became state capital in 1864. The U.S. Mint, closed 1893,
 is now the Nevada State Museum.

   Cartagena

 Cartagena, city (1986 pop. 559,581), capital of Bolivar dept., NW
 Colombia, a port on the Bay of Cartagena, in the Caribbean Sea.
 Oil-refining and the manufacture of sugar and tobacco are major
 industries, and there is an expanding petrochemical complex. Founded in
 1533, Cartagena became the treasure city of the SPANISH MAIN, where
 precious New World minerals awaited transshipment to Spain. It was often
 sacked despite its massive fortifications, some of which still stand. It
 declared its independence from Spain in 1811 and was incorporated into
 Colombia in 1821. Its rapid development in the 20th cent. was due largely
 to the discovery of oil in the Magdalena basin. One of the most
 picturesque of Latin American cities, with shady plazas and cobblestone
 streets, Cartagena attracts many tourists.

   cartel

 cartel, national or international organization of producers who act in
 concert to fix prices, limit supply, divide markets, or set quotas.
 Basically, the cartel seeks maximum profits by driving out competition
 and by limiting production in times of oversupply. Like the TRUST and the
 MONOPOLY, it is criticized for eliminating the price benefits of
 competition. Defenders argue that it distributes risks, stabilizes
 markets, and protects weak members. The system sometimes fails because
 member firms or nations deviate from the rules of the cartel to serve
 their own interests. In Germany before World War II nearly all industry
 was controlled by cartels. In the U.S. cartels are illegal, except for
 export associations. The most successful cartel of recent times is the
 ORGANIZATION OF PETROLEUM EXPORTING COUNTRIES (OPEC).

   Carter, Elliott

 Carter, Elliott, 1908-, American composer; b. N.Y.C. His music is
 organized into intellectualized contrapuntal patterns. He uses TEMPO as
 an element of form. His works include the ballet Pocahontas (1938), three
 string quartets (1950, 1959, 1971), and a brass quintet (1974).

   Carter, Howard

 Carter, Howard, 1873-1939, English Egyptologist who, with Lord CARNARVON,
 excavated (1906-22) in the Valley of the Kings at Luxor, Egypt, and
 discovered (1922) the tomb of TUTANKHAMEN.

   Carter, Jimmy

 Carter, Jimmy (James Earl Carter, Jr.), 1924-, 39th president of the U.S.
 (1977-81); b. Plains, Ga. A graduate of the U.S. Naval Academy at
 Annapolis, Md. (1946), he served in the U.S. navy and in 1953 returned to
 his family's peanut farm, which he built into a prosperous business. As
 governor of Georgia (1970-75), he reorganized the state executive branch
 and sponsored consumer and land-use legislation. After a spectacularly
 successful campaign for the 1976 Democratic presidential nomination,
 Carter, although a Southerner and political outsider, narrowly defeated
 the Republican candidate, Pres. Gerald FORD; his running mate was Walter
 MONDALE. Carter's presidency was plagued by difficult relations with
 Congress, which ratified his two Panama Canal treaties (1977) giving
 eventual control of the canal to Panama, but would not ratify his arms
 limitation treaty with the Soviet Union (1979). He was successful,
 however, in effecting (1979) a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel (see
 CAMP DAVID ACCORDS). During Carter's term of office the U.S. suffered
 high interest rates, inflation, and then recession, all of which he had
 little success in controlling. In Nov. 1979 a group of Muslim militants
 in Teheran, Iran, took some 50 U.S. citizens hostage and held them until
 Jan. 1981. Carter's failure to attain their release before the 1980
 presidential election contributed to his defeat by Ronald REAGAN.

   Carteret, Sir George

 Carteret, Sir George, c.1610-1680, British proprietor of East Jersey,
 part of New Jersey. He commissioned his fourth cousin, Philip Carteret,
 1639-82, as the first governor (1665-76) of New Jersey.

   Cartesian coordinates

 Cartesian coordinates, system for representing the relative positions of
 points in a plane or in space. In a plane, the point P is specified by
 the pair of numbers (x, y) representing the distances of the point from
 two intersecting straight lines, referred to as the x-axis and the
 y-axis. The point of intersection of these axes, which are called the
 coordinate axes, is known as the origin. If the axes are perpendicular,
 as is commonly the case, the coordinate system is called rectangular;
 otherwise it is oblique. In either type the x-coordinate, or abscissa, of
 P is measured along a line parallel to the x-axis, and the y-coordinate,
 or ordinate, along a line parallel to the y-axis. A point in space may be
 similarly specified by the triple of numbers (x, y, z) representing the
 distances from three planes determined by three intersecting straight
 lines not all in the same plane. Named for the French philosopher and
 scientist Rene DESCARTES, Cartesian coordinates allow certain questions
 in geometry to be transformed into questions about numbers and resolved
 by means of ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.

   Carthage

 Carthage, ancient city of N Africa, on the Bay of Tunis and near modern
 Tunis. Founded (traditionally by DIDO) by Phoenicians from Tyre in the
 9th cent. BC, it eventually grew to be a mercantile CITY-STATE under an
 oligarchy, with explorers (e.g., Hanno) going far and wide to gather
 trade. Carthage's greatest weakness lay in the rivalry of two blocs of
 leading families who contended for control. By the 6th cent. BC the
 Carthaginians had established themselves on Sardinia, Malta, and the
 Balearic Islands. Their attempt to conquer Sicily in the 5th cent. BC was
 set back by the victory of Gelon of Syracuse at Himera (480 BC). Later
 Carthaginian excursions into Sicily led to the PUNIC WARS. The contest
 between Rome and Carthage was hotly pursued, and the greatest general
 involved was a Carthaginian, HANNIBAL. Nevertheless, Carthage was finally
 defeated at the battle of ZAMA (202 BC), and the Carthaginian commercial
 empire fell. The city itself was destroyed by Scipio Africanus Minor at
 the end of the Third Punic War (146 BC). A new city was founded in 44 BC
 and under AUGUSTUS became an important center of Roman administration.
 Carthage was later (AD 439-533) the capital of the Vandals, a Germanic
 tribe, and was briefly recovered (533) for the Byzantine Empire by
 Belisarius. Although practically destroyed by the Arabs in 698, the site
 was populated for many centuries afterward. LOUIS IX of France died there
 (1270) while on crusade.

   Cartier, Sir Georges Etienne

 Cartier, Sir Georges Etienne, 1814-73, Canadian statesman. A leader of
 the French Canadians and the co-leader of the Mcdonald-Cartier (see
 MACDONALD, Sir J.A.) ministry (1857-62), he was chiefly responsible for
 persuading French Canadians to accept the proposals for CANADA'S
 confederation (1867).

   Cartier, Jacques

 Cartier, Jacques, 1491-1557, French explorer in CANADA, discoverer of the
 SAINT LAWRENCE R. In three voyages between 1534 and 1542 he discovered
 the Magdalene Islands and PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND, and ascended the St.
 Lawrence to the modern sites of Quebec and Montreal. French claims to the
 St. Lawrence valley were based on his explorations.

   Cartier-Bresson, Henri

 Cartier-Bresson, Henri, 1908-, French photojournalist. His superb images
 convey a strong sense of the rush of time arrested. Among his many books
 is The Decisive Moment (1952) and Henri Cartier-Bresson: Photographer
 (1979).

   cartoon

 cartoon, in the fine arts, a full-sized preliminary drawing for a work in
 fresco, oil, mosaic, stained glass, or tapestry. Some Italian Renaissance
 painters, e.g., RAPHAEL, made complete cartoons for their frescoes, and
 many are considered masterpieces in themselves. The use of the term
 cartoon to mean a humorous or satirical drawing began in the mid-19th
 cent. The first political cartoons preceded the terminology by some three
 centuries, appearing in 16th-cent. Germany during the Reformation. In
 18th-cent. England the cartoon was an integral part of journalism. By the
 mid-19th cent. editorial cartoons had become regular features of American
 newspapers, with the work of Thomas NAST particularly influential. With
 the development of the color press in the late 19th cent., humorous
 nonpolitical cartoons became popular, soon evolving into narrative comic
 strips. Some noted 20th-cent. cartoonists are Bill MAULDIN, HERBLOCK,
 Charles ADDAMS, Saul Steinberg, and James THURBER.

   Cartwright, Edmund

 Cartwright, Edmund, 1743-1823, English inventor of a power loom (patented
 1785) that made possible the weaving of wide cotton cloth and led to the
 development of the modern loom. Cartwright also invented a wool-combing
 machine (1789), a ropemaking machine (1792), and an alcohol-fueled engine
 (1797) and, with Robert FULTON, experimented with steam navigation.

   Caruso, Enrico

 Caruso, Enrico, 1873-1921, Italian operatic tenor. The beauty, range, and
 power of his voice made him one of the greatest of all singers. He sang
 more than 50 roles in Europe, the U.S., and Latin America, excelling in
 works by VERDI and PUCCINI. After his death his recordings perpetuated
 his fame.

   Carver, George Washington

 Carver, George Washington, 1864?-1943, black American agricultural
 chemist; b. Diamond, Mo. Born a slave, he was director (1896-1943) of
 agricultural research at Tuskeegee Institute. Carver dedicated his life
 to bettering the position of blacks and to improving the economy of the
 South through soil improvement and crop diversification; he discovered
 hundreds of uses for the peanut, sweet potato, and soybean, and devised
 many products from cotton waste.

   Carver, John

 Carver, John, c.1576-1621, first governor (1620) of the PLYMOUTH COLONY.
 A man of wealth, he was the chief figure in arranging the PILGRIMS'
 migration to America, hiring and provisioning the MAYFLOWER, and
 selecting the Plymouth site.

   Carver, Raymond

 Carver, Raymond,  1938-88, American author; b. Clatskanie, Oreg. His
 short stories and poems depicted blue-collar characters and focused on
 everyday life. Among his volumes of short stories is Where I'm Calling
 From (1988).

   Cary, (Arthur) Joyce (Lunel)

 Cary, (Arthur) Joyce (Lunel), 1888-1957, English author. He is best known
 for two trilogies exploring English social change. The first consists of
 Herself Surprised (1941), To Be a Pilgrim (1942), and The Horse's Mouth
 (1944). The second includes Prisoner of Grace (1952), Except the Lord
 (1953), and Not Honour More (1955).

   Casablanca

 Casablanca, city (1981 est. pop. 2,408,600), W Morocco, on the Atlantic
 Ocean. It is the country's largest city and major commercial center,
 handling over two thirds of its commerce and trade, particularly exports
 of phosphates and imports of petroleum products. Almost destroyed by an
 earthquake (1755), rebuilt in 1757, Casablanca was occupied by the French
 in 1907. In WORLD WAR II it was a site for the Allied invasion (1942) of
 N Africa and for a conference (Nov. 1943) between F.D. Roosevelt and
 Winston Churchill.

   Casablanca Conference

 Casablanca Conference, Jan. 12-14, 1943, WORLD WAR II meeting of U.S.
 Pres. F.D. ROOSEVELT and British Prime Min. Winston CHURCHILL at
 Casablanca, French Morocco. The policy of unconditional AXIS surrender
 was enunciated there.

   Casals, Pablo (Pau)

 Casals, Pablo (Pau), 1876-1973, Spanish cellist and conductor, the
 greatest cellist of the 20th cent. He began his concert career in 1891
 and conducted his own orchestra in 1919. He was especially noted for his
 performance of J.S. BACH'S unaccompanied suites and for the music
 festivals he directed at Prades, France, and after 1956 in Puerto Rico.

   Casanova de Seingalt, Giovanni Giacomo

 Casanova de Seingalt, Giovanni Giacomo, 1725-98, Venetian adventurer and
 author. He traveled all over Europe supporting himself by gambling,
 spying, writing, and seducing women. In 1756 he escaped from Venice's
 state prison; in Paris, he became director of the lottery and amassed a
 fortune. In 1785 he retired to the castle of Dux, Bohemia, where he
 worked as a librarian. A man of wide interests, learning, and taste,
 Casanova left memoirs that became world-famous, although not published in
 full until 1960.

   Casas, Bartolome de las

 Casas, Bartolome de las: see LAS CASAS.

   Cascade Range

 Cascade Range, forested mountain chain in the western part of the North
 American cordillera, extending c.700 mi (1,130 km) from British Columbia
 to N California. Prominent peaks include Mts. Rainier (the highest,
 14,410 ft/4,392 m), Shasta, and Hood, and volcanically active LASSEN PEAK
 and Mt. SAINT HELENS.

   case

 case, in language, one of the several possible forms of a given noun,
 pronoun, or adjective that indicate its grammatical function (see
 INFLECTION), usually by a series of suffixes attached to a stem, as in
 Latin amicus, "friend" (nominative), amicum (accusative), amici
 (genitive), and amico (ablative and dative). The hypothetical ancestor of
 the Indo-European languages had eight cases: nominative, referring to a
 person performing an action; possessive or genitive, indicating a
 possessor; dative, indicating the secondary recipient of an action;
 accusative, referring to the entity directly affected by an action;
 ablative, indicating separation or locating place and time; vocative,
 referring to a person addressed; instrumental, indicating means or
 instrument; and locative, referring to location. Old English used the
 nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, and instrumental cases, but
 modern English uses only two cases. e.g., man (common or nominative) and
 man's (possessive or genitive). Some pronouns have three, e.g., he
 (nominative), him (objective), and his (possessive). The Altaic and
 Finno-Ugric language families also use case systems. German has four
 cases, Russian six, and Finnish sixteen.

   casehardening

 casehardening, in metallurgy, a process to harden steel by increasing the
 percentage of carbon at its surface. This is done by packing the STEEL in
 charcoal and then heating it; by heating it in a furnace with a
 hydrocarbon gas atmosphere; or by heating it in a molten-salt bath
 containing potassium and sodium cyanides.

   casein

 casein, a group of proteins found especially in milk, providing many
 essential nutrients. When milk is treated with acid, casein separates as
 an insoluble white curd; it is used in cheese, adhesives, and water
 paints. Rennet curded casein is used to make cheese and a plastic from
 which imitation gemstones and other objects are made.

   Cash, Johnny

 Cash, Johnny, 1932-, American singer; b. Kingsland, Ark. He went to
 Memphis in 1955 and began to record hits like "I Walk the Line." Cash is
 a major figure in COUNTRY AND WESTERN MUSIC. He is noted for his
 performances at prisons and appears widely in concert, on television, and
 in films.

   cashew

 cashew, tropical American tree (Anacardium occidentale) of the SUMAC
 family, valued chiefly for its kidney-shaped nut, whose sweet, oily
 kernel is used for food and yields an oil used in cooking. The nut grows
 at the end of a red, white, or yellow pear-shaped fleshy stalk, or cashew
 apple, which is also eaten or pressed to extract the juice, which may be
 fermented to make wine. The acrid sap of the cashew tree is used to make
 a varnish that protects woodwork from insects.

   Casimir

 Casimir, Polish rulers. Casimir I, c.1015-58, duke of POLAND (c.1040-58),
 reunited the Polish lands under the hegemony of the Holy Roman Empire.
 Casimir II, 1138-94, duke of Poland (1177-94), deposed his brother and
 secured for his descendants the hereditary right to the crown. Casimir
 III, 1310-70, king of Poland (1333-70), known as Casimir the Great,
 extended Polish territories, codified the law, improved the lot of
 peasants and Jews, founded (1364) Krakow Univ., and in general greatly
 increased royal power. Casimir IV, 1427-92, king of Poland and Lithuania
 (1447-92), successfully ended (1466) the war with the Teutonic Knights.

   casino

 casino or cassino,card game played with a full 52-card deck by two to
 four players. Four cards are dealt to each player, four open cards to the
 table. Each player "takes in" cards, principally by matching his cards
 with cards of corresponding indices on the table. The game ends after all
 the cards are dealt. The object is to take the greatest total number of
 cards; the greatest number of spades; and the point-scoring cards,
 namely, the aces, the ten of diamonds (big casino), and the two of spades
 (little casino).

   Caslon, William

 Caslon, William, 1692-1766, English TYPE designer. His individual letters
 were less impressive than those of BASKERVILLE or BODONI, but were
 regular, legible, and of sensitive proportion. His typefaces were used
 for most important printed works c.1740 to c.1800; some are still in use.

   Caspar

 Caspar: see WISE MEN OF THE EAST.

   Casper

 Casper, city (1986 est. pop. 47,310), seat of Natrona co., E central
 Wyo., on the North Platte R.; inc. 1889. At a ford on the OREGON TRAIL,
 it was founded (1888) with the coming of the railroad. In 1890 an oil
 boom started; today Casper produces oil, coal, and uranium, and is the
 center of a rich agricultural region. The area also attracts many
 tourists.

   Caspian Sea

 Caspian Sea, world's largest lake, c.144,000 sq mi (373,000 sq km), in
 the USSR and Iran, on the traditional border between Europe and Asia. The
 salty lake is 92 ft (28 m) below sea level and reaches a maximum depth of
 3,200 ft (980 m) in the south. More than 75% of its waters are derived
 from the VOLGA R., whose flow is now diminished by dams and lakes. Beluga
 caviar is a major product of the shallow waters in the north. Baku and
 Astrakhan are the chief ports.

   Cass, Lewis

 Cass, Lewis, 1782-1866, American statesman; b. Exeter, N.H. He was
 governor of Michigan Territory (1813-31). As secretary of war (1831-36),
 he favored moving the Indians W of the Mississippi. A U.S. senator from
 Michigan (1845-48, 1849-57), he was the unsuccessful Democratic candidate
 for president in 1848. He was also (1857-60) secretary of state.

   Cassander

 Cassander, 358-297 BC, king of MACEDON (316-297 BC); one of the DIADOCHI.
 The son of ANTIPATER, he deposed the regent, Polyperchon. To consolidate
 his power, he procured the murder (316) of OLYMPIAS, mother of ALEXANDER
 THE GREAT, and (311) of Alexander's widow, Roxana, and their son; he
 married Alexander's half sister, Thessalonica (316). One of a coalition
 that defeated Antigonus and DEMETRIUS I at Ipsus (301), he ruled
 Macedonia and Greece.

   Cassandra

 Cassandra, in Greek mythology, Trojan princess; daughter of Priam and
 HECUBA. She was given the power of prophecy by APOLLO, but when she
 spurned him he decreed that she should never be believed. A slave of
 AGAMEMNON after the TROJAN WAR, she was killed with him by CLYTEMNESTRA.

   Cassatt, Mary

 Cassatt, Mary, 1845-1926, American painter; b. Pittsburgh. She lived
 mainly in France, where she embraced IMPRESSIONISM. Her paintings are
 simple, vigorous, and pleasing in color. Her favorite subject was
 motherhood, e.g., versions of Mother and Child (Metropolitan Mus.; Mus.
 Fine Arts, Boston). She also excelled in ETCHING and pastels.

   cassava

 cassava or manioc,plant (genus Manihot) of the SPURGE family, native to
 Brazil. The roots are the source of cassava starch, cassava flour, and
 tapioca; they are also fermented to make an alcoholic beverage and have
 other uses. The raw roots of bitter cassava (M. esculenta), chief source
 of cassava flour, contain potentially lethal amounts of prussic acid,
 which must be dispelled in preparation. Sweet cassava roots contain less
 acid and can be eaten raw.

   Cassini, Gian Domenico

 Cassini, Gian Domenico, 1625-1712, Italian-French astronomer. He
 determined rotational periods for the planets Jupiter, Mars, and Venus,
 discovered four of Saturn's satellites, and studied the division in
 Saturn's ring system that is named for him. He and three generations of
 descendants directed the Royal Observatory in Paris from its founding
 (1669) to the time (1793) of the French Revolution.

   Cassiopeia

 Cassiopeia, in Greek mythology: see ANDROMEDA.

   Cassirer, Ernst

 Cassirer, Ernst, 1874-1945, German philosopher. A Neo-Kantian, he devoted
 himself, in Substance and Function (1910), to a critical-historical study
 of the problem of knowledge. In Philosophy of Symbolic Forms (3 vol.,
 1923-29) he characterized the human being as a "symbolic animal," holding
 that all cultural achievements result from the human ability to
 conceptualize experience in artificial signs, or symbols.

   Cassius

 Cassius, ancient Roman family. Quintus Cassius Longinus, d. 45 BC, served
 with ANTONY as a tribune, and in 49 BC vetoed the attempts of the senate
 to deprive Julius CAESAR of his army. Cassius died in a shipwreck. The
 best-known family member was Caius Cassius Longinus, d. 42 BC, leader in
 the successful conspiracy to assassinate Julius Caesar on the Ides of
 March in 44 BC When the people were aroused by Antony against the
 conspirators, Cassius went to Syria and joined Marcus Junius Brutus (see
 BRUTUS, family) Antony and Octavian (later AUGUSTUS) met them in battle
 at Philippi in 42 BC In the first engagement, Cassius, thinking the
 battle lost, committed suicide.

   cassowary

 cassowary, flightless forest BIRD of Australia and the Malay Archipelago,
 smaller than the OSTRICH. The plumage is dark and glossy, with a
 brilliantly-colored head and neck. Nocturnal and mostly herbivorous, they
 are fast runners. Cassowaries are notoriously vicious, and have killed
 people with their sharp, spikelike toenails.

   Castagno, Andrea del

 Castagno, Andrea del, c.1423-57, Florentine painter. In c.1445 he began
 the Passion of Christ cycle for the church of Sant' Apollonia in
 Florence. Best known of these scenes is The Last Supper with its harsh
 perspective and metallic light. DONATELLO'S influence is seen in his
 later heroic figures of Dante and Petrarch in the Villa Pandolfini.

   castanets

 castanets: see PERCUSSION INSTRUMENT.

   caste

 caste, ranked hereditary social group. Rigidly restricted occupationally
 and socially, members may not marry outside the caste. Caste is strongest
 and most complex in Hindu India, where a hierarchy of thousands of
 distinct jatis, or castes, reflect religious practice, occupation,
 locale, culture status, or tribal affiliation. In addition, society is
 divided into four varna, or social classes-the Brahmans, priests and
 scholars; Kshatriyas, the military and rulers; Vaisyas, farmers and
 merchants; and Sudras, peasants and laborers. Below the Sudras were the
 untouchables, who performed menial tasks. Untouchability was legally
 abolished in 1949; while occupational barriers are breaking down, strong
 social distinctions remain resistant to change.

   Castelo Branco, Humberto

 Castelo Branco, Humberto, 1900-1967, president of BRAZIL (1964-67). An
 army officer, he helped oust (1964) Pres. Goulart in a coup and became
 provisional president. He curtailed political freedoms but imposed
 economic reforms that spurred the country's growth.

   Castile

 Castile, region and former kingdom, central and N Spain, traditionally
 divided into Old Castile (N) and New Castile (S). It is a vast, generally
 underdeveloped area surrounding the highly industrialized city of MADRID.
 In Old Castile grains are grown and sheep raised. The fertile areas,
 especially in New Castile, produce olive oil and grapes. Castile became a
 kingdom in 1035 and was united with LEON in 1230. Castilian kings were
 prominent in the fight against the MOORS, from whom they wrested New
 Castile. The privileges of the nobles were limited by PETER THE CRUEL
 (r.1350-69). In 1479 a personal union of Castile and ARAGON was
 established by ISABELLA I of Castile and her husband, Spanish King
 FERDINAND V. Castile was the core of the Spanish monarchy, centralized in
 Madrid (the capital after 1561).

   casting

 casting or founding,the shaping of METAL by melting and pouring into a
 mold. Most castings are made in sand molds. Sand, mixed with a binder to
 hold it together, is pressed around a wooden pattern that leaves a cavity
 in the sand. Molten metal is poured into the cavity and allowed to
 solidify. Investment casting is used for small, complex shapes. Wax or
 plastic replicas of the parts are covered with sand in a box. When the
 whole mold is heated, the replica melts, leaving behind a cavity into
 which the metal is poured. Die casting, in which molten metal is forced
 under pressure into metal molds, is used to make large numbers of small,
 precise parts with metals of low melting points.

   cast iron

 cast iron, form of IRON made from pig iron remelted in a small cupola
 furnace and poured into molds to make castings. It usually contains from
 2% to 6% carbon, and scrap iron or steel is often added to vary the
 composition. Cast iron is used extensively to make machine parts, engine
 cylinder blocks, stoves, pipes, radiators, and many other products.

   cast-iron architecture

 cast-iron architecture, a term used to designate buildings that
 incorporate cast iron for structural and/or decorative purposes. After
 1800 cast-iron supports were exploited as an alternative to masonry, and
 with the introduction of wrought-iron beams at mid-century, an efficient,
 prefabricated method of skeletal construction was possible, of which the
 most notable example was Joseph Paxton's CRYSTAL PALACE (1851) in London.
 Iron and glass canopies were used to cover such diverse structures as
 shopping arcades, library reading rooms, and the vast new railway
 terminals. In the U.S., James BOGARDUS pioneered the use of cast-iron
 commercial facades, which combined utility with the easy replication of
 attenuated classical orders in repeated bays.

   Castle, Vernon

 Castle, Vernon, 1887-1918, English dancer. He made his debut in 1907. In
 1911 he married Irene Foot, 1893-1969, b. New Rochelle, N.Y. Together
 they won international acclaim for their original dances, such as the
 "Texas Tommy," the "Castle Walk," and the "hesitation" waltz.

   castle

 castle, fortified dwelling characteristic of the Middle Ages. In the 9th
 cent. feudal lords began to develop private fortress-residences suitable
 to conditions of warfare. The castle of W Europe was a Norman creation,
 an outgrowth of the 10th- and 11th-cent. mound castle, which was
 essentially an artificial mound of earth, surrounded by a ditch, and
 surmounted by a blockhouse and palisade. Until the 12th cent., the only
 English development was the addition of a masonry keep inside the
 palisade, e.g., the TOWER OF LONDON. With evolving siegecraft, provisions
 for aggressive defense were needed. Outer masonry walls came into use,
 with gates, flanking towers, and earthworks. Subterranean passages and
 curving walls were developed. Castles were designed for security not
 comfort. Defenders fought from galleries atop the walls; with successive
 series of defenses, the loss of one did not mean complete defeat, as
 those inside could retreat until they were within the keep. Gunpowder and
 the development of artillery rendered the castle obsolete. It was
 replaced by the manor house, but its effect on architecture still
 continues.

   Castlereagh, Robert Stewart, 2d Viscount

 Castlereagh, Robert Stewart, 2d Viscount, 1769-1822, British statesman;
 b. Ireland. As acting chief secretary for Ireland, he suppressed the
 French-aided rebellion of 1798. He was secretary of war (1805-6, 1807-9)
 during the wars with NAPOLEON I, coordinating British land and sea power
 and, after early disasters in the PENINSULAR WAR, putting the duke of
 WELLINGTON in command. He resigned (1809) after what he considered to be
 a political betrayal by George CANNING (with whom he fought a duel). As
 foreign secretary (1812-22), he helped form the "concert of Europe"
 against Napoleon, later confirmed by the QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE. He advocated
 a moderate peace settlement for France, and was a dominant figure at the
 Congress of VIENNA. A great statesman, Castlereagh was personally cold
 and never popular. He committed suicide in 1822.

   Castor and Pollux

 Castor and Pollux, in classical mythology, twin heroes called the
 Dioscuri; Castor was the son of LEDA and Tyndareus, Pollux the son of
 Leda and ZEUS. Castor was a skilled horseman, Pollux a boxer. They were
 famous warriors, noted for their devotion to each other. In one legend,
 Zeus created the constellation Gemini in their honor. Patrons of
 mariners, the Dioscuri were especially honored by the Romans.

   castrato

 castrato: see VOICE.

   Castries

 Castries, city, (1981 pop. 50,000), capital of SAINT LUCIA.

   Castriota, George

 Castriota, George: see SCANDERBEG.

   Castro, Fidel

 Castro, Fidel, 1926-, Cuban revolutionary and premier of CUBA (1959-). He
 opposed the BATISTA dictatorship and unsuccessfully attacked an army post
 on July 26, 1953. After being imprisoned and released (1955), he went to
 Mexico, where he organized the 26th of July revolutionary movement. He
 invaded (1956) SE Cuba and, with his brother Raul, "Che" GUEVARA, and
 nine other rebels, hid out in the Sierra Maestra Mountains, from where
 they attracted supporters and fought a guerrilla campaign that toppled
 (1959) Batista. A brilliant propagandist and charismatic orator, Castro
 established a totalitarian government that benefited the working class at
 the expense of the middle class, many of whom fled. A declared
 Marxist-Leninist, he nationalized industry, confiscated foreign-owned
 property, collectivized agriculture, and has increasingly depended on the
 economic assistance of the USSR. He weathered the severance of economic
 and political ties by the U.S. and Latin American nations, the BAY OF
 PIGS INVASION (1961), a U.S. economic blockade, and the CUBAN MISSILE
 CRISIS (1962). He has supported revolutionary movements in other Latin
 American countries and in Africa, and he has remained the symbol of
 revolution and social change in Latin America.

   Castro, Ines de

 Castro, Ines de, or Inez de Castro,d. 1355, Spanish noblewoman at the
 Portuguese court. Her love affair with the crown prince, Dom Pedro (later
 PETER I), ended in tragedy; she bore him four children but was murdered
 with the connivance of his father, ALFONSO IV, to preserve the legitimate
 succession to the throne. Her life has been a favorite theme of
 Portuguese and Spanish writers.

   cat

 cat, carnivorous MAMMAL of the family Felidae, including the domestic cat
 (Felis catus), the great cats (e.g., LION, TIGER, LEOPARD, and CHEETAH),
 and the smaller wild cats (e.g., LYNX and OCELOT). Highly adapted for
 hunting and devouring their prey, cats have short muzzles, large eyes,
 sensitive whiskers, and sharp claws and teeth. Most have long tails, and
 all have a flexible musculo-skeletal system. Lions and cheetahs live in
 groups called prides, but most cats are solitary. Cats have been
 domesticated since prehistoric times and were often the objects of
 veneration or superstitious fear. Domestic cats vary in size, with males
 usually weighing 9-14 lb (4.1-6.4 kg) and females 6-10 lb (2.2-4.5 kg).
 They have coats of various lengths and many colors (black, white, and
 shades of red, yellow, brown, and gray) in a variety of patterns. Besides
 the common house cat, the species F. catus includes many recognized
 breeds maintained by selective mating. Most breeds are short-haired.
 Abyssinian cats have ruddy brown coats with ticking (marking on each
 hair) of darker brown or black. Burmese cats are small and muscular with
 medium- to dark-brown coats; the Manx cat is a variously colored,
 tailless breed with hind legs longer than its forelegs, elevating the
 rump. Siamese cats have almond-shaped blue eyes and white, cream, or fawn
 coats with brown or gray areas (points) on the feet, tail, ears, and
 head. The Russian Blue cat, with green eyes and a blue-gray coat, is
 distinguished by two layers of short, thick fur, and the Rex cat, the
 only curly-haired cat, has a woolly coat that may be any color. Persian
 cats are stocky and long-haired and may be a variety of colors; the other
 long-haired breed, the Himalayan cat (a Persian-Siamese cross), has
 Siamese coloring.

   catacombs

 catacombs, large underground vaults and galleries serving as cemeteries
 for early Christians, who did not follow the Greek and Roman practice of
 cremation. They were built in Italy, N Africa, Asia Minor, and other
 Christian areas from the 1st to the 5th cent. AD The main ones, outside
 the city gates of Rome, lie from 22 to 65 ft (6.7 to 19.8 m) below ground
 and occupy 600 acres (240 hectares) of space in multilevel passages lined
 with tiers of niches for bodies. Plaster walls and ceilings were
 frescoed. Goths and later invaders plundered the catacombs; by the 8th
 cent. most bodies had been transferred to churches and the labyrinths
 forgotten. Rediscovery began in 1578, and preservation is now controlled
 by the papacy.

   Catalan language

 Catalan language, member of the Romance group of the Italic subfamily of
 the Indo-European family of languages. See LANGUAGE .

   catalog

 catalog, descriptive list of the contents of a library, displayed on
 cards, in a book, on microfilm, or on-line (see COMPUTER). ASSURBANIPAL'S
 library at Nineveh was cataloged on shelves of slate. The first known
 subject catalog was compiled by CALLIMACHUS at the library in ALEXANDRIA
 (3d cent. BC). An early union catalog of British monastic libraries was
 compiled in 1472. In the 19th cent. Sir Anthony PANIZZI began the
 printing of the British Museum Catalog; Charles Cutter devised the modern
 dictionary catalog (with author, title, and subject entries arranged in
 one alphabet); and Melvil DEWEY devised his decimal classification
 system. In 1901 the U.S. Library of Congress began to print its catalog
 entries on small cards, distributing them to other libraries
 inexpensively and thus providing libraries with a standardized format,
 call numbers, and subject headings. The National Union Catalog, begun by
 the Library of Congress in 1952, collates the catalogued entries of many
 large American libraries and presents the results in book form. The
 National Union Catalog, pre-1956 Imprints does the same for earlier
 materials. Libraries are now cooperating in networks to develop
 computerized cataloging systems that will offer a more extensive and
 efficient catalog with a greater variety of formats and access points.
 See also LIBRARY .

   Catalonia

 Catalonia, region, NE Spain, stretching from the Pyrenees at the French
 border southward along the Mediterranean Sea. BARCELONA is the historic
 capital. Catalonia produces one third of Spanish wines; grows olives and
 grains; and manufactures textiles, automobiles, airplanes, and other
 products. The counts of Barcelona became (9th cent.) the most powerful
 lords of the region, and in 1137 Catalonia was united with ARAGON. In the
 13th and 14th cent. Catalan traders rivaled those of GENOA and VENICE. It
 briefly won autonomy in the 1930s.

   catalpa

 catalpa: see BIGNONIA.

   catalyst

 catalyst, substance that causes a change in the rate of a chemical
 reaction without itself being consumed by the reaction. Catalysts, which
 work by changing a reaction's activation energy, or minimum energy needed
 for the reaction to occur, are used in numerous industrial processes.
 Substances that increase the reaction rate are called positive catalysts,
 or simply catalysts, whereas substances that decrease the reaction rate
 are called negative catalysts, or inhibitors. The presence of a small
 amount of an acid or base may catalyze some reactions. Finely divided
 metals (e.g., platinum, copper, iron, palladium, rhodium) or metal oxides
 (e.g., silicon dioxide, vanadium oxide) may also serve as catalysts.
 Biological catalysts are called ENZYMES.

   cataract

 cataract, opacity of the lens of the EYE, causing impairment of vision.
 Most commonly caused by aging, cataracts may also be congenital or result
 from eye inflammations or certain diseases, such as DIABETES. Cataracts
 are treated by surgical removal of the lens, implantation of an
 artificial lens, and the use of corrective lenses.

   catastrophism

 catastrophism, originally, the outdated geological doctrine that the
 physical features of the earth's surface, e.g., mountains and valleys,
 were formed during violent worldwide cataclysms, e.g., earthquakes and
 floods. This theory, easily correlated with religious beliefs, was
 systematized by Georges CUVIER, who argued that all living things were
 destroyed and replaced with wholly different forms during these
 cataclysmic events. In the 18th cent. the doctrine was attacked by James
 HUTTON, who advanced the doctrine of UNIFORMITARIANISM. Geologists now
 use the term catastrophe to refer to a more localized, relatively milder
 event in earth history.

   catbird

 catbird: see MIMIC THRUSH.

   catchment area

 catchment area or drainage basin,area drained by a stream or other water
 body. The amount of water reaching a RIVER, reservoir, or LAKE from its
 catchment area depends on the size of the area, amount of precipitation,
 and loss through evaporation and absorption.

   Cateau-Cambresis, Treaty of

 Cateau-Cambresis, Treaty of: see ITALIAN WARS.

   catechism

 catechism, originally oral instruction in religion, later written
 instruction. Catechisms, usually in the form of questions and answers,
 were used to instruct converts and children. Famous catechisms include
 the Lutheran Small Catechism (1529), the Anglican catechism contained in
 the Book of Common Prayer, and the Baltimore Catechism, which is the
 best-known Roman Catholic catechism in the U.S.

   catecholamine

 catecholamine, any of several structurally related compounds occurring
 naturally in the body that help regulate the sympathetic NERVOUS SYSTEM.
 They include EPINEPHRINE (or adrenaline), norepinephrine, and
 dopamine-substances that prepare the body to meet emergencies such as
 cold, fatigue, and shock. Epinephrine and isoproterenol, a synthetic
 catecholamine, are used as drugs to treat diseases such as EMPHYSEMA,
 BRONCHITIS, and ASTHMA.

   categorical imperative

 categorical imperative: see KANT, IMMANUEL.

   caterpillar

 caterpillar: see BUTTERFLY.

   catfish

 catfish, freshwater FISH (suborder Nematognathi) with barbels, or
 whiskers, around a broad mouth, fleshy, rayless posterior fins, scaleless
 skin, and sharp defensive spines on the pectoral and dorsal fins. One
 species, the electric catfish, discharges electricity (see ELECTRIC
 FISH). Catfish range in size from a few inches to 13 ft (3.9 m) or more.
 Omnivorous feeders and scavengers, they are important food fish and are
 raised on fish farms in the S U.S.

   cathedral

 cathedral, church in which a bishop presides, regardless of size or
 magnificence. Romanesque cathedrals (see ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE AND ART)
 were massive, domed, heavily vaulted structures based on the BASILICA
 form, reflecting the style dominant in Europe c.1050 to c.1200. The tall,
 wide nave was flanked by narrow side aisles, crossed by transepts, and
 illuminated by a clerestory pierced with small windows. The great
 cathedrals of the 13th and 14th cent. are the crowning achievement of
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE AND ART. These buildings are distinctive in their use
 of ribbed VAULTS, pointed ARCHES, ROSE WINDOWS, BUTTRESSES, geometric
 tracery, and STAINED GLASS, combined in a rich and complex design. In the
 intricacy of the glass, exterior facade, and buttresses, the building's
 structure is almost entirely subordinated to detail. Among the most
 important cathedrals are: France-Amiens, Beauvais, Chartres, Notre-Dame
 de Paris, Rheims, Rouen; England-Canterbury, Durham, Ely, Winchester,
 York; Germany-Cologne, Ulm; Belgium-Lou vain; Italy-Florence, Milan;
 Spain-Avila, Toledo; Sweden-Lund, Uppsala. A noted modern adaptation of
 the form is at Coventry, England (1962).

   Cather, Willa Sibert

 Cather, Willa Sibert, 1876-1947, American author; b. Winchester, Va. She
 celebrated the frontier in O Pioneers! (1913) and My Antonia (1918), and
 showed the artist's need for freedom from inhibiting influences in The
 Song of the Lark (1915). Cather later turned to the North American past
 for Death Comes for the Archbishop (1927). She also wrote short stories
 and several essays on fiction. Her own clear, charming, and stately style
 is among the finest in 20th-cent. American literature.

   Catherine

 Catherine, czarinas of Russia. Catherine I, 1683?-1727 (r.1725-27), was
 born Martha Skavronskaya, a Livonian peasant. She became the mistress of
 MENSHIKOV, an advisor to PETER I, and then of Peter, who married her in
 1712 and had her crowned czarina in 1724. When he died without naming a
 successor she was raised to the throne by Menshikov, who dominated her
 rule. PETER II succeeded her; her daughter ELIZABETH became czarina in
 1741. Catherine II or Catherine the Great, 1729-96 (r.1762-96), b.
 Princess Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst, married the future PETER III in 1744.
 She became thoroughly Russian and was popular with powerful groups
 opposed to her eccentric husband. In June 1762, conspirators headed by
 Grigori Orlov, her lover, deposed Peter and proclaimed her ruler; shortly
 afterward Peter was murdered. Catherine's rule began with projects of
 reform, but after the peasant uprising led by PUGACHEV (1773-74) and the
 FRENCH REVOLUTION she strengthened serfdom and increased the privileges
 of the nobility within a system of provinces that survived until 1917.
 Her foreign policy was imperalistic: she increased Russian control of the
 Baltic provinces and Ukraine; began colonization of Alaska; annexed the
 Crimea and in two wars with Turkey made Russia dominant in the Near East;
 and secured for Russia the major share in the partitions of Poland (1772,
 1793, 1795). A patron of art and literature, she corresponded with
 VOLTAIRE and other French thinkers, and wrote memoirs, comedies, and
 stories. Of her many lovers, only Orlov and POTEMKIN influenced her
 policies. Her son, PAUL I, succeeded her.

   Catherine de' Medici

 Catherine de' Medici, 1519-89, queen consort of HENRY II of France,
 daughter of Lorenzo de' MEDICI, duke of Urbino. Married in 1533, she was

 regent (1560-63) and adviser (1563-74) for her son CHARLES IX. At first
 conciliatory toward the French Protestants, she later helped plan the
 SAINT BARTHOLOMEW'S DAY massacre. HENRY III was her son.

   Catherine of Braganza

 Catherine of Braganza, 1638-1705, queen consort of CHARLES II of England;
 daughter of JOHN I of Portugal. Her dowry included Bombay and Tangier. A
 Roman Catholic, she was never popular. Titus OATES accused her of
 plotting to poison the king, but Charles protected her. After his death,
 she returned home and in 1704 acted as regent for her brother, PETER II.

   Catherine of Siena, Saint

 Catherine of Siena, Saint, 1347-80, Italian DOMINICAN, mystic and
 diplomat, Doctor of the Church. In response to a vision she entered
 public life and in 1376 influenced Pope GREGORY XI to end the "Babylonian
 captivity" of the PAPACY and return to Rome. She was later papal
 ambassador to Florence. Catherine caused a spiritual revival almost
 everywhere she went, and her mysticism contains an overwhelming love of
 God and humanity. She dictated The Dialogue, a notable mystical work.
 Feast: Apr. 29.

   Catherine of Valois

 Catherine of Valois, 1401-37, queen consort of HENRY V of England; mother
 of HENRY VI; daughter of CHARLES VI of France. Some time after Henry V's
 death (1522), she married Owen TUDOR. The Tudor kings are descended from
 them.

   Catherine the Great

 Catherine the Great (Catherine II): see under CATHERINE, czarinas of
 Russia.

   cathode

 cathode: see ELECTRODE.

   cathode-ray tube

 cathode-ray tube, ELECTRON TUBE in which electrons are accelerated by
 high-voltage anodes, formed into a beam by focusing ELECTRODES, and
 projected toward a phosphorescent screen that forms the face of the tube.
 The electron beam leaves a bright spot wherever it strikes the screen. To
 form the screen display, or image, the electron beam is deflected in the
 vertical and horizontal directions either by the electrostatic effect of
 electrodes within the tube or by magnetic fields produced by coils
 located around the neck of the tube. Some cathode-ray tubes, made for
 COMPUTER TERMINALS, OSCILLOSCOPES, and TELEVISION receivers, can produce
 multiple beams of electrons and have phosphor screens that can display
 more than one color. See also RADAR.

   Catholic Church

 Catholic Church: see ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH.

   Catholic Emancipation

 Catholic Emancipation, term applied to the process by which Roman
 Catholics in the British Isles were relieved of civil disabilities,
 dating back to HENRY VIII. In 1791 most of the disabilities in Great
 Britain were repealed. Agitation in Ireland, led by Daniel O'CONNELL,
 resulted in the Catholic Emancipation Act (1829), which lifted most other
 restrictions.

   Catiline

 Catiline (Lucius Sergius Catilina), c.108 BC-62 BC, Roman politician and
 conspirator. In 66 BC he was barred from candidacy for the consulship by
 accusations of misconduct in office, charges that later proved false.
 Feeling with some justification that he had been cheated, he concocted a
 wild plot to murder the consuls. He and the other conspirators were
 acquitted (65 BC). When in 63 BC he ran again for consul, he found
 CICERO, the incumbent, and the conservative party anxious to stop his
 election at any cost. Catiline was defeated, prompting him to try for the
 consulship by force. Learning of the plot, Cicero arrested the
 conspirators still in Rome, but Catiline had fled. On Dec. 5 they were
 condemned to death and executed, in spite of an appeal from Julius CAESAR
 to use moderation. Catiline did not surrender; he fell in battle at
 Pistoia a month later.

   cation

 cation: see ION.

   Catlin, George

 Catlin, George, 1796-1872, American traveler and artist; b. Wilkes-Barre,
 Pa. His trips to the American West, the first c.1832, resulted in several
 volumes and hundreds of portraits of Indians and tribal scenes. He also
 painted Indians in South and Central America. Much of his work is housed
 in the Catlin Gallery of the National Gallery of Art (Wash., D.C.).

   catnip

 catnip or catmint, strong-scented perennial herb (Nepeta cataria) of the
 MINT family, native to Europe and Asia. Catnip, best known for its
 stimulating effect on cats, is also used to make a home-remedy tea.

   Cato the Elder

 Cato the Elder or Cato the Censor(Marcus Porcius Cato), 234-149 BC, Roman
 statesman and moralist. He fought in the Second PUNIC WAR and later
 served as consul (195) and censor (184). He was renowned for his devotion
 to the old Roman ideals-simplicity of life, honesty, and courage. He told
 the senate to destroy Carthage and thus helped to bring on the Third
 Punic War, in which Carthage was destroyed. He also wrote many works,
 most of which are now lost. Cato the Younger or Cato of Utica (Marcus
 Porcius Cato), 95 BC-46 BC, Roman statesman, was the great-grandson of
 Cato the Elder. He showed an intense devotion to the principles of the
 early republic. He had one of the greatest reputations for honesty and
 incorruptibility of any man in ancient times, and his Stoicism put him
 above the graft and bribery of his day. His politics were extremely
 conservative. Thus he opposed Julius CAESAR and supported POMPEY. After
 Pompey's defeat at Pharsala in 48 BC, Cato went to Africa to continue the
 struggle and took command at Utica. When Caesar clearly had gained power,
 Cato committed suicide, bidding his people make their peace with Caesar.

   CAT scan

 CAT scan or computerized axial tomography,X-RAY technique allowing safe,
 painless, and rapid diagnosis in previously inaccessible areas of the
 body. An X-ray tube, rotating around a specific area of the body,
 delivers an appropriate amount of X-radiation for the tissue being
 studied and takes pictures of that part of the internal anatomy from
 different angles. A computer then assists in forming a composite,
 readable image. CAT scanning has revolutionized medicine, especially
 neurology, by facilitating the diagnosis of brain and spinal cord
 disorders, CANCER, and other conditions.

   Catt, Carrie Chapman

 Catt, Carrie Chapman, 1859-1947, American suffragist; b. Ripon, Wis. As
 an organizer and president (from 1900) of the National American Woman
 Suffrage Association, she campaigned for a constitutional amendment on
 WOMAN SUFFRAGE. When the 19th amendment to the U.S. CONSTITUTION passed
 (1920), she organized the LEAGUE OF WOMEN VOTERS and later worked for the
 peace movement.

   cattail

 cattail or reed mace, perennial herb (genus Typha), found in open
 marshes. Cattails, or clubrushes, have long, narrow leaves and one tall
 stem with tiny male flowers above the female flowers. Pollinated female
 flowers form the familiar cylindrical spike of fuzzy brown fruits; the
 male flowers drop off. The starchy rootstocks are edible.

   cattle

 cattle, ruminant MAMMALS (genus Bos), especially a domesticated species.
 The term oxen is often used synonymously, although strictly speaking ox
 refers to a mature, castrated male used for draft purposes. Western, or
 European, domestic cattle (B. taurus) are thought to be descended from
 the aurochs, a large wild ox domesticated in the STONE AGE. The ZEBU is
 the domesticated species of Asia and Africa. A grown male is called a
 bull; a grown female, a cow; an infant, a calf; a female that has not
 given birth, a heifer; and a young castrated male, a steer. Cattle are
 bred for beef and DAIRYING and for use as draft animals. Beef breeds
 include the Angus, Charolais, and Hereford; dairy breeds include Brown
 Swiss, Guernsey, Holstein-Friesian, and Jersey; dual-purpose (beef-dairy)
 breeds include the Red Poll and Shorthorn.

   Catullus

 Catullus (Caius Valerius Catullus), 84?-54? BC, Roman poet, one of the
 greatest LYRIC poets. His poems, addressed to the faithless Lesbia, his
 friend Juventius, and others, include elegies (see ELEGY), EPIGRAMS, and
 other pieces and range from gay and tender to obscenely derisive. "On the
 Death of Lesbia's Sparrow" is well known.

   Caucasian

 Caucasian and Caucasoid:see RACE.

   Caucasian languages

 Caucasian languages, family of languages spoken by about five million
 people in the CAUCASUS region of the USSR. See LANGUAGE .

   Caucasus

 Caucasus, great mountain system, SW USSR, extending c.750 mi (1,210 km)
 between the Black and Caspian seas, forming part of the traditional
 border between Europe and Asia. Mt. ELBRUS (18,481 ft/5,633 m) is the
 highest peak. The mountains are usually divided into North Caucasia, a
 region of semiarid northern slopes, and the southern slopes of
 Transcaucasia. The Caucasus are inhabited by a great variety of ethnic
 and linguistic groups, including Armenians, Georgians, and Azerbaijani in
 the south and Ossetians, Circassians, and Dagestani in the north. Russia
 gained control in the 19th cent. after a series of wars with Persia (now
 Iran) and Turkey. Oil is a major resource.

   Cauchy, Augustin Louis, Baron

 Cauchy, Augustin Louis, Baron, 1789-1857, French mathematician who was
 influential in every branch of MATHEMATICS. In calculus, he invented the
 notion of continuity, gave the first adequate definition of the definite
 integral as a limit of sums, and defined improper integrals. He provided
 the first comprehensive theory of complex numbers, established
 fundamental theorems on complex functions, published the first
 comprehensive treatise on determinants, and founded the mathematical
 theory of elasticity.

   cauliflower

 cauliflower, variety of CABBAGE (var. botrytis), with an edible head of
 condensed flowers and stems. Another cultivation of the same variety is
 broccoli. Both have been grown since Roman times.

   Cavafy, Constantine

 Cavafy, Constantine, 1863-1933, Greek poet; b. Egypt. He lived most of
 his life in Alexandria. The background of his poetry is a mythic,
 Hellenistic world peopled with historical and imaginary figures. Many of
 his poems treat homosexual love. Although his output was small (about 150
 poems), he is one of the great modern Greek poets.

   cavalry

 cavalry, mounted troops trained to fight from horseback. In use since the
 time of the ancient Hittites, horsemen remained at a disadvantage against
 well-disciplined INFANTRY until the introduction (4th cent. AD) of the
 saddle. In medieval Europe the mounted KNIGHT became the typical warrior.
 Despite the invention of SMALL ARMS, cavalry remained important in
 warfare until the end of the 19th cent. The elite of the fighting forces
 in Europe, it was often recruited from the nobility and landed gentry. On
 the African, U.S., and British Indian frontiers the cavalry's mobility
 was essential against the lightly armed natives, but its value was
 drastically diminished by the development of rapid-fire rifles and
 machine guns. It was ultimately superseded by mobile TANK units in World
 War II.

   cave

 cave, a hollow in earth or ROCK. Caves are formed by the chemical and
 mechanical action of water on soluble rock, by volcanic activity (the
 formation of large gas pockets in lava or the melting of ice under lava),
 and by earthquakes. LIMESTONE formations, due to their solubility, almost
 invariably have caves, some notable for their STALACTITES AND
 STALAGMITES. Among famous U.S. caves are the Carlsbad Caverns in New
 Mexico (see NATIONAL PARKS, ). See also SPELEOLOGY.

   cave art

 cave art: see PALEOLITHIC ART; ROCK CARVINGS AND PAINTINGS.

   Cavendish, Henry

 Cavendish, Henry, 1731-1810, English physicist and chemist; b. France. He
 determined the specific heats for numerous substances (although these
 heat constants were not recognized until later), did research on the
 composition of water and air, and studied the properties of a gas that he
 isolated and described as "inflammable air" (later named HYDROGEN). In a
 now-famous experiment (1798), he determined the value of the constant of
 proportionality in Newton's law of GRAVITATION.

   Cavour, Camillo Benso, conte di

 Cavour, Camillo Benso, conte di, 1810-61, Italian statesman, premier of
 Sardinia (1852-59, 1860-61). Cavour introduced liberal internal reforms
 and involved Sardinia in the CRIMEAN WAR. He became the chief architect
 of Italian unification under VICTOR EMMANUEL II (see RISORGIMENTO).

   Caxton, William

 Caxton, William, c.1421-1491, English printer, the first to print books
 in English. Apprenticed as a mercer, he was later a diplomat, and learned
 printing in Cologne, Germany, in 1471-72. At Bruges, Belgium (1475), he
 printed with Colard Mansion The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye, the
 first book printed in English. At Westminster (1477) he printed Dictes or
 Sayengis of the Philosophres, the first dated book printed in England. He
 is known to have printed about 100 books, having translated about one
 third of them himself.

   Cayenne

 Cayenne, city (1982 pop. 38,091), capital of FRENCH GUIANA, on Cayenne
 Island. It exports timber and rum, and gives its name to cayenne pepper,
 found on the island. Founded (1643) by France, it was held (1808-16) by
 Britain and Portugal. Many residents descend from inmates of French
 prison colonies (1851-1946).

   Cayley, Sir George

 Cayley, Sir George, 1773-1857, English scientist, recognized as the
 founder of AERODYNAMICS. In his studies on the principles of flight, he
 experimented with wing design; distinguished between lift and drag; and
 formulated the concepts of vertical tail surfaces, steering rudders, rear
 elevators, and air screws. Although powered flight was not possible in
 his time, he was able to calculate the power required for various speeds
 and loads.

   Cayman Islands

 Cayman Islands, British dependency (1987 est. pop. 22,900), c.100 sq mi
 (259 sq km), West Indies, consisting of three main islands, of which
 Grand Cayman is the largest. The capital is George Town. Discovered
 (1503) by Christopher COLUMBUS, the islands are now tourist attractions.

   Cayuga Indians

 Cayuga Indians: see IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY.

   CB radio

 CB radio: see RADIO.

   Cd

 Cd, chemical symbol of the element CADMIUM.

   CD

 CD: see COMPACT DISC.

   Ce

 Ce, chemical symbol of the element CERIUM.

   Ceausescu, Nicolae

 Ceausescu, Nicolae, 1918-, Rumanian Communist leader and president of
 RUMANIA (1967-). After the Communist takeover in 1948 he rose steadily in
 the party and the government. At the death (1965) of Gheorghiu-dej he
 became party leader. He maintained Rumanian independence from the Soviet
 Union and close ties with China and the West.

   Cecil, Robert

 Cecil, Robert: see SALISBURY, ROBERT CECIL, 1ST EARL OF.

   Cecil, Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne

 Cecil, Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne: see SALISBURY, ROBERT ARTHUR TALBOT
 GASCOYNE-CECIL, 3D MARQUESS OF.

   Cecil, William

 Cecil, William: see BURGHLEY, WILLIAM CECIL, 1ST BARON.

   cedar

 cedar, common name for a number of mostly coniferous evergreen trees. The
 true cedars (genus Cedrus), of the PINE family, are all native to the Old
 World; some, e.g., the cedar of Lebanon (C. libani) and the fragrant
 deodar cedar (C. deodara), are cultivated elsewhere. In North America,
 the name cedar refers to the JUNIPER (red cedar), ARBORVITAE (white
 cedar), and other conifers of the CYPRESS family. Several tropical
 American trees (genus Cedrela) of the MAHOGANY family are also called
 cedars.

   Cedar Rapids

 Cedar Rapids, city (1986 est. pop. 108,370), seat of Linn co., E central
 Iowa, on the Cedar R.; inc. as a city 1856. One of Iowa's chief
 commercial and industrial cities, it is the distribution center for an
 agricultural area. Its manufactures include cereals, farm machinery,
 electrical equipment, and paper and plastic products.

   Celebes

 Celebes or Sulawesi,island (1980 pop. 10,410,000), largest island in E
 Indonesia, c.73,000 sq mi (189,070 sq km), separated from BORNEO by the
 Makasar Strait. Irregular in shape, it comprises four large peninsulas.
 The terrain is almost wholly mountainous, with many active volcanoes.
 Valuable stands of timber cover much of the island; mineral resources
 include nickel, gold, diamonds, and sulfur. The inhabitants are Malayan,
 with some primitive tribes in the interior. The Dutch took control of
 Celebes from the Portuguese in the 1600s. In 1950 it became a province of
 the newly created Indonesia. Makasar is the chief city and port.

   celery

 celery, biennial plant (Apium graveolens) of the CARROT family, widely
 distributed and cultivated in north temperate areas. Once used as a
 medicine and flavoring, it is now used chiefly as a food, especially in
 soups and salads; the seeds are still used for seasoning.

   celesta

 celesta: see PERCUSSION INSTRUMENT.

   celestial equator

 celestial equator and celestial horizon: see ASTRONOMICAL COORDINATE
 SYSTEMS.

   celestial mechanics

 celestial mechanics, the study of the motions of astronomical bodies as
 they move under the influence of their mutual GRAVITATION. The
 calculation of such motions is complicated because many separate forces
 are acting at once and all bodies are moving simultaneously. Celestial
 mechanics is based on Isaac NEWTON'S laws of motion and theory of
 universal gravitation. Only the problem of two isolated moving bodies
 mutually attracted by gravitation can be solved exactly. Because the sun
 is the dominant influence in the solar system, an application of the
 two-body problem leads to the simple elliptical ORBITS as described by
 KEPLER'S LAWS, which give a close approximation of planetary motion.
 Problems that consider the additional effects, or perturbations, of other
 less dominant bodies (such as the other planets in the solar system)
 cannot be solved exactly except in a few special cases. Methods have been
 devised, however, to allow successive refinements of an approximate
 solution to be made to almost any degree of precision.

   celestial meridian, celestial pole

 celestial meridian, celestial pole, and celestial sphere: see
 ASTRONOMICAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS.

   Celestine I, Saint

 Celestine I, Saint, d. 432, pope (422-432), an Italian. He advanced
 orthodoxy by sending a delegation to the Council of Ephesus to oppose
 NESTORIANISM. Feast: July 27.

   Celestine V, Saint

 Celestine V, Saint, 1215-96, pope (July 5-Dec. 13, 1294), an Italian
 named Pietro del Murrone. Elected to end the two-year deadlock in finding
 a successor to Nicholas IV, Celestine was a hermit who had attracted a
 following of extremists (called Celestines). His papacy was chaotic and
 was dominated by Charles II of Naples; it lasted but five months before
 he resigned. His successor, BONIFACE VIII, confined Celestine for life to
 avert schism. Feast: May 19.

   Celine, Louis Ferdinand

 Celine, Louis Ferdinand, 1894-1961, French author; b. Louis Ferdinand
 Destouches. He wrote sensationally misanthropic but influential novels,
 e.g., Journey to the End of Night (1932). Based on his experiences as a
 doctor during World War I, his works portray the vileness of humanity
 through frank, often obscene, language. Celine later wrote a chaotic
 trilogy (1957-61) recounting the last days of the Third Reich in Germany.

   cell

 cell, in biology, the unit of structure and function of which all plants
 and animals are composed. The cell is the smallest unit in the living
 organism that is capable of carrying on the essential life processes of
 sustaining METABOLISM for producing energy and reproducing. Many
 single-celled organisms (e.g., PROTOZOA) perform all life functions. The
 cell is differentiated into the cytoplasm; the cell membrane, which
 surrounds it; and the nucleus, which is contained within it. Plant cells
 also have a thickened cell wall, composed chiefly of CELLULOSE. Included
 in the cytoplasm are mitochondria, which produce energy; lysozymes, which
 digest; Golgi apparatuses, which synthesize, store, and secrete
 substances; ribosomes, the sites of protein synthesis; and CHLOROPLASTS
 (in green plants only), in which PHOTOSYNTHESIS occurs. The nucleus
 contains chromosomes, which store the information for the metabolic
 functions of the whole cell and pass on their information to daughter
 cells by replicating themselves exactly. In higher organisms groups of
 cells are differentiated into specialized tissues.

   cell

 cell, in electricity, device that operates by converting chemical energy
 into electrical energy. A cell consists of two dissimilar substances, a
 positive ELECTRODE and a negative electrode, and a third substance, the
 ELECTROLYTE, that acts chemically on the electrodes. A group of cells
 connected together is called a battery. The ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE, or
 voltage produced between the positive and negative electrodes, depends on
 the chemical properties of the sub stances used but not on the size of
 the electrodes or the amount of electrolyte. When the electrodes are
 connected externally by a piece of wire, electrons flow from the negative
 electrode, through the wire, and into the positive electrode. There are
 several kinds of cells, differing in electrode material and electrolyte.
 The Leclanche cell has a zinc negative electrode, a carbon positive
 electrode, and an electrolyte consisting of ammonium chloride solution.
 It is the basis of the common dry cell, so called because the electrolyte
 is in the form of a paste instead of a liquid. An alkaline dry cell,
 which can operate up to ten times longer than common dry cells, has a
 zinc negative electrode, a manganese dioxide positive electrode, and an
 electrolyte of potassium hydroxide. A mercury dry cell, with a zinc
 negative electrode, a mercuric oxide positive electrode, and a potassium
 hydroxide electrolyte, has a constant output voltage and may be stored
 for many years.

   Cellini, Benvenuto

 Cellini, Benvenuto, 1500-71, Italian sculptor, metalsmith, and author.
 Under the patronage of Pope CLEMENT VII, he made medals, jewel settings,
 caskets, vases, candlesticks, metal plates, and ornaments. His work, with
 its decorative quality and exquisite detail, is among the best of the
 period. Though most of his works have perished, the famous gold and
 enamel saltcellar of FRANCIS I of France and the gold medallion of Leda
 and the Swan (both: Vienna Mus.) still remain. His late Florentine
 sculptures include the bust of Cosimo I (Bargello, Florence) and Perseus
 with the Head of Medusa (Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence). Cellini was a true
 RENAISSANCE man, and his autobiography (1558-62) is one of the most
 important documents of the 16th cent.

   cello

 cello: see VIOLIN.

   cellophane

 cellophane, thin, transparent sheet or tube of regenerated CELLULOSE.
 Used in packaging and for DIALYSIS, cellophane is made by mixing
 alkali-treated cellulose with carbon disulfide to form viscose. After
 aging, the viscose is forced through a slit into dilute acid. The
 regenerated cellulose that results has a lower molecular weight and a
 less orderly structure than cellulose.

   celluloid

 celluloid, transparent, colorless synthetic PLASTIC made by treating
 CELLULOSE nitrate with CAMPHOR and alcohol. The first important synthetic
 plastic, celluloid was widely used as a substitute for more expensive
 substances, such as ivory, amber, and tortoiseshell. It is highly
 flammable and has been largely superseded by newer plastics.

   cellular telephone

 cellular telephone, a mobile telephone system that uses small
 geographical areas known as cells with transmitters and receivers as
 bases for operation within a given area, such as a city. As users move
 from one cell to another, a central computer system changes their
 channels. This switching allows a relatively large amount of telephone
 traffic to be handled within a restricted area.

   cellulose

 cellulose, a carbohydrate of high molecular weight that is the chief
 constituent of the CELL walls of plants. Raw cotton is 91% cellulose.
 Other important natural sources are flax, hemp, jute, straw, and wood.
 Cellulose has been used to make PAPER since the 2d cent. AD Cellulose
 derivatives include guncotton (fully nitrated cellulose), used for
 EXPLOSIVES; CELLULOID (the first PLASTIC); and cellulose acetate, used
 for plastics, lacquers, and fibers such as RAYON.

   Celsius temperature scale

 Celsius temperature scale: see TEMPERATURE.

   Celtic Church

 Celtic Church, name given to the Christian church founded 2d or 3d cent.
 in the British Isles before the mission (597) of St. AUGUSTINE OF
 CANTERBURY from Rome. It spread in the 5th cent. through the work of St.
 Ninian in Scotland, St. Dyfrig in Wales, and St. PATRICK in Ireland, but
 was all but extinguished in England by the Saxon invasions, beginning
 c.450. At the Synod of Whitby (663) differences in Celtic and Roman
 church practices were largely resolved.

   Celtic languages

 Celtic languages, subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See
 LANGUAGE .

   Celts

 Celts, Indo-European-speaking tribal groups who dominated central Europe
 during the IRON AGE, developing the LA TENE culture. Mounted raiders with
 iron weapons, they spread rapidly over Europe in the 6th and 5th cent. BC
 from their home in SW Germany, reaching the British Isles, France, Spain,
 Italy, Macedonia, and Asia Minor. Their social hierarchy included
 kinglike chiefs and priests known as DRUIDS. A richly ornamental art and
 colorful folklore were their important cultural legacies. The term Celts
 also refers to natives of areas where a Celtic language is (or was until
 recently) spoken, i.e., Ireland, the Scottish Hebrides and Highlands, the
 Isle of Man, Wales, Cornwall, and Brittany.

   cement, hydraulic

 cement, hydraulic, building material typically made by heating a mixture
 of limestone and clay until it almost fuses and then grinding it to a
 fine powder. Once it is mixed with water, cement will harden even if
 immersed in water. The most common cement, Portland cement, is made by
 mixing and then heating substances containing lime, silica, alumina, and
 iron oxide, with gypsum added during the grinding process. Quick-setting
 aluminous cement is made from limestone and bauxite. See also CONCRETE.

   Cenozoic era

 Cenozoic era: see GEOLOGIC ERA .

   censorship

 censorship, official restriction of any expression believed to threaten
 the political, social, or moral order. Although most often imposed by
 totalitarian, autocratic, or theocratic regimes or in times of war,
 censorship has long existed in the U.S., where such materials as school
 texts, films, and literary works have often been suppressed as morally or
 ideologically subversive, by religious organizations, government agencies
 (such as the U.S. Post Office or elected local school boards) or private
 groups (such as the Watch and Ward Society in Boston, Anthony COMSTOCK'S
 New York Society for the Suppression of Vice, or the MORAL MAJORITY). At
 times, systems of self-censorship (e.g., the film industry's "Hays Code"
 of the 1930s) have been established to reduce the threat of outside
 censorship or BOYCOTT. A U.S. Supreme Court ruling in 1973 granted to
 state governments the right to decide what is subversive or obscene.
 Official secrecy, or federal censorship of information about government
 operations, was greatly reduced in the U.S. under the FREEDOM OF
 INFORMATION ACT (1966), supplemented by the Privacy Act of 1974. See also
 PRESS, FREEDOM OF THE.

   census

 census, a periodic official count of persons and their life conditions
 and of national resources. Usually taken every 5 or 10 years, the census
 provides vital statistical information for government planners and social
 scientists. In the U.S. it is conducted by the Bureau of the Census,
 established in 1902 as part of the Dept. of COMMERCE.

   centaur

 centaur, in Greek myth, a creature half man, half horse, descended from
 Ixion. Most were savage followers of DIONYSUS, but some, like CHIRON,
 were teachers of men.

   center of gravity

 center of gravity: see CENTER OF MASS.

   center of mass

 center of mass, the point at which all the mass of a body or group of
 objects is considered to be concentrated. This point is often the same as
 the center of gravity (the point at which all the weight of a body may be
 considered to be concentrated). The motions of several colliding
 elementary particles, or of the earth and moon around the sun, are
 sometimes analyzed from the point of view of the center of mass of the
 entire system of objects.

   Centers for Disease Control

 Centers for Disease Control (CDC), agency of the U.S. Public Health
 Service, est. 1973; headquarters are in Atlanta. The agency administers
 national programs for the prevention and control of communicable
 diseases, develops and implements programs for dealing with environmental
 health problems, directs quarantine activities, and conducts
 epidemiological research. It also provides consultation on an
 international basis for the control of preventable diseases.

   centigrade temperature scale

 centigrade temperature scale: see TEMPERATURE.

   centimeter

 centimeter: see METRIC SYSTEM; WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, .

   centipede

 centipede, invertebrate animal of the class Chilopoda, an ARTHROPOD. The
 flattened body is divided into a head and trunk comprised of segments
 (somites). The average number of legs is 35 pairs, one pair per segment
 except for the first one and last two. The appendages of the first
 segment are modified into claws equipped with poison glands, used to
 capture prey. The largest tropical species may reach 12 in. (30 cm) in
 length; temperate species are usually about 1 in. (2.5 cm) long.

   Central African Republic

 Central African Republic, republic (1986 est. pop. 2,740,000), 240,534 sq
 mi (622,983 sq km), central Africa, bordered by Chad (N), Sudan (E),
 Zaire and the Congo Republic (S), and Cameroon (W). BANGUI is the
 capital. Situated on a savanna-covered plateau 2,000-3,000 ft (610-910 m)
 above sea level, the country has tropical forests in the south and a
 semidesert area in the east. Of the numerous rivers, only the Ubangi is
 commercially navigable. Agriculture is the chief economic activity,
 engaging about 90% of the people, mostly in subsistence farming. The
 principal cash crops and exports are cotton and coffee; other exports
 include diamonds and timber. There are no railroads and few adequate
 paved roads; rivers are the chief means of transportation. The chief
 ethnic groups are the Mandjia-Baya, the Banda, the Mbaka, and the Zande.
 French is the official language, but Sangho is the lingua franca. More
 than half the population practices traditional animist religions; most of
 the rest are Christian.

 History In the 19th cent. various tribes fleeing the slave trade arrived
 in the region. The French occupied the area in 1887 and organized it
 (1894) as the colony of Ubangi-Shari; it was united administratively with
 CHAD in 1906 and incorporated into FRENCH EQUATORIAL AFRICA in 1910.
 Despite periodic rebellions sparked by French concessionaires' use of
 forced labor, the population supported the Free French forces in WORLD
 WAR II. The colony was given its own territorial assembly in 1946,
 received autonomy and took its present name in 1958, and gained full
 independence in 1960 under Pres. David DACKO. In 1965 the parliamentary
 government was overthrown in a military coup led by Col. Jean-Bedel
 BOKASSA, who in 1976 changed the country's name to Central African Empire
 and had himself crowned Emperor Bokassa I. During his brutal regime it
 was alleged that he personally took part in a 1979 massacre of children
 protesting human rights violations. Shortly thereafter, control was
 regained by Dacko, who restored republican government but was ousted
 again (1981) in a military coup led by Gen. Andre Kolingba, who has
 become increasingly autocratic.

   Central America

 Central America, collective term applied to the six nations of North
 America lying SE of Mexico-BELIZE, COSTA RICA, EL SALVADOR, GUATEMALA,
 HONDURAS, and NICARAGUA-and usually also including PANAMA, on the Isthmus
 of Panama. The region is predominantly mountainous in the interior, with
 an active zone of volcanoes and earthquakes marking the junction of North
 America's mountain systems and outliers of South America's ANDES chain.
 Tajumulko (13,846 ft/4,210 m), a volcano in Guatemala, is the highest
 point. The climate varies with altitude from tropical to cool, with heavy
 rainfall occurring in the east. Bananas, coffee, and cacao are the chief
 commercial crops. The population is mainly Spanish-speaking, Roman
 Catholic, and mestizo (of mixed Spanish and native Indian extraction).
 Though rich culturally, the area has suffered chronic political and
 economic problems, due largely to the persistence of a landholding system
 that leaves a vast gap between rich and poor.

   Central American Federation

 Central American Federation, political confederation (1825-28) of the
 republics of Central America-Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala,
 Honduras, and Nicaragua. Enmity between the states frustrated later
 attempts to revive it. The Central American Common Market, formed in 1960
 and now composed of the same states, greatly increased trade, but during
 its first two decades failed to develop into a close economic or
 political union.

   central bank

 central bank, financial institution designed to regulate and control a
 nation's fiscal and monetary activities. Usually state-owned, central
 banks issue notes to be used as legal tender, maintain adequate reserve
 backing for the nation's banks, and control the flow of money and
 precious metals. By regulating the supply of MONEY and CREDIT they
 influence INTEREST rates and, to some extent, the whole national economy.
 Most central banks are modeled after the Bank of England (1694), the
 first to fill a central banking role. Other notable central banks include
 the U.S. FEDERAL RESERVE SYSTEM, the Bank of Canada, France's Banque de
 France, and Germany's Deutsche Bundesbank.

   Central Intelligence Agency

 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), U.S. agency established (1947) by the
 National Security Act. It conducts intelligence and counterintelligence
 activities outside the U.S. (see INTELLIGENCE GATHERING). It also engages
 in domestic counterintelligence operations, but only in coordination with
 the FEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION and subject to the attorney general's
 approval. These limitations were mandated by a 1978 executive order,
 issued in the wake of abuses related to the WATERGATE AFFAIR and of a
 presidential commission's charge (1975) that the CIA had engaged in
 "unlawful" domestic spying. The CIA has also been criticized for taking
 an active role in the internal affairs of foreign governments.

   Central Powers

 Central Powers: see WORLD WAR I.

   central processing unit

 central processing unit: see COMPUTER.

   centrifuge

 centrifuge, device using centrifugal force to separate substances of
 different density, e.g., cream from milk. Substances are placed in
 containers that are spun at speeds high enough to cause the heavier
 elements to sink. The first successful centrifuge was built in 1883 by
 the Swedish engineer Carl G.P. de Laval.

   centripetal force and centrifugal force

 centripetal force and centrifugal force, action-reaction force pair
 associated with circular motion. Centripetal ("center-seeking") force is
 the constant inward force necessary to maintain circular motion. The
 centripetal force F acting on a body of mass m is given by the equation
 F=mv2/r, where v is its velocity and r is the radius of its path. The
 centripetal force, the action, is balanced by a reaction force, the
 centrifugal ("center-fleeing") force, which acts not on the circling
 object but on the source of centripetal force, usually located at the
 circle's center. The two forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in
 direction.

   cephalopod

 cephalopod, free-swimming MOLLUSK (class Cephalopoda) with a long body
 with a ring of sucker-bearing arms (tentacles) encircling the mouth. The
 head is large, with prominent eyes. Only the NAUTILUS has an external
 shell; in the SQUID and CUTTLEFISH the shell is internal and reduced, and
 in the OCTOPUS it is completely absent. Most cephalopods are aggressive
 carnivores that move by means of a kind of jet propulsion.

   Cepheid variables

 Cepheid variables, small class of VARIABLE STARS that brighten and dim in
 regular periods ranging from 1 to 50 days. The periods of Cepheids, which
 are yellow supergiant stars that swell and contract in size, depend on
 their intrinsic brightness, or absolute MAGNITUDE, in a known way: the
 brighter the star, the greater its period. By comparing the Cepheid's
 absolute magnitude to its apparent magnitude, one can determine its
 distance. The period-luminosity relation of Cepheids make them invaluable
 in estimating interstellar and intergalactic distances.

   Ceramicus Sinus

 Ceramicus Sinus or Ceramic Gulf,ancient name of the Gulf of Kos, or of
 Kerme, SW Turkey, an inlet of the Aegean Sea. The ancient city of
 HALICARNASSUS was on the gulf.

   Cerberus

 Cerberus, in Greek mythology, many-headed dog with a mane and a tail of
 snakes; guardian of HADES. One of the 12 labors of HERCULES was to
 capture him.

   cerebral palsy

 cerebral palsy, disorder in which muscular control and coordination are
 impaired, and speech and hearing problems and mental retardation may
 occur. It is most commonly caused by brain damage occurring before or
 during birth, and varies greatly in severity. Treatment involves
 physical, occupational, and speech therapy; braces; orthopedic surgery;
 and drugs to reduce muscle stiffness and spasticity.

   Ceres, in astronomy

 Ceres, in astronomy: see ASTEROID.

   Ceres

 Ceres, in Roman mythology, goddess of grain; daughter of SATURN and Ops.
 Her worship involved fertility rites and rites for the dead, and her
 chief festival was the Cerealia. She was identified with the Greek
 DEMETER.

   cerium

 cerium (Ce), metallic element, purified in 1875 by W.F. Hillebrand and
 T.H. Norton. Iron-gray, soft, and malleable, it is the most abundant
 RARE-EARTH METAL. It is used as a core for the carbon electrode of arc
 lamps. Cigarette-lighter flints are cerium alloys. See ELEMENT ; PERIODIC
 TABLE.

   CERN

 CERN: see EUROPEAN ORGANIZATION FOR NUCLEAR RESEARCH.

   Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de

 Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de, 1547-1616, Spanish novelist, dramatist,
 and poet, author of Don Quixote. Little is known of Cervantes's youth. In
 1569, in the service of a cardinal, he went to Italy, where he studied
 literature and philosophy. At the naval battle of Lepanto (1571) his left
 arm was permanently crippled. Returning to Spain (1575), he was captured
 by Barbary pirates and sold as a slave. After many escape attempts he was
 ransomed at ruinous cost from the viceroy of Algiers in 1580. As a
 government purchasing agent (1588-97) he was jailed several times for
 financial irregularities. His first published work was La Galatea (1585),
 a PASTORAL romance in prose and verse. Part I of his masterpiece, Don
 Quixote de la Mancha (1605), was an immediate success. The addled
 idealism of Don Quixote, a country gentleman who has read too many
 chivalric romances, and the earthy acquisitiveness of his squire, Sancho
 Panza, propel them into a series of adventures involving characters from
 every level of society. The appearance of a spurious sequel prompted
 Cervantes to publish Part II in 1615. The work had an indelible effect on
 the development of the European NOVEL. Among his other works are poems;
 many plays; the Exemplary Novels (1613), a collection of 12 tales; and
 The Travails of Persiles and Sigismunda (1617), a prose epic.

   cesarean section

 cesarean section, delivery of an infant by surgical removal from the
 uterus through an abdominal incision. It is usually performed when
 childbirth is considered hazardous, as when the mother's pelvis is too
 narrow or the fetus is in an abnormal position. Subsequent deliveries
 were traditionally also by cesarean section, but the practice is
 dimishing. The name comes from the legend that Julius CAESAR was born in
 this manner.

   cesium

 cesium (Cs), metallic element, discovered by spectroscopy in 1860 by
 Robert BUNSEN and Gustav KIRCHHOFF. Ductile, soft as wax, and
 silver-white, it is the most alkaline element (see ALKALI METALS) and the
 most reactive metal. Cesium metal is used in photoelectric cells and
 various optical instruments; cesium compounds, in glass and ceramic
 production. The cesium-137 radioactive isotope is used to treat cancer.
 See ELEMENT ; PERIODIC TABLE.

   Ceuta

 Ceuta, city (1981 pop. 70,864), c.7 sq mi (18 sq km), NW Africa, a
 Spanish possession, on the Strait of Gibraltar. An enclave in Morocco
 administered as part of Cadiz prov., Spain, Ceuta is a free port with
 such industries as fishing and food processing. An ancient city, it was
 seized (1415) by Portugal and in 1580 passed to Spain.

   Cezanne, Paul

 Cezanne, Paul, 1839-1906, French painter. Strongly influenced by
 PISSARRO, he became a leading figure in the revolution toward
 abstraction. His early work is marked by heavy use of the palette knife;
 these fantastic, dreamlike scenes anticipate the expressionist idiom of
 the 20th cent. (see EXPRESSIONISM). After meeting MANET and the
 impressionist painters Cezanne became interested in using color to create
 perspective (see IMPRESSIONISM), but he was utterly unconcerned with
 transitory light effects. House of the Hanged Man (1873-74; Louvre) is
 characteristic of his impressionist period. He sought to "recreate
 nature" by simplifying forms and utilizing color and distortion, as in
 Mont Sainte-Victoire (1885-87; Phillips Coll., Wash., D.C.), The Kitchen
 Table (1888-90; Louvre), The Card Players (1890-92; one version, S.C.
 Clark Coll., N.Y.C.), and vital portraits. He also developed a new type
 of spatial pattern, portraying objects from shifting viewpoints. His
 simple forms are always represented with almost classical structural
 stability, as in Bathers (1898-1905; Philadelphia Mus. Art), a monumental
 embodiment of several of his visual systems. Cezanne's influence on the
 course of modern art, particularly CUBISM, was enormous and profound, and
 his theories spawned a whole new school of aesthetic criticism.

   Cf

 Cf, chemical symbol of the element CALIFORNIUM.

   cgs system

 cgs system: see METRIC SYSTEM.

   Chad

 Chad, Fr. Tchad, officially Republic of Chad, republic (1987 est. pop.
 5,240,000), 495,752 sq mi (1,284,000 sq km), N central Africa, bordered
 by the Central Africa Republic (S), Sudan (E), Libya (N), and Cameroon,
 Niger, and Nigeria (W). NDJAMENA is the capital. The terrain in the south
 is wooded savanna, becoming brush country near Lake Chad, on the western
 border. Northern Chad is a desert that merges with the S SAHARA and
 includes the mountainous Tibesti region. Chad's backward economy is based
 largely on subsistence farming, livestock-raising, and fishing. The
 single important cash crop is cotton, which also supports a textile
 industry. Deposits of petroleum, tungsten, and uranium have not been
 exploited. The population is made up of two distinct, often hostile,
 groups: agricultural black Africans, mostly animists, with some
 Christians, in the politically dominant south; and seminomadic or nomadic
 Muslim tribesmen, who engage in herding, in the north. French is the
 official language, but Arabic is a common language in much of the
 country.

 History Long a focal point for trans-Saharan trade routes, the region was
 penetrated in the 7th cent. by Arab traders. Shortly thereafter nomads
 from N Africa established the state of Kanem, which reached its peak in
 the 13th cent. The successor state of Bornu was joined by the rival Wadai
 and Bagirmi empires, all of which fell to the Sudanese conqueror Rabih by
 the early 1890s. French expeditions moved into the region in 1890 and by
 1913 had defeated the Sudanese and conquered Chad, which became a colony
 in FRENCH EQUATORIAL AFRICA. It gained autonomy in 1958 and full
 independence in 1960. Internal strife between the Muslim north and the
 black south has dominated the new country's affairs, flaring into
 guerrilla warfare (with the main Muslim group receiving active support
 from LIBYA, which occupied part of N Chad in 1973) and precipitating
 numerous changes of government. The country's first president, Ngarta
 Tombalbaye, was killed in a coup in 1975. In 1979 a coalition government,
 headed by Goukouni Oueddei, a former rebel from the north, assumed power,
 but fighting broke out again in 1980. In 1982 Jonkouni's government was
 overthrown by the forces of former prime minister Hissene Habre, who
 finally drove the Libyans from the country in 1987 and moved to include
 all factions in his government.

   Chadwick, Sir James

 Chadwick, Sir James, 1891-1974, English physicist. He worked on
 radioactivity under Ernest Rutherford and was assistant director
 (1923-35) of radioactive research at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge.
 For his discovery of the NEUTRON he received the 1935 Nobel Prize in
 physics.

   Chagall, Marc

 Chagall, Marc, 1889-1985, Russian painter. He lived mainly in France. A
 forerunner of SURREALISM, he drew subject matter from Jewish life and
 folklore and rendered it with deceptive fairy-tale naivete, as in I and
 the Village (1911; Mus. Mod. Art, N.Y.C.) and The Rabbi of Vitebsk (Art
 Inst., Chicago). He designed sets and costumes for STRAVINSKY'S ballet
 The Firebird (1945); 12 stained-glass windows (1962) for Hadassah-Hebrew
 Univ. Medical Center synagogue, Jerusalem; and two vast murals for New
 York City's Metropolitan Opera House (1966). A museum of his work opened
 (1973) in Nice.

   Chain, Ernst Boris

 Chain, Ernst Boris, 1906-79, English biochemist; b. Germany. For their
 work in isolating and purifying penicillin, he and Sir Howard FLOREY
 shared with Sir Alexander FLEMING the 1945 Nobel Prize in physiology or
 medicine. Chain held various teaching and research positions in Berlin,
 Rome, and London and at Oxford and Cambridge.

   Chalcedon, Council of

 Chalcedon, Council of, 451, 4th ecumenical council. It stated that
 Christ's divine nature and human nature are distinct, but inseparably
 united-Christ is both true God and true man. This dictum refuted
 EUTYCHES, and became the test of orthodoxy for the Roman Catholic Church.

   chalcedony

 chalcedony, form of QUARTZ with microscopic crystals. Some varieties of
 chalcedony are AGATE, BLOODSTONE, JASPER, and ONYX.

   chalcopyrite

 chalcopyrite or copper pyrites,copper and iron sulfide mineral (CuFeS2),
 brass yellow and sometimes with an iridescent tarnish. It is found in
 crystal form but is most often massive. Occurring worldwide in igneous
 and metamorphic rocks, it is an important ore of COPPER.

   chalk

 chalk, a calcium carbonate mineral, similar in composition to limestone
 but softer. Chalk has been deposited throughout geologic time. The chief
 constituents are the shells of minute animals called foraminifera;
 however, the dominant component of the best-known formations, the
 Cretaceous chalks (e.g., the White Cliffs of Dover, England), are
 coccolith algae. Chalk is used to make putty, plaster, cement, quicklime,
 and blackboard chalk. Harder forms are used as building stones, and poor
 soils with high clay content are sweetened with chalk.

   Challenger

 Challenger, U.S. space shuttle. It exploded (Jan. 28, 1986), 73 seconds
 into its flight, killing all seven crew members, including a civilian
 schoolteacher, Christa McAuliffe. The disaster was caused by a faulty
 gasket design. As a result of the explosion, the U.S. did not send
 astronauts into space for three years as NASA redesigned a number of
 features of the space shuttle.

   Challoner, Richard

 Challoner, Richard, 1691-1781, English Roman Catholic bishop. A convert,
 he worked hard to win toleration for Catholics in England. His revision
 of the Douay version of the BIBLE became the standard one chiefly used by
 English-speaking Catholics. He also wrote devotional works.

   Chamberlain, (Arthur) Neville

 Chamberlain, (Arthur) Neville, 1869-1940, British statesman. A former
 Conservative chancellor of the exchequer (1923-24, 1931-37), he succeeded
 Stanley BALDWIN as prime minister in 1937. His belief that HITLER was a
 rational statesman resulted in the policy of "appeasement" of the AXIS
 powers that culminated in the MUNICH PACT (1938). He remained in office
 following the outbreak of WORLD WAR II, but he resigned (1940) after the
 British debacle in Norway.

   Chamberlain, Wilt(on Norman)

 Chamberlain, Wilt(on Norman), 1936-, American basketball player; b.
 Philadelphia. Twice an All-American at the Univ. of Kansas, he starred
 (1959-73) in the National Basketball Association (NBA) with Philadelphia
 (Warriors and 76ers), San Francisco, and Los Angeles. With his height
 (over 7 ft 1 in./216 cm) and agility, he was the top NBA scorer in 7
 consecutive seasons and the leading rebounder in 11. He set records for
 most points (31,419) and highest average (30.1).

   Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder

 Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder, 1843-1928, American geologist; b. Mattoon,
 Ill. He taught at the Univ. of Chicago (1892-1919) and was chief
 geologist of the geological survey of Wisconsin (1873-82). With the
 American astronomer F.R. Moulton he formulated the planetesimal
 hypothesis of the origin of the SOLAR SYSTEM. His works include The
 Origin of the Earth (1916) and Two Solar Families (1928).

   chamber music

 chamber music, ensemble music for small groups of instruments, with only
 one player to each part. Originally played by amateurs in courts, it
 began to be performed by professionals in the 19th cent. with the rise of
 the concert hall. The main BAROQUE type was the trio SONATA. The string
 quartet arose c.1750 and, as developed by HAYDN and MOZART, became the
 principal form of chamber music, used by classicists (BEETHOVEN,
 SCHUBERT), romantics (MENDELSSOHN, SCHUMANN, DVOrAK), and early
 20th-cent. composers (DEBUSSY, RAVEL). Modern composers, such as
 SCHOENBERG, BARTOK, WEBERN, and STRAVINSKY, have also experimented with
 chamber music.

   Chambers, Sir William

 Chambers, Sir William, 1723-96, English architect. He designed decorative
 architecture for Kew Gardens. The foremost official architect of his day,
 he continued the neo-Palladian tradition.

   chameleon

 chameleon, small- to medium-sized LIZARD of the family Chamaeleonidae,
 found in sub-Saharan Africa, with a few species in S Asia. Chameleons
 have laterally flattened bodies ornamented with crests, horns, or spines
 and bulging, independently rotating eyes. Their skin changes color in
 response to stimuli such as light, temperature, and emotion, not in
 response to background color. The so-called common chameleon (Chamaeleo
 chamaeleon) is found around the Mediterranean. The American chameleon,
 not a true chameleon, belongs to the IGUANA family.

   Chamisso, Adelbert von

 Chamisso, Adelbert von, 1781-1838, German poet and naturalist; b. France
 as Louis Charles Adelaide de Chamisso. His poetic cycle Frauenliebe und
 Leben (1830) was set to music by SCHUMANN. His tale of Peter Schlemihl,
 the man who sold his shadow to the devil (1814), has become legend.

   chamois

 chamois, hollow-horned, hoofed MAMMAL (Rupicapra rupicapra) found in the
 mountains of Europe and the E Mediterranean. About the size of a large
 GOAT, it is brown with a black tail and back stripes; its horns are erect
 with terminal hooks. The skin was the original chamois leather, a name
 now also given to the skins of other animals.

   chamomile

 chamomile or camomile, name for some herbs of the COMPOSITE family,
 especially the perennial English, or Roman, chamomile (Anthemis nobilis)
 and the annual German, or wild, chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla). The
 former is the chamomile most used for ornament and for a tea, made from
 the dried flower heads containing a volatile oil. The oil from wild
 chamomile flowers is chiefly used as a hair rinse.

   Champa

 Champa, kingdom of the Chams in Vietnam, fl. 2d cent. AD- 17th cent. The
 Chams warred successively with China, the KHMER EMPIRE, and ANNAM. The
 Cham kingdom finally fell to the Annamese, and its people were scattered.

   Champagne, Philippe de

 Champagne, Philippe de: see CHAMPAIGNE.

   Champagne

 Champagne, region, NE France. Champagne is a generally arid, chalky
 plateau cut by the Aisne, Marne, Seine, Aube, and Yonne rivers.
 Agriculture and sheep-grazing are the traditional activities. A small
 fertile area around Rheims and Epernay produces virtually all of France's
 celebrated champagne wine. Champagne enjoyed an early commercial
 prosperity, and in the Middle Ages its great fairs, particularly those at
 Troyes and Provins, attracted merchants from all over W Europe. Cultural
 life also flourished, culminating in the work of CHRETIEN DE TROYES and
 in the Gothic cathedral at RHEIMS. The county of Champagne passed to the
 counts of Blois in the 11th cent., and was incorporated into the French
 royal domain in 1314. WORLD WAR I devastated much of the region, but
 recently efforts have been made to reforest the area.

   champagne

 champagne, sparkling white wine, traditionally made from a mixture of
 grapes grown in the old French province of Champagne; the best is from
 the Marne valley. It was reputedly developed in the 17th cent. by a monk,
 Dom Perignon. The fermented and blended wine is bottled, then sweetened
 and allowed to ferment further. The carbonic acid left in the bottle
 after the final fermentation gives champagne its sparkle.

   Champaigne

 Champaigneor Champagne, Philippe de, 1602-74, French painter; b. Belgium.
 His best-known works, including the FRESCOES at Vincennes and the
 Tuileries, show the influence of RUBENS and VAN DYCK. His portraits, such
 as those of Richelieu and of his own daughter, a nun at Port-Royal (both:
 Louvre), have an air of static majesty.

   Champlain, Samuel de

 Champlain, Samuel de, 1567-1635, French explorer, chief founder of New
 France. In 1605 he founded Port Royal, in NOVA SCOTIA, and in 1608
 brought his colonists to QUEBEC. He explored as far W as Lakes Huron and
 Ontario, and S to Lake CHAMPLAIN, in New York, which bears his name. He
 extended French claims as far W as WISCONSIN.

   Champlain, Lake

 Champlain, Lake, mainly in NE U.S., fourth-largest freshwater lake in the
 country (490 sq mi/1,269 sq km), extending S 125 mi (201 km) from S
 Quebec to form part of the New York-Vermont border. Its maximum width is
 14 mi (23 km). Discovered (1609) by Samuel de CHAMPLAIN, it was the scene
 of battles in the FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR, the AMERICAN REVOLUTION (Crown
 Point; TICONDEROGA), and the WAR OF 1812.

   Champollion, Jean Francois

 Champollion, Jean Francois, 1790-1832, French Egyptologist. The founder
 of Egyptology, he discovered the key to Egyptian HIEROGLYPHICS while
 deciphering (1821) the ROSETTA stone. Sometimes called Champollion le
 jeune, he was trained in archaeology by his elder brother, Jean Jacques
 Champollion-Figeac, 1778-1867.

   Chancellorsville, battle of

 Chancellorsville, battle of, May 2-4, 1863, in the U.S. CIVIL WAR. Gen.
 Robert E. LEE and his Army of Northern Virginia attacked Joseph HOOKER'S
 Union Army of the Potomac, which was entrenched near Chancellorsville,
 Va. Lee was brilliantly supported by Stonewall JACKSON, who in a flank
 attack against the Union right surprised and routed Hooker's army.
 Jackson was mortally wounded by his own men. On May 3-4, Confederate
 generals Jubal EARLY and J.E.B. STUART drove the Union army across the
 Rappahannock R. Chancellorsville was Lee's last great victory; it led to
 his invasion of the North in the GETTYSBURG CAMPAIGN.

   Chan Chan

 Chan Chan, ruins of a pre-Inca Indian city near Trujillo, N Peru. It is
 believed to have been built after AD 800 and to have been the capital of
 the CHIMU civilization. Covering c.11 sq mi (28 sq km), it included at
 least nine self-contained, walled compounds and may once have had a
 population of 200,000.

   Chandler, Raymond T(hornton)

 Chandler, Raymond T(hornton), 1888-1959, American writer; b. Chicago. His
 well-plotted, brutally realistic detective novels, all featuring the
 tough yet honorable Philip Marlowe, include The Big Sleep (1939) and The
 Long Goodbye (1953).

   Chandragupta

 Chandragupta(Chandragupta Maurya) , fl. c.321-c.298 BC, Indian emperor,
 founder of the MAURYA dynasty and grandfather of ASOKA. He conquered the
 Magadha kingdom in N India, defeated (305 BC) the invading army of
 Seleucus I, and may have expelled the last of ALEXANDER THE GREAT'S army
 from India.

   Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan

 Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan,  1910-, American astrophysicist; b. Lahore,
 India (now Pakistan). He is a major figure in the research on energy
 transfer by radiation in stellar atmospheres. In 1983, he and William A.
 Fowler won the Nobel Prize in physics for work on WHITE DWARF stars.

   Chanel, Gabrielle (Coco)

 Chanel, Gabrielle (Coco): see FASHION .

   Changchun

 Changchun, city (1986 est. pop. 1,860,000), capital of Jilin prov.,
 China, on the railroad between HARBIN and LUDA. The former capital of the
 Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo (1932-45), Changchun is a major
 industrial city and the center of China's automotive industry. It also
 produces machinery, motors, and textiles. The city is a major educational
 and cultural center of NE China.

   change ringing

 change ringing, a form of BELL-ringing that developed during the 17th
 cent. in England simultaneously with the development of carillon playing
 in the Low Countries. A group of ringers, each ringer controlling the
 rope pull of one bell, use a peal (set) of 5 to 12 bells tuned to the
 diatonic scale; the bells are rung full circle in various predetermined
 orders, but without repeating any order. The result is a sound that is
 not melodious, but complex and compelling.

   Changkiakow

 Changkiakow: see ZHANGJIAKOU.

   Changsha

 Changsha, city (1986 est. pop. 1,160,000), capital of Hunan prov., S
 China, on the Xiang R. Changsha is an agricultural distribution and
 market center. Founded in the 3d cent. BC, it has long been noted as a
 literary and educational center. It was the capital (10th cent.) of the
 Chu kingdom and became a TREATY PORT in the early 1900s. MAO TSE-TUNG
 spent his early years in and around the city.

   channeling

 channeling: see QUARRYING.

   Channel Islands

 Channel Islands, archipelago (1986 est. pop. 144,494), 75 sq mi (194 sq
 km), 10 mi (16 km) off the coast of France in the English Channel. The
 principal islands are Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark. Agriculture
 and tourism are the mainstays of the economy. The islands became
 possessions of the duke of Normandy in the 10th cent. and were joined to
 the English crown at the NORMAN CONQUEST. They were occupied by the
 Germans during WORLD WAR II.

   Channel Islands National Park

 Channel Islands National Park: see NATIONAL PARKS .

   Channing, William Ellery

 Channing, William Ellery, 1780-1842, American minister and author; b.
 Newport, R.I. A great preacher, called "the apostle of Unitarianism," he
 advocated tolerance in religion. His writings on slavery, war, labor
 problems, and education were extremely progressive and influenced many
 American authors, including EMERSON and other exponents of
 TRANSCENDENTALISM, HOLMES, and BRYANT. His works (6 vol., 1841-43) passed
 through many editions.

   chansons de geste

 chansons de geste [Fr.,=songs of deeds], a group of epic poems of
 medieval France written from the 11th through the 13th cent. The oldest
 extant chanson, and also the best and most famous, is the Chanson de
 Roland song of Roland, composed c.1098-1100.

   chant

 chant, general name for one-voiced, unaccompanied liturgical music,
 usually referring to melodies of the Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and
 Anglican branches of Christianity. The texts of Anglican chant are from
 the BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER, and its melodies, unlike the Roman Catholic
 PLAINSONG, are harmonized.

   chantey

 chantey or shanty,work song with marked rhythm, particularly one sung by
 sailors at work, but also by shore gangs or lumbermen. It often has solo
 stanzas sung by a leader, alternating with a chorus by the entire group.

   Chanukah

 Chanukah: see Hanukkah under JEWISH HOLIDAYS.

   Chao Phraya

 Chao Phraya, Mae Nam Chao Phraya, or Menam Chao Phraya, chief river of
 Thailand, formed by the confluence of the Nan and Ping rivers at Nakhon
 Sawan. It flows generally south c.140 mi (230 km) past the capital city
 of Bangkok to a large delta on the Gulf of Thailand. Its valley is the
 country's main rice-producing region.

   Chaos

 Chaos, in Greek mythology, the vacant, unfathomable space from which
 everything arose. In the OLYMPIAN myth GAEA sprang from Chaos and became
 the mother of all things.

   chaos

 chaos, in science, a field of study devoted to processes whose outcomes
 change dramatically and unpredictably from slight changes in initial
 conditions. The result of spinning a coin, the shape a cloud will take,
 or the path a river will follow are all chaotic processes.

   chaparral

 chaparral, type of plant community in which shrubs are dominant,
 occurring usually in areas drier than forests and wetter than deserts.
 The species of shrub vary in different areas. The chaparral in Colorado,
 E Utah, and N New Mexico is mostly deciduous, while that of S California,
 Nevada, and Arizona is primarily evergreen. Chaparral is well exemplified
 in the W and SW U.S., but similar growth is found in many other parts of
 the world.

   chapel

 chapel, subsidiary place of worship, either an alcove or chamber in a
 church, or a room set apart in a secular building. Chapels in churches
 became necessary after the early Middle Ages with the increase of relics
 and devotions at altars sacred to various saints. At first they were
 minor apses flanking the main APSE. After the 10th cent. a complex series
 of radiating chapels developed behind the high altar. In the 13th cent.
 chapels were added to side aisle bays. Peculiar to English cathedrals are
 small chantry chapels, built either by individuals for private masses or
 to enclose the tombs of bishops and other churchmen. Medieval lords
 established private chapels, over which episcopal jurisdiction was
 enforced as completely as possible. The two main chapels at the VATICAN
 are the Pauline Chapel (1540) and the Sistine Chapel (1473).

   Chaplin, Charlie

 Chaplin, Charlie (Sir Charles Spencer Chaplin), 1889-1977, English film
 actor and director. A comic genius, he became famous as the wistful
 Little Tramp. His films include The Kid (1920), The Gold Rush (1924),
 City Lights (1931), The Great Dictator (1940), and Limelight (1952).

   Chapman, George

 Chapman, George, 1559?-1634, English dramatist, translator, and poet. A
 classical scholar, he translated HOMER'S Iliad (1612) and Odyssey
 (1614-15). His works include the tragedy Bussy d'Ambois (1607) and the
 comedy Eastward Ho! (1605).

   Chapman, John

 Chapman, John, 1774-1845, American pioneer popularly known as Johnny
 Appleseed; b. Massachusetts. Raggedly dressed, he wandered for 40 years
 through Ohio, Indiana, and W Pennsylvania, sowing apple seeds. Chapman
 inspired many legends.

   Chapultepec

 Chapultepec, fortified hill, S of Mexico City. A traditional home of
 Spanish viceroys and Mexican rulers, it was the site of a brave defense
 to the death by Mexican cadets (the "boy heroes") when it was stormed and
 taken (1847) by U.S. forces during the MEXICAN WAR. The castle is
 maintained as a historical museum.

   char

 char: see SALMON.

   Charcas

 Charcas, Spanish colonial territory, also known as Upper Peru, roughly
 corresponding to present-day BOLIVIA but including parts of Argentina,
 Chile, Peru, and Paraguay. Established in 1559, the territory was often
 disputed and fought over by neighboring colonies or states.

   charcoal

 charcoal, nonvolatile residue obtained when organic matter, usually wood,
 is heated in the absence of air. Largely pure CARBON, charcoal yields
 more heat per volume than wood. Charcoal obtained from bones is called
 bone black or animal charcoal. Finely divided charcoal, with its porous
 structure, efficiently filters the adsorption of gases and of solids from
 solution. Charcoal is used in sugar refining and in water and air
 purification.

   Charcot, Jean Martin

 Charcot, Jean Martin, 1825-93, French neurologist. He developed at the
 Salpetriere, Paris, the greatest clinic of his time for diseases of the
 nervous system. His insight into the nature of hysteria was credited by
 Sigmund Freud, his pupil, as having contributed to early psychoanalytic
 formulations on the subject.

   Chardin, Jean-Baptiste-Simeon

 Chardin, Jean-Baptiste-Simeon, 1699-1779, French painter. He favored
 simple still lifes and unsentimental domestic interiors. His muted tones
 and ability to evoke textures are seen in Benediction and Return from
 Market (both: Louvre) and Blowing Bubbles and Mme Chardin (both:
 Metropolitan Mus.). His unusual abstract compositions had great
 influence.

   charge

 charge, in ELECTRICITY, property of matter that gives rise to all
 electrical phenomena. The basic unit of charge, usually denoted by e, is
 that on the PROTON or ELECTRON; that on the proton is designated as
 positive (+e) and that on the electron is designated as negative (-e).
 All other charged ELEMENTARY PARTICLES have charges equal to +e, -e, or
 some whole number times one of these, with the possible exception of the
 QUARK, a hypothetical particle whose charge could be 1/3e or 2/3e. Every
 charged particle is surrounded by an electric FIELD of force such that it
 attracts any charge of opposite sign brought near it and repels any
 charge of like sign. The magnitude of this force is described by
 COULOMB'S LAW. This force is much stronger than the gravitational force
 between two particles and is responsible for holding protons and
 electrons together in ATOMS and in chemical bonding. Any physical system
 containing equal numbers of positive and negative charges is neutral.
 Charge is a conserved quantity; the net electric charge in a closed
 physical system is constant. Although charge is conserved, it can be
 transferred from one body to another. Electric current is the flow of
 charge through a conductor (see CONDUCTION).

   charismatics

 charismatics, neo-Pentecostal Christians whose worship emphasizes the
 gifts of the Spirit (charismata) listed by St. Paul in Corinthians,
 especially healing and speaking in tongues (glossolalia). Contemporary
 charismatics are distinguished from other Pentecostals by their origins
 in non-Pentecostal (especially mainline Protestant and Roman Catholic)
 churches during the "charismatic renewal" movements of the 1960s.

   Charlemagne (Charles the Great)

 Charlemagne (Charles the Great)or Charles I, 742?-814, emperor of the
 West (800-814), Carolingian king of the Franks (768-814). The son of
 PEPIN THE SHORT, he consolidated his rule in his own kingdom, invaded
 Italy in support of the pope, and in 774 was crowned king of the
 Lombards. He took NE Spain from the MOORS (778) and annexed Bavaria
 (788). After a long struggle (772-804) he subjugated and Christianized
 the Saxons. In 800 he restored LEO III to the papacy and was crowned
 emperor by him on Christmas Day, thus laying the basis for the HOLY ROMAN
 EMPIRE and finalizing the split between the Byzantine and Roman empires.
 Charlemagne ruled through a highly efficient administrative system. He
 codified the law in his various dominions, and his court at AACHEN was
 the center for an intellectual and artistic renaissance. The end of his
 reign was troubled by raids by the NORSEMEN. His son, LOUIS I, was named
 co-emperor in 813 and succeeded on his father's death. Charlemagne's
 legend soon enhanced and distorted his actual achievements, and he became
 the central figure of a medieval romance cycle.

   Charles

 Charles, emperors (see HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE). Charles II or Charles the
 Bald, 823-77, emperor of the West (875-77) and king of the West Franks
 (843-77), was the son of Emperor LOUIS I by a second marriage. Louis's
 attempts to create a kingdom for Charles were responsible for the almost
 constant warfare with Charles's elder brothers, LOTHAIR I and LOUIS THE
 GERMAN. In 843 Charles received what is roughly modern France, and in 870
 he divided LOTHARINGIA with Louis. Charles became emperor upon the death
 of his nephew LOUIS II. His brief reign saw the rise of the power of the
 nobles and serious threats by the NORSEMEN. Charles III or Charles the
 Fat, 839-88, emperor of the West (881-87), king of the East Franks, or
 Germany (882-87), and king of the West Franks, or France (884-87), was
 the son of Louis the German. He inherited Swabia (876) and was crowned
 king of Italy (881). When he became king of France, he briefly reunited
 the empire of Charlemagne. A weak ruler, he was deposed in 887 after he
 failed to stop the inroads of the Norsemen. Charles IV, 1316-78, Holy
 Roman emperor (1355-78), succeeded his father, John of Luxembourg, as
 king of BOHEMIA (1346) and was elected antiking to Emperor Louis IV,
 after whose death he made his claim. As emperor he promulgated the Golden
 Bull, which strengthened the German ELECTORS at the expense of the
 emperor. He founded Charles Univ. at PRAGUE. Charles V, 1500-58, Holy
 Roman emperor (1519-58) and, as Charles I, king of Spain (1516-56), was
 the son of PHILIP I and JOANNA of Castile, and grandson of Emperor
 MAXIMILIAN I and MARY OF BURGUNDY. Charles was the greatest of all
 HAPSBURG emperors. He inherited a vast empire: the Spanish kingdoms,
 Spanish America, Naples, Sicily, the Low Countries, and the hereditary
 Austrian lands. The chief problems he faced were the Protestant
 REFORMATION in Germany; the dynastic conflict with FRANCIS I of France,
 particularly for supremacy in Italy; and the Ottoman Turks, then at the
 height of their power. He also had difficulties with his Spanish
 subjects, who at first regarded him as a foreigner. Initially successful
 against the Protestant princes in Germany, he eventually was forced to
 compromise with them and to accept (1555) the Peace of Augsburg. He was
 more successful in promoting the Catholic REFORMATION. The imperialist
 struggle with France was a Pyrrhic victory for Spain. His efforts to halt
 the advance of the Ottomans under SULAYMAN I resulted in at best a
 standoff. As king of Spain, he was triumphant. The conquest of Mexico and
 Peru represented the high point of the Spanish empire. In 1556 Charles
 abdicated all his titles and retired to a monastery. His son PHILIP II
 received Spain, America, Naples, and the Netherlands; and his brother
 became emperor as FERDINAND I. Charles VI, 1685-1740, Holy Roman emperor
 (1711-40) and, as Charles III, king of Hungary (1712-40), was, before his
 accession, involved in both the War of the SPANISH SUCCESSION and the War
 of Polish Succession (1333-35). The PRAGMATIC SANCTION, whereby he
 settled his Hapsburg lands on his daughter MARIA THERESA, was challenged
 after his death. Charles VII, 1699-1745, Holy Roman emperor (1742-45)
 and, as Charles Albert, elector of BAVARIA (1726-45), refused to
 recognize the Pragmatic Sanction, and joined the coalition against Maria
 Theresa in the War of the AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION. He was elected emperor,
 but lost his own Bavaria to Austrian occupation.

   Charles I

 Charles I, 1887-1922, last emperor of Austria and, as Charles IV, king of
 Hungary (1916-18). After his accession during WORLD WAR I, he put out
 peace feelers, causing friction between Germany and Austria. After
 Austria's defeat he was unable to save the AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY, and
 he abdicated (Nov. 1918). In 1921 he tried twice to regain the Hungarian
 throne, without success.

   Charles

 Charles, kings of England, Scotland, and Ireland, of the STUART house.
 Charles I, 1600-49 (r.1625-49), was the son and successor of JAMES I.
 Upon his accession, he offended his Protestant subjects by marrying
 HENRIETTA MARIA, a Catholic French princess. Also, the foreign ventures
 of his favorite, the duke of BUCKINGHAM, were unsuccessful and expensive.
 His reign soon became the bitter struggle between king and Parliament for
 supremacy that resulted in the ENGLISH CIVIL WAR. Charles supported the
 Anglican bishops under LAUD. Parliament, largely Puritan, controlled
 money grants and developed the tactic of withholding money until its
 grievances were redressed. Charles dismissed Parliament in 1625 and 1626,
 but called it again in 1628 and signed the PETITION OF RIGHT in return
 for a subsidy. After 1629 he ruled without Parliament. Civil and
 religious liberties reached a low point, and large emigrations to America
 took place. A crisis was reached when Charles's attempt to force
 episcopacy upon Scotland resulted in the BISHOPS' WARS. Eventually the
 Long Parliament (1640) was called. Led by John Hampton, PYM, and VANE, it
 secured itself against dissolution and effected the death of the earl of
 STRAFFORD, the abolition of STAR CHAMBER courts, and the end of arbitrary
 taxation. Fear of the king and of Catholics mounted, and civil war broke
 out. Defeated at Marston Moor (1644) and Naseby (1645), Charles
 surrendered to the Scottish army (1646) and finally fell into the hands
 of the English. He was tried by a high court controlled by his enemies,
 convicted of treason, and beheaded. Often stupid and obstinate, Charles
 brought about his own downfall as much by his weakness of character as by
 his religious and political beliefs. His son, Charles II, 1630-85
 (r.1660-85), fled to France in 1646. On his father's death, he was
 proclaimed king of Scotland and, after accepting the terms of the
 COVENANTERS, was crowned therein 1651. He then marched into England but
 was defeated by Oliver CROMWELL and escaped to France. In 1660 he issued
 the conciliatory Declaration of Breda. Later that year, Gen. MONCK
 engineered Charles's RESTORATION to the throne. He made the earl of
 CLARENDON his chief minister. Episcopacy was restored and nonconformity
 weakened by the CLARENDON CODE, although the king favored toleration. The
 great London plague (1665) and fire (1666) took place during the second
 DUTCH WAR (1664-67). In 1667 the CABAL ministry replaced Clarendon. As a
 result of a secret treaty with LOUIS XIV of France, Charles entered the
 third Dutch War in 1672. It was unpopular, and he was forced to approve
 the TEST ACT (1673) and make peace (1674). His French alliance was broken
 by the marriage of his niece Mary to William of Orange. He intervened in
 the Titus OATES affair to protect the queen, CATHERINE OF BRAGANZA. In
 1681 he dissolved Parliament to block passage of the Exclusion act that
 prevented his brother, the duke of York (later JAMES II), from succeeding
 him, and ruled absolutely thereafter. Although he fathered illegitimate
 children by several mistresses (e.g., Nell GWYN), he had no legitimate
 children and was succeeded by James II. His reign, the brilliant
 Restoration period, was marked by an increase in the power of Parliament,
 the rise of political parties, and advances in colonization and trade.

   Charles

 Charles, kings of France. Charles I: see CHARLEMAGNE. Charles II and
 Charles III (the Fat): see CHARLES II and CHARLES III, emperors of the
 West. Charles III (the Simple), 879-929 (r.893-923), was the son of LOUIS
 II and joint king with Eudes, count of Paris, until 898. He ceded (911)
 part of Normandy to the Norse leader Rollo and was defeated and
 imprisoned (923) by nobles who made Raoul of Burgundy king. Charles IV
 (the Fair), 1294-1328 (r.1322-28), succeeded his brother PHILIP V and was
 the last king of the CAPETIAN dynasty. Charles V (the Wise), 1338-80
 (r.1364-80), the son of JOHN II, was regent during John's captivity

 and the reformist movement of Etienne Marcel. During his reign his
 general Bertrand DU GUESCLIN nearly drove the English out of France. With
 his ministers, Charles strengthened royal power, founded a standing army,
 reformed taxation, and patronized the arts. His son Charles VI (the Mad
 or the Well Beloved), 1368-1422 (r. 1380-1422), was intermittently insane
 after 1392. France was ruled and plundered by his uncle PHILIP THE BOLD
 and by his brother Louis d'Orleans. Their rivalry led to a civil war that
 laid France open to an invasion (1415) by HENRY V of England. By the
 Treaty of Troyes (1420) Charles named Henry his successor. His
 disinherited son Charles VII (the Victorious or the Well Served), 1403-61
 (r. 1422-61), repudiated the treaty. Still called the DAUPHIN, he ruled
 indolently over what parts of France remained to him S of the Loire, but
 in 1429 JOAN OF ARC spurred him to action and had him crowned king at
 Rheims. In 1435 he won the alliance of Burgundy against England, and in
 1453 he ended the HUNDRED YEARS WAR by expelling the English from most of
 France. He reorganized the army and, with the help of Jacques CO
 UR, restored the finances. The PRAGMATIC SANCTION of Bourges (1438) and
 the suppression of the Praguerie (1440), a revolt of the nobility,
 strengthened royal authority. Charles's last years were troubled by the
 intrigues of his son, the future LOUIS XI. Charles VIII, 1470-98

 regent during his minority and arranged his marriage (1491) to ANNE OF
 BRITTANY. In 1495 Charles began the ITALIAN WARS with the short-lived
 conquest of Naples. Charles IX, 1550-74 (r.1560-74), was at first under
 the regency of his mother, CATHERINE DE' MEDICI. Later he chose Gaspard
 de COLIGNY as chief adviser, but was persuaded to take part in the
 massacre of SAINT BARTHOLOMEW'S DAY (1572). Charles X, 1757-1836
 (r.1824-30), known as the comte d'Artois before he succeeded his brother,
 LOUIS XVIII, in 1824, led the powerful ultraroyalist group before his
 accession and as sovereign had reactionaries as premiers. Liberal and
 capitalist forces joined to bring about the JULY REVOLUTION of 1830.
 Charles abdicated and died in exile.

   Charles

 Charles, kings of Hungary. Charles I, 1288-1342 (r.1308-42), was the
 grandson of CHARLES II of Naples and son-in-law of Stephen V of Hungary.
 In 1308 he was elected king by the Hungarian diet and thus founded the
 Angevin dynasty in Hungary. He reorganized the army on a feudal basis and
 increased the privileges of the cities. His eldest son became King Louis
 I of Poland. Charles II: see CHARLES III, king of Naples. Charles III:
 see CHARLES VI, Holy Roman emperor. Charles IV: see CHARLES I
 Austria.

   Charles

 Charles, rulers of Naples. Charles I (Charles of Anjou), 1227-85, king of
 Naples and Sicily (1266-85), was a brother of LOUIS IX of France. Charles
 championed the papal cause against MANFRED in Naples and Sicily, and as a
 reward the pope crowned him (1266) king. He founded the Angevin dynasty
 in Naples. Heavy taxes to support his wars against the Byzantine Empire
 led to a rebellion (1282) in Sicily (see SICILIAN VESPERS). The ensuing
 war with PETER III of Aragon, who was chosen king by the rebels,
 continued into the reign of his son, Charles II (the Lame), 1248-1309,
 king of Naples (1285-1309). Charles II's great-grandson, Charles III
 (Charles of Durazzo), 1345-86, king of Naples (1381-86), was adopted by
 Joanna I of Naples, who later repudiated him in favor of Louis of Anjou
 (later Louis I of Naples). Charles deposed Joanna, was crowned king
 (1381), and repulsed Louis's attacks. In 1385 Charles was elected king of
 Hungary over Holy Roman emperor SIGISMUND, but he was assassinated soon
 afterward.

   Charles II

 Charles II (the Bad), 1332-87, king of Navarre (1349-87). He carried on a
 long feud with his father-in-law, JOHN II of France, and allied himself
 with EDWARD III of England. Charles helped to suppress the JACQUERIE
 (1358) and was chosen by Etienne Marcel to defend Paris against the
 DAUPHIN (later King CHARLES V), but he betrayed this trust.

   Charles

 Charles, kings of Spain. Charles I: see CHARLES V, Holy Roman emperor.
 Charles II, 1661-1700, king of Spain, Naples, and Sicily (1665-1700), was
 a mentally retarded cripple whose mother, Mariana of Austria, ruled as
 regent. During his reign Spain continued to lose influence abroad and to
 suffer a decline in its economy and intellectual life. His choice of an
 heir provoked the War of the SPANISH SUCCESSION. Charles III, 1716-88,
 king of Spain (1759-88) and of Naples and Sicily (1735-59), was Spain's
 greatest BOURBON king. He conquered and ruled NAPLES and SICILY before
 becoming king of Spain. By involving Spain in the SEVEN YEARS WAR on the
 side of the defeated French, he lost Florida to England. But he fought on
 the colonists' side in the AMERICAN REVOLUTION and thereby regained
 (1783) Florida. His reign was noteworthy for Spain's prosperity and for
 his expulsion of the JESUITS. Charles IV, 1748-1819 (r.1788-1808), was an
 ineffective ruler who allowed his chief minister, GODOY, to pursue
 disastrous policies. Spain suffered major naval defeats by England at
 Cape Saint Vincent (1797) and TRAFALGAR (1805), and it suffered reverses
 (1808) in the PENINSULAR WAR, which forced his abdication.

   Charles

 Charles, kings of Sweden. Charles IX, 1550-1611 (r.1604-11), was the
 youngest son of GUSTAVUS I. As regent after the death of his brother,
 John III, he made Lutheranism the state religion. By his efforts the
 Catholic heir, SIGISMUND III of Poland, was deposed (1599). Charles
 became king after Sigismund's brother, John, renounced the Swedish crown.
 In 1600 he began the Polish-Swedish wars that ended only in 1660. His
 son, GUSTAVUS II, succeeded him. Charles X, 1622-60 (r.1654-60), was the
 nephew of Gustavus II. He succeeded on the abdication of his cousin,
 CHRISTINA. He invaded Poland (1655) but soon suffered reverses. After
 Denmark and Russia entered the war, Charles forced the Danes (1658) to
 cede territory that extended Sweden's southern boundaries to the sea. His
 son Charles XI, 1655-97 (r.1660-97), succeeded him. A council of regency
 ruled until he was 17. In the third of the DUTCH WARS he was defeated by
 FREDERICK WILLIAM of Brandenburg (1675). Under Charles, royal power was
 increased at the nobles' expense. Charles XII, 1682-1718 (r.1687-1718),
 was the son of Charles XI. Facing (1699) a coalition of Russia, Poland,
 and Denmark in the NORTHERN WAR, he forced Denmark to make peace (1700);
 invaded Poland and had STANISLAUS I enthroned (1704); and, with MAZEPA,
 invaded Russia, where his army was crushingly defeated (1708). He fled to
 Turkey and persuaded AHMED III to declare war on Russia (1710). After
 Turkey and Russia made peace (1711), Charles refused to leave Turkey and
 was imprisoned. At Swedish-occupied Stralsund (1714-15) he fought the
 Prussians and Danes. When Stralsund fell, he fled to Sweden and invaded
 (1716) Norway, where he was killed in battle. His sister, Ulrica Leonora,
 succeeded him under a new constitution that strengthened the nobles and
 clergy. Charles XIII, 1748-1818, was king of Sweden (1809-18) and Norway
 (1814-18). He was regent for his nephew, GUSTAVUS IV, after the
 assassination (1792) of his brother GUSTAVUS III. Called to the throne at
 the forced abdication of his nephew, Charles accepted a new constitution
 limiting royal power, signed treaties with Denmark and France, and ceded
 Finland to Russia. Charles XIV (Charles John; Jean Baptiste Jules
 Bernadotte), 1763-1844, king of Sweden and Norway (r.1818-44), was a


 war (1799). In 1810 the aging and childless Charles XIII of Sweden
 adopted him, and he was elected crown prince by the Riksdag. He allied
 Sweden with England and Russia against NAPOLEON I and took part in his
 defeat at Leipzig (1813). In 1814 he forced Denmark to cede Norway, which
 was united with Sweden under a single king. He succeeded to the throne in
 1818, having held the reins of government since 1810. His son, Oscar I,
 succeeded him. Charles XV, 1826-72 (r.1859-72), was the son of Oscar I. A
 liberal ruler, he agreed to such reforms as a bicameral parliament. He
 was succeeded by his brother, Oscar II. Charles XVI Gustavus(Carl
 Gustaf), 1946- (r.1973-), is the grandson and successor of GUSTAVUS VI
 and the son of Prince Gustaf Adolf of Sweden. A new Swedish constitution,
 passed shortly before his grandfather's death and effective in 1975, made
 the king a ceremonial figurehead.

   Charles

 Charles, 1948-, prince of Wales, eldest son of ELIZABETH II of Great
 Britain and heir apparent to the British throne. He was created prince of
 Wales in 1958. In 1981 he married Lady Diana Spencer (see DIANA, princess
 of Wales). They have two sons, William and Henry.

   Charles

 Charles, 1771-1847, archduke of Austria, brother of Holy Roman Emperor
 FRANCIS II. Despite his epilepsy, he was an able Austrian commander. In
 1809 he defeated NAPOLEON I at Aspern (May) but was beaten at Wagram
 (July).

   Charles, Jacques Alexandre Cesar

 Charles, Jacques Alexandre Cesar, 1746-1823, French physicist. He
 discovered (1787) Charles's, or Gay-Lussac's, law (see GAS LAWS);
 invented a thermometric hydrometer; and was the first to use hydrogen gas
 in balloons.

   Charles, Ray

 Charles, Ray (Ray Charles Robinson), 1930-, black American musician and
 composer; b. Albany, Ga. Blinded at age seven, he rose to fame in the
 1950s singing rhythm-and-blues songs to the accompaniment of his piano
 and orchestra. His work, rooted in GOSPEL MUSIC, influences, and is
 influenced by, JAZZ.

   Charles Edward Stuart

 Charles Edward Stuart: see under STUART, JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD.

   Charles Martel

 Charles Martel, 688?-741, Frankish ruler, illegitimate son of PEPIN of
 Heristal and grandfather of CHARLEMAGNE. Although never king, he ruled as
 mayor of the palace (714-41). He united all MEROVINGIAN kingdoms under
 his rule and halted the European invasion of the MOORS. His sons, PEPIN
 the Short and Carloman, divided the Frankish lands at his death.

   Charles's law

 Charles's law: see GAS LAWS.

   Charles the Bald

 Charles the Bald, French king: see CHARLES II under CHARLES, emperors.

   Charles the Bold

 Charles the Bold, 1433-77, duke of BURGUNDY (1467-77), son of PHILIP THE
 GOOD. He opposed the growing power of LOUIS XI of France and allied
 himself with England. Master of the Low Countries, Charles dreamed of
 reestablishing the kingdom of LOTHARINGIA, to which end he tried to
 acquire Alsace and Lorraine. The Swiss, roused by his actions, routed him
 at Grandson and Morat (1476) and in 1477 defeated and killed Charles at
 Nancy. Burgundy then disintegrated.

   Charles the Fat

 Charles the Fat, French king: see CHARLES III under CHARLES, emperors.

   Charles the Great

 Charles the Great, Frankish king, emperor of the West: see  CHARLEMAGNE.

   Charleston

 Charleston. 1 City (1986 est. pop. 68,900), seat of Charleston co., SE
 S.C.; founded 1680, inc. 1783. On a peninsula between the Ashley and
 Cooper rivers, it is a major regional port. U.S. naval operations provide
 much employment; chemicals, steel, and other products are manufactured.
 The oldest city in the state, it was the scene of the first incident of
 the CIVIL WAR, the firing on FORT SUMTER (Apr. 12, 1861); it fell to Gen.
 SHERMAN'S army in 1865. A major tourist center, Charleston is famous for
 its picturesque streets, houses, and other 18th-cent. monuments,
 reminders of its early importance as a prosperous, cosmopolitan port. 2
 City (1986 est. pop. 57,920), state capital and seat of Kanawha co., W
 central W.Va., on the Kanawha R. where it meets the Elk R.; inc. 1794.
 The largest city in the state, it is a major chemical, glass, and metal
 producer. The region provides salt, coal, natural gas, clay, sand,
 timber, and oil for the city's manufactures. The city, which grew around
 Fort Lee (1788), was the home (1788-95) of Daniel BOONE. It was state
 capital from 1870-75 and after 1885.

   Charlotte

 Charlotte, city (1986 est. pop. 352,070), seat of Mecklenburg co., S
 N.C.; inc. 1768. It is the largest city in North Carolina, the commercial
 and industrial center of the Piedmont region, and a distribution hub for
 the Carolina textile manufacturing belt, which utilizes Catawba R.
 hydroelectric power. An early center of rebellion against British rule,
 it was the site of the signing of the MECKLENBURG DECLARATION OF
 INDEPENDENCE (May 1775).

   Charlotte Amalie

 Charlotte Amalie, city (1980 pop. 11,585), on St. Thomas, capital of the
 U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS.

   Charlottetown

 Charlottetown, city (1986 pop. 15,776), capital, chief port, and only
 city of Prince Edward Island, E Canada. Food processing is a major
 industry. Charlottetown was laid out by the British in 1768 and named for
 George III's queen. It was noted in the mid-1800s for the sailing ships
 built there. The Charlottetown Conference (1864) was the first step
 toward Canadian confederation. The Charlottetown Festival, held every
 summer in the Confederation of the Arts Centre (built 1960s), is a major
 cultural event.

   Charon

 Charon, in astronomy, natural satellite of PLUTO.

   Chartism

 Chartism, workingmen's political reform movement in Great Britain,
 1838-48. It derived its name from the People's Charter, drafted by the
 London Working Men's Association, which called for such reforms as
 universal male suffrage.

   Chartres

 Chartres, city (1975 pop. 41,251), capital of Eure-et-Loir dept., NW
 France. The probable site of DRUIDS' assemblies, it became a royal
 possession (1286) and a duchy (1528). Its magnificent Gothic cathedral
 (12th-13th cent.) is renowned for its spires and stained-glass windows;
 there the Second Crusade was preached (1146) and Henry IV crowned (1594).

   Charybdis

 Charybdis: see SCYLLA AND CHARYBDIS.

   Chase, Salmon Portland

 Chase, Salmon Portland, 1808-73, 6th chief justice of the U.S. SUPREME
 COURT (1864-73); b. Cornish, N.H.; grad. Dartmouth College (1826). A
 zealous abolitionist, he served as U.S. senator (1849-55; 1861) and as
 governor of Ohio (1855-59). As chief justice he presided over the
 impeachment trial of Pres. Andrew JOHNSON with scrupulous fairness. His
 greatest achievement, however, was as secretary of the treasury
 (1861-64), when he created a national bank system.

   Chase, William Merritt

 Chase, William Merritt, 1849-1916, American painter; b. Williamsburg,
 Ind. He is known for his portraits and still lifes in oil, e.g.,
 Carmencita and Lady in Black (Metropolitan Mus.). Chase was also an
 important art teacher.

   chateau

 chateau, royal or seignorial residence and stronghold of medieval France,
 counterpart of the English CASTLE. The fortified chateau culminated in
 the late 15th cent., e.g., Pierrefonds, near Compiegne. Sixteenth-cent.
 chateaux, with gardens and outbuildings, usually had a moat, but were
 little fortified. Notable chateaux are those of the Loire, Indre, and
 Cher valleys, e.g., Chambord, Amboise, Chenonceaux.

   Chateaubriand, Francois Rene, vicomte de

 Chateaubriand, Francois Rene, vicomte de, 1768-1848, French writer. A
 founder of ROMANTICISM in French literature, he visited the U.S. in 1791
 and until 1800 was an emigre in England. A Royalist, he was minister of
 foreign affairs (1823-24). He made his mark with The Genius of
 Christianity (1802) and two tragic love stories about American Indians,
 Atala (1801) and Rene (1805), exemplifying the melancholy, poetic style
 that became typical of romantic fiction. He spent his final years with
 the celebrated beauty and social figure Mme Recamier, composing his
 Memoirs from beyond the Tomb (1849-50).

   Chattanooga

 Chattanooga, city (1986 est. pop. 162,170), seat of Hamilton co., E
 Tenn., on both sides of the Tennessee R. near the Ga. line; inc. 1839.
 From a trading post (est. 1810) the port city grew into a major shipping
 point for salt and cotton. It was of great strategic importance in the
 CIVIL WAR (see CHATTANOOGA CAMPAIGN). Textile and metal industries are
 important. The city is surrounded by mountains, e.g., Lookout Mt., and is
 a tourist center.

   Chattanooga campaign

 Chattanooga campaign, Aug.-Nov. 1863, in the U.S. CIVIL WAR. Union Gen.
 William Rosecrans maneuvered (Aug.- Sept.) Confederate Gen. Braxton BRAGG
 out of strategic Chattanooga, Tenn., but Bragg routed the Union right
 wing at the Battle of Chickamauga (Sept. 19-20). The Union left, under
 Gen. George H. THOMAS, withdrew to Chattanooga, which Bragg besieged from
 Missionary Ridge. Rosecrans, although reinforced by Gen. Joseph HOOKER,
 needed help, and Gen. U.S. GRANT took command. Hooker drove the
 Confederates from Lookout Mt. in the Battle above the Clouds (Nov. 24).
 Grant attacked and carried Missionary Ridge (Nov. 25), and Bragg was
 forced to retreat to Georgia.

   Chatterjee, Bankim Chandra

 Chatterjee, Bankim Chandra, 1838-94, Indian nationalist writer. His
 historical novels, written in Bengali, include Anandamath (1882), from
 which India's national anthem was derived, and Krishna Kanta's Will (tr.
 1895).

   Chatterton, Thomas

 Chatterton, Thomas, 1752-70, English poet. At age 12 he was composing the
 "Rowley poems" and claiming they were copies of 15th-cent. manuscripts.
 He came to London, failed to get his work published, and killed himself
 at 17. An original genius as well as an adept imitator, he used
 15th-cent. language but a modern approach. He was a hero to the
 Romantics.

   Chaucer, Geoffrey

 Chaucer, Geoffrey, c.1340-1400, English poet. The facts of Chaucer's life
 are fragmentary. A London vintner's son, he served as a court page, in
 the army, and on frequent diplomatic missions, then held various official
 positions in London. His literary activity falls into three periods. In
 the first (to 1370), he worked largely from French models, including the
 Roman de la rose, which he partially translated. His major work is the
 allegorical Book of the Duchess (1369). In the second period (to c.1387)
 he used Italian models, primarily DANTE and BOCCACCIO. His chief works in
 these years include the House of Fame, recounting the adventures of
 AENEAS after the fall of Troy; The Parliament of Fowls, on the mating of
 birds on St. Valentine's Day, thought to celebrate the betrothal of
 RICHARD II to Anne of Bohemia; a prose translation of BOETHIUS; the
 unfinished Legend of Good Women, on classical heroines, in which he
 introduced the rhymed heroic couplet; and Troilus and Criseyde, based on
 Boccaccio, one of the great love poems in English, in which he perfected
 the seven-line stanza later called rhyme royal. Chaucer's final period
 was devoted to work on his masterpiece, The Canterbury Tales. This
 unfinished work, about 17,000 lines, is one of the major poems of world
 literature. In it a group of pilgrims traveling to the shrine of St.
 Thomas a Becket decide to pass the time by telling stories. The tales
 include a variety of medieval genres, from the humorous FABLIAU to the
 serious homily, and vividly depict medieval attitudes toward love,
 marriage, and religion. Chaucer's brilliantly realized characters-the
 earthy Wife of Bath, the gentle Knight, the evil Summoner-are intensely
 alive. Chaucer's storytelling and poetic mastery were overlooked for
 centuries because of changes in the language after 1400, but in the 18th
 cent. he came to be regarded as one of the greatest English poets.

   Chauncy, Charles

 Chauncy, Charles, 1705-87, American Congregational clergyman; b. Boston.
 A minister (1727-87) at the First Church, Boston, he opposed the
 revivalist preaching of the GREAT AWAKENING and led the "Old Lights," or
 liberals, in the theological disputes that followed. A believer in the
 colonial cause, he clearly set forth the political philosophy of the
 American Revolution in both sermons and pamphlets.

   Chautauqua movement

 Chautauqua movement. A development in adult education similar to the
 LYCEUM movement, it was proposed in 1873 at the Methodist Episcopal camp
 meeting in Chautauqua, N.Y., by John Heyl Vincent and Lewis Miller.
 Eight-week summer programs offered members secular and religious
 instruction, and lectures by authors, explorers, musicians, and political
 leaders. Somewhere between revival meetings and country fairs in spirit,
 Chautauquas were attended by thousands each year. They were organized
 commercially in 1912 and persisted until c.1924.

   Chavannes, Puvis de

 Chavannes, Puvis de: see PUVIS DE CHAVANNES.

   Chavez, Cesar Estrada

 Chavez, Cesar Estrada, 1927-, American agrarian labor leader; b. near
 Yuma, Ariz. A migrant worker, he began (1962) to organize wine-grape
 pickers in California and formed the National Farm Workers Association.
 Using strikes, fasts, picketing, and marches, he won contracts from
 several major growers. He later launched boycotts against the table-grape
 and lettuce growers, mobilizing nationwide support. In 1972 the United
 Farm Workers (UFW), with Chavez as president, became a member union of
 the AFL-CIO. A jurisdictional dispute with the TEAMSTERS proved a setback
 for the UFW, but in 1977 the two unions signed a pact defining the types
 of workers each could organize.

   Chavin de Huantar

 Chavin de Huantar, archaeological site in NE Peru, probably the center of
 the Chavin culture (fl. c.700-c.200 BC), earliest civilization of the
 Andes. It is noted for advanced temples, painted sculptures, gold
 objects, and textiles.

   checkerberry

 checkerberry: see WINTERGREEN.

   checkers

 checkers, game for two players, known in England as draughts. It is
 played on a square board composed of 64 small squares, alternately dark
 and light in color, with all play conducted on the dark squares. On each
 turn, players on opposite sides of the board may move one of their 12
 pieces diagonally in a forward direction. Kings (pieces "crowned" by
 reaching the last rank of the board) may move either backward or forward
 diagonally. The object is to eliminate an opponent's pieces by "jumping"
 them (jumping over the squares that they occupy). The game has been
 played in Europe since the 16th cent., and a similar game is known to
 have been played in ancient times.

   cheese

 cheese, food known from ancient times, consisting of the curd of MILK
 separated from the whey. Although milk from various animals has been used
 for making cheese, today milk from cows, sheep, and goats is most common.
 In making cheese, casein, the chief milk protein, is coagulated by enzyme
 action, by lactic acid, or by both. The many kinds of cheeses depend for
 their distinctive qualities on the kind and condition of the milk, the
 processes used in their making, and the method and extent of curing.
 There are two main kinds of cheeses: hard cheeses, which improve with
 age, and soft cheeses, made for immediate consumption. Hard cheeses
 include Cheddar (originally from England), Edam and Gouda (Holland),
 Emmental and Gruyere (Switzerland), and Parmesan and Provolone (Italy).
 Among the semisoft cheeses are Roquefort (France), American brick, and
 Muenster. Soft cheeses may be fresh (unripened), e.g., cream and cottage
 cheeses, or may be softened by microorganisms in a ripening process that
 develops flavor, e.g., Camembert, Brie, and Limburger. Cheese is a
 valuable source of protein, fat, insoluble minerals, and, when made from
 whole milk, vitamin A.

   cheetah

 cheetah, CAT (Acinonyx jubatus) found in Africa, SW Asia, and India. The
 swiftest four-footed animal, it runs down its prey at speeds of over 60
 mi (95 km) per hr, the only cat to hunt this way. Cheetahs have tawny
 coats with many round, black spots; the average adult weighs 100 lb (45
 kg). Cheetahs are unique among cats in having nonretractile claws.
 Hunting has greatly reduced their numbers.

   Cheever, John

 Cheever, John, 1912-82, American author; b. Quincy, Mass. A moralist
 whose works are often comic or surreal, he wrote about America's affluent
 suburbs, e.g., The Wapshot Chronicle (1957) and Oh What A Paradise It
 Seems (1982). Many of his stories are in The Stories of John Cheever
 (1978; Pulitzer).

   Cheka

 Cheka, in Soviet Russia, the abbreviation of "Extraordinary Commission
 for Combatting Counter-Revolution, Speculation, Sabotage, and Misuse of
 Authority." The Cheka was the state security service (including the
 secret police) established (1917) by the Bolsheviks. Lenin presided
 (1922) over its reorganization, renaming it the GPU (State Political
 Directorate). It became the OGPU (United State Political Directorate) in
 1923 and the NKVD (People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs) in 1934.
 See also SECRET POLICE.

   Chekhov, Anton Pavlovich

 Chekhov, Anton Pavlovich, 1860-1904, Russian writer and physician. The
 son of a grocer and grandson of a serf, he helped support his family,
 while he studied medicine, by writing humorous sketches. His reputation
 as a master of the short story was assured when in 1888 "The Steppe," a
 story in his third collection, won the Pushkin Prize. The Island of
 Sakhalin (1893-94) was a report on his visit to a penal colony in 1890.
 Thereafter he lived in Melikhovo, near Moscow, where he ran a free clinic
 for peasants, took part in famine and epidemic relief, and was a
 volunteer census-taker. His first play, Ivanov (1887), had little
 success, but The Seagull (1898), Uncle Vanya (1899), The Three Sisters
 (1901), and The Cherry Orchard (1904) were acclaimed when produced by the
 Moscow Art Theater. In 1901 Chekov married the actress Olga Knipper, the
 interpreter of many of his characters. Three years later he died of
 tuberculosis. The style of his stories, novels, and plays, emphasizing
 internal drama, characterization, and mood rather than plot and focusing
 on the tragicomic aspects of banal events, had great influence.

   Chelyabinsk

 Chelyabinsk, city (1987 est. pop. 1,119,000), W Siberian USSR, in the
 southern foothills of the Urals and on the Mias R. A major industrial
 center, it processes ore and produces steel and farm machinery. Founded
 in 1736 as a Russian frontier outpost, it lies on the Trans-Siberian RR.

   chemical pollutants

 chemical pollutants: see POLLUTION; WASTE DISPOSAL.

   chemical warfare

 chemical warfare, employment in warfare of toxic substances to damage or
 kill plants, animals, or human beings. POISON GAS was effectively used
 during WORLD WAR I, when chlorine gas and mustard gas inflicted heavy
 casualties on both sides. After the war the major powers continued to
 develop and stockpile chemical agents, but lethal types were not employed
 during World War II. Thousands of synthetic toxins and naturally
 occurring poisons have since been tested. Besides potentially lethal
 chemicals that attack the skin, the blood, the nervous system, or the
 respiratory system, there are also nonlethal incapacitating agents that
 cause temporary physical disability or mental effects such as confusion,
 fright, or stupor. Such agents, e.g., tear gas, may be used in riot
 control as well as warfare. Various forms of HERBICIDES and defoliants
 were used during the VIETNAM WAR to destroy crops and clear away
 vegetation. In the early 1980s there were persistent reports that a
 lethal agent, popularly called "yellow rain," was being used in Southeast
 Asia. Modern delivery systems-artillery shells, grenades, missiles, and
 aircraft and submarine spray systems-have increased the potential
 effectiveness of chemical warfare, as they have that of BIOLOGICAL
 WARFARE, in which microorganisms are the toxic agents.

   chemistry

 chemistry, branch of science concerned with the properties, composition,
 and structure of substances and the changes they undergo when they
 combine or react under specified conditions. Inorganic chemistry deals
 mainly with components of mineral origin. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY was first
 defined as the study of substances produced by living organisms; it is
 now defined as the study of the compounds of CARBON. PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
 is concerned with the physical properties of materials; its subcategories
 are ELECTROCHEMISTRY; thermochemistry, the investigation of the changes
 in ENERGY and ENTROPY that occur during chemical reactions and phase
 transformations (see STATES OF MATTER); and chemical kinetics, which is
 concerned with the details of chemical reactions and of how equilibrium
 is reached between the products and reactants. Analytical chemistry is a
 collection of techniques that allows exact laboratory determination of
 the chemical composition of a given sample of material.

   Chemnitz

 Chemnitz: see KARL-MARX-STADT.

   chemotherapy

 chemotherapy, treatment of disease with chemicals or drugs; the term most
 often refers to treatment of CANCER. In current approaches, drugs are
 used in combination to create a synergistic effect, and doses are
 scheduled to attack rapidly proliferating cells, such as cancer cells,
 during their vulnerable phase. These drugs destroy or inhibit infecting
 organisms or malignant tissue, but are less toxic to normal tissue.
 Chemotherapy is highly individualized, depending on the disease state,
 the action of the agents used, and the side effects in the patient.

   Chengchow

 Chengchow: see ZHENGZHOU.

   Chengdu

 Chengduor Chengtu, city (1986 est. pop. 2,580,000), capital of Sichuan
 prov., SW China, at the confluence of the Nan and Fu rivers. It is an
 important regional center for metallurgy, machinery, and electronics. An
 ancient walled city, it was the capital of the Shu kingdom (3d cent. AD).
 The cultural hub of SW China, it is the site of Sichuan Univ. and a
 center of Sichuan opera.

   Chengtu

 Chengtu: see CHENGDU.

   Chenier, Andre

 Chenier, Andre, 1762-94, French poet; b. Constantinople. His pamphlets
 denouncing the excesses of the REIGN OF TERROR led to his execution. His
 poems, perhaps the greatest in 18th-cent. France, range from the lyrical,
 e.g., La Jeune Captive (1795) and Elegies (1819), to the satirical.

   Chennault, Claire Lee

 Chennault, Claire Lee, 1890-1958, U.S. general; b. Commerce, Tex. In 1941
 he organized in China the American Volunteer Group (called the Flying
 Tigers). He then headed (1942-45) the U.S. air task force in China.

   Cheops

 Cheops: see KHUFU.

   Chernenko, Konstantin Ustinovich

 Chernenko, Konstantin Ustinovich, 1911-85, Soviet political leader. A
 protege of Leonid BREZHNEV, he rose through Communist party ranks in the
 1950s, becoming a full member of the Central Committee (1971) and the
 Politburo (1974). When Yuri ANDROPOV died (1984), he was elected general
 secretary of the Communist party and chairman of the Presidium. His
 health was poor and he soon died.

   Chernobyl

 Chernobyl, Ukrainian town that was the site of the world's most serious
 nuclear accident (Apr. 1986). Experts believe that the reactors' cooling
 system failed and the core overheated, resulting in fire. The fall-out
 produced contamination throughout Eastern Europe and Scandinavia. The
 disaster led to increased opposition to the use of nuclear power
 throughout the world. The Soviet government was criticized for keeping
 the accident secret until radioactivity was discovered in Sweden, and
 then failing to provide information on its extent. The Soviets later
 accepted help from Western countries in controlling the fire and in
 treating the victims. In July 1987, the head of the power station and two
 of his aides were sentenced to 10 years in a labor camp.

   Cherokee

 Cherokee, language belonging to the Iroquoian branch of the Hokan-Siouan
 linguistic family. See AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES .

   Cherokee Indians

 Cherokee Indians, once the outstanding NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN group in the
 SE U.S. They spoke an Iroquoian language of the Hokan-Siouan stock (see
 AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES). By the 16th cent. they had an advanced
 agricultural Eastern Woodlands culture. Soon after 1750 half the tribe
 died in a smallpox epidemic. In 1827 they established themselves as the
 Cherokee Nation, with a constitution providing for an elected, republican
 government. The syllabary devised by SEQUOYAH contributed to their
 progress. When gold was discovered on their lands, a fraudulent treaty
 obtained by whites bound the tribe to move West, and they were forcibly
 removed in 1838 to land in what is now Oklahoma. In the course of this
 "trail of tears," led by Chief John ROSS, thousands of Cherokees died. In
 Oklahoma they became the most important of the FIVE CIVILIZED TRIBES.
 Today, nearly 45,000 Cherokees live in Oklahoma, while some 5,000 remain
 on a reservation in North Carolina.

   cherry

 cherry, name for various trees and shrubs (genus Prunus) of the ROSE
 family, and for their fruits. Botanically, the small red-to-black fruits
 are drupes, or stone fruits, closely related to the PEACH, APRICOT, and
 PLUM. Hundreds of varieties of sweet (P. avium) and sour (P. cerasus)
 cherries, believed to be native to Asia Minor, are widely cultivated.
 Sour cherries are mostly self-fertile, and are hardier and more easily
 grown than sweet cherries, which must be cross-pollinated. The fruit is
 popular eaten raw, and in preserves, pies, ciders, and liqueurs. Species
 of flowering cherry are cultivated for their beautiful, usually double
 flowers; cherry laurel species are also cultivated as ornamentals, e.g.,
 American cherry laurel, or mock orange (P. caroliniana). The wood of the
 wild black cherry (P. serotina), fine-grained and usually reddish in
 color, is prized for cabinetwork.

   chert

 chert, cryptocrystalline variety of QUARTZ, commonly occurring in
 nodules. Flint-the dark variety of chert-was used by primitive peoples to
 make knives and spearheads, because, although it is very hard, it is
 easily shaped by flaking off the edges. It was long used with steel for
 lighting fires and later for setting off the powder in flintlock
 firearms.

   Chesapeake

 Chesapeake, city (1986 est. pop. 134,400), SE Va., created (1963) by
 merging the city of South Norfolk with all of Norfolk co. Its vast area
 includes residential suburbs of Norfolk, commercial farmland, and a
 portion of the Great Dismal Swamp. Industries include the manufacture of
 plywood and wood products, fertilizers, and cement products.

   Chesapeake

 Chesapeake, U.S. frigate. In June 1807, the Chesapeake sailed for the
 Mediterranean under James BARRON. H.M.S. Leopard stopped her and demanded
 the right to search for British deserters. When Barron refused, the
 Leopard opened fire; Barron had to submit, and four of his crew were
 impressed. The incident almost precipitated war. In the WAR OF 1812, the
 Chesapeake under James LAWRENCE fought (1813) H.M.S. Shannon and was
 taken; Lawrence's reported last command was "Don't give up the ship!"

   Chesapeake Bay

 Chesapeake Bay, major inlet on the Atlantic shoreline of the U.S. About
 200 mi (320 km) long and up to 30 mi (48 km) wide, it is the drowned
 lower course of the Susquehannah R. and separates the DELMARVA Peninsula
 from mainland sections of E Maryland and E Virginia. The bay is crossed
 by the Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel. BALTIMORE, Md., is the chief port.
 Rivers feeding into the bay include the POTOMAC and the James, on which
 JAMESTOWN, the first permanent English settlement in the Americas was
 founded in 1607. The bay was explored and charted (1608) by Capt. John
 SMITH.

   chess

 chess, game for two players played on a square board composed of 64 small
 squares, alternately dark and light in color. Each player is provided
 with 16 pieces, or chessmen, either white or black. Various pieces are
 set down in a designated order in the two ranks closest to the player.
 Each piece is moved according to specific rules and is removed from the
 board when it is displaced by the move of one of the opposing pieces into
 its square. The objective in chess is to checkmate, or trap, the
 opponent's king, a piece whose mobility is limited. Chess probably
 originated in India. By the 13th cent. it was played throughout Europe.
 The first modern international chess tournament was held in London in
 1851. There have been recognized world chess champions since that time,
 and recent championship matches, such as those in which Bobby FISCHER
 took the title from Boris Spassky (1972) and Anatoly KARPOV defeated
 Viktor KORCHNOI (1978, 1981), have received worldwide media coverage.
 Soviet players have dominated world chess since the late 1940s.

   Chester

 Chester, city (1986 est. pop. 43,680), SE Pa., on the Delaware R., a
 suburb of PHILADELPHIA; settled c.1644 by Swedes, inc. as a city 1866. A
 port, it also has steel mills and oil refineries. It is the state's
 oldest city. William PENN landed there (1682) and convened the first
 provincial assembly. The city contains many 17th- and 18th-cent.
 historical sites.

   Chesterfield, Philip Dormer Stanhope

 Chesterfield, Philip Dormer Stanhope, 4th earl of, 1694-1773, English
 statesman and author. He was a noted wit and orator whose literary fame
 rests on letters to his illegitimate son Philip Stanhope (pub. 1774),
 aimed at educating a young man, and on letters to his godson (pub. 1890).

   Chesterton, G(ilbert) K(eith)

 Chesterton, G(ilbert) K(eith), 1874-1936, English author, conservative,
 and Catholic apologist. A prolific writer, he produced studies of
 Browning (1903) and Dickens (1906); novels, including The Napoleon of
 Notting Hill (1904); detective fiction featuring Father Brown; poems; and
 essays, collected in Tremendous Trifles (1909) and elsewhere. With BELLOC
 he propounded the economic theory of Distributism.

   chestnut

 chestnut, deciduous tree (genus Castanea) of the BEECH family, with
 thin-shelled, sweet, edible nuts borne in bristly burrs, widely
 distributed in the Northern Hemisphere. The common American chestnut (C.
 dentata), native to the E U.S., is nearly extinct from chestnut blight, a
 fungal disease, and edible chestnuts are now mostly imported from Italy.
 Some old chestnut forests still stand as dead, or "ghost," forests; the
 dead and fallen logs are the leading domestic source of tannin. Some
 American species are called chinquapin.

   Chevalier, Maurice

 Chevalier, Maurice, 1888-1972, French singer, dancer, and actor. He had
 tremendous success as a MUSIC-HALL entertainer and also appeared in such
 American films as Gigi (1958) and Fanny (1961).

   Cheyenne

 Cheyenne, city (1986 est. pop. 53,960), alt. 6,062 ft (1,848 m), state
 capital and seat of Laramie co., SE Wyo.; inc. 1868. A market and
 shipping center for a ranching area, it grew with the arrival (1867) of
 the Union Pacific RR and was made territorial capital in 1869. Its annual
 Frontier Days celebration (in July; first held 1897) is a famous tourist
 attraction.

   Cheyenne Indians

 Cheyenne Indians, NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS of the Plains, with an
 Algonquian language of the Algonquian-Wakashan stock (see AMERICAN INDIAN
 LANGUAGES). In the 17th cent. they lived in earth-lodge villages along
 the Cheyenne R. After acquiring horses (c.1760) they became nomadic
 buffalo hunters. The tribe was friendly to whites until prospectors
 swarmed into their lands when gold was found in Colorado. Cheyenne raids
 against intruders brought punitive actions by the U.S. army. Aroused by
 an unprovoked massacre at Sand Creek (1864), the Cheyenne waged bitter
 war that culminated in the Battle of the LITTLE BIGHORN (1876), where
 Cheyenne massacred the cavalry of Gen. George CUSTER. In 1877, however,
 the sick and starving Cheyenne surrendered and were moved first to
 Oklahoma, then to Montana. About 3,000 live on reservations.

   Chiang Ch'ing

 Chiang Ch'ing: see JIANG QING.

   Chiang Ching-kuo

 Chiang Ching-kuo: see under CHIANG KAI-SHEK.

   Chiang Kai-shek

 Chiang Kai-shek, 1887-1975, Chinese Nationalist leader. He is also called
 Chiang Chung-cheng. Chiang became prominent in the KUOMINTANG after the
 death (1925) of SUN YAT-SEN and in 1926 launched the NORTHERN EXPEDITION,
 in which the Nationalists captured Hankou, Shanghai, and Nanjing. He
 cooperated at first with Chinese Communists, but in 1927 reversed himself
 and began a long civil war with the Communists. He became head of the
 Nationalist government at Nanjing in 1928 and resisted the Japanese
 invasion of China in the Second SINO-JAPANESE WAR (1937-45). In 1949,
 however, the Communists drove Chiang and the Nationalists from the
 mainland to Taiwan. There he reorganized his military forces with U.S.
 aid, became (1950) president of Nationalist China (Taiwan), and
 instituted limited democratic political reforms. He continued to promise
 reconquest of the mainland, but his position was hurt when Taiwan was
 expelled (1972) from the UN in favor of Communist China. His son, Chiang
 Ching-kuo (jeang jing-gwo), 1910-88, was Nationalist China's defense
 minister (1965-72) and premier (1972-78) before becoming president in
 1978.

   Chicago, Judy (Gerowitz)

 Chicago, Judy (Gerowitz), 1939-, American artist and founder of the
 Women's Art Education collective. She works in a variety of media,
 including such traditionally femaleoriented crafts as needlework and
 china painting. She is known for her multimedia installation, The Dinner
 Party (1979).

   Chicago

 Chicago, city (1986 est. pop. 3,009,530 ), seat of Cook co., NE Ill.,
 third largest U.S. city, center of a vast metropolitan area (1986 est.
 pop. 6,188,000), on Lake Michigan; inc. 1837. A major GREAT LAKES port
 and the leading commercial, financial, industrial, and cultural center of
 the nation's interior, Chicago is a leader in steel production, printing,
 radio and television, and the manufacture of plastics, candy, industrial
 and electrical machinery, and musical instruments. It is also a major
 financial center with stock, mercantile, and commodity exchanges.
 Downtown Chicago ("The Loop") has a dramatic skyline with some of the
 world's tallest skyscrapers, e.g., the Sears Tower and the John Hancock
 Tower. The North Side, mainly residential, stretches some 20 mi (32 km)
 along the lake. The West Side is a mix of European ethnic neighborhoods
 that developed in the 19th and early 20th cent. Most of the city's
 blacks, nearly 40% of the population, live in the industrialized South
 Side. Leading cultural institutions include the Art Institute of Chicago,
 Natural History Museum, Chicago Symphony Orchestra, and Univ. of Chicago.
 The city's modern development dates from the opening (1825) of the ERIE
 CANAL and the arrival (1852) of the railroads. A fire destroyed much of
 Chicago in 1871. Labor troubles, e.g., the 1886 HAYMARKET SQUARE RIOT and
 the 1894 Pullman strike (see DEBS, EUGENE V.; ALTGELD, JOHN P.), followed
 rapid industrialization. In the 1920s PROHIBITION brought a reputation
 for gang warfare. The SAINT LAWRENCE SEAWAY opened Chicago to ocean
 shipping after 1959.

   Chicago, University of

 Chicago, University of, at Chicago; coeducational; inc. 1890, opened 1892
 primarily through the gifts of John D. ROCKEFELLER. Because of its
 progressive programs and distinguished faculty, it quickly achieved
 prominence. Significant among its facilities are the Pritzker School of
 Medicine; the Enrico Fermi Institute for Nuclear Studies; the McDonald
 Observatory, at Ford Davis, Texas; the Yerkes Observatory, at Williams
 Bay, Wis.; and the department of education.

   Chicano

 Chicano, term used to describe Mexican-Americans. Originally pejorative,
 it was adopted with a sense of pride by militant Mexican-American youths
 in the 1960s and has since been generally accepted by members of the
 ethnic group. Chicanos first migrated to the U.S., either legally or
 illegally, as seasonal farm laborers, but after World War II large
 numbers settled in cities, especially in Los Angeles and in S Texas; 8.7
 million Chicanos now live in the U.S., many in Mexican neighborhoods
 called barrios. In the 1960s and 70s Chicanos grew politically active,
 demanding equal employment opportunities and pressing for voter
 registration. Cesar CHAVEZ organized (1962) the United Farm Workers,
 scoring victories against large California growers. La Raza Unida, a
 party formed in 1970, has won local elections.

   Chichen Itza

 Chichen Itza, archaeological site in central YUCATAN, Mexico. Probably
 founded c.514 by the Itza, it was alternately abandoned and reoccupied
 until it was deserted for the last time in 1194. Spanning two great
 periods of MAYA civilization, it displays Classic and Post-Classic
 architectural styles and shows a strong TOLTEC influence.

   chickadee

 chickadee, small North American BIRD of the TITMOUSE family. The lively
 black-capped chickadee (Parus atricapillus), with gray back and wings and
 light underparts, often swings upside down on branch tips, searching for
 insects.

   Chickasaw Indians

 Chickasaw Indians, NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS of the Eastern Woodlands, who
 spoke a Muskogean language of the Hokan-Siouan stock (see AMERICAN INDIAN
 LANGUAGES). They lived in N Mississippi and warred with the nearby
 CHOCTAW, CREEK, CHEROKEE, and SHAWNEE. After 1834 they moved to Oklahoma,
 becoming one of the FIVE CIVILIZED TRIBES.

   chicken

 chicken, chief poultry BIRD, probably domesticated from a SW Asian jungle
 fowl. Chickens are raised commercially in highly mechanized indoor
 chambers and are classified by their uses. The Leghorn chicken is the
 main egg breed in the U.S., while a cross between the fast-growing
 Plymouth Rock chicken and deep-breasted Cornish hen is the most important
 meat breed. Some varieties are raised for their ornamental appearance, as
 pets, or for cockfighting.

   chicken pox

 chicken pox or varicella,acute infectious disease caused by the herpes
 zoster virus that also causes SHINGLES. Usually a disease of childhood,
 chicken pox is a highly contagious disorder characterized by an itchy
 rash of blisterlike lesions that appear two to three weeks after
 infection. When the lesions have crusted over, the disease is no longer
 communicable. Topical medication is often given to relieve the itching.

   chick-pea

 chick-pea, annual plant (Cicer arietinum) of the PULSE family, cultivated
 since antiquity for the edible, pealike seed. Chick-peas are used as food
 for humans and animals. They are boiled or roasted, and have been used as
 a coffee substitute. Other common names are ceci, garbanzo, and gram pea.

   chicory

 chicory or succory, herb (Cichorium intybus) of the COMPOSITE family,
 native to the Mediterranean and widely grown in North America and Europe.
 The roasted and powdered root is used as a coffee substitute and
 adulterant. Chicory is also used as a seasoning and in salads. French
 endive, or witloof, is the type that is blanched for salad. True endive,
 or escarole (C. endivia), a salad vegetable since antiquity, is
 cultivated in broad- and curly-leaved varieties.

   chigger

 chigger: see MITE.

   Chihuahua

 Chihuahua, small TOY DOG; shoulder height, c.5 in. (12.7 cm); weight, 1-6
 lb (0.5-2.7 kg). There are two varieties: the smooth, with a short,
 close-lying, glossy coat, and the long-coated, with soft-textured, flat,
 or slightly wavy hair. The coat is usually tan. Probably of Chinese
 origin, it was introduced into Mexico by Spanish settlers.

   Chikamatsu Monzaemon

 Chikamatsu Monzaemon, 1653-1724, Japanese dramatist. Writing primarily
 for the puppet stage, he profoundly influenced the development of modern
 Japanese theater (see JAPANESE LITERATURE). His work is divided into
 historical romances, e.g., Battles of Coxinga, and domestic tragedies of
 love and duty, e.g., Love Suicides at Amijima.

   child care

 child care, the care or supervision of a child by someone other than the
 parents. Such alternatives include individuals and DAY-CARE CENTERS (some
 sponsored by businesses for their employees). The increasing numbers of
 single-parent families and working mothers have helped to create a
 scarcity of quality child care, particularly for lower- and middle-income
 families. In the U.S. in 1986, 9 million pre-schoolers were cared for by
 someone other than their parents during the day. There is considerable
 controversy concerning the proper legal safeguards and qualifications
 that the government should impose on child care providers.

   Childe, Vere Gordon

 Childe, Vere Gordon, 1892-1957, English archaeologist; b. Australia. His
 synthesis of European prehistory is embodied in The Dawn of European
 Civilization (1925, 6th ed. 1957) and The Prehistory of European Society
 (1958).

   children's literature

 children's literature. Much early literature for adults, chiefly oral
 ballads, sagas, and epics recounting myths and legends, came to be read
 as children's literature. The first writing expressly for children,
 however, Latin texts by BEDE and others, was instructional. More
 enjoyable material appeared when William CAXTON printed (1484-85) AESOP'S
 Fables and Sir Thomas MALORY'S Morte d'Arthur. The hornbook and chapbook,
 from the same period, taught the alphabet, numbers, and prayers. The
 first distinctly juvenile literature in English, for Puritan boys and
 girls, consisted of gloomy, pious tales. Later, Daniel DEFOE'S Robinson
 Crusoe and Jonathan SWIFT'S Gulliver's Travels were adapted for children.
 In 1729 Charles PERRAULT'S Mother Goose became popular in England. The
 bookseller John NEWBERY was the first to publish exclusively for
 children. By the end of the 18th cent. didactic works, intellectual and
 moralistic, predominated. In contrast, ROMANTICISM produced a body of
 fantasy and adventure genuinely appealing to children. GRIMM'S folk tales
 appeared in English in 1823, and Hans Christian ANDERSEN'S fairy tales in
 1846. During the 19th cent. the poetry of Edward LEAR and Robert Louis
 STEVENSON, the inspired lunacy of Lewis CARROLL, and the fully developed
 characters and interesting plots of novels by Louisa May ALCOTT, Mark
 TWAIN, and Stevenson set high standards for juvenile literature-as did
 translations of such foreign works as J.D. WYSS'S Swiss Family Robinson
 (tr. from the German, 1814) and Carlo COLLODI'S Pinocchio (tr. from the






 became increasingly sophisticated, dealing with "mature" social and
 psychological themes. Judy Blume's novels, e.g., Are You There, God? It's
 Me, Margaret (1970), treat the emotional and sexual problems of
 adolescence. The Newbery Medal (1922) is one of many awards fostering the
 growth of children's literature.

   Children's Television Workshop

 Children's Television Workshop, a nonprofit organization that produces
 high-quality children's programs for U.S. television, including "Sesame
 Street," "The Electric Company," "3-2-1 Contact," and "Square One TV,"
 employing visual techniques developed for commercials.

   Chile

 Chile, officially Republic of Chile, republic (1986 est. pop.
 12,070,000), 292,256 sq mi (756,945 sq km), S South America, bordered by
 Peru (N), Bolivia (NE), Argentina (E), and the Pacific Ocean (W). Long
 and narrow, Chile stretches 2,880 mi (4,630 km) from north to south, but
 is only 265 mi (430 km) at its widest point. Major cities include

 the entire length of eastern Chile; Ojos del Salado (22,539 ft/6,870 m),
 the second highest point in South America, is found here. Chile has three
 main natural regions: the arid north, which includes the ATACAMA DESERT;
 the cold and humid south, with dense forests, snow-covered peaks,
 glaciers, and islands; and the fertile central area, Mediterranean in
 climate, which is the population, economic, and cultural heart of the
 nation. Located along an active zone in the earth's crust, Chile is
 subject to devastating earthquakes. With an economy based on its mineral
 wealth, Chile is one of the world's leading exporters of copper; other
 minerals include nitrates, iron ore, manganese, lead, and zinc.
 Manufactures include processed foods, fishmeal, textiles, and iron and
 steel. Chief crops are wheat, potatoes, corn, and sugar beets. While
 Chile is not self-sufficient in food, fruit accounts for nearly 10% of
 its exports. Sheep raising, fishing, and timber production are also
 important. The majority of Chile's population is mestizo, but a sizable
 number are of European origin. Spanish is the official language. More
 than 85% of the people are Roman Catholic.

 History Upon arrival in the area that is now Chile, the Spaniards met
 stout resistance from the ARAUCANIAN INDIANS who lived there, but in 1541
 Pedro de VALDIVIA succeeded in establishing the first Spanish settlement
 at Santiago. Despite continued Indian hostility, not fully subdued until
 the late 19th cent., the colonists established a pastoral society. In
 1810 a struggle for independence from Spanish rule was initiated and
 finally, in 1818, following a decisive victory at Maipu by Jose de SAN
 MARTIN, independence was proclaimed, and Bernardo O'HIGGINS, a
 revolutionary leader, was established as ruler. In 1879 long-standing
 border disputes with Bolivia and Peru led to the War of the Pacific;
 Chile, victorious, gained valuable mineral-rich territory. Exploitation
 of mineral resources, accompanied by industrialization, brought
 prosperity. Politically, Chile was one of the most stable and democratic
 nations in South America. In 1970 Salvador ALLENDE GOSSENS, a Marxist,
 was elected president. His attempt to transform Chile into a socialist
 state ended in 1973 with a U.S.-supported, bloody military coup, in which
 Allende lost his life. A repressive military junta, headed by Gen.
 Augusto PINOCHET, was in control in the late 1980s.

   Chillicothe

 Chillicothe, city (1980 pop. 23,420), seat of Ross co., south-central
 Ohio, on the Scioto R.; founded 1796; inc. 1802. The trading center for a
 farm area, it also manufactures paper, shoes, and aluminum products. It
 became (1800) capital of the NORTHWEST TERRITORY, and (1803-10, 1812-16)
 capital of Ohio. Mound City National Monument (prehistoric Indian burial
 mounds) is nearby.

   chime

 chime, in music: see BELL.

   chimpanzee

 chimpanzee, black-haired APE (genus Pan) of the equatorial forests of
 central and W Africa, including the common chimpanzee (P. troglodytes)
 and pygmy chimpanzee (P. paniscus); considered the most intelligent of
 apes. The common chimpanzee is covered with long, black hair and may
 reach 5 ft. (1.5 m) in height and 150 lb (68 kg) in weight. Captive
 chimpanzees have been taught to communicate by using SIGN LANGUAGE or a
 computer console.

   Chimu

 Chimu, ancient Indian civilization on the desert coast of N Peru (see
 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS) that flourished after c.1200. The Chimu were
 urban people with a powerful military, a complex social system, and
 well-planned cities such as Chan Chan, their capital. They influenced the
 Cuismancu empire of central Peru, but were absorbed c.1460 by the INCA.

   Ch'in

 Ch'in, dynasty: see CHINA.

   China

 China, Mandarin Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo (People's Republic of China),
 people's republic (1988 est. pop. 1,072,200,000), 3,691,502 sq mi
 (9,561,000 sq km), E Asia; the most populous country in the world. It is
 bounded by the USSR and North Korea (E), the USSR and the Mongolian
 People's Republic (N), the USSR and Afghanistan (W), and Pakistan, India,
 Nepal, Bhutan, Burma, Laos, and Vietnam (S). A coastline c.4,000 mi
 (6,440 km) long borders the Yellow and East China seas (E) and the South
 China Sea (S). The capital is PEKING; other important cities include
 SHANGHAI, TIANJIN, and CANTON. China is the world's third-largest country
 (after the USSR and Canada). The terrain is generally rugged, with broad
 plains along the rivers and the southern coast. The Tibetan plateau
 occupies SW China and is separated from the Tarim basin of Xinjiang to
 the north by the massive Kunlun Mts. In N China is the vast Inner
 Mongolian tableland, as well as the eastern highlands and central plain
 of Manchuria. The two main rivers are the HUANG HE (Yellow R.), in the
 north, and the YANGTZE R., in central China. The climate, harsh in the
 north and subtropical in the south, is mainly temperate.

 Economy China's economic development is coordinated in five-year plans.
 The economic system was formerly centrally planned, but the leaders are
 now attempting to reform it into a more modern socialist market economy
 in which "the state guides the market and the market guides enterprise."
 Although about 75% of the work force lives in rural areas, over 70% of
 GNP is industrial or commercial. Only 15% of the land surface is suitable
 for farming. Principal crops are food grains, including rice, wheat,
 corn, millet, barley, and kaoliang (a form of sorghum); peanuts, sweet
 potatoes, soybeans, cotton, tobacco, and tea are also important. Hogs and
 poultry are widely raised, and both inland and marine fishing are
 important. China is one of the world's major mineral-producing countries.
 Reserves of coal, its most abundant mineral and principal energy source,
 rank among the world's largest. Once an importer of petroleum, China is
 now the world's fifth-ranked oil producer, and oil exports are an
 increasingly important source of foreign exchange, used to finance
 industrial modernization. China also has extensive deposits of iron,
 tungsten, tin, mercury, magnesite, salt, uranium, gold, and zinc. The
 country's enormous hydroelectric potential is being rapidly developed;
 the largest project, Gezhouba Dam, on the Yangtze R., opened in 1981.
 China's manufactures include agriculture-related products, such as farm
 machinery, as well as machine tools, iron and steel, and construction
 materials. In recent years light industrial and consumer items have
 increased greatly in importance. Rivers and canals are important arteries
 of transportation.

 People The population is heterogeneous. Although the Han ethnic Chinese
 constituting 94% of the total, 56 recognized minority groups exist, some
 occupying large and strategically important areas, including Tibet and
 Xinjiang. Mandarin dialects, the basis of the national language, are
 uniformly spoken in the north, but in the south, many dialects, including
 Cantonese, Wu, and Hakka, are spoken; the written language is universal.
 Non-Chinese minorities include the Chuangs, Huis, Uigurs, and Mongols.
 Traditionally, most Chinese followed a mixture of Confucianism, Buddhism,
 and Taoism. Under Mao religious practice was discouraged, but is now
 returning. There are substantial communities of Chinese Catholics and
 Protestants.

 History A protohuman toolmaker known as Peking man (Sinanthropus
 pekingensis) lived in N China about 500,000 years ago. Modern man first
 appeared in the region around 20,000 years ago, establishing primitive
 agricultural villages by 5000 BC The first documented Chinese
 civilization was the Shang dynasty (c.1523-c.1027 BC), which had cities,
 bronze metallurgy, and a system of writing. It was succeeded by the often
 turbulent Chou dynasty (c.1027 BC- 256 BC), which nevertheless gave rise
 to China's golden age of philosophy, highlighted by the works of
 CONFUCIUS, LAO-TZE, and Mencius. The Ch'in dynasty (221-207 BC) united
 China under a centralized imperial system; construction of the GREAT WALL
 was begun during this period. The Han dynasty (202 BC-AD 220), considered
 China's imperial age, was notable for its long, peaceable rule,
 territorial expansion, and technological and artistic achievement. There
 followed four centuries of warfare among petty states and invasions by
 the Huns; however, despite the chaos, the arts and sciences flourished,
 and BUDDHISM and TAOISM developed as important Chinese religions.
 Political reunification, begun under the Sui (581-618), paved the way for
 the glorious age of the T'ang dynasty (618-906), which at its height
 controlled an empire stretching from Korea to Turkistan. Prosperity
 continued under the Sung dynasty (960-1279), a time of scholarly studies
 and artistic progress, marked by the invention of movable type. In the
 13th cent. N China fell to the MONGOLS led by JENGHIZ KHAN. His grandson
 KUBLAI KHAN founded the Yuan dynasty (1260-1368) and subdued (1279) the
 Sung. Kublai's vast realm was visited and described by Marco POLO. After
 a massive peasant rebellion (14th cent.) native rule was restored with
 the establishment of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644). However, in 1644
 foreigners from the north-the Manchus-once again conquered China,
 establishing the Ch'ing (MANCHU) dynasty (1644-1912), the last in China's
 history.

 Foreign Intervention In a relaxation of China's traditional isolationist
 policy, Canton was opened to limited overseas trade in 1834. Dissatisfied
 with this restricted arrangement, Great Britain provoked the OPIUM WAR
 (1839-42) and easily defeated China. The Treaty of Nanking ceded HONG
 KONG to Britain, forced China to open several ports to unrestricted
 trade, and established the principle of EXTRATERRITORIALITY, by which
 Britons in China were granted immunity from local law enforcement.
 France, Germany, and Russia soon won similar concessions. The Ch'ing
 regime was further weakened by a series of internal rebellions,
 particularly the TAIPING REBELLION (1850-64), a radical
 military-religious movement; by defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War
 (1894-95); and by the subsequent further partitioning of China into
 foreign spheres of influence. The BOXER UPRISING (1898-1900), a final
 desperate effort to resist foreign influence, was crushed by an
 international force.

 Internal Struggles These events added impetus to growing anti-Manchu
 sentiment, and despite belated domestic reforms, a revolution (1911)
 overthrew the Ch'ing, and a republic, briefly led by SUN YAT-SEN, was
 established in 1912. With the death (1916) of Sun's successor, YUAN
 SHIH-KAI, Chinese warlords gained control of the government; they were
 finally ousted in 1927, after years of civil war, by the nationalist
 KUOMINTANG, led by CHIANG KAI-SHEK and aided by the Communists. In 1927
 Chiang inaugurated the long Chinese civil war when he purged his
 Communist allies, eventually forcing them on the LONG MARCH (1934-35) to
 Shaanxi, where they established their base. In 1931 Japan had occupied
 Manchuria, and in 1937 it mounted a full-scale attack against China (see
 SINO-JAPANESE WAR, SECOND). An uneasy coalition of Nationalists and
 Communists fought the Japanese, but following victory in 1945, civil war
 once again erupted, with the U.S. supporting the Nationalists. Peking,
 followed by the other major cities, fell to the Communists in 1949, and
 on Oct. 1 the People's Republic of China was proclaimed with MAO TSE-TUNG
 as chairman and CHOU EN-LAI as premier. Chiang Kai-shek fled to TAIWAN,
 where he established a new seat for the Republic of China government.

 The People's Republic Under the Communists, high inflation was brought
 under control, a land reform program introduced, industry nationalized
 and expanded with Soviet aid, and agriculture collectivized. The Chinese
 People's Volunteers entered the KOREAN WAR against UN forces in 1950,
 participating on a large scale until the armistice of 1953. A liberal
 "hundred flowers" period (1957) was followed by a crackdown on
 intellectuals and the Great Leap Forward (1958-60), a massive industrial
 and agricultural development program that was intended to transform
 China's economy overnight but that ended in the largest famine in world
 history, with an estimated 20-40 million deaths. At about the same time a
 growing ideological rift between China and the USSR led to withdrawal of
 Soviet aid and technical assistance. Evidence of internal tension began
 to surface in the 1960s, culminating in the CULTURAL REVOLUTION of
 1966-69, a massive upheaval launched by Mao to purge the revolution of
 liberal elements. Tension increased in the early 1970s with the
 revelation that Lin Piao, China's defense minister and Mao's designated
 heir, had died (1971) in a plane crash after an attempt to assassinate
 Mao. In international affairs, China's progress toward recognition as a
 world power was aided by its explosion of an atomic bomb (1964) and the
 launching of its first satellite (1970). An easing of relations with the
 West led to the admission of China to the UN in 1971 and to a visit to
 China by Pres. Richard Nixon in 1972. Chou En-lai and Mao Tse-tung died
 in 1976. Following the assumption of power by HUA GUOFENG, the country
 was shaken by the arrest of Mao's widow, JIANG,> QING, and three
 colleagues (the GANG OF FOUR); Jiang was sentenced to death in 1981 but
 granted a renewable two-year reprieve. DENG XIAO PING, who came to power
 in 1977, adopted a program of rapid economic modernization. Liberal
 economic and trade policies were instituted, and the U.S. and China
 normalized diplomatic relations on Jan. 1, 1979. In 1981 the Communist
 party criticized Mao's later policies in a public document, although his
 thought was reaffirmed as the nation's guideline in new party and
 national constitutions, adopted in 1982. In early 1989 China was the
 scene of massive demonstrations, initiated by university students, but
 soon joined by millions of other citizens, calling for democratic reforms
 and an end to official corruption.

╓┌─────────────────────────────────────┌─────────────────────────────────────╖
 Chinese Dynasties
 Dynasty                               Characteristics and History
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
 Hsiac. 1994--c.1523 B.C.              Semilegendary Emperor Yu built
                                       irrigation channels, reclaimed land.
                                       Bronze weapons, chariots, domestic
                                       animals used. Wheat, millet
                                       cultivated. First use of written
                                       symbols.

 Shang or Yinc. 1523--c.1027 B.C.      First historic dynasty. Complex
                                       agricultural society with a
                                       bureaucracy and defined social
                                       classes. Well-developed writing,
                                       first Chinese calendar. Great age of
                                       bronze casting.

 Chouc. 1027--256 B.C.                 Classical age (CONFUCIUS, LAO-TZE,
                                       Mencius) despite political disorder.
                                       Written laws, money economy. Iron
                                       implements and oxdrawn plow in use.
 Chinese Dynasties
 Dynasty                               Characteristics and History
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
                                      implements and oxdrawn plow in use.
                                       Followed by Warring States period,
                                       403--221 B.C.

 Ch'in 221--207 B.C.                   Unification of China under harsh
                                       rule of Shih Huang-ti. FEUDALISM
                                       replaced by pyramidal bureaucratic
                                       government. Written language
                                       standardized. Roads, canals, much of
                                       GREAT WALL built.

 Han 202 B.C.--A.D. 220                Unification furthered, but harshness
                                       lessened and CONFUCINISM made basis
                                       for bureaucratic state. BUDDHISM
                                       introduced. Encyclopedic history,
                                       dictionary compiled; porcelain
                                       produced.

 Chinese Dynasties
 Dynasty                               Characteristics and History
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────

 Three Kingdoms A. D. 220--265         Division into three states: Wei, Shu,
                                       Wu. Wei gradually dominant.
                                       Confucianism eclipsed; increased
                                       importance of TAOISM and Buddhism.
                                       Many Indian scientific advances
                                       adopted.

 Tsin or Chin 265--420                 Founded by a Wei general; gradual
                                       expansion to the southeast. Series
                                       of barbarian dynasties ruled N China.
                                       Continued growth of Buddhism.

 Sui 581--618                          Reunification; centralized
                                       government reestablished. Buddhism,
                                       Taoism favored. Great Wall
                                       refortified; canal system
                                       established.
 Chinese Dynasties
 Dynasty                               Characteristics and History
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
                                      established.

 T'ang 618--906                        Territorial expansion. Buddhism
                                       temporarily suppressed. CIVIL
                                       SERVICE examinations based on
                                       Confucianism. Age of great
                                       achievements in poetry (LI PO, PO
                                       CHU-I, TU FU), sculpture, painting.

 Five Dynasties and Ten                Period of warfare, official
 Kingdoms 907--960                     corruption, general hardship.
                                       Widespread development of printing
                                       (see TYPE); paper money first
                                       printed.

 Sung 960--1279                        Period of great social and
                                       intellectual change.
                                       Neo-Confucianism attains supremacy
 Chinese Dynasties
 Dynasty                               Characteristics and History
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
                                      Neo-Confucianism attains supremacy
                                       over Taoism and Buddhism; central
                                       bureaucracy reestablished.
                                       Widespread cultivation of tea and
                                       cotton; gunpowder first used
                                       militarily.

 Yuan 1260--1368                       MONGOL dynasty founded by KUBLAI
                                       KHAN. Growing contact with West.
                                       Confucian ideals discouraged. Great
                                       age of Chinese playwriting. Revolts
                                       in Mongolia, S China end dynasty.

 Ming 1368--1644                       Mongols expelled. Confucianism,
                                       civil service examinations
                                       reinstated. Contact with European
                                       traders, missionaries. Porcelain,
                                       architecture (see CHINESE
 Chinese Dynasties
 Dynasty                               Characteristics and History
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
                                      architecture (see CHINESE
                                       ARCHITECTURE), the novel and drama
                                       flourish.

 Ch'ing or Manchu 1644--1912           Established by the MANCHUS.
                                       Territorial expansion but gradual
                                       weakening of Chinese power; decline
                                       of central authority. Increasing
                                       European trade; foreign powers
                                       divide China into spheres of
                                       influence. OPIUM WAR HONG KONG
                                       ceded; BOXER UPRISING. Last Chinese
                                       monarchy.





   China, Great Wall of

 China, Great Wall of: see GREAT WALL OF CHINA.

   China, Republic of

 China, Republic of, official name of TAIWAN.

   chinchilla

 chinchilla, small, burrowing RODENT that lives in colonies up to 15,000
 ft (4,270 m) high in the Andes of Bolivia, Chile, and Peru. Its soft gray
 pelt is one of the costliest of all furs, and the wild chinchilla was
 nearly exterminated before protective laws were passed.

   chinchona

 chinchona: see CINCHONA.

   Chinese

 Chinese, subfamily of the Sino-Tibetan family of languages. See LANGUAGE
 .

   Chinese architecture

 Chinese architecture. Few buildings exist in China predating the Ming
 dynasty (1368-1644) because of wars, invasions, and insubstantial
 construction (wood and rice-paper). An exception is the Great Wall of
 China. Mid-20th-cent. architectural finds have clarified some of the
 history of Chinese architecture. As early as the neolithic period, the
 basic principle of supporting a roof with spaced columns rather than
 walls was established. Walls served merely as enclosing screens. The
 typical Chinese roof probably dates from c.1500 BC, but it is known only
 from the Han dynasty (202 BC-AD 220), when it appeared in the familiar
 form-graceful, overhanging, sometimes in tiers, with upturned eaves. It
 rested on brackets resting in turn on columns. Roof tiles were colorfully
 glazed and brackets elaborately carved and painted. A characteristic
 ground plan has remained constant in Chinese and Japanese palaces and
 temples. Inside an external wall, the building complex is arranged along
 a central axis and is approached through a series of gates. Next come a
 public hall and finally the private quarters. Each residential unit was
 built around a central court with a garden, which became an art form in
 itself. The coming of BUDDHISM did not affect the style. The only
 distinctly Buddhist building was the PAGODA, simple and square at first,
 later more elaborate. A distinctive pagoda style emerged in the 11th
 cent. Built in three stages, it had a base, shaft, and crown, surmounted
 by a spire, and was often octagonal. In the Ming period the complex of
 courtyards, parks, and palaces became labyrinthian. PEKING'S Forbidden
 City remains a spectacular achievement of intricacy and decoration. Since
 the late 19th cent. the Chinese have adopted European styles,
 particularly Soviet, with a trend toward the massive and clearly
 functional in public buildings.

   Chinese art

 Chinese art, the oldest in the world, has its origins in remote antiquity
 (see CHINA). Excavations in Gansu and Henan have revealed a Neolithic
 culture with pottery painted in dynamic swirling or lozenge-shaped
 patterns. Bronze vessels from the Shang dynasty (2d millennium) indicate
 an advanced culture as well as a long period of prior experimentation.
 Bronzes were decorated with severe abstract as well as naturalistic
 representations. The advent of BUDDHISM (1st cent. AD) brought works of
 sculpture, painting, and architecture of a distinctly religious nature.
 Representations of the BUDDHA and the bodhisattvas became great themes in
 sculpture. The forms of these figures came from India, but by the 6th
 cent. AD Chinese artists had developed their own sculpture style, which
 reached its greatest distinction in the T'ang dynasty (618-906). Buddhist
 sculpture continued to flourish until the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), at
 which time exquisite miniature sculpture in JADE, IVORY, and GLASS was
 produced in China and Japan. The origins of Chinese painting are largely
 lost until the 5th cent. AD The Caves of a Thousand Buddhas, near
 Dunhuang, contain frescoes and scrolls dating from the 5th to 8th cent.
 Chinese painting achieves its effects through mastery of the line and
 silhouette rather than through PERSPECTIVE or the rendering of light and
 shadow. The art of figure painting reached its peak in the T'ang dynasty,
 which also saw the rise of Chinese LANDSCAPE PAINTING. In the Sung
 dynasty (960-1279) landscape painting reached its peak, reflecting
 contemporary Taoist and Confucian views. The human figure was diminished
 so as not to intrude on the orderly magnitude of nature. The monumental
 detail also began to emerge-a single bamboo flower or bird became the
 subject for a painting. The Ch'an (Zen) sect of Buddhism used rapid brush
 strokes and ink splashes to create intuitive works of great vigor. With
 the Yuan dynasty (1260-1368) and Mongol rule, the human figure assumed
 greater importance, and STILL-LIFE painting gained prominence. In the
 Ming dynasty (1368-1644) a developing connoisseurship preserved many
 great works of art. During the Ch'ing (1644-1912) dynasty a level of
 technical competence was developed that lasted until the 19th cent., but
 there was little innovation in painting. By the 19th cent. reliance on
 calligraphic techniques had produced sterile formulas in painting. The
 development of Chinese POTTERY-making followed that of painting, reaching
 perfection in the Sung dynasty and extreme technical elaboration in the
 Ming. In the minor arts, e.g., ENAMEL ware, lacquer ware, jade, ivory,
 and textiles, the world owes an incalculable debt to the influence of
 Chinese art.

   Chinese exclusion

 Chinese exclusion, policy initiated in 1882 banning U.S. entry to Chinese
 laborers. After the U.S. acquisition (1848) of California, there arose a
 need for cheap labor, and Chinese flocked there to work on the railroads.
 By 1867 they numbered 50,000; their number increased after the Burlingame
 Treaty of 1868, which permitted Chinese immigration but not
 naturalization. Anti-Oriental prejudice and the competition with American
 workers led to anti-Chinese riots (1877) in San Francisco, then to the
 Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, which banned Chinese immigration for 10
 years. In a new treaty of 1894, China accepted another 10-year exclusion,
 which Congress unilaterally continued until the 1924 immigration law that
 excluded all Asians. In 1943 a new law extended citizenship rights, and
 permitted an annual immigration of 105 Chinese. The quota was abolished
 in 1965.

   Chinese literature

 Chinese literature. The oldest written records (c.1400 BC) in Chinese are
 from the Shang dynasty, but the elaborate system of notation in use then
 indicates an earlier origin. Most of the oldest extant works of
 literature were written in the late Chou dynasty (c.1207-256 BC),
 including much of the Five Classics of CONFUCIANISM. Traditionally
 attributed to CONFUCIUS, the Five Classics consist of the Spring and
 Autumn Annals, a chronology of Lu, Confucius's native state; the BOOK OF
 CHANGES, a system of divination; the Book of Rites, which describes
 ceremonials and the ideal state; the Book of History, historical records;
 and the Book of Songs, a collection of poems on war, love, and peasant
 life written in a simple style. Other important early books include the
 chief literature of TAOISM, The Way and Its Power (Tao-te ching),
 traditionally ascribed to LAO-TZE, and the work of Chuang-tze. These
 books probably achieved their present form in the 2d cent. BC In time the
 literary and spoken languages of China diverged sharply. In poetry the
 freedom of the Chou dynasty was followed by the development of prescribed
 forms, and by the T'ang dynasty (618-906) prosodic rules and
 pronunciation no longer reflected the spoken language. Classical Chinese
 poems are usually short, unemphatic lyrics, suggesting a mood or scene by
 a few touches instead of a detailed picture. Historical and literary
 allusions abound, while intellectual themes and narratives are rather
 rare. The T'ang dynasty was the great age of WANG WEI, LI PO, TU FU, and
 PO CHU-I, the masters of Chinese poetry. In the succeeding Sung dynasty
 (960-1279), SU TUNG-P'O was perhaps the foremost poet. Much learned prose
 has also been written in Chinese; particularly notable are the fairly
 accurate and objective histories produced since the Han dynasty (202
 BC-AD 220). SSU-MA CH'IEN'S Records of the Grand Historian of China
 (c.100 BC) is the outstanding example and the model for later histories.
 During the T'ang and Sung dynasties popular prose and verse written in
 the vernacular appeared. Springing from story cycles by professional
 storytellers, the vernacular literature first emerged as full-fledged art
 in the drama of the Yuan dynasty (1260-1368; see ORIENTAL DRAMA). The
 great novels of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) that followed took shape
 gradually before being given their final form, perhaps anonymously by
 traditional scholars. An outstanding early novel is Romance of the Three
 Kingdoms, which recounts heroic deeds and chivalrous exploits. Journey to
 the West, or Monkey, is an allegorical tale of the supernatural
 adventures of a Buddhist monk on an Indian pilgrimage. The greatest
 Chinese novel is Dream of the Red Chamber, or Story of the Stone, an
 18th-cent. work chiefly by Ts'ao Hsueh-ch'in, which recounts the
 declining fortunes of an aristocratic family. After the republican
 revolution (1912) writers such as Hu shih and LU HSUN rejected classical
 modes of composition and advocated writing in paihua everyday speech. It
 has proved particularly effective in prose. Chinese literature has
 suffered from government-sponsored SOCIALIST REALISM, but recently there
 has been some loosening of restrictions. Among the most distinguished
 modern Chinese writers are Lu Hsun, Mao Dun (Mao Tun), Lao She, Shen
 Congwen (Shen Ts'ung-wen), and Ba Jin (Pa Chin).

   Chinese music

 Chinese music can be traced to the third millennium BC Most of its early
 history is lost. In China music and philosophy were always inseparably
 bound. Musical theory was symbolic and was stable through the ages. The
 single tone was more significant than melody and was an attribute of the
 substance producing it. Music had cosmological and ethical connotations
 comparable to GREEK MUSIC. The Chinese SCALE is pentatonic. Vocal melody
 is limited by the fact that, in Chinese, inflection affects a word's
 meaning, and also because quantitative RHYTHMS are not easily adaptable
 to the language. The ancient hymns were slow and solemn, accompanied by
 large orchestras. Opera originated in the 14th cent. In the 20th cent.
 Western harmony has been influential. Since 1949 the Peking Opera has
 produced numerous new works in traditional performance style.

   Ch'ing

 Ch'ing or Manchu,dynasty: see CHINA.

   chinoiserie

 chinoiserie, decoration influenced by Chinese art. Medieval travelers
 brought Eastern art back to Europe. By the 17th cent. Dutch ceramics
 showed the influence of Chinese blue-and-white porcelains. In the
 mid-18th cent., interiors, furniture, and textiles were decorated with
 Chinese-in spired motifs of human figures, scenery, pagodas, and exotic
 birds and flowers. In France, chinoiserie blended with the ROCOCO Louis
 XV style. In England, the style influenced furniture made by CHIPPENDALE.
 Chinoiserie was popular in the American colonies, especially in wallpaper
 designs.

   Chios

 Chios: see KHIOS.

   chipmunk

 chipmunk, RODENT of the SQUIRREL family. The common Eastern chipmunk
 (Tamias striatus), about 5 to 6 in. (13 to 15 cm) long, has reddish or
 grayish brown upper parts with a median black stripe and two black
 stripes separated by a whitish band along each side. Chipmunks eat nuts,
 berries, and insects; food is carried in expandable cheek pouches.

   Chippendale, Thomas

 Chippendale, Thomas, 1718-79, English cabinetmaker. His designs were so
 widely followed that much 18th-cent. English furniture is grouped under
 his name, but only those pieces for which the original bills survive
 (e.g., for Harewood House) can be assigned unquestionably to his
 workshop. To the sober design and fine construction of the Queen Anne and
 Georgian styles he added Chinese (see CHINOISERIE), Gothic, and ROCOCO
 motifs. He made chairs of many types, from geometrical to sumptuously
 carved; desks; mirror frames; china cabinets and bookcases; and tables
 with fretted galleries and cluster-column Gothic legs.

   Chippewa Indians

 Chippewa Indians: see OJIBWA INDIANS.

   Chirico, Giorgio de

 Chirico, Giorgio de, 1888-1978, Italian painter; b. Greece. His powerful,
 disturbing paintings employ steep PERSPECTIVE, mannequin figures, empty
 space, and forms out of context to create an atmosphere of mystery and
 loneliness. An influence on early SURREALISM, he termed his symbolism
 metaphysical painting.

   Chiron

 Chiron, in Greek mythology, a centaur; son of CRONUS. He was a wise
 physician and prophet whose pupils included HERCULES, ACHILLES, JASON,
 and ASCLEPIUS. After receiving an incurable wound, he gave his
 immortality to PROMETHEUS and died. ZEUS turned him into the
 constellation Sagittarius.

   chiropractic

 chiropractic, medical practice based on the theory that disease results
 from a disruption of nerve function. This interference is thought to stem
 primarily from displaced vertebrae, which chiropractors massage and
 manipulate manually in order to relieve pressure on nerves.

   Chisholm, Shirley Anita St. Hill

 Chisholm, Shirley Anita St. Hill, 1924-, U.S. congresswoman from New York
 (1969-83); b. Brooklyn, N.Y. An expert in early childhood education, she
 was elected (1968) a Democratic member of the U.S. House of
 Representatives, and became the first black woman to serve in that body.
 She was known for her criticism of the VIETNAM WAR and of the House
 seniority system, and for advocating the interests of the urban poor.

   Chisholm Trail

 Chisholm Trail, route over which herds of cattle were driven to railheads
 in Kansas after the Civil War. In 1866, Jesse Chisholm, an Indian trader,
 cut the trail by carting a heavy load of buffalo hides from Oklahoma to
 Kansas. Drovers followed the trail for 20 years with hundreds of
 thousands of Texas longhorns; it became celebrated in frontier stories
 and ballads. The trail fell into disuse as railroads and wire fencing
 developed, but traces of it survive.

   chiton

 chiton, marine invertebrate MOLLUSK (class Amphineura). The chiton has a
 low oval body covered dorsally by a slightly convex shell of eight
 overlapping plates. It clings tightly to hard surfaces with its broad
 flat ventral foot; it crawls by means of muscular undulations of the
 foot. The mouth, located in front of the foot, contains a toothed
 scraping organ, the radula. Chitons range from 1/2 in. to 12 in. (1.2-30
 cm).

   Chittagong

 Chittagong, city (1981 pop. 1,388,476), capital of Chittagong division,
 SE Bangladesh, on the Karnafuli R. near the Bay of Bengal. An important
 rail terminus and administrative center, it is the chief port of
 Bangladesh, with modern facilities for oceangoing vessels. Oil (offshore
 installations and refineries) and cotton- and jute-processing are among
 its important industries. A port known since the early centuries AD, it
 was controlled successively by the Hindus, Arakans, Moguls, and British.

   chivalry

 chivalry, system of ethical ideals that grew out of FEUDALISM and had its
 zenith in the 12th and 13th cent. Chivalric ethics originated chiefly in
 France and Spain and spread rapidly. They represented a fusion of
 Christian and military concepts of morality, and they still form the
 basis of gentlemanly conduct. The chief chivalric virtues were piety,
 honor, valor, courtesy, chastity, and loyalty. The knight's loyalty was
 due to God, to his suzerain, and to his sworn love. Love in the
 chivalrous sense was largely platonic. The ideal of militant knighthood
 was greatly enhanced by the CRUSADES, and the monastic orders of knights,
 the KNIGHTS TEMPLARS and KNIGHTS HOSPITALERS, produced soldiers sworn to
 uphold the Christian ideal. Besides the battlefield, the tournament
 became an arena in which the virtues of chivalry could be proved. The
 code of COURTLY LOVE was developed in France and Flanders. In practice,
 chivalric conduct was never free from corruption, and the outward
 trappings of chivalry declined in the 15th cent. Medieval secular
 literature, such as the ARTHURIAN LEGEND and the CHANSONS DE GESTE, was
 concerned primarily with knighthood and chivalry. In the 19th cent.
 ROMANTICISM revived chivalrous ideals.

   chive

 chive: see ONION.

   Chkalov

 Chkalov: see ORENBURG.

   chlorine

 chlorine (Cl), gaseous element, discovered in 1774 by Karl SCHEELE, who
 thought it was an oxygen compound, and identified as an element by Sir
 Humphry DAVY in 1810. Chlorine is a greenish-yellow, poisonous gas with a
 disagreeable, suffocating odor. A HALOGEN, it occurs in nature in
 numerous and abundant compounds, e.g., sodium chloride (common salt).
 Chlorine is soluble in water; chlorine water has strong oxidizing
 properties. Chlorine is used in water purification, and as a disinfectant
 and antiseptic. Chlorinated hydrocarbons (e.g., DDT) are long-lasting
 pesticides. Many poison gases contain chlorine. Chlorine compounds used
 medically include chloroform and chloral hydrate. See ELEMENT ; PERIODIC
 TABLE.

   chlorophyll

 chlorophyll, green pigment in plants that gives most their color and
 enables them to carry on the process of PHOTOSYNTHESIS. Chlorophyll,
 found in the CHLOROPLASTS of the plant cell, is the only substance in
 nature able to trap and store the energy of sunlight. The light absorbed
 by chlorophyll molecules is mainly in the red and blue-violet parts of
 the visible spectrum; the green portion is not absorbed but reflected,
 and thus chlorophyll appears green.

   Chlorophyta

 Chlorophyta, division of the plant kingdom consisting of green ALGAE and
 the stoneworts.

   chloroplast

 chloroplast, complex, discrete, lens-shaped structure, or organelle,
 contained in the cytoplasm of plant cells. Chloroplasts have
 submicroscopic, disklike bodies, called grana, that house CHLOROPHYLL and
 are the central site of the process of PHOTOSYNTHESIS.

   chocolate

 chocolate, term for products of the seeds of the CACAO tree, used for
 making beverages or candy. Chocolate is prepared by a complex process of
 cleaning, blending, and roasting the beans, which are then ground and
 mixed with sugar, cocoa butter, and milk solids. A chocolate drink known
 to the Aztecs came to Europe through Spanish explorers c.1500, and was a
 fashionable beverage in 17th- and 18th-cent. England. In 1765 chocolate
 was first manufactured in the U.S., now the world's leading producer. The
 process for making milk chocolate was perfected in Switzerland c.1876.

   Choctaw Indians

 Choctaw Indians, NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS of the Eastern Woodlands, who
 lived mostly in central and S Mississippi and spoke a Muskogean branch of
 the Hokan-Siouan language stock (see AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES). They had
 an agricultural economy and were excellent farmers. After being forced to
 cede their lands, they moved in 1832 to Indian Territory and became one
 of the FIVE CIVILIZED TRIBES. Most Choctaws live in Oklahoma, but few
 remain on reservations.

   cholera

 cholera or Asiatic cholera,acute infectious disease caused by the
 bacterium Vibrio cholerae. The bacteria, which are found in
 fecal-contaminated food and water, produce a TOXIN that affects the
 intestines, causing diarrhea, severe fluid and electrolyte loss, and, if
 untreated, death. Treatment consists of administration of glucose and
 electrolyte solutions. The disease remains prevalent in regions of Africa
 and Asia where public sanitation is poor.

   cholesterol

 cholesterol, fatty substance found in vertebrates and in foods from
 animal sources. A STEROID, cholesterol is found in large concentrations
 in the brain and spinal cord, as well as in the liver, the major site of
 cholesterol biosynthesis. Cholesterol is the major precursor of the
 synthesis of vitamin D and the various steroid HORMONES. It sometimes
 crystallizes in the GALL BLADDER to form gallstones. Atherosclerosis (see
 ARTERIOSCLEROSIS) is associated with deposits of cholesterol inside major
 blood vessels.

   Chomsky, Noam

 Chomsky, Noam, 1928-, American linguist; b. Philadelphia. His theory of
 generative grammar, first proposed in Syntactic Structures (1957),
 revolutionized the study of language (see LINGUISTICS;
 TRANSFORMATIONAL-GENERATIVE GRAMMAR). He posits innate structures, not
 minimal sounds, as the basis for speech. He has written numerous
 linguistic works, e.g., Reflections on Language (1975), and books on
 current politics, e.g., The Washington Connection and Third World Fascism
 (1979), with Edward S. Herman.

   Chongqing

 Chongqing or Chungking , city (1986 est. pop. 2,780,000), SE Sichuan
 prov., SW China, at the confluence of the Jialing and Yangtze rivers. An
 industrial hub manufacturing steel, machinery, chemicals, and other
 products, Chongqing comprises a narrow, densely populated inner city
 rising on a mountain between its two rivers, and a planned industrial and
 residential district to the west. Long an important regional center,
 Chongqing became a TREATY PORT in 1891 and was the capital of CHIANG
 KAI-SHEK'S Nationalist government during World War II.

   Chopin, Frederic Francois

 Chopin, Frederic Francois, 1810-49, Franco-Polish composer; b. Poland. He
 brought romantic piano music to unprecedented heights of expressiveness.
 In the 1830s he settled in Paris; although he remained a Polish
 nationalist, he never returned home. He associated with literary and
 artistic figures, notably George SAND, with whom he had a liaison from
 1836 to 1847, when a long illness developed into tuberculosis. Chopin
 established the PIANO as a solo instrument free from choral or orchestral
 influence. In his piano CONCERTOS in E Minor (1833) and F Minor (1836),
 the piano dominates the orchestra. Other major works are 24 preludes
 (1838-39); SONATAS in B Flat Minor (1840) and B Minor (1845); many
 etudes; and, expressing Polish nationalism, many polonaises and mazurkas.

   Chopin, Kate O'Flaherty

 Chopin, Kate O'Flaherty, 1851-1904, American author; b. St. Louis. Her
 novel The Awakening (1899) caused great controversy because of her
 treatment of female sexuality but is now highly regarded. She also wrote
 sketches of Creole life collected in Bayou Folk (1894) and A Night in
 Acadie (1897).

   chordate

 chordate, common name for an animal having three unique features at some
 stage of its development: a notochord (dorsal stiffening rod) as the
 chief internal support, a tubular nerve cord (spinal cord) above the
 notochord, and GILL slits leading into the pharynx (anterior part of the
 digestive tract). Grouped in the phylum Chordata, chordates are mainly
 vertebrates, animals of the subphylum Vertebrata (the FISHES, AMPHIBIANS,
 REPTILES, BIRDS, and MAMMALS), in which a backbone of bone or cartilage
 forms around the notochord; the rest are small aquatic invertebrates of
 the subphyla Urochordata (TUNICATES) and Cephalochordata (LANCELETS), in
 which there are no backbones.

   chorea

 chorea, disease causing involuntary jerky, arrhythmic movements of the
 face, limbs, or entire body. The childhood disease Sydenham's chorea, or
 St. Vitus' dance, is usually a complication of RHEUMATIC FEVER. The
 condition develops slowly, sometimes up to six months after the acute
 infection has occurred, but it resolves completely. In Huntington's
 chorea, a hereditary disease of adulthood, the jerky movements
 characteristic of the disorder result from progressive degeneration of
 the central NERVOUS SYSTEM. The disease is invariably fatal.

   chorus

 chorus, in ancient Greek drama, the group that spoke to accent the
 action. It seems to have arisen from the singing of the DITHYRAMB and to
 have become a true dramatic chorus when THESPIS introduced the actor in
 the 6th cent. BC As TRAGEDY developed, the size and role of the chorus
 diminished while that of the actor increased. By the 2d cent. BC it had
 ceased to have anything to do with the action, and it eventually
 disappeared.

   Chou

 Chou, dynasty: see CHINA.

   Chou En-lai

 Chou En-lai, 1898-1976, Chinese Communist leader. He studied in Europe
 and there became a founder of the Chinese Communist party. He returned
 (1924) to China and joined SUN YAT-SEN, who was then cooperating with the
 Communists. In 1927 Chou organized a general strike in Shanghai that led
 to the city's capture by CHIANG KAI-SHEK and the Nationalists in the
 Northern Expedition. After the break (1927) between Chiang and the
 Communists, Chou held prominent Communist military and political posts.
 He participated in the LONG MARCH (1934-35) of the Communist army, and
 after the creation of the People's Republic of China (1949) he was
 foreign minister (1949-58) and premier (1949-76). He headed the Chinese
 delegation to the Geneva Conference of 1954 and to the Bandung Conference
 (1955). He is believed to have been largely responsible for China's
 reestablishment of contacts with the West in the 1970s.

   Chouteau

 Chouteau, family of American fur traders. Rene Auguste Chouteau,
 1749-1829, b. New Orleans, established (1764) a trading post that became
 St. Louis. His half brother, Jean Pierre Chouteau, 1758-1849, b. New
 Orleans, founded (1809) the St. Louis Missouri Fur Company and settled
 Salina, Okla. Jean Pierre's son, Auguste Pierre Chouteau, 1786-1838, b.
 St. Louis, was a member of the company, and another son, Pierre Chouteau,
 1789-1865, b. St. Louis, headed the reorganized company until its
 dissolution in 1864 and became one of the richest, most powerful men in
 the West.

   chow chow

 chow chow, powerful NONSPORTING DOG; shoulder height, 18-20 in.
 (45.7-50.8 cm); weight, 50-60 lb (22.7-27.2 kg). Its coat has a soft,
 wooly underlayer and a dense, straight topcoat that stands out from the
 body. It may be any solid color and is the only breed with a black
 tongue. A hunting dog in China 2,000 years ago, it was brought to England
 in the 18th cent.

   Chretien de Troyes

 Chretien de Troyesor Chrestien de Troyes, fl. 1170, French poet, author
 of the first great literary treatments of the ARTHURIAN LEGEND. His
 narrative romances, imbued with the ideals of chivalry, include Erec et
 Enide, Cliges, and Perceval.

   Christchurch

 Christchurch, city (1987 est. pop. 333,200), E South Island, New Zealand.
 It is the commercial center of the productive Canterbury Plains and the
 third largest city in New Zealand. Lyttleton is its port. Perhaps the
 most English of New Zealand's cities, it has such landmarks as Hagley
 Park and Christchurch Cathedral. It was settled in 1850 and is the site
 of the Univ. of Canterbury (est. 1873).

   Christian

 Christian, Danish kings. Christian I, 1426-81, king of Denmark (1448-81),
 Norway (1450-81), and Sweden (1457-64), was the founder of the Oldenburg
 dynasty of Danish kings. In 1460 he also succeeded to Schleswig and
 Holstein. A weak monarch, he made concessions to the Danish nobles and
 lost his authority over Sweden. He was succeeded by his son John, whose
 son was Christian II, 1481-1559, king of Denmark and Norway (1513-23) and
 Sweden (1520-23). His massacre of Swedish nobles led to the accession of
 GUSTAVUS I of Sweden and the end of the KALMAR UNION. Christian was
 deposed (1523) by the Danish nobles in favor of his uncle, Frederick I,
 and imprisoned (1532) until his death. Christian III, 1503-59, king of
 Denmark and Norway (1534-59), was the son of Frederick I. With Gustavus I
 of Sweden he defeated the German city of LUBECK (1536), breaking the
 power of the HANSEATIC LEAGUE. He established (1536) Lutheranism in
 Denmark. Never elected king of Norway, he declared it a Danish
 dependency. He was succeeded by his son Frederick II. Christian IV,
 1577-1648, king of Denmark and Norway (1588-1648), was the son of
 Frederick II. He made war (1611-13, 1643-45) on CHARLES IX of Sweden and
 had a major part in the THIRTY YEARS WAR. His son FREDERICK III succeeded
 him. Frederick's son was Christian V, 1646-99, king of Denmark and Norway
 (1670-99). His minister, GRIFFENFELD, dominated his reign. His son
 FREDERICK IV succeeded him. Christian VI, 1699-1746, king of Denmark and
 Norway (1730-46), was the son of Frederick IV. A Pietist, he carried out
 a peaceful foreign policy. In 1733 he established a form of serfdom. His
 son FREDERICK V succeeded him. Christian VII, 1749-1808, king of Denmark
 and Norway (1766-1808), was Frederick V's son. Because he was mentally
 ill, power was held first by his ministers and then by his son and
 successor, FREDERICK VI, as regent. Their reforms included the end of
 serfdom. Christian VIII, 1786-1848, king of Denmark (1839-48) and Norway
 (1814), was the cousin and successor of Frederick VI. He accepted a
 liberal Norwegian constitution. In 1836 Danish rule of SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN
 became an issue. His son FREDERICK VII succeeded him. Christian IX,
 1818-1906, king of Denmark (1863-1906), succeeded Frederick VII, last of
 the Oldenburg line. In war (1864) with Prussia and Austria he lost
 Schleswig and Holstein. During his rule there was pressure for a more
 democratic constitution. His son FREDERICK VIII succeeded him. A younger
 son became GEORGE I of Greece. Christian X, 1870-1947, king of Denmark
 (1912-47) and Iceland (1912-44), was the son of Frederick VIII and the
 brother of HAAKON VII of Norway. He granted (1915) a new constitution

 under house arrest (1943). His son FREDERICK IX succeeded him.

   Christianity

 Christianity, all doctrines and religious groups based on the teachings
 of JESUS Christ. Jesus is held by Christians to be the Son of God, the
 second person of the TRINITY, and the Savior of mankind. This teaching is
 embodied in the Bible, particularly in the New Testament. Rooted in
 JUDAISM, Christianity was founded in the 1st cent. in Palestine by
 disciples of Jesus. It was spread, despite sporadic persecution, through
 the Roman Empire by missionaries, notably St. PAUL, and was recognized
 (313) by CONSTANTINE I. The early church was plagued by heresies
 concerning the nature of Christ (e.g., ARIANISM, NESTORIANISM,
 MONOPHYSITISM), which were condemned at councils such as the First
 Council of NICAEA (325). Monasticism arose in Egypt in the 3d and 4th
 cent. and was organized in the East by St. Basil the Great and in the
 West by St. BENEDICT. Christian writers, notably ORIGEN, St. ATHANASIUS,
 St. JEROME, and St. AUGUSTINE helped to determine and preserve the text
 of the Bible. In the East the church became centered in Constantinople


 to embrace all Europe, but in the 7th and 8th cent. lost Asia Minor and N
 Africa to ISLAM. Gradually, a break developed between East and West (see
 ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH; ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH), and became more or less
 permanent after 1054. In the West the growing power and corruption of the
 church contributed to the Protestant REFORMATION, which splintered
 Christianity into numerous sects (see PROTESTANTISM). In the 20th cent.
 the ECUMENICAL MOVEMENT was begun to promote Christian unity.

   Christian Science

 Christian Science, religion founded upon principles of divine healing and
 laws expressed in the acts and sayings of JESUS Christ, as discovered and
 formulated by Mary Baker EDDY and practiced by the Church of Christ,
 Scientist. The sect denies the reality of the material world, arguing
 that sin and illness are illusions to be overcome by the mind; thus, they
 refuse medical help in fighting sickness. Mrs. Eddy's Science and Health
 with Key to the Scriptures is the textbook of the doctrine. The church
 was founded in 1879 and is centered in Boston.

   Christian socialism

 Christian socialism, term used in Great Britain and the U.S. for a kind
 of socialism growing out of the clash between Christian ideals and the
 effects of competitive business. In Europe it usually refers to a party
 or trade union directed by religious leaders in contrast to socialist
 unions and parties. Begun (1848) in England and led by Frederick Denison
 MAURICE and Charles KINGSLEY, it sought to encourage the laboring masses
 and the church to cooperate against capitalism. It was influenced by the
 Fourierists (see FOURIER, CHARLES), rather than by MARX. In the U.S. the
 movement was organized (1889) with the formation of the Society of
 Christian Socialists and was concerned more with the application of the
 SOCIAL GOSPEL to immediate industrial and social problems than with
 political socialism.

   Christie, Dame Agatha

 Christie, Dame Agatha, 1891-1976, English detective-story writer. Most of
 her over 80 books feature one of two detectives-Hercule Poirot or Jane
 Marple. Her novels include The Murder of Roger Ackroyd (1926) and The
 Pale Horse (1962). Among her plays is the long-running Mousetrap (1952).

   Christina

 Christina, 1626-89, queen of Sweden (1632-54), daughter of GUSTAVUS II.
 Until 1644 she was under a regency headed by OXENSTIERNA. Because of her
 zeal for learning, she attracted to her court musicians, poets, and such
 scholars as DESCARTES. She refused to marry, naming her cousin, later
 CHARLES X, as her successor. In 1654 she abdicated, becoming a Catholic
 and settling in Rome. On the death (1660) of Charles X she returned to
 Sweden but failed to regain the throne. She is buried at St. Peter's in
 Rome.

   Christmas

 Christmas [Christ's Mass], in the Christian calendar, the feast of the
 nativity of JESUS Christ (Dec. 25). It ranks after EASTER, PENTECOST, and
 EPIPHANY in liturgical importance and was not widespread until the 4th
 cent. The customs of the yule log, caroling, mistletoe, and gifts at
 Christmas are English. Elsewhere, gifts are given at other times, as at
 Epiphany in Spain. Christmas cards appeared c.1846. The concept of a
 jolly Santa Claus (see NICHOLAS, SAINT) was first made popular in
 19th-cent. New York City. The Christmas tree was a medieval German
 tradition. Midnight Mass is a familiar religious observance among Roman
 Catholics and some Protestants.

   Christmasberry

 Christmasberry or toyon, evergreen tree or shrub (Photinia arbutifolia)
 of the ROSE family, found on the North American Pacific coast. White
 flowers precede its bright red berries. Also called California holly, it
 is a Christmas green.

   Christmas Island

 Christmas Island, tropical island (1986 est. pop. 2,000), 60 sq mi (155
 sq km), external territory of Australia, in the Indian Ocean. Most of the
 inhabitants are Chinese and Malays who had come to work the island's
 phosphate mine, which closed in 1987. The island was annexed by Great
 Britain in 1888 and transferred to Australian rule in 1958.

   Christo

 Christo, 1935-, Bulgarian artist; b. Christo Javacheff. His art involves
 wrapping objects, thus transforming the everyday into the ambiguous. In
 his large environmental projects he alters urban structures or
 landscapes, giving them a temporary, artificial skin that both conceals
 and reveals. His work includes Running Fence (1976), a fabric curtain
 that ran 24 mi (38.6 km) through the California countryside.

   Christ of the Andes

 Christ of the Andes, statue of Christ in Uspallata Pass, the ANDES.
 Dedicated on March 13, 1904, it commemorates a series of peace and
 boundary treaties between Argentina and Chile.

   Christophe, Henri

 Christophe, Henri, 1767-1820, Haitian revolutionary leader. A freed black
 slave, he helped TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE to liberate HAITI and plotted the
 assassination of DESSALINES. A tyrant, he ruled (1806-20) N Haiti as King
 Henri I. He committed suicide.

   Christopher, Saint

 Christopher, Saint, 3d cent.?, martyr of Asia Minor. In legend he carried
 a child across a river and felt the child's weight almost too heavy to
 bear; the child was JESUS, who was holding the world in his hands.
 Christopher is the patron of travelers. His feast, July 25, was dropped
 from the Roman Catholic liturgical calendar in 1969.

   Christus

 Christusor Cristus, Petrus, fl. 1444-c.1473, Flemish painter. A follower
 and probable pupil of the van EYCKS, he was noted for his introspective
 treatment of figures and rendering of geometric perspective. Many of his
 compositions are simplifications of Jan van Eyck's paintings. They
 include Lamentation (Brussels) and Nativity (National Gall., Wash.,
 D.C.).

   Christy, Edwin P.

 Christy, Edwin P., 1815-62, American showman; b. Philadelphia. In c.1846
 he established Christy's Minstrels. The company crystallized the pattern
 for MINSTREL SHOWS, with variety acts and white performers in blackface.

   chromatography

 chromatography, resolution of a chemical mixture into its component
 compounds by passing it through a system, called a chromatograph, that
 retards each compound to a varying degree. The retarding substance is
 usually a surface adsorbent, such as ALUMINA, CELLULOSE, or SILICA. In
 column chromatography the adsorbent is packed into a column, and a
 solution of the mixture is added at the top and washed, or eluted, down
 with an appropriate solvent; each component of the mixture passes through
 the column at a different speed. In paper chromatography the mixture to
 be separated is allowed to soak along the paper by capillary action, the
 cellulose in the paper acting as the adsorbent. The gas chromatograph is
 a system in which a liquid with a high boiling point is impregnated on an
 inert solid support packed into a thin metal column, and helium gas is
 allowed to flow through it. The solution to be analyzed is injected into
 the column, immediately volatized, and swept by the helium gas through
 the column; at this point the mixture is resolved into its components.

   chromium

 chromium (Cr), metallic element, discovered in 1797 by L.N. Vauquelin. A
 lustrous, silver-gray metal, it is comparatively rare and occurs only in
 compounds; the chief source is the mineral chromite. Hard and
 nontarnishing, chromium is used to plate other metals; in alloys (see,
 e.g., STEEL) with other metals it contributes hardness, strength, and
 heat resistance. Chromium compounds are used as paint pigments, in
 tanning, and in dyeing. See ELEMENT ; PERIODIC TABLE.

   chromosome

 chromosome, structural carrier of hereditary characteristics, found in
 the cell nucleus. The number of chromosomes is characteristic of each
 species; in sexually reproducing species, chromosomes generally occur in
 pairs. In MITOSIS, or ordinary cell division, each individual chromosome
 is duplicated and each daughter cell receives all chromosomes, a set
 exactly like its parent's. In MEIOSIS, the process by which sex cells
 (OVUM and SPERM) are formed, each daughter cell receives half the number
 of chromosomes, one of each pair. A fertilized egg contains two sets of
 chromosomes, one set from each parent. Chromosomes are made of protein
 and NUCLEIC ACID. They represent the linear arrangement of GENES, the
 units of inheritance.

   chromosphere

 chromosphere: see SUN.

   Chronicles

 Chroniclesor Paralipomenon [Gr., = things left out], two books of the OLD
 TESTAMENT, 13th and 14th in the Authorized Version, originally a single
 work in the Hebrew canon. The books contain a history of the Jewish
 kingdom under DAVID (1 Chron. 10-29) and SOLOMON (2 Chron. 1-9), and,
 after the division of the kingdom, a history of the southern kingdom of
 JUDAH, including the BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY (2 Chron. 10-36).

   chronometer

 chronometer, mechanical instrument for keeping highly accurate time. The
 perfection of the chronometer in 1759 by the English clockmaker John
 Harrison allowed navigators at sea to determine longitude accurately for
 the first time. A marine chronometer is a spring-driven escapement
 timekeeper, like a watch, but its parts are more massively built and it
 has devices to compensate for changes in the tension of the spring caused
 by changes in temperature.

   chrysanthemum

 chrysanthemum, annual or perennial herb (genus Chrysanthemum) of the
 COMPOSITE family, long grown in the Orient. The chrysanthemum is a
 national flower of Japan and the floral emblem of the Japanese imperial
 family. The red, white, or yellow flowers range from single daisylike
 heads to large rounded or shaggy heads. They are commercially important.
 Innumerable horticultural types exist, most varieties of C. morifolium.
 The pyrethrum, feverfew, marguerite, and DAISY belong in the same genus.

   Chrysler, Walter Percy

 Chrysler, Walter Percy, 1875-1940, American industrialist, founder of the
 Chrysler Corp.; b. Wamego, Kans. Initially a machinist's apprentice, he
 became (1916) a vice president of the General Motors Corp. and in 1924
 brought out the first Chrysler car. The Chrysler Corp., founded in 1925,
 became one of the major U.S. automobile companies.

   Chrysophyta

 Chrysophyta, division of the plant kingdom consisting of four diverse
 classes of ALGAE, the largest and best known of which comprises the
 DIATOMS.

   Chrysostom

 Chrysostom: see JOHN CHRYSOSTOM, SAINT.

   chrysotile

 chrysotile: see ASBESTOS; SERPENTINE.

   Chun Doo-Hwan

 Chun Doo-Hwan, 1931-, Korean military leader, president of South Korea
 (1980-). An army officer, Chun rose to power after the murder (1979) of
 South Korean Pres. PARK CHUNG HEE. As president, Chun banned many of his
 opponents from politics and passed (1980) a new authoritarian
 constitution. In 1981 he lifted martial law, in effect since 1979.

   Chungking

 Chungking: see CHONGQING.

   Church, Frederick Edwin

 Church, Frederick Edwin, 1826-1900, American painter; b. Hartford, Conn.
 A member of the HUDSON RIVER SCHOOL, he preferred exotic foreign
 landscapes to native views. His large canvases are noted for their
 crystalline portrayal of light.

   Churches of Christ

 Churches of Christ, conservative body of Protestant Christians, formerly
 united with the DISCIPLES OF CHRIST. Highly evangelistic, they are
 congregational in polity and biblical in doctrine, and form one of the
 largest American denominations. In 1988 they reported a membership in the
 U.S. of 1,106,692.

   Churchill, John

 Churchill, John: see MARLBOROUGH, JOHN CHURCHILL, 1ST DUKE OF.

   Churchill, Sarah

 Churchill, Sarah: see under MARLBOROUGH, JOHN CHURCHILL, 1ST DUKE OF.

   Churchill, Sir Winston Leonard Spencer

 Churchill, Sir Winston Leonard Spencer, 1874-1965, British statesman,
 soldier, and author. A graduate of Sandhurst, he fought in India, the
 Sudan, and South Africa. In 1900 he was elected to Parliament. He was the
 first lord of the admiralty (1911-15) in WORLD WAR I until discredited by
 the failure of the Dardanelles campaign, which he had championed. He
 later served in several cabinet positions in the Liberal government of
 LLOYD GEORGE. A Conservative after 1924, he was chancellor of the
 exchequer from 1924 to 1929; his revaluation of the pound was a factor
 leading to the general strike of 1926. Out of office from 1929 to 1939,
 Churchill issued unheeded warnings of the threat of Nazi Germany. In
 1940, seven months after the outbreak of WORLD WAR II, he replaced
 Neville CHAMBERLAIN as prime minister. His stirring oratory, his energy,
 and his refusal to make peace with HITLER were crucial to maintaining
 British resistance from 1940 to 1942. Before the U.S. entry into the war,
 he met Pres. F.D. ROOSEVELT at sea. He twice addressed the U.S. Congress,
 twice went to Moscow, and attended a series of international conferences
 (e.g., YALTA CONFERENCE). After the postwar Labour victory in 1945, he
 became leader of the opposition. In 1951 he was again elected prime
 minister; he was knighted in 1953 and retired in 1955. Churchill was the
 author of many histories, biographies, and memoirs, and in 1953 he was
 awarded the Nobel Prize in literature for his writing and his oratory.

   Churchill

 Churchill, river, NE Canada, called the Hamilton R. until renamed (1965)
 for Sir Winston Churchill. It flows c.600 mi (970 km) from Ashuanipi Lake
 across Labrador (Newfoundland) to the Atlantic. One of the world's
 largest hydroelectric installations (5.2 Mw; completed 1971) is located
 at Churchill (formerly Grand) Falls.

   Church of Christ, Scientist

 Church of Christ, Scientist: see CHRISTIAN SCIENCE.

   Church of England

 Church of England: see ENGLAND, CHURCH OF.

   Church of Scotland

 Church of Scotland: see SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF.

   Church Slavonic

 Church Slavonic, language belonging to the South Slavic group of the
 Slavic subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. It is the
 first Slavic tongue known to be recorded in writing. From the 9th to 11th
 cent. AD the language is termed Old Church Slavonic, Old Church Slavic,
 or Old Bulgarian. The later Church Slavonic flourished as a literary
 language before the 18th cent. It is still the liturgical language of
 most branches of the ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH, but is extinct as a spoken
 tongue. See LANGUAGE .

   Churriguera, Jose Benito

 Churriguera, Jose Benito, 1665-1725, Spanish architect and sculptor. He
 won fame for his design (1689) for the great catafalque for Queen Maria
 Luisa and for his ornate retables. Associated with his brothers, he was
 architect for the cathedral of Salamanca and built a private palace and
 the urban complex Nuevo Baztan in Madrid. The term Churrigueresque
 describes late-17th- and early-18th-cent. Spanish architecture, marked by
 extravagance of design and capricious use of Renaissance motives. Its
 influence was important in the missions of Spanish colonial North
 America.

   Chu Teh

 Chu Teh, 1886-1976, Chinese Communist soldier. In 1922 he went to Europe,
 where he joined the Chinese Communist party. He returned to China and in
 1927, when CHIANG KAI-SHEK broke with the Communists, Chu joined MAO
 TSE-TUNG. Chu led (1934-35) his section of the Red Army on the LONG MARCH
 to NW China and commanded Communist forces in the Second SINO-JAPANESE
 WAR. He left his military post to become deputy chairman of the People's
 Republic of China (1954); he became chairman of the National People's
 Congress in 1959.

   CIA

 CIA: see CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY.

   Ciardi, John

 Ciardi, John, 1916-86, American poet; b. Boston. His witty, perceptive
 poetry includes Homeward to America (1940), I Marry You (1958), and For
 Instance (1979). He has also wrote criticism and translated DANTE.

   Cibber, Colley

 Cibber, Colley, 1671-1757, English dramatist and actor-man ager. After
 successes playing RESTORATION comedy, he wrote Love's Last Shift (1696),
 the first sentimental COMEDY. He wrote 30 more plays and was made poet
 laureate in 1730. An unpopular man, he was attacked by Alexander POPE in
 The Dunciad.

   cicada

 cicada, large, noise-producing INSECT (order Homoptera) with a stout
 body, a wide blunt head, protruding eyes, and two pairs of membranous
 wings. The males have platelike membranes on the thorax, which they
 vibrate, producing a loud, shrill sound; females are mute. The periodical
 cicadas (genus Magicicada) have the longest life cycles known of any
 insect, 13 years in one species and 17 in another, but winged adults only
 live for about one week.

   Cicero

 Cicero (Marcus Tullius Cicero) or Tully, 106 BC-43 BC, greatest Roman
 orator, also a philosopher. As senatorial party leader he prosecuted
 CATILINE, but was later exiled himself by CLODIUS; recalled by POMPEY, he
 opposed Julius CAESAR. He answered Mark ANTONY in the senate with his
 first and second PHILIPPICS, defending the Republic. After Octavian
 (AUGUSTUS) took Rome, Cicero was executed. To the modern reader, his
 letters, to his brother and friends, are perhaps most interesting. His
 philosophical works are generally stoical (see STOICISM). He is best
 known for his Orations against Catiline, Against Verres, On the Manilian
 Law, and others. His mastery of Latin prose is unsurpassed.

   Cid

 Cidor Cid Campeador, d. 1099, Spanish soldier whose exploits were
 romanticized in many literary works. He fought against the MOORS but
 ALFONSO VI distrusted and banished (1081) him. The Cid then served the
 Muslim ruler of Saragosa, fighting against Moors and Christians alike. In
 1094 he conquered VALENCIA and ruled there until his death.

   Cilicia

 Cilicia, ancient region of SE Asia Minor, between the Mediterranean and
 the Taurus range. Part of the Assyrian empire and then of the Persian
 empire, it was later hellenized. Roman and Byzantine rule followed.
 Cilicia was invaded (8th cent. AD) by the Arabs, and in 1080 an Armenian
 state (later called Little Armenia) was set up. This lasted until the
 area was conquered by the Turks in 1375.

   Cimabue, Giovanni

 Cimabue, Giovanni, d. c.1302, Florentine painter; b. Cenni di Pepo or
 Peppi. His works constitute the transition from formal Byzantine painting
 to the freer expression of the 14th cent. Master of MOSAICS at the
 cathedral at Pisa, he kept many of the old forms while giving his figures
 greater naturalism. His attributed works include the Madonna Enthroned
 (Uffizi) and a Crucifixion (Santa Croce, Florence).

   Cimarosa, Domenico

 Cimarosa, Domenico, 1749-1801, Italian operatic composer. His almost 80
 OPERAS, e.g., The Secret Marriage (1792), include good examples of pure
 opera buffa. He also wrote serious operas and church music.

   Cimarron, Territory of

 Cimarron, Territory of, now the Oklahoma panhandle. It was settled in the
 early 1800s by cattle ranchers, most of them squatters. After several
 unsuccessful attempts to create a separate territorial government for the
 area, Cimarron became part of Oklahoma Territory in 1890.

   Cimbri

 Cimbri: see GERMANS.

   Cimmerians

 Cimmerians, ancient and little-known people who were driven (8th cent.
 BC) from the CRIMEA to the Lake Van region in present E Turkey. They
 swept across Asia Minor (late 7th cent.), plundering Lydia and weakening
 Phrygia.

   cinchona

 cinchona or chinchona, evergreen tree (genus Cinchona) of the MADDER
 family, native to mountainous areas of South and Central America and
 widely cultivated elsewhere for its bark, the source of QUININE and other
 antimalarial alkaloids. The tree was named for the Countess of Chinchon,
 said to have been cured of a fever in 1638 by a preparation of the bark.

   Cincinnati

 Cincinnati, city (1986 est. pop. 369,750), seat of Hamilton co., SW Ohio,
 on the Ohio R.; founded 1788, inc. as a city 1819. It is the industrial,
 commercial, and cultural center of a large area of Ohio and neighboring
 Kentucky, and a major river port and transportation center. Machine
 tools, automobile and aircraft engines and parts, chemicals, and
 cosmetics are among its manufactures. The city was the first seat (1799)
 of the legislature of the NORTHWEST TERRITORY. Attractively situated in
 hilly terrain, it has undergone major renovation of its downtown area.
 Cultural institutions include its conservatory, opera, museums, and
 symphony orchestra. William Howard TAFT and Robert A. TAFT were born
 there, and it is the site of the Taft Museum.

   Cincinnatus

 Cincinnatus (Lucius or Titus Quinctius Cincinnatus), fl. 5th cent. BC,
 Roman patriot. He was consul (460 BC) and dictator twice (458 and 439).
 According to tradition, he was called from his farm to defend Rome twice,
 first from foreign invaders, then from the plebeians.

   cinematography

 cinematography: see MOTION-PICTURE PHOTOGRAPHY.

   cinema verite

 cinema verite, a style of film making, often with hand-held camera, that
 attempts to convey candid realism, showing people in everyday situations
 with authentic dialogue, a naturalness of action, and a minimum of
 rearrangement for the camera. This style was pioneered in the late 1950s
 and early 1960s by French and American documentary film makers, including
 Richard Leacock, Jean Rouch, and Chris Marker. Many fiction filmmakers,
 most notably Jean-Luc GODARD, have been influenced by cinema verite.

   Cinna

 Cinna (Lucius Cornelius Cinna), d. 84 BC, Roman politician. When SULLA
 left Italy, Cinna as consul (87-84 BC) opposed him, and slaughtered many
 of Sulla's followers. After Sulla set out for Rome, and before the civil
 war began, Cinna was murdered in a mutiny at Brundisium. His daughter
 Cornelia was the first wife of Julius CAESAR.

   cinnabar

 cinnabar, deep-red mercury sulfide mineral (HgS). Used as a pigment, it
 is principally a source of the metal MERCURY. Cinnabar is mined in Spain,
 Italy, and California.

   cinnamon

 cinnamon, tree or shrub (genus Cinnamomum) of the LAUREL family. Cinnamon
 spice, obtained by drying the bark of the tropical Ceylon cinnamon (C.
 zeylanicum), has been used since biblical times. C. camphora is the
 source of CAMPHOR.

   CIO

 CIO: see AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR AND CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL
 ORGANIZATIONS.

   Cione, Andrea di

 Cione, Andrea di: see ORCAGNA.

   Circe

 Circe, in Greek mythology, enchantress; daughter of HELIOS. In HOMER'S
 Odyssey she turned ODYSSEUS' men into swine, but was forced to break the
 spell.

   circle

 circle, closed plane CURVE consisting of all points at a given distance
 from a fixed point, called the center. A radius of a circle is any line
 segment connecting the center and the curve; the word radius is also used
 for the length r of that line segment. Both the circle itself and its
 length C are referred to by the term circumference. A line segment whose
 two ends lie on the circumference is a chord; a chord through the center
 is a diameter. The circumference of a circle is given by C=2;gpr. The
 area A bounded by a circle is given by A=;gpr2. In the religion and art
 of many cultures the circle frequently symbolizes heaven, eternity, or
 the universe. See also CONIC SECTION.

   circuit breaker

 circuit breaker, electric device that, like a FUSE, interrupts a current
 in an ELECTRIC CIRCUIT when the current becomes too high. Unlike a fuse,
 which must be replaced after it has been used once, a circuit breaker can
 be reset after it has been tripped. When a high current passes through
 the circuit breaker, the heat it generates or the magnetic field it
 creates causes a trigger to rapidly separate the pair of contacts that
 normally conduct the current.

   circuit rider

 circuit rider, itinerant preacher of the Methodist denomination who
 served a "circuit" of 20 to 40 "appointments." The system was devised in
 the 18th cent. by John WESLEY for his English societies and was adapted
 in America by Francis Asbury, where it aided greatly the spread of
 METHODISM.

   circulatory system

 circulatory system, a group of organs that transport blood and the
 substances it carries to and from all parts of the body. In humans the
 circulatory system consists of vessels (arteries and veins) that carry
 the blood and a muscular pump, the HEART, that drives the blood. Arteries
 carry the blood away from the heart; the main arterial vessel, the aorta,
 branches into smaller arteries, which in turn branch into still smaller
 vessels that reach all parts of the body. In the smallest blood vessels,
 the capillaries, which are located in body tissue, the gas and nutrient
 exchange occurs-the blood gives up nutrients and oxygen to the cells and
 accepts carbon dioxide, water, and wastes (see RESPIRATION). Blood
 leaving the tissue capillaries enters converging large vessels, the
 veins, to return to the heart. The human heart has four chambers and a
 dividing wall, or septum, that separates the heart into a right and a
 left heart. Oxygen-poor, carbon dioxide-rich blood from the veins returns
 to the right side of the heart. The heart contracts to pump the blood
 through pulmonary arteries to the LUNGS, where the blood receives oxygen
 and eliminates carbon dioxide. Pulmonary veins return the oxygen-rich
 blood to the left side of the heart. The left side then pumps the
 oxygenated blood through the branching aorta and arteries to all parts of
 the body. The organs most intimately related to the substances carried by
 the blood are the KIDNEYS, SPLEEN, and LIVER. An auxiliary system, the
 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM, collects lymph, or tissue fluid, from body tissues and
 returns it to the blood. See also ARTERIOSCLEROSIS; BLOOD PRESSURE;
 CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; HEART DISEASE; SHOCK; STROKE.

   circumcision

 circumcision, operation to remove the foreskin covering the glans of the
 penis. Dating from prehistoric times, it is performed by Jews as a
 sacramental operation eight days after the birth of a male child. It is
 also practiced among Muslims and other peoples and is often performed as
 a sanitary measure. Female circumcision, e.g., excision of the labia
 minora and clitoris, or clitoridectomy, is found in Islam and in certain
 tribes of Africa, South America, and elsewhere.

   circumpolar star

 circumpolar star, a star whose apparent daily path on the celestial
 sphere lies completely above or below an observer's horizon. A star whose
 declination (see ASTRONOMICAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS) is greater than 90 deg
 minus an observer's latitude will always remain above the horizon for
 that observer.

   circus

 circus [Lat.,=circle], associated historically with the horse and chariot
 races, gladiatorial combats, and brutal athletic contests known in
 ancient Rome as the Circensian games. The Roman circus was a round or
 oval structure, with tiers of spectators' seats enclosing the area where
 the action took place. The modern circus, which originated in
 performances of equestrian feats in a horse ring, dates from the late
 18th cent. It is a tent show featuring wild and trained animals,
 acrobats, freaks, and clowns. The three-ring circus was originated by
 James A. Bailey. The most famous U.S. show was P.T. BARNUM'S. Barnum and
 Bailey merged with Ringling Brothers in 1919.

   cire perdue

 cire perdue [Fr.,=lost wax], process of hollow metal casting. A plaster
 or clay model is coated with wax and covered with a mold of perforated
 plaster or clay. Heat is applied, the wax melts and runs out of the
 holes, and molten metal (usually bronze) is poured into the space
 formerly occupied by the wax. When the metal is cool, the mold is broken
 and the core removed. Probably of Egyptian origin, the method was
 introduced into Greece in the 6th cent. BC and was used extensively from
 the 5th cent. The process, employed worldwide, was brought to China c.200
 BC and was later used in casting the Benin bronzes of Africa. The great
 bronze masterpieces of the RENAISSANCE were produced by the cire perdue
 method.

   cirrhosis

 cirrhosis, degeneration of LIVER tissue, resulting in fibrosis and nodule
 formation. Laennec's, or alcoholic, cirrhosis is the most prevalent form,
 occurring in patients with a history of ALCOHOLISM; other causes include
 infections, such as HEPATITIS, and obstruction of BILE flow. Cirrhosis
 can result in gastrointestinal disturbances, emaciation, JAUNDICE, and
 edema. It is irreversible, but supportive treatment includes diet
 control, VITAMINS, and diuretics (to remove accumulated fluid). Cirrhosis
 is a common cause of death in the U.S.

   Cisalpine Republic

 Cisalpine Republic, 1797-1802, Italian state created by Napoleon
 Bonaparte, who united the two republics he had established (1796) N and S
 of the Po River. A French protectorate, it became the Italian Republic
 (1802) and, with the addition of Venetia, the Napoleonic kingdom of Italy
 (1805), which was broken up by the Congress of VIENNA (1815).

   Ciskei

 Ciskei, black African homeland or BANTUSTAN, 3,280 sq mi (8,500 sq km),
 declared independent (1981) by the Republic of South Africa, but through
 the late 1980s not recognized as independent by any other nation. Bisho
 is the capital; the largest city is Mdantsane. Half of the 660,000
 Xhosa-speaking black inhabitants were moved to Ciskei from white areas in
 Cape Province in the 1970s. The population density is extremely high, and
 economic conditions are among the worst in South Africa.

   Cisleithania

 Cisleithania: see AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY.

   citizens band radio

 citizens band radio: see RADIO.

   citric acid cycle

 citric acid cycle or Krebs cycle,series of chemical reactions occurring
 in the cells of higher plants, animals, and many microorganisms. It is
 essential for the oxidative metabolism of GLUCOSE and other simple
 sugars. The reactions take a molecule of citric acid (originating from
 glucose) through several intermediate products; additional organic
 molecules are incorporated and citric acid is regenerated. Each cycle
 releases hydrogen atoms, which are necessary for the next stage of the
 metabolic process to generate chemical energy for the organism.

   citron

 citron, small evergreen tree (Citrus medica) of the ORANGE family, and
 its fruit, the first of the CITRUS FRUITS introduced to Europe from the
 Orient. Citrons are grown in the Mediterranean, West Indies, Florida, and
 California. The large yellow-green, thin-rinded, and furrowed fruit
 contains a thick, white, and tender inner rind and a small acid pulp. The
 juice is used as a beverage and syrup, and the candied, preserved rind is
 used in confectionery and cookery.

   citrus fruits

 citrus fruits, edible fruits of trees of the orange, or RUE, family;
 almost all native to Southeast Asia and the East Indies. The fruits are
 rich in vitamin C, citric acid, and sugars; the rind and blossoms yield
 ESSENTIAL OILS. Citrus fruits include the ORANGE, GRAPEFRUIT, LEMON,
 LIME, and KUMQUAT.

   city planning

 city planning, planning for the improvement of urban centers in order to
 provide healthy and safe living conditions, efficient transport and
 communication, adequate public facilities, and aesthetic surroundings.
 Renaissance Italian piazzas, Pierre L'ENFANT'S design (1791) for
 Washington, D.C., Baron HAUSSMANN'S 19th-cent. remodeling of Paris,
 Frederick Law OLMSTED'S parks, and 20th-cent. BRASILIA are all examples.
 Modern city planners, particularly those involved in slum clearance and
 construction of housing projects, must take into account such social and
 economic factors as zoning regulations; traffic patterns; employment
 opportunities; proximity to transportation, schools, shops, hospitals,
 and parks; the availability of police, fire, and sanitation services; and
 the preferences of prospective residents.

   city-state

 city-state, in ancient GREECE, autonomous political unit consisting of a
 city and the surrounding countryside. Greece was organized into several
 hundred city-states, with a variety of governments ranging from absolute
 monarchy to pure democracy. Only citizens participated in the government
 of the city-state, and citizenship was limited to those born of citizen
 parents. A large proportion of the population consisted of slaves. The
 organization of Greece into separate city-states left it open to foreign
 attack by large centralized states, to which it eventually became
 subject.

   Civil Aeronautics Board

 Civil Aeronautics Board: see under FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION.

   civil defense

 civil defense, nonmilitary measures designed to protect civilians in
 wartime. In response to the use and destructiveness of military aircraft,
 civil defense greatly expanded in World War II. U.S. measures to meet the
 threat of long-distance carriers of nuclear weapons have been
 controversial and include a warning system, survival planning, shelter
 construction, and stockpiling of necessities.

   Civilian Conservation Corps

 Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), founded in 1933 by the U.S. Congress
 to provide work and job training for unemployed young men in conserving
 and developing the nation's natural resources. It was abolished in 1942.

   civil law

 civil law, legal system based on ROMAN LAW; also the body of law dealing
 with relationships between individuals, as opposed to CRIMINAL LAW, which
 deals with offenses against the state. After the collapse of the Roman
 Empire, the legal ideas and concepts of Rome were kept alive in the canon
 law of the medieval church and the Corpus Juris Civilis (6th cent.) of
 JUSTINIAN I. There are many later codifications of civil law principles.
 The most famous is the Code Napoleon (1804), the codification of the
 civil law of France, which has strongly influenced the law of continental
 Europe and Latin America, where civil law is prevalent. In contrast to
 COMMON LAW, prevalent in English-speaking countries (including the U.S.,
 except Louisiana), civil law judgments are based on codified principles
 rather than on precedents, and civil law courts do not generally employ
 trial by jury or the law of evidence.

   civil rights

 civil rights, rights protecting a person against arbitrary or
 discriminatory treatment. The U.S. CONSTITUTION guarantees freedom of
 religion, speech, and the PRESS, freedom of assembly, and rights to due
 process of law (e.g., HABEAS CORPUS) and equal protection under the law.
 After the CIVIL WAR, efforts to extend civil rights to blacks were only
 in part realized by the 14th and 15th constitutional amendments. In the
 20th cent. the black civil rights movement, led by the NATIONAL
 ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF COLORED PEOPLE, the National Urban
 League, Martin Luther KING, Jr., and others, was instrumental in securing
 legislation, notably the civil rights acts of 1964 and 1968 and the
 voting rights act of 1965, prohibiting discrimination in public
 accommodations, schools, employment, and voting for reasons of color,
 race, religion, or national origin (see INTEGRATION). WOMAN SUFFRAGE was
 achieved in the U.S. under the 19th amendment (1920). In 1972 Congress
 passed the Equal Rights Amendment, prohibiting discrimination on grounds
 of sex, but the amendment failed to obtain the necessary ratification of
 38 states by July 1982 (see FEMINISM). See also GAY RIGHTS.

   civil service

 civil service, entire body of those employed in civil administration as
 distinct from the military, excluding elected officials. While
 competitive examinations were used to select officials in ancient China,
 a civil service based on merit emerged in the West with the decline of
 feudalism and the growth of the nation-state. Prussia (mid-17th cent.)
 and, later, France (especially after NAPOLEON I) developed efficient
 civil administrations. The term, first used to designate British
 administration in India, was extended to Great Britain in 1854. Civil
 service reform in the U.S. was spurred by the scandals of GRANT'S
 administration. The Pendleton Act (1883) reestablished the Civil Service
 Commission (first est. 1871), which sets up examinations for all
 positions classified as civil service; most federal jobs are so
 classified. As a result of reports (1949, 1955) by the Hoover Commission,
 the federal civil service was streamlined, and operations and activities
 of many agencies became part of the General Services Administration. The
 Hatch Act (1940), forbidding political campaign contributions by civil
 servants, was an attempt to separate civil service from politics.

   civil time

 civil time: see SOLAR TIME.

   Civil War, English

 Civil War, English: see ENGLISH CIVIL WAR.

   Civil War

 Civil War, in U.S. history, conflict (1861-65) between Northern states
 (Union) and Southern seceded states (CONFEDERACY). It is known in the
 South as the War between the States, and by the official Union
 designation of War of the Rebellion. Many causes over a number of years
 contributed to what William H. SEWARD called "the irrepressible
 conflict": sectional rivalry, moral indignation aroused by the
 ABOLITIONISTS, the question of the extension of slavery into new
 territories, and a fundamental disagreement about the relative supremacy
 of federal control or STATES' RIGHTS. The MISSOURI COMPROMISE (1820) and
 the COMPROMISE OF 1850 were unsuccessful efforts toward a peaceful
 solution. The election of LINCOLN as president and the secession (Dec.
 20, 1860) of SOUTH CAROLINA, soon followed by six other Southern states,
 precipitated war. When federal troops were moved to FORT SUMTER, S.C.,
 Confederate Gen. P.G.T. BEAUREGARD obeyed orders to fire on the fort
 (Apr. 12, 1861). Four more states seceded, making an 11-state
 Confederacy. Early battles were Confederate victories. Beauregard
 defeated Irvin McDowell (July 21) at the first battle of BULL RUN. In
 1862, G.B. MCCLELLAN'S PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN was foiled by Confederate
 commander Robert E. LEE. In September, however, Lee's ANTIETAM CAMPAIGN
 was checked by McClellan, and Lincoln drafted the EMANCIPATION
 PROCLAMATION. The year ended with a Union defeat (Dec. 13) at
 FREDERICKSBURG, and spring brought a resounding Confederate victory (May
 2-4, 1863) at CHANCELLORSVILLE, where Lee, however, lost his ablest
 general, "Stonewall" JACKSON. Confederate fortunes turned for the worse
 when Lee undertook the disastrous GETTYSBURG CAMPAIGN (June-July 1863).
 Meanwhile, the Union navy had blockaded the Southern coast, and D.G.
 FARRAGUT captured New Orleans (Apr. 1862). The introduction of the
 ironclad warship (see MONITOR AND MERRIMAC) had ended the era of the
 wooden battleship, but Confederate cruisers, built or bought in England,
 were causing great losses to Northern commercial shipping. In the West,
 GRANT'S great victory (Feb. 1862) at Fort Donelson was followed by a
 drawn battle (April 6-7) at SHILOH

 Gen. Braxton BRAGG was checked at the end of the CHATTANOOGA CAMPAIGN
 (Aug.-Nov. 1863) and was driven back to Georgia. In the WILDERNESS
 CAMPAIGN (May-June 1864), Grant forced Lee toward Richmond, and besieged
 PETERSBURG. Union Gen. W.T. SHERMAN won the ATLANTA CAMPAIGN (May-Sept.
 1864) and made a destructive march through Georgia to the sea. The
 Confederates evacuated Richmond after P.H. SHERIDAN'S victory at Five
 Forks (Apr. 1, 1865). With his retreat blocked, Lee was forced to
 surrender to Grant at APPOMATTOX (Apr. 9, 1865). The Union victory was
 saddened by the assassination of Pres. Lincoln (April 14), and by the
 deaths of more Americans than in any other war. But the Union was saved,
 and slavery was abolished. The seceded states were readmitted to the
 Union after RECONSTRUCTION.

   Cl

 Cl, chemical symbol of the element CHLORINE.

   Claflin, Tennessee

 Claflin, Tennessee: see WOODHULL, VICTORIA (CLAFLIN).

   Clair, Rene

 Clair, Rene, 1898-1981, French film director. His films, noted for wit
 and fantastic satire, include Sous le Toits de Paris (1929), The Ghost
 Goes West (1936), and Les Belles de nuit (1952).

   clam

 clam, name for some BIVALVE mollusks, especially marine species that live
 buried in mud or sand and have shells (valves) of equal size. Clams
 burrow by means of a muscular foot, which can be extruded through the
 valves. Clams are highly valued as food. Some freshwater bivalves are
 also called clams. See also MOLLUSK.

   clan

 clan, social group based on assumed unilateral descent from a common
 ancestor. Such groups have existed all over the world, including some
 that claim the parentage or special protection of an animal, plant, or
 other object (see TOTEM) as well as such familiar groups as the Highland
 clans of Scotland. Most clans are exogamous and regard marriages among
 their members as incest. A clan is distinguished from a lineage in that a
 clan merely claims common ancestry and may have several lineages; a
 lineage can be traced to a common progenitor. Several clans may combine
 into a larger social group called a phratry.

   Clarendon, Edward Hyde, 1st earl of

 Clarendon, Edward Hyde, 1st earl of, 1607-74, English statesman and
 historian. A monarchist, he aided CHARLES I and went into exile with
 CHARLES II. After the RESTORATION, he was lord chancellor. Although he
 favored religious toleration, he was forced by Parliament to enforce the
 CLARENDON CODE. In 1667 Charles made him the scapegoat for various
 failures in the second DUTCH WAR and removed him from office. He fled
 England and died in exile. He wrote History of the Rebellion. His
 daughter Anne married JAMES II.

   Clarendon, Constitutions of

 Clarendon, Constitutions of, 16 articles issued in 1164 by HENRY II of
 England at the Council of Clarendon. Important in the development of
 English law, the Constitutions extended the jurisdiction of civil over
 church courts. After the pope condemned them, THOMAS A BECKET, the
 archbishop of Canterbury, repudiated them, but for the most part they
 remained the law.

   Clarendon Code

 Clarendon Code, 1661-65, four English laws passed after the RESTORATION
 of CHARLES II to strengthen the position of the Church of ENGLAND. The
 laws decreased the followers of dissenting sects, especially
 Presbyterians. They were named for the earl of CLARENDON, who opposed but
 enforced them. Charles tried to court the dissenters by his unsuccessful
 declarations of indulgence (1662, 1672). The Code was largely superseded
 by the TEST ACT (1673).

   Clarin

 Clarin: see ALAS, LEOPOLDO.

   clarinet

 clarinet: see WIND INSTRUMENT.

   Clark, Alvan

 Clark, Alvan, 1804-87, b. Ashfield, Mass., and his son, Alvan Graham
 Clark, 1832-97, b. Fall River, Mass., makers of the objective lenses of
 the two largest refracting telescopes in the world. These are the 36-in.
 (91-cm) lens at the Lick Observatory, Calif., and the 40-in. (102-cm)
 lens at the Yerkes Observatory, Wis., which went into operation in,
 respectively, 1888 and 1897. The younger Clark discovered a number of
 double stars and the companion star of Sirius.

   Clark, George Rogers

 Clark, George Rogers, 1752-1818, Revolutionary War general, conqueror of
 the Old Northwest; b. near Charlottesville, Va. He took Vincennes from
 the British (1779) and fought the Indians in Ohio. His brother, William
 Clark, 1770-1838, b. Caroline co., Va., joined Meriwether Lewis (1803) as
 a leader of the LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION. Later he was superintendent
 of Indian affairs, and governor of Missouri Territory.

   Clark, Joe

 Clark, Joe (Charles Joseph Clark), 1939-, prime minister of Canada
 (1979-80). He entered the Canadian House of Commons from Alberta in 1972
 and became leader of the Progressive Conservative party in 1976. In the
 1979 elections he led his party to victory and briefly replaced Pierre
 TRUDEAU as prime minister. His election represented the new political
 importance of W Canada, especially oil-rich Alberta.

   Clark, Kenneth Bancroft

 Clark, Kenneth Bancroft,  1914-, American psychologist; b. Canal Zone. He
 is best known for his writings on the effects of school segregation on
 students. His 1950 report was cited in the U.S. Supreme Court decision,
 BROWN V. BOARD OF EDUCATION. He was the first black person to receive a
 permanent professorship at the City College of New York, where he taught
 (1942-75), and to be a member of the New York State Board of Regents
 (1966). His books include Prejudice and Your Child (1955), Dark Ghetto
 (1965), and A Possible Reality (1972).

   Clark, Kenneth MacKenzie

 Clark, Kenneth MacKenzie (Lord Clark of Saltwood), 1903-83, English art
 historian. His noted writings include Leonardo da Vinci (2d ed., 1952),
 Landscape into Art (1949), Rembrandt and the Italian Renaissance (1966),
 The Romantic Rebellion (1974), and a popular cultural survey,
 Civilisation (1970).

   Clark, Mark Wayne

 Clark, Mark Wayne, 1896-1984, U.S. general; b. Madison Barracks, N.Y. He
 was Allied commander in N Africa and Italy in WORLD WAR II, supreme
 commander (1952-53) of UN forces in Korea, and commander of U.S. forces
 in the Far East.

   class action

 class action, lawsuit in which one or more persons represent a group
 (class) too large for individual suits to be practical. The decision
 binds all members of the group. Class action suits often involve major
 social issues, e.g., inmates attempting to improve prison conditions or
 women seeking equal pay for equal work.

   classicism

 classicism, term meaning clearness, elegance, symmetry, and repose
 produced by attention to traditional forms; absence of emotionalism,
 subjectivity, and excess enthusiasm; and, more precisely, admiration of
 Greek and Roman models. Renaissance writers, for example, looked to
 CICERO. In England, Francis BACON in prose and Ben JONSON in poetry
 strove for classical style. The movement reached its apex with Alexander
 POPE and the Augustans. In France neoclassicism found its highest
 expression in the dramas of Pierre CORNEILLE and Jean RACINE. The works
 of RENAISSANCE painters and of the composers F.J. HAYDN and W.A. MOZART
 particularly reveal the classical impulse. Classicism and ROMANTICISM are
 generally contrary tendencies.

   classic revival

 classic revival, widely diffused phase of taste ("neoclassic")
 influencing architecture and the arts in Europe and in the U.S. in the
 last years of the 18th and first half of the 19th cent. Enthusiasm for
 antiquity and for archaeological knowledge was stimulated by the
 excavation of POMPEII and by investigations in Greece. James Stuart and
 Nicholas Revett's Antiquities of Athens (1st vol., 1762) was extremely
 influential. In general, Roman influence predominated at first. In
 France, the Empire style sponsored by NAPOLEON I brought imitation of
 ancient Rome to a peak. In the U.S. the same spirit was seen in public
 buildings, e.g., Thomas JEFFERSON'S Virginia capitol design (1785).
 American Greek revival appeared in B.H. LATROBE'S Bank of Pennsylvania,
 Philadelphia (1799). Eventually a Greco-Roman form emerged. It dominated
 in no country as in the U.S., where classic colonnades were seen even on
 country farmhouses. Victorian romanticism after the Civil War
 extinguished the revival, but many major buildings, e.g., the dome and
 wings of the CAPITOL, remain.

   classification

 classification, in biology, the systematic categorization of organisms.
 One aim of modern classification, or systematics, is to show the
 evolutionary relationships among organisms. The broadest division of
 organisms is into kingdoms, traditionally two-Animalia (animals) and
 Plantae (plants). Fairly widely accepted today are three additional
 kingdoms: the Protista, comprising protozoans and some unicellular algae;
 the Monera, bacteria and blue-green algae; and the Fungi. From most to
 least inclusive, kingdoms are divided into the following categories:
 phylum (usually called division in botany), class, order, family, genus,
 and species. The species, the fundamental unit of classification,
 consists of populations of genetically similar, interbreeding or
 potentially interbreeding individuals that share the same gene pool
 (collection of inherited characteristics whose combination is unique to
 the species).

   Claudel, Paul

 Claudel, Paul, 1868-1955, French dramatist, poet, and diplomat. He was
 ambassador to Japan (1921-27), the U.S. (1927-33), and Belgium (1933-35).
 His writings reflect his profound and mystical Catholicism. His finest
 works include the play Tidings Brought to Mary (1912) and the rich lyric
 verse of Five Great Odes (1910).

   Claude Lorrain

 Claude Lorrain, whose original name was Claude Gelee or Gellee , 1600-82,
 French painter. The foremost landscape painter of his time, he recorded
 his poetic compositions in a notebook to protect them from forgeries; it
 was later published as Liber Veritatis (1777). In his later landscapes he
 opened up unlimited vistas, introducing lyrical variations of light to
 dissolve forms and draw the eye into vast panoramas. In The Expulsion of
 Hagar (1668; Munich) he defied conventional composition for strong
 effect. POUSSIN was indebted to him, as was J.M.W. TURNER.

   Claudius I

 Claudius I (Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus), 10 BC-AD 54, Roman
 emperor (AD 41-54), son of Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus (see DRUSUS,
 family) and thus nephew of TIBERIUS. When CALIGULA was murdered (AD 41),
 Claudius was proclaimed emperor by the PRAETORIANS. Despite suffering
 from a type of paralysis, he consolidated and renewed the empire.
 Claudius caused MESSALINA, his third wife, to be executed. He was in turn
 supposedly poisoned by her successor, Agrippina II, after she had
 persuaded him to pass over his son Britannicus as heir in favor of NERO,
 her son by a former husband. Claudius was much reviled by his enemies;
 however, he seems to have had considerable administrative ability.

   Claudius

 Claudius, ancient Roman gens. Appius Claudius Sabinus In regillenis or
 Regillensis was a Sabine; he came (c.504 BC) with his tribe to Rome. As
 consul (495 BC) he was known for his severity. Appius Claudius Crassus
 was decemvir (451-449 BC). Legend says that his attempt to rape VIRGINIA
 caused a revolt in which he was killed and which led to the fall of the
 decemvirs. Appius Claudius Caecus, censor (312-308 BC), constructed the
 first Roman aqueduct and began construction of the APPIAN WAY. Publius
 Claudius Pulcher, consul (249 BC), attacked the Carthaginian fleet at
 Drepanum and was defeated. Appius Claudis Pulcher, d. c.48 BC, consul (54
 BC), joined POMPEY in the civil war and died before the battle at
 Pharsala (48 BC).

   Clausewitz, Karl von

 Clausewitz, Karl von, 1780-1831, Prussian general and writer on military
 strategy. After serving in the wars against NAPOLEON I, he was appointed
 (1818) director of the Prussian war college. His masterpiece, On War,
 expounded the doctrines of "total war" and war as a political act (a
 continuation of diplomacy by other means). Published after his death, it
 had a major impact on military strategy and also greatly influenced
 political thinking.

   Clausius, Rudolf Julius Emanuel

 Clausius, Rudolf Julius Emanuel, 1822-88, German mathematical physicist.
 He introduced the concept of entropy and restated the second law of
 THERMODYNAMICS to say that heat cannot of itself pass from a colder to a
 hotter body. Through investigations of heat, electricity, and molecular
 physics, he developed the KINETIC-MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES and
 formulated a theory of ELECTROLYSIS.

   claustrophobia

 claustrophobia: see PHOBIA.

   clavichord

 clavichord: see PIANO.

   Clay, Cassius Marcellus, Jr.

 Clay, Cassius Marcellus, Jr.: see ALI, MUHAMMAD.

   Clay, Henry

 Clay, Henry, 1777-1852, American statesman; b. Hanover co., Va. He served
 Kentucky as U.S. senator (1806-7, 1810-11, 1831-42, 1849-52) and
 representative (1811-14, 1815-21, 1823-25). A leader of the "war hawks,"
 Clay helped to bring on the WAR OF 1812. His "American system" was a
 national program for federal aid in internal improvements, a protective
 tariff, and a rechartering of the BANK OF THE UNITED STATES. Secretary of
 state (1825-29) under Pres. John Quincy ADAMS, he opposed the succeeding
 Jackson administration, especially on the bank issue. He was the
 presidential candidate of the National Republican party in 1832 and of
 the WHIG PARTY in 1844. Clay pushed the MISSOURI COMPROMISE (1820-21)
 through the House, and, denouncing extremists in both North and South, he
 was the chief shaper of the COMPROMISE OF 1850. He was called the Great
 Pacificator and the Great Compromiser.

   clay

 clay, common name for a number of fine-grained, earthy materials that are
 plastic when wet. They are easily molded into a form they retain when
 dry, and become hard and hold their shape when subjected to heat.
 Chemically, clay minerals are hydrous aluminum silicates with various
 impurities. Clays are most commonly formed by surface weathering. In the
 form of BRICKS, clay has been indispensable to architecture since
 prehistoric times. Clays are of great industrial importance, e.g., in the
 manufacture of tile and pipe. Clay is one of the three principal types of
 soil; the others are SAND and loam.

   Clayton Antitrust Act

 Clayton Antitrust Act: see under ANTITRUST LAWS.

   Clayton-Bulwer Treaty

 Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, concluded at Washington, D.C., on Apr. 19, 1850,
 between the U.S., represented by Secretary of State John M. Clayton, and
 Great Britain, represented by Sir Henry Bulwer. U.S.-British rivalries in
 CENTRAL AMERICA, particularly over a proposed isthmian canal, led to the
 treaty, which checked British expansion in Central America but prevented
 the U.S. from building and politically controlling a canal. The unpopular
 treaty remained effective until it was superseded by the HAY-PAUNCEFOTE
 TREATY of 1901.

   Cleisthenes

 Cleisthenes, fl. 510 BC, Athenian statesman; head of the family
 Alcmaeonidae. The undisputed ruler of ATHENS after 506 BC, he instituted
 democratic reforms that ended civil strife there.

   clematis

 clematis, herb or vine (genus Clematis) of the BUTTERCUP family. The
 vines are usually profuse and varied bloomers. The Jackman clematis (C.
 jackmanii) is a large purple hybrid; the Japanese clematis (C.
 paniculata) has small white flowers. Other names for clematis are
 virgin's bower, traveler's joy, leatherflower, and old-man's-beard.

   Clemenceau, Georges

 Clemenceau, Georges, 1841-1929, French premier (1906-9, 1917-20), called
 "the Tiger." As a journalist, he passionately defended Dreyfus in the
 DREYFUS AFFAIR. His coalition cabinet in World War I, by reinvigorating
 French morale, facilitated the Allied victory. At the Paris Peace
 Conference, he opposed Woodrow WILSON, believing that the Treaty of
 VERSAILLES would not adequately protect France. Ironically, he lost the
 1920 presidential election because of his perceived leniency towards
 Germany.

   Clemens, Samuel Langhorne

 Clemens, Samuel Langhorne: see TWAIN, MARK.

   Clement I, Saint

 Clement I, Saint, or Clement of Rome,d. AD 97?, pope (AD 88?-97?),
 martyr. Highly esteemed in his day, he may have known Saints PETER and
 PAUL. His letter to the Corinthians was considered canonical by some
 until the 4th cent. and is notable for the authority Clement assumes. He
 was the first Christian writer to use the phoenix as an allegory of the
 Resurrection. Feast: Nov. 23.

   Clement V

 Clement V, 1264-1314, pope (1305-14), a Frenchman named Bertrand de Got.
 As archbishop of Bordeaux, he gained the favor of the French king PHILIP
 IV, who engineered his election as pope. He settled (1309) in Avignon,
 thus beginning the long "captivity" of the PAPACY. Dominated by Philip,
 he did resist attempts to condemn Pope BONIFACE VIII posthumously, but he
 supported Philip in supressing the KNIGHTS TEMPLARS. He issued an
 important collection of canon law.

   Clement VI

 Clement VI, 1291-1352, pope (1342-52), a Frenchman named Pierre Roger.
 Completely pro-French, he kept an elegant court at Avignon. When the
 PLAGUE known as the Black Death struck (1348-50) Europe, he did much to
 help the sufferers and tried to stem the subsequent wave of
 anti-Semitism. In Roman affairs he at first favored but then opposed Cola
 di RIENZI.

   Clement VII

 Clement VII, c.1475-1534, pope (1523-34), a Florentine named Giulio de'
 Medici, a member of the MEDICI family. Weak and timorous, he seemed
 unaware of the threat that the REFORMATION posed to the church. Allied
 with FRANCIS I of France, Clement quarreled with Holy Roman Emperor
 CHARLES V and was captured (1527) when imperial troops sacked Rome. Peace
 was restored in 1529, and Clement crowned Charles emperor. Clement
 vacillated in the matter of granting an annulment for HENRY VIII of
 England and was unable to stop Henry's break with Rome.

   Clement VIII

 Clement VIII, 1536-1605, pope (1592-1605), a Florentine named Ippolito
 Aldobrandini. Reversing a papal policy, he allied with France instead of
 Spain and was friendly with the French king HENRY IV. He was also known
 for piety.

   Clement XI

 Clement XI, 1649-1721, pope (1700-21), an Italian named Giovanni
 Francesco Albani. In the War of the SPANISH SUCCESSION, he supported
 first the claims of PHILIP V and then those of Charles of Hapsburg.
 Clement was known for his great learning and issued (1713) the bull
 Unigenitus to combat Jansenism (see under JANSEN, CORNELIS).

   Clement XIV

 Clement XIV, 1705-74, pope (1769-74), an Italian named Lorenzo
 Ganganelli, a Conventual Franciscan. Bowing to the wishes of the Bourbon
 monarchs of France and Spain, Clement issued (1773) a brief suppressing
 the JESUITS.

   Clemente, Roberto (Walker)

 Clemente, Roberto (Walker), 1934-72, Puerto Rican baseball player; b.
 Carolina, Puerto Rico. A right fielder, he played 18 years (1955-72) with
 the Pittsburgh Pirates. He had a lifetime batting average of .317, hit
 240 home runs, and was the 11th player to reach 3,000 hits. He died in a
 plane crash while aiding earthquake victims in Nicaragua.

   Clementi, Muzio

 Clementi, Muzio, 1752-1832, Italian composer, pianist, and conductor. His
 more than 100 piano SONATAS set the definitive form, and he had a great
 influence on all aspects of piano music. He is remembered for his series
 of etudes, Gradus ad Parnassum (1817).

   Clement of Alexandria

 Clement of Alexandria (Titus Flavius Clemens), d. c.215, Greek
 theologian. A convert to Christianity, he was one of the first to attempt
 a synthesis of Platonic and Christian thought. He attacked GNOSTICISM,
 but he has himself been called a Christian gnostic for his efforts to
 state the faith in terms of contemporary thought. ORIGEN was his pupil.

   Clement of Rome

 Clement of Rome: see CLEMENT I, SAINT.

   Cleon

 Cleon, d. 422 BC, Athenian statesman. An antagonist of SPARTA, he won a
 great victory at Sphacteria (425 BC) but was killed in the defeat at
 Amphipolis. His reputation as a vulgar demagogue is due to accounts by
 his enemies THUCYDIDES and ARISTOPHANES.

   Cleopatra

 Cleopatra, 69 BC-30 BC, queen of EGYPT, one of the great romantic
 heroines of history. The daughter of PTOLEMY XI, she was married (as was
 the custom) to her younger brother, PTOLEMY XII. By revolting against
 him, with the aid of Julius CAESAR, she won the kingdom, although it
 remained a vassal of Rome. After her husband died, she married another
 brother, Ptolemy XIII; but she was the mistress of Caesar, and in Rome
 she bore a son, Caesarion (later Ptolemy XIV), said to be his. Returning
 to Egypt after the murder of Caesar, she was visited by Marc ANTONY, who
 fell in love with her. She seems to have hoped to use him to reestablish
 her throne's power; they were married in 36 BC But the Romans were
 hostile, and Octavian (later AUGUSTUS) defeated Antony and Cleopatra off
 Actium in 31 BC Failing to defend themselves in Egypt, Antony and
 Cleopatra killed themselves. PLUTARCH, SHAKESPEARE, and G.B. SHAW are
 among the writers who have described Cleopatra's remarkable life.

   Cleopatra's needles

 Cleopatra's needles, popular name for two red granite OBELISKS from
 Egypt. Originally erected at Heliopolis (c.1475 BC) by THUTMOSE III, they
 were sent separately as gifts of ISMAIL PASHA to England (1878) and the
 U.S. (1880).

   Clergy Reserves

 Clergy Reserves, lands in Upper and Lower Canada (now Ontario and Quebec)
 set apart under the Constitutional Act of 1791 "for the support and
 maintenance of a Protestant clergy." "Protestant clergy" was interpreted
 to mean clergy of the Church of England, a view which dissatisfied other
 Protestant denominations and became an issue in the Rebellion of 1837. In
 1854 a law provided for secularization of the reserves, but Anglican and
 Presbyterian churches retained their endowments.

   Clerk-Maxwell, James

 Clerk-Maxwell, James: see MAXWELL, JAMES CLERK.

   Cleveland, (Stephen) Grover

 Cleveland, (Stephen) Grover, 1837-1908, 22d (1885-89) and 24th (1893-97)
 president of the U.S.; b. Caldwell, N.J. He was mayor of Buffalo
 (1882-83) and governor of New York (1883-85). An enemy of machine
 politics, he was named the Democratic "clean government" candidate to
 oppose James G. BLAINE in 1884, and was elected after a bitter campaign.
 As president he pursued his conscientious, independent course, offending
 the zealots of his party by his moderate use of the SPOILS SYSTEM. In the
 1888 election, Cleveland campaigned on a lower tariff, but in spite of a
 popular majority he lost the election to Benjamin HARRISON. The panic of
 1893 struck a hard blow at his second administration, and he angered
 radical Democrats by securing repeal of the SHERMAN SILVER PURCHASE ACT.
 The party rift widened when he refused to sign his tariff measure as
 altered by the protectionist Sen. A.P. Gorman. In the Pullman strike
 (1894), he sent in troops and broke the strike on grounds that the
 movement of the U.S. mail was being halted. In foreign affairs he took a
 strong stand on the VENEZUELA BOUNDARY DISPUTE, and refused recognition
 to a Hawaiian government set up by Americans. Cleveland's independence
 marked him as a man of integrity.

   Cleveland

 Cleveland, city (1986 est. pop. 535,830), seat of Cuyahoga co., NE Ohio,
 on Lake Erie, at the mouth of the Cuyahoga R.; laid out 1796, chartered
 1836. Ohio's largest city, it is a major ore port and GREAT LAKES
 shipping point, one of the nation's leading iron and steel centers, and a
 major producer of metal products. It has diverse light and heavy
 manufacturing, including the production of machine tools, chemicals, oil
 refining, and electrical goods, and houses government and corporate
 research facilities. The arrival of the canal (1827) and railroad (1851)
 spurred the city's growth; its location between the Pennsylvania coal and
 oil fields and the Minnesota iron mines led to industrialization. John D.
 ROCKEFELLER began his oil dynasty there. Although the city declined in
 the 1970s and early 80s, as indicated by its 1978 loan default, the
 construction of new buildings highlighted economic progress. Case Western
 Reserve Univ. is among its many educational institutions. The Cleveland
 Orchestra, Cleveland Museum of Art, and Cleveland Plain Dealer newspaper
 are well known.

   cliff dwellers

 cliff dwellers, American Indians of the Anasazi culture who built
 (11th-14th cent.) large communal homes on mesas and in canyon walls along
 rivers in the SW U.S. Ancient ancestors of the PUEBLO INDIANS, the cliff
 dwellers were agriculturalists who planted and irrigated fields below
 their highly defensible houses. Their society was communal, and their
 KIVA attest to religious ceremonies like those of the Pueblos. Many of
 the dwellings (e.g., Mesa Verde) are now part of NATIONAL PARKS.

   Clifford, Clark McAdams

 Clifford, Clark McAdams, 1906-, U.S. government official; b. Fort Scott,
 Kans. As special adviser (1946-50) to Pres. Harry S TRUMAN, he was
 influential in the formulation (1947) of the Truman Doctrine and the
 creation of the Dept. of DEFENSE. He served (1961-63) as a foreign policy
 adviser to Pres. John F. KENNEDY, and became (1963) chairman of the
 Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, supervising U.S. espionage
 operations and playing a crucial role in deciding U.S. military policy in
 the VIETNAM WAR. Clifford served (1968-69) as secretary of state under
 Pres. Lyndon B. JOHNSON.

   climate

 climate, average weather conditions in an area over a long period of
 time, taking into account temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind,
 atmospheric pressure, and other phenomena. The major factor governing
 climate is latitude; this is modified by one or more secondary factors
 including position relative to land and water masses, altitude, ocean
 currents, topography, prevailing winds, and prevalence of cyclonic
 storms. The earth is divided into climatic zones based on average yearly
 temperature and average yearly precipitation. The study of climate is
 called climatology.

   clinic

 clinic, an institution providing medical diagnosis and treatment for
 ambulatory patients. The forerunner of the modern clinic was the
 dispensary, which dispensed free drugs and served only those who could
 not afford to pay a fee. Clinics are maintained by private and city
 hospitals, by city health departments, by industrial and labor
 organizations, and by groups of private physicians. Some clinics
 specialize, but those designated as health centers offer all the
 essential health services. The service is free to those who cannot afford
 private care. Clinics maintained by industrial and labor organizations
 are often free for members; in hospital clinics, the fee is usually based
 on the individual's ability to pay.

   Clinton, George

 Clinton, George, 1739-1812, American statesman, vice president of the
 U.S. (1805-12); b. Little Britain, N.Y. As New York's first governor
 (1777-95) under the new state constitution, he ably managed trade and
 public welfare. An advocate of state sovereignty, he opposed the federal
 Constitution. His nephew, De Witt Clinton, 1769-1828, b. New Windsor,
 N.Y., was mayor of New York City for 10 one-year terms (between 1803 and
 1815), and was governor of New York (1817-21, 1825-28). He supported
 public education and city planning, and sponsored the ERIE CANAL and the
 Champlain-Hudson Canal.

   Clinton, Sir Henry

 Clinton, Sir Henry, 1738?-1795, British general in the AMERICAN
 REVOLUTION; b. Newfoundland. Knighted in 1777, he was (1778-81) supreme
 commander in America. He took Charleston (1780) but did not take part in
 the YORKTOWN CAMPAIGN.

   Clio

 Clio: see MUSES.

   Clisthenes

 Clisthenes: see CLEISTHENES.

   Clive, Robert, Baron Clive of Plassey

 Clive, Robert, Baron Clive of Plassey, 1725-74, British soldier and
 statesman. In the military service of the British EAST INDIA COMPANY, he
 won a series of brilliant victories (culminating in Plassey, 1757) that
 broke French power in INDIA. He brought BENGAL under British control and
 was its first governor. In his second term as governor (1765-67), he
 reduced corruption and inefficiency and reached a settlement with the
 states of Bihar and Orissa. On his return to England in 1767, he was
 accused by Parliament of having unlawfully enriched himself while in
 India. He was acquitted in 1773, but, broken in health, committed
 suicide.

   clock

 clock, mechanical, electrical, or atomic instrument for measuring and
 indicating time. Predecessors of the clock were the sundial, the
 hourglass, and the clepsydra. The operation of a clock depends on a
 stable mechanical oscillator, such as a swinging PENDULUM or a mass
 connected to a spring, by means of which the energy stored in a raised
 weight or coiled spring advances a pointer or other indicator at a
 controlled rate. The heavy and bulky weight-driven clock may first have
 been built in the 9th cent. The introduction (c.1500) of the coiled
 spring made possible the construction of smaller, lighter-weight clocks.
 The Dutch scientist Christiaan HUYGENS invented (1656 or 1657) a pendulum
 clock, probably the first. Electric clocks, first made in the late 19th
 cent., are powered by an electric motor synchronized with the frequency
 of alternating current. The quartz clock, invented c.1929, uses the
 vibrations of a quartz crystal to drive a synchronous motor at a very
 precise rate. An atomic clock (invented 1948), even more precise, is
 indirectly controlled by atomic or molecular oscillations. Digital clocks
 and watches dispense with the hour-marked dial and display time as a
 numerical figure.

   Clodius

 Clodius (Publius Clodius Pulcher), d. 52 BC, Roman politician. In 62 BC,
 disguised as a woman, he took part in the women's mysteries of Bona Dea
 in the house of Julius CAESAR, thus leading Caesar to divorce his wife
 Pompeia. In 58 BC he became tribune of the people and proved to be a
 demagogue, seeking popularity in every way. His gang of hired ruffians
 changed the complexion of Roman politics. He was killed by a rival gang
 hired by the tribune Milo.

   cloisonne

 cloisonne, method of decorating metal surfaces with enamel. Filaments of
 metal are attached to the surface of the object, outlining the design and
 forming compartments that are filled with colored paste enamels. When the
 piece is heated the enamels fuse with the metal, forming a glossy,
 colored surface. Probably invented in the Middle East, cloisonne was
 perfected by the Chinese, Japanese, and French.

   cloister

 cloister, unroofed space, part of a religious establishment, surrounded
 by buildings or walls. Generally it has on all sides a vaulted passageway
 of continuous colonnades or arcades opening onto a court. It is
 characteristic of monastic institutions, serving both as sheltered access
 to rooms and for recreation. Cloisters were built in some English
 colleges and in some churches. Superb Romanesque examples remain in S
 France, Italy, and Spain; of the Gothic period, the English are
 particularly fine, e.g., WESTMINSTER ABBEY. Renaissance cloisters are
 chiefly Italian and Spanish, while 16th-cent. cloisters exist in
 California, Cuba, and Mexico.

   Cloisters, the

 Cloisters, the, museum of medieval art, in Fort Tryon Park, N.Y.C.;
 opened in 1938. A branch of the METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, it includes
 four French CLOISTERS, a Romanesque chapel, and a chapter house. The core
 of the collection-several hundred examples of medieval French art
 (gathered by George Gray Barnard)-was purchased (1925) by John D.
 Rockefeller, Jr. (see ROCKEFELLER, family), and presented to the museum.
 Later additions include the 15th-cent. Unicorn tapestries and CAMPIN'S
 Merode Altarpiece.

   clone

 clone, group of organisms descended from a single individual through
 asexual REPRODUCTION. Except for changes in hereditary material due to
 MUTATION, all members of a clone are genetically identical. Experiments
 resulting in the development of a frog from a cell of an existing animal
 and the laboratory fertilization of human eggs have raised questions
 about the eventual possibility of cloning identical humans from cells of
 a preexisting individual.

   Close, Chuck

 Close, Chuck, (Charles Thomas Close), 1940-, American painter; b. Monroe,
 Wash. A leading figure in the PHOTOREALISM movement, he is known for
 huge, frontal, and photographically precise portraits.

   closed-end investment company

 closed-end investment company: see MUTUAL FUND.

   closed shop

 closed shop: see UNION, LABOR.

   Clotho

 Clotho: see FATES.

   cloud

 cloud, aggregation of minute particles of water or ice suspended in the
 air. Clouds form when air containing water vapor is cooled below a
 critical temperature called the DEW point. The resulting moisture
 condenses into droplets on microscopic dust particles (condensation
 nuclei) in the atmosphere. The air is normally cooled by expansion during
 its upward movement. Clouds are classified by appearance, altitude, or
 composition. Each cloud type is formed by specific atmospheric conditions
 and is, therefore, indicative of forthcoming weather. Cirrus clouds,
 generally white, and delicate and fibrous in appearance, are the highest
 clouds and are made of ice crystals. Stratus clouds, layered in
 appearance, are the lowest clouds and are associated with stormy weather.
 Cumulus clouds, which are vertically developed, usually with a horizontal
 base and a dome-shaped upper surface, are intermediate in height and are
 associated with fair weather. Combinations of these cloud names are
 common. Cirrostratus clouds, for example, are high-altitude layered
 clouds that often indicate rain or snow. Prefixes and suffixes are also
 used. For example, nimbus means rain, and cumulonimbus clouds, commonly
 called thunderheads, indicate rain showers.

   cloud chamber

 cloud chamber: see PARTICLE DETECTOR.

   Clouet, Jean

 Clouet, Jean, called Janet or Jehannet, c.1485-1540, court painter to
 FRANCIS I of France. He is thought to have been Flemish. None of the
 soft, geometrically simple drawings, portraits, and miniatures attributed
 to Jean Clouet can be proved to have been his. His son, Francois Clouet,
 c.1510-c.1572, inherited his father's position as court painter. His
 clear, precise draftmanship can be seen in his portraits of Francis I and
 Elizabeth of Austria (both: Louvre).

   Clough, Arthur Hugh

 Clough, Arthur Hugh, 1819-61, English poet. He is best remembered for his
 lyric "Say not the struggle naught availeth." Clough is the subject of
 "Thyrsis," an elegy written by his close friend Matthew ARNOLD.

   clove

 clove, small tropical evergreen tree (Syzygium aromaticum or Eugenia
 caryophyllata) of the MYRTLE family and its unopened flower bud, an
 important spice. The buds, whose folded petals are enclosed in four
 toothlike lobes of the calyx, are dried and used whole or ground for
 cooking. Clove oil is used in flavorings, perfumes, and medicines.

   clover

 clover, plant (genus Trifolium) of the PULSE family, mainly native to
 north temperate and subtropical areas. The American cultivated varieties
 were introduced from Europe. Clovers have been cultivated for hay and are
 excellent honey plants. The dried flowers and seed heads of the common
 white clover (T. repens) were used to make bread during famines in
 Ireland, and the leaves are used for salads in some parts of the U.S.
 Sweet clover is a related plant.

   Clovis I

 Clovis I, c.466-511, Frankish king (481-511), founder of the MEROVINGIAN
 monarchy. He rose from tribal chief to sole leader of the Salian FRANKS
 by dint of patience and murder. He won Gaul and SW Germany by fighting
 the Romans, Alemanni, Burgundians, and Visigoths. His wife, St. Clotilda,
 encouraged his conversion (496) to Christianity.

   club moss

 club moss, living member of Lycopodiopsida, a class of primitive vascular
 plants that reached their zenith in the Carboniferous period and are now
 almost extinct. They resemble the more primitive, nonvascular true
 mosses. Club mosses are usually creeping or epiphytic; many of them
 inhabit moist tropical or subtropical regions. Reproduction is by spores,
 which are clustered in small cones or borne in the axils of the scalelike
 leaves. Some species of Lycopodium, called ground pine or creeping cedar,
 resemble miniature hemlocks with flattened fan-shaped branches. Spores of
 L. clavatum are sold as lycopodium powder, or vegetable sulfur, a
 flammable yellow powder used in pharmaceuticals and fireworks. Species of
 Selaginella are grown as ornamentals, e.g., the resurrection plant.

   Cluj-Napoca

 Cluj-Napoca, Hung. Kolozsvar, Ger. Klausenburg, city (1985 pop. 309,843),
 W central Rumania, in Transylvania, on the Somesul R. Rumania's second
 largest city, it has metallurgical and other industries. The city was
 founded (12th cent.) by German colonists, incorporated (1867) in the
 Austro-Hungarian empire, and transferred (1920) to Rumania. It has noted
 botanical gardens and a 14th-cent. Gothic church.

   Cluny Museum

 Cluny Museum, Paris, 14th- and 15th-cent. Gothic and Renaissance
 structure built on the site of the Roman baths of Emperor Julian.
 Acquired and converted by the antiquarian Du Sommerard, it was left to
 the state at his death (1842). Its 24 galleries display medieval works of
 carved wood, metalwork, textiles, and stained glass, as well as superb
 15th- and 16th-cent. tapestries.

   cluster, star

 cluster, star, group of neighboring stars that resemble each other in
 certain characteristics that suggest a common origin. Galactic, or open,
 clusters typically contain from a few dozen to about a thousand loosely
 scattered stars and exist in regions rich in gas and dust, such as the
 spiral arms of the galaxy. More than 1,000 galactic clusters, including
 the Hyades and Pleiades in the constellation Taurus, have been catalogued
 in the Milky Way. Globular clusters are spherical aggregates of thousands
 or millions of densely concentrated stars and exist in the outer halo of
 the galaxy. The brightest of the more than 100 globular clusters so far
 detected in the galaxy are Omega Centauri and 47 Tucanae, both seen with
 the unaided eye in the southern skies.

   Clytemnestra

 Clytemnestra, in Greek mythology, daughter of LEDA and Tyndareus. The
 wife of AGAMEMNON, she was the mother of ORESTES, ELECTRA, and IPHIGENIA.
 She and her lover, AEGISTHUS, murdered Agamemnon and, in revenge, were
 slain by Orestes. HOMER portrayed Clytemnestra as a noble woman, misled
 by her lover, but the Greek tragedians, particularly AESCHYLUS, depicted
 her as remorseless and vengeful.

   Cm

 Cm, chemical symbol of the element CURIUM.

   Cnossus

 Cnossusor Knossos, ancient city on the N coast of CRETE. Occupied long
 before 3000 BC, it was the center of MINOAN CIVILIZATION, known mainly
 from study of the great palace of Cnossus. In Greek legend, it was the
 capital of King MINOS and the site of the labyrinth. Cnossus was
 destroyed, probably by invaders, c.1400 BC, but it later flourished as a
 Greek city until the 4th cent. AD

   Co

 Co, chemical symbol of the element COBALT.

   coal

 coal, fuel substance of plant origin, composed largely of CARBON with
 varying amounts of mineral matter. Coal belongs to a series of
 carbonaceous fuels that differ in the relative amounts of moisture,
 volatile matter, and fixed carbon they contain; the most useful contain
 the largest amounts of carbon and the smallest amounts of moisture and
 volatile matter. The highest grade of coal is anthracite, or hard coal,
 which is nearly pure carbon and is used as a domestic fuel. Bituminous
 coal, or soft coal, with a lower carbon content, is used as an industrial
 fuel and in making COKE. LIGNITE and PEAT are the lowest in carbon
 content. Large amounts of coal were formed in the Carboniferous period of
 geological time (345 to 280 million years ago). It is thought that great
 quantities of vegetable matter collected and underwent slow decomposition
 in SWAMPS similar to present-day peat bogs and in lagoons. The peat that
 formed was converted to lignite and coal by METAMORPHISM. The pressure of
 accumulated layers of overlying sediment and rock forced out much of the
 volatile matter, leaving beds or seams of compact coal interstratified
 with shales, clays, or sandstones. Higher grades of coal were produced
 where the stress was greatest. Major U.S. coal fields are found in
 Appalachia, the Midwest, the Rocky Mt. region, and along the Gulf Coast.
 The chief coal-producing countries of Europe are Germany, Britain, the
 USSR, Poland, France, and Belgium. Valuable coal deposits also exist in
 China, India, South Africa, and Australia.

   coal tar

 coal tar: see TAR AND PITCH.

   coast guard

 coast guard, special naval force assigned to seaboard duties. In
 peacetime the U.S. coast guard is under the jurisdiction of the Dept. of
 Transportation; in wartime it is under the control of the U.S. navy. In
 addition to suppressing contraband trade and aiding vessels in distress,
 the service enforces navigation rules; administers regulations governing
 ship construction and licensing of merchantmen personnel; and operates
 weather ships, an ice patrol, and navigational aids, including
 lighthouses, lightships, buoys, and loran stations. The UNITED STATES
 COAST GUARD ACADEMY, New London, Conn., provides officer training.

   Coast Mountains

 Coast Mountains, western range of the North American cordillera,
 extending c.1000 mi (1,610 km) N from W British Columbia into SE Alaska.
 Geologically distinct from the COAST RANGES, the range reaches a high
 point at Mt. Waddington (13,260 ft/4,042 m).

   Coast Ranges

 Coast Ranges, series of geologically related ranges forming the western
 edge of the North American cordillera. The highest peaks are in the St.
 Elias Mts. (Alaska). Other ranges are the Olympic Mts. and the Coast
 Ranges (Oregon), the Klamath Mts. and Coast and Los Angeles ranges
 (California), and the mountains of BAJA CALIFORNIA.

   coat of arms

 coat of arms: see BLAZONRY; HERALDRY.

   coaxial cable

 coaxial cable: see CABLE.

   cobalt

 cobalt (Co), metallic element, discovered in 1735 by Georg Brandt. It is
 silver-white, lustrous, and hard, and can be magnetized. It is combined
 with other metals in the ores cobaltite and smaltite. Cobalt alloys are
 used in very hard cutting tools, high-strength permanent magnets, and jet
 engines. Radioactive cobalt-60 is used in cancer therapy and to detect
 flaws in metal parts. See ELEMENT ; PERIODIC TABLE.

   Cobb, Ty(rus Raymond)

 Cobb, Ty(rus Raymond), 1886-1961, American baseball player; b. Narrows,
 Ga. Cobb was the first player elected (1936) to the National Baseball
 Hall of Fame. An outfielder, the "Georgia Peach" is considered by many to
 be the greatest player in the history of the game. In a 24-year career
 (Detroit Tigers, 1905-26; Philadelphia Athletics, 1927-28) he set
 numerous major-league records that still stand, such as his lifetime
 batting average of .367, and 12 batting championships. A daring base
 runner, he stole 892 bases. He was manager of the Tigers from 1921 to
 1926.

   Cobbett, William

 Cobbett, William, 1763?-1835, British journalist and reformer. After
 resigning from the army, he went (1792) to the U.S., where he championed
 the Federalists (see FEDERALIST PARTY) against the pro-French
 Republicans. On his return to England (1799) he became a radical
 working-class leader and champion of agrarianism. His Political Register
 was an influential reform journal. After another flight to the U.S. to
 avoid the Gagging Acts, he returned to become a central figure in the
 agitation for Parliamentary reform. He was elected to Parliament after
 the Reform Bill of 1832. His most famous book is Rural Rides (1830).

   Cobden, Richard

 Cobden, Richard, 1804-65, British politician, a leading spokesman for the
 MANCHESTER SCHOOL. After making a fortune as a calico printer, he became
 a major influence in the repeal of the CORN LAWS. With John BRIGHT and
 Robert PEEL, he managed the ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE. As a member of
 Parliament, Cobden negotiated the "Cobden Treaty" for reciprocal tariffs
 with France (1859-60), and favored the Union in the U.S. Civil War.

   COBOL

 COBOL: see PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE.

   cobra

 cobra, venomous SNAKE of the family Elapidae equipped with an inflatable
 neck hood, found in Africa and Asia. The king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah),
 or hamadryad, the largest poisonous snake, is found in S Asia; it may
 reach a length of 18 ft (5.5 m). Other species include the Indian cobra
 (Naja naja) and the Egyptian cobra (Naja haja), also called the ASP. The
 family also includes CORAL SNAKES.

   coca

 coca, plant (genus Erythroxylon, particularly E. coca) found mainly in
 upland regions and on mountain slopes of South America and in Australia,
 India, and Africa. Certain South American Indians chew the leaves mixed
 with lime, which acts with saliva to release COCAINE from the leaves. In
 this form and concentration, the DRUG acts as a stimulant. A cocaine-free
 extract of the leaves is used in some soft drinks. Coca is grown
 commercially in Sri Lanka, Java, and Taiwan.

   cocaine

 cocaine, ALKALOID drug derived from COCA leaves, producing euphoria,
 hallucinations, and temporary increases in physical energy. Prolonged use
 can cause nervous-system aberrations (including delusions), general
 physical deterioration, weight loss, and addiction (see DRUG ADDICTION
 AND DRUG ABUSE). Withdrawal from the drug can produce severe depression.
 See also CRACK.

   Cochabamba

 Cochabamba, city (1982 pop. 281,962), W central Bolivia, c.8,400 ft
 (2,560 m) high in the Andes. Center of a productive agricultural region,
 it was founded as Villa de Oropeza in 1574 and renamed in 1786.

   Cochin China

 Cochin China, historic region (c.26,500 sq mi/68,600 sq km), S Vietnam,
 bounded by Cambodia (NW, N), Annam (NE), the South China Sea (E, S), and
 the Gulf of Siam (W). The capital and chief city was Saigon (now HO CHI
 MINH CITY). Cochin China included the MEKONG delta, one of the world's
 great rice-growing areas, and, in the northeast, plantations where
 rubber, coffee, tea, oil palms, and sugarcane were grown. Originally part
 of the KHMER EMPIRE, Cochin China fell to ANNAM in the 18th cent. and
 became (1862-67) a French colony. The Japanese occupied it during WORLD
 WAR II. In 1954, after an independence struggle against the French,
 Cochin China became part of South Vietnam. At the end of the VIETNAM WAR
 it was incorporated into united Vietnam.

   Cochise

 Cochise, c.1815-1874, chief of the Chiricahua APACHE INDIANS in Arizona,
 noted for courage, integrity, and military skill. From 1861, when
 soldiers unjustly hanged some of his relatives, he warred relentlessly
 against the U.S. army. Peace talks in 1872 promised him a reservation on
 his native territory, but after he died his people were removed.

   Cockaigne

 Cockaigne or Cockayne, Land of,country in medieval tales where delicacies
 were to be had for the taking. The Land of Cockaigne is a 13th-cent.
 satire on monastic life.

   Cockcroft, Sir John Douglas

 Cockcroft, Sir John Douglas, 1897-1967, English physicist. After serving
 as fellow and professor of natural philosophy at Cambridge, he directed
 (1946-59) the British Atomic Energy Research Establishment at Harwell. He
 shared with Ernest Walton the 1951 Nobel Prize in physics for their
 pioneer work in transmuting atomic nuclei by bombarding elements with
 artificially accelerated atomic particles.

   cocker spaniel

 cocker spaniel, smallest SPORTING DOG; shoulder height, 14-15 in.
 (35.6-38.1 cm); weight, c.25 lb (11.3 kg). Its silky, flat, or wavy coat
 is moderately long and may be any solid color or combination of colors.
 The breed was developed from English cocker spaniels brought to the U.S.
 in the 1880s.

   cockle

 cockle, heart-shaped marine BIVALVE mollusk (order Eulamel libranchia),
 having ribbed, brittle shells and moving with a jumping motion produced
 by means of a large, muscular foot. Most species do not exceed 3 in. (7.5
 cm) in length. Cockles burrow in sand or mud in shallow water. Several
 species are edible.

   cockroach

 cockroach or roach,nocturnal, flat-bodied oval INSECT (suborder
 Blattaria) of the order Orthoptera. Cockroaches have long antennae, long
 legs adapted for running, and a flat extension of the upper body that
 covers the head; some species fly. In length they range from 1/4 in. to 3
 in. (.6-7.6 cm). Cockroaches are not known to be disease carriers. They
 were extremely abundant during the Carboniferous period (about 350
 million years ago) and probably were the first flying animals.

   cocoa

 cocoa: see CACAO.

   coconut

 coconut, edible fruit of the coco palm tree (Cocos nucifera) of the PALM
 family, widely distributed throughout the tropics. The coco palm, which
 grows to a height of 60 to 100 ft (18 to 30 m) and has a crown of
 frondlike leaves, is one of the most useful trees in existence. It is a
 source of timber, and its leaves are used in baskets and for thatch. The
 coconut itself is a single-seeded nut with a hard, woody shell encased in
 a thick, fibrous husk. The hollow nut contains coconut milk, a nutritious
 drink, and its white kernel, a staple food in the tropics, is eaten raw
 and cooked. Commercially valuable coconut oil is extracted from the dried
 kernels, called copra, and the residue is used for fodder. Husk fibers
 are used in cordage and mats, and nutshells are made into containers.

   Cocos (Keeling) Islands

 Cocos (Keeling) Islands, external territory of Australia (1986 est. pop.
 616), 5.5 sq mi (14.2 sq km), consisting of two separate atolls with 27
 coral islets, in the Indian Ocean. The islands were settled (1827) and
 developed by the Clunies-Ross family for their copra. They were a
 dependency of Britain's SINGAPORE colony from 1946 to 1955, when they
 were transferred to Australia. Australia purchased the Clunies-Ross
 interests in 1978 and leased the copra plantation to a Cocos Malay-run
 cooperative.

   Cocteau, Jean

 Cocteau, Jean, 1889-1963, French author and filmmaker. Unrivaled in the
 20th cent. for versatility in the arts, he experimented in almost every
 artistic medium, producing poetry, fiction, drama, films, ballets,
 drawings, and operatic librettos. Surrealistic fantasy suffuses his work.
 He is best known for the novel Les Enfants Terribles (1929; film 1950);
 the plays Orphee (1926; film 1949) and The Infernal Machine (1934); and
 the films The Blood of a Poet (1932) and Beauty and the Beast (1945).

   cod

 cod, marine, bottom-feeding FISH (family Gadidae), among the most
 important and abundant food fishes. The Atlantic cod (Gadus morrhua)
 averages 10 to 25 lb (4.5 to 11 kg), but specimens up to 200 lb (90 kg)
 have been reported. The haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus), the most
 important food fish in the Atlantic, is smaller, reaching a weight of 30
 lb (13.6 kg). Finnan haddie is lightly smoked haddock.

   code

 code, in communications, set of symbols and rules for their manipulation
 by which the symbols convey information. For use in a COMPUTER,
 information is encoded as strips of binary digits. For telegraphic work,
 codes such as the MORSE CODE are used. All written and spoken languages
 are codes of some degree of efficiency. Certain arbitrary codes are used
 to ensure diplomatic and military secrecy of communication. The science
 of translating messages into cipher or code is termed cryptography
 [Gr.,=hidden writing.]

   codeine

 codeine, ALKALOID drug derived from OPIUM. A NARCOTIC with effects like
 those of MORPHINE, codeine is prescribed as an ANALGESIC and cough
 suppressant. It is addictive (see DRUG ADDICTION AND DRUG ABUSE).

   Code Napoleon

 Code Napoleon: see CIVIL LAW.

   Cody, William Frederick

 Cody, William Frederick: see BUFFALO BILL.

   coeducation

 coeducation, instruction of both sexes in the same institution. Although
 there were scattered examples in the late 17th cent. in Scotland and the
 American colonies, the trend spread in the U.S. during the reorganization
 of public education after the Civil War. Influenced by the economic
 benefits of joint classes and the increasing participation of women in
 industry and the professions, a number of all-male and all-female
 institutions became coeducational late in the 1960s.

   coelacanth

 coelacanth: see LOBEFIN.

   coelenterate

 coelenterate, radially symmetrical, predominantly marine invertebrate
 animal of the phylum Cnidaria (also called Coelenterata), having a
 three-layered body wall, tentacles, and specialized stinging cells
 (nematocysts). Members of the phylum have a primitive nervous system and
 no specialized organs for excretion or respiration. The phylum includes
 the SEA ANEMONES, CORALS, JELLYFISH, and hydroids (see HYDRA). See also
 POLYP and MEDUSA.

   coenzyme

 coenzyme, any of a group of relatively small organic molecules that
 assist certain ENZYMES in their catalytic functions. Coenzymes
 participate in chemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes; although often
 structurally altered in the course of the reaction, the coenzymes are
 always restored to their original form. Important coenzymes include
 ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE, important in the transfer of chemical energy, and
 VITAMINS, vital to a variety of biochemical reactions in the body,
 including the Krebs cycle (see CITRIC ACID CYCLE).

   Coetzee, J.M.

 Coetzee, J.M., 1940-, South African writer. A white South African
 computer scientist, linguist, and teacher, his novels are about the human
 suffering that results from imperialism and APARTHEID, e.g., In the Heart
 of the Country (1976) and The Life and Times of Michael K. (1985).

   Cour, Jacques

 Cour, Jacques, c.1395-1456, French merchant and chief adviser to
 CHARLES VII of France. He amassed a fabulous fortune with which he
 financed the last campaigns of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. Arrested (1451) on
 the concocted charge of having poisoned Agnes Sorel, the king's mistress,
 he escaped (1454-55) to Rome and died fighting the Turks.

   coffee

 coffee, name for an evergreen shrub or tree (genus Coffea) of the MADDER
 family, its seeds, and the beverage made from them. The mature, red fruit
 (a drupe) typically contains two seeds, or coffee beans. Varieties of
 Arabian coffee (C. arabica) supply the bulk of the world's supply;
 Liberian coffee (C. liberica) and Congo coffee (C. robusta) are of some
 commercial importance. Coffee plants require a hot, moist climate and
 rich soil. The harvested seeds are cleaned and roasted; heat acts on the
 essential oils to produce the aroma and flavor. Roasts range from light
 brown to the very dark Italian roast. Coffee contains CAFFEINE, a
 stimulant that can cause irritability, depression, and indigestion if
 taken in excess. The coffee plant was known before AD 1000 in Ethiopia,
 where its fruit was used for food and wine. A beverage made from ground,
 roasted coffee beans was used in Arabia by the 15th cent., and by the
 mid-17th cent. it had reached most of Europe and had been introduced into
 North America.

   Coffin, Henry Sloane

 Coffin, Henry Sloane, 1877-1954, American Presbyterian clergyman; b.
 N.Y.C. He was pastor (1905-26) of the Madison Avenue Presbyterian Church,
 and president (1926-45) of Union Theological Seminary (both: N.Y.C.). His
 nephew William Sloane Coffin, Jr., 1924-, b. N.Y.C., was chaplain
 (1958-75) at Yale Univ. and was (1977-89) senior minister at Riverside
 Church (N.Y.C.).

   cognac

 cognac: see BRANDY.

   Cohan, George M(ichael)

 Cohan, George M(ichael), 1878-1942, American showman; b. Providence, R.I.
 He wrote, directed, produced, and starred in many MUSICALS, most
 exemplifying his favorite themes-Broadway and a flag-waving patriotism.
 His first successes were Little Johnny Jones (1904) and Forty-five
 Minutes from Broadway (1906). Best remembered for such songs as "The
 Yankee Doodle Boy," "Give My Regards to Broadway," and "Over There," he
 was also a skillful adapter of others' material, e.g., Seven Keys to
 Baldpate (1913).

   cohesion

 cohesion: see ADHESION AND COHESION.

   Cohn, Ferdinand

 Cohn, Ferdinand, 1828-98, German botanist. Considered a founder of
 bacteriology, he developed theories of the bacterial causes of infectious
 disease and recognized bacteria as plants. His writings cover such
 subjects as fungi, algae, insect epidemics, and plant diseases.

   coin

 coin, piece of metal, usually a disk of gold, silver, nickel, bronze,
 copper, or a combination of such metals, issued by a government for use
 as MONEY. State coinage, said to have originated in Lydia in the 7th
 cent. BC, enabled governments to make coins whose nominal value exceeded
 their value as metals. The first U.S. MINT was established in 1792.
 Beginning in 1965, the U.S. Treasury stopped putting silver in newly
 minted dimes and quarters, and reduced the amount of silver in the
 half-dollar. A 1970 act eliminated all silver from the half-dollar and
 dollar coins. U.S. law provides, however, that special mintings of both
 coins, containing 60% copper and 40% silver, be made for collectors.

   Coke, Sir Edward

 Coke, Sir Edward, 1552-1634, English jurist and political leader. After a
 rapid rise in Parliament he became (1593) attorney general, gained a
 reputation as a severe prosecutor, and was favored at the court of JAMES
 I. As chief justice of common pleas (from 1606) and of the king's bench
 (from 1613) he championed the common law against the royal prerogative.
 Collisions with the king and political enmities led to his dismissal in
 1616. By 1620 he had returned to Parliament, where he led popular
 opposition to the Crown. He helped draft the PETITION OF RIGHT (1628).
 Coke's writings include his Reports (on common law) and the Institutes.

   coke

 coke, hard, gray, porous fuel with a high CARBON content. It is the
 residue left when bituminous COAL is heated in the absence of air. Coke
 is used in extracting metals from ores in the BLAST FURNACE.

   cola

 cola or kola,tropical tree (genus Cola) of the sterculia family, native
 to Africa but grown in other tropical areas. The fruit is a pod
 containing CAFFEINE-yielding seeds. Cola nuts are chewed for this
 stimulant. They are also exported for use in soft drinks and medicine.

   Colbert, Jean Baptiste

 Colbert, Jean Baptiste, 1619-83, French statesman. Appointed (1665)
 controller general of finances by LOUIS XIV, he aimed to make France
 economically self-sufficient through the practice of MERCANTILISM. He
 encouraged industry by subsidies and tariffs, regulated prices, built
 roads, canals, and harbors, and expanded the navy and France's commercial
 potential. His power declined with the onset of Louis XIV's wars.

   cold

 cold or common cold,viral infection of the mucous membranes of the upper
 respiratory tract, especially the nose and throat. There are numerous
 viral organisms that may cause the common cold, although there is no
 known cure or preventive. Treatment of symptoms includes fluids to
 prevent dehydration, ANALGESICS (e.g., ASPIRIN) to lessen fever, and
 decongestants to shrink swollen mucous membranes. Some believe that
 VITAMINS in large doses, especially vitamin C, may be helpful in
 prevention.

   cold sore

 cold sore: see HERPES SIMPLEX.

   cold war

 cold war, term used to describe the political and economic struggle
 between the capitalist, democratic Western powers and the Communist bloc
 after WORLD WAR II. The cold war period was marked by massive military
 buildups (including nuclear weaponry) by both sides and by intensive
 economic competition and strained, hostile diplomatic relations. The one
 major "hot war" of the period was the KOREAN WAR. The first important
 post-World War II disagreement between East and West was about the
 reunification of GERMANY, which proved to be impossible. Communications
 between the two sides virtually ceased, and an "iron curtain" descended
 between them. The U.S. rallied the other Western powers by sponsoring a
 series of strategic actions, including the MARSHALL PLAN, the NORTH
 ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION (NATO), and other regional pacts. Within the
 Communist bloc the Soviet Union maintained tight political, economic, and
 military control over its satellites, for example, by suppressing the
 Hungarian Revolution of 1956; by instituting (1955) the WARSAW TREATY
 ORGANIZATION; and by supporting Communist takeovers of CHINA, parts of
 Southeast Asia, and CUBA. By the early 1960s tensions had relaxed
 somewhat, and a measure of DETENTE was apparent. Most observers felt that
 East and West were entering into more complex relations to which the term
 cold war could no longer apply.

   Cole, Nat "King"

 Cole, Nat "King" (Nathaniel Adams Cole), 1919-65, black American singer
 and pianist; b. Montgomery, Ala. He became one of the most popular of all
 American singers with such hits as "The Christmas Song" and
 "Unforgettable." Cole appeared in films and was the first black to have
 (1956) his own television series. His daughter Natalie Maria Cole, 1950-,
 b. Los Angeles, is also a popular singer.

   Cole, Thomas

 Cole, Thomas, 1801-48, American painter; b. England. He specialized in
 painting the spectacular scenery of New York state, becoming a leader of
 the HUDSON RIVER SCHOOL. A characteristic painting is Catskill Mountains
 (Mus. Art, Cleveland). Other works are neoclassical in style.

   Coleman, Ornette

 Coleman, Ornette, 1930-, black American musician and composer; b. Fort
 Worth, Tex. After playing saxophone in rhythm-and-blues bands, he became
 one of the most controversial figure in the JAZZ avant-garde. His
 impassioned, atonal music continues to exert great influence in the
 1980s.

   Coleridge, Samuel Taylor

 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 1772-1834, English poet and man of letters.
 After an erratic university career, he planned with Robert SOUTHEY to
 found a utopian community in the U.S., but the project did not
 materialize. In 1798 he and William WORDSWORTH published Lyrical Ballads,
 a volume whose experiments in language and subject matter (and the
 prefaces to later editions) make it a seminal work of English
 ROMANTICISM. Coleridge contributed "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner," his
 best-known work, as well as "Christabel" and "Kubla Khan," all poems on
 exotic or supernatural themes. "Dejection: An Ode" (1802) was his last
 great poem. A brilliant conversationalist, Coleridge lectured (notably on
 SHAKESPEARE), traveled, and wrote on philosophy, religion, and
 literature. From 1816 he lived in London at the home of Dr. James Gilman,
 who helped the poet control his long-standing opium addiction. Biographia
 Literaria, which includes accounts of his literary life and also critical
 essays, appeared in 1817; its borrowings from German idealist
 philosophers borders, at times, on plagiarism. This, and his inability to
 finish projects, make Coleridge a controversial figure, but he was
 unquestionably a major literary influence in his day and, at his best, a
 great poet.

   Colette

 Colette, 1873-1954, French novelist; b. Sidonie Gabrielle Colette. Her
 numerous novels, e.g., Cheri (1920), The Cat (1933), and Gigi (1945), are
 famed for their sensitive observations of women, nature, and eroticism.
 Colette's early Claudine books were published under the name of her first
 husband, Willy (pseud. of Henry Gauthier-Villars).

   coleus

 coleus, tropical plant (genus Coleus) of the MINT family, native to Asia
 and Africa. Some, with large, colorful leaves, are cultivated as
 houseplants.

   Coligny, Gaspard de Chatillon, comte de

 Coligny, Gaspard de Chatillon, comte de, 1519-72, French Protestant
 leader, admiral of France. With Louis I de CONDE, he commanded the
 HUGUENOTS in the Wars of Religion (see RELIGION, WARS OF) and negotiated
 a peace in 1570. He became a favorite adviser of CHARLES IX, thus
 arousing the enmity of CATHERINE DE' MEDICI. Coligny was the first victim
 in the massacre of SAINT BARTHOLOMEW'S DAY.

   Coliseum

 Coliseum: see COLOSSEUM.

   collage

 collage [Fr.,=pasting], technique in art consisting of cutting natural or
 manufactured materials and pasting them to a painted or unpainted
 surface-hence, a work of art in this medium. It was initiated in 1912
 when PICASSO pasted a piece of commercially printed oilcloth to his
 cubist Still Life with Chair Caning (Mus. Mod. Art, N.Y.C.). Collage
 elements appear in works by GRIS and BRAQUE, and were basic to DADA and
 SURREALISM. Collage is related to the newer art of assemblage, in which
 the traditional painted canvas is abandoned in favor of the assembling of
 bits of material.

   collateral

 collateral: see CREDIT.

   collective bargaining

 collective bargaining, in labor relations, procedure whereby an employer
 agrees to discuss working conditions by bargaining with employee
 representatives, usually a labor union. First developed in Britain in the
 19th cent., it received an impetus in the U.S. during the 1930s through
 such legislation as that which created the NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS
 BOARD. The process is now accepted in most Western industrialized
 countries as the basic method of settling disputes about wages, hours,
 job security, and other matters. It may be assisted by labor mediation,
 the mediator being a neutral third party who endeavors to bring the two
 sides together. Industrial arbitration is a last resort, implying the
 need for a third party to resolve the dispute and impose a decision on
 both sides. Sometimes called binding arbitration, it may be compelled by
 the government, as in Canada, Italy, or Britain, or it may be called for
 by voluntary agreement, as is often the case in the U.S.

   collective farm

 collective farm, an agricultural producers' cooperative. In the USSR,
 collectivization of agriculture was initiated by STALIN in 1929. A
 collective farm's land and equipment is owned by the state, which decides
 what will be produced. Farm workers share in state-guaranteed profits and
 have small private plots where they can grow goods for free-market sale.
 In China, the commune (first established 1958) parallels the Soviet
 collective farm. Land and equipment are owned by the commune, which
 oversees fulfillment of government quotas by production teams (small
 groups of workers). There are private plots, and profits are shared. Both
 China and the USSR also have state farms, whose workers are paid wages.
 The best-known type of Israeli collective farm is the KIBBUTZ.

   college of arms

 college of arms: see HERALDS' COLLEGE.

   colleges and universities

 colleges and universities, institutions of higher education.
 Universities, which usually consist of several faculties or colleges, are
 larger than colleges, have wider curricula, are involved in research, and
 grant graduate and professional as well as undergraduate degrees.

 Universities Universities arose in the Middle Ages to train young men in
 law, theology, and medicine. Although they were usually established by
 royal or ecclesiastical initiative, some were founded by students. The
 medieval university often had thousands of students and played an
 important role in contemporary affairs. The most famous European
 universities include those at Oxford, Cambridge, and Paris (all founded
 in the 12th cent.), Salamanca (c.1230), Prague (1348), Vienna (1365),
 Uppsala (1477), Leiden (1575), and Moscow (1755). The oldest universities
 in the New World are the Univ. of Santo Domingo (1538), in the Dominican
 Republic; the Univ. of Mexico (1551), in Mexico City; and San Marcos
 Univ. (1551), in Lima, Peru. In the U.S., the first state university, the
 Univ. of North Carolina, opened in 1795. Most modern universities
 developed in the late 19th cent., as small private colleges expanded and
 tax-supported LAND-GRANT COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES were founded.
 Institutions devoted to graduate study and research, such as Johns
 Hopkins Univ., were also established at that time. Women were not
 admitted to universities until c.1870 (see COEDUCATION); by 1900 most
 universities were secularized. During the 20th cent. many universities,
 especially in the U.S., have received large grants from government
 agencies for scientific and technical research.

 Colleges The earliest colleges were founded in 15th-cent. Paris as
 endowed residence halls for university students. It was only later, at
 Oxford and Cambridge, in England, that the college became the principal
 center of learning. Degrees, however, continued to be conferred by the
 university with which the college was associated. In America, however,
 the liberal arts college arose as a separate institution, with numerous
 colleges founded in the 17th and 18th cent. to train young men for the
 ministry, e.g., Harvard (1636), William and Mary (1693), Yale (1701),
 Princeton (1746), and Columbia (1754). These were joined in the next
 century by a number of women's colleges: Mount Holyoke (1837), Elmira
 (1853), Vassar (1861), Wellesley (1871), Smith (1871), Bryn Mawr (1881),
 and Barnard (1889). Teachers' colleges, or NORMAL SCHOOLS, also developed
 in the 19th cent. By the 20th cent., many American colleges had grown
 into universities; today, the distinction between the two has blurred,
 with many colleges granting graduate degrees. A recent development has
 been the COMMUNITY COLLEGE, which has greatly expanded opportunities for
 higher education in the U.S.

   collie

 collie, large, agile WORKING DOG; shoulder height, 22-26 in. (55.9-66
 cm); weight, 50-75 lb (22.7-34 kg). There are two types: the rough-coated
 (long-haired) and the smooth-coated. Both may be sable and white, blue,
 tricolored, or white. It was developed (17th-18th cent.) in Scotland as a
 sheepdog.

   colligative properties

 colligative properties, properties of a SOLUTION that depend on the
 number of solute particles present, but not on the chemical properties of
 the solute. Colligative properties of a solution include its freezing and
 boiling points (see STATES OF MATTER) and osmotic pressure (see OSMOSIS).

   Collins, Michael

 Collins, Michael, 1890-1922, Irish revolutionary leader. A member of the
 SINN FEIN, he organized the guerrilla warfare that forced the British to
 sue for peace. With Arthur GRIFFITH he set up the Irish Free State. He
 was assassinated.

   Collins, (William) Wilkie

 Collins, (William) Wilkie, 1824-89, English novelist. The author of some
 30 novels, he is best known for The Woman in White (1860) and The
 Moonstone (1868), considered the first full-length detective novels in
 English.

   Collodi, Carlo

 Collodi, Carlo, pseud. of Carlo Lorenzini,1826-90, Italian author. A
 journalist, he also wrote didactic tales for children, the most famous of
 which is Pinocchio (1883).

   colloid

 colloid, a mixture in which one substance is divided into minute
 particles (called colloidal particles) and dispersed throughout a second
 substance. Colloidal particles are larger than molecules but too small to
 be observed with a microscope; however, their shape and size (usually
 between 10-7 and 10-5 cm) can be determined by electron microscopy. In a
 true SOLUTION the particles of dissolved substance are of molecular size
 and thus smaller than colloidal particles. In a coarse mixture (e.g., a
 SUSPENSION) the particles are much larger than colloidal particles.
 Colloids can be classified according to the phase (solid, liquid, or gas)
 of the dispersed substance and of the medium of dispersion. A gas may be
 dispersed in a liquid to form a foam (e.g., shaving lather) or in a solid
 to form a solid foam (e.g., Styrofoam). A liquid may be dispersed in a
 gas to form an AEROSOL (e.g., FOG), in another liquid to form an emulsion
 (e.g., homogenized milk), or in a solid to form a gel (e.g., jellies). A
 solid may be dispersed in a gas to form a solid aerosol (e.g., dust or
 smoke in air), in a liquid to form a sol, or in a solid to form a solid
 sol (e.g., certain ALLOYS). Colloids are distinguished from true
 solutions by their inability to diffuse through a semipermeable membrane
 (e.g., cellophane) and by their ability to scatter light (the TYNDALL
 effect).

   Cologne

 Cologne, Ger. Koln, city (1986 est. pop. 914,000), North
 Rhine-Westphalia, W West Germany, on the Rhine R. It is a river port and
 an industrial center producing iron, steel, and other manufactures.
 Founded (1st cent. BC) by the Romans, it flourished (4th-13th cent.)
 under powerful archbishops. It became a free imperial city (1475) and a
 member (15th cent.) of the HANSEATIC LEAGUE. The city was badly damaged
 in WORLD WAR II. However, such buildings as its Gothic cathedral (begun
 1248) and Romanesque Church of St. Andreas still stand.

   Colombia

 Colombia, offically Republic of Colombia, republic (1982 est. pop.
 25,676,000), 439,735 sq mi (1,138,914 sq km), NW South America. The only
 South American country with both Pacific and Caribbean coastlines,
 Colombia is bordered by Panama (NW), Venezuela (NE), Ecuador and Peru
 (S), and Brazil (SE). Major cities include BOGOTA (the capital),
 MEDELLIN, and CALI. By far the most prominent physical features are the
 three great Andean (see ANDES) mountain chains (CORDILLERAS) that fan
 north from Ecuador, reaching their highest point in Pico Cristobal
 (18,947 ft/ 5,775 m). The Andean interior is the heart of the country,
 containing the largest concentration of population as well as the major
 coffee-growing areas. In pre-Columbian days this was the site of the
 advanced civilization of the Chibcha Indians. To the east of the Andes
 lies more than half of Colombia's territory-a vast undeveloped lowland,
 including the tropical rain forests of the AMAZON basin and the
 grasslands (LLANOS) of the ORINOCO basin. Agriculture is the chief source
 of income: besides coffee, Colombia's leading export, major crops are
 bananas, cotton, sugarcane, and tobacco. Rich in minerals, Colombia
 produces petroleum and natural gas, iron, coal, gold, nickel, and
 emeralds. The growing manufacturing sector is led by processed foods,
 textiles, metal products, and chemicals. About two thirds of the
 population are mestizos. Spanish is the official language, and most of
 the people are Roman Catholic.

 History Conquered by the Spanish in 1530s, the region that is now
 Colombia became the core of the Spanish colony of NEW GRANADA, which
 included Panama and most of Venezuela. The struggle for independence from
 Spain began in 1810, lasting nine years, and ending with the victory of
 Simon BOLIVAR at Boyaca in 1819. Bolivar set up the new state of Greater
 Colombia, which included all of New Granada and (after 1822) Ecuador.
 Political differences soon emerged, however, and the union fell apart.
 Venezuela and Ecuador became separate nations; the remaining territory
 eventually became the Republic of Colombia (1886), from which Panama
 seceded in 1903. Through the 19th and into the 20th cent., political
 unrest and civil strife racked Colombia. Strong parties developed along
 conservative (centrist) and liberal (federalist) lines, and civil war
 frequently erupted between the factions. As many as 100,000 people were
 killed before the conservatives emerged victorious in a civil war of
 unprecedented violence that raged from 1899 to 1902. And again, after a
 four-decade hiatus of political peace, in 1948 bloody strife rent the
 nation, costing hundreds of thousands of lives. Orderly government was
 finally restored as the result of a compromise between liberals and
 conservatives in 1958. The situation began to deteriorate in the 1970s,
 and unrest and guerrilla activity continued into the early 1980s.

   Colombo

 Colombo, largest city (1981 pop. 587,647) and capital of Sri Lanka, on
 the Indian Ocean near the mouth of the Kelani R. It has one of the
 world's largest man-made harbors, with facilities for containerized
 cargo. Noted for its gem-cutting and ivory-carving, Colombo also has
 oil-refining and other industries. A port since Greco-Roman times, it was
 settled by Muslims in the 8th cent. The Portuguese built (16th cent.) a
 fort to protect their spice trade. The city passed (17th cent.) to the
 Dutch and then to the British, who made it (1802) the capital of their
 colony of Ceylon. The city has several colleges and universities and many
 churches, mosques, and temples.

   colon

 colon, in writing: see PUNCTUATION.

   Colonial Conference, British

 Colonial Conference, British: see IMPERIAL CONFERENCE.

   colonialism

 colonialism: see COLONIZATION; IMPERIALISM.

   colonization

 colonization, extension of political and economic control over an area by
 an occupying state that usually has organizational or technological
 superiority. The colonizer's nationals may migrate to the colony because
 of overpopulation or economic or social distress at home, but IMPERIALISM
 has been a major colonizing force. The colony's population must be
 subdued or assimilated to the colonizer's way of life, or a modus vivendi
 otherwise imposed. Colonization dates back at least to the Phoenicians,
 but it is most important historically as the vehicle of European
 expansion from the 15th cent. into Africa, the Americas, and Asia. The
 Spanish, Portuguese, English, French, and Dutch established colonies
 worldwide that have, for the most part, obtained independence from
 imperial systems only in the 20th cent. Today classic colonialism is
 widely considered immoral. See also MANDATES; TRUSTEESHIP, TERRITORIAL.

   Colonna

 Colonna, a leading noble Roman family from the 12th to the 16th cent.
 Sciarra Colonna, d. 1329, was a bitter enemy of Pope BONIFACE VIII and
 led, with Chancellor Nogaret, the French expedition that captured (1303)
 Boniface. The family also produced Pope MARTIN V. Fabrizio Colonna, d.
 1520, was a general of the HOLY LEAGUE against LOUIS XII of France in the
 Italian Wars. His cousin Prospero Colonna, 1452-1523, defeated the French
 at La Biocca (1522). Marcantonio Colonna, 1535-84, duke of Paliano, led
 the papal forces at LEPANTO.

   colony

 colony: see COLONIZATION.

   color

 color, visual effect resulting from the eye's ability to distinguish the
 different wavelengths or frequencies of light. The apparent color of an
 object depends on the wavelength of the light that it reflects. In white
 light, an opaque object that reflects all wavelengths appears white and
 one that absorbs all wavelengths appears black. Any three primary, or
 spectral, colors can be combined in various proportions to produce any
 other color sensation. Beams of light are combined "additively," and red,
 blue, and green are typically chosen as primaries. Pigments, however,
 combine by a "subtractive" process, i.e., by absorbing wavelengths, and
 artists generally choose red, blue, and yellow as their primaries. Two
 colors are called complementary if their light together produces white.

   Colorado

 Colorado, one of the mountain states of the W U.S.; bordered by Wyoming
 (N), Nebraska (N, E), Kansas (E), Oklahoma and New Mexico (S), and Utah
 (W).

 Area, 104,247 sq mi (270,000 sq km). Pop. (1986 est.) 3,267,000, a 13.1%
 increase over 1980 pop. Capital, Denver. Statehood, Aug. 1, 1876 (38th
 state). Highest pt., Mt. Elbert, 14,433 ft (4,402 m); lowest pt.,
 Arkansas R., 3,350 ft (1,022 m). Nickname, Centennial State. Motto, Nil
 Sine Numine Nothing Without Providence. State bird, lark bunting. State
 flower, Rocky Mountain columbine. State tree, Colorado blue spruce.
 Abbr., Colo., CO.

 Land and People Colorado has the highest mean elevation among the states
 (c.6,800 ft/2,100 m). The high plains of the east, an extension of the
 GREAT PLAINS, give way to the foothills of the ROCKY MOUNTAINS and the
 high Front Range. The Rockies, which run north-south across the state and
 are traversed by the CONTINENTAL DIVIDE, include 51 of the 80 peaks in
 North America over 14,000 ft (4,267 m) high. Mt. Elbert (14,433 ft/4,402
 m) is the loftiest mountain in the U.S. portion of the range. The
 COLORADO PLATEAU in the west is an arid region with many canyons carved
 by the COLORADO, Gunnison, and other rivers. Most of the population lives
 in cities among the foothills, principally in DENVER-the leading city of
 the mountain states-but also in COLORADO SPRINGS, PUEBLO, and FORT
 COLLINS. In 1984 the state was 94% white, 6% black and others.

 Economy Since the 1950s, manufacturing has contributed the largest share
 of Colorado's income. Leading industries are food processing, the
 production of nonelectrical machinery and instruments, metal refining,
 and printing. Agriculture is dominated by the raising of cattle and
 sheep. Grown mostly on irrigated land, corn, wheat, hay, and sugar beets
 are the leading crops. Colorado has the world's largest deposits of
 molybdenum as well as extensive deposits of petroleum, coal, and uranium.
 Gold mining has been revived recently. The state is popular year-round
 with tourists, especially skiers and visitors to its spectacular Rocky
 Mt. National Park.

 Government The constitution of 1876 provides for a governor elected to a
 four-year term. The legislature consists of a senate of 35 members
 serving four-year terms and a house with 65 members serving two-year
 terms. Colorado is represented in the U.S. Congress by two senators and
 six representatives and has eight electoral votes.

 History The cliff dwellings of Colorado's early inhabitants are preserved
 at Mesa Verde National Park in the southwest. Spain claimed the region
 comprising present-day Colorado in 1706. The U.S. acquired much of it
 through the LOUISIANA PURCHASE (1803) and the rest from Mexico in 1848.
 The discovery (1858) of gold brought many settlers, but the gold was soon
 extracted, and the mining settlements became ghost towns. Silver and lead
 were subsequently discovered, but the collapse (1893) of the U.S. silver
 market brought a statewide depression. Rapid urban growth occurred during
 and after World War II. The national energy crisis in the 1970s resulted
 in a dramatic expansion of Colorado's coal and petroleum industries. See
 also NATIONAL PARKS .

   Colorado

 Colorado, chief river of the arid SW U.S. It flows 1,450 mi (2,334 km)
 from the Rocky Mts. of N Colorado to the Gulf of Mexico, c.1000 mi (1,610
 km) of its course cutting through deep canyons, including the spectacular
 GRAND CANYON. Use of the river, whose flow is controlled by HOOVER,
 Davis, Imperial, Parker, GLEN CANYON, and other dams, is allocated by
 treaties with Mexico and by compacts between states.

   Colorado Plateau

 Colorado Plateau, physiographic region of the SW U.S., covering c.150,000
 sq mi (388,500 sq km) in Arizona, Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico. The
 broad, sparsely vegetated, and semiarid plateau surfaces-one third
 located within Indian reservations-are cut by great canyons, including
 the GRAND CANYON and CANYON DE CHELLY.

   Colorado Springs

 Colorado Springs, city (1986 est. pop. 272,660), seat of El Paso co.,
 central Colo., on Monument and Fountain creeks, at the foot of PIKES
 PEAK; founded 1859, inc. 1886. A year-round vacation and health resort,
 it manufactures electronic, mining, and aerospace equipment. Colorado
 College is in the city; the U.S. Air Force Academy is nearby.

   color blindness

 color blindness, inability to distinguish colors, an inherited trait
 occurring almost exclusively in males. Individuals with partially
 defective color vision (the most common form) have difficulty
 distinguishing red from green. Those who are completely red-green
 color-blind see both colors as yellow. Totally color-blind persons see
 only black, white, and shades of gray.

   color field painting

 color field painting, abstract art movement begun in the 1960s. Working
 toward a more intellectual aesthetic than that of ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM,
 color field painters dealt with their conception of the fundamental
 formal elements of abstract painting: pure areas of untempered color;
 flat, two-dimensional space; monumental scale; and the varying shape of
 the canvas. Painters associated with the movement include Ellsworth
 Kelly, Morris LOUIS, Kenneth Noland, and Frank STELLA.

   colorization, motion picture

 colorization, motion picture, the electronic process whereby colors are
 added to old black-and-white movies. The process became viable in the
 late 1980s. Woody ALLEN, James STEWART, and other influential film
 artists oppose colorization, considering it a defilement of the original
 work. Its proponents argue that it makes old movies more acceptable to
 the public.

   Colosseum

 Colosseum or Coliseum,common name for the Flavian Amphitheater in Rome,
 built AD c.75-80 under VESPASIAN and TITUS. Much of the four-storied
 oval, 617 ft (188 m) by 512 ft (156 m), still stands. Tiers of marble
 seats accommodated about 45,000 people. In the arena gladiatorial combats
 were held until AD 404, and according to tradition, Christians were
 thrown to beasts.

   Colossians

 Colossians, EPISTLE of the NEW TESTAMENT, 12th book in the usual order,
 written to Christians of Colossae and Laodicea (Asia Minor) by St. PAUL
 (AD c.60), apparently in connection with a gnostic doctrine current in
 the churches addressed. Like EPHESIANS, it emphasizes the doctrine of the
 mystical body of Christ.

   colossus

 colossus, name given in antiquity to a statue of very great size.
 Examples include the Athena Parthenos on the ACROPOLIS at Athens and the
 Colossus of Rhodes, one of the SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD. Among
 colossuses of later times, the Great Buddha at Kamakura, Japan, and the
 Statue of LIBERTY in New York harbor are notable. Two colossal figures of
 Christ are in South America, one at Rio de Janeiro and the other, CHRIST
 OF THE ANDES, on the boundary of Argentina and Chile.

   Colt, Samuel

 Colt, Samuel, 1814-62, American inventor; b. Hartford. His revolving
 breech pistol (patented 1835-36) was one of the standard SMALL ARMS of
 the world in the last half of the 19th cent. Colt also invented a
 submarine battery used in harbor defense and a submarine telegraph cable.

   Coltrane, John

 Coltrane, John, 1926-67, black American musician; b. Hamlet, N.C. Rising
 to prominence with the Miles DAVIS quintet in the mid-1950s, he was until
 his death the dominant tenor and soprano saxophonist of the JAZZ
 avant-garde.

   Columba, Saint

 Columba, Saint, or Saint Columcille,521-97, Irish missionary to Scotland,
 called the Apostle of Caledonia. He established a monastic center at IONA
 in 563 and eventually Christianized all of N Scotland. Feast: June 9.

   Columbia

 Columbia, city (1986 est. pop. 93,020), state capital and seat of
 Richland co., central S.C., on the Congaree R.; inc. 1805. The largest
 city in the state, it is the trade center for a farming region, and
 manufactures such products as textiles, plastics, and electronic
 equipment. Most of the city was burned by Gen. SHERMAN'S troops in 1865.
 The Univ. of South Carolina and several other colleges are located there.

   Columbia

 Columbia, chief river of the NW U.S., c.1,210 mi (1,950 km) long,
 including 465 mi (748 km) in SW Canada. It flows generally south in
 British Columbia and Washington and then west, forming the
 Washington-Oregon boundary and entering the Pacific Ocean W of Portland,
 Ore. Numerous dams, including the GRAND COULEE DAM, provide
 hydroelectricity and irrigation. The Columbia, whose volume is greatly
 increased by the SNAKE and other major tributaries, was the early focus
 of American settlement in the Oregon country.

   Columbia Plateau

 Columbia Plateau, physiographic region of the NW U.S., covering c.100,000
 sq mi (259,000 sq km) in Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. Most of it is
 underlaid by thick, nearly horizontal beds of lava (mainly basalt) and
 partly covered with fertile loess. Arid areas south of the GRAND COULEE
 DAM are irrigated as part of the Columbia Basin project.

   Columbia University

 Columbia University, mainly in New York City; founded 1754 as King's
 College by grant of King George II. It was closed during the American
 Revolution but reopened as Columbia College in 1784. To reflect the
 addition of graduate and professional schools, the name Columbia
 University was adopted in 1896; Columbia College and Barnard College (for
 women; est. 1889) remained the undergraduate schools. The university also
 includes the College of Physicians and Surgeons, Teachers College, the
 School of Social Work, and schools of journalism, mining, library
 service, and international affairs, as well as research institutes,
 botanical and biological field stations, and a geological laboratory.

   columbine

 columbine, perennial plant (genus Aquilegia) of the BUTTERCUP family.
 Columbines have delicate foliage and red, white, yellow, blue, or purple
 flowers with long, nectar-secreting spurs on the petals. Wild columbine,
 or rockbell (A. canadensis), is a favorite of hummingbirds. The
 blue-and-white-flowered A. coerulea of the Rockies is Colorado's state
 flower.

   columbium

 columbium: see NIOBIUM.

   Columbus, Christopher

 Columbus, Christopher, 1451-1506, discoverer of America; b. Genoa, Italy.
 In Portugal, he became a master mariner and was determined to reach India
 by sailing west. After eight years of supplication, he received the
 backing of the Spanish monarchs FERDINAND V and ISABELLA I. On Oct. 12,
 1492, his ships, the Nina, Pinta, and Santa Maria, reached Watling
 Island, in the Bahama group; later they touched CUBA and HISPANIOLA. He
 was made an admiral and governor general of all new lands. In 1493 he set
 sail with 17 ships, discovering PUERTO RICO and the Leeward Islands, and
 founding a colony in Hispaniola. In 1498 he explored VENEZUELA, realizing
 that he had found a continent. Because of disreputable conditions in
 Hispaniola, he was replaced as governor in 1500 and returned to Spain in
 chains. On his last voyage (1502) he reached Central America. Although he
 is considered a master navigator today, he died in neglect, almost
 forgotten.

   Columbus

 Columbus. 1 City (1986 est. pop. 180,180), seat of Muscogee co., W Ga.,
 on the Chattahoochee R.; settled and inc. 1828. A port city situated on
 the FALL LINE, it has many textile mills, and manufactures iron and food
 products. Hydroelectric and canal development have revitalized industry
 in the 20th cent. Many of the city's antebellum homes have been preserved
 and restored. 2 City (1986 est. pop. 566,030), state capital and seat of
 Franklin co., central Ohio, on the Scioto R.; founded 1797, inc. as a
 city 1834. A major industrial and trade center in a rich farm region, it
 took over state government from CHILLICOTHE in 1816. Transportation has
 been key to its development: canals, the NATIONAL ROAD (reaching Columbus
 in 1833), and the railroad (1850) all brought growth. The city's
 manufactures include appliances, machinery, and auto parts. Ohio State
 Univ. and the Columbus Gallery of Fine Arts are located there.

   Columbus Day

 Columbus Day, holiday (traditionally Oct. 12) commemorating Christopher
 COLUMBUS'S discovery of America. Since 1971 it has been celebrated in
 most of the U.S. on the Monday nearest Oct. 12.

   Columcille, Saint

 Columcille, Saint: see COLUMBA, SAINT.

   column

 column, vertical architectural support, circular or polygonal in plan. It
 is generally at least four times as high as its diameter or width;
 stubbier masses are usually called piers or pillars. Shape, proportions,
 and materials of columns vary widely. Columns arranged in a row form a
 colonnade. The Egyptians used massive columns, closely spaced, for inner
 courtyards and halls. Early Greek columns had a cushionlike cap and
 tapering shaft. By the 7th cent. BC, the Greek Doric had been
 established. In Greek, Roman, and Renaissance architecture, the various
 column types, with their entablatures, form the classical ORDERS OF
 ARCHITECTURE. The classical column has three fundamental elements: base,
 shaft, and capital. The capital provides a structural and decorative
 transition between the circular column and the rectangular entablature.
 In Greek buildings columns were usually indispensable, but Roman and
 Renaissance architects used them also as a decorative feature, mostly
 following fixed rules of proportions. Romanesque, Gothic, and Byzantine
 columns were usually structural elements, and were without canons of
 proportioning. Chinese and Japanese columns had, instead of capitals,
 ornamented brackets.

   coma

 coma, deep state of unconsciousness from which a person cannot be aroused
 even with the most painful stimuli. It may be caused by severe brain
 injury, DIABETES, MORPHINE or BARBITURATE poisoning, SHOCK, or
 hemorrhage. Treatment is directed at the cause of the condition.

   Comanche Indians

 Comanche Indians, NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS of a nomadic Plains culture, who
 ranged the Southwest from the 18th cent. They spoke a Shoshonean language
 of the Aztec-Tanoan stock (see AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES). Excellent
 horsemen and warriors, they killed more whites in proportion to their
 numbers than any other tribe and kept their territory unsafe for whites
 for more than a century. They probably introduced PEYOTE to the Plains
 tribes (see NATIVE AMERICAN CHURCH). Today some 3,500 live in Oklahoma.

   combination

 combination, in business: see TRUST.

   combinations

 combinations, in mathematics: see PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS.

   comb jelly

 comb jelly or sea gooseberry,solitary marine invertebrate (phylum
 Ctenophora) having eight radially arranged rows (combs) of ciliated
 plates (ctenes) on the spherical body surface and specialized adhesive
 cells (colloblasts) used for capturing PLANKTON. Comb jellies are
 carnivorous, bioluminescent, and hermaphroditic. They are weak swimmers
 but possess a unique sense organ controlling equilibrium (statocyst).
 Usually transparent, comb jellies vary from 1/4 in. (0.6 cm) to more than
 1 ft (30.5 cm) in length and look very much like JELLYFISH.

   COMECON

 COMECON: see COUNCIL FOR MUTUAL ECONOMIC ASSISTANCE.

   Comedie Francaise

 Comedie Francaise: see THEATER .

   comedy

 comedy, literary work, usually dramatic, aiming chiefly to amuse. Whereas
 TRAGEDY seeks to engage the emotions, comedy strives to entertain through
 ridicule of characters, customs, and institutions or through a resolution
 of contretemps thrown up by the plot. Dramatic comedy had its origins in
 Greek fertility rites. Old Comedy, culminating in ARISTOPHANES, was a
 series of scenes using FARCE, fantasy, parody, and SATIRE, with a final
 lyric celebration of unity. New Comedy (from c.4th cent. BC) was more
 realistic and romantic, less satirical and critical. MENANDER in Athens,
 PLAUTUS and TERENCE in Rome were its leading practitioners. In the Middle
 Ages comedy survived in folk plays and in the Italian COMMEDIA DELL'ARTE.
 In the RENAISSANCE, Elizabethan comedy drew in part on Latin comedy to
 produce the caustic satires of Ben JONSON and the romantic comedy of
 SHAKESPEARE. Classical and commedia dell'arte elements blended in France
 in MOLIERE'S brilliant work. After the Puritan suppression of the
 theater, witty, artificial comedy reappeared during the English
 RESTORATION in the work of William CONGREVE and William WYCHERLEY. It
 descended into sentiment by the end of the 17th cent. but revived late in
 the 18th cent. with Oliver GOLDSMITH and R.B. SHERIDAN. Oscar WILDE
 typified the late-19th-cent. comedy of manners, G.B. SHAW the comedy of
 ideas. Twentieth-century trends include the romantic comic fantasies of
 J.M. BARRIE and Jean GIRAUDOUX; the native Irish comedy of J.M. SYNGE and
 others; the absurdist works of Samuel BECKETT and Eugene IONESCO; and the
 so-called black comedy (the darkly humorous treatment of serious themes)
 of Sam SHEPARD and others. Masters of nondramatic comedy include, among
 many, BOCCACCIO, RABELAIS, CERVANTES, VOLTAIRE, and Henry FIELDING.

   Comenius, John Amos

 Comenius, John Amos, Czech Jan Amos Komensky, 1592-1670, Moravian
 churchman and educator. Relating education to everyday life, he advocated
 systematizing all knowledge, teaching in the vernacular rather than




   comet

 comet, mostly gaseous body of small mass and enormous volume that can be
 seen from earth for periods ranging from a few days to several months. A
 comet head, on the average about 80,000 mi (130,000 km) in diameter,
 contains a small, bright nucleus (theorized to be ice and frozen gases
 interspersed with particles of heavier sub stances) surrounded by a coma,
 or nebulous envelope of luminous gases. As the comet nears the sun, the
 particles and gases are driven off, forming a tail as long as 100 million
 mi (160 million km). Pushed by the SOLAR WIND, the tail streams out away
 from the sun. J.H. OORT hypothesized (1950) a shell of more than 100
 billion comets surrounding the solar system and moving very slowly at a
 distance of as much as 150,000 times the sun-earth distance; a passing
 star, however, may gravitationally perturb a few closer to the sun. Some,
 such as HALLEY'S COMET, return periodically.

   comic strip

 comic strip, a narrative applied to a sequence of cartoons in which human
 and/or animal characters usually communicate by means of speech and/or
 thought "balloons." It is a predominantly commercial art form, which
 became established at the turn-of-the-20th cent. as a syndicated
 newspaper feature that boosted circulation. The first modern comic strip
 is acknowledged to be Richard Felton Outcault's The Yellow Kid (1896).
 While comic strips initially used humorous story lines, giving rise to
 their nickname, "the funnies," they later ventured into the realms of
 adventure, science fiction, and political satire, as for example in Walt
 Kelly's Pogo (1949). The mass appeal of the comic strip was a major
 source of inspiration for POP ART. See also CARTOON.

   Cominform

 Cominform: see under COMINTERN.

   Comintern

 Comintern, acronym for Communist International, founded (1919), by V.I.
 LENIN to claim Communist leadership of the world socialist movement. Its
 conditions for membership excluded non-Communist socialists. Its efforts
 to foment revolution failed, and in 1935 it began to form coalitions, or
 popular fronts, with bourgeois parties. The Comintern dissolved (1943) as
 a gesture of support for the Allied war effort. The Cominform (Communist
 Information Bureau) was organized (1947) by the USSR to coordinate the
 exchange of information between E European and some W European Communist
 parties, formerly a function of the Comintern. It was disbanded in 1956.

   comma

 comma: see PUNCTUATION.

   Commagene

 Commagene, ancient district of N Syria, on the Euphrates R. and S of the
 Taurus range, now in SE Asiatic Turkey. Once part of the Assyrian empire
 and later of the Persian Empire, it became independent in 162 BC The
 Roman Emperor Vespasian permanently annexed Commagene in AD 72.

   commedia dell' arte

 commedia dell' arte, popular form of comedy in Italy (16th-18th cent.).
 Using improvised dialogue and masked actors in satiric song, dance, and
 farce, it gave rise to such traditional PANTOMIME characters as Harlequin
 and Columbine. Its influence on European theater, particularly French
 pantomine and English harlequinade, was great.

   commensalism

 commensalism, relationship between members of two different species of
 organisms in which one individual is usually only slightly benefited
 while the other is not affected at all. In many cases, commensalism
 cannot be distinguished from parasitism (see PARASITE). See also
 SYMBIOSIS.

   commerce

 commerce: see TRADE.

   Commerce, United States Department of

 Commerce, United States Department of, federal executive department
 charged with promoting economic and technological development.
 Established (1903) as the Dept. of Commerce and Labor, it became a
 separate department in 1913. Its divisions include the Economic
 Development Administration, the Bureau of the Census, the National
 Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the National Bureau of Standards,
 the Minority Business Development Agency, the Maritime Administration,
 the Patent and Trademark Office, and the International Trade
 Administration.

   commercial bank

 commercial bank: see BANKING.

   commercial paper

 commercial paper, type of short-term negotiable instrument, usually an
 unsecured promissory note, that calls for the payment of money at a
 specified date. Because it is not backed by collateral, commercial paper
 is usually issued by major firms with strong credit ratings. An important
 source of cash for the issuing firm, it is usually payable at a lower
 rate of interest than the prime discount rate. The commercial paper
 market expanded greatly after the mid-1970s, reaching $140 billion by
 1981, double the amount of four years earlier. The trend was accompanied
 by the rise of MONEY-MARKET FUNDS, a major buyer of commercial paper, and
 a resulting loss of corporate loan business by banks (see BANKING).

   commodity market

 commodity market, organized traders' exchange in which contracts for
 delivery of certain products are bought and sold. Most trading is done in
 futures contracts-agreements to deliver goods at a future date for a
 specified price. Such trading allows both hedging against serious losses
 in a declining market and speculation for gain in a rising market. Spot
 contracts, a less widely used form of trading, call for immediate
 delivery. In the U.S., commodity markets deal in a wide range of
 products, notably grains and oilseeds, livestock and meat, food and
 fiber, metals, petroleum, and lumber. Trading in financial futures, such
 as Treasury bills and certificates of deposit, increased greatly in the
 1970s.

   common law

 common law, system of law based on custom and precedent established by
 court decisions. Developed in medieval England and so called because it
 represented common, rather than local, custom, the common law prevails in
 most English-speaking nations, including the U.S. (except Louisiana,
 which adheres to CIVIL LAW). The formality and inflexibility of early
 common law often led to injustice, and in 15th-cent. England the
 chancellor issued the first of many decrees to restore "equity"
 (fairness); this was the beginning of the modern body of EQUITY law,
 later merged with the common law in many jurisdictions. The slowness of
 common-law procedure has led to adoption of numerous statutes that
 supersede the common law, notably in the fields of commercial,
 administrative, and criminal law.

   Common Market

 Common Market, officially the European Economic Community (EEC),
 established (1958) to promote the integration of the economies of Western
 Europe through gradual elimination of internal tariff and customs
 barriers and development of common price levels and a monetary union. An
 outgrowth of the European Coal and Steel Community, the Common Market was
 an important step toward the creation (1967) of the EUROPEAN COMMUNITY.
 The original members-Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands,
 and West Germany-were joined by Great Britain, the Republic of Ireland,
 and Denmark in 1973, and by Greece in 1981.

   Commons, House of

 Commons, House of: see PARLIAMENT.

   Commonwealth of Nations

 Commonwealth of Nations, voluntary association of Great Britain, its
 dependencies and associated states, and certain sovereign states (48 in
 1989) that were former dependencies. The purpose of the Commonwealth
 (founded 1931) is consultation and cooperation. No collective decisions
 are binding on member states, and they may withdraw at anytime. They
 recognize the British monarch as the symbolic head of the Commonwealth.
 Members are linked economically, but the system of preferential tariffs
 was abandoned after Britain joined (1973) the COMMON MARKET. The
 headquarters of the Commonwealth is in London.

   communal settlements

 communal settlements, communities practicing common ownership of goods.
 In the U.S. two types emerged in the 19th cent.: religious communities
 established by German pietistic sects, SHAKERS, MORMONS, and others; and
 secular, often utopian communities founded by followers of Robert OWEN
 (e.g., NEW HARMONY, Ind.) or Charles FOURIER (e.g., BROOK FARM).
 Contemporary types include the successful COLLECTIVE FARMS (or kibbutzim)
 of Israel and the generally less-stable rural or urban U.S. communes
 inspired by the radical ferment of the 1960s and 70s.

   Commune of Paris

 Commune of Paris, insurrectionary governments in Paris formed during
 (1792) the FRENCH REVOLUTION and at the end (1871) of the FRANCO-PRUSSIAN
 WAR. In the French Revolution, the commune was a major radical force in
 France until moderates gained control (1794-95) of the National
 Convention. After the Franco-Prussian War, the commune opposed the
 national government led by Adolphe THIERS at VERSAILLES as too
 conservative and ready to accept humiliating peace terms. Versailles
 troops laid siege to Paris, against which the communards (whose aims
 included economic reforms and whose members comprised radical
 republicans, socialists, anarchists, and Marxists) put up a desperate
 defense. Before their defeat (May 28) they shot hostages and burned the
 TUILERIES and the palace of justice. Severe reprisals followed, with more
 than 17,000 people executed, a repression that lastingly embittered
 French political life.

   communicable diseases

 communicable diseases, illnesses caused by microorganisms (bacteria,
 viruses) and transmitted either directly or indirectly from one infected
 person or animal to another. Many diseases are spread by airborne
 microorganisms through contact or proximity (e.g., INFLUENZA, MEASLES,
 WHOOPING COUGH). Some are spread through contaminated food or water
 (e.g., CHOLERA, TYPHOID), while others are transmitted by an animal or
 insect carrier (MALARIA, RABIES). Still others are transmitted under
 special circumstances, such as sexual contact (e.g., SYPHILIS) or
 infected instruments or blood transfusion (e.g., serum HEPATITIS).
 Control of communicable disease includes isolation of infected persons,
 immunization, personal hygiene, and stringent public health and
 sanitation measures.

   communications satellite

 communications satellite, artificial SATELLITE that provides a worldwide
 linkup of RADIO and TELEVISION transmissions and TELEPHONE service; such
 a satellite avoids the curvature-of-the-earth limitation formerly placed
 on communications between ground-based facilities. The first
 communications satellite was NASA's Echo 1, an uninstrumented inflatable
 sphere that passively reflected radio signals back to earth. Later
 satellites, starting with NASA's Relay satellites and the American
 Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) Company's Telstar satellites,
 carried with them electronic devices for receiving, amplifying, and
 rebroadcasting signals to earth. The U.S. launching (1963) of the first
 synchronous-orbit satellite (Syncom 1) paved the way for the formation of
 the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization, whose
 successive series of Intelsat geostationary satellites have steadily
 lowered the cost of transoceanic communications. Domestic communications
 satellite systems, also geostationary, have been developed by Canada; the
 USSR; Indonesia; and the U.S. firms Western Union and RCA; and, together,
 AT&T and COMSAT. Military satellite systems have been developed by
 the U.S. and NATO.

   communion

 communion, a SACRAMENT in most of CHRISTIANITY, a partaking of bread and
 wine that repeats the actions of JESUS at the LAST SUPPER. Some-among
 them all Roman Catholics-believe that the substances actually and
 miraculously become the body and blood of Christ (transubstantiation).
 Others believe that the sacrament is symbolic; but all believe that the
 recipient is united mystically with Christ. The sacrament is called the
 Eucharist by some (including Roman Catholics) and the Lord's Supper or
 Holy Communion by many Protestants.

   communism

 communism, a system of social organization in which property,
 particularly real property and the means of production, is held in
 common. With an uppercase C, the term refers to the movement that seeks
 to overthrow CAPITALISM through revolution. Forms of communism existed
 among various tribes of native Americans, and it was espoused by early
 Christian sects. During the Middle Ages the MANORIAL SYSTEM provided
 communal use of the village commons and cultivation of certain fields,
 rights the peasants fought to retain in England (14th cent.) and Germany
 (16th cent.). By the early 19th cent. the rise of capitalism, reinforced
 by the INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, had created a new industrial class living
 and working under appalling conditions. Utopian socialists such as Robert
 OWEN and Charles FOURIER, anarchists such as P.J. PROUDHON, and
 revolutionaries such as Auguste Blanqui all favored some kind of communal
 solution to this poverty. In Germany Karl MARX and Friedrich ENGELS
 published the Communist Manifesto (1848), the primary exposition of the
 doctrine that came to be known as MARXISM. It postulated the
 inevitability of communism arising from class war, the overthrow of
 capitalism, and the creation of a classless society. Marxism greatly
 influenced 19th-cent. SOCIALISM. The modern Communist political movement
 began when the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party split (1903) into
 two factions (see BOLSHEVISM AND MENSHEVISM). The Bolsheviks, led by V.I.
 LENIN, called for armed revolution. After their triumph in the 1917
 RUSSIAN REVOLUTION, the Bolsheviks formed the Communist party (1918) and
 the COMINTERN (1919), which claimed leadership of the world socialist
 movement. In the 1930s, Joseph STALIN'S policy of "socialism in one
 country" prevailed in the USSR, but after WORLD WAR II Stalin created
 "satellite" Communist states in Eastern Europe. The Chinese Communists
 (see CHINA), who triumphed in 1949, aided movements in Southeast Asia.
 The Communist world has long been beset by internal problems. Economic
 difficulties, particularly shortages of food and other consumer goods,
 and the resurgence of NATIONALISM have led to demands for reform in


 the USSR and China have been deteriorating, and the Communist parties of
 Western and THIRD WORLD countries have asserted their independence of
 those two powers.

   Communist party

 Communist party: see COMMUNISM.

   community college

 community college or junior college,U.S. public institution of higher
 education characterized by a two-year curriculum leading to an associate
 in arts degree or to transfer to a four-year college. It prepares
 students for direct entry into an occupation and, because of the low
 tuition, local setting, and relatively easy entry requirements, has been
 a major force in the expansion of educational opportunities since World
 War II.

   commutation of sentence

 commutation of sentence: see SENTENCE.

   commutative law

 commutative law, in mathematics, law holding that for a given operation
 combining two quantities, the order of the quantities is arbitrary.
 Addition and multiplication are commutative, thus, a+b=b+a and a*b=b*a
 for any two numbers a and b. Subtraction and division, however, are not
 commutative.

   commutator

 commutator: see GENERATOR; MOTOR, ELECTRIC.

   Comnenus

 Comnenus, dynasty of Byzantine emperors: ISAAC I, ALEXIUS I, JOHN II,
 MANUEL I, ALEXIUS II, and Andronicus I.

   Comoros, The

 Comoros, The, officially Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros,
 independent nation (1987 est. pop. 422,500), 718 sq mi (1,862 sq km),
 occupying most of the Comoro Islands, an archipelago in the Indian Ocean,
 between the east African coast and Madagascar. The capital is Moroni. It
 consists of three main islands-Njazidja, Nzwani, and Mwali (formerly
 Grand Comore, Anjouan, and Moheli, respectively), as well as numerous
 coral reefs and islets. A fourth island, MAYOTTE, is administered by
 France. Because of poor soil, lack of natural resources, and
 overpopulation, the islands have severe economic problems. Most of the
 population is engaged in primitive agriculture, involving subsistence
 crops and the production of vanilla, copra, and essential oils for
 export. African peoples dominate the population, but there are large Arab
 and Indian minorities. French and Arabic are the official languages, but
 most people speak a blend of Swahili and Arabic. The state religion is
 Islam.

 History Originally populated by immigrants from Africa, Indonesia, and
 Arabia, the islands were ceded to the French between 1841 and 1909. After
 occupation by the British in WORLD WAR II, they were granted
 administrative autonomy within the French Union (1946) and internal
 self-government (1968). In 1975 the Comoros unilaterally declared their
 independence; the island of Mayotte, however, voted to remain under
 French control. In 1978 The Comoros was proclaimed a federal Islamic
 republic; shortly thereafter, a one-party state was formed.

   compact disc

 compact disc , or CD,a small plastic disc used for sound storage. The
 sound is digitally encoded on the disc as a series of microscopic pits on
 an otherwise polished surface and covered with a transparent coating, so
 that it can be read by a laser beam. Since nothing touches the encoded
 portion, the CD has a longer life span and is less subject to distortion
 than other recorded media. CDs can also be used to store computer data in
 a form known as CD-ROM.

   comparative linguistics

 comparative linguistics: see LINGUISTICS.

   compass

 compass, in navigation, an instrument for determining direction. The
 mariner's compass, probably first used by European seamen in the 12th
 cent., consists of a magnetic needle freely suspended so that it turns to
 align itself with the magnetic north and south poles. The gyrocompass is
 a more accurate form of navigational compass, unaffected by magnetic
 influences, that came into wide use during World War II. It consists
 essentially of a rapidly spinning, electrically driven rotor suspended in
 such a way that its axis automatically points along the geographical
 meridian.

   complex

 complex, term introduced by C.G. JUNG to indicate a group of feelings and
 memories resulting from early, highly emotional experiences. Although
 complexes are not within conscious awareness, they can influence mental
 activity and behavior. Two frequently cited complexes are the inferiority
 complex-real or imaginary handicaps, often colored by feelings of
 discouragement, that produce a striving to compensate; and the Oedipus
 complex-named by Sigmund FREUD after the myth of OEDIPUS and designating
 childhood hostility toward the parent of the same sex and attraction
 toward the parent of the opposite sex. The Oedipus complex arises as part
 of the psychosocial development of the personality around ages three to
 five.

   composite

 composite, common name for the Compositae or Asteraceae, the daisy
 family, which is one of the largest families of plants, consisting of
 some 20,000 species, mostly herbs and a few shrubs, trees, and climbing
 plants. The family includes many edible salad plants (e.g., LETTUCE,
 endive, CHICORY, salsify, and ARTICHOKES), many cultivated species (e.g.,
 ASTERS, DAISIES, CHRYSANTHEMUMS, MARIGOLDS, and ZINNIAS), and many commo
 weeds and wildflowers. It is often broken down into THISTLE, chicory, and
 RAGWEED tribes. The typical composite flower, e.g., a SUNFLOWER, is
 composed of a multiflowered head. The outer ring consists of the
 conspicuous, but sterile, often petallike ray flowers, which serve to
 attract insects for pollination. The central part of the head is composed
 of minute tubular disk flowers, usually with both stamens and pistils. A
 series of modified leaves (bracts) arising from the base of the flower
 stalk supports the head. Many composite FRUITS are highly adapted to
 dispersal by animals (e.g., the burr plants such as burdock and
 cocklebur) or by wind (e.g., the DANDELION and GOLDENROD).

   composite material

 composite material, any material made from at least two discrete
 substances, such as concrete or wood. The term is also used to denote a
 more specific category of man-made composites, including fiber-reinforced
 plastics. Composite materials allow a blending of properties of the
 separate components. In particular, fiber-reinforced plastics combine the
 high strength and stiffness of the fiber material with the low weight and
 resistance to fracture of the polymeric matrix.

   compost

 compost, substance composed mainly of partly decayed organic material,
 used to fertilize the SOIL and increase its HUMUS content. Usually made
 from plant materials (e.g., grass clippings, leaves, and PEAT), manure,
 and soil, compost can include chemical FERTILIZERS and lime.

   compound

 compound, in chemistry, a substance composed of ATOMS of two or more
 ELEMENTS in chemical combination, occurring in fixed, definite proportion
 and arranged in fixed, definite structures. A compound has unique
 properties that are distinct from the properties of its elemental
 constituents and of all other compounds. A compound differs from a
 mixture in that the components of a mixture retain their own properties
 and may be present in many different proportions. The components of a
 mixture are not chemically combined; they can be separated by physical
 means. A molecular compound, e.g., WATER, is made up of electrically
 neutral MOLECULES, each containing a fixed number of atoms. An ionic
 compound, e.g., SODIUM CHLORIDE, is made up of electrically charged IONS
 that are present in fixed proportions and are arranged in a regular,
 geometric pattern called crystalline structure (see CRYSTAL) but are not
 grouped into molecules.

   Comprehensive Employment and Training Act

 Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA), U.S. government program
 designed to assist economically disadvantaged, unemployed, or
 underemployed persons. Enacted in 1973, CETA provides block grants to
 state and local governments to support public and private job training,
 and such youth programs as the Job Corps and Summer Youth Employment.
 Federal budget cutbacks in 1981 sharply reduced CETA funding, and the
 public-service employment program was eliminated altogether.

   compressor

 compressor, machine that decreases the volume of air or gas by the
 application of pressure. Compressor types range from the simple hand PUMP
 and the piston-equipped compressor used in gas stations to inflate tires
 to machines that use a rotating, bladed element to achieve compression.
 Compressed air exerts an expansive force that can be used as a source of
 power to operate pneumatic tools or to control such devices as air
 BRAKES. Air under compression can be stored in closed cylinders.

   Compromise of 1850

 Compromise of 1850, an attempt at solving North-South tensions over the
 extension of slavery, specifically into newly annexed Texas and territory
 gained by the U.S. in the MEXICAN WAR. The WILMOT PROVISO of 1846,
 prohibiting slavery in land acquired from Mexico, caused contention.
 Compromise measures, largely originating with Stephen A. DOUGLAS, were
 sponsored in the Senate by Henry CLAY. The compromise proposed was to
 admit California as a free state, use popular sovereignty to decide free
 or slave status for New Mexico and Utah, prohibit the slave trade in the
 District of Columbia, pass a more stringent fugitive slave law, and
 settle Texas boundary claims. Chances for acceptance of these proposals
 were enhanced by a famous speech by Daniel WEBSTER (Mar. 17, 1850), and
 even more by the succession of Millard FILLMORE, a supporter of the
 compromise, after the death of Pres. Zachary TAYLOR. The proposals were
 passed as separate bills in Sept. 1850. The Compromise of 1850 was not,
 as had been hoped, a final solution of the question of slavery in new
 territories; that issue arose again in 1854 (see KANSAS-NEBRASKA ACT).

   Compton, Arthur Holly

 Compton, Arthur Holly, 1892-1962, American physicist; b. Wooster, Ohio.
 He was professor of physics at the Univ. of Chicago, where he helped to
 develop the atomic bomb, and was later professor and chancellor at
 Washington Univ., St. Louis. For his discovery of the Compton effect (the
 increase in the wavelengths of X rays and gamma rays when they collide
 with and are scattered from loosely bound electrons in matter), he shared
 the 1927 Nobel Prize in physics with Charles WILSON. Compton also made
 valuable studies of cosmic rays.

   computer

 computer, a device capable of performing a series of arithmetic or
 logical operations. A computer is distinguished from a calculating
 machine, such as an abacus or electronic CALCULATOR, by being able to
 store a computer program (so that it can repeat its operations and make
 logical decisions) and to store and retrieve data without human
 intervention. Computers are classed as analog or digital. An analog
 computer operates on continuously varying data; a digital computer
 performs operations on discrete data. An analog computer represents data
 as physical quantities and operates on the data by manipulating the
 quantities. In a complex analog computer, continuously varying data are
 converted into varying electrical quantities and the relationship of the
 data is determined by establishing an equivalent relationship, or analog,
 among the electrical quantities. Analog computers have been nearly
 completely obsoleted by more effective digital computers. Within a
 digital computer, data are expressed in binary notation (see NUMERATION),
 i.e., by a series of "on-off" conditions that represent the digits "1"
 and "0." A series of eight consecutive binary digits, or bits, is called
 a byte and allows 256 "on-off" combinations. Each byte can thus represent
 one of up to 256 ALPHANUMERIC characters. Arithmetic and comparative
 operations can be performed on data represented in this way and the
 result stored for later use. Digital computers are used for reservation
 systems, scientific investigation, data-processing applications, and
 ELECTRONIC GAMES.

 Hardware The four major physical components, or hardware, of a computer
 are the central processing unit (CPU), main storage, auxiliary storage,
 and input/output devices. Computer operations are performed in the CPU,
 which contains the LOGIC CIRCUITS for arithmetic and logical operations
 and for control of the other units that make up a computing system. The
 CPU also contains the registers, a relatively small number of storage
 locations that can be accessed faster than main storage and are used to
 hold the intermediate results of calculations. The main storage is
 contained in the storage unit, or memory, of the computer. Main
 storage-once made up of vacuum tubes and later of magnetic cores, each
 tube or core representing one bit-is now made up of tiny INTEGRATED
 CIRCUITS, each of which contains thousands of SEMICONDUCTORS. Each
 semiconductor represents one bit. Programs and data that are not
 currently being used in main storage can be saved on auxiliary storage,
 or external storage. Although punched paper tape once served this
 purpose, the major materials used today are magnetic tape and magnetic
 disks. Two areas of continuing research are bubble memories and laser
 storage. A bubble memory has no moving parts, which improves its
 reliability; in this technology, a rotating magnetic field moves a
 magnetic "bubble" (each bubble representing a bit) along loops made of
 small bars of permalloy. Because the bubbles are so minute in size, huge
 volumes of data can be stored in tiny spaces. Laser storage involves an
 array of small holograms (see HOLOGRAPHY), each capable of representing a
 "page" of binary data. When illuminated by laser light, each page
 generates a real image of light and dark spots; this falls on a detector
 array that converts it into electrical signals. Data are entered into the
 computer and the processed data made available via input/output devices.
 All auxiliary storage devices are used as input/output devices. For many
 years, the most popular input/output medium was the punched card.
 Although this is still used, the most popular input device is now the
 COMPUTER TERMINAL and the most popular output device is the high-speed
 printer. The CPU, main storage, auxiliary storage, and input/output
 devices collectively make up a system. Multiple systems may be tied
 together by telecommunications links to form a network.

 Software The computer program, or software, controls the functioning of
 the hardware and directs its operation. See COMPUTER PROGRAM.

 History Although the development of digital computers is rooted in the
 ABACUS and early mechanical calculating devices, Charles BABBAGE is
 credited with the design of the first modern computer. The first fully
 automatic calculator was the Mark I, or Automatic Sequence Controlled
 Calculator, begun in 1939 at Harvard by Howard Aiken, while the first
 all-purpose electronic digital computer, ENIAC (Electronic Numerical
 Integrator And Calculator), which used thousands of vacuum tubes, was
 completed in 1946 at the Univ. of Pennsylvania. UNIVAC (UNIVersal
 Automatic Computer) became (1951) the first computer to handle both
 numeric and alphabetic data with equal facility. First-generation
 computers were supplanted by the transistorized computers (see
 TRANSISTOR) of the late 1950s and early 1960s, second-generation machines
 that could perform a million operations per second. They, in turn, were
 replaced by the third-generation integrated-circuit machines of the
 mid-1960s and 1970s. The 1980s have been characterized by the development
 of the MICROPROCESSOR and the evolution of increasingly smaller but
 powerful minicomputers, micro computers, and PERSONAL COMPUTERS. See also
 ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION; ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE; BAUD; BOOLEAN
 ALGEBRA; DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION; PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE; VIDEOTEX.

   computer-assisted instruction

 computer-assisted instruction: see PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION.

   computer graphics

 computer graphics, the transfer of pictorial data into and out of a
 COMPUTER. Using ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION techniques, a variety of
 devices-such as curve tracers, digitizers, and light pens-connected to
 graphic COMPUTER TERMINALS can be used to store pictorial data in a
 digital computer. By reversing the process through DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG
 CONVERSION techniques, the stored data can be output on a mechanical
 plotting board, or plotter, or on a televisionlike graphic display
 terminal. Sophisticated COMPUTER PROGRAMS allow the computer to
 manipulate the stored graphic image either automatically or under the
 control of a designer, engineer, or architect. This last feature, called
 computer-aided design (CAD), has enhanced the productivity of those
 involved in professions that call for drafting. More recently, as color
 display terminals and plotters have become readily available, computer
 graphics have become a popular contemporary art form. See also ELECTRONIC
 GAME.

   computer program

 computer program, a series of actions or instructions that a COMPUTER can
 interpret and execute; programs are also called software to distinguish
 them from hardware, the physical equipment used in DATA PROCESSING. These
 programming instructions cause the computer to perform arithmetic
 operations or comparisons (and then take some additional action based on
 the comparison) or to input or output data in a desired sequence.
 Programs are often written as a series of subroutines, which can be used
 in more than one program or at more than one point in the same program.
 Systems programs are those that control the operation of the computer.
 Chief among these is the operating system-also called the control
 program, executive, or supervisor-which schedules the execution of other
 programs, allocates system resources, and controls input and output
 operations. Processing programs are those whose execution is controlled
 by the operating system. Language translators decode source programs,
 written in a PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE, and produce object programs, which are
 in machine language and can be understood by the computer. These include
 assemblers, which translate symbolic languages that have a one-to-one
 relationship with machine language; compilers, which translate an
 algorithmic- or procedural-language program into a machine-language
 program to be executed at a later time; and interpreters, which translate
 source-language statements into object-language statements for immediate
 execution. Other processing programs are service or utility programs,
 such as those which "dump" computer memory to external storage for
 safekeeping and those which enable the programmer to "trace" program
 execution, and application programs, which perform business and
 scientific functions such as payroll processing, accounts payable and
 receivable posting, and simulation of environmental conditions.

   computer terminal

 computer terminal, a device that enables a COMPUTER to receive or deliver
 data. Computer terminals vary greatly depending on the format of the data
 they handle. For example, a simple terminal comprises a typewriter
 keyboard for input and a typewriter printing element for ALPHANUMERIC
 output. A similar device includes the keyboard for input and a
 televisionlike screen to display the output. The screen can be a
 CATHODE-RAY TUBE or a gas plasma panel, the latter involving an ionized
 gas (sandwiched between glass layers) that glows to form dots which, in
 turn, connect to form lines. Such displays can present a variety of
 output, ranging from simple alphanumerics to complex graphic images used
 as design tools by architects and engineers. Under program control, these
 graphic terminals can rotate the images to show "hidden" parts and even
 compile parts lists from the design. Other familiar terminals include
 supermarket checkout systems that deliver detailed printed receipts and
 use laser scanners to read the vertical stripes of the Universal Product
 Code printed on food packages, automatic money-dispensing terminals in
 banks, and sorters that read the magnetic-ink numbers printed on bank
 checks.

   Comstock, Anthony

 Comstock, Anthony, 1844-1915, American morals crusader; b. New Canaan,
 Conn. He secured strict New York and federal anti-obscenity legislation.
 As an organizer and then the secretary (1873-1915) of the New York
 Society for the Suppression of Vice, he was responsible for the
 destruction of 160 tons of literature and pictures.

   Comstock Lode

 Comstock Lode, on Mt. Davidson, W Nev.; the richest known U.S. silver
 deposit, discovered in 1857 by Ethan Allen Grosh and Hosea Ballou Grosh.
 They died before recording claims, and in 1859 Henry Tomkins Paige
 Comstock laid claim to the lode. When he disposed of his holdings, the
 lode became a scene of furious activity, centering on Virginia City.
 Wasteful mining methods and the demonetization of silver led to the
 lode's decline, and by 1898 it was virtually abandoned.

   Comte, Auguste

 Comte, Auguste, 1798-1857, French philosopher and sociologist, founder of
 the school of philosophy known as POSITIVISM. Comte was primarily a
 social reformer; his goal, as set forth in The Course of Positive
 Philosophy (1830-42), was a society in which both individuals and nations
 could live in harmony and comfort. He regarded sociology (a term he
 originated) as the method by which this harmony and well-being could be
 achieved. Comte formulated a theory of three stages of social
 development: theological (belief in the supernatural), metaphysical
 (belief in ideas as reality), and positive (phenomena are explained by
 observation, hypothesis, and experimentation).

   Conakry

 Conakry, city (1983 pop. 705,280), capital of Guinea, on the Atlantic
 Ocean. It is Guinea's largest city and its administrative, economic, and
 communications center. Situated on Tombo island, it is connected with the
 mainland by a causeway. Conakry's economy is based on its modern port,
 which ships alumina, coffee, pineapples, and bananas. The city was
 occupied by the French in 1887. Since World War II it has grown into a
 modern city with wide boulevards.

   Conant, James Bryant

 Conant, James Bryant, 1893-1978, American educator; b. Dorchester, Mass.
 President of Harvard Univ. from 1933 to 1953, he became U.S. high
 commissioner for Germany (1953) and ambassador to West Germany (1955-57).
 He published widely on American education, including The American High
 School Today (1959) and The Education of American Teachers (1963).

   concentration

 concentration, in chemistry, measure of the relative proportions of two
 or more quantities in a mixture (see COMPOUND). Concentrations may be
 expressed in a number of ways. The simplest is in terms of a component's
 percentage by weight or volume. Mixtures of solids or liquids are
 frequently specified by weight-percentage concentrations, whereas
 mixtures of gases are usually specified by volume percentages. Very low
 concentrations, such as those of various substances in the atmosphere,
 are expressed in parts per million (ppm). The molarity of a SOLUTION is
 the number of MOLES of solute per liter of solution. The molality of a
 solution is the number of moles of solute per 1,000 grams of solvent. The
 mole fraction of a solution is the ratio of moles of solute to the total
 number of moles in the solution.

   concentration camp

 concentration camp, prison or forced-labor camp outside the normal
 criminal system, for political prisoners, minorities, or others declared
 undesirable. Under the Nazis (see NATIONAL SOCIALISM), camps were set up
 after 1933 to detain (without legal procedure) and later to exterminate
 Jews, Communists, and others. In the most notorious extermination
 camps-Auschwitz, Treblinka, Majdanek in Poland, Buchenwald and Dachau in
 Germany-more than 6 million people, mostly Jews and Poles, were killed in
 gas chambers. Millions of others were also interned during WORLD WAR II
 and a large proportion died of gross mistreatment, malnutrition, and
 disease. The term concentration camp has also been applied to slave-labor
 camps in the USSR.

   Concepcion

 Concepcion, city (1985 est. pop. 217,756), capital of Concepcion prov., S
 central Chile, near the mouth of the Bio-Bio R. It is a major industrial
 center. Founded in 1550, it was leveled or severely damaged by at least
 six major earthquakes in the period from 1570 to 1960. The frequent
 rebuilding of the city has given it a modern aspect.

   concerto

 concerto, musical composition usually for orchestra and soloist (most
 often piano or violin) or a group of soloists. The concerto grosso, for a
 small group of soloists with full orchestra, was developed by Giuseppe
 Torelli, VIVALDI, and CORELLI. The BAROQUE concerto was most fully
 developed by J.S. BACH and G.F. HANDEL. Toward the end of the 18th cent.
 the solo concerto displaced the concerto grosso, and was fixed by W.A.
 MOZART in its classical form of three movements. In the 19th cent.
 BEETHOVEN gave greater importance to the orchestra, and LISZT unified the
 concerto form through the use of repeated themes.

   conch

 conch, name for some tropical, marine GASTROPODS having heavy, spiral
 shells, the whorls of which overlap each other. The typical gastropod
 foot is reduced in size and the horny plate (operculum) located at the
 end of the foot has the appearance and function of a claw. Their shells
 range in color from white to red. Conchs are a valuable food source.

   Concord

 Concord. 1 Residential city (1986 est. pop. 105,980), Contra Costa co., W
 Calif.; settled c.1852, inc. 1906. Concord is in an oil and farm region;
 electronic equipment is the leading manufacture. The city is part of the
 growing San Francisco Bay area. 2 Town (1986 est. pop. 16,470), E Mass.,
 on the Concord R.; inc. 1635. Electronic and wood products are made. The
 site of the 1775 battle (see LEXINGTON AND CONCORD, battles of) is marked
 by Daniel Chester FRENCH'S bronze Minuteman. Concord's fine old houses
 were the homes of EMERSON, the ALCOTTS, HAWTHORNE, and THOREAU, among
 others. 3 City (1986 est. pop. 32,770), state capital and seat of
 Merrimack co., S central N.H., on the Merrimack R.; settled 1725-27, inc.
 1733 as Rumford, Mass., inc. 1765 as Concord, N.H.; became state capital
 in 1808. Its granite quarries are famous. The city also produces
 electrical and leather goods and foods.

   concordat

 concordat, formal agreement between the pope in his spiritual capacity
 and the temporal authority of a state. The earliest was the Concordat of
 Worms (1122) which ended the INVESTITURE controversy. The most famous was
 the Concordat of 1801, reached between Napoleon and Pope PIUS VII. It
 reestablished the Roman Catholic Church in France and provided for the
 nomination of bishops by the state and the conferral of office by the
 pope.

   concrete

 concrete, structural masonry material made by mixing broken stone or
 gravel with sand, CEMENT, and water, and allowing the mixture to harden
 into a solid mass. Concrete has great strength under compression, but its
 tensile strength must be increased by embedding steel rods (reinforced
 concrete) or CABLES under tension (prestressed concrete) within the
 concrete structural member.

   concrete music

 concrete music: see ELECTRONIC MUSIC.

   Conde

 Conde, French princely family, cadet branch of the house of BOURBON. It
 originated with Louis I de Bourbon, prince de Conde, 1530-69, Protestant
 leader and general. He tried to topple the GUISE family from power in the
 conspiracy of Amboise (1560) and commanded the HUGUENOTS in the Wars of
 Religion (see RELIGION, WARS OF). He was slain at the battle of Jarnac.
 His great-grandson Louis II de Bourbon, prince de Conde, 1621-86, called
 the Great Conde, won major victories in the THIRTY YEARS WAR at Rocroi
 (1643), Freiburg (1644), Nordlingen (1645), and Lens (1648). In the
 FRONDE he turned against the government by taking command of the
 rebellious army of the princes in 1651 and of the Spanish army in 1653.
 Defeated in the battle of the Dunes (1658), he was pardoned (1659) by
 LOUIS XIV, for whom he fought successfully (1672-78) in the DUTCH WARS.
 His great-grandson Louis Joseph de Bourbon, prince de Conde, 1736-1818,
 formed the emigre "army of Conde" (dissolved 1801), which fought in
 alliance with France's enemies against French Revolutionary forces.

   condensation

 condensation: see STATES OF MATTER.

   condenser

 condenser: see CAPACITOR.

   condominium

 condominium, individually owned unit in a building or development with
 multiple residential or commercial occupants. Each unit (often an
 apartment or duplex) may be financed or sold separately by the owner, as
 in private housing, but the care and expense of maintaining common areas
 are shared, as in COOPERATIVES. Condominium sales sometimes include
 time-sharing, in which a number of people buy into the same condominium
 for use at a specified time of year (e.g., a particular month) over a
 period of years (e.g., 25 years). The demand for condominium housing
 surged in the U.S. in the 1970s and remained strong during the housing
 slump of the early 1980s.

   condor

 condor, VULTURE found in the high peaks of the Coast Range of S
 California and the ANDES. Condors are the largest living birds, nearly 50
 in. (125 cm) long with wingspans of from 9 to 10 ft (274 to 300 cm).
 Voracious eaters, they prefer carrion but will attack living animals as
 large as deer. Condors are extremely rare and near extinction.

   Condorcet, Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas Caritat, marquis de

 Condorcet, Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas Caritat, marquis de, 1743-94,
 French mathematician, philosopher, and political leader. He did notable
 work (1785) on the theory of PROBABILITY. His best-known work is Sketch
 for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind (1795), in
 which he traced human development through nine epochs to the French
 Revolution and predicted in the tenth epoch the ultimate perfection of
 the human race.

   conducting

 conducting, in music, the art of unifying the efforts of a number of
 musicians simultaneously engaged in musical performance. In the Middle
 Ages and Renaissance the conductor was primarily a time beater. During
 the BAROQUE era the harpsichordist and then the first violinist (even
 today called the concertmaster) became the leader. The principles of
 modern conducting were laid down by Richard WAGNER; Hans von BULOW was
 the first of the virtuoso conductors. Modern conducting requires mastery
 of baton and hand gestures, thorough knowledge of the instruments and
 repertory, and sensitivity to the needs of the performers. Outstanding
 conductors of the 20th cent. include Arturo TOSCANINI, Sir Thomas
 BEECHAM, and Leonard BERNSTEIN. See also ORCHESTRA .

   conduction

 conduction, transfer of HEAT or ELECTRICITY through a substance,
 resulting from a difference in temperature between different parts of the
 substance or from a difference in electric POTENTIAL. Heat may be
 conducted when the motions of energetic (hotter) molecules are passed on
 to nearby, less energetic (cooler) molecules, but a more effective method
 is the migration of energetic free electrons. Conduction of electricity
 consists of the flow of CHARGES. Metals are thus good conductors of both
 heat and electricity because they have a high free-electron density.

   Confederacy

 Confederacy, name commonly given to the Confederate States of America
 (1861-65), the government established by the southern states of the U.S.
 after their secession from the Union. When Pres. LINCOLN was elected
 (Nov. 1860), seven states-South Carolina, Georgia, Louisiana,
 Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, and Texas-seceded. A provisional
 government was set up at Montgomery, Ala., and a constitution was
 drafted; it resembled the U.S. CONSTITUTION but had provisions for
 STATES' RIGHTS and SLAVERY. After the firing on FORT SUMTER and Lincoln's
 call for troops, four more states-Arkansas, North Carolina, Virginia, and
 Tennessee-joined. Richmond, Va., became the capital, and Jefferson DAVIS
 and A.H. STEPHENS were elected president and vice president. The story of
 the Confederacy is the story of the loss of the CIVIL WAR. Its loyal
 citizens bore privations and invasion with courage. It was refused
 recognition by England and France. Volunteers for its army were
 insufficient; conscription was used but opposed. Financial troubles were
 heavy, and its paper money became worthless. Mounting Union victories
 made defeat inevitable. The Confederacy fell after R.E. LEE'S surrender
 in Apr. 1865.

   Confederate States of America

 Confederate States of America: see CONFEDERACY.

   Confederation, Articles of

 Confederation, Articles of, in U.S. history, early form of constitution
 ratified in 1781 and superseded (1789) by the U.S. CONSTITUTION. Its
 chief faults were a subordinate role for the central government and the
 dependence of Congress on the states both for funds and for execution of
 its decrees. Because of these inherent weaknesses the government
 commanded little respect domestically or abroad. Its most significant
 achievement was the ORDINANCE OF 1787.

   Confessing Church

 Confessing Church, German Protestant movement. Founded (1933) by Martin
 NIEMOELLER in opposition to the Nazi-sponsored German Christian Church,
 it was later driven underground. It continues as a separate group within
 the German Evangelicals.

   confirmation

 confirmation, Christian rite confirming an individual's prior initiation
 into the church by BAPTISM. In the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Eastern
 Churches, it is a SACRAMENT. In the West it is ordinarily conferred by a
 bishop and consists of the laying on of hands and anointing with chrism,
 a mixture of oil and balm. Priests confer it in the East. Lutherans and
 Anglicans also use confirmation.

   Confucianism

 Confucianism, moral and religious system of China. Its origins lie in the
 collection of sayings known as the Analects (see CHINESE LITERATURE),
 attributed to CONFUCIUS, and in ancient commentaries such as that of
 Mencius. Before the 3d cent. BC, Confucianism was a system of ethical
 precepts for the management of society, based on the practice of
 jen-sympathy or "human-heartedness"-as shown in one's relations with
 others and demonstrated through adherence to li, a combination of
 etiquette and ritual. A person who wishes to be properly treated when in
 a subordinate role must, according to the Confucian Golden Rule, treat
 his own inferiors with propriety. Confucianism, with its practical social
 precepts, was often challenged by the supernatural religious systems of
 TAOISM and BUDDHISM and was eclipsed by them from the 3d to the 7th cent.
 AD, but it revived under the T'ang dynasty (618-906). The Sung dynasty
 (960-1279) saw the development of neo-Confucianism, a metaphysical system
 that drew on the beliefs of Taoism and especially of ZEN BUDDHISM; during
 the Ming period (1368-1644) it stressed meditation and intuitive
 knowledge. Thereafter the system gradually weakened, and with the
 overthrow of the monarchy (1911-12) Confucianism declined, a process
 accelerated by the Communist revolution (1949). Traditional Chinese
 ethics and culture still stem from Confucian teachings, however.

   Confucius

 Confucius, Chinese K'ung Fu-tse, c.551-479? BC, Chinese sage. Legend
 surrounds his life, but modern scholars base their accounts mainly on the
 Analects, a collection of sayings and dialogues apparently recorded by
 Confucius' disciples. He was born in the feudal state of Lu, in modern
 Shandong province. Probably because of his reformist teachings, he held
 only minor governmental posts. In the midst of the warfare and tyranny,
 he urged a system of morality and statecraft to bring about peace,
 stability, and just government. His supposed doctrines are embodied in
 CONFUCIANISM.

   congenital defect

 congenital defect, an abnormality present at birth that is acquired
 during development in the uterus or occurs during the birth process. Some
 disorders can be diagnosed during pregnancy by AMNIOCENTESIS and some can
 be corrected surgically before birth.

   congestive heart failure

 congestive heart failure: see HEART DISEASE.

   conglomerate

 conglomerate, a large corporation that grows mainly through acquisition
 of, or merger with, firms in unrelated fields. Although corporate mergers
 and acquisitions were common earlier, the modern conglomerate did not
 emerge until the 1960s, when it became popular among investors. By
 diversifying, the conglomerate seeks to protect itself against changing
 markets and economic conditions.

   Congo, People's Republic of the

 Congo, People's Republic of the, republic (1987 est. pop. 2,180,000),
 132,046 sq mi (342,000 sq km), W central Africa, bordered by Gabon (W),
 Cameroon and the Central African Republic (N), Zaire (E and SE), and
 Cabinda (an exclave of Angola) and the Atlantic Ocean (SW). Major cities
 include BRAZZAVILLE (the capital) and POINTE-NOIRE. The country is
 largely covered by tropical rain forests and stretches of wooded savanna,
 and is drained by tributaries of the CONGO and Ubangi rivers. The Congo
 serves as the commercial and transport hub of central Africa, with
 important road, river, and rail systems connecting inland areas with the
 Atlantic. Forestry and agriculture are the chief economic activities,
 providing sugarcane, palm oil, coffee, cocoa, and timber for export, and
 serving as the basis of most of the country's industry. Mining is
 increasingly important, with petroleum and potash the principal exports.
 The Bakongo, the major ethnic group, are Bantu-speaking, as are the other
 principal tribes, the Bateke, Mbochi, and Sanga. French is the official
 language. Most of the people practice animist religions, but about 30%
 are Roman Catholic.

 History The region probably was first inhabited by PYGMIES, followed
 (15th cent.) by the Bakongo, Bateke, and Sanga. After the Portuguese
 navigator Diego Cao explored the coast in 1482, a slave trade developed
 between Europeans and the coastal African states. Portuguese traders
 predominated throughout the 17th cent., although French, English, and
 Dutch merchants competed for commercial opportunities. From 1889 the area
 (called French Congo and later Middle Congo) was administered by French
 concessionaires, who exploited the rubber and ivory resources, until it
 became a colony in FRENCH EQUATORIAL AFRICA in 1910. In 1946, after
 serving as a bastion for Free French forces in WORLD WAR II, the Congo
 was granted a territorial assembly. It gained autonomy within the FRENCH
 COMMUNITY in 1958 and full independence in 1960. Its first president,
 Fulbert Youlou, was ousted in 1963, and a government with a
 Marxist-Leninist ideology was established. This was, in turn, overthrown
 in 1968, but the new military regime continued the previous government's
 socialist policies. Following a presidential assassination in 1977, a
 military council governed until elections in 1979 installed another
 military government, with Col. Denis SASSOU-NGUESSO as president.

   Congo

 Congo or Zaire, great river of Africa, flowing c.2,720 mi (4,380 km)
 generally north and west through Zaire to the Atlantic Ocean in NW
 Angola. It drains much of central equatorial Africa. Its upper course,
 above Boyoma (Stanley) Falls, is known as the Lualaba R. Its lower course
 widens near Kinshasa to form lakelike Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), from
 which the river descends 876 ft (267 m) through a series of rapids
 (Livingstone Falls) to the port of Matadi. Called the Congo for the
 historic KONGO kingdom near its mouth, the river was explored in the 19th
 cent. by David LIVINGSTONE and Henry STANLEY.

   Congregationalism

 Congregationalism, a type of Protestant church organization in which each
 congregation, or local church, has free control of its own affairs, with
 Jesus Christ alone as its head. The movement arose (16th-17th cent.) in
 England in a SEPARATIST revolt against formalized worship. Pilgrims
 brought Congregationalism to America in 1620, where it later took a
 leading part in the GREAT AWAKENING. There have been several mergers
 involving Congregational bodies, the latest (1957) forming the UNITED
 CHURCH OF CHRIST. There are no bishops or presbyteries.

   Congressional Black Caucus

 Congressional Black Caucus, organization of black members of the U.S.
 House of Representatives. Founded in 1971, it addresses legislative
 concerns of blacks and other minority citizens. It publishes a yearly
 agenda of key issues, sponsors seminars and an internship program,
 maintains a library, and supports the Congressional Black Caucus
 Foundation. In 1989, its membership numbered 17.

   Congress of Industrial Organizations

 Congress of Industrial Organizations: see AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR
 AND CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATIONS.

   Congress of Racial Equality

 Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), civil rights organization founded
 (1942) in Chicago by James Farmer. It seeks, through nonviolent direct
 action, to end discrimination in public accommodations, housing, and
 other areas. CORE first gained national recognition with the 1961 Freedom
 Rides, in which interracial groups traveled south by bus. It later moved
 toward a more separatist policy, calling for black economic independence
 within the U.S.

   Congress of the United States

 Congress of the United States, legislative branch of the federal
 government, instituted (1789) by Article 1 of the CONSTITUTION OF THE
 UNITED STATES. It comprises two houses, the Senate and the House of
 Representatives. The Senate consists of two senators from each state, who
 serve six-year terms. Senators were elected by state legislatures until
 1913, when the 17th amendment to the Constitution required that they be
 chosen by popular election. Every two years one third of the Senate is
 elected. The House of Representatives consists of 435 members apportioned
 among the states according to their population in the federal CENSUS.
 Representatives are elected from congressional districts drawn up by the
 state legislatures and serve two-year terms. The House traditionally
 elects its presiding officer, the Speaker, by consensus of the majority
 party. The vice president of the U.S. is the presiding officer of the
 Senate, but the agenda is set by the majority leader. Most of the work in
 both houses is transacted by standing committees in which both majority
 and minority members are represented. Each chamber has an equal voice in
 legislation, although revenue bills must originate in the House. The
 Senate must ratify all treaties by a two-thirds vote; it also confirms
 important presidential appointees. A presidential VETO of congressional
 legislation can be overridden by a two-thirds vote in each house.
 Whenever an item of legislation is approved in varying forms by the two
 houses, the differences are reconciled by a joint (or conference)
 committee that includes members of both chambers. See also EXECUTIVE;
 CABINET; COURT SYSTEM IN THE UNITED STATES; SUPREME COURT, UNITED STATES.

   Congreve, William

 Congreve, William, 1670-1729, English dramatist. After publishing a
 novel, Incognita (1692), and translations, he turned to the stage. His
 first comedy, The Old Bachelor (1693), was a great success and was
 followed by The Double Dealer (1693), Love for Love (1695), and a
 tragedy, The Mourning Bride (1697). His masterpiece, The Way of the
 World, appeared in 1700. Congreve's plays are considered the apex of
 RESTORATION comedy. With brilliant language and complex plots they
 present amused, cynical portraits of people more concerned with manners
 than morals.

   conic section

 conic section or conic,curve formed by the intersection of a plane and a
 right circular cone, or conical surface. The ordinary conic sections are
 the CIRCLE, the ellipse, the parabola, and the hyperbola. When the plane
 passes through the vertex of the cone, the result is a point, a straight
 line, or a pair of intersecting straight lines; these are called
 degenerate conic sections. In ANALYTIC GEOMETRY every conic section is
 the graph of an equation of the form ax2+bxy+ cy2+dx+ey+f=0, where a, b,
 c, d, e, and f are constants and a, b, and c are not all zero.

   conifer

 conifer, tree or shrub of Coniferales, an order of mostly cone-bearing
 evergreens distributed worldwide. A few, e.g., the LARCH, are deciduous.
 Conifers do not have true flowers, but some, e.g., the YEW, have globular
 fruits. The PINE, MONKEY-PUZZLE TREE, CYPRESS, and SEQUOIA are conifers.

   conjugation

 conjugation: see INFLECTION.

   conjunction

 conjunction: see PART OF SPEECH.

   conjunction

 conjunction, in astronomy: see SYZYGY.

   conjunctivitis

 conjunctivitis, disorder of the mucosal membrane that covers the eyeball
 and lines the eyelid, usually caused by bacteria, virus, or allergy; also
 called "pinkeye." Producing redness, discharge, and itching of the eyes,
 conjunctivitis is frequently treated with ANTIBIOTICS and sometimes
 CORTISONE. Before the use of silver nitrate drops in eyes of newborns,
 conjunctivitis was a major cause of blindness in infants.

   Conkling, Roscoe

 Conkling, Roscoe, 1829-88, American politician; b. Albany, N.Y. He served
 New York in the U.S. House of Representatives (1859-63, 1865-67) and the
 U.S. Senate (1867-81). The Republican state "boss" and "Old Guard"
 leader, He resigned from the Senate when Pres. James A. GARFIELD ignored
 him in appointing a collector of the port of New York.

   Connecticut

 Connecticut, one of the New England states of the NE U.S.; bordered by
 Massachusetts (N), Rhode Island (E), Long Island Sound (S), and New York
 (W).

 Area, 5,009 sq mi (12,973 sq km). Pop. (1986 est.), 3,189,000, a 2.6%
 increase over 1980 pop. Capital, Hartford. Statehood, Jan. 9, 1788 (fifth
 of the original 13 states to ratify the Constitution). Highest pt., Mt.
 Frissell, 2,380 ft (726 m); lowest pt., sea level. Nickname, Constitution
 State. Motto, Qui Transtulit Sustinet [He Who Transplanted Still
 Sustains]. State bird, American robin. State flower, mountain laurel.
 State tree, white oak. Abbr., Conn.; CT.

 Land and People Except for the coastal plain along Long Island Sound,
 Connecticut is covered with rolling hills. The western highlands,
 including part of the Taconic Mts., are separated from the eastern
 highlands by the fertile Connecticut R. valley. Almost 80% of the
 population lives in metropolitan areas. The principal cities are
 BRIDGEPORT, HARTFORD, NEW HAVEN, WATERBURY, and STAMFORD. The state's
 densely settled southwestern corner is part of the New York City
 metropolitan area.

 Economy Connecticut is a heavily industrialized state. Chief products are
 fabricated metals, machinery, munitions, and transportation equipment,
 including submarines manufactured at GROTON. Hartford has long been one
 of the country's leading insurance centers. The small agricultural sector
 is dominated by dairying and the cultivation of shade-grown tobacco.

 Government The constitution of 1965 provides for a governor elected to a
 four-year term. The General Assembly is composed of a 35-member senate
 and 151-seat house, with members of both serving two-year terms.
 Connecticut is represented in the U.S. Congress by six representatives
 and two senators and has eight electoral votes.

 History The Dutch discovered the Connecticut R. in 1614, but settlement
 of the region was largely the work of English Puritans from
 Massachusetts. In the 1630s they flocked to the Connecticut valley, and
 in 1638-39 the towns of Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield adopted the
 FUNDAMENTAL ORDERS, which set up a government for the colony. It soon
 expanded to include other towns and in 1662 acquired the colony of New
 Haven, which had been founded in 1638. Connecticut joined the other
 colonies in the AMERICAN REVOLUTION and was one of the first states to
 ratify the Constitution. Its important shipping trade suffered from the
 EMBARGO ACT (1807) and the WAR OF 1812, and the state gradually turned to
 manufacturing. Connecticut abolished slavery in 1848 and supported the
 Union in the CIVIL WAR with nearly 60,000 troops. Save for the Great
 Depression, the state's economy has prospered in the 20th cent.

   Connecticut Wits

 Connecticut Wits or Hartford Wits,informal association of Yale students
 and rectors formed in the late 18th cent. Conservative Federalists, they
 attacked their liberal opponents in satirical verses, e.g., The Anarchiad
 (1786-87). Members of the group included Timothy DWIGHT and John
 TRUMBULL.

   connective tissue

 connective tissue, supportive tissue widely distributed in the body.
 Consisting mainly of substances certain cells secrete, it contains
 relatively few cells. The connective tissue that forms TENDONS and
 LIGAMENTS is mainly collagen-white, inelastic protein fibers. Cartilage,
 vital to the skeletal system of vertebrates, is fibrous collagen in a
 gel; it is firm but flexible. Connective tissue found under the skin and
 supporting most organs contains collagen and other fibers as well. BONE
 connective tissue is made up largely of collagen fibers and calcium salt
 crystals; its structure is strong and rigid. BLOOD and lymph have a fluid
 connective tissue matrix.

   Connolly, Maureen

 Connolly, Maureen, 1934-69, American tennis player; b. San Diego. At 16,
 "Little Mo" became the youngest player to win the U.S. national singles.
 She twice defended (1952-53) the title successfully, won (1952-54) at
 Wimbledon three times, and completed (1953) the grand slam by adding the
 French and Australian titles.

   Connors, Jimmy

 Connors, Jimmy (James Connors, Jr.), 1952-, American tennis player; b.
 East St. Louis, Ill. In 1974, at 22, he won the Australian Open, the U.S.
 Open (which he also won in 1976, 1978, 1982, and 1983), and Wimbledon
 (which he also won in 1982).

   conquistador

 conquistador, military leader of the Spanish conquest of the New World in
 the 16th cent. Francisco PIZARRO and Hernan CORTES were the greatest
 conquistadors. The word can mean any daring, ruthless adventurer.

   Conrad

 Conrad, rulers of the HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE and its predecessor state. Conrad
 I, d. 918, German king (911-18), succeeded Louis the Child, but was
 plagued by feuds and rebellions in Lorraine, Swabia, and Bavaria. His
 failure to halt the continuing Hungarian invasions and the alienation of
 his nobles almost dissolved the kingdom. Conrad II, c.990-1039, emperor
 and German king (1024-39), was the first of the Frankish Salian dynasty.
 His election as German king was contested by Swabia, Lotharingia, and
 Italy; but he was crowned after three years of conflict. His reign was
 marked by constant revolts, but he added Burgundy to his dominions and
 greatly increased commerce. Conrad III, c.1093-1152, emperor and German
 king (1138-52), founder of the HOHENSTAUFEN dynasty, was set up as
 antiking to Emperor LOTHAIR II in 1127 but submitted to Lothair in 1135.
 He was elected king at Lothair's death by those opposing Henry the Proud
 of Bavaria and his brother Guelph, thereby setting in force the struggle
 between the GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES. Conrad was never crowned. Conrad IV,
 1228-54, emperor and German king (1237-54), king of Sicily and of
 Jerusalem (1250-54), was made king by his father Emperor FREDERICK II,
 but the struggle between Frederick and Pope INNOCENT IV kept him from
 being crowned. He was excommunicated in 1254 and died shortly thereafter
 of fever.

   Conrad

 Conrad, d. 1192, Latin king of JERUSALEM (1192), marquis of Montferrat, a
 leader in the Third CRUSADE. He saved TYRE from the Saracens and became
 (1187) its lord. To gain the throne of Jerusalem he married the daughter
 of AMALRIC I, but he was immediately murdered, probably by Muslim
 fanatics. The title passed eventually to AMALRIC II.

   Conrad, Joseph

 Conrad, Joseph, 1857-1924, English novelist; b. Poland, as Josef Teodor
 Konrad Walecz Korzeniowski. After a period at sea (during which he became
 a British subject), he began (1894) writing novels in English, an
 acquired language, and eventually became one of the greatest prose
 stylists in English literature. Notable early works include The Nigger of
 the "Narcissus" (1897), Lord Jim (1900), and the novellas Youth (1902),
 Heart of Darkness (1902), and Typhoon (1903). A master at creating
 character and atmosphere, Conrad acutely portrayed individuals suffering
 from isolation and moral disintegration, and the clash between primitive
 cultures and modern civilization. His best works include Nostromo (1904),
 The Secret Agent (1907), Under Western Eyes (1911), Chance (1913), and
 Victory (1915).

   consanguinity

 consanguinity: see KINSHIP.

   conscientious objector

 conscientious objector, person who, on grounds of conscience, refuses
 military service. Resistance based on religious or humanitarian
 convictions, as among Quakers (see FRIENDS), is usually distinguished
 from political opposition. In World Wars I and II, the U.S. and Britain
 allowed objectors who were members of recognized pacifist religious
 denominations to substitute nonmilitary service, but imprisoned other
 pacifists. In the 1970s the U.S. Supreme Court allowed conscientious
 objection based on deeply held ethical as well as religious beliefs, but
 refused to accept opposition to the VIETNAM WAR as a basis for exemption.

   consciousness raising

 consciousness raising, a process designed to increase women's awareness
 of their situation and experiences. During the 1960s,
 consciousness-raising groups were an important aspect of the feminist
 movement. In these groups, women discussed their problems, explored the
 questions and manifestations of overt and subtle forms of sexual
 oppression, and found a basis for political action. See also FEMINISM.

   conscription

 conscription, compulsory enrollment, in war or peace, in the armed
 forces. The idea of compulsory military service by all of a nation's
 able-bodied men was introduced in the late 18th cent. during the French
 Revolution and enabled Napoleon to raise huge armies. Other European
 countries adopted such a system during the 19th cent. In the U.S. wartime
 conscription was used in the Civil War and both world wars, and a
 peacetime draft was maintained from 1945 to 1973.

   conservation laws

 conservation laws, in physics, basic laws that maintain that the total
 value of certain quantities remains unchanged during a physical process.
 Conserved quantities include MASS (or matter), ENERGY, linear MOMENTUM,
 angular momentum, and electric CHARGE; the theory of RELATIVITY, however,
 combines the laws of conservation of mass and of energy into a single
 law. Additional conservation laws have meaning only on the subatomic
 level.

   conservation of natural resources

 conservation of natural resources, informed restraint in the human use of
 the earth's resources. The term conservation, which came into use in the
 late 19th cent., referred to the management, mainly for economic reasons,
 of such valuable natural resources as timber, fish, game, topsoil,
 pastureland, and minerals. It referred also to the preservation of
 forests, wildlife (see WILDLIFE REFUGE), park land, wilderness, and
 WATERSHED areas. Conservation as part of a total approach to the use of
 natural resources was introduced by Pres. Theodore ROOSEVELT and his
 chief forester, Gifford PINCHOT. They popularized the philosophy,
 inspired a widespread movement, and gave impetus to much legislation. A
 Roosevelt-appointed commission published the first inventory of the
 country's natural resources. POLLUTION problems and dwindling ENERGY
 resources gave rise in the 1960s and 70s to a related
 movement-ENVIRONMENTALISM-and numerous laws were passed to protect the
 environment and its resources. In the early 1980s attempts by the REAGAN
 administration to open some wilderness areas to resource development led
 to opposition from both conservationists and environmentalists.

   conservatism

 conservatism, in politics, the desire to maintain or conserve the
 existing order. Modern political conservatism emerged in the 19th cent.,
 in reaction to the political and social changes of the FRENCH REVOLUTION
 and the INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION. European conservatism, as formulated by
 Edmund BURKE and others, emphasized preserving the power of the king and
 landowners, limiting suffrage, and continuing the ties between church and
 state. Benjamin DISRAELI exemplified the conservative tendency to resort
 to moderate reform in order to preserve the foundations of the old order.
 By the 20th cent. conservatism was being redirected by erstwhile liberal
 manufacturing and professional groups who had achieved their political
 aims and had become concerned with preserving them. The new conservatism
 advocated economic LAISSEZ FAIRE and opposed the extension of the welfare
 state.

   Conservative Judaism

 Conservative Judaism: see JUDAISM.

   Conservative party

 Conservative party, major British political party, the other being the
 LABOUR PARTY. The successor of the TORY party, it came into being after
 the REFORM BILL of 1832 and advocated the Tory policies of defense of the
 Church of England and protection of agricultural interests. Later, it
 strongly supported imperialism. The repeal of the protectionist CORN LAWS
 (1846) by the Conservative leader Sir Robert PEEL caused a split in the
 party and its exclusion from power for most of the period 1846-73. Under
 Benjamin DISRAELI'S "Tory democracy" (1874-80), the party wooed the
 broadening electorate with social legislation. The dominant party under
 Stanley BALDWIN, during the 1920s and 30s, it lost prestige with the
 failure of Neville CHAMBERLAIN'S appeasement of Nazi Germany (1937-40),
 but the country rallied to his successor, Sir Winston CHURCHILL, during
 WORLD WAR II. In the postwar years the Conservatives led Britain into the
 European COMMON MARKET and generally continued the social programs
 initiated by the Labour party. In 1979 Margaret THATCHER, a Conservative,




 Considerant, Victor Prosper, 1808-93, French socialist. Leader of
 Fourierism after the death (1837) of Charles FOURIER, he took part in the
 JUNE DAYS uprising (1848), was forced to flee to Belgium, and later tried
 unsuccessfully to establish (1855-57) a Fourierist colony in Texas. His
 books include Principles of Socialism (1847).

   consideration

 consideration: see CONTRACT.

   conspiracy

 conspiracy, in U.S. law, agreement of two or more persons to commit a
 criminal or otherwise unlawful act. At common law, the crime of
 conspiracy was committed with the making of the agreement, but
 present-day statutes require an overt act by a conspirator to further the
 conspiracy. It is not necessary for guilt that the object of the
 conspiracy be consummated.

   Constable, John

 Constable, John, 1776-1837, leading English landscape painter. The
 influence of RUISDAEL and CLAUDE LORRAIN is evident in his direct
 observation of nature and use of broken color, both extraordinary for his
 day. Such works as View on the Stour (1819) and The Hay Wain (1821;
 National Gall., London) influenced French romantics (including DELACROIX
 and Bonington) and later the BARBIZON SCHOOL, as well as the general
 course of 19th-cent. French LANDSCAPE PAINTING. His preparatory sketches,
 e.g., Weymouth Bay (National Gall., London), are spontaneous and
 vigorous.

   Constance, Council of

 Constance, Council of: see SCHISM, GREAT.

   Constant, Benjamin

 Constant, Benjamin, 1767-1830, French-Swiss political writer and
 novelist; b. Switzerland. Through Germaine de STAEL he became interested
 in politics, and his affair with her took him to Paris (1795). He served
 (1799-1801) as a tribune under NAPOLEON I but lived in exile (1802-14)
 with de Stael after she was expelled from France. During the Bourbon
 restoration he served (1819-22, 1824-30) in the chamber of deputies,
 earning a reputation as a liberal. His most important work is the
 semiautobiographical novel Adolphe (1816).

   Constanta

 Constanta, city (1985 pop. 323,236), SE Rumania, on the Black Sea. It is
 Rumania's main seaport, with such exports as petroleum and grain; its
 chief naval and air base; an industrial city; and a resort. Founded (7th
 cent. BC) by the Greeks, it was ruled by the Romans, Byzantines, and
 Turks before passing to Rumania in 1878.

   Constantine

 Constantine,  Roman emperors. Constantine I or Constantine the Great,
 288?-337 (r. 310-337), was born at Naissus (now Nis, Yugoslavia), the son
 of Constantius I and St. HELENA. When Constantius died at York in 306,
 his soldiers proclaimed Constantine emperor, but much rivalry for the
 vacated office ensued. Before the battle at the Milvian or Mulvian Bridge
 near Rome in 312, Constantine, who was already sympathetic toward
 Christianity, is said to have seen in the sky a flaming cross as the sign
 by which he would conquer. He adopted the cross and was victorious. The
 battle is regarded as a turning point for Christianity. Constantine ruled
 in the West and LICINIUS in the East as coemperors until they fell out in
 324. Licinius lost his life in the struggle, leaving Constantine sole
 emperor. In a reign of peace, Constantine rebuilt the empire on a basis
 of absolutism. In 325 he convened the epoch-making Council of NICAEA. In
 330 he moved the capital to Constantinople, a city dedicated to the
 Virgin. As the founder of the Christian empire, Constantine began a new
 era. He was baptized on his deathbed. Constantine II, 316-40 (r. 337-40),
 was the son of Constantine. When the empire was divided at his father's
 death (337), he received Britain, Gaul, and Spain. Feeling cheated, he
 warred with his brother Constans I; he was killed while invading Italy.

   Constantine

 Constantine, Byzantine emperors. Constantine I:see under  CONSTANTINE,
 Roman emperors. Constantine IV (Pogonatus), c.652-685 (r.668-85),
 repelled the Muslims but had to cede land to the Bulgars. He called the
 Third Council of Constantinople (680), which condemned MONOTHELETISM.
 Constantine V (Copronymus), 718-75 (r.741-75), was a capable general and
 administrator. His support of ICONOCLASM and opposition to MONASTICISM
 lost him Rome. Constantine VI, b. c.770 (r.780-97), reigned first with
 his mother, IRENE, as regent and then as co-ruler (792). In 797 she had
 her cruel and unpopular son deposed and blinded. Constantine VII
 (Porphyrogenitus), 905-59 (r.913-59), had his reign interrupted by the
 usurpation of ROMANUS I (919-44). He fostered learning, law reform, and
 the fair distribution of land. Constantine XI (Palaeologus), d. 1453, was
 the last Byzantine emperor (r.1449-53). He proclaimed the union of the
 Eastern and Western churches. After a long siege Constantinople fell
 (1453) to Ottoman sultan MUHAMMAD II. Constantine died in the battle.

   Constantine

 Constantine, kings of the Hellenes (Greece). Constantine I, 1868-1923
 (r.1913-17, 1920-22), opposed the Allies in World War I and was forced to
 abdicate in favor of his second son, ALEXANDER. He was restored after
 Alexander's death, but in 1922 a military rebellion forced him to
 abdicate again, this time in favor of his eldest son, GEORGE II.
 Constantine II, 1940- (r.1964-73), succeeded his father, PAUL, but in
 1967 was forced into exile by a military junta. He was formally deposed
 in 1973.

   Constantine the Great

 Constantine the Great: see CONSTANTINE I.

   Constantinople

 Constantinople, former capital of the BYZANTINE EMPIRE and of the OTTOMAN
 EMPIRE, called ISTANBUL since 1930. It was founded (AD 330) at BYZANTIUM
 as the new capital of the Roman Empire by CONSTANTINE I and became the
 largest, most splendid medieval European city. Built on seven hills above
 the BOSPORUS, it had such magnificent buildings as the church of HAGIA
 SOPHIA and the emperors' palace (a city in itself), and many artistic and
 literary treasures. It was conquered in 1204 by Crusaders (see CRUSADES),
 in 1261 by MICHAEL VIII, and in 1453 by MUHAMMAD II. Almost depopulated
 when it fell to the Turks, the city recovered quickly, and was
 embellished by the Ottoman sultans who built palaces and mosques. After
 WORLD WAR I Constantinople was occupied (1918-23) by the Allies. In 1923
 Kemal ATATURK made ANKARA Turkey's capital.

   Constantinople, Councils of

 Constantinople, Councils of, four ecumenical councils of the Roman
 Catholic Church. The First Council of Constantinople (381), called to
 confirm the victory over ARIANISM, established the orthodox teaching of
 the Trinity and condemned the heresy of Apollinarianism. The second
 council (553) was called and dominated by Byzantine Emperor JUSTINIAN I;
 it condemned Nestorian writings (see NESTORIANISM) and encouraged
 MONOPHYSITISM. The third council (680) condemned MONOTHELETISM and a
 former pope, HONORIUS I. The fourth council (869-70) confirmed the
 condemnation of PHOTIUS. The third and fourth councils are not accepted
 as ecumenical by the Orthodox Church.

   Constantinople, Latin Empire of

 Constantinople, Latin Empire of, 1204-61, feudal empire in the S Balkans
 and Greek archipelago, founded by the leaders of the Fourth CRUSADE. Its
 government was divided between the Crusaders and their Venetian
 creditors. The rulers were BALDWIN I, HENRY OF FLANDERS, ROBERT OF
 COURTENAY, and BALDWIN II. The empire at once began to decline from
 internal strife and attacks by the Bulgars, Turks, and Greek states of
 NICAEA and EPIRUS. It was taken (1261) by MICHAEL VIII of Nicaea, who
 restored the Byzantine Empire. However, Venice retained most of the Greek
 Isles, the Villehardouin family of France kept Achaia, and Athens came
 under Catalan rule.

   constellation

 constellation, in common usage, group of stars (e.g., URSA MAJOR) that
 are imagined to form a configuration in the sky; properly speaking, a
 constellation is a definite region of the sky in which the configuration
 of stars is contained. The entire celestial sphere is divided into 88
 such regions, with boundaries fixed by international agreement along
 lines of right ascension and declination. The 12 constellations located
 along or near the ecliptic, or apparent path of the sun through the
 heavens, are known as the constellations of the ZODIAC.

   constitution

 constitution, fundamental principles of government of a nation, either
 implied in its laws, institutions, and customs, or embodied in one or
 more documents. The British constitution, an unwritten, flexible type,
 comprises the whole body of common and statutory law, practices, and
 customs that have evolved there; it can be modified simply by an act of
 PARLIAMENT. The U.S. CONSTITUTION, a written, rigid type, has superior
 sanction to ordinary laws and can be changed only through an elaborate
 process of amendment. It remains abreast of the times, however, through
 statutes passed by CONGRESS and interpretations and rulings of the
 SUPREME COURT. In modern times, countries have tended to operate under
 written constitutions.

   Constitution Act, 1982

 Constitution Act, 1982, Canadian law that superseded the BRITISH NORTH
 AMERICA ACT of 1867 as the basic constitution of Canada. Also known as
 the patriation bill, it gives Canadians the power to make their own
 constitutional changes, whereas the previous act had required the formal
 approval of the British Parliament. Despite protests from Canadian
 Indians and from Quebec Prov., the act was signed into law by Queen
 ELIZABETH II in Ottawa on Apr. 17, 1982.

   Constitutional Convention

 Constitutional Convention: see FEDERAL CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION.

   Constitutional Union party

 Constitutional Union party, in U.S. history, formed when the conflict
 between North and South broke down older parties. Organized just before
 the election of 1860, it recognized "no political principle but the
 Constitution of the country, the union of the states, and the enforcement
 of laws." Party candidates John Bell and Edward EVERETT carried Kentucky,
 Tennessee, and Virginia in the presidential election won by Abraham
 Lincoln.

   Constitution of the United States

 Constitution of the United States, document embodying the principles on
 which the American nation is governed. It establishes a federal REPUBLIC
 with sovereignty balanced between the national government and the states.
 Within the national government, power is separated among three branches,
 the EXECUTIVE, legislative (see CONGRESS), and judicial (see SUPREME
 COURT, UNITED STATES). The U.S. Constitution is the supreme law of the
 land; no other law, state constitution or statute, federal legislation,
 or executive order can operate in conflict with it. Drawn up at the
 FEDERAL CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION of 1787 in Philadelphia and ratified by
 the required nine states by June 21, 1788, the Constitution began to
 function in 1789, superseding the Articles of Confederation (1781). It is
 relatively brief and concise, consisting of a preamble, 7 articles, and
 (to 1982) 26 amendments . The Bill of Rights, comprising the first 9
 amendments to the constitution, was added in 1791 to provide adequate
 guarantees of individual liberties. Amendments 1 through 8 prohibit
 certain federal actions, many of them analogous to British actions
 complained of in the DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. The 9th amendment
 states that the people retain any rights not specified in the
 Constitution. After the 10th amendment (also ratified in 1791), which is
 the foundation of STATES' RIGHTS doctrine, amendments to the Constitution
 were few. The 14th amendment-assuring that the rights of citizens cannot
 be abridged by the states-has been the basis for limitation of many state
 actions. The brevity and generality of the language of the Constitution
 have made it adaptable to changing times, and the mechanics of amendment
 are difficult. Since Chief Justice John MARSHALL'S time, the U.S. Supreme
 Court has changed the Constitution more than the amendment process has.
 Arguments on the meaning of the document generally proceed from two
 bases: the question of the signers' intent and the need to relate the
 Constitution to modern conditions. Over time the Constitution has been
 held to mean radically different things. Thus in PLESSY V. FERGUSON
 (1896), the Court held racial segregation constitutional, while in BROWN
 V. BOARD OF EDUCATION (1954), it found the opposite. Among the concepts
 long subject to reexamination and reinterpretation are states' rights,
 due process of law, and equal protection under the law.


 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES (Summary)


 The Preamble states the general purpose of the Constitution:We, the
 people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union,
 establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common
 defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty
 to ourselves and our posterity do ordain and establish this Constitution
 for the United States of America.


 Article I Places all legislative power in a bicameral Congress composed
 of Senate and House of Representatives, prescribes method of electing
 Congress, and empowers each house to establish its own procedural rules.
 Process of legislation from Congress to President is generally described.
 Section VIII grants Congress specific powers, e.g., to declare war.
 Section IX limits Congressional powers, forbidding, e.g., ex post facto
 laws. Section X limits powers of states, and makes some state action
 dependent on Congressional consent.

 Article II Creates EXECUTIVE branch of government, headed by President
 and Vice President. Establishes ELECTORAL COLLEGE, prescribes election
 process, qualifications, and manner of succession when a President is
 incapacitated. Section II enumerates President's powers as military
 commander-in-chief and in foreign affairs. Section III governs
 President's working relations with Congress and grants President
 administrative power. Section IV governs impeachment of a President.

 Article III Vests all judicial power in a SUPREME COURT. Congress may
 establish inferior courts. Section II defines the extent of federal
 jurisdiction, and distinguishes cases in which federal jurisdiction is
 original, e.g., cases between states, from those in which federal courts
 can hear only appeals. Section III defines, and limits prosecution for
 TREASON.

 Article IV Governs relations between states, prescribing full faith and
 credit for one anothers' laws, equal treatment of citizens of all states,
 and extradition procedures. Section III governs admission of states to
 the Union and administration of federal territories and property. Section
 IV guarantees a republican (see REPUBLIC) form of government to every
 state.

 Artlcle V Governs the process of amending the Constitution.

 Article Vl Establishes the Constitution as the supreme law of the land,
 regardless of conflicting state laws. Federal and state officeholders
 shall be bound to support the Constitution; no religious test may be a
 qualification for office.

 Article Vll States that the Constitution shall take effect when nine (of
 the thirteen) states have ratified it.

 AMENDMENTS (with date of ratification)


 Amendment I (1791) First of the Bill of Rights amendments (I--IX);
 prohibits government-established religion; guarantees freedom of worship,
 of speech, of the press, of assembly and to petition the government.

 Amendment II (1791) For the purpose of maintaining a well-regulated
 militia, preserves the right to keep and bear arms.

 Amendment III (1791) Prohibits peacetime quartering of troops in private
 dwellings without owners' consent.

 Amendment IV (1791) Guarantees against unreasonable search and seizure.

 Amendment V (1791) Guarantees against violations of due process in
 criminal proceedings. No person may be compelled to testify against
 himself. Grand jury process is requlred for criminal INDICTMENT. DOUBLE
 JEPARDY is prohibited. Public taking of private PROPERTY without just
 compensation is prohibited.

 Amendment Vl (1791) Guarantees speedy, fair trial, impartial jury, right
 to counsel in all criminal cases. See CRIMINAL LAW.

 Amendment Vll (1791) Guarantees jury trial in all major civil
 (noncriminal) cases, and prohibits retrial of adjudicated matters.

 Amendment Vlll (1791) Prohibits excessive bail or fines and cruel and
 unusual punishment.

 Amendment IX (1791) Declares that the enumeration of certain rights in
 the Constitution does not imply that the people do not retain all other
 rights.

 Amendment X (1791) Reserves to the states powers that the Constitution
 does not give to the federal government or prohibit to the states.

 Amendment Xl (1798) Declares that federal courts may not try any case
 brought against a state by a citizen of another state or country.

 Amendment Xll (1804) Revises presidential and vice presidential election
 rules.

 Amendment Xlll (1865) First of three "Civil War" amendments; prohibits
 slavery.

 Amendment XIV (1868) Defines U.S. citizenship. Prohibits states from
 violating due process (see Amendment V) or equal protection of the law.

 Amendment XV (1870) Guarantees rights of citizens against U.S. or state
 infringement based on race, color, or previous servitude.

 Amendment XVI (1913) Authorizes a federal INCOME TAX.

 Amendment XVII (1913) Provides for direct popular election of Senators.

 Amendment XVIII (1919) Makes PROHIBITION federal law.

 Amendment XIX (1920) Guarantees women the vote in state and U.S.
 elections.

 Amendment XX (1933) Changes Congressional terms of office and the
 inauguration date of President and Vice President; clarifies succession
 to the presidency.

 Amendment XXI (1933) Repeals Amendment XVIII, ends Prohibition.

 Amendment XXII (1951) Limits presidential tenure to two terms.

 Amendment XXIII (1961) Permits District of Columbia residents to vote for
 President and Vice President.

 Amendment XXIV (1964) Outlaws the POLL TAX in all federal elections and
 primaries.

 Amendment XXV (1967) Provides for procedures to fill vacancies in the
 Vice Presidency; further clarifies presidential succession rules.

 Amendment XXVI (1971) Lowers voting age in federal and state elections to
 18.





   constructivism

 constructivism, Russian art movement founded c.1913 by Vladimir Tatlin
 (1885-1956), related to the movement known as SUPREMATISM. Naum (Pevsner)
 Gabo and Antoine Pevsner gave it new impetus with works derived from
 CUBISM and FUTURISM but related to technological society. In 1921, when
 all modern art movements were officially disparaged in the Soviet Union,
 Gabo and Pevsner went into exile. Vsevolod MEYERHOLD spread
 constructivism abroad through stage design.

   Consumer Affairs, United States Office of

 Consumer Affairs, United States Office of: see CONSUMER PROTECTION.

   Consumer Price Index

 Consumer Price Index: see INDEX NUMBER.

   consumer protection

 consumer protection, actions by government, business and private groups
 to safeguard the interests of the buying public. In recent times
 consumers' rights have been extended to such broad areas as product
 information and safety, satisfaction of grievances, advertising claims,
 and a voice in governmental decisions affecting the consumer. Early
 legislative action by the U.S. government included the Sherman Antitrust
 Act (1890; see ANTITRUST LAWS); the Pure Food and Drug Act (1906); and
 the creation of the FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION (1914) and the FOOD AND DRUG
 ADMINISTRATION (1931). The consumer movement gained significant impetus
 during the 1960s and 70s when consumer activists such as Ralph NADER
 succeeded in promoting laws that set safety standards for automobiles,
 children's clothing and toys, and a wide range of household products. The
 federal Truth in Lending Act was passed (1968) to provide consumers with
 full information on the cost of credit. The U.S. Office of Consumer
 Affairs (est. 1971) coordinates federal activities in this field,
 conducting investigations and surveys, acting on individual consumer
 complaints, and disseminating product information. The Consumer Product
 Safety Commission (est. 1973), another federal agency, sets national
 safety standards and bans hazardous products. State and local governments
 also have become involved in consumer protection. The Consumer Federation
 of America, comprising about 220 organizations, is the largest consumer
 advocacy group in the U.S. Consumer protection on an international scale
 is coordinated by the International Organization of Consumers Unions,
 based in The Hague, Netherlands.

   contact lens

 contact lens, thin lens of plastic (originally glass), worn on the
 eyeball and used instead of eyeglasses to improve vision or, in certain
 cases, to correct or treat disorders. The widely used corneal lenses
 cover just the cornea of the eye and float on a film of tears. Those made
 of soft plastic can be worn for longer periods of time than the
 hard-plastic models. Scleral lenses, covering the entire eye, are
 occasionally used to treat eye injuries or infections.

   contagious diseases

 contagious diseases: see COMMUNICABLE DISEASES.

   contempt of court

 contempt of court, in law, interference with the functioning of a court,
 either direct (occurring before a judge) or constructive (actions
 obstructing justice, e.g., disobeying an INJUNCTION). Contempt is
 punished to enforce a party's rights (civil contempt) or to vindicate
 authority (criminal contempt). The court may impose a fine or
 imprisonment; in the case of direct contempt, no hearing is required.

   continent

 continent, largest unit of land on the earth. The continents are EURASIA
 (EUROPE and ASIA), AFRICA, NORTH AMERICA, SOUTH AMERICA, AUSTRALIA
 , and ANTARCTICA. More than two thirds of the continental regions are in
 the Northern Hemisphere. Continental areas bounded by the sea-level
 contour comprise about 29% of the earth's surface. All continents contain
 interior plains, or PLATEAUS, underlain by the oldest rocks; where
 exposed to the surface, these rocks are called continental shields, or
 cratons. The oldest of these rocks dated by radioactivity are 3.8 billion
 years old, indicating that the cratons formed with the solidification of
 the earth's crust. The continents have grown by accretion on their edges,
 where huge plates of crust converge, creating MOUNTAIN belts (see
 CONTINENTAL DRIFT; PLATE TECTONICS).

   Continental Congress

 Continental Congress, 1774-89, federal legislature of the THIRTEEN
 COLONIES and later of the U.S. under the Articles of CONFEDERATION. After
 England passed the INTOLERABLE ACTS, the First Continental Congress met
 (Sept. 5-Oct. 26, 1774) in Philadelphia and petitioned the king. When the
 Second Continental Congress met there on May 10, 1775, armed conflict had
 begun (see LEXINGTON AND CONCORD, BATTLES OF), but the Congress moved
 gradually toward independence. It finally created the Continental Army,
 named George WASHINGTON commander in chief, and adopted (July 4, 1776)
 the DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.

   Continental Divide

 Continental Divide, the drainage divide separating rivers flowing to
 different sides of a continent. In the U.S., where it is also called the
 Great Divide, it follows the crest of the Rocky Mts. and separates rivers
 draining to the Arctic, Atlantic, and Pacific oceans.

   continental drift

 continental drift, the theory that the positions of the earth's
 continents have changed considerably through geologic time. The first
 comprehensive theory of continental drift was proposed by the German
 meteorologist Alfred WEGENER in 1912. On the basis of the jigsaw fit of
 the opposing Atlantic coasts and geologic and paleontologic correlations
 on both sides of the Atlantic, he advanced the theory that c.200 million
 years ago there was one supercontinent, Pangaea, which split into two
 vast land masses, Laurasia and Gondwanaland. The present continents
 separated in the next geologic era (the Mesozoic). A plastic layer in the
 interior of the earth accommodated this process, in which the earth's
 rotation caused horizontal alterations in the granitic continents
 floating on the "sea" of the basaltic ocean floors. The frictional drag
 along the leading edges of the drifting continents created MOUNTAINS.
 Wegener's theory met controversy until 1954, when it was revived by
 British geophysicists seeking to explain the phenomenon of polar
 wandering (see MAGNETIC POLE). Since then, the modern theory of PLATE
 TECTONICS has evolved from and replaced Wegener's original thesis.

   continuing education

 continuing education: see ADULT EDUCATION.

   contrabassoon

 contrabassoon: see WIND INSTRUMENT.

   contraception

 contraception: see BIRTH CONTROL.

   contract

 contract, in law, enforceable agreement between two or more persons to
 perform, or refrain from performing, a specified act. A contract is made
 when one party submits an offer that is accepted by the other. Generally,
 the parties must be mentally sound, of legal age, and acting with free
 will. A contract must not have an immoral or criminal purpose, or be
 against public policy. Certain types of contracts must be in writing. A
 contract must involve consideration-something of value (e.g., money or a
 promise) given by each party to the other. A contract is terminated when
 its terms have been fulfilled or when special circumstances, e.g., the
 death of one party, make fulfillment impossible or unlawful. The law
 provides several remedies for breach (failure to carry out the terms) of
 a contract, most often the award of money damages for losses incurred.

   contraction

 contraction, in writing: see ABBREVIATION.

   contralto

 contralto: see VOICE.

   convection

 convection, transfer of heat by the flow of a liquid or gas. A fluid
 expands when heated and thus undergoes a decrease in density. The warmer,
 less dense regions of a fluid tend to rise, in accordance with
 ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE, through the surrounding cooler fluid. If the heat
 continues to be supplied, the cooler fluid that flows in to replace the
 rising fluid will also become heated and will rise, setting up a
 convection current.

   Cook, George Cram

 Cook, George Cram: see GLASPELL, SUSAN.

   Cook, James

 Cook, James, 1728-79, English explorer. An officer in the royal navy, he
 set off in 1768 in the Endeavor to chart the transit of Venus. The trip
 took him around the world, and he explored the coasts of AUSTRALIA and
 NEW ZEALAND. In 1776 he rediscovered the Sandwich Islands and searched
 the West Coast of NORTH AMERICA for a passage to the Atlantic. He is
 credited with preventing scurvy among his crew through proper diet. Cook
 was killed by natives on the Hawaiian Islands.

   Cook, Thomas

 Cook, Thomas, 1808-92, English travel agent who originated the guided
 tour. He founded his travel agency in 1841. In 1884 he transported an
 18,000-man expeditionary force up the Nile to try to relieve Gen. Charles
 George GORDON.

   Cook Islands

 Cook Islands, self-governing dependency of New Zealand (1981 pop.
 17,754), 90 sq mi (234 sq km), consisting of two groups of coral islands
 in the South Pacific Ocean. They were proclaimed a British protectorate
 in 1888, passed to New Zealand in 1901, and achieved self-government in
 1965. The islanders are MAORIS and hold New Zealand citizenship. Major
 products include citrus fruits, copra, and handicrafts.

   Coolidge, Calvin

 Coolidge, Calvin, 1872-1933, 30th president of the U.S. (1923-29); b.
 Plymouth, Vt. In his first year as governor of Massachusetts (1919-20) he
 became nationally known for using the militia to end a Boston police
 strike. He was U.S. vice president (1921-23) before becoming president
 upon the death of Warren G. HARDING. Coolidge's New England simplicity
 and personal honesty were appealing. His faith in laissez-faire business,
 economy in government, and tax cuts, and his opposition to agricultural
 price fixing all reflected the national mood. Through his public
 statements he encouraged the stock market speculation of the late 1920s
 and left the nation unprepared for the economic collapse that followed.
 He chose not to run again in 1928.

   Coomaraswamy, Ananda Kentish

 Coomaraswamy, Ananda Kentish, 1877-1947, art historian; b. Ceylon (now
 Sri Lanka). In 1917 he became keeper of Indian and Islamic arts in the
 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. His books include The Transformation of
 Nature in Art (3d ed., 1956).

   Cooper, Gary

 Cooper, Gary, 1901-61, American film actor; b. Helena, Mont., as Frank
 James Cooper. His films include Mr. Deeds Goes to Town (1936), For Whom
 the Bell Tolls (1943), and High Noon (1952; Academy Award).

   Cooper, James Fenimore

 Cooper, James Fenimore, 1789-1851, first major American novelist; b.
 Burlington, N.J., later associated with Cooperstown, N.Y. His literary
 career began in 1820 and covered a period of 30 years, during which he
 published more than 50 works. He first achieved success with the American
 Revolutionary novel The Spy (1821). Cooper's most important novels
 comprise The Leatherstocking Tales, named for their chief character, the
 frontiersman Natty Bumppo, nicknamed Leatherstocking. Notable for their
 descriptive power, mastery of native background, and idealization of the
 American Indian, they are (in narrative order): The Deerslayer (1841),
 The Last of the Mohicans (1826), The Pathfinder (1840), The Pioneers
 (1823), and The Prairie (1827). Cooper is also known for his romances of
 American life on land and sea, e.g., The Pilot (1823), The Red Rover
 (1827), and The Water-Witch (1830). An apologist for the U.S. during his
 years abroad (1826-33) in works such as Notions of the Americans (1828),
 he was repelled by the abuses of democracy on his return and wrote
 several critical novels, e.g., Homeward Bound, Home as Found (both:
 1838), which earned him violent criticism and many enemies. Cooper's late
 novels include the Littlepage trilogy (1845-46), a study of conflict
 between the landed and landless in New York state.

   Cooper, Peter

 Cooper, Peter, 1791-1883, American inventor and industrialist; b. N.Y.C.
 He built the Tom Thumb, one of the earliest locomotives in the U.S., and
 invented practical devices and processes in the iron industry (e.g.,
 rolling the first iron for fireproof buildings). He invested heavily in
 the Atlantic CABLE and headed North American Telegraph Co., which
 controlled more than half the telegraph lines in the U.S. Interested in
 providing education for the working classes, he promoted a public school
 system in N.Y.C. and founded Cooper Union (1859), a free institution of
 higher learning and a pioneer evening engineering and art school. In 1876
 he was the presidential candidate of the GREENBACK PARTY.

   cooperative

 cooperative, nonprofit economic enterprise for the benefit of those using
 its services. Cooperatives are common today in such areas as insurance,
 food, banking and credit (see CREDIT UNION), and housing. The cooperative
 movement grew out of the philosophy of Robert OWEN, Charles FOURIER, and
 others. The first permanent consumer cooperative was founded (1844) in
 Britain, and workers and farmers in the U.S. formed producer cooperatives
 soon thereafter (see GRANGER MOVEMENT). Cooperatives of various kinds are
 important in Scandinavia, Israel, China, the USSR, and France. See also
 COLLECTIVE FARM; COMMUNAL SETTLEMENTS.

   Coornhert, Dirck Volckerszoon

 Coornhert, Dirck Volckerszoon, 1522-90, Dutch humanist. His translation
 of the first 12 books of HOMER'S Odyssey (1561) is the first major poetic
 work of the Dutch RENAISSANCE. A supporter of religious tolerance, he
 also wrote comedies, morality plays, and a philosophical treatise (1586).

   Cope, Edward Drinker

 Cope, Edward Drinker, 1840-97, American paleontologist; b. Philadelphia.
 He was the first to provide comprehensive descriptions of Eocene
 vertebrates. He and rival paleontologist Othniel Marsh, with whom he
 quarreled on scientific matters for 20 years, discovered the first
 complete dinosaur remains. Cope believed that evolution was caused by an
 organism's inner urge to attain a higher state of being.

   Copenhagen

 Copenhagen, city (1987 est. pop. 622,275), capital of Denmark, E Denmark.
 It is a major commercial, fishing, and naval port, and Denmark's chief
 commercial and cultural center, with such industries as brewing,
 furniture, and the pottery known as Copenhagen Ware. Founded by the 11th
 cent., it survived attacks by the HANSEATIC LEAGUE and Sweden, became
 Denmark's capital in 1443, and expanded as a prosperous trade hub in the
 16th and 17th cent. During WORLD WAR II the city was occupied (1940-45)
 by the Germans. Its landmarks include the 17th-cent. Charlottenborg
 Palace, the 19th-cent. palaces on Amalienborg Square, the round tower
 used by Tycho BRAHE as an observatory, and the statue of Hans Christian
 ANDERSEN'S Little Mermaid.

   Copernican system

 Copernican system, the first modern European heliocentric theory of
 planetary motion; it placed the sun motionless at the center of the solar
 system with all the planets, including the earth, revolving around it.
 COPERNICUS developed his theory (which replaced the PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM) in
 the early 16th cent. from a study of ancient astronomical records. His
 system explained RETROGRADE MOTION in a natural way.

   Copernicus, Nicholas

 Copernicus, Nicholas, 1473-1543, Polish astronomer. After studying law
 and medicine at the Univ. of Cracow and at Bologna, Padua, and Ferrara,
 he took up (1512) his duties as canon of a cathedral in Frauenberg, East
 Prussia. Copernicus laid the foundation for modern astronomy with his
 heliocentric theory of planetary motion (see COPERNICAN SYSTEM). This
 theory, first presented (1512 or earlier) in a short form in his
 unpublished manuscript "Commentariolus," was probably completed by 1530
 and was published in his immortal work De revolutionibus orbium
 coelestium (1543).

   Copland, Aaron

 Copland, Aaron, 1900-, American composer; b. Brooklyn, N.Y. The American
 character of his music is apparent in his use of JAZZ and folk elements,
 as in the short piece for chamber orchestra, John Henry (1940). He has
 written ballets, e.g., Billy the Kid (1938) and Appalachian Spring
 (1944), and music for films, e.g., Of Mice and Men (1939). His major
 orchestral works are El Salon Mexico (1936) and the Third Symphony
 (1946). Other works include 12 Poems of Emily Dickinson (1950) and a tone
 poem (see SYMPHONIC POEM), Inscape (1967).

   Copley, John Singleton

 Copley, John Singleton, 1738-1815, American painter, considered the
 greatest early American portraitist; b. Boston. He painted in Boston, New
 York City, and Philadelphia. In 1774 he settled in London, where his
 style gained in subtlety and polish but lost most of the vigor and
 individuality of his early work. His modern reputation rests on his early
 American portraits, which are treasured for their pictorial qualities and
 as powerful records of their time and place. Among his outstanding
 portraits are those of Paul Revere, Samuel Adams (both: Mus. Fine Arts,
 Boston), and Daniel Hubbard (Art. Inst., Chicago).

   copper

 copper (Cu), metallic element, known to humans since the BRONZE AGE. The
 reddish, malleable, ductile metal is a good conductor of heat and
 electricity. It has low chemical reactivity. In moist air it forms a
 patina, a protective, greenish surface film. The chief commercial uses
 are in electrical apparatus and wire, roofing, utensils, coins,
 metalwork, plumbing, and refrigerator and air-conditioner coils. Copper
 alloys include BRASS and BRONZE. Copper compounds are used as
 insecticides, fungicides, and paint pigments, and in electroplating.
 CHALCOPYRITE is the principal ore. Copper is essential for normal
 metabolism and hemoglobin synthesis in humans. See ELEMENT ; PERIODIC
 TABLE.

   Copper Age

 Copper Age: see BRONZE AGE.

   copperhead

 copperhead, poisonous SNAKE (Ancistrodon contortrix) of the E U.S. The
 copperhead, a PIT VIPER, detects its warm-blooded prey by means of a
 heat-sensitive organ behind the nostril. The head is a pale copper color;
 the banded, brown body may reach a length of 4 ft (120 cm).

   Copperheads

 Copperheads, in the U.S. CIVIL WAR, reproachful term for Southern
 sympathizers in the North. Led by C.L. VALLANDIGHAM, they were especially
 strong in Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. The term was often used by
 Republicans to label all Democratic opponents of the Lincoln
 administration.

   Coppola, Francis Ford

 Coppola, Francis Ford, 1939-, American film director, writer, and
 producer; b. Detroit. Among his films are The Godfather, in two parts
 (1972, 1974; Academy Awards), a study of an Italian-American crime
 family; The Conversation (1974); and Apocalypse Now (1979).

   copra

 copra: see COCONUT.

   Copt

 Copt, member of the native Christian minority (5%-10%) of Egypt that has
 resisted conversion to ISLAM. Most Copts belong to the Coptic Church, an
 autonomous sect that adheres to MONOPHYSITISM. The Coptic language, now
 extinct, was the Egyptian language spoken in early Christian times.

   Coptic art

 Coptic art, Christian art in the upper Nile Valley of EGYPT. Reaching its
 mature phase in the late 5th and 6th cent., Coptic art was influenced by
 Islamic art after the Arab conquest of Egypt between 640 and 642. It
 shows a high degree of stylization verging on abstraction. The themes
 represent both Roman and Christian sources with flattened-out forms and
 decorative motifs. Remains of wall paintings reveal Old and New Testament
 scenes and images of the Mother and Child. Representative examples of
 Coptic art are found in sculpture, ivory, textiles, and ILLUMINATION.

   copyright

 copyright, statutory right of the creator to exclusive control of an
 original literary or artistic production. The copyright holder may
 reproduce the work or license others to do so, and receives payments
 (royalties) for each performance or copy. The U.S. law (rewritten in
 1978) extends protection for the creator's life plus 50 years. Books,
 plays, musical compositions, sound recordings, photographs, works of art,
 and other original creations may be copyrighted. Copyright laws first
 appeared in the 15th cent., when PRINTING began in Europe. The earliest
 American statute was passed in 1790. The U.S., with most other nations,
 subscribes to the 1952 Universal Copyright Convention.

   coral

 coral, small, sedentary marine animal of the class Anthozoa, having a
 horny or calcareous skeleton, also called coral. Most corals form
 colonies by budding, but solitary corals also exist. In both, the
 individual animal (polyp) secretes a cup-shaped skeleton around itself;
 in colonial corals, the skeleton and a thin sheet of living tissue are
 attached to other individuals. As a colonial coral produces more polyps,
 the lower members die, and new layers are built up on the old skeletons,
 forming CORAL REEFS. Precious red and white corals are used for jewelry.

   coral reef

 coral reef, limestone formation produced by living animals, found in
 shallow, tropical marine waters. In most, the predominant animals are
 stony CORALS, which secrete skeletons of calcium carbonate (limestone)
 that build up into a massive formation. Coral reefs are formed only in
 the tropics where the water is warmer than 72 degF (22 degC). Coral reefs
 are classified as fringing reefs (platforms continuous with the shore),
 barrier reefs (separated from the shore by a wide, deep lagoon), or
 atolls (surrounding a lagoon). Reefs formed by other organisms are also
 called coral reefs.

   Coral Sea

 Coral Sea, southwest arm of the Pacific Ocean, between NE Australia, New
 Guinea, and Vanuatu (formerly the New Hebrides). It was the scene of a
 U.S. victory (1942) that checked the southward expansion of the Japanese
 forces in WORLD WAR II.

   Coral Sea Islands

 Coral Sea Islands, external territory of Australia, comprising scattered
 small islands and reefs spread over c.400,000 sq mi (1,035,995 sq km) of
 the South Pacific Ocean, E of the GREAT BARRIER REEF, off NE Australia.
 The islands, uninhabited except for a three-man meteorological station on
 Willis Island, became a territory in 1969.

   coral snake

 coral snake, New World poisonous SNAKE of the same family as the COBRAS.
 The venom of coral snakes, like that of cobras, is especially potent, and
 the mortality rate among bitten humans is high. Coral snakes are marked
 by alternating bands of black, red, and yellow.

   Corday, Charlotte

 Corday, Charlotte, 1768-93, French assassin of Jean Paul MARAT. A
 sympathizer of the GIRONDISTS, she gained access to Marat, a critic of
 the Girondists, under false pretenses and stabbed him (1793) in his bath.
 She was arrested and guillotined.

   Cordeliers

 Cordeliers, French revolutionary club. Instrumental in the fall (1793) of
 the GIRONDISTS, it originally included men like Georges DANTON. Later it
 drifted to the extreme left under J.R. HEBERT. It dissolved (1794) after
 the extremists were executed in the REIGN OF TERROR.

   cordial

 cordial: see LIQUEUR.

   Cordilleras

 Cordilleras [Span., originally=little strings], general name for the
 chain of mountains in W North America, from N Alaska to Nicaragua,
 including the ROCKY MTS., the COAST RANGES, and the SIERRA MADRE. Some
 geographers use the term for any extensive group of mountain systems.

   Cordoba

 Cordoba, city (1980 pop. 982,018), central Argentina, on the Rio Primero.
 It is a commercial metropolis near a major dam that has transformed the
 surrounding area from a ranching center to a land of grain fields,
 orchards, and vineyards. Settled in 1573, Cordoba was an early Argentine
 cultural center with a university (est. 1613). Many colonial buildings,
 e.g., the former city hall, remain.

   Cordoba

 Cordoba or Cordova,city (1981 pop. 284,737), capital of Cordoba prov., S
 Spain, in Andalusia, on the Guadalquivir R. Its industries include
 brewing and metallurgy. Of Iberian origin, it flourished under Rome. As
 the seat (756-1031) of an emirate comprising most of Moorish Spain, it
 was a center of Muslim and Jewish culture and was renowned for its
 wealth, crafts, and architecture, e.g., the great mosque (begun 8th cent.
 and now a cathedral). Cordoba passed to Seville in 1078 and to Castile in
 1236.

   Corelli, Arcangelo

 Corelli, Arcangelo, 1653-1713, Italian composer and violinist. He was a
 noted virtuoso whose technique was perpetuated by his students and in his
 SONATAS. He also helped to establish the typical form of the CONCERTO
 grosso.

   Corelli, Marie

 Corelli, Marie, pseud. of Mary Mackay, 1855-1925, English novelist. Queen
 VICTORIA'S favorite novelist, she wrote popular, moralistic books in a
 flamboyant, pretentious style, e.g., Thelma (1887) and The Sorrows of
 Satan (1895).

   Corfu

 Corfu: see KERKIRA.

   coriander

 coriander, annual herb (Coriandrum sativum) of the CARROT family,
 cultivated for its fruits. The dried seed is used as a spice, and
 contains an aromatic oil used as a flavoring, as a medicine, and in
 liqueurs.

   Corinna

 Corinna, fl. c.500? BC, Greek poet. Her verse, fragments of which remain,
 deals with mythological themes and is written in the dialect of BOEOTIA.

   Corinth

 Corinth or Korinthos,city (1981 pop. 22,658), S Greece, in the NE
 Peloponnesus, on the Gulf of Corinth. Founded after the destruction of
 Old Corinth by an earthquake (1858) and rebuilt after another earthquake
 in 1928, the modern city is a port and trading center for olives,
 raisins, and wine. Ancient Corinth was one of the oldest and most
 powerful of the Greek CITY-STATES, dating from Homeric times. Athenian
 assistance to its rebellious colonies was a direct cause of the
 PELOPONNESIAN WAR (431-404 BC). Destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC, it was
 restored by Julius CAESAR in 46 BC Later it passed to the Byzantine
 Crusaders, the Venetians, and the Ottoman Turks before being captured
 (1822) by Greek insurgents. Ruins at Old Corinth include the Temple of
 Apollo.

   Corinthian order

 Corinthian order: see ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE.

   Corinthians

 Corinthians, two EPISTLES of the NEW TESTAMENT, 7th and 8th books in the
 usual order, written to the church at CORINTH by St. PAUL. First
 Corinthians (AD 55?) is one of the longest, most important epistles. It
 begins with an attack on factionalism and condemns various practices,
 e.g., litigation among Christians. The epistle closes with five famous
 passages: the institution of the Eucharist (11); the doctrine of the
 mystical body of Christ (12); a panegyric on Christian love (13); the
 functions of prophecy among Christians (14); and a chapter on Christ's
 resurrection (15). The shorter Second Corinthians focuses on Paul's
 apostleship, authority, and motives, closing with a defense of his
 mission. See also SACRAMENT.

   Coriolanus

 Coriolanus (Gnaeus Marcius Coriolanus), Roman patrician, fl. 5th cent. BC
 According to legend he was expelled from Rome because he demanded the
 abolition of the people's tribunate in return for distributing state
 grain to the starving plebeians. He led (491? BC) the Volscians against
 Rome. Only the tears of his wife and his mother caused him to spare the
 city. The angry Volscians killed him.

   Coriolis effect

 Coriolis effect (for Gaspard Coriolis), tendency for any moving body on
 or above the earth's surface to drift sideways from its course because of
 the earth's rotational direction (west to east) and speed, which is
 greater for a surface point near the equator than toward the poles. In
 the Northern Hemisphere the drift is to the right of the motion; in the
 Southern Hemisphere, to the left. In most human-operated vehicles,
 continuous course adjustments mask the Coriolis effect. The Coriolis
 effect must be considered, however, when plotting ocean currents and wind
 patterns (see CYCLONE) as well as trajectories of free-moving projectiles
 through air or water.

   Cork

 Cork, city (1981 pop. 149,792), county town of Co. Cork, S Republic of
 Ireland, on the Lee R. at Cork Harbour. The second largest city in the
 nation, it has such industries as automobile manufacturing and whiskey
 distilling. Its exports are largely agricultural. Probably founded in the
 7th cent., Cork was occupied by the Danes (9th cent.) and passed to
 English control in 1172. It was prominent in the nationalist disturbances
 of 1920. University College is located there.

   cork

 cork, protective, waterproof outer covering of the stems and roots of all
 woody plants, produced by the cork CAMBIUM. Cork cells have regularly
 arranged walls impregnated with a waxy material, called suberin, that is
 resistant to water and gas. Cork is buoyant, resilient, light, and
 chemically inert; it is used for bottle stoppers and insulating
 materials, and in many household and industrial items. The cork OAK
 (Quercus suber), which has a thick cork layer, is the source of
 commercial cork.

   cormorant

 cormorant, large aquatic BIRD related to the PELICAN, found chiefly in
 temperate and tropical regions. Cormorants are 2 to 3 ft (61 to 92 cm)
 long, with thick, dark plumage, webbed feet, and a large bill with the
 upper mandible hooked at the end. Expert swimmers, they pursue fish under
 water; in the Orient they are used to fish.

   corn

 corn, in botany, name given to the leading cereal crop of any major
 region. In England, corn means wheat; in Scotland and Ireland, oats. In
 America, corn is the grain called maize, or Indian corn (Zea mays), a
 GRASS that was domesticated and cultivated long before Europeans reached
 the New World. Native Americans raised many varieties (e.g., sweet corn,
 popcorn, colored corn, and corn for cornmeal). Corn is eaten fresh or
 ground for meal. It is mainly used as animal fodder. The corn plant
 consists of the tassel (male flowers) at the top of the plant; the
 kernels (female flowers) on the cob, enclosed by a leafy husk, beyond
 which extends the silk (the threadlike stigmas and styles that catch the
 pollen); and the supporting pithy, noded stalk with its prop roots.

   Corneille, Pierre

 Corneille, Pierre, 1606-84, French dramatist, a master of classical
 TRAGEDY. His masterpiece, Le Cid (1637), based on a Spanish play (see
 CID), took Paris by storm. Among the finest of his other tragedies are
 Horace (1640), Cinna (1640), and Polyeucte (1643). The comedy The Liar
 (1643) also had great success. A master of the grand style, Corneille
 exalted the will, celebrating the subordination of man's passion to duty.

   cornel

 cornel: see DOGWOOD.

   Cornell, Ezra

 Cornell, Ezra, 1807-74, American financier, founder of Cornell Univ.; b.
 Westchester Landing, N.Y. He devised a method for stringing telegraph
 wires on poles and became founder, director, and largest stockholder of
 Western Union Telegraph Co. (1855). His interest in agricultural
 education led him to secure, with A.D. WHITE, legislation founding
 Cornell Univ. (1865). Its charter embraced many of his ideas, and he was
 responsible for the financial success of its federal land grant.

   Cornell, Joseph

 Cornell, Joseph, 1903-73, American artist; b. Nyack, N.Y. He is best
 known for his shadow boxes made of found objects, maps, photographs,
 engravings, and other materials. Influenced by SURREALISM, these
 constructions are personally symbolic and evocative.

   cornet

 cornet: see WIND INSTRUMENT.

   cornflower

 cornflower, common herb (Centaurea cyanus) of the COMPOSITE family, a
 garden flower in the U.S. The long-stemmed, blue flower heads have
 radiating vase-shaped florets that yield a juice used as a dye when mixed
 with alum. Other names for cornflower include bluebottle, bluebonnet,
 ragged robin, and bachelor's button.

   Cornish

 Cornish, dead language belonging to the Brythonic group of the Celtic
 subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See LANGUAGE .

   corn laws

 corn laws, regulations dating from 1361 restricting the export and import
 of grain, notably in England. The corn law of 1815 was designed to
 maintain high prices and prevent an agricultural depression after the
 Napoleonic Wars. Consumer resentment led to the ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE'S
 campaign, and to their repeal by Robert PEEL in 1846.

   Cornplanter

 Cornplanter, c.1740-1836, half-white chief of the Seneca Indians who
 aided the British in the AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Friendly to whites, he
 signed (1784) the Treaty of Fort Stanwix and was given a grant of land on
 the Allegheny R.

   Cornwallis, Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess

 Cornwallis, Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess, 1735-1805, English general.
 He led British forces in the AMERICAN REVOLUTION, and his defeat in the
 disastrous YORKTOWN CAMPAIGN ended the fighting. Later he was governor
 general of India (1786-94, 1805) and viceroy of Ireland (1798-1801).

   Coronado, Francisco Vasquez de

 Coronado, Francisco Vasquez de, c.1510-54, Spanish explorer. In search of
 the Seven Cities of Cibola, he was the first to explore ARIZONA and NEW
 MEXICO. Though he found no gold, he acquainted the Spanish with the
 PUEBLO INDIANS and opened the Southwest to colonization.

   coronary artery disease

 coronary artery disease, condition that results when coronary arteries
 are narrowed or occluded, usually by fibrous and fatty tissue deposits.
 This condition is the most common underlying cause of HEART DISEASE and
 death. Factors contributing to coronary artery disease include
 HYPERTENSION, high cholesterol levels, and heavy cigarette smoking.
 Angina pectoris, a radiating chest pain that arises from spasm of
 coronary vessels, is the primary symptom of coronary artery disease.

   Corot, Jean-Baptiste Camille

 Corot, Jean-Baptiste Camille, 1796-1875, French landscape painter. One of
 the most influential 19th-cent. painters, he celebrated the countryside
 without romanticizing farm labor or peasants. His Roman works have
 simplicity of form and clarity of lighting, as in the Coliseum and Forum
 (both: Louvre). Using sketches made directly from nature, he painted his
 later landscapes in shades of gray and green. His delicate lighting is
 seen in Femme a la perle (Louvre) and Interrupted Reading (Art Inst.,
 Chicago).

   Corpus Christi

 Corpus Christi, city (1986 est. pop. 263,900), seat of Nueces co., S
 Tex.; inc. 1852. It is a petroleum and natural-gas center, with heavy
 industries, e.g., refineries, smelting plants, and chemical works. Shrimp
 and fish processing is important, as is tourism. The first settlers
 arrived in the 1760s; a trading post (est. 1839) boomed in the MEXICAN
 WAR. The fast-growing area has a busy port and military facilities.

   Corpus Juris Civilis

 Corpus Juris Civilis: see ROMAN LAW.

   Correggio

 Correggio, c.1494-1534, Italian BAROQUE painter; b. Antonio Allegri,
 called Correggio after his birthplace. His early works, e.g., the
 Marriage of St. Catherine (National Gall., Wash., D.C.), were greatly
 influenced by the styles of MANTEGNA and LEONARDO DA VINCI. Among his
 many mythological scenes are the sensual Io (Vienna) and Antiope
 (Louvre). His most famous project, Assumption of the Virgin (Parma
 cathedral), used daring foreshortening. His illusionistic ceiling
 decorations, with their sense of grace and tenderness and soft play of
 light and color, were widely imitated in the 17th cent.

   Corregidor

 Corregidor, historic fortified island (c.2 sq mi/5 sq km) at the entrance
 to Manila Bay, just off BATAAN, the Philippines. It was a fortress from
 Spanish times; its defenses were greatly elaborated by the U.S. after the
 SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR (1898). During WORLD WAR II the Japanese bombarded
 Corregidor for five months, finally forcing the surrender (May 1942) of
 10,000 U.S. and Filipino troops. The island was retaken by U.S. forces in
 1945.

   Corsica

 Corsica, island (1986 est. pop. 248,700), 3,367 sq mi (8,721 sq km), a
 department of metropolitan France, in the Mediterranean Sea SE of France.
 The capital is Ajaccio. Much of the island is wild, mountainous, and
 covered with maquis, the flowers which have earned it the name "the
 scented isle." The island was granted by the Franks to the papacy in the
 late 8th cent., and Pope GREGORY VII ceded (1077) it to Pisa; it was
 taken over by Genoa in the 15th cent. Genoese rule was harsh and
 unpopular, and following a rebellion led (1755) by Pasquale PAOLI the
 island was ceded (1768) to France. With British support Paoli expelled
 the French and from 1794 to its recapture in 1796 it was controlled by
 the British. French possession was confirmed by the Congress of VIENNA in
 1815. Blood feuds between clans and banditry have persisted into modern
 times. Most Corsicans speak a dialect of Italian.

   Cortazar, Julio

 Cortazar, Julio, 1914-84, Argentine writer; b. Belgium. An exponent of
 SURREALISM who often depicts life as a maze, he is known for the novels
 The Winners (1960) and Sixty-Two: A Model Kit (1968), and short-story
 collections. ee.g., A Change of Light and Other Stories (tr. 1980).

   Cortes, Hernan

 Cortes, Hernan,or Hernando Cortez, 1485-1547, Spanish CONQUISTADOR,
 conquerer of MEXICO. Under a commission of the Cuban governor, Diego de
 VELAZQUEZ, Cortes sailed from Cuba in 1519 to conquer the AZTEC empire of
 MONTEZUMA. He founded the city of Vera Cruz, burned his ships to prevent
 his men from turning back, and enlisted the help of the defeated
 Tlaxcalans. Believing the Spanish to be descendants of the god
 QUETZALCOATL, Montezuma received them. Cortes took him hostage and ruled
 through him. Velazquez tried to recall Cortes, who defeated a force sent
 to retrieve him. When he returned to the capital, Tenochtitlan, he found
 the Aztecs in rebellion. In a famous battle known as noche triste sad
 night, he retreated from the city with heavy losses. He returned the next
 year; after a three-month siege, the city fell, and with it the empire.
 As captain, Cortes extended his conquest to most of Mexico and N Central
 America. Though CHARLES V of Spain made Cortes a marques, he refused to
 make him governor of Mexico. Cortes returned to Spain in 1540, where,
 frustrated and neglected by the court, he died.

   Cortes

 Cortes, representative assembly of SPAIN. From the 12th to the 19th cent.
 each region, e.g., LEON and CASTILE, had its own cortes. The first
 national Cortes met (1810) during the PENINSULAR WAR against Napoleonic
 rule and voted (1812) a liberal constitution revoked (1814) by the king.
 The Cortes was Spain's parliament (1931-39) after the fall of the
 monarchy but was stripped of power under Francisco FRANCO. After his
 death (1975) it emerged as an important element in Spanish democracy.

   corticosteroid drug

 corticosteroid drug, any synthetic or naturally derived substance with
 the general chemical structure of STEROIDS, used therapeutically to mimic
 or augment the effects of the hormones produced naturally in the cortex
 of the ADRENAL GLAND. Corticosteroids are used to treat ARTHRITIS and
 other rheumatoid diseases, ASTHMA, ADDISON'S DISEASE, allergic and
 inflammatory eye disorders, systemic lupus erythematosus (see AUTOIMMUNE
 DISEASE), and HODGKIN'S DISEASE and some other forms of cancer. Their
 anti-inflammatory, itch-sup pressing, and vasoconstrictive properties
 make corticosteroids useful in relieving eczema, psoriasis, and insect
 bites. See also CORTISONE.

   cortisone

 cortisone, steroid HORMONE whose main physiological effect is on
 carbohydrate metabolism. It is synthesized from cholesterol in the outer
 layer, or cortex, of the ADRENAL GLAND and is necessary for life. Failure
 of the adrenal gland to synthesize cortisone (ADDISON'S DISEASE) is fatal
 unless cortisone is administered. The anti-inflammatory effect of the
 hormone makes it useful in treating asthma and other allergic reactions,
 arthritis, and various skin diseases.

   Cortona, Pietro Berrettini da

 Cortona, Pietro Berrettini da, 1596-1669, Italian BAROQUE painter and
 architect. His FRESCOES and ceilings, e.g., Allegories of the Virtues and
 Planets (Pitti Palace, Florence), were influential examples of
 Illusionism.

   corundum

 corundum, aluminum oxide mineral (Al2O3) occurring in both GEM and common
 varieties. The transparent gems, chief of which are RUBY and SAPPHIRE,
 are colorless, pink, red, blue (Oriental AQUAMARINE), green (Oriental
 EMERALD), yellow, and violet. Common varieties, used as ABRASIVES (e.g.,
 emery), are blue-gray to brown. Corundum is found in North Carolina,
 Georgia, Montana, Burma, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand, Republic of South
 Africa, and Tanzania.

   Corvinus, Matthias

 Corvinus, Matthias: see MATTHIAS CORVINUS.

   Cosby, Bill

 Cosby, Bill, 1937-, American comedian and actor; b. Philadelphia. He was
 the first black actor to star in a dramatic series on television ("I
 Spy," 1965-68). He has starred in several situation comedies, including
 the top-rated "Cosby Show" (1984-). He has won numerous Emmy awards and
 written several books, including Fatherhood (1986).

   Cosimo de' Medici

 Cosimo de' Medici: see under MEDICI, family.

   cosmetics

 cosmetics, preparations applied to enhance the beauty of skin, lips,
 eyes, hair, and nails. Body paint has been used for ornamental and
 religious purposes since prehistoric times. Ancient Egyptian tombs have
 yielded cosmetic jars (kohl pots) and applicators. Thought to have
 originated in the Orient, cosmetics were used in ancient Greece; in
 imperial Rome, ladies required the services of slaves adept in applying
 them. Medieval Europe also used oils and PERFUMES brought from the East
 by returning Crusaders. In the Renaissance white-lead powder and
 vermilion were used extravagantly. From the 17th cent. cosmetic recipes
 abounded, often using dangerous compounds, and professional
 cosmetologists began to appear. After the French Revolution cosmetics
 virtually disappeared. Since 1900, however, particularly with the growth
 of the advertising industry, their manufacture and use have grown to huge
 proportions.

   cosmic rays

 cosmic rays, high-energy particles bombarding the earth from outer space.
 The extraterrestrial origin of cosmic rays was determined (c.1911) by
 Victor Hess; they were so named by Robert MILLIKAN in 1925. Primary
 cosmic rays consist mainly of PROTONS; ALPHA PARTICLES; and lesser
 amounts of nuclei of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and heavier atoms. These
 nuclei cause showers of secondary cosmic rays by colliding with other
 nuclei in the earth's atmosphere. Some cosmic rays have energies a
 billion times greater than those that can be achieved in particle
 accelerators; cosmic rays of lower energy, however, predominate. The
 origin of cosmic rays is still unknown, as are the processes by which
 they are accelerated.

   cosmology

 cosmology, science that aims at a comprehensive theory of the creation,
 evolution, and present structure of the entire universe. The PTOLEMAIC
 SYSTEM and the COPERNICAN SYSTEM are theories that describe the position
 of the earth in the universe. William HERSCHEL showed that the MILKY WAY
 is composed of a vast number of STARS separated by enormous distances. By
 studying the distribution of star CLUSTERS, Harlow SHAPLEY gave the first
 reliable estimate of the size of our galaxy (c.100,000 LIGHT-YEARS) and
 of the position of the sun within it (c.30,000 light-years from the
 center). By 1924 astronomers had recognized that some of the NEBULAE are
 not within our galaxy, but are separate GALAXIES at great distances from
 the Milky Way. After studying the RED SHIFTS in the spectral lines of the
 distant galaxies, Edwin HUBBLE and Milton Humason concluded that the
 universe is expanding (see HUBBLE'S LAW), with the galaxies flying away
 from one another at great speeds. The big bang theory states that all of
 the matter and energy in the universe was concentrated in a very small
 volume that exploded between 10 and 20 billion years ago, and that the
 resulting expansion continues today. The strongest evidence for the big
 bang theory is the feeble radio background radiation, discovered in the
 1960s, that is received from every part of the sky. This radiation has a
 BLACK BODY temperature of 3 degK above absolute zero and is interpreted
 as the electromagnetic remnants of the primordial fireball, stretched to
 long wavelengths by the expansion of the universe. According to another
 hypothesis, the steady-state theory, the universe expands, but new matter
 is continuously created at all points in space left by the receding
 galaxies; this theory now has few adherents.

   Cossa, Baldassare

 Cossa, Baldassare, c.1370-1419, Neapolitan churchman, antipope (1410-15)
 as John XXIII. A cardinal, he deserted Pope GREGORY XII and supported the
 Council of Pisa, which was intended to end the schism (see SCHISM, GREAT)
 between Rome and Avignon. When the antipope Alexander V died, Cossa was
 elected (1410). He sought the aid of SIGISMUND and helped to elect him
 Holy Roman emperor, then allied himself with Louis II of Anjou against
 Lancelot of Naples. Pressured by Sigismund, he convened the council of
 Constance (1414-18) and promised to abdicate if the rival popes would do
 so. Then, secretly, he fled, hoping to keep his position; but he was
 forced to return and was deposed (1415).

   Cossacks

 Cossacks, peasant-soldiers in the Russian empire who held certain
 privileges in return for military service. They were descended from
 Russians and Poles, including many runaway serfs, who settled along the
 Dnepr and Don rivers in the 15th and 16th cent. For taking part in 17th-
 and 18th-cent. peasant revolts they lost much of their early autonomy and
 were integrated into the Russian military. Most Cossacks fought against
 the Red Army in the 1918-20 civil war. Their communities were
 collectivized (1928-33), but many of their traditions survive.

   Costa Rica

 Costa Rica, officially Republic of Costa Rica, republic (1985 est. pop.
 2,660,000), 19,575 sq mi (50,700 sq km), Central America; bordered by
 Nicaragua (N), the Caribbean Sea (E), Panama (S), and the Pacific Ocean
 (W). The capital is SAN JOSE. The coastal areas are hot, humid, heavily
 forested, and sparsely populated. A massive chain of volcanic mountains,
 rising to over 12,000 ft (3,658 m), traverses the country from NW to SE;
 nestled within it lies the meseta central, a broad plateau with a
 springlike climate, where most Costa Ricans live. Costa Rica is an
 agricultural nation, exporting coffee, sugar, cocoa, and bananas.
 Industry is being developed and manufactured goods are becoming an
 increasing proportion of its exports. It is one of the most politically
 stable of Latin American countries, with a long democratic tradition, a
 literacy rate of over 90%, and no army as such. The people are mainly of
 Spanish descent, and the language is Spanish.

 History Conquest of the area by Spain began in 1563, with the founding of
 Cartago. The early colonists were mainly small landowners. Gaining
 independence in 1821, Costa Rica was successively part of the Mexican
 Empire and of the CENTRAL AMERICAN FEDERATION (which also included
 GUATEMALA, HONDURAS, NICARAGUA, and EL SALVADOR), before becoming a
 sovereign republic in 1838. Coffee growing was initiated on the plateau
 in the early 1800s, and banana cultivation was introduced on the coast
 (by U.S. interests) in 1874. Costa Rica's history of orderly, democratic
 government began in 1889, and has been interrupted only by brief periods
 of junta rule, in 1917-19 and in 1948-49, after a disputed election
 sparked a six-week civil war. Economically, the nation has had
 balance-of-payments problems, e.g., in the early 1980s the cost of
 importing manufactured goods and oil far exceeded income received for
 agricultural exports. In 1986 Oscar ARIAS SANCHEZ was elected president.

   cost of living

 cost of living, amount of money needed to buy the goods and services
 necessary to maintain a specified STANDARD OF LIVING. The figure is based
 on the cost of such items as food, clothing, rent, fuel, recreation,
 transportation, and medical services. Since World War II many employers
 and unions have agreed to use the cost-of-living index (see INDEX NUMBER)
 as a basis for wage rates and subsequent adjustments. SOCIAL SECURITY
 payments and some PENSION plans are also pegged to the cost-of-living
 index. A closely watched cost-of-living measurement is the Consumer Price
 Index.

   Cotonou

 Cotonou, city (1982 est. pop. 487,020), S Benin, a seaport on the Gulf of
 Guinea. Although PORTO-NOVO is the capital, Cotonou, Benin's largest
 city, is the unofficial seat of government and commercial center. Its
 air, road, and rail connections also make it the country's communications
 hub. The seaport has been expanded to handle increased transit trade for
 Niger and Nigeria. Offshore oil-drilling is carried on nearby. Cotonou
 was a small state controlled by Dahomey before coming under French rule
 (1883-1960).

   Cotton, John

 Cotton, John, 1584-1652, Puritan clergyman in England and Massachusetts;
 b. England. When vicar of St. Botolph's Church, Boston, Lincolnshire, he
 was summoned (1632) to court for his Puritanism. Fleeing (1633) to
 Massachusetts Bay, he became a leading figure. He was chiefly responsible
 for expelling Anne HUTCHINSON and Roger WILLIAMS and has been viewed as
 an upholder of theocracy.

   cotton

 cotton, name for a shrubby plant (genus Gossypium) of the MALLOW family,
 for the fibers surrounding the seeds, and for the cloth woven from the
 spun fibers. Each of the seeds, which are contained in capsules, or
 bolls, is surrounded by white or cream-colored downy fibers that flatten
 and twist naturally as they dry. Cotton is tropical in origin but is now
 cultivated worldwide. It has been spun, woven, and dyed since prehistoric
 times. Most commercial cotton in the U.S. is from G. hirsutum, but some
 is obtained from sea-island and American-Egyptian G. barbadense. The
 chief cultivated species in Asia are G. arboreum and G. herbaceum. Cotton
 is planted annually by seed. Diseases and insect pests are numerous,
 e.g., the boll weevil, responsible for enormous losses, particularly of
 the highly susceptible, silky-fibered sea-island cotton, which was the
 leading type of cotton before the advent of this pest. Cotton is
 separated from its seeds by a COTTON GIN. Manufacture of cotton into
 cloth, TEXTILES, and yard goods involves carding, combing, and SPINNING.
 Cotton is a source of CELLULOSE products, fertilizer, fuel, plastic
 reinforcing, automobile tire cord, pressed paper, cardboard, and
 cottonseed oil (used, e.g., in cooking, cosmetics, soaps, candles,
 detergents, paints, oilcloth, and artificial leather), which is pressed
 from the seeds. Used in Egypt, China, and India before the Christian era,
 cotton has long played a significant role in world industry. Britain's
 need for imported cotton dictated much of its sea-domination policy as an
 imperial nation, and in the U.S., cotton was a principal economic cause
 of the CIVIL WAR.

   cotton gin

 cotton gin, machine for separating COTTON fibers from the seeds. American
 inventor Eli WHITNEY invented (1793) the saw gin, which was especially
 suited to short- and medium-staple cotton. In a modern gin, which still
 uses Whitney's basic design, seeds are removed as the fibers are pulled
 through a grid by a series of circular saws; an air blast or suction
 carries the clean fibers off the saws to a condenser and, finally, to the
 baling apparatus.

   cottonmouth

 cottonmouth: see WATER MOCCASIN.

   cottonwood

 cottonwood: see WILLOW.

   Coulomb, Charles Augustin de

 Coulomb, Charles Augustin de, 1736-1806, French physicist. He is known
 for his work on electricity, magnetism, and friction, and he invented a
 magnetoscope, a magnetometer, and a torsion balance that he employed in
 determining torsional elasticity (see STRENGTH OF MATERIALS) and in
 establishing COULOMB'S LAW. The unit of electric charge, the coulomb, is
 named for him.

   coulomb

 coulomb (coul or C), unit of electric CHARGE. The absolute coulomb, the
 current U.S. legal standard, is the amount of charge transferred in 1
 second by a current of 1 AMPERE; i.e., it is 1 ampere-second.

   Coulomb's law

 Coulomb's law, physical law stating that the electrostatic force between
 two point charges in free space is proportional to the product of the
 amount of CHARGE on the bodies divided by the square of the distance
 between them. If the bodies are oppositely charged, one positive and one
 negative, they are attracted toward each other; if the bodies are
 similarly charged, both positive or both negative, the force between them
 is repulsive.

   council, ecumenical

 council, ecumenical, council of church authorities accepted by the church
 as official. Roman Catholics recognize the following ecumenical councils
 (listed with their starting dates): (1) 1 Nicaea, 325, (2) 1
 Constantinople, 381; (3) Ephesus, 431; (4) Chalcedon, 451; (5) 2
 Constantinople, 553; (6) 3 Constantinople, 680; (7) 2 Nicaea, 787; (8) 4
 Constantinople, 869; (9) 1 Lateran, 1123; (10) 2 Lateran, 1139; (11) 3
 Lateran, 1179; (12) 4 Lateran, 1215; (13) 1 Lyons, 1245; (14) 2 Lyons,
 1274; (15) Vienne, 1311; (16) Constance, 1414; (17) Basel and
 Ferrara-Florence, 1431, 1438; (18) 5 Lateran, 1512; (19) Trent, 1545;
 (20) 1 Vatican, 1869; (21) 2 Vatican, 1962. The Orthodox Church
 recognizes only the first seven councils and the continuation of 3
 Constantinople (the Trullan Synod). The purpose of the first eight
 councils was to determine whether specific theological concepts were
 orthodox or heretical. The remaining councils, all held in Western
 Europe, have dealt chiefly with church discipline. Two of them, 2 Lyons
 and Ferrara-Florence, attempted to reconcile the Eastern and Western
 churches. In the Great SCHISM the conciliar theory developed, which held
 that an ecumenical council was superior to the pope; this theory was in
 its heyday at the Council of Constance. The 21st ecumenical council,
 called by Pope JOHN XXIII, advocated the reunion of all Christians with
 the Church of Rome (see VATICAN COUNCILS).

   Council for Mutual Economic Assistance

 Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON), international
 governmental organization for the coordination of economic policy within
 the Communist bloc. Founded in 1949, it adopted a formal charter in 1959
 and became active in the 1960s. Its first members were Albania (which did
 not participate after 1961), Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany,
 Hungary, Poland, Rumania, and the USSR. Joining COMECON later were
 Mongolia (1962), Cuba (1972), and Vietnam (1978).

   counseling

 counseling: see GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING.

   counterfeiting

 counterfeiting: see FORGERY.

   counterintelligence

 counterintelligence: see INTELLIGENCE GATHERING.

   counterpoint

 counterpoint, in music, the art of combining melodies each of which is
 independent though forming part of a homogenous texture. The academic
 study of counterpoint established in the 18th cent. examined five
 "species" of counterpoint, or ways in which two lines of music could be
 interwoven: note against note; two notes against one; four notes against
 one; syncopation (a shifting of metrical accent in one of the lines); and
 florid counterpoint, which combined the other species. Early masters of
 contrapuntal music include PALESTRINA, LASSO, and William BYRD.

   countertenor

 countertenor: see VOICE.

   country and western music

 country and western music, American popular form originating in the
 Southeast (country) and in the West and Southwest (western), coalescing
 in the 1920s when recorded material became widely available. It is
 directly descended from the FOLK MUSIC of the English, Scottish, and
 Irish settlers of the SE U.S. Country music tends toward simpler forms,
 western toward a band style verging on swing. The music, depicting the
 life experience of poor rural (and recently urban) whites, has gained a
 national audience, largely through the "Grand Old Opry" radio broadcasts
 from Nashville. Although black GOSPEL MUSIC and blues have been
 influential, performers and audiences are almost all white. Noted
 performers include Hank Williams, Merle Haggard, Johnny CASH, and Loretta
 Lynn.

   Couperin, Francois

 Couperin, Francois, 1668-1733, French harpsichordist and composer. His
 graceful, delicate music represents the apex of French rococo, the
 reaction against BAROQUE style. He published four books of harpsichord
 SUITES (1713-30) and also composed much ORGAN music.

   Courbet, Gustave

 Courbet, Gustave, 1819-77, French painter. Always at odds with aesthetic
 and political authority, he audaciously chose subjects from ordinary
 life, as in Wounded Man (Louvre), which caused his work to be rejected
 and considered offensive. He defended his realistic works, e.g., Funeral
 at Ornans and Stonebreakers (both: Louvre), and went on to paint the
 self-congratulary Painter's Studio (Louvre). Although his aesthetic
 theories were not destined to prevail, his influence became enormous.
 Today his work is admired for its frankness, vigor, and solid
 construction.

   Courreges, Andre

 Courreges, Andre: see FASHION .

   courtly love

 courtly love, aristocratic philosophy of love that flourished in France
 and England during the Middle Ages, probably derived from OVID'S works,
 various Oriental ideas, and troubador songs. The code required a man to
 fall in love with a married woman of equal or higher rank, and, before
 consummating this love, to commit daring exploits proving his devotion;
 the lovers then pledged themselves to secrecy and fidelity. In reality,
 the code was little more than rules governing adultery. More important as
 a literary convention, it appears in the works of CHRETIEN DE TROYES and
 CHAUCER. See also CHIVALRY.

   court system in the United States

 court system in the United States, the judicial branch of government,
 which applies and interprets the law. It is divided into separate federal
 and state systems, a division resulting from the fact that each of the 13
 original colonies already had its own court system (based on the English
 model) when the U.S. Constitution mandated (1789) creation of a federal
 judiciary. The federal court system consists of three levels. At the
 lowest level there are district courts, which have original jurisdiction
 in most cases involving federal law. There are 91 districts, with at
 least one in each state. The court of appeals system (est. 1891), on the
 second level, consists of 11 judicial circuits, which hear appeals from
 district courts and also deal with cases involving federal regulatory
 agencies. The U.S. SUPREME COURT is the ultimate arbiter of the law of
 the land. There are also special federal courts, such as the court of
 claims and the customs court. While individual state court systems vary,
 they are also built on a hierarchical principle. At the lowest level are
 the inferior courts, which may include magistrate, municipal, traffic,
 and other courts that deal with petty civil and criminal cases. Superior
 courts, in which jury trials are common, handle more serious cases. The
 highest state court, variously called the appellate court, court of
 appeals, or supreme court, hears appeals from the lower courts. There are
 also special state courts, e.g., juvenile, divorce, probate, and small
 claims courts.

   Cousins, Norman

 Cousins, Norman, 1915-, American editor; b. Union City, N.J. Under his
 direction (1942-71, 1973-77), the Saturday Review expanded from a
 literary magazine to a review of all aspects of contemporary life. Also a
 citizen-activist, he has campaigned for nuclear disarmament. His books
 include Who Speaks for Man? (1953) and Present Tense (1967).

   Cousteau, Jacques Yves

 Cousteau, Jacques Yves, 1910-, French oceanographer and inventor. In
 1943, with Emil Gagnan, he invented the self-contained underwater
 breathing apparatus (scuba). He founded (1945) the French navy's undersea
 research group, and since 1951 he has gone on annual oceanographic
 expeditions and produced many books and documentary films.

   Cousy, Bob

 Cousy, Bob (Robert Joseph Cousy), 1928-, American basketball player; b.
 N.Y.C. In 13 seasons (1950-63) with the Boston Celtics of the National
 Basketball Association, he was the game's finest playmaker and a leading
 scorer (18.4-point average). He coached college and professional
 basketball from 1963 to 1973.

   couvade

 couvade, custom observed in some societies in which a father acts out the
 labor and childbirth that are actually being experienced by his wife.
 This may include retiring to bed, observing TABOOS, and/or appearing to
 feel pain. Couvade has been known since antiquity and practiced, in such
 places as Europe and South America, into the 20th cent. It may have begun
 as a way of asserting paternity or as an attempt, through magic, to draw
 the attention of evil spirits away from the mother and child.

   covenant

 covenant, in the Bible and theology, a voluntary agreement of God with
 mankind; in law, a contract under seal or an agreement by deed; in
 Scottish history, a pact by opponents of episcopacy (see COVENANTERS).
 The Old Testament tells of several covenants between God and Israel,
 e.g., that culminating in the delivery of the Law of Moses. In English
 common law, covenants follow the same rules as other contracts; variously
 classified, all contain an explicit promise by the covenanter to the
 covenantee.

   Covenanters

 Covenanters, in Scottish history, groups of Presbyterians bound by oath
 to sustain one another in the defense of their religion. The first formal
 Covenant was signed in 1557, by Protestants trying to seize control of
 Scotland, and was later renewed at times of crisis, especially in the
 17th cent. The Covenanters particularly opposed the imposition of the
 episcopate in Scotland and the use of the English Book of Common Prayer.
 The troubles ended with the GLORIOUS REVOLUTION (1688), which restored
 the Presbyterian Church in Scotland.

   Covent Garden

 Covent Garden, area in London containing the city's principal produce
 market and the Royal Opera. The market was established (1671) on the site
 of a convent garden. In 1974 it was removed to Nine Elms, on the River
 Thames. The Royal Opera was erected on the site of the Theatre Royal
 built (1732) by John Rich; it was rebuilt after fires in 1808 and 1856.
 The Royal Ballet began performances there in 1946.

   Coventry

 Coventry, city (1986 est. pop. 310,400), West Midlands, central England.
 It is an industrial center noted for automobile and airplane production.
 The city grew around a Benedictine abbey founded by Lady GODIVA and her
 husband in 1043. During WORLD WAR II a massive air raid (1940) destroyed
 the city's center and its 14th-cent. cathedral. A new cathedral was built
 alongside the ruins in 1962.

   cover crop

 cover crop, green temporary crop grown to prevent or reduce EROSION and
 to build up the soil's organic content. GRAINS, LEGUMES (e.g., CLOVER),
 and some vegetables are used. Cover crops often are the first means used
 to rehabilitate neglected or misused land.

   cow

 cow: see CATTLE; DAIRYING.

   Coward, Sir Noel

 Coward, Sir Noel, 1899-1973, English playwright, actor, composer,
 director, and producer, known for his wit and sophistication. His works
 include comedies, e.g., Private Lives (1930) and Blithe Spirit (1941);
 musicals, e.g., Bitter Sweet (1929); films, e.g., In Which We Serve
 (1942) and Brief Encounter (1946); and many popular songs.

   cowbird

 cowbird, New World BIRD of the BLACKBIRD and ORIOLE family. Most lay eggs
 in the nests of smaller birds, especially vireos, SPARROWS, and
 flycatchers; the host bird usually incubates the eggs and feeds the
 intruder. Cowbirds feed chiefly on insects, following cattle to capture
 the insects they stir up in grazing.

   Cowell, Henry Dixon

 Cowell, Henry Dixon, 1897-1965, American composer and pianist; b. Menlo
 Park, Calif. Largely self-educated, he experimented with new musical
 resources, introducing on the piano the tone cluster, played with fist or
 elbow, and the technique of playing directly on the strings. His works
 include five Hymns and Fuguing Tunes (1941-45).

   Cowley, Abraham

 Cowley, Abraham, 1618-67, English METAPHYSICAL POET. In the scriptural
 epic Davideis (1656) he developed the use of the couplet as a vehicle for
 narrative verse. Among his principal works are the DONNE-influenced love
 cycle The Mistress (1647) and Poems (1656), including Pindaric odes.

   cowpea, black-eyed pea

 cowpea, black-eyed pea, or black-eyed bean,annual leguminous plant (Vigna
 sinensis) of the PULSE family, native to the Old World but now cultivated
 in the S U.S., where it is used in cooking and, especially, as a catch
 crop and major forage plant. It is also grown commercially in India and
 China.

   Cowper, William

 Cowper, William, 1731-1800, English poet. He led a quiet country life,
 interrupted by bouts of insanity. The poems contributed to John Newton's
 Olney Hymns (1779) often give way to religious despair and self-distrust.
 Cowper wrote on homely subjects, producing in 1785 his famous long poem
 The Task, which foreshadowed 19th-cent. ROMANTICISM in its descriptions
 of country life. Playfulness finds its way into many poems, including
 "The Diverting History of John Gilpin." His letters are considered among
 the most brilliant in English literature.

   Cowper, William Cowper, 1st Earl

 Cowper, William Cowper, 1st Earl, 1664?-1723, English jurist. He was a
 leading negotiator in the union (1707) of England and Scotland. As first
 lord chancellor of Great Britain (1707-10, 1714-18) he contributed much
 to the modern system of EQUITY.

   Coxey, Jacob Sechler

 Coxey, Jacob Sechler, 1854-1951, American social reformer; b.
 Selinsgrove, Pa. After the panic of 1893 he gained fame by leading
 Coxey's Army, a band of jobless men who marched across the country from
 Ohio to Washington, D.C., to demonstrate for measures to relieve
 unemployment. On its arrival (May 1894), the "army" numbered only 500
 instead of the threatened 100,000, and it disbanded anticlimactically
 when its leaders were arrested for walking on the Capitol lawn. Coxey
 later became an advocate of public works financed by fiat money as a
 remedy for unemployment and ran for president as the Farmer-Labor party
 candidate in 1932 and 1936.

   coyote

 coyote or prairie wolf,small, swift WOLF (Canis latrans) found in
 deserts, prairies, open woodlands, and brush country. Resembling a
 medium-sized dog with a pointed face, thick fur, and a black-tipped,
 bushy tail, the coyote is common in the central and W U.S. and ranges
 from Alaska to Central America and the Great Lakes; it is occasionally
 seen in New England. Considered dangerous to livestock, coyotes are
 killed each year by the thousands.

   Cozens, Alexander

 Cozens, Alexander, c.1717-1786, English draftsman; b. Russia. Probably
 the first English master to work entirely with landscape, he explained
 his system of making accidental "blot" drawings to suggest subjects in A
 New Method of Assisting the Invention in Drawing Original Compositions of
 Landscape (c.1785). His son, John Robert Cozens, 1752-97, is known for
 poetic watercolor landscapes.

   Cozzens, James Gould

 Cozzens, James Gould, 1903-78, American novelist; b. Chicago. His
 meticulously crafted novels, often concerning idealism and compromise,
 include Guard of Honor (1948; Pulitzer), and By Love Possessed (1957).

   CPU

 CPU: see COMPUTER.

   Cr

 Cr, chemical symbol of the element CHROMIUM.

   crab

 crab, chiefly marine animal (a CRUSTACEAN) of the order Decapoda, with an
 enlarged cephalothorax covered by a broad, flat shell (carapace).
 Extending from the cephalothorax are five pairs of legs, the first pair
 bearing claws (pincers). Crabs have a pair of eyes on short, movable
 stalks and many mouthparts. They tend to move sideways, but can move in
 all directions. The blue crab of the Atlantic coast of the U.S. is a
 source of food, marketed after molting as the soft-shell crab. The giant
 Japanese spider crab, with a 1-ft-wide (30-cm) carapace and legs about 4
 ft (122 cm) long, is the largest arthropod.

   Crab Nebula

 Crab Nebula, diffuse gaseous NEBULA surrounding an optical PULSAR in the
 constellation Taurus. It is the remnant of a SUPERNOVA explosion in 1054
 and is a strong emitter of radio waves and X rays.

   crack

 crack, a form of COCAINE. A less expensive, more potent, smokable form of
 the drug, it is the most addictive of abused substances. The drug's
 availabity has greatly increased the number of addicts, resulting in
 major law enforcement problems in Western countries. See also DRUG
 ADDICTION AND DRUG ABUSE.

   crafts

 crafts: see ARTS AND CRAFTS.

   Craig, Edward Gordon

 Craig, Edward Gordon, 1872-1966, English stage designer and producer; son
 of Ellen TERRY. His innovative theories and designs (e.g., Hamlet, 1912,
 for the Moscow Art Theatre), which strove for the poetic and the
 suggestive, were an important influence on modern theater.

   Craig, Sir James Henry

 Craig, Sir James Henry, 1748-1812, British governor of CANADA (1807-11).
 His lack of sympathy with French Canadians resulted in his dissolution
 (1809) of Lower Canada's assembly, but his arbitrary methods served only
 to consolidate their position.

   Craigie, Sir William A.

 Craigie, Sir William A., 1867-1957, British lexicographer; b. Scotland.
 Generally considered the foremost lexicographer of his time, Craigie
 worked on the New English Dictionary (commonly called the Oxford English
 Dictionary) from 1897 and was joint editor from 1901 to 1933. In the U.S.
 he was chief editor of A Dictionary of American English on Historical
 Principles (4 vol., 1938-43).

   Cram, Ralph Adams

 Cram, Ralph Adams, 1863-1942, American architect; b. Hampton Falls, N.H.
 An ardent exponent of the Gothic, he produced collegiate and
 ecclesiastical works in a neo-Gothic style, e.g., part of the Cathedral
 of SAINT JOHN THE DIVINE, N.Y.C., and the graduate school and chapel at
 Princeton.

   Cranach

 Cranachor Kranach, Lucas, the Elder, 1472-1553, German painter and
 engraver. Called the painter of the REFORMATION, he was court painter to
 three electors of Saxony. Although his work is often naive and awkward in
 draftmanship, it also has freshness, originality, and a warm, rich color.
 His paintings include Adam and Eve (Courtauld Inst., London) and such
 famous portraits as that of Elector John Frederick and Self-Portrait
 (Uffizi). His son Lucas Cranach, the Younger, 1515-86, inherited his
 shop, signature, and popularity. Their work is often indistinguishable.

   cranberry

 cranberry, low, creeping, evergreen bog plant (genus Oxycoccus) of the
 HEATH family. The tart red berries are used for sauces, jellies, pies,
 and beverages. The native American, or large, cranberry (O. or V.
 macrocarpus) is commercially cultivated. The unrelated high-bush
 cranberry, or cranberry tree, is in the HONEYSUCKLE family. Cranberries
 are often classified in the blueberry genus Vaccinium.

   Crane, (Harold) Hart

 Crane, (Harold) Hart, 1899-1932, American poet; b. Garrettsville, Ohio.
 Although he published only two volumes, he is considered one of the most
 original poets of his time. His first collection, White Buildings (1926),
 was inspired by New York City. His most ambitious work, The Bridge
 (1930), is a series of long poems on the U.S., in which the Brooklyn
 Bridge serves as a mystical unifying symbol. An alcoholic and a
 homosexual, plagued by personal problems, Crane jumped overboard while
 returning from Mexico to the U.S. and was drowned.

   Crane, Stephen

 Crane, Stephen, 1871-1900, often considered the first modern American
 writer; b. Newark, N.J. He introduced REALISM into American fiction with
 his grim and unpopular first novel, Maggie: A Girl of the Streets (1893).
 Crane achieved fame with his next novel, The Red Badge of Courage (1895),
 a remarkable account of a young CIVIL WAR soldier. Later a war
 correspondent in Cuba and Greece, he also wrote superb short stories,
 e.g., "The Open Boat" (1898) and "The Monster" (1899), and poetry.
 Vilified because of his domestic life, Crane spent his last years in
 Europe.

   crane

 crane, large, wading marsh BIRD of the Northern Hemisphere and Africa,
 related to the RAILS. Cranes are known for their loud, trumpeting call
 and rhythmic mating dances. The North American whooping crane, a white
 bird almost 5 ft (152 cm) tall, is nearly extinct; the gray sandhill
 crane, which winters W of the Mississippi, is also becoming rare.

   Cranmer, Thomas

 Cranmer, Thomas, 1489-1556, English churchman. He came to the attention
 of HENRY VIII in 1529 by suggesting that the king might further his
 efforts to divorce KATHARINE OF ARAGON by collecting favorable opinions
 from the universities. He was made archbishop of Canterbury in 1533 and
 was completely subservient to Henry's will. While serving EDWARD VI, he
 shaped the doctrinal and liturgical transformation of the Church of
 England. He placed the English Bible in churches, and in 1552 he revised
 the BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER. Under the Roman Catholic MARY I, he was tried
 for treason, convicted of heresy, and burned at the stake.

   Crashaw, Richard

 Crashaw, Richard, 1612?-1649, English METAPHYSICAL POET. The son of an
 ardent Puritan minister, he converted to Catholicism and lived on the
 Continent. His fame rests on his intense religious verse, which combines
 sensuality with mysticism in a manner suggestive of baroque art. Steps to
 the Temple (1646), his major volume of poems, was enlarged to include
 Delights of the Muses (1648).

   Crassus

 Crassus, ancient Roman family, of the plebeian Licinian gens. Lucius
 Licinius Crassus, d. 91 BC, a noted orator and lawyer (much admired by
 Cicero), was consul in 95 BC He proposed the Licinian Law to banish from
 Rome all who had gained Roman citizenship by illegal means. This helped
 bring on the Social War (90-88 BC). Marcus Licinius Crassus, d. 53 BC,
 was the best-known member of the family. Charming, avaricious, and
 ambitious, he became the principal landowner in Rome by organizing his
 private fire brigade, buying burning houses cheaply, and then putting out
 the fires. He gained immense prestige-along with POMPEY-for suppressing
 the uprising of SPARTACUS. He and Julius CAESAR drew closer together and,
 with Pompey, formed the First TRIUMVIRATE (60 BC), but Crassus and Pompey
 did not get along. Avid for military glory, Crassus undertook a campaign
 against the Parthians. His army was routed at Carrhae (modern Haran) in
 53 BC, and he was treacherously murdered.

   crater

 crater: see METEORITE.

   Crater Lake National Park

 Crater Lake National Park: see NATIONAL PARKS .

   Crawford, Joan

 Crawford, Joan, 1908-77, American film actress; b. San Antonio, Tex., as
 Lucille Le Sueur. A major Hollywood star, she made such films as Grand
 Hotel (1932), Mildred Pierce (1945; Academy Award), and Humoresque
 (1946).

   Crawford, Thomas

 Crawford, Thomas, 1813-57, American sculptor; b. N.Y.C. An exponent of
 the CLASSIC REVIVAL, he won recognition with Armed Freedom, a statue
 above the CAPITOL dome, and with the design of the WASHINGTON MONUMENT,
 for which he executed several figures.

   crayfish

 crayfish or crawfish,edible freshwater CRUSTACEAN smaller than, but
 structurally similar to, the LOBSTER. Crayfish are found in ponds and
 streams in most parts of the world except Africa. They are scavengers and
 grow to 3 to 4 in. (7.6-10.2 cm) in length. Crayfish are usually brownish
 green; some cave-dwelling forms are colorless.

   Crazy Horse

 Crazy Horse, d. 1877, revered chief of the Oglala SIOUX INDIANS.
 Resisting encroachment of whites in the mineral-rich Black Hills of South
 Dakota, he repeatedly defeated U.S. troops. He joined Sitting Bull and
 GALL to defeat George Armstrong CUSTER at LITTLE BIGHORN (1876), but
 finally he and 1,000 starving followers had to surrender. He was stabbed
 to death trying to escape from prison.

   creationism

 creationism, belief in the biblical account of the creation of the world;
 also known as creation science. Advocates of creationism have campaigned
 to have it taught in U.S. public schools along with the theory of
 EVOLUTION, which they dispute. In 1981 a federal judge ruled
 unconstitutional an Arkansas law requiring the teaching of creationism,
 holding it to be religious in nature; a similar Louisiana law was
 overturned in 1982.

   credit

 credit, granting of goods, services, or money in return for a promise of
 future payment, usually accompanied by an INTEREST charge. The two basic
 forms of credit are business and consumer. The chief function of business
 credit is the transfer of capital from those who own it to those who can
 use it, in the expectation that the profit from its use will exceed the
 interest payable on the loan. Consumer credit permits the purchase of
 retail goods and services with little or no down payment in cash. In
 installment buying and selling, the consumer agrees to make payments at
 specific intervals in set amounts. Credit cards are issued by local and
 national retailers and by banks. Cardholders usually pay an annual fee
 and a monthly interest charge on the unpaid balance. The major bank cards
 also provide short-term personal loans. See DEBT.

   credit card

 credit card, a card or document used to obtain consumer credit when
 purchasing an article or service. Credit cards may be issued by a local
 retailer, a national retailer, or a third party, e.g., a bank. From 1965
 to 1970 the number of cards in the U.S. grew from fewer than 5 million to
 more than 50 million. Through the revolving charge plan, card holders can
 postpone payment by accepting a monthly interest charge. Consumers may
 also use the major bank cards to obtain short-term personal loans.
 Credit-card issuers get revenue from fees paid by stores that accept
 their cards and from interest charged on unpaid credit balances. Concern
 has been voiced over widespread, sometimes unsolicited, distribution of
 bank credit cards, losses and thefts of cards, and possible excessive
 encouragement of consumer debt at high-interest rates.

   Credit Mobilier of America

 Credit Mobilier of America, ephemeral construction company, involved in a
 major U.S. financial scandal. Oakes Ames, T.C. Durant, and other
 stockholders of the Union Pacific RR set up (1867) the Credit Mobilier
 and awarded themselves contracts for construction on the Union Pacific
 that netted profits estimated at from $7 million to $23 million. To
 forestall investigations or interference by Congress, Ames sold or
 assigned shares of stock to members of Congress at par, though the shares
 were worth twice as much. The scandal broke during the 1872 presidential
 campaign and resulted in a Congressional investigation that issued
 censures, but there were no prosecutions.

   credit union

 credit union, cooperative financial institution that makes low-interest
 personal loans to members. It is usually composed of persons from the
 same occupational group or local community, such as company employees or
 members of labor unions and churches. Funds for lending come from
 members' savings deposits through the sale of shares. In the U.S. the
 more than 23,000 credit unions are chartered and regulated by the federal
 government or the states.

   creed

 creed, summary of basic doctrines of faith. The following are some of the
 historically important Christian creeds. 1 The Nicene Creed, usually said
 to be a revision by the First Council of CONSTANTINOPLE (381) of a creed
 adopted by the First Council of NICAEA (325). 2 The Athanasian Creed, a
 6th-cent. statement, no longer ascribed to St. ATHANASIUS, on the Trinity
 and the Incarnation. 3 The Apostles' Creed, similar to the Nicene Creed
 and dating in its present form to c.650.

   Cree Indians

 Cree Indians, NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS from Manitoba, one branch of whom
 moved southwest to adopt a buffalo culture as the Plains Cree, while the
 other retained their deer culture as the Woodland Cree. They spoke an
 Algonquian language of the Algonquian-Wakashan stock (see AMERICAN INDIAN
 LANGUAGES). Although warlike, the Cree were friendly to fur traders, and
 their history closely follows that of the Hudson's Bay and North West fur
 companies. Today they are one of the larger Canadian tribes; another
 group lives in Montana.

   Creek Indians

 Creek Indians, confederacy of 50 North American Indian towns or tribes
 mainly in Georgia and Alabama, who spoke a Muskogean tongue of the
 Hokan-Siouan linguistic stock (see AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES). Named for
 their villages on creeks or rivers, they lived a settled agricultural
 life, governing themselves democratically. Although they were friendly to
 the British in colonial times, white encroachment later aroused their
 hostility. In the Creek War (1813-14), they were subdued by Andrew
 JACKSON and lost two thirds of their territory. Eventually they were
 moved to Indian territory and became one of the FIVE CIVILIZED TRIBES.
 Today they live largely in Oklahoma.

   cremation

 cremation, disposal of a corpse by fire, widely practiced in some
 societies, notably India and ancient Greece and Rome. The rise of
 Christianity ended the custom in Europe, but it revived as cities grew
 and cemeteries became crowded. Belief in the purifying properties of
 fire, a desire to light the way of the dead, and fear of the return of
 the dead may have been among early motivations for cremation. The
 practice is not sanctioned by the Roman Catholic Church or traditional
 Judaism.

   Cremazie, (Joseph) Octave

 Cremazie, (Joseph) Octave (kramaze'), 1822-79, French Canadian poet, "the
 father of French Canadian poetry." His poem "Le Vieux Soldat canadien"
 (1855) made him famous. His poetry is patriotic and was influenced by
 French ROMANTICISM.

   Cremin, Lawrence Arthur

 Cremin, Lawrence Arthur, 1925-, American educator and historian; b.
 N.Y.C. He was president of Teachers College, Columbia Univ. (1974-84) and
 is an expert in American educational history. He wrote Transformation of
 the School (1961) and a comprehensive history of American education

   creole language

 creole language: see LINGUA FRANCA.

   Crerar, Henry Duncan Graham

 Crerar, Henry Duncan Graham, 1888-1965, Canadian general. During WORLD
 WAR II he commanded (1941-44) with distinction a Canadian army division
 and then (1944-46) the 1st Canadian Corps in the Allied invasion of
 Europe.

   Cretaceous period

 Cretaceous period: see GEOLOGIC ERA .

   Crete

 Crete, island (1981 pop. 502,165), c.3,235 sq mi (8,380 sq km), SE
 Greece, in the E Mediterranean Sea and marking the southern limit of the
 Aegean Sea. It is now a popular tourist region composed mainly of small
 farms growing grains, olives, and oranges, and raising livestock. Crete
 was the site of the MINOAN CIVILIZATION, which reached its peak c.1600 BC
 Invaluable archaeological finds have been made at the ruins of the palace
 at the ancient city of CNOSSUS. Although the island later flourished as a
 trading center, it played no important political role in ancient Greece.
 It was conquered by the Romans (68-67 BC) and by the Ottoman Turks
 (1669), but a series of revolts finally forced (1898) the Turks to
 evacuate. The island officially joined modern Greece in 1913, as a result
 of the BALKAN WARS. A British military base in WORLD WAR II, it was
 attacked by Germany in the first and only successful all-air invasion of
 the war.

   cretinism

 cretinism: see under DWARFISM.

   Crevecoeur, J. Hector St. John

 Crevecoeur, J. Hector St. John, 1735-1813, American author and
 agriculturist; b. France. After settling in Orange co., N.Y., he wrote
 Letters from an American Farmer (1782) and other agricultural articles
 that described U.S. rural life of the time. He introduced the culture of
 the American potato into Normandy and of European crops, notably alfafa,
 into the U.S. He returned to France in 1790.

   Crick, Francis Harry Compton

 Crick, Francis Harry Compton, 1916-, English scientist. He shared with
 Maurice WILKINS and James WATSON the 1962 Nobel Prize in physiology or
 medicine for establishing the function and double-helix structure of DNA,
 the key substance in the transmission of hereditary characteristics.

   cricket

 cricket, slender, chirping, hopping INSECT of the family Gryllidae. Most
 have long antennae, muscular hindlegs, and two pairs of fully developed
 wings. The males produce the characteristic song by rubbing specialized
 structures of their front wings together; both sexes have auditory organs
 on their forelegs. Common field crickets of the U.S. are brown to black
 and about 1 in. (2.5 cm) long.

   cricket

 cricket, ball and bat game played chiefly in Great Britain and the
 Commonwealth countries. It is played by two opposing teams of 11
 contestants on a level turf, measuring about 525 ft (160 m) by about 550
 ft (170 m). Two wickets are placed 66 ft (20.12 m) apart near the middle
 of the field, each consisting of two wooden crosspieces (bails) resting
 on three stumps. Batsmen of the same team defend each wicket with a
 paddle-shaped bat against opposing bowlers, who try to knock down the
 bails of the wicket. If a batsman hits the ball far enough so that he and
 his partner can run to exchange places, a run is scored. Batsmen are
 retired if the ball is caught on the fly or if the bails are knocked
 down. A game may require several days to complete. Cricket probably was
 developed in medieval England before 1400. Australia and Britain compete
 in a famous series.

   crime

 crime, the recorded violation of major rules of social behavior codified
 in CRIMINAL LAW. Such law varies from one culture to the next, reflecting
 differences in social norms. Crime, its causes, and its prevention are
 the subject of criminology, a subdivision of sociology that also draws on
 psychology, economics, and other disciplines. One of its branches is
 penology, which deals with PRISON management and the rehabilitation of
 convicted offenders. The causes of crime may include psychological
 predisposition, emotional disorders, environment, or other factors. Crime
 tends to rise during periods of economic DEPRESSION and social upheaval
 and is most common in poverty areas, often as juvenile delinquency;
 so-called white-collar crime is committed by those of higher economic
 status. In the U.S. ORGANIZED CRIME developed during PROHIBITION. Crimes
 of violence traditionally draw the heaviest penalties, whereas
 "victimless crimes" (such as PROSTITUTION) are often virtually
 decriminalized through the failure of the authorities to prosecute.

   Crimea

 Crimea, peninsula and oblast, c.10,000 sq mi (25,900 sq km), Ukrainian
 Soviet Socialist Republic, linked with the mainland by the Perekop
 Isthmus and bounded by the Black Sea (S, W) and the Sea of Azov (NE).
 Major cities include Simferopol (capital of the oblast), SEVASTOPOL,
 Kerch, and Yalta. The north is a semiarid steppe that supports wheat,
 corn, and cotton crops; in the south rises the Crimean or Yaila range.
 The subtropical shore along the Black Sea, the "Soviet Riviera," is famed
 for its resorts. Heavy industry in the Crimea includes ironworks and
 plants producing machinery and chemicals. In ancient times the peninsula
 was inhabited by a CIMMERIAN people called Tauri, who were expelled (8th
 cent. BC) by the Scythians. In the 5th cent. BC the kingdom of the
 Cimmerian Bosporus emerged, later coming under Greek, then Roman,
 influence. The area, overrun between the 3d and 13th cent. by the Goths,
 Huns, Khazars, Cumans, and Mongols, became an independent TATAR khanate
 in the 15th cent. It was annexed by Russia in 1783. The peninsula was a
 battleground in the CRIMEAN WAR (1853-56), the RUSSIAN REVOLUTION, and
 both world wars.

   Crimean War

 Crimean War, 1853-56, between Russia and the allied powers of Turkey,
 England, France, and Sardinia. Its cause was inherent in the EASTERN
 QUESTION; its pretext was a quarrel between Russia and France over
 guardianship of Palestinian holy places. Turkey declared war on Russia
 after the latter occupied Moldavia and Walachia; England, France, and
 Sardinia joined later. The fighting centered on SEVASTOPOL, the heavily
 fortified base of the Russian fleet. After a long, bloody siege, the city
 fell and the war ended, thus checking Russian influence in the area. The
 war is particularly remembered for the futile battle of Balaklava and for
 the heroic nursing reforms of Florence NIGHTINGALE.

   criminal law

 criminal law, body of law that defines offenses against the state and
 regulates their prosecution and punishment. It is distinguished from
 CIVIL LAW, which is concerned with relations between private parties. In
 the U.S., power to define crime rests with the states and with the
 federal government. U.S. criminal law is based on English COMMON LAW, but
 a number of states have enacted penal or criminal codes, and since World
 War II the trend is increasingly toward codification. The procedure in
 criminal cases is essentially the same throughout the U.S. A grand jury
 usually examines the evidence against a suspect and either dismisses the
 case or draws up an INDICTMENT. Trial is by JURY or before a judge alone.
 The public prosecutor (usually called the district attorney) presents the
 government's case, and counsel represents the accused. There is a legal
 presumption of innocence, and the burden of proving guilt beyond a
 reasonable doubt is on the prosecution. If the accused is found innocent,
 he or she is discharged; if guilty, the judge pronounces SENTENCE. If
 convicted, the defendant may APPEAL; the prosecution, however, under the
 prohibition against DOUBLE JEOPARDY, generally cannot appeal an
 acquittal.

   criminology

 criminology: see CRIME.

   crinoid

 crinoid, member of the class (Crinoidea) of marine invertebrate animals
 (ECHINODERMS) that includes the sea lilies and feather stars. Most sea
 lilies remain stalked and sessile for their entire lives, while feather
 stars break off the stalk and become mobile as adults. All crinoids live
 with their oral side upward with a ring of arms encircling the mouth.
 Most have 10 arms, but some sea lilies have up to 40 and some feather
 stars up to 200.

   Cripple Creek

 Cripple Creek, city (1980 pop. 655), alt. 9,375 ft (2,858 m), seat of
 Teller co., central Colo.; inc. 1892. Once a great gold boom town (1901
 est. pop. 50,000), it is now a summer resort. There were violent mine
 strikes in 1893 and 1904.

   Cripps, Sir Stafford

 Cripps, Sir Stafford, 1889-1952, British statesman. A successful lawyer,
 he was knighted in 1930 and became solicitor general in the Labour
 government (1930-31). In 1939 he was expelled from the Labour party for
 urging a united front with the Communists. Under Winston CHURCHILL he
 served as ambassador to the USSR (1940-42) and lord privy seal and leader
 of the House of Commons (1942). In 1945 he was readmitted into the Labour
 party and appointed president of the board of trade in the new Labour
 government. He initiated Britain's postwar austerity program. As minister
 of economic affairs and chancellor of the exchequer (1947-50), he
 virtually controlled Britain's economy until ill health forced his
 resignation.

   Cristus, Petrus

 Cristus, Petrus: see CHRISTUS, PETRUS.

   Crittenden Compromise

 Crittenden Compromise, unsuccessful last-minute effort to avert the U.S.
 CIVIL WAR. It was proposed in Dec. 1860 by Sen. John J. Crittenden of
 Kentucky as a constitutional amendment mandating the use of the MISSOURI
 COMPROMISE line, extended to California, to divide free and slave states.
 It was defeated (Jan. and Mar. 1861) in Congress.

   croaker

 croaker, carnivorous, elongate, spiny-finned FISH of the family
 Sciaenidae, including the drum and weakfish (sea trout), so called
 because of their croaking or grunting noises. Croakers are found in the
 sandy shallows of temperate and warm seas. The drums are the largest and
 noisiest croak ers-up to 150 lb (68 kg) in the common drum-and include
 the commercially important red drum, or channel bass. The weakfish, named
 for their easily torn flesh, include the common weakfish, or squeteague,
 of the Atlantic coast and the spotted weakfish.

   Croatia

 Croatia, Croatian Hrvatska, constituent republic of Yugoslavia (1981 pop.
 4,428,005), 21,824 sq mi (56,524 sq km), NW Yugoslavia. ZAGREB is the
 capital. The second largest Yugoslav republic, Croatia supplies most of
 the country's coal and such other resources as timber and petroleum.
 Tourism is important, especially on the ADRIATIC SEA coast. Formerly part
 of the Roman province of Pannonia, Croatia was a kingdom from the 10th
 cent. and united with Hungary in 1102. The Turks held most of Croatia
 from the 16th to 18th cent. and were replaced by the HAPSBURGS, who ruled
 the area until 1918. After World War I it became part of Yugoslavia, but
 in World War II the Germans dismantled Yugoslavia and set up a fascist
 puppet state in Croatia. In 1945 the area again became part of
 Yugoslavia; however, a Croatian separatist movement has persisted.

   Croce, Benedetto

 Croce, Benedetto, 1866-1952, Italian philosopher, historian, and literary
 critic. His Aesthetic as Science of Expression and General Linguistic
 (1902), the first part of his major work Philosophy of the Spirit
 (1902-17), was a landmark of modern IDEALISM. Croce was renowned for his
 works of literary criticism and AESTHETICS, cultural history, and
 historical methodology. A staunch anti-Fascist, he became a Liberal party
 leader in 1943.

   crochet

 crochet, construction of fabric by interlocking loops of thread or yarn
 using a hook. The chain stitch is used to cast on a foundation chain of
 the desired length, into which successive rows of stitches are worked.
 All stitches and patterns derive from single and double crochet. Like
 KNITTING, crochet produces a fabric that stretches. When a fine hook and
 thread are used, crochet can be used to produce a form of LACE.

   Crockett, Davy

 Crockett, Davy (David Crockett), 1786-1836, American frontiersman; b.
 near Greeneville, Tenn. He was a U.S. representative from Tennessee
 (1827-31, 1833-35) and died defending the ALAMO. Known for his backwoods
 humor, he is the supposed author of several autobiographical works,
 although their idiom does not match that of his own letters.

   crocodile

 crocodile, carnivorous REPTILE (order Crocodilia) found in tropical and
 subtropical regions, distinguished from the ALLIGATOR by greater
 aggressiveness, a narrower snout, and a long, lower fourth tooth, which
 protrudes when the mouth is closed. Crocodiles have flattened bodies,
 short legs, and powerful jaws. The saltwater crocodile is often 14 ft
 (4.3 m) long, while the Nile, American, and Orinoco crocodiles are
 commonly 12 ft (3.7 m) long.

   crocus

 crocus, perennial herb (genus Crocus) of the IRIS family, native to the
 Mediterranean and SW Asia. Crocuses usually bear a single yellow, purple,
 or white flower and have small, grasslike leaves. One species, SAFFRON,
 is cultivated commercially as a yellow dye. The unrelated meadow saffron,
 or autumn crocus, is in the LILY family, and the wild crocus, or
 pasqueflower, is in the BUTTERCUP family.

   Croesus

 Croesus, d. c.547 BC, last king of Lydia (560-c.546 BC), noted for his
 great wealth. He allied himself with Egypt and Babylonia against CYRUS
 THE GREAT of Persia, but he was defeated and captured.

   Cro-Magnon man

 Cro-Magnon man, biologically modern human being (species Homo sapiens),
 existing 40,000-35,000 years ago (see MAN, PREHISTORIC). Skeletal remains
 were first found (1868) in France and then in other parts of Europe. Like
 NEANDERTHAL MAN, whom he superseded, Cro-Magnon man stood erect (6 ft/180
 cm); he had a high forehead, developed chin, and large brain. His
 advanced upper Paleolithic CULTURE (see STONE AGE) produced flint and
 bone tools, shell and ivory jewelry, and elegant polychrome cave
 paintings of great vitality (see PALEOLITHIC ART).

   Crompton, Samuel

 Crompton, Samuel, 1753-1827, English inventor (1779) of a SPINNING
 machine that for the first time allowed the production of fine strong
 cotton yarns. Crompton's mule spinner, or muslin wheel, combined the best
 features of Richard ARKWRIGHT'S water frame and James HARGREAVES'S
 spinning jenny.

   Cromwell, Oliver

 Cromwell, Oliver, 1599-1658, lord protector of England. A Puritan, he
 entered Parliament in 1628, standing firmly with the opposition to
 CHARLES I. During the first civil war (see ENGLISH CIVIL WAR), he rose
 rapidly to leadership because of his military ability and genius for
 organization. His own regiment, the Ironsides, distinguished itself at
 Marston Moor (1644). In 1645 he became second in command to Sir Thomas
 Fairfax in the New Model Army, which defeated the king at Naseby (1645).
 After Charles's flight to Carisbrooke (1647), Cromwell lost hope of
 dealing moderately with him. In the second civil war, he repelled the
 Scottish royalist invasion at Preston (1648). His was the leading voice
 demanding execution at the king's trial in 1649. After the republican
 Commonwealth was proclaimed, Cromwell led a cruelly punitive expedition
 into Ireland, where he initiated a policy of dispossessing the Irish. He
 defeated the Scottish royalists at Dunbar (1650) and CHARLES II at
 Worcester (1651). In 1653 Cromwell dissolved the Rump Parliament and
 replaced it with the feeble Nominated (Barebone's) Parliament, which he
 himself appointed. That same year the Protectorate was established and
 Cromwell was named lord protector. In 1657 he declined the crown.
 Cromwell's foreign policy was governed by the need to expand English
 trade and prevent the restoration of the Stuarts. He approved the
 Navigation Act of 1651, which led to the first (1652-54) of the DUTCH
 WARS; his war with Spain (1655-58) was over trade rights. Opinions of
 Cromwell have always varied. Although he favored religious toleration, he
 tolerated only Jews and non-Anglican Protestants. His military genius and
 force of character are recognized, but the necessities of government
 forced him into cruelty and intolerance. His son Richard Cromwell,
 1626-1712, succeeded him. The army and Parliament struggled for power
 until the Protectorate collapsed and the Commonwealth was reestablished
 in 1659. He lived abroad (1660-80) and later in England under an assumed
 name. A man of virtue and dignity, he was forced into a situation beyond
 his talents.

   Cronaca, Il

 Cronaca, Il: see POLLAIUOLO, family.

   Cronkite, Walter

 Cronkite, Walter, 1916-, American journalist; b. St. Joseph, Mo. From
 1962 to 1981 he was anchorman of the Columbia Broadcasting System's
 evening television news program.

   Cronus

 Cronus, in Greek myth, the youngest TITAN; son of URANUS and GAEA. He led
 the Titans in a revolt against Uranus and ruled the world. By his sister
 RHEA, he fathered the great gods-ZEUS, POSEIDON, DEMETER, HERA, HADES
 , and HESTIA. Fated to be overthrown by one of his children, he tried
 unsuccessfully to destroy them. Zeus later led the OLYMPIAN gods in
 defeating him in a battle, described by HESIOD, called the Titanomachy.
 Cronus is equated with the Roman god SATURN.

   Crookes, Sir William

 Crookes, Sir William, 1832-1919, English chemist and physicist. Noted for
 his work on radioactivity, he invented the spinthariscope (used to make
 visible the flashes produced by bombarding a screen with the alpha rays
 of a particle of radium), the radiometer (used to measure the intensity
 of radiant energy), and the Crookes tube (a highly evacuated tube through
 which is passed an electrical discharge). He founded (1859) Chemical News
 and discovered the element THALLIUM.

   croquet

 croquet, lawn game in which players hit wooden balls with wooden mallets
 through a series of 9 or 10 wire arches (wickets). The first player to
 hit the posts at both ends of the field wins. Developed in France in the
 17th cent., the game is popular, with varying rules, in Britain and the
 U.S.

   Crosby, Bing

 Crosby, Bing, 1904-77, American singer and film actor; b. Tacoma, Wash.,
 as Harry Lillis Crosby. His crooning voice was heard on radio and
 records. His many films include Going My Way (1944; Academy Award).

   cross

 cross, widely used symbol found in such diverse cultures as those of
 ancient India, Egypt, and the American Indians. Its most important use is
 among Christians, to whom it recalls the crucifixion of JESUS and
 humanity's redemption thereby. The oldest Christian remains contain
 drawings of crosses. Their use was attacked by Byzantine ICONOCLASM, but
 was vindicated at the Second Council of NICAEA (787). There are many
 types of crosses. The Latin cross, the commonest, has its upright longer
 than its transom. With two transoms it is called a patriarchal or
 archiepiscopal cross; with three, it is a papal cross. The Greek cross
 has equal arms. A crucifix is a cross with the figure of Christ upon it.

   croup

 croup, acute obstructive inflammation of the larynx in young children,
 usually ages three to six. Symptoms include difficulty in breathing and a
 high-pitched, barking cough due to swelling or spasm. The cause may be an
 infection, ALLERGY, or obstruction by a swallowed object. Treatment is
 directed at the cause.

   crow

 crow, black BIRD (family Corvidae) related to the RAVEN, MAGPIE, and JAY
  and among the most intelligent of birds. Known for its throaty "caw," the
 American, or common, crow, about 19 in. (49 cm) long with a wingspan of
 over 3 ft (92 cm), destroys harmful insects and rodents.

   Crow Indians

 Crow Indians, NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS of the Plains, who ranged the
 Yellowstone R. region and spoke a Siouan language of the Hokan-Siouan
 stock (see AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES). A hunting tribe, they cultivated
 only tobacco. Their highly complex social system stressed care of
 children. They helped the white men in the SIOUX wars. Today most Crows
 live in Montana, near the LITTLE BIGHORN, where tourism, ranching, and
 mineral leases provide tribal income.

   crown

 crown, circular head ornament worn by sovereigns. (The coronet is worn by
 nobles.) In ancient Greece and Rome crowns were merely wreaths, sometimes
 made of leaves, awarded in athletic or poetic contests, or in recognition
 of public service. The use of the crown as a symbol of royal rank is of
 ancient tradition in Egypt and the Orient. The medieval and modern crown,
 an elaboration of the diadem, is usually made of metal, often gold,
 inlaid with gems. Famous historic crowns include the Lombard iron crown
 (Monza, Italy), the crown of Charlemagne (Vienna, Austria), and the crown
 of St. Stephen of Hungary. The triple crown of the pope, known as a
 tiara, dates from the 14th cent.

   Crozet Islands

 Crozet Islands: see FRENCH SOUTHERN AND ANTARCTIC LANDS.

   crucifix

 crucifix: see CROSS.

   crucifixion

 crucifixion, hanging on a cross, an ancient method of execution. It was
 used in the Middle East, but not by the Greeks. The Romans may have
 borrowed it from Carthage and reserved it for slaves and despised
 criminals. A prisoner was either nailed or tied to the cross, and, to
 induce more rapid death, his legs were often broken. JESUS died by
 crucifixion.

   crude oil

 crude oil: see PETROLEUM.

   Cruikshank, George

 Cruikshank, George, 1792-1878, English caricaturist, illustrator, and
 etcher. The most popular caricaturist of his day, he illustrated more
 than 850 books and contributed to the Meteor, the Scourge, and the
 Satirist. Among his best works are illustrations for Life in London,
 etchings for Grimm's German Popular Stories, and his drawings The
 Drunkard's Children and The Gin Trap.

   cruise missile

 cruise missile: see: MISSILE, GUIDED.

   Crumb, George (Henry)

 Crumb, George (Henry), 1929-, American composer; b. Charleston, W.Va.
 Crumb, whose music often incorporates mysterious voices and the sounds of
 unconventional instruments like thumb pianos, has composed such works as
 Echoes of Time and the River (1967; Pulitzer) and Cosmic Dances for
 Amplified Piano (1979).

   Crusades

 Crusades, wars undertaken by European Christians between the 11th and
 13th cent. to recover the Holy Land from the Muslims. At the Council of
 Clermont (1095) Pope URBAN II exhorted Christendom to war, and the
 Crusaders took their name from the crosses distributed there. Religious
 motives dominated the Crusades at first, but worldly aims were never
 absent: The nobles hoped to capture land and loot; the Italian cities
 looked to expand trade with the Near East. The First Crusade, 1095-99,
 was led by Raymond IV, count of Toulouse, GODFREY OF BOUILLON, BOHEMOND
 I, and TANCRED. Their victorious campaign was crowned by the conquest of
 Jerusalem (1099). The establishment of the Latin Kingdom of JERUSALEM and
 the orders of the KNIGHTS HOSPITALERS and the KNIGHTS TEMPLARS followed.
 The Second Crusade, 1147-49, preached by St. BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX after
 the Christians lost EDESSA (1144) to the TURKS, ended in dismal failure.
 After SALADIN captured (1187) Jerusalem for Islam, the Third Crusade,
 1189-92, led by Holy Roman Emperor FREDERICK I, PHILIP II of France, and
 RICHARD I of England, failed to recapture the city. A three-year truce,
 however, gave Christians access to Jerusalem. The Fourth Crusade,
 1202-04, was diverted for the benefit of Venice, and the Crusaders seized
 Constantinople (see CONSTANTINOPLE, LATIN EMPIRE OF). In the pathetic
 Children's Crusade (1212), thousands of children set out for the Holy
 Land, only to be sold as slaves or to die of hunger or disease. The Fifth
 Crusade, 1217-21, was aimed at Egypt, but failed. The truce arranged with
 the Muslims by Holy Roman Emperor FREDERICK II in the Sixth Crusade,
 1228-29, was short-lived. Three later crusades in the 13th cent. failed
 to reverse the Muslim gains. In 1291 the last Christian stronghold of
 Akko (Acre) fell.

   crustacean

 crustacean, invertebrate animal (class Crustacea), an ARTHROPOD.
 Primarily aquatic, they have bilaterally symmetrical segmented bodies
 covered by a chitinous exoskeleton that is periodically shed. In most,
 the head and thorax are fused as a cephalothorax and protected by a
 shield-like carapace. The head typically has two pairs of antennae, three
 pairs of biting mouthparts, and usually one medial and two lateral eyes.
 Thoracic appendages are often modified into claws and pincers with gills
 at their bases. Crustaceans include SHRIMP, CRAYFISH, LOBSTERS, CRABS,
 and BARNACLES.

   Cruz, Juana Ines de la

 Cruz, Juana Ines de la: see JUANA INES DE LA CRUZ.

   Cruz, Ramon de la

 Cruz, Ramon de la, 1731-94, Spanish dramatist. His sainetes, 450 one-act
 comedies of middle- and lower-class life, freed Spanish drama from
 foreign influence.

   cryogenics

 cryogenics: see LOW-TEMPERATURE PHYSICS.

   cryolite

 cryolite or kryolite,sodium and aluminum fluoride mineral (Na3AlF6),
 usually pure white or colorless but sometimes tinted pink, brown, or even
 black and having a waxy luster. Cryolite is used principally as a flux in
 the smelting of ALUMINUM, but it is also a source of soda, aluminum
 salts, fluorides, and hydrofluoric acid. Discovered (1794) in Greenland,
 it occurs almost nowhere else.

   cryptography

 cryptography, science of translating messages into ciphers or codes. The
 science of breaking codes and ciphers without the key is called
 cryptanalysis. Cryptology is the science embracing both cryptography and
 cryptanalysis. The beginnings of cryptography can be traced to the
 HIEROGLYPHICS of early Egyptian civilization (c.1900 BC). Ciphering has
 always been considered vital for diplomatic and military secrecy. The
 widespread use of computers and data transmission in commerce and finance
 is making cryptography very important in these fields as well. Recent
 successes in applying certain aspects of computer science to cryptography
 have stimulated progress in this area, and seem to be leading to more
 versatile and more secure systems in which the ciphering or coding is
 implemented with sophisticated digital electronics.

   Cryptophyta

 Cryptophyta, small division of the plant kingdom, consisting of
 photosynthetic, unicellular, flagellate ALGAE.

   crystal

 crystal, solid body bounded by natural plane faces that are the external
 expression of a regular internal arrangement of constituent atoms,
 molecules, or ions. The particles in a crystal occupy positions with
 definite geometrical relationships to each other, forming a kind of
 scaffolding called a crystalline lattice. On the basis of its chemistry
 and the arrangement of its atoms, a crystal falls into one of 32 classes;
 these in turn are grouped into seven systems according to the
 relationships of their axes. Differences in the physical properties of
 crystals sometimes determine the use to which they can be put in
 industry.

   Crystal Palace

 Crystal Palace, building designed by Sir Joseph Paxton, erected at Hyde
 Park, London, for the Great Exhibition in 1851. It was removed to
 Sydenham and used as a museum until damaged by fire in 1936. The iron,
 glass, and wood structure greatly influenced late 19th-cent.
 architecture.

   Cs

 Cs, chemical symbol of the element CESIUM.

   Cu

 Cu, chemical symbol of the element COPPER.

   Cuba

 Cuba, officially Republic of Cuba, republic (1988 est. pop. 10,368,000),
 44,218 sq mi (114,524 sq km), in the Caribbean Sea, 90 mi (145 km) S of
 Florida. It consists of Cuba, the largest island in the WEST INDIES, and
 many small adjacent islands. Principal cities are HAVANA (the capital),
 CAMAGUEY, SANTIAGO DE CUBA, and GUANTANAMO. The main island has three
 mountain regions, including the rugged Sierra Maestra in the east, but is
 predominantly level or gently rolling. The climate is subtropical.
 Coffee, rice, corn, citrus fruits, and an excellent tobacco are grown;
 nickel is mined; and there is a fishing industry. However, despite all
 efforts to diversify the base, Cuba's economy remains overwhelmingly
 dependent on the growth and refining of sugar. The people are of Spanish,
 African, and mixed Spanish-African descent, and their language is
 Spanish. Roman Catholicism, the major religion, is tolerated by the
 regime, a one-party Marxist government dominated by its founder, Fidel
 CASTRO.

 History Christopher COLUMBUS discovered the island of Cuba in 1492, and
 Spain colonized it from 1511, using it as a base for New World
 exploration and as an assembly-point for its treasure fleets. Called the
 "Pearl of the Antilles," Cuba prospered in the 1600s and 1700s, its
 population swelled by immigrants from Spain and African slave laborers.
 When most of Spain's American possessions became independent republics in
 the early 1800s, Cuba remained a colony. Slavery, a major prop of the
 sugar-based economy, was not abolished until 1886. A TEN YEARS WAR for
 independence (1868-78) was inconclusive. In 1895 a new struggle, led by
 Jose marti, culminated in the SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR and establishment of a
 Cuban republic in 1898. The new nation suffered recurrent periods of
 dictatorship during which reformist zeal gave way to corruption and
 repression, notably under Gerardo MACHADO (1925-33) and his successor,
 Fulgencio BATISTA Y ZALDIVAR. After a long guerrilla campaign, Batista
 was supplanted by Fidel Castro on Jan. 1, 1959. Castro promised agrarian
 reform, and under his leadership the nation soon became the only
 Communist state in Latin America and a firm ally of the USSR. An
 unsuccessful U.S.-supported attempt by anti-Castro exiles to invade Cuba
 at the BAY OF PIGS in 1961 was followed in 1962 by a U.S.-Soviet
 confrontation sparked by Soviet introduction of offensive weapons onto
 the island (see CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS). The U.S. maintained a trade
 embargo against Cuba into the 1980s, provoked by Cuban support of
 revolutionary movements in Latin America and, later, in Africa.
 Domestically, Castro virtually wiped out illiteracy but the economy still
 requires massive Soviet aid. Experiments in privatization, begun in the
 1980s, solved some production problems, but resulted in high profits for
 entrepreneuers and Castro disallowed them.

   Cuban Missile Crisis

 Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962, major COLD WAR confrontation between the U.S.
 and the Soviet Union. Following the BAY OF PIGS INVASION, the USSR
 secretly began building missile launching sites in Cuba. After the
 construction was detected by U.S. reconnaissance flights, U.S. Pres.
 KENNEDY demanded (Oct. 22) the withdrawal of the missiles, and imposed a
 naval blockade on Cuba. The Soviets agreed (Oct. 28) to dismantle the
 missile sites, and the crisis ended as suddenly as it had begun.

   cubism

 cubism, art movement, primarily in painting, that originated in Paris
 c.1907. In intellectual revolt against the sensual, emotional art of
 previous eras, the cubists used an analytical system in which
 three-dimensional subjects were fragmented and redefined from several
 different points of view simultaneously. Work from this analytic phase
 (1907-12), as by Pablo PICASSO and Georges BRAQUE, appealed to the
 intellect and has been termed conceptual realism because it shows objects
 as the mind, not the eye, perceives them. During the synthetic phase
 (1913 through the 1920s) works were composed of fewer and simpler forms,
 in brighter colors, and many artists introduced the trompe l'oeil effect
 of COLLAGE, as in the works of Juan GRIS. Other major exponents of cubism
 included Jean METZINGER, Marcel DUCHAMP, and Fernand LEGER. Influenced
 also by African masks, Picasso's Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907; Mus. Mod.
 Art, N.Y.C.) contains much of the basic material of cubism.

   cuckoo

 cuckoo, BIRD of the family Cuculidae, widely distributed in temperate and
 tropical regions. Cuckoos are slender-bodied, long-tailed birds with
 down-curved bills, pointed wings, and dull plumage. Typical American
 cuckoos are the black-billed and yellow-billed cuckoos (Coccyzus
 americanus), known for their low, chuckling call notes. The roadrunner
 (Geococcyx californianus), a ground cuckoo of the southwest deserts,
 speeds over the ground at up to 15 mi (24.1 km) per hr.

   cucumber

 cucumber, herbaceous vine (Cucumis sativus) of the GOURD family. Its
 greenish, generally cylindrical fruit is eaten fresh and pickled.

   Cueva, Juan de la

 Cueva, Juan de la, 1550?-1610?, Spanish dramatist. Of his 14 plays, the
 most famous is the comedy The Scoundrel (1581). By introducing national
 themes he laid the foundation for the drama of Spain's GOLDEN AGE.

   Culbertson, Ely

 Culbertson, Ely, 1893-1955, American authority on contract BRIDGE; b.
 Rumania. A champion bridge player himself, he introduced the first
 successful system of bidding, wrote many books and a syndicated newspaper
 column on the game, and edited Bridge World magazine. After World War II,
 he wrote and lectured widely on world peace.

   Cullen, Countee

 Cullen, Countee, 1903-46, black American poet; b. N.Y.C. A major figure
 of the HARLEM RENAISSANCE of the 1920s, he applied traditional verse
 forms to black American themes. His books of poetry include Color (1925)
 and Copper Sun (1927).

   cult

 cult, ritual worship of the supernatural or its symbolic representations.
 It is often associated with a particular deity; for example, a cult of
 the ancient Middle East was that of the GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS. The
 term is now often used to refer to contemporary religious groups whose
 beliefs and practices depart from the conventional norms of society.
 These groups vary widely in doctrine, leadership, and ritual, but most
 stress direct experience of the divine and duties to the cult community.
 Cults tend to proliferate during periods of social unrest; most are
 transient and peripheral. Many of those emerging in the U.S. since the
 late 1960s have been marked by renewed interest in MYSTICISM and Oriental
 religions. Such major U.S. cults as the Rev. Sun Myung MOON'S Unification
 Church and HARE KRISHNA, a movement derived from Hinduism, have stirred
 wide controversy. Popular hostility toward religious cults was aroused by
 the mass suicide in 1978 of more than 900 cultists in Jonestown, Guyana.

   Cultural Revolution

 Cultural Revolution (1966-69), mass campaign in CHINA begun by MAO
 TSE-TUNG to revitalize the nation's revolutionary fervor and renew its
 basic institutions. Allied with the army, revolutionary Red Guards
 recruited from the youth attacked so-called bourgeois elements in
 cultural circles and in the bureaucracy. Lin Piao and JIANG QING were
 other leaders of the movement, which resulted in widespread disorder and
 violence. The revolution led to the fall of LIU SHAO-CH'I and many other
 Communist party officials.

   culture

 culture, in anthropology, the way of life of a human society, transmitted
 from one generation to the next by learning (of language and other
 symbolic media) and by experience. Cultural universals include social
 organization, religion, structure, economic organization, and material
 culture (tools, weapons, clothing). The spread of culture traits
 (customs, ideas, attitudes) among groups by direct or indirect contact is
 called diffusion. The general stages in cultural evolution are nomadic
 food gathering (as in the Old and Middle STONE AGE); settled food
 producing (New Stone Age); and urban dwelling, as in all the great
 civilizations of the world.

   Cumans

 Cumans or Kumans,nomadic East Turkic people. Coming from NW Russia, they
 conquered S Russia and Walachia in the 11th cent. From their state along
 the Black Sea they traded with the Orient and Venice. After their defeat
 by the MONGOLS (13th cent.) many Cumans fled to Bulgaria and Hungary, and
 others joined the Empire of the GOLDEN HORDE.

   Cumberland Gap

 Cumberland Gap, mountain pass through the Cumberland Mts. of the
 Appalachians, near Middlesboro, Ky., discovered in 1750 by Dr. Thomas
 Walker. Daniel BOONE'S WILDERNESS ROAD to the "Old West" ran through the
 gap, and it was an important military objective of both sides in the
 CIVIL WAR. The pass was designated a national historical park in 1940.

   cumin

 cumin or cummin,low annual herb (Cuminum cyminum) of the CARROT family,
 long cultivated in the Old World for the aromatic, seedlike fruits. Cumin
 is an ingredient of curry powder. It yields an oil used in liqueurs and
 veterinary medicines. Related to the CARAWAY, cumin has similar uses in
 cooking.

   cummings, e e

 cummings, e e (Edward Estlin Cummings), 1894-1962; b. Cambridge, Mass.
 His lyrical verse, eccentric in typography and language, is included in
 such volumes as Tulips and Chimneys (1923), Is 5 (1926), and 95 Poems
 (1958). The Enormous Room (1922) is an exceptional prose account of his
 World War I internment in France.

   cuneiform

 cuneiform [Lat.,=wedge-shaped], system of WRITING developed before the
 last centuries of the 4th millennium BC in the lower Tigris and Euphrates
 valley, probably by the Sumerians. The characters consist of arrangements
 of wedge-like strokes, generally on clay tablets. The history of the
 script is strikingly like that of the Egyptian HIEROGLYPHIC (see also
 ALPHABET). Normal Babylonian and Assyrian writing used from 300 to 600
 arbitrary cuneiform symbols for words and syllables, some originally
 pictographic. There was also an alphabetic system that made it possible
 to spell out a word, but because of the adaptation from Sumerian, a
 different language, there were many ambiguities. Cuneiform writing was
 used outside Mesopotamia, notably in ELAM and by the HITTITES, but was
 not common after the Persian conquest of Babylonia (539 BC). A late use
 was that of the ACHAEMENIDS of Persia (mid-6th-4th cent. BC). H.C.
 RAWLINSON and G.F. GROTEFEND were noted cuneiform scholars.

   Cunningham, Merce

 Cunningham, Merce, 1919-, American dancer and choreographer; b.
 Centralia, Wash. He studied and performed (1940-55) with Martha GRAHAM
 before forming (1953) his own company. He creates dances to the music of
 such avant-garde composers as John CAGE, e.g., Sixteen Dances for Soloist
 and Company of Three (1951) and Squaregame (1976).

   Cunobelinus

 Cunobelinus: see CYMBELINE.

   Cuomo, Mario Matthew

 Cuomo, Mario Matthew, 1932-, U.S. politician; b. N.Y.C. Admitted (1956)
 to the New York bar, he successfully mediated (1972) a local housing
 dispute. A Democrat, he was the state's secretary of state (1975-79),
 lieutenant governor (1979-83), and governor (1982-). He attracted
 national attention as the keynote speaker at the 1984 Democratic National
 Convention.

   Cupid

 Cupid: see EROS.

   Curacao

 Curacao, island (1981 pop. 147,338), 178 sq mi (461 sq km), in the
 NETHERLANDS ANTILLES. Willemstad is the capital of the island group. Its
 refineries, among the world's largest, process oil from nearby Venezuela.
 Discovered in 1499, it was settled (1527) by the Spanish and captured
 (1634) by the Dutch. Many African slaves were imported.

   curare

 curare, any of several ALKALOID plant extracts originally used as arrow
 poisons by South American Indians. Curare produces paralysis by
 interfering with the transmission of nerve impulses in skeletal muscle.
 In recent years curare has been used medically as an adjunct to general
 anesthesia and in diagnosing myasthenia gravis.

   Curia Regis

 Curia Regis: see PARLIAMENT.

   Curie

 Curie, family of French scientists. Pierre Curie, 1859-1906, scientist,
 and his wife, Marie Sklodowska Curie, 1867-1934, chemist and physicist,
 b. Poland, married 1895, are known for their work on radioactivity and on
 radium. Pierre discovered (1883) and, with his brother Jacques,
 investigated piezoelectricity (a form of electric polarity) in crystals.
 Following Antoine BECQUEREL'S discovery of RADIOACTIVITY, Marie began to
 study URANIUM, a radioactive element found in pitchblende. Together, the
 Curies discovered POLONIUM and RADIUM and determined their atomic weights
 and properties. For their work on radioactivity, they shared with
 Becquerel the 1903 Nobel Prize in physics. Marie Curie became the first
 person to be awarded a second Nobel Prize when she received the 1911
 chemistry prize for the discovery of polonium and radium. The French
 scientists Frederic Joliot-Curie, 1900-1958, formerly Frederic Joliot,
 and Irene Joliot-Curie, 1897-1956, daughter of Pierre and Marie Curie,
 were married in 1926. They received the 1935 Nobel Prize in chemistry for
 artificially producing radioactive substances by bombarding elements with
 alpha particles. The Joliot-Curies investigated (1940) the chain reaction
 in nuclear fission. In 1946 they helped to organize the French atomic
 energy commission, of which Frederic was the first chairman (1946-50).

   Curitiba

 Curitiba, city (1980 pop. 843,733) SE Brazil, capital of Parana state. It
 handles the products of an expanding agricultural and ranching area
 through the Atlantic port of Paranagua, c.70 mi (110 km) away. Founded in
 1654, the city became important when immigrants developed the Parana
 hinterland from the late 19th cent. The city has grown rapidly since
 1950.

   curium

 curium (Cm), synthetic element, first produced by alpha-particle
 bombardment of plutonium-239 by Glenn SEABORG and colleagues in 1944. It
 is a silvery metal and a very radioactive element in the ACTINIDE SERIES.
 Curium accumulates in bones and disrupts red blood cells. See ELEMENT ;
 PERIODIC TABLE.

   curlew

 curlew, large shore BIRD (genus Numenius) of both hemispheres, usually
 brown and buff in color with a downcurved bill. The long-billed curlew
 (N. americanus) is found in the West.

   currant

 currant, northern shrub (genus Ribes) of the SAXIFRAGE family. The
 gooseberry bush belongs to the same genus. The tart black, white, or red
 currant berries and the purple gooseberries are both eaten fresh or used
 in preserves, sauces, and pies. Dried currants were used by native
 Americans in making pemmican, a travel food. Today's commercial "dried
 currant" is a raisin. Because gooseberries and currants are a host to
 blister RUST, their cultivation is discouraged.

   currency

 currency: see MONEY.

   Currier & Ives

 Currier & Ives, American lithographers and publishers who produced highly
 popular hand-colored prints of 19th-cent. scenes and events in American
 life. Nathaniel Currier, 1813-88, b. Roxbury, Mass., founded the business
 (1835) in New York City and formed (1857) a partnership with the artist
 and businessman James Merritt Ives, 1824-95, b. N.Y.C. The business
 closed in 1907.

   Curry, John Steuart

 Curry, John Steuart, 1897-1946, American painter; b. Dunavant, Kans. He
 is known for his dramatic paintings of typically American subjects,
 especially involving his native state, e.g., Baptism in Kansas. Curry was
 also a muralist.

   Curtis, Charles

 Curtis, Charles, 1860-1936, vice president of the U.S. (1929-33); b. near
 North Topeka, Kans. Of part Indian ancestry, Curtis was a U.S.
 congressman from Kansas (1892-1906). A Republican, he championed Indian
 rights and supported farm and veterans' benefits. He was a U.S. senator
 (1907-13, 1915-29) before serving as Herbert HOOVER'S vice president.

   Curtis, Cyrus Hermann Kotzschmar

 Curtis, Cyrus Hermann Kotzschmar, 1850-1933, American publisher; b.
 Portland, Me. After starting the Ladies' Home Journal (1883), he founded
 (1890) the Curtis Publishing Company and built up a national reputation
 with the Saturday Evening Post and Country Gentleman. He also owned
 several newspapers and was a great philanthropist.

   Curtiss, Glenn Hammond

 Curtiss, Glenn Hammond, 1878-1930, American inventor and aviation
 pioneer; b. Hammondsport, N.Y. He made (1908) the first public flights in
 the U.S., established (1909) the first U.S. flying school, and made
 (1910) a spectacular flight from Albany to New York City. He invented
 (1911) ailerons (see AIRFOIL) and after World War I made radical
 improvements in the design of planes and motors.

   curve

 curve, in mathematics, the path of a point moving in space. In ANALYTIC
 GEOMETRY a plane curve, i.e., a curve that lies in one plane, is usually
 considered as the graph of an equation or function (for some examples,
 see CONIC SECTION). A skew, twisted, or space curve is one that does not
 lie all in one plane, e.g., the helix, a curve having the shape of a wire
 spring.

   Cush

 Cush, ancient kingdom of NUBIA, in what is now SUDAN. It flourished from
 the 11th cent. BC to the 4th cent. AD and in the 8th cent. BC included
 Egypt in its domain. Meroe, its capital, was overrun by the Ethiopians in
 the 4th cent., and the kingdom came to an end.

   Cushing, Harvey Williams

 Cushing, Harvey Williams, 1869-1939, American neurosurgeon; b. Cleveland.
 A noted brain surgeon and a teacher at Johns Hopkins, Harvard, and Yale,
 he won a 1925 Pulitzer Prize for his biography of Sir William OSLER.
 Cushing's disease, first described by him, is caused by hyperactivity of
 the cortex of the adrenal glands and affects more women than men.
 Symptoms include obesity, hypertension, hirsutism, and easy bruisability.
 Treatment is by removal of one or both adrenal glands, or, if the
 pituitary body is involved, by X-ray therapy or surgery.

   Cushitic

 Cushitic, group of languages belonging to the Hamitic subfamily of the
 HAMITO-SEMITIC family of languages. See LANGUAGE .

   Custer, George Armstrong

 Custer, George Armstrong, 1839-76, U.S. Army officer; b. New Rumley,
 Ohio. He compiled an extraordinary record in the CIVIL WAR and became
 (1863) the youngest general in the Union army. Later he commanded the 7th
 Cavalry. During a campaign against the SIOUX INDIANS in 1876, Custer and
 an entire detachment of over 200 men were killed by Indians on the LITTLE
 BIGHORN R. His spectacular death made him a popular but controversial
 hero.

   customs duty

 customs duty: see TARIFF.

   cuttlefish

 cuttlefish, mollusk (order Sepioidea) that has 10 tentacles, 8 bearing
 muscular suction cups on their inner surface and 2 longer ones for
 grasping prey. A CEPHALOPOD, the cuttlefish has a reduced internal shell
 embedded in the mantle; in some there is a degenerate internal shell of
 lime called cuttlebone. The body is short, broad, and flattened with
 lateral fins, similar to the SQUID. When disturbed, cuttlefish eject a
 dark ink, which hides them from predators.

   Cuvier, Georges Leopold Chretien Frederic Dagobert, Baron

 Cuvier, Georges Leopold Chretien Frederic Dagobert, Baron, 1769-1832,
 French naturalist. A pioneer in comparative anatomy, he originated a
 system of zoological classification based on structural differences of
 the skeleton and organs. His reconstruction of the soft parts of fossils
 deduced from their skeletal remains greatly advanced paleontology, and he
 identified and named the flying reptile pterodactyl. He rejected
 evolutionary theory in favor of CATASTROPHISM.

   Cuyp

 Cuypor Kuyp, family of Dutch painters. Jacob Gerritszoon Cuyp,
 1594-c.1651, was a portrait and landscape painter. His stepbrother,
 Benjamin Cuyp, 1616-52, painted figures and peasant scenes in the style
 of REMBRANDT. Jacob's son, Aelbert Cuyp, 1620-91, was one of the foremost
 Dutch landscapists. He is famous for his simple but richly colored
 pastoral scenes; among the best are Piper with Cows and Promenade (both:
 Louvre), and Horseman and Cows in a Meadow (National Gall., London).

   Cuza, Alexander John

 Cuza, Alexander John, or Alexander John I,1820-73, first prince of
 RUMANIA (1859-66). He integrated Moldavia and Walachia, thereby creating
 Rumania. He emancipated the serfs (1864) and instituted other important
 reforms. He was forced to abdicate in 1866.

   Cuzco

 Cuzco or Cusco,city (1981 pop. 181,604), S Peru, capital of Cuzco dept.
 It is an agricultural trading center and has woolen mills. Said to have
 been founded by MANCO CAPAC, it was the capital of the INCA empire, with
 massive, gold-decorated palaces and temples. After it was plundered by
 Francisco PIZARRO in 1533, the Spaniards raised a colonial city within
 the old walls, many of which remain visible. The city was devastated by
 an earthquake in 1950, but most of the historic buildings have been
 restored. The ruins of an Inca fortress are nearby.

   cyanide

 cyanide, salt or ester of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) formed by replacing the
 hydrogen with a metal or a radical. The most common and widely used
 (those of sodium and potassium) are employed as insecticides, in making
 pigments, in metallurgy, and in gold and silver refining. Most cyanides
 are deadly poisons that cause respiratory failure. Symptoms include a
 breath odor of bitter almonds, dizziness, convulsions, collapse, and,
 often, froth on the mouth.

   Cyaxares

 Cyaxares, d. 585 BC, king of MEDIA (c.625-585 BC). He made the kingdom of
 the Medes a major power in the Middle East. In 612 BC Cyaxares took
 NINEVEH and completely defeated the Assyrians by 605 BC

   Cybele

 Cybele, in ancient Asiatic religion, GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS. The chief
 centers of her early worship were Phrygia and Lydia. In the 5th cent. BC
 her cult spread to Greece and later to Rome. She was primarily a nature
 goddess, responsible for maintaining and reproducing the wild things of
 the earth. Her annual spring festival celebrated the death and
 resurrection of her beloved Attis, a vegetation god.

   cybernetics

 cybernetics, term coined by Norbert WIENER to refer to the general
 analysis of control systems and communication systems in living organisms
 and machines. Analogies are drawn between the functioning of the brain
 and nervous system and that of the COMPUTER and other electronic systems.
 Cybernetics overlaps the fields of AUTOMATION, computing machinery,
 INFORMATION THEORY, and neurophysiology.

   cycad

 cycad, palmlike plant of the Cycadales, an order of mostly tropical and
 subtropical cone-bearing evergreens. Cycads, known from the Permian
 period, are the most primitive of the living SEED-bearing plants. Some
 have tuberous, underground stems and crowns of leathery, glossy, fernlike
 leaves arising from ground level; others have high, columnar stems. Some
 cycads, e.g., the fern palm of the Old World tropics and the Australian
 nut palm, bear edible, nutlike fruits. Florida ARROWROOT, or sago, is a
 starch from the pith of the coontie, or sago palm (Zamia floridens). The
 order comprises nine genera with fewer than a hundred species.

   Cyclades

 Cyclades, island group (1981 pop. 88,458), c.1,000 sq mi (2,590 sq km),
 SE Greece, in the Aegean Sea. It includes about 220 islands, the most
 important of which are Tinos, Andros, Milos, Naxos, Kea, and Paros.
 Largely mountainous, the islands are agricultural areas and tourist
 centers. In 1829 they passed from the OTTOMAN EMPIRE to Greece.

   Cycladic art

 Cycladic art, BRONZE AGE art of the central Aegean Cycladic islands.
 Early tomb remains include jugs, pots, and bowls decorated in geometric
 designs, as well as marble female fertility figures. These are frontal
 and geometric in style. Figures of musicians have also been found.
 Considerable Minoan (see MINOAN CIVILIZATION) influence is seen in the
 pottery of the 17th cent. BC found at Phylakopi in Melos.

   cyclamate

 cyclamate: see SWEETENERS, ARTIFICIAL.

   cyclamen

 cyclamen: see PRIMROSE.

   cyclone

 cyclone, region, often called a "low," of low central atmospheric
 pressure relative to the surrounding pressure. The resulting pressure
 gradient, combined with the CORIOLIS EFFECT, causes air to circulate
 about the center, or core, in a counterclockwise direction north of the
 equator and a clockwise direction south of it. The frictional drag on
 near-surface air moving over land or water causes it to spiral inward
 toward lower pressures; this movement is compensated for near the center
 by rising currents, which are cooled by expansion when they reach the
 lower pressures of higher altitudes. The cooling, in turn,
 characteristically increases the relative HUMIDITY greatly and produces
 cloudiness. An anticyclone has the opposite characteristics: a "high," or
 region of high central pressure relative to the surrounding pressure;
 clockwise circulation north of the equator and counterclockwise
 circulation south of it; descending and diverging air that is warmed by
 compression as it encounters higher pressure at lower altitudes; and
 characteristic low humidity and little cloudiness. Both cyclones and
 anticyclones move across the land at speeds of 500 to 1,000 mi/day (800
 to 1,600 km/day).

   Cyclops

 Cyclops,plural Cyclopes , in Greek mythology, immense one-eyed beings.
 According to HESIOD, they were smiths, sons of URANUS and GAEA, who gave
 ZEUS the lightning bolts that helped him defeat CRONUS. In HOMER, they
 were a barbarous people, one of whom (POLYPHEMUS) was encountered by
 ODYSSEUS in his wanderings.

   cyclotron

 cyclotron: see PARTICLE ACCELERATOR.

   cymbals

 cymbals: see PERCUSSION INSTRUMENT.

   Cymbeline

 Cymbeline or Cunobelinus,d. AD c.40, British king. His conquest of the
 Trinovantes (of Essex) made him the wealthiest and most powerful ruler in
 SE England. Cymbeline gives his name, and little else, to SHAKESPEARE'S
 play.

   Cynewulf

 Cynewulf, fl. early 9th cent. Anglo-Saxon religious poet to whom are
 ascribed four didactic poems: Juliana, The Ascension, Elene, and The
 Fates of the Apostles.

   cypress

 cypress, common name for the Cupressaceae, a widely distributed family of
 coniferous shrubs and trees, some yielding valuable timber. Chief among
 them are the JUNIPER, the ARBORVITAE, and the true cypresses. The latter,
 found in S Europe, the Far East, and W North America, are resinous
 evergreens with a fragrant, durable wood and scalelike leaves and include
 the Monterey cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa), native to the region around
 Monterey Bay, Calif., but widely cultivated. American trees of the genus
 Chamaecyparis, also called cypresses, comprise some important timber
 trees, e.g., the Lawson cypress, or Port Oxford cedar (C. lawsoniana).
 The lumber called cypress in the S U.S. is mainly from BALD CYPRESS
 trees.

   Cyprian, Saint

 Cyprian, Saint, 200?-258, Father of the Church, bishop of CARTHAGE
 (c.248). He supported the papal view that Christians who had apostasized
 under persecution should be readmitted to the church. He was martyred in
 the persecution of the Roman emperor Valerian. Feast: Sept. 16.

   Cyprus

 Cyprus, Gr. Kypros, officially the Republic of Cyprus, republic (1986
 est. pop. 673,000), 3,578 sq mi (9,267 sq km), an island in the E
 Mediterranean Sea, c.40 mi (60 km) S of Turkey. The capital is NICOSIA.
 Two mountain ranges traverse the island from east to west; the highest
 peak is Mt. Olympus (6,406 ft/1,953 m), in the southwest. Between the
 ranges lies a wide plain, where grapes (used for wine), cereals, olives,
 tobacco, and cotton are grown. Fishing, tourism, and the raising of
 livestock are also important. Copper is the chief mineral resource.
 Nearly 80% of the population is Greek, and about 18% is Turkish.

 History Excavations have revealed the existence of a Neolithic culture on
 Cyprus from 4000 to 3000 BC Influenced by the Middle East and, after 1500
 BC, by Greece, Cyprus fell to a succession of rulers, including Assyria,
 Egypt, Persia, and Rome. After eight centuries (from AD 395) of Byzantine
 control, it was conquered (1191) by RICHARD I of England, who bestowed it
 on the French Lusignan dynasty. Annexed (1489) by VENICE and conquered
 (1571) by the Turks (see OTTOMAN EMPIRE), it came under British
 administration in 1878 and was annexed outright by Britain in 1914. The
 movements among Greek Cypriots for self-rule and union (enosis) with
 GREECE were a source of constant tension, erupting in 1955 into violence
 that was tantamount to civil war. The conflict was aggravated by Turkish
 support of Turkish Cypriot demands for partition of the island. In 1959,
 a settlement, precluding both enosis and partition, provided for
 independence in 1960, and MAKARIOS III, leader of the Greek Cypriot
 nationalists, was elected president. The British retained two sovereign
 military enclaves, Akrotiri and Dhekelia. Large-scale fighting continued,
 however, and a UN peacekeeping force was sent to Cyprus in 1965. In 1974
 the national guard, dominated by Greek army officers, overthrew the
 Makarios regime. Citing its responsibility to protect the Turkish Cypriot
 community, Turkey invaded Cyprus and established a "Turkish Federated
 State of Cyprus" in the northern third of the island. Since that time
 Cyprus has been a divided state, with a self-governing Turkish community
 in the north and a Greek community in the south.

   Cyrene

 Cyrene, ancient city near the northern coast of Africa, in Cyrenaica (now
 E Libya). A Greek colony (7th cent. BC), it was a city-state with much
 commerce with Greece and some development of art. Cyrene became powerful
 over other cities and held nominal independence until the marriage of
 Berenice (d. 221? BC) to PTOLEMY III of Egypt. It was later the center of
 a Roman province. The Roman emperor TRAJAN'S punishment of Cyrene because
 of Jewish uprisings led to its decline.

   Cyril and Methodius, Saints

 Cyril and Methodius, Saints, d. 869 and 884 respectively, Greek
 missionaries, brothers, called Apostles to the Slavs and fathers of
 Slavonic literature. Sent (863) to MORAVIA, they won papal approval for
 the use of Slavonic in church liturgy. The Cyrillic alphabet, used in
 Russia and elsewhere, is named for St. Cyril but was probably the work of
 his followers. Feast: Feb. 14.

   Cyrus the Great

 Cyrus the Great, d. 529 BC, king of Persia, founder of ACHAEMENID power
 and the Persian empire. He conquered MEDIA between 559 and 549 BC, Lydia
 (see CROESUS) in 546, and BABYLONIA in 538. In EGYPT he laid the basis
 for future Persian victories. Because he placed Jews in power in
 PALESTINE, creating a buffer state between Persia and Egypt, he is spoken
 of approvingly in the Old Testament, e.g., Dan. 6.28. He respected the
 religion and customs of each part of his empire.

   Cyrus the Younger

 Cyrus the Younger, d. 401 BC, Persian prince, younger son of DARIUS II
 and Parysatis. His mother obtained several satrapies for him in Asia
 Minor when he was very young. In the PELOPONNESIAN WAR he helped LYSANDER
 to build a victorious fleet. When Darius died (404 BC) Cyrus was accused
 of a plot to kill his elder brother, the heir, ARTAXERXES II. Saved by
 his mother, he raised an army to overthrow Artaxerxes but died in battle.
 XENOPHON'S Anabasis describes the revolt.

   cystic fibrosis

 cystic fibrosis, inherited disorder of the exocrine GLANDS, affecting
 infants and children. It is characterized by secretion of a thick, sticky
 mucus from the exocrine glands, which blocks the ducts of these glands
 (especially pancreas, lungs, and liver). Symptoms include a distended
 abdomen, diarrhea, malnutrition, and repeated incidence of respiratory
 infections. Treatment consists of a low-fat, high-protein diet, VITAMINS,
 pancreatin, and ANTIBIOTICS to ward off infection.

   cytochrome

 cytochrome, class of heme-containing protein, discovered in 1886.
 Cytochromes play a vital role in RESPIRATION, transporting electrons (as
 hydride ions) generated by oxidative biochemical reactions, and in the
 CITRIC ACID CYCLE. An oxygen molecule is the ultimate electron acceptor.
 Various oxidized COENZYMES are involved in the electron transport
 process.

   Czech language

 Czech language, in the past sometimes also called Bohemian, member of the
 West Slavic group of the Slavic subfamily of the Indo-European family of
 languages. See LANGUAGE .

   Czech Legion

 Czech Legion, in WORLD WAR I, a military force of c.40,000 to 50,000 men,
 mostly Czechs and Slovak Russians, who fought for Russia. After Russia
 left the war, the legion was evacuated via the Trans-Siberian RR. They
 did some fighting for the anti-Bolsheviks in the Russian civil war.

   Czechoslovakia

 Czechoslovakia, Czech Ceskoslovensko, officially the Czechoslovak
 Socialist Republic, federal republic (1986 est. pop. 15,573,000), 49,370
 sq mi (127,869 sq km), central Europe; bordered by East Germany and
 Poland (N), West Germany (W), Austria and Hungary (S), and the USSR (E).
 Major cities include PRAGUE (the capital), BRNO, and BRATISLAVA. The
 three main geographic regions are the Bohemian plateau, the Moravian
 lowland, and mountainous Slovakia. The country is landlocked, and the
 chief rivers-the DANUBE, ELBE, Vltava (Moldau), and Oder-are economically
 important. The republic comprises Slovakia and the traditional Czech
 lands of Bohemia, Moravia, and Czech SILESIA. The population is largely
 Slavic, consisting chiefly of Czechs (64%) and Slovaks (30%). Czech and
 Slovak are the official languages. Roman Catholicism is the majority
 religion, but there are sizable Protestant (notably HUSSITE), Eastern
 Orthodox, and Uniate groups. Czechoslovakia is highly industrialized;
 major manufactures include machinery and machine tools, metal-working and
 transportation equipment, iron and steel, chemicals, food products,
 textiles, and footwear. The country has large reserves of bituminous coal
 and lignite and some iron ore. Agriculture is collectivized; major crops
 include sugar beets, potatoes, wheat, and barley.

 History Czechoslovakia emerged in 1918 from the ruins of the
 AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY as an independent republic. It was largely the
 creation of its first and second presidents, Thomas Garrigue MASARYK and
 Eduard BENEs. Economically the most favored of the Hapsburg successor
 states, it also benefited from a liberal, democratic constitution (1920)
 and able leadership. Its weakness lay in the disaffection of the German
 and Magyar minorities and agitation for autonomy in Slovakia. Vehemently
 backed by HITLER, the German nationalist minority demanded union with
 Germany. Faced with the threat of war, the West pursued a policy of
 appeasement and signed (1938) the MUNICH PACT, by which Germany obtained
 the Bohemian borderlands (Sudetenland). The truncated state was dissolved
 in 1939, when Germany made Bohemia and Moravia a "protectorate," Slovakia
 gained nominal independence, and Ruthenia was awarded to HUNGARY. After
 liberation by U.S. and Soviet forces at the end of WORLD WAR II,
 Czechoslovakia was restored to its pre-Munich status (except for
 Ruthenia, which was ceded to the USSR) and the German population was
 expelled. A Communist-dominated coalition government ruled until 1949,
 when the Communists gained control and established a Soviet-style state.
 A trend toward liberalization, begun in 1963, reached its climax in 1968
 with the installation of reformers Alexander DUBcEK as party leader and
 Ludvik Svoboda as president. In August the USSR with its Warsaw Pact
 allies invaded Czechoslovakia, forcing the repeal of most of the reforms
 and replacing Dubcek with the staunchly pro-Soviet Gustav HUSAK. (For
 history prior to 1918, as well as more detailed geographic and economic
 information, see BOHEMIA; MORAVIA; SLOVAKIA.)

   Czerny, Karl

 Czerny, Karl, 1791-1857, Austrian pianist. The teacher of LISZT, he is
 known for his technical studies for the piano.

   Dacca

 Dacca: see DHAKA.

   Dachau

 Dachau, West Germany: see CONCENTRATION CAMPS.

   dachshund

 dachshund, small, short-legged HOUND; shoulder height, 5-9 in. (13-25
 cm); weight, 5-20 lb (2-9 kg). It is black or chocolate with tan, or
 solid red. There are six varieties: smooth-haired, longhaired,
 wirehaired, and miniatures of each. The breed was developed in Germany
 over hundreds of years to hunt badgers.

   Dacia

 Dacia, ancient region roughly corresponding to Rumania, whose people were
 called Getae by the Greeks, Daci by the Romans. They had an advanced
 material culture. DOMITIAN tried to subdue them but ended by paying them
 tribute (AD 90). Under TRAJAN, Dacia became (AD 105) a Roman province,
 but AURELIAN lost it to the invading Goths (250-70). The Roman legacy to
 Dacia was the Romance tongue Rumanian.

   Dacko, David

 Dacko, David, 1930-, president of the CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC (1960-66,
 1979-81). A leader in the independence movement in French Equatorial
 Africa, he became the first president of the newly independent Central
 African Republic. He was toppled from power in 1966 by J.B. BOKASSA but
 reinstated in a 1979 coup. Reelected president, he was overthrown by a
 military junta in 1981.

   Dacron

 Dacron: see SYNTHETIC TEXTILE FIBERS.

   Dada

 Dada or Dadaism,international nihilistic movement among European artists
 and writers, 1916-22. It originated in Zurich with the French poet
 Tristan Tzara and stressed absurdity and the role of the unpredictable in
 artistic creation. Carried to New York by Jean ARP, Max ERNST, and Marcel
 DUCHAMP, these principles were eventually modified to become the basis of
 SURREALISM. Duchamp's celebrated Mona Lisa adorned with mustache and
 goatee and George GROSZ'S caricatures are characteristic Dadaist works.
 The literary manifestations of Dada were mostly nonsense
 poems-meaningless and random word combinations.

   Daddi, Bernardo

 Daddi, Bernardo, fl. 1312-48, Italian painter of the Florentine school.
 First influenced by GIOTTO, he later adopted the delicate line of the
 Sienese painters. Among his works is the Madonna and Child (National
 Gall., Wash., D.C.).

   daddy longlegs

 daddy longlegs or harvestman,an ARACHNID with long slender legs, related
 to the SPIDERS. It has eight legs extending from a rounded or oval body.
 The daddy longlegs is omnivorous, feeding on plant fluids, animal tissue,
 and other daddy longlegs. The unrelated long-legged crane fly (an INSECT)
 is also called daddy longlegs.

   Daedalus

 Daedalus, in Greek mythology, craftsman and inventor. He built the
 MINOTAUR'S labyrinth in Crete. When King MINOS refused to let him leave,
 Daedalus built wax and feather wings for himself and his son Icarus. They
 flew away, but when Icarus came too close to the sun his wings melted and
 he fell to his death. Daedalus escaped to Sicily.

   daffodil

 daffodil: see NARCISSUS.

   Daguerre, Louis Jacques Mande

 Daguerre, Louis Jacques Mande, 1789-1851, French scene painter and
 physicist, inventor of the daguerreotype. Known first for his
 illusionistic stage sets, he was also the inventor, with C.M. Bouton, of
 the diorama (pictorial views seen with changing lighting). The
 daguerreotype, a photograph produced on a silver-coated copperplate
 treated with iodine vapor, was developed with J. Nicephore NIEPCE and
 ceded to the Academy of Sciences in 1839.

   Dahlberg, Edward

 Dahlberg, Edward, 1900-77, American author; b. Boston. His works include
 the proletarian novels, e.g., Bottom Dogs (1930), mystical literary
 criticism, e.g., Do These Bones Live? (1941), and the autobiographical
 Because I Was Flesh (1964).

   dahlia

 dahlia, tuberous-rooted, perennial plant (genus Dahlia) of the COMPOSITE
 family, native to Guatemala and Mexico, and widely cultivated. Most of
 the thousands of horticultural varieties are developed from one species
 (D. pinnata), the garden dahlia. Dahlias are stout, woody plants with
 colorful, late-blooming flowers. The tubers of the garden dahlia are a
 source of fructose used by diabetics.

   Dahomey

 Dahomey: see BENIN.

   Daimler, Gottlieb

 Daimler, Gottlieb, 1834-1900, German engineer, inventor, and pioneer
 AUTOMOBILE manufacturer. His construction (1885) of the first high-speed
 INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE led to the development of the automobile
 industry.

   dairying

 dairying, industry concerned with producing, processing, and distributing
 MILK and milk products. Ninety percent of the world's milk comes from
 CATTLE; the rest comes from GOATS, BUFFALO, SHEEP, REINDEER, YAKS
 , and other ruminants. About one third of the milk is used for BUTTER, an
 almost equal amount for market milk, and the rest for farm uses and the
 making of CHEESE, concentrated milks, ice cream, and such by-products as
 dried milk solids (e.g., LACTOSE and CASEIN). The rise of modern,
 large-scale dairying paralleled the growth of urban populations and was
 stimulated by the invention of the cream separator and other specialized



   daisy

 daisy, name for several common wild flowers of the COMPOSITE family. The
 true, or English, daisy (Bellis perennis) is cultivated in the U.S.; its
 white, pink, or red flowers close at night. Other species include the
 purple Western daisy (Astranthum or B. integrifolium); and the common,
 white, or oxeye, daisy of the U.S. (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum). Other
 plants called daisy include the yellow daisy, or BLACK-EYED SUSAN; the
 Michaelmas daisy, an ASTER; the Paris daisy, one of the plants also
 called marguerite; and the seaside daisy and daisy fleabane of the
 fleabane genus.

   Dakar

 Dakar, largest city (1976 pop. 798,792) and capital of Senegal, on Cape
 Verde Peninsula, on the Atlantic Ocean. It is an economic center for a
 market-gardening region, and its expanding industries produce refined
 sugar, peanut oil, fertilizers, cement, and textiles. The city is the
 busiest port in W Africa, also serving Mali and Mauritania, and is linked
 by rail and air with other Senegalese cities. Dakar became the capital of
 FRENCH WEST AFRICA in 1902 and was occupied by U.S. forces in World War
 II. The modern city is an educational and cultural center.

   Dakota Indians

 Dakota Indians: see SIOUX INDIANS.

   Daladier, Edouard

 Daladier, Edouard, 1884-1970, French premier (1934, 1938-40). A leading
 radical Socialist in the 1930s, Daladier signed the MUNICH PACT with
 HITLER in 1938 and presided over France in the early months of WORLD WAR
 II, until overthrown by his failure to aid Finland. After France's fall
 (1940) he was arrested by the VICHY government and was tried (1942) in
 the war-guilt trials at Riom. In the Fourth Republic he served (1946-58)
 in the national assembly.

   Dalai Lama

 Dalai Lama, "oceanic teacher," title of the leader of TIBETAN BUDDHISM.
 Believed like his predecessor to be the incarnation of the Bodhisattva
 Avalokiteshvara, the fourteenth Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, 1935-, gave up
 cooperation with the Chinese and fled into exile (1959). He has traveled
 widely, pleading the Tibetan cause.

   Dale, Sir Henry Hallett

 Dale, Sir Henry Hallett, 1875-1968, English scientist. For his study of
 ACETYLCHOLINE as agent in the chemical transmission of nerve impulses, he
 shared with Otto LOEWI the 1936 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine.
 Dale also investigated the pharmacology of ergot and histamine shock. He
 was knighted in 1932.

   d'Alembert, Jean le Rond

 d'Alembert, Jean le Rond: see ALEMBERT.

   Daley, Richard Joseph

 Daley, Richard Joseph, 1902-76, U.S. political leader; b. Chicago. A
 former (1939-46) Illinois state senator, he was elected Cook co.
 Democratic chairman in 1953. As mayor (1955-76) of CHICAGO, he was one of
 the last big city bosses; his support was often sought by state and
 national leaders. Daley gained national notoriety in 1968 when Chicago
 police brutally subdued demonstrators at the Democratic National
 Convention.

   Dali, Salvador

 Dali, Salvador, 1904-89, Spanish painter. Influenced by FUTURISM and
 CHIRICO, he became a leader of SURREALISM. His precise style enhances the
 dreamlike effect of his works, e.g., Persistence of Memory (1931; Mus.
 Mod. Art, N.Y.C.).

   Dalin, Olof von

 Dalin, Olof von, 1708-63, Swedish historian, poet, and journalist, the
 foremost figure of the Swedish ENLIGHTENMENT. His prose masterpiece, the
 allegorical Tale of the Horse (1740), uses folk material to satirize the
 relations between the Swedish people and the monarchy.

   Dallapiccola, Luigi

 Dallapiccola, Luigi, 1904-75, Italian composer. The first Italian to use
 ATONALITY, he is noted for his operas The Prisoner (1944-48) and Odysseus
 (1968); the ORATORIO Job (1950); and the Christmas CONCERTO (1956).

   Dallas

 Dallas, city (1986 est. pop. 1,003,520), seat of Dallas co., N Tex., on
 the Trinity R.; inc. 1871. A French settlement c.1841 and a cotton market
 in the 1870s, it later developed into the financial and commercial center
 of the Southwest. Oil refineries; diverse manufactures, particularly
 aircraft and electronics; meat-packing plants; corporate headquarters for
 oil, gas, insurance, and banking companies; and governmental offices are
 of major importance in its economy. The city is also a tourist and
 convention center. Dallas is noted as a hub of fashion and of cultural
 and educational institutions. The expanding Dallas-Fort Worth area had a
 1986 estimated metropolitan population of 3,655,300.

   Dalmatia

 Dalmatia, historic region of Yugoslavia and province of CROATIA,
 extending along the ADRIATIC SEA from Rijeka to the Gulf of Kotor. Split
 is the capital. Dalmatia is mountainous, except for a coastal lowland
 whose scenic beauty attracts many tourists. Other economic activities
 include agriculture and fishing. A Roman province, Dalmatia was divided
 by the 10th cent. between the kingdoms of Croatia and Serbia. By 1420
 Venice held most of the region. Various parts of Dalmatia passed
 (16th-20th cent.) to Hungary, the Turks, France, and Austria. After 1918
 the region became part of YUGOSLAVIA. Most of Dalmatia was occupied by
 Italy during World War II.

   Dalmatian

 Dalmatian, hardy NONSPORTING DOG, known for speed and endurance; shoulder
 height, 19-23 in. (48.3-58.4 cm); weight, 35-50 lb (15.9-22.7 kg). It has
 a short, glossy coat, white with black or dark-brown spots. Probably
 developed in DALMATIA several hundred years ago, it was associated with
 horses and with horse-drawn coaches and fire engines; it remains a
 firemen's mascot.

   Dalton, John

 Dalton, John, 1766-1844, English scientist. He taught mathematics and
 physical sciences at New College, Manchester. Dalton revived the atomic
 theory of matter (see ATOM), which he applied to a table of atomic
 weights and used in developing his law of partial pressures (Dalton's
 law). He was color-blind and studied that affliction, also known as
 Daltonism.

   dam

 dam, barrier, commonly across a watercourse, to hold back water, often
 forming a reservoir or lake. Modern dams maybe built for multiple
 purposes: to provide water for irrigation, aid flood control, furnish
 hydroelectric power, and improve the navigability of waterways. Rock-fill
 and earth dams are built with a central core-usually clay or cement,
 respectively-that is impervious to water. Gravity dams, usually made of
 concrete, use their own weight to provide resistance to the pressure of
 water. Single-arch concrete dams are curved upstream and are usually
 constructed in narrow canyons where the rocky side walls are strong
 enough to withstand the tremendous thrust of the dam, caused by the
 pressure of the water. Multiple-arch dams consist of a number of single
 arches supported by buttresses. See also ASWAN HIGH DAM; GRAND COULEE
 DAM; HOOVER DAM; TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY.

   Damascene, John

 Damascene, John: see JOHN OF DAMASCUS, SAINT.

   Damascus

 Damascus, city (1981 pop. 1,112,214), capital of Syria, SW Syria. The
 largest city in Syria, it stands in an oasis between mountains and desert
 and is bisected by the Barada R. Manufactures include textiles, sugar,
 and glass. Inhabited before 2000 BC, it may be the oldest continuously
 occupied city in the world. From the 2nd millennium BC to AD 395 it was
 ruled by the Egyptians, the Israelites, the Assyrians, the Persians,
 Alexander the Great, the Seleucids, and the Romans. A thriving commercial
 city, it early adopted Christianity. St. PAUL was converted on the road
 to Damascus. A provincial Byzantine capital, it fell to the Arabs in 635
 and became Islamic. After 750 it was held by many conquerors, including
 the Saracens (12th-13th cent.) and the Ottoman Turks (1516-1918). Arab
 troops working with T.E. LAWRENCE helped the British take it in 1918. The
 French then ruled it as part of a League of Nations mandate until Syria
 became independent (1941). Landmarks include the Great Mosque, one of the
 world's largest.

   d'Amboise, Jacques

 d'Amboise, Jacques, 1934-, American dancer and choreographer; b. Dedham,
 Mass. He became (1953) a soloist with the NEW YORK CITY BALLET. He is
 known for American-theme works, e.g., Filling Station, Western Symphony,
 films, e.g., Carousel (1956), and his own ballets, e.g., Irish Fantasy
 (1964).

   Damien, Father

 Damien, Father, 1840-89, Belgian missionary priest; b. Joseph de Veuster.
 After working as a missionary (1864-73) among the natives of Hawaii, he
 was transferred to the leper colony on Molokai, where he labored until he
 himself died from leprosy.

   Damocles

 Damocles, in classical literature, courtier of DIONYSIUS THE ELDER at
 SYRACUSE. To show the precariousness of power and rank, Dionysius gave a
 banquet at which a sword was suspended over Damocles' head by a hair.

   Damon and Pythias

 Damon and Pythias, two youths whose loyalty to each other symbolizes true
 friendship. When Pythias, condemned to death by the Syracusan tyrant
 DIONYSIUS THE ELDER, was released to arrange his affairs, Damon stayed on
 as pledge. On Pythias' return, Dionysius freed them both.

   Dampier, William

 Dampier, William, 1651?-1715, English explorer. After a buccaneering
 expedition against the Spanish (1679-81), he sailed around the world and
 was marooned on the Nicobar Islands. His Voyages and Discoveries (1699)
 includes a masterly treatise on hydrography. He later commanded an
 expedition to the Pacific (1703-7), and discovered Dampier Island and
 Dampier Strait.

   Dan

 Dan: see ISRAEL, TRIBES OF.

   Dana, Richard Henry

 Dana, Richard Henry, 1787-1879, American author; b. Cambridge, Mass. A
 lawyer, poet, critic, and essayist, he was a founder of the North
 American Review and is best known for his poem The Buccaneer (1827). His
 son, Richard Henry Dana, 1815-82, was a writer and lawyer who wrote a
 classic of the days of sailing ships in Two Years before the Mast (1840),
 based on his experiences as a common sailor. The Seaman's Friend (1841),
 a manual of maritime law, grew out of his legal practice.

   Da Nang

 Da Nang, formerly Tourane, city (1971 est. pop. 437,700), E Vietnam, a
 port on the SOUTH CHINA SEA. It has an excellent deepwater harbor.
 Copper, coal, and gold are mined nearby. The scene (1535) of the first
 European landing in Vietnam, it was ceded to France by ANNAM in 1787.
 During the VIETNAM WAR it was the site of a huge U.S. military base.

   dance

 dance, art of precise, expressive, and graceful human movement, usually
 performed in accord with musical accompaniment. Many primitive dances
 have survived in the FOLK DANCE of modern times. American Indian dances,
 usually of a ritualistic and ceremonial nature, illustrate many of the
 purposes of primitive dancing. The dance of religious ecstasy, in which
 hypnotic and trancelike states are induced (characteristic of Africa and
 the Orient), was represented in America by the remarkable Indian GHOST
 DANCE. American Indian dancing is always performed on the feet, but in
 islands of the Pacific and the Orient, dances are performed in a sitting
 posture, with only the hands, arms, and upper parts of the body being
 used. In Japan, the early dances became institutionalized with a national
 school of dancing in the 14th cent. Soon dance became associated with the
 famous No drama (see ORIENTAL DRAMA). In medieval Europe, the repeated
 outbreaks of dance mania, associated with epidemics of bubonic plague,
 are reflected in the ALLEGORY of the Dance of Death. Dancing as a social
 activity and a form of entertainment is of relatively recent origin. In
 the Middle Ages, social dancing was a feature of the more enlightened
 courts. The BALLET first appeared at the French court in the 16th cent.
 Among formal social dances of the 17th cent. were the minuet and the
 GAVOTTE. Popular national dances include the mazurka and polonaise, from
 Poland; the fandango and bolero, from Spain; and the waltz, from Germany.
 The U.S. initiated such dances as the cake walk, the Virginia reel, the
 fox trot, and the Charleston. Since the 1920s the U.S. has seen a number
 of dance crazes, e.g., the Lindy Hop of the 1930s, the jitterbug of the
 1940s, the rock `n' roll of the 1950s, the go-go dances of the 1960s, and
 the disco dances of the 1970s. See articles on major dance companies and
 individual dancers; see also MODERN DANCE.

   Dance Theater of Harlem

 Dance Theater of Harlem, established (1968) as an open-door school. It
 was founded by Arthur Mitchell of the NEW YORK CITY BALLET and is the
 first black classical dance company. Its repertoire includes mainly
 classics choreographed by Mitchell, Jerome ROBBINS, Antony TUDOR and
 others. The company tours extensively and offers community dance courses
 at home.

   dandelion

 dandelion, perennial herb (genus Taraxacum) of the COMPOSITE family,
 widely distributed in temperate regions. It has a rosette of deep-toothed
 leaves and a bright yellow head followed in fruit by a round head of
 white down for wind distribution. The common dandelion (T. officinale) is
 considered a lawn pest in the U.S. but is cultivated for food and
 medicine elsewhere. The leaves are used in salads and as a seasoning; the
 roots are used as a coffee substitute, as a bitter tonic, and as a
 laxative; the flower heads are used for making dandelion wine and as
 forage for bees. The dandelion plant contains a white latex-a
 hydrocarbon-that can be converted into a combustible fuel. One species is
 grown commercially for latex in the USSR and Argentina.

   Danegeld

 Danegeld, medieval land tax originally raised to buy off raiding Danes
 and later used for military expenditures. In England the tribute was
 first levied in 868 and then in 871 by ALFRED. Under AETHELRED (978-1016)
 it became a regular tax, and was collected by later rulers until the 12th
 cent.

   Danelaw

 Danelaw, originally the body of law that prevailed in the part of England
 occupied by the Danes after the treaty of King ALFRED with Guthrum in
 886. It soon came to mean also the area in which Danish law obtained. The
 Danelaw had four main regions: NORTHUMBRIA; the areas around and
 including Lincoln, Nottingham, Derby, Leicester, and Stamford; EAST
 ANGLIA; and the SE Midlands.

   Daniel, Samuel

 Daniel, Samuel, 1562?-1619, English poet and historian. Best known for
 his SONNET sequence Delia (1592), he also wrote court MASQUES, narrative
 poems, Senecan tragedies, and history, including a History of England
 (1631).

   Daniel

 Daniel, book of the OLD TESTAMENT, 27th in the Authorized Version. It
 relates events and visions from the life of Daniel, a Jew of the 6th
 cent. BC Daniel and his friends, taken to BABYLON, remain faithful to the
 TORAH (1); Daniel interprets a dream of NEBUCHADNEZZAR (2);
 Nebuchadnezzar tries to punish three recalcitrant Jews (the Three Holy
 Children) in the fiery furnace (3); Daniel interprets a second dream of
 Nebuchadnezzar to foretell the latter's madness (4); Daniel interprets
 the handwriting on the wall at BELSHAZZAR'S feast (5); he escapes from
 the lion's den (6); he has four apocalyptic visions (7-12). The story of
 Susanna and the elders, and also the stories of Daniel's revelation of
 the fraud connected with the Babylonian idol Bel and of his killing a
 dragon and subsequent miraculous escape after being thrown to lions, are
 in the version of Daniel in the APOCRYPHA. The book as a whole presents
 many critical problems.

   Danilova, Alexandra

 Danilova, Alexandra (dane'luva), 1904-. Russian-American ballerina; b.
 St. Petersburg. She trained (1924-29) in St. Petersburg with DIAGHILEV,
 and was (1938-52) prima ballerina of the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo.
 After her retirement, she taught.

   Danish language

 Danish language, member of the North Germanic, or Scandinavian, group of
 the Germanic subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See
 LANGUAGE .

   D'Annunzio, Gabriele

 D'Annunzio, Gabriele, 1863-1938, Italian poet, novelist, dramatist, and
 soldier. The sensuous imagery of his early poetry, from Canto nuovo
 (1882) to Alcione (1904), displayed unrivaled craftsmanship. His novels,
 e.g., The Child of Pleasure (1889) and The Triumph of Death (1894), show
 the same control of language but are shallow and theatrical. Two of his
 plays, La Gioconda (1899) and Francesca (1902), were written for Eleonora
 DUSE; their affair he described in the novel The Flame of Life (1900). In
 World War I, D'Annunzio's oratory had much to do with Italy's entrance on
 the Allied side. In Sept. 1919 he led a march on Fiume, where he
 established an illegal government. He was an early exponent of fascism.
 See also IRREDENTISM.

   Dante Alighieri

 Dante Alighieri, 1265-1321, Italian poet, author of the Divine Comedy. A
 Florentine patrician, he fought on the side of the GUELPHS but later
 supported the imperial party. In 1290, after the death of his exalted
 Beatrice (see BEATRICE PORTINARI), he plunged into the study of
 philosophy and Provencal poetry. Politically active in Florence from
 1295, he was banished in 1302 and became a citizen of all Italy, dying in
 Ravenna. The Divine Comedy, a vernacular poem in 100 cantos (more than
 14,000 lines), was composed in exile. It is the tale of the poet's
 journey through Hell and Purgatory (guided by VERGIL) and through Heaven
 (guided by Beatrice, to whom the poem is a memorial.) Written in a
 complex PENTAMETER form, terza rima, it is a magnificent synthesis of the
 medieval outlook, picturing a changeless universe ordered by God. Through
 it Dante established Tuscan as the literary language of Italy and gave
 rise to a vast literature. His works also include La vita nuova (c.1292),
 a collection of prose and lyrics celebrating Beatrice and ideal love;
 treatises on language and politics; eclogues; and epistles.

   Danton, Georges Jacques

 Danton, Georges Jacques, 1759-94, French Revolutionary leader. A lawyer
 who won immense popularity through his powerful oratory, he exercised
 power as a member of the Legislative Assembly (1791-92), the COMMUNE OF
 PARIS, and the CORDELIERS, and through his participation in the overthrow
 (1792) of the monarchy. In the new republic he was virtual head of the
 Provisional Executive Council and came to dominate the first Committee of
 Public Safety (1793) created by the Convention. Although initially Danton
 had sought foreign wars in order to spread French institutions, with
 France's military reverses he advocated a conciliatory foreign policy and
 the relaxation of the REIGN OF TERROR at home. Eclipsed by ROBESPIERRE
 and the extremists, he was arrested on a charge of conspiracy in 1794,
 subjected to a mock trial, and guillotined.

   Danube

 Danube, chief river of central and SE Europe, c.1,770 mi (2,850 km) long,
 second-longest European river after the Volga. It rises in the Brege and
 Brigach rivers in the BLACK FOREST of SW West Germany and crosses or
 forms part of the borders of Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary,
 Yugoslavia, Rumania, Bulgaria, and the USSR before entering the BLACK SEA
 through a large (c.1,000 sq mi/2,590 sq km), swampy delta. The river is
 navigable by barges to Ulm (West Germany) and is connected to N Europe by
 the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal. The Sip Canal bypasses the rapids at Iron
 Gate gorge in the Rumanian-Yugoslavian section.

   Danzig

 Danzig: see GDAnSK.

   Daphne

 Daphne, in Greek mythology, a nymph loved by APOLLO. When she was pursued
 by him, she prayed for rescue and was transformed by GAEA into a laurel
 tree.

   Daphnis and Chloe

 Daphnis and Chloe: see LONGUS.

   Da Ponte, Lorenzo

 Da Ponte, Lorenzo, 1749-1838, Italian poet, librettist, and teacher. He
 wrote the librettos to MOZART'S Marriage of Figaro (1786), Don Giovanni
 (1787), and Cosi fan tutte (1790). In America after 1805, he taught
 Italian language and culture. In 1833 he helped establish the Italian
 Opera House, N.Y.C.

   DAR

 DAR: see DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.

   D'Arblay, Madame

 D'Arblay, Madame: see BURNEY, FANNY.

   Dardanelles

 Dardanelles, narrow strait, known as the Hellespont in ancient times,
 c.40 mi (60 km) long and 1-4 mi (1.6-6.4 km) wide, linking the Sea of
 Marmara and the Mediterranean Sea, and separating European and Asian
 Turkey. It forms, with the Sea of Marmara and the BOSPORUS, the only
 outlet of the BLACK SEA, controlling access of Soviet ships to the great
 MEDITERRANEAN SEA-SUEZ CANAL-INDIAN OCEAN sea lane. International access
 by all merchant ships and by warships in peacetime was guaranteed by the
 Montreux Convention (1936), which also recognized Turkey's right to
 fortify the strait.

   Dardic languages

 Dardic languages, group of languages belonging to the Indo-Iranian
 subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See LANGUAGE .

   Dare, Virginia

 Dare, Virginia, b. 1587, first child born of English parents in America.
 She was a member of the "lost colony" of Roanoke Island that disappeared
 c.1591.

   Dar-es-Salaam

 Dar-es-Salaam, largest city (1978 pop. 757,346) and capital of Tanzania,
 on an arm of the Indian Ocean. It is the country's chief port and
 economic center, connected by rail to Kigoma, in the west, and (since
 1975) to LUSAKA, Zambia. The city has a variety of industries and a major
 oil refinery. Founded in 1866 by the sultan of ZANZIBAR, it became the
 capital of German East Africa in 1891 and grew rapidly after World War
 II. Today it has a university and several colleges.

   Dario, Ruben

 Dario, Ruben, 1867-1916, Nicaraguan poet and diplomat; b. Felix Ruben
 Garcia Sarmiento. His first book, Blue (1888), heralded the founding of
 MODERNISMO. Other works include Prosas profanas (1896) and Autumn Poem
 (1910), perhaps his masterpiece. His influence on all Spanish-language
 writers was enormous. He served as a diplomat in many European and Latin
 American countries.

   Darius

 Darius, several kings of ancient PERSIA. Darius I (the Great), d. 486 BC
 (r.521-486 BC), was one of the most able of the ACHAEMENIDS. He perfected
 a highly efficient system of administration. Around 500 BC, when the
 Ionian cities rebelled against Persian rule, Darius put down the rebels
 and set out to punish the Greek city-states that had aided the
 insurrection. He met defeat in the memorable battle of MARATHON (490 BC);
 however, he consolidated Persian power in the East. He also continued
 Cyrus the Great's policy of restoring the Jewish state. Darius II, d. 404
 BC (r.423?-404 BC), was not popular or successful, and he spent much time
 in quelling revolts. He lost Egypt (410) but secured influence in Greece.
 Darius III, d. 330 BC (r.336-330 BC), seriously underestimated ALEXANDER
 THE GREAT'S strength when the Macedonians invaded Persia. He was defeated
 by Alexander in several major battles and was forced to flee to Bactria,
 where the satrap had him murdered. These events ended the Persian empire
 and marked the beginning of the Hellenistic period in the E
 Mediterranean.

   Dark Ages

 Dark Ages: see MIDDLE AGES.

   Darlan, Jean Francois

 Darlan, Jean Francois, 1881-1942, French admiral and politician. The
 leading member of Marshal PETAIN'S Vichy government in WORLD WAR II, he
 strengthened France's collaborationist ties with Germany. Later, as
 commander of all French forces, he was in N Africa during the Nov. 1942
 Allied landings and brought French N and W Africa over to the Allied
 side. He was assassinated on Dec. 28.

   Darling

 Darling, longest river in Australia, flowing 1,702 mi (2,739 km)
 generally southwest across the semiarid plains of NEW SOUTH WALES to join
 the MURRAY R. at Wentworth. An important source of irrigation water, it
 rises in the rainy EASTERN HIGHLANDS and receives many tributaries;
 occasionally it runs dry.

   Darnley, Henry Stuart

 Darnley, Henry Stuart or Stewart, Lord,1545-67, second husband of MARY
 QUEEN OF SCOTS and father of JAMES I. Son of the powerful earl of Lennox,
 he claimed succession to the English throne through his grandmother
 Margaret TUDOR. His Catholic sympathies, his claim on the throne, and
 perhaps his handsome appearance induced Mary to marry him in 1565. He
 proved to be vicious and dissipated, and she did not make him royal
 consort. Jealous of David RIZZIO, Darnley and others murdered him. Soon
 Darnley was without friends. A plot was formed to murder him, probably
 under the earl of BOTHWELL. On Feb. 9, 1567, the house near Edinburgh
 where he was staying was blown up; he was found strangled in an adjoining
 garden the next day.

   Darrow, Clarence Seward

 Darrow, Clarence Seward, 1857-1938, American lawyer; b. Kinsman, Ohio. He
 had an early lucrative career in private and corporate law, but with his
 defense of Eugene V. DEBS and others in connection with the 1894 Pullman
 strike he turned to representing the underdog. He became famous as an
 opponent of capital punishment; none of his more than 100 clients was
 sentenced to death. In the SCOPES TRIAL (1925) on the teaching of
 evolution in public schools, he opposed fundamentalist religious tenets,
 arguing against William Jennings BRYAN. Darrow's writings include Crime:
 Its Cause and Treatment (1922).

   Darwin, Charles Robert

 Darwin, Charles Robert, 1809-82, English naturalist, grandson of Erasmus
 DARWIN. He firmly established the theory of organic EVOLUTION. His
 position as official naturalist aboard the H.M.S. Beagle during its world
 voyage (1831-36) started Darwin on a career of accumulating and
 assimilating data that resulted in the formulation of his concept of
 evolution. In 1858 he and Alfred Russel WALLACE simultaneously published
 summaries of their independently conceived notions of NATURAL SELECTION;
 a year later Darwin set forth the structure of his theory and massive
 support for it in his Origin of Species. This was supplemented by later
 works, notably The Descent of Man (1871). Darwin also formulated a theory
 of the origin of coral reefs.

   Darwin, Erasmus

 Darwin, Erasmus, 1731-1802, English physician and poet; grandfather of
 Charles DARWIN. His long poem Botanic Garden (1789-91) expounded the
 Linnaean system. Zoonomia (1794-96) explained organic life in
 evolutionary terms, anticipating later theories.

   Darwin

 Darwin, city (1986 est. pop. 68,500), capital of the Northern Territory,
 N Australia, on an inlet of the Timor Sea. It is the chief port and
 administrative center for the sparsely settled tropical north coast.
 Called Palmerston until 1911, it was renamed for Charles DARWIN, who
 discovered its site in 1839. It has been largely rebuilt since a
 devastating typhoon in 1974.

   Darwinism

 Darwinism: see NATURAL SELECTION.

   dash

 dash: see PUNCTUATION.

   data base

 data base: see INFORMATION STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL.

   data communications

 data communications, application of telecommunications technology to the
 problem of transmitting data, especially to, from, or between computers.
 Although telephone circuits are often used, their relatively limited
 frequency range makes them rather slow paths for data, a limitation
 offset by their availability and relatively low cost. Generally, however,
 MODEMS or FACSIMILE MACHINES are used to coordinate the computer and the
 telephone circuit. Where cost can be justified, high speed data links are
 constructed; these are often coaxial cables designed for wide frequency
 range, or microwave, radio systems.

   data processing

 data processing or information processing,the operations of handling,
 merging, sorting, and computing performed upon data in accordance with
 strictly defined procedures, e.g., recording and summarizing the
 financial transactions of a business. In automatic data processing the
 operations are performed by a COMPUTER. In distributed data processing
 some or all of the computer facilities are located in different places
 and connected by telecommunications links.

   date

 date, name for a PALM (Phoenix dactylifera) and for its edible fruit,
 probably native to Arabia and North Africa and long a major food source
 in desert and tropical regions. The sweet, nutritious fruits grow in
 heavy clusters; a tree may produce up to 200 lb (90 kg) annually. Sugar
 and a fermented drink are made from the sap of the tree, and the seeds
 are sometimes used as a coffee substitute. The wood of the trunk is used
 in construction, and mats and baskets are woven from the leaves.

   dating

 dating, in geology, archaeology, paleontology, and physics, the
 determination of the actual or relative age of an object, of a natural
 phenomenon, or of a series of events. The most common and accepted method
 of absolute geologic dating (establishment of actual age) is based on the
 natural RADIOACTIVITY of certain minerals found in rocks; because the
 rate of radioactive decay of any particular ISOTOPE is known, the age of
 a specimen can be computed from the ratio of the remaining isotope and
 its decay product. Relative geological dating (determination of the
 sequence of geological events) is accomplished by marking out the
 succession in which rocks were deposited, using various surface criteria.
 The identification of FOSSILS in a geological sample is very useful,
 because certain assemblages of species are characteristic of specific
 geologic time periods. Pollen analysis, or palynology, can also establish
 the succession of deposits as well as the climate prevalent at the time
 of deposition. In archaeology and recent geology, the carbon-14 method,
 which measures the remaining amount of this radioactive isotope in
 organic matter, can date specimens as old as 35,000 years. The death of
 an organism terminates the previous incorporation of this isotope
 (created by COSMIC-RAY bombardment) at a rate equal to the isotope's
 known decay rate. This method's accuracy has been improved by
 cross-checking with dendrochronology, in which the age of a piece of
 ancient wood can be determined by examining the ring pattern in its cross
 section. The pattern of individual ring widths in a sample reflects local
 climatic conditions occurring at the time when the piece of wood was a
 growing tree. By the use of overlapping patterns found in different wood
 samples, dating by this method has been carried back over 8,000 years.

   dative

 dative: see CASE.

   Daubigny, Charles-Francois

 Daubigny, Charles-Francois, 1817-78, French landscape painter. Best known
 for his paintings of the banks of the Seine and the Oise, he was
 particularly successful in his atmospheric depiction of dawn, twilight,
 and moonlight, e.g., Moonlight. His son, Karl Pierre Daubigny, 1846-86,
 painted in his father's manner.

   Daudet, Alphonse

 Daudet, Alphonse, 1840-97, French author. He is noted for his gently
 naturalistic portrayals of French life, as in the Provence-inspired
 collection of short stories, Letters from My Mill (1869). His
 semiautobiographical novel, Le Petit Chose (1868), touchingly describes
 his life at boarding school. His son, Leon Daudet, 1867-1942, editor of
 the right-wing Catholic paper Action francaise, was the author of an
 extensive and valuable series of memoirs.

   Daughters of the American Revolution

 Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR), patriotic society founded
 1890 in Washington, D.C., and open to women with ancestors who aided the
 AMERICAN REVOLUTION. It has over 208,000 members and has done much to
 preserve and mark historic places. The DAR has been criticized for its
 conservative political policies.

   Daumier, Honore

 Daumier, Honore, 1808-79, French caricaturist, painter, and sculptor.
 Daumier was the greatest social satirist of his day. His bitterly ironic
 approach mercilessly ridiculed bourgeois society in realistic graphic
 style. He produced almost 4,000 lithographs now considered masterpieces.
 His stylistically similar small canvases, e.g., Third-Class Carriage
 (Metropolitan Mus.), have the same dramatic intensity. His sculpture
 includes over 30 small, painted busts.

   dauphin

 dauphin [Fr.,=dolphin], French title. It was borne first by the counts of
 Vienne and after 1350 by the eldest son of the king of France. If the
 dauphin died before the king, the title went to the dauphin's eldest son.

   Davenport

 Davenport, city (1986 est. pop. 98,750), seat of Scott co., E central
 Iowa, on the Mississippi R.; inc. 1836. With the Illinois cities of Rock
 Island, Moline, and East Moline, it forms the Quad Cities. It prospered
 with the arrival (1856) of the first railroad to bridge the river. Today
 it produces heavy industrial and agricultural equipment, and is a rail
 and commercial center.

   David, Saint

 David, Saint, d. 588?, patron saint of WALES, first abbot of Menevia (now
 Saint David's) in Wales. His shrine was an important place of pilgrimage
 in the Middle Ages, and the national Welsh festival is still celebrated
 on his feast, Mar. 1.

   David

 David, d. c.972 BC, king of the ancient Hebrews (c.1012-c.972 BC),
 successor of SAUL and one of the greatest of Hebrew national heroes. To
 him were ascribed many of the PSALMS. Many of the interesting and
 beautiful narratives in the BIBLE deal with the story of David, e.g., the
 fight of David and GOLIATH; the friendship of David and Saul's son,
 Jonathan; David's love for BATH-SHEBA; and the revolt of ABSALOM.

   David

 David, kings of Scotland. David I, 1804-1153 (r.1124-53), fought without
 success for MATILDA, his niece, in the struggle for the English crown
 between STEPHEN and Matilda. He did realize his main aim, securing
 Northumberland. His rule of Scotland was felicitous. David II (David
 Bruce), 1324-71 (r.1329-71), went to France after EDWARD III and Edward
 de BALIOL invaded Scotland in 1332. He invaded England in 1346, was
 captured, and held until ransomed in 1357.

   David, Jacques-Louis

 David, Jacques-Louis, 1748-1825, French painter. The virtual art dictator
 of France for a generation, he made a break with tradition that marks the
 beginning of "modern art." He borrowed classical forms and motifs,
 primarily from sculpture, to illustrate his sense of virtue. Inspired by
 the ideals of the FRENCH REVOLUTION, he eschewed sentiment. His Death of
 Socrates (1787; Metropolitan Mus.) and The Oath of the Horatii (Louvre)
 are major works. David's iron control was softened in his portraits,
 e.g., Marat (1793; Brussels). As First Painter to NAPOLEON I he produced
 paintings that are static and deadened in feeling, e.g., The Distribution
 of the Eagles (1810).

   Davidson, Jo

 Davidson, Jo, 1883-1952, American sculptor; b. N.Y.C. He is best known
 for his insightful, vigorously modeled portrait busts of such leading
 figures as Woodrow Wilson, Mahatma Gandhi, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, and
 Albert Einstein.

   Davies, Arthur Bowen

 Davies, Arthur Bowen, 1862-1928, American painter; b. Utica, N.Y. A
 member of the EIGHT, he favored symbolic, romantic pictures of the female
 nude in idyllic landscapes. Davies was the chief organizer of the 1913
 ARMORY SHOW.

   Davies, Robertson

 Davies, Robertson, 1913-, Canadian novelist. He came to international
 attention with the Deptford trilogy of novels (1970-75), a richly plotted
 study of three people's journey to self-discovery, replete with humor,
 mystery, magic, Jungian ideas, and grotesque characters. His other novels
 include The Rebel Angels (1982) and The Lyre of Opheus (1988).

   Da Vinci, Leonardo

 Da Vinci, Leonardo: see LEONARDO DA VINCI.

   Davis, Angela Yvonne

 Davis, Angela Yvonne, 1944-, American black activist; b. Birmingham, Ala.
 She taught (1969-70) at UCLA despite state efforts to oust her for being
 a Communist. In 1970 she went into hiding after being accused of aiding
 an attempted courtroom escape that killed four persons. Apprehended,
 tried (1972), and acquitted, she became the vice-presidential candidate
 of the Communist party in 1980.

   Davis, Benjamin Oliver

 Davis, Benjamin Oliver, 1877-1970, U.S. general; b. Washington, D.C.
 Davis was (1940-48) the first black general in the U.S. Army. His son,
 Benjamin Oliver Davis, Jr., 1912-, was the first black to become (1954)
 an air force general.

   Davis, Bette

 Davis, Bette, 1908-, American film actress; b. Lowell, Mass., as Ruth
 Elizabeth Davis. An enduring Hollywood star, she has made such films as
 Jezebel (1938; Academy Award), Dark Victory (1939), and All About Eve
 (1950).

   Davis, Colin

 Davis, Colin, 1927-, English conductor. A clarinetist, he is self-taught
 as a conductor. He led the BBC Symphony (1967- 71) and the Royal Opera,
 Covent Garden (1971-) and has appeared often with the Boston Symphony
 Orchestra (1975-).

   Davis, Jefferson

 Davis, Jefferson, 1808-89, American statesman, president of the
 CONFEDERACY (1861-65); b. near Elkton, Ky. A U.S. senator from
 Mississippi (1847-51, 1857-61) and U.S. secretary of war (1853-57), Davis
 left Washington after the secession (Jan. 1861) of Mississippi. As
 president of the Confederacy, he assumed strong centralized power,
 weakening the STATES' RIGHTS policy for which the South had seceded. He
 had many disputes with Confederate generals, and R.E. LEE surrendered
 without his approval. Captured (1865) by Union forces, he was imprisoned
 for two years but was released (1867) without prosecution.

   Davis, Miles

 Davis, Miles, 1926-, black American musician; b. Alton, Ill. He worked
 with Charlie PARKER in the 1940s, was a catalyst of "cool" JAZZ around
 1950, led influential small bands through the 1960s, and produced a
 jazz-rock blend in the 1970s. His warm, often muted trumpet style is
 famous.

   Davis, Richard Harding

 Davis, Richard Harding, 1864-1916, American writer; b. Philadelphia. A
 leading journalist and foreign correspondent, he specialized in books
 about his wartime experiences. His also wrote novels, e.g., Soldiers of
 Fortune (1897) and The Bar Sinister (1903); short stories; and plays.

   Davis, Stuart

 Davis, Stuart, 1894-1964, American painter; b. Philadelphia. A jazz
 enthusiast, he often incorporated jazz tempos into the vibrant patterns
 of his paintings. In the 1920s Davis came under the influence of CUBISM
 and created, in such works as Colonial Cubism (Walker Art Center,
 Minneapolis), a brightly colored, distinctly American interpretation of
 the movement.

   Davis, William Morris

 Davis, William Morris, 1850-1934, American geographer and geologist; b.
 Philadelphia. He systematized the study of geography and enlarged its
 scope; his methods of description and analysis and use of maps and block
 diagrams revolutionized its teaching. He founded (1904) and headed the
 Association of American Geographers.

   Davy, Sir Humphry

 Davy, Sir Humphry, 1778-1829, English chemist and physicist. He was
 professor (1802-13) at the Royal Inst., London, where his electrochemical
 researches led to his isolation of SODIUM and POTASSIUM (1807) and
 BARIUM, BORON, CALCIUM, and MAGNESIUM (1808). He showed chlorine to be an
 element, theorized that acids characteristically contain hydrogen, and
 classed chemical affinity as an electric phenomenon.

   Dawes, Charles Gates

 Dawes, Charles Gates, 1865-1951, vice president of the U.S. (1925-29); b.
 Marietta, Ohio. He shared the 1925 Nobel Peace Prize for proposing the
 DAWES PLAN that reduced defeated Germany's REPARATIONS. He was vice
 president under Pres. COOLIDGE.

   Dawes Plan

 Dawes Plan, presented (1924) by the committee headed by C.G. DAWES to the
 Allied Reparations Commission and accepted that year. It provided for the
 reduction of Germany's REPARATIONS after WORLD WAR I and the
 stabilization of German finances.

   Dawson

 Dawson or Dawson City,city (1986 est. pop. 1,553), W Yukon, N Canada, at
 the confluence of the Yukon and Klondike rivers. A famous gold rush town
 whose population reached c.20,000 in 1898, it was the territorial capital
 until replaced by WHITEHORSE in 1952.

   Day, Clarence Shepard

 Day, Clarence Shepard, 1874-1935, American essayist; b. N.Y.C. He is best
 known for sketches of his parents, e.g., Life with Father (1935) and Life
 with Mother (1937).

   Day, John

 Day, John, 1522-84, English printer. His types included musical notes and
 the first Anglo-Saxon type. He printed the first English book of church
 music (1560) and the first English edition of FOXE'S Book of Martyrs
 (1563).

   day

 day: see SIDEREAL TIME; SOLAR TIME.

   Dayan, Moshe

 Dayan, Moshe, 1915-81, Israeli military leader; b. Palestine. He directed
 the 1956 Sinai campaign as chief of staff and the 1967 Six-Day War as
 defense minister. Blamed for Israeli unpreparedness in the 1973 October
 War, he resigned (1974) with Golda MEIR. Later (1977-79) he was Israeli
 foreign minister. See also ARAB-ISRAELI WARS.

   day-care center

 day-care center, institution for the care of children of working mothers;
 also called day nursery, but not to be confused with NURSERY SCHOOL.
 Originating in Europe in the late 18th cent., day-care facilities were
 first established in the U.S. by private charities in the 1850s. The
 women's movement and other social developments during the 20th cent. have
 spurred the growth of day-care centers and encouraged businesses to
 establish them. See also HEAD START.

   Day Lewis, C(ecil)

 Day Lewis, C(ecil), 1904-72, English author. His verse was at first
 didactic and social, reflecting his leftist leanings, later more personal
 and metaphysical. His works include Collected Poems (1954); a translation
 of Vergil's Aeneid (1952); and detective stories written under the
 pseudonym Nicholas Blake. He was POET LAUREATE (1967-72).

   daylight saving time

 daylight saving time (DST), time observed when clocks and other
 timepieces are set ahead, usually by 1 hr, so that the sun will rise and
 set later in the day as measured by civil time (see SOLAR TIME). DST
 conserves lighting power and provides more usable daylight hours for
 afternoon and evening activities. First adopted during World War I by the
 U.S. and other countries, DST in the U.S. currently extends from the last
 Sunday in April to the last Sunday in October, the interval when daylight
 periods are longest.

   Dayton

 Dayton, city (1986 est. pop. 178,920), seat of Montgomery co., SW Ohio,
 on the Great Miami R.; inc. 1805. It is a port and trading hub for a
 fertile farm area, and an aviation center. Chief manufactures are cash
 registers, appliances, and automobile parts. The city grew with the
 extension of canals (1830s-40s) and railroads, and with the industrial
 demands of the CIVIL WAR. The WRIGHT brothers, Dayton natives, returned
 there after their historic first flight and established a research
 aircraft plant.

   Dazai Osamu

 Dazai Osamu, pseudonym of Tsushima Shuji (shoo'ji), 1909-48, Japanese
 novelist. He was noted for his obsession with suicide, his ironic and
 gloomy wit, and his brilliant fantasy. His masterpiece, Setting Sun
 (1947), depicts the decline of Japan's nobility after World War II.

   DC

 DC: see ELECTRICITY; GENERATOR; MOTOR, ELECTRIC.

   D Day

 D Day: see WORLD WAR II.

   DDT

 DDT: see INSECTICIDES.

   deadly nightshade

 deadly nightshade: see BELLADONNA; NIGHTSHADE.

   Dead Sea

 Dead Sea, salt lake, c.390 sq mi (1,010 sq km), in the arid Jordan trough
 of the GREAT RIFT VALLEY, on the Israel-Jordan border. At 1,292 ft (394
 m) below sea level, it is the lowest point on earth. The lake, which has
 no life and owes its high salinity to rapid evaporation, derives most of
 its inflow (now diminished because of irrigation) from the JORDAN R.
 Potash and bromine are commercially extracted.

   Dead Sea Scrolls

 Dead Sea Scrolls, documents of great historical and scholarly value,
 found in 1947 and later in caves above the NW Dead Sea. Archaeologists
 have shown that the scrolls stored in jars in the first cave at QUMRAN
 were written or copied between the 1st cent. BC and the first half of the
 1st cent. AD Chief among the scrolls are two copies of the Book of
 Isaiah, almost 1,000 years older than any Hebrew biblical manuscript
 previously known. Another important scroll was a Manual of Discipline for
 the ascetic community of Qumran, which has been closely identified with
 the Essenes, a Jewish religious sect living an ascetic communal
 agricultural life in that region between the 2d cent. BC and 2d cent. AD
 Startling parallels between the Qumran scrolls and the New Testament
 suggest a tie between the Essenes and the early Christians, and have led
 to the much-disputed suggestion that Jesus and John the Baptist may have
 been Essenes. More biblical and other manuscripts have been found
 elsewhere in the Dead Sea area, some even more ancient than those at
 Qumran.

   Deadwood

 Deadwood, city (1980 pop. 2,035), seat of Lawrence co., W S.D., in the
 BLACK HILLS; settled 1876. It was a gold and silver boom town; today
 tourism, lumbering, and ore smelting provide employment. So named because
 its trees had been killed by fire, Deadwood is noted for its colorful
 early history and for the graves of Wild Bill HICKOK, calamity jane, and
 Deadwood Dick.

   deafness

 deafness, partial or total loss of hearing. It may be present at birth
 (congenital) or acquired any time thereafter. Conductive deafness, one of
 the two major types of deafness, involves a disturbance in the
 transmission of sound to the nerve receptors of the inner ear. This type
 of deafness may be caused by infection, impacted wax, perforation of the
 eardrum, or otosclerosis, a chronic condition, especially in older
 people, that restricts the vibration of the bone leading to the inner
 ear. These conditions can usually be treated with ANTIBIOTICS, surgery,
 hearing aids, and other techniques. The other major type of
 deafness-perceptive, or nerve, deafness-involves damage to neural
 receptors in the inner ear, to nerve pathways to the brain, or to the
 area of the brain concerned with hearing. Usually permanent, it can be
 caused by infection, senility, tumors, or excessive noise, or it may be
 congenital. Those who cannot be helped to hear may communicate through
 lip reading and SIGN LANGUAGE. The first U.S. public school for the deaf
 was founded in 1817 by T.H. GALLAUDET. See EAR.

   Deakin, Alfred

 Deakin, Alfred, 1856-1919, Australian politician. He aided the fight for
 Australian federation and was prime minister (1903-4, 1905-8, 1909-10) in
 three fusion governments.

   Dean, James

 Dean, James, 1931-55, American film actor, b. Fairmount, Ind. Dean was
 identified with restless, inarticulate youth in East of Eden (1953) and
 Rebel without a Cause (1954). He was killed when his racing car crashed,
 and his death set off a worldwide wave of cultist mourning.

   Deane, Silas

 Deane, Silas, 1737-89, American Revolutionary diplomat; b. Groton, Conn.
 A delegate (1774-76) to the CONTINENTAL CONGRESS, Deane was sent (1776)
 to France, where he obtained commercial and military aid and recruited
 foreign officers.

   Dearborn

 Dearborn, city (1986 est. pop. 86,420), SE Mich., on the Rouge R.,
 adjoining DETROIT; settled 1795, inc. as a city 1929. The home of the
 Ford Motor Co., it is a warehousing and distribution center, and produces
 metal goods. Largely residential despite its industry, it is famous for
 the Edison Inst. of Technology, which includes Greenfield Village,
 birthplace of Henry FORD, and the Henry Ford Museum.

   death

 death, cessation of all life (metabolic) processes. Death may involve the
 organism as a whole (somatic death) or may be confined to cells and
 tissues within the organism. Somatic death has been traditionally defined
 as the discontinuance of cardiac activity and RESPIRATION. However, with
 advances in organ TRANSPLANTATION techniques, the need has arisen for a
 more precise definition of medical death, since the death of a donor must
 be established before transfer of an organ can be undertaken. Somatic
 death is followed by a number of irreversible changes of legal
 importance, especially in estimating time of death (e.g., rigor mortis,
 rigidity of the body caused by changes in muscle tissue, occurring 10 min
 to several hours after death). The criterion used to establish somatic
 death is still controversial, although a U.S. presidential commission in
 1981 recommended that death be defined as "irreversible cessation of all
 functions of the entire brain, including the brain stem."

   death angel

 death angel: see MUSHROOM.

   Death Valley National Monument

 Death Valley National Monument, protected desert region, 2,067,628 acres
 (836,757 hectares), S California and S Nevada, location of the lowest
 point (282 ft/86 m below sea level) in the Americas. It receives less
 than 2 in. (5 cm) of rain a year and has recorded some of the world's
 highest air temperatures (134 degF/57 degC) and ground temperatures (165
 degF/74 degC). The unusual plants and animals found there are of
 considerable scientific interest. Death Valley was a major source of
 borax in the late 19th cent.

   debenture

 debenture: see BOND.

   de Broglie, Louis Victor, prince

 de Broglie, Louis Victor, prince: see BROGLIE.

   Debs, Eugene Victor

 Debs, Eugene Victor, 1855-1926, American Socialist leader; b. Terre
 Haute, Ind. An advocate of industrial unions and a pacifist, Debs was
 imprisoned in 1895 for breaking an injunction during the Pullman railroad
 strike. Later, he was jailed (1918-21) for violating the Espionage Act.
 He helped to form the Socialist party and was its presidential candidate
 five times after 1900. Debs was widely revered as a martyr to his
 principles.

   debt

 debt, obligation in services, money, or goods owed by one party (the
 debtor) to another (the creditor). A debt usually involves the payment of
 INTEREST. If a debtor fails to pay, a court may assign payment out of the
 debtor's property. In ancient times debt was associated with slavery,
 because the insolvent debtor and his household were often turned over to
 the creditor to perform compulsory services. Imprisonment for debt, which
 once filled prisons, was ended as such in England and the U.S. by laws
 enacted in the 19th cent., although imprisonment on related charges, such
 as concealment of assets, may still occur. The laws of BANKRUPTCY are
 designed to distribute a debtor's assets to the creditors.

   debt, public

 debt, public, indebtedness of a government expressed in money terms; also
 known as the national debt. The public debt increases whenever public
 spending exceeds public revenues, producing budget deficits. To finance
 such deficits, the government borrows from private or institutional
 investors or from other governments. Public loans may be in the form of
 short-term instruments, such as treasury certificates, long-term
 government bonds, or various other notes. Governments may incur debts for
 several reasons, most notably the financing of wars and the combating of
 the effects of recessions. Heavy government borrowings exert upward
 pressures on INTEREST rates and may be harmful to the general economy.
 The rate of increase in the U.S. public debt accelerated in the 1970s,
 reaching $533 billion in 1975 and $826 billion in 1979. In 1981 Congress
 raised the debt ceiling to over $1 trillion. During that period, however,
 the debt as a percentage of the GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT remained steady,
 at less than 40%.

   Debussy, Claude Achille

 Debussy, Claude Achille, 1862-1918, French composer, exponent of musical
 IMPRESSIONISM. He employed the whole-tone SCALE to create nuances of mood
 and expression, exploring unusual harmonies and dissonances. He is best
 known for the tone poem (see SYMPHONIC POEM) Prelude to the Afternoon of
 a Faun (1894), inspired by a poem of MALLARME. Other orchestral works
 include Nocturnes (1899) and La Mer (1905). His piano works include Suite
 Bergamasque (1905), including Clair de lune; Estampes (1903); preludes;
 and etudes.

   decadents

 decadents, name loosely applied to the late-19th-cent. artists and
 writers who strove to express the morbid and macabre elements of human
 emotion. They claimed art should exist for its own sake. Often confused
 with the French SYMBOLISTS, who influenced them, they were most evident
 in England, where they included WILDE, DOWSON, and BEARDSLEY.

   Decameron

 Decameron: see BOCCACCIO, GIOVANNI.

   decathlon

 decathlon, a contest comprising 10 track-and-field events: broad jump;
 high jump; discus; shot put; javelin; 100-meter, 400-meter, and
 1,500-meter races; 110-meter hurdles; and pole vault. An Olympic event
 since 1912, it has been dominated by Americans. The winner gains the
 traditional title "world's greatest athlete." See PENTATHLON.

   Decatur, Stephen

 Decatur, Stephen, 1779-1820, American naval officer; b. near Berlin, Md.
 During the TRIPOLITAN WAR, he led (1804) a daring raid into Tripoli
 harbor to burn the captured U.S. frigate Philadelphia. In the WAR OF
 1812, Decatur commanded the United States and captured (1812) the British
 frigate Macedonian. Known for his reckless bravery and stubborn
 patriotism, he was mortally wounded in a duel with James BARRON.

   Decatur

 Decatur, city (1986 est. pop. 90,360), seat of Macon co., central Ill.,
 on the Sangamon R., inc. 1839. A railroad and industrial center in a rich
 farm area, Decatur processes soybeans and corn, repairs railway cars, and
 manufactures tires, tractors, machinery, and automobile equipment.
 Historic sites associated with Abraham LINCOLN are in and around the
 city.

   Deccan

 Deccan, region of India. It is sometimes used in a wide sense for all of
 India S of the Narbada R. and sometimes, more specifically, for the area
 of rich volcanic soils and lava-covered plateaus in the northern part of
 the peninsula between the Narbada and Krishna rivers.

   December

 December: see MONTH.

   Decembrists

 Decembrists, Russian officers who rose against Czar NICHOLAS I in Dec.
 1825. Influenced by liberal ideals while serving in W Europe during the
 Napoleonic Wars (see NAPOLEON I), they advocated representative democracy
 but disagreed on its form. Their poorly organized rebellion was crushed,
 but it led to increased revolutionary activity among the educated classes
 and an accompanying rise in police terrorism.

   De Chirico

 De Chirico: see CHIRICO, GIORGIO DE.

   decibel

 decibel (dB), unit of sound intensity. The faintest audible sound is
 arbitrarily assigned a value of 0 dB, and the loudest sounds that the
 human ear can tolerate are about 120 dB. The difference in decibels
 between any two sounds is equal to 10 log10 (P1/P2), where P1 and P2 are
 the two power levels.

   decimal system

 decimal system [Lat.,=of tenths], NUMERATION system based on powers of 10
 and using the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. A NUMERAL in the
 decimal system is written as a row of digits, with each position in the
 row corresponding to a specific power of 10 (see EXPONENT). A decimal
 point in the row divides it into increasing positive powers of 10 for
 positions to the left, and increasing negative powers of 10 for positions
 to the right. For example, 103 represents (1*102)+ (0*101)+ (3*100), or
 100+0+3; and 1.03 corresponds to (1*100)+ (0*10-1)+ (3*10-2), or
 1+0+3/100. The decimal system was introduced into Europe c.1300. Its
 positional system made it an improvement over Roman numerals and
 simplified arithmetic computation. The METRIC SYSTEM of weights and
 measures is based on the decimal system, as are most systems of national
 currency.

   Declaration of Independence

 Declaration of Independence, adopted July 4, 1776, by delegates of the
 THIRTEEN COLONIES, announcing their separation from Great Britain and the
 creation of the U.S. It was written almost totally by Thomas JEFFERSON.
 The opening paragraphs state the American ideal of government, based on
 the theory of natural rights. Its combination of general principles and
 an abstract theory of government with a detailed enumeration of specific
 grievances and injustices makes it one of the great political documents
 of history.

   Declaration of London

 Declaration of London: see LONDON, DECLARATION OF.

   Declaration of Rights

 Declaration of Rights: see BILL OF RIGHTS.

   Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

 Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, historic French document.
 It was drafted (1789) by Emmanuel SIEYES and embodied as the preamble in
 the French constitution of 1791. Influenced by the U.S. DECLARATION OF
 INDEPENDENCE and the ENLIGHTENMENT, it asserted the equality of all men,
 the sovereignty of the people, and the inalienable rights of the
 individual to liberty, property, and security.

   declension

 declension: see INFLECTION.

   declination

 declination: see ASTRONOMICAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS.

   decompression sickness

 decompression sickness, physiological disorder caused by rapid decrease
 in atmospheric pressure that results in the release of nitrogen bubbles
 into body tissues. The bubbles cut off the oxygen supply, causing nausea,
 pain in the joints and abdomen, and, in severe cases, shock, paralysis,
 and even death. Also known as the bends, or altitude sickness, it affects
 divers, airplane pilots, and others working under compressed air. Use of
 a decompression chamber allows for a gradual reduction of pressure,
 preventing the accumulation of nitrogen in body tissues.

   Decoration Day

 Decoration Day: see MEMORIAL DAY.

   decorations, civil and military

 decorations, civil and military, honors bestowed by a government to
 reward services or achievements, particularly those implying valor. The
 practice, which dates back at least to the laurel wreaths of the ancient
 Greeks and Romans, gained prevalence with the medieval custom of
 conferring knighthood. Among these chivalric orders are the Order of the
 Garter (created 1348) and the Order of the Bath (1399; revived 1725),
 which still exist in Great Britain. The Legion of Honor, in France, was
 created by Napoleon I in 1802 as a reward for civil and military service.
 In the late 19th cent., countries throughout the world adopted the
 European system of honors, and new African nations have done so in recent
 decades. Major European military decorations include the Croix de Guerre
 (Belgium and France, 1915), the Iron Cross (Germany, 1813; revived 1939),
 and the Victoria Cross (Great Britain, 1856). In the U.S., the highest
 decoration for exceptional heroism is the Medal of Honor (1861), followed
 in importance by the Distinguished Service Cross (Army; 1918), the Navy
 Cross (1919), and the Air Force Cross (1960). The Purple Heart (1782;
 revived 1932) is awarded for wounds received in action, and the Silver
 Star (1932) and Bronze Star (1944) are awarded for, respectively, heroism
 and outstanding service. Campaign ribbons and battle stars are awarded
 automatically for presence in certain battles and theaters of operation.
 The highest U.S. award to civilians in peacetime is the Presidential
 Medal of Freedom (1963), given for achievement in various fields,
 including the arts. The two leading Soviet awards, the Gold Star Medal
 (1939) and the Hammer and Sickle Gold Medal (1940), afford automatic
 membership in the Order of Lenin (1930).

   decorative arts

 decorative arts, a term that embraces all areas of material culture not
 covered by the traditional fine arts categories of painting, sculpture,
 and architecture. It includes handicrafts by skilled artisans, such as
 ornamental work in metal, stone, wood, and glass as well as textiles,
 pottery, and bookbinding. The term also refers to those aspects of
 interior design subordinate to architecture, including molded plasterwork
 and stuccowork, wallpaper, furniture, draperies, and eating and drinking
 implements. Personal objects such as jewelry, weaponry, tools, and
 costumes are considered to be part of the decorative arts as well. The
 definition may be extended to include mechanical appliances and other
 products of industrial design.

   Dedekind, Julius Wilhelm Richard

 Dedekind, Julius Wilhelm Richard, 1831-1916, German mathematician,
 perhaps best known for the "Dedekind cut," whereby real numbers can be
 defined in terms of rational numbers. A student of Carl GAUSS, he led the
 effort to formulate rigorous definitions of basic mathematical concepts.

   deduction

 deduction. 1 In traditional LOGIC, the process of drawing, by reasoning,
 particular conclusions from more general principles assumed to be true.
 The Aristotelian SYLLOGISM is the classic example of deductive logic in
 the tradition. 2 In contemporary logic, any statement derived by a
 transformed rule upon an axiom; more generally, the term now refers to a
 process of deriving theorems from axioms, or conclusions from premises,
 by formal rules (transformation rules). See also INDUCTION.

   Dee, John

 Dee, John, 1527-1608, English mathematician, astrologer, and occultist.
 Acquitted of a charge of sorcery against Queen Mary I, he became a
 favorite of Queen Elizabeth I for whom he drew up valuable scientific
 studies about newly discovered lands. His occult studies led to his claim
 of having discovered the secret of ALCHEMY, which he practiced abroad.

   Deep Sea Drilling Project

 Deep Sea Drilling Project, U.S. program, begun in 1964, to investigate
 the evolution of ocean basins by drilling and studying cores of ocean
 sediments and underlying oceanic crust. It uses the Glomar Challenger, an
 elaborately equipped ship capable of drilling through great water depths.

   deer

 deer, ruminant MAMMAL of the family Cervidae, found worldwide except for
 Australia. Deer range in size from the MOOSE, which may be c.7 ft (2.1 m)
 high at the shoulder, to the pudu of South America, which is c.12 in. (30
 cm) high. Antlers, bony outgrowths of the skull used as weapons during
 the breeding season, develop in males of most species and are shed and
 renewed annually. In deer lacking antlers, long, upper canine teeth are
 used for fighting. The white-tailed deer, a source of food and buckskin
 for native Americans and white settlers, was nearly exterminated by over
 hunting; it is now restored in the E U.S. Other North American deer
 include the mule deer of the W U.S. and the closely related black-tailed
 deer of the Pacific Coast. Old World deer include the red deer and fallow
 deer.

   Defense, United States Department of

 Defense, United States Department of, federal executive department
 charged with coordinating and supervising all activities relating to the
 national security. It was organized (1949) to replace the National
 Military Establishment (1947), which in turn had replaced the WAR
 DEPARTMENT. It is the largest federal department. The secretary of
 defense, a civilian, oversees all policies having to do with U.S.
 military affairs. He is assisted by the secretaries of the army, navy,
 and air force, who are also civilians appointed by the president. His
 principal military advisers are the Joint Chiefs of Staff, a statutory
 agency within the department whose members include a chairman, the chiefs
 of staff of the army and air force, the chief of naval operations, and
 the commandant of the Marine Corps.

   defense mechanism

 defense mechanism, in PSYCHOANALYSIS, any of a variety of unconscious
 reactions used by individuals to satisfy emotional needs: e.g., to
 establish harmony among conflicting goals, to reduce feelings of ANXIETY
 that result from unacceptable wishes, or to modify reality to make it
 more tolerable. Common defense mechanisms are repression, the prevention
 of unacceptable ideas from entering the conscious mind; displacement, the
 release of dangerous impulses in a substitute situation or through
 disguised activity; and sublimation (a constructive mechanism), the
 redirection of instinctive sexual energy toward socially valuable ends.

   deferent

 deferent: see PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM.

   deflation

 deflation: see under INFLATION.

   Defoe

 Defoe or De Foe, Daniel,1660?-1731, English writer. His poem The
 True-born Englishman (1701), a defense of William III, brought fame, but
 an ironic satire, The Shortest Way with Dissenters (1702), brought a
 prison term. Called the father of modern journalism, he was associated
 with 26 periodicals, and he wrote and published (1704-13) The Review, a
 journal, singlehandedly. His three great novels-The Life and Strange
 Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe (1719), based in part on the
 experience of Alexander SELKIRK, and often considered the first true
 NOVEL in English; the picaresque Moll Flanders (1722); and A Journal of
 the Plague Year (1722)-all appeared as memoirs, intended to be taken as
 true. Defoe's writing is straightforward and vivid, with a remarkable
 concern for detail.

   defoliant

 defoliant: see HERBICIDE.

   De Forest, Lee

 De Forest, Lee, 1873-1961, American inventor; b. Council Bluffs, Iowa. A
 pioneer in the development of wireless telegraphy, sound pictures, and
 television, he invented the triode (1906), which made transcontinental
 telephony practicable and led to the foundation of the radio industry.

   Degas, Edgar

 Degas, Edgar(Hilaire Germain Edgar Degas) , 1834-1917, French painter and
 sculptor. Degas united the discipline of classical art with the immediacy
 of IMPRESSIONISM. His favorite subjects were ballet dancers, women at
 their toilette, cafe life, and the racetrack. He combined his portrayal
 of contemporary life with such daring compositional innovations as
 accidental cutoff views, off-center subjects, and unusual angles. His
 innovative achievement of balance is seen in Woman with Chrysanthemums
 (1865; Metropolitan Mus.) and Foyer of the Dance (1872; Louvre). Degas
 turned from oils to pastels and charcoal, perhaps because of failing
 eyesight. His works in sculpture include dancers and horses. He
 profoundly influenced such later artists as TOULOUSE-LAUTREC and PICASSO.
 Many of his most celebrated works, e.g., The Bellelli Family (1859), The
 Rehearsal (1882), and Two Laundresses (1882), are in the Louvre.

   De Gasperi, Alcide

 De Gasperi, Alcide, 1881-1954, Italian premier, founder of the Christian
 Democratic party. From 1945 to 1953 he was premier of eight successive
 coalition cabinets dominated by the Christian Democrats. He championed
 close cooperation with the U.S. and led Italy into NATO.

   De Gaulle, Charles

 De Gaulle, Charles, 1890-1970, French general and statesman, first
 president (1959-69) of the Fifth Republic. Opposing the Franco-German
 armistice in WORLD WAR II, he fled (1940) to London and there organized
 the Free French forces and rallied several French colonies to his
 movement. In 1943 he became co-president (with Henri Honore Giraud) of
 the French Committee of National Liberation at Algiers, and in 1945 he
 was elected provisional president of France. He resigned (1946) when it
 became apparent that the Fourth Republic's constitution would not provide
 for a strong executive. He become (1947) head of a new party, Rally for
 the French People (RFP), but dissolved it in 1953 and retired. In 1958,
 during the political crisis created by the civil war in ALGERIA, De
 Gaulle became premier with the power to rule by decree for six months. A
 new constitution that strengthened the presidency was drawn up, and in
 1959 De Gaulle became president of the new republic. As president, he
 reached (1962) a settlement for Algerian independence, developed France's
 atomic potential, and withdrew (1966) from NATO. He supported French
 participation in the Common Market, but opposed British participation.
 Nearly toppled (1968) by worker-student demonstrations, he resigned in
 1969 after a defeat on constitutional reform.

   De Grasse, Francois Joseph Paul, comte

 De Grasse, Francois Joseph Paul, comte: see GRASSE, FRANCOIS
 JOSEPH PAUL, COMTE DE.

   De Hooch

 De Hooch or De Hoogh, Pieter:see HOOCH, PIETER DE.

   dehydrated food

 dehydrated food: see FOOD PRESERVATION.

   Deimos

 Deimos, in astronomy, natural satellite of MARS.

   Deirdre

 Deirdre, heroine of Irish legend. Intended as the wife of Conchobar, king
 of Ulster, she fell in love with Naoise and fled to Scotland with him and
 his brothers. On their return home Conchobar killed Naoise, and Deirdre
 died on his grave. The story was popular with writers of the Irish
 literary renaissance, e.g., W.B. YEATS and J.M. SYNGE.

   deists

 deists, rationalist thinkers of the 17th and 18th cent., who held that
 the course of nature demonstrates the existence of God, while they
 rejected formal religion and claims of supernatural revelation. VOLTAIRE,
 J.J. ROUSSEAU, Benjamin FRANKLIN, and Thomas JEFFERSON were deists. See
 also ENLIGHTENMENT.

   Deken, Agatha

 Deken, Agatha: see WOLFF, ELISABETH.

   Dekker, Thomas

 Dekker, Thomas, 1572?-1632?, English dramatist and pamphleteer. His most
 famous play, The Shoemaker's Holiday (1600), is notable for its realistic
 depiction of London life. He collaborated with John WEBSTER, Thomas
 MIDDLETON (Honest Whore, Pt. I, 1604), Philip MASSINGER, and others. Most
 of his works have been lost.

   de Kooning, Willem

 de Kooning, Willem, 1904-, American painter and leader of ABSTRACT
 EXPRESSIONISM; b. Netherlands. He painted huge canvases slashed with
 color and charged with great energy. He is particularly known for his
 monumental 1950s series entitled Woman, e.g., the ferocious Woman I (Mus.
 Mod. Art, N.Y.C.).

   Delacroix, Eugene

 Delacroix, Eugene(Ferdinand-Victor-Eugene Delacroix) , 1798-1863, French
 painter. He was the foremost painter of the romantic movement in France
 (see ROMANTICISM) and was particularly influential as a colorist. His
 first major work, The Bark of Dante (Louvre), brought him recognition as
 the leader of the opposition to the neoclassical school of DAVID. His
 dramatic interpretation of scenes from mythology, literature, political,
 religious, and literary history was lavish and exuberant. He was
 influenced by English painting and a trip to Morocco that provided him
 with much exotic material, e.g., Women of Algiers (1834; Louvre). He did
 many portraits of notable contemporaries, e.g., George SAND (Copenhagen),
 and his animals in motion, e.g., Tiger Attacking a Horse (Louvre), are
 compelling.

   de la Madrid Hurtado, Miguel

 de la Madrid Hurtado, Miguel, 1934-, Mexican public official, president
 of Mexico (1982-). As minister of planning and budget in the cabinet of
 Jose LOPEZ PORTILLO, he was influential in planning the utilization of
 Mexico's oil wealth to promote economic growth. Known as a conservative
 technocrat, he was chosen (1981) as the candidate of the ruling
 Institutional Revolutionary party and was served from 1982 to 1988.

   de la Mare, Walter

 de la Mare, Walter, 1873-1956, English poet and novelist. His writing
 often delights in the shadowy world between the real and unreal. His
 poetry includes The Listeners (1912); among his novels are Henry Brocken
 (1904) and The Return (1910).

   De la Ramee, Louise

 De la Ramee, Louise: see OUIDA.

   de La Renta, Oscar

 de La Renta, Oscar: see FASHION .

   Delaunay, Robert

 Delaunay, Robert, 1885-1941, French painter. He was a major figure in the
 movement that APOLLINAIRE termed orphism. His amalgam of fauve color (see
 FAUVISM), futurist dynamism (see FUTURISM), and analytical CUBISM is best
 seen in his series of paintings of the EIFFEL TOWER.

   Delaware

 Delaware, one of the mid-Atlantic states of the U.S., the country's
 second-smallest state (after Rhode Island). Delaware occupies the
 low-lying northeastern portion of the peninsula it shares with Maryland
 and Virginia. It is bordered by Maryland (W, S), and there is a short
 border with Pennsylvania (N). Along its entire eastern edge the state is
 bounded by Delaware Bay and the mouth of the DELAWARE R., across which
 lies New Jersey. The climate is equable. WILMINGTON, in the north, is the
 only large city and dominates the state.

 Area, 2,057 sq mi (5,328 sq km). Pop. (1986 est.) 633,000, an 6.5%
 increase over 1980 pop. Capital, Dover. Statehood, Dec. 7, 1787 (first of
 the original 13 states to ratify the Constitution). Highest pt., 442 ft
 (135 m), New Castle co.; lowest pt., sea level. Nickname, First State.
 Motto, Liberty and Independence. State bird, blue hen chicken. State
 flower, peach blossom. State tree, American holly. Abbr., Del.; DE.

 Economy Delaware has a heavily industrialized economy dominated by the Du
 Pont chemical industry, in the Wilmington area. Other major industries
 are food-processing, petroleum-refining, the manufacturing of metals and
 plastics, and banking. More than half the agricultural income is earned
 from broiler chickens, followed in value by corn, soybeans, and dairy
 products. Although fishing is declining, crabs, oysters, clams, and
 finfish are caught offshore.

 Government The constitution of 1897 provides for a governor elected to a
 four-year term. The general assembly consists of a senate whose 21
 members serve four-year terms, and a house whose 41 members are elected
 to two-year terms. Delaware is represented in the U.S. Congress by two
 senators and one representative and has three electoral votes.

 History The area was the home of the DELAWARE INDIANS when Henry HUDSON
 sailed up the Delaware R. in 1609. He was followed by a British explorer
 the following year, and control of Delaware was subsequently contested by
 the Dutch and the English-and later by the Swedes-until 1674, when
 British authority was solidified. The residents were later linked to
 William PENN'S colony of Pennsylvania. In 1776 Delaware was one of the 13
 colonies to sign the Declaration of Independence. When Eleuthere Irenee
 DU PONT started a gunpowder mill in 1802, the state's industrial base was
 established. Delaware remained loyal to the Union during the CIVIL WAR,
 but strong pro-Southern sentiment reflected the split between the rural
 south and urban north, a division that still persists. Industry expanded
 during both world wars and immediately after World War II. In the late
 1970s Delaware experienced a marked movement of the state's population
 and industry from the cities to the suburbs.

   Delaware

 Delaware, a major river of the E U.S., flowing c.280 mi (450 km) from
 sources in the Catskill Mts., SE New York, past Trenton, N.J. (the head
 of navigation), Philadelphia, Pa., and Wilmington, Del., into Delaware
 Bay and the Atlantic Ocean. The Delaware River Basin Compact (1961)
 regulates water use by the heavily industrialized states through which
 the river flows.

   Delaware Indians

 Delaware Indians, the English name for a group of North American Indian
 tribes with an Algonquian language of the Algonquian-Wakashan stock (see
 AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES). Calling themselves the Lenni-Lenape, they
 claimed ancient occupation of the Delaware R. region, where most
 Algonquian tribes had originated. In 1682 they made a treaty of
 friendship with William PENN, but in 1720 the Iroquois forced them into
 Ohio. The Delaware sided with the British in the American Revolution;
 afterward they moved successively to Kansas, Texas, and INDIAN TERRITORY.
 A few still live on reservations, mainly in Oklahoma.

   De la Warr, Thomas West, 12th Baron

 De la Warr, Thomas West, 12th Baron, 1577-1618, 1st governor of the
 English colony of VIRGINIA. He arrived in the colony in 1610 and
 dissuaded the colonists, who were in dire need, from returning to
 England. Delaware is named for him.

   Delhi

 Delhi, union territory and city, N central India. It is located on a hot,
 arid plain, but irrigation supports agriculture. From ancient times the
 region, a crossroads, was the key to empire, and the remains of many
 dynasties survive. SHAH JAHAN made Old Delhi the MOGUL capital in 1638.
 It was the chief center of the Delhi sultantate (1192-1526). In 1638, the
 Mogul emperor built a new capital there, known as Shahjahanabad (the area
 now known as "Old Delhi." The Mahrattas held the city from 1771 to 1803,
 when the British took it. Points of interest include Shah Jahan's Red
 Fort. It became the site of the capital of British India in 1912, when
 the modern administrative city of New Delhi was built.

   Delhi Sultanate

 Delhi Sultanate, also known as the Slave Dynasty, first Muslim empire
 (1192-1398) of INDIA, which at its height (c.1315) encompassed almost the
 entire subcontinent. It was founded by Qutb ud-Din, a general in the
 service of Muhammad of Ghor, ruler of Afghanistan, who proclaimed himself
 sultan in 1192. Under constant challenge, particularly by Hindu forces,
 it was finally destroyed in 1398 by TAMERLANE.

   Delian League

 Delian League, confederation of Greek states under the leadership of
 ATHENS. The first Delian League (478-404 BC) was formed by Athens and a
 number of Ionian states to oppose Persia, an object accomplished in the
 PERSIAN WARS. Dissent arose within the league, but by a mixture of force
 and persuasion Athens established supremacy, and the league in effect
 became an Athenian empire. The alliance was unstable, however, and with
 Athens' defeat (404 BC) in the PELOPONNESIAN WAR it came to an end. After
 Conan reestablished Athenian mastery of the sea, the second Delian League
 was formed (378 BC). It lasted, despite Athenian-Theban quarrels, until
 utterly destroyed by the victory of PHILIP II of Macedon at Chaerona (338
 BC).

   Delibes, Leo

 Delibes, Leo, 1836-91, French composer. He wrote melodic, vividly
 orchestrated works, e.g., the ballets Coppelia (1870) and Sylvia (1876)
 and the opera Lakme (1883).

   Delilah

 Delilah: see SAMSON.

   delirium tremens

 delirium tremens: see ALCOHOLISM.

   Delius, Frederick

 Delius, Frederick, 1862-1934, English composer, of German parentage.
 Influenced by GRIEG, he combined ROMANTICISM and IMPRESSIONISM in music
 characterized by free structure and rich chromatic HARMONY. His
 best-known works include Brigg Fair (1907), On Hearing the First Cuckoo
 in Spring (1912), and North Country Sketches (1914). His operas include A
 Village Romeo and Juliet (1907).

   Della Robbia

 Della Robbia, Florentine family of sculptors and ceramists famous for
 their enameled terra-cotta or fai ence. Luca della Robbia, 1400?-1482,
 founder of the workshop, perfected a method of making clay reliefs and
 sculptures permanent by coating them with a glaze made of tin, antimony,
 and other substances. His Madonna and Child (Metropolitan Mus.) is
 typical of his blue-and-white panels with touches of gold. The family
 tradition was continued by his nephew Andrea della Robbia, 1435-1525?,
 and Andrea's sons Luca II della Robbia, c.1480-c.1550, Giovanni della
 Robbia, 1469-c.1529, and Girolamo della Robbia, c.1488-1566. Andrea did
 the famous medallions on the Foundling Hospital, Florence, showing simple
 baby forms (bambini) on a blue background.

   Delmarva

 Delmarva, peninsula, E U.S., c.180 mi (290 km) long, between Chesapeake
 and Delaware bays. A fertile farming area, it is divided among (and named
 for) three states-Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia.

   Delorme

 Delormeor de l'Orme, Philibert, c.1510-70, French architect, one of the
 greatest Renaissance architects. Most of his work has been destroyed.
 After Italian travels he introduced into France a classical style that
 endured to the mid-18th cent. Among his works were the tomb of FRANCIS I
 at Saint-Denis, the TUILERIES, and the gallery at Chenonceaux.

   Delphi

 Delphi, town in Phocis, GREECE, near the foot of Mt. Parnassus. It was
 the seat of the Delphic ORACLE, the most famous and powerful oracle of
 ancient Greece. The oracle, which originated in the worship of an
 earth-goddess, possibly GAEA, was the principal shrine of APOLLO. It was
 housed in a temple built in the 6th cent. BC The oracular messages were
 spoken by a priestess in a frenzied trance and interpreted by a priest,
 who usually spoke in verse. The oracle's influence prevailed throughout
 Greece until Hellenistic times. Delphi was the meeting place of the
 Amphictyonic League and the site of the Pythian games. It was later
 pillaged by the Romans, and the sanctuary fell into decay.

   delta

 delta, the alluvial plain formed at the mouth of a river where the stream
 loses velocity and drops part of its sediment load. No delta is formed if
 the coast is sinking or if ocean or tidal currents prevent sediment
 deposition. A deltaic plain is usually very fertile but subject to
 floods. The three main varieties of delta are the arcuate (e.g., that of
 the Nile), the bird's-foot (e.g., that of the Mississippi), and the
 cuspate (e.g., that of the Tiber).

   Delta Plan

 Delta Plan, flood control and reclamation project, S Netherlands, in the
 Rhine R. delta. Built in 1957-81, it involved construction of four major
 dikes (up to 131 ft/40 m high) across the Rhine's four estuaries on the
 North Sea, three auxiliary dams, and a storm-tide barrage 38 ft (11.5 m)
 high and 262 ft (80 m) wide across the IJssel R. The project shortened
 the Dutch coastline by c.440 mi (700 km), reclaimed 6,100 acres (15,000
 hectares), and created a freshwater lake (33 sq mi/85 sq km). Two
 navigable waterways to Antwerp and to Rotterdam and Europoort were left
 open.

   Deluge

 Deluge: see NOAH.

   Demeter

 Demeter, in Greek mythology, goddess of harvest and fertility; daughter
 of CRONUS and RHEA; mother of PERSEPHONE by ZEUS. She and her daughter
 were the chief figures in the ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES, and her primary
 festival was the Athenian Thesmophoria. The Romans identified her with
 CERES.

   Demetrius I

 Demetrius I (Demetrius Poliorcetes), c.337-283 BC, king of MACEDON. He
 aided his father, Antigonus I, in the wars of the DIADOCHI until their
 defeat (and Antigonus's death) at Ipsus (301 BC). He recovered ATHENS
 (295) and, after murdering his competitors, seized the throne of Macedon
 (294). Driven out by PYRRHUS, he took refuge (285) with King Seleucis I
 of Syria. His son, Antigonus II, made good his claim to the throne of
 Macedon.

   Demetrius

 Demetrius, in Russian history: see DMITRI.

   De Mille, Agnes

 De Mille, Agnes, 1908?-, American choreographer and dancer; b. N.Y.C.;
 niece of Cecil B. DE MILLE. She created the first major American BALLET,
 Rodeo (1942), and brought ballet techniques to MUSICALS such as Oklahoma!
 (1943). She created Fall River Legend (1948) for the American Ballet
 Theatre. De Mille has written books on dance and autobiographical works.

   De Mille, Cecil B.

 De Mille, Cecil B., 1881-1959, American film director; b. Ashfield, Mass.
 His many "spectacle" films include The Ten Commandments (1923; 1956), The
 Crusades (1935), Union Pacific (1939), and The Greatest Show on Earth
 (1952).

   democracy

 democracy, system of government in which the people-not one class, an
 autocrat, or a select group-share in directing the state's activities. It
 flourished in such Greek CITY-STATES as Athens before giving way to
 IMPERIALISM. The philosophy and practice of modern democracy emerged
 slowly in the West. Basic to it is the concept of representation of the
 people by elected agents. The idea that natural rights could not be taken
 from the people is also fundamental (see NATURAL LAW). John LOCKE, J.J.
 ROUSSEAU, and others developed the concept of a social contract in which

 with a ruler; rulers violating this contract may be removed. These ideas
 greatly influenced British government, the AMERICAN REVOLUTION, and the
 FRENCH REVOLUTION. Since the 19th cent., when political democracy was
 established in most Western countries, emphasis has been placed on
 increasing the portion of the population participating in political
 decisions. Theorists of SOCIALISM and other doctrines have criticized
 this emphasis, maintaining that true democracy is not merely political
 but rests on economic equality and, according to some, on public
 ownership of wealth. In the 20th cent. most political systems describe
 themselves as democracies, although only a few outside of Western Europe
 and North America (e.g., Japan) encourage competing political parties and
 stress individual rights and other elements typical of classic Western
 democracy.

   Democratic party

 Democratic party, American political party. Founded around Thomas
 JEFFERSON and opposed to Alexander HAMILTON and the Federalists, the
 party emphasized personal liberty and the limitation of federal
 government. Originally called Democratic Republicans, they were called
 Democrats by 1828. Backed by a coalition of Southern agrarians and
 Northern city dwellers. Jefferson was elected president in 1800, and the
 Democrats retained the presidency until 1825. A radical group of
 Democrats led by Andrew JACKSON won the elections of 1828 and 1832, but
 arguments over slavery created or deepened splits within the party, and
 the CIVIL WAR all but destroyed it. The party revived after the disputed
 election of 1876, and the end of RECONSTRUCTION brought the "solid South"
 into the Democratic fold. With the nomination (1896) of W.J. BRYAN on a
 FREE SILVER platform, the radicals again gained control, but Bryan's
 defeat pointed out the difficulty of reconciling the party's diverse
 elements. The Democrats regained (1913-21) the presidency under the
 liberal Woodrow WILSON, and during the Depression they swept into office
 with Franklin D. ROOSEVELT and initiated the NEW DEAL. When Roosevelt
 died in his fourth term, he was succeeded (1945) by Harry S TRUMAN, who
 was elected (1948) in his own right. Following the presidential victories
 (1952, 1956) of Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower, Democrat John F. KENNEDY
 narrowly won the 1960 election. After his assassination (1963) he was
 succeeded by Lyndon JOHNSON, whose administration was marked by civil
 rights legislation and the VIETNAM WAR. The modern Democratic party had
 by then become an uneasy alliance of labor, minorities, middle-class
 reformers, and Southern Democrats. Hubert H. HUMPHREY and George MCGOVERN

 but serious Southern disaffection contributed to their defeats by
 Republican Richard M. Nixon. Following the WATERGATE AFFAIR, the
 Democrats elected (1976) the hitherto unknown Jimmy CARTER as president.
 Carter's inability to cope with economic problems and to free (1979-81)
 U.S. hostages in Iran led to his defeat (1980) by Republican Ronald
 Reagan.

   Democritus

 Democritus, c.460-c.370 BC, Greek philosopher. His atomic theory of the
 nature of the physical world, known to us through ARISTOTLE'S writings,
 was the most scientific theory proposed up to his time. He held that all
 living things are composed of tiny indivisible particles, called atoms,
 and that their constant motion explains the creation of the universe: the
 heavier atoms clustered together to form the earth, while the lighter
 ones formed the heavenly bodies.

   demography

 demography, science of human POPULATION, especially of human numbers and
 their changes over time. By studying birth and death rates, marital and
 migration patterns, and population distribution, demography ascertains
 trends and predicts probabilities.

   Demosthenes

 Demosthenes, 384-322 BC, Greek orator. His reputation as the greatest of
 the Greek orators rests mainly on his orations arousing ATHENS against
 PHILIP II of Macedon-three Philippics (351-341 BC) and three Olynthiacs
 (349). Philip triumphed (338), and Demosthenes' cause was lost. His other
 orations include On the Peace (346), On the False Legation (343), and On
 the Crown (330). In 324 BC Demosthenes was exiled for his involvement in
 an obscure affair involving money taken by a lieutenant of ALEXANDER THE
 GREAT. Recalled after Alexander's death (323), he failed in his attempt
 to free Greece from Macedon, fled, and took poison to avoid capture by
 ANTIPATER.

   demotic

 demotic: see HIEROGLYPHIC.

   Dempsey, Jack

 Dempsey, Jack (William Harrison Dempsey), 1895-1983, American boxer; b.
 Manassa, Colo. The "Manassa Mauler" won the heavyweight title by knocking
 out Jess Willard in 1919 and lost it to Gene TUNNEY in 1926. In a
 controversial rematch (1927) Dempsey knocked Tunney down in the seventh
 round, but the count (now known as the "long count") was delayed by
 Dempsey's failure to go to his corner and Tunney won a 10-round decision.

   Demuth, Charles

 Demuth, Charles, 1883-1935, American painter; b. Lancaster, Pa. Known for
 his translucent WATERCOLORS of fruits and flowers, Demuth was one of the
 first painters to draw inspiration from the geometric shapes of
 technology.

   Denali National Park

 Denali National Park: see NATIONAL PARKS .

   dendrochronology

 dendrochronology: see DATING.

   dengue fever

 dengue fever, acute infectious disease caused by a virus and transmitted
 by the Aedes mosquito. It occurs in warm climates. Symptoms include
 headache, fever, and intense joint pain, followed by a generalized rash.
 There is no specific treatment, but the disease can be controlled by
 eradicating the mosquitoes and their breeding grounds.

   Deng Xiaoping

 Deng Xiaoping, 1904-, Chinese Communist leader. Twice purged from power
 (1967, 1976) and twice rehabilitated (1973, 1977), Deng was deputy
 premier under HUA GUOFENG. He soon became (1977) powerful as Communist
 party deputy chairman, and in 1979 visited the U.S. to seek closer
 U.S.-Chinese ties. In 1981 Deng strengthened his position in China by
 replacing Hua as Communist party chairman with his own protege, HU
 YAOBANG. At the 1982 Communist Party Congress he was named to lead the
 newly created Central Advisory Commission.

   De Niro, Robert

 De Niro, Robert,  1943-, American film actor; b. N.Y.C. After studying
 for the stage, he acted in films directed by Brian De Palma. In 1973, he
 made his first major movies, Bang the Drum Slowly and Mean Streets. Other
 films include The Godfather Part II (1974), The Deer Hunter (1979),
 Raging Bull (1981; Academy Award), and Falling in Love (1984).

   Denis, Maurice

 Denis, Maurice, 1870-1943, French painter and writer. His paintings,
 often on religious themes, were not as influential as his art theories.
 His writings include Theories (2 vol., 1920, 1922) and History of
 Religious Art (1939).

   Denmark

 Denmark, Dan. Danmark, officially the Kingdom of Denmark, country (1988
 est. pop. 5,125,676), 16,629 sq mi (43,069 sq km), N Europe; bordered by
 West Germany (S), the North Sea (W), the Skagerrak (N), and the Kattegat
 and the Oresund (E). The southernmost of the Scandinavian countries,
 Denmark includes most of the JUTLAND peninsula as well as more than 450
 islands. The FAEROE ISLANDS and GREENLAND, which are semiautonomous, lie
 to the northwest. COPENHAGEN is the capital and chief industrial center;
 other important cities are ARHUS, Odense, and Aalborg. Denmark, which is
 almost entirely low-lying, has traditionally been an agricultural
 country; after 1945, however, it greatly expanded its industrial base.
 The main commodities raised are livestock and poultry, root crops, and
 cereals. The leading manufactures include meat and dairy products,
 chemicals, and ships. Fishing and shipping are also important. Nearly all
 the inhabitants speak Danish, and most belong to the established Lutheran
 Church. Denmark is a constitutional monarchy, governed under the 1953
 constitution. Legislative power is vested in the unicameral, 179-member
 Folketing (parliament); executive authority rests with the monarch and
 the appointed prime minister and cabinet. The reigning monarch is Queen
 MARGARET.II, who succeeded her father, Frederick IX, upon his death in
 1972.

 History The Danes probably settled Jutland by c.10,000 BC, but little is
 known of Danish history before the 9th to 11th cent. AD, when the Danes
 had an important role in the VIKING raids on W Europe. Harold Bluetooth
 (d. c.985) was the first Christian king of Denmark, and his son, Sweyn,
 conquered England. Danish hegemony over N Europe was first established
 (12th-13th cent.) by WALDEMAR I and WALDEMAR II. Queen MARGARET I
 achieved (1397) the KALMAR UNION of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway; the
 union with Sweden was largely ineffective and ended in 1523, but that
 with Norway lasted until 1814. The house of Oldenburg, from which the
 present dynasty is descended, acceded in 1448 with CHRISTIAN I, who also
 united Schleswig and Holstein with the Danish crown. Participation in the
 THIRTY YEARS WAR (1618-48) and the wars (1657-1660) of FREDERICK III with
 Sweden caused Denmark to lose prestige. Under the Treaty of Kiel (1814)
 Denmark lost Norway to Sweden, and following its defeat (1864) by Prussia
 and Austria it was deprived of SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN. Of more lasting
 importance was the internal reform of the 19th cent. that transformed
 Denmark's poor peasantry into the most prosperous small farmers in
 Europe. Denmark was occupied (1940-45) by German forces in WORLD WAR II.
 In 1949 it broke a long tradition of neutrality and joined NATO, and in
 1972 it joined the COMMON MARKET. The Social Democratic party has been
 dominant in the postwar era, although at times ruling in a coalition or
 as a minority government. A center-right coalition government, however,
 was formed in 1982.

   density

 density, ratio of the MASS of a substance to its volume. Because many
 substances, especially gases, can be compressed into a smaller volume by
 increasing the pressure on them, the temperature and pressure at which
 the density is measured are usually specified. See SPECIFIC GRAVITY.

   dentistry

 dentistry, treatment and care of the TEETH and associated oral
 structures. Dentists are concerned with tooth decay, diseases of the
 supporting structures (such as the gums), faulty positioning of the
 teeth, and tooth replacements, as well as prevention of these problems.
 Specialized fields of dentistry include orthodontics (corrective
 dentistry) and periodontics (treatment of gum diseases; see GINGIVITIS
 and PERIODONTITIS).

   Denver

 Denver, city (1986 est. pop. 505,000; met. area 1,633,000), state
 capital, coextensive with Denver co., N central Colo., on the South
 Platte R.; inc. 1861. Colorado's largest city, Denver is a processing,
 shipping, and distributing point for a large agricultural area. It is the
 financial and administrative center of the ROCKY MOUNTAIN region, and a
 hub for energy resource development. Numerous federal agencies have
 offices there. Denver has stockyards, canneries, mills, and many
 diversified industries, including electronics. Tourism is also important.
 In the 1870s and 80s it was the center of a gold and silver boom. Its
 development into a major modern city began in the 1890s. Points of
 interest include a large park system, the state capitol, and the Denver
 Art Museum.

   De Patinir, De Patenier

 De Patinir, De Patenier, or De Patiner, Joachim:see PATINIR, JOACHIM DE.

   depletion allowance

 depletion allowance, a tax exemption given to companies that extract oil,
 gas, coal, and other natural resources for depletion of the product that
 reduces the company's taxable income. U.S. law has sometimes permitted
 certain industries a flat percentage depletion allowance. Such a law is
 intended to encourage the growth of these industries.

   depreciation

 depreciation, in ACCOUNTING, reduction in the value of fixed assets as a
 result of use, damage, or obsolescence. It can be estimated in several
 ways. In the straight-line method, annual depreciation is simply the cost
 of the asset (minus its value, if any, as scrap) divided equally over its
 estimated lifetime. Decreasing-charge methods assign higher depreciation
 costs to the early years. Depreciation allows companies to cut costs of
 capital investment through tax savings.

   depressant

 depressant: see DRUGS.

   depression

 depression, in economics, a period of economic crisis in commerce,
 finance, and industry, characterized by falling prices, restriction of
 credit, reduced production, numerous bankruptcies, and high unemployment.
 A less severe crisis is usually known as a downturn, or recession; in the
 U.S. a recession is technically defined as two consecutive quarterly
 declines in the GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT. A short period in which fear
 takes hold of the minds of businessmen is more properly called a PANIC.
 Depressions now tend to become worldwide in scope because of the
 international nature of trade and credit. Such was the case in the most
 severe economic reversal of the 20th cent., the GREAT DEPRESSION of the
 1930s, which began in the U.S. and spread abroad. Since that time,
 governments have acted to stabilize economic conditions in an effort to
 prevent depressions, using tax and fiscal measures as well as tighter
 controls over BANKING and the STOCK EXCHANGES. Job-training programs and
 increased public welfare are other steps taken to alleviate economic
 slumps.

   depression

 depression, in PSYCHIATRY, a disproportionately intense reaction to
 difficult situations, characterized by strong feelings of loss, sadness,
 worthlessness, or rejection. It may involve such physiological symptoms
 as tense posture, persistent frowning, slowing of activity, fatigue, lack
 of appetite, and insomnia. The depressed individual's tendency toward
 self-recrimination, self-punishment, and guilt may ultimately lead to
 SUICIDE. See also MANIC-DEPRESSIVE PSYCHOSIS.

   depth charge

 depth charge, explosive device used against submarines and other
 underwater targets. Delivered from surface ships, it is either rolled
 into the water or propelled by special throwers. The charge is detonated
 by water pressure at a predetermined depth and, if it explodes near
 enough, can destroy the target by concussion.

   De Quincey, Thomas

 De Quincey, Thomas, 1785-1859, English essayist. The autobiographical
 Confessions of an English Opium-Eater (1822) brought him literary
 eminence. A prolific contributor to various journals, he is remembered
 for "On the Knocking at the Gate in Macbeth" and Autobiographic Sketches
 (1853).

   Derain, Andre

 Derain, Andre, 1880-1954, French painter. He was an exponent of FAUVISM,
 as in his portrait of MATISSE (1905; Philadelphia Mus. Art). Gradually
 his art grew more conservative.

   derivation, in grammar

 derivation, in grammar: see INFLECTION.

   derivative

 derivative: see CALCULUS.

   Derrida, Jacques

 Derrida, Jacques, 1930-, French philosopher. He is concerned with the
 "deconstruction" of Western rationalist thought. In Writing and
 Difference (1967) and On Grammatology (1967) he set forth his theories,
 based on a broad reading of the Western tradition. In opposition to the
 theory of SAUSSURE (see SEMIOTICS), Derrida challenges the primacy of
 spoken language, emphasizing the written language's ability to alter
 speech and thought, creating rather than merely transmitting meaning. His
 writings have analyzed the work of HUSSERL, HEGEL, and other major
 philosophers.

   dervish

 dervish [Pers.,=beggar], the friar or monk of ISLAM. There are numerous
 societies of dervishes, many quite similar to the religious orders of
 Western Christendom; however, dervishes do not take final vows and are
 never cloistered. Certain groups are characterized by the form of their
 mystical practice, e.g., the howling dervishes and whirling dervishes.
 Some form of SUFISM is the theological basis of most of the dervish
 sects.

   Derzhavin, Gavril Romanovich

 Derzhavin, Gavril Romanovich, 1743-1816, Russian poet. An innovator in
 the age of classicism, he dedicated Felitsa (1783) to Catherine II,
 leading to his appointments as poet laureate and then minister of
 justice. His most famous lyric is the Ode to God (1784).

   DES

 DES or diethylstilbestrol,synthetic nonsteroid female sex hormone having
 the same physiological effects as ESTROGEN. Effective even when taken
 orally, DES was formerly used in pregnant women to prevent miscarriage.
 During the 1970s the drug was linked to vaginal cancer in some women
 whose mothers had taken DES during pregnancy. The use of DES in a
 "morning after" contraceptive pill and as a growth accelerator in beef
 cattle is controversial because it may be a carcinogen.

   Desai, Morarji Ranchhodji

 Desai, Morarji Ranchhodji, 1896-, prime minister (1977-79) of INDIA. As
 leader of the Janata people's party, he became prime minister after
 Indira GANDHI'S fall from power. He was unable to maintain a working
 majority, however, and resigned in 1979, thereby clearing the way for
 Mrs. Gandhi's return to power.

   desalination

 desalination, process of removing soluble salts from water to render it
 suitable for drinking, irrigation, or industrial uses. In distillation,
 salt water is heated in one container to make the water evaporate,
 leaving the salt behind. The desalinated vapor is then condensed to form
 water in a separate container. Although long known, distillation has
 found limited application in water supply because of the fuel costs
 involved in vaporizing salt water. Other desalination techniques include
 electrodialysis, the use of porous membranes to filter out negatively and
 positively charged salt ions; freezing, based on the principle that water
 excludes salt when it crystallizes to ice; ion-exchange, in which water
 passes through a bed of specially treated synthetic resins that are
 capable of extracting ions of the salt from the solution and replacing
 them with ions that form water; and reverse osmosis, in which pressure,
 generated by the presence of salt in the water, forces water through a
 membrane permeable only by pure water.

   Descartes, Rene

 Descartes, Rene, 1596-1650, French philosopher, mathematician, and
 scientist. His philosophy is called Cartesianism (from Cartesius, the
 Latin form of his name). Often called the father of modern philosophy, he
 is regarded as the bridge between SCHOLASTICISM and all philosophy that
 followed him. Primarily interested in mathematics, he founded ANALYTIC
 GEOMETRY and originated the CARTESIAN COORDINATES and Cartesian curves.
 To algebra he contributed the treatment of negative roots and the
 convention of exponent notation. Descartes also contributed to optics,
 physiology, and psychology. His Discourse on Method (1637) and
 Meditations (1641) contain his important philosophical theories.
 Intending to extend mathematical method to all areas of human knowledge,
 Descartes discarded the authoritarian systems of the scholastic
 philosophers and began with universal doubt. Only one thing cannot be
 doubted: doubt itself. Therefore, the doubter must exist. This is the
 kernel of his famous assertion Cogito, ergo sum [I think, therefore I
 am]. From this certainty Descartes expanded knowledge, step by step, to
 admit the existence of God (as the first cause) and the reality of the
 physical world, which he held to be mechanistic and entirely divorced
 from the mind; the only connection between the two is the intervention of
 God. This is almost complete DUALISM.

   descent

 descent: see KINSHIP.

   desegregation

 desegregation: see INTEGRATION.

   desert

 desert, arid region, usually partly covered by sand, supporting a limited
 and specially adapted plant and animal population. So-called cold
 deserts, caused by extreme cold and often covered perpetually by snow or
 ice, form about one sixth of the earth's surface. Warm deserts form about
 one fifth of it. The world's largest desert areas lie between 20 deg and
 30 deg north and south of the equator in regions where mountains
 intercept the paths of the trade winds or where atmospheric conditions
 limit precipitation. An area with an annual rainfall of 10 in. (25 cm) or
 less is considered a desert, although some deserts and semideserts exist
 in areas of higher precipitation where moisture is lost by runoff or
 evaporation. The two largest deserts are the SAHARA in Africa and the
 great desert of central and W Australia.

   De Sica, Vittorio

 De Sica, Vittorio, 1901-74, Italian film director and actor. His
 Shoeshine (1946), The Bicycle Thief (1948), and Umberto D. (1952) are
 classics of postwar Italian neo-realism. Among his later works is The
 Garden of the Finzi-Continis (1971). He starred in ROSSELLINI'S General
 Della Rovere (1959) and many other films.

   desktop publishing

 desktop publishing, a system for producing printed materials that
 consists of a PERSONAL COMPUTER, high-resolution printer (usually a LASER
 PRINTER), and software. It enables a small business or an individual to
 publish professional quality materials on the premises inexpensively and
 quickly without traditional publishing industry suppliers.

   Des Moines

 Des Moines, city (1986 est. pop. 192,060), state capital and seat of Polk
 co., S central Iowa, on the Des Moines and Raccoon rivers; chartered
 1857. Iowa's largest city, it is a major Corn Belt industrial and
 transportation center. Publishing and printing, food processing,
 insurance, and diverse manufactures are important. Drake Univ. and
 various state buildings are notable.

   De Soto, Hernando

 De Soto, Hernando, c.1500-42, Spanish explorer. After serving with
 Francisco PIZARRO in PERU, he was named governor of CUBA. In 1539 he set
 out to conquer Florida. In search of treasure, his group explored much of
 GEORGIA, the Carolinas, TENNESSEE, ALABAMA, and OKLAHOMA. They were
 probably the first white men to see (1541) the MISSISSIPPI R. De Soto
 died on the adventurous journey and was buried in the Mississippi.

   Des Pres, Josquin

 Des Pres, Josquin: see JOSQUIN DESPREZ.

   Dessalines, Jean Jacques

 Dessalines, Jean Jacques, c.1758-1806, emperor of HAITI (1804-6). Born a
 black slave, he became a shrewd general. He defeated (1803) French forces
 and, upon Haiti's independence (1804), ruled as a despot until he was
 assassinated.

   detective story

 detective story, type of popular fiction in which a crime, usually a
 murder, is solved by a detective-professional or amateur-who logically
 interprets the evidence. The modern detective story, complete with its
 conventions, is considered to have emerged in E.A. POE'S "Murders in the
 Rue Morgue" (1841). Wilkie COLLINS'S The Moonstone (1868) is probably the
 first full-length detective novel. In 1887 Arthur Conan DOYLE, in "A
 Study in Scarlet," introduced Sherlock Holmes, the most famous of all
 sleuths. Subsequent writers, too, have often used one detective in a
 series of works. Especially famous are G.K. CHESTERTON'S Father Brown,
 Earl Derr Biggers's Charlie Chan, Rex Stout's Nero Wolfe, Dorothy
 Sayers's Lord Peter Wimsey, and Agatha CHRISTIE'S Hercule Poirot. Many
 writers incorporate the conventions of the detective story into the
 NOVEL, producing works that are witty, erudite, and filled with
 interesting characters. Such writers include Ngaio MARSH, C. DAY LEWIS,
 Josephine Tey, P.D. James, Arthur W. Upfield, and Ruth Rendell. More
 specialized types of detective fiction include the "police procedural,"
 by such writers as Freeman Wills Crofts, Ed McBain, and Maj Sjowall and
 Per Wahloo, which focus on the technical aspects of crime-solving; the
 "hard-boiled" story, such as those of Dashiell HAMMETT, Raymond CHANDLER,
 and Ross MACDONALD, featuring tough but honorable "private eyes"; and the
 psychological, like the novels of Georges Simenon, in which motivation
 and ambience are more important than the solution to the crime. Espionage
 novels involving international intrigue share many conventions of
 detective fiction. Masters of this genre include Eric AMBLER, Graham
 GREENE, Ian Fleming, and John LE CARRE.

   detector

 detector: see PARTICLE DETECTOR.

   detente

 detente, relaxation of tensions between nations, applied particularly to
 a phase of improved relations between the U.S. and USSR that began in the
 1960s. Following the period of hostility known as the COLD WAR, detente
 reached its height in such agreements as the Nuclear Nonproliferation
 Treaty (1968), Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I; 1972), and the
 Helsinki accords (1975). After the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979),
 relations between the two superpowers worsened. The crisis in Poland, an
 escalation of the arms race, and Pres. REAGAN'S anti-Soviet stance left
 detente in abeyance during the early 1980s.

   Detroit

 Detroit, city (1986 est. pop. 1,086,220; met. area 4,334,800), seat of
 Wayne co., SE Mich., on the Detroit R., between Lakes St. Clair and Erie;
 inc. as a city 1815. It is Michigan's largest city, the nation's sixth
 largest, and a major GREAT LAKES shipping and rail center. Its early
 carriage industry helped Henry FORD and others to make it the "automobile
 capital of the world." It continues to be the headquarters of major auto
 manufacturers, but declines in the field have caused severe unemployment
 in the city and its environs. Other industries include steel,
 pharmaceuticals, and food processing. A producer of foundry products and
 machine tools, tires, paint, and chemicals, it also has extensive salt
 mines. Detroit is the oldest city in the Midwest. A French fort and
 fur-trading settlement founded in 1701 by CADILLAC, it was captured
 (1760) by the British. U.S. control, resulting from JAY'S TREATY (1794),
 dates from 1796. After a devastating 1805 fire, the city was rebuilt to a
 plan by L'ENFANT and grew to great commercial importance in the
 mid-1800s. In July 1967 race riots caused several deaths and many
 injuries, as well as some $150 million in property damages. The city is
 the site of many ambitious modern building projects, e.g., the
 Renaissance Center. The city's educational and cultural institutions
 include Wayne State Univ., the Univ. of Detroit, the Detroit Inst. of the
 Arts, and the Detroit Symphony Orchestra. An international bridge and a
 vehicular tunnel link Detroit with WINDSOR, Ontario.

   Deucalion

 Deucalion, in Greek mythology, son of PROMETHEUS; father of HELLEN. Only
 he and his wife Pyrrha survived the flood that ZEUS caused in anger at
 mankind's irreverence. Later an oracle told them to cast behind them the
 stones of the earth. These stones became human and repopulated the world.

   deuterium

 deuterium: see HYDROGEN.

   Deuteronomy

 Deuteronomy,  book of the OLD TESTAMENT, fifth and last of the
 PENTATEUCH, ascribed by tradition to MOSES. According to the text it
 gives the final words of Moses to his people, and includes a review of
 the history of Israel since the exodus from Egypt and a number of general
 and particular moral principles. The book concludes with a blessing by,
 and the death of, Moses. Its main theme is absolute monotheism.

   De Valera, Eamon

 De Valera, Eamon, 1882-1975, Irish statesman; b. N.Y.C. He took part in
 the Easter Rebellion of 1916; sentenced to life imprisonment, he was
 released under an amnesty in 1917 and elected president of SINN FEIN.
 Again imprisoned in 1918, he escaped to the U.S., where he raised funds
 for Irish independence. While away, he was elected president of the
 revolutionary assembly, Dail Eireann; he returned in 1920. In 1922, De
 Valera repudiated the treaty between Britain and Ireland that established
 the Irish Free State because it did not give Ireland absolute freedom,
 and left the Dail. In 1927 he reentered the Dail with his party, FIANNA
 FAIL. As prime minister (1932-48, 1951-54, 1957-58), he made Ireland a
 sovereign state and maintained neutrality in WORLD WAR II. He was also
 president of Ireland (1959-73).

   devaluation

 devaluation, decreasing the value of one nation's currency relative to
 gold or the currencies of other nations. It is usually undertaken as a
 means of correcting a deficit in the BALANCE OF PAYMENTS. Although
 devaluation occurs in terms of all currencies, it is best illustrated in
 relation to one other currency. For example, if the U.S. is losing money
 in its trade with France, it may decide to devalue the dollar by 10%. If
 one dollar had been worth about 5.5 francs, a 10% devaluation causes it
 to be worth only 5 francs. Such a move causes French products to become
 more expensive for Americans (thus reducing U.S. imports) and American
 products to become cheaper for Frenchmen (increasing U.S. exports). The
 U.S. devalued the dollar by 8.57% in 1971 and by 10% in 1973.

   Devereux, Robert

 Devereux, Robert: see ESSEX, ROBERT DEVEREUX, 2D EARL OF.

   Devils Island

 Devils Island, most southerly of the Iles du Salut, in the
 Caribbean Sea, off FRENCH GUIANA. It was the site of a penal colony
 (1852-1951) used mostly for political prisoners, such as Capt. Alfred
 Dreyfus (see DREYFUS AFFAIR). Its name was synonymous with the system's
 horrors.

   Devolution, War of

 Devolution, War of, 1667-68, between France and Spain over the Spanish
 Netherlands. On the basis of a complicated legal claim, LOUIS XIV of
 France overran the Spanish Netherlands and Franche-Comte. The United
 Provinces, in alarm, formed the Triple Alliance with England and Sweden,
 and France was forced to make peace.

   Devonian period

 Devonian period: see GEOLOGIC ERA .

   de Vries, Hugo

 de Vries, Hugo, 1848-1935, Dutch botanist. He rediscovered (1900) Gregor
 MENDEL'S laws of heredity and developed the theory of MUTATION, expounded
 in The Mutation Theory (1901-3) and in Plant-Breeding (1907). De Vries
 introduced the experimental method to the study of evolution, and
 maintained that new species develop via mutations and that each quality
 subject to change is represented by a single physical unit (which he
 called a pangen). His work on osmosis is also important; he coined the
 term isotonic.

   dew

 dew, thin film of water that has condensed on the surface of objects near
 the ground. Dew forms when objects cool during the night, causing the
 layer of air in contact with them to cool, and then causing the
 condensation of the water vapor in that layer of air. Condensation occurs
 because the capacity of air to hold water vapor decreases as the air is
 cooled. FROST forms if the dew point, or temperature at which
 condensation begins, is below 32 degF (0 degC).

   Dewar, Sir James

 Dewar, Sir James, 1842-1923, British chemist and physicist; b. Scotland.
 Professor at the Royal Inst., London, and later director of the
 Davy-Faraday Research Laboratory there, he was knighted in 1904. Best
 known for his work on the properties of matter at very low temperatures
 and the liquefaction of gases, he liquefied and solidified hydrogen and
 invented the DEWAR FLASK.

   Dewar flask

 Dewar flask for Sir James Dewar, container for storing hot or cold
 substances, e.g., liquid air. It consists of two flasks, one inside the
 other, separated by a vacuum. The vacuum greatly reduces the transfer of
 heat. The common thermos bottle is an adaptation of the Dewar flask.

   Dewey, George

 Dewey, George, 1837-1917, American admiral; b. Montpelier, Vt.; grad.
 Annapolis, 1858. During the SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR, he directed (1898) the
 spectacular victory over the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay in the
 Philippines.

   Dewey, John

 Dewey, John, 1859-1952, American philosopher and educator; b. Burlington,
 Vt. He rejected authoritarian teaching methods, regarding education in a
 democracy as a tool to enable the citizen to integrate his or her culture
 and vocation usefully. To accomplish those aims, both pedagogical methods
 and curricula needed radical reform. Dewey's philosophy, called
 instrumentalism and related to PRAGMATISM, holds that truth is an
 instrument used by human beings to solve their problems, and that it must
 change as their problems change. Thus it partakes of no transcendental or
 eternal reality. Dewey's view of democracy as a primary ethical value
 permeated his educational theories. He had a profound impact on
 PROGRESSIVE EDUCATION and was regarded as the foremost educator of his
 day. He lectured all over the world and prepared educational surveys for
 Turkey, Mexico, and the Soviet Union. Among his works are Democracy and
 Education (1916) and Logic (1938).

   Dewey, Melvil

 Dewey, Melvil, 1851-1931, American library pioneer, originator of the
 Dewey decimal system; b. Adams Center, N.Y. As acting librarian of
 Amherst College (1874) he evolved his system of book classification,
 using the numbers 000 to 999 to cover the general fields of knowledge and
 narrowing the system to fit special subjects by the use of decimals.
 While at Columbia Univ. he established the first LIBRARY SCHOOL. Dewey
 was also librarian of the New York State Library at Albany, where he
 founded another important library school. He was a founder of the
 American Library Association.

   Dewey, Thomas Edmund

 Dewey, Thomas Edmund, 1902-71, U.S. politician, governor (1943-55) of New
 York; b. Owosso, Mich. Twice a Republican presidential candidate, Dewey
 lost in 1944 to F.D. ROOSEVELT, and in 1948, quite unexpectedly, to Harry
 S TRUMAN.

   De Witt, Jan

 De Witt, Jan: see WITT, JAN DE.

   dextrose

 dextrose: see GLUCOSE.

   Dhahran

 Dhahran, city (1980 est. pop. 15,000), NE Saudi Arabia, near the Persian
 Gulf. Since the discovery (1938) of oil nearby, it has grown rapidly into
 a modern city. In Dhahran are the headquarters of the Arabian American
 Oil Co. (ARAMCO), the office of the Saudi petroleum ministry, and the
 Univ. of Petroleum and Minerals (1964).

   Dhaka

 Dhaka, city (1981 pop. 3,458,602), capital of Bangladesh, on the Burhi
 Ganga R. It is the nation's industrial, commercial, and administrative
 center, with an active trade in jute, rice, and tea. Among its
 manufactures are textiles, jute products, and paper, and in cottage
 industries, confectionaries, jewelry, and other handicrafts. It was the
 capital (1660-1704) of the Mogul province of Bengal. It passed under
 British rule in 1765, and became capital of the newly formed Bangladesh
 in 1971. Historic buildings include the Bara Katra palace (1644) and Lal
 Bagh fort (1678).

   dharma

 dharma. 1 In Hinduism, the religious and ethical duties of the
 individual; virtue, right conduct. 2 In Buddhism, religious truth,
 namely, Buddhist teaching. The plural, dharmas, refers to the constituent
 qualities and phenomena of the empirical world.

   diabetes

 diabetes or diabetes mellitus,chronic disorder involving abnormal INSULIN
 secretion, associated with high blood sugar (hyperglycemia) and altered
 fat and protein metabolism. Diabetics are predisposed to developing
 vascular disease (e.g., ARTERIOSCLEROSIS), kidney disease, HYPERTENSION,
 and BLINDNESS. Diabetics who secrete insufficient amounts of insulin are
 known as non-insulin-dependent diabetics. This type of diabetes, most
 commonly seen in overweight adults, can often be managed by weight loss
 and diet regulation, although sometimes insulin or oral hypoglycemic
 drugs maybe needed. Diabetics unable to produce their own insulin are
 known as insulin-dependent and must receive injections of the hormone
 daily.

   Diadochi

 Diadochi [Gr.,=successors], subordinates of ALEXANDER THE GREAT who,
 after his death (323 BC), struggled for control of his empire. Chief
 among them were Antipater, Perdiccas, Eumenes, Craterus, Antigonus,
 Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus. The major events of the wars of the
 Diadochi were the victory of Antipater over Perdiccas for the regency
 (321 BC), the defeat of Antigonus by Lysimachus, Ptolemy, and Seleucus at
 Ipsus (301), and the victory of Seleucus over Lysimachus at Corupedion
 (281). At the end of the period Alexander's empire was irrevocably split,
 with power divided among the descendants of Ptolemy, Seleucus, and
 Antigonus.

   Diaghilev, Sergei Pavlovich

 Diaghilev, Sergei Pavlovich, 1872-1929, Russian Ballet impresario and art
 critic. With Michel FOKINE and others, he founded (1909) the Ballets
 Russes in Paris. His lavish productions, incorporating asymmetry and
 perpetual motion, revolutionized BALLET, and attracted dancers,
 choreographers, designers, and composers of the first rank.

   dialect

 dialect, variety of a LANGUAGE used by a group of speakers within a
 particular speech community. Every individual speaks a variety of his
 language called an idiolect. Dialects are groups of idiolects with a
 common core of similarities in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary.
 Adjacent dialects are mutually intelligible, yet with increasing distance
 differences may accumulate to the point of mutual unintelligibility. For
 example, in the Dutch-German speech community, there is a continuum of
 intelligibility from Flanders to Schleswig and from there to Styria, but
 Flemish and Styrian dialects are mutually unintelligible. The methods of
 comparative linguistics, using written texts, and of modern linguistic
 geography, using informants, have been used to study dialects. In recent
 years linguists have focused on social dialects that reflect occupations
 or life-styles. In the U.S. much work has been done in the area of BLACK
 ENGLISH.

   dialectical materialism

 dialectical materialism, official philosophy of Communism, based on the
 works of Karl MARX and his followers. A reversal of HEGEL'S dialectical
 IDEALISM, it holds that everything is material and that human beings
 create social life solely in response to economic needs. Thus all aspects
 of society are considered to reflect the economic structure, and classes
 in society are determined by their relationship to the means of
 production. Growth, change, and development take place through a
 naturally occurring "struggle of opposites," a process that individuals
 cannot influence. Application of these principles to the study of history
 and sociology is called historical materialism, an approach having many
 non-Communist advocates.

   dialysis

 dialysis, in chemistry, transfer of dissolved solids (solute) across a
 semipermeable membrane, which permits or hinders diffusion of molecules
 according to their size. Dialysis is frequently used to separate
 different components of a solution. For example, in artificial kidney
 machines dialysis is used to purify the blood of persons whose KIDNEYS
 have ceased to function. In the machine, blood is circulated on one side
 of a semipermeable membrane, while dialysis fluid-containing substances
 necessary to the body and closely matching the chemical composition of
 the blood-is circulated on the other side. Metabolic waste products, such
 as urea, diffuse through the membrane into the dialysis fluid and are
 discarded, while the diffusion of substances necessary to the body is
 prevented. See also OSMOSIS.

   diamond

 diamond, mineral, one of two crystalline forms of the element CARBON. It
 is the hardest substance known, and inferior stones are used as
 ABRASIVES, in certain types of cutting tools, and as phonograph needles.
 GEM diamonds were first found in streambeds in India and Borneo; most now
 come from volcanic pipes in South Africa. Famous diamonds include the
 Koh-i-noor, now among the English crown jewels; the Cullinan, from which
 105 stones were cut; and the blue Hope diamond. Synthetic diamonds,
 produced since 1955, are now widely used in industry.

   Diamond Head

 Diamond Head, peak, 761 ft (232 m) high, SE Oahu, Hawaii, prominent
 landmark of the Honolulu waterfront. It is located on the rim of an
 extinct volcanic crater near Waikiki Beach and is protected from
 commercial development.

   Diana

 Diana, 1961-, princess of Wales, wife of CHARLES, prince of Wales, heir
 to the British throne. Daughter of the 8th Earl Spencer, she worked as a
 kindergarten teacher in London before her marriage in 1981. She and
 Prince Charles have two sons, William and Henry.

   Diana

 Diana, in Roman mythology, goddess of the moon, forests, animals, and
 women in childbirth. Both a virgin goddess and an earth goddess, she was
 identified with the Greek ARTEMIS.

   Diane de Poitiers

 Diane de Poitiers, 1499-1566, mistress of HENRY II of France. She
 maintained friendly relations with the queen, CATHERINE DE' MEDICI, while
 completely eclipsing her. She supported the king's anti-Protestant
 policy.

   diaphragm

 diaphragm: see RESPIRATION.

   diary

 diary [Lat.,=day], a daily record of events and observations. It derives
 its impact from its immediacy, unlike the retrospective memoir. Diaries
 interest historians because they depict everyday lives in a given time
 and place. Three of the most famous are those by Samuel PEPYS, who bore
 witness to the plague (1665) and great fire (1666) then sweeping London;
 Mary Chesnut, who chronicled in personal terms the fate of the
 CONFEDERACY in the American CIVIL WAR; and Anne Frank, a young
 German-Jewish girl who, before she died in a World War II CONCENTRATION
 CAMP, recorded her experiences while hiding in Holland. Important
 literary diaries include those of John EVELYN, Andre GIDE, Franz KAFKA,
 and Virginia WOOLF.

   diatom

 diatom, single-celled, microscopic plant that secretes and is enclosed by
 an often intricate, round-to-elongated silica shell. Golden-brown ALGAE,
 diatoms are found in fresh and salt water, in moist soil, and on the
 moist surfaces of other plants; they are the principal constitutent of
 PLANKTON, an important food source for aquatic animals. Most exist
 singly, but some form colonies. When the aquatic forms die, their shells
 collect in the ooze on the bottom, eventually forming the material called
 diatomaceous earth (kieselguhr) or the more compact, chalky, light-weight
 rock called diatomite, used in sound and heat insulation, in making
 explosives, and for filters and abrasives. Most LIMESTONE and much
 PETROLEUM is of diatom origin.

   Diaz, Porfirio

 Diaz, Porfirio, 1830-1915, Mexican dictator. In 1876 he lost the
 presidential election, revolted, and seized power. He ruled MEXICO
 ruthlessly for 35 years in the interest of the few and at the expense of
 the peons. He promoted prosperity by encouraging foreign investments.
 Growing popular discontent culminated in the 1910 revolution led by
 MADERO. Diaz fled and died in exile.

   dice

 dice plural of die, small cubes used in games, usually made of ivory,
 plastic, or similar materials. The six sides are numbered by dots from 1
 to 6, placed in such a way that the sum of the dots on opposite sides
 equals 7. Dice games have been popular since ancient times. In the
 simplest form of play, each player throws, or shoots, for the highest
 sum. In craps, a popular gambling game in the U.S., the "shooter" rolls
 two dice, winning on the first roll if 7 or 11 is thrown and losing if
 the sum is 2, 3, or 12. If any other number is thrown, the player
 continues to shoot until that number is duplicated, for a win, or a 7 is
 rolled, for a loss.

   Dickens, Charles

 Dickens, Charles, 1812-70, English novelist, one of the great fiction
 writers in English. After a childhood of poverty, during which he had to
 work for a time in a blacking warehouse (a humiliation he never forgot),
 Dickens became a court stenographer and parliamentary reporter. His early
 sketches of London life were collected in Sketches by Boz (1836). The
 Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club (1836-37), a series of connected
 humorous sketches, promptly made Dickens famous, and the major novels
 that followed established him as the most popular writer of his time.
 They include Oliver Twist (1838), Nicholas Nickleby (1839), The Old
 Curiosity Shop (1841), Barnaby Rudge (1841), Dombey and Son (1848), David
 Copperfield (1850), Bleak House (1853), Hard Times (1854), Little Dorrit
 (1857), A Tale of Two Cities (1859), Great Expectations (1861), Our
 Mutual Friend (1865), and The Mystery of Edwin Drood (1870; unfinished).
 After an American tour in 1842, he wrote sharply about the U.S. in
 American Notes (1842) and in the novel Martin Chuzzlewit (1843). Working
 ceaselessly, Dickens gave highly successful readings from his works,
 edited two magazines, wrote Christmas stories, e.g., A Christmas Carol
 (1843), and managed amateur theatricals. He married Catherine Hogarth in
 1836, but despite their 10 children, it was not a happy union, and they
 separated in 1858. Although sometimes marred by sentimentality, Dickens's
 novels are remarkable for their rich portraits of all aspects of society,
 their crusades against abuses (imprisonment for debt, legal delays, bad
 education), and their sharply drawn, eccentric characters, whose
 names-Mr. Micawber, Uriah Heep, Ebenezer Scrooge-have become household
 words for generations of readers.

   Dickey, James

 Dickey, James, 1923-, American poet; b. Atlanta. He makes use of the
 ordinary in his poems, joining the natural and mechanical on such topics
 as war and nature. His poetry volumes include Buckdancer's Choice (1965)
 and The Zodiac (1976). He also wrote a novel, Deliverance (1969).

   Dickinson, Emily

 Dickinson, Emily, 1830-86, one of the greatest poets in American
 literature; b. Amherst, Mass. The daughter of a prominent lawyer, she
 spent almost all of her life in her birthplace, gradually withdrawing
 from local activities, and spending her later years as a virtual recluse
 in her father's house. She composed over 1,000 unique lyrics dealing with
 religion, love, nature, death, and immortality, only seven of which were
 published during her lifetime. Her verse, noted for its aphoristic style,
 its wit, its delicate metrical variation, and its bold and startling
 imagery, has had great influence on 20th-cent. poetry. Her posthumous
 fame began with the first editions of her poems (1890, 1891) and her
 correspondence (2 vol., 1894). While her work has gone through many
 editions, a definitive edition of Dickinson did not appear until the
 1950s, when T.H. Johnson published her poems (3 vol., 1955) and her
 letters (3 vol., 1958).

   Dickinson, John

 Dickinson, John, 1732-1808, American Revolutionary statesman; b. Talbot
 co., Md. He wrote Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania (1767-68) to
 protest the TOWNSHEND ACTS. A conservative member of the CONTINENTAL
 CONGRESS, he championed the rights of the small states at the FEDERAL
 CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION.

   dicotyledon

 dicotyledon: see ANGIOSPERM.

   dictionary

 dictionary, published list, in alphabetical order, of the words of a
 language, explaining and defining them, or, in the case of a bilingual
 dictionary, translating them into another language. Modern dictionaries
 usually also provide hyphenation, synonyms, derived forms, and etymology.
 The modern dictionary is often prescriptive, attempting to establish
 certain forms as preferable. In the 20th cent. American dictionary makers
 began to adopt criteria of use rather than of etymological purity,
 somewhat in advance of similar developments in GRAMMAR. Dictionaries were
 produced in China, Greece, Islam, and other complex early cultures. The
 first modern examples of lexicography are thought to be Nathan Bailey's
 Universal Etymological English Dictionary (1721) and his larger
 Dictionarium Britannicum (1730), which served Samuel JOHNSON in preparing
 his Dictionary of the English Language (1755), a standard work. The next
 great lexicographer was an American, Noah WEBSTER, whose immensely
 popular Spelling Book first appeared in 1783, followed by his Compendious
 Dictionary of the English Language (1806). Webster's American Dictionary
 of the English Language (1828) has been skillfully revised and abridged
 over the years, thereby retaining its popularity. A six-volume American
 encyclopedic dictionary, The Century Dictionary, was completed in 1891.
 British lexicographers from the 19th cent. on began to collect and
 organize examples of usage. In 1857 the Philological Society began
 collecting dated examples of usage, culminating in the publication (1928;
 2d ed., 1989) of the unrivaled lexicon known as the New English
 Dictionary, the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), or Murray's Dictionary
 (for Sir James A.H. MURRAY, one of the editors). Two major shorter
 editions exist: The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English and the
 Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. Other advances in lexicography are
 reflected in the frequently revised collegiate or desk dictionary, an
 up-to-date abridgment of a larger work, such as the Webster's New
 Collegiate Dictionary, based on Webster's Third New International
 Dictionary (1966).

   Diderot, Denis

 Diderot, Denis, 1713-84, French encyclopedist and materialist
 philosopher. He was enormously influential in shaping the rationalist
 thought of the 18th cent. His lifework, the ENCYCLOPEDIE, for which he
 enlisted the leading French talents of the time, epitomized the spirit of
 the ENLIGHTENMENT. Also a novelist, satirist, and playwright, he produced
 The Father of the Family (1758) the first "bourgeois drama." He authored
 many philosophical works and in his Salons pioneered in modern art
 criticism. In his later years, he enjoyed the patronage of CATHERINE III
 of Russia.

   Didion, Joan

 Didion, Joan, 1934-, American writer; b. Sacramento, Calif. Exploring the
 emptiness of contemporary American life, her work includes novels, e.g.,
 Play It As It Lays (1970), and essay collections, e.g., The White Album
 (1979).

   Dido

 Dido, in Roman mythology, founder and queen of CARTHAGE. Of the several
 versions of her story the most famous is in VERGIL'S Aeneid, in which she
 loves AENEAS. When he leaves her to continue his journey to Italy, she
 destroys herself on a burning pyre.

   Didot, Francois

 Didot, Francois, 1689-1757, French printer, the first of his family to
 win fame in his craft. His son Francois Ambroise Didot, 1730-1804,
 influenced by BASKERVILLE, designed pseudoclassical type and in turn
 influenced BODONI. He improved and established the point system of
 measuring and naming type sizes. His sons, Pierre Didot, 1761-1853, and
 Firmin Didot, 1764-1836, continued the family tradition, producing
 conscientiously edited texts that met the general reader's requirement
 for good but inexpensive books. Firmin Didot was the first in France to
 print from stereotype plates, reducing costs. He improved and named the
 process.

   Didrikson, Babe

 Didrikson, Babe (Mildred Didrikson), 1913-56, American athlete, perhaps
 the greatest woman athlete of modern times; b. Port Arthur, Tex. She
 excelled in basketball, baseball, and track, and she won (1932) two
 Olympic events, the javelin and the 80-meter hurdles. As a golfer she won
 the U.S. (1946) and British (1947) amateur titles and the U.S. Open
 (1948, 1950, 1954). She married George Zaharias, a wrestler, in 1938.

   Didymus

 Didymus: see THOMAS, SAINT.

   Diefenbaker, John George

 Diefenbaker, John George, 1895-1979, prime minister of CANADA (1957-63).
 He was leader of the Progressive Conservatives and led them to their
 greatest election victory in 1958. He instituted agricultural reforms,
 but a recession contributed to his party's losses to the Liberals in
 1962; his government fell the following year.

   Diego Garcia

 Diego Garcia, coral island, Indian Ocean, largest island of the Chagos
 Archipelago, SW of Sri Lanka. Part of the British Indian Ocean Territory,
 it is also claimed by Mauritius. The 11-sq-mi (28-sq-km) island, leased
 (1970) to the U.S., was later developed as a major U.S. naval base to
 guard the PERSIAN GULF oil routes and to counter increased Soviet
 military activities in S Asia and Africa.

   dielectric

 dielectric, material that does not readily conduct electricity, i.e., an
 insulator (see INSULATION). A good dielectric resists breakdown under
 high voltages, does not draw appreciable power from the circuit, and has
 reasonable physical stability. Dielectrics are used to separate the
 plates of a CAPACITOR. The dielectric strength is a measure of the
 maximum voltage (see POTENTIAL, ELECTRIC) that a dielectric can sustain
 without significant CONDUCTION.

   Diem, Ngo Dinh

 Diem, Ngo Dinh, 1901-63, president (1955-63) of South VIETNAM. Named
 (1954) premier, he ousted (1955) BAO DAI as head of state and emerged as
 president. His rule grew authoritarian, and he was murdered in a military
 coup that was apparently backed by the U.S.

   Dienbienphu

 Dienbienphu, former French military base, NW Vietnam, near the Laos
 border. It was the scene (May 1954) of the last great battle between the
 French and the VIET MINH, whose victory after a 56-day siege marked the
 end of French power in INDOCHINA.

   diesel engine

 diesel engine, type of INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE patented (1892) by the
 German engineer Rudolph Diesel. It is heavier and more powerful than the
 gasoline engine and burns fuel oil instead of gasoline. It differs from
 the gasoline engine in that the ignition of fuel is caused by compression
 of air in its cylinders instead of by a spark. The speed and power of the
 diesel are controlled by varying the amount of fuel injected into the
 cylinder-not the amount of air admitted, as in the gasoline engine.
 Diesels are widely used to power industrial and municipal electric
 generators, continuously operating pumps such as those used in oil
 pipelines, and ships, trucks, locomotives, and some automobiles.

   diethylstilbestrol

 diethylstilbestrol: see DES.

   Dietrich, Marlene

 Dietrich, Marlene, 1901-, German-American film actress. She played the
 sultry, ageless femme fatale. Her films include The Blue Angel (1930),
 The Scarlet Empress (1934), A Foreign Affair (1948), and Witness for the
 Prosecution (1957).

   diffraction

 diffraction, bending of radiation (such as light) around the edge of an
 obstacle or by a narrow aperture. Diffraction results from the
 INTERFERENCE of light waves that pass an opaque body, producing a fuzzy
 region between the shadow area and the lighted area that, upon close
 examination, is actually a series of light and dark lines. A diffraction
 grating contains many fine, parallel slits or scratches (about 12,000 per
 cm or 30,000 per in.) and disperses light into its colors. These gratings
 are used in diffracting SPECTROSCOPES. The atomic and molecular structure
 of crystals is examined by X-ray diffraction.

   digestive system

 digestive system, in animals, a group of organs that digest food and
 eliminate wastes. Digestion converts food into a form that can be
 absorbed into the CIRCULATORY SYSTEM and distributed to tissues
 throughout the body. Digestion begins at the mouth, where chewing reduces
 the food to a fine texture, saliva moistens it, and an enzyme (amylase)
 in saliva begins the conversion of starch into simple sugars. The
 swallowed food passes through the PHARYNX and through a long tube, the
 esophagus, into the STOMACH. The food is pushed through the digestive
 system by peristalsis (contractions of the muscles forming the outer
 walls of the digestive tract). In the stomach, where digestive ENZYMES
 and gastric juices are secreted, sugars and alcohol are absorbed directly
 through the stomach wall into the bloodstream, and the remainder, in the
 form of a thick liquid (chyme), passes into the first section of the
 small INTESTINE (the duodenum). There digestive enzymes from the PANCREAS
 break down fats into glycerol and fatty acids, starches into sugars, and
 proteins into amino acids. The LIVER supplies bile, which makes fat
 globules smaller and more easily digested. Small glands in the intestinal
 wall (crypts of Lieberkuhn) also secrete enzymes that continue digestion.
 Digested food is absorbed through small projections of the intestinal
 wall (villi) into the blood and lymph. Undigested material passes into
 the large intestine and is excreted through the anus (see EXCRETION). See
 also GALL BLADDER.

   Digger Indians

 Digger Indians: see PAIUTE INDIANS.

   digital circuit

 digital circuit, ELECTRIC CIRCUIT in which the output currents or
 voltages are interpreted as having one of several (often two) values,
 depending on which of a corresponding number of ranges they fall into.
 Such circuits implement logical operations or operations on
 representations of discrete numbers, often in binary form. See also
 ANALOG CIRCUIT.

   digital computer

 digital computer: see COMPUTER.

   digitalis

 digitalis, any of several chemically similar drugs, including digitoxin,
 digoxin, and ouabain, used to treat heart failure and cardiac
 arrhythmias. Digitalis slows the pulse and increases the force of heart
 contractions and the amount of blood pumped per heartbeat. The chief
 source of the drug is the foxglove plant, Digitalis purpurea.

   digital-to-analog conversion

 digital-to-analog conversion, the process of changing discrete data into
 a continuously varying signal. The most common use is to present the
 output of a digital COMPUTER as a graphic display (see COMPUTER GRAPHICS)
 or as audio output, as in computer-generated music. See also
 ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION.

   dill

 dill, annual or biennial plant (Anethum graveolens) of the CARROT family,
 native to Europe. Its pungent, aromatic leaves and seeds are used for
 pickling and for flavoring sauces, salads, and soups.

   Dillinger, John

 Dillinger, John (1902?-34), American bank robber and murderer; b.
 Indianapolis (?). After his second jailbreak, he and his gang terrorized
 the Midwest with hit-and-run bank robberies in 1933. He was held
 responsible for 16 killings and was declared "public enemy number one" by
 the FBI, whose agents gunned him down on a Chicago street (July 1934).

   DiMaggio, Joe

 DiMaggio, Joe (Joseph Paul DiMaggio), 1914-, American baseball player; b.
 Martinez, Calif. A center fielder, he played his entire career (1936-51)
 with the New York Yankees. In 1941 "Joltin' Joe" set a major-league
 record by hitting safely in 56 straight games. He compiled a lifetime
 average of .325, hit 361 home runs, and was a superb fielder.

   dime novels

 dime novels, swift-moving thrillers, mainly about the AMERICAN
 REVOLUTION, the frontier period, and the CIVIL WAR. First sold in 1860
 for 10 cents, the books featured such real life adventurers as BUFFALO
 BILL, Ned Buntline, and Deadwood Dick and such fictional characters as
 Nick Carter. The quality of the novels dropped in the 1880s, and they
 were eclipsed by other series, pulp magazines, and comic strips in the
 1890s.

   dimension

 dimension, in mathematics, number of parameters or coordinates required
 to describe points in a mathematical object (usually geometric). The
 space we inhabit, having height, width, and depth, is three-dimensional;
 a plane or surface is two-dimensional; a line or curve is
 one-dimensional; and a point is zero-dimensional. By means of a
 coordinate system, e.g., CARTESIAN COORDINATES, one can specify any point
 with respect to a chosen origin (and coordinate axes through the origin,
 in the case of two or three dimensions). By analogy, an ordered set of
 four, five, or more numbers is defined as representing a point in a space
 of four, five, or more dimensions.

   Dimitrov, Georgi

 Dimitrov, Georgi, 1882-1949, Bulgarian Communist leader and premier
 (1946-49). In 1933 the NAZIS charged him with setting the REICHSTAG fire.
 He was acquitted and moved to the USSR, where he became a citizen. He
 returned to Bulgaria toward the end of World War II.

   Dinesen, Isak

 Dinesen, Isak, pseud. of Baroness Karen Blixen, 1885-1962, Danish author
 who wrote primarily in English. She is best known for her imaginative
 tales, which contain romantic and supernatural elements. Collections
 include Winter's Tales (1942) and Last Tales (1957). Out of Africa
 (1937) is an autobiographical account of her years on a coffee plantation
 in Kenya.

   dingo

 dingo, wild DOG of Australia; shoulder height, c.24 in. (61 cm). Probably
 introduced by aboriginal settlers thousands of years ago, it was the only
 large carnivorous mammal found in Australia by the first European
 colonists. It has large, erect ears, a wolflike head, and long legs, and
 is usually yellowish red, with white markings. A nocturnal hunter, it
 preys on small animals and often kills livestock.

   Diniz

 Diniz,Port. Dinis , 1261-1325, king of Portugal (1279-1325). He
 stimulated farming and commerce and restricted the Roman Catholic
 Church's acquisition of land. A poet and patron of literature, he founded
 (1290) a university at Lisbon during his relatively peaceful reign.

   dinoflagellates

 dinoflagellates: see PYRROPHYTA.

   dinosaur

 dinosaur, any of a large group of extinct REPTILES (subclass Archosauria)
 that dominated the earth for nearly 150 million years in the Mesozoic
 era. Dinosaurs ranged in length from the 2-ft (60-cm) Compsognathus to
 the nearly 90-ft (27-m) Diplodocus, and in weight up to the 75-ton
 Brachiosaurus. They are traditionally classified as cold-blooded
 reptiles, but recent evidence on posture, skeleton, and eating habits
 suggests some may have been warm-blooded. They are all thought to have
 been egg-layers. Saurischian (order Saurischia), or lizard-hipped,
 dinosaurs included meat-eating bipeds, e.g., Allosaurus and
 Tyrannosaurus, and plant-eating quadrupeds, e.g., Brontosaurus and
 Diplodocus. Ornithischian (order Ornithischia), or bird-hipped, dinosaurs
 included plant-eating bipeds, e.g., Iguanodon and the duckbills, and
 armored dinosaurs, e.g., the plated Stegosaurus and horned Triceratops.
 It is not known why dinosaurs died out. Most theories postulate that
 changes in geography, climate, and sea level were responsible, and one
 recent theory suggests that an asteroid impact caused the changes that
 led to their extinction.

   Diocletian

 Diocletian (Caius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus), 245-313, Roman emperor
 (284-305); b. Salona (now Split, Yugoslavia). An army commander of humble
 birth, he was chosen to succeed Numerian as emperor and became sole ruler
 after his coemperor, Carinus, was killed (285). Diocletian appointed
 Maximian as his coemperor and Constantius I and Galerius as caesars
 (subemperors). Each of the four men was given a district of the empire to
 rule. Under this reorganization the empire throve; Britain was restored
 (296), and the Persians were subjugated (298). Diocletian's unsuccessful
 economic policies and his persecution of Christians were the only black
 marks on his splendid reign. In 305 he retired to his castle at Salona.

   diode

 diode, two-terminal device having a low RESISTANCE to electric current in
 one direction and a high resistance in the reverse direction. Diodes are
 thus useful as RECTIFIERS, converting alternating current (AC) into
 direct current (DC). Although ELECTRON-TUBE diodes were once common,
 almost all diodes today are SEMICONDUCTOR devices. In general, current
 flowing through a diode is not proportional to the voltage between its
 terminals. When the voltage applied in the reverse direction exceeds a
 certain value, a semiconductor diode breaks down and conducts heavily in
 the direction of normally high resistance. This effect can be exploited
 to regulate voltage. Some diodes are sensitive to light (see
 PHOTOELECTRIC CELL; PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL). A light-emitting diode (LED)
 produces light as current passes through it; some LEDs can act as lasers.
 A thermistor is a special semiconductor diode whose conductivity
 increases with the diode temperature.

   Diogenes

 Diogenes, c.412-323 BC, Greek philosopher. He taught that the virtuous
 life is the simple life, a maxim he dramatized by living in a tub.
 Condemning the corruption of his contemporaries, he went about the
 streets looking for "an honest man." None of his writings survives.

   Dione

 Dione, in astronomy, natural satellite of SATURN.

   Dion of Syracuse

 Dion of Syracuse, 409?-354? BC, Greek political leader in Syracuse,
 brother-in-law of DIONYSIUS THE ELDER. A friend of PLATO, he opposed
 tyranny. Leading a force from Athens, he overthrew (357 BC) DIONYSIUS THE
 YOUNGER and ruled Syracuse until he was assassinated.

   Dionysius the Elder

 Dionysius the Elder, c.430-367 BC, tyrant of SYRACUSE. Gaining influence
 by supporting the poorer classes, he became (405 BC) tyrant. He
 maintained power by exploiting Syracusan fear of the Carthaginians,
 leading expeditions against them in Sicily, and against Italian cities.
 He was succeeded by his son, Dionysius the Younger, fl. 368-344 BC
 Unsuited for the position by both training and temperament, he was
 overthrown by DION OF SYRACUSE (357). The murder of Dion permitted his
 return, but he was finally expelled in 344.

   Dionysus

 Dionysus, in Greek mythology, god of fertility and wine, later considered
 a patron of the arts. Probably of Thracian origin, Dionysus was one of
 the most important Greek gods and the subject of profuse and
 contradictory legends. He was thought to be the son of either ZEUS and
 PERSEPHONE or of Zeus and Semele. Dionysus was attended by a carousing
 band of SATYRS, MAENADS, and NYMPHS. He taught mankind viticulture but
 was capable of dreadful revenge upon those (e.g., ORPHEUS and Pentheus)
 who denied his divinity. His worship was characteristically drunken and
 orgiastic. The chief figure in the ORPHIC MYSTERIES and other cults,
 Dionysus had many festivals in his honor. From the music, singing, and
 dancing of the Greater Dionysia in Athens developed the dithyramb and,
 ultimately, Greek drama. The Romans identified him with Liber and
 BACCHUS, who was more properly the wine god.

   Diophantus

 Diophantus, fl. c.250, Greek mathematician known as the "father of
 algebra." He developed the use of symbols instead of words in algebraic
 reasoning as well as methods for solving determinate and indeterminate
 equations. His chief work is the Arithmetica.

   Dior, Christian

 Dior, Christian: see FASHION .

   Dioscuri

 Dioscuri: see CASTOR AND POLLUX.

   diphtheria

 diphtheria, acute, contagious disease caused by the Corynebacterium
 diphtheriae. It is spread through respiratory droplets of infected
 individuals. The bacteria, lodging in the mucous membranes of the throat,
 secrete a potent toxin, which causes tissue destruction and the formation
 of a gray membrane in the upper respiratory tract that can loosen and
 cause asphyxiation. The toxin may also spread via the blood and damage
 tissues elsewhere in the body. Diphtheria can be prevented by
 vaccination.

   Dirac, Paul Adrien Maurice

 Dirac, Paul Adrien Maurice, 1902-84, English physicist. He formulated
 (1928) a version of quantum mechanics (see QUANTUM THEORY) that took into
 account the theory of RELATIVITY. This theory implied the existence of an
 antiparticle (see ANTIMATTER) to the electron; it was discovered later
 and named the positron. His equation of a particle's motion is a
 relativistic modification of Erwin SCHRODINGER'S basic equation of
 quantum mechanics. Dirac and Schrodinger shared the 1933 Nobel Prize in
 physics. Dirac also helped to formulate the Fermi-Dirac statistics and
 contributed to the quantum theory of electromagnetic radiation.

   direct current

 direct current: see ELECTRICITY; GENERATOR; MOTOR, ELECTRIC.

   Directoire style

 Directoire style, in French interior decoration and costume, the manner
 prevailing at the time of the DIRECTORY (1795-99). Influenced by
 Greco-Roman design, it departed from the sumptuous LOUIS PERIOD STYLES
 and forecast the EMPIRE STYLE. Furniture became more angular and severe;
 painted and waxed wood replaced marquetry. Women adopted the chemise
 gown, with low neckline and high waistline, and men wore tight breeches
 and coats with wide lapels.

   Directory

 Directory, five men who held (1795-99) executive power in France during
 the FRENCH REVOLUTION. They were chosen by the legislature and each year
 one director was replaced. The Directory was riddled by corruption and
 torn by internal squabbles. After the military reverses of 1799, the Abbe
 SIEYES, who became a director that year, helped NAPOLEON I stage the coup
 of 18 Brumaire (Nov. 9, 1799), which replaced the Directory with the
 Consulate.

   dirigible

 dirigible: see AIRSHIP.

   disarmament, nuclear

 disarmament, nuclear. The first ATOMIC BOMBS dropped (1945) on Japan by
 the U.S. in WORLD WAR II demonstrated the terrible threat to humanity
 posed by the possibility of nuclear war. Therefore the first resolution
 (1946) of the General Assembly of the UNITED NATIONS set up the UN Atomic
 Energy Commission to make proposals for control of atomic energy. The
 U.S.-sponsored Baruch Plan proposed an international agency to control
 all destructive uses of atomic power. Intensification of the COLD WAR
 made agreement impossible, and the Soviet Union became the second nuclear
 power (1949). After both the U.S. (1952) and the USSR (1953) exploded
 HYDROGEN BOMBS, UN disarmament talks were revived, and a subcommittee of
 the commission was established. Its Western members-the U.S., Canada,
 Great Britain, and France-advocated an international control system with
 on-site inspection. The USSR called for an immediate ban on nuclear
 weapons with possible later controls. The U.S., Great Britain, and the
 USSR began discussions on the formulation of a nuclear test-ban treaty in
 1958 and agreed to suspend nuclear testing for one year. These talks,
 continued under U.S. Pres. John F. KENNEDY and Soviet Premier Nikita
 KHRUSHCHEV, led to the first test-ban treaty (1963), the Moscow
 Agreement, which banned testing in the atmosphere, in outer space, and
 under water. The two countries proposed a nonproliferation agreement that
 was approved (1968) by the UN General Assembly but was not binding on the
 increasing number of nations developing nuclear weapons in the 1970s. The
 U.S. and USSR began holding Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT), which
 resulted in the signing (1972) of the SALT I treaty: the two powers
 agreed to limit antiballistic missiles and reached an interim accord on
 limiting offensive nuclear weapons. The SALT II talks led to an agreement
 tentatively approved by U.S. Pres. Jimmy CARTER and Soviet Premier Leonid
 BREZHNEV. Ratification of the plan by the U.S. Senate, however, was
 shelved (1980) after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. In 1982 the U.S.
 and USSR began a new set of talks, called START (STrategic Arms Reduction
 Talks), and a worldwide movement for nuclear disarmament, which had
 reemerged early in the 1980s, continued to be active. On Dec. 8, 1987
 Pres. REAGAN and Soviet Premier Mikhail GORBACHEV signed a treaty to
 eliminate intermediate-range nuclear forces. The U.S. Senate and the
 Soviet Presidium both ratified the treaty in May 1988.

   Disarmament Conference

 Disarmament Conference, 1923-37, series of international meetings for the
 discussion of general disarmament. Participants were the members of the
 LEAGUE OF NATIONS, the U.S., and the USSR. The first meeting (Feb.
 1932-June 1933), at Geneva, was marked by disagreement over definitions
 of the categories of war materials, the reluctance of France to agree to
 any arms limitations, and Germany's insistence on a military parity with
 the other powers. The session ended in deadlock. The second session (Oct.
 1933) met in Germany, but when Adolf HITLER withdrew Germany from the
 League of Nations, the Conference again adjourned. Thereafter, it met
 only sporadically until it went out of existence in 1937. By then a
 general military buildup preparatory to WORLD WAR II was already
 underway, and all hopes of disarmament had vanished.

   Disciples of Christ

 Disciples of Christ or The Christian Church,a Protestant religious body
 founded early in the 19th cent. in the U.S. It held that the Bible alone
 should form the basis for faith and conduct and that individuals should
 interpret the Bible for themselves. The church was begun by Thomas
 Campbell (see under CAMPBELL, Alexander), who gathered together several
 dissident groups. In 1906 the group split into the CHURCHES OF CHRIST and
 the more liberal Disciples of Christ, which is formally known as The
 Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). The latter reported (1988) a U.S.
 membership of 1,623,754.

   Disney, Walt(er Elias)

 Disney, Walt(er Elias), 1901-66, American film producer, a pioneer in
 animated cartoons; b. Chicago. He began his career as a cartoonist in
 1920. In 1928 he created the character of Mickey Mouse in the cartoon
 short Steamboat Willie. His Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1938) was
 the first full-length animated cartoon. Others include Fantasia (1940)
 and Alice in Wonderland (1951). After 1950 he also produced adventure
 stories and semidocumentary nature films. Disneyland, a gargantuan
 amusement park in Anaheim, Calif., opened in 1955; Walt Disney World
 opened near Orlando, Fla., in 1971 and Epcot Center, on adjoining
 grounds, opened in 1982.

   displaced person

 displaced person: see REFUGEE.

   Disraeli, Benjamin, 1st earl of Beaconsfield

 Disraeli, Benjamin, 1st earl of Beaconsfield, 1804-81, British statesman
 and author. Of Jewish descent, he was baptized a Christian in 1817. His
 political essays and novels earned him a permanent place in English
 literature. Elected to Parliament in 1837, he developed into an
 outstanding, realistic, and caustically witty politician. In 1848 he
 became leader of the Tory protectionists. Disraeli favored a political
 partnership with the working classes, and as chancellor of the exchequer
 (1852, 1858-59, 1866-68), he "educated his party" (now the Conservative
 party) to pass the fairly radical REFORM BILL of 1867, which enfranchised
 some 2 million men, largely of the working class, and greatly benefited
 his party. He became prime minister in 1868 but lost the office to
 GLADSTONE that same year. His second ministry (1874-80) produced many
 domestic reforms but is noted for its aggressive foreign policy. The
 annexation of the Fiji islands (1874) and the Transvaal (1877), and the
 wars against the Afghans (1878-79) and the ZULUS (1879), proclaimed
 England an imperial world power. Disraeli's purchase of controlling
 shares of the Suez Canal strengthened British interests in the
 Mediterranean. After the Russo-Turkish War, he induced Turkey to cede
 Cyprus to Great Britain, and through the Congress of Berlin he reduced
 Russian power in the Balkans. A favorite of Queen VICTORIA, he had her
 crowned empress of India in 1876. His policy of democracy and imperialism
 revitalized his party. His father, Isaac D'Israeli, 1766-1848, was an
 author, best known for Curiosities of Literature (6 vol., 1791-1834).

   dissenters

 dissenters: see NONCONFORMISTS.

   distaff

 distaff: see SPINNING.

   distillation

 distillation, process used to separate the substances composing a
 mixture; it involves a change of state, e.g., liquid to gas, and
 subsequent condensation (see STATES OF MATTER). A simple distillation
 apparatus consists of three parts: a flask in which the mixture is
 heated, a condenser in which the vapor is cooled, and a vessel in which
 the condensed vapor, called distillate, is collected. Upon heating, the
 substances with a higher boiling point remain in the flask and constitute
 the residue. When the substance with the lowest boiling point has been
 removed, the temperature can be raised and the process repeated with the
 substance having the next lowest boiling point. The process of obtaining
 portions (or fractions) in this way is called fractional distillation. In
 destructive distillation various solid substances, such as wood, coal,
 and oil shale, are heated out of free contact with air, and the portions
 driven off are collected separately. Distillation is used in refining
 PETROLEUM and in preparing alcoholic beverages.

   distributive law

 distributive law, in mathematics, a law governing the interaction of
 certain pairs of operations. The distributive law of multiplication over
 addition states that the equation a* (b+c)=(a*b)+(a*c ) holds for all
 numbers a, b, c.

   District of Columbia

 District of Columbia, federal district, c.70 sq mi (180 sq km) 1986 est.
 pop. 626,100, on the E bank of the Potomac R., coextensive with
 WASHINGTON, D.C., established by congressional acts of 1790 and 1791. A
 10-mi (16.1-km) square carved from Maryland and Virginia, it was reduced
 in 1847 when the Virginia grant was retroceded (see ALEXANDRIA;
 ARLINGTON). District residents were disenfranchised until the 23d
 amendment to the U.S. Constitution (1961) was passed, allowing them to
 vote in presidential elections. In 1970 the District was allowed a
 nonvoting delegate to Congress. A constitutional amendment giving full
 congressional representation passed Congress in 1978, but few states have
 ratified it. District government, under a 1974 act, is by mayor and city
 council, but all District legislation is reviewed by Congress.

   dithyramb

 dithyramb, in ancient Greece, hymn to the god DIONYSUS, an antiphonal
 choral LYRIC out of which TRAGEDY grew. It developed into the form used
 by poets such as BACCHYLIDES. Later it became freer in meter and more
 musical.

   Dittersdorf, Karl Ditters von

 Dittersdorf, Karl Ditters von, 1739-99, Austrian composer and violinist.
 An important precursor of MOZART in operatic and symphonic forms, he also
 wrote the comic opera Doktor und Apotheker (1786), his best-remembered
 work.

   diuretic

 diuretic, a drug that increases the rate of urine formation by the
 kidney, thus eliminating excess sodium and water from the body. Diuretics
 are given to treat such diseases as high blood pressure, glaucoma, and
 heart insufficiencies.

   diurnal circle

 diurnal circle, apparent path followed by a star due to the earth's
 rotation on its axis. The stars appear to move from east to west on the
 celestial sphere in concentric circular paths centered at the celestial
 poles (see ASTRONOMICAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS).

   dividend

 dividend, the part of the net earnings, or profits, of a corporation that
 is distributed to its stockholders. Dividends are declared by the board
 of directors, usually at regular intervals. In the U.S., they may be paid
 in bonds or stocks of a company, in notes, or in cash. Holders of
 preferred stock must be paid their dividends before anything is paid on
 common stock. Businesses being terminated may issue liquidation
 dividends.

   divination

 divination, foreseeing future events or obtaining secret knowledge
 through divine sources, omens, or oracles. It is based on the belief that
 revelations are offered to humans in extrarational forms of knowledge:
 ancient Chaldeans studied birds' flight and patterns in water or
 entrails; the Greeks put their trust in the ORACLE. Present-day forms of
 divination include crystal gazing, palmistry, and astrology.

   Divine, Father

 Divine, Father, c.1882-1965, black American religious leader, founder of
 the Peace Mission movement; b. Georgia as George Baker. He moved (c.1915)
 to the North and later called himself Father Divine. Many accepted him as
 the personification of God. Although he was black, the movement was
 interracial and nonsectarian. It spread from Harlem (N.Y.C.), but
 faltered after his death.

   Divine Comedy

 Divine Comedy: see DANTE ALIGHIERI.

   divine right

 divine right: see under MONARCHY.

   diving, deep-sea

 diving, deep-sea, descent into deep water for extended periods, used in a
 variety of commercial, scientific, and military activities. Helmeted
 diving suits were first devised in England in the 17th cent., and
 improved versions are still in use today. The scuba (acronym for
 Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus), invented by J.Y.
 COUSTEAU, which enables divers to carry their own air supply, allows much
 greater mobility. The bathyscaphe, developed by Auguste PICCARD, was the
 first self-contained diving craft. Skin diving, a popular sport, is done
 with a face mask and snorkel (plastic tube) just below the surface, or
 with a scuba at greater depths.

   diving, springboard and platform

 diving, springboard and platform, sport of entering the water from a
 raised position, often while executing tumbles and other acrobatic
 maneuvers. Springboard diving is done from a flexible plank either 1 or 3
 m (about 3 ft 3 in. or 9 ft 10 in.) above the water. Platform diving (or
 high diving) is usually done from a rigid platform projecting from a
 tower 10 m (32 ft 10 in.) high. Both types are scored on the basis of
 form, execution, and difficulty of the dive. Competitive diving, a part
 of most aquatic sports meets, is an Olympic event for men (since 1904)
 and women (since 1912).

   divisionism

 divisionism: see POSTIMPRESSIONISM.

   division of labor

 division of labor, in economics, the specialization of the functions and
 roles involved in making the separate parts of a product. It is closely
 tied to the standardization of production, the introduction and
 perfection of machinery, and the development of large-scale industry. As
 a result of mass-production techniques, total production is many times
 what it would be had each worker made the complete product. Problems
 created by the division of labor include job monotony, technological
 unemployment, and eventually chronic unemployment if the economy does not
 expand quickly enough to reabsorb the displaced labor.

   divorce

 divorce, in law, dissolution of a marriage by court judgment. Partial
 dissolution, leaving the parties married but allowing noncohabitation, is
 judicial separation. In the U.S., divorce is regulated by the states, and
 laws vary widely. However, generally accepted grounds are adultery,
 desertion, and cruelty. The trend is toward fewer and broader grounds,
 such as irreconcilable differences and irretrievable breakdown of the
 marriage. The issues of child custody, the award of alimony to one of the
 parties (usually the wife), and PROPERTY distribution are determined by
 the court. After the decree is final, both parties are free to remarry.

   Dix, Dorothea Lynde

 Dix, Dorothea Lynde, 1802-87, American social reformer; b. Hampden, Me. A
 pioneer in the movement for specialized treatment of the insane, she
 influenced the founding of state hospitals for the insane in the U.S.,
 Canada, and Europe. Dix also did notable work in penology.

   Dix, Otto

 Dix, Otto, 1891-1969, German painter and draftsman. Associated with
 German EXPRESSIONISM, he depicted the sordid world of prostitutes and
 swindlers. War (1924) is a series of 50 etchings, fantastic visions
 executed with great clarity.

   Djakarta

 Djakarta or Jakarta,city (1983 est. pop. 7,636,000), capital and largest
 city of Indonesia, NW JAVA. It is the administrative, commercial,
 industrial, and transportation center of the country; industries include
 food-processing, ironworks, automobile assembly, textiles, and chemicals.
 Resembling a Dutch town, with its many canals and drawbridges, Djakarta
 has an old quarter and a new suburb. Its port, largest in Indonesia,
 handles most of the country's export-import trade. Founded (c.1619) as
 the Dutch EAST INDIA COMPANY fort of Batavia, it became capital of the
 newly established nation in 1949 and was renamed Djakarta. It is the site
 of the Univ. of Indonesia. Notable museums include the National Museum
 with its superb collection of Asian porcelain and the Djakarta Museum
 (the former Batavia City Hall).

   Djibouti

 Djibouti, officially Republic of Djibouti, republic (1987 est. pop.
 470,000), c.8,500 sq mi (22,020 sq km), E Africa, formerly the French
 Territory of the Afars and Issas (1967-77), and French Somaliland
 (1896-1946), bordered by Ethiopia (N and W), the Somali Republic (S), and
 the Gulf of Aden (E). DJIBOUTI is the capital. Largely a stony desert,
 the country is economically underdeveloped. Nomadic animal-herding is the
 chief occupation, but the government is attempting to develop agriculture
 and fisheries. Exports include hides, cattle, and coffee (transshipped
 from Ethiopia), and some revenue is derived from the port of Djibouti.
 The small-scale industry includes the building and repairing of ships,
 production of compressed or liquid gas, and food processing. The
 population is almost equally divided between Somali (including Issas) and
 Afars (of Ethiopian origin), the former being slightly preponderant. Both
 groups are Muslim and speak Cushitic languages.

 History Djibouti is important for its strategic situation on the strait
 between the Gulf of ADEN and the RED SEA. France obtained a foothold in
 the area in 1862 and organized it as a colony, French Somaliland, in
 1896. The colony gained territorial status in 1946. In a 1967 referendum
 the Afars voted to continue ties with France, while the Somali voted for
 independence and eventual reunion with the SOMALI DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC.
 Djibouti became independent in 1977 under Pres. Hassan Gouled Aptidon.
 Friction between the two ethnic groups created immediate problems, and
 cabinet shuffles to give the Afars greater voice in the government failed
 to end their claims of discrimination.

   Djibouti

 Djibouti, town, (1987 est. pop. 250,000), capital of the Republic of
 Djibouti. A strategically located port on the Gulf of ADEN, it is the
 country's only large town and the mainstay of the economy. The port,
 linked by railroad to ADDIS ABABA, derives most of its revenue from the
 Ethiopian transit trade. Founded (c.1888) by the French, it was the
 capital of French Somaliland (1892-1945) and later of the French
 territory of the Afars and Issas (1945-77).

   Djilas, Milovan

 Djilas, Milovan, 1911-, Yugoslav political leader and writer. A leading
 adviser to TITO in the resistance movement during WORLD WAR II, he held
 high government and Communist party posts after the war but was dismissed
 in 1954 for criticizing the regime. He was jailed in 1956 for supporting
 the Hungarian revolution, and his term was extended in 1957, when The New
 Class, his critique of the Communist oligarchy, was published in the
 West. Released in 1961, he was arrested again in 1962 and freed in 1966.
 His other works include Conversations with Stalin (1962), Memoir of a
 Revolutionary (1973), and Tito (1980).

   Dmitri

 Dmitri or Demetrius,1582-91, czarevich, son of IVAN IV of Russia (Ivan
 the Terrible). Dmitri's brother, Feodor I, succeeded Ivan, but Boris
 GODUNOV ruled in actuality. Dmitri was killed in 1591, possibly by
 Boris's order. Boris became czar when Feodor died in 1598. Four
 pretenders later assumed Dmitri's name. The first invaded Russia with
 Polish help in 1604, was crowned when Boris died suddenly, but was killed
 in 1606. The second invaded in 1607 and was killed in 1610. Two men
 claiming to be Dmitri's son were executed in 1612 and 1613. The
 coronation of Michael ROMANOV in 1613 ended the chaotic period, known as
 the Time of Troubles.

   DNA

 DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid,NUCLEIC ACID found in the nuclei of CELLS.
 It is the principal constituent of CHROMOSOMES, the structures that
 transmit hereditary characteristics. The amount of DNA is constant for
 all typical cells of any given species of plant or animal, regardless of
 the size or function of that cell. Each DNA molecule is a long,
 two-stranded chain made up of subunits, called nucleotides, containing a
 sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and one of four nitrogenous
 bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), thymine (T), and cytosine (C). In 1953
 J.D. WATSON and F.H. CRICK proposed that the strands, connected by
 hydrogen bonds between the bases, were coiled in a double helix. Adenine
 bonds only with thymine (A-T or T-A) and guanine only with cytosine (G-C
 or C-G). The complementarity of this bonding insures that DNA can be
 replicated, i.e., that identical copies can be made in order to transmit
 genetic information to the next generation.

   Dnepr

 Dnepr or Dnieper,major river of the W USSR, flowing generally S c.1,430
 mi (2,300 km) into the Black Sea. The river, which rises W of Moscow and
 is the chief river of the UKRAINE, was made navigable for virtually its
 entire length by construction (1932) of the Dneproges Dam at Zaporozhye.
 Known to the ancients as Borysthenes, the river was (9th-11th cent.) an
 important commercial link between the Slavs and Byzantines.

   Dnepropetrovsk

 Dnepropetrovsk, city (1987 est. pop. 1,182,000), S European USSR, in the
 UKRAINE, on the Dnepr R. A hub of rail and water transport, it is a
 leading producer of iron, steel, heavy machinery, chemicals, and rolling
 stock. Nearby is the Dneproges hydroelectric station. Founded as
 Ekaterinoslav in 1787, the city was occupied (1941-43) by German forces.

   Dnestr

 Dnestr, river, c.850 (1,370 km) long, SW USSR. It rises in the
 CARPATHIANS and flows generally southeast through the Ukraine and the
 Moldavian SSR to an estuary on the BLACK SEA SW of Odessa. The Dnestr
 formed the Rumanian-Soviet border from 1918 to 1940, when the USSR
 recovered Bessarabia.

   Doberman pinscher

 Doberman pinscher, large WORKING DOG; shoulder height, 24-28 in. (61-71
 cm); weight, 60-75 lb (27-34 kg). Its short, smooth coat is black, brown,
 or blue, with rust markings. Named for Louis Dobermann, who developed the
 breed in Germany c.1890, it has been used as a guard, police, and war
 dog.

   Dobzhansky, Theodosius

 Dobzhansky, Theodosius, 1900-75, American geneticist; b. Russia. After
 his emigration to the United States in 1927, he taught at Columbia
 (1940-62) and at Rockefeller Univ. (1962-71). He was known for his
 research in genetics and for his work with the fruit fly Drosophila. His
 most important writings were Genetics and the Origin of Species (1937)
 and Mankind Evolving: The Evolution of the Human Species (1962).

   Doctorow, E(dgar) L(aurence)

 Doctorow, E(dgar) L(aurence), 1931-, American novelist; b. N.Y.C.
 Blending fiction and fact into reconstructions of eras in American
 history, he has been acclaimed for The Book of Daniel (1971), based on
 the ROSENBERG CASE; Ragtime (1975), recreating pre-World War I America;
 Loon Lake (1980), portraying American life during the Great Depression;
 and Billy Bathgate (1989).

   Dodecanese

 Dodecanese, island group (1981 pop. 145,071), SE Greece, in the Aegean
 Sea between Asia Minor and Crete, c.1,035 sq mi (2,580 sq km). Despite
 its name ("twelve islands"), the Dodecanese group consists of some 20
 islands, notably RHODES (site of the administrative center), Kos,
 Karpathos, Kalimnos, and Patmos. Part of ancient Greece, the islands were
 occupied by the Ottoman Turks (1522-1912) and by Italy before being
 captured by the Allies in WORLD WAR II. In 1947 they were ceded to
 Greece.

   Dodge, Mary Mapes

 Dodge, Mary Mapes, 1831-1905, American writer; b. N.Y.C. She edited St.
 Nicholas magazine for children from 1873 and wrote the classic children's
 tale Hans Brinker; or, The Silver Skates (1865).

   Dodge City

 Dodge City, city (1986 est. pop. 19,710), seat of Ford co., SW Kans., on
 the Arkansas R.; inc. 1875. It is the distributing center for a wheat and
 livestock area. Laid out (1872) near Fort Dodge on the SANTA FE TRAIL, it
 was a railhead and became a rowdy cow town noted for its Boot Hill
 cemetery.

   Dodgson, Charles Lutwidge

 Dodgson, Charles Lutwidge: see CARROLL, LEWIS.

   Dodoma

 Dodoma, city (1978 pop. 45,703) and capital of Tanzania. A centrally
 situated transportation hub, it was designated (1975) the administrative
 capital to replace DAR-ES-SALAAM, but development of the new capital has
 since been deferred. Dodoma is linked by road and rail to other cities.

   Doenitz, Karl

 Doenitz, Karl, 1891?-1980, German admiral. He was chief naval commander
 during WORLD WAR II. After HITLER'S death (1945) he headed the German
 government that negotiated the unconditional surrender to the Allies. He
 was imprisoned (1946-56) as a war criminal.

   Doesburg, Theo van

 Doesburg, Theo van, 1883-1931, Dutch painter and writer. With MONDRIAN he
 founded the magazine De Stijl (see STIJL, DE), and stated a version of
 its principles, called "elementarism."

   dog

 dog, carnivorous, domesticated MAMMAL (Canis familiaris) of the family
 Canidae. It is distinguished from other canines, e.g., WOLVES, FOXES, by
 its worldwide distribution in close association with humans and by the
 enormous genetic variability within the species. It is probable that the
 dog was the first animal to be domesticated over 10,000 years ago and
 that the earliest dogs resembled the wild Australian DINGO. For centuries
 dogs have been selectively bred for special purposes, notably to pursue
 and retrieve game, as draft animals, as guides, and as companions. There
 are systems for classifying and breeding dogs throughout the world, many
 using a variation of the British system. In the U.S. the American Kennel
 Club recognizes 125 of the more than 200 known breeds. The breeds are
 grouped into six classes: SPORTING DOG, HOUND, TERRIER, WORKING DOG, TOY
 DOG, and NONSPORTING DOG. A purebred dog is one that conforms to the
 standards of a certain breed and whose pedigree has been recorded for a
 certain period of time. Dogs of mixed origin are called mongrels. Dogs
 mate about every six months; their gestation period is about nine weeks,
 and litters vary from 2 to 10 puppies.

   dogtooth violet

 dogtooth violet, originally a name for the Old World plant Erythronium
 denscansis, now used also for several North American species of the same
 genus of the LILY family. The most common American species is the
 lilylike, yellow-flowered E. americanum, also called adder's tongue.
 Dogtooth violets are unrelated to the true VIOLETS.

   dogwood

 dogwood or cornel,common name for some members of the family Cornaceae,
 trees or shrubs (genus Cornus) chiefly of north temperate and tropical
 mountain regions. Dogwoods have inconspicuous flowers surrounded by
 large, showy bracts, often mistaken for petals. The flowering dogwood (C.
 florida) and the Pacific dogwood (C. nutallii) are cultivated as
 ornamentals. Their bark, rich in tannin, is used as a QUININE substitute.
 The bunchberry, or dwarf cornel (C. canadensis), is a low, herbaceous
 wild flower of North America. The BLACK GUM is sometimes included in the
 dogwood family.

   Doha

 Doha, city (1982 est. pop. 190,000), capital of Qatar, SE Arabia, on the
 Persian Gulf. A fishing village before oil production began (1949) in
 Qatar, it has become a modern city containing almost three quarters of
 Qatar's population.

   Dohnanyi, Ernst von

 Dohnanyi, Ernst von, 1877-1960, Hungarian composer, pianist, and
 conductor. He led the Budapest Philharmonic Orchestra (1919-44). His
 compositions, influenced by BRAHMS, include the suite Ruralia Hungarica
 (1924), operas, and piano music. He came to the U.S. in 1949.

   doldrums

 doldrums or equatorial belt of calms,area around the earth, centered
 slightly north of the equator between the two belts of trade winds. The
 large amount of solar radiation at these latitudes results in various
 forms of severe weather, e.g., HURRICANES, as well as calms (periods of
 no wind) that can strand sailing vessels for weeks.

   Dole, Sanford Ballard

 Dole, Sanford Ballard, 1844-1921, Hawaiian statesman; b. Honolulu. He
 became (1894) the first president of the republic of HAWAII; after
 Hawaii's annexation (1898) by the U.S., he served (1900-03) as its first
 territorial governor.

   Dolin, Anton

 Dolin, Anton (du'lin), 1904-83, English ballet dancer and choreographer.
 He studied (1921) with DIAGHILEV and became (1924) principal danseur. He
 formed (1925) his own company with Vera Nemtchimova. He joined the
 Vic-Wells Ballet, often dancing with Alicia MARKOVA, with whom he formed
 (1935, 1949) two dance companies. He danced principal roles at the Ballet
 Theater (N.Y.C.) and wrote several books on dance.

   doll

 doll, small figure of a human being, usually a child's toy. In ancient
 Egypt, Greece, and Rome, dolls were used symbolically and probably also
 as children's playthings. In Europe, from the 15th cent., fashion dolls
 given as gifts by monarchs and courtiers helped spread costume styles. By
 the 17th cent. both boys and girls played with dolls. Sonneberg, Germany,
 was noted for the manufacture of wooden dolls (17th cent.) and of dolls'
 china heads (19th cent.). In Paris, dolls were made that could speak and
 close their eyes. In the 19th cent. dolls were made of papier-mache,
 china, wax, hard rubber, or bisque; by the 20th cent. doll manufacturing
 was an important U.S. industry.

   Dollfuss, Engelbert

 Dollfuss, Engelbert, 1892-1934, Austrian chancellor (1932-34). He opposed
 the National Socialists and the Social Democrats, and sought support from
 Austrian Fascists and from Italy. In Apr. 1934 Austria became a
 corporative state with a one-party, authoritarian system. He was
 assassinated (July 25) by Austrian Nazis.

   Dollinger, Johann Joseph Ignaz von

 Dollinger, Johann Joseph Ignaz von, 1799-1890, German theologian,
 historian, leader of the OLD CATHOLICS. Ordained (1822) a Roman Catholic
 priest, he was long associated with the Univ. of Munich and was a leading
 member of the Catholic party in the Frankfurt Parliament (1848-49). He
 spurned the dogma of papal infallibility pronounced by the First VATICAN
 COUNCIL (1870) and was excommunicated (1871). While sympathetic with the
 Old Catholics, he never intended a separate sect to grow from the
 movement and never became a member of the Old Catholic Church.

   dolomite

 dolomite. 1 White, gray, brown, or reddish calcium magnesium carbonate
 mineral CaMg(CO3)2, commonly crystalline. 2 Carbonate rock composed
 chiefly of the mineral dolomite, similar to LIMESTONE but harder and
 heavier. Dolomite formations are widespread and are notable in the region
 of the Alps called the Dolomites, where the rock was first studied.
 Dolomite is used chiefly as a building stone, for the manufacture of
 refractory furnace linings, and as basic magnesium carbonate for pipe
 coverings.

   dolphin

 dolphin, aquatic MAMMAL, any of the small, toothed, gregarious WHALES of
 the family Delphinidae. They include the beaked dolphin, the killer
 whale, the pilot whale, and 12 freshwater species in South America and S
 Asia. Fishlike inform, dolphins breathe through a dorsal blowhole. They
 propel themselves by means of powerful flukes, steering with a dorsal fin
 and navigating with the aid of echolocation. Dolphins are exceptionally
 friendly toward humans, and their high order of intelligence and their
 complex language have long been the subject of study.

   Domagk, Gerhard

 Domagk, Gerhard, 1895-1964, German chemist and pathologist. Because of a
 Nazi decree, he had to decline the 1939 Nobel Prize in physiology or
 medicine, awarded for his discovery of the efficacy of prontosil, the
 forerunner of the SULFA DRUGS, in treating streptococcal infections. He
 received the Nobel Prize medal (but not the prize money) in 1947.

   dome

 dome, a roof circular or (rarely) elliptical in plan, usually
 hemispherical in form, placed over a square, circular, or other space.
 Ancient examples are found at Mycenae and in Sicily, but the Romans were
 the first developers of the form. Their constructions culminated in the
 PANTHEON (2d cent. AD). The use of the pendentive, however-essential to
 placing a dome over a square-was discovered by the Byzantine builders of
 HAGIA SOPHIA at Constantinople (AD 532-37). Islamic architects, under
 Byzantine influence, built many domes. The Persian or onion dome is best
 seen at the TAJ MAHAL. Roman and Byzantine influences converged in the
 designers of the Italian RENAISSANCE. A circular drum was usually
 interposed between pendentive and dome, to give greater elevation; the
 dome was then topped with a lantern. Noted domes include BRUNELLESCHI'S
 for the Cathedral at Florence (1420-36) and MICHELANGELO'S for St.
 Peter's, Rome (completed 1590). In the U.S. C. BULFINCH'S dome for the
 Massachusetts state capitol, Boston, established the style. Modern domes
 employ a wide variety of materials and designs.

   Domenichino

 Domenichino, or Domenico Zampieri, 1581-1641, Italian painter. An
 adherent of classical doctrine and a landscape painter, he produced many
 FRESCOES, e.g., the Martyrdom of St. Andrew (San Gregorio Magno, Rome).

   Domenico Veneziano

 Domenico Veneziano, c.1400-1461, Italian painter. His work, with rich
 coloring and detailed landscape settings, and his name suggest that he
 came from Venice. His masterpiece, the St. Lucy Altarpiece (central
 panel, Uffizi), reveals an innovative use of space; in it, he disposed of
 the Gothic hierarchical order and introduced figures (deity and saints)
 in a harmonious group.

   Dome of the Rock

 Dome of the Rock: see MOSQUE.

   Domesday Book

 Domesday Book, the surviving record of a census of England made (1085-86)
 by order of WILLIAM I. It contains extensive information on English land
 division and its use and inhabitants and also on economic resources in
 the country. It is a major source for study of the Middle Ages.

   Domingo, Placido

 Domingo, Placido, 1941-, Spanish operatic tenor. He is best noted for his
 warm voice and his interpretation of lyric roles in Italian opera,
 although he has also sung in Wagnerian operas. Among his most famous
 roles are Don Jose in Carmen, Canio in Pagliacci, and Pinkerton in Madama
 Butterfly.

   Dominic, Saint

 Dominic, Saint, 1170?-1221, Castilian churchman, founder of the
 DOMINICANS. Dominic successfully preached to the  ALBIGENSES in S France.
 In 1216 he was given a house at Toulouse for his growing band of
 preachers and won the consent of Pope Honorius III to form a new order.
 Tradition says that the rosary was given to him by the Virgin Mary in a
 vision. Feast: Aug. 8.

   Dominica

 Dominica, officially Commonwealth of Dominica, island nation (1987 pop.
 94,191), c.290 sq mi (750 sq km), West Indies, between Guadeloupe and
 Martinique, largest of the Windward Islands. Dominica is mountainous and
 forested; of volcanic origin, it has fertile soil, a mild climate, and
 plentiful rainfall. The capital and chief port is Roseau. The nation
 exports bananas, coconuts, and citrus fruits and is a tourist resort.
 English is the official language, but a French patois is widely spoken.
 Most of the people are descendants of black slaves brought in to work
 plantations in the 18th cent. There are also a few Carib Indians, whose
 ancestors delayed European settlement of the island. It became a British
 colony in the early 1800s, after a long struggle for control between
 Britain and France. It has been a fully independent member of the
 Commonwealth since 1978. Dominica is subject to frequent hurricanes, one
 of the worst of which, in 1979, left some 60,000 people homeless.

   Dominican Republic

 Dominican Republic, Span. Republica Dominicana, republic (1985 pop.
 6.600,000), 18,816 sq mi (48,734 sq km), West Indies, on the eastern two
 thirds of the island of HISPANIOLA, which it shares with HAITI. The land
 ranges from mountainous to gently rolling, with fertile river valleys;
 the climate is subtropical. The capital and chief port is Santo Domingo.
 The economy has long been dominated by sugar, which still produces up to
 50% of the country's foreign exchange, despite recent establishment of
 varied light industries and vigorous promotion of nickel mining and
 tourism. Cocoa, coffee, bananas, and tobacco are also exported. About two
 thirds of the population is mulatto, and one quarter is black. Spanish is
 spoken, and Roman Catholicism is the state religion.

 History Part of the Spanish colony of SANTO DOMINGO during the 16th and
 17th cent., and then under Haitian rule after 1821, the Dominican
 Republic was proclaimed in 1844. Its history has been unusually
 turbulent, with recurrent dictatorships and rebellions. Bankrupted by
 civil strife after the murder of the dictator Ulises Heureaux in 1899,
 the republic came under U.S. domination; U.S. marines occupied the
 country in 1916-24 and the U.S. exerted fiscal control until 1941. In
 1930 Rafael TRUJILLO MOLINA began 30 years of corrupt dictatorship, which
 ended with his assassination in 1961. Democratic elections in 1962
 brought to power a reform president, Juan Bosch, but right-wing
 opposition led to his ouster a year later. In 1965 civil war between pro-
 and anti-Bosch forces broke out, and U.S. troops intervened again. In
 1966, elections supervised by the Organization of American States
 restored a degree of normality; Joaquin BALAGUER defeated Bosch, and
 under his regime (1966-78) considerable progress was made toward
 stabilizing the economy. Economic stability was also pursued by his
 successors, Antonio Guzman Fernandez and Jorge Blanco.

   Dominicans

 Dominicans, Roman Catholic religious order, officially named the Order of
 Preachers (O.P.). Founded (1216) by St. DOMINIC, the order preached
 against the heresy of the ALBIGENSES and produced many eminent
 theologians, notably St. THOMAS AQUINAS. Members are accepted not into a
 specific house, but into the whole order, and wear a white habit with a
 black mantle (worn when preaching). There is a contemplative order of
 nuns and a widespread third order, including many teachers.

   Dominion Day

 Dominion Day (July 1), Canadian national holiday. It commemorates the
 creation (1867) of the Dominion of Canada.

   domino theory

 domino theory, notion that if one country becomes Communist, other states
 in the region will probably follow, like falling dominoes in a line. The
 analogy, first applied (1954) to Southeast Asia by Pres. EISENHOWER, was
 adopted in the 1960s by supporters of the U.S. role in the VIETNAM WAR.
 The theory was revived in the 1980s to characterize the threat perceived
 from leftist unrest in Central America.

   Domitian

 Domitian (Titus Flavius Domitianus), AD 51-96, Roman emperor (AD 81-96).
 On the death of his brother TITUS, he succeeded to the throne. His rule
 became increasingly despotic and plots were formed against him. Finally
 his wife Domitia had him murdered.

   Don

 Don, river, c.1,200 mi (1,930 km) long, SW USSR. It rises near Tula and
 flows southeast to within 65 mi (105 km) of the VOLGA R., to which it is
 connected by canal, then southwest into the Sea of Azov. It is an
 important artery for grain, lumber, and coal shipments and is the outlet
 for the industrial Donets Basin. The Don is navigable for c.850 mi (1,370
 km) from Rostov-na-Donu, its chief city and port.

   Donatello

 Donatello, c.1386-1466, Italian sculptor, a major innovator in
 RENAISSANCE art; b. Florence as Donato di Niccolo di Betto Bardi. He
 assisted GHIBERTI in Florence and worked on the cathedral. His sculptures
 developed from Gothic forms, e.g., the marble David (Bargello, Florence)
 to strong, humanistic expression, e.g., St. Mark (Orsanmichele,
 Florence). He developed a shallow relief technique (schiacciato) with
 which he achieved effects of spatial depth. In Rome he studied ancient
 monuments that influenced his sculpture. Donatello headed a vast workshop
 in Padua (1443-53). His late Florentine masterworks include the Magdalen
 (BAPTISTERY) and the pulpits of San Lorenzo.

   Donetsk

 Donetsk, city (1987 est. pop. 1,090,000), S European USSR, in the
 UKRAINE, on the Kalmius R. The hub of the Donets Basin industrial region,
 it has coal mines, iron and steel mills, machinery works, and chemical
 plants. It was founded (1870) as Yuzovka and renamed in 1961.

   Dong, Pham Van

 Dong, Pham Van, 1906-, premier (1976-) of the Socialist Republic of
 VIETNAM. A close associate of HO CHI MINH, he was premier of North
 Vietnam (1954-76) during the VIETNAM WAR and afterward helped unify the
 country, serving as premier (1976-81) and chairman of the council of
 ministers (1981-86).

   Don Giovanni

 Don Giovanni: see DON JUAN.

   Donizetti, Gaetano

 Donizetti, Gaetano, 1797-1848, Italian composer. Influenced early by
 ROSSINI, he later developed his own melodic, often sentimental style. His
 best-known operas include Lucrezia Borgia (1833) and Lucia di Lammermoor
 (1835). The Daughter of the Regiment (1840) is a comic opera.

   Don Juan

 Don Juan, legendary profligate. There are many versions of his story, but
 the Spanish is the most widespread. In it, Don Juan seduces the daughter
 of the commander of Seville and kills her father in a duel. When he
 jeeringly invites a statue of his victim to a feast, it comes to life and
 drags Don Juan to hell. The earliest-known dramatization of the story is
 by TIRSO DE MOLINA. Other famous treatments are by MOLIERE, MOZART,
 BYRON, and G.B. SHAW.

   donkey

 donkey: see ASS.

   Donne, John

 Donne, John, 1572-1631, English divine and greatest of the METAPHYSICAL
 POETS. A courtier, Donne in his first period (before 1601) wrote cynical,
 realistic, and sensuous lyrics, essays, and satires, including some of
 his Songs and Sonnets and the prose work Problems and Paradoxes. With his
 marriage and the end of his court career in 1601, his writing became more
 serious. The two Anniversaries (1611, 1612) reveal that his faith in the
 medieval order was shaken by growing scientific and philosophic doubt. In
 1615 Donne took holy orders in the Anglican church. Two years later his
 wife died. Thereafter the tone of his poetry, e.g., Holy Sonnets,
 deepened. He wrote religious poetry, e.g., Devotions (1624), and became
 one of the great preachers of his day. From 1621 to his death he was dean
 of St. Paul's, London. All of Donne's poetry-love sonnets, and religious
 and philosophical verse-is marked by a striking blend of passion and
 reason. His love poetry treats the breadth, physical and spiritual, of
 the experience. The devotional poems are deeply concerned with death and
 the possibility of the soul's union with God. Original, witty, and
 erudite, his style is characterized by a brilliant use of paradox,
 hyperbole, and image. Neglected for 200 years, Donne was rediscovered in
 the 20th cent. and greatly influenced such poets as W.B. YEATS, T.S.
 ELIOT, and W.H. AUDEN.

   Donner Party

 Donner Party, group of emigrants to California who in 1846-47 met with
 tragedy. The party, named for its two Donner families, was trapped by
 snow in Oct. 1846 in the Sierra Nevada near what is today called the
 Donner Pass. The survivors resorted to cannibalism before their rescue,
 and only about half of the original party of 87 reached California.

   Donoso, Jose

 Donoso, Jose, 1925-, Chilean novelist and short-story writer. His work
 ranges from ironically realistic studies of decadent Chilean life, e.g.,
 Coronation (1957), to surrealistic portrayals of bizarre subjects,
 written in a dense and powerful style, e.g., The Obscene Bird of Night
 (1970).

   Don Quixote de la Mancha

 Don Quixote de la Mancha: see CERVANTES SAAVEDRA, MIGUEL DE.

   Dooley, Thomas Anthony

 Dooley, Thomas Anthony, 1927-61, American physician and author; b. St.
 Louis. He supervised (1954) the treatment of thousands of refugees from
 North Vietnam, an experience he described in Deliver Us from Evil (1956).
 To provide medical care in remote areas, he then helped organize the
 Medical International Corp., a part of CARE since 1962.

   Doolittle, Hilda

 Doolittle, Hilda, pseud. H.D., 1886-1961, American poet; b. Bethlehem,
 Pa. She lived abroad after 1911 and was married to Richard ALDINGTON. One
 of the most original of the IMAGISTS, she wrote such volumes of verse as
 Sea Garden (1916) and Bid Me to Live (1960).

   Doomsday Book

 Doomsday Book: see DOMESDAY BOOK.

   Doppler effect

 Doppler effect, change in the wavelength (and frequency) of a wave as a
 result of the motion of either the source or receiver of the waves. If
 the source and the receiver are approaching each other, the frequency of
 the wave will increase and the wavelength will be shortened-sounds will
 be higher in pitch and light will be bluer. If the source and receiver
 are moving apart, sounds will become lower-pitched, and light will appear
 redder (see RED SHIFT). Astronomers analyze Doppler shifts of light and
 radio waves to measure the velocities and (indirectly) distances of
 remote objects.

   Dorchester, Guy Carleton, 1st Baron

 Dorchester, Guy Carleton, 1st Baron: see CARLETON, GUY.

   Dore, Gustave

 Dore, Gustave, 1832-83, French illustrator, engraver, painter, and
 sculptor. He is best known for his fantastic, imaginative, engraved
 illustrations for some 120 books, including Don Quixote (1862) and
 MILTON'S Paradise Lost.

   Doria, Andrea

 Doria, Andrea, b. 1466 or 1468, d. 1560, Italian admiral and statesman.
 He fought for France in the ITALIAN WARS until 1528, when he went over to
 Holy Roman Emperor CHARLES V. Doria became (1528) virtual dictator of
 Genoa but retained many republican institutions. He aided Charles in
 taking Tunis (1535), and with French aid, he recovered Corsica for Genoa
 (1559).

   Dorians

 Dorians, people of ancient GREECE. They arrived in the PELOPONNESUS
 between 1100 and 950 BC, drove out the ACHAEANS (see ACHAEA), and rapidly
 extended their influence. SPARTA and CRETE were Dorian centers. The
 Dorians' arrival inaugurated a period of Greek decline, but they did
 contribute to Greek culture, particularly in the Doric style of
 architecture.

   Doric order

 Doric order: see ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE.

   dormouse

 dormouse, Old World nocturnal RODENT of the family Gliridae. European
 species hibernate for nearly six months. The common dormouse (Muscardinus
 avellanarius) of Europe and W Asia is up to 4 in. (10 cm) long with
 rounded ears, large eyes, and thick, reddish brown fur; it eats insects,
 nuts, and berries.

   Dortmund

 Dortmund, city (1986 est. pop. 569,800), North Rhine-Westphalia, W West
 Germany, a port on the Dortmund-Ems Canal. An industrial center with such
 manufactures as iron and steel, it is located in the RUHR industrial
 district. It flourished (13th-17th cent.) as a member of the HANSEATIC
 LEAGUE. The city was badly damaged during WORLD WAR II, but such
 buildings as the Reinold church (begun in the 13th cent.) remain.

   Dos Passos, John Roderigo

 Dos Passos, John Roderigo, 1896-1970, American novelist; b. Chicago. In
 works such as Manhattan Transfer (1925) and his major opus, the trilogy
 U.S.A. (1937)-The 42nd Parallel (1930), 1919 (1932), and The Big Money
 (1936)-he developed a kaleidoscopic technique to portray American life,
 combining narration, STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS, biographies, and quotations
 from newspapers and magazines. The left-wing views that colored his early
 works gave way to a conservatism that is evident in his less powerful
 later novels, e.g., his second trilogy, District of Columbia (1952).

   Dostoyevsky

 Dostoyevskyor Dostoevsky, Feodor Mikhailovich , 1821-81, Russian
 novelist, one of the towering figures of world literature. Shortly after
 completing an engineering education, he published his first novel, Poor
 Folk (1846), to wide acclaim. Though less successful, his next novels,
 The Double (1846) and White Nights (1848), nevertheless showed the
 profound insight into character that marks his greatest works. Arrested
 in 1849 for membership in a secret political group, he was exiled to
 Siberia, and there served four years at hard labor and five as a soldier.
 His harsh experiences (recorded in The House of the Dead, 1862)
 transformed his youthful liberalism into a fervent religious orthodoxy.
 The existentialist Notes from the Underground (1864), the first major
 work following his return to St. Petersburg in 1859, inaugurated his most
 fruitful literary period. It coincided with the death of his first wife
 and increasing financial burdens. Crime and Punishment (1866), a
 brilliant portrait of sin, remorse, and redemption through sacrifice, was
 followed by The Idiot (1868), the story of a failed Christ figure. It was
 written in Germany, where Dostoyevsky had gone with his new wife, Anna
 Grigoryevna Snitkina, whose love and practicality enriched his later
 years. In The Possessed (1871-72) he denounced the alienated radicalism
 that characterized contemporary Russia. A Raw Youth (1875) described
 decay within family relationships and the inability of science to answer
 man's deepest needs. These themes were central to his masterpiece, The
 Brothers Karamazov (1880), in which with rare psychological and
 philosophical insight Dostoyevsky plumbed the depths and complexities of
 the human soul. His last work, it ranks as one of the finest novels ever
 written and is a synthesis of the author's mature vision.

   Dou, Dow

 Dou, Dow, or Douw, Gerardor Gerrit,1613-75, Dutch GENRE and portrait
 painter. An apprentice of REMBRANDT, he executed detailed scenes of
 domestic life that were very popular, e.g., The Cook (Louvre).

   Douala

 Douala, city (1986 pop. 636,980), United Republic of Cameroon, on the
 Wuori R. estuary. Cameroon's largest city and major port, it is a
 commercial and transportation center handling most of the country's
 exports (chiefly cocoa and coffee) as well as transit trade from Chad.
 Douala developed as a center of the slave trade after the Portuguese
 arrived in 1472. It later became part of a German protectorate (1884) and
 of the French CAMEROONS (1919).

   double bass

 double bass: see VIOL; VIOLIN.

   Doubleday, Abner

 Doubleday, Abner, 1819-93, alleged originator of BASEBALL and Union
 general in the U.S. Civil War; b. Saratoga co., N.Y. A friend, A.G.
 Mills, heading a commission (1907), reported that Doubleday invented
 (1839) the game at Cooperstown, N.Y. The report has been generally
 discredited and it is now known that a children's game similar to
 baseball had existed long before Doubleday's time.

   double jeopardy

 double jeopardy, in law, prosecution twice for the same criminal offense.
 Jeopardy exists when a JURY is sworn in, or when EVIDENCE is introduced.
 The U.S. CONSTITUTION prohibits double jeopardy; a second trial is not
 precluded, however, if there were procedural errors in the first trial or
 if the jury could not reach a verdict.

   double star

 double star: see BINARY STAR.

   Doughty, Charles Montagu

 Doughty, Charles Montagu, 1843-1926, English author and traveler. He is
 best known for Travels in Arabia Deserta (1888), about his life with the
 Bedouins.

   Douglas, Sir James

 Douglas, Sir James, 1803-77, Canadian governor of BRITISH COLUMBIA
 (1858-64). He commanded (1846-58) the HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY territory W of
 the Rockies after he founded (1843) a fort at the site of VICTORIA.
 Douglas served (1851-58) as governor of VANCOUVER ISLAND and was the
 first governor of the new crown colony of British Columbia.

   Douglas, Sir James de, lord of Douglas

 Douglas, Sir James de, lord of Douglas, 1286?-1330, Scottish nobleman,
 called the Black Douglas and Douglas the Good. In the war of independence
 against England, he joined ROBERT I and made himself the terror of the
 border. He led a force at Bannockburn (1314) and in 1327 succeeded in
 ending the English campaign. After Robert died, Douglas started to
 Palestine to bury the king's heart but was killed fighting Moors in
 Spain.

   Douglas, Stephen Arnold

 Douglas, Stephen Arnold, 1813-61, American statesman; b. Brandon, Vt. A
 Democratic congressman (1843-47) and senator (1847-61) from Illinois, he
 thought disputes between North and South could be solved by SQUATTER
 SOVEREIGNTY and incorporated that concept into the COMPROMISE OF 1850 and
 the KANSAS-NEBRASKA ACT. Seeking Senate reelection in 1858, he engaged
 his opponent, Abraham LINCOLN, in the famous Lincoln-Douglas debates. At
 the Freeport (Ill.) debate, Douglas asserted that territories could
 exclude slavery-a doctrine that made him anathema to the South. The
 Democrats nominated him for president in 1860, but he ran second to
 Lincoln in the popular vote. A great orator, Douglas was long in the
 shadow of the Lincoln legend but is now held to have had a truly national
 vision.

   Douglas, William Orville

 Douglas, William Orville, 1898-1980, associate justice of the U.S.
 SUPREME COURT (1939-75), with the longest tenure in Court history; b.
 Maine, Minn.; LL.B., Columbia Univ. (1925). He was a member (1934-37) and
 chairman (1937-39) of the Securities and Exchange Commission, where he
 inititated a policy of reform. On the Court, he was known for his fervent
 support of civil rights, conservation, and free speech.

   Douglas fir

 Douglas fir, tree (Pseudotsuga menziesii) of the PINE family, native to W
 North America. One of the tallest trees known (up to 385 ft/117 m), it is
 the leading timber-producing tree of the continent. Its usually hard,
 strong wood is of great commercial importance in construction.

   Douglas-Home, Sir Alec

 Douglas-Home, Sir Alec (Alexander Frederick), 1903-, British politician.
 A Conservative, he entered Parliament in 1931 and served in government
 and cabinet posts, including that of foreign secretary (1960-63,
 1970-74). He was prime minister from Oct. 1963 to Oct. 1964. In 1974 he
 was made a life peer.

   Douglass, Frederick

 Douglass, Frederick, c.1817-1895, American ABOLITIONIST; b. near Easton,
 Md. Escaping from slavery in 1838, he took the name Douglass from Sir
 Walter Scott's Lady of the Lake. In 1845 he published his Narrative of
 the Life of Frederick Douglass, and in 1847, after English friends had
 purchased his freedom, he established the North Star (Rochester, N.Y.),
 which he edited for 17 years, advocating abolition through political
 activism. During the CIVIL WAR he urged blacks to join the Union ranks,
 and during and after RECONSTRUCTION he held several government posts.

   Doukhobors

 Doukhobors: see DUKHOBORS.

   Dove, Arthur Garfield

 Dove, Arthur Garfield, 1880-1946, American painter; b. Canandaigua, N.Y.
 His abstract style flowered in the 1930s in fluid, poetic canvases based
 on natural forms. Dove is recognized as a precursor of ABSTRACT
 EXPRESSIONISM.

   dove

 dove: see PIGEON.

   Dover

 Dover, city (1986 est. pop. 22,660), state capital and seat of Kent co.,
 Del., on the St. Jones R.; founded 1683, inc. 1929. In a farming and
 fruit-growing area, it is a shipping and canning center with varied
 industries. Dover Air Force Base, a huge cargo facility, is a major
 factor in the local economy. The old statehouse (begun 1722) is notable.

   Dovzhenko, Aleksandr

 Dovzhenko, Aleksandr, 1894-1956, Ukrainian film director. Ranked with
 EISENSTEIN and PUDOVKIN, he used MONTAGE and surreal images in such films
 as Zvenigora (1928), Arsenal (1929), and Earth (1930).

   Dow-Jones Average

 Dow-Jones Average, indicators used to measure and report value changes in
 representative stock groupings on the New York STOCK EXCHANGE. It
 consists of four different averages-industrial stocks, transportation
 stocks, utility stocks, and a composite average of all three. Although
 the industrial average is the most frequently cited, it has been
 criticized for consisting of only blue chip stocks and for its inability
 to accurately adjust, in spite of a sophisticated mathematical formula,
 for dividends and stock splits. The average is quoted in points, not in
 dollars. Other averages include the Dow Jones 20 Bond Average and the Dow
 Jones Municipal Bond Yield Average.

   Dowland, John

 Dowland, John, 1562-1626, English composer and lutanist. His books of
 Songs or Ayres (1597-1603) made him the foremost SONG composer of his
 time.

   Down's syndrome

 Down's syndrome, congenital disorder characterized by moderate to severe
 MENTAL RETARDATION, slow physical development, and flattish skull and
 facial features, giving an "Oriental" appearance (hence the alternate
 name for the condition, Mongolism). The syndrome is caused by genetic
 transmittance of an extra chromosome. It can occur at anytime, but the
 risk increases significantly with parental age, particularly if the
 mother is over 35. AMNIOCENTESIS can be used to detect the disorder in
 the fetus. Few people with Down's syndrome survive beyond age 35.

   Dowson, Ernest Christopher

 Dowson, Ernest Christopher, 1867-1900, English poet. One of the best
 known of the DECADENTS, he wrote delicate, musical poems, the most famous
 of which has the refrain "I have been faithful to thee, Cynara! in my
 fashion."

   Doyle, Sir Arthur Conan

 Doyle, Sir Arthur Conan, 1859-1930, English author and creator of
 Sherlock Holmes, best known of all fictional detectives. The brilliantly
 deductive Holmes and his stolid companion, Dr. Watson, appear in A Study
 in Scarlet (1887), The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes (1894), The Hound of
 the Baskervilles (1902), and others. Doyle also wrote historical
 romances, e.g., The White Company (1891), and a History of Spiritualism
 (1926).

   Drabble, Margaret

 Drabble, Margaret, 1939-, English novelist. An old-fashioned novelist,
 she has been compared to Henry JAMES and George ELIOT for the subtle
 insight she brings to the dilemmas of modern women. Her novels include
 Jerusalem the Golden (1967), The Needle's Eye (1972), The Realms of Gold
 (1975), and The Middle Ground (1980). She has also published scholarly
 studies, e.g., Arnold Bennett (1974).

   Draco

 Draco or Dracon,fl. 621 BC, Athenian politician and law codifier. Draco's
 code appears to have prescribed the death penalty for even trivial
 offenses, and Draconian has become a synonym for harshness in
 legislation.

   Dracula

 Dracula: see STOKER, BRAM.

   Drago, Luis Maria

 Drago, Luis Maria, 1859-1921, Argentine statesman and jurist. His protest
 against coercion of Venezuela by Great Britain, Italy, and Germany (1902)
 became known as the Drago Doctrine; it stated that no public debt could
 be collected from a sovereign American state by armed force or through
 occupation of American territory by a foreign power. It was adopted in
 modified form at the HAGUE CONFERENCE (1907).

   dragon

 dragon, mythical beast, usually represented as a huge, winged,
 fire-breathing reptile; prominent in the folklore of many peoples. The
 highest achievement of a hero in medieval legend, e.g., Saint GEORGE, was
 slaying a dragon. The beast is usually associated with evil; the dragon
 of the Book of REVELATION gave rise to its use as a symbol of SATAN.
 However, it can also be benevolent, as in ancient China.

   dragonfly

 dragonfly, large predatory INSECT of the order Odonata. They have chewing
 mouthparts, and four membranous, net-veined wings. Dragonflies are found
 primarily in the tropics, but occur worldwide except in polar regions.
 They are strong fliers with elongated bodies that may reach 5 in. (12.7
 cm) in length. They prey on mosquitoes and other insects. In the Permian
 period one species had a wingspan of 21/2 ft (76 cm).

   drainage basin

 drainage basin: see CATCHMENT AREA.

   Drake, Sir Francis

 Drake, Sir Francis, 1540-96, English navigator, the first Englishman to
 circumnavigate the globe (1577-80). He was a leader of the marauding
 campaign against Spanish vessels and settlements. On one such voyage in
 1577, he navigated the Strait of MAGELLAN in his ship the Golden Hind,
 and pillaged the coasts of South and North America. He sailed across the
 Pacific and reached England in 1580, bearing treasure of great value. He
 was knighted by ELIZABETH I. Drake was an admiral in the fleet that
 defeated the Spanish ARMADA. He was defeated by the Spanish in the WEST
 INDIES (1595) and died off Portobello.

   Dravidian languages

 Dravidian languages, family of about 20 languages that appears to be
 unrelated to any other known language family. They are spoken by people
 living in S India and N Sri Lanka. See LANGUAGE .

   drawing

 drawing, art of the draftsman, commonly used to denote works in pen,
 pencil, crayon, charcoal, pastel, or similar media in which line and
 form, rather than color, are emphasized. Often vigorous and spontaneous,
 drawings are made as preparatory studies (see CARTOON) or as finished
 works. Among the many artists known for their drawings are LEONARDO DA
 VINCI, MICHELANGELO, DURER, RUBENS, HOGARTH, GOYA,
 DAUMIER, KLEE, PICASSO, and MATISSE. (See also ILLUSTRATION.)

   Drayton, Michael

 Drayton, Michael, 1563-1631, English poet. Reflecting the poetic fashions
 of the day, he wrote pastorals, e.g., The Shepherd's Garland (1593); a
 sonnet sequence, Idea's Mirror (1594-1619); poems in the form of love
 letters (1597); topographical poetry, e.g., Poly-Olbion (1612-22); and
 many other types.

   dream

 dream, mental activity associated with the rapid-eye-movement (REM)
 period of sleep. It generally consists of visual images and may reflect
 somatic disturbances (e.g., indigestion) or external stimuli (e.g., the
 ringing of an alarm clock). REM sleep accounts for about half of the
 newborn's total sleeping time, but the proportion decreases with age to
 about two hours for every eight-hour period of the adult's sleep. In
 primitive and ancient cultures, dreams played an extensive role in myth
 and religion. FREUD emphasized dreams as keys to the makeup of the
 individual. He distinguished between the experienced content of a dream
 and the actual meaning of the dream, which is largely concealed from the
 dreamer. JUNG held that dreams are not limited to the personal
 UNCONSCIOUS but may also be shaped by innate mental structures, called
 archetypes, that originate in the collective unconscious of the human
 species.

   Drebbel, Cornelis Jacobszoon

 Drebbel, Cornelis Jacobszoon, 1572-1634, Dutch inventor, physicist, and
 mechanician. Among his many inventions were the first navigable
 SUBMARINE, a scarlet dye, and a thermostat for a self-regulating oven.

   Dred Scott Case

 Dred Scott Case, case argued before the U.S. SUPREME COURT in 1856-57
 involving the status of SLAVERY in the federal territories. Scott, a
 slave, had been taken to Illinois and the Wisconsin territory, where
 slavery was prohibited by the MISSOURI COMPROMISE. Later, in Missouri, he
 sued for his freedom on the basis of his residence in a free state and
 territory. The Supreme Court's Southern majority declared that the
 Compromise was unconstitutional and that Congress had no power to limit
 slavery in the territories. Three justices also held that a Negro
 descended from slaves had no rights as an American citizen and therefore
 no standing in court. The decision further inflamed the sectional
 controversy leading to the CIVIL WAR.

   Dreiser, Theodore

 Dreiser, Theodore, 1871-1945, American novelist. A pioneer of NATURALISM
 in American literature, Dreiser wrote novels reflecting his mechanistic
 view of life, which held man as the victim of such ungovernable forces as
 economics, biology, society, and even chance. Among his novels are Sister
 Carrie (1900) and Jennie Gerhardt (1911), both about "fallen women"; The
 Financier (1912), The Titan (1914), and The Stoic (1947), a trilogy
 concerning a ruthless industrialist; and The Genius (1915) and The
 Bulwark (1946), both about an American artist. An American Tragedy
 (1925), considered his greatest work, tells of a poor young man's futile
 attempts to achieve social and financial success. Dreiser also wrote
 short stories, autobiographical works, and nonfiction commentaries on the
 USSR and the U.S.

   Dresden

 Dresden, city (1986 pop. 552,113), capital of Dresden district, SE East
 Germany, on the Elbe R. It is an industrial and cultural center and an
 inland port. Originally a Slavic settlement, it was settled (13th cent.)
 by Germans and later occupied by Prussia. From the 17th cent. until it
 was heavily bombed by the Allies in WORLD WAR II, Dresden was a showplace
 of art and of BAROQUE and ROCOCO architecture. It has been extensively
 rebuilt since 1945.

   Drew, Elizabeth

 Drew, Elizabeth, 1935-, American journalist; b. Cincinnati. An analyst of
 national politics, she has been the Washington correspondent of the
 Atlantic (1967-73) and The New Yorker (1973-). Her account of the
 WATERGATE AFFAIR was published as Washington Journal (1975).

   Drew, John

 Drew, John, 1827-62, American actor; b. Ireland. Having established a
 reputation as an Irish comedian, he maintained a stock company at the
 Arch Street Theatre, Philadelphia. After his death, his wife and co-star,
 Louisa Lane Drew, 1820-97, b. England, managed the theater until 1892.
 Her best role was as Mrs. Malaprop in The Rivals. Her eldest son, John
 Drew, 1853-1927, b. Philadelphia, joined August in Daly's company in 1875
 and became one of the producer Charles Frohman's first stars. He
 distinguished himself in both Shakespearean and modern comedies. His
 sister Georgiana married Maurice Barrymore (see BARRYMORE, family).

   Dreyer, Carl Theodor

 Dreyer, Carl Theodor, 1889-1968, Danish film director. The Passion of
 Joan of Arc (1928) typifies his austere style. Among his other films are
 Vampyr (1932), Day of Wrath (1943), Ordet (1955), and Gertrud (1964).

   Dreyfus Affair

 Dreyfus Affair. In 1894 Capt. Alfred Dreyfus (1859-1935), a French
 officer, was convicted of treason by a court-martial, sentenced to life
 imprisonment, and sent to Devil's Island. The case had arisen with the
 discovery in the German embassy of a handwritten bordereau (schedule)
 that listed secret French documents and was addressed to Maj. Max von
 Schwartzkoppen, German military attache in Paris. The French army was at
 the time permeated by anti-Semitism, and suspicion fell on Dreyfus, an
 Alsatian Jew. Although Dreyfus protested his innocence, interest in the
 case lapsed until 1896, when evidence was discovered pointing to Maj.
 Ferdinand Walsin Esterhazy as the real author of the bordereau. After the
 army's attempt to suppress this information failed, Esterhazy was tried
 (Jan. 1898) by court-martial, but was acquitted within minutes. Emile
 ZOLA, a leading supporter of Dreyfus, published an open letter accusing
 the judges of following orders from the military. Zola was sentenced to
 jail for libel, but fled to England. Meanwhile, the case had become a
 major political issue. Royalist, militarist, nationalist, and Roman
 Catholic elements joined the anti-Dreyfus group, while republican,
 socialist, and anticlerical forces allied to defend Dreyfus and to
 discredit the rightist government. In 1898 it was learned that much of
 the evidence against Dreyfus had been forged by Col. Henry of army
 intelligence. After Henry's suicide (Aug. 1898) and Esterhazy's flight to
 England, a revision of Dreyfus's sentence became imperative. A new
 court-martial was ordered, but the military court, unable to admit error,
 found Dreyfus guilty and sentenced him to 10 years in prison. However, a
 pardon was issued by Pres. Emile Loubet, and in 1906 the supreme court of
 appeals exonerated Dreyfus. In 1930 his innocence was reaffirmed by the
 publication of Schwartzkoppen's papers. The immediate result of the
 affair was to unite and bring to power the French left wing. Widespread
 antimilitarism and rabid anticlericalism ensued, leading in 1905 to the
 separation of church and state in France.

   drift

 drift, deposit of clay, gravel, sand, and boulders, transported and laid
 down by glaciers. Some drift is stratified, or sorted by size, with
 coarser particles nearer the point of origin. Till, the greater part of
 drift, consists of unstratified heaps of rocks. Drifts can take many
 forms (e.g., DRUMLINS, ESKERS, MORAINES). Large sections of North America
 and continental Europe are covered by drift.

   dromedary

 dromedary: see CAMEL.

   Droste-Hulshoff, Annette Elisabeth, Freiin von

 Droste-Hulshoff, Annette Elisabeth, Freiin von, 1797-1848, German poet.
 She wrote a fine short novel, The Jew's Beech Tree (1842); masterful
 religious verse, The Spiritual Year (1850); and nature poetry.

   drug addiction and drug abuse

 drug addiction and drug abuse, chronic or habitual use of any chemical
 substance to alter states of body or mind for other than medically
 warranted purposes. Among the drugs with potential for abuse are
 NARCOTICS, including morphine, opium, heroin, and methadone; depressants
 such as ALCOHOL, BARBITURATES, and sedatives; stimulants such as COCAINE
 (see also CRACK) and AMPHETAMINES; HALLUCINOGENIC DRUGS; and MARIJUANA.
 Nicotine and CAFFEINE can also be abused. An individual is said to be
 addicted if a physical dependence on a given drug develops and if
 withdrawal symptoms are experienced when the drug is discontinued or its
 dose decreased. True physical addiction is known to occur with the
 narcotics and depressants; psychological dependence, with or without
 physical symptoms, can develop with many other drugs, such as
 TRANQUILIZERS. The hallucinogens can also cause traumatic experiences and
 trigger psychotic reactions, including paranoia. Treatment for drug
 addiction includes METHADONE programs and participation in therapeutic
 communities (e.g., Synanon and Phoenix House) with other addicts who are
 giving up drugs (see also ALCOHOLISM). The question of what constitutes
 drug abuse depends on the cultural and social context. In some countries,
 narcotic use in the form of opium smoking is common and not considered a
 serious drug problem; in others, hashish or related compounds are widely
 used. In most industrialized nations, however, the use of many of these
 drugs is illegal and associated with criminal behavior.

   drugs

 drugs, substances used to cure, alleviate, diagnose, or prevent disease.
 Before 1900 only a few drugs were used scientifically, among them
 alcohol, ether, MORPHINE, DIGITALIS, QUININE, IRON, IODINE, MERCURY
 , diphtheria antitoxin, and smallpox vaccine. Since then, and particularly
 since World War II, many new drugs and classes of drugs have been
 developed, making CHEMOTHERAPY an essential part of medical practice.
 Such drugs include ANTIBIOTICS; SULFA DRUGS; cardiovascular drugs,
 including propanolol and other BETA BLOCKERS; DIURETICS; ANTICOAGULANTS;
 whole blood, plasma, and blood derivatives; various smooth muscle
 relaxants and smooth muscle stimulants; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE DRUGS;
 HORMONES, such as thyroxine, INSULIN, and ESTROGEN; CORTISONE and other
 CORTICOSTEROIDS; ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES; VITAMINS; ANALGESICS; poison
 antidotes; and various stimulants and depressants, among them NARCOTICS,
 AMPHETAMINES, and BARBITURATES (see also ANESTHESIA; HALLUCINOGENIC
 DRUGS). Drugs are derived from many sources, organic and inorganic.
 ALKALOIDS, hormones, vaccines, and antibiotics come from plants and
 animals; other drugs are synthesized in the laboratory or extracted from
 inorganic compounds. There are two marketing classes of drugs; ethical
 drugs, for which prescriptions are needed, and






 The scientific study of drugs, their actions, and effects is
 PHARMACOLOGY.

   druids

 druids, priests of ancient Celtic Britain, Ireland, and Gaul and probably
 of all ancient Celtic peoples. The druids constituted a priestly upper
 class in command of a highly ritualistic religion centering on the
 worship of a pantheon of nature deities. Religious ceremonies, held
 chiefly in oak groves and at river sources and lakes, included animal,
 and sometimes human, sacrifices and various forms of magic. Druids also
 educated the young and oversaw the community's intellectual life. They
 were an important cohesive force among the Celtic tribes; in Gaul they
 led rebellions against the Romans. Their power, although broken by the
 Romans, finally yielded only to Christianity.

   drum

 drum, in music, PERCUSSION INSTRUMENT consisting of a frame over which
 one or more membranes or skins are stretched, and which acts as a

 a membrane stretched over the open side, can be tuned to a definite pitch
 by adjusting the tension of the head. In the snare drum, wire-covered gut
 strings are stretched across the head; these rattle when the drum is
 struck. The tom-tom is a high-pitched, tunable hand drum. The tambourine
 is a single-headed, small drum, usually with jingles attached to the
 frame, that is shaken or struck by hand.

   drumlin

 drumlin, smooth, oval hill of glacial DRIFT, elongated in the direction
 of the movement of the ice that deposited it.

   Drummond, William Henry

 Drummond, William Henry, 1854-1907, Canadian poet; b. Ireland. His verse,
 collected in such volumes as Poetical Works (1912), portrays French
 Canadians in their own English dialect.

   Drusus

 Drusus, Roman family of the gens Livius. An early distinguished member
 was Marcus Livius Drusus, d. 109? BC, tribune of the people (122) with
 Caius Sempronius Gracchus (see GRACCHI). He successfully attacked
 Gracchus in the senate and became consul in 112. His son, Marcus Livius
 Drusus, d. 91 BC, was also a leader of the senatorial party. By an
 increase in the franchise he won the support of the Romans and Italians,
 but the senate annulled Drusus' laws and brought on the Social War (90-88
 BC) between Rome and the Italians. Drusus was assassinated. Nero Claudius
 Drusus Germanicus, 38 BC-9 BC, was the stepson of AUGUSTUS and father of
 CLAUDIUS I. He ravaged Germany E and N of the Rhine, but failed to subdue
 the Germans permanently. He died in Germany. His brother was the emperor
 TIBERIUS. Tiberius' son, Drusus Caesar, d. AD 23, earned the jealousy of
 Sejanus, Tiberius' minister, who tried to turn Tiberius against his son.
 Drusus died, perhaps of poisoning by Sejanus or by his wife under
 Sejanus' influence.

   Druze

 Druze, religious community of some 370,000 hill people in Syria, Lebanon,
 Israel, and Jordan who believe that Hakim, the sixth Fatimite caliph (see
 FATIMID), is God; they permit no religious conversion or intermarriage.
 Warring against the Ottoman Turks and the Christian Maronites, they
 helped prepare the way for French control of the E Mediterranean
 countries known as the Levant. Their defiance of the French mandate and
 occupation (1925-27) of Damascus led to protracted hostilities. After
 Syria became independent in 1944, the Druze surrendered their autonomy.

   dryads

 dryads: see NYMPH.

   dry cell

 dry cell: see CELL, in electricity.

   Dryden, John

 Dryden, John, 1631-1700, English poet, dramatist, and critic. He first
 came to notice with Heroic Stanzas (1659), commemorating the death of
 Oliver CROMWELL, but in 1660 he celebrated the restoration of CHARLES II
 with Astraea Redux. Annus Mirabilis, a long poem on the Dutch war,
 appeared in 1667, and in 1668 he became poet laureate. His plays include
 the heroic Conquest of Granada (1670-71); the comedy Marriage a la Mode
 (1672); and his blank-verse masterpiece, All for Love (1677). His great
 political SATIRE, Absalom and Achitophel, appeared in two parts (1681,
 1682), and his attack on Thomas Shadwell, MacFlecknoe, in 1682. Five
 years after publishing Religio Laici (1682), a poetical exposition of the
 Protestant layman's creed, he announced his conversion to Roman
 Catholicism in The Hind and the Panther. Dryden lost his laureateship
 with the accession of William III. Throughout his life, he wrote
 brilliant critical prefaces and discourses, notably the Essay of Dramatic
 Poesy (1668). His last years were occupied chiefly with translating
 Juvenal, Vergil, and others.

   dry ice

 dry ice: see CARBON DIOXIDE.

   drypoint

 drypoint, INTAGLIO printing process in which lines are scratched directly
 into a metal plate with a needle; also, the print made from such a plate.
 The method is often used with ETCHING. In drypoint, the burr raised by
 the needle produces a rich, velvety effect and allows relatively few good
 prints to be made. Among the greatest masters of the technique are DURER,
 REMBRANDT, WHISTLER, and PICASSO.

   dry rot

 dry rot, fungus disease of timber, typified by the destruction of
 CELLULOSE, with discoloration and eventual crumbling of the wood. Dry rot
 requires moisture for growth and occurs in improperly seasoned wood or
 where ventilation is poor or humidity high. See also FUNGI.

   Dual Alliance

 Dual Alliance: see TRIPLE ALLIANCE AND TRIPLE ENTENTE.

   dualism

 dualism, in philosophy and theology, system that explains all phenomena
 in terms of two distinct and irreducible principles, e.g., ideas and
 matter (as in PLATO, ARISTOTLE, and modern METAPHYSICS) or mind and
 matter (as in psychology). In theology the term refers to a concept of
 opposing principles, e.g., good and evil. See also MONISM.

   Dual Monarchy

 Dual Monarchy: see AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY.

   Duarte, Jose Napoleon

 Duarte, Jose Napoleon, 1925-, president of El Salvador (1980-82,
 1984-88). A Christian Democrat, he was mayor of San Salvador (1964-70).
 In 1972 Duarte was elected president, but was exiled by the army. He was
 allowed to return (1979) and in 1980 was named to the ruling military
 junta, which later named him president. Duarte ruled, jointly with the
 junta, during a period of civil war when the government was seriously
 opposed by leftist rebels. He was forced from office (1982) by a
 coalition of right-wing parties (Alvaro Alfredo Magana succeeded him),
 but became president again (1984) in a controversial election that was
 boycotted by the left.

   Dubai

 Dubai: see UNITED ARAB EMIRATES.

   Du Barry, Jeanne Becu, comtesse

 Du Barry, Jeanne Becu, comtesse,  1743-93, mistress of LOUIS XV of
 France. A courtesan of illegitimate birth, she was installed (1769) at
 court and retained her influence until the king's death (1774). During
 the FRENCH REVOLUTION she was arrested for treason and guillotined.

   Dubcek, Alexander

 Dubcek, Alexander, 1921-, Czechoslovakian Communist leader. In 1968 he
 replaced NOVOTNY as party first secretary and instituted liberal policies
 that promised a gradual democratization. In Aug. 1968 Soviet forces
 invaded and a pro-Soviet government was installed. Dubcek was removed
 from office in 1969.

   Du Bellay, Joachim

 Du Bellay, Joachim, 1522?-1560, French poet of the Pleiade (see under
 PLEIAD), author of their manifesto. Some of his finest poems, in Regrets
 (1558) and Antiquities of Rome (1558), written while he was in Rome,
 convey his impressions of that city and his nostalgia for France.

   Dubinsky, David

 Dubinsky, David, 1892-1982, American labor leader; b. Russian Poland.
 Sent to a Siberian prison (1908) for union activity, he escaped and
 reached the U.S. in 1911. He worked as a cloak cutter and rose rapidly in
 the International Ladies' Garment Workers Union, becoming its president
 (1932-66). In 1936 he took the union out of the American Federation of
 Labor (AFL), of which he was a vice president, and into the Congress of
 Industrial Organizations (CIO), but he broke with the CIO in 1938 and
 rejoined the AFL in 1940. Dubinsky helped organize the Liberal party in
 1944.

   Dublin

 Dublin, city (1986 pop. 502,337), capital of the Republic of Ireland and
 county town of Co. Dublin, on Dublin Bay at the mouth of the Liffey R. It
 is Ireland's chief commercial, cultural, and administrative center. Its
 major industries include brewing, textile manufacturing, distilling, and
 shipbuilding. Dublin's turbulent early history was marked by the rule of
 the Danes, Irish, and English, who held the city from 1170 until 1800. It
 prospered in the late 18th cent., but declined after the Act of Union of
 1800. In the 19th and early 20th cent. the city saw bloodshed in
 connection with nationalist efforts to free Ireland from British control.
 It also became the center of a Gaelic renaissance; the Gaelic League was
 founded (1893) there and the Abbey Theatre (see THEATER, ) began
 producing Irish plays. Dublin is the seat of the Irish legislature, the
 Dail Eireann. Its institutions include the Univ. of Dublin (Trinity
 College), University College, and a national museum.

   Du Bois, W(illiam) E(dward) B(urghardt)

 Du Bois, W(illiam) E(dward) B(urghardt), 1868-1963, black American civil
 rights leader and author; b. Great Barrington, Mass. Earning a Ph.D. from
 Harvard (1895), he taught economics and history at Atlanta Univ.
 (1897-1910; 1932-44) and was one of the first exponents of full and
 immediate racial equality. He cofounded (1909) the National Negro
 Committee, which became (1910) the NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE
 ADVANCEMENT OF COLORED PEOPLE, and edited the NAACP magazine, The Crisis,
 until 1932. Late in life he promoted worldwide black liberation and
 pan-Africanism and, in 1961, joined the Communist party and moved to
 Ghana. His many writings include an autobiography (1968).

   Dubos, Rene Jules

 Dubos, Rene Jules, 1901-82, American bacteriologist and author; b.
 France. Associated with Rockefeller Univ. from 1927, he isolated in
 crystalline form the agent gramicidin, an antibiotic that destroys the
 so-called Gram-positive germs. This laid the basis for a new field of
 chemotherapy. His works include So Human an Animal (1969; Pulitzer).

   Dubuffet, Jean

 Dubuffet, Jean, 1901-85, French painter and sculptor. His primitive,
 childlike, humorous paintings are often done in thick impastoes of
 asphalt, pebbles, and glass to enrich the surface texture. Cow with the
 Subtile Nose is in the Museum of Modern Art (N.Y.C.).

   Ducas

 Ducas, dynasty of Byzantine emperors: Constantine X, Michael VIII,
 ALEXIUS V, and JOHN III.

   Duccio de Buoninsegna

 Duccio de Buoninsegna, fl. 1278-1319, the first great Sienese painter. He
 enlivened the Byzantine traditional forms by the expressive use of
 outline in paintings both lyrical and majestic. His only authenticated
 work is a large altar called Maesta (1311) in the Siena cathedral. His
 influence on Sienese painting was enormous.

   Duchamp, Marcel

 Duchamp, Marcel, 1887-1968, French painter; brother of Raymond
 DUCHAMP-VILLON, half-brother of Jacques VILLON. He is particularly noted
 for his cubist-futurist work Nude Descending a Staircase, depicting
 continuous action with a series of overlapping figures (see CUBISM;
 FUTURISM). A cofounder of the DADA group, he invented ready-mades
 (commonplace objects), e.g., the urinal entitled Fountain, which he
 exhibited as works of art. He also invented complex, nonfunctional
 machines.

   Duchamp-Villon, Raymond

 Duchamp-Villon, Raymond, 1876-1918, French sculptor; brother of Marcel
 DUCHAMP and Jacques VILLON. He turned from the tradition of RODIN to
 CUBISM, assembling such machinelike forms as Horse (Paris).

   duck

 duck, wild and domestic waterfowl of the family Anatidae, which also
 includes the GOOSE and SWAN. It is hunted and bred for its meat, eggs,
 and feathers. Strictly speaking, duck refers to the female; the male is a
 drake. Ducks range from 16 to 22 in. (36 to 56 cm) in length and have
 waterproof feathers, with a thick layer of down underneath, and webbed
 feet. They are usually divided into three groups: surface-feeding-such as
 the mallard, wood duck, and teal, which frequent ponds and quiet waters;
 diving-such as the canvasback and eider, found on bays, rivers, and
 lakes; and fish-eating, or mergansers, which also prefer open water.

   duckbill

 duckbill, marsupial: see PLATYPUS.

   Dudley, Robert

 Dudley, Robert: see LEICESTER, ROBERT DUDLEY, EARL OF.

   Dufay, Guillaume

 Dufay, Guillaume, c.1400-74, founder and leading composer of the
 Burgundian school of music. A singer in the papal chapel in Rome and
 elsewhere, he wrote chansons, MASSES, and MOTETS in the northern French
 tradition, with English and Italian elements.

   Dufy, Raoul

 Dufy, Raoul, 1877-1953, French painter, illustrator, and decorator.
 Turning to FAUVISM c.1905, he executed glittering landscapes, seascapes,
 and witty views of society, painted with swift, stenographic brush
 strokes, e.g., The Palm (Mus. Mod. Art, N.Y.C.).

   dugong

 dugong: see SIRENIAN.

   Du Guesclin, Bertrand

 Du Guesclin, Bertrand, c.1320-80, French soldier, constable of France
 (1370-80). In the service of CHARLES V of France, he defeated CHARLES II
 of Navarre, and in the HUNDRED YEARS WAR reconquered much of France from
 the English. He was the greatest French soldier of his time.

   Duisburg

 Duisburg, city (1986 est. pop. 516,600), North Rhine-Westphalia, W West
 Germany, at the confluence of the Rhine and Ruhr rivers. It is Europe's
 largest inland port and a steel-making center. Founded in Roman times, it
 passed to the duchy of Cleves (1290) and to Brandenburg (1614). During
 WORLD WAR II it was an armaments center and was heavily bombed.

   Dukakis, Michael S.

 Dukakis, Michael S. 1933-, U.S. politician; b. Brookline, Mass. He was a
 member of the House of Representatives (1963-70) and governor of
 Massachusetts (1974-79; 1982-). His policies included the nation's first
 no-fault auto insurance bill, the first major state tax amnesty, and his
 Employment and Training Program. In 1988, he ran unsuccessfully as the
 Democratic candidate for president of the U.S.

   Dukas, Paul

 Dukas, Paul, 1865-1935, French composer and critic. Influenced by Richard
 WAGNER and DEBUSSY, he is best known for his SYMPHONIC POEM The
 Sorcerer's Apprentice (1897).

   Dukhobors

 Dukhobors or Doukhobors[Russ.,=spirit wrestlers], religious sect,
 prominent in Russia from the 18th to the 19th cent., originally called
 Christians of the Universal Brotherhood. Doctrinally somewhat like the
 Quakers, they rejected outward symbols of Christianity, promoted a
 communal, absolutely democratic attitude, and preached equality.
 Persecuted in Russia, many eventually moved (1898-99) to W Canada. There
 they prospered, but had difficulties with the Canadian government on
 several occasions. In 1945 they formed two groups, the Union of the
 Dukhobors of Canada and the Sons of Freedom.

   dulcimer

 dulcimer: see STRINGED INSTRUMENT.

   Du Lhut, Daniel Greysolon, sieur

 Du Lhut, Daniel Greysolon, sieur: see DULUTH.

   Dulles, John Foster

 Dulles, John Foster, 1888-1959, U.S. secretary of state (1953-59); b.
 Washington, D.C. After serving (1945-49) as U.S. delegate to the UN, he
 negotiated (1951) the Japanese peace treaty formally ending World War II.
 As secretary of state under Pres. EISENHOWER, Dulles emphasized the
 collective security of the U.S. and its allies through foreign economic
 and military aid. He encouraged the development of nuclear weapons
 capable of "massive retaliation." His brother, Allen Welsh Dulles,
 1893-1969, was director (1953-61) of the CIA.

   Duluth

 Duluth,or Du Lhut, Daniel Greysolon, sieur, 1636-1710, French explorer.
 His explorations won the Lake SUPERIOR and upper MISSISSIPPI R. regions
 for France. He is remembered for his just treatment of the Indians.

   Duluth

 Duluth, city (1986 est. pop. 82,380), seat of St. Louis co., NE Minn., at
 the W end of Lake SUPERIOR; settled c.1852, inc. 1870. The second-largest
 port on the GREAT LAKES, Duluth ships grain, iron ore, and bulk cargo all
 over the world. The discovery of iron ore (1865) in the nearby Mesabi
 Range transformed the former timber-shipping port. Duluth is the
 commercial, industrial, and cultural center of N Minnesota.

   duma

 duma, Russian representative body established (1905) after the RUSSIAN
 REVOLUTION. The first (1906) and second (1907) dumas were dissolved by
 NICHOLAS II after a few months, because of their political hostility. The
 third (1907-12) and fourth (1912-17) were the last before the 1917
 Revolution.

   Dumas, Alexandre

 Dumas, Alexandre, known as Dumas pere (per), 1802-70, French author.
 After several successful historical dramas, he produced his great
 triumphs, The Three Musketeers (1844) and The Count of Monte Cristo
 (1845). Although these highly romantic novels, written with the aid of
 collaborators, are sometimes scorned by critics, they have delighted
 generations of readers and have been translated into nearly every
 language. His illegitimate son, Alexandre Dumas, known as Dumas fils
 (fes), 1824-95, is famed for his play La Dame aux camelias (1852), known
 in English as Camille, which became the vehicle for many famous actresses
 and was the basis of VERDI'S opera La Traviata. Dumas fils was the chief
 creator of the 19th-cent. comedy of manners.

   Du Maurier, George Louis Palmella Busson

 Du Maurier, George Louis Palmella Busson, 1834-96, English artist and
 novelist. A noted Punch illustrator, he also wrote the novels Peter
 Ibbetson (1892) and Trilby (1894). His granddaughter Daphne Du Maurier,
 1907-89, is the author of Rebecca (1938), The Scapegoat (1957), and other
 novels, as well as a family history, The Du Mauriers (1937).

   Dumouriez, Charles Francois

 Dumouriez, Charles Francois, 1739-1823, French general in the FRENCH
 REVOLUTIONARY WARS. He won victories at Valmy and Jemappes in 1792.
 Defeated at Neerwinden (1793), he opened negotiations with the Austrians.
 After turning over to them the French commissioners sent to investigate
 his defeat, he deserted to the Austrian lines.

   Dunant, Jean Henri

 Dunant, Jean Henri, 1828-1910, Swiss philanthropist. His published
 description (1862) of the suffering of wartime wounded and his plea for
 organizations to care for them led to the establishment (1864) of the
 International RED CROSS. Dunant shared the first Nobel Peace Prize (1901)
 with Frederick PASSY.

   Dunbar, Paul Laurence

 Dunbar, Paul Laurence, 1872-1906, black American author; b. Dayton, Ohio.
 His poetry, e.g., Lyrics of Lowly Life (1896), uses black American folk
 materials and dialects. Dunbar also wrote of Southern black life in
 novels and stories.

   Dunbar, William

 Dunbar, William, c.1460-c.1520, Scottish poet. Writing in the tradition
 of CHAUCER and the medieval Scottish poets, he is notable for his lively
 verse, metrical form, and caustic satire. "Lament for the Makers" is a
 well-known poem.

   Duncan, Isadora

 Duncan, Isadora, 1878-1927, American dancer; b. San Francisco. Her dances
 based on Greek classical art had great success in Budapest (1903), Berlin
 (1904), and New York City (1908). She danced barefoot in a revealing
 modified Greek tunic with flowing scarves, to complex music. Duncan's
 concerts, schools, and dynamic personality greatly influenced MODERN
 DANCE.

   Duncan, Robert

 Duncan, Robert, 1919-88, American poet; b. Oakland, Calif. His lyric
 poems are contained in such volumes as Wine (1964), Bending the Bow
 (1968), and Derivations (1970).

   Dunkers

 Dunkers: see BRETHREN.

   Dunkirk

 Dunkirk, town (1982 pop. 73,618), N France, on the North Sea. It is a
 major port and an important center for iron, steel, and other industry.
 Fought over for centuries, ruled by many, it was bought (1662) from
 England by Louis XIV and restored to France. In 1940, during WORLD WAR
 II, over 300,000 Allied troops, cut off from land retreat by the Germans,
 were rescued there by British ships and boats.

   Dunlap, William

 Dunlap, William, 1766-1839, American dramatist; b. Perth Amboy, N.J. He
 was a prolific writer of Gothic romances, and his tragedy Andre (1798)
 was the first American play based on native material. Dunlap, who adapted
 many French and German plays for the American stage, was also a theater
 manager (1796-1805) and a founder of the National Academy of Design.

   Dunmore, John Murray

 Dunmore, John Murray, 4th earl of, 1732-1809, British colonial governor
 of Virginia. He led (1774) an expedition against the Indians known as
 Lord Dunmore's War. He opposed the colonists, and they forced (1776) his
 return to England.

   Duns Scotus, John

 Duns Scotus, John, c.1266-1308, Scottish scholastic philosopher, known as
 the Subtle Doctor. A Franciscan, he adapted Aristotelian thought to
 Christian theology and founded the school of SCHOLASTICISM known as
 Scotism, which opposed the Thomism of the followers of THOMAS AQUINAS.
 Duns Scotus denied that individuality comes from matter. Modifying St.
 ANSELM'S ontological proof of the existence of God, he argued that God's
 possible existence must be demonstrable from sense experience. His
 best-known works are On the First Principle and two commentaries on the
 Sentences of the Italian theologian Peter Lombard.

   Duplessis, Maurice Le Noblet

 Duplessis, Maurice Le Noblet, 1890-1959, Canadian provincial premier. He
 founded (1936) the Union Nationale, a French Canadian nationalist party,
 and twice served (1936-39, 1944-59) as premier of QUEBEC.

   Du Pont

 Du Pont, French-American family. Pierre Samuel Du Pont de Nemours,
 1739-1817, a French economist, was one of the PHYSIOCRATS. He was active
 in politics and diplomacy, taking part in negotiations (1783) after the
 AMERICAN REVOLUTION and for the LOUISIANA PURCHASE. He emigrated to the
 U.S. in 1799. His son, Eleuthere Irenee Du Pont, 1771-1834, b. Paris, set
 up a powder works near Wilmington, Del., in 1802. Within a few years he
 developed an extensive business (now E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co.) and
 was appointed (1822) a director of the Bank of the United States. Samuel
 Francis Du Pont, 1803-65, b. Bergen Point, N.J., American naval officer,
 was a grandson of Pierre Samuel. In the Civil War he directed (1861) the
 naval victory at Port Royal, S.C., and against his own wishes led (1863)
 the unsuccessful attack on Charleston. Pierre Samuel Du Pont, 1870-1954,
 b. Wilmington, Del., became (1915) president of the family business.
 Under him the company developed scores of chemical manufactures and
 acquired many other industries.

   duralumin

 duralumin, ALLOY of ALUMINUM with COPPER, MAGNESIUM, and
 MANGANESE. A heat treatment causes a reaction between the aluminum and
 magnesium, increasing hardness and tensile strength. Because of its
 lightness and other properties, duralumin is widely used in the aircraft
 industry.

   Durand, Asher Brown

 Durand, Asher Brown, 1796-1886, American painter; b. near Newark, N.J. An
 engraver early in his career, he became a leader of the HUDSON RIVER
 SCHOOL. His landscapes include Franconia Notch (N.Y. Public Lib., N.Y.C.)
 and Mountain Forest (Corcoran Gall., Wash., D.C.).

   Duras, Marguerite

 Duras, Marguerite, 1914-, French novelist; b. Indochina (now Vietnam).
 Her experimental novels include The Sea Wall (1950), Destroy, She Said
 (1969), and Love (1972). More sensual novels include The Lover (1985) and
 Emily L. (1989). She has also written plays and screenplays, e.g.,
 Hiroshima mon amour (1959), and has directed films.

   Durban

 Durban, city (1980 pop. 505,963), Natal prov., E South Africa, on Durban
 Bay, an arm of the Indian Ocean. It is an industrial center, a major
 seaport, and a year-round resort. Industries include shipbuilding,
 petroleum refining, and automobile assembly. About 40% of the population
 is of Anglo-Indian descent. The city was settled as Port Natal by the
 British in 1824 and was renamed in 1835. It is the site of several
 educational and cultural institutions.

   Durer, Albrecht

 Durer, Albrecht, 1471-1528, German painter, engraver, and theoretician,
 the most influential artist of the German school; b. Nuremberg. The son
 of a goldsmith, he was apprenticed to his father and the painter Michael
 Wolgemut. After travel in Switzerland and Italy he settled in Nuremberg.
 He became the first German artist to achieve renown outside Germany.
 Durer's foremost achievement was to adapt the principles of the Italian
 RENAISSANCE to Northern taste. A gifted draftsman, he produced a vast
 number of woodcuts (see WOODCUT AND WOOD ENGRAVING) and ENGRAVINGS,
 achieving an unsurpassed technical mastery and expressive power in
 graphic media. His highly rational system of perspective and proportion
 served equally well his penchant for both realistic detail and visionary
 fantasy. His series of woodcuts of the Apocalypse was issued in 1498,
 followed by two cycles of the Passion of Christ and Life of the Virgin.
 After 1500 he developed as an art theoretician and produced greatly
 detailed engravings. From 1510 on he concentrated on the translation of
 lighting and tonal effects into graphic works. His humanistic
 inclinations were revealed in such works as St. Jerome in his Cell and
 Melencolia I (both: 1514). Durer usually signed his works, and his many
 self-portraits reveal a self-awareness rare for his time. He produced
 some important altarpieces, many sensitive watercolors of wildlife and
 landscapes, several decorative projects, and treatises on human
 proportions, applied geometry, and fortifications.

   Durham, John George Lambton, 1st earl of

 Durham, John George Lambton, 1st earl of, 1792-1840, British statesman. A
 Liberal member of Parliament (1813-32), he promoted the REFORM BILL of
 1832. As governor general of Canada, he prepared the masterly Report on
 the Affairs of British North America (1839), supporting Canadian
 self-government and reforms but opposing French Canadian nationalism.

   Durham

 Durham, city (1986 est. pop. 113,890), seat of Durham co., N central
 N.C., in the Piedmont area; inc. 1867. It is a tobacco marketing and
 processing and cigarette-making center. Textiles and insurance are also
 important. The tobacco industry, led by James B. Duke, developed after
 the Civil War. Duke Univ. is in Durham.

   Durkheim, Emile

 Durkheim, Emile, 1858-1917, French sociologist, considered a founder of
 modern SOCIOLOGY. Influenced by the POSITIVISM of COMTE, Durkheim applied
 the methods of natural science (particularly empirical evidence and
 statistics) to the study of society. He held that the collective social
 mind is the source of religion and morality, that common values are the
 bonds of social order, and that the loss of such values leads to social
 and individual instability and SUICIDE. His important works include The
 Rules of Sociological Method (1895), Suicide (1897), and The Elementary
 Forms of Religious Life (1912).

   Durrell, Lawrence

 Durrell, Lawrence, 1912-, English author; b. India. His travels have lent
 exotic background to many of his novels. His masterpiece is the
 Alexandria Quartet (Justine, 1957; Balthazar, 1958; Mountolive, 1958; and
 Clea, 1960). The quartet's excellence lies in its rich, ornamental
 language and in its evocation of the city of Alexandria, Egypt.

   Durrenmatt, Friedrich

 Durrenmatt, Friedrich, 1921-, Swiss playwright and novelist. One of the
 most famous German-language dramatists of his generation, he wrote of a
 comic, grotesque world in The Visit (1956) and The Physicists (1962).
 Irony also informs his novels, e.g., The Quarry (1953) and The Pledge
 (1958).

   Dusan, Stephen

 Dusan, Stephen: see STEPHEN DUsAN.

   Duse, Eleonora

 Duse, Eleonora, 1859-1924, Italian actress. From her Juliet at age 14 to
 her farewell appearance (1923) in IBSEN'S Lady from the Sea, she
 projected tremendous emotional power; she was BERNHARDT'S only rival. For
 years a romantic attachment existed between her and D'ANNUNZIO.

   Dusseldorf

 Dusseldorf, city (1986 est pop. 561,200), capital of North
 Rhine-Westphalia, W West Germany, at the confluence of the Rhine and
 Dussel rivers. It is an inland port and an industrial center producing
 iron and steel, machinery, and other manufactures. Chartered in 1288, it
 was (14th-16th cent.) a ducal residence. HEINE was born in Dusseldorf.

   Dust Bowl

 Dust Bowl, collectively, those areas of the U.S. prairie states subject
 to dust storms or the removal of unprotected topsoil by strong winds. It
 covered 25,000 sq mi (64,750 sq km) at its greatest extent in the 1930s,
 when grasslands that had been plowed for wheat in the 1920s were
 abandoned or returned to grazing. Irrigation, regrassing, contour
 farming, and other conservation measures are now widely used.

   Dutch East India Company

 Dutch East India Company: see EAST INDIA COMPANY, DUTCH.

   Dutch language

 Dutch language, member of the West Germanic group of the Germanic
 subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See LANGUAGE ().

   Dutch Reformed Church

 Dutch Reformed Church: see REFORMED CHURCH IN AMERICA.

   Dutch Wars

 Dutch Wars. 1 1652-54, war between the English and the Dutch. The
 long-standing rivalry between the two nations as competitors in world
 trade erupted into war after the British closed their possessions to
 Dutch traders. After a sea fight (Nov. 1652) the Dutch gained control of
 the English Channel, but in 1653 the English broke the control and
 blockaded the Dutch coast. The Dutch were defeated (July 31, 1653) and
 were forced to accept a humbling peace treaty. 2 1664-67, another war
 between the English and the Dutch. Despite defeat, the Dutch continued to
 challenge English trade. The English took various Dutch colonies,
 including New Netherlands (later New York and New Jersey). Despite some
 English advances, domestic problems-the plague, the great fire, and
 Scottish disaffection-made them eager for peace. The resulting Treaty of
 Breda was a blow to English prestige. 3 1672-78, the first of the great
 wars of LOUIS XIV of France. Louis was determined to crush Holland and
 end Dutch commercial rivalry; with secret support from CHARLES II of
 England, he invaded the Netherlands but was unable to take Amsterdam.
 After five years of fighting-with Spain, the Holy Roman emperor, and
 various other powers coming to Holland's aid-Louis was unable to crush
 Holland. France did gain some territory, including Franche-Comte, but
 ended up with a severely depleted treasury.

   Dutch West India Company

 Dutch West India Company (1621-1791), trading and colonizing company
 chartered by the States-General of the Dutch republic in 1621 and
 organized in 1623. Given jurisdiction over a wide range of coast in
 Africa and the Western Hemisphere, it battled (1624-54) Portugal
 unsuccessfully for control of NE Brazil. The company founded (1626) Fort
 Amsterdam, which grew to be called New Amsterdam (now New York City).

   Duvalier, Francois

 Duvalier, Francois, 1907-71, dictator of HAITI (1957-71). A physician, he
 served in the government and was elected president (1957) with army
 backing. After his reelection (1961), "Papa Doc," declared himself (1964)
 president for life. His long regime was a reign of terror. When he died,
 his son, Jean-Claude Duvalier, 1951-, became (1971) "president-for-life."
 Known as "Baby Doc," he pursued somewhat more enlightened policies but
 was forced (1986) to flee the country by increasing protests. France
 granted him asylum.

   Dvorak, Antonin

 Dvorak, Antonin, 1841-1904, Czech composer. Much of his music is
 nationalistic. He is best known for his Symphony in E Minor, From the New
 World (1893), written while he was in the U.S. It conveys with great
 exuberance Dvorak's impressions of American scenes and folk music and at
 the same time evokes nostalgia for his native land. He also wrote eight
 other symphonies, chamber works, a violin concerto, a cello concerto, and
 OVERTURES.

   dwarfism

 dwarfism, condition in which an animal or plant is smaller than normal
 size; in humans, it usually results from a combination of genetic factors
 and endocrine malfunction. Pituitary dwarfism is caused by a deficiency
 of pituitary growth hormone. Typically, the pituitary dwarf, or midget,
 has normal body proportions, mental capacity, and sexual development. The
 most famous dwarf of recent times was "General" TOM THUMB. Cretinism, a
 type of dwarfism accompanied by mental retardation and body distortion,
 results from an insufficiency of thyroid hormone.

   Dwight, Timothy

 Dwight, Timothy, 1752-1817, American clergyman, author, and educator,
 grandson of Jonathan EDWARDS; b. Northampton, Mass. He became (1783) a
 Congregational minister in Greenfield, Conn., and was a leader of the
 CONNECTICUT WITS, who tried to modernize the curriculum at Yale. Dwight
 was a believer in theocracy and Federalism, and strongly opposed
 Republicanism. He was a president of Yale (1795-1817).

   Dy

 Dy, chemical symbol of the element DYSPROSIUM.

   Dyak

 Dyak or Dayak,indigenous people of BORNEO, numbering over 1 million.
 Modern civilization has made little change in their customs and mode of
 life, including intertribal warfare and HEAD-HUNTING. A whole village
 lives in a few enormous longhouses, and crops of rice, yams, and
 sugarcane are grown communally. The Dyak also fish and hunt, using
 blowguns and poison darts. Their religious cults are animistic and
 shamanistic.

   Dyck, Sir Anthony van

 Dyck, Sir Anthony van: see VAN DYCK, SIR ANTHONY.

   dye

 dye, natural or synthetic substance used to color various materials,
 especially textiles, leather, and food. Natural dyes are obtained from
 plants (e.g., indigo), from animals (e.g., cochineal), and from minerals
 (e.g., ocher). Used since ancient times, natural dyes have been largely
 replaced by synthetic dyes, first made in the 19th cent. Most of these
 are made from coal tar (see TAR AND PITCH). Although some materials,
 e.g., silk and wool, can be colored simply by being dipped in the dye,
 others, including cotton, require a mordant. The process by which dyes
 become "attached" to the material they color is not well understood. It
 is thought either that a chemical reaction takes place between the dye
 and the fiber or that the dye is absorbed.

   Dylan, Bob

 Dylan, Bob, 1941-, American singer and composer; b. Duluth, Minn., as
 Robert Zimmerman. In the 1960s he gained recognition through his lyrics,
 capturing the alienation of American youth, and his harsh, insistent
 delivery. Influenced by Woody GUTHRIE, among others, Dylan exercised a
 profound influence on folk and ROCK MUSIC, his style evolving from folk
 to folk-rock to country. Enigmatic and reclusive, he became a cult
 figure.

   dynamics

 dynamics, branch of mechanics that deals with the MOTION of objects; it
 may be further divided into kinematics, the study of motion without
 regard to the forces producing it, and kinetics, the study of the FORCES
 that produce or change motion. The principles of dynamics are used to
 solve problems involving work and energy, and to explain the pressure and
 expansion of gases, the motion of planets, and the behavior of flowing
 fluids (gases and liquids). Special branches of dynamics treat the
 particular effects of forces and motions in fluids (see FLUID MECHANICS);
 these include AERODYNAMICS, the study of gases in motion, and
 hydrodynamics, the study of liquids in motion.

   dynamite

 dynamite, EXPLOSIVE made from NITROGLYCERIN and various amounts of an
 inert, absorbent filler, e.g., sawdust. Often ammonium nitrate or sodium
 nitrate is added. Invented in 1866 by Alfred B. NOBEL, dynamite is
 usually pressed in cylindrical forms and wrapped in an appropriate
 material, e.g., paper or plastic. The charge is set off with a detonator.

   dyne

 dyne: see FORCE.

   dysentery

 dysentery, inflammation of the intestines, characterized by frequent
 passage of feces, usually with blood and mucus. Amoebic dysentery is
 caused by infestation by the amoeba Entamoeba histolytica. Bacillary
 dysentery is most often caused by the Shigella bacillus. Spread by fecal
 contamination of food and water, both forms are common where sanitation
 is poor. Treatment of bacillary dysentery is with a broad-spectrum
 ANTIBIOTIC; a combination of an antibiotic and an amoebicide is necessary
 for successful treatment of amoebic dysentery.

   dyslexia

 dyslexia, severe and persistent difficulty in learning to read despite
 average or above-average intelligence, normal vision, and appropriate
 reading instruction. The cause is unknown. Some common disabilities
 associated with dyslexia are the reversal of letters, as b for d, also
 called mirror writing; word reversals, as saw for was; and defects in the
 visual and auditory perception and memory considered necessary for
 reading. Dyslexia, a type of LEARNING DISABILITY, was first described
 (1896) by W.P. Morgan, an English ophthalmologist, who called the
 condition word blindness.

   dysprosium

 dysprosium (Dy), metallic element, discovered (but not isolated) in 1886
 by P.E. Lecoq de Boisbaudran. A lustrous, silvery, soft RARE-EARTH METAL
 in the LANTHANIDE series, it is used in magnetic alloys and in
 nuclear-reactor control rods. See ELEMENT (); PERIODIC TABLE.

   Dzerzhinsky, Feliks Edmundovich

 Dzerzhinsky, Feliks Edmundovich, 1877-1926, Soviet political leader. As a
 follower of LENIN, he participated in the Bolshevik revolution (Oct.
 1917). He served (1917-22) as first chief of the CHEKA, the SECRET
 POLICE, and its successors the GPU and OGPU (1922-26), and was head of
 the commissariat of internal affairs (NKVD). He oversaw repressions known
 as the "Red Terror." Later, he was chairman of the Supreme Economic
 Council (1924-26), a supporter of the New Economic Policy (NEP), and a
 member of the Politburo.

   Dzungaria

 Dzungaria, also spelled Jungaria, Sungaria, or Zungaria, steppe and
 desert region, NW China, in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. Since 1953
 large numbers of Chinese have moved there to work the deposits of coal,
 iron ore, and oil. The Dzungarian Gate, used for centuries by Central
 Asian conquerors as an invasion route to China, is a pass at the eastern
 end of the Ala-Tau, a mountain chain that marks part of the USSR-China
 border.

   e

 e, irrational NUMBER occurring widely in mathematics and science,
 approximately equal to the value 2.71828; it is the base of natural, or
 Naperian, LOGARITHMS. Like p (see PI), e is transcendental, i.e., not a
 ROOT of any algebraic equation. It is defined as the LIMIT of the
 expression (1 + 1/n)n as n becomes infinitely large. Expressions of the
 form ex, known as the exponential function, occur in applications ranging
 from statistics to nuclear physics.

   Ead-

 Ead-. For Anglo-Saxon names beginning thus, ed-; e.g., for Eadgar, see
 EDGAR.

   eagle

 eagle, large, predatory BIRD of the HAWK family, found worldwide. Similar
 to but larger than the BUZZARDS, eagles are solitary and believed to mate
 for life. Their beaks are nearly as long as their heads, and their
 wingspan may reach 7 1/2 ft (228 cm). The American bald eagle (Haliaetus
 leucocephalus), an endangered species, is brown with white head, neck,
 and tail plumage. The golden, or mountain, eagle (genus Aquila), is sooty
 brown with tawny head and neck feathers. Unlike the bald eagle, its legs
 are feathered to the toes.

   Eakins, Thomas

 Eakins, Thomas, 1844-1916, American painter, photographer, and sculptor;
 b. Philadelphia. Eakins is considered the foremost American portraitist
 and one of the greatest 19th-cent. artists. He sought to describe reality
 with absolute honesty, his study of anatomy and perspective providing a
 means of painting exterior reality. Eakins revived U.S. portraiture with
 his extraordinarily penetrating paintings and, as a teacher of artists
 such as HENRI, SLOAN, and GLACKENS, founded a school of native American
 art. Also a photographer, he used the medium as an art form, as an aid in
 painting, and to study motion. His paintings include The Chess Players
 (1876; Metropolitan Mus.), The Clinic of Professor Agnew (1889; Univ.
 Penn.), and portraits of Mrs. Frishmuth (1900; Philadelphia Mus.) and
 Miss Van Buren (1891; Phillips Coll., Wash., D.C.).

   Eanes, Antonio dos Santos Ramalho

 Eanes, Antonio dos Santos Ramalho, 1935-, Portuguese army officer and
 president of Portugal (1976-). In 1975 Eanes, then a colonel, headed the
 army group that crushed an attempted left-wing coup. A centrist, he was
 elected (1976) president with the support of all the major parties except
 the Communists. He carried out democratic and economic reforms and was
 reelected in 1980.

   ear

 ear, organ of hearing and equilibrium. The human ear consists of outer,
 middle, and inner parts. The outer ear, the visible portion, includes the
 skin-covered flap of cartilage (auricle) and the auditory canal, which
 leads to the eardrum. The middle ear contains three small bones, or
 ossicles, known because of their shapes as the hammer, anvil, and
 stirrup. The Eustachian tube connects the middle ear to the throat. The
 inner ear contains the cochlea, which houses the sound-analyzing cells,
 and the vestibule, with the organs of balance. In the course of hearing,
 sound waves enter the auditory canal and strike the eardrum, causing it
 to vibrate. The waves are concentrated as they pass through the ossicles
 to a small opening leading to the inner ear. The vibration sets in motion
 fluid within the cochlea. This agitates a delicate membrane, stimulating
 thousands of sensory hair cells, which in turn stimulate the auditory
 nerve to send impulses to the brain. Three fluid-filled semicircular
 canals and two saclike organs, the utriculus and the sacculus, are the
 chief organs of balance and orientation; as with hearing, stimulation of
 sensory hair cells in these organs stimulates nerve impulses.

   Earhart, Amelia

 Earhart, Amelia, 1897-1937, American aviator; b. Atchison, Kans. She was
 the first woman to fly across the Atlantic (1928) and to fly it alone
 (1932) and the first person to fly alone from Hawaii to California
 (1935). In 1937 she and Frederick J. Noonan set out to fly around the
 world, but they disappeared mysteriously between New Guinea and Howland
 Island.

   Early, Jubal Anderson

 Early, Jubal Anderson, 1816-94, Confederate general; b. Franklin co.,
 Va.; grad. West Point, 1837. Prominent in the battle of CHANCELLORSVILLE
 and in the GETTYSBURG CAMPAIGN, he led (1864) a raid that reached the
 outskirts of Washington, D.C. Early was defeated (1864-65) by P.H.
 SHERIDAN in the Shenandoah valley and was relieved of command.

   Early Christian art and architecture

 Early Christian art and architecture. Among the earliest extant
 manifestations of Christian art are the early 3rd-cent. paintings of
 biblical figures on CATACOMB walls in Rome. Among the main themes
 portrayed are the hope of resurrection and immortality, symbolized by
 fish and peacock motifs. After the Edict of Toleration (313) the scope of
 Christian art was radically enlarged. BASILICAS were covered with
 elaborate MOSAIC narrative cycles, e.g., Santa Maria Maggiore and Santa
 Pudenziana in Rome and Sant'Appollinare Nuovo in Ravenna. In Christian
 art the ILLUMINATION of sacred texts assumed great importance. Fragments
 of silver and gold biblical text on purple vellum with sumptuous
 illuminations are still preserved, e.g., the Vienna Genesis from the
 first half of the 6th century. The elaborate sculpture of the stone
 sarcophagus was extensively practiced, often depicting the life of
 Christ. Ivory carvers decorated book covers and reliquaries and such
 large objects as the throne of Maximianus in Ravenna (6th cent.). After
 legal recognition of the faith, imposing cult edifices were erected
 throughout the Roman Empire. As with other art forms, Christian
 architecture adapted and modified existing structures from the pagan
 world. Church structure became centralized, emphasizing round, polygonal,
 or cruciform shapes. BAPTISTERIES and memorial shrines (martyria)
 followed the Roman style. A distinct type of Christian art and
 architecture was evolved in Egypt (see COPTIC ART). In the East the
 Byzantine emperors supported the developments of the Early Christian
 artistic tradition.

   early man

 early man: see MAN, PREHISTORIC.

   Earp, Wyatt Berry Stapp

 Earp, Wyatt Berry Stapp, 1848-1929, lawman and gunfighter of the American
 West; b. Monmouth, Ill. After serving as a policeman in Kansas, Earp was
 involved (1881) in the controversial gunfight at the O.K. Corral in
 Tombstone, Ariz.

   earth

 earth, fifth largest PLANET of the SOLAR SYSTEM and the only one known to
 support life. Its mean distance from the SUN is c.93 million mi (150
 million km). The change of seasons is caused by the tilt (23.5 deg) of
 the earth's EQUATOR to the plane of the orbit. The earth is surrounded by
 an envelope of gases, mostly oxygen and nitrogen, called the ATMOSPHERE.
 Gravitational forces have molded the earth into a spherical shape that
 bulges slightly at the equator (equatorial diameter: c.7,926 mi/12,760
 km; polar diameter: 7,900 mi/12,720 km). Studies indicate that the earth
 consists of concentric layers that differ in size, chemistry, and
 density. The outer shell, or crust, consists of the CONTINENTS and the
 OCEAN basins. The crust is broken into vast plates that slide around on a
 plastic zone, or asthenosphere, within the middle shell, or mantle (see
 CONTINENTAL DRIFT; PLATE TECTONICS). At the center of the earth is an
 outer core, believed to be liquid, and an inner, solid core. The earth is
 estimated to be 4.55 billion years old, and its origin is a controversial
 subject. The earth has one natural satellite, the MOON.

   earthquake

 earthquake, trembling or shaking movement of the earth's surface. Great
 earthquakes usually begin with slight tremors, rapidly increase to one or
 more violent shocks, and diminish gradually. The immediate cause of most
 shallow earthquakes is the sudden release of stress along a FAULT, or
 fracture, in the earth's crust, resulting in the movement of opposing
 blocks of rock past one another. This causes vibrations to pass through
 and around the earth in wave form (see TSUNAMI). The subterranean origin
 of an earthquake is its focus; the point on the surface directly above
 the focus is the epicenter. Waves generated by earthquakes are of three
 types. Both P, or primary, waves, which are compressional and are the
 fastest, and S, or secondary, waves, which cause vibrations perpendicular
 to their motion, are body waves that pass through the earth. L, or long,
 waves travel along the surface and cause damage near the epicenter.
 Seismologists (see SEISMOLOGY) have deduced the internal structure of the
 earth by analyzing changes in P and S waves. The magnitude and intensity
 of earthquakes are determined by the use of scales, e.g., the Richter
 scale, which describes the amount of energy released at the focus of an
 earthquake.

   earthworks

 earthworks, art form of the late 1960s and early 70s using elements of
 nature in situ. Often vast in scale, the works are subject to changes in
 temperature and light. Robert Smithson's Spiral Jetty (1970), a huge
 spiral of rock and salt crystal in the middle of the Great Salt Lake,
 Utah, is a characteristic example of the earthwork form.

   earthworm

 earthworm, cylindrical, segmented worm (see ANNELID WORM) of the class
 Oligochaeta. Ranging from 1 in. (2.5 cm) to 11 ft (330 cm) in length,
 earthworms burrow in the ground and swallow soil from which organic
 matter is extracted in the gizzard. They are important to agriculture in
 aerating and mixing the soil.

   East Anglia

 East Anglia,  kingdom of Anglo-Saxon England, comprising the modern
 counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. Settled in the late 5th cent. by Angles,
 it was one of the most powerful English kingdoms of the late 6th cent. It
 became an under kingdom of MERCIA, against which it later rebelled (825),
 only to become a dependency of WESSEX. The Danish invading army,
 quartered in East Anglia (865-66), later (869) conquered the state
 entirely. The treaty of 886 confirmed the region as part of the DANELAW.
 After 917 East Anglia was an earldom of England.

   East China Sea

 East China Sea, arm of the Pacific Ocean, c.480,000 sq mi (1,243,200 sq
 km), bounded by China (W), Japan and the Senkaku and Ryukyu islands (E),
 and Taiwan (S). Vast oil deposits, first indicated in 1980, are believed
 to underlie much of the shallow sea floor.

   Easter

 Easter [from Old Eng. Eastre, name of a spring goddess], chief Christian
 feast, commemorating the resurrection of JESUS Christ after his
 crucifixion. In the West it falls on a Sunday between Mar. 22 and Apr. 25
 inclusive (see CALENDAR). Preceded by the penitential season of LENT,
 Easter is a day of rejoicing. The date of Easter is calculated
 differently in the Orthodox Eastern Church and usually falls several
 weeks after the Western date.

   Easter Island

 Easter Island, 46 sq mi (119 sq km), in the South Pacific Ocean, W of
 Chile, which annexed it in 1888. The origin of the island's unusual
 hieroglyphs and gigantic carved heads, some weighing more than 50 tons,
 has been the subject of much speculation by the American psychologist
 Werner Wolff, the French ethnologist Alfred Metraux, and others. Thor
 HEYERDAHL theorized that the heads were carved by fair-skinned invaders
 from the East prior to the arrival (c.1680) of the island's present
 Polynesians.

   Eastern Highlands

 Eastern Highlands, mountains and plateaus in E Australia that extend
 roughly parallel to the east and southeast coasts and into TASMANIA for
 c.2,400 mi (3,860 km). They form the continental divide and are sometimes
 referred to as the Great Dividing Range. Mt. KOSCIUSKO (7,316 ft/2,230
 m), in the southeast is Australia's highest peak. Sections of the
 highlands are widely known by local names, including the SNOWY MOUNTAINS,
 AUSTRALIAN ALPS, Blue Mts., and New England Range. Generally rugged, with
 few gaps and many gorges, the Eastern Highlands long hindered westward
 expansion across the continent.

   Eastern Question

 Eastern Question, problem of the fate of the European territory,
 especially the Balkans, controlled by the decaying OTTOMAN EMPIRE
 (Turkey) in the 18th, 19th, and early 20th cent. For much of that time
 the Great Powers (Austria, Britain, Prussia, Russia, and France) were
 involved in either diplomatic intrigue or actual armed warfare to protect
 their national interests there. RUSSIA, in particular, was eager to
 expand into the area, looking for warm-water ports accessible to the
 Mediterranean. The other powers, especially Great Britain, were chiefly
 involved in thwarting Russia's ambitions. However, there were
 considerable shifts in alliances. The RUSSO-TURKISH WARS, in particular,
 resulted from the Eastern Question. In the 19th cent. the problem was
 exacerbated by the national aspirations of the individual Balkan peoples,
 who were aided or discouraged by the Great Powers, depending on what
 their own national interests were deemed to be. In the CRIMEAN WAR,
 Britain and France successfully aided Turkey in warding off Russian
 advances. Turkey's position, however, continued to decline. The BALKAN
 WARS (1912-13) set the stage for the final dissolution of the Ottoman
 Empire in WORLD WAR I.

   Eastern Woodlands Indians

 Eastern Woodlands Indians: see NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

   East India Company, British

 East India Company, British, 1600-1858, company chartered by the Crown
 for trade with Asia. It acquired unequaled trade privileges from the
 Mogul emperors in India, and began to reap large profits by exporting
 textiles and tea. As Mogul power declined, the company intervened in
 Indian political affairs. Its agent, Robert CLIVE, defeated (1751-60) the
 rival French East India Company, and Warren HASTINGS, the first governor
 general of British India, assumed more control of the company. Britain
 took over India's administration after the INDIAN MUTINY of 1857, and the
 company was dissolved.

   East India Company, Dutch

 East India Company, Dutch, 1602-1798, chartered by the States-General of
 the Netherlands. Granted a monopoly on Dutch trade E of the Cape of Good
 Hope and W of the Strait of Magellan, the company subdued local rulers;
 drove the British and Portuguese from Indonesia, Malaya, and Ceylon (now
 Sri Lanka); and dominated trade with the Spice Islands (Moluccas). When
 it was dissolved its possessions became part of the Dutch empire in the
 Far East.

   East India Company, French

 East India Company, French, 1664-1769, commercial enterprise chartered by
 LOUIS XIV to trade in the Eastern Hemisphere. It was merged (1719-23)
 into the Compagnie des Indes as part of John LAW'S Mississippi Scheme.
 From 1741 the company was active in India, but it was dissolved after the
 French defeat by the British under Robert CLIVE.

   East Indies

 East Indies, name, now seldom used, first applied to India, then to SE
 Asia, and finally to the islands of Indonesia.

   Eastman, George

 Eastman, George, 1854-1932, American inventor and industrialist; b.
 Waterville, N.Y. He invented a dry-plate photographic process, roll film,
 and the Kodak camera (1888), as well as a process for color photography
 (1928). The Eastman Kodak Co. (founded 1892) was one of the first U.S.
 firms to mass-produce a standardized product, greatly stimulating the
 development of photography as a popular hobby. Eastman's philanthropies
 exceeded $100 million.

   Eastman, Max

 Eastman, Max, 1883-1969, American author; b. Canandaigua, N.Y. The editor
 of radical periodicals (The Masses, Liberator) until 1923, he later
 rejected Communism and wrote several books attacking it.

   East Prussia

 East Prussia, former province of Prussia, NE Germany. Konigsberg (now
 KALININGRAD) was the capital. The area was conquered (13th cent.) by the
 TEUTONIC KNIGHTS from the Borussi, or Prussians. It passed (1618) to an
 elector of BRANDENBURG, whose son became (1701) king of PRUSSIA. From
 1701 to 1945 East Prussia shared the history of Prussia. In 1945 East
 Prussia was divided between the USSR and Poland.

   Eastwood, Clint

 Eastwood, Clint,  1930-, American actor and director; b. San Francisco.
 He is best known for roles in action films, where he portrays a strong,
 silent, often violent hero. He has starred in over thirty movies,
 including Dirty Harry (1972) and Magnum Force (1973). He directed and
 acted in Play Misty for Me (1971) and Heartbreak Ridge (1986). He served
 one term as mayor of Carmel, Calif.

   eating disorders

 eating disorders, either of two psychological disorders, bulimia and
 anorexia nervosa, characterized by an abnormal fear of obesity and
 subsequent abnormal eating patterns. Anorexia is marked by obsessive
 fasting; bulimia by eating binges followed by self-induced vomiting or
 the use of laxatives. The effects of the disorders range from mild weight
 loss to delayed sexual development, heart problems, depression, and even
 death. Both conditions have their roots in social pressures; most cases
 occur among middle- and upper-class adolescent girls.

   Ebla

 Ebla, ancient city near Aleppo, Syria. The palace archive excavated
 (1975) there revealed that Ebla had been a major commercial center
 trading with much of the Middle East. The texts, written in a Canaanite
 language (Eblaite), date from c.2500 BC

   ebony

 ebony, common name for the Ebenaceae, a family of trees and shrubs widely
 distributed in warm climates. The genus Diospyros includes the ebony and
 persimmon trees. Ebony wood, valued since ancient times, is dark and
 hard; it is used extensively in cabinetmaking. Some species (e.g., D.
 hirsuta) have wood striped with black or shades of brown (called
 calamander wood or variegated ebony). The persimmons bear edible fruit
 that when unripe is astringent and when ripe is soft and pulpy, making it
 difficult to market. Persimmon wood has a limited use in the manufacture
 of objects (e.g., golf club heads) requiring hardwood.

   Eboue, Felix Adolphe

 Eboue, Felix Adolphe, 1884-1944, French colonial governor of CHAD
 (1938-40) and of FRENCH EQUATORIAL AFRICA (1940-44). As France's first
 black colonial governor, he attempted to develop the region's economy
 while retaining the society and customs of the Africans.

   eccentricity

 eccentricity, in astronomy: see ORBIT.

   Ecclesiastes

 Ecclesiastes , book of the OLD TESTAMENT, 21st in the Authorized Version,
 traditionally ascribed to SOLOMON but clearly written much later (3d
 cent. BC or as late as 160 BC). A philosophical essay, it opens with the
 theme that since "all is vanity," life should be enjoyed. This is
 followed by praise of wisdom and mercy, an emphasis on the universality
 of death, and a brief epilogue on the fear of God's judgment.

   Ecclesiasticus

 Ecclesiasticus, book included in the OLD TESTAMENT of the Western canon
 and the Septuagint but not in the Hebrew Bible, and placed in the
 APOCRYPHA in the Authorized Version. It is also called the Wisdom of
 Jesus the Son of Sirach. The original Hebrew text dates from 200-180 BC
 and was translated perhaps in 132-131 BC Its theme is the excellence of
 wisdom, and it contains several eloquent passages.

   Echegaray, Jose

 Echegaray, Jose, 1832-1916, Spanish dramatist, mathematician, economist,
 and cabinet minister. His 68 plays range from romances to melodramatic
 problem plays like The Great Galeoto (1881). He shared the 1904 Nobel
 Prize in literature with Frederic MISTRAL.

   Echeverria, Esteban

 Echeverria, Esteban, 1805-51, Argentine poet, novelist, and
 revolutionary. He introduced ROMANTICISM into Argentina with his poem
 Elvira (1832). The Captive (1837), extolling the PAMPAS, was his most
 successful poem. An opponent of Juan Manuelde ROSAS, he spent his late
 years in Uruguay, where he attacked the dictator in his short novel The
 Abattoir (1871).

   Echeverria Alvarez, Luis

 Echeverria Alvarez, Luis, 1922-, president of Mexico (1970-76). A member
 of the Institutional Revolutionary party, he held numerous government
 posts, including secretary of the interior (1964-69). As president he
 attempted reforms but was faced with inflation, unemployment, and
 political violence.

   echidna

 echidna or spiny anteater,primitive, egg-laying MAMMAL, or MONOTREME, of
 New Guinea, E Australia, and Tasmania. Covered with sharp quills, the
 grayish-brown echidna protects itself by rolling into a ball. It may
 reach 18 in. (46 cm) in length. A rapid burrower, the echidna probes for
 ants and termites with its sensitive muzzle and long, sticky tongue.

   echinoderm

 echinoderm, marine invertebrate animal of the phylum Echinodermata,
 having external skeletons of calcareous plates just under the skin, no
 head, and a unique water-vascular (ambulacral) system with tube-feet.
 Echinoderms are radially symmetrical and lack specialized excretory
 organs and reproduce sexually. Echinoderms have extensive powers of
 regeneration of lost or injured parts. All members of the phylum live on
 the sea floor. The phylum includes the STARFISH, BRITTLE STARS, SEA
 URCHINS and SAND DOLLARS, SEA CUCUMBERS, and CRINOIDS.

   Echo

 Echo, in Greek mythology, mountain NYMPH. She incurred HERA'S wrath with
 her chatter and, as punishment, could only repeat the last words said by
 others. In unrequited love for NARCISSUS, she pined away until her voice
 alone remained.

   echo

 echo, reflection of a sound wave back to its source in sufficient
 strength and with a sufficient time lag (at least 0.1 sec) to be
 separately distinguished by the human ear.

   Eck, Johann Maier von

 Eck, Johann Maier von, 1486-1543, German Roman Catholic theologian.
 Although he held humanistic ideas, he is known as the theologian who
 forced LUTHER, whom he disputed publicly at Leipzig (1519), into a
 position of open opposition to the Roman Catholic Church.

   Eckhart, Meister

 Eckhart, Meister, c.1260-c.1328, German mystical theologian. A DOMINICAN,
 he communicated his burning sense of God's nearness to men and began a
 popular mystical movement in 14th-cent. Germany. Eckhart was wrongly
 accused of connection with the Beghards (a group with semiheretical
 beliefs), and 17 of his propositions were condemned (1329) as heretical
 by Pope John XXII. He was perhaps the first writer of speculative prose
 in German, which became the language of popular tracts.

   eclampsia

 eclampsia: see TOXEMIA.

   eclipse

 eclipse, partial or total obscuring of one celestial body by the shadow
 of another. A lunar eclipse occurs when the earth blocks the sun's light
 from the moon; a solar eclipse occurs when the moon blocks the sun's
 light from some area on the earth. Because the earth and moon shine only
 by the reflected light of the sun, each casts a shadow into space in the
 direction away from the sun. The shadow consists of a cone-shaped area of
 complete darkness, called the umbra, and a larger area of partial
 darkness that surrounds the umbra, called the penumbra. A lunar eclipse
 is said to be total or partial depending on whether the moon passes
 completely into the umbra of the earth's shadow or remains partly in the
 penumbra. A solar eclipse is said to be total or partial depending on
 whether the observer is in the umbra or the penumbra of the moon's
 shadow. Total solar eclipses have particular scientific importance,
 providing information about the motions of the moon and about the surface
 phenomena of the sun and permitting tests of Albert Einstein's general
 theory of RELATIVITY. An annular solar eclipse occurs when the moon is so
 distant from the earth that the umbra of its shadow is too short to reach
 the earth's surface; the sun is thus seen as a bright ring completely
 surrounding the moon's dark disk. Solar and lunar eclipses are possible
 only when the moon crosses the earth's orbital plane at a time when the
 sun, moon, and earth are in alignment (at new and full moon; see SYZYGY).

   ecliptic

 ecliptic, the great circle on the celestial sphere (see ASTRONOMICAL
 COORDINATE SYSTEMS) that lies in the plane of the earth's ORBIT. Because
 of the earth's yearly revolution around the sun, the sun appears to move
 in an annual journey along the ecliptic. The obliquity of the ecliptic is
 the inclination (about 231/2 deg) of the plane of the ecliptic to the
 plane of the celestial equator. The constellations of the ZODIAC are
 those through which the ecliptic passes.

   ecology

 ecology, study of the interrelationships of organisms and the physical
 environment. Within the BIOSPHERE, the basic unit of study is the
 ecosystem-a community of plants and animals in an environment supplying
 the raw materials for life, i.e., chemical elements (or food) and water.
 An ecosystem is delimited by climate, altitude, latitude, water, and soil
 characteristics, and other physical conditions. The energy for fueling
 life activities reaches the earth in the form of sunlight. By
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS green plants capture that light energy and store it in the
 chemical bonds of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Some of the energy
 is acquired by plant-eating animals, and a fraction of it is passed on to
 predatory animals. Such sequences, called food chains, overlap at many
 points. Once spent, the energy for life cannot be replenished except by
 further exposure of green plants to sunlight. The chemicals of life are
 continually recycled by such processes as photosynthesis, RESPIRATION,
 and nitrogen fixation (see NITROGEN CYCLE). Disruption of these cycles by
 natural causes such as drought or by POLLUTION can disturb the balance of
 an entire ecosystem. An ecosystem that has reached a stable and
 self-perpetuating stage is known as a climax community. When extensive
 and well-defined, the climax community is called a biome. Examples are
 TUNDRA, SAVANNA (grassland), DESERT, and forests. Stability is attained
 through a process known as succession, whereby a relatively simple
 community, such as lichen- and algae-covered rocks, gives way over time
 to one more complex, such as a forest or tundra.

   econometrics

 econometrics, a technique of economic analysis that combines economic
 theory with statistical and mathematical methods of analysis. It is an
 attempt to improve economic forecasting and to make possible successful
 policy planning. In econometrics, economic theories are expressed as
 mathematical relations and then tested empirically by statistical
 techniques. The system is used to create models of the national economy
 that endeavor to predict such basic factors as GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT,
 levels of unemployment, inflation rate, and federal budget deficits. The
 use of econometrics is growing, even though its forecasts have not always
 attained a high degree of accuracy.

   Economic and Social Council

 Economic and Social Council: see UNITED NATIONS .

   economics

 economics, the study of how human beings allocate scarce resources to
 produce various commodities and how those goods are distributed for
 consumption among the people in society. The essence of economics lies in
 the fact that resources are scarce, or at least limited, and that not all
 human needs and desires can be met. How to distribute these resources in
 the most efficient and equitable way is a principal concern of
 economists. The field of economics has undergone a remarkable expansion
 in the 20th cent. as the world economy has grown increasingly large and
 complex. Today, economists are employed in large numbers in private
 industry, government, and higher education. The development of computer
 sciences has further enhanced the importance of economics in modern
 society. Economics is usually divided into two broad categories and a
 number of lesser ones. Macroeconomics involves the study of the whole
 economic picture, as opposed to the parts. It analyzes aggregate data in
 such areas as the GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT (GNP) and national income,
 general price levels, and total employment. It also examines the
 interplay of these forces with each other and the results of any
 imbalances among them. Microeconomics, on the other hand, looks at
 economic activity in the individual case, whether it be a single
 corporation, commodity, or consuming unit, and attempts, for example, to
 determine how productive resources are allocated among competing
 producers and how incomes are distributed among the various sectors of an
 economy. It is especially concerned with the price levels of particular
 goods and services. Some economists list a third major category, that of
 economic growth and development. All of these fields today make use of
 ECONOMETRICS, a branch dealing with statistical analysis and forecasting.
 The history of economics has roots in the writings of the ancient Greeks.
 While it is closely identified with CAPITALISM, it plays a vital role in
 socialist and communist countries as well. Economics was established as a
 major field of study in the 18th cent. by Adam SMITH, who founded the
 so-called classical school, which included other British economists such
 as David RICARDO and John Stuart MILL. While they embraced the concept of
 LAISSEZ-FAIRE (allowing business to follow freely the "natural laws" of
 economics), J.M. KEYNES in the 20th cent. developed theories that have
 led to governmental attempts to control business cycles. Opposing the
 Keynesian school are the monetarists, such as Nobel Prize winner Milton
 FRIEDMAN, who believe that the money supply exerts a dominant influence
 on the economy. See also BANKING; CREDIT; DEPRESSION; INFLATION;
 INTEREST; MONEY; SUPPLY AND DEMAND; TAXATION.

   ecosystem



   Ecuador

 Ecuador, officially Republic of Ecuador, republic (1987 est. pop.
 9,923,000), 109,483 sq mi (283,561 sq km), W South America, bordered by
 Colombia (N), Peru (S and E), and the Pacific Ocean (W). QUITO is the
 capital, and GUAYAQUIL is the largest city and chief port. The ANDES Mts.
 dominate the landscape, extending from north to south in two parallel
 ranges and reaching their highest point in the peak of Chimborazo (20,577
 ft/6,272 m). There are numerous active volcanoes, and earthquakes are
 frequent, and often disastrous, in this area. Within the mountains are
 high, often fertile, valleys, which support the main bulk of the
 population and house the major urban centers. East of the Andes is a
 region of almost uninhabited tropical jungle, through which run the
 tributaries of the Amazon R., while to the west are the hot, humid
 lowlands of the Pacific coast. Since completion of a trans-Andean
 pipeline in 1972, Ecuador has become one of the largest oil producers and
 exporters in Latin America. Other exports include bananas, coffee, and
 cocoa. Industry expanded rapidly in the 1970s in such areas as food
 products, textiles, pharmaceuticals, and cement. Forestry and fishing are
 also important. Many foodstuffs and other needs must be imported,
 however. The majority of the population is Indian or part Indian, but
 there are many blacks and mulattoes in the coastal region. Spanish is the
 official language, although many Indians speak Quechua or Jarvo. Roman
 Catholicism is the predominant religion.

 History Entering the region that is now Ecuador in 1533, the Spanish
 CONQUISTADORES did not find the wealth they sought and moved on. The area
 became a colonial backwater, at various times subject to Peru and NEW
 GRANADA. It was liberated from Spanish control by Antonio Jose de SUCRE
 in the battle of Pichincha in 1822, made part of the newly formed state
 of Greater Colombia by Simon BOLIVAR, and became a separate state (four
 times its present size) in 1830. Boundary disputes led to frequent
 invasions by Peru in the 19th and 20th cent., and some of them have still
 not been settled. Politically, Ecuador became divided between
 Conservatives, who supported entrenched privileges and a dominant Church,
 and Liberals, who sought social reforms; and its history in the 19th
 cent. was marked by bitter internecine struggles between the two
 factions. Political instability continued in the 20th cent., bringing a
 bewildering number of changes in government. In 1925 the army replaced
 the banking interests as the ultimate power. Military coups in support of
 various rival factions have been common. In 1979 a new constitution was
 promulgated, and popular presidential and legislative elections were
 held. Since then the succession of leaders has been essentially peaceful.

   ecumenical council

 ecumenical council: see COUNCIL, ECUMENICAL.

   ecumenical movement

 ecumenical movement, a movement aimed at the unification of the
 Protestant churches of the world and ultimately of all Christians. In
 England the Evangelical Alliance (1846) was an attempt in this direction.
 In the U.S. the Federal Council of Churches of Christ was established in
 1908. The WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES (first assembly, 1948) is now the
 chief instrument of ecumenicity. Notable progress has been made in
 merging individual churches, e.g. the UNITED CHURCH OF CHRIST in the U.S.
 and the Church of SOUTH INDIA. Since the Second VATICAN COUNCIL
 (1962-65), the Roman Catholic Church has encouraged ecumenical dialogue
 with other churches.

   Edda

 Edda, title of two works in Old Icelandic. The Poetic (or Elder) Edda,
 the most valuable collection in Old Norse literature, is made up of 34
 mythological and heroic lays (c.800-c.1200). The Prose (or Younger) Edda,
 probably written c.1222 by SNORRI STURLUSON, is a treatise on the art of
 Icelandic poetry and a compendium of Norse mythology and is the prime
 source on the subject.

   Eddington, Sir Arthur Stanley

 Eddington, Sir Arthur Stanley, 1882-1944, English astronomer and
 physicist. He was Plumian professor of astronomy (from 1913) and director
 of the observatory (from 1914) at Cambridge Univ. Eddington made major
 contributions to the study of the evolution, motion, and internal
 constitution of stars, and was one of the first physicists to grasp the
 theory of relativity, of which he became a leading exponent. A prolific
 writer on science, he wrote such works as Mathematical Theory of
 Relativity (1923) and The Internal Constitution of the Stars (1926).

   Eddy, Mary Baker

 Eddy, Mary Baker, 1821-1910, founder of the CHRISTIAN SCIENCE movement;
 b. Bow, near Concord, N.H. In frail health from childhood, she became
 interested in healing and faith, especially after meeting P.P. Quimby, a
 mental healer, in 1862. She later discarded his methods and began (1866)
 the Christian Science movement. Science and Health, the movement's
 textbook, appeared in 1875, and she planned the Church Manual and the
 upbuilding of the sect. As pastor emeritus of the Mother Church, Boston,
 and head of the whole church, she exercised great influence, even in
 retirement. In 1908 she founded the Christian Science Monitor, a daily
 newspaper.

   Edel, (Joseph) Leon

 Edel, (Joseph) Leon, 1907-, American literary scholar; b. Pittsburgh. For
 portions of his five-volume biography of Henry JAMES (1953-72) he
 received the Pulitzer Prize. His other works include James Joyce: The
 Last Journey (1947) and Bloomsbury: A House of Lions (1979).

   edelweiss

 edelweiss, perennial plant (genus Leontopodium) of the COMPOSITE family,
 found at high altitudes in the mountains of Europe, Asia, and South
 America. It has woolly-white floral leaves and small yellow disk flowers
 surrounded by silvery bracts. It is esteemed in Europe as a symbol of
 purity, and in Switzerland is protected by law.

   Eden, Sir Anthony

 Eden, Sir Anthony, 1895-1977, British statesman. A Conservative, he was
 foreign minister from 1935 to 1938 but resigned in opposition to Neville
 CHAMBERLAIN'S "appeasement" of the AXIS powers. Again foreign minister in
 Winston CHURCHILL'S war cabinet (1940-45), he was instrumental in
 establishing the UN. After Labour's defeat in 1951, he once again became
 foreign minister. He succeeded Churchill as prime minister in 1955. His
 decision to use armed intervention in the SUEZ CANAL crisis in 1956
 provoked much controversy. In poor health, he resigned in 1957. He was
 made a life peer in 1961.

   Eden, Garden of

 Eden, Garden of, in the BIBLE, the first home of humans. God established
 the garden, with its trees of knowledge and of life, as a dwelling place
 for ADAM and EVE, until, having eaten of the forbidden fruit, they were
 banished. Gen. 2; 3. It has been located variously, particularly in
 Mesopotamia.

   Edessa

 Edessa, ancient city of Mesopotamia (modern Urfa, Turkey). Around 137 BC
 it became the capital of the kingdom of Osroene and later came under
 Roman and Byzantine rule. In AD 639 it fell to the Arabs. Edessa was
 captured by the Crusaders in 1097 (see CRUSADES) but passed into Muslim
 hands again in 1144.

   Edgar or Eadgar

 Edgar or Eadgar, 943-75, king of the English (957-75). His reign was one
 of orderly prosperity. He initiated widespread monastic reforms and
 granted practical autonomy to the Danes in England (see DANELAW) in
 return for their loyalty. His son was AETHELRED the Unready.

   Edinburgh, Philip Mountbatten, duke of

 Edinburgh, Philip Mountbatten, duke of, 1921-, consort of ELIZABETH II of
 Great Britain; b. Greece. The son of Prince Andrew of Greece and Princess
 Alice, daughter of Prince Louis of BATTENBERG, he is a
 great-great-grandson of Queen VICTORIA. In 1947, the year he married
 Elizabeth, he took his mother's name, Mountbatten; became a British
 citizen; and was created duke of Edinburgh. In 1957 Elizabeth conferred
 upon him the title of Prince.

   Edinburgh

 Edinburgh, capital city (1985 est. pop. 439,672) of Scotland and royal
 burgh. The city is divided into two sections: the Old Town, on the slope
 of Castle Rock, dates from the 11th cent.; the New Town spread to the
 north in the late 18th cent. Most industry, which includes brewing,
 publishing, paper-producing, and engineering, is situated near the city's
 port, Leith. Edinburgh grew up around its 11th-cent. castle and became
 Scotland's capital in 1437. It blossomed as a cultural center in the 18th
 and 19th cent., with such figures as David HUME, Robert BURNS, and Sir
 Walter SCOTT. It remains a cultural and educational hub, and is the site
 of the annual Edinburgh International Festival of Music and Drama.

   Edison, Thomas Alva

 Edison, Thomas Alva, 1847-1931, American inventor; b. Milan, Ohio. Edison
 was a genius in the practical application of scientific principles and
 one of the most productive inventors of his time-despite only three
 months of formal schooling and an increasing deafness throughout most of
 his life. Among his most important inventions were the carbon MICROPHONE
 (1877), the RECORD PLAYER (patented 1878), and the Kinetoscope (see
 MOTION PICTURES). His most significant contributions, however, were his
 development of the first commercially practical incandescent lamp (1879)
 and his design for a complete electrical distribution system for LIGHTING
 and power, culminating in the installation (1881-82) of the world's first
 central electric-light power plant in New York City. His New Jersey
 workshops (at Menlo Park and West Orange) were forerunners of the modern
 industrial research laboratory, in which teams of workers, rather than a
 lone inventor, systematically investigate a problem.

   Edmonton

 Edmonton, city (1986 est. pop. 573,982), capital of Alberta, W Canada, on
 the North Saskatchewan R. It is one of Canada's largest and
 fastest-growing cities, and the chief center for Alberta's expanding oil
 and petrochemical industries. Edmonton is an important agricultural
 processing and wholesaling center, and serves as the gateway to the
 developing Peace R. and Athabasca frontier country. Edmonton has the
 world's largest mall, which has become a great tourist attraction.
 Founded (1795) as Fort Edmonton, the city was a major western fur-trading
 post in the 19th cent.

   Edmund, Saint

 Edmund, Saint (Edmund Rich), 1170?-1240, English churchman, archbishop of
 Canterbury. His zeal for reform antagonized HENRY III, who secured from
 Rome a papal legate sympathetic to himself, with jurisdiction over
 Edmund. Feast: Nov. 16.

   Edmund Crouchback

 Edmund Crouchback: see under LANCASTER, HOUSE OF.

   Edmund Ironside

 Edmund Ironside, d. 1016, king of the English (1016), son of AETHELRED
 the Unready. He was prominent in the fighting against CANUTE. On
 AEthelred's death, Edmund was proclaimed king although Canute received
 the support of over half of England. After the battle of Assandun (Oct.
 18, 1016), he and Canute came to terms and partitioned England, but
 Edmund died the next month. His courage earned him the name Ironside.

   Edom

 Edom: see ESAU.

   education

 education: see ADULT EDUCATION; AUDIOVISUAL INSTRUCTION; BILINGUAL
 EDUCATION; CHAUTAUQUA MOVEMENT; COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES; DYSLEXIA;
 ETHNIC STUDIES; KINDERGARTEN; LEARNING DISABILITIES; MAINSTREAMING; OPEN
 CLASSROOM; OPEN ENROLLMENT; PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION; PROGRESSIVE
 EDUCATION; SIGN LANGUAGE; SOPHISTS; VOCATIONAL EDUCATION; see also
 biographies of educators, e.g., BRAILLE, LOUIS;


 MONTESSORI, MARIA; PESTALOZZI, JOHANN; WASHINGTON, BOOKER T.; WILLARD,
 EMMA.

   Education, United States Department of

 Education, United States Department of, federal executive department
 established (1979) to administer and coordinate programs of federal
 assistance to education, previously a function of the former Dept. of
 Health, Education, and Welfare. It oversees and administers grants at
 elementary, secondary, and higher levels of education.

   Edward

 Edward, kings of England. Edward I, 1239-1307 (r.1272-1307), was the son
 and successor of HENRY III. He gained new claims to France through his
 marriage (1254) to Eleanor of Castile and was responsible for his
 father's victory in the BARONS' WAR. As king, his conquest of Wales
 (1277-82) was followed by a long, futile campaign against Scotland



 Parliament (1295) marked greater participation by the barons, merchants,
 and clergy whose resistance to war taxation had forced him to confirm
 previous charters (e.g., MAGNA CARTA). His son, Edward II, 1284-1327
 (r.1307-27), was a weak king, dissipated and self-indulgent. His reign
 was noted for internal dissension and the loss of Scotland. His
 insistence on having his favorite, Piers Gaveston, at court caused
 rebellion among the barons, who eventually had Gaveston killed. Edward's
 later favorites, Hugh le Despenser and his son, virtually ruled England
 (1322-26). They made a truce with ROBERT I and recognized him as king of
 Scotland. Edward's wife, Queen ISABELLA, refused to return from France
 while the Despensers ruled. She entered into an adulterous alliance with
 Roger de MORTIMER and invaded England. The Despensers were executed and
 Edward forced to abdicate. He was imprisoned and almost certainly
 murdered by henchmen of Isabella and Mortimer. His son, Edward III,
 1312-77 (r.1327-77), was dominated by Isabella and Mortimer until he
 seized power in a coup in 1330, putting Mortimer to death and forcing his
 mother into retirement. He supported Edward de BALIOL against the young
 Scottish king DAVID II, but despite his victory at Halidon Hill in 1333,
 the Scottish question remained unsettled. In 1337 the HUNDRED YEARS WAR
 began; it would dominate Edward's reign. He and his son EDWARD THE BLACK

 with the treaty of London in 1359. The war was renewed after various
 treaties and truces, but, like the Scottish wars, was inconclusive in
 Edward's reign. There were many constitutional developments in Edward's
 long reign. The most important of these was the emergence of Commons as a
 distinct and powerful group in PARLIAMENT. The king's constant need for
 money for his wars enabled Commons to assert its power to consent to all
 lay taxation. The Black Death (see PLAGUE) decimated the population,
 producing a labor shortage that enabled the lower classes to demand
 higher wages and social advancement. Edward quarreled with the church,
 and the resulting religious unrest found a spokesman in John WYCLIF.
 There was rivalry between a court party headed by Edward's son JOHN OF
 GAUNT and the parliamentary party, headed by the Black Prince. Edward was
 succeeded by RICHARD II. Edward IV, 1442-83, son of Richard, duke of
 York, became king (1461-70, 1471-83) as leader of the York party (see
 ROSES, WARS OF THE) after his defeat of the Lancastrians and capture of
 HENRY VI. Edward's marriage to Elizabeth WOODVILLE (1464) and his
 favoritism to her family angered his cousin Richard Neville, earl of
 Warwick, who rebelled and fled to France, where he formed an alliance
 with MARGARET OF ANJOU, wife of the deposed Henry VI. They returned to
 England with troops and placed Henry on the throne. Their defeat by
 Edward (1471) led to Henry's death in the Tower (1471) and a peaceful end
 to Edward's reign. His son, Edward V, 1470-83?, was king in 1483. He was
 a pawn in the conflicting ambitions of his uncles, Earl Rivers and the
 duke of Gloucester. Gloucester had Rivers arrested, confined the king and
 his young brother in the Tower, had them declared illegitimate, and took
 the throne as RICHARD III. The boys disappeared and were presumed to have
 been murdered. One of the oldest and most prevalent theories-that they
 were smothered in their sleep by order of Richard III-is now considered
 anti-York propaganda of the TUDORS. Edward VI, 1537-53 (r.1547-53),
 succeeded his father HENRY VIII as king at the age of nine. He ruled
 under a council of regency controlled by his uncle and protector, Edward
 Seymour, duke of SOMERSET. During his reign Tudor absolutism was relaxed
 by a liberalization of the treason and heresy laws, and the government
 moved slowly toward Protestantism. Somerset's sympathy to the peasants
 led to his overthrow as regent by John Dudley, duke of Northumberland.
 Dudley gained ascendancy over the young king, now dying of tuberculosis,
 and persuaded him to settle the crown on Dudley's own daughter-in-law,
 Lady Jane GREY. The ensuing struggle ended with the victory of MARY I.
 Edward VII, 1841-1910, king of Great Britain and Ireland (r.1901-10), was
 the eldest son of Queen VICTORIA. Prince of Wales for 60 years, he was a
 leader of fashionable society. As king, he cooperated reluctantly in
 Herbert Asquith's attempt to limit the veto power of the House of Lords.
 He improved international understanding by traveling on the continent and
 by promoting an alliance with France. He and his wife, ALEXANDRA, were
 the parents of GEORGE V, whose eldest son, Edward VIII (1894-1972) was
 king in 1936. He was extremely popular until his announced intention of
 marrying Wallis Warfield Simpson (see WINDSOR, WALLIS WARFIELD, DUCHESS
 OF), an American suing her second husband for divorce, precipitated a
 crisis with the cabinet, then headed by Stanley BALDWIN. Edward insisted
 that he had the right to marry the woman of his choice, though her
 marital background made her unacceptable. The government saw in his
 challenge a threat to constitutional procedure and forced his abdication
 in 1936. As duke of Windsor, he married Wallis Warfield in 1937. He was
 governor of the Bahamas (1940-45).

   Edwards, Jonathan

 Edwards, Jonathan, 1703-58, American theologian and metaphysician; b.
 Windsor, Conn. In 1729 he took sole charge of a congregation in
 Northampton, Mass., where he soon gained a wide following by his forceful
 preaching and powerful logic in support of Calvinist doctrine. A revival
 that he held (1734-35) effectively brought the GREAT AWAKENING to New
 England. His stern demands for strict orthodoxy and his unbendingness in
 a membership controversy resulted in his dismissal (1750) from
 Northampton. At Stockbridge, Mass., he completed his masterpiece, The
 Freedom of the Will (1754), which set forth metaphysical and ethical
 arguments for determinism. He is often regarded as the last great New
 England Calvinist, and his sermon Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God is
 still read today. Called (1757) to be president of the College of New
 Jersey (now Princeton Univ.), he died soon after.

   Edward the Black Prince

 Edward the Black Prince, 1330-76, eldest son of EDWARD III of England. He
 was created duke of Cornwall in 1337, the first duke ever to be created
 in England, and prince of Wales in 1343. Joining his father in the
 battles of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR, he fought at Crecy and Calais and in
 1356 won the battle of Poitiers and captured JOHN II of France. It was
 apparently the French who first called him the Black Prince, perhaps
 because he wore black armor. Edward III made his French holdings a
 principality, and the Black Prince maintained a brilliant court at
 Bordeaux after 1363. He aided Peter I of Castile and Leon, but the taxes
 he was forced to levy in Aquitaine resulted in war with CHARLES V of
 France. Bad health forced him to resign his principalities in 1372. He
 opposed his brother JOHN OF GAUNT, who had become the virtual ruler of
 England with the aging of Edward III. The Black Prince died before his
 father, but his son succeeded to the throne as RICHARD II.

   Edward the Confessor

 Edward the Confessor, d. 1066, king of the English (1042-66), son of
 AETHELRED the Unready. He grew up in France and returned to succeed
 Harthacanute. He was an able but not very energetic ruler, and his strife
 with the powerful noble Earl Godwin was heightened by his support of the
 Normans in England. Godwin and his family were exiled (1051) but soon
 returned. During their absence, Edward received William, duke of Normandy
 (later WILLIAM I), and apparently made him his heir. Since both William
 and Harold III of Norway had claims to the English throne, Edward
 eventually recognized Godwin's warlike son HAROLD as his heir to avoid
 bloodshed. Edward's piety was responsible for his name the Confessor. He
 was canonized in the 12th cent. Feast: Oct. 13.

   Edward the Elder

 Edward the Elder, d. 924, king of WESSEX (899-924). The son and successor
 of ALFRED, he fought with his father against the Danes and was apparently
 joint king with him. He gradually became ruler of all England S of the
 Humber.

   EEC (European Economic Community)

 EEC (European Economic Community): see COMMON MARKET.

   EEG

 EEG: see ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY.

   eel

 eel, any of a large order (Anguilliformes) of FISH with a long, snakelike
 body, elongate dorsal and anal fins, no pelvic fins, and scales either
 lacking or embedded in the skin. The male American eel reaches 2 ft (61
 cm) in length; the female, 4 ft (122 cm). Most, including the morays and
 conger eels, are marine; one family, Anguillidae, is freshwater. All eels
 spawn in the sea, the eggs hatching into transparent, ribbonlike larvae
 that drift about feeding until they metamorphose into small eels, or
 elvers; freshwater species typically undertake long migrations to spawn
 in the sea. Freshwater eels are an important food item in some parts of
 the world.

   eel, electric

 eel, electric: see ELECTRIC FISH.

   Egalite, Philippe

 Egalite, Philippe: see under ORLEANS, family.

   Egbert

 Egbert, d. 839, king of WESSEX (802-39). He secured the submission of
 KENT, EAST ANGLIA, MERCIA, and NORTHUMBRIA. Historians later called him
 the first king of England, but there was no conception of a kingdom of
 England in his day.

   egg

 egg: see OVUM.

   eggplant

 eggplant, garden vegetable (Solanum melongena) of the NIGHTSHADE family.
 Native to Southeast Asia, it is a perennial shrub, although it is often
 grown in warm climates as an annual herb. It is cultivated for its ovoid
 fruit, which varies in size and may be purple, white, or striped.

   Eglevsky, Andre

 Eglevsky, Andre (aNdra' eg'levske), 1917-77, Russian-American dancer; b.
 Moscow. He trained in France and made his debut (1931) in London. He
 danced (1939-42) with the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo and was (1951-58)
 premier danseur with the NEW YORK CITY BALLET. After he retired, he
 formed (1958) the Eglevsky Ballet in Long Island, New York.

   Egmont, Lamoral, count of

 Egmont, Lamoral, count of, 1522-68, Flemish general and statesman.
 Although a Catholic, he opposed the persecution of Protestants in the Low
 Countries. His beheading by order of the duke of ALBA caused a revolt
 against Spanish rule. He is the hero of GOETHE'S tragedy Egmont, with
 music by BEETHOVEN.

   ego

 ego: see PSYCHOANALYSIS.

   egret

 egret, name for several HERON species. Egrets were nearly exterminated by
 hunters seeking their white, silky plumage (which develops during the
 mating season) for millinery. The American egret has straight plumes,
 c.21 in. (52.5 cm) long, on its back. The snowy egret, or snowy heron
 (Leucophoyx thula), the most beautiful and most hunted, has curved plumes
 on the head, breast, and back.

   Egypt

 Egypt, Arab. Misr, biblical Mizraim, officially Arab Republic of Egypt,
 republic (1987 est. pop. 47,280,000), 386,659 sq mi (1,001,449 sq km), NE
 Africa, bordered by the Mediterranean Sea (N), Israel and the Red Sea
 (E), Sudan (S), and Libya (W); the Sinai peninsula, the only part of
 Egypt located in Asia, is separated from the rest of the country by the
 Suez Canal. Major cities include CAIRO (the capital) and ALEXANDRIA. The
 principal physiographic feature is the NILE R., which flows the length of
 the country from south to north and separates the Libyan (Western) and
 Arabian (Eastern) deserts that comprise 90% of the land area. Bordering
 the Nile between Aswan and Cairo are narrow strips of cultivated land,
 home of the vast majority of Egypt's inhabitants. Although the country's
 industrial base has been increased considerably in the 20th cent., the
 economy has been severely strained by the Arab-Israeli Wars, and Egypt in
 the early 1980s remained predominantly agricultural. The country depends
 on the Nile for its fertility; completion of the ASWAN HIGH DAM in 1970
 greatly increased the arable land. Cotton is the leading cash crop. Major
 manufactures include refined petroleum, chemicals, textiles, and
 processed foods. The Suez Canal and, to a lesser extent, tourism are
 sources of foreign exchange. Most of the population is of a complex
 racial mixture, being descended from the ancient Egyptians, Berbers,
 black Africans, Arabs, Greeks, and Turks. The majority are SUNNI Muslims,
 but there is a large minority of Coptic Christians (see COPT). Arabic is
 the official language.

 Ancient Egypt Egyptian civilization, one of the world's oldest, developed
 in the valley of the Nile over 5,000 years ago. The rival kingdoms of
 Upper and Lower Egypt were united as a centralized state c.3200 BC by a
 king named Menes, who established his capital at MEMPHIS. A high culture
 developed early, and the use of writing was introduced. During the Old
 Kingdom (3110-2258 BC) Egyptian culture and commerce flourished, and the
 great pyramids were built. Its fall introduced a period of anarchy, which
 ended c.2000 BC with the establishment of the Middle Kingdom, with its
 capital at THEBES. Civilization again flourished until in 1786 BC weak
 rulers allowed the country to pass under the rule of foreign nomads,
 known as the HYKSOS. The Hyksos were expelled c.1570 BC, and the New
 Kingdom was established. During the XVIII dynasty (1570-c.1342 BC)
 ancient Egyptian civilization reached its zenith; a vast empire was
 established and THEBES and MEMPHIS became the political, commercial, and
 cultural centers of the world. After the XX dynasty (1200-1085 BC) Egypt
 came increasingly under foreign domination, with periods of rule by
 Libya, Sudan, Assyria, Nubia, and Persia. Following a brief
 reestablishment of native power in 405 BC, Egypt fell without a struggle
 to ALEXANDER THE GREAT in 332 BC After Alexander's death (323 BC) Egypt
 was inherited by his general, PTOLEMY, who founded the dynasty of
 Ptolemies and under whom the new city of ALEXANDRIA became the
 intellectual and religious center of the Hellenistic world. The Ptolemies
 maintained a formidable empire for more than two centuries until,
 weakened by internal dynastic disputes, Egypt fell to Rome in 30 BC
 Christianity was readily accepted in Egypt, which became part of the
 Byzantine Empire about AD 395. With the Arab conquest (639-42) Egypt
 became an integral part of the Muslim world.

 Modern Egypt After 500 years as part of the CALIPHATE, Egypt was seized
 by the MAMELUKES in 1250 and the Ottoman Turks in 1517. The first close
 contact with the West occurred in 1798, when French forces under NAPOLEON
 occupied the country; they were expelled in 1801 by combined Ottoman and
 British troops. In 1805 MUHAMMAD ALI, a common soldier, was appointed
 pasha of Egypt; under his rule the foundations of the modern state of
 Egypt were established. The construction of the SUEZ CANAL (1859-69) put
 Egypt deeply into debt, and, although nominally still part of the OTTOMAN
 EMPIRE, the country was forced to appoint a French-British commission to
 manage its financial affairs. The British consolidated their control
 between 1883 and 1907, and during WORLD WAR I, when Turkey joined the
 Central Powers, Great Britain declared Egypt a British protectorate,
 which lasted until 1937.

 Independent Egypt Egypt bitterly opposed the UN partition of Palestine in
 1948 and played an important role in the ARAB-ISRAELI WARS that followed.
 In 1952 the Egyptian army deposed King FAROUK in a coup d'etat; a
 republic was established in 1953, and Col. Gamal Abdel NASSER became
 president (1954). For a brief period Egypt and Syria merged (1958) in the
 UNITED ARAB REPUBLIC, then were joined by Yemen in the United Arab
 States; the union was dissolved in 1961. Inaugurating a program of
 economic and social reform, modernization of the army, and construction
 of the Aswan High Dam, Nasser, with the aid of the USSR, strove to make
 Egypt the undisputed leader of the Arab world. His rallying-cry was
 denunciation of Israel; in 1967 Egypt lost much territory in the Six-Day
 War, which also shattered its economy and armed forces. Nasser died in
 1970 and was succeeded by Anwar al-SADAT, who regained much of Egypt's
 lost territory in the Yom Kippur War (1973) and reversed a 20-year trend
 by ending Soviet influence and seeking closer ties with the West. In 1977
 Sadat angered his Arab allies by traveling to Jerusalem as a conciliatory
 gesture to Israel; the two nations signed a peace treaty in 1979 (see
 CAMP DAVID ACCORDS). In 1981 Sadat was assassinated by Muslim
 fundamentalists, and Hosni MUBARAK, who pledged to continue Sadat's
 policies, became president. The Israeli withdrawal from the Sinai and its
 return to Egypt, which began in 1979, was completed in 1982, but many
 other crucial problems remained unsolved.

╓┌───────────────────────────┌──────────────────┌────────────────────────────╖
 DYNASTIES OF ANCIENT EGYPT
 Old Kingdom (or Old
 Empire)
 DYNASTY                     YEARS              FAMOUS RULERS
 ───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
 I                           3110--2884 B.C.    Menes

 II                          2884--2780 B.C.

 III                         2780--2680 B.C.    Snefru

 IV                          2680--2565 B.C.    KHUFU (Cheops), Khafre,
                                                Menkaure. Age of the great
                                                pyramids.

 V                           2565--2420 B.C.

 DYNASTIES OF ANCIENT EGYPT
 Old Kingdom (or Old
 Empire)
 DYNASTY                     YEARS              FAMOUS RULERS

 Vl                          2420--2258 B.C.    Pepi I, Pepi II

 First Intermediate Period

 VII, VIII                   2258--2225 B.C.    An obscure period.

 IX, X                       2225--2134 B.C.    Capital at Heracleopolis.

 XI                          2134--c.2000 B.C.  Capital at THEBESTHEBES.

 Middle Kingdom (or Middle
 Empire)

 XII                         2000--1786 B.C.    AMENEMHET I, Sesostris I,
                                                Amenemhet II, Sesostris II,
                                                Sesostris III, Amenemhet
 DYNASTIES OF ANCIENT EGYPT
 Old Kingdom (or Old
 Empire)
 DYNASTY                     YEARS              FAMOUS RULERS
                                               Sesostris III, Amenemhet
                                                III, Amenemhet IV

 Second Intermediate Period

 XIII--XVII                  1786--1570 B.C.    The HYKSOS. An obscure
                                                period.

 New Kingdom (or New
 Empire)

 XVIII                       1570--c.1342 B.C.  AMENHOTEP I, THUTMOSE I,
                                                THUTMOSE II with
                                                Hateshepshut, THUTMOSE III
                                                , Amenhotep II, THUTMOSE
                                                IV, Amenhotep IV (IKHNATON
                                                ), TUTANKHAMEN
 DYNASTIES OF ANCIENT EGYPT
 Old Kingdom (or Old
 Empire)
 DYNASTY                     YEARS              FAMOUS RULERS
                                               ), TUTANKHAMEN

 XIX                         c.1342--1200 B.C.  Horemheb, RAMSESI, Seti I,
                                                RAMSESII, Merneptah, Seti
                                                II

 XX                          1200--1085 B.C.    RAMSES III with Tiy. New
                                                Kingdom declines.

 XXI                         1085--945 B.C.     Tanite dynasty (capital at
                                                Tanis).

 XXII                        945--745 B.C.      Sheshonk I. Libyan dynasty
                                                (capital at Bubastis).

 XXIII                       745--718 B.C.      Nubian dynasty with
                                                invasion of Piankhi
 DYNASTIES OF ANCIENT EGYPT
 Old Kingdom (or Old
 Empire)
 DYNASTY                     YEARS              FAMOUS RULERS
                                               invasion of Piankhi
                                                (capital at Bubastis).

 XXIV                        718--712 B.C.      Saite dynasty (capital at
                                                Sais).

 XXV                         712--663 B.C.      Taharka. Assyrian
                                                invasions begin foreign
                                                domination.

 XXVI                        663--525 B.C.      Psamtik, NECHO, Apries,
                                                Amais II (capital at Sais).

 XXVII                       525--405 B.C.      The ACHAEMENIDS of Persia
                                                in control. Cambyses II to
                                                DARIUS II. Egypt revolts.

 DYNASTIES OF ANCIENT EGYPT
 Old Kingdom (or Old
 Empire)
 DYNASTY                     YEARS              FAMOUS RULERS

 XXVIII, XXIX, XXX           405--332 B.C.      Nikhtnebf I, Nekhtnebf II.
                                                Last native dynasties,
                                                with conquest of ALEXANDER
                                                THE GREAT. Capital at Sais,
                                                then at Mendes, then at
                                                Sebennytos.






   Egyptian architecture

 Egyptian architecture was formulated prior to 3000 BC Abundant clay and
 scarce wood led to the early development of ceramic arts and brickwork. A
 massive, static, serene architecture emerged. Walls were immensely thick;
 columns were confined to halls and inner courts. Exterior walls had few
 openings and were covered with HIEROGLYPHICS and pictorial carvings in
 brilliant colors, with symbolic motifs like the scarab beetle. The
 capacity of sculptors to integrate decoration into structure was highly
 developed. Flat stone block roofs were supported by walls or by closely
 spaced internal columns. No dwellings, only tombs and temples, survive.
 Belief in the afterlife led to massive, impressive sepulchral
 architecture. Of the Old Kingdom (2680-2258 BC) remains the MASTABA is
 the oldest remaining form of sepulcher. The PYRAMID of a ruler was begun
 as soon as he ascended the throne. Middle Kingdom (2134-1786 BC) tombs
 were tunneled out of Nile cliffs. In temples of the New Kingdom
 (1570-1085 BC), the doorway was flanked by great pylons or towers, often
 with statues or obelisks in front. The temple was screened from the
 common people by a high wall. The hall had immense columns arranged in a
 nave and side aisles; behind were small, restricted sanctuaries. New
 Kingdom temples were also carved from rock, e.g., ABU SIMBEL. Egyptian
 architecture consistently resisted foreign influences.

   Egyptian art

 Egyptian art. The art of predynastic EGYPT (c.4000-3200 BC), known from
 funerary offerings, was largely painted pottery and figurines, ivory
 carvings, slate cosmetic palettes, and flint weapons. Toward the end of
 the predynastic period, sculptors carved monolithic figures of the gods
 from limestone, e.g., the Min at Coptos. In the protodynastic and early
 dynastic periods (3200-2780 BC), Mesopotamian motifs appeared. The stone
 bowls and vases of these periods are remarkable for fine craftsmanship.
 During the Old Kingdom, centered at Memphis (2680-2258 BC), the stylistic
 conventions that characterize Egyptian art were developed, notably the
 law of frontality, in which the human figure is represented with the eye
 and shoulders in front view, and the head, pelvis, legs, and feet in
 profile. There was little attempt at linear perspective or spatial
 illusionism. Relief was shallow, e.g., the palette of Namer (Cairo), a
 masterpiece of the I dynasty showing battle scenes. In sculpture the law
 of frontality was also strictly followed. Working with the most durable
 materials they had, artists decorated tombs with domestic, military,
 hunting, and ceremonial scenes to enable the dead to attain a happy
 continuation of their previous lives. Chief examples of Old Kingdom
 sculpture are the Great Chephren, in diorite; the Prince Ra-hetep and
 Princess Neferet, in painted limestone; and the Sheik-el-Beled, in
 painted wood (all: Cairo). Painting was generally employed as an
 accessory to sculpture. In the Middle Kingdom, based at Thebes (2000-1786
 BC), the forms of the Old Kingdom were retained, but the unity of style
 was broken to admit a new formalism and delicacy. The tomb paintings at
 Bani Hasan are remarkable for freedom of draftsmanship. The sculptured
 portraits of Sesostris III and Amenemhet III (both: Cairo) are
 exceptional in their revelation of inner feelings. New Kingdom art
 (1570-1342 BC) was the final development of classic Egyptian style, with
 monumental forms, bold design, and a controlled vitality. During the
 Amarna period (1372-1350 BC) a naturalistic style developed in sculpture,
 e.g., the colossal statue of IKHNATON (Cairo) and the magnificent painted
 limestone bust of Queen NEFERTITI (Berlin Mus.). The rich sophistication
 of the period is exemplified by the furnishings from the tomb of
 TUTANKHAMEN. The Ramesside period (1314-1085 BC) saw an unsuccessful
 attempt to return to New Kingdom styles, but the vitality of that period
 was lost. The following period of decline (1085-730 BC) is characterized
 by mechanical repetition of earlier forms and by satirical drawings in
 the papyri. In the Saite period (730-663 BC) a coarse, brutal style
 predominated. After the Assyrian conquest of Egypt (663 BC), all the arts
 but metalworking declined. Egypt proved resistant to foreign influence in
 art through the Ptolemaic dynasty (332-30 BC). Architecture remained
 vital, e.g., at Idfu and Philae, and the minor arts continued to
 flourish. Fine collections of Egyptian art in the U.S. are at the
 Brooklyn and Metropolitan museums in New York City.

   Egyptian language

 Egyptian language, extinct language of ancient Egypt that is generally
 classified as a member of the Hamitic subfamily of the Hamito-Semitic
 family of languages. See AFRICAN LANGUAGES .

   Egyptian religion

 Egyptian religion. Ancient Egyptian worship is remarkable for its
 reconciliation and union of conflicting beliefs. The earliest predynastic
 tribes venerated many deities who were at first embodied in animals (such
 as the sacred cat of Bubastis), but who were later gradually humanized.
 The most widely accepted creation myth was that of the great sun god RA
 (Re), who appeared out of Chaos to create a race including OSIRIS and
 ISIS, and their son HORUS. When a national religion arose at the end of
 the predynastic period (c.3200 BC) various priesthoods attempted to
 systematize the gods and myths. The reign of IKHNATON established a
 monotheistic cult, but POLYTHEISM was restored after his death. The most
 important of the many forms of Egyptian worship were the cults of Osiris,
 king and judge of the dead, protector of all; the sun god Ra (symbolized
 by the PYRAMID), said to be the direct ancestor of the kings of Egypt;
 and AMON, Egypt's greatest god by the XIX dynasty. With no established
 book of teachings such as the Bible or Koran, Egyptian conduct was guided
 by human wisdom and the belief in maat, the principle of divine justice
 and order, held to be reflected in civil order as administered by the
 state under the pharaoh. While the priesthoods and state cult grew, the
 populace found its expression of religious feeling in the strict rites
 prescribed by funerary cults (see BOOK OF THE DEAD).

   Ehrenburg, Ilya Grigoryevich

 Ehrenburg, Ilya Grigoryevich, 1891-1967, Russian writer. From 1909 to
 1917 and 1921 to 1941 he lived in W Europe, where he wrote such novels as
 The Love of Jeanne Ney (1924) and Out of Chaos (1933). Returning to the
 Soviet Union in 1941, he became a war correspondent. His best-known
 novel, The Fall of Paris (1941-42), deals with the decay of French
 society, while The Thaw (1954) was the first work to discuss Stalinist
 repression.

   Ehrlich, Paul

 Ehrlich, Paul, 1854-1915, German bacteriologist. For his work in
 immunology he shared with Elie METCHNIKOFF the 1908 Nobel Prize in
 physiology or medicine. He discovered salvarsan for the treatment of
 syphilis and made valuable contributions in hematology, cellular
 pathology, cancer study, and the use of dyes in microscopy and treatment
 of disease.

   Eichmann, Adolf

 Eichmann, Adolf, 1906-62, German NAZI official. As head of the Gestapo's
 Jewish section, he oversaw the maltreatment, deportation to concentration
 camps, and murder (especially by the use of gas chambers) of millions of
 JEWS. After World War II, he escaped to Argentina, but he was located and
 abducted by Israeli agents in 1960. He was tried and hanged in Israel for
 crimes against the Jews.

   Eiffel Tower

 Eiffel Tower, structure designed by the French engineer Alexandre Gustave
 Eiffel (1832-1923) for the Paris Exposition of 1889. The tower is 984 ft
 (300 m) high and consists of an open iron framework on four masonry
 piers; these piers support four columns that unite to form the shaft.

   Eight, the

 Eight, the, group of American artists in New York City, formed in 1908 to
 exhibit paintings. It comprised Arthur B. DAVIES, Maurice PRENDERGAST,
 Ernest Lawson, William GLACKENS, Everett SHINN, Robert HENRI, John SLOAN,
 and George LUKS. Men of widely different tendencies, they were bound by
 common opposition to academism and, because of their portrayal of
 everyday American life, were stigmatized as the "ashcan" school. They
 organized the ARMORY SHOW of 1913, which introduced modern European art
 to a reluctant but curious America.

   Eijkman, Christiaan

 Eijkman, Christiaan, 1858-1930, Dutch physician. For his work on the
 cause of BERIBERI, which led to the isolation of antineuritic vitamins,
 he shared with Sir Frederick Hopkins the 1929 Nobel Prize in physiology
 or medicine.

   Eilat

 Eilat: see ELAT.

   Eilshemius, Louis Michel

 Eilshemius, Louis Michel, 1864-1941, American painter; b. near Newark,
 N.J. He is known for his imaginative, atmospheric American landscapes.
 Approaching Storm (Phillips Coll., Wash., D.C.) is an excellent example.

   Einhard

 Einhard or Eginhard , c.770-840, Frankish historian. His works and
 correspondence are prime sources on Frankish society and the royal court,
 to which he was attached under CHARLEMAGNE, Emperor LOUIS I, and LOTHAIR
 I. Einhard's Life of Charlemagne is eminently readable.

   Einstein, Albert

 Einstein, Albert, 1879-1955, American theoretical physicist; b. Germany;
 recognized as one of the greatest physicists of all time. He became
 (1914) titular professor of physics and director of theoretical physics
 at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin. The Nazi government
 confiscated (1934) his property and revoked his German citizenship
 because he was Jewish, and in 1940 Einstein became an American citizen,
 holding a post at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton from 1933
 until his death. Although an ardent pacifist, he urged Pres. Franklin
 Roosevelt to investigate the possible use of atomic energy in bombs. In
 one of three important 1905 papers, he explained BROWNIAN MOVEMENT on the
 basis of his study of the motion of atoms. His special theory of
 RELATIVITY (1905) dealt with systems or observers in uniform
 (unaccelerated) motion with respect to one another. He asserted (1911)
 the equality of GRAVITATION and INERTIA and formulated (c.1916) a general
 theory of relativity that included gravitation as a determiner of the
 curvature of a SPACE-TIME continuum. Einstein contributed to the
 development of QUANTUM THEORY, postulating (1905) light quanta (PHOTONS),
 on which he based his explanation of the PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT, and
 developing the quantum theory of SPECIFIC HEAT. Working on a unified
 field theory, he attempted to explain gravitation and electromagnetism
 with one set of laws. For his work in theoretical physics, notably on the
 photoelectric effect, he received the 1921 Nobel Prize in physics.

   einsteinium

 einsteinium (Es), radioactive element, discovered in 1952 by A. Ghiorso
 and colleagues in residue from a thermonuclear explosion; a member of the
 ACTINIDE SERIES. Weighable amounts have since been prepared by neutron
 bombardment of plutonium. See ELEMENT ; PERIODIC TABLE.

   Einthoven, Willem

 Einthoven, Willem, 1860-1927, Dutch physiologist; b. Java. He received
 the 1924 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine for his invention of a
 string galvanometer that he used to produce the electrocardiogram (EKG),
 a graphic record of the action of the heart (see ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY).

   Eisenhower, Dwight David

 Eisenhower, Dwight David, 1890-1969, American general and 34th president
 of the U.S. (1953-61); b. Denison, Tex.; his nickname was "Ike." A West
 Point graduate, he had a meteoric rise as a military commander during
 WORLD WAR II. In 1942 he became chief of army operations in Washington,
 D.C. Later that year he was named U.S. commander of the European theater
 of operations, and in 1943 he became supreme commander of the Allied
 Expeditionary Force. Eisenhower coordinated and directed the Allied
 invasion of Europe in June 1944. In Dec. 1944 he was made general of the
 army (five-star general) and upon his return to the U.S. became army
 chief of staff (1945-48). He was president of Columbia Univ. from 1948 to
 1950 and in 1950 was named supreme commander of the Allied forces in
 Europe. After organizing the defense forces of the North Atlantic Treaty
 Organization (NATO), Eisenhower resigned (1952) from the army to campaign
 for the Republican presidential nomination. Popularity as a World War II
 hero brought him an easy election victory over his Democratic opponent,
 Adlai E. STEVENSON. One of Eisenhower's first moves as president (July
 1953) was to fulfill a campaign promise to end the KOREAN WAR. He and his
 secretary of state, John Foster DULLES, continued the TRUMAN
 administration's policy of containing Communism, but attempts were also
 made to ease cold-war tensions. In domestic affairs, Eisenhower remained
 aloof from the legislative process and took few initiatives. Despite a
 heart attack (1955) he easily won reelection in 1956. His administration
 then took a more active role in the growing CIVIL RIGHTS movement. In
 1957 federal troops were sent to Little Rock, Ark., to enforce a
 court-ordered school desegregation decision, and later Congress enacted
 federal civil-rights legislation. Also in 1957, the president promulgated
 the so-called Eisenhower doctrine, which committed the U.S. to an active
 role in the Middle East to protect the region from Communist aggression.
 Tensions with the Soviet Union increased, however, and a summit meeting
 (1960) with Nikita KHRUSHCHEV ended abruptly because of conflict over
 U.S. espionage flights over the USSR. In 1959 the coming to power of the
 Communist Fidel CASTRO in Cuba posed other problems, and Eisenhower broke
 diplomatic relations with Cuba just before leaving office in Jan. 1961.

   Eisenstein, Sergei Mikhailovich

 Eisenstein, Sergei Mikhailovich, 1898-1948, Russian film director. Ranked
 with D.W. GRIFFITH as a cinematic genius, he pioneered the use of MONTAGE
 in such works as Potemkin (1925), October (1928), and Alexander Nevsky
 (1938).

   eisteddfod

 eisteddfod, Welsh festival involving contests in ARTS AND CRAFTS with
 special emphasis on music and poetry. The National Eisteddfod is held for
 a week in August; local festivals are held throughout the year. It dates
 from the 12th cent. See also MUSIC FESTIVALS .

   Ekelof, Gunnar

 Ekelof, Gunnar, 1907-68, Swedish poet, the most important Swedish poet of
 the 20th cent. His verse, philosophic and mystical, reflects his interest
 in the French SYMBOLISTS and Oriental literature. Volumes in English
 translation include Selected Poems (tr. 1971) and A Molna Elegy (tr.
 1979).

   Ekelund, Vilhelm

 Ekelund, Vilhelm, 1880-1949, Swedish writer. He wrote poems, e.g., Stella
 Maris (1906), and a long series of essays, e.g., Classical Ideal (1909).
 Although not widely read, his work influenced Scandinavian modernism.

   EKG

 EKG: see ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY.

   Elam

 Elam, ancient Asiatic country, N of the Persian Gulf, now in W Iran. A
 civilization began there in the late 4th millennium BC, and in the early
 2d millennium BC Elam overthrew Babylonia. Its golden age came after 1300
 BC Around 645 BC Elam fell to the Assyrian king ASSURBANIPAL. Its capital
 was Susa.

   eland

 eland: see ANTELOPE.

   elastic limit

 elastic limit: see STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.

   Elat

 Elat or Eilat,city (1979 est. pop. 18,900), S Israel, a port on the Gulf
 of AQABA. It is strategically located near Egypt, Jordan, and Saudi
 Arabia and is Israel's gateway to Africa and the Far East. The city is a
 center for tourism and small industry. An ancient port (perhaps identical
 with the 10th-cent. Ezion-geber), Elat was resettled in 1949, and its
 deepwater harbor was opened in 1965.

   Elba

 Elba, island, 86 sq mi (223 sq km), in the Tyrrhenian Sea, 6 mi (9.7 km)
 W of the Italian peninsula. Controlled at times by Pisa, Spain, and
 Naples, it was an independent principality (1814-15) under the exiled
 NAPOLEON I prior to his escape and return to France. Following his final
 defeat, Elba passed to TUSCANY.

   Elbe

 Elbe, river, central Europe, flowing c.725 mi (1,170 km) from NW
 Czechoslovakia and through East Germany before entering the North Sea
 through a 60-mi (97-km), two-armed estuary at Cuxhaven, West Germany.
 Navigable for c.525 mi (845 km), the river was internationalized in 1919.
 Traffic declined after Germany repudiated (1938) internationalization,
 and the division of Germany (1945) made the river part of the boundary
 between East and West Germany.

   Elbrus, Mount

 Elbrus, Mount, highest mountain of the CAUCASUS, SW USSR, considered the
 highest point in Europe by those who consider the area part of that
 continent. Its twin peaks are extinct volcanic cones 18,481 ft (5,633 m)
 and 18,356 ft (5,595 m) high.

   El Cordobes

 El Cordobes, 1936?-, Spanish bullfighter; b. Manuel Benitez Perez. The
 highest paid matador in history, he rose to national fame in the early
 1960s because of his courage and personal magnetism. He retired in 1971.

   elder

 elder: see HONEYSUCKLE.

   Eldjarn, Kristjan

 Eldjarn, Kristjan, 1916-82, Icelandic statesman and archaeologist. He was
 curator at the National Museum of Iceland (1947-68) and president of
 Iceland (1968-80).

   El Dorado

 El Dorado, legendary land of the Golden Man, a place of gold and plenty
 sought by Spanish CONQUISTADORS in the New World from the mid-16th cent.
 Its location shifted as new regions were explored. Similar legends
 appeared in the W United States.

   Eleanor of Aquitaine

 Eleanor of Aquitaine, 1122-1204, queen consort first of LOUIS VII of
 France and then of HENRY II of England; daughter of William X, duke of
 Aquitaine. Her marriage to Louis was annulled in 1152 and shortly
 thereafter she married Henry, then duke of Normandy, uniting her vast
 possessions with his. Two of her sons-RICHARD I and JOHN-became kings of
 England. Henry's many infidelities caused her to establish her own court
 (1170) at Poitiers, which became the scene of much artistic activity. She
 supported her sons in their unsuccessful revolt (1173) against Henry and
 was confined by Henry until 1185. In 1189 she helped Richard secure the
 throne.

   electoral college

 electoral college, in U.S. government, the body of electors that chooses
 the president and vice president. During national elections, voters in
 each state choose between slates of electors publicly pledged to one or
 another of the teams of national candidates. When the electoral college
 meets, each state's electors (equal in number to the total of its U.S.
 representatives and senators) usually cast all of their ballots for the
 team to which they are pledged. A majority of the electoral college is
 required to elect. If no candidate obtains a majority, the Constitution
 provides that the House of Representatives will select the president from
 among the top three candidates. Only two presidents have been elected in
 the House, Thomas JEFFERSON (1800) and John Quincy ADAMS (1824). The
 system is often criticized for leaving open the possibility that a
 candidate may obtain an electoral college majority without getting a
 majority (or even a plurality) of the national vote. Thus, in 1888,
 Benjamin HARRISON was elected even though Grover CLEVELAND received a
 greater popular vote.

   electors

 electors, in the history of the HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE, the German princes who
 had the right to elect the German king, who was generally crowned
 emperor. The number of electors varied, but in 1356 Emperor CHARLES IV
 issued the Golden Bull, an edict that regularized election procedures and
 named the electors as the archbishops of Cologne, Mainz, and Trier, the
 king of Bohemia, the count palatine of the Rhine, the duke of Saxony, and
 the margrave of Brandenburg. Later, the duke of Bavaria and the ruler of
 Hanover were added. After 1438 only members of the house of HAPSBURG were
 elected. The electoral function disappeared with the end of the Holy
 Roman Empire in 1806.

   Electra

 Electra, in Greek mythology, daughter of AGAMEMNON and CLYTEMNESTRA. She
 aided her brother ORESTES in avenging the murder of their father by their
 mother and AEGISTHUS. The tale was dramatized by AESCHYLUS, SOPHOCLES,
 and EURIPIDES.

   electric and magnetic units

 electric and magnetic units, units used to express the magnitudes of
 various quantities in electricity and magnetism. Three systems of such
 units, all based on the METRIC SYSTEM, are commonly used. One of these,
 the mksa-practical system, is defined in terms of the units of the mks
 system and has the AMPERE of electric current as its basic unit. The
 units of this system-the VOLT, OHM, WATT, and farad-are those commonly
 used by scientists and engineers to make practical measurements. The two
 other systems, now being gradually abandoned, are both based on the cgs
 system. Electrostatic units (cgs-esu) are defined in a way that
 simplifies the description of interactions between static electric
 charges; there are no corresponding magnetic units in this system.
 Electromagnetic units (cgs-emu), on the other hand, are defined
 especially for the description of phenomena associated with moving
 electric charges, i.e., electric currents and magnetic poles.

   electric circuit

 electric circuit, unbroken path along which an electric current may flow.
 A simple circuit consists of a voltage source, such as a battery (see
 CELL, in electricity) or a GENERATOR, whose terminals are connected to
 those of a circuit element, such as a RESISTOR, through which current can
 flow. More complex circuits include additional sources or elements and
 perhaps SWITCHES, so interconnected that, when appropriate switches are
 closed, each element is included in a closed path that also contains a
 source. Series, parallel, and non-series-parallel connections are
 illustrated in the figure. The effective RESISTANCE of two
 series-connected resistors is the sum of the individual resistances. The
 effective conductance (reciprocal of resistance) of two
 parallel-connected resistors is the sum of the individual conductances.

   electric eel

 electric eel: see ELECTRIC FISH.

   electric fish

 electric fish, any of many unrelated species of FISH that have electric
 organs, usually made of modified muscle tissue, that are capable of
 producing from 450 to 600 volts of electricity. This electricity is used
 to detect and paralyze prey, repel enemies, navigate, and possibly
 communicate. Important electric fish include the electric EEL, the
 electric CATFISH, and the electric RAY, or torpedo.

   electricity

 electricity, class of phenomena arising from the existence of CHARGE.
 According to modern theory, most ELEMENTARY PARTICLES of matter possess
 charge, either positive or negative. Two particles of like charge, both
 positive or both negative, repel each other; two particles of unlike
 charge are attracted (see COULOMB'S LAW). The electric FORCE between two
 charged particles is much greater than the gravitational force between
 the particles. Many of the bulk properties of matter are ultimately due
 to the electric forces among the particles of which the substance is
 composed. Materials differ in their ability to allow charge to flow
 through them. Those that allow charge to pass easily are conductors (see
 CONDUCTION), whereas those that allow extremely little charge to pass
 through are called insulators (see INSULATION), or DIELECTRICS. A third
 class of materials, called SEMICONDUCTORS, is intermediate.
 Electrostatics is the study of charges, or charged bodies, at rest. When
 positive or negative charge builds up in fixed positions on objects,
 certain phenomena can be observed that are collectively referred to as
 static electricity. The charge can be built by rubbing certain objects
 together, such as silk and glass or rubber and fur; the friction between
 these objects causes ELECTRONS to transfer from one to another with the
 result that the object losing electrons acquires a positive charge and
 the object gaining electrons acquires a negative charge. Electrodynamics
 is the study of charges in motion. A flow of electric charge constitutes
 an electric current. In order for a current to exist in a conductor,
 there must be an ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (emf), or POTENTIAL difference,
 between the conductor's ends. An electric CELL, a PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL, and
 a GENERATOR are all sources of emf. An emf source with an external
 conductor connected from one of the source's two terminals to the other
 constitutes an ELECTRIC CIRCUIT. Direct current (DC) is a flow of current
 in one direction at a constant rate. Alternating current (AC) is a
 current flow that increases in magnitude from zero to a maximum,
 decreases back to zero, increases to a maximum in the opposite direction,
 decreases to zero, and then repeats this process periodically. The number
 of repetitions of the cycle occurring each second is defined as the
 frequency, which is expressed in HERTZ (Hz). The frequency of ordinary
 household current in the U.S. is 60 cycles per sec (60 Hz), and electric
 devices must be designed to operate at this frequency. In a solid, the
 current consists not of a few electrons moving rapidly but of many
 electrons moving slowly; although this drift of electrons is slow, the
 impulse that causes it moves through the circuit, when the circuit is
 completed, at nearly the speed of light. The movement of electrons in a
 current is not steady; each electron moves in a series of stops and
 starts. In a direct current, the electrons are spread evenly through the
 conductor; in an alternating current, the electrons tend to congregate
 along the conductor surface. In liquids, gases, and semiconductors,
 current carriers may be positively or negatively charged.

   electrocardiography

 electrocardiography, science of recording and interpreting the electrical
 activity of the HEART by means of a device called a cardiograph.
 Electrodes (leads) attached to the extremities and the left chest pick up
 electrical currents from heart muscle contractions. The currents are
 registered in wave patterns on a light-sensitive film recording known as
 an electrocardiogram, cardiogram, or simply EKG or ECG. Deviations in the
 normal height, form, or duration of the wave patterns indicate specific
 disorders; thus the EKG is an important aid in diagnosing many heart
 diseases. The first practical device for recording the activity of the
 heart was developed by W. EINTHOVEN in 1903, for which he won (1923) the
 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine.

   electrochemistry

 electrochemistry, science dealing with the relationship between
 electricity and chemical changes. Of principal interest are the reactions
 that take place between ELECTRODES and the ELECTROLYTES in electric and
 electrolytic cells (see ELECTROLYSIS) and that take place in an
 electrolyte as electricity passes through it.

   electrode

 electrode, terminal, usually in the form of a wire, rod, or plate,
 through which electric current passes between metallic and nonmetallic
 parts of an ELECTRIC CIRCUIT. The electrode through which current passes
 from the metallic to the nonmetallic conductor is called the anode; that
 through which current passes from the nonmetallic to the metallic
 conductor is called the cathode. An electrode may be made of a metal,
 e.g., copper, lead, platinum, silver, or zinc, or of a nonmetal, commonly
 carbon.

   electroencephalography

 electroencephalography, science of recording and analyzing the electrical
 activity of the BRAIN. The recording, known as an electroencephalogram,
 or EEG, is made through electrodes by an electroencephalograph and
 appears as characteristic wave patterns. An important aid in diagnosing
 brain disorders and malfunctions, it has contributed to understanding
 normal brain function, SLEEP, and the effects of DRUGS and such
 activities as BIOFEEDBACK. The electrical activity of the brain was first
 demonstrated by the German psychiatrist Hans Berger in 1929.

   electrolysis

 electrolysis, passage of an electric current through a conducting
 solution or molten salt (either is a type of ELECTROLYTE) that is
 decomposed in the process. When a cathode, or negative electrode, and an
 anode, or positive electrode, are dipped into a solution, and a
 direct-current source is connected to the electrodes, the positive ions
 migrate to the negative electrode and the negative ions migrate to the
 positive electrode. At the negative electrode each positive ion gains an
 electron and becomes neutral; at the positive electrode each negative ion
 gives up an electron and becomes neutral. The migration of ions through
 the electrolyte constitutes the electric current flowing from one
 electrode to the other. Electrolysis is used in the commercial
 preparation of various substances, e.g., chlorine by the electrolysis of
 a solution of common salt, and hydrogen by the electrolysis of water. The
 electrolysis of metal salts is used for plating. See also
 ELECTROCHEMISTRY.

   electrolyte

 electrolyte, electrical conductor in which current is carried by IONS
 rather than free electrons (as in a metal). Electrolytes include water
 solutions of acids, bases (see ACIDS AND BASES); or SALTS; certain pure
 liquids; and molten salts. See also ELECTROLYSIS.

   electromagnet

 electromagnet, device in which an electric current, passing through a
 wire coil wrapped around a soft iron core, produces a magnetic field. The
 magnetic-field strength produced depends on the number of turns of the
 coil of wire, the size of the current, and the magnetic permeability of
 the core. Electromagnets lose their magnetism when the current is
 discontinued. See also SUPERCONDUCTIVITY.

   electromagnetic radiation

 electromagnetic radiation, energy radiated in the form of a WAVE caused
 by an electric field interacting with a magnetic field. Electromagnetic
 radiation is the result of the acceleration of a charged particle. It
 does not require a material medium, and can travel through a vacuum. The
 theory of electromagnetic radiation was developed by James Clerk MAXWELL
 and published in 1865, although his ideas were not accepted until
 Heinrich HERTZ proved the existence of radio waves in 1887. In order of
 decreasing wavelength and increasing frequency, the various types of
 electromagnetic radiation are RADIO waves, MICROWAVES, INFRARED
 RADIATION, visible LIGHT, ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION, X RAYS, and GAMMA
 RADIATION. The possible sources of electromagnetic radiation are directly
 related to wavelength; long radio waves are produced by large antennas
 such as those used by broadcasting stations; much shorter visible light
 waves are produced by the motions of charges within atoms; the shortest
 waves, those of gamma radiation, result from changes within the nucleus
 of the atom. The individual quantum of electromagnetic radiation is known
 as the PHOTON.

   electromotive force

 electromotive force (emf), difference in electric POTENTIAL, or voltage,
 between the terminals of a source of electricity. It is usually measured
 in VOLTS.

   electron

 electron, ELEMENTARY PARTICLE carrying a unit charge of negative
 electricity. An ATOM consists of a small, dense, positively charged
 nucleus surrounded by electrons that whirl about it in orbits, forming a
 cloud of charge. Ordinarily there are just enough negative electrons to
 balance the positive charge of the nucleus, and the atom is neutral. If
 electrons are added or removed, a net charge results, and the atom is
 said to be ionized (see ION). Atomic electrons are responsible for the
 chemical properties of matter (see VALENCE). The electron was discovered
 in 1897 by Joseph John THOMSON, who showed that cathode rays are composed
 of electrons. The electron is the lightest known particle having a
 non-zero rest mass. The positron, the electron's antiparticle (see
 ANTIMATTER), was discovered in 1932.

   electronegativity

 electronegativity, in chemistry, tendency for an atom to attract a pair
 of electrons that it shares with another atom. If the pair of electrons
 is not shared equally, i.e., if they spend more time with one atom than
 with the other atom, the favored atom is said to be more electronegative.
 Nonmetals have much higher electronegativities than metals; of the
 nonmetals, fluorine is the most electronegative, followed by oxygen,
 nitrogen, and chlorine.

   electronic game

 electronic game, device that challenges eye-hand coordination in a
 setting designed to provide entertainment and, sometimes, education. Made
 possible by the development of the MICROPROCESSOR, electronic games are
 marketed in various sizes, such as hand-held one-player models,
 home-video types consisting of cartridges that are inserted in modules
 attached to television sets, and freestanding arcade versions. Most of
 their appeal comes from the COMPUTER PROGRAM that synchronizes flashing
 lights and a variety of rhythmic auditory stimuli with the action
 portrayed on a graphic display (see COMPUTER GRAPHICS). The games may be
 contested among several players, or an individual may engage in a test of
 skill against the COMPUTER. Game subjects include sports (e.g., baseball
 and football); action warfare, often space-oriented; and such classics as
 contract bridge, chess, and poker.

   electronic music

 electronic music, term applied to compositions whose sounds are either
 produced or modified electronically. The early examples of electronic
 compositions, called concrete music, were taped montages of
 electronically altered sound obtained by microphone from nonelectronic
 sources, such as voices and street noise. After the perfection of the
 tape recorder in the 1940s, music was composed with tones that were
 electronically produced as well as electronically manipulated. In 1955
 the synthesizer was developed, a single unit with numerous generating and
 modifying capacities that enable composers to generate new sounds and to
 combine these sounds with great precision. Contemporary composers of
 electronic music include Karlheinz STOCKHAUSEN, Luciano BERIO, and Bruno
 Maderna. Since the 1950s, composers such as John CAGE, Milton BABBITT,
 and others have also experimented with COMPUTER-generated music. Many
 rock musicians play electronic instruments, i.e., the instrument is
 connected to an amplifier and its sound is fed through speakers (see ROCK
 MUSIC).

   electronics

 electronics, a branch of electrical engineering; the science and
 technology based on and concerned with the controlled flow of electrons
 or other carriers of electric charge, especially in ELECTRON TUBES and
 SEMICONDUCTOR devices. The miniaturization (see MICROELECTRONICS) and
 savings in power brought about by the invention (1948) of the TRANSISTOR
 and the subsequent development of INTEGRATED CIRCUITS have allowed
 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS to be packaged more densely, making possible compact
 COMPUTERS, advanced RADAR and navigation systems, more reliable RADIO and
 TELEVISION receivers, advanced sound-reproducing systems, and electronic
 automotive accessories.

   electron microscope

 electron microscope, instrument that produces a highly magnified image of
 a small object, using an accelerated electron beam held within a vacuum
 to illuminate the object, and electromagnetic fields to magnify and focus
 the image. (By contrast, the optical MICROSCOPE uses visual light for
 illumination, and glass lenses for magnifying and focusing.) First
 developed in Gemany c.1932, the transmission electron microscope exploits
 the very short wavelengths of accelerated electrons, which are thousands
 of times shorter than those of light, to magnify an object up to one
 million times without losing definition. Images produced by the
 microscope are thrown onto a fluorescent screen or are photographed. The
 more recently developed scanning electron microscope constructs an image
 on a CATHODE-RAY TUBE as the surface of a specimen is gradually
 illuminated by a television scanning probe.

   electron tube

 electron tube, device consisting of a sealed enclosure in which electrons
 flow between ELECTRODES separated either by vacuum (in a vacuum tube) or
 by an ionized gas at low pressure (in a gas tube). The two principal
 electrodes of an electron tube are called the anode and cathode. The
 simplest vacuum tube, the DIODE, contains only these two electrodes. When
 the cathode is heated, it emits a cloud of electrons, which are attracted
 to the positive polarity of the anode and constitute the current through
 the tube. Because the anode is not capable of emitting electrons, no
 current can flow in the reverse direction, and the diode acts as a
 RECTIFIER. In the vacuum triode, small signals applied to a third
 electrode, called a grid, placed between the cathode and anode cause
 large fluctuations in the current between the cathode and anode. A triode
 can thus act as a signal AMPLIFIER. Although formerly the key elements of
 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS, electron tubes have been almost entirely displaced by
 SEMICONDUCTOR devices. See also CATHODE-RAY TUBE.

   electron-volt

 electron-volt (eV), unit of ENERGY used in atomic and nuclear physics; 1
 eV is the energy transferred in moving a unit electric charge, positive
 or negative and equal in magnitude to the charge of the electron, through
 a potential difference of 1 volt. 1 eV=1.60*10-19 joules=1.60*10-12 ergs.

   elegy

 elegy, in Greek and Roman poetry, type of verse (in hexameter and
 pentameter couplets), written by THEOCRITUS, OVID, CATULLUS, and others;
 in English, a reflective poem of lamentation or regret, of no set
 metrical form, mourning one person, e.g., P.B. SHELLEY'S "Adonais," or
 all mankind, e.g., Thomas GRAY'S "Elegy in a Country Churchyard." The
 pastoral elegy, of which John MILTON'S "Lycidas" is the best known, has a
 classical pastoral setting.

   element

 element, in chemistry, substance composed of ATOMS all having the same
 number of PROTONS in their nuclei. This number, called the ATOMIC NUMBER,
 defines the element and establishes its place in the PERIODIC TABLE. Each
 element is assigned a symbol of one or two letters . The total number of
 protons and NEUTRONS in the nucleus of an atom is called the MASS NUMBER.
 Although all atoms of an element have the same number of protons in their
 nuclei, they may not all have the same number of neutrons. Atoms of an
 element with the same mass number make up an ISOTOPE of the element. All
 elements have isotopes; over 1,000 isotopes of the elements are known. As
 of 1989, 108 elements were known. Only 92 elements occur naturally on
 earth; the others are produced artificially (see SYNTHETIC ELEMENTS;
 TRANSURANIUM ELEMENTS). The chemical properties of an element are due to
 the distribution of electrons around the nucleus, particularly the outer,
 or VALENCE, electrons (the ones involved in chemical reactions). Chemical
 reaction does not affect the nucleus and thus does not change the atomic
 number. For this reason an element is often defined as a substance that
 cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by chemical means. See also
 ATOMIC WEIGHT; COMPOUND; MOLECULE.

╓┌──────────────┌───────┌──────────────┌───────────────┌─────────────────────
 ELEMENTS
 Element        Symbol  Atomic Number  Atomic Weight1  Melting Point (Degrees
 ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
 actinium       Ac      89             227.0278        1050.
 aluminum       Al      13             26.98154        660.37
 americium      Am      95             (243)           994.+-4
 antimony       Sb      51             121.75          630.74
 argon          Ar      18             39.948          -189.2
 arsenic        As      33             74.9216         817. (28 atmospheres)
 astatine       At      85             (210)           302 (est.)
 barium         Ba      56             137.33          725.
 berkelium      Bk      97             (247)           --
 beryllium      Be      4              9.01218         1278.+-5
 bismuth        Bi      83             208.9804        271.3
 boron          B       5              10.81           2079.
 bromine        Br      35             79.904          -7.2
 ELEMENTS
 Element        Symbol  Atomic Number  Atomic Weight1  Melting Point (Degrees
 ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
bromine        Br      35             79.904          -7.2
 cadmium        Cd      48             112.41          320.9
 calcium        Ca      20             40.08           839.+-2
 californium    Cf      98             (251)           --
 carbon         C       6              12.011          ~3550.
 cerium         Ce      58             140.12          799.
 cesium         Cs      55             132.9054        28.40
 chlorine       Cl      17             35.453          -100.98
 chromium       Cr      24             51.996          1857.+-20
 cobalt         Co      27             58.9332         1495.
 copper         Cu      29             63.546          1083.4+-0.2
 curium         Cm      96             (247)           1340.+-40
 dysprosium     Dy      66             162.50          1412.
 einsteinium    Es      99             (252)           --
 erbium         Er      68             167.26          1522.
 europium       Eu      63             151.96          822.
 fermium        Fm      100            (257)           --
 fluorine       F       9              18.998403       -219.62
 ELEMENTS
 Element        Symbol  Atomic Number  Atomic Weight1  Melting Point (Degrees
 ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
fluorine       F       9              18.998403       -219.62
 francium       Fr      87             (223)           (27) (est.)
 gadolinium     Gd      64             157.25          1313.+-1
 gallium        Ga      31             69.72           29.78
 germanium      Ge      32             72.59           937.4
 gold           Au      79             196.9665        1064.43
 hafnium        Hf      72             178.49          2227.+-20
 helium         He      2              4.00260         <-272.2
 holmium        Ho      67             164.9304        1474.
 hydrogen       H       1              1.00794         -259.14
 indium         In      49             114.82          156.61
 iodine         I       53             126.9045        113.5
 iridium        Ir      77             192.22          2410.
 iron           Fe      26             55.847          1535.
 krypton        Kr      36             83.80           -156.6
 lanthanum      La      57             138.9055        921.
 Iawrencium     Lw      103            (260)           --
 lead           Pb      82             207.2           327.502
 ELEMENTS
 Element        Symbol  Atomic Number  Atomic Weight1  Melting Point (Degrees
 ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
lead           Pb      82             207.2           327.502
 lithium        Li      3              6.941           180.54
 Iutetium       Lu      71             174.967         1663.
 magnesium      Mg      12             24.305          648.8+-0.5
 manganese      Mn      25             54.9380         1244.+-3
 mendelevium    Md      101            (258)           --
 mercury        Hg      80             200.59          -38.842
 molybdenum     Mo      42             95.94           2617.
 neodymium      Nd      60             144.24          1021.
 neon           Ne      10             20.179          -248.67
 neptunium      Np      93             237.0482        640.+-1
 nickel         Ni      28             58.69           1453.
 niobium        Nb      41             92.9064         2468.+10
 nitrogen       N       7              14.0067         -209.86
 nobelium       No      102            (259)           --
 osmium         Os      76             190.2           3045.+30
 oxygen         0       8              15.9994         -218.4
 palladium      Pd      46             106.42          1554.
 ELEMENTS
 Element        Symbol  Atomic Number  Atomic Weight1  Melting Point (Degrees
 ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
palladium      Pd      46             106.42          1554.
 phosphorus     P       15             30.97376        44.1 (white)
 platinum       Pt      78             195.08          1772.
 plutonium      Pu      94             (244)           641.
 polonium       Po      84             (209)           254.
 potassium      K       19             39.0983         63.25
 praseodymium   Pr      59             140.9077        931.
 promethium     Pm      61             (145)           ~1168.+-6
 protactinium   Pa      91             231.0359        <1600.
 radium         Ra      88             226.0254        700.
 radon          Rn      86             (222)           -71.
 rhenium        Re      75             186.207         3180.
 rhodium        Rh      45             102.9055        1966.+-3
 rubidium       Rb      37             85.4678         38.89
 ruthenium      Ru      44             101.07          2310.
 samarium       Sm      62             150.36          1072.+-5
 scandium       Sc      21             44.9559         1541.
 selenium       Se      34             78.96           217.
 ELEMENTS
 Element        Symbol  Atomic Number  Atomic Weight1  Melting Point (Degrees
 ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
selenium       Se      34             78.96           217.
 silicon        Si      14             28.0855         1410.
 silver         Ag      47             107.8682        961.93
 sodium         Na      11             22.98977        97.81+-0.03
 strontium      Sr      38             87.62           769.
 sulfur         S       16             32.06           112.8
 tantalum       Ta      73             180.9479        2996.
 technetium     Tc      43             (98)            2172.
 tellurium      Te      52             127.60          449.5+-0.3
 terbium        Tb      65             158.9254        1356.
 thallium       Tl      81             204.383         303.5
 thorium        Th      90             232.0381        1750.
 thulium        Tm      69             168.9342        1545.+-15
 tin            Sn      50             118.69          231.9681
 titanium       Ti      22             47.88           1660.+-10
 tungsten       W       74             183.85          3410.+-20
 unnilennium    Une     109            (266)           --
 unnilhexium    Unh     106            (263)           --
 ELEMENTS
 Element        Symbol  Atomic Number  Atomic Weight1  Melting Point (Degrees
 ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
unnilhexium    Unh     106            (263)           --
 unnilpentium2  Unp     105            (262)           --
 unnilquadium3  Unq     104            (261)           --
 unnilseptium   Uns     107            (262)           --
 uranium        U       92             238.0289        1132.3+-0.8
 vanadium       V       23             50.9415         1890.+-10
 xenon          Xe      54             131.29          -111.9
 ytterbium      Yb      70             173.04          819.
 yttrium        Y       39             88.9059         1522.+-8
 zinc           Zn      30             65.38           419.58
 zirconium      Zr      40             91.22           1852.+-2


 1 Parentheses indicate most stable isotope.
 2 Other proposed names are nielsbohrium (USSR) and hahnium (U 5.).
 3 Other proposed names are kurchatovium (USSR) and rutherfordium (U.S.).





   elementary particles

 elementary particles, tiny bits of matter assumed to be the most basic
 constituents of the universe. Certain elementary particles combine to
 form an ATOM, which is the basic unit of any chemical ELEMENT and from
 which all forms of matter are built. The first elementary particle to be
 discovered was the ELECTRON, identified in 1897 by Joseph John THOMSON.
 The nucleus of ordinary hydrogen was subsequently recognized as a single
 particle and was named the PROTON. The third basic particle in an atom,
 the NEUTRON, was discovered in 1932. Although models of the atom
 consisting of just these three particles are sufficient to account for
 all forms of chemical behavior of matter, QUANTUM THEORY predicted the
 existence of additional elementary particles. A search for the positron,
 or antiparticle (see ANTIMATTER) of the electron, led to its detection in
 1932, but a search for a particle predicted by YUKAWA HIDEKI in 1935 led
 to the unexpected discovery of the mu meson, or muon, the following year.
 Yukawa's particle was finally discovered in 1947 and named the pi meson,
 or pion. Both the muon and the pion were first observed in COSMIC RAYS.
 As the list of particles and antiparticles grew, through further study of
 cosmic rays and the study of the results of particle collisions produced
 by PARTICLE ACCELERATORS, four basic categories of particles were
 distinguished, according to their behavior with regard to the four
 fundamental forces of nature: gravitational, electromagnetic, strong
 nuclear, and weak nuclear. A given particle experiences certain of these
 forces but may be immune to others. The gravitational force is
 experienced by all particles. The electromagnetic force is experienced
 only by charged particles, although it is transmitted by the PHOTON,
 which has no charge. The weak and strong nuclear forces exist only at the
 atomic level. Of the four classes of particles, the smallest is that of
 the massless bosons, which include the photon, eight types of gluons, and
 the hypothetical graviton. The lepton class includes twelve particles:
 the electron, the positron, the positive and negative muons, the tauon
 and its antiparticle, and the neutrino or antineutrino associated with
 each of these particles. The bosons and the leptons are not strongly
 interacting. Members of the meson class are more massive than the
 leptons. The mesons are the "glue" that holds nuclei together. By far the
 largest class of particles is the baryon class, the lightest members of
 which are the proton and neutron; the heavier members are the hyperons.
 Baryons and mesons, both strongly interacting, are sometimes considered
 together as hadrons. A theory independently proposed in 1964 by Murray
 Gell-Mann and George Zweig explains the properties of all known hadrons
 according to the assumption that hadrons are built up of other, still
 more fundamental particles called QUARKS.

   elephant

 elephant, largest living land MAMMAL, of Africa and Asia. It has a
 massive head, thick legs, and tough, gray skin. The upper lip extends
 into a long, flexible trunk used for drinking, spraying, conveying food
 to the mouth, and touching; the large ears provide an extensive cooling
 surface. African bull elephants may measure 13 ft (4 m) high at the
 shoulder and weigh 6 to 8 tons (5400 to 7200 kg). Hunted for their great,
 curved ivory tusks, they have become endangered. Highly intelligent, they
 are used in foresting and trained as circus and zoo performers. See also
 MAMMOTH; MASTODON.

   elephantiasis

 elephantiasis, abnormal enlargement of any part of the body due to
 obstruction of the lymphatic channels in the affected area. In tropical
 countries, the most common cause is a disease called filariasis, a result
 of the infestation of small roundworms, Filaria, in the LYMPHATIC SYSTEM.

   Eleusinian Mysteries

 Eleusinian Mysteries, principal religious MYSTERIES of ancient Greece,
 held at ELEUSIS. The secret rites, which celebrated the abduction of
 PERSEPHONE and her return to her mother DEMETER, symbolized the annual
 cycle of death and rebirth in nature, as well as the immortality of the
 soul. DIONYSUS was also much honored at the festival.

   Eleusis

 Eleusis, ancient city of Attica, GREECE, NW of ATHENS. It was the seat of
 the ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES, dedicated to DEMETER. The Eleusinian games were
 also held there.

   elevator

 elevator, mechanical lift device for transporting people or goods from
 one level to another. The American inventor Elisha G. Otis demonstrated
 (1853) a safety device designed to prevent the fall of an elevator if its
 supporting cable should break; in 1861 he patented a steam-powered
 elevator. Steam was gradually replaced, first in the early 1870s by
 hydraulic power (see HYDRAULIC MACHINERY) and then toward the end of the
 19th cent. by electricity. Safety devices were improved and automatic
 controls introduced as elevator speeds increased.

   Elgar, Sir Edward William

 Elgar, Sir Edward William, 1857-1934, English composer. Among his
 outstanding compositions are Variations on an Original Theme (or Enigma
 Variations, 1899) and the Violin Concerto in B Minor. He is best known
 for the Pomp and Circumstance marches (1901-30).

   Elgin, Thomas Bruce, 7th earl of

 Elgin, Thomas Bruce, 7th earl of, 1766-1841, British diplomat. While on a
 diplomatic mission in Constantinople (1799-1803), he arranged for the
 ELGIN MARBLES to be brought to England. His son James Bruce, 8th earl of
 Elgin, 1811-63, was governor general of Canada (1847-54). He implemented
 the plan for responsible government outlined by his father-in-law, the
 earl of DURHAM, and personally negotiated the reciprocity treaty of 1854
 with the U.S. His son, Victor Alexander Bruce, 9th earl of Elgin,
 1849-1917, was viceroy of India (1894-99) and colonial secretary
 (1905-8).

   Elgin Marbles

 Elgin Marbles, ancient sculpture taken from the Acropolis of Athens to
 England in 1806 by Thomas Bruce, 7th earl of Elgin. The PARTHENON frieze
 by PHIDIAS and sculpture from the ERECHTHEUM are on view at the British
 Museum.

   El Greco

 El Greco: see GRECO, EL.

   Eliade, Mircea

 Eliade, Mircea, 1907-86, American religious scholar and writer; b.
 Bucharest. A student of myths and mystical experiences, he wrote over 50
 books, including a history of religious ideas, completed in 1985, and
 novels such as The Forbidden Forest (1955) and The Old Man and the
 Bureaucrats (1979). He was editor of the multivolume Encyclopedia of
 Religion and Religious Belief (1988).

   Elias

 Elias, Greek form of ELIJAH.

   Elijah

 Elijah or Elias,fl. c.875 BC, Hebrew PROPHET in the reign of King AHAB
 and an outstanding figure in the OLD TESTAMENT. Elijah's mission was to
 destroy the worship of foreign gods and to restore justice, and his zeal
 brought about a temporary banishment of idolatry. His story in the Bible
 has many incidents, such as his raising the widow's son from the dead,
 his being fed by ravens, his experience of the still, small voice on Mt.
 Horeb, and his departure from earth in a chariot of fire enveloped in a
 whirlwind. 1 Kings 17-19; 21; 2Kings 1-2. His disciple was ELISHA. In
 Jewish tradition, Elijah is the herald of the MESSIAH. He is also
 prominent in the KORAN.

   Elijah ben Solomon

 Elijah ben Solomon, 1720-97, Jewish scholar, called the Gaon Eminence of
 Vilna; b. Lithuania. Although a student of the CABALA, he fought the
 spread of HASIDISM among the Jews of Lithuania and Poland, fearing that
 it would weaken the Jewish community. His major writings were on the
 HALAKAH.

   Eliot, Charles William

 Eliot, Charles William, 1834-1926, American educator and president of
 Harvard Univ. (1869-1909); b. Boston. His 40-year administration at
 Harvard Univ. developed the college into a great modern university. He
 extended the elective system, added new courses, required written exams,
 enlarged the faculty, and increased entrance requirements while raising
 the standards for professional degrees. He supported Elizabeth Cary
 Agassiz's development of Radcliffe, and was also influential in securing
 greater uniformity in high school curricula and college entrance
 requirements. Eliot published widely.

   Eliot, George

 Eliot, George, pseud. of Mary Ann or Marian Evans, 1819-80, English
 novelist, a major 19th-cent. writer. She defied convention to live with
 her mentor, G.H. Lewes. Writing about rural life, Eliot was primarily
 concerned with people's moral choices and their responsibility for their
 own lives. Her novels include Adam Bede (1859) and Silas Marner (1861).
 Middlemarch (1871-72) is considered her masterpiece.

   Eliot, John

 Eliot, John, 1604-90, English missionary in colonial Massachusetts,
 called the Apostle to the Indians. A Puritan, he arrived in Boston in
 1631, studied the area's Indian language, began preaching, and
 established villages for his native converts. His translation of the
 Bible into an Algonquian Indian language (1661-63) and his Indian Primer
 (1669) are prime sources of our knowledge of the peoples of the area.

   Eliot, T(homas) S(tearns)

 Eliot, T(homas) S(tearns), 1888-1965, English poet, one of the most
 influential literary figures of the 20th cent.; b. St. Louis. Living in
 London from 1914, he became a British subject in 1927, the same year he
 espoused Anglo-Catholicism. He was associated with the periodicals The
 Egoist (1917-30) and his own Criterion (1922-39), and he had an active
 career in publishing. Eliot's early poems-Prufrock and Other Observations
 (1917), Poems (1920), and The Wasteland (1922)-express the anguish and
 barrenness of modern life. Breaking completely with the 19th-cent. poetic
 tradition, they drew on the 17th-cent. METAPHYSICAL POETS, along with
 DANTE, Jacobean drama, and the French SYMBOLISTS. Eliot's later, more
 hopeful, poetry includes Ash Wednesday (1930) and Four Quartets
 (1935-42). He was also an important critic. His plays, attempts to
 revitalize the verse drama, include Murder in the Cathedral (1935) and
 The Cocktail Party (1950). He was awarded the 1948 Nobel Prize in
 literature.

   Elisabeth

 Elisabeth: see ELIZABETH.

   Elisha

 Elisha or Eliseus, Hebrew prophet. He continued the work of ELIJAH, but
 was more diplomatic and of a milder nature. Unlike Elijah, he had many
 disciples. 2 Kings 1-13.

   Elizabeth

 Elizabeth, 1837-98, empress of Austria and queen of Hungary, consort of
 FRANCIS JOSEPH. Her life was marred by tragedy, notably the death of her
 only son, Archduke RUDOLF. She was assassinated in Geneva by an Italian
 anarchist.

   Elizabeth

 Elizabeth, 1709-62, czarina of Russia (1741-62); daughter of PETER I and
 CATHERINE I. She gained the throne by overthrowing IVAN VI. Violently
 anti-German, she sided against FREDERICK II of Prussia in the SEVEN YEARS
 WAR. She gave the nobles greater power over their serfs and in local
 government, while decreasing the service they owed the state.

   Elizabeth

 Elizabeth, queens of England. Elizabeth I, 1533-1603, queen of England
 (1558-1603), the daughter of HENRY VIII and Anne BOLEYN, was declared
 illegitimate after her mother's execution; in 1544 Parliament
 reestablished her in the succession. Imprisoned as a rallying point for
 discontented Protestants, she regained some freedom by outward conformity
 to Catholicism. On her accession in 1558 England's low fortunes included
 religious strife, a huge government debt, and failure in wars with
 France. Her reign took England through one of its greatest eras-a period
 that produced such men as William SHAKESPEARE, Edmund SPENSER, Francis
 BACON, and Walter RALEIGH; a period that saw the country united to become
 a first-rate European power with a great navy; a period in which commerce
 and industry prospered and colonization began. Elizabeth's Tudor concept
 of strong rule and the need for popular support helped her select
 excellent counselors, such as Sir William Cecil (Lord BURGHLEY) and Sir
 Francis Walsingham. She reestablished Anglicanism, and measures against
 Catholics grew harsher. Important legislation enacted in her reign
 included stabilization of labor conditions, currency reforms, poor laws,
 and acts to encourage agriculture, commerce, and manufacturing. Elizabeth
 began a policy of peace, and her diplomatic maneuvers eventually defeated
 Spain and stalemated France. The Treaty of Edinburgh (1560) started a
 policy of supporting Protestant lords against Catholics. After the

 gave her refuge, kept her prisoner, and executed her only after numerous
 plots to seat Mary on the English throne. Although she had many
 favorites, notably the earl of LEICESTER, Elizabeth never married, but
 she used the possibility of marriage as a diplomatic tool. By marriage
 negotiations with FRANCIS, duke of Alencon and Anjou, she secured (1572)
 a defense alliance against Spain and, later, French aid for the Dutch
 against Spain, which now emerged as England's main enemy. PHILIP II of
 Spain, whose marriage offer Elizabeth had refused in 1559, planned the
 Spanish ARMADA as a reprisal for English raids against Spanish shipping.
 The defeat of the Armada (1588) broke the power of Spain and strengthened
 England's national pride. Elizabeth's last years were darkened by the
 rash uprising of her favorite, Robert Devereux, 2d earl of ESSEX. She was
 succeeded by James VI of Scotland, son of Mary Queen of Scots, who became
 JAMES I of England. Vain, fickle in bestowing favors, prejudiced,
 vacillating, and parsimonious, she was nonetheless a great monarch,
 highly aware of the responsibility of rule and immensely courageous.
 Elizabeth II, 1926-, queen of Great Britain and Northern Ireland,
 succeeded her father, GEORGE VI, in 1952. In 1947 she married Philip
 Mountbatten, duke of EDINBURGH. They have four children: Prince CHARLES,
 Princess ANNE, Prince Andrew (b. 1960), and Prince Edward (b. 1964). In

 accession to the throne. Her mother, Elizabeth, 1900-, queen consort to
 George VI, was the daughter of the 14th earl of Strathmore.

   Elizabeth

 Elizabeth, 1843-1916, queen of RUMANIA, consort of CAROL I, also known as
 Elizabeth of Wied. Under the pseudonym Carmen Sylva she wrote extensively
 in several languages.

   Elizabeth

 Elizabeth, city (1986 est. pop. 106,540), seat of Union co., NE N.J., on
 Newark Bay; settled 1609, inc. 1855. It is one of the largest container
 seaports in the world, and manufactures sewing machines, processed foods,
 pharmaceuticals, and chemicals. The area was purchased from the Indians
 in 1664. It was the scene of several clashes during the AMERICAN
 REVOLUTION.

   Elizabethan style

 Elizabethan style, in architecture and decorative arts, transitional
 style of the English RENAISSANCE during which large manor houses were
 built. Plans tended toward symmetry, although such characteristics of
 TUDOR STYLE as the great hall remained. New features were added, notably
 broad staircases and long galleries. A famous example is Longleat,
 Wiltshire. Owners often designed houses themselves, and carpenters and
 masons amplified the plans. Renaissance, mannerist, and Flemish motifs
 were haphazardly adapted with no attempt at a unified classical style.

   Elizabeth Woodville

 Elizabeth Woodville: see WOODVILLE, ELIZABETH.

   elk

 elk, any of several members of the DEER family. It most properly
 designates the largest member of the family, Alcesalces, found in N North
 America, where it is called MOOSE, and Eurasia. The name elk is used in
 North America to designate a different animal, the WAPITI.

   Elkin, Stanley

 Elkin, Stanley, 1930-, American novelist and short-story writer; b.
 N.Y.C. An offbeat comic writer with a gift for imagery and bizarre
 situations, Elkin demonstrates an underlying seriousness in such novels
 as Boswell (1964), The Living End (1979), and George Mills (1982), and
 the stories in Criers and Kibitzers, Kibitzers and Criers (1966).

   Ellice Islands

 Ellice Islands: see TUVALU.

   Ellington, Duke

 Ellington, Duke (Edward Kennedy Ellington), 1899-1974, black American
 jazz pianist and composer; b. Washington, D.C. He formed a band in 1918
 and became nationally famous while appearing in Harlem (N.Y.C.)
 nightclubs. His orchestra, playing his own often complex compositions,
 made many innovations in the JAZZ idiom. Ellington's compositions include
 "Solitude" and "Mood Indigo" as well as such long concert works as Black,
 Brown, and Beige (1943).

   ellipse

 ellipse: see CONIC SECTION.

   elliptical geometry

 elliptical geometry: see NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY.

   Ellis Island

 Ellis Island, c.27 acres (10.9 hectares), in Upper New York Bay.
 Government property since 1808, it served (1892-1943) as the chief entry
 station for immigrants to the U.S. It is now part of the Statue of
 Liberty National Monument.

   Ellison, Ralph

 Ellison, Ralph, 1914-, black American writer; b. Oklahoma City. His
 classic novel, Invisible Man (1952), details the struggles of a nameless
 young black man in a hostile society. A collection of his essays,
 speeches, interviews, and reviews is Going to the Territory (1986).

   Ellsworth, Lincoln

 Ellsworth, Lincoln, 1880-1951, American explorer; b. Chicago. He was the
 financial backer and colleague of Roald AMUNDSEN. With the aviator
 Umberto Nobile, they flew over the NORTH POLE in a dirigible in 1925.
 Ellsworth was the first man to fly over ANTARCTICA (1936). In 1939 he
 flew into interior Antarctica, viewing and claiming vast areas for the
 U.S.

   Ellsworth, Oliver

 Ellsworth, Oliver, 1745-1807, 3d chief justice of the U.S. SUPREME COURT
 (1796-99); b. Windsor, Conn. At the FEDERAL CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION
 (1787), he (with Roger Sherman) advanced the "Connecticut compromise,"
 ending the struggle between large and small states over congressional
 representation. As U.S. senator (1789-96) he was the chief author of the
 bill establishing the federal court system.

   elm

 elm, tree or shrub of the family Ulmaceae, found chiefly in the Northern
 Hemisphere. Elm trees (genus Ulmus) are tall and graceful, with
 fan-shaped crowns of finely subdividing branches and twigs. The American,
 or white, elm (U. americana) and the English, or Wych, elm (U.
 campestris) of Eurasia are widely planted as ornamental and shade trees.
 Both species are vulnerable to the fungus known as Dutch elm disease.

   Elohim

 Elohim: see GOD.

   elongation

 elongation, the angular distance between two points in the sky as
 measured from a third point. As viewed from a third body, the elongation
 of two celestial bodies will be 0 deg when they are in conjunction and
 180 deg when in opposition (see SYZYGY); quadrature occurs when the two
 bodies have an elongation of 90 deg. As viewed from the earth, the
 greatest elongations with respect to the sun of the inferior planets
 Mercury and Venus are 28 deg and 47 deg; the moon and the superior
 planets can range from 0 deg to 180 deg.

   El Paso

 El Paso, city (1986 est. pop. 491,800), seat of El Paso co., extreme W
 Tex., on the RIO GRANDE, opposite JUAREZ, Mex., and near the N.Mex.
 border; inc. 1873. Located in a region of cattle ranches and farms, the
 city is a port, and a commercial, industrial, and mining center.
 Manufactures include refined petroleum, copper, clothing, and machinery.
 The dry climate attracts tourists. The largest of the border cities, El
 Paso's history is bound up with that of MEXICO. Early settlement in the
 area was on the south (Juarez) bank of the river; the first house on the
 site of the present city was built in 1827. The arrival of railroad
 service in 1881 initiated the border town's growth into a modern city.

   El Salvador

 El Salvador, officially Republic of El Salvador, republic (1987 est. pop.
 5,009,000), 8,260 sq mi (21,393 sq km), Central America; bordered by the
 Pacific Ocean (S), Guatemala (W), and Honduras (N and E). The capital is
 SAN SALVADOR. Two volcanic ranges traverse the country from west to east.
 In between are the broad, fertile valleys that are the nation's
 heartland. The densely populated country is the smallest of the Latin
 American republics, with a weak economy overly dependent on fluctuation
 in the world market price for coffee, the principal export. Cotton and
 sugar are also exported while oil and manufactured goods are imported.
 Rice is the main subsistence crop. Light industry includes textile
 manufacture and food processing. The Spanish-speaking, Roman Catholic
 population is predominantly mestizo.

 History Spaniards conquered the area in 1524. El Salvador declared
 independence in 1821 and after a brief period was part of the Mexican
 Empire (1821-23) and then of the CENTRAL AMERICAN FEDERATION (1825-38).
 Becoming a separate republic in 1839 it was plagued by frequent
 interference from nearby states, notably GUATEMALA and NICARAGUA. The
 establishment of coffee cultivation in the late 19th cent. created an
 inequitable distribution of wealth that became the basis for future
 unrest and, consequently, of several repressive dictatorships.
 Overpopulation was a major 20th-cent. problem. Failure of land reform in
 the 1970s brought increasing left-right polarization and guerrilla
 warfare, with U.S. and Cuban involvement. In 1982 the left boycotted a
 widely publicized election that brought a right-wing coalition into
 power.

   Elsheimer, Adam

 Elsheimer, Adam, 1578-1610?, German painter. Known for small paintings on
 copper of biblical subjects, he excelled at landscape and light effects
 and influenced Dutch painters. His Good Samaritan is in the Louvre.

   Elsinore

 Elsinore: see HELSINGOOR.

   Elysian fields

 Elysian fields or Elysium,in Greek mythology, happy otherworld in the
 west for heroes favored by the gods.

   Elytis, Odysseus

 Elytis, Odysseus, pseud. of Odysseus Alepoudelis, 1911-, Greek poet; b.
 Crete. His poetry, joyful and sensuous, is replete with imagery of the
 Aegean Islands. The Sovereign Sun (1974) is a selection of his poems in
 English translation. He was awarded the 1979 Nobel Prize in literature.

   Elzevir, Louis

 Elzevir, Louis, 1540-1617, Dutch publisher, whose name also appeared as
 Elsevier or Elzevier. His family concern, from his first published book
 in Leiden (1583) to the death of the second Abraham Elzevir in 1712, was,
 in its best years, the greatest publishing business in the world.
 Businessmen rather than printers or scholars, the Elzevirs owned presses
 and employed good editors and printers in Leiden, Amsterdam, Utrecht, and
 The Hague. Elzevir agencies functioned in cities from Denmark to Italy.
 Their books were typically legible, sturdy, and inexpensive, rather than
 elegant.

   Emancipation, Edict of

 Emancipation, Edict of, 1861, edict by which Czar ALEXANDER II freed all
 Russian SERFS (one third of the population). Serfdom was abolished, and
 peasants were to receive land from landlords and pay them for it. The
 system of payment and of land distribution, cumbersome and unjust, was
 reformed by STOLYPIN in 1906 in an effort to stem discontent.

   Emancipation Proclamation

 Emancipation Proclamation, in U.S. history, the executive order
 abolishing SLAVERY in the CONFEDERACY. Pres. LINCOLN refrained at the
 start of the CIVIL WAR from freeing slaves lest it alienate the loyal
 border states. But after the successful ANTIETAM CAMPAIGN, Lincoln issued
 a preliminary edict and, on Jan. 1, 1863, the formal Emancipation
 Proclamation. It freed only those slaves residing in territory in
 rebellion "as a fit and necessary war measure for suppressing said
 rebellion." It was designed to deplete the Southern manpower reserve in
 slaves and to enhance the Union cause abroad, especially in Britain.

   embalming

 embalming, preservation of the body after death by artificial chemical
 means. It was highly developed in dynastic EGYPT, where immersion in a
 soda solution and filling of body cavities with resins and spices were
 common. Modern embalming grew from 17th-cent. attempts to preserve
 anatomical specimens. Formaldehyde, infused to replace the blood, is the
 most common embalming agent.

   embargo

 embargo, prohibition by a country of the departure of ships or certain
 types of goods from its ports. Instances of confining all domestic ships
 to port are rare, and the EMBARGO ACT OF 1807 is the sole example in U.S.
 history. The detention of foreign vessels, however, has often occurred as
 an act of reprisal or in anticipation of war. Embargoes on goods for
 economic and strategic purposes are also common. Both the LEAGUE OF
 NATIONS and the UNITED NATIONS have recognized the use of embargoes,
 e.g., the League's sanctions (1935) against Italy for its aggression in
 Ethiopia and the UN call for an oil and arms embargo against Rhodesia.
 The U.S. instituted (1980-81) a grain embargo against the USSR in
 reprisal for the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.

   Embargo Act of 1807

 Embargo Act of 1807, passed Dec. 22, 1807, by the U.S. Congress in answer
 to British and French restrictions on neutral shipping during the
 Napoleonic Wars (see NAPOLEON I). It forbade all international trade to
 and from American ports in an attempt to persuade Britain and France of
 the value and rights of neutral commerce. In Jan. 1808 the prohibition
 was extended to inland waters and land commerce to halt trade with
 Canada. Britain and France stood firm, however, and enforcement was
 difficult, especially in New England. The Nonintercourse Act (Mar. 1,
 1809) and Macon's Bill No. 2 (1810) effectually dissolved the purpose of
 the embargo.

   embezzlement

 embezzlement: see LARCENY.

   embroidery

 embroidery, ornamental needlework applied to all types of fabrics and
 worked with linen, cotton, wool, silk, gold, or silver thread. Beads,
 shells, feathers, or gems may be added. The art is mentioned in the Hindu
 Vedas and in the Old Testament; it probably antedates WEAVING. It was
 introduced into Europe from Byzantium, initiating a rich period of church
 embroidery (12th-14th cent.). Secular embroidery reached a height of
 sumptuousness in the 16th cent. By the 19th cent. embroidery had almost
 disappeared from male attire, and today it is used mainly on women's and
 children's clothing. Machine-made embroidery in no way approaches the
 quality of that formerly done by hand. Peasant embroidery, which has long
 flourished in Eastern Europe, the Balkans, Scandinavia, India, and the
 Americas, is still done in areas not yet penetrated by mechanization.

   embryo

 embryo, name for the developing young of an animal or plant. Embryology,
 the scientific study of embryonic development, deals with the period from
 fertilization until hatching or birth of an animal or, in plants,
 germination. In animals, early divisions produce a hollow ball one cell
 thick (a blastula), which later becomes a two-layered cuplike gastrula.
 In higher animals, a third (middle) layer of cells develops from one or
 both of the first two layers. The outer layer (ectoderm) gives rise to
 skin, scales, feathers, hair, nails, and the nervous system; the
 innermost layer (endoderm) forms the digestive glands and lining of the
 alimentary tract and lungs; the middle layer (mesoderm) develops the
 skeletal, muscular, and connective tissue and circulatory, excretory, and
 reproductive systems.

   emerald

 emerald, highly valued GEM, green variety of the mineral BERYL. The
 finest emeralds are found in Colombia; other sources are the USSR,
 Zimbabwe, and Australia. The Oriental emerald is the transparent green
 variety of CORUNDUM.

   Emerson, Ralph Waldo

 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 1803-82, one of America's most influential authors
 and thinkers; b. Boston. A Unitarian minister, he left his only
 pastorate, Boston's Old North Church (1829-32), because of doctrinal
 disputes. On a trip to Europe Emerson met Thomas CARLYLE, S.T. COLERIDGE,
 and WORDSWORTH, whose ideas, along with those of PLATO, the
 Neoplatonists, Oriental mystics, and SWEDENBORG, strongly influenced his
 philosophy. Returning home (1835), he settled in Concord, Mass., which
 he, Margaret FULLER, THOREAU, and others made a center of
 TRANSCENDENTALISM. He stated the movement's main principles in Nature
 (1836), stressing the mystical unity of nature. A noted lecturer, Emerson
 called for American intellectual independence from Europe in his Phi Beta
 Kappa address at Harvard ("The American Scholar," 1837). In an address at
 the Harvard divinity school (1838), he asserted that redemption could be
 found only in one's own soul and intuition. Emerson developed
 transcendentalist themes in his famous Journal (kept since his student
 days at Harvard), in the magazine The Dial, and in his series of Essays
 (1841, 1844). Among the best known of his essays are "The Over-Soul,"
 "Compensation," and "Self-Reliance." He is also noted for his poems,
 e.g., "Threnody," "Brahma," and "The Problem." His later works include
 Representative Men (1850), English Traits (1856), and The Conduct of Life
 (1870).

   emery

 emery: see CORUNDUM.

   Emigrant Aid Company

 Emigrant Aid Company, formed (1854) to promote organized antislavery
 immigration to KANSAS from the Northeast. It hoped to use the concept of
 SQUATTER SOVEREIGNTY in the KANSAS-NEBRASKA ACT to ensure that Kansas
 became a free state. The name is associated exclusively with the New
 England Emigrant Aid Co., although Kansas aid societies in other northern
 states were also formed. Conceived by Eli Thayer, the company sent out
 1,240 settlers. The National Kansas Committee, formed (1856) by various
 aid societies, became divided as to how to handle violence by proslavery
 forces. The movement virtually ended by 1857 and did little toward making
 Kansas a free state, but it captured public attention and engendered much
 bitterness that contributed to the CIVIL WAR.

   emigration

 emigration: see IMMIGRATION.

   Eminescu, Mihail

 Eminescu, Mihail, 1850-89, Rumanian poet. The lyrical, passionate, and
 revolutionary work of Eminescu, considered the leading Rumanian poet of
 his century, is typified by "Calin," extolling nature and simple peasant
 life.

   Emmanuel Philibert

 Emmanuel Philibert, 1528-80, duke of Savoy (1553-80), called Ironhead. He
 succeeded his father, who had been dispossessed of his duchy by the
 French and the Swiss. Serving Spain, he defeated the French at
 Saint-Quentin (1557), and by the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis (1559) most
 of Savoy was restored to him. He made many reforms in Savoy and moved its
 capital to Turin, thus making it an Italian, rather than a French, state.

   Empedocles

 Empedocles, c.495-c.435 BC, Greek philosopher. He held that everything in
 existence is composed of four underived and indestructible
 substances-fire, water, earth, and air-and that atmosphere is a corporeal
 substance, not a mere void. He believed that motion is the only sort of
 change possible and that apparent changes in quantity and quality are in
 fact changes of position of the basic particles underlying the observable
 object. Thus he first stated a principle central to modern physics.

   emphysema

 emphysema, abnormal enlargement or distension of the air sacs of the
 lungs, causing difficulty in breathing. Usually chronic and progressive,
 the condition is associated with heredity, smoking, and long-standing
 respiratory ailments such as chronic bronchitis. Management is aimed at
 increasing lung capacity and preventing and treating infection, a common
 complication.

   Empire State Building

 Empire State Building, in New York City, on Fifth Ave., between 33d St.
 and 34th St. It was designed by Shreve, Lamb, and Harmon, and built in
 1930-31. With 102 stories, it was for years the tallest building in the
 world.

   Empire style

 Empire style, in French interior decoration and costume, the manner
 prevailing in the reign of Napoleon I (1804-14), largely created for him
 by the architects FONTAINE and PERCIER and the artist J.-L. DAVID.
 Furniture was chiefly of mahogany. Walls were decorated with stucco, or
 with classical motifs and such imperial symbols as the emperor's monogram
 and representations of military trophies. The empress Josephine
 introduced the court dress with train, and men began to wear full-length
 trousers and polished top hats.

   empiricism

 empiricism, philosophical doctrine holding that all knowledge is derived
 from experience, whether of the mind or of the senses. Thus it opposes
 the rationalist belief in the existence of innate ideas. A doctrine basic
 to the scientific method, empiricism is associated with the rise of
 experimental science after the 17th cent. It has been a dominant
 tradition in British philosophy, as in the works at LOCKE, HUME, and
 George BERKELEY. Most empiricists acknowledge certain a priori truths
 (e.g., principles of mathematics and logic), but John Stuart MILL and
 others have treated even these as generalizations deduced from
 experience.

   empyema

 empyema: see PLEURISY.

   Ems dispatch

 Ems dispatch, 1870 communication between King William of Prussia (later
 German Emperor WILLIAM I) and his premier, Otto von BISMARCK. In June
 1870 the Spanish throne had been offered to Prince
 Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. France having protested, the prince refused
 this offer, but the French ambassador, Comte Benedetti, meeting William
 at Ems, demanded further assurance. William rejected the request. Seeking
 to goad France into war, Bismarck made public the king's report of the
 conversation, edited in a provocative manner. France declared war on July
 19, and the FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR began.

   emu

 emu or emeu,large, flightless Australian BIRD (Dromiceius
 novaehollandiae) related to the CASSOWARY and OSTRICH. A swift runner, it
 is 5 to 6 ft (150 to 180 cm) tall. Its brownish plumage is coarse and
 hairlike.

   emulsion

 emulsion: see COLLOID.

   enamel

 enamel, a siliceous substance that fuses with metal. Transparent or
 opaque, clear or colored, it adds a decorative surface. Enamel was used
 in making jewelry in ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome, and was perfected
 in the Byzantine world, often in the CLOISONNE technique. Fine
 enamel-work was created in 12th-cent. France and Spain. The most famous
 enamelist was the 16th-cent. French artist Leonard LIMOUSIN. In England
 from the 17th cent. on, enamel was used for miniature portraits.
 Enamel-work declined in the 19th cent. but was revived in the 1960s.

   encaustic

 encaustic, painting medium in which the binder for the pigment is wax, or
 wax and resin. Thought to have been widely used in ancient times, the
 technique is exemplified by remarkably preserved tomb paintings from
 Roman Egypt.

   Enceladus

 Enceladus, in astronomy, natural satellite of SATURN.

   encephalitis

 encephalitis, general term used to describe an inflammation of the brain
 and spinal cord, characterized by headache, lethargy, and convulsions.
 Rabies and herpes viruses, among others, are common causes. For many
 forms of encephalitis there is no treatment, although herpes encephalitis
 responds to the drug adenine arabinoside.

   Encina

 Encinaor Enzina, Juan del,1469?-c.1530, Spanish poet and court musician.
 His Eglogas (pastoral plays), which together with musical compositions
 and a treatise on poetry appear in Cancionero (1946), made him the father
 of Spanish RENAISSANCE drama

   enclosure of land

 enclosure of land: see INCLOSURE.

   encomienda

 encomienda, system of tribute in Spanish America to supply adequate and
 cheap labor. Indians were required to pay tribute from their lands in
 return for Spanish protection. The hardships of the system soon decimated
 the Indian population, however, and it died out gradually after 1542.

   encyclical

 encyclical: see BULL.

   encyclopedia

 encyclopedia, a compendium of knowledge, either general or specialized,
 i.e., within one field. A dictionary is basically devoted to words, an
 encyclopedia to data on and discussion of each subject covered. An
 almanac is a periodical publication containing much ephemeral data.
 Although attempts at comprehensive knowledge began with ARISTOTLE, the
 Natural History of PLINY the Elder is considered the first true
 encyclopedia. There were various compendia during the Middle Ages,
 including Vincent of Beauvais's Mirror of the World, printed in English
 translation in 1481. The modern encyclopedia-alphabetically arranged, and
 often with bibliographies-is usually said to have begun with John
 Harris's Lexicon technicum (1704) and Ephraim Chambers's Cyclopaedia
 (1728). The most renowned and influential of all encyclopedias, the
 French ENCYCLOPEDIE, was completed in 1772 by Denis DIDEROT and other
 philosophes. The Encyclopaedia Britannica, first published (1771) in
 three volumes, grew in size and reputation and is now published in the
 U.S. The famous French Larousse encyclopedias date from 1865, and the
 first noteworthy American encyclopedia, the Encyclopedia Americana, from
 1829 to 1833. Encyclopedias increased in usefulness in the 19th and 20th
 cent. as knowledge in various fields grew more complex and specialized.
 Notable national encyclopedias today include the Encyclopedia Italiana
 (1929-39), the Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1926-47, 3d ed. 1980), and the
 French Universal Encyclopedia (1968-74). Some specialized encyclopedias
 are in many volumes. They include Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences,
 Encyclopedia of Islam, Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, and
 Encyclopedia of World Art. The first one-volume general encyclopedia in
 English was the Columbia Encyclopedia (1935).

   Encyclopedie

 Encyclopedie, influential 28-volume French encyclopedia, edited by Denis
 DIDEROT and Jean d'ALEMBERT, with the aid of QUESNAY, MONTESQUIEU,
 VOLTAIRE, J.J. ROUSSEAU, TURGOT, and others. It was published between
 1751 and 1775. Its famous "preliminary discourse," signed by Alembert,
 indicated its aims and then presented definitions and histories of
 science and the arts. Despite attacks by the JESUITS and unofficial
 censorship by the printer, it was an immediate success. It championed the
 skepticism and rationalism of the ENLIGHTENMENT and played a major role
 in the intellectual preparation for the FRENCH REVOLUTION. In 1780 a
 five-volume supplement and two-volume index were added.

   endangered species

 endangered species, any species of animal or plant whose ability to
 survive is seriously in question. Human activities can contribute to such
 endangerment: for example, by purposeful extermination to protect
 livestock; unrestricted hunting to obtain hides, feathers, or food; or
 the use of PESTICIDES to protect crops. Humans have contributed to the
 destruction of entire habitats through, e.g., STRIP MINING, oil spills,
 water POLLUTION, and the draining of swamps and leveling of forests for
 industrial and residential development. Such destruction can endanger the
 lives and breeding grounds of a large number of species simultaneously.
 In recent years environmentalists have pressed for the establishment of
 new WILDLIFE REFUGES and for land use planning. In the U.S. the
 Endangered Species Acts of 1966, 1969, and 1973 prohibit any trade in
 endangered species or their products and require that federal agencies
 assess the impact on wildlife of proposed projects.

   endive

 endive: see CHICORY.

   endocrine system

 endocrine system, body control system composed of a group of glands that
 keeps the internal environment stable by producing chemical regulatory
 substances called HORMONES. In humans the major endocrine organs are the
 PITUITARY GLAND, THYROID GLAND, PARATHYROID GLANDS, ADRENAL GLANDS,
 THYMUS GLAND, PINEAL BODY, PANCREAS, ovaries, and testes (see
 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM); the KIDNEYS are also sometimes included. The
 endocrine, or ductless, glands secrete the hormones they produce directly
 into the internal environment; transmitted via the bloodstream or by
 diffusion, the endocrine hormones act at distant points in the body.
 Some, such as thyroxine from the thyroid gland, affect nearly all body
 cells; others, such as PROGESTERONE from the female ovary, which
 regulates the uterine lining, affect only a single organ. The pituitary,
 sometimes called the master gland, secretes hormones that regulate many
 of the other endocrine glands. The regulation of body function depends on
 the existence of specific receptor cells in target organs-cells that
 respond in specialized ways to minute hormonal stimuli. The hormones act
 by regulating cell metabolism: By accelerating, slowing, or maintaining
 enzyme activity in receptor cells, they control growth and development,
 metabolic rate, sexual rhythms, and reproduction. The quantities of
 hormones are maintained by feedback mechanisms that depend on
 interactions between the endocrine glands, blood levels of hormones, and
 activities of the target organs. See HYPOTHALAMUS.

   endorphin

 endorphin, any of a group of proteins produced by the pituitary gland,
 affecting mood, perception of pain, memory retention, and learning.
 Chemically similar to opium-derived NARCOTICS, endorphins were searched
 for and found in the 1970s after the discovery that MORPHINE works by
 attaching itself to specific receptor sites in the brain. Endorphins also
 attach to these receptors and appear to be the brain's own natural
 "painkillers." It is thought that ACUPUNCTURE reduces pain, at least in
 part, by stimulating the body to produce endorphins.

   energy

 energy, in physics, the ability or capacity to do WORK. Forms of energy
 include HEAT, chemical energy, and, according to the theory of
 RELATIVITY, MASS (see NUCLEAR ENERGY); other forms of energy are
 associated with the transmission of LIGHT, SOUND, and ELECTRICITY. Energy
 and work are measured in the same units: joules, ergs, electron-volts,
 calories, foot-pounds, or some other, depending on the system of
 measurement being used. When a force acts on a body, the work performed
 (and the energy expended) is the product of the force and the distance
 over which it is exerted. Potential energy is the capacity for doing work
 that a body possesses because of its position or condition. For example,
 a weight lifted to a certain height has potential energy because of its
 position in earth's gravitational field. Kinetic energy, the energy a
 body possesses because it is in motion, is equal to 1/2mv2, where m is
 its mass and v is its velocity. The average kinetic energy of the atoms
 or molecules of a body is measured by the TEMPERATURE of the body. Energy
 (or its equivalent in mass) can be neither created nor destroyed (see
 CONSERVATION LAWS), but it can be changed from one form into another.

   energy, sources of

 energy, sources of. In contemporary usage, energy is whatever can be
 efficiently converted into heat or motion to provide power to run
 machines and vehicles and to supply heat and light. Energy sources are of
 two basic types, renewable and nonrenewable. Most of the industrial world
 is presently powered by nonrenewable fossil fuels-COAL, PETROLEUM, and
 NATURAL GAS-that, once used, cannot be replaced. Fission NUCLEAR REACTORS
 are fueled by uranium or plutonium, themselves finite energy sources.
 Spent uranium can be converted to fissile plutonium in a breeder reactor,
 however, a process that makes nuclear energy almost infinitely renewable.
 Nuclear technology, however, has not yet developed either failproof
 reactors or a safe method for disposing of nuclear wastes (see WASTE
 DISPOSAL). The development of nuclear fusion (whose end products are
 harmless) has so far been hindered by the difficulties of containing the
 fuels (plentiful light elements such as hydrogen) at the extremely high
 temperatures necessary to initiate and sustain fusion. Renewable energy
 sources include the energy from water and wind (see TURBINE; WATER WHEEL;
 WINDMILL); geothermal energy, the earth's internal heat that is released
 naturally in GEYSERS and VOLCANOES; tidal energy, the power released by
 the ebb and flow of the ocean's tides; biomass, the use of certain crops
 (including wood) or crop wastes either directly as fuel or as a
 fermentable source of fuels such as alcohol or methane (see GASOHOL); and
 SOLAR ENERGY, which can be stored and used directly as heat, or
 transformed into electricity through the use of PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS. All
 these renewable energy sources are presently being tapped in some form,
 but none can replace fossil fuels without huge advances in the
 technologies needed to exploit them.

   Energy, United States Department of

 Energy, United States Department of, federal executive department
 established (1977) to coordinate all national activities relating to the
 production, regulation, marketing, and conservation of energy. The
 department was created during the presidency of Jimmy CARTER to be
 responsible for the management of the nuclear-weapons production network.

   Enewetak, Enewetok

 Enewetak, Enewetok, or Eniwetok,circular atoll, central Pacific, in the
 MARSHALL ISLANDS, part of the U.S. Trust Territory of the PACIFIC
 ISLANDS. Consisting of c.40 islets surrounding a large lagoon c.50 mi (80
 km) in circumference, it was used (1948-54) by the U.S. for nuclear-bomb
 tests. Former residents, evacuated before the tests started, began
 returning in the early 1970s, and the island was declared free of
 residual radioactivity in 1980. Because of damage inflicted by the tests
 and continuing need for U.S. aid, residents requested (1981) that the UN
 trusteeship relationship with the U.S. be continued after the rest of the
 trust territory becomes independent in the 1980s.

   Engel, Marian

 Engel, Marian, 1933-, Canadian novelist. A major contemporary Canadian
 writer, Engel introduced elements of feminism into such works as No
 Clouds of Glory (1968), Bear (1976), The Glassy Sea (1979) and Lunatic
 Villas (1981).

   Engels, Friedrich

 Engels, Friedrich, 1820-95, German social philosopher and revolutionary;
 with Karl MARX, a founder of modern COMMUNISM and SOCIALISM. He was the
 son of a textile manufacturer, and after managing a factory in
 Manchester, England, he wrote his first major work, The Condition of the
 Working Class in England in 1844 (1845). In 1844 he met Marx in Paris,
 beginning a lifelong collaboration. He and Marx wrote the Communist
 Manifesto (1848) and other works that predicted the inevitable triumph of
 the working class. When the REVOLUTIONS OF 1848 failed, Engels settled in
 England. With Marx he helped found (1864) the International Workingmen's
 Association. Engels's financial aid enabled Marx to devote himself to
 writing Das Kapital (3 vol., 1867-94); after his death Engels edited vol.
 2 and 3 from Marx's drafts and notes. Engels had enormous influence on
 the theories of MARXISM and DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM. His major works
 include Anti-Duhring (1878) and The Origin of the Family, Private
 Property, and the State (1884).

   engine

 engine: see AUTOMOBILE; DIESEL ENGINE; INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE; STEAM
 ENGINE; TURBINE.

   engineering

 engineering, profession devoted to designing, constructing, and operating
 the structures, machines, and other devices of industry and everyday
 life. Before the INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, the field was confined to the
 military engineer, who built fortifications and weapons, and the civil
 engineer, who built bridges, harbors, aqueducts, buildings, and other
 structures. During the early 19th cent., mechanical engineering developed
 to design and build manufacturing machines and the engines to power them.
 Major modern engineering fields include the allied pursuits of mining,
 metallurgical, and petroleum engineering; electrical engineering,
 encompassing the generation and transmission of electric power and the
 design of all the devices that use it; electronics engineering, dealing
 mainly with computers and communications equipment; chemical engineering,
 dealing with the design, construction, and operation of plants and
 machinery for making such products as acids, dyes, drugs, plastics, and
 synthetic rubber; and aerospace engineering, comprising the design and
 production of aircraft, spacecraft, and missiles. Industrial, or
 management, engineering is concerned with efficient production and the
 design of methods and processes to achieve it.

   England

 England, largest (50,334 sq mi/130,365 sq km) and most populous (1981
 pop. 45,771,956) political division of the United Kingdom of Great
 Britain and Northern Ireland. Separated from the continent of Europe by
 the ENGLISH CHANNEL, the Strait of Dover, and the NORTH SEA, it is
 bounded by Wales and the Irish Sea (W) and Scotland (N). The Isle of
 WIGHT and the Scilly Islands are part of England. Inland from the white
 chalk cliffs of the southern coast lie gently rolling downs and wide
 plains. The lowlands of the east coast extend north to the reclaimed
 marsh of the FENS. Northern England, above the Humber R., is mountainous;
 the chief highlands are the Cumbrian Mts. and the Pennines, and the
 famous LAKE DISTRICT, in the Cumbrians, is the site of England's highest
 points. Central England-the Midlands-is a large plain, interrupted and
 bordered by hills. In the west and southwest the terrain is high and
 hilly. The THAMES and the Severn are the longest rivers. Among the
 principal cities are LONDON, the capital of the United Kingdom;
 BIRMINGHAM and MANCHESTER, both industrial centers; and LIVERPOOL and
 BRISTOL, important ports. Despite its northerly latitudes, England has a
 mild climate. Most of the region is subject to wet weather and some of it
 to severe cold, but in general life in England is conducive to a wide
 variety of agricultural and industrial pursuits. (For government,
 economy, and history of England, see GREAT BRITAIN.)

   England, Church of

 England, Church of, the established church in England and the mother
 church of the ANGLICAN COMMUNION. Christianity, brought by the Romans,
 was established in Britain by the 4th cent., but it was nearly destroyed
 by invasions of pagan Anglo-Saxons beginning in the 5th cent. The mission
 of St. AUGUSTINE OF CANTERBURY began (597) the reconversion of England
 and the reestablishment of its ties to the papacy. Conflicts between
 church and state during the Middle Ages culminated with HENRY VIII'S
 break with Rome. The pope's refusal to annul Henry's marriage to
 KATHARINE OF ARAGON led Henry to issue the Act of Supremacy (1534), which
 declared the king to be the head of the Church of England. Henry
 suppressed the monasteries and authorized the Great Bible (1539). Under
 Archbishop CRANMER the First BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER was produced and
 adopted (1549). MARY I returned the English church to communion with
 Rome, but with the accession of ELIZABETH I, an independent church was
 restored and steered along a middle ground between Roman Catholicism and
 Calvinism. During the ENGLISH CIVIL WAR the Long Parliament established
 (1646) PRESBYTERIANISM, but with the RESTORATION (1660), the episcopacy
 was restored and the Prayer Book was made the only legal service book by
 the Act of Uniformity (1662). Since that time, despite internal
 controversies, e.g., the OXFORD MOVEMENT, the church has held firm. The
 Archbishop of Canterbury is the chief leader (primate) of the church. In
 polity, the High Church party holds to ritual and apostolic succession
 and is contravened by the Low Church party, which emphasizes the Bible
 and preaching. Since 1981 women have been admitted to the diaconate.

   English Channel

 English Channel, arm of the Atlantic Ocean between France and Great
 Britain. Up to c.150 mi (240 km) wide in the west, it narrows to 21 mi
 (34 km) in the east, where it is connected to the North Sea by the Strait
 of Dover. Train and motor transport ferries, along with Hovercraft,
 provide regular channel crossings. Construction of a long-discussed
 tunnel crossing, begun in 1974, was suspended until 1993.

   English civil war

 English civil war, 1642-48, the conflict between CHARLES I of England and
 a large body of his subjects, generally called the "parliamentarians,"
 that culminated in the defeat and execution of the king and the
 establishment of a republican Commonwealth. The struggle has been called
 the Puritan Revolution because many of the king's opponents were
 Puritans, and the king's defeat was accompanied by the abolition of
 episcopacy. The more important constitutional issue in the war was
 between a king who claimed to rule by divine right and a Parliament that
 claimed the right to govern the nation independent of the crown.
 Charles's father, JAMES I, temporized with Parliament due to his need for
 money. Sir Edward COKE upheld Parliament's rights and was dismissed by
 the king; Sir Francis BACON upheld the royal prerogative and was
 impeached by Parliament. James's last Parliament granted money with
 specific directions for its use. Charles I proved more intractable.
 Parliament tried hard to limit his power; it refused his subsidy until he
 signed the PETITION OF RIGHT. Charles still levied forced taxes,
 dissolved Parliament, and governed alone for 11 years, but his financial
 needs in the BISHOPS' WARS forced him to recall Parliament in 1640.
 Parliament recited the evils of Charles's reign in the Grand Remonstrance
 and tried to gather an army with a militia bill. The king organized an
 army himself and refused Parliament's final 19 demands. War became
 inevitable, and both sides bid for popular support. Charles was aided by
 the nobles, Anglicans, and Catholics, Parliament by the trading and
 artisan classes and the Scotch COVENANTERS. After initial indecisive
 campaigns, the victories of Oliver CROMWELL at Marston Moor and Naseby
 led to the king's surrender in 1645 and the end of the first civil war.
 His escape caused the second civil war (1647); it failed quickly. Pride's
 Purge (see under PRIDE, THOMAS) expelled from Parliament all those
 opposed to the army. The remainder, known as the Rump Parliament,
 sentenced and beheaded Charles for treason (1649). A quasi-democratic
 commonwealth was followed by Cromwell's domination in the Protectorate.
 The English civil war assured the emergence of the middle class, aided
 religious toleration, and settled the contest between king and
 Parliament. Its results were permanently confirmed by the GLORIOUS
 REVOLUTION of 1688.

   English foxhound

 English foxhound: see FOXHOUND.

   English horn

 English horn: see WIND INSTRUMENT.

   English language

 English language, member of the West Germanic group of the Germanic
 subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See LANGUAGE .

   English setter

 English setter, large SPORTING DOG; shoulder height, c.25 in. (63.5 cm);
 weight, c.60 lb (27.2 kg). Its silky hair may be black, tan, and white;
 mixtures of lemon, liver, orange, blue, or black with white; or solid
 white. Developed in England as a hunting dog, it is commonly trained to
 point.

   English sheepdog

 English sheepdog: see OLD ENGLISH SHEEPDOG.

   English sparrow

 English sparrow or house sparrow,small BIRD (Passer domesticus) of the
 weaver bird family, found worldwide. They are 4 to 7 in. (10 to 18 cm)
 long, with short, stout bills. The male is brown with black streaks above
 and grayish white below; the female is dull brown above and brownish
 white below. Chiefly seedeaters, they also eat harmful insects.
 Introduced (1850) in the U.S. to combat cankerworms, they have replaced
 many native birds in urban areas.

   English units of measurement

 English units of measurement, principal system of a few nations, the only
 major industrial one being the United States. The English system actually
 consists of two related systems-the U.S. Customary System, used in the
 United States and dependencies, and the British Imperial System (see
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, ). Great Britain, the originator of the latter
 system, is now gradually converting to the METRIC SYSTEM. The names of
 the units and the relationships between them are generally the same in
 both systems, but the sizes of the units differ, sometimes considerably.
 The basic unit of length is the yard (yd); the basic unit of mass
 (weight) is the pound (lb). Within the English units of measurement there
 are three different systems of weights (avoirdupois, troy, and
 apothecaries'), of which the most widely used is the avoirdupois. The
 troy system (named for Troyes, France, where it is said to have
 originated) is used only for precious metals. Apothecaries' weights are
 based on troy weights; in addition to the pound, ounce, and grain-which
 are equal to the troy units of the same name-other units are the dram and
 the scruple. For liquid measure, or liquid capacity, the basic unit is
 the gallon. The U.S. gallon, or wine gallon, is 231 cubic inches (cu
 in.); the British imperial gallon is the volume of 10 lb of pure water at
 62 degF and is equal to 277.42 cu in. The British units of liquid
 capacity are thus about 20% larger than the corresponding American units.
 The U.S. bushel, or Winchester bushel, is 2,150.42 cu in. and is about 3%
 smaller than the British imperial bushel of 2,219.36 cu in.; a similar
 difference exists between U.S. and British subdivisions. The barrel is a
 unit for measuring the capacity of larger quantities and has various
 legal definitions depending on the substance being measured, the most
 common value being 105 dry quarts. Since the Mendenhall Order of 1893,
 the U.S. yard and pound and all units derived from them have been defined
 in terms of the metric units of length and mass, the meter (m) and the
 kilogram (kg); since 1959 these values are 1 yd=0.9144 m and 1
 lb=0.45359237 kg. In the United States, the older definition of the yard
 as 3,600/3,937 m is still used for surveying, the corresponding foot
 (1,200/3,937 m) being known as the survey foot. The English units of
 measurement have many drawbacks: the complexity of converting from one
 unit to another, the differences between American and British units, the
 use of the same name for different units (e.g., ounce for both weight and
 liquid capacity, quart and pint for both liquid and dry capacity), and
 the existence of the three different systems of weights.

   engraving

 engraving, INTAGLIO printing process in which the lines to be printed are
 cut into a metal (usually copper) plate with a graver, or burin. The
 earliest known engravings printed on paper date from the mid-15th cent.
 Early master engravers include DURER, SCHONGAUER, and LUCAS VAN LEYDEN.
 During the 19th cent., steel engraving, which can produce many prints,
 was used to produce reproductions; it was superseded by photomechanical
 processes.

   Eniwetok

 Eniwetok: see ENEWETAK.

   enkephalin

 enkephalin, one of several naturally occurring morphinelike substances
 (ENDORPHINS) in the brain.

   Enlightenment

 Enlightenment, term for the rationalist, liberal, humanitarian, and
 scientific trend of 18th-cent. Western thought; the period is also
 sometimes known as the Age of Reason. The enormous scientific and
 intellectual advancements made in the 17th cent. by the EMPIRICISM of
 Francis BACON and LOCKE, as well as by DESCARTES, SPINOZA, and others,
 fostered the belief in NATURAL LAW and universal order, promoted a
 scientific approach to political and social issues, and gave rise to a
 sense of human progress and belief in the state as its rational
 instrument. Representative of the Enlightenment are such thinkers as
 VOLTAIRE, J.J. ROUSSEAU, MONTESQUIEU, Adam SMITH, SWIFT, HUME
 , KANT, G.E. LESSING, BECCARIA, and, in America, Thomas PAINE, Thomas
 JEFFERSON, and Benjamin FRANKLIN. The social and political ideals they
 presented were enforced by "enlightened despots" such as Holy Roman
 Emperor JOSEPH II, CATHERINE II of Russia, and FREDERICK II of Prussia.
 DIDEROT'S Encyclopedie and the U.S. CONSTITUTION are representative




 Ennius, Quintus, 239-169? BC, Calabrian poet, regarded by the Romans as
 the father of Latin poetry. He introduced quantitative hexameter and the
 elegiac couplet. Though he wrote in many forms, his masterpiece is the
 epic Annales, a literary history of Rome.

   Enoch

 Enoch, in the BIBLE, father of METHUSELAH. It was said of him that he
 walked with God-a phrase also used of NOAH-and that like ELIJAH he was
 translated to heaven.

   Ensor, James Ensor, Baron

 Ensor, James Ensor, Baron, 1860-1949, Belgian painter and etcher.
 Containing bizarre and powerful imagery, his early work, such as the
 nightmarish Entry of Christ into Brussels (1888), was rejected as
 scandalous. He produced his most inventive and original works, with
 weird, often gruesome compositions, until about 1900. Among his
 masterpieces is The Temptation of St. Anthony (Mus. Mod. Art, N.Y.C.).
 His sources included the grotesque fantasies of BOSCH and BRUEGEL. Ensor
 was one of the great innovators of the 19th cent; his art opened the way
 for SURREALISM.

   entablature

 entablature, the entire unit of horizontal members above columns or
 pilasters in classical architecture. Its height in relation to that of
 the column varies with the three Greek orders: Doric, Ionic, and
 Corinthian. In Roman and Renaissance architecture it is about one fourth
 of the column height. Components are the architrave, which rests directly
 on the column cap, the frieze, and the cornice, or topmost member.

   Entebbe

 Entebbe, town (1980 pop. 20,472), S Uganda, on VICTORIA NYANZA (Lake
 Victoria), near KAMPALA. Founded in 1893, it was the administrative
 capital (1894-1962) of the British Uganda Protectorate. It is the site of
 a major international airport, where in 1976 Israeli airborne commandos
 staged a daring rescue of 91 passengers aboard a hijacked plane.

   Entente

 Entente: see TRIPLE ALLIANCE AND TRIPLE ENTENTE.

   entomology

 entomology, study of insects, an arthropod class comprising about 675,000
 known species, and representing about nine tenths of all classified
 animal species. Insects are studied for purely biological reasons, as
 well as for their role as crop pollinators; carriers of viral, bacterial,
 fungal, and protozoal diseases; parasites of man and livestock;
 destroyers of economically important plants; and predators of other
 destructive insects.

   entropy

 entropy, quantity specifying the amount of disorder or randomness in a
 system bearing energy or information. In THERMODYNAMICS, entropy
 indicates the degree to which a given quantity of thermal energy is
 available for doing useful work-the greater the entropy, the less
 available the energy. According to the second law of thermodynamics,
 during any process the change in entropy of a system and its surroundings
 is either zero or positive; thus the entropy of the universe as a whole
 tends towards a maximum. In INFORMATION THEORY entropy represents the
 "noise," or random errors, occurring in the transmission of signals or
 messages.

   environmental impact statement

 environmental impact statement, in the U.S., analysis of the impact that
 a proposed government program or ruling will have on the natural and
 social environment. The National Environmental Policy Act as well as many
 state and local laws enacted during the late 1960s and early 1970s
 mandate that these statements be completed before major development
 projects can begin.

   environmentalism

 environmentalism, movement to preserve the quality and continuity of life
 through CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES, prevention of POLLUTION, and
 control of land use. U.S. conservationists began working early in the
 1900s to establish state and NATIONAL PARKS, forests, and WILDLIFE
 REFUGES. In the decades following World War II, growing public concern
 about pollution problems, dwindling energy resources, and the dangers of
 pesticides and radiation gave rise to environmentalism-a new kind of
 conservationism embracing the broader concept of conserving the earth
 itself by protecting its capacity for self-renewal (see BIOSPHERE;
 ECOLOGY). The movement generated extensive legislation, notably laws
 regulating air quality, water quality, noise, pesticides, toxic
 substances, and ocean dumping; laws to protect ENDANGERED SPECIES and
 wilderness lands; and the National Environmental Protection Act (1970),
 creating the Environmental Protection Agency to develop and enforce
 federal standards. At the heart of the new laws was the requirement that
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENTs (assessments of the probable
 environmental consequences) be filed for all federally funded projects,
 and the empowering of private citizens to sue government and industry for
 failure to comply with governmental standards. Today numerous private
 organizations, such as the Sierra Club, the National Audubon Society,
 Friends of the Earth, and the Natural Resources Defense Council, continue
 to lobby and litigate to preserve and extend environmental safeguards in
 a changing political climate.

   Environmental Protection Agency

 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), independent U.S. agency in the
 executive branch of the government. It was established in 1970 to reduce
 and control air and water POLLUTION, NOISE POLLUTION, and RADIATION and
 to ensure safe handling and disposal of toxic substances (see WASTE
 DISPOSAL). The EPA engages in research, monitoring, and the setting and
 enforcement of national standards. It also issues statements on the
 impact of operations of other federal agencies that are found detrimental
 to environmental quality, and it supports the antipollution activities of
 states, municipalities, and public and private groups.

   Enzina, Juan del

 Enzina, Juan del: see ENCINA, JUAN DEL.

   enzyme

 enzyme, protein functioning as a biological CATALYST. Enzymes accelerate
 (often by several orders of magnitude) chemical reactions in the cell
 that would proceed imperceptibly or not at all in their absence. The
 enzyme is not permanently modified by its participation. Most enzymes
 demonstrate great specificity, reacting with only one or a small group of
 closely related chemical compounds; thus, sometimes several enzymes are
 required for efficient catalytic function. Some enzymes depend on the
 presence of COENZYMES for their function. For the enzyme to continue to
 be effective, its three-dimensional molecular structure must be
 maintained. X-ray crystallography is used to analyze the structure of
 enzymes. Over 1,000 different enzymes have been identified, and the exact
 sequence of AMINO ACIDS (subunits of a protein) has been determined for
 many proteins since 1967, when the first such determination was made. It
 is believed that enzymes function by attaching the substrate molecule to
 a specific molecular site, so that the electrostatic forces of nearby
 atoms sharply reduce the energy needed to cleave and re-form the
 appropriate chemical bonds.

   Eocene epoch

 Eocene epoch: see GEOLOGIC ERA .

   Eos

 Eos, in Greek mythology, goddess of dawn. Daughter of Hyperion and Theia,
 she was the sister of the sun god HELIOS, and the mother of the winds.
 The Romans called her Aurora.

   ephedrine

 ephedrine, mild, slow-acting drug used to treat moderate attacks of
 bronchial asthma and to relieve nasal congestion from hay fever or
 infection of the upper respiratory tract. Nonaddictive, ephedrine may
 cause insomnia and restlessness.

   ephemeris

 ephemeris, table listing the positions of one or more celestial bodies
 for each day of the year. Early national ephemerides include the French
 Connaissance des temps (begun 1679) and the British Nautical Almanac and
 Astronomical Ephemeris (begun 1767). Since 1958 the U.S. and Great
 Britain have jointly published solar, lunar, planetary, and satellite
 ephemerides in identical publications (the U.S. American Ephemeris and
 the British Astronomical Ephemeris).

   Ephesians

 Ephesians, EPISTLE of the NEW TESTAMENT, 10th book in the usual order,
 traditionally by St. PAUL (AD c.60). Some scholars believe the letter was
 intended as an encyclical. The most profound of the Pauline epistles, it
 is pervaded with the doctrine of the mystical body of Christ, Paul's
 analogy of the perfect union of Christians. It contains a famous metaphor
 of the Christian as soldier (6:10-17).

   Ephesus

 Ephesus, ancient Ionian Greek city of ASIA MINOR, in modern TURKEY. A
 wealthy seaport, it was captured in turn by Lydia, Persia, and Macedonia.
 It passed to Rome in 133 BC and was the leading city of the province of
 Asia. Its temple of Artemis (Diana) was one of the SEVEN WONDERS OF THE
 WORLD. Ephesus later became a center of Christianity and was visited by
 St. PAUL.

   Ephraim

 Ephraim: see ISRAEL, TRIBES OF.

   epic

 epic, long, narrative poem, usually on a serious, or exalted theme,
 centered on a heroic figure. Early epics, e.g., the Babylonian Gilgamesh,
 HOMER'S Iliad and Odyssey, and the Anglo-Saxon BEOWULF, were shaped from
 the legends of expanding nations. Literary epics, e.g., VERGIL'S Aeneid
 and John MILTON'S Paradise Lost, consciously imitate the earlier form.
 Epic conventions include a hero embodying national ideals, the
 performance of great deeds, the depiction of an era, divine intervention,
 and concern with eternal human problems. A mock epic is a satire based on
 an incongruous treatment of the trivial in epic terms, e.g., Alexander
 POPE'S Rape of the Lock.

   Epictetus

 Epictetus, AD c.50-c.138, Phrygian Stoic philosopher, once a slave. His
 STOICISM taught that the true good is within oneself and is not dependent
 on external things, and he emphasized the doctrine of brotherhood. His
 teachings, set down by his disciple Arrian in the Encheiridion and
 Discourses, influenced MARCUS AURELIUS.

   epic theater

 epic theater: see BRECHT, BERTOLT; PISCATOR, ERWIN.

   Epicurus

 Epicurus, 341-270 BC, Greek philosopher, founder and eponym of
 epicureanism. He defined philosophy as the art of making life happy and
 subordinated METAPHYSICS to ETHICS, naming pleasure the highest and only
 good. For Epicurus, however, pleasure was not the heedless indulgence
 advocated by the followers of HEDONISM, but rather the serenity
 (ataraxia) resulting from the absence of pain. He also prescribed a code
 of social conduct that advocated honesty, prudence, and justice in
 dealing with others (because such conduct would save the individual from
 society's retribution, or pain). Only fragments of his writings are
 extant; the finest exposition of his ideas is contained in On the Nature
 of Things by the Roman poet LUCRETIUS.

   epicycle

 epicycle: see PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM.

   Epidaurus

 Epidaurus, ancient city of GREECE, in the NE PELOPONNESUS. It was the
 site of the temple of ASCLEPIUS (4th cent. BC), renowned for its
 beautiful sculpture.

   epidemic

 epidemic: see EPIDEMIOLOGY.

   epidemiology

 epidemiology, field of medicine concerned with the study of epidemics,
 outbreaks of disease that affect large numbers of people.
 Epidemiologists, using sophisticated statistical analyses, field
 investigations, and complex laboratory techniques, investigate the cause
 of a disease, its distribution (geographic, ecological, and ethnic),
 method of spread, and measures for control and prevention.
 Epidemiological investigations once concentrated on such communicable
 diseases as TUBERCULOSIS, INFLUENZA, and CHOLERA, but now also encompass
 AIDS, CANCER, HEART DISEASE, and other diseases affecting large numbers
 of people.

   Epigoni

 Epigoni: see SEVEN AGAINST THEBES.

   epigram

 epigram, short, polished saying, usually in verse, often with a satirical
 or paradoxical twist. Established by MARTIAL, it is particularly
 associated with John DONNE, Alexander POPE, Lord BYRON, and S.T.
 COLERIDGE. Among the most brilliant epigrammatists was Oscar WILDE, whose
 works are studded with epigrams, e.g., "A cynic is a man who knows the
 price of everything, and the value of nothing."

   epilepsy

 epilepsy, disorder of the brain characterized by sudden, brief, localized
 seizures or by widespread convulsive seizures involving loss of
 consciousness and motor control. The development of epilepsy may be
 idiopathic (of unknown cause) or symptomatic (with the cause identified).
 Infantile epilepsy may result from developmental abnormalities, metabolic
 disease, or birth injury. In adults, causes of epilepsy include trauma,
 tumors, and organic brain disorders. Drug therapy includes the use of
 anticonvulsants such as phenytoin and phenobarbital.

   epinephrine

 epinephrine or adrenaline,hormone secreted by the medulla of the ADRENAL
 GLANDS. Strong emotions, such as fear and anger, produce an increase in
 heart rate, muscle strength, blood pressure, and glycogen metabolism,
 causing epinephrine to be released into the bloodstream and prolonging
 the acceleration of such bodily functions. See also CATECHOLAMINE.

   Epiphany

 Epiphany [Gr.,=showing], a prime Christian feast, celebrated Jan. 6; also
 called Twelfth Day or Little Christmas. It commemorates the baptism of
 Jesus, the visit of the Wise Men to Bethlehem, and the miracle of Cana.
 Its eve is Twelfth Night.

   epiphyte

 epiphyte or air plant,plant that grows not in the soil but on another
 plant, depending on it only for physical support; an epiphyte makes its
 own food, thus differing from a PARASITE. Epiphytes obtain moisture from
 the air or moisture-laden pockets of the host plant. Well-known examples
 are many ORCHIDS and BROMELIADS.

   Epirus

 Epirus, ancient country of W GREECE, on the Ionian Sea. It reached its
 height in the 3d cent. BC, under PYRRHUS. It sided with MACEDON against
 Rome, was sacked (167 BC), and passed under Roman rule. In AD 1204 the
 independent despotate of Epirus emerged, but the Turks took it over in
 the 15th cent. In the late 18th cent. ALI PASHA established an
 independent state in Epirus and Albania.

   Episcopal Church, Protestant

 Episcopal Church, Protestant, in the United States of America, a part of
 the ANGLICAN COMMUNION. Anglican (Church of England) services were first
 held in America at Jamestown, Va., in 1607, but after the American
 Revolution, it was necessary for American Anglicans to organize a
 national church. Samuel SEABURY was consecrated (1784) as the first
 bishop, and the first General Convention (1789) approved the name and
 constitution of the church and revised the BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER for use
 in America. The church follows the doctrinal lines of the Anglican
 Communion, although the Thirty-nine Articles have been modified to fit
 American conditions. Since 1976 its priesthood has been open to both men
 and women. In 1988 church membership was reported to be 2,504,507.

   epistemology

 epistemology, branch of philosophy dealing with the origin and nature of
 knowledge, a fundamental theme since the 17th cent. The rationalist view,
 led by DESCARTES, SPINOZA, LEIBNIZ, and others, sought to integrate a
 belief in the existence of certain innate ideas with an acceptance of the
 value of data received by experience. EMPIRICISM, expounded by HUME,
 LOCKE, and John Stuart MILL, denied the existence of innate ideas
 altogether, maintaining that all knowledge comes from human experience.
 KANT attempted to combine the two views. In later theories the split was
 reflected in IDEALISM and MATERIALISM. The empirical view has been
 central to PRAGMATISM, as taught by C.S. PEIRCE, William JAMES, and John


   epistle

 epistle, in the BIBLE, a letter of the NEW TESTAMENT. The Pauline
 Epistles (ascribed to St. PAUL) are ROMANS, First and Second CORINTHIANS,
 GALATIANS, EPHESIANS, PHILIPPIANS, COLOSSIANS, First and Second
 THESSALONIANS, First and Second TIMOTHY, TITUS, PHILEMON, and HEBREWS.
 JAMES, First and Second PETER, First, Second, and Third JOHN, and JUDE
 are traditionally called Catholic, or General, Epistles.

   Epsom salts

 Epsom salts, a water-soluble, bitter-tasting compound (MgSO4  7H2O) that
 occurs as white or colorless needle-shaped crystals. It is used as a
 medicinal purgative, in leather tanning, in mordant dyeing, and as a
 filler in cotton goods and paper. It is found in waters of mineral





 with RODIN in Paris, he revolted against the ornate and pretty in art,
 producing bold, often harsh and massive forms in stone and bronze. His
 best-known pieces include the Oscar Wilde Memorial (1911; Pere-Lachaise,
 Paris), a marble Venus (1917; Yale Univ., New Haven, Conn.), and a
 Madonna and Child (Convent of the Holy Child Jesus, London).

   Equal Employment Opportunity Commission

 Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), U.S. agency created
 (1964) to end discrimination in hiring based on race, color, religion,
 sex, or national origin and to promote equal employment opportunities. If
 its attempts at persuasion fail to remedy unlawful practices, it is
 empowered to bring suit against offenders in federal court.

   Equal Pay Act

 Equal Pay Act, U.S. law passed (1963) as an amendment to the WAGES AND
 HOURS ACT which prohibits discrimination based on sex that results in
 unequal pay for equal work.

   Equal Rights Amendment

 Equal Rights Amendment: see CIVIL RIGHTS; FEMINISM.

   equal-time rule

 equal-time rule, a FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION rule that requires
 equal air time for all major candidates competing for political office.
 It was preceded by the fairness doctrine that required radio and
 television broadcasters to air contrasting views on controversial public
 issues.

   equation

 equation, a statement, usually in symbols, that two quantities or
 mathematical expressions are equal, e.g., x + 3=6-y or sin2 ;gu=1-cos2
 ;gu. A numerical equation contains only numbers, e.g., 2 + 3=6-1; a
 literal equation contains some letters, representing unknowns or
 variables. An identity is an equation that is true no matter what value
 is substituted for the variables, such as x2-1=(x-1) (x + 1); a
 conditional equation is true for only certain substitutions, e.g., only
 the values +1 and -1 make true the equation x2-1=0. See also ALGEBRA;
 ROOT.

   equation of time

 equation of time: see SOLAR TIME.

   equator

 equator, imaginary great circle around the earth, equidistant from the
 two geographical poles and forming the base line from which LATITUDE is
 reckoned. Measuring c.24,000 mi (38,600 km), the equator intersects N
 South America, central Africa, and Indonesia. See also ASTRONOMICAL
 COORDINATE SYSTEMS.

   Equatorial Guinea

 Equatorial Guinea, officially Republic of Equatorial Guinea, republic
 (1987 est. pop. 384,000), 10,830 sq mi (28,051 sq km), W central Africa,
 formerly Spanish Guinea, comprising a mainland section, Rio Muni,
 bordered by Cameroon (N), Gabon (E and S), and the Gulf of Guinea (W);
 and several islands, the most important of which is Bioko (formerly
 Fernando Po), in the Gulf of Guinea. MALABO, on Bioko, is the capital.
 Rio Muni, with 93% of the nation's land and 75% of the population,
 comprises a low-lying coastal area that rises in the interior to c.3,600
 ft (1,100 m); forests of okoume, mahogany, and walnut grow along the
 coast. Bioko is made up of three extinct volcanoes, the loftiest of which
 rises to c.9,870 ft (3,010 m); the island has abundant fertile volcanic
 soil. The economy of Equatorial Guinea is almost exclusively
 agricultural, with cacao (from Bioko) and timber the principal cash
 crops. The population is black African, notably the Fang in Rio Muni and
 the Bubi on Bioko. Spanish is the official language, but most people
 speak a Bantu language. Traditional tribal religions and Roman
 Catholicism are both practiced.

 History The island now called Bioko was discovered by Fernao do Po, a
 Portuguese navigator, in 1472, but Portugal ceded it to Spain in 1778.
 Spain formally acquired Rio Muni in 1885. The boundaries of the
 possession were defined in a 1900 treaty, and Bioko and Rio Muni, as well
 as several other islands, were grouped together as Spanish Guinea. In
 1968 nationalist demands led to limited autonomy and then full
 independence (1973). The first president, Francisco Macias Nguema,
 imposed a brutal and despotic rule over the new nation; by the late 1970s
 thousands of refugees had fled the country, and the economy was virtually
 ruined. In 1979 a military coup overthrew Macias, who was executed. A new
 constitution was approved (1982) and Col. Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasoga
 was elected president.

   equilibrium

 equilibrium: see STATICS.

   equinox

 equinox, either of two points on the celestial sphere where the ECLIPTIC
 and the celestial equator intersect (see ASTRONOMICAL COORDINATE
 SYSTEMS). The vernal equinox is the point at which the sun appears to
 cross the celestial equator from south to north; the autumnal equinox,
 the point where it appears to cross from north to south. These crossings
 occur about March 21 and September 23 and mark the beginnings of Northern
 Hemisphere spring and autumn. On either date night and day are of equal
 length (12 hr each) in all parts of the world. The equinoxes are not
 fixed points, but move westward along the ecliptic (see PRECESSION OF THE
 EQUINOXES).

   Equisetophyta

 Equisetophyta, division of the plant kingdom consisting of the
 HORSETAILS.

   equity

 equity, body of legal principles and rules developed in the English Court
 of Chancery from the 15th cent., to correct injustices caused by the
 rigidity and formalism of COMMON LAW. It implies application of the
 standard of what seems naturally just and right rather than the strict
 rules of law. However, equity law gradually built its own rigid body of
 precedent, and today the distinction between equity and common law is
 much diminished.

   Er

 Er, chemical symbol of the element ERBIUM.

   era of good feelings

 era of good feelings, period (1817-23) in U.S. history after the decline
 of the FEDERALIST PARTY when there was little open party feeling. The
 term was coined during Pres. MONROE'S goodwill tour of the North. Under
 the surface, however, vast sectional issues and personal rivalries were
 developing, to break loose in the campaign of 1824.

   Erasistratus

 Erasistratus, fl. 3d cent. BC, Greek physician. Leader of a school of
 medicine in Alexandria, his works were influential until the 4th cent. AD
 He suggested that air carried from the lungs to the heart is converted
 into a vital spirit distributed by the arteries, and he also developed a
 reverse theory of circulation (veins to arteries). He studied brain
 convolutions, named the trachea, distinguished between motor and sensory
 nerves, and considered plethora (hyperemia) to be the primary cause of
 disease.

   Erasmus

 Erasmus or Desiderius Erasmus,1466?-1536, Dutch humanist. One of the
 great figures of the RENAISSANCE, he taught throughout Europe,
 influencing European letters profoundly from 1500. An ordained priest of
 the Roman Catholic Church, he edited the Latin and Greek classics and the
 writings of the Fathers of the Church, and made a Latin translation of
 the New Testament based on the original Greek. Among his original,
 satirical works, written in Latin, are In Praise of Folly (1509) and The
 Education of a Christian Prince (1515). He was intimate with most of the
 scholars of Europe; his English friends included Henry VIII and Thomas
 MORE. Erasmus combined vast learning with a fine style, keen humor,
 moderation, and tolerance. He championed church reform but opposed the
 Protestant Reformation and remained a loyal Catholic. As a result, he and
 Martin LUTHER became bitter opponents, and in On the Freedom of the Will
 he denounced Luther's position on predestination.

   Erastus, Thomas

 Erastus, Thomas, 1524-83, Swiss Protestant theologian, originally named
 Luber, Lieber, or Liebler. He opposed Calvinist doctrine and the punitive
 power of the church. The term Erastianism has come to represent approval
 of the dominance of civil authority in punitive matters and, by
 extension, complete dominance of state over church.

   Erato

 Erato: see MUSES.

   Eratosthenes

 Eratosthenes, c.275-c.195 BC, Greek scholar. The author of works on
 literature, mathematics, astronomy, geography, and philosophy, he devised
 a world map and a system of chronology and measured the earth's
 circumference and tilt and the size and distance from earth of the sun
 and moon.

   erbium

 erbium (Er), metallic element, discovered by Carl G. Mosander in 1843 in
 the mineral gadolinite. A silvery, malleable RARE-EARTH METAL, erbium is
 in the LANTHANIDE SERIES. The rose-colored oxide erbia is used as a
 coloring agent in glazes and glass. See ELEMENT ; PERIODIC TABLE.

   Ercilla y Zuniga, Alonso de

 Ercilla y Zuniga, Alonso de, 1533-94, Spanish poet. His La Araucana
 (1569-89), about the conquest of the Araucanian Indians of Chile (in
 which he took part), is the finest EPIC of the Spanish GOLDEN AGE.

   Erechtheum

 Erechtheum, temple on the Acropolis, Athens, a masterpiece of Greek
 architecture. Built between c.421 BC and 405 BC, it is sometimes ascribed
 to the architect MNESICLES. It contained sanctuaries to Athena, Poseidon,
 and the Athenian king Erechtheus. Of the Ionic order, the temple has
 three porticos; the southern one is the famous Porch of the Caryatids.

   Erenburg, Ilya Grigoryevich

 Erenburg, Ilya Grigoryevich: see EHRENBURG.

   erg

 erg: see WORK.

   ergot

 ergot, disease of rye and other cereals caused by a fungus (Claviceps
 purpurea), which appears on heads of rye as dark purple structures called
 ergots. The ergots, which resemble rye seeds, contain certain active
 substances (ALKALOIDS) that are poisonous-ergot poisoning was epidemic in
 the Middle Ages, for example, because bread was often made from
 ergot-contaminated rye. The ergots also contain alkaloids used as drugs:
 e.g., ergotamine to treat migraine headaches and ergonovine to stop
 postpartum uterine bleeding.

   Erhard, Ludwig

 Erhard, Ludwig, 1897-1977, West German political leader and economist,
 chancellor (1963-66). As economics minister (1949-57) he oversaw the
 resurgence of the West German economy. He succeeded ADENAUER as
 chancellor.

   Ericsson, Leif

 Ericsson, Leif: see LEIF ERICSSON.

   Eric the Red

 Eric the Red, fl. 10th cent., Norse chieftain; discoverer and colonizer
 of Greenland. He discovered Greenland c.982 and led (c.986) a group of
 500 colonists there, founding Brattah-lid. The colony may have lasted
 four or five centuries.

   Erie

 Erie, city (1986 est. pop. 115,270), seat of Erie co., NW Pa., on Lake
 Erie; inc. as a city 1851. Pennsylvania's only GREAT LAKES port, it is a
 shipping point for coal, iron, and other products. Its manufactures
 include machinery and plastics. Laid out in 1795 on the site of a French
 fort, it was the launching point of the American fleet in the battle of
 Lake Erie (1813), during the WAR OF 1812. There are several colleges in
 the city.

   Erie, Lake

 Erie, Lake, fourth largest (9,940 sq mi/25,745 sq km) of the GREAT LAKES,
 separating Canada (at Ontario) and the U.S. (at New York). It is 241 mi
 (388 km) long, 30-57 mi (48-92 km) wide, 572 ft (174 m) above sea level,
 and up to 210 ft (64 m) deep. Discharge of municipal and industrial
 wastes from lakeshore cities, although banned since 1972, has left much
 of the lake polluted. Lake Erie was discovered by JOLLIET in 1669.
 British and French and, later, British and Americans fought for its
 control in the 18th and 19th cent.

   Erie Canal

 Erie Canal, historic artificial waterway (opened 1825) between Lake Erie
 and the Hudson R., providing a link between the Atlantic Ocean and the
 Great Lakes. Its use declined after 1850, as traffic was diverted to the
 railroads. It was replaced (1918) by the larger New York State Barge
 Canal.

   Erikson, Erik

 Erikson, Erik, 1902-, Danish-American psychoanalyst; b. Germany. He
 became a MONTESSORI teacher in Vienna after 1927 and trained under
 Sigmund and Anna FREUD, specializing in child analysis. After emigrating
 to the U.S. (1933) he became engaged in varied clinical work, widening
 the scope of psychoanalytic theory to take greater account of social,
 cultural, and other environmental factors. In his most influential book,
 Childhood and Society (1950), he divided the human life cycle into eight
 psychosexual stages of development. His famous psychohistorical studies,
 Young Man Luther (1958) and Gandhi's Truth (1969), explore the
 convergence of personal and social history.

   Erinyes

 Erinyes: see FURIES.

   Eritrea

 Eritrea, province (1984 pop. 2,614,700), c.48,000 sq mi (124,320 sq km),
 N Ethiopia, on the Red Sea. ASMARA is the capital. Most of Eritrea is
 sparsely populated by pastoral nomads, but there is settled agriculture
 in valleys of the central plateau. Products include citrus fruits, cereal
 grains, and cotton. Part of an ancient Ethiopian kingdom until the 7th
 cent., Eritrea remained under Ethiopian influence until it fell to the
 Ottoman Turks in the mid-16th cent. It became an Italian colony in 1890
 and was the main base for the Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935-36); it
 was captured by the British in 1941. Since 1962, when it was annexed by
 Ethiopia, secessionist movements have sought to end the union. In the
 late 1970s Eritrean guerrillas held most of the province before Ethiopian
 forces, aided by the USSR and Cuba, regained control. However, renewed
 rebel activity has caused the Ethiopian government to suspend famine
 relief efforts in the region.

   ermine

 ermine, northern WEASEL species (Mustela erminea), called short-tailed
 weasel in North America and stoat in the Old World. Its highly-prized
 white winter fur is used for coats, wraps, and trimmings.

   Ernst, Max

 Ernst, Max, 1891-1976, German painter. A member of the DADA movement and
 a founder of SURREALISM, he developed several devices to express his
 fantastic vision. Some of his landscapes are dreamlike and whimsical,
 while other works reveal a satanic, allegorical imagination. Two Children
 Are Threatened by a Nightingale is in the Museum of Modern Art (N.Y.C.).

   Eros

 Eros, in Greek mythology, god of love in all its manifestations.
 According to some legends, he was one of the oldest of the gods, born
 from CHAOS but personifying harmony. In most stories he was the son of
 APHRODITE and ARES and was represented as a winged youth armed with bow
 and arrows. In Roman myth, under the name Cupid or Amor, he was the naked
 infant son and companion of VENUS.

   erosion

 erosion, general term for the processes by which the surface of the earth
 is constantly worn away, principally by the abrasive action of running
 water, waves, GLACIERS, and wind. Streams and ocean waves, for example,
 erode bedrock by their own impact or by the abrasive action of the debris
 they carry. Rock surfaces are eroded by glaciers moving over them or by
 wind driving sand and other particles against them. In the U.S. the
 washing away of farmland topsoil is a problem. Erosion is also caused by
 strip mining and the removal of vast areas of plant cover, e.g., by
 careless land developers. Some methods of preventing soil erosion are
 reforestation, terracing, and special plowing techniques.

   Erskine, Thomas, 1st Baron Erskine

 Erskine, Thomas, 1st Baron Erskine, 1750-1823, British jurist. Earlier a
 noted commercial lawyer, Erskine is best known as a defender of radicals
 at the time of the French Revolution. He defended Thomas PAINE'S
 publication of The Rights of Man against a charge of sedition.

   Ervin, Samuel James

 Ervin, Samuel James, 1896-1985, U.S. senator from North Carolina
 (1954-74); b. Morgantown, N.C. A distinguished jurist, he served
 (1948-54) on the North Carolina supreme court. As a Senate Democrat he
 favored a large defense establishment and opposed civil rights
 legislation. He later became a constitutional expert and a civil
 libertarian. He gained national attention (1973-74) as chairman of the
 Senate hearings that probed the WATERGATE AFFAIR.

   Erving, Julius

 Erving, Julius, 1950-, black American basketball player, nicknamed "Dr.
 J."; b. Roosevelt, N.Y. Playing for the Virginia Squires, the New York
 Nets (of the ABA) and the Philadelphia 76ers (of the NBA; 1976-87), he
 excelled as a shooter, rebounder, and ball-handler. He led the league in
 scoring (1973, 1974, 1976) and was named most valuable player three times
 (1974, 1975, 1981).

   Erzberger, Matthias

 Erzberger, Matthias, 1875-1921, German political leader. He headed the
 German delegation that signed the armistice at the end of World War I. He
 was vice chancellor and finance minister of the republican government
 formed in 1919, but he resigned after ruthless attacks by conservatives
 and reactionaries.

   Es

 Es, chemical symbol of the element EINSTEINIUM.

   Esaias

 Esaias, variant of ISAIAH.

   Esau

 Esau, in the BIBLE, son of ISAAC. He sold his birthright for pottage to
 his younger twin, JACOB, who also tricked him out of their father's
 blessing. Gen. 25-28. Also known as Edom, Esau was the ancestor of the
 Edomites, a tribe consistently hostile to the Jews.

   escape velocity

 escape velocity, the velocity that a body must be given in order to
 escape the gravitational hold of some other larger body, e.g., the earth,
 moon, or sun. Escape velocity depends on the mass of the larger body and
 the distance of the smaller body from its center. The escape velocity
 from the earth's surface is about 7 mi/sec (11.3 km/sec).

   escarole

 escarole: see CHICORY.

   Eschenbach, Wolfram von

 Eschenbach, Wolfram von: see WOLFRAM VON ESCHENBACH.

   Escher, Maurits Corneille

 Escher, Maurits Corneille, 1898-1970, Dutch artist. Primarily a graphic
 artist, he composed ironic works, often visual riddles that play with the
 pictorially logical and the visually impossible.

   Escorial

 Escorial or Escurial,monastery and palace, in central Spain, near Madrid.
 It was built (1563-84) by PHILIP II to commemorate a victory over the
 French. A somber, massive granite pile, it includes a monastery, church,
 palace, mausoleum, college, and library. Designed by Juan Bautista de
 Toledo and Juan de Herrera, it has a famous art collection.

   Esdraelon

 Esdraelon, plain, N Israel, c.200 sq mi (520 sq km), extending SE c.25 mi
 (40 km) between the coastal plain, near Mt. Carmel, and the Jordan R.
 valley. Once a swampy, malarial lowland, it has been drained and turned
 into one of Israel's most fertile and densely populated regions.
 Esdraelon is also called the plain of Jezreel or of Megiddo.

   Esdras

 Esdras, two pseudepigraphic texts included in the Western canon and the
 Septuagint but placed in the APOCRYPHA in the Authorized Version, where
 they are called First and Second Esdras. The Western canon calls EZRA and
 Nehemiah First and Second Esdras respectively, and the terms Third and
 Fourth Esdras are then used for the pseudepigraphic books. These are a
 series of apocalyptic visions and revelations to Ezra. Third Esdras
 antedates 100 BC; most critics date Fourth Esdras as a whole after AD
 100.

   Esenin, Sergei Aleksandrovich

 Esenin, Sergei Aleksandrovich: see YESENIN.

   Esfahan

 Esfahan or Isfahan,city (1986 pop. 1,001,248), central Iran, on the
 Zayandeh R. Esfahan has long been known for its fine carpets,
 hand-printed textiles, and metalwork. Noteworthy from SASSANID times, it
 reached the height of its glory under Persian Shah ABBAS I, who made it
 his capital in 1598 and embellished it with many fine buildings, e.g.,
 the beautiful imperial mosque, the Lutfullah mosque, and the royal
 palace. The city declined after its capture (1723) by the Afghans.

   Eshkol, Levi

 Eshkol, Levi, 1895-1969, Israeli statesman; b. Ukraine as Levi Shkolnik.
 A leader in the General Federation of Jewish Labor and the Mapai party,
 he served in David BEN-GURION'S cabinet as minister of finance from 1952
 to 1963, when he became prime minister. He led Israel in the Six-Day War
 (1967) and died in office. See also ARAB-ISRAELI WARS.

   esker

 esker, long (up to many miles), narrow, winding ridge of stratified
 sand-and-gravel DRIFT, deposited in the beds of streams flowing through
 or beneath GLACIERS. Eskers occur in Scandinavia, Ireland, Scotland, and
 New England.

   Eskimo

 Eskimo, Algonquian and European name for the Inuit, native inhabitants of
 the coast from the Bering Sea to Greenland and of the Chukchi Peninsula,
 in NE Siberia. They have remained largely of pure stock and, despite
 their wide dispersal, are extremely uniform in language (dialects of
 Eskimo-Aleut), physical type (Mongoloid), and culture. Probably of Asian
 origin, the Eskimo first appeared in Greenland in the 13th cent. Adapting
 to a severe environment, they get their food, clothing, oil, tools, and
 weapons from sea mammals. Fish and CARIBOU are also important. Summer
 shelters are tents of caribou or seal skins, while cold-weather shelters
 are built of sod, wood, or stone; the igloo, or snow hut, is seldom used.
 Travel is by dog sled or kayak. The Eskimo live in small bands, and
 almost all property is communal. Their religion has a rich mythology, and
 their art, which includes soapstone, ivory, and bone carvings, is
 skillfully rendered and well developed (see ESKIMO ART).

   Eskimo-Aleut

 Eskimo-Aleut, family of American Indian languages consisting of Aleut
 (spoken on the Aleutian Islands) and Eskimo (spoken in Alaska, Canada,
 Greenland, and Siberia). See AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES .

   Eskimo art

 Eskimo art. The art of the Eskimo peoples arose some 2,000 years ago in
 the Bering Sea area and in Canada. Traditional art consisted of small
 utilitarian objects, such as weapons and tools, as well as diminutive
 animals, carved and incised in walrus ivory, bone, and stone. The
 subjects of Eskimo art reflected their lives as hunters and fishermen as
 well as their extensive mythology. Carved and painted wooden masks of the
 19th cent. were used in various rituals. Modern Eskimo art dates from the
 late 1940s, when Canadians encouraged the development of art by native
 craftsmen working in traditional modes. Contemporary Eskimo art consists
 mainly of carved figures in smooth soapstone, ivory, and rough-surfaced
 whalebone, and lithographs printed with local stone that simplify and
 abstract the forms of the Eskimo hunters and their quarry.

   ESP

 ESP: see EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION.

   Esperanto

 Esperanto: see INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE.

   Espinel, Vicente Martinez

 Espinel, Vicente Martinez, 1550-1624, Spanish novelist, poet, and
 musician of the GOLDEN AGE. He helped popularize the guitar and may have
 added its fifth string. His major work is the picaresque,
 semiautobiographical novel History of the Life of the Squire Marcos of
 Obregon (1618), the source of much of LE SAGE'S Gil Blas.

   espionage

 espionage: see under INTELLIGENCE GATHERING.

   essay

 essay, relatively short literary composition in prose in which the writer
 discusses a topic or tries to persuade the reader to accept a point of
 view. PLUTARCH and CICERO, among classical authors, wrote essays, but the
 term was first used by MONTAIGNE (1580) and Francis BACON (1597), two of
 the greatest essayists. The informal essay is personal, conversational,
 relaxed, and, frequently, humorous. Charles LAMB, William HAZLITT, and
 Mark TWAIN are among its masters. The formal essay, as written by Joseph
 ADDISON, Matthew ARNOLD, John Stuart MILL, Walter Pater, and others, is
 dogmatic, systematic, and expository.

   Essen

 Essen, city (1986 est. pop. 617,700), North Rhine-Westphalia, W West
 Germany, on the Ruhr R. An industrial center of the RUHR district, it is
 the site of the KRUPP steel works and West Germany's chief producer of
 electricity. The city grew up around a 9th-cent. Benedictine convent and
 was a small imperial state until it passed (1802) to Prussia. Badly
 damaged during WORLD WAR II, it was rebuilt after 1945. Landmarks include
 the cathedral (9th-14th cent.).

   essential oils

 essential oils, volatile oils that occur in plants and in general give
 the plants their characteristic odors, flavors, or other such properties.
 Generally complex mixtures of organic compounds, they are used in
 perfumes, flavorings, and medicines. Among the plants notable for their
 essential oils are members of the following plant families: CARROT (e.g.,
 ANISE, DILL, angelica), GINGER (cardamom), LAUREL (CINNAMON, CAMPHOR
 ), MINT (peppermint, THYME), MYRTLE (CLOVE), and ORCHID
  (VANILLA). See also FATS AND OILS.

   Essex, Robert Devereux, 2d earl of

 Essex, Robert Devereux, 2d earl of, 1567-1601, English courtier. After
 distinguishing himself as a cavalry officer in the Netherlands (1585-86),
 serving under his stepfather, the earl of LEICESTER, he became a favorite
 of ELIZABETH I and a rival of Sir Walter RALEIGH. In 1590 he angered the
 queen by his secret marriage to the young widow of Sir Philip SIDNEY.
 Advised by Francis BACON, he entered politics, hoping to seize power from
 the aging Lord BURGHLEY


 Tyrone. On his return he was confined and later banned from court. He
 attempted a coup to establish his own party around the queen, but it
 failed and he was arrested. Elizabeth signed the warrant for his
 execution.

   Essex

 Essex, one of the kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England. Probably settled by
 Saxons in the early 6th cent., Essex eventually approximated in size the
 modern counties of Essex, London, and Hertfordshire. King Sabert of Essex
 accepted Christianity c.604, but the kingdom lapsed for a time into
 heathenism. Long dominated by MERCIA, Essex submitted (825) to WESSEX and
 became an earldom. It became part of the DANELAW in 886 but was retaken
 (917) by Edward the Elder of Wessex.

   estate tax

 estate tax: see INHERITANCE TAX.

   Estates-General

 Estates-General: see STATES-GENERAL.

   Este

 Este, Italian noble family, rulers of Ferrara (1240-1597) and of Modena
 (1288-1796), celebrated patrons of the arts. Azzo d'Este II, 896-1097,
 founded the family's greatness, and acquired Milan. His son, Guelph
 d'Este IV, d. 1101, founded the German line of GUELPHS. Among the Italian
 branch, Azzo d'Este VII, 1205-64, became (1240) chief magistrate of
 Ferrara. Obizzo d'Este II, d. 1293, was made perpetual lord of Ferrara
 (1264) and lord of Modena (1288). Beatrice d'Este, 1475-97, married
 Ludovico SFORZA; her sister Isabella d'Este, 1474-1539, was an important
 patron of Renaissance art. Alfonso d'Este I, 1476-1534, second husband of
 Lucrezia BORGIA (see BORGIA, family), fought for France in the Italian
 Wars (1494-1559). Pope JULIUS II declared (1510) his fiefs forfeited, but
 Alfonso aided Holy Roman Emperor CHARLES V against Pope CLEMENT VII, who
 was forced to recognize (1530) Alfonso's claims. His brother, Ippolito I,
 Cardinal d'Este, 1479-1520, was a patron of ARIOSTO. Alfonso's son,
 Ippolito II, Cardinal d'Este, 1509-72, built the Villa d'Este at Tivoli.
 In 1597 the direct male line died out, and Pope CLEMENT VIII annexed
 (1598) Ferrara to the papal states. Another branch ruled Modena until
 deposed (1796) by the French.

   Esterhazy

 Esterhazy, princely Hungarian family. Paul, Furst Esterhazy von Galantha,
 1635-1713, took part in the defense of Vienna (1683) and the reconquest
 of Hungary from the Turks. His grandson, Nikolaus Joseph, Furst Esterhazy
 von Galantha, 1714-90, made (1766) F.J. HAYDN chief musical director at
 Eisenstadt and built the celebrated Esterhazy palace there. His nephew,
 Nickolaus, Furst Esterhazy von Galantha, 1765-1833, was offered (1809)
 the crown of Hungary by NAPOLEON I, but refused it.

   Estes, Richard

 Estes, Richard, 1936-, American painter; b. Evanston, Ill. One of the
 best-known American exponents of PHOTOREALISM, Estes is noted for his
 city street scenes.

   Esther

 Esther, book of the OLD TESTAMENT, 17th in the Authorized Version. It is
 the story of the beautiful Jewish woman Esther (Hadassah), chosen as
 queen by the Persian king Ahasuerus after he has repudiated his previous
 wife, Vashti. Esther and her cousin Mordecai thwart the courtier Haman,
 who plots to massacre the Jews; Haman is hanged, and Mordecai becomes the
 king's chief minister. The feast of Purim (see JEWISH HOLIDAYS)
 celebrates this event. The historicity of the book is in question.

   Estienne, Etienne

 Estienne, Etienne, or, Latinized, Stephanus, family of Parisian and
 Genevan printers and scholars of the 16th and 17th cent. Henri Estienne,
 d. 1520, was established in Paris by 1502, and issued more than 100
 books. His son Robert Estienne, b. 1498 or 1503, d. 1559, devoted himself
 to printing scholarly works, classics, and critical editions of the
 Bible, many of which he edited. He was the French king FRANCIS I'S
 printer for Latin, Hebrew, and Greek. Claude GARAMOND and probably
 Geofroy TORY worked for him. A humanist, he was driven by attacks on him
 to Geneva, Switzerland, in 1550 and established a press there. His Latin
 dictionary (1531) and his grammatical treatises in French are major
 works. A brother, Charles Estienne, c.1504-1564, succeeded Robert at
 Paris (1551). Educated in medicine and the classics, he produced an early
 ENCYCLOPEDIA, and many other works. One of Robert's sons, the second
 Henri Estienne, 1531?-1598, the greatest scholar in the family,
 discovered, edited, and printed at Geneva numerous Greek and Latin works,
 including his Thesaurus Graecae Linguae (1572). He championed the use of
 French, notably in La Precellence du langage francois (1579). The
 Estienne family remained prominent as printers until late in the 17th
 cent.

   Estonia

 Estonia or Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic,constituent republic (1987
 est. pop. 1,600,000), 17,413 sq mi (45,100 sq km), W European USSR. It
 borders on the Baltic Sea (W); the gulfs of Riga and Finland (SW and N);
 Latvia (S); and the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic (E). The
 capital is TALLINN. Industrial products include shale oil and gas, paper,
 and fertilizer. Fishing, shipbuilding, and farming are important. In
 addition to the Estonian majority, there are Russian and other
 minorities. The Estonians, ethnically and linguistically close to the
 Finns, settled the region before the 1st cent. AD Between the 13th and
 18th cent. it was ruled by Denmark, the Livonian Knights, Sweden, and
 Russia. Independent after 1920, it was annexed by the USSR in 1940 and
 was under German occupation from 1941 to 1944.

   estrogen

 estrogen, any of a group of hormones synthesized by the reproductive
 organs and adrenal glands. Estrogens are important in the regulation of
 the female menstrual cycle (see MENSTRUATION).

   estuary

 estuary, partly enclosed coastal body of water, open to the ocean so that
 fresh and salt water are mixed. Estuaries are extremely sensitive and
 ecologically important habitats, providing waterfowl sanctuaries and
 breeding and feeding grounds for many desirable life forms. They are
 often excellent harbors, and most large U.S. ports are located in them.
 The human impact on estuaries (e.g., landfill, sewage pollution,
 industrial effluents) can destroy the very properties of the estuary that
 facilitated development of the region.

   etching

 etching, INTAGLIO process and the print produced from it. A metal plate,
 usually copper or zinc, is coated with a ground of acid-resistant resin
 or wax. The design is drawn on the ground with a needle, exposing the
 metal. Then the plate is submerged in acid, cutting into the exposed
 lines. The plate is removed frequently, and lines that are sufficiently
 deep are coated with varnish; others remain longer and produce darker,
 heavier lines when printed. In printing, varnish is removed and the plate
 is warmed, coated with ink, wiped so that ink remains only in the
 grooves, covered with moist paper, and run through a press. Artists often
 alter etching plates, and several states of a work may exist. The art of
 etching evolved from ENGRAVING; both apparently originated in Germany.
 Among the foremost etchers are DURER, CALLOT, REMBRANDT, TIEPOLO,
 PIRANESI, GOYA, and WHISTLER.

   Eteocles

 Eteocles: see SEVEN AGAINST THEBES.

   ethanol

 ethanol or ethyl alcohol(CH3CH2OH), a colorless liquid with
 characteristic odor and taste, commonly called grain alcohol or, simply,
 ALCOHOL. Ordinary ethanol is about 95% pure, the remaining 5% being
 water, which can only be removed with difficulty to give pure or absolute
 ethanol. Ethanol is the alcohol in beer, wine, and liquor, and can be
 made by the FERMENTATION of sugar or starch. Denatured alcohol, for
 industrial use, is ethanol with toxic additives. Ethanol is used as a
 solvent in the manufacture of varnishes and perfumes; as a preservative;
 in medicines; as a disinfectant; and as a fuel. Ethanol is a soporific;
 if its presence in the blood exceeds about 5%, death usually occurs.
 Behavioral changes, impairment of vision, or unconsciousness occur at
 lower concentrations. See ALCOHOLISM.

   Ethelfleda

 Ethelfleda: see AETHELFLED.

   ether

 ether or aether,in physics, a hypothetical medium for transmitting
 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION, filling all unoccupied space. The theory of
 RELATIVITY eliminated the need for such a medium, and the term is used
 only in a historical context.

   Etherege, Sir George

 Etherege, Sir George, 1634?-1691, English dramatist. His witty Comical
 Revenge; or, Love in a Tub (1664) and She Wou'd If She Cou'd (1668) set
 the tone for the RESTORATION comedy of manners.

   Ethical Culture movement

 Ethical Culture movement, originating in the Society for Ethical Culture,
 founded (1876) in N.Y.C. by Felix ADLER. It stresses the ethical factor
 in all relations of life, but insists on no definite ethical system. The
 society holds religious services, but members may have other religious
 affiliations. The movement spread (1887) to England. In 1896 the
 International Union of Ethical Societies was formed.

   ethics

 ethics, in philosophy, the study and evaluation of human conduct in the
 light of moral principles, which may be viewed as the individual's
 standard of conduct or as a body of social obligations and duties.
 Theories of conscience have ascribed the moral awareness of right and
 wrong to divine will; to an innate sense (e.g., J.J. ROUSSEAU); or to the
 set of values derived from individual experience (e.g., LOCKE and MILL).
 Idealists such as PLATO have contended that there is an absolute good to
 which human activities aspire. Moral codes have frequently been based on
 religious absolutes, but KANT'S categorical imperative attempted to set
 up an ethical criterion independent of theological consideration. The
 source of an ethical criterion has been variously equated with religion,
 the state (e.g., HEGEL and MARX), or the good of the individual or a
 group (as in the HEDONISM of EPICURUS; HOBBES; and the UTILITARIANISM of
 BENTHAM). Modern ethical theories include the instrumentalism of John
 DEWEY, for whom morality is relative to individual experience; and the
 intuitionism of G.E. MOORE, who postulated an immediate awareness of the
 morally good.

   Ethiopia

 Ethiopia, independent state (1988 est. pop. 48,264,570), 471,776 sq mi
 (1,221,900 sq km), NE Africa, formerly known as Abyssinia, bordered by
 the Red Sea (N), Djibouti (NE), Somalia (E and SE), Kenya (S), and Sudan
 (W). ADDIS ABABA (the capital) and ASMARA are the principal cities.
 Ethiopia may be divided into four geographic zones: from west to east
 they are the Ethiopian Plateau, a highland region including more than
 half the country and reaching a height of 15,158 ft (4,620 m) at Ras
 Dashan; the GREAT RIFT VALLEY, containing the Danakil Desert and several
 large lakes; the Somali Plateau, with heights of more than 14,000 ft
 (4,267 m) in the Urgoma Mts.; and the Ogaden Plateau, which is mostly
 desert. The Blue NILE (called the Abbai in Ethiopia) flows through the
 center of the Ethiopian Plateau from its source, Lake Tana, Ethiopia's
 largest lake. The economy is almost entirely agricultural, with most of
 the labor force engaged in subsistence farming. Coffee accounts for 60%
 of export earnings; other leading exports are oilseeds, hides and skins,
 and grain. Industry is limited to production of basic consumer needs.
 Some minerals are extracted on a small scale. The Muslim Galla, who
 constitute about 40% of the population, are the largest ethnic group, and
 there are significant numbers of Somali, but the Amhara and Tigrinya (33%
 combined), who are Coptic Christians, are politically dominant. Amharic
 is the official language, but English is widely spoken.

 History According to tradition, the kingdom of Ethiopia was founded (10th
 cent. BC) by Menelik I, Solomon's first son, supposedly by the Queen of
 Sheba. The first recorded kingdom, however, is that of Aksum (Axum),
 probably founded (1st cent. AD) by traders from S Arabia and converted to
 Coptic Christianity in the 4th cent. With the rise of Islam in the 7th
 cent., Aksum lost control of the Red Sea routes, and a period of chaos
 followed. Order was restored in the 13th cent., with the founding of a
 new Solomonic dynasty. However, a war to expel the encroaching Somali,
 while successful (1543), exhausted the nation, which for the next two
 centuries was beset by ruinous civil wars. Finally, in 1889, MENELIK II,
 supported by Italy, instituted a strong rule. Claiming that Menelik had
 agreed to the establishment of a protectorate, Italy invaded Ethiopia in
 1895 but was decisively defeated at Aduwa (1896). HAILE SELASSIE, who
 ascended the throne in 1930, faced a renewed Italian threat, which
 culminated in a full-scale invasion in 1935. Ethiopia remained occupied
 until 1941, when it was liberated by the British. In 1973 Haile Selassie
 was overthrown by military officers who proclaimed a socialist state and
 nationalized the economy. The military regime has experienced serious
 political and economic problems, particularly a secessionist movement in
 ERITREA, a territorial dispute with Somalia in OGADEN, and a drought that
 caused famine. It has depended on outside support from the USSR and its
 allies.

   Ethiopic

 Ethiopic, extinct language of Ethiopia belonging to the Semitic subfamily
 of the Hamito-Semitic family of languages. See AFRICAN LANGUAGES .

   ethnic studies

 ethnic studies, in U.S. education, courses of instruction in the history
 and culture of U.S. minority groups. As a result of the BLACK AMERICAN
 protests of the 1960s, courses in areas such as black history and
 literature were added to the curricula of educational institutions. Other
 ethnic minorities, especially CHICANOS and other HISPANIC AMERICANS, have
 obtained similar course offerings, but to a lesser extent.

   ethnocentrism

 ethnocentrism, the feeling that a group's mode of living, values, and
 patterns of adaptation are superior to those of other groups. It may
 manifest itself in attitudes of superiority or hostility toward members
 of other groups and is sometimes expressed in discrimination,
 proselytizing, or violence.

   ethnology

 ethnology, scientific study of the origin and functioning of humans and
 their cultures, usually considered a branch of cultural ANTHROPOLOGY. In
 the 19th cent. historical ethnology attempted to explain extant cultures
 by examining their early development. In the 20th cent. the comparative
 study of cultures has predominated.

   ethology

 ethology, study of animal behavior, especially its physiological,
 ecological, and evolutionary aspects. Originally, an organism's actions
 were classified as either instinctive behavior (actions not influenced by
 the animal's previous experiences, e.g., common reflexes) or learned
 behavior (actions dependent on earlier experiences, e.g., problem
 solving). Current emphasis is on the interaction between environmental
 and genetically determined responses, particularly during early
 development.

   ethyl alcohol

 ethyl alcohol: see ETHANOL.

   ethyne

 ethyne: see ACETYLENE.

   Etna

 Etna or Aetna,frequently active volcano, 10,958 ft (3,340 m), the highest
 in Europe, on the east coast of Sicily, S Italy. Snowcapped for much of
 the year, the volcano constantly threatens a densely populated
 agricultural area at its base. It last erupted in 1986.

   Etoile, Place de l'

 Etoile, Place de l': see ARC DE TRIOMPHE DE L'ETOILE.

   Eton

 Eton, town, Berkshire, central England, on the Thames R. It is known
 chiefly for Eton College (est. 1440), the largest and most famous of the
 English public schools.

   Etruria

 Etruria, ancient country, W Italy, now Tuscany and W Umbria. It was the
 center of ETRUSCAN CIVILIZATION.

   Etruscan art

 Etruscan art, the art of ETRURIA, which, by the 8th cent. BC, spanned the
 area in Italy from Salerno to the Tiber R. The bronze and clay sculptures
 and carvings owe much to Greek sources but have a skillful, naturalistic
 character of their own. Sepulchral art was highly developed in centers
 such as Caere (Cerveteri) and Veii (Veio), as were portrait sculpture and
 FRESCO depictions of banquets and GENRE scenes. ROMAN ART absorbed the
 Etruscan by the 1st cent. BC

   Etruscan civilization

 Etruscan civilization, highest civilization in Italy before the rise of
 Rome. Modern research tends to uphold the tradition of HERODOTUS that the
 Etruscans migrated to Italy from Lydia in Asia Minor in the 12th cent. BC
 A distinctive Etruscan culture evolved about the 8th cent. BC, developed
 rapidly during the 7th cent., achieved its peak of power and wealth
 during the 6th cent., and declined during the 5th and 4th cent. Etruria
 comprised a loose confederation of city-states, including Clusium (now
 Chiusi), Tarquinii (Tarquinia), Veii (Veio), Volterra, and Perusia
 (Perugia). The Estruscans' wealth and power were in part based upon their
 knowledge of metalworking. They also made fine pottery. The Etruscan
 language cannot be classified into any known group of languages.

   etymology

 etymology, branch of linguistics that investigates the origin and
 development of words. This study revealed the regular relations of sound
 in the Indo-European languages (as described in GRIMM'S LAW), and led to
 the historical study of language in the 19th cent. Modern linguists are
 particularly interested in investigating the meaning of a form within the
 specific context of a given time and place. The term etymology has been
 replaced by derivation for the creation of combinations used in a
 language, such as new nouns formed with the ending -ness.

   Eu

 Eu, chemical symbol of the element EUROPIUM.

   Euboea

 Euboea: see EVVOIA.

   eucalyptus

 eucalyptus, evergreen shrubs or trees (genus Eucalyptus) of the MYRTLE
 family, a characteristic component of Australian flora. Also called
 ironbark, bloodwood, and gum tree, it is the sole food source of the
 KOALA and is valued for its timber and ESSENTIAL OILS. Several eucalyptus
 species are among the tallest trees known; E. amygdalina regnans reaches
 a height of over 300 ft (91 m).

   Eucharist

 Eucharist: see COMMUNION.

   Euclid

 Euclid, fl. 300 BC, Greek mathematician whose treatment of elementary
 plane GEOMETRY serves as the basis for most beginning courses on the
 subject. His great contribution was the use of a deductive system of
 proof in his Elements, a presentation of the mathematics of his day in 13
 books. Studies of his work in the 19th cent. gave rise to several types
 of NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY.

   Euclidean geometry

 Euclidean geometry, set of propositions in geometry that can be derived
 by rigorous logical steps from the five postulates stated by EUCLID in
 his Elements. The first three postulates state that it is possible (1) to
 draw a straight line from any point to any point, (2) to produce a finite
 straight line continuously in a straight line, and (3) to describe a
 circle with any center and radius. The fourth postulate states that "All
 right angles are equal to one another," and the fifth posits that "If a
 straight line falling on two straight lines makes the interior angles on
 the same side less than two right angles, the two straight lines, if
 produced indefinitely, will meet on that side on which are the angles
 less than two right angles." A NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY replaces the fifth
 postulate with either of two alternative postulates.

   Eudoxus of Cnidus

 Eudoxus of Cnidus, 408?-355? BC, Greek astronomer, mathematician, and
 physician. He was the first Greek astronomer to explain the movements of
 the planets scientifically, holding that a number of concentric spheres
 supported the planets in their paths. It is claimed that he calculated
 the length of the solar year, indicating a calendar reform similar to
 that made later by Julius CAESAR, and that he was the discoverer of parts
 of geometry included in EUCLID'S work.

   Eugene III

 Eugene III, d. 1153, pope (1145-53), a Pisan named Bernard. He was driven
 (1146) from Rome by the agitation of Arnold of Brescia and the
 republicans. Eugene was a friend of BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX and promoted the
 disastrous Second CRUSADE.

   Eugene IV

 Eugene IV, 1383-1447, pope (1431-47), a Venetian named Gabriele
 Condulmer. Eugene at first opposed the Council of BASEL, but after being
 driven by rebellion from Rome to Florence (1434), he became conciliatory.
 He removed (1437) the council to Ferrara, where it proclaimed (1439) the
 reunion of the Eastern and Western churches (see COUNCIL, ECUMENICAL).

   Eugene

 Eugene, city (1986 est. pop. 105,410), seat of Lane co., W Oreg., on the
 Willamette R.; inc. 1862. Located in a farming area, it has large lumber
 and food-processing industries. Tourism and convention business are
 important. The Univ. of Oregon is central to the city's cultural and
 recreational life.

   Eugene of Savoy

 Eugene of Savoy, 1663-1736, prince of the house of Savoy and general in
 the service of the Holy Roman Empire. He is regarded as one of the great
 military commanders of the modern age. He was a leading participant in
 the War of the SPANISH SUCCESSION, and he and the duke of MARLBOROUGH won
 the great battle of Blenheim (1704). He also fought the Turks and for
 Austria in the War of the POLISH SUCCESSION.

   eugenics

 eugenics, study of methods to improve inherited human characteristics. It
 is directed chiefly at discouraging propagation among the unfit and
 encouraging it in the fit, although there are many difficulties in
 defining which traits are most desirable.

   Eugenie

 Eugenie, 1826-1920, empress of the French (1853-70), consort of NAPOLEON
 III. A Spanish noblewoman of great beauty, she married the emperor in
 1853 and took an active part in government. After Napoleon III's
 deposition (1870) during the FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR, she fled to England.

   Euglenophyta

 Euglenophyta, small division of the plant kingdom consisting of
 photosynthetic, aquatic organisms. Most are unicellular; many have
 flagella and are motile. They resemble plants in that they have
 CHLOROPLASTS, but they also have gullets and lack cell walls, like
 animals. The most characteristic genus is Euglena, common in ponds and
 pools.

   Eulenspiegel, Till

 Eulenspiegel, Till, a north German peasant clown of the 14th cent.,
 immortalized in chapbooks describing his practical jokes. He is
 celebrated in Richard STRAUSS'S tone poem and in stories and verse
 throughout Europe.

   Euler, Leonhard

 Euler, Leonhard, 1707-83, Swiss mathematician. The most prolific
 mathematician who ever lived, he worked at the St. Petersburg Academy of
 Sciences, Russia (1727-41, 1766-83), and at the Berlin Academy (1741-66).
 He contributed to areas of both pure and applied mathematics, including
 calculus, analysis, number theory, topology, algebra, geometry,
 trigonometry, analytical mechanics, hydrodynamics, and the theory of the
 moon's motion.

   euphorbia

 euphorbia: see SPURGE.

   Euphrates

 Euphrates, major river of arid SW Asia, formed by the confluence of the
 Kara and Murad rivers in E Turkey. It flows generally south, then
 southeast for c.1,700 mi (2,740 km) through deep canyons and narrow
 gorges in its upper course to a wide flood plain in Syria and Iraq. At
 BASRA the river joins with the TIGRIS R. to form the SHATT AL ARAB, which
 enters the PERSIAN GULF. An important source of irrigation for modern
 Syria and Iraq, the Euphrates contributed significantly to the
 development of many great civilizations in ancient MESOPOTAMIA.

   euphuism

 euphuism, an elaborate, artificial English prose style, derived from John
 LYLY'S Euphues, that flourished in the 1580s. The term now means
 preciosity.

   Eurasia

 Eurasia, name of the great land mass that comprises the continents of
 EUROPE and ASIA.

   Euric

 Euric, d. c.484, king of the VISIGOTHS (466-c.484). He conquered the
 Iberian peninsula and S Gaul, made Toulouse his capital, and codified
 (475) Visigothic law.

   Euripides

 Euripides, b. 480 or 485 BC, d. 406 BC, major Greek tragic poet. He wrote
 perhaps 92 plays, of which 19 are extant, including Alcestis, Medea,
 Hippolytus, Andromache, the Trojan Women, Iphigenia in Tauris, the
 Phoenician Women, Orestes, Iphigenia in Aulis, and the Bacchae. More
 realistic than AESCHYLUS or SOPHOCLES and rationalistic and iconoclastic
 toward the gods, he was interested in less-than-heroic characters. He
 resorted often to the device of the deus ex machina (god out of a
 machine) to resolve his plots. See also TRAGEDY.

   Europa

 Europa, in astronomy, natural satellite of JUPITER.

   Europe

 Europe, 6th largest continent, c.4,000,000 sq mi (10,360,000 sq km)
 including adjacent islands (1980 est. pop. 686,000,000). Actually a vast
 peninsula of the Eurasian landmass, it is conventionally separated from
 Asia by the URALS and Ural R. (E); the CASPIAN SEA and CAUCASUS (SE); and
 the BLACK SEA, BOSPORUS and DARDANELLES straits, and the Sea of Marmara
 (S). The MEDITERRANEAN SEA and Strait of GIBRALTAR separate it from
 Africa. The huge, young Alpine mountain chain, which includes the
 PYRENEES, ALPS, APENNINES, CARPATHIANS, and Caucasus, traverses the
 continent from west to east. MONT BLANC (15,771 ft/4,807 m) in the Alps
 and Mt. ELBRUS (18,481 ft/ 5,633 m) in the Caucasus are the highest
 points. The fertile European plain stretches from the Atlantic coast of

 and northwest, dry in summer (Mediterranean type) in the south, and humid
 with cool summers in the east. Except for the north, Europe is densely
 populated. The countries of Europe are Albania, Andorra, Austria,
 Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Finland, France, East
 Germany, West Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, the Republic of Ireland,
 Italy, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Monaco, the Netherlands, Norway,
 Poland, Portugal, Rumania, San Marino, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland,
 European Turkey, the United Kingdom (Great Britain and Northern Ireland),
 the European USSR, Vatican City, and Yugoslavia (see separate articles).
 LONDON, MOSCOW, and PARIS are the largest cities. See map of Europe in
 separate section.

   European Atomic Energy Community

 European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM), economic organization
 established in 1958 as the 3d member of the EUROPEAN COMMUNITY. Its
 members are pledged to the common development of Europe's nuclear energy
 resources through coordination of their nuclear research and development
 programs. EURATOM is vested with wide powers, e.g., to obtain raw
 materials and set safety standards. It operates nuclear reactors and
 research centers at Culham (England), Ispra (Italy), Geel (Belgium),
 Petten (the Netherlands), and Karlsruhe (West Germany).

   European Coal and Steel Community

 European Coal and Steel Community: see EUROPEAN COMMUNITY.

   European Community

 European Community, the collective name given to the consolidation (1967)
 of three supranational groups: the European Coal and Steel Community (or
 Schuman Plan), established (1952) when six nations pooled their coal and
 steel resources to create unified products and labor markets; the COMMON
 MARKET (or European Economic Community, est. 1958); and the European
 Atomic Energy Community, or Euratom (est. 1958), pledged to the common
 development of Europe's nuclear resources. The European Community grew
 out the efforts of such statesmen as Jean MONNET and Robert SCHUMAN of
 France and Paul Henri SPAAK of Belgium, who envisioned a unified Europe.
 It consists of a Council of Ministers of its member nations, an Executive
 Commission, a European Parliament (whose members were directly elected by
 voters in the member states for the first time in 1979), and a Court of
 Justice.

   European Economic Community

 European Economic Community: see COMMON MARKET.

   European Free Trade Association

 European Free Trade Association (EFTA), a customs union and trading bloc
 formed (1960) by Austria, Denmark, Britain, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, and
 Switzerland to promote free trade among members and seek broader economic
 integration of Europe. Iceland joined EFTA in 1971; Britain and Denmark
 left in 1973 to join the EUROPEAN COMMUNITY.

   European Monetary System

 European Monetary System (EMS), arrangement by which eight EUROPEAN
 COMMUNITY nations (Belgium, Denmark, France, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg,
 the Netherlands, and West Germany) link their currencies to prevent large
 fluctuations relative to one another. It was organized in 1979 as a means
 of stabilizing foreign exchange and countering the varying rates of
 inflation among members. Periodic adjustments raise the values of strong
 currencies while lowering those of weaker ones, thereby affecting the
 prices of imports and exports.

   European Organization for Nuclear Research

 European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), principal European
 center (est. 1954) for research in particle physics. Twelve European
 countries sponsor the center, which straddles the Franco-Swiss border W
 of Geneva.

   European Recovery Program

 European Recovery Program: see MARSHALL PLAN.

   European Space Agency

 European Space Agency (ESA), multinational agency formed in 1975 through
 the merger of the European Space Research Organization (ESRO) and the
 European Launcher Development Organization (ELDO). The financial
 contribution of each of the member countries is determined by the
 projects it wishes to support. Major programs include the development of
 the Ariane rocket, the Spacelab scientific workshop (see SPACE
 EXPLORATION, ) carried into orbit by the space shuttle, and the SPACE
 PROBE Giotto that flew by Halley's comet in 1985. The agency placed
 (1983, 1989) two European Communications Satellites in orbit.

   europium

 europium (Eu), metallic element, purified by Eugene Demar cay in 1901. A
 silvery-white RARE-EARTH METAL, it has physical properties like those of
 other LANTHANIDE SERIES members, but its chemical properties resemble
 those of calcium. Europium is used in nuclear-reactor control rods. See
 ELEMENT ; PERIODIC TABLE.

   Eurydice

 Eurydice: see ORPHEUS.

   Euterpe

 Euterpe: see MUSES.

   euthanasia

 euthanasia, either painlessly putting to DEATH (positive euthanasia) or
 failing to postpone death from natural causes (negative euthanasia) in
 cases of terminal illness. The term negative euthanasia has come to mean
 withdrawal of extraordinary means (e.g., intravenous feeding,
 respirators, and artificial kidney machines) used to preserve life.
 Positive euthanasia is illegal in the U.S., but physicians may lawfully
 refuse to prolong life when there is extreme suffering. Debate centers
 around whether measures used to keep the terminally ill alive are
 routine, and justifiable, or extraordinary. Those seeking to legalize
 positive euthanasia assert that a patient has a right to decide to refuse
 treatment even though that may result in death. The problem of
 incapacitation can be solved, it is held, by a living will, in which a
 person expresses, in writing, preferences concerning medical treatment
 and death.

   eutrophication

 eutrophication, aging of a lake or slow-moving stream by biological
 enrichment of its water. In a young lake, the water is cold and clear,
 supporting little life. With time, plant and animal life burgeon, and
 organic remains begin to be deposited. As the lake grows shallower and
 warmer, marsh plants take root and begin to fill in the basin. Eventually
 the lake gives way to bog, finally becoming dry land. The natural aging
 of a lake may span thousands of years. However, wastes from human
 activities can accelerate the aging process, as with water POLLUTION. The
 prime pollutants are nitrates and phosphates, which greatly stimulate the
 growth of algae, producing a pungent surface scum. Decomposition of dead
 algae reduces the water's dissolved oxygen content, adversely affecting
 fish and other aquatic life forms typical of a mature lake.

   Eutyches

 Eutyches, c.378-c.452, archimandrite in CONSTANTINOPLE, sponsor of
 Eutychianism (the first phase of MONOPHYSITISM) and leader of the
 opponents of NESTORIANISM. He taught that Christ's humanity was absorbed
 in his one divine nature. Eutyches was deposed (448), but was reinstated
 (449) by the Robber Synod at Ephesus. The Council of CHALCEDON (1451)
 ended Eutychianism.

   Evangelical Alliance

 Evangelical Alliance, an association of individual Evangelical Christians
 of many denominations and countries, founded (1846) in London. In the
 U.S. the association was superseded (1950) by the NATIONAL COUNCIL OF
 CHURCHES OF CHRIST IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

   Evangelical United Brethren Church

 Evangelical United Brethren Church, Protestant denomination created
 (1946) by the union of the Evangelical Church and the United Brethren in
 Christ. Both bodies grew from evangelistic efforts, the former from the
 work of Jacob Albright (1807), the latter from the efforts of P.W.
 OTTERBEIN and Martin Boehm (1800). The church had an episcopal government
 and stressed prayer, devotion to Christ, and individual responsibility.
 In 1967 it became a part of the United Methodist Church.

   evangelist

 evangelist [from Gr.,=Gospel], title given to saints MATTHEW, MARK, LUKE,
 and JOHN. The title is now applied to Protestant preachers who preach
 personal conversion. Notable examples are John WESLEY, George WHITEFIELD,
 George FOX, Dwight Moody, and Billy GRAHAM.

   Evans, Sir Arthur John

 Evans, Sir Arthur John, 1851-1941, English archaeologist. Keeper
 (1884-1908) of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, he excavated at CNOSSUS and
 uncovered remains of an ancient Cretan culture, which he called MINOAN.
 His writings include The Mycenaean Tree and Pillar Cult (1901) and The
 Palace of Minos (4 vol., 1921-35).

   Evans, Mary Ann

 Evans, Mary Ann or Marian:see ELIOT, GEORGE.

   Evans, Oliver

 Evans, Oliver, 1775-1819, American inventor; b. near Newport, Del. Evans
 developed and patented a number of grain-handling machines, including an
 elevator and a conveyor system, that later became standard equipment in
 U.S. mills. He pioneered the design of high-pressure steam engines. In
 1804 he built the first land vehicle in the U.S. that moved under its own
 power, an engine-equipped dredge.

   Evans, Walker

 Evans, Walker, 1903-75, American photographer; b. St. Louis. He is noted
 for his studies of the rural South during the Great Depression. Many of
 his photographs of tenant farmers appeared in the book Let Us Now Praise
 Famous Men (1941), written by James AGEE.

   Evans-Pritchard, Edward Evan

 Evans-Pritchard, Edward Evan, 1902-73, English social anthropologist. A
 specialist on Africa, he wrote The Nuer (1940), a classic of ethnography,
 and Theories of Primitive Religion (1965).

   Evansville

 Evansville, city (1986 est. pop. 129,480), seat of Vanderburgh co., SW
 Ind., a port on the Ohio R.; inc. 1819. Commercial center for a coal,
 oil, and farm region, the city manufactures refrigeration and
 air-conditioning equipment, machinery, metal products, and
 pharmaceuticals. The Univ. of Evansville and several other colleges are
 located there. Cultural institutions include a museum of arts and
 sciences and a philharmonic orchestra.

   evaporation

 evaporation: see STATES OF MATTER.

   Evatt, Herbert Vere

 Evatt, Herbert Vere, 1894-1965, Australian statesman. After serving
 (1930-40) as justice of the high court of Australia, Evatt, a Labour
 party member, was (1941-49) attorney general and foreign minister. He was
 president (1948-49) of the U.N. General Assembly.

   Eve

 Eve, in the BIBLE, the first woman, wife of ADAM, mother of CAIN, ABEL
 , and Seth. Led by the serpent to eat of the forbidden tree of knowledge,
 Eve tempted Adam to eat of the tree also. As punishment, they were
 banished from the Garden of EDEN. Gen. 2-4.

   Evelyn, John

 Evelyn, John, 1620-1706, English diarist and author. A founder of the
 ROYAL SOCIETY (1660), he wrote on reforestation, natural science, art
 history, and numismatics. He is best known for his lifelong DIARY (pub.
 1818), full of historical information on 17th-cent. England.

   evening primrose

 evening primrose, common name for a plant of the Onagraceae family,
 distributed worldwide. More specifically, it refers to a yellow,
 evening-flowering annual or biennial of the genus Oenothera, grown in the
 temperate New World. The family also includes the FUCHSIA.

   evening star

 evening star, a common term for a bright planet, not a star, usually
 Venus, appearing in the western sky soon after sunset. In ancient times
 Venus was called Hesperus (Greek) or Vesper (Roman) when it was seen as
 the evening star.

   Everest, Mount

 Everest, Mount, 29,028 ft (8,848 m) high, highest mountain in the world,
 located in the central HIMALAYAS, on the Tibet-Nepal border. Named for
 Sir George Everest, the surveyor of the Himalayas, it was first climbed
 in 1953 by Sir Edmund HILLARY and Tenzing Norkay, after at least eight
 earlier attempts to scale it had failed.

   Everett, Edward

 Everett, Edward, 1794-1865, American orator and statesman; b. Dorchester,
 Mass. His long public career included service as congressman from
 Massachusetts (1825-35), governor of the state (1836-39), minister to
 England (1841-45), and U.S. senator (1853-54). During the CIVIL WAR he
 traveled throughout the North, speaking for the Union cause. He gave the
 principal speech at Gettysburg on the same occasion that produced
 Lincoln's famous GETTYSBURG ADDRESS.

   Everglades

 Everglades, marshy, low-lying tropical area (maximum elevation 7 ft/2.1
 m), S Florida, covering c.5,000 sq mi (12,950 sq km) and including
 Everglades National Park (see NATIONAL PARKS, ). It is an area of solidly
 packed muck, saw grass, and marsh hammocks, and is rich in wildlife. The
 local SEMINOLE INDIANS were driven out in the 1830s. From the late 19th
 cent., large tracts of land were drained with a view to cultivation, but
 most such plans were abandoned after great fires occurred in 1939.

   Everglades National Park

 Everglades National Park: see NATIONAL PARKS .

   Evert, Chris

 Evert, Chris (Christine Marie Evert), 1954-, American tennis player; b.
 Fort Lauderdale, Fla. Noted for her poise on the court and her strong,
 two-handed backhand, she captured the singles title at Wimbledon in 1974,
 1976, and 1981, and won six U.S. Open singles titles between 1975 and
 1982.

   Everyman

 Everyman, late-15th-cent. English morality play. Summoned by Death,
 Everyman can persuade none of his friends-Beauty, Kindred, Worldly
 Goods-to go with him, except Good Deeds. This ALLEGORY is the basis of
 many later plays.

   evidence

 evidence, in law, material submitted to a court or other inquiring body
 to prove the facts in a legal dispute. The admissibility of evidence is
 governed by various rules. Particular evidence may be excluded on the
 grounds that it is irrelevant (having no bearing on the dispute),
 immaterial (having no impact on the substance of the dispute), or
 incompetent (outside the knowledge of the witness, e.g., hearsay). Rules
 of personal privilege excuse a witness from giving evidence relating to
 certain communications, e.g., between husband and wife; witnesses may
 also withhold self-incriminating evidence, and criminal defendants may
 refuse to testify. Evidence may be direct, such as that arising from
 personal observation, or it may be circumstantial, arising from facts
 that tend to prove other facts by inference. The kinds of evidence
 usually produced are physical objects (real evidence); written statements
 and documents (documentary evidence); oral testimony of the parties to
 the dispute (personal evidence); and technical or other specialized
 testimony (expert evidence). The burden of proof, i.e., the
 responsibility to establish a disputed fact, shifts according to the
 nature of the controversy: in a civil suit, each party must prove its
 affirmative contentions by a preponderance of the evidence; in a criminal
 suit, the burden of proof rests on the prosecution, which must prove each
 element of its case beyond a reasonable doubt.

   evolution

 evolution, concept embodying the belief that existing organisms descended
 from a common ancestor. This theory, also known as descent with
 modification, constitutes organic evolution. Inorganic evolution deals
 with the development of the physical universe from unorganized matter
 (see COSMOLOGY). Organic evolution conceives of life as having begun as a
 simple, primordial protoplasmic mass from which arose, through time, all
 subsequent living forms. The first clearly stated theory of evolution,
 that proposed by Jean LAMARCK in 1801, included the inheritance of
 ACQUIRED CHARACTERISTICS as the operative force in evolution.
 Subsequently (1858), Alfred Russel WALLACE and Charles DARWIN
 independently set forth a scientifically credible theory of evolution
 based on NATURAL SELECTION, focusing on the survival and reproduction of
 those species best adapted to the environment. This theory had a profound
 effect on scientific thought and experimentation. Although it has
 undergone modification in light of later scientific developments, the
 theory of evolution still rests on essentially the same grounds
 emphasized by Darwin, supported by research in GENETICS as well as by
 comparative anatomy, embryology, geography, paleontology, and, recently,
 biochemistry. It has been challenged by those believing in the creation
 theory of the universe (see CREATIONISM). See also MUTATION.

   Evtushenko, Evgeny

 Evtushenko, Evgeny: see YEVTUSHENKO.

   Evvoia

 Evvoia or Euboea,island (1981 pop. 188,410), c.1,467 sq mi (3,800 sq.
 km), SE Greece, separated from the mainland by the Evripos strait. Its
 main industries are agriculture, magnesite and lignite mining, and marble
 quarrying. Settled by the ancient Greeks, it was divided among seven
 CITY-STATES, including Eretria, and later passed to Rome, Venice, and the
 Ottoman Turks before its incorporation (1830) into Greece.

   Ewing, (William) Maurice

 Ewing, (William) Maurice, 1906-74, American geophysicist; b. Lockney,
 Tex. Ewing's oceanographic work was critical to the acceptance of the
 theory of PLATE TECTONICS. In the late 1930s he conducted the first
 seismic studies (1935) and the first photographing (1939) of the ocean
 floor. At Columbia Univ. he helped to found (1949) the Lamont-Doherty
 Geological Observatory and was (1949-72) its first director.

   exceptional children

 exceptional children, children who differ markedly from the average
 physically, mentally, or psychologically. This includes children who need
 special education, including the gifted, physically impaired, mentally
 retarded, or emotionally disturbed. Special educational programs,
 including public school instruction with special attention, segregated
 day schools, integrated day schools, and institutional care, have been
 designed to accommodate these children.

   excess profits tax

 excess profits tax, levy on any profit above a standard level, usually
 imposed during wartime to prevent businesses from making unreasonable
 profits. Both the U.S. and Britain levied such taxes during the world
 wars. A "windfall profits" tax on oil revenues and royalties, enacted by
 the U.S. in 1980, was actually an EXCISE TAX on production, not profits.

   exchange rate

 exchange rate: see FOREIGN EXCHANGE.

   excise tax

 excise tax, governmental levy on specific goods. Introduced by Holland in
 the 17th cent., excise taxes spread to England (1643) and the U.S.
 (1791). Both the federal government and state governments impose such
 taxes in the U.S., chiefly on gasoline, cigarettes, and liquor, and
 sometimes on furs, jewelry, and other goods classed as luxury items.

   exclamation point

 exclamation point: see PUNCTUATION.

   excommunication

 excommunication, formal expulsion of a person from a religious community,
 especially from the Roman Catholic Church. It involves a formal decree
 (or anathema) and public exclusion from the church, sacraments, and
 society. An excommunicate may return to the church on repentance.

   excretion

 excretion, process of eliminating from an organism the waste products of
 metabolism and other materials of no use. In one-celled organisms wastes
 are discharged through the cell's surface. Higher plants eliminate gases
 through the stomata, or pores, on the leaf surface, and multicellular
 animals have special excretory organs. In humans the main excretory
 organs are the KIDNEYS and other organs of the URINARY SYSTEM, through
 which URINE is eliminated, and the large intestine, from which solid
 wastes are expelled (see DIGESTIVE SYSTEM). Excretion also takes place in
 the SKIN, which eliminates water and salt in the form of sweat, and the
 LUNGS, which expel water vapor and carbon dioxide.

   executive

 executive, in government, the chief administrative officer and the branch
 charged with carrying out the laws, as distinguished from the legislative
 (see CONGRESS) and judicial branches (see COURT SYSTEM; SUPREME COURT). A
 further distinction is sometimes made between the executives who decide
 policy and civil servants who implement it. Executive areas of concern
 include directing relations with foreign governments, commanding the
 armed forces, and, approving or disapproving legislative acts. In the
 U.S., the president, the CABINET, and functionaries of the federal
 administrative agencies are considered part of the executive.

   exercise electrocardiography

 exercise electrocardiography: see STRESS TEST.

   Exeter

 Exeter, city (1986 est. pop. 99,300), capital of Devonshire, SW England,
 on the Exe R. It is the market and distribution center for SW England.
 Strategically located, it was besieged by the Danes (9th, 11th cent.), by
 William the Conquerer (1068), and by Yorkists (15th cent.). Its many
 historic sites include Roman ruins and the massive Norman Cathedral,
 whose library contains the famous Old English Exeter Book. The city's
 center was rebuilt after heavy bombings in WORLD WAR II.

   existentialism

 existentialism, any of several philosophical systems of the 20th cent.,
 all centered on the individual and the individual's relationship to the
 universe or to God. Sooren KIERKEGAARD developed a Christian
 existentialism that recognized the concrete ethical and religious demands
 confronting the individual, who is forced each time to make a subjective
 commitment. The necessity and seriousness of these decisions cause him
 dread and despair. Following Kierkegaard, HEIDEGGER and SARTRE, both
 students of HUSSERL, were the major thinkers of the movement. Heidegger
 rejected the label of existentialism, describing his philosophy as an
 investigation of the nature of being in which the analysis of human
 existence is only a first step. For Sartre, the only self-declared
 existentialist among the major thinkers, existence precedes essence:
 there is no God and no fixed human nature; thus man is totally free and
 entirely responsible for what he makes of himself. This responsibility
 accounts for his dread and anguish. Sartre influenced the writings of
 CAMUS and de BEAUVOIR. A Christian existentialism was developed in France
 by Gabriel Marcel, a Roman Catholic. The religious thinkers Karl BARTH,
 Paul TILLICH, Reinhold NIEBUHR, and Martin BUBER, and the philosopher
 Karl JASPERS are often included in the orbit of existentialism.

   exobiology

 exobiology, search for extraterrestrial life throughout the universe.
 Philosophical speculation that there might be other worlds similar to
 ours dates back to the ancient Chinese and Greeks. Six basic parameters
 determine whether an environment is suitable for life as we know it:
 temperature, pressure, salinity, acidity, water availability, and oxygen
 content. Advanced life is restricted to a narrow range of these
 parameters, but primitive microorganisms can exist over a much wider
 range. Data already collected by SPACE PROBES essentially rule out
 advanced life on other planets of our solar system. Some scientists,
 however, have estimated that as many as 50,000 planets in our galaxy have
 earthlike conditions and that a substantial fraction of these are likely
 to have cultures as technologically advanced as our own; efforts to
 detect radio emissions from these civilizations have so far been
 unsuccessful. A continuing effort is being made to detect primitive life
 within our solar system, e.g., the surface landings (1976) of the Viking
 space probes.

   Exodus

 Exodus, second book of the OLD TESTAMENT and of the PENTATEUCH, ascribed
 by tradition to MOSES. It is a religious history of the JEWS during their
 flight from Egypt, when they began to receive the Law. The events include
 the bondage in Egypt and God's preparations for liberation through the
 agency of Moses (1-11); the exodus proper, with the institution of the
 Passover (see JEWISH HOLIDAYS) and the crossing of the Red Sea (12-18);
 and the divine legislation at Mt. Sinai (19-40), including the giving of
 the TEN COMMANDMENTS.

   exorcism

 exorcism, ritual driving out of evil spirits, as distinguished from rites
 of propitiation or evocation. It may be applied to a person, place, or
 thing by use of holy water, incense, incantation, or various rites. The
 New Testament records Christ's ability to drive out devils. The Roman
 Catholic Church regulates exorcism of demons from persons.

   expert system

 expert system, an computer program that makes decisions based on an
 analysis of data using a complex set of rules. Expert systems can analyze
 information in such areas as medical diagnosis and financial planning.
 Often, the rules are an elaborate set of "if...then" statements. One such
 program, MYCIN, contains 400 rules designed to diagnosis and recommend
 treatment for infectious blood diseases. The design and development of
 such systems is an outgrowth of ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE called knowledge
 engineering.

   Explorer

 Explorer: see SATELLITE, ARTIFICIAL; SPACE PROBE, .

   explosive

 explosive, a substance that undergoes rapid decomposition or combustion,
 evolving much heat and producing a large volume of gas. The heat evolved
 causes the gas to expand greatly, exerting the enormous pressure of
 explosions. Important explosives include TNT (trinitrotoluene), DYNAMITE,
 and NITROGLYCERIN. Chemical explosives are of two general kinds. Some,
 e.g., GUNPOWDER, are mixtures of readily combustible but not necessarily
 explosive substances, which, when set off (by ignition), undergo very
 rapid combustion. Others, called high explosives (e.g., TNT), are
 compounds whose molecules are unstable and can undergo explosive
 decomposition (detonation) without burning. The latter kind is used in
 warfare (e.g., in bombs, explosive shells, torpedoes, and missile
 warheads) and for blasting rock in mining and construction work.
 Nondetonating explosives, e.g., gunpowder and modern smokeless powders,
 are used as propellants for bullets and in fireworks. Nuclear explosives
 release energy by transformation of the atomic nucleus (see ATOMIC BOMB;
 HYDROGEN BOMB; NUCLEAR ENERGY).

   exponent

 exponent, in mathematics, a number or algebraic expression written above
 and to the right of another number or algebraic expression called the
 base. In the expressions x2 and xn, the number 2 and the algebraic letter
 n are the exponents, respectively, of the base x. A positive whole number
 as exponent indicates the power, or how many times the base is to be
 taken as a factor (e.g., 23=2*2*2=8). Fractional and negative exponents
 indicate, respectively, ROOTS and reciprocals (e.g., 81/3=3 82 and
 x-2=1/x2). A zero exponent makes any quantity equal to 1.

   exponential function

 exponential function: see article on e.

   expressionism

 expressionism, term used to describe works of art and literature in which
 the representation of reality is distorted to communicate an inner
 vision, transforming nature rather than imitating it. 1 In painting and
 the graphic arts, certain movements such as the BRUCKE (1905) and BLAUE
 REITER (1911) are described as expressionist. In addition, certain
 independent artists e.g., ROUAULT, SOUTINE, VLAMINCK, KOKOSCHKA, and
 SCHIELE, did personal visionary paintings. GAUGUIN, ENSOR, VAN GOGH, and
 MUNCH were the spiritual fathers of expressionism, as were such earlier
 artists as El GRECO, GRUNEWALD, and GOYA, whose works show striking
 parallels to modern expressionist sensibility. See also NEOEXPRESSIONISM.
 2 In literature, expressionism is often considered a revolt against
 realism and naturalism, seeking to achieve a psychological or spiritual
 reality rather than to record external events. In the novel, the term
 applies to KAFKA and JOYCE (see STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS). In drama,
 STRINDBERG is the forerunner of the group of early 20th-century
 dramatists to which the term is applied, e.g., KAISER, TOLLER, and
 WEDEKIND. Their work was often characterized by a bizarre distortion of
 reality. The movement, though short-lived, gave impetus to a free form of
 writing and of theatrical production.

   extinction

 extinction, in biology, disappearance of species of living organisms.
 Extinction occurs as a result of changed conditions to which the species
 is not suited. If no member of the affected species survives and



 new conditions.

   extortion

 extortion, in law, the offense of obtaining from a person money or
 property not legally owed, through the use of fear, force, or authority
 of office. The demanding of ransom (a price for return of a captured
 person or property) or blackmail (money exacted by threat of exposure of
 criminal action or disreputable conduct) are forms of extortion.

   extradition

 extradition, delivery of a person, suspected or convicted of a crime, by
 the country of refuge to the country asserting jurisdiction. In the U.S.
 it also applies to the removal of a suspected criminal from one state to
 another. Its purpose is to prevent criminals from escaping punishment by
 fleeing to another jurisdiction. Extradition became common policy in the
 19th cent., but since under international law it is not obligatory
 without a treaty, virtually all extradition occurs under the authority of
 specific bilateral treaties between nations; these may vary widely. Most
 European countries will surrender a criminal fugitive upon simple demand.
 The U.S. requires evidence that the accused has violated its law as well
 as the law of the demanding country. Like many nations, the U.S. will not
 surrender a fugitive wanted for a political crime (see ASYLUM).

   extrasensory perception

 extrasensory perception, commonly called ESP, any perception that occurs
 independently of the known sensory processes such as sight and smell. The
 main categories of ESP are telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition. The
 existence of ESP is disputed, though systematic experimental research on
 the subject has been ongoing since 1930. See also PARAPSYCHOLOGY.

   extraterritoriality

 extraterritoriality, privilege of immunity from local law enforcement
 enjoyed by certain aliens while present in the territory of a foreign
 nation. It is extended to most diplomats and their families, who are
 considered by customary international law to be under the legal
 jurisdiction of their home countries and thus exempt from civil and
 criminal action, arrest, lawsuits, and, often, the payment of personal
 and property taxes. Certain transgressions, however, can result in an
 alien being declared persona non grata and expelled from the host
 country. Extraterritoriality also extends to public (i.e., state-owned)
 vessels in foreign territorial waterways and ports, and to air space over
 national territory, although air space remains regulated by bilateral
 agreements because uniform standards of jurisdiction have not been
 established (see AIR, LAW OF THE).

   extreme unction

 extreme unction: see ANOINTING OF THE SICK.

   extroversion and introversion

 extroversion and introversion, terms introduced into psychology by C.G.
 JUNG to identify two opposite psychological types: the extrovert, who is
 directed toward the external world and is most content when surrounded by
 people and activity, and the introvert, who is contemplative and enjoys
 solitude and the inner life. Jung believed that everyone has tendencies
 in both directions, although one direction generally predominates.

   Eyck, Hubert van

 Eyck, Hubert van, c.1370-1426, and Jan van Eyck, c.1390-1441, Flemish
 painters, brothers. Little is known of Hubert, who may have worked
 (1414-17) for Duke William of Bavaria and did settle in Ghent, in
 Belgium. He is credited with an Annunciation and a stunningly detailed
 miniature diptych of the Crucifixion and Last Judgment (both:
 Metropolitan Mus.). Jan worked in the courts of Count John of Holland
 (1422-25) and Philip of Burgundy. His paintings are minutely descriptive,
 realistic depictions of portrait subjects and religious scenes with
 contemporary GENRE details. His oil technique reveals an unprecedented
 richness and intensity of color for the medium. The two brothers
 collaborated on their masterwork, the altarpiece of the Church of Saint
 Bavon in Ghent (completed by Jan in 1432). One or both brothers
 illuminated (see ILLUMINATION) parts of the Heures de Turin manuscript.
 Jan's portrait oils include Portrait of an Unknown Man (1432) and Man
 with the Red Turban, perhaps a self-portrait (both: London), and the
 wedding picture Giovanni Arnolfini and his Bride (1434; National Gall.,
 London). His splendid Annunciation is in Washington, D.C. (National
 Gall.). Jan van Eyck's influence on European painting is enormous.

   eye

 eye, organ of vision. Like a camera, it has a diaphragm and variable
 focusing. The eyeball has three covering layers. The sclera, the
 outermost, is partially visible as the "white" of the eye. In the center
 of the sclera and projecting slightly is the cornea, a transparent
 membrane that acts as the window of the eye. The choroid, the layer
 beneath the sclera, is composed of dense pigment and blood vessels. Near
 the center of the visible part of the eye the choroid forms the ciliary
 body, the muscles of which change the shape of the lens. The ciliary body
 merges with the iris, a muscular diaphragm that regulates the size of the
 pupil, the round opening through which light enters the eye. The iris,
 where it is not covered by the sclera, reveals the choroid's
 pigmentation, usually brown or blue (giving the eye its color). Behind
 the iris is the lens, a transparent, elastic, but solid ellipsoid body
 that bends light rays, focusing them on the retina, the third tissue
 layer. The retina is a network of nerve cells, notably the rods and
 cones, that send impulses along the optic nerve to the brain. The rods
 provide vision in dim light, while the cones respond best to bright light
 and provide color vision. See also ASTIGMATISM; BLINDNESS; COLOR
 BLINDNESS; FARSIGHTEDNESS; GLAUCOMA; NEARSIGHTEDNESS.

   Eyre, Lake

 Eyre, Lake, largest lake in Australia, located in the continent's arid
 interior, in central SOUTH AUSTRALIA state. It forms the continent's
 lowest point, 39 ft (12 m) below sea level, and frequently runs dry. Its
 waters are salty.

   Ezechiel

 Ezechiel: see EZEKIEL.

   Ezekiel

 Ezekielor Ezechiel, book of the OLD TESTAMENT, 26th in the Authorized
 Version, third of the Major PROPHETS, recounts the prophecies of Ezekiel,
 who preached (592-570 BC) to the Jews of the BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY. It
 centers on the fall of JERUSALEM (586 BC): chapters 1-32 prophesy doom;
 33-48, looking to restoration, end with a vision of the ideal Temple.
 Ezekiel stresses individual responsibility, and is noted for its symbolic
 passages.

   Ezra

 Ezraor Esdras (ez'dras) and Nehemiah , two books of the OLD TESTAMENT,
 15th and 16th in the Authorized Version, tell the history of the JEWS
 from 538 BC to 432 BC, from the decree of CYRUS THE GREAT permitting the
 return from the BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY to the dedication of JERUSALEM'S new
 walls. The book of Ezra concerns the return of one group, the rebuilding
 of the Temple, and the return of Ezra "the priest, the scribe" with
 orders to restore Jewish Law. Nehemiah tells of the return of Nehemiah,
 who was a cupbearer to ARTAXERXES I, the rebuilding of the walls, and the
 reading of the Law and signing of a covenant.

   F

 F, chemical symbol of the element FLUORINE.

   Faberge, Peter Carl

 Faberge, Peter Carl, 1846-1920, Russian goldsmith. As head of the studio
 established by his father, he was responsible for the design of elegant
 jewelry and objets d'art. Faberge was particularly well known for the
 richly imaginative jeweled and enameled Easter eggs he created for the
 Russian royal family. He died in exile in Switzerland.

   Fabian Society

 Fabian Society, British organization founded (1884) to promote
 evolutionary socialism. Its exponents included George Bernard SHAW,
 Beatrice Potter WEBB, and Sidney WEBB. The Fabians rejected Marxism and
 denied the need for violent class struggle. After publication of the
 Fabian Essays (1889) they gained widespread recognition. The Fabian
 Society played a leading role in the creation of the LABOUR PARTY, of
 which it remains an affiliated research and publicity agency.

   Fabius

 Fabius, ancient Roman gens. Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus or Rullus,
 d. c.291 BC, was a renowned general, especially after his victory over
 the Etruscans, the Samnites, and their allies at Sentinum (295). His
 descendant, Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, d. 203 BC, the opponent of
 HANNIBAL, was called Cunctator [Lat.,=delayer] because of his delaying
 tactics, from which the term Fabian, referring to a waiting policy, is
 derived. Tired of his inaction, the Romans replaced him (216 BC) and were
 defeated at Cannae.

   fable

 fable, brief, allegorical narrative, in verse or prose, illustrating a
 moral thesis or satirizing human behavior. The characters are usually
 animals who talk and act like people while retaining animal traits. The
 oldest known fables are in the Sanskrit Panchatantra and by AESOP. LA
 FONTAINE, G.E. LESSING, John DRYDEN, and John GAY continued the
 tradition, as did James THURBER and George ORWELL in the 20th cent.

   fabliau

 fabliau, plural fabliaux, short comic, often bawdy verse tale
 realistically satirizing middle- or lower-class life, marriage, or the
 clergy. It flourished in France in the Middle Ages, and appears in the
 work of CHAUCER and BOCCACCIO.

   Fabriano, Gentile da

 Fabriano, Gentile da: see GENTILE DA FABRIANO.

   fabric

 fabric: see TEXTILES.

   facsimile machine

 facsimile machine, a device for transmitting copies of printed images
 over telephone lines. A facsimile (or "fax") machine scans a page to make
 an electronic representation of its text or graphics, compresses the data
 to save transmission time, and transmits it to another fax machine. The
 receiving machine decrypts the signal and uses a printer (usually built
 in) to make a facsimile of the original page.

   Faeroe Islands

 Faeroe Islandsor Faroe Islands, group of volcanic islands (1979 pop.
 43,131), 540 sq mi (1,400 sq km), Denmark, located in the N Atlantic
 Ocean c.850 mi (1,370 km) from mainland Denmark. There are 17 inhabited
 and 5 uninhabited islands; Steymoy, with Torshavn as the capital, and
 Ostero are the largest islands. Fishing is the chief economic activity.
 Settled by Norsemen in the 8th cent., the islands became part of Norway
 in the 11th cent. and passed to the Danish crown in 1380. They became a
 British protectorate (1940-45) in World War II and gained self-government
 (1948) after an aborted independence movement.

   Faes, Pieter van der

 Faes, Pieter van der: see LELY, SIR PETER.

   Fahd ibn Abdul Aziz

 Fahd ibn Abdul Aziz, 1922-, king of Saudi Arabia (1982-). A son of IBN
 SAUD, the founder of Saudi Arabia, Fahd served (1962-75) as interior
 minister and was named (1975) crown prince by his half-brother King
 KHALID. He was a powerful shaper of Saudi foreign and domestic policy
 under Khalid, on whose death (1982) he succeeded to the throne.

   Fahrenheit temperature scale

 Fahrenheit temperature scale: see TEMPERATURE.

   Fainzilberg, Ilya Arnoldovich

 Fainzilberg, Ilya Arnoldovich: see ILF, ILYA ARNOLDOVICH.

   Fairbanks, Douglas

 Fairbanks, Douglas, 1883-1939, American film actor; b. Denver. He starred
 in such swashbucklers as The Mark of Zorro (1920), The Thief of Bagdad
 (1924), and The Black Pirate (1926). His son, Douglas Fairbanks, Jr.,
 1909-, b. N.Y.C., is an actor whose films include The Prisoner of Zenda
 (1937) and Gunga Din (1939).

   Fairbanks

 Fairbanks, city (1986 est. pop. 27,610), Fairbanks North Star Borough,
 central Alaska, on the Chena R.; inc. 1903. The Univ. of Alaska and the
 U.S. government are the chief employers. The discovery of gold (1902) and
 the building of the Alaska railroad caused the city to develop. Oil, gas,
 and related services have become important to the economy.

   Fair Labor Standards Act

 Fair Labor Standards Act: see WAGES AND HOURS ACT.

   fairness doctrine

 fairness doctrine: see EQUAL-TIME RULE.

   fair-trade laws

 fair-trade laws, in the U.S., a group of statutes in most states that
 permitted manufacturers to specify the minimum retail price of a
 commodity. The first such law was adopted (1931) by California. Intended
 to protect independent retailers from the price-cutting competition of
 large chain stores, such statutes were originally nullified by the courts
 on antitrust grounds, but the Miller-Tydings Act (1937) exempted fair
 trade from antitrust legislation. Although 45 states eventually enacted
 fair-trade laws, no more than 10% of retail sales were ever affected, and
 in the late 1950s many manufacturers began to abandon the setting of
 minimum prices. In 1975 Congress repealed all fair-trade laws in the U.S.

   fairy

 fairy, in folklore, one of a variety of supernatural beings having
 magical powers. Belief in fairies has existed from earliest times, but
 the concept and description of the creatures varies widely, from the tiny
 old men, or leprechauns, of Irish legend, to beautiful enchantresses like
 the Germanic Lorelei, to man-eating giants, or ogres. Particular kinds of
 fairies include the Arabic JINNI, the Scandinavian troll, the Germanic
 elf, and the English pixie. Although usually represented as mischievous
 and capricious, they could also be loving and bountiful. Among the great
 adapters of popular fairy tales were Charles PERRAULT, the brothers
 GRIMM, and Hans Christian ANDERSEN.

   Faisal

 Faisal or Feisal, kings of Iraq. Faisal I, 1885-1933 (r.1921-33), joined
 (1916) with T.E. LAWRENCE in the Arab revolt against the Turks. The
 British, largely through the efforts of Gertrude BELL, named him king. He
 was generally pro-British and was succeeded by his son, Ghazi. Ghazi's
 son, Faisal II, 1935-58 (r.1939-58), was generally pro-Western in his
 short majority reign. He was killed in a revolution that overthrew the
 Iraqi monarchy.

   Faisal ibn al Saud

 Faisal ibn al Saud, 1905-75, king of Saudi Arabia (1964-75). A son of IBN
 SAUD, he forced his brother King Saud, to abdicate in 1964 and assumed
 the throne. He used his country's vast oil revenues to finance
 far-reaching economic and social reforms. A deranged nephew assassinated
 him.

   Falange

 Falange [Span.,=phalanx], Spanish political party, founded 1933. Adhering
 to FASCISM, the Falange, through its militia, joined the Nationalist
 forces of Francisco FRANCO in the SPANISH CIVIL WAR (1936-39). The
 party's founder, Jose Antonio Primo de Rivera, son of the dictator Miguel
 PRIMO DE RIVERA, was executed by the Loyalists in the civil war. In 1937
 Franco took control of the Falange, making it the official party of his
 regime. By the 1970s its power had waned.

   Falashas

 Falashas [Ethiopic,=emigrant], group of approximately 30,000 Ethiopians
 who practice a form of JUDAISM. They believe in the Old Testament,
 certain apocryphal books, and some traditions that correspond to those
 found in the MIDRASH and the TALMUD. In modern times there have been
 POGROMS against the Falashas.

   falcon

 falcon, long-winged BIRD of prey (genus Falco) related to the HAWK.
 Widely distributed, falcons are typified by notched beaks. They range in
 size from the 61/2-in. (16.5-cm) falconet to the 24-in. (60-cm)
 gyrfalcon. The commonest and smallest American falcon is the sparrow hawk
 (F. sparverius). Falcons lay their eggs on the ground, on cliff ledges,
 or in deserted hawk or CROW nests. The peregrine falcon and gyrfalcon are
 used in falconry.

   Faliscan

 Faliscan, extinct language belonging to the Italic subfamily of the
 Indo-European family of languages. See LANGUAGE .

   Falkland Islands

 Falkland Islands, Span. Islas Malvinas, British crown colony (1986 pop.
 1,916), 4,618 sq mi (11,961 sq km), S Atlantic. Consisting of two large
 islands and some 200 small ones, they are economically dependent on
 sheep-raising. The capital is Stanley. Under British rule since the
 1830s, Argentina also claimed them. In 1982 they were seized by Argentina
 and retaken by British troops. Dependencies of the colony include South
 Georgia and the South Sandwich islands.

   Falkner, William

 Falkner, William: see FAULKNER, WILLIAM.

   Falla, Manuel de

 Falla, Manuel de, 1876-1946, Spanish composer. He was influenced by the
 IMPRESSIONISM of DEBUSSY and RAVEL, but retained Spanish characteristics,
 e.g., the flamenco tradition. His works include Nights in the Gardens of
 Spain (1916; for piano and orchestra) and the ballets El Amor Brujo
 (1915) and The Three-Cornered Hat (1917).

   fall line

 fall line, line where waterfalls occur in rivers passing from areas of
 relatively hard rocks (as in the Piedmont of the E U.S.) to areas of
 softer rock (as in the Atlantic Coastal Plain). It is usually the head of
 navigation. Fall-line cities in the U.S. include TRENTON, N.J.;
 WASHINGTON, D.C.; RICHMOND, Va.; RALEIGH, N.C.; and AUGUSTA, Ga.

   fallout

 fallout: see ATOMIC BOMB; HYDROGEN BOMB.

   Fall River

 Fall River, industrial city (1986 est. pop. 90,420), SE Mass., a port on
 Mt. Hope Bay, at the mouth of the Taunton R.; settled 1656, inc. 1854. It
 was once the leading cotton textile center in the U.S., and textiles and
 clothing are still the chief manufactures, although industry has
 diversified. The trial (1892) of Lizzie BORDEN took place there.

   falsetto

 falsetto: see VOICE.

   Family Compact

 Family Compact, popular name for a small clique of wealthy, powerful men
 who dominated Upper Canada (see ONTARIO) from the late-18th to the
 mid-19th cent. They controlled the government, monopolized political
 offices, and strongly influenced banking, land grant issues, education,
 the courts, and Anglican church affairs. New settlers who were thus
 denied political opportunity formed an opposition which became the Reform
 party.

   family planning

 family planning: see BIRTH CONTROL.

   family therapy

 family therapy, form of PSYCHOTHERAPY dealing with the improvement of
 family relationships and the emotional environment. Unlike GROUP
 PSYCHOTHERAPY, which concentrates on the individual within a group,
 family therapy focuses on the emotional life of the family as a whole. By
 defining the existing family structure and clarifying patterns,
 conflicts, and alliances, it enables family members to develop
 alternative patterns of relating. Treatment may include both family and
 individual sessions with one or a team of therapists.

   Fanfani, Amintore

 Fanfani, Amintore, 1908-, Italian political leader. A Christian Democrat,
 he served as foreign minister (1965, 1966-68), president of the Senate
 (1968-73, 1976-85), and as premier (1954, 1958-59, 1960-63, 1982-83).

   Fantin-Latour, Ignace Henri Jean Theodore

 Fantin-Latour, Ignace Henri Jean Theodore, 1836-1904, French painter and
 lithographer. Master of an almost photographic technique, he is best
 known for portrait groups of famous contemporaries, e.g., The Studio at
 Batignolles (Louvre).

   Faraday, Michael

 Faraday, Michael, 1791-1867, English scientist. Despite little formal
 education he laid the foundations of classical FIELD theory, later
 developed by James Clerk MAXWELL. Faraday worked (1813-62) at the
 laboratory of the Royal Institution in London, becoming its director in
 1825. He developed the first dynamo (in the form of a copper disk rotated
 between the poles of a permanent magnet), the precursor of modern dynamos
 and GENERATORS. From Faraday's and Joseph HENRY'S independent discoveries
 (1831) of electromagnetic INDUCTION stemmed a vast development of
 electrical machinery for industry. In 1825 Faraday discovered the
 compound BENZENE. He formulated (1834) Faraday's law, which states that
 the number of moles of substance produced at an electrode during
 ELECTROLYSIS is directly proportional to the number of moles of electrons
 transferred at that electrode.

   farce

 farce, light theater piece with characters and events exaggerated to
 produce broad, simple humor. An element in the plays of ARISTOPHANES,
 PLAUTUS, and TERENCE, it appeared as a distinct genre in 15th-cent.
 France. Nicholas UDALL'S Ralph Roister Doister (1566) is an early English
 example. Broad, ribald humor, absurdity, and buffoonery are also found in
 works not considered farces, e.g., the plays of MOLIERE.

   Far East

 Far East, term commonly used today in a restricted sense for the region
 comprising E Asia (i.e., CHINA, JAPAN, KOREA, MONGOLIA) and the SOVIET
 FAR EAST (E SIBERIA). It is also sometimes extended to include SOUTHEAST
 ASIA. As used in the 19th cent., the term denoted those portions of the
 Asian continent farthest removed by sea from the W European maritime
 powers trading there.

   Fargo

 Fargo, city (1986 est. pop. 68,020), seat of Cass co., E N.D., on the Red
 R., opposite Moorhead, Minn.; inc. 1875. The largest city in the state,
 Fargo developed with the coming (1871) of the railroad. It remains a
 railroad hub and river port, and the trade center of a great spring-wheat
 and livestock region. North Dakota State Univ. is located in the city.

   Farid ad-Din Attar

 Farid ad-Din Attar, d. c.1229, Persian poet, one of the greatest Muslim
 mystic poets. Of his many and varied works his masterpiece is Conference
 of the Birds, an allegory surveying the philosophy and practices of
 SUFISM.

   Farley, James Aloysius

 Farley, James Aloysius, 1888-1976, American political leader; b. Rockland
 co., N.Y. As Democratic National Committee chairman, he managed (1932,
 1936) F.D. ROOSEVELT'S presidential campaigns. He served (1933-40) as
 U.S. postmaster general but resigned to protest Roosevelt's third term.

   Farm Credit Administration

 Farm Credit Administration (FCA), independent U.S. agency formed (1933)
 to supervise and coordinate the Farm Credit System, which provides credit
 to American farmers and their cooperatives. The system, which is
 borrower-owned, includes federal land banks and land bank associations,
 intermediate credit banks, banks for cooperatives, and over 400
 production credit associations.

   Farmer-Labor party

 Farmer-Labor party, U.S. political organization founded (1919) to unite
 agrarian and organized labor interests. It promoted nationalization of
 various industries and resources but garnered little support and
 dissolved after 1924. The Minnesota Farmer-Labor party, unaffiliated with
 the national party, elected a governor and several U.S. senators and
 congressmen in the 1920s and 30s. It merged (1944) with the Minnesota
 Democratic party.

   Farnese

 Farnese, Italian noble family that ruled Parma and Piacenza from 1545 to
 1731. In 1534 Alessandro Farnese became pope as PAUL III. He created
 (1545) the duchy of Parma and Piacenza for his illegitimate son, Pier
 Luigi Farnese, 1503-47, who was assassinated by nobles. His son and
 successor, Ottavio Farnese, 1520-86, married MARGARET OF PARMA. Their
 son, Alessandro Farnese, 1545-92, duke 1586-92, was a general in the
 service of PHILIP II of Spain. Appointed (1578) governor in the
 rebellious Netherlands, he took Tournai, Maastricht, Breda, Bruges,
 Ghent, and Antwerp from the rebels. In 1590 he entered France to aid the
 Catholic League against HENRY IV of France and relieved Paris (1590) and
 Rouen (1592). He is considered one of the age's greatest generals. The
 last duke of the line, Antonio, died in 1731. His niece, Elizabeth
 Farnese, 1692-1766, married (1714) PHILIP V of Spain and for a time
 virtually ruled Spain. She secured (1748) Parma and Piacenza for her son
 Philip, who founded the line of BOURBON-Parma.

   Faroe Islands

 Faroe Islands: see FAEROE ISLANDS.

   Farouk

 Farouk, 1920-65, king of Egypt (1936-52), son and successor of Fuad I. He
 was regarded as a corrupt playboy and was deposed by the 1952 military
 coup led by Gamal Abdal NASSER. His infant son, Fuad II, succeeded him
 briefly.

   Farquhar, George

 Farquhar, George, 1678-1707, English dramatist; b. Ireland. The geniality
 of such plays as The Constant Couple (1699) and his masterpiece, The
 Beaux' Stratagem (1707), mark Farquhar as a transitional figure between
 RESTORATION and 18th-cent. drama.

   Farragut, David Glasgow

 Farragut, David Glasgow, 1801-70, American admiral; b. near Knoxville,
 Tenn. In the U.S. CIVIL WAR he boldly sailed (1862) up the Mississippi R.
 and defeated an enemy flotilla, enabling Union forces to take New
 Orleans. In 1864, uttering the famous cry "Damn the torpedoes mines," he
 forced the defenses of Mobile, Ala., and defeated a Confederate fleet.
 The outstanding naval commander of the war, Farragut was the first
 officer in the U.S. navy to receive the ranks of vice admiral (1864) and
 admiral (1866).

   Farrell, James T(homas)

 Farrell, James T(homas), 1904-79, American novelist; b. Chicago. In the
 tradition of NATURALISM, his fiction deals with life in Chicago's Irish
 Catholic slums. His work includes the novels of the Studs Lonigan trilogy
 (1932-35) and Danny O'Neill pentalogy (1936-53), short stories, and
 essays.

   farsightedness

 farsightedness,  or hyperopia, defect of vision in which near objects
 appear blurred, but far objects can be seen clearly. Because the eyeball
 is too short or the eye's refractive power too weak, the image is focused
 behind the retina of the EYE rather than upon it. Eyeglasses with convex
 lenses can compensate for the refractive error (see LENS).

   fascism

 fascism, philosophy of government that glorifies the nation-state at the
 expense of the individual. Major concepts of fascism include opposition
 to democratic and socialist movements; racist ideologies, such as
 ANTI-SEMITISM; aggressive military policy; and belief in an authoritarian
 leader who embodies the ideals of the nation. Fascism generally gains
 support by promising social justice to discontented elements of the
 working class and middle class, and social order to powerful financial
 interests. While retaining class divisions and usually protecting
 capitalist and landowning interests, the fascist state exercises control
 at all levels of individual and economic activity, employing special
 police forces to instill fear. The term was first used by the party
 started by MUSSOLINI, who ruled Italy from 1922 until the Italian defeat
 in WORLD WAR II, and has also been applied to other right-wing movements,
 such as NATIONAL SOCIALISM, in Germany, and the FRANCO regime, in Spain.

   fashion

 fashion, the prevailing mode affecting modifications in costume. Since
 Oriental and classical dress remained unchanged for centuries, fashion
 may be said to have originated in Europe around the 14th cent. Over
 subsequent centuries new styles, set by monarchs and prominent persons
 (e.g., Beau BRUMMELL), were spread by travelers, in letters, and by the
 exchange of the fashion DOLL. The first fashion magazine appeared c.1586
 in Frankfurt, Germany; the popular American Godey's Lady's Book first
 came out in 1830. In Paris-the leading arbiter of fashion since the
 Renaissance-the fading influence of celebrities coincided with the rise
 of designer-dressmakers in the mid-19th cent. Other world fashion centers
 have been London, Rome, and New York.


 SOME MAJOR FASHION DESIGNERS


 Adrian, Gilbert, 1903--59 influenced haute couture of 1930s and 40s
 through private work and design for Greta Garbo and other film stars.
 Extravagant, draped evening gowns; hooded dresses; embroidered, padded
 evening jackets.


 Balenciaga, Cristobal, 1895--1972, in Spain and Paris. Designs for
 European royalty, aristocracy. Major success after World War II. Huge
 evening coats; long, full skirts; tunic and chemise dresses; fitted
 suits; pillbox hats; scarves.


 Blass, Bill, 1922--, in New York; own company, 1970. Men's and women's
 designs include snakeskin jackets; pullovers; fur-lined jackets;
 luxurious gowns; "western" look. Range of accessories, objects includes
 automobiles, home furnishings, chocolates.


 Chanel, Gabrielle (Coco), 1883--1970. Paris house influential from 1920s.
 Simple jersey dresses, suits; perfumes; boxjacket suits; costume jewelry;
 trousers for women; knit suits. Among most imitated of designers.


 Courreeges, Andre, 1923--, prominent in Paris from 1960s. Dresses,
 trouser suits with straight, flat line. Created popular space-age, unisex
 look.


 de La Renta, Oscar, 1932--, worked in Madrid (for Balenciaga), Paris,
 N.Y.C., before opening own N.Y.C. business, mid-1960s; Oscar de La Renta,
 Ltd. since 1974. Noted for elegant materials (furs, satins) and design
 motifs, e.g., "Hapsburg Empire" styles.


 Dior, Christian, 1905--57, best known for nonfunctional but enormously
 popular Paris "New Look" of 1947: narrow shoulders, constricted waist,
 full skirt. Sack dress, 1950s; A-line, 1956. Salons in many countries.
 Succeeded by Saint-Laurent as chief designer. Consistent elegance.


 Galanos, James, 1925--, known for ready-to-wear fashions. Full, loose
 dresses; chiffon coats over simple sheaths; culottes; silk fabrics. Based
 in California.


 Givenchy, Hubert de, 1927--, disciple of Balenciaga; assistant to
 Schiaparelli. Own Paris house, 1952. Separate skirts and tops; unusual
 embroidered, print fabrics; tubular evening dresses; ball gowns; shawls;
 sleeveless coats; headbands.


 Halston (Roy Halston Frowick), 1932--, in New York; own company, 1968.
 Designs for Martha Graham Ballet, Dance Theater of Harlem, films,
 theater, celebrities. Official noncompetitive designs for 1976 Montreal
 Olympics. Beaded dresses; spiral skirts; silk knee-length "petal" pants;
 ready-to-wear.


 Head, Edith, 1907--81, in Hollywood. Noted for hundreds of film costume
 designs. Received many Academy Awards, influenced American haute couture.


 Lauren, Ralph (Ralph Lifshitz), 1939--, based in N.Y.C. Noted from 1960s
 for "Polo" men's collections that began with tie designs. Women's
 clothes, featuring masculine tailoring, since 1971. Major late 1970s
 success with "Western" look. Espouses American motifs.


 Lelong, Lucien, 1889--1958, major Paris success, 1930s and 40s. Perfumes;
 hobble skirts; bared shoulders; tailored suits with cutaway bodices;
 flared skirts; dresses with pleats, tiers, diagonal draping; decolletage
 in back.


 Mainbocher (Main Rousseau Bocher), 1891--1976. Paris house, 1930, New
 York house, 1940. Elegant evening clothes; cardigan sweaters with jeweled
 buttons; highwaisted, long, lacy or transparent ball gowns; wartime WAVES
 uniforms.


 Poiret, Paul, 1879--1943, dominated Paris fashions 1909--14. Culottes;
 hobble-skirted day dresses; suits with light corsetting; walking coat and
 dress ensembles; short hoop skirts over long sheaths. Made boyishness
 vogue. Influenced by ART NOUVEAU and Oriental designs.


 Pucci, Emilio, 1914--, Italian; began career in 1947. Elegant sportswear;
 own multicolored printed fabric, with geometric and organic patterns;
 brilliant colors in silk blouses, knit sweaters, underclothes, scarves,
 towels. Accessories, e.g., perfumes, belts, jewelry; objects, e.g., car
 roofs.


 Quant, Mary, 1934--, London boutique, a source of the "mod" or "Chelsea"
 look of 1960s. Miniskirts; vinyl boots; geometric pattern dresses;
 jumpsuits; the "wet" look.


 Saint-Laurent, Yves, 1936--, Dior's successor; based in Paris and New
 York. Early "chic beatnik" look: knitted turtlenecks; thigh-length boots;
 skin-tight trousers. Later designs include tweed suits; pleated skirts;
 costume jewelry; metallic look; "peasant" look; feather trims.
 Accessories, clothes for men also.


 Schiaparelli, Elsa, 1890--1973, Paris 1920s, New York from 1949.
 Flamboyant innovator. Shocking pink, other colors; first haute couture
 use of synthetics, zippers. Perfume; wide-shouldered suits; small hats;
 scarves. Extravagant, amusing designs.


 Vionnet, Madeleine, 1876--1975. Parisian house, 1918--39. Graceful,
 sensuous silks, organdies, chiffons, velvets, lames. Swirling evening
 gowns; medieval and Greek-inspired styles; diaphanous evening wear.


 Worth, Charles Frederick, 1825--95, English, founded Maison Worth,
 women's fashion arbiter for over a century, in Paris, London. Dressmaker
 to French, Austrian courts. Created ancestor of tailor-made suit;
 invented puffed tunic ("polonaise").





   Fassbinder, Rainer Werner

 Fassbinder, Rainer Werner, 1946-82, German film director. His over 40
 films, many of which portray post-World War II German life, include Why
 Does Herr R. Run Amok? (1969), The Marriage of Maria Braun (1979), Lola
 (1982), and Veronika Voss (1982).

   Fatehpur Sikri

 Fatehpur Sikrior Fathpur Sikri, historic city, Uttar Pradesh state, N
 India. It was founded (1569) by AKBAR as his capital and is unique in
 India as a largely intact masterpiece of Mogul architecture.

   Fates

 Fates, in Greek mythology, three goddesses who controlled human life;
 also called the Moerae or Moirai. They were: Clotho, who spun the web of
 life; Lachesis, who measured its length; and Atropos, who cut it. The
 Roman Fates were the Parcae; the Germanic Fates were the NORNS.

   Fathers of the Church

 Fathers of the Church, Christian writers of antiquity whose work is
 generally considered orthodox. A convenient definition includes all such
 writers up to and including St. GREGORY I in the West and St. JOHN OF
 DAMASCUS in the East. The Christian church also recognized Doctors of the
 Church who exhibited great holiness and learning. The eight ancient
 doctors are Saints Basil the Great, GREGORY NAZIANZEN, JOHN CHRYSOSTOM,
 and ATHANASIUS in the East; and Saints AMBROSE, JEROME, AUGUSTINE, and
 GREGORY I in the West.

   Fatimid

 Fatimid or Fatimite,dynasty founded by Said ibn Husayn of NE Syria, which
 claimed the CALIPHATE on the basis of descent from Fatima, daughter of
 MUHAMMAD the Prophet. Doctrinally, the Fatimids were related to other
 Shiite sects, especially the DRUZE. Around 893, a follower of Said ibn
 Husayn, Al-Shii, went to NW Africa and with the support of the BERBERS
 won Tunisia, Sicily, NE Algeria, and NW Libya for the Fatimids. Said ibn
 Husayn was then hailed as the MAHDI. In the reign (953-75) of the fourth
 caliph, Moizz, the Fatimids conquered Egypt, Palestine, parts of Syria,
 and W Arabia. In 973 Moizz moved his capital to the new city of Cairo.
 Reliance on mercenaries, religious intolerance, and losses to the Normans
 and Crusaders in the 11th cent. led to the decline of the Fatimids, who
 were succeeded in their last stronghold, Egypt, by the rival ABBASIDS in
 1171.

   fats and oils

 fats and oils, group of organic substances that form an important part of
 the diet and are used in industry. Generally, fats are solid and oils
 liquid at ordinary room temperatures. Vegetable oils, e.g., those from
 CORN, PEANUTS, and linseed (see LINSEED OIL), are made by pressing
 crushed fruits or seeds. The highest grade oils, used in food, are cold
 pressed. Subsequent warm pressing or extraction with solvents yields
 industrial-grade oil, used, for example, in making SOAP. Most animal
 fats, e.g., BUTTER and lard, are saturated fats, i.e., compared with
 unsaturated fats or oils, they contain more hydrogen relative to carbon
 and do not become as easily rancid. Hardening, the conversion of
 unsaturated liquid oils into more saturated solid fats by hydrogenation,
 is an important chemical industry. Although fats and oils are
 nutritionally important as energy sources, medical research indicates
 that saturated fats may contribute to the incidence of ARTERIOSCLEROSIS
 by increasing the blood's level of CHOLESTEROL, a substance deposited in
 the arteries. See also ESSENTIAL OILS; PETROLEUM.

   Faulkner, William

 Faulkner, William, 1897-1962, American novelist; b. New Albany, Miss. One
 of the great American writers of the 20th cent., he explored the loss of
 traditional values and the decay and anguish of the post-Civil War South,
 using the imaginary Yoknapatawpha county as a microcosm of Southern life.
 A brilliant literary technician, Faulkner was master of a rhetorical,
 highly symbolic style. He was awarded the 1949 Nobel Prize in literature.
 His best-known novels include The Sound and the Fury (1929), The Hamlet
 (1940), A Fable (1954; Pulitzer), and The Reivers (1962; Pulitzer). He
 also published short stories, essays, and poems.

   fault

 fault, in geology, a fracture in the earth's crust in which the rocks on
 each side move in relation to each other. This movement can be vertical,
 horizontal, or oblique. Horizontal faults showing lateral displacement of
 points originally directly opposite each other, such as the SAN ANDREAS
 FAULT in California, are called strike-slip. Another type of horizontal
 fault, the transform fault, occurs on the ocean floor between offset
 portions of the mid-ocean ridge (see PLATE TECTONICS). Altered positions
 of rocks due to faulting can mislead the geologist, because one rock
 layer can appear twice in the same cross section or disappear entirely.
 See also EARTHQUAKE.

   Faunus

 Faunus, in Roman myth, woodland deity, protector of herds and crops;
 identified with the Greek PAN. He was attended by fauns-mischievous
 creatures, half man, half goat.

   Faure, Gabriel Urbain

 Faure, Gabriel Urbain, 1845-1924, French composer and teacher of RAVEL.
 His works include refined, intimate piano and CHAMBER MUSIC, operas, a
 famous Requiem (1888), and SONGS, e.g., "Clair de Lune."

   Faust

 Faustor Faustus,or Johann Faust, fl. 16th cent., learned German doctor
 who performed magic and died mysteriously. According to legend he sold
 his soul to the devil (Mephistopheles) in exchange for youth, knowledge,
 and magical power. Literary treatments of the story include the Volksbuch
 of Johannes Spies (1587), Christopher MARLOWE'S Dr. Faustus (1593),
 GOETHE'S masterpiece Faust (1808, 1833), and Thomas MANN'S Doctor Faustus
 (1947). The legend inspired many composers of musical works, including
 BERLIOZ, GOUNOD, LISZT, SCHUMANN, and BOITO.

   fauvism

 fauvism Fr., fauve=wild beast, name derisively hurled at and cheerfully
 adopted by a group of French painters including MATISSE, ROUAULT, DERAIN,
 VLAMINCK, BRAQUE, and DUFY. Fauvism was essentially an expressionist


 evolution of 20th-cent. art.

   Fawkes, Guy

 Fawkes, Guy: see GUNPOWDER PLOT.

   FBI

 FBI: see FEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION.

   Fe

 Fe, chemical symbol of the element IRON.

   feathers

 feathers, outgrowths of the skin that constitute the protective and
 decorative plumage of birds and are thought to have evolved from
 reptilian scales in Mesozoic times. Feathers grow only along defined
 tracts; full grown, they lack a blood supply and have hollow shafts.
 Typically, barbs radiate from the distal part of the shaft (the rachis)
 and interlock via smaller cross-linking barbules to form a web, which
 gives the feather flexibility and durability. Down feathers of young
 birds and the protective undercoats of aquatic birds lack webs.
 Specializations (e.g., crests, ruffs, and topknots) and modifications
 (e.g., bristles) exist. Most feather colors (e.g., red, yellow, brown)
 are due to pigment in the feather; some (e.g., green and violet), as well
 as iridescent effects, are due to reflection and diffraction of light.
 The most important roles of feathers are in flight and heat retention.

   feather star

 feather star: see CRINOID.

   February

 February: see MONTH.

   February Revolution

 February Revolution, 1848, French revolution that overthrew the monarchy
 of LOUIS PHILIPPE and established the Second Republic. There was general
 dissatisfaction with the reactionary policies of the king and his
 minister Francois GUIZOT, and with the poor conditions of the working
 class, which worsened in the economic crisis of 1846-47. After the
 government forbade a banquet to promote political opposition, street
 fighting began and government troops fired (Feb. 23, 1848) on the
 demonstrators, setting off the revolution. Louis Philippe abdicated on
 Feb. 24. A provisional government was formed and a republic was
 proclaimed, but the differing aims of the bourgeois revolutionaries and
 the radicals contributed to the revolution's eventual failure. To appease
 the workers and radicals, the right to work was guaranteed and national
 workshops were established, but deliberate mismanagement and the election
 of a more moderate government led to the dissolution of the workshops in
 May. The resulting workers' rebellion, known as the JUNE DAYS, was
 crushed. After the completion of the republican constitution, Prince
 Louis Napoleon (later NAPOLEON III) was elected president. The revolution
 set off similar uprisings in Europe, but they failed virtually everywhere
 (see REVOLUTIONS OF 1848).

   February Revolution

 February Revolution, 1917, in Russian history: see RUSSIAN REVOLUTION.

   Federal Art Project

 Federal Art Project: see WORK PROJECTS ADMINISTRATION.

   Federal Aviation Administration

 Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), U.S. government agency formed
 (1958) to regulate and promote air transportation. Its duties include the
 management of air traffic, the promulgation of safety regulations, and
 the setting of standards for airports and pilots. It assumed many of the
 functions of the Civil Aeronautics Board, or CAB (est. as the Civil
 Aeronautics Authority, 1938), and became (1967) part of the Dept. of
 Transportation. In 1981-82, it took over authority for the limited
 regulation of domestic routes and fares from the CAB, which was abolished
 by 1985.

   Federal Bureau of Investigation

 Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), division of the U.S. Dept. of
 Justice charged with investigating all violations of federal law except
 those specifically assigned to other federal agencies. The FBI
 investigates espionage, sabotage, KIDNAPPING, bank robbery, CIVIL RIGHTS
 violations, and fraud against the government, and conducts security
 clearances. Created in 1908, the bureau greatly increased its scope under
 the directorship (1924-72) of J. Edgar HOOVER, gaining wide popularity in
 the 1930s for its fight against criminal desperadoes such as John
 DILLINGER and against World War II saboteurs. During Hoover's
 controversial final years, the FBI came under attack for what many
 considered political bias and violation of the constitutional rights of
 citizens. See also INTELLIGENCE GATHERING.

   Federal Communications Commission

 Federal Communications Commission (FCC), independent U.S. agency created
 (1934) to regulate interstate and foreign communications, including
 various kinds of radio, television, wire, and cable transmissions. The
 FCC is empowered to grant, revoke, renew, and modify broadcasting
 licenses and to assign broadcast frequencies.

   Federal Constitutional Convention

 Federal Constitutional Convention, in U.S. history, the meeting
 (May-Sept. 1787) in Philadelphia at which the CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED
 STATES was drawn up. The Articles of CONFEDERATION, under which the U.S.
 had been governed, provided only a weak central government that had
 trouble conducting foreign policy, quelling internal disorders, and
 maintaining economic stability. Demand for a more centralized government
 grew steadily among the wealthy and conservative classes in many states.
 In 1786 a commercial conference, the ANNAPOLIS CONVENTION, disbanded with
 a call to convene a meeting in Philadelphia the next year for the purpose
 of revising the Articles. All states except Rhode Island sent delegates;
 George WASHINGTON presided. The major dispute at the convention was
 between large and small states over representation in the new Congress. A
 compromise proposal for a Congress with an upper house in which states
 were equally represented and a lower house elected by population was
 proposed by Oliver ELLSWORTH and Roger Sherman, and finally approved.
 James MADISON was the chief drafter of the Constitution; Gouverneur
 MORRIS contributed to its style. Despite opposition, a sufficient number
 of states ratified the document to make it effective by the end of June,
 1788.

   Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation

 Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), an independent U.S. agency
 established (1933) to promote public confidence in banks and to protect
 the money supply by providing a floor of insurance coverage for bank
 deposits in all national and state banks that are members of the FEDERAL
 RESERVE SYSTEM. It also examines insured state-chartered banks that are
 not members of the Federal Reserve.

   federal government

 federal government or federation,government of a union of states in which
 sovereignty is divided between a central authority and component state
 authorities. The central government most often handles the concerns of
 the people as a whole, including foreign affairs, defense, coinage, and
 commerce; the local entities retain other jurisdictions. A successful
 federation usually requires a fairly uniform legal system and broad
 cultural affinities. The federal system is often accompanied by tensions
 between the central government (with its need for unity among the states)
 and state governments (with their desire for autonomy). Modern
 federations include the U.S., Switzerland, Australia, and Canada. The
 USSR is technically a federation, but the component republics are
 subservient to the central authority.

   Federalist party

 Federalist party, U.S. political faction that supported a strong federal
 government. During Pres. WASHINGTON'S administration (1789-97) political
 factions appeared within his cabinet, and the group that gathered around
 Alexander HAMILTON was called Federalists. They were conservatives who
 favored strong centralized government, encouragement of industry,
 attention to the needs of the great merchants and landowners, and a
 well-ordered society. They also were pro-British in foreign affairs. The
 party was concentrated in New England, with a strong element in the
 Middle Atlantic states. After the Democratic party's victory in 1800, the
 Federalists remained powerful locally, but leadership passed to
 reactionaries rather than moderates. Federalist opposition to the EMBARGO
 ACT OF 1807 and to the WAR OF 1812 resulted in the HARTFORD CONVENTION,
 but the successful issue of the war ruined the party, and by 1824 it was
 virtually dead.

   Federal Reserve System

 Federal Reserve System, central banking system of the U.S., established
 by the Federal Reserve Act (1913). The act created 12 regional Federal
 Reserve banks, supervised by a Federal Reserve Board. All national banks
 must belong to the system, and state banks may if they meet certain
 requirements. Member banks hold the bulk of the deposits of all
 commercial banks in the country. The Board of Governors of the Federal
 Reserve System is composed of seven members appointed to staggered
 14-year terms by the president, who also names one of the governors as
 chairman but has no power to remove any member. The Federal Open Market
 Committee directs purchases and sales by the reserve banks of U.S.
 government securities in the open market. The most important duties of
 the Federal Reserve authorities involve the maintenance of national
 monetary and credit conditions through lending to member banks,
 open-market operations, fixing reserve requirements, and establishing
 discount rates. In a sense, each Federal Reserve bank is a "banker's
 bank," with member banks using their reserve accounts much as bank
 depositors use their checking accounts. By controlling the credit market,
 the Federal Reserve System influences the nation's economic life. It can
 expand or contract the MONEY supply by buying or selling U.S. securities
 and by raising or lowering reserve requirements (the amount that member
 banks must set aside as reserves). Other important functions include the
 issuance of currency and coins, and the setting of margin requirements
 (credit limits) in the stock exchanges. See also CENTRAL BANK.

   Federal Theatre

 Federal Theatre: see THEATER .

   Federal Trade Commission

 Federal Trade Commission (FTC), independent U.S. agency established in
 1914 and charged with keeping business competition free and fair. Its
 duties include enforcing ANTITRUST LAWS, preventing the dissemination of
 false and deceptive advertising, regulating the labeling and packaging of
 commodities, and gathering data concerning business conditions and making
 it available to Congress, the president, and the public. It may require
 corporations to submit information about their business practices if
 there is substantial evidence of wrongdoing. It is also empowered to
 issue cease-and-desist orders and to take violators to court.

   Federal Writers' Project

 Federal Writers' Project: see WORK PROJECTS ADMINISTRATION.

   federation

 federation: see FEDERAL GOVERNMENT.

   Fehmgericht

 Fehmgericht: see VEHMGERICHT.

   Feininger, Lyonel

 Feininger, Lyonel, 1871-1956, American painter; b. N.Y.C. Living in
 Europe, he was an illustrator and caricaturist before turning to easel
 painting in 1907. Feininger exhibited with the BLAUE REITER group and
 taught at the BAUHAUS in Germany (1919-32). He returned to the U.S. in
 1937. Feininger developed a geometric style with interlocking translucent
 planes, often portraying sailboats or skyscrapers. His work is
 represented in many leading museum collections.

   Feisal

 Feisal: see FAISAL.

   feldspar

 feldspar or felspar,a group of potassium-, sodium-, and calcium-aluminum
 silicate minerals (KAlSi3O8, NaAlSi3O8, and CaAl2Si2O8) and their
 isomorphic mixtures. The three pure members are called, respectively,
 orthoclase, albite, and anorthite. As constituents of crystalline rocks,
 the feldspars form much of the earth's crust. Pure feldspar is colorless
 and transparent, but impurities commonly make it opaque and colorful.
 Potassium feldspars are used in making porcelain and as a source of
 aluminum in making glass. The plagioclase feldspars (those ranging in
 composition from albite to anorthite) are commonly gray and occasionally
 red. MOONSTONE is a gem variety.

   Felix V

 Felix V, antipope: see AMADEUS VIII.

   Feller, Bob

 Feller, Bob (Robert William Andrew Feller), 1918-, American baseball
 player; b. Van Meter, Iowa. A pitcher famous for his fastball, he won 266
 games (1936-56) with the Cleveland Indians. He threw 3 no-hit and 12
 one-hit games.

   Fellini, Federico

 Fellini, Federico, 1920-, Italian film director. His films, noted for
 their extravagant visual fantasy, include La Dolce Vita (1960), City of
 Women (1980), and Ginger and Fred (1985).

   felony

 felony, in CRIMINAL LAW, an offense more serious than a MISDEMEANOR, from
 which it is distinguished by the severity of the prescribed punishment.
 State laws vary, but in most U.S. jurisdictions (and in federal statutes)
 felonies are those crimes punishable by death or by imprisonment for more
 than one year. Felonies are usually tried by a JURY.

   felspar

 felspar: see FELDSPAR.

   Femgericht

 Femgericht: see VEHMGERICHT.

   feminism

 feminism, movement for women's political, social, and educational
 equality with men. Early leaders, including Mary WOLLSTONECRAFT in
 England and Elizabeth Cady STANTON and Susan B. ANTHONY in the U.S.,
 demanded full legal and economic equality for women. Gradually women in
 the U.S. won the right to own property and to enter the professions, and
 in 1920, after a prolonged struggle for WOMAN SUFFRAGE led by Carrie
 Chapman CATT and others, they obtained the right to vote through the
 passage of the 19th amendment to the U.S. CONSTITUTION. Women were fully
 enfranchised in Britain by 1928 and throughout most of the world by 1950.
 Betty FRIEDAN and the NATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR WOMEN played prominent
 roles in the resurgence of feminism in the U.S. from the 1960s, stressing
 equal pay and employment opportunities, DAY-CARE CENTERS, the right to
 ABORTION, and the need for liberation from sexual harassment and sex
 stereotyping. The movement achieved much but failed in one of its key
 goals, that of securing ratification by 38 states of the federal Equal
 Rights Amendment (ERA) within 10 years of its passage (1972) by Congress.

   fencing

 fencing, sport of dueling with foil, epee, and saber. The weapons and
 rules of modern fencing evolved from combat weapons and their usage. The
 foil, a light, flexible weapon with a blunted point, was originally used
 for practice. The epee, or dueling sword, is a straight, narrow, stiff
 weapon without cutting edges. The saber, a light version of the old
 cavalry broadsword, has a flexible, triangular blade with theoretical
 cutting edges. Fencing matches may be conducted among individuals or
 between teams, generally of nine players (three for each weapon). Points
 are made by touching the opponent. Protective clothing includes heavy
 canvas jackets, wire-mesh masks, and gloves. In women's fencing, only the
 foil is used. Fencing was first developed as a sport by the Germans in
 the 14th cent. It was included in the first modern Olympic Games in 1896.

   Fenian movement

 Fenian movement, a secret revolutionary society, organized c.1858 in
 Ireland and the U.S. to achieve Irish independence from England by force.
 The famine of the 1840s, which forced vast numbers of Irishmen to
 emigrate, brought to a crisis Irish discontent with English rule. In
 Ireland the Fenian movement was led by James Stephens. It appealed to the
 nonagrarian population and was opposed by the Roman Catholic Church. The
 various Fenian risings and acts of terrorism led at first to suppression
 by the British but eventually drew Parliament's attention to Irish
 problems. The movement in the U.S. was led by the emigre Irish
 revolutionary John O'Mahony. In 1865 a group of embittered Irish-American
 Fenians unsuccessfully attempted to invade Canada. The movement continued
 until 1914 but its influence was largely drawn into new organizations,
 notably the SINN FEIN.

   Fenians

 Fenians, a professional military corps that roamed over ancient Ireland
 (c.3d cent.) in the service of the high kings. They figure in the legends
 that developed around FINN MAC CUMHAIL and OSSIAN.

   fennel

 fennel, common name for several herbs, particularly those of the genus
 Foeniculum of the CARROT family. Their licorice-scented foliage and seeds
 are used for flavoring. Sweet fennel has a thickened leaf base and is
 eaten like CELERY.

   Fens, the

 Fens, the, also Fenland, fertile agricultural district, E England,
 reclaimed from The Wash, an arm of the North Sea. Romans, then Saxons,
 attempted to drain the low-lying, original swampland. Effective drainage
 began in the 17th cent. under Cornelius Vermuyden, a Dutch engineer, and
 continued into the 19th cent. A drainage-improvement program was
 completed in the 1960s to deal with continued land sinkage.

   Ferber, Edna

 Ferber, Edna, 1887-1968, American author; b. Kalamazoo, Mich. Her
 colorful novels of American life include So Big (1924; Pulitzer), Show
 Boat (1926), and Giant (1952). She also wrote plays with G.S. KAUFMAN,
 e.g., Stage Door (1936).

   Ferdinand

 Ferdinand, rulers of the HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE. Ferdinand I, 1503-64, emperor
 (1558-64), king of BOHEMIA (1526-64) and of HUNGARY (1526-64), was the
 younger brother of Emperor CHARLES V; he increasingly acted as Charles's
 agent in the Hapsburg lands. In Hungary he fought against rival claimants
 who had the support of Ottoman Sultan SULAYMAN I, to whom he eventually
 was forced to pay tribute. In Bohemia, Ferdinand vigorously pushed
 Catholic reform and established HAPSBURG absolutism. In Germany he dealt
 with the Peasants' War and other rebellions, and negotiated the Peace of
 Augsburg (1555). Charles abdicated in his favor in 1558. Ferdinand II,
 1578-1637, emperor (1619-37), king of Bohemia (1617-37) and of Hungary
 (1618-37), was the grandson of Ferdinand I. In 1619 the Bohemian nobles
 rebelled and elected FREDERICK THE WINTER KING, thus beginning the THIRTY
 YEARS WAR. Ferdinand defeated Frederick in 1620, but the war continued.
 Ferdinand was almost certainly responsible for the murder (1634) of his
 leading general, WALLENSTEIN. Ferdinand III, 1608-57, emperor (1637-57),
 king of Hungary (1626-57) and of Bohemia (1627-57), was nominal head
 after 1634 of the imperialist forces in the Thirty Years War. After he
 succeeded his father, Ferdinand II, as emperor, the war took a disastrous
 turn. The Peace of WESTPHALIA, which he was forced to accept (1648),
 virtually ended the central power of the Holy Roman Empire. Ferdinand
 spent the last years of his reign healing the wounds of war and reforming
 the imperial bureaucracy.

   Ferdinand

 Ferdinand, 1861-1948, czar of Bulgaria (1908-18), after being ruling
 prince (1887-1908). He declared Bulgarian independence from Turkey in
 1908 and was a victor in the first of the BALKAN WARS (1912-13). His
 fortunes later declined, and in 1918 he was forced to abdicate in favor
 of his son, BORIS III.

   Ferdinand

 Ferdinand, kings of Bohemia and Hungary: see FERDINAND, rulers of the
 Holy Roman Empire.

   Ferdinand

 Ferdinand, kings of Portugal. Ferdinand I, 1345-83 (r.1367-83), the son
 of PETER I, had ambitions for the throne of CASTILE that led to three
 disastrous wars between 1369 and 1382. In 1372 he allied himself with
 JOHN OF GAUNT of England, but their two wars against Castile resulted in
 defeat. The final war ended with the marriage of Ferdinand's daughter,
 Beatrice, and John I of Castile. The throne of Portugal, after
 Ferdinand's death and a national revolution, went to his half brother,
 JOHN I. Ferdinand II, 1816-85 (r.1837-53), was the king consort of Maria
 II of Portugal and was regent for their son, PETER V. He was more
 interested in his art collection than in governing the country.

   Ferdinand

 Ferdinand, 1865-1927, king of RUMANIA (1914-27); nephew and successor of
 CAROL I. He took Rumania (1916) into WORLD WAR I on the Allied side. In
 1918 he acquired Bessarabia, and in 1919 he successfully intervened in
 Hungary against the Communist government of Bela KUN. During his reign
 agrarian reforms and universal male suffrage were instituted.

   Ferdinand

 Ferdinand, Spanish kings. Ferdinand I (the Great), d. 1065, king of
 CASTILE (1035-65) and of LEON (1037-65), inherited the former kingdom and
 conquered the latter. He reduced the Moorish kings of Zaragoza, Badajoz,
 SEVILLE, and TOLEDO to vassalage and introduced church reforms. Prior to
 his death, he divided his kingdom among three sons. Ferdinand III,
 1199-1252, king of Castile (1217-52) and Leon (1230-52), permanently
 united the two kingdoms in 1230. He crusaded against the MOORS and
 completed the reconquest of Spain, except for the kingdom of GRANADA, by
 1248. Ferdinand IV, 1285-1312, king of Castile and Leon (1295-1312),
 conquered GIBRALTAR (1309) from the Moors with the help of ARAGON, but he
 failed in his attempt to take Algeciras. Ferdinand V (the Catholic), king
 of Castile and Leon (1474-1504, jointly with his wife, ISABELLA I), king
 of Aragon (as Ferdinand II, 1479-1516), king of Sicily (1468-1516), and
 king of Naples (1504-16), with his wife completed the unification of
 Spain by conquering Granada in 1492. In that fateful year they also
 expelled the JEWS and sponsored COLUMBUS'S discovery of the New World.
 Ferdinand fought France in the ITALIAN WARS and captured NAPLES. After
 Isabella's death (1504), he kept control of Castile by acting as regent
 for their daughter, JOANNA. He increased the powers of the throne by
 curbing the nobles and the CORTES. During his reign Spain became an

 empire to his grandson, Holy Roman Emperor CHARLES V. Ferdinand VI,
 c.1712-59, king of Spain (1746-59), kept the nation out of the SEVEN
 YEARS WAR during his lifetime. After the death (1758) of his beloved
 queen, Maria Barbara de Braganza, Ferdinand did not recover from his
 grief and died soon afterward. Ferdinand VII, 1784-1833, king of Spain
 (1808-32), was forced by NAPOLEON I to renounce his throne and was
 imprisoned in France during the PENINSULAR WAR (1808-14). His name became
 the rallying cry of Spanish nationalists who resisted the French invaders
 and proclaimed (1812) a liberal constitution. But when he was restored to
 the throne (1814), Ferdinand proved to be a thorough reactionary; he
 abolished the new constitution but was forced to reinstate it by a
 revolution (1820). Backed by France's military intervention, he revoked
 the constitution again (1823) and ruthlessly repressed Spanish liberals.
 Ferdinand's death caused no less trouble than his reign; he had excluded
 his brother, Don Carlos, from the throne and thus brought on the CARLIST
 wars.

   Ferdinand

 Ferdinand, kings of the TWO SICILIES. Ferdinand I, 1751-1825
 (r.1816-1825), had previously been king of Naples as Ferdinand IV and
 king of Sicily as Ferdinand III. He had succeeded (1759) to the kingdoms
 when his father became king of Spain as CHARLES III. He opposed the
 French, who drove him from Naples to Sicily in 1799 and 1806. Restored
 (1815) in Naples, he abolished Sicilian autonomy and proclaimed himself
 king of the Two Sicilies. His rule was despotic. His grandson, Ferdinand
 II, 1810-59 (r.1830-59), initially tried to improve the kingdom's
 wretched state but soon drifted into absolutism. He bombarded Messina
 (1848) and Palermo (1849) to quell disorders, thus earning the nickname
 "King Bomba."

   Ferdinand the Catholic (Ferdinand V)

 Ferdinand the Catholic (Ferdinand V): see under FERDINAND, Spanish kings.

   Fergana

 Ferganaor (Ferghana Valley), region, c.8,500 sq mi (22,000 sq km), in the
 Uzbek, Tadzhik, and Kirghiz republics of the S USSR. It is one of Soviet
 Central Asia's most densely populated agricultural and industrial areas,
 with important oil, coal, natural gas, and iron deposits. The valley
 belonged to a succession of Central Asian empires until it was acquired
 by Russia in 1876. It prospered until the 16th cent. from caravan trade
 along the traditional silk route between China and the Mediterranean.

   Ferlinghetti, Lawrence

 Ferlinghetti, Lawrence, 1919-, American poet and publisher; b. Yonkers,
 N.Y. His City Lights Bookshop in San Francisco was a center for BEAT
 GENERATION writers. Among his volumes of verse is A Coney Island of the
 Mind (1958).

   Fermat, Pierre de

 Fermat, Pierre de, 1601-65, French mathematician and magistrate. Although
 his work in mathematics was done for recreation, he was a founder of
 modern NUMBER THEORY and PROBABILITY theory. Many developments in number
 theory have resulted from unsuccessful attempts to prove Fermat's Last
 Theorem, a still unproved conjecture that states that the equation
 xn+yn=zn, where x, y, and  are nonzero integers, has no solutions for n
 when n  is an integer greater than 2.

   fermentation

 fermentation, anaerobic degradation of glucose and other simple sugars in
 the living cell. Of the many different kinds of glucose fermentation, two
 kinds predominate: one, in microorganisms and animal cells, produces
 lactic acid as the sole end product; the other, in brewer's yeast and
 some bacteria, yields ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide. Alcoholic
 fermentation to produce intoxicating beverages was practiced in
 antiquity. By 1500 BC production of beer from germinating cereals (malt)
 and of wine from crushed grapes was an established technical art in most
 of the Middle East. The modern science of biochemistry emerged directly
 from 19th-cent. studies of fermentation.

   fermented milk

 fermented milk, whole or skim milk curdled and thickened by
 lactic-acid-producing microorganisms. It was used in many forms by early
 nomadic herdsmen, especially in Asia, S and E Europe, Scandinavia,
 Africa, and South America. Yogurt, acidophilus milk, cultured buttermilk,
 and kumiss (koumiss) are forms of fermented milk.

   Fermi, Enrico

 Fermi, Enrico, 1901-54, American physicist; b. Italy; came to U.S., 1938.
 He contributed to the early theory of beta decay and the NEUTRINO and to
 quantum statistics and discovered the element NEPTUNIUM. For his
 experiments with RADIOACTIVITY he was awarded the 1938 Nobel Prize in
 physics. Fermi created (1942) the first self-sustaining chain reaction in
 uranium and worked on the atomic bomb at Los Alamos (see MANHATTAN
 PROJECT). He later helped develop the hydrogen bomb and served on the
 General Advisory Committee of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.

   Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory

 Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab), physical science
 research center (est. 1968) located near Batavia, Ill. Universities
 Research Association operates it under contract to the U.S. Dept. of
 Energy. Work at Fermilab is devoted to the study of elementary particles,
 principally through the use of a synchrotron particle accelerator capable
 of accelerating protons up to energies of 500 billion electron volts.

   fermium

 fermium (Fm), radioactive element, discovered in 1952 by Albert Ghiorso
 and colleagues in residue from a thermonuclear explosion. Its physical
 properties are largely unknown; its chemical properties are similar to
 those of other ACTINIDE SERIES members. See ELEMENT ; PERIODIC TABLE.

   fern

 fern, any plant of the division Polypodiophyta, consisting of several
 thousand species found worldwide, usually in tropical rain forests. Most
 common living ferns belong to the polypody family (Polypodiaceae) and are
 characterized by triangular fronds subdivided into many leaflets (pinnae)
 and smaller pinnules. Except for ornamentals, the only commercially
 important ferns are tree ferns (families Dicksoniaceae and Cyatheaceae),
 whose trunks are used in construction; the starchy pith is used as stock
 food. Ancestors of modern ferns were the dominant vegetation during the
 Carboniferous era. They, and such relatives as CLUB MOSSES and
 HORSETAILS, are the most primitive plants to have developed a true
 vascular system. Ferns reproduce by alternation of generations (see
 REPRODUCTION), and although no present-day ferns reproduce by seed, there
 is some fossil evidence that fernlike plants are the ancestors of seed
 plants (CONIFERS and true flowering plants).

   Fernandez de Lizardi, Jose Joaquin

 Fernandez de Lizardi, Jose JoaquinThe Itching Parrot (1816-30),
 considered the first Spanish American novel.

   Ferrara

 Ferrara, city (1986 est. pop. 143,950), in Emilia-Romagna, N Italy, an
 industrial and agricultural center on a marshy plain. It was the site of
 an ESTE family principality (13th cent.). Its commerce and art flourished
 during the Renaissance. The 12th-cent. cathedral, 14th-cent. castle, and
 several palaces are notable.

   Ferrara-Florence, Council of

 Ferrara-Florence, Council of: see COUNCIL, ECUMENICAL.

   Ferraro, Geraldine

 Ferraro, Geraldine, 1935-, U.S. politician; b. N.Y.C. A Democrat, she
 served three terms in the House of Representatives (1979-84). In 1984, as
 Walter MONDALE'S running mate, she became the first woman nominated for
 the vice-presidency by a major party in the U.S.

   ferret

 ferret, domesticated polecat (Mustela putorius), a WEASEL common in the
 Old World. Used for centuries to hunt rats, mice, and rabbits, the ferret
 is related to the wild North American black-footed ferret (M. nigripes),
 now nearly extinct.

   Ferry, Jules

 Ferry, Jules, 1832-93, French statesman, minister of education (1879-80,
 1882), premier (1880-81, 1883-85). He established the modern, secular
 French educational system. An exponent of imperialism, he directed French
 colonial expansion into Tunis, Tonkin, Madagascar, and Africa. He was
 assassinated by a religious fanatic.

   Fertile Crescent

 Fertile Crescent, historic region of the Middle East, flanked by the Nile
 R. (W) and the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (E). A well-watered area, it
 includes parts of Israel, Lebanon, Jordan, and Iraq. It was the cradle of
 many ancient civilizations, e.g., EGYPT and MESOPOTAMIA.

   fertility drug

 fertility drug, any of a variety of substances used to increase the
 potential for conception and successful pregnancy by correcting various
 functional disorders. In the male, inadequate sperm production can often
 be remedied by administering testosterone and sometimes pituitary
 hormones. In the female, failure to ovulate, the most common cause of
 female sterility, can sometimes be treated with the administration of
 gonadotropic hormone and, in some cases, clomiphene citrate. Often
 inducing more than one ovum in a month, the use of clomiphene may result
 in multiple births. In cases of repeated miscarriage or bleeding during
 pregnancy, PROGESTERONE has been found effective.

   fertilization

 fertilization, in biology, sexual reproductive process involving the
 union of two unlike sex cells (gametes)-the ovum, or egg (female), and
 sperm (male)-followed by fusion of their nuclei. The principle of
 fertilization is the same in all organisms. The ovum absorbs the first
 sperm to make successful contact and the two nuclei fuse, combining the
 hereditary material of both parents; the subsequent EMBRYO develops into
 a new individual. In lower plants and animals, the sperm swims to the egg
 through an external medium or through fluid in the female reproductive
 tract. In some higher plants, POLLINATION enables the sperm to contact
 the egg. In higher animals, sperm contact initiates cell division in the
 fertilized egg (zygote).

   fertilizer

 fertilizer, organic or inorganic material added to the soil to replace or
 increase plant nutrients. Organic fertilizers-including animal and green
 manure, fish and bone meal, guano (seabird excrement), and COMPOST-are
 decomposed by soil microorganisms, and their elements are freed for plant
 use (see HUMUS). Most inorganic or chemical fertilizers contain the major
 nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) in proportions required
 by the crop. Properly used, fertilizers increase crop yields; they do not
 affect a crop's nutritive properties unless specifically intended to do
 so. See also NITROGEN CYCLE.

   Festus

 Festus (Sextus Pompeius Festus), fl. at some time between AD 100 and 400,
 Roman lexicographer. His surviving work, On the Meaning of Words, an
 abridgment of the lost glossary of Marcus Verrius Flaccus, is important
 as a primary source for Roman scholarship and antiquities.

   fetish

 fetish, inanimate natural or man-made object believed to have magical
 power, either from a will of its own or from a god that has transformed
 the object into an instrument of its desires. A fetish with great power
 is often declared TABOO.

   Feuchtwanger, Lion

 Feuchtwanger, Lion, 1884-1958, German historical novelist. He achieved
 fame with The Ugly Duchess (1923), Jud Suss (1925), and the Josephus
 trilology (1923-42). Feuchtwanger left Germany in 1933 and lived in the
 U.S. after 1940. His novels are noted for imaginative historical
 reconstruction and character portrayal.

   feud

 feud, formalized private warfare, especially between family groups. The
 blood feud is characteristic of societies in which central government has
 not arisen or has decayed. The feud, now outlawed in most countries, has
 persisted where public justice cannot be easily enforced and private
 means are a simpler recourse.

   feudalism

 feudalism, a political and social system in Western Europe from the end
 of CHARLEMAGNE'S empire (late 9th cent. AD) to the rise of absolute
 monarchies. It had a local agricultural economy with the manor as its
 unit. In the MANORIAL SYSTEM, the VILLEIN and SERF held land from the
 lord of the manor, the seigneur or suzerain, in return for services,
 dues, and an oath of fealty. The king owned all land. Under him came a
 hierarchy of nobles, the highest holding land from the king and those of
 lesser rank from the nobles above them. Landholding was by fief and was
 ceremonially acquired by INVESTITURE. The unsettled conditions of the
 time necessitated warriors for the lord and protection for the vassal.
 Gradations of vassalage were based on land holding and military service,
 from the single serf to private armies of hundreds. The KNIGHT was the
 typical warrior, with the squire below him and counts, dukes, and other
 nobles above him. The system, rooted in the decay of Roman institutions,
 spread from France to Spain, to Italy, and later to Germany and E Europe.
 WILLIAM I (the Conqueror) brought (1066) the Frankish form of feudalism
 to England. Feudalism waned as powerful monarchies broke down local
 systems, but it lingered in France until the French Revolution, in
 Germany and Japan until the 19th cent., and in Russia, although serfdom
 was abolished officially in 1861, until 1917.

   Feuerbach, Ludwig Andreas

 Feuerbach, Ludwig Andreas, 1804-72, German philosopher. At first a
 follower of HEGEL, he abandoned IDEALISM for materialism, a progression
 that influenced Karl MARX in the development of DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM.
 Feuerbach rejected the "illusionistic" nature of religion and established
 a naturalistic-humanistic ethic that held mankind and nature to be the
 proper study of philosophy. His best-known work, The Essence of
 Christianity (1841), was translated into English by George ELIOT.

   Feuerbach, Paul Johann Anselm von

 Feuerbach, Paul Johann Anselm von, 1775-1833, German jurist. A
 criminal-law theorist, he argued in Critique of Natural Law (1796) that
 law was the positive mandate of the state, and not to be confused with
 natural morality. Feuerbach saw a dual role for criminal law as protector
 both of society (through its deterrent function) and of the individual
 (through its exact definition of crimes). In 1813 he drafted an
 influential liberal criminal code in Bavaria.

   Feuillants

 Feuillants,  political club of the FRENCH REVOLUTION. Emerging in July
 1791, the group advocated a constitutional monarchy. After the fall
 (Sept. 1792) of the monarchy, it was suppressed by the JACOBINS.

   Feynman, Richard Phillips

 Feynman, Richard Phillips,  1918-88, American physicist; b. N.Y.C. He
 shared (1965) the Nobel Prize in physics for his work on quantum
 electrodynamics. Feynman also explained, with Murray GELL-MANN, the
 interactions of the weak nuclear force. He worked on the early
 development of the atomic bomb and developed the Feynman diagram, a
 system of notation used to describe and calculate subatomic reactions.

   Fez

 Fez, city (1981 est. pop. 562,900), N central Morocco. It is located in a
 rich agricultural region. The city is noted for its Muslim art and its
 handicraft industries. It has given its name to the brimless felt caps
 that were formerly characteristic items of Muslim dress in the Middle
 East. Fez reached its zenith under the Marinid sultans in the mid-14th
 cent. It consists of the old city (founded AD 808) and the new city
 (founded 1276), connected by walls; there is also a European suburb. The
 city has more than 100 mosques.

   Fianna Fail

 Fianna Fail, Irish political party, organized in 1926 by opponents of the
 Anglo-Irish treaty of 1921 establishing the Irish Free State. Led by
 Eamon DE VALERA, the party gained control of the government in 1932 and
 advocated separation from Great Britain. Except for 1948-51 and 1954-57,
 it held power until 1973. It returned to power under John LYNCH (1977-79)
 and Charles HAUGHEY (1979-81, Mar.-Dec. 1982).

   fiat money

 fiat money: see MONEY.

   fiber

 fiber, threadlike strand, usually pliable and capable of being spun into
 a yarn. Fibers are classified as either natural (including animal,
 vegetable, and inorganic) or artificial (see SYNTHETIC TEXTILE FIBERS).
 Animal fibers, e.g., SILK, WOOL, and goat hair (mohair), consist mainly
 of proteins. Vegetable fibers, e.g., COTTON, consist mainly of cellulose.
 ASBESTOS is the chief natural inorganic fiber; FIBER GLASS is also of
 inorganic origin. Artificial fibers are made by either synthesizing
 POLYMERS, as in nylon, or altering natural fibers, as in RAYON. Fibers
 are used for textiles, e.g., cotton, silk, wool; cordage, e.g., hemp;
 brushes, e.g., animal hairs; filling, e.g., horsehair; and plaiting,
 e.g., sisal. The invention of SPINNING and WEAVING machinery during the
 INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION greatly increased the demand for fibers.

   fiber, food

 fiber, food, the complex of carbohydrates and other substances present
 primarily in the cell walls of plant foods. Fiber, also known as bulk or
 roughage, appears not to be digested or absorbed by humans but does seem
 to have significant physiological benefits in the digestive tract.

   fiber glass

 fiber glass, thread made from glass. Molten glass is forced through a
 kind of sieve, thus spinning it into threads. Strong, durable, and
 impervious to many caustics and to extreme temperatures, fiber glass
 fabrics are widely used in industry. Some, resembling silk and cotton,
 are used for drapery. Boat hulls and auto bodies molded of fiber glass
 combined with plastic are rustproof.

   fiber optics

 fiber optics, transmission of messages or information by light pulses
 along hair-thin glass fibers. Cables of optical fibers can be made
 smaller and lighter than conventional cables using copper wires or
 coaxial tubes, yet they can carry much more information, making them
 useful for transmitting large amounts of data between computers and for
 carrying data-intensive television pictures or many simultaneous
 telephone conversations. Optical fibers are immune to electromagnetic
 interference (from lightning, nearby electric motors, and similar
 sources) and to crosstalk from adjoining wires, and tapping into them is
 more easily detected. To keep a signal from deteriorating, optical fibers
 require fewer repeaters over a given distance than does copper wire. In
 addition to communications, optical fibers are starting to be used in
 automobiles and aircraft and are expected to have many other
 applications.

   Fibonacci, Leonardo

 Fibonacci, Leonardo; b. c.1170, d. after 1240; Italian mathematician,
 known also as Leonardo da Pisa. The Fibonacci SEQUENCE 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5,
 8, 13, 21,  . . .  , in which each term is the sum of the two preceding
 terms, occurs in higher mathematics in various connections.

   Fichte, Johann Gottlieb

 Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, 1762-1814, German philosopher. He received early
 recognition for A Critique of All Revelation (1788), erroneously
 attributed to KANT. His later works, including The Vocation of Man
 (1800), developed a transcendental IDEALISM that considered the
 individual ego as the source of experience and postulated an absolute ego
 or moral will of the universe from which everything derives. An important
 influence on Friedrich SCHELLING and G.W. HEGEL, Fichte is best
 remembered for his political theories. His Addresses to the German People
 (1808) established him as a leader of liberal nationalism, and he became
 a hero to the revolutionaries of 1848.

   fiction

 fiction: see NOVEL; SHORT STORY.

   Fiedler, Arthur

 Fiedler, Arthur, 1894-1979, American conductor; b. Boston. A versatile
 German-trained instrumentalist, he formed (1924) the Boston Sinfonietta,
 a group dedicated to performing little-heard compositions. In 1929 he
 inaugurated annual concerts at Boston's Esplanade bandshell. Fiedler
 became director of the Boston Pops Orchestra in 1930; for almost 50 years
 he led it to enormous international popularity with an astute blend of
 classical and popular music concerts featuring a wide variety of guest
 artists.

   Fiedler, Leslie

 Fiedler, Leslie, 1917-, American critic; b. Newark, N.J. He is probably
 best known for Love and Death in the American Novel (1960), a Freudian
 literary analysis. His other works include An End to Innocence (1955),
 essays; Nude Croquet (1969), stories; and Freaks (1978), a historical
 study.

   fief

 fief: see FEUDALISM.

   Field, Cyrus West

 Field, Cyrus West, 1819-92, American merchant, promoter of the first
 Atlantic CABLE; b. Stockbridge, Mass. In 1853 he retired with a modest
 fortune from the paper business. The next year he conceived the idea of
 the cable and organized English and American companies to lay it. The
 first message was transmitted on Aug. 16, 1858; the cable failed three
 weeks later, but he raised new funds and succeeded in laying a new cable
 in 1866. He later promoted other oceanic cables, notably one via Hawaii
 to Asia and Australia.

   Field, Eugene

 Field, Eugene, 1850-95, American writer; b. St. Louis. He was known for
 his wittily urbane newspaper column "Sharps and Flats." Among his books
 are A Little Book of Western Verse (1889) and With Trumpets and Drums
 (1892). Field's children's poems include "Little Boy Blue" and "Wynken,
 Blynken, and Nod."

   Field, Marshall

 Field, Marshall, 1834-1906, American merchant; b. Conway, Mass. As a
 partner in the firm of Field, Leiter, and Co. (founded 1881), he amassed
 one of the largest private fortunes in the U.S. and pioneered in many
 modern retailing practices. His large philanthropies included the Art
 Institute of Chicago, Univ. of Chicago, and the Chicago Museum of Natural
 History. His grandson, Marshall Field III, 1893-1956, was owner (1940-48)
 of the New York city liberal newspaper PM, and later of the Chicago Sun
 and Times.

   field

 field, in physics, region throughout which a force may be exerted;
 examples are the gravitational, electric, and magnetic fields that
 surround, respectively, masses, electric charges, and magnets (see
 GRAVITATION; ELECTRICITY; MAGNETISM). Fields are used to describe all
 cases in which two bodies separated in space exert a force on each other.

   field hockey

 field hockey: see HOCKEY, FIELD.

   Fielding, Henry

 Fielding, Henry, 1707-54, English novelist and dramatist. Tom Thumb
 (1730) was the most notable of his early comedies, farces, and
 burlesques. Two satires, Pasquin (1736) and The Historical Register for
 1736 (1737), in which he attacked the government of Robert WALPOLE, ended
 his dramatic career by provoking the Licensing Act of 1737, which
 censored the stage. Turning to the NOVEL, he achieved success with Joseph
 Andrews (1742), a parody of Samuel RICHARDSON'S Pamela; and Jonathan Wild
 (1743), the ironic history of a highwayman. His masterpiece, Tom Jones
 (1749), presents in the foundling Tom and his guardian, Squire Allworthy,
 Fielding's ideal man, in whom goodness and charity are combined with
 common sense. Memorable characters, brilliant plotting, and moral vision
 make it one of the greatest English novels. Fielding's last works were
 Amelia (1751) and the Journal of a Voyage to Lisbon (1755).

   field mouse

 field mouse: see VOLE.

   Field Museum of Natural History

 Field Museum of Natural History, at Chicago, est. 1893 with gifts of
 Marshall Field and others. It is noted for its exhibits of animals in
 their natural settings, displays of plant life, and anthropological and
 geological collections. The museum sponsors expeditions and conducts
 research.

   Field of the Cloth of Gold

 Field of the Cloth of Gold, meeting place of HENRY VIII of England and
 FRANCIS I of France, near Calais, France (1520). Both kings brought large
 retinues, and the name given the site indicates the splendor of the
 pageantry. The political results were negligible, because Henry had
 decided to ally himself with Holy Roman Emperor CHARLES V rather than
 with Francis.

   Fields, W.C.

 Fields, W.C., 1880-1946, American film actor; b. Philadelphia as William
 Claude Dukenfield. He played a series of drunken, misanthropic, yet
 wistful rascals in such comedies as It's a Gift (1934), My Little
 Chickadee (1940), and The Bank Dick (1940).

   fifth force

 fifth force, a postulated fifth basic, repulsive force of nature. It is
 said to be about 1000 times less powerful than gravity, and its strength
 is said to fall off quickly with distance, having a range of about 700 ft
 (200 m). If this force exists, it would disprove the long-held belief,
 first stated by GALILEO, that all objects fall at the same rate in a
 vacuum. The four known forces of nature are gravity, electromagnetism,
 and the strong and weak nuclear forces

   Fifty-four forty or fight

 Fifty-four forty or fight, in U.S. history, phrase commonly used by
 American extremists in the controversy with Great Britain over the OREGON
 country. They held that U.S. rights extended to lat. 54 deg40'N, the
 recognized southern boundary of Russian America. The phrase was used by
 Democrat James POLK in the 1844 presidential campaign. In 1846 the
 boundary was set at 49 degN.

   fig

 fig, plant (genus Ficus) of the MULBERRY family, comprising over 600
 species of vines, shrubs, and trees. Fig plants bear hundreds of tiny
 female flowers inside a fleshy receptacle, which ripens into a soft,
 pear-shaped fruit containing masses of tiny seeds. The common fig (F.
 carica), native to the Mediterranean region and cultivated from early
 times for its commercially valuable fruit, has been naturalized elsewhere
 in mild, semiarid climates. Some edible varieties can be pollinated only
 by the fig wasp.

   Figueiredo, Joao Baptista de Oliveira

 Figueiredo, Joao Baptista de Oliveira, 1918-, Brazilian general and
 politician, president of Brazil (1979-85). He was named (1974) to head
 the national intelligence service and in 1979 was chosen to succeed
 Ernesto Geisel as president. Figueiredo liberalized Brazil's military
 regime and moved the nation cautiously toward democracy.

   Figueres Ferrer, Jose

 Figueres Ferrer, Jose, 1906-, president of COSTA RICA (1948-49, 1953-58,
 1970-74). In 1948 he led a revolt to ensure the presidency of newly
 elected Otilio Ulate and served as provisional president. His
 administrations enacted social legislation and economic reforms.

   figured bass

 figured bass, in music, a system of shorthand notation in which figures
 are written below the notes of the bass part to indicate the chords to be
 played; also called thorough bass and basso continuo. It arose in the
 17th cent. and was widespread until after the time of J.S. BACH as a
 means of notating an accompaniment on the harpsichord or ORGAN.

   figurehead

 figurehead, carved decoration, usually a head or figure, placed under the
 bowsprit of a ship. Ancient ships had beaks on the bow to ram enemy
 vessels; these were often surmounted by figureheads of national or
 religious significance. Roman vessels often carried bronze gods' heads,
 and Viking ships had elaborately carved prows. Dragons, lions, and human
 forms adorned Renaissance vessels. In the final phase of the art, in the
 18th and 19th cent., highly original wood figureheads were carved in the
 United States.

   Fiji

 Fiji or Viti,independent republic (1986 pop. 714,000), c.7,000 sq mi
 (18,130 sq km), comprising c.320 islands (c.105 inhabited), in the SW
 Pacific Ocean. The two largest islands are Viti Levu, the site of Suva,
 the capital; and Vanua Levu. The climate is tropical. Sugarcane, copra,
 and ginger are the chief crops. Gold and fish are also significant
 exports. Tourism is important. The original Fijians, of Melanesian origin
 in the west and Polynesian origin in the east, are now outnumbered by
 Indians, who first came (1870-1916) to the islands as indentured workers
 for the British. The islands were discovered (1643) by the Dutch
 navigator Abel TASMAN and visited (1774) by Capt. James COOK. The first
 European settlement was established in 1804, and the islands were annexed
 by Britain in 1874. Fiji gained independence as a Commonwealth member in
 1970. Following two coups in 1987, Fiji declared itself a republic and
 left the Commonwealth.

   filbert

 filbert: see HAZEL.

   filibuster

 filibuster, term used to designate obstructionist tactics in legislative
 bodies, especially in the U.S. Senate. The term was applied in the 17th
 cent. to buccaneers who plundered Spanish colonies in the New World, and
 in the 19th cent. to adventurers who led private forays into friendly
 countries, e.g., from the U.S. into Cuba and Mexico.

   Filipepi, Alessandro di Mariano

 Filipepi, Alessandro di Mariano: see BOTTICELLI, SANDRO.

   Fillmore, Millard

 Fillmore, Millard, 1800-1874, 13th president of the U.S. (1850-53); b.
 Summerhill, N.Y. A U.S. representative from New York (1833-35, 1837-43),
 Fillmore was elected (1848) vice president on the WHIG PARTY ticket with
 Zachary TAYLOR. Succeeding to the presidency on Taylor's death, Fillmore
 signed the COMPROMISE OF 1850 and tried to enforce the FUGITIVE SLAVE
 ACT. He emphasized nonintervention in foreign disputes and signed a
 treaty opening Japan to Western commerce. Fillmore unsuccessfully strove
 to make the Whigs a national party, in order to conciliate the sectional
 struggle. In 1856 he was the presidential candidate of the KNOW-NOTHING
 MOVEMENT, which tried vainly to unite the North and South.

   finch

 finch, BIRD of the family Fringillidae, found worldwide except Australia,
 considered the most highly developed of birds. Finches are typified by
 stout, conical bills, used to open the seeds that comprise their main
 diet; many also eat insects. Highly diversified, finches are classified
 in three groups: those with triangular bills, e.g., CANARY, SPARROW, and
 the birds called finch, e.g., bullfinch and goldfinch; those with thick,
 rounded bills, e.g., CARDINAL; and those whose mandibles cross at the
 tips, e.g., crossbill. Because their seed diet does not depend on
 weather, many finches are year-round residents in colder areas.

   Fingal

 Fingal: see FINN MAC CUMHAIL.

   fingerprint

 fingerprint, an impression of the underside of the end of a finger or
 thumb, which has ridges that form a pattern unique to each person.
 Fingerprinting as an identification device dates from antiquity, but
 sophisticated modern methods are based on work by the English scientist
 Sir Francis GALTON and others during the late 19th cent. Fingerprint
 identification is used extensively in criminal investigation, the armed
 services, government employment, and banking. In the U.S. a national
 fingerprint file is maintained by the FEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION.

   Finiguerra, Maso

 Finiguerra, Masoor Tommaso, 1426-64, Florentine goldsmith and engraver
 during the RENAISSANCE. He collaborated with Antonio Pollaiuolo (see
 POLLAIUOLO, family) on such works as the baptistery Crucifixion in
 Florence.

   Finland

 Finland, Finnish Suomi, officially the Republic of Finland, republic
 (1986 est. pop. 4,930,000), 130,119 sq mi (337,009 sq km), N Europe;
 bordered by the Gulf of Bothnia and Sweden (W), Norway (N), the USSR (E),
 and the Gulf of Finland and the Baltic Sea (S). HELSINKI is the capital.
 There are three main geographical zones: a low-lying coastal strip in the
 south and west that includes most of the major cities; a vast forested
 interior plateau, dotted with some 60,000 lakes; and a thinly wooded or
 barren region north of the ARCTIC CIRCLE, part of LAPLAND. Since World
 War II, manufacturing has replaced agriculture as the principal sector of
 the economy; the chief manufactures are forest products (about 70% of
 Finland is forested), processed foods, metal and engineering products,
 machinery, and chemicals. Finland is also known for its design of glass,
 ceramics, and stainless-steel cutlery. Finnish and Swedish are both
 official languages, and most of the population belongs to the established
 Evangelical Lutheran Church. Finland is governed by an elected president
 and a 200-member unicameral parliament (Eduskunta).

 History Beginning in the 1st cent AD, Finland was settled by nomadic
 hunters and fishers, who forced the small number of Lapps living in the
 central and southern regions to move to the far north, where they live
 today. Sweden conquered the area in the 13th cent. but allowed the Finns
 considerable independence, raising Finland to the rank of grand duchy in
 1581. During the Napoleonic Wars, Finland was invaded by Russia, which
 annexed it in 1809. As a Russian grand duchy, Finland was again allowed
 wide-ranging autonomy. Finnish nationalism became a strong force early in
 the 19th cent.; an elected parliament was established in 1906, and
 Finnish independence was proclaimed in 1917. In the civil war that
 followed (1918), the nationalist White Guard, led by C.G.E. MANNERHEIM
 and aided by German troops, defeated the leftist Red Guard, supported by
 the Soviets. A republic was established in 1919. After the start of WORLD
 WAR II, Soviet troops invaded Finland (1939), which, despite heroic
 resistance, was defeated (1940). Hoping to recover territories lost in
 the conflict, Finland joined the German attack (1941) on the USSR but was
 forced to capitulate (1944). The armistice required Finland to expel the
 Germans, and in the ensuing Finnish-German warfare N Finland was
 devastated. The peace treaty signed in 1947 ceded additional Finnish
 territory to the USSR. In the postwar years the Social Democrat and
 Center (formerly Agrarian) parties dominated Finnish politics. U.K.
 KEKKONEN was president from 1956 to 1981. M.K. Koivisto was elected
 president in 1982 and pledged to continue a neutral foreign policy and to
 pursue good relations with the USSR.

   Finlay, Carlos Juan

 Finlay, Carlos Juan, 1833-1915, Cuban physician. He suggested (1881) the
 mosquito as the carrier of YELLOW FEVER and specified (1882) the correct
 species, now known as Aedes aegypti. A commission headed by Walter REED
 inaugurated (1900) experiments that proved his theory.

   Finney, Albert

 Finney, Albert, 1936-, English film actor. He has starred in such varied
 films as Tom Jones (1963), Murder on the Orient Express (1974), and Shoot
 the Moon (1982).

   Finney, Charles Grandison

 Finney, Charles Grandison, 1792-1875, American revivalist, theologian,
 and educator; b. Warren, Conn. He began his career as a Presbyterian
 minister. In 1834 the Broadway Tabernacle (N.Y.C.) was organized for him,
 and he soon left Presbyterianism for Congregationalism. He taught
 (1837-75) at Oberlin College and was its president (1851-65). His
 writings and preaching were very influential.

   Finnish language

 Finnish language, also called Suomi, member of the Finnic group of the
 Finno-Ugric languages. These languages form a subdivision of the Uralic
 subfamily of the URALIC AND ALTAIC family of languages. See LANGUAGE .

   Finn mac Cumhail, Fionn mac Cumhail

 Finn mac Cumhail, Fionn mac Cumhail,or Finn MacCool , semimythical Irish
 hero, celebrated in OSSIAN'S narrative poems and in the Fenian ballads,
 so called after the professional fighters Finn is said to have led in the
 3d cent.

   Finno-Ugric languages

 Finno-Ugric languages, group of languages forming a subdivision of the
 Uralic subfamily of the URALIC AND ALTAIC family of languages. See
 LANGUAGE .

   fiord

 fiord: see FJORD.

   fir

 fir, tree (genus Abies) of the PINE family, found chiefly in the alpine
 regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Tall, pyramidal evergreens, firs have
 short, flat, stemless needles and erect, cylindrical cones. They are
 valued for their fragrance and beauty. The balsam fir is a popular
 Christmas tree.

   Firbank, (Arthur Annesley) Ronald

 Firbank, (Arthur Annesley) Ronald, 1886-1926, English author. An
 eccentric aesthete, he wrote unconventional satiric novels, e.g.,
 Vainglory (1915), Valmouth (1919), Prancing Nigger (1924), that
 influenced WAUGH, Compton-Burnett, and Aldous HUXLEY.

   Firdausi

 Firdausi, c.940-1020, Persian poet, author of the Book of Kings, the
 first great work of Persian literature; b. Abdul Kasim Mansur. The Book
 of Kings is an epic poem recounting the history of Persia from the
 arrival of the Persians to that of the Arabs. It is noted for its even
 rhyme, stately cadences, and continuous flow.

   firearm

 firearm: see ARTILLERY; GUN; MORTAR; SMALL ARMS.

   firefly

 firefly or lightning bug,small, luminescent, nocturnal, carnivorous
 BEETLE of the family Lampyridae. They emit heatless flashes of
 green-yellow to red-orange light (see BIOLUMINESCENCE); these are sexual
 signals produced by special organs on the abdomen. Firefly larvae prey on
 snails and earthworms, and some are beneficial to agriculture. Larvae and
 wingless females are called glowworms.

   Firestone, Harvey Samuel

 Firestone, Harvey Samuel, 1868-1938, American industrialist; b.
 Columbiana co., Ohio. He began to manufacture rubber tires in 1896. The
 Firestone Fire & Rubber Co., which he organized in 1900, became a leader
 of the rubber industry and one of the largest tire manufacturers in the
 U.S.

   Firth, Raymond William

 Firth, Raymond William, 1901-, English social anthropologist; b. New
 Zealand. A professor at the Univ. of London (1944-68), he conducted
 research in the Pacific and in West Africa, focusing on social
 organization and economic systems. His works include We the Tikopia
 (1936, rev. ed. 1957) and Symbols: Public and Private (1973).

   Fischer, Bobby

 Fischer, Bobby (Robert James Fischer), 1943-, American chess player; b.
 Chicago. In 1972 at Reykjavik, Iceland, he won the world chess
 championship from Boris Spassky of the USSR. Fischer subsequently
 disputed match rules with the International Federation of Chess, and in
 1975 Anatoly KARPOV of the USSR was declared champion by default.

   Fischer-Dieskau, Dietrich

 Fischer-Dieskau, Dietrich, 1925-, German baritone. He is one of the
 foremost singers of German LIEDER, noted for his interpretations of
 Brahms, Schubert, Schumann, and Wolf.

   Fischer-Tropsch process

 Fischer-Tropsch process, method, discovered (1923) by the German coal
 researchers Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch, for the synthesis of
 hydrocarbons and other aliphatic compounds. A mixture of hydrogen and
 carbon monoxide is reacted in the presence of an iron or cobalt catalyst.
 Much heat is evolved, and such products as methane, synthetic gasoline
 and waxes, and alcohols are made, with water or carbon dioxide
 by-products.

   Fish, Hamilton

 Fish, Hamilton, 1808-93, American statesman; b. N.Y.C. A Whig congressman
 (1843-45) and senator (1851-57) from New York, Fish served as Pres.
 GRANT'S secretary of state (1869-77) and was one of the ablest men ever
 to hold that office. He arranged the Treaty of WASHINGTON (1871), which
 settled long-standing disputes with Britain, and he kept U.S.-based
 filibustering expeditions against Cuba from escalating into war with
 Spain.

   fish

 fish, limbless, aquatic, VERTEBRATE animal with fins, internal gills, and
 skin with a glandular secretion that decreases friction. Most fish have
 scales and are cold-blooded. A typical fish is torpedo-shaped, with a
 head containing a brain and sensory organs, a muscular-walled trunk with
 a cavity containing internal organs, and a muscular tail. Most fish
 propel themselves through water with weaving movements and control
 direction with fins. Although some fish, such as sharks, bear live young,
 most fish eggs are fertilized and hatch in water. There are over 20,000
 species in three classes: Agnatha, the most primitive fishes, jawless and
 without paired pelvic and pectoral fins (e.g., LAMPREY); Chondrichthyes,
 cartilaginous fishes, with skeletons of cartilage but no swim bladder or
 lungs (e.g., SHARK, RAY); and Osteichthyes, bony fishes, the most highly
 developed. Bony fishes have a bony skeleton and a swim bladder or lungs,
 and are divided into fleshy-finned (e.g., LOBEFIN, LUNGFISH) and
 ray-finned fishes (e.g., BASS, TUNA). The largest fish is the whale shark
 (Rhincodon typus), reaching 50 ft (15 m) in length and found worldwide in
 tropical seas; the smallest is the 1/2-in. (1.3-cm) goby (family
 Gobiidae) of the Philippines.

   Fisher, Irving

 Fisher, Irving, 1867-1947, American economist; b. Saugerties, N.Y. A
 professor at Yale Univ. (1890-1935), he is known for his pioneering work
 in monetary economic theory; his theory of the "compensated dollar" to
 stabilize purchasing power; and his development of the INDEX NUMBER, a
 measurement of price levels.

   Fisher, Saint John

 Fisher, Saint John, c.1469-1535, English prelate, cardinal, bishop of
 Rochester (1504-34). For opposing the divorce of HENRY VIII and KATHARINE
 OF ARAGON and other acts of the English REFORMATION, Fisher was
 imprisoned in 1534. To show his support, Pope PAUL III created (1535)
 Fisher a cardinal, but an enraged Henry quickly had Fisher beheaded. He
 was canonized in 1935. Feast: June 22.

   Fisk, James

 Fisk, James, 1834-72, American financial speculator; b. Pownal, Vt. He
 became wealthy during the Civil War by dealing in cotton and established
 (1866) a brokerage house in New York City. After taking part in the
 struggle against Cornelius VANDERBILT for control of the Erie RR, he and
 Jay GOULD made millions by manipulating Erie stock. They also engineered
 an attempt to corner the gold market in 1869, causing the BLACK FRIDAY
 scandal. At the age of 37, Fisk was killed by a rival for the attentions
 of an actress.

   fission

 fission: see ATOMIC BOMB; NUCLEAR ENERGY.

   Fitch, John

 Fitch, John, 1743-98, American inventor; b. Windsor, Conn. An early
 experimenter with steam engines and steamboats (see STEAMSHIP), he is
 believed to have designed (1786) the first practical steamboat.
 Nevertheless, he failed to receive either the opportunity to
 commercialize his invention or the recognition he justly deserved.

   FitzGerald, Edward

 FitzGerald, Edward, 1809-83, English author. His masterpiece is his
 translation of The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam (1859; rev. 1868, 1872,
 1879). Other works are Euphranor (1851), a Platonic dialogue; and
 Polonius (1852), aphorisms.

   Fitzgerald, Ella

 Fitzgerald, Ella, 1918-, black American jazz singer; b. Newport News, Va.
 She was a popular big band and solo artist. Principally a JAZZ and blues
 singer with a sweet and effortless style, she is also a noted interpreter
 of the songs of George GERSHWIN and Cole PORTER, among others.

   Fitzgerald, F(rancis) Scott (Key)

 Fitzgerald, F(rancis) Scott (Key), 1896-1940, American author, one of the
 great American writers of the 20th cent.; b. St. Paul, Minn. The literary
 spokesman of the "jazz age," he wrote about people whose lives resembled
 his own. He and his wife, Zelda, lived a celebrated life, glittering and
 dissipated, in New York City and the French Riviera, but his later years
 were plagued by financial worries and his wife's insanity. Fitzgerald's
 novels are This Side of Paradise (1920); The Beautiful and Damned (1922);
 The Great Gatsby (1922), his masterpiece about the corruption of the
 American dream; Tender Is the Night (1934); and The Last Tycoon (1941),
 an unfinished work reflecting his last years in Hollywood. He also
 published four short-story collections.

   Five, The

 Five, The, a group of 19th-cent. Russian composers. They were BALAKIREV,
 Cui, MOUSSORGSKY, BORODIN, and RIMSKY-KORSAKOV and drew on Russian
 history, literature, and folklore to write music of a distinctly national
 character.

   Five Civilized Tribes

 Five Civilized Tribes, name used since the mid-19th cent. for the
 CHEROKEE, CHICKASAW, CHOCTAW, CREEK, and SEMINOLE INDIANS settled in
 INDIAN TERRITORY under the Removal Act of 1830. Living on communally held
 land, each tribe had a written constitution, a tripartite government, and
 a public school system. A later federal policy of detribalization
 resulted in the loss of their governmental functions, except advisory,
 and the division of all land into individual holdings.

   Five Nations

 Five Nations: see IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY.

   Five-Power Treaty

 Five-Power Treaty: see NAVAL CONFERENCES.

   Five-Year Plan

 Five-Year Plan, a program to speed industrialization and the
 collectivization of agriculture in the Soviet Union, initiated (1928-33)
 by Joseph STALIN. Now a standard feature of the Soviet economy, such
 plans have been adopted elsewhere in the Soviet bloc and in developing
 nations.

   fjord

 fjord or fiord,coastal inlet characterized by sheer parallel walls, often
 extending far below the water surface, and by many branches. They are
 probably glaciated valleys subsequently drowned by the sea. Norway's
 fjords are noted for their grandeur; Sognafjord is 4,000 ft (1,220 m)
 deep and over 100 mi (160 km) long.

   flag

 flag, piece of cloth, usually bunting or similar light material, plain,
 colored, or bearing a device, varying in size and shape but often oblong
 or square, used as an ensign, standard, or signal or for display or
 decorative purposes, and generally attached at one end (the hoist) to a
 staff or a halyard by which it may be hoisted. The portion from the hoist
 to the free end is the fly; the top quarter of the flag next to the staff
 is the canton. Flags have been used since ancient times. Early flags had
 a religious significance that persisted historically. For example, the
 ensign of Great Britain, the Union Jack, is formed by the crosses of St.
 GEORGE, St. ANDREW, and St. PATRICK, the national saints, respectively,
 of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Armies and navies use flags for
 signaling: the white flag is used universally for truce; the black in
 early times was a symbol for piracy; the red symbolizes mutiny or
 revolution; the yellow is a sign of infectious diseases. Shipping lines
 have their own flags. Striking a flag signifies surrender, and the flag
 of the victor is hoisted above that of the vanquished. A flag flown at
 half-mast is a symbol of mourning. The inverted national ensign is a
 signal of distress. The first flag of the U.S. was raised at Cambridge,
 Mass., by George WASHINGTON on Jan. 2, 1776. Today, the U.S. flag has 13
 stripes, denoting the 13 original colonies, and 50 stars, for the 50
 states. The U.S. states and territories also have their own flags.

   Flag Day

 Flag Day (June 14), anniversary of the adoption of the American flag in
 1777. It is not a legal holiday.

   Flagstad, Kirsten

 Flagstad, Kirsten, 1895-1962, Norwegian soprano. In 1935 she appeared at
 the METROPOLITAN OPERA in Richard WAGNER'S Die Walkure and thereafter was
 regarded as the greatest living Wagnerian soprano.

   Flaherty, Robert Joseph

 Flaherty, Robert Joseph, 1884-1951, American film director; b. Iron
 Mountain, Mich. His pioneering documentaries include Nanook of the North
 (1922) and Man of Aran (1934).

   flamingo

 flamingo, large pink or red tropical wading BIRD (order Ciconiiformes),
 similar to the related HERON and STORK but with webbed feet and a unique,
 down-bent bill. Ranging in height from 3 to 5 ft (90 to 150 cm), the
 flamingo has a long neck and legs and a broad wingspan.

   Flanders

 Flanders, former county in the LOW COUNTRIES extending along the North
 Sea and W of the Scheldt R. It became a French fief in the 9th cent.
 Virtually independent, it was the hub of medieval Europe's cloth industry
 but was weakened by civil strife and by rebellion against France. By the
 15th cent., although Flemish art and commerce flourished under the
 Burgundians, it was little more than a French province. It passed in turn
 to the Spanish Hapsburgs and Austria before being partitioned among
 France (1797), the Netherlands (1815), and Belgium (1830); parts of W
 Flanders had earlier been annexed (1668-78) to France. Its strategic
 location has made Flanders a key battleground; occupation by the Germans
 in WORLD WAR II led to the dramatic British evacuation at DUNKIRK (1940).

   flatfish

 flatfish, member of the order Pleuronectiformes, bottom-living FISH of
 the Atlantic and Pacific. Adult flatfish have an unusual, flattened body
 with both eyes on one side of the head. They lie with the blind,
 generally whitish, side on the ocean bottom; the eyed, colored side faces
 up. Soles are generally small, warm-water flatfishes with small eyes and
 mouths and few or no teeth. Flounders, generally larger, are known for
 changing color to match the background. The European sole (Solea solea)
 and many flounders, including the flukes (genus Paralichthys) and the
 large, voracious, cool-water halibuts (genus Hippoglossus), are important
 food fish.

   Flathead Indians

 Flathead Indians or Salish Indians,NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS from W Montana
 who spoke a Salishan language of the Algonquian-Wakashan stock (see
 AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES). They were called "flatheads" by neighboring
 Columbia R. tribes who shaped the front of the head to a point. After
 acquiring horses, the Flathead adopted the buffalo and TEPEE culture of
 the Plains and struggled with the BLACKFOOT INDIANS for hunting lands. In
 the 1970s, about 2000 lived on reservations in Montana.

   flatworm

 flatworm, soft-bodied, bilaterally symmetrical invertebrate of the phylum
 Platyhelminthes. Among the most primitive organisms, flatworms are
 divided into the free-living, primarily aquatic class of turbellarians
 (including PLANARIANS) and the exclusively parasitic classes of FLUKES
 and TAPEWORMS.

   Flaubert, Gustave

 Flaubert, Gustave, 1821-80, French novelist, a master of the realistic
 novel. A scrupulous writer, intent on finding the exact word (le mot
 juste) and achieving complete objectivity, he published his masterpiece,
 Madame Bovary, in 1857, after five years of work. Portraying the
 frustrations of a romantic young woman married to a dull provincial
 doctor, it resulted in his prosecution on moral grounds. His other works
 include the novels Salammbo (1862), A Sentimental Education (1869), and
 the satirical Bouvard and Pecuchet (1881) and Three Tales (1877), one of
 which is the great novella "A Simple Heart."

   flax

 flax, common name for an annual herb of the Linaceae family, especially
 members of the genus Linum, and for the fiber obtained from such plants.
 Native to Eurasia, flax was the major source of cloth fiber until the
 growth of the COTTON industry (c.1800). The flax of commerce is obtained
 from several varieties of L. usitatissimum. Exposure to water or dew and
 sun loosens the fiber from the woody tissue in a process known as
 retting. After washing, drying, beating, and combing, fibers are obtained
 for use in making fabric (see LINEN), threads, and cordage. Flax seeds
 are crushed to make LINSEED OIL, and the remaining linseed cake is used
 for fodder. Dried seed is also used in medicines.

   Flaxman, John

 Flaxman, John, 1755-1826, English sculptor and draftsman. After designing
 Wedgwood POTTERY, he produced figure drawings from Greek vases to
 illustrate works by Homer and Dante; these were engraved by William
 BLAKE. He is known for his memorial sculptures, e.g., Sir Joshua
 REYNOLDS.

   flea

 flea, small, blood-sucking wingless INSECT of the order Siphonaptera.
 Adult fleas eat only blood and are external PARASITES of mammals and
 birds. They have hard bodies flattened from side to side, piercing and
 sucking mouthparts, and strong legs for jumping. Certain rat fleas carry
 TYPHUS and bubonic PLAGUE; other fleas transmit TAPEWORMS to humans.

   fleche

 fleche: see SPIRE.

   Flemalle, Master of

 Flemalle, Master of: see CAMPIN, ROBERT.

   Fleming, Sir Alexander

 Fleming, Sir Alexander, 1881-1955, Scottish bacteriologist. He discovered
 PENICILLIN (1928) and lysozyme (1922), an antibacterial substance found
 in body secretions. Professor of bacteriology at the Univ. of London, he
 shared the 1945 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine with Ernst CHAIN
 and Sir Howard FLOREY for work on penicillin. Fleming was knighted in
 1944.

   Flemish language

 Flemish language, member of the West Germanic group of the Germanic
 subfamily of the INDO-EUROPEAN family of languages. It is one of the
 official languages of Belgium. See LANGUAGE .

   Fletcher, John

 Fletcher, John, 1579-1625, English dramatist, thought to have worked with
 SHAKESPEARE on Two Noble Kinsmen and Henry VIII. His most important
 collaboration was with Francis BEAUMONT. Their chief works-Philaster, A
 Maid's Tragedy, A King and No King, and The Scornful Lady
 (1607-13)-developed the romantic tragicomedy, to be popular through the
 18th cent.

   Fleury, Andre Hercule de

 Fleury, Andre Hercule de, 1653-1743, French Roman Catholic cardinal,
 chief minister of LOUIS XV. As virtual ruler of France (1726-43), he
 restored financial order. He strove for peace abroad, but was drawn into
 the wars of the POLISH SUCCESSION and the AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION.

   flextime

 flextime, the concept that employees must work within a traditionally
 accepted time period or work the same hours. By allowing employees to
 stagger hours or by changing from five eight-hour days to four-ten hour
 days, traffic and commuting problems are eased, parents can adjust work
 schedules to school schedules, and expensive office equipment, such as
 computers, can be used more efficiently.

   flight

 flight, sustained, self-powered motion through the air, as accomplished
 by an animal, aircraft, or rocket. Adaption for flight is highly
 developed in birds and insects. Birds fly by means of semicircular
 flapping strokes, the wings moving backward on the upstroke and forward
 on the downstroke. That motion pushes air downward and to the rear,
 creating a lift and forward thrust. Besides flapping, some birds also use
 gliding and soaring techniques in flight. In gliding, a bird holds its
 outstretched wings relatively still and relies on its momentum to keep it
 aloft for short distances. In soaring, a bird uses rising warm air
 currents to give it lift. AIRSHIPS and BALLOONS owe their ability to
 ascend and remain aloft to their inflation with a gas lighter than air.
 Aircraft, which are heavier than air, are able to remain aloft because of
 forces developed by the movement of the craft through the air. The
 development of JET PROPULSION makes high speeds possible, and the ROCKET
 engine allows flight outside the earth's atmosphere and in interplanetary
 space. See also AERODYNAMICS; AIR NAVIGATION; AIRPLANE; GLIDER; HANG
 GLIDING; HELICOPTER; SPACE EXPLORATION.

   flight simulator

 flight simulator, device providing a controlled environment in which a
 flight trainee can experience conditions approximating those of actual
 flight. The simulator, complete with a replica of an aircraft's cockpit,
 simulates an aircraft's rolling, pitching, and yawing motions. A computer
 coordinates the instrument readings, the student's control inputs, the
 position of the simulator, information about the aircraft's
 characteristics, and information about the terrain over which it is
 supposed to be flying. Video displays simulate conditions outside the
 cockpit. Recently, simulators have also been used to increase the
 competence of experienced pilots with new aircraft and to expose them to
 adverse weather conditions and equipment failure conditions.

   Flinders Petrie, Sir William Matthew

 Flinders Petrie, Sir William Matthew: see PETRIE.

   Flinders Ranges

 Flinders Ranges, mountain chain, SOUTH AUSTRALIA state, Australia. They
 extend 260 mi (418 km) between Lake Torrens and Lake Frome and reach a
 high point of 3,900 ft (1,189 m) at St. Mary's Peak. Uranium and copper
 are mined there.

   Flint

 Flint, city (1986 est. pop. 145,590), seat of Genesee co., SE Mich.; inc.
 1855. Established (1819) as a fur-trading post, it later became a site of
 cart and carriage making. Since 1902 it has been an international
 automobile-manufacturing center; many major auto makers, e.g., General
 Motors, began there.

   flint

 flint: see CHERT.

   Flood

 Flood, in the Bible: see NOAH.

   Florence

 Florence, Ital. Firenze, city (1986 pop. 425,835), capital of TUSCANY,
 central Italy, on the Arno R. It is a commercial, industrial, and tourist
 center known for fine handicrafts. Of Roman origin, it became prominent
 after gaining autonomy in the 12th cent. It was a center of GUELPH AND
 GHIBELLINE strife (13th cent.), but nonetheless grew in size and power
 through war with other cities. Meanwhile, trade in silks, tapestries, and
 jewelry brought great wealth. The MEDICI family dominated Florence from
 the 15th to 18th cent., their rule interrupted by two revolutions
 (1494-1512, led by SAVONAROLA; and 1527-30). The artistic and
 intellectual life of the city flowered from the 14th to 16th cent., with
 DANTE, BOCCACCIO, DONATELLO, LEONARDO DA VINCI, RAPHAEL, and MICHELANGEL
  among the many born or active there. Florence passed (1737) to the house
 of Hapsburg-Lorraine, was annexed (1860) to Sardinia, and was the capital
 of Italy (1865-71). Among its many glorious works of architecture are the
 cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore; the nearby baptistry; the churches of
 Santa Croce, Santa Maria Novella, and San Lorenzo; and the Pitti Palace,
 Palazzo Vecchio, and UFFIZI, all of which house masterpieces of
 RENAISSANCE art.

   Florey, Howard Walter

 Florey, Howard Walter (Baron Florey of Adelaide), 1898-1968, British
 pathologist; b. Australia. For their work in purifying PENICILLIN and
 demonstrating its effectiveness against harmful bacteria, he and Ernst
 CHAIN shared with Alexander FLEMING the 1945 Nobel Prize in physiology or
 medicine. He was professor of pathology at Oxford Univ. from 1935 to 1962
 and was knighted in 1944.

   Florida

 Florida, state in the extreme SE U.S. A long peninsula between the
 Atlantic Ocean (E) and the Gulf of Mexico (W), Florida is bordered by
 Georgia and Alabama (N).

 Area, 58,560 sq mi (151,670 sq km). Pop. (1986 est.) 11,675,000, a 19.8%
 increase over 1980 pop. Capital, Tallahassee. Statehood, Mar. 3, 1845
 (27th state). Highest pt., 345 ft (105 m), Walton co.; lowest pt., sea
 level. Nickname, Sunshine State. Motto, In God We Trust. State bird,
 mockingbird. State flower, orange blossom. State tree, Sabal palmetto
 palm. Abbr., Fla.; FL.

 Land and People The highest elevations are found in the northwest, the
 Florida Panhandle. Central Florida has rolling hills and abounds in
 lakes, of which Lake OKEECHOBEE is the largest. The EVERGLADES, which
 includes Big Cypress Swamp (both protected by the NATIONAL PARKS
 system;), is a unique wilderness area extending over much of S Florida.
 The small islands of the FLORIDA KEYS extend southwest from the end of
 the mainland. The state is noted for its mild climate and abundant
 sunshine. The extreme south of Florida and the state of Hawaii are the
 only places in the U.S. with tropical climates. Florida has one of the
 highest rates of population increase in the country-19.8% during
 1980-86-partly because of the many retired persons who settled in the
 state. It also has one of the largest Hispanic populations in the country
 (almost 9% of the total population). In 1984 85% of the population was
 white, 15% black and others. Almost 85% of the population lives in
 metropolitan areas. MIAMI is a leading international trade and financial
 center; other important cities are JACKSONVILLE, TAMPA, SAINT PETERSBURG,
 and FORT LAUDERDALE.

 Economy Because of Florida's warm climate, extremely long coastline, and
 many beaches, and such attractions as Walt Disney World and Epcot Center,
 near ORLANDO, tourism is the main source of income. Florida is one of the
 country's leading agricultural states, producing citrus fruits, winter
 vegetables, and cattle. Industry is dominated by agricultural processing
 and the manufacturing of electrical equipment and chemicals. The state
 leads the U.S. in phosphate production; petroleum and natural gas, and
 sand and gravel are also extracted. The large fishing industry catches
 mostly shellfish.

 Government The constitution (adopted 1968) provides for a governor
 elected to a four-year term. The legislature is composed of a house of
 120 members elected for two years and a senate of 40 members elected for
 four years. Florida sends 19 representatives and 2 senators to the U.S
 Congress and has 21 electoral votes.

 History Seeking the fabled Fountain of Youth, the Spanish explorer PONCE
 DE LEON became the first European to land (1513) in Florida. The first
 permanent settlement, SAINT AUGUSTINE, was founded by the Spanish in 1565
 and is the oldest city in the U.S. Subsequently, Spain and England fought
 for control of the strategic peninsula. In 1819 Spain reluctantly ceded
 Florida to the U.S. As settlers arrived, the increasingly displaced
 SEMINOLE INDIANS rebelled, but they were defeated in the Second Seminole
 War (1835-42), and most were forcibly removed to Oklahoma. However, small
 bands fled to the Everglades and Lake Okeechobee area, where they still
 live on reservations. With the arrival (1880s) of railroads, Florida
 experienced its first real-estate boom, followed by a second during the
 1920s. After the Cuban Revolution (1958-59) a huge influx of Cubans fled
 to Miami; another wave followed in 1980. The establishment (1947) of a
 rocket-launching site at CAPE CANAVERAL brought the aerospace industry to
 Florida, making it one of the fastest-growing states in the SUN BELT.

   Florida Keys

 Florida Keys, chain of small islands and reefs extending into Florida Bay
 c.150 mi (240 km) southwest from the southern shore of Florida. A motor
 causeway traverses the keys, linking the mainland and the city of KEY
 WEST on the outermost island (Key West), which is c.90 mi (150 km) N of
 Cuba, separated by the Straits of Florida. The largest of the Florida
 Keys is Key Largo. Commercial fishing and tourism are the principal
 industries.

   Florio, John

 Florio, John, 1553?-1625, English author. He wrote on Italian grammar and
 compiled an Italian-English dictionary, and is known for his translation
 (1603) of MONTAIGNE'S Essays.

   flotation process

 flotation process, process for concentrating the metal-bearing mineral in
 an ORE. Crude ore is ground to a fine powder and mixed with water and
 reagents. When air is blown through the mixture, mineral particles cling
 to the bubbles, which rise to form a froth on the surface. The froth is
 skimmed off and the water and chemicals removed, leaving a clean
 concentrate. Among the minerals effectively concentrated by this method
 are sulfide and phosphate ores.

   flounder

 flounder: see FLATFISH.

   flower

 flower, specialized part of seed plants that contains reproductive
 organs. The basic floral parts (sepal, petal, stamen, and pistil) are
 modified leaves, typically arranged concentrically and attached at their
 bases to the tip of the stem. The outermost, green sepals (the calyx)
 encircle a whorl of usually showy, colored petals (the corolla), within
 which POLLEN-bearing stamens surround a central ovary-bearing pistil.
 After fertilization, each ovule (the part that contains the egg) in the
 ovary becomes a SEED, and the ovary becomes the FRUIT. The number and
 arrangement of floral parts varies greatly among groups of plants and are
 important bases for classification. In general, the higher a plant is on
 the evolutionary scale, the greater the flower's complexity and
 efficiency for reproduction.

   Floyd, Carlisle

 Floyd, Carlisle, 1926-, American composer; b. Latta, S.C. He is known for
 his folk opera Susannah. Other operas, written in a conservative style,
 include Wuthering Heights (1958), Of Mice and Men (1970), and Bilby's
 Doll (1976).

   fluid mechanics

 fluid mechanics, branch of MECHANICS dealing with the properties and
 behavior of fluids, or substances that flow, i.e., liquids and gases. The
 larger part of the field is fluid dynamics (study of fluids in motion),
 which itself is divided into hydrodynamics (study of liquids in motion)
 and AERODYNAMICS (study of gases in motion).

   fluke

 fluke, FLATWORM of the class Trematoda. Flukes, which are related to the
 TAPEWORM, are internal and external parasites that cause many diseases.
 Adults cling to their hosts with sucking disks and bear an external
 cuticle resistant to digestion by the host. Some species of FLATFISH are
 also called flukes.

   fluorescence

 fluorescence, LUMINESCENCE in which light of a visible color is emitted
 from certain substances, called phosphors, when irradiated by
 electromagnetic radiation, especially ultraviolet light. Unlike
 PHOSPHORESCENCE, the light is emitted only while the stimulation
 continues.

   fluoridation

 fluoridation, process of adding a fluoride to a community water supply to
 preserve the TEETH of the inhabitants. Tooth enamel ordinarily contains
 small amounts of fluorides, which, when augmented with fluoridated water,
 can greatly reduce tooth decay in children. While studies have proved
 fluoridation safe at levels of one part per million, opponents assert
 that such action constitutes compulsory medication and that those wanting
 fluoride can use it individually.

   fluorine

 fluorine (F), gaseous element, first prepared in 1886 by Henri Moissan.
 Fluorine is a yellowish, poisonous, highly corrosive HALOGEN gas. It is
 the most chemically active nonmetallic element and the most
 electronegative of all the elements. FLUORITE is its chief commercial
 source. The addition of one part per million of soluble fluorides to
 public water supplies reduces tooth decay. Fluorine compounds are used in
 ceramic and glass manufacturing, in refrigeration and air-conditioning
 systems, and as aerosol propellants. Teflon is an inert, heat-resistant
 fluorocarbon. See ELEMENT; PERIODIC TABLE.

   fluorite

 fluorite or fluorspar,calcium fluoride mineral (CaF2), occurring in
 various colors in crystal, granular, and massive forms. Its crystals
 sometimes exhibit fluorescence. Found mainly in England, Germany, Mexico,
 Kentucky, and Illinois, fluorite is used as a flux in metallurgy, in
 preparing hydrofluoric acid, and in making opal glass and enamel. Some
 colorless crystals are used to make lenses and prisms.

   flute

 flute: see WIND INSTRUMENT.

   fly

 fly, name for a variety of winged INSECTS, but properly restricted to
 members of the order Diptera. True flies have sucking and piercing
 mouthparts and, in most species, one pair of wings. All flies undergo
 complete METAMORPHOSIS. Most are harmful as disease carriers or crop
 destroyers. The order includes the FRUIT FLY, GNAT, MOSQUITO, and TSETSE
 FLY.

   flying buttress

 flying buttress: see BUTTRESS.

   flying fish

 flying fish, torpedo-shaped FISH (family Exocoetidae) of warm seas with
 well-developed pectoral fins that can be held rigid and used to glide
 short distances over the water. Specially adapted tail fins, vibrated in
 taxiing along the water surface to gain momentum, and (in some species)
 enlarged pelvic fins also help in "flight." The largest species is the
 18-in. (45-cm) California flying fish.

   flying saucer

 flying saucer: see UNIDENTIFIED FLYING OBJECT.

   flying squirrel

 flying squirrel, nocturnal SQUIRREL adapted for gliding; flying squirrels
 do not actually fly. Most are found in Asia, but there are two North
 American species (genus Glaucomys), which together are found in forests
 over much of the continent. The gliding mechanism is a fold of skin
 extending along each side of the body. When the animal extends its limbs
 in leaping, the flaps stretch out taut like a parachute.

   Fm

 Fm, chemical symbol of the element FERMIUM.

   FM

 FM: see MODULATION.

   Fo, Dario

 Fo, Dario, 1926-, Italian playwright, actor, director, and songwriter. Fo
 developed a form of satirical farce influenced by Berthold BRECHT and
 Antonio GRAMSCI that is less formal than traditional COMMEDIA DELL'ARTE.
 In 1968, Fo and his wife, actress Franca Rame, began presenting plays on
 contemporary issues; the most famous is Accidental Death of an Anarchist
 (1970).

   foam

 foam: see COLLOID.

   Foch, Ferdinand

 Foch, Ferdinand, 1851-1929, marshal of France. In WORLD WAR I he halted
 the German advance at the Marne (1914) and fought at Ypres (1915) and the
 Somme (1916). In 1917 he became chief of the French general staff, and in
 Apr. 1918 he assumed the unified command of the British, French, and U.S.
 armies.

   fog

 fog, aggregation of water droplets just above the earth's surface, i.e.,
 a cloud near the ground. A light or thin fog is usually called a mist.
 Fog may occur either when the moisture content of the air is increased
 beyond the saturation point or when the air is cooled below the DEW
 point. In either case, excess moisture condenses on microscopic dust
 particles (condensation nuclei) in the atmosphere.

   Fokine, Michel

 Fokine, Michel (meshel' foken', Rus. fo'kyin), 1880-1942,
 Russian-American choreographer and ballet dancer; b. St. Petersburg. He
 choreographed for NIJINSKY and PAVLOVA in Russia and for DIAGHILEV in
 Paris. He is considered the founder of modern ballet. His works include
 Les Sylphides (1909), The Firebird (1910), and Petrouchka (1911).

   Fokker, Anton Herman Gerard

 Fokker, Anton Herman Gerard, 1890-1939, German-American aircraft
 manufacturer; b. Java. His factories in Germany produced triplanes and
 biplanes used in World War I; he also invented an apparatus allowing
 machine-gun bullets to be fired through a rotating propeller without
 intercepting the blades. He later turned to developing commercial
 aircraft and came to the U.S. in 1922.

   fold

 fold, in geology, bent or deformed arrangement of stratified rocks.
 Arches, or upfolds, are known as anticlines; depressions, or downfolds,
 are called synclines. An imaginary line drawn along the crest of an
 anticline or the trough of a syncline is its axis; the two sides curving
 away from the axis are the limbs. The complex causes of folding involve
 large-scale crustal movements (see PLATE TECTONICS).

   Folger, Henry Clay

 Folger, Henry Clay, 1857-1930, American industrialist and collector of
 Shakespeareana. With the help of his wife, Emily Jordan Folger,
 1858-1936, he acquired one of the largest and most valuable collections
 of its sort in the world. They endowed the Folger Shakespeare Library
 (see LIBRARY,).

   Folger Shakespeare Library

 Folger Shakespeare Library: see LIBRARY.

   folk art

 folk art, art works of a culturally homogeneous people made by artists
 without formal training. Generally nationalistic in character, it often
 involves craft processes, e.g., in America, QUILTING and sculpture of
 FIGUREHEADS and cigar-store figures. Paintings in the tradition of
 PRIMITIVISM are also in the folk idiom. Much folk art has a rough-hewn,
 awkward quality often admired and imitated by sophisticated artists.

   folk dance

 folk dance, primitive, tribal, or ethnic form of the dance, sometimes the
 survival of an ancient ceremony or festival. The term includes
 characteristic national dances, country dances, and figure dances in
 costume. Examples include children's games such as "The Farmer in the
 Dell" as well as the Spanish fandango, the Bohemian polka, the Irish jig,
 and the American Virginia reel. The English musician Cecil James Sharp
 made a notable collection of English folk songs and dances, and the
 American Folk Dance Society has preserved American country dances.

   folklore

 folklore, body of customs, legends, beliefs, and superstitions passed on
 by oral tradition, including folk tales, dances, songs, and medicine. The
 study of folklore became significant in the 19th cent. as a result of the
 rise of European ROMANTICISM and nationalism. Today most anthropologists
 see the many manifestations of folklore as imaginative expressions by a
 people of its desires, attitudes, and cultural values and regard folk
 heroes (e.g., Paul BUNYAN in the U.S. and ROBIN HOOD in England) as
 reflections of the civilizations from which they sprang.

   folk song

 folk song, music of anonymous composition, transmitted orally. The germ
 of a folk song is assumed to be produced by an individual and altered in
 transmission as a group expression. National and ethnic individuality is
 seen in folk music, but little is wholly indigenous. That of the U.S.
 reveals transplanted European and African sources. Interest in folk music
 grew in the 19th cent., although earlier scholars had worked in the
 field. Bela BARTOK made great contributions in notating the folk music of
 central Europe. The phonograph and tape recorder facilitated
 transcription and collection of folk song. The music often shows the
 influence of formal composition, and songs of traceable authorship, e.g.,
 "Dixie," are often considered folk songs. Since the 1950s folk music has
 been a significant influence and source for much popular vocal and
 instrumental music. Singers like Woody GUTHRIE and Joan BAEZ have
 performed folk songs and their own compositions in the idiom. Types of
 folk song include the work songs found in all cultures, e.g., sea
 CHANTEYS and SPIRITUALS.

   Fonda, Henry

 Fonda, Henry, 1905-82, American actor; b. Grand Island, Nebr. Among his
 films are Young Mr. Lincoln (1939), The Grapes of Wrath (1940), Mr.
 Roberts (1955), and On Golden Pond (1981; Academy Award).

   Fonda, Jane

 Fonda, Jane, 1937-, b. N.Y.C., The daughter of Henry FONDA, she has
 starred in such films as Klute (1971; Academy Award), Julia (1977), The
 China Syndrome (1979), and On Golden Pond (1981). She is also known for
 her radical politics and for her exercise and weight loss books and
 videos.

   Fongafale

 Fongafale, town (1973 est. pop. 871), capital of TUVALU.

   Fontaine, Pierre Francois Leonard

 Fontaine, Pierre Francois Leonard, 1762-1853, French architect. Working
 from 1794 with Charles PERCIER, he was a developer of the Empire style in
 France.

   Fontainebleau, school of

 Fontainebleau, school of, group of 16th-cent. artists who decorated the
 royal palace at Fontainebleau, in France. Chief in importance were Il
 ROSSO, Francesco PRIMATICCIO, and Sabastiano Serlio. An Italian
 development of MANNERISM, the style of the Fountainebleau school was
 refined to the point of artificiality. Its subjects were allegorical and
 symbolic in keeping with the tastes of FRANCIS I'S court.

   Fontana, Domenico

 Fontana, Domenico, 1543-1607, Italian architect. In Rome he designed
 (1588) the LATERAN palace and the Vatican library. His other work
 included the fountain Acqua Felice (1587), the erection of an Egyptian
 obelisk before St. Peter's (1586), and the royal palace, Naples (1600).

   Fontane, Theodor

 Fontane, Theodor, 1819-98, German writer. He is best known for his
 ballads and his masterful, realistic novels about the decay of
 contemporary Berlin. They include L'Adultera (1882), Trials and
 Tribulations (1888), and Effi Briest (1895), his masterpiece.

   Fontanne, Lynn

 Fontanne, Lynn: see LUNT, ALFRED, AND LYNN FONTANNE.

   Fonteyn, Dame Margot

 Fonteyn, Dame Margot (fontan'), 1919-, English ballerina, b. Margaret
 Hookham. She studied in London and was prima ballerina assoluta of the
 ROYAL BALLET. Her performances in Sleeping Beauty and The Firebird were
 superb. Her partnership (after 1962) with Russian dancer Rudolf NUREYEV
 brought her new recognition.

   Foochow

 Foochow: see FUZHOU.

   Food and Agricultural Organization

 Food and Agricultural Organization: see UNITED NATIONS.

   Food and Drug Administration

 Food and Drug Administration (FDA), agency in the Public Health Service
 division of the U.S. Dept. of HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES. Established in
 1928, it is charged with protecting public health by ensuring that foods
 are safe and pure, cosmetics and other chemical substances harmless, and
 products safe, effective, and honestly labeled. All new medicinal drugs
 must be licensed for use by the FDA.

   food chain

 food chain: see ECOLOGY.

   food preservation

 food preservation. Because most foods remain edible for only a limited
 time, food preservation has been practiced since the remotest times.
 Early products of conservation were cheese, butter, wine, bacon,
 pemmican, raisins, and parched grains. Advances in the methods used came
 with scientific investigations of the microorganisms that cause food
 spoilage, especially in the work of Louis PASTEUR. Basic methods of
 modern food preservation include dehydration, freeze-drying, heating
 (e.g., CANNING and PASTEURIZATION), refrigeration (both freezing and
 chilling), hermetic sealing to remove air, and atomic radiation to
 destroy microorganisms. Such preserving agents as salt, vinegar, sugar,
 smoke, and alcohol are also used, often in combination. Other common
 preservatives are chemical agents.

   fool's gold

 fool's gold: see PYRITE.

   Foot, Michael

 Foot, Michael, 1913-, British politician. He entered Parliament in 1945
 and became a spokesman for the Labour party's radical left wing. Editor
 of the party organ, the Tribune, he served as secretary of state for
 employment (1974-75) and Speaker of the House of Commons (1976-79). He
 succeeded James CALLAGHAN as Labour party leader (1980- 83) and tried to
 maintain the party's traditional policies in the face of the opposition
 of more conservative members, who broke away and formed the SOCIAL
 DEMOCRATIC PARTY.

   foot-and-mouth disease

 foot-and-mouth disease: see HOOF-AND-MOUTH DISEASE.

   football

 football, any of several games in which two opposing teams attempt to
 score points by moving an inflated ball past a goal line or into a goal
 area. The games, differing greatly in their rules, include SOCCER
 (association football) and RUGBY, English games from which American
 football developed. The American game is played by two teams of 11 men
 each on a field that measures 100 by 53 1/3 yd (91.4 by 48.8 m). At each
 end of the field is an end zone 10 yd (9.14 m) deep, in which stand
 H-shaped goal posts. Play is directed toward gaining possession of the
 football and moving it (by running or passing) across the opponent's goal
 line, thereby scoring a touchdown, worth six points. Points are also
 scored by kicking the ball over the crossbar between the goal posts (a
 field goal, worth three points); downing a man with the ball behind his
 own goal line (a safety, worth two points); and a conversion following a
 touchdown. In professional ball, the conversion is made by kicking the
 ball over the goal posts (one point); in college and high school ball,
 the conversion is by a kick (one point) or by a pass or run (two points).
 The offensive team, led by the quarterback, must gain 10 yd in four tries
 (downs) or yield possession of the ball. The defending team tries to stop
 the ball carrier from advancing by tackling him. Blocking and tackling
 make football one of the most rugged of sports, and players must wear
 heavy protective gear. The first intercollegiate football match in
 America (more like a 50-man soccer game) was played (1869) between
 Princeton and Rutgers at New Brunswick, N.J. Harvard began to play a
 rugby-type game in the 1870s, and within the next decade the distinctive
 American version evolved. A professional football association was formed
 in 1920 and renamed the National Football League (NFL) in 1922. Buoyed by
 the tremendous popularity of professional football after World War II,
 the NFL absorbed two rival leagues (1949 and 1966) and grew to 28 teams
 in two conferences by the early 1980s. The annual Super Bowl game for the
 league championship has been a major sports spectacle since its
 introduction in January 1967. Canadian football is similar to the U.S.
 game except that the field and the end zone are larger, measuring 110 by
 65 yd (100 by 59 m) and 25 yd (23 m) deep, respectively; a team consists
 of 12 players; and only three downs are allowed. The Canadian Football
 League (CFL), formed in 1959, is the major professional circuit. Gaelic
 football, played primarily in Ireland, is perhaps the roughest of the
 football-type games. The object is to punch, dribble (bounce), or kick
 the ball into (3 points) or directly over (1 point) the rectangular
 goal-net. A team is made up of 15 men. Australian football is played on a
 large oval field. Each team of 18 players attempts to kick the egg-shaped
 ball past a set of goal posts. The ball may be advanced by punches,
 kicks, or dribbles.

   foot-pound

 foot-pound: see TORQUE; WORK.

   Forbidden City

 Forbidden City: see CHINESE ARCHITECTURE; PEKING.

   force

 force, in physics, a quantity that produces a change in the size or shape
 (see STRENGTH OF MATERIALS) or the MOTION of a body. Commonly experienced
 as a "push" or "pull," force is a vector quantity, having both magnitude
 and direction. Four basic types of force are known in nature. The
 gravitational force (see GRAVITATION) and the electromagnetic force (see
 ELECTRICITY; MAGNETISM) both have an infinite range. The strong nuclear
 force, or strong interaction, is a short-range force holding the atomic
 nucleus together, and the weak nuclear force, or weak interaction, is a
 short-range force associated with radioactivity and particle decay. In
 the METRIC SYSTEM forces are measured in such units as the dyne (cgs
 system) and the newton (mks system), which cause accelerations of,
 respectively, 1 cm/sec2 on a 1-gram mass and 1 m/sec2 on a 1-kg mass. In
 ENGLISH UNITS OF MEASUREMENT the POUND (lb) is used. A 1-lb force equals
 444,823 dynes; 1 dyne equals 10-5 newtons.

   force bill

 force bill, name of several laws in U.S. history, notably the act of Mar.
 2, 1833, and the Reconstruction acts of 1870-71. The first force bill was
 passed in response to South Carolina's ordinance of NULLIFICATION. It
 empowered Pres. JACKSON to use the military, if necessary, to enforce the
 laws of Congress, specifically the tariff measures at issue. The second
 set of force bills strengthened the RECONSTRUCTION program of the radical
 Republicans by imposing strict penalties on those who tried to obstruct
 it. The act of May 31, 1870, penalized anyone who tried to prevent
 qualified citizens (in this case blacks) from voting, and placed
 congressional elections under exclusive federal control. The act of Apr.
 20, 1871, inspired by the KU KLUX KLAN, declared acts by armed
 combinations tantamount to rebellion and empowered the president to
 suspend habeas corpus in lawless areas.

   Ford, Edsel Bryant

 Ford, Edsel Bryant: see under FORD, HENRY.

   Ford, Ford Madox

 Ford, Ford Madox, 1873-1939, English author; b. Ford Madox Hueffer. He
 wrote over 60 works, including novels, poems, criticism, travel essays,
 and reminiscences, and edited the English Review (1908-11) and
 Transatlantic Review (1924). His most important novels are The Good
 Soldier (1915) and a tetralogy published together as Parade's End (1950).

   Ford, Gerald Rudolph

 Ford, Gerald Rudolph, 1913-, 38th president of the U.S. (1974-77); b.
 Omaha, Nebr., as Leslie Lynch King, Jr. (he later took the name of his
 stepfather). A Republican congressman from Michigan (1949-73), he served
 (1965-73) as Republican minority leader in the House and was (1968, 1972)
 permanent chairman of the Republican National Convention. In 1973 Ford
 became the first appointed vice president of the U.S. (see CONSTITUTION)
 when he succeeded Spiro T. AGNEW. When Nixon resigned (Aug. 9, 1974)
 amidst the WATERGATE AFFAIR, Ford became president; one month later he
 issued a pardon to Nixon. As president, Ford continued Nixon's foreign
 policy and advocated anti-inflationary measures and limited social
 spending at home. A presidential candidate in 1976, he lost the election
 to Democrat Jimmy CARTER. His defeat was attributed to an economic
 recession and high inflation, and to his pardon of Nixon.

   Ford, Henry

 Ford, Henry, 1863-1947, American industrialist, pioneer automobile
 manufacturer; b. Dearborn, Mich. While working as a machinist and
 engineer with the Edison Co., in his spare time he built (1892) his first
 automobile. In 1903 he organized the Ford Motor Co. By cutting production
 costs, controlling raw materials and distribution, adapting the assembly
 line to automobiles, and featuring an inexpensive, standardized car, Ford
 became the largest automobile producer in the world. In 1908 he designed
 the Model T; over 15 million cars were sold before the model was
 discontinued (1928), and a new design, the Model A, was created to meet
 growing competition. In 1914 Ford created a sensation by paying his
 workers five dollars for an eight-hour day, considerably above the
 average, and by beginning a profit-sharing plan that would distribute up
 to $30 million annually among his employees. He stubbornly resisted union
 organization until 1941. He retired in 1945. His numerous philanthropies
 included the FORD FOUNDATION. His son, Edsel Bryant Ford, 1893-1943, was
 president of the company from 1919 until his death. Henry's grandson,
 Henry Ford II, 1917-1987, who became president in 1945 and chairman in
 1960, modernized the firm, and, for the first time in company history,
 recruited outsiders for high positions. He retired in 1980.

   Ford, John

 Ford, John, 1586-c.1640, English dramatist. The most important playwright
 during the reign of Charles I, he wrote (1627-33) three major tragedies:
 'Tis Pity She's a Whore, The Broken Heart, and Love's Sacrifice.

   Ford, John

 Ford, John, 1895-1973, American film director; b. Cape Elizabeth, Me. He
 won Academy Awards for The Informer (1935), The Grapes of Wrath (1940),
 How Green Was My Valley (1941), and The Quiet Man (1952). His many
 Westerns include Rio Grande (1950) and The Searchers (1956).

   Ford Foundation

 Ford Foundation: see FOUNDATION.

   foreign aid

 foreign aid, economic, military, technical, and financial assistance,
 usually rendered at the intergovernmental level but also given through
 international organizations. U.S. efforts include the LEND LEASE program
 to the Allies during WORLD WAR II and the MARSHALL PLAN (1948-51), which
 distributed more than $12 billion to help reconstruct postwar Europe.
 During the 1950s the U.S. entered into a series of military alliances
 around the world and began providing large amounts of military aid.
 Through various food programs, it also distributed agricultural surpluses
 to THIRD WORLD nations. The principal U.S. capital-lending agencies are
 the AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT and the export-import bank. Many
 nations in Europe and some in the Middle East and Far East also have
 significant aid programs. International agencies such as the
 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (or World Bank) and
 the International Monetary Fund provide capital, and a number of UN
 agencies render development assistance (see UNITED NATIONS).

   foreign exchange

 foreign exchange, methods and instruments used to adjust the payment of
 debts between two nations that employ different currency systems. A
 nation's BALANCE OF PAYMENTS has an important effect on the exchange rate
 of its currency. The rate of exchange is the price in local currency of
 one unit of foreign currency and is determined by the relative supply and
 demand of the currencies in the foreign exchange market. The chief demand
 for foreign exchange comes from importers and exporters, purchasers of
 foreign securities, government agencies, and international corporations.
 Exchange rates were traditionally fixed under the gold standard and,
 later, by international agreements, but in 1973 the major industrial
 nations of the West adopted a system of "floating" rates that allows for
 fluctuation within a limited range. See also INTERNATIONAL MONETARY
 SYSTEM.

   Foreign Legion

 Foreign Legion, French volunteer armed force composed chiefly, in its
 enlisted ranks, of foreigners. Its international composition and practice
 of not inquiring into enlistees' backgrounds surrounded it with an aura
 of romance. Created by King LOUIS PHILIPPE (1831) to pacify Algeria, it
 was used throughout the French colonial empire and during both world
 wars. Today there are c.8,000 members stationed in metropolitan France,
 its overseas departments, and the Republic of Djibouti.

   Foreign Ministers, Council of

 Foreign Ministers, Council of, organization of the foreign ministers of
 the WORLD WAR II Allies-the U.S., Great Britain, France, and the
 USSR-that in a long series of meetings (1945-72) attempted to reach
 political settlements after the war. At the third meeting (New York City,
 1946) final peace treaties with Italy, Hungary, Rumania, Bulgaria, and
 Finland were drafted, and the TRIESTE problem was resolved. At the next
 two meetings (Moscow, London, both 1947), unsuccessful attempts were made
 to reach agreement on Germany and Austria. German unification was again
 the subject at meetings in Paris (1949) and Berlin (1954). In 1954, in
 Geneva, the council called for a conference on the KOREAN WAR (see GENEVA
 CONFERENCE 1). In 1955, in Vienna, an Austrian treaty was agreed upon. In
 1959 the conference again met in Geneva to consider German unification;
 but after failing to agree, the conference recessed for an indefinite
 period. In 1972, however, the foreign ministers regularized BERLIN'S
 status and paved the way for both East and West Germany to enter the UN.

   Forester, C(ecil) S(cott)

 Forester, C(ecil) S(cott), 1899-1966, English novelist. He is best known
 for stories of the royal navy in the days of sail, especially for those
 centering on Capt. Horatio Hornblower. Forester also wrote The African
 Queen (1935).

   forestry

 forestry, the management of forests for WOOD, water, wildlife, forage,
 and recreation. Due to wood's economic importance, forestry has been
 chiefly concerned with timber management, especially reforestation,
 maintenance of extant forests, and fire control. The U.S. Forest Service
 manages the National Forest System (federally owned forest reserves),
 emphasizing sustained yield (achieved by balancing reforestation and
 logging) and multiple use.

   forgery

 forgery, in law, fabrication or alteration of a written document with
 intent to deceive or defraud. Most instances of forgery occur in
 connection with instruments for payment of money, such as checks, but the
 crime may also involve documents of title (e.g., deeds) or public
 documents (e.g., birth and marriage certificates). Counterfeiting (the
 manufacture of false money with intent to deceive) may be regarded as a
 special variety of forgery.

   forging

 forging: see WELDING.

   formaldehyde

 formaldehyde or methanal(HCHO), a colorless, flammable, poisonous gas
 with a suffocating odor. Pure gaseous formaldehyde is uncommon, because
 it readily polymerizes into solid paraformaldehyde. Formalin, a 40% by
 volume solution of formaldehyde in water, is used as an antiseptic,
 disinfectant, and preservative for biological specimens. Formaldehyde is
 also used to make DYES, PLASTICS (e.g., BAKELITE), and synthetic RESINS.

   Forrest, Edwin

 Forrest, Edwin, 1806-72, American actor, the nation's first theatrical
 idol; b. Philadelphia. His New York City debut as Othello (1826)
 established him as a great tragedian, noted for bold and forceful acting.
 His rivalry with the English actor W.C. MACREADY resulted in a riot
 (1849) in New York by Forrest partisans in which many were killed.

   Forrestal, James Vincent

 Forrestal, James Vincent, 1892-1949, U.S. secretary of the navy (1944-47)
 and secretary of defense (1947-49); b. Beacon, N.Y. After the
 reorganization (1947) of the war and navy departments, Forrestal became
 the first secretary of defense. Illness forced his resignation, and he
 later committed suicide.

   Forster, E(dward) M(organ)

 Forster, E(dward) M(organ), 1879-1970, English novelist. With
 sensitivity, subtlety, and an impeccable style, he brought new depths to
 the English novel of manners. Where Angels Fear to Tread (1905) was
 followed by The Longest Journey (1907), A Room with a View (1908),
 Howards End (1910), and Maurice (1913-14, published 1971). His last
 novel, A Passage to India (1924), is his best-known work. He also
 published short stories and nonfiction, including Aspects of the Novel
 (1927).

   forsythia

 forsythia, shrub (genus Forsythia) of the OLIVE family, native to Europe
 and Asia. Producing abundant bell-shaped yellow flowers, which appear
 before the leaves, forsythia bushes are often cultivated as ornamentals
 in hedges and along borders.

   Fortaleza

 Fortaleza, city (1980 pop. 648,815), NE Brazil, capital of Ceara state.
 An Atlantic port at the mouth of the Paeju R., which bisects the city, it
 ships coffee and other products of Brazil's interior and has processing
 industries. It is also known for traditional handicrafts, e.g.,
 lacemaking. The city first achieved importance in the 17th cent., as a
 center of the great colonial sugar plantations.

   Fort Collins

 Fort Collins, city (1986 est. pop. 74,140), seat of Larimer co., N Colo.,
 on the Cache la Poudre R., at the foot of the ROCKY MTS.; inc. as a city
 1883. The area was settled (1864) around a fortification built to protect
 a trading post. The city, trade center for a rich farming area, has
 diversified industries and is the seat of Colorado State Univ.

   fortification

 fortification, system of defense structures for protection from enemy
 attacks. The art developed in earliest times with the building of simple
 earthworks, which soon evolved into walls, palisades, and elaborate
 stockades. City walls appeared very early in the Middle East, notably in
 Mesopotamia and Phoenicia. Major advances in permanent fortification were
 made by the Romans, who built walls along the Danube and Rhine rivers and
 in England, e.g., HADRIAN'S WALL. The GREAT WALL OF CHINA was an even
 more ambitious undertaking. The advent of siegecraft, using such devices
 as battering rams and catapults, reduced the effectiveness of large-scale
 fortification, but in the Middle Ages CASTLES and citadels remained
 defensible against all but a lengthy siege. In the 15th cent. the
 development of ARTILLERY further diminished the value of fixed
 fortifications, and military engineers had to devise new methods of
 defense based on detached forts that created an entrenched camp over a
 wide area. This ring system of fortification failed in Belgium in World
 War I, however, as did the French MAGINOT LINE in World War II. The
 development of airpower, heavy artillery, and MECHANIZED WARFARE
 eventually brought an end to such defense systems. In both the Korean and
 Vietnam wars the theory of fortification returned to the idea of
 temporary, even improvised, shelter, intended mainly to delay the enemy's
 advance.

   Fort Knox

 Fort Knox for Henry KNOX, U.S. military reservation, 110,000 acres
 (44,515 hectares), Hardin and Meade cos., N Ky.; est. 1917 as a training
 camp, became a permanent post 1932. In 1940 it became the site of the
 U.S. Army Armored Center. The U.S. Depository (built 1936) holds the bulk
 of the nation's gold bullion in steel and concrete vaults.

   Fort Lauderdale

 Fort Lauderdale, city (1986 est. pop. 148,620), seat of Broward co., SE
 Fla., on the Atlantic coast; settled around a fort built (c.1837) in the
 Seminole War, inc. 1911. The city has more than 270 mi (435 km) of
 natural and artificial waterways, and one of the largest marinas in the
 world. A major beach resort, it also produces electronic devices, boats
 and yachts, and various light manufactures.

   Fort McHenry

 Fort McHenry, U.S. military post, Baltimore harbor, Md. Its defense
 against British bombardment in the WAR OF 1812 inspired Francis Scott KEY
 to write "The STAR-SPANGLED BANNER." It is now a national monument and
 historic site.

   FORTRAN

 FORTRAN: see PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE.

   Fort Sill

 Fort Sill, U.S. military reservation, Comanche co., SW Okla., 4 mi N of
 Lawton; est. 1869 by Gen. Philip SHERIDAN. Now a 95,000-acre
 (38,445-hectare) field artillery and missile base, it was once (1870s) a
 base of operations for Indian compaigns and for maintaining law and order
 in the region. Various tribes were given land there and trained in
 agriculture. GERONIMO is buried in Fort Sill's Apache cemetery.

   Fort Smith

 Fort Smith, city (1986 est. pop. 74,320), seat of Sebastian co., NW Ark.,
 at the Okla. line, where the Arkansas and Poteau rivers join; inc. 1842.
 A military post (est. 1817) and gold rush supply point (1848), it was a
 lawless area cleansed by "Hanging Judge" Isaac Parker. The modern city is
 a rail and trade center, and has diverse manufactures, including heating
 and electrical equipment. The city has a 22-block historic district. Fort
 Smith National Historic Site is there.

   Fort Sumter

 Fort Sumter, fortification in Charleston harbor, S.C., site of the first
 clash (Apr. 12, 1861) of the CIVIL WAR. The Confederates were victorious,
 but the fort was retaken by Union forces in 1865. It is now a national
 monument.

   Fort Wayne

 Fort Wayne, city (1986 est. pop. 172,900), seat of Allen co., NE Ind.,
 where the St. Joseph and St. Mary's rivers join to form the Maumee R.;
 inc. 1840. It is a railroad, wholesale, and distribution hub with
 electronics and automotive industries. The MIAMI INDIANS had their chief
 town on the strategic site. A French fort (built before 1680) was
 replaced by one built (1794) by Anthony WAYNE, who subdued the Indians.

   Fort Worth

 Fort Worth, city (1986 est. pop. 429,550), seat of Tarrant co., N Tex.,
 30 mi (48 km) W of DALLAS; settled 1843, inc. 1873. Established as an
 army post in 1847, it became a cattle town after the Civil War.
 Completion (1876) of the railroad made it a meat-packing and shipping
 point. Wheat (late 19th cent.) and oil (discovered 1919 west of the city)
 furthered its development. Today it is a major N Texas industrial city,
 with large oil and gas facilities and a huge aircraft industry. The
 Dallas-Fort Worth airport (opened 1974 between the cities) is one of the
 world's largest. Texas Christian Univ., the Fort Worth Art Center, and
 the Amon Carter Museum of Western Art are among the city's well-known
 institutions.

   Forty-seven Runin

 Forty-seven Runin, a group of Japanese knights who avenged their lord in
 1703 by assassinating the official responsible for his death. They
 immediately surrendered to the authorities. After a year of debate at all
 levels of society, the knights committed suicide as ordered. They have
 since been held as great cultural heroes, who are celebrated in the
 popular play by CHIKAMATSU MONZAEMON.

   Foscolo, Ugo

 Foscolo, Ugo, 1778-1827, Italian writer. A novel recounting his political
 disillusionment with Napoleon Bonaparte (see NAPOLEON I), The Last
 Letters of Jacopo Ortis (1798-1802), together with his criticism and
 lyrics (e.g., Sepulchres, 1807), strongly influenced Italian letters.

   Foss, Lukas

 Foss, Lukas, 1922-, American composer, pianist, and conductor; b. Germany
 as Lukas Fuchs. As conductor of the Buffalo Philharmonic Orchestra
 (1963-71), he was noted for performing avant-garde compositions. His own
 early works were traditional; his later interest in modern techniques is
 seen in Elytres (1964) and Fanfare (1973). In 1971 he was appointed music
 director of the Brooklyn Philharmonic and in 1972 conductor of the Kol
 Israel Orchestra of Jerusalem.

   fossil

 fossil, remains or imprint of a plant or animal preserved from
 prehistoric times by natural methods and found mainly in sedimentary
 rock, asphalt, and coal. Fossilization of skeletal structures or other
 hard parts is most common. Conditions for fossilization include quick
 burial in an originally moist sediment or other material that prevents
 both weathering and decay. Shells and bones embedded in hardened sediment
 can be dissolved by water, leaving a natural mold. Sometimes these molds
 are filled with mineral deposits, forming natural casts. Fossil
 footprints and trails and coprolites, or fossil excrement, can reveal
 much about the lives and feeding habits of ancient animals. Entire
 animals of the late Pleistocene have been found, notably in Siberia. In
 California, the LA BREA tar pits have yielded many skeletons. The study
 of fossils is paleontology.

   fossil fuel

 fossil fuel: see ENERGY, SOURCES OF.

   Foster, Stephen Collins

 Foster, Stephen Collins, 1826-64, American songwriter and composer; b.
 Lawrenceville, Pa. He had little training. Writing songs for the E.P.
 CHRISTY minstrel troupe, he acquired a knowledge of Negro life, but
 sensing prejudice against "Ethiopian songs" he was reluctant even to put
 his name to them. Because of their utter simplicity, his Negro dialect
 songs are often thought of as folk music. His songs include "Oh!
 Susannah," "Camptown Races," "My Old Kentucky Home," and "Old Black Joe."

   foster care

 foster care, generally, care of children on a full-time, temporary basis
 by persons other than their own parents. Also known as boarding-home
 care, foster care offers a supportive family environment to children
 whose natural parents cannot raise them because of the parents' physical
 or mental illness; because of the child's behavioral difficulties; or
 because of problems within the family environment, e.g., abuse, neglect,
 alcoholism, or crime. Children may be placed in group homes or with
 individual foster families, who receive some payment toward care. In some
 cases, the natural parents retain their parental rights and the child
 ultimately returns home. Under permanent foster care, the agency has
 guardianship; the child may then be available for adoption by the foster
 parents or others. The concept of foster care has been extended in recent
 years to include care for elderly persons, on a fee basis, in the homes
 of people who are not members of the family.

   Foucault, Jean Bernard Leon

 Foucault, Jean Bernard Leon, 1819-68, French physicist. Investigating the
 speed of light, he determined its velocity in air and found that its
 speed in water and other media decreased in proportion to the index of
 refraction. He originated the Foucault PENDULUM with which he
 demonstrated the earth's rotation, invented (1852) the GYROSCOPE, and
 with the physicist Armand Fizeau took the first clear photograph of the
 sun.

   Fouche, Joseph

 Fouche, Joseph, b. 1759 or 1763, d. 1820, French police minister
 (1799-1802, 1804-10). An opportunist, he sided with every party in power
 from the FRENCH REVOLUTION through the BOURBON restoration. He was one of
 the indispensable men in the empire of NAPOLEON I, who created him duke
 of Otranto in 1809. Sometimes considered the father of the modern police
 state, he created a ruthlessly efficient system of criminal and political
 police. After the second Bourbon restoration, he was exiled and died in
 obscurity.

   Foucquet

 Foucquet: see FOUQUET.

   foundation

 foundation, institution through which private wealth is contributed and
 distributed for public purposes. Foundations have existed since Greek and
 Roman times, when they honored deities. The medieval European church had
 many foundations, and the Arab waqf (pious endowment) developed with the
 growth of Islam. Modern European foundations are generally smaller than
 those in the U.S. and are closely regulated by the state. There were a
 few early American foundations, e.g., those endowed by Benjamin FRANKLIN
 (1791) and by James Smithson (1846; to form the SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION).
 However, foundations in the U.S. developed rapidly after the Civil War.
 From 1896 to 1918 many wealthy Americans created private foundations for
 the public benefit, e.g., Andrew CARNEGIE and John D. ROCKEFELLER, Sr.
 The larger of the modern U.S. foundations have devoted themselves to
 broad areas, e.g., the Carnegie Corporation (est. 1911) concentrates on
 American education and underprivileged groups; the Rockefeller Foundation
 (est. 1913) works in the areas of hunger, overpopulation, education,
 equal opportunity, cultural improvement, and ecology; and the Ford
 Foundation (est. 1936) concentrates on world peace, democratic
 government, economic well-being, education, and the scientific study of
 mankind.

   founding

 founding: see CASTING.

   Fouquet

 Fouquetor Foucquet, Jeanor Jehan, c.1420-c.1480, French painter and
 illuminator. Court painter to CHARLES VII and LOUIS XI, he produced
 delicate religious paintings, court portraits, and an illuminated BOOK OF
 HOURS for Etienne Chevalier (Chantilly) that is regarded as his
 masterpiece.

   Four Freedoms

 Four Freedoms. On Jan. 6, 1941, Pres. F.D. ROOSEVELT, in a message to
 Congress proposing LEND-LEASE legislation, stated that Four Freedoms
 should prevail throughout the world-freedom of speech and expression,
 freedom of worship, freedom from want, and freedom from fear. These were
 substantially incorporated (Aug. 1941) in the ATLANTIC CHARTER.

   Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse

 Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, allegorical figures in the BIBLE. Rev.
 6. One interpretation of the rider on the white horse is that he
 represents Christ. The rider on the red horse is war; on the black horse,
 famine; and on the pale horse, death.

   Fourier, Charles

 Fourier, Charles, 1772-1837, French social philosopher. He held social
 harmony could be achieved in a society based on the "phalanx," an
 economic unit of 1,620 people sharing a communal dwelling and dividing
 work according to their natural inclinations. The many Fourierist
 communities included BROOK FARM. After Fourier's death, Fourierism was
 led by V.P. CONSIDERANT.

   Fourier, Jean Baptiste Joseph, Baron

 Fourier, Jean Baptiste Joseph, Baron, 1768-1830, French mathematician and
 physicist, noted for his researches on heat diffusion and numerical
 equations. He originated the Fourier series, which allowed discontinuous
 functions to be represented by a trigonometric series.

   Four-Power Treaty

 Four-Power Treaty: see NAVAL CONFERENCES.

   Fourteen Points

 Fourteen Points, formulation of a peace program, presented (Jan. 1918) by
 Pres. WILSON near the end of WORLD WAR I. The program called for a just,
 unselfish peace that would offer self-government to the European national
 groups and pave the way for general disarmament and open agreements
 between nations. The program had two purposes: to reach the people and
 liberal leaders of the Central Powers in the hope that their influence
 would help shorten the war, and also to provide an actual framework for
 the peace discussions. The first aim was successful; but, despite the
 enormous moral authority the Fourteen Points conferred on Wilson, the
 program's important points were lost in the compromises that came out of
 the peace treaty (see VERSAILLES, TREATY OF).

   Fourth of July, Independence Day

 Fourth of July, Independence Day, or July Fourth,U.S. patriotic holiday
 commemorating the adoption of the DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.
 Celebration of it began during the AMERICAN REVOLUTION.

   Fowler, Henry Watson

 Fowler, Henry Watson, 1858-1933, English lexicographer. He and his
 brother, Francis G. Fowler (1870-1918), collaborated on The King's
 English (1906), The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English (1911),
 and The Pocket Oxford Dictionary (1924). After the death of his brother,
 H.W. Fowler completed alone the invaluable reference work A Dictionary of
 Modern Usage (1926).

   Fowles, John

 Fowles, John, 1926-, English novelist. A cerebral writer, he is
 interested in manipulating the novel form. His books include The
 Collector (1963), The French Lieutenant's Woman (1969), Mantissa (1982),
 and A Maggot (1985).

   Fox, Charles James

 Fox, Charles James, 1749-1806, British statesman and orator, for many
 years the outstanding parliamentary proponent of liberal reform. A WHIG,
 he entered Parliament in 1768. He was a close friend of the prince of
 Wales (later GEORGE IV) and an enemy of GEORGE III and William PITT.
 Three times foreign secretary (1782, 1783, 1806), Fox opposed British
 intervention in the FRENCH REVOLUTION. He advocated legislative
 independence for Ireland, enlargement of the franchise, and parliamentary
 reform. Abolition of the slave trade, which he proposed and urged, was
 passed in 1807.

   Fox, George

 Fox, George, 1624-91, English religious leader, founder of the Society of
 FRIENDS. In 1646 he underwent a mystical experience that convinced him
 that Christianity was an inner light by which Christ directly illumines
 the believing soul. Beginning to preach in 1647, he was often persecuted
 and imprisoned, but won many followers and organized his sect in 1668.
 The first London Yearly Meeting was held in 1671. His journal (1694, with
 a preface by William Penn), has appeared in various editions.

   Fox, Margaret

 Fox, Margaret: see SPIRITISM.

   fox

 fox, carnivorous MAMMAL of the DOG family, found in much of the Northern
 Hemisphere. It has a pointed face, thick fur, and bushy tail. Most fox
 species belong to the red fox group (genus Vulpes). The common red fox
 (V. vulpes) of North America inhabits areas of forest mixed with open
 country from the Arctic to the S U.S.

   fox terrier

 fox terrier, long-legged TERRIER; shoulder height, c.15 in. (38.1 cm);
 weight, 15-19 lb (6.8-8.6 kg). There are two types: the smooth, with a
 dense, short, flat coat, and the wirehaired, with a longer, harsh, wiry
 coat. Both are white, with black or black-and-tan markings. The breed was
 perfected in 19th-cent. England to hunt foxes.

   Foxe, John

 Foxe, John, 1516-87, English clergyman, author of the noted Book of
 Martyrs. A Protestant, he fled to the Continent in the reign of MARY I.
 There, a Latin edition of his history was published in 1559. An expanded
 English edition (1563) appeared in the reign of ELIZABETH I. The book
 praised the Protestant martyrs of Mary's reign.

   foxhound

 foxhound, sturdy, medium-sized HOUND. The English foxhound, shoulder
 height, 21-25 in. (53.3-63.5 cm); weight, 60-70 lb (27.2-31.8 kg), has a
 short, glossy coat that is usually black, tan, and white. Probably
 developed from 14th-cent. French hounds, it was first used in packs to
 hunt foxes in the 17th cent. The slightly smaller American foxhound was
 developed over 300 years ago.

   Fox Indians

 Fox Indians: see SAC AND FOX INDIANS.

   Foyt, A.J.

 Foyt, A.J. (Anthony Joseph Foyt, Jr.), 1935-, American auto racing
 driver; b. Houston. Foyt was the first person to win the Indianapolis 500
 race four times (1961, 1964, 1967, 1977). He has also won the Daytona 500
 and, with Dan Gurney, the 24 Hours of Le Mans. He has been U.S. Auto Club
 driving champion seven times.

   Fr

 Fr, chemical symbol of the element FRANCIUM.

   Fra

 Fra: see ANGELICO, FRA; LIPPI, FRA FILIPPO.

   fraction

 fraction, in arithmetic, an expression representing a part, or several
 equal parts, of a unit. In writing a fraction, e.g., 2/5 or 2/5, the
 number after or below the bar, called the denominator, indicates the
 total number of equal parts into which the unit has been divided; the
 number before or above the bar, called the numerator, indicates how many
 of these parts are being considered. The present notation for fractions
 is of Hindu origin, but Egyptians used some types of fractions before
 1600 BC The DECIMAL SYSTEM uses another way to represent fractions, e.g.,
 0.75 for 3/4, often simplifying arithmetical computation.

   Fragonard, Jean-Honore

 Fragonard, Jean-Honore, 1732-1806, French painter. Influenced by BOUCHER,
 he was admitted to the Academie royale in 1765 for Coresus and Callirrhoe
 (Louvre). Thereafter he painted polished, delicately erotic scenes of
 love for the court of LOUIS XV. Representative works are Love's Vow and
 The Swing (both: Wallace Coll., London), and the Music Lesson (Louvre).
 He is esteemed for the freedom of his brush stroke, the vitality of his
 portraiture and landscapes, and his virtuosity in depicting the gaiety
 and charm of the age of Louis XV.

   Frame, Janet

 Frame, Janet, 1924-, New Zealand author of such complex, disturbing
 novels as Owls Do Cry (1957), Faces in the Water (1961), Living in the
 Maniototo (1979), and The Envoy from Mirror City (1985), and of poems,
 e.g., The Pocket Mirror (1967), and short stories.

   France, Anatole

 France, Anatole, pseud. of Jacques Anatole Thibault, 1844-1924, French
 author, the most prominent French man of letters of his day. His early
 fiction displayed allusive charm and subtle irony, as in The Crime of
 Sylvestre Bonnard (1881), Thais (1890), and At the Sign of the Reine
 Pedauque (1893). After the DREYFUS AFFAIR (in which he supported ZOLA),
 he concentrated more on political satire, notably in the novel Penguin
 Island (1908), an allegory of French history. He was elected to the
 French Academy in 1896 and received the Nobel Prize in literature in
 1921.

   France

 France, officially the French Republic, republic (1987 est. pop.
 55,632,000), 211,207 sq mi (547,026 sq km), W Europe; bordered by the
 English Channel (N), the Atlantic Ocean and Bay of Biscay (W), Spain
 (SW), the Mediterranean Sea (S), Switzerland and Italy (E, SE), and West
 Germany, Luxembourg, and Belgium (NE). PARIS is the capital; other major
 cities include MARSEILLES, LYONS, TOULOUSE and NICE. One of the country's
 major natural features is the Massif Central, a rugged mountain area
 occupying south-central France. North of this and of the LOIRE R. is the
 Paris basin, a fertile depression drained by the SEINE and Marne rivers.
 To the southeast is the RHONE valley, which widens into a plain near its
 delta on the MEDITERRANEAN. To the southwest is the great Aquitanian
 plain, drained by the Garonne and Dordogne rivers. The main mountain
 ranges are the French ALPS, with France's highest peak, MONT BLANC
 (15,771 ft/4,807 m), the Vosges and the Jura mountains in the east, and
 the PYRENEES in the southwest.

 Economy France is one of the world's major economic powers. Agriculture
 is important, and about 60% of the land is used for farming. Over half of
 the value of agricultural output derives from livestock; leading crops
 are sugar beets, wheat, corn, barley, and potatoes. Only Italy produces
 more wine. Iron ore and bauxite are the leading minerals. Major
 industrial products include metals, chemicals, natural gas, foods
 (particularly cheese), motor vehicles, aircraft, and textiles. Tourism is
 important, as is the production of luxury goods. The railroads,
 utilities, many banks, and some key industries are nationally owned.

 People France has great ethnic diversity. French is the universal
 language, but Alsatian (a German dialect), Flemish, Breton, Basque, and
 Catalan are still spoken in various sections. Roman Catholicism is the
 dominant religion.

 Government Metropolitan (European) France is composed of 95 departments
 (including the island-department of CORSICA), grouped into 21 regions and
 subdivided into districts, municipalities, and cantons. Together with the
 overseas departments and territories, they constitute the French
 Republic. The Fifth French Republic is governed under a constitution
 adopted in 1958 and amended in 1962. It provides for a strong president,
 directly elected to a seven-year term, and a bicameral parliament.

 Early History The area known as GAUL was conquered (58-51 BC) by the
 Romans under Julius CAESAR. Beginning in the 3d cent. AD, the Gallo-Roman
 civilization that had developed was overrun by Germanic invaders,
 including the FRANKS under CLOVIS I, who defeated (486) the last Roman
 governor. Under the MEROVINGIAN and CAROLINGIAN dynasties the Franks
 ruled Gaul until 987, when powerful feudal lords established HUGH CAPET
 as king. Under the Capetian kings, who reigned until 1328, France
 experienced a rebirth that reached its height in the 13th cent. Its
 leading role in the CRUSADES established its cultural supremacy in most
 of Europe, and the HUNDRED YEARS WAR (1337-1453) evicted the English from
 French soil. The 16th cent. brought religious conflict and civil wars,
 but in the 17th cent. two great statesmen, Cardinal RICHELIEU and
 Cardinal MAZARIN, reestablished French power, and under LOUIS XIV (r.
 1643-1715) France became the greatest power in Europe.

 The Ancien Regime and the New France Burdened by remnants of feudalism
 and a system of outworn privileges, France under LOUIS XV (r. 1715-74)
 hovered on the verge of bankruptcy. The SEVEN YEARS WAR (1756-63) drained
 the treasury and cost France its empire in India and North America.
 French support of the AMERICAN REVOLUTION proved a financial disaster.
 The result was the upheaval that shook Europe from 1789 to 1815 (see
 FRENCH REVOLUTION; FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS; NAPOLEON I). During this
 time a constitutional monarchy was created (1791); war with much of
 Europe began, accompanied by the growth of radical factions in France
 (1792); ROBESPIERRE presided over the REIGN OF TERROR (1793-95); and a
 reaction ushered in the DIRECTORY (1795-99), which was terminated by
 Napoleon's coup d'etat. Making himself emperor (1804), Napoleon led his
 armies as far as Moscow before his final defeat in the WATERLOO CAMPAIGN
 (1815).

 Modern France France emerged as a uniform, bureaucratic state, dominated
 by the bourgeoisie. The Bourbon Restoration (1814-30) was shortlived. The
 JULY REVOLUTION of 1830 enthroned LOUIS PHILIPPE, who was overthrown in
 turn by the FEBRUARY REVOLUTION of 1848. Louis Napoleon headed the Second
 Republic and later (1852) made himself emperor as NAPOLEON III. Defeat in
 the FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR (1870-71) led to his downfall and the
 establishment of the Third Republic. In WORLD WAR I, France, led by
 CLEMENCEAU, bore the brunt of the fighting in the West. In WORLD WAR II,
 defeat by Germany (1940) was followed by occupation; Marshal PETAIN
 headed the collaborationist VICHY government in unoccupied France, while
 Gen. Charles DE GAULLE led the "Free French" resistance. In 1944 the
 Allies expelled the Germans from France. The Fourth Republic, proclaimed
 in 1946, was weakened by the defeat (1954) of French troops in INDOCHINA
 and a war for independence in ALGERIA. De Gaulle was returned to power as
 first president (1958-69) of the Fifth Republic. Seeking to restore
 French prestige in world affairs, De Gaulle stressed independence from
 the U.S. and NATO in military affairs. His conservative policies were
 continued by his successors, Georges POMPIDOU and Valery GISCARD
 D'ESTAING. In 1981, after 23 years of Gaullist dominance, the Socialists
 elected Francois MITTERRAND as president and embarked on a program that

 industry.


 RULERS OF FRANCE SINCE 987 (including dates of reign)

 The Capetians
 Hugh Capet, 987--96
 Robert II (the Pious), son of Hugh Capet, 996--1031
 Henry I, son of Robert II 1031--60
 Philip I, son of Henry I, 1060--1108
 Louis VI (the Fat), son of Philip I,1108--37
 Louis Vll (the Young), son of Louis VI, 1137--80
 Philip II (Augustus), son of Louis VII, 1180--1223
 Louis VIII, son of Philip II, 1223--26
 Louis IX (Saint Louis), son of Louis VIII, 1226--70
 Philip III (the Bold), son of Louis IX, 1270--85
 Philip IV (the Fair), son of Philip III,1285--1314
 Louis X (the Quarrelsome), son of Philip IV, 1314--16
 John I (the Posthumous), son of Louis X, 1316
 Philip V (the Tall), son of Philip IV, 1317--22
 Charles IV (the Fair), son of Philip IV, 1322--28


 House of Valois
 Philip VI, grandson of Philip III,1328--50
 John II (the Good), son of Philip Vl, 1350--64
 Charles V (the Wise), son of John II,1364--80
 Charles VI (the Mad or the Well Beloved), son of Charles V, I380--I422
 Charles VII (the Victorious or the Well Served), son of Charles VI,
 1422--61
 Louis XI, son of Charles VII, 1461--83
 Charles VIII, son of Louis XI, 1483--98
 Louis XII, descendant of Charles V, 1498--1515
 Francis I, cousin and son-in-law of Louis XII, 1515--47
 Henry II, son of Francis I,1547--59
 Francis II, son of Henry II,1559--60
 Charles IX, son of Henry II,1560--74
 Henry III, son of Henry II,1574--89


 House of Bourbon
 Henry IV (of Navarre), descendant of Louis IX, 1589--1610
 Louis XIII, son of Henry IV, 1610--43
 Louis XIV, son of Louis XIII, 1643--1715
 Louis XV, great-grandson of Louis XIV, 1715--74
 Louis XVI, grandson of Louis XV, 1774--92


 The First Republic
 The National Convention, 1792--95
 The Directory, 1795--99
 The Consulate (Napoleon Bonaparte, First Consul, I802--4), I799--I804


 The First Empire
 Napoleon I (Napoleon Bonaparte), 1804--15


 Bourbon Restoration
 Louis XVIII, grandson of Louis XV, 1814--24
 Charles X, grandson of Louis XV, 1824--30


 House of Bourbon-Orleans
 Louis Philippe, descendant of Louis Xlll, 1830--48


 The Second Republic
 Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of Napoleon I president, 1848--52


 The Sevond Empire
 Napoleon III (Louis Napoleon Bonaparte), 1852--70


 The Third Republic (presidents)
 Louis Jules Trochu (provisional), 1870--71
 Adolphe Thiers, 1871--73
 Marie Edme Patrice de MacMahon, 187
 Jules Grevy, 1879--87
 Sadi Carnot, 1887--94
 Jean Paul Pierre Casimir-Perier, 1894--95
 Flix Faure, 1895--99
 Emile Francois Loubet, 1899--1906
 Armand FalIieeres, 1906--13
 Raymond Poincare, 1913--20
 Paul Eugene Louis Deschanel, 1920
 Alexandre Millerand, 1920--24
 Gaston Doumergue, 1924--31
 Paul Doumer, 1931--32
 Albert Lebrun, 1932--40


 The Vichy Government
 Henri Philippe Petain, chief of state, 1940--44


 The Provisional Government
 Charles De Gaulle, president, 1944--46


 The Fourth Republic (presidents)
 Georges Bidault (provisional), 1946
 Vincent Auriol, 1947--54
 Rene Coty, 1954--58


 The Fifth Republic (presidents)
 Charles De Gaulle, 1958--69
 Georges Pompidou, 1969--74
 Valery Giscard d'Estaing, 1974--1981
 Francois Mitterrand, 1981--






   Franceschi, Piero de'

 Franceschi, Piero de': see PIERO DELLA FRANCESCA.

   franchise

 franchise, type of business in which a group or individual receives a
 license to conduct a commercial enterprise. Corporate franchises enable a
 franchisee to market a well-known product or service in return for an
 initial fee and a percentage of gross receipts. The franchiser usually
 provides assistance with merchandising and advertising. Major franchise
 networks, which have grown rapidly in the U.S., include fast-food
 restaurants, gasoline stations, motels, automobile dealerships, and
 real-estate agencies, and the system has expanded into many other fields.
 Government franchises are issued to public utility and transport
 companies.

   Francia, Jose Gaspar Rodriguez

 Francia, Jose Gaspar Rodriguez, 1766-1840, Paraguayan dictator (1814-40).
 Known as El Supremo, he successfully achieved PARAGUAY'S independence
 from Spain and ruled the country with an iron hand until his death.

   Francis, Saint

 Francis, Saint, or Saint Francis of Assisi,1182?-1226, founder of the
 FRANCISCANS; b. Assisi, Italy. The son of a wealthy merchant, he
 underwent a conversion at age 22 and became markedly devout and ascetic.
 In 1209 he began to preach and was given permission by Pope INNOCENT III
 to form an order of friars. The friars traveled about Italy and soon
 began preaching in foreign countries, including (1219-20) the Holy Land.
 In 1221 Francis gave up command of the order, and in 1224 he became the
 first known person to receive the stigmata (wounds corresponding to those
 of the crucified Christ). Francis exemplified humility, love of poverty,
 and joyous religious fervor; he is also associated with a simple love of
 nature and man and is often depicted preaching to birds. Stories about
 him were collected in The Little Flowers of St. Francis. Feast: Oct. 4.

   Francis

 Francis, rulers of the HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE. Francis I, 1708-65, emperor
 (1745-65), duke of Lorraine (1729-37), and duke of Tuscany (1737-65),
 exchanged Lorraine for Tuscany in 1735 as part of the settlement of the
 War of the POLISH SUCCESSION. In 1736 he married MARIA THERESA, heiress
 to the HAPSBURG lands. He became emperor at the end of the War of the
 AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, but the real rulers were Maria Theresa and
 Chancellor Kaunitz. Francis II, 1768-1835, was the last Holy Roman
 emperor (1792-1806) and, as Francis I, the first emperor of Austria
 (1804-35) and king of Bohemia and Hungary (1792-1835). When NAPOLEON I
 forced the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, Francis took the title
 emperor of Austria. Later he helped defeat Napoleon and, guided by
 METTERNICH, presided over the Congress of VIENNA. His reign was
 exceedingly reactionary and repressive.

   Francis I, emperor of Austria

 Francis I, emperor of Austria: see FRANCIS II, Holy Roman emperor.

   Francis

 Francis, kings of France. Francis I, 1494-1547 (r.1515-47), was the
 cousin, son-in-law, and successor of LOUIS XII. He resumed the ITALIAN
 WARS and recovered Milan by a brilliant victory at Marignano (1515). A
 candidate for Holy Roman emperor (1519), Francis lost to CHARLES V, who
 became his lifelong rival. A planned alliance with HENRY VIII of England
 failed to occur at the FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD (1520), and Francis was
 captured in his first war (1521-25) against Charles V. To gain his
 freedom, Francis renounced many territorial claims. He then created the
 League of Cognac, consisting of Francis, Henry VIII, Venice, Florence,
 and the papacy; they were all allied against Charles V, but a second war
 (1527-29) gained little, and a third war (1536-38) proved inconclusive.
 In 1542 Francis, allied with the Turkish sultan SULAYMAN I, again
 attacked Charles, who was supported by Henry VIII. The resulting peace
 treaties only confirmed earlier French losses. Francis was a typical
 Renaissance monarch, unscrupulous, spendthrift, and dissolute, but is
 also known for his support of the arts. He was a patron of Francois
 RABELAIS, and LEONARDO DA VINCI worked at his court. Francis was
 succeeded by his son HENRY II. His grandson, Francis II, 1544-60
 (r.1559-60), married (1558) MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS, and during his reign the
 government was run by her relatives, the GUISE family. Their ruthless
 persecution of the Protestants caused the HUGUENOTS to launch the
 ill-fated Amboise Conspiracy (1560) in an effort to displace them.

   Francis

 Francis, 1554-84, French prince, duke of Alencon and Anjou, youngest son
 of HENRY II of France. Although ill-shapen and pockmarked, he was
 considered as a husband for ELIZABETH I of England. Offered (1580) the
 rule of the Low Countries by WILLIAM THE SILENT, leader of the
 Netherlands' revolt against Spain, he invaded the Netherlands, but
 withdrew in 1583.

   Francis, Dick

 Francis, Dick, 1920-, English novelist. Formerly a professional champion
 steeplechase jockey, he parlayed his knowledge of horse-racing into
 successful mysteries, including Twice Shy (1982), Break In (1986), and
 The Edge (1988).

   Franciscans

 Franciscans, members of several Roman Catholic religious orders following
 the rule (approved 1223) of St. FRANCIS. There are now three orders of
 Franciscan friars. The Friars Minor (O.F.M.), formerly called Observants,
 and the Friars Minor Conventual (O.M.C.) split (1517) as a result of a
 reform. Further reform (1525) created the Capuchins (O.M.Cap.). The
 Franciscans include an order of nuns, the Poor Clares, and a third order
 including both laity and religious members. Franciscans are educators and
 missionaries.

   Francis de Sales, Saint

 Francis de Sales, Saint, 1567-1622, French Roman Catholic preacher,
 Doctor of the Church, key figure in the Catholic Reformation in France
 (see REFORMATION, CATHOLIC). He became (1602) bishop of Geneva and is
 credited with many conversions of Protestants by his eloquent preaching.
 With St. Jane Frances de Chantal he founded the Order of the Visitation
 for women. His Introduction to the Devout Life is a religious classic,
 and he is the patron saint of Roman Catholic writers. Feast: Jan. 24.

   Francis Ferdinand

 Francis Ferdinand, 1863-1914, Austrian archduke, heir apparent to his
 great-uncle, Emperor FRANCIS JOSEPH. He and his wife, Sophie, were
 assassinated (1914) in SARAJEVO by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian
 nationalist. The consequent Austrian ultimatum to Serbia led directly to
 WORLD WAR I.

   Francis Joseph

 Francis Joseph or Franz Joseph,1830-1916, emperor of Austria (1848-1916)
 and king of Hungary (1867-1916). He subdued Hungary (1849) but lost
 (1859) Lombardy to Sardinia, and later he lost Venetia to Italy in the
 AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR of 1866. After reorganization (1867), his empire
 became the AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY. Francis Joseph joined (1879) in an
 alliance with Germany (see TRIPLE ALLIANCE AND TRIPLE ENTENTE). His reign
 was disturbed by the tragic deaths of his son, RUDOLF; his brother,
 MAXIMILIAN, emperor of Mexico; and his wife, ELIZABETH. He died during
 World War I and was succeeded by CHARLES I.

   Francis Xavier, Saint

 Francis Xavier, Saint, 1506-52, Basque JESUIT missionary, called the
 Apostle to the Indies. A friend of St. IGNATIUS OF LOYOLA, with whom he
 and five others formed the Society of Jesus, he spent the last 11 years
 of his life as a missionary in India, Southeast Asia, and Japan. He is
 considered one of the greatest Christian missionaries, possessing both
 profound mysticism and common sense. Feast: Dec. 3.

   francium

 francium (Fr), radioactive element, discovered in 1939 by Marguerite
 Perey as a disintegration product of actinium. Some of the 21 known
 isotopes of this rare ALKALI METAL are prepared by bombarding thorium
 with protons, deuterons, or alpha particles. See ELEMENT; PERIODIC TABLE.

   Franck, Cesar Auguste

 Franck, Cesar Auguste, 1822-90, Belgian-French composer and organist. As
 a teacher in Paris he influenced an entire generation of composers. His
 distinctive music, drawing on the techniques of BACH, includes his famous
 Symphony in D minor (1886-88).

   Franco, Francisco

 Franco, Francisco, 1892-1975, Spanish general, caudillo leader of Spain
 (1939-75). An army chief of staff (1934-36) and a political conservative,
 he joined (1936) the Nationalist rebellion against the republic and
 invaded Spain from Morocco. He became head of the rebel government (1936)
 and of the fascist FALANGE party (1937). With German and Italian help, he
 won the SPANISH CIVIL WAR in 1939, dealt ruthlessly with Loyalist
 opponents, and established a corporate state. He kept Spain a
 nonbelligerent in World War II, and in 1947 he declared Spain a kingdom
 with himself regent. He named (1969) JUAN CARLOS as his successor and,
 despite social unrest, retained power until his death.

   Franco-German War

 Franco-German War: see FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR.

   Franconia

 Franconia, one of the five basic or stem duchies of medieval Germany, S
 West Germany. It became (9th cent.) a duchy that included the cities of
 Mainz, Wurzburg, Frankfurt, and Worms. Partitioned in 939, it remained
 politically fragmented. Most of Eastern Franconia passed (1803-15) to
 Bavaria.

   Franco-Prussian War

 Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War,1870-71, war provoked by
 BISMARCK as part of his plan to create a unified German empire. Bismarck
 surmised that his publication of the EMS DISPATCH would goad the French
 government into declaring war (on July 19, 1870) on Prussia, and that the
 other German states would fall into line behind Prussia. A brilliant
 campaign led by von MOLTKE brought a string of German victories,
 culminating in the French rout at Sedan, where the emperor, NAPOLEON III,
 was captured (Sept. 1). In Paris, Napoleon was deposed and a provisional
 government was formed, but French resistance was made useless after the
 surrender of the French commander, Marshal Bazaine, at Metz (Oct. 27).
 Paris, however, held out until Jan. 1871, when the Prussian siege finally
 succeeded. France was forced to pay a huge indemnity and to give up most
 of Alsace and Lorraine. Again Paris resisted, until the COMMUNE OF PARIS
 was crushed militarily by the new French government. The war had
 far-reaching consequences. The German Empire was proclaimed (at
 Versailles on Jan. 18, 1871), and Prussian militarism and imperialism had
 triumphed.

   Frank, Jacob

 Frank, Jacob, c.1726-1791, Polish Jewish sectarian and adventurer; b.
 Ukraine as Jacob ben Judah Leib. He founded the Frankists, a heretical
 Jewish sect that was an anti-Talmudic outgrowth of the mysticism of
 SABBATAI ZEVI.

   Frankenthaler, Helen

 Frankenthaler, Helen, 1928-, American painter; b. N.Y.C. A one-time
 student of Jackson POLLOCK, she is known for her lyrical and sensuous
 stained canvases.

   Frankfort

 Frankfort, city (1986 est. pop. 26,920), state capital and seat of
 Franklin co., N central Ky., cut by the Kentucky R.; est. 1786, became
 capital 1792. In the bluegrass country, it is the trade center for a
 tobacco and livestock area, and produces whiskey, auto parts, and other
 manufactures. Many fine old homes and the graves of Daniel BOONE and his
 wife are in the city.

   Frankfurt

 Frankfurt or Frankfurt am Main,city (1986 est pop. 593,400), Hesse,
 central W Germany, on the Main R. A port and an industrial center
 producing chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and other manufactures, it is the
 site of major international trade fairs. Founded (1st cent AD) by the
 Romans, it became a royal residence (8th cent.) under CHARLEMAGNE and the
 coronation place (1562-1792) of the Holy Roman emperors. In the 19th
 cent. it was the seat of the diet of the GERMAN CONFEDERATION. The city
 was the original home of the ROTHSCHILD family and the birthplace of
 GOETHE.

   Frankfurt an der Oder

 Frankfurt an der Oder, city (1980 pop. 79,679), E East Germany, a port on
 the Oder R. It is an industrial center, agricultural market, and rail
 hub. Manufactures include machinery, wood products, and frankfurter
 sausages. Chartered in 1253, the city was sacked (1631) by the Swedes in
 the THIRTY YEARS WAR and was severely damaged in WORLD WAR II.

   Frankfurter, Felix

 Frankfurter, Felix, 1882-1965, associate justice of the U.S. SUPREME
 COURT (1939-62); b. Austria; LL.B., Harvard Univ. (1906). A professor
 (1914-39) at Harvard law school, he espoused liberal causes, helping to
 found the AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION and supporting the NEW DEAL.
 Appointed to the Court by Pres. F.D. ROOSEVELT, Frankfurter tempered
 liberalism with judicial restraint, holding that government could limit
 civil liberties to protect itself and that the Court should not interfere
 in political issues.

   Frankfurt Parliament

 Frankfurt Parliament, 1848-49, national assembly convened as a result of
 the liberal revolution that swept Germany. Its members were popularly
 elected, and its aim was the unification of Germany. It offered the
 imperial crown to FREDERICK WILLIAM IV of Prussia, but he refused the
 offer because it came from a popularly elected parliament. Thereafter the
 movement foundered and most members withdrew.

   frankincense

 frankincense: see INCENSE-TREE.

   Franklin, Ann Smith

 Franklin, Ann Smith, 1696-1763, American printer; b. Boston;
 sister-in-law of Benjamin FRANKLIN. She continued the Newport, R.I.,
 business of her husband, James Franklin, after 1735, publishing almanacs,
 the Newport Mercury, and colonial documents.

   Franklin, Aretha

 Franklin, Aretha, 1942-, American singer, b. Memphis. She began singing
 in the choir of her father's church. Known as "Queen of Soul," she
 recorded such hits as "Respect," "Chain of Fools," and "Who's Zoomin'
 Who."

   Franklin, Benjamin

 Franklin, Benjamin, 1706-90, American statesman, printer, scientist, and
 writer; b. Boston. He went (1723) to Philadelphia as a printer and won
 attention for his wit and commonsense philosophy, especially as expressed
 in Poor Richard's Almanack (pub. 1732-57). He helped establish (1751) an
 academy that became the present Univ. of Pennsylvania, and he served as
 deputy postmaster general of the colonies (1753-74). His famous
 experiment with a kite in a thunderstorm proved the presence of the
 electricity in lightning. Franklin proposed a plan of union for the
 colonies at the ALBANY CONGRESS (1754) and was agent for several colonies
 in England. Returning (1775) to America, he helped draft the DECLARATION
 OF INDEPENDENCE, which he signed. During the AMERICAN REVOLUTION he was a
 successful American agent in France and was appointed (1781) a
 commissioner to negotiate the peace with Britain. Franklin's last great
 public service was his attendance at the FEDERAL CONSTITUTIONAL
 CONVENTION (1787). His autobiography is well known. Benjamin's
 illegitimate son, William Franklin, c.1730-1813, was the last royal
 governor of New Jersey and a Loyalist in the American Revolution.

   Franklin, Sir John

 Franklin, Sir John, 1786-1847, British explorer in N Canada. He explored
 the arctic coast of CANADA on expeditions in 1819-22 and 1825-27, during
 which he founded Fort Franklin. After serving as governor of Van Diemen's
 Land (now TASMANIA) (1836-43) he set out to look for the NORTHWEST
 PASSAGE in 1845. His entire expedition of 129 men was lost, their ships
 apparently frozen in the ice. The tragedy inspired over 40 searches, from
 which much geographical information was gained.

   Franklin, John Hope

 Franklin, John Hope, 1915-, black American historian; b. Rentiesville,
 Okla. Educated at Fiske University and Harvard, he was president of Phi
 Beta Kappa (1973-76) and the American Historical Association (1978-79).
 His works include From Slavery to Freedom (1947) and Racial Equality in
 America (1976).

   Franklin, State of

 Franklin, State of, government (1784-88) formed by the inhabitants of
 what is now E TENNESSEE after NORTH CAROLINA ceded (1784) its western
 lands to the U.S. Unable to secure congressional recognition, the
 government under John SEVIER passed out of existence when the terms of
 its officers expired. The area reverted temporarily to North Carolina.

   Franklin Institute

 Franklin Institute,  in Philadelphia, chartered in 1824 "for the
 promotion of the mechanic arts" and noted for its lecture series, trade
 exhibitions, and work on governmental, industrial, and scientific
 problems. Its renowned science museum opened in 1934.

   Franks

 Franks, group of Germanic tribes that settled by the 3d cent. along the
 Rhine. The Salian Franks, under CLOVIS I, moved into GAUL and overthrew
 (486) the Romans. Clovis united them with the Ripuarian Franks, and they
 accepted Christianity and founded the MEROVINGIAN dynasty. Their
 conquests eventually encompassed most of western and central Europe,
 including the kingdoms of Neustria, Austrasia, and Burgundy. In the 8th
 cent. the rule of the CAROLINGIAN dynasty was culminated by the reign of
 CHARLEMAGNE. In 870 the kingdom of the West Franks became France and that
 of the East Franks became Germany.

   Franz Joseph

 Franz Joseph: see FRANCIS JOSEPH.

   Fraser, Douglas Andrew

 Fraser, Douglas Andrew, 1916-, American labor leader; b. Scotland. He
 began working in a Detroit auto plant at 18. After becoming active in the
 United Auto Workers, he rose through the ranks as a union executive and
 earned wide respect as chief negotiator with the Chrysler Corp. While
 president of the UAW (1977-83), Fraser led the union in granting wage
 concessions in exchange for greater job security during the severe
 auto-industry slump of 1981-82. He became (1980) the first union leader
 to be elected to the board of directors of an American company
 (Chrysler).

   Fraser, John Malcolm

 Fraser, John Malcolm, 1930-, Australian political leader and prime
 minister (1975-83). In 1955 he was elected to Parliament. In 1975 he
 became the leader of the opposition Liberal-Country party and prime
 minister after bringing down the Labor government of Gough WHITLAM.
 Fraser's conservative policy included cuts in government spending.

   Fraser

 Fraser, major river of British Columbia, Canada, flowing in a zigzag
 course c.850 mi (1,370 km) from a source in the Rocky Mts. near
 Yellowhead Pass, Alta., to a fertile delta on the Strait of Georgia at
 Vancouver, B.C. The Fraser contains the chief spawning grounds in North
 America for the Pacific salmon. Early explorers were Sir Alexander
 MACKENZIE (1793) and the fur trader Simon Fraser (1808).

   fraternity and sorority

 fraternity and sorority, in American colleges, student societies formed
 for social, literary, or religious purposes, with initiation by
 invitation and occasionally by a period of trial called hazing.
 Sororities are for women. Usually named with two or three Greek letters,
 fraternities and sororities are also known as Greek-letter societies. Phi
 Beta Kappa, the oldest of these societies, was founded (1776) at the
 College of William and Mary (Williamsburg, Va.) and became a scholarship
 honor society. Because of their entrance policies, which can be
 discriminatory, fraternities and sororities are forbidden on some
 campuses.

   fraud

 fraud, in law, willful misrepresentation intended to deprive another of
 some right. Fraud may be actual (involving actual deceit) or constructive
 (involving abuse of a relationship of trust). The remedy granted the
 plaintiff in most cases of fraud is either damages for the loss incurred
 or cancellation of the fraudulent CONTRACT (or sometimes both).

   Frazer, Sir James George

 Frazer, Sir James George, 1854-1941, Scottish anthropologist. He is best
 known for The Golden Bough (1890), a comparative study in folklore,
 magic, and religion that showed parallel beliefs in primitive and
 Christian cultures. The monumental work had a great impact on
 early-20th-cent. thought.

   Frederick

 Frederick, rulers of the HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE. Frederick I or Frederick
 Barbarossa, c.1125-90, emperor (1155-90) and German king (1152-90), was
 of the HOHENSTAUFEN dynasty, but his mother was a GUELPH and Frederick
 was chosen emperor in the hope that he could end the discord between the
 GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES. His coronation was delayed by unrest in Germany
 and by the revolutionary commune of Rome (1143-55). He restored peace,
 placated his Guelph cousin, HENRY THE LION, by restoring Bavaria to him,
 and was crowned in 1155. He failed in his efforts to restore imperial
 power in Italy; he was forced to recognize the LOMBARD LEAGUE, and Pope
 Alexander III, whom he had opposed, excommunicated him. In Germany,
 however, he succeeded in breaking the power of Henry the Lion in 1180-81.
 In 1189 he joined the Third CRUSADE and was drowned in Cilicia, in
 Turkey. Frederick II, 1194-1250, emperor (1220-50) and German king
 (1212-20), king of Sicily (1197-1250), and king of Jerusalem (1229-50),
 was one of the most arresting figures of the Middle Ages. He was a patron
 of art and science, and greatly expanded commerce. His intense struggle
 with the papacy led to the ruin of the house of Hohenstaufen. With his
 rule the great days of the German empire ended and the rise of states in
 Italy began. He was the son of Emperor Henry VI and Constance, heiress of
 Sicily. Both died while he was an infant and the imperial crown passed
 him by, but he was made king of Sicily. After OTTO IV became emperor in
 1209, he alienated Pope INNOCENT III by asserting imperial authority in
 Italy, and Innocent retaliated by crowning Frederick as German king
 (1212). Otto was deposed (1215) and, after long negotiations, Frederick
 was crowned emperor in 1220. His long-delayed crusade, when it finally
 took place (1228-29), turned out to be a state visit that culminated in
 Frederick's being crowned king of Jerusalem. The sporadic fighting
 between emperor and pope turned into a serious breach in 1239, and
 INNOCENT IV excommunicated (1245) Frederick and declared him deposed.
 Just as the war had turned in his favor, Frederick died of dysentery.
 Frederick III, 1415-93, emperor (1452-93) and German king (1440-93), was
 generally a weak ruler, but made considerable progress toward reuniting
 the HAPSBURG family lands within his own branch. His greatest success was
 the acquisition of Burgundy through the marriage of his son, later
 Emperor MAXIMILIAN I, to MARY OF BURGUNDY, daughter of Charles the Bold.
 After 1490 Frederick relinquished most of his duties to Maximilian. He
 was the last emperor crowned at Rome.

   Frederick

 Frederick, Danish kings. Frederick III, 1609-70, king of Denmark and
 Norway (1648-70), was the son of CHRISTIAN IV. After disastrous wars
 (1657-60) with CHARLES X of Sweden, the monarchy was made hereditary and
 the burghers strengthened at the expense of the nobles. Frederick's son,
 CHRISTIAN V, succeeded him. Frederick IV, 1671-1730, king of Denmark and
 Norway (1699-1730), was the son of Christian V. In the NORTHERN WAR he
 failed to recover S Sweden but obtained Schleswig and Lauenburg. His son,
 CHRISTIAN VI, succeeded him. Frederick V, 1723-66, king of Denmark and
 Norway (1746-66), was Christian VI's son. He encouraged commerce and
 industry, but the peasants' condition remained poor. His son, CHRISTIAN
 VII, succeeded him and was the father of Frederick VI, 1768-1839, king of
 Denmark (1808-39) and Norway (1808-14). In the FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
 England's attack on Denmark led him to ally himself with NAPOLEON I. At
 the Congress of Vienna (1814-15) he lost Norway to Sweden. His cousin
 CHRISTIAN VIII succeeded him. The son of Christian VIII, Frederick VII,
 1808-63, was king of Denmark and duke of Schleswig, Holstein, and
 Lauenberg (1848-63). He accepted a constitution ending absolute monarchy.
 The SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN issue continued, leading to war with Prussia under
 his successor, CHRISTIAN IX. Frederick VIII, 1843-1912, king of Denmark
 (1906-12), was the son of Christian IX. He fought in the 1864 war with
 Prussia. His son CHRISTIAN X succeeded him. Another son became HAAKON VII
 of Norway. Frederick IX, 1899-1972, king of Denmark (1947-72), was the
 son of Christian X. Because he had no son, the Danish constitution was
 amended in 1953 to permit the succession of his daughter, Queen Margaret
 II.

   Frederick

 Frederick, German kings: see FREDERICK, rulers of the Holy Roman Empire.

   Frederick II

 Frederick II or Frederick the Great, 1712-86, king of Prussia (1740-86),
 son and successor of FREDERICK WILLIAM I. He spent a miserable youth,
 ill-treated and despised by his father, and at one time was imprisoned
 for desertion. Once king, however, he displayed unexpected qualities of
 leadership and decision, becoming one of the great military generals of
 all time. His exploits in the War of the AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION (1740-48)
 and the SEVEN YEARS WAR (1756-63) made Prussia the greatest military
 power in Europe. He was the prime mover in the first Partition of POLAND
 (1772), which vastly increased his kingdom. He was less successful in the
 War of the BAVARIAN SUCCESSION (1778-79), in which he was thwarted by
 Emperor Joseph II. A "benevolent despot," Frederick promoted important
 legal and social reforms. He was a great patron of the arts and
 surrounded himself with intellectuals. His taste for French culture and
 his stormy friendship with VOLTAIRE are well known. He was a champion of
 religious liberty, and his philosophy was materialistic and skeptical. He
 wrote mediocre poetry and excellent prose (in French); and he composed
 passable music, especially for the flute, which he played well. He was
 childless and was succeeded by his nephew, FREDERICK WILLIAM II.

   Frederick Augustus I and II, electors of Saxony

 Frederick Augustus I and II, electors of Saxony: see AUGUSTUS II and
 AUGUSTUS III under AUGUSTUS, kings of Poland.

   Frederick Barbarossa

 Frederick Barbarossa: see FREDERICK I under FREDERICK, rulers of the Holy
 Roman Empire.

   Frederick Henry

 Frederick Henry, 1584-1647, prince of Orange, son of WILLIAM THE SILENT.
 He succeeded (1625) his brother MAURICE OF NASSAU as stadtholder of the
 United Provinces. In 1635 he signed a pact with France and Sweden against
 the Hapsburgs in the THIRTY YEARS WAR. During his rule commerce, science,
 and art (see HALS; REMBRANDT) flourished, and his title was made
 hereditary in his family. He was succeeded by his son, WILLIAM II.

   Fredericksburg, battle of

 Fredericksburg, battle of, in the U.S. CIVIL WAR, fought Dec. 13, 1862,
 at Fredericksburg, Va., in which Union troops under Gen. Ambrose Burnside
 were repulsed in their efforts to reach Richmond by the forces of R.E.
 LEE, Stonewall JACKSON, and James LONGSTREET; it was a major Union defeat
 with more than 12,000 Union casualities.

   Frederick the Great

 Frederick the Great: see FREDERICK II, king of Prussia.

   Frederick the Winter King

 Frederick the Winter King, 1596-1632, king of Bohemia (1619-20, or during
 one winter; hence his sobriquet) and elector palatine (1610-20) as
 Frederick V. The Protestant diet of Bohemia deposed the Catholic King
 Ferdinand (Holy Roman Emperor FERDINAND II) and named Frederick king,
 thus precipitating the THIRTY YEARS WAR. When he did not receive the
 expected Protestant support, he was defeated (1620) at White Mountain and
 forced to give up all his lands. He was the father of Prince RUPERT and
 of the Electress SOPHIA, the forebear of the British ruling family the
 Hanovers.

   Frederick William

 Frederick William, kings of Prussia. Frederick William I, 1688-1740
 (r.1713-40), created a strong, absolutist state, instituting
 administrative reforms and rigid economy. He also built up the Prussian
 army, but except for a brief intervention in the Northern War (1700-21)
 he observed peace. He was a coarse man who had contempt for his gifted
 son, who succeeded him as FREDERICK II (Frederick the Great). Frederick
 William II, 1744-97 (r.1786-97), was the nephew and successor of
 Frederick II (the Great). He was defeated in the FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY
 WARS and signed a separate peace (1795) with the French. He participated
 in the second and third partition of POLAND (1793, 1795). He was a patron
 of MOZART. His son, Frederick William III, 1770-1840 (r.1797-1840),
 suffered crushing defeat by the French, and the Treaty of Tilsit (1807)
 made Prussia virtually a French vassal. Though he was weak and
 vacillating, he surrounded himself with able administrators who made
 valuable reforms. He grew increasingly reactionary in his old age.
 Frederick William IV, 1795-1861 (r.1840-61), was the son and successor of
 Frederick William III. A romanticist, mystic, and halfhearted liberal, he
 nonetheless crushed the REVOLUTION OF 1848 and refused the imperial crown
 because it was offered by a popularly elected body, the FRANKFURT
 PARLIAMENT. In 1857 his mental imbalance necessitated the regency of his
 brother and successor, William I.

   Frederick William

 Frederick William, known as the Great Elector, 1620-88, elector of
 Brandenburg (1640-88). He rebuilt his devastated state after the THIRTY
 YEARS WAR and added greatly to his domains. He secured East Pomerania and
 other territories in 1648, and secured full sovereignty over Prussia in
 1660. He was succeeded by his son Frederick, who in 1701 crowned himself
 "king in Prussia" and styled himself Frederick I.

   Fredericton

 Fredericton, city (1986 pop. 44,352), capital of New Brunswick, E Canada,
 on the St. John R. Wood products are a major manufacture. It was founded
 (1783) by United Empire Loyalists at the site of Ste. Anne, an abandoned
 village of French ACADIA. It became provincial capital in 1785.

   Freedom of Information Act

 Freedom of Information Act (1966), law requiring that U.S. government
 agencies release their records to the public on request, unless the
 information sought falls into a category specifically exempted, such as
 national security, an individual's right to privacy (see PRIVACY ACT OF
 1974), or internal agency management. The act provides for court review
 of agency refusals to furnish identifiable records. The U.S. and some
 states have also adopted so-called sunshine laws that require
 governmental bodies, as a matter of general policy, to hold open
 meetings, announced in advance.

   freedom of the press

 freedom of the press: see PRESS, FREEDOM OF THE.

   free fall

 free fall, in physics, the state of a body moving solely under the
 influence of gravitational forces (see GRAVITATION). A body falling
 freely toward the surface of the earth undergoes an acceleration (see
 MOTION) equal to 32 ft/sec2 (9.8 m/sec2).

   Freeman, Douglas Southall

 Freeman, Douglas Southall, 1886-1953, American historian; b. Lynchburg,
 Va. A retired newspaper editor, he wrote superb works on the CIVIL WAR,
 including R.E. Lee (4 vol., 1934-35; Pulitzer) and Lee's Lieutenants (3
 vol., 1942-44). He also wrote a biography of George Washington (7 vol.,
 1949-57; Pulitzer).

   Freeman's Farm, battle of

 Freeman's Farm, battle of: see SARATOGA CAMPAIGN.

   Freemasonry

 Freemasonry, teachings and practices of the secret fraternal order known
 as the Free and Accepted Masons. There are 6 million members worldwide,
 mostly in the U.S. and other English-speaking countries, and no central
 authority. Its ideals include fellowship, religious toleration, and
 political compromise. Drawing on guild practices of medieval
 stone-masons, the order's first Grand Lodge was organized in London
 (1717). In America, Masons were active in the Revolution and continued as
 a force in later politics. In Europe, they included VOLTAIRE, GOETHE,
 HAYDN, MAZZINI, and GARIBALDI. Freemasonry's identification with
 19th-cent. bourgeois liberalism led to reaction, e.g., in the U.S., the
 ANTI-MASONIC PARTY; its anticlericalism brought the hostility of the
 Roman Catholic Church. Totalitarian states have always suppressed
 Freemasonry. Masons have a complex systems of rites and degrees,
 subsidiary organizations for women and children, and lodges noted for
 their parades and fraternal gatherings.

   Freer, Charles Lang

 Freer, Charles Lang, 1856-1919, American art collector and industrialist;
 b. Kingston, N.Y. Retiring in 1900, he devoted himself to a collection
 particularly rich in Oriental art and the works of WHISTLER. He presented
 his collection and the building that houses it to the SMITHSONIAN
 INSTITUTION, and it became the Freer Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.

   freesia

 freesia: see IRIS.

   free silver

 free silver, in U.S. history, a political movement for the unlimited
 coinage of silver. Supported by silver-mining interests, by indebted
 agrarian classes of the South and West, and later by Populists (see
 POPULIST PARTY) and Democrats, free silver was a hotly contested issue in
 the late 19th cent. Debtors believed that more money in circulation would
 permit them to pay their debts with inflated dollars. The BLAND-ALLISON
 ACT (1878) and the SHERMAN SILVER PURCHASE ACT (1890) were compromises
 that failed to satisfy the silverites. The defeat of free-silver champion
 W.J. BRYAN in the presidential elections of 1896 and 1900, coupled with
 increasing gold supplies and returning prosperity, minimized the issue
 thereafter.

   Free-Soil party

 Free-Soil party, U.S. political party born in 1847-48 to oppose the
 extension of SLAVERY into territories newly gained from Mexico. In 1848
 the Free-Soil party ran Martin VAN BUREN and C.F. Adams (see ADAMS,
 family) for president and vice president; by polling 300,000 votes it
 gave New York state to the Whigs and thus made Zachary TAYLOR president.
 After the COMPROMISE OF 1850 seemed to settle the slavery-extension
 issue, the group known as the BARNBURNERS left the Free-Soilers to return
 to the Democratic party, but radicals kept the Free-Soil party alive
 until 1854, when the new REPUBLICAN PARTY absorbed it.

   Freetown

 Freetown, city (1987 pop. 469,776), capital of Sierra Leone, W Sierra
 Leone, on the Atlantic Ocean. It is the nation's largest city and chief
 port. Industries include food processing and oil refining. A highway link
 to MONROVIA, Liberia, was under construction in the early 1980s. Freetown
 was founded in 1792 by former slaves from Nova Scotia; descendants of
 liberated slaves (called Creoles), though a minority, play a leading role
 in the modern city.

   free trade

 free trade: see TRADE.

   free verse

 free verse, loose term for verse free of conventional limitations and
 metrical restrictions. Cadence, particularly of common speech, is often
 substituted. The term comes from the vers libre of Jules Laforgue, Arthur
 RIMBAUD, and others who rejected the classical ALEXANDRINE. The term has
 been applied to the King James translation of the Bible, and is
 associated with Walt WHITMAN, Ezra POUND, T.S. ELIOT, and other modern
 poets.

   free will

 free will, in philosophy, the doctrine that the will of an individual can
 and does determine some of his acts. PLATO held that actions are
 determined by the extent of a person's understanding. Christian ethics
 have long disputed the extent of human dependence on the power of God:
 St. AUGUSTINE, LUTHER, and John CALVIN followed the doctrine of
 predestination or divine grace, while St. THOMAS AQUINAS held that God's
 omnipotence does not include the predetermination of human will. Later
 advocates of free will have referred to common practice: Individuals
 believe they determine their actions and hold one another accountable for
 doing so. Modern psychology has introduced the concept of the UNCONSCIOUS
 as a motivating force.

   freezing

 freezing: see STATES OF MATTER.

   Frege, Gottlob

 Frege, Gottlob, 1848-1925, German philosopher and mathematician. Frege
 was one of the founders of symbolic logic (see LOGIC) and a major
 influence on Bertrand RUSSELL and Russell's student Ludwig WITTGENSTEIN.
 He demonstrated that mathematics is derived solely from deductive logic
 and is not synthetic, as Kant had posited. He also believed that verbal
 conceptualizations can be translated into logical form. After Russell and
 others had pointed out some serious contradictions in vol. 2 of his major
 work, The Basic Laws of Arithmetic (1893-1903), Frege virtually ceased to
 produce original work. Nevertheless, his contributions to the development
 of modern mathematical theory and the theory of meaning are of prime
 importance.

   Fremont, John Charles

 Fremont, John Charles, 1813-90, American explorer, soldier, and political
 leader; b. Savannah, Ga. His enthusiastic reports of his Western
 explorations (1841-44) created wide interest in that region. He was a
 leader (1846) in the revolt of California against Mexico until he
 quarreled with S.W. KEARNY in Kearny's contest for command with Robert
 Stockton. Fremont was U.S. senator from California (1850-51) and
 Republican candidate for president in 1856. He commanded the Western
 Dept. in the CIVIL WAR but was removed because of his radical policy
 toward slaveholders. He lost his fortune (1870) in a railroad venture.
 Later, he was governor (1878-83) of Arizona Territory. He was called the
 Pathfinder.

   Fremont

 Fremont, city (1986 est. pop. 153,580), W Calif., on San Francisco Bay;
 inc. 1956. Long an agricultural center with champagne vineyards, it still
 has breweries and canneries, but the 1963 opening of an
 automobile-assembly plant transformed it into a fast-growing industrial
 city.

   French, Daniel Chester

 French, Daniel Chester, 1850-1931, American sculptor; b. Exeter, N.H.
 After executing his first large work, The Minute Man (1875; Concord,
 Mass.), he received many commissions for public statues. His most famous
 is the heroic figure of Abraham Lincoln in the LINCOLN MEMORIAL (Wash.,
 D.C.).

   French and Indian Wars

 French and Indian Wars, 1689-1763, a series of colonial campaigns in
 North America between England and France, corresponding to wars between
 European alliances in the worldwide struggle for empire. In America,
 seaboard strongholds and western forts were seized, and the settlers
 suffered the horrors of Indian border warfare. King William's War
 (1688-97), linked to the War of the GRAND ALLIANCE, consisted chiefly of
 frontier attacks on the British colonies. Queen Anne's War (1702-13)
 corresponded to the War of the SPANISH SUCCESSION, and King George's War
 (1744-48) to the War of the AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION. The last and most
 important conflict, called simply the French and Indian War (1754-63),
 was linked to the SEVEN YEARS WAR. Jeffrey AMHERST took Louisbourg
 (1758), and Quebec and Montreal also fell (1759-60) to the British. The
 war ended French control in Canada and the West (see PARIS, TREATY OF).
 After the wars the American colonies felt less dependent militarily on
 the British; they began to concentrate on their own problems and
 institutions, and to think of themselves as American rather than British.

   French Community

 French Community, established in 1958 to replace the FRENCH UNION. Its
 purpose was to create a political federation for France and all its
 overseas departments and territories. However, since all of France's
 African colonies chose total independence, the French Community never
 achieved its aims. After 1962 it operated primarily as a vehicle for
 fostering military, economic, technical, and cultural cooperation among
 its members.

   French East India Company

 French East India Company: see EAST INDIA COMPANY, FRENCH.

   French Equatorial Africa

 French Equatorial Africa, former French federation of territories in W
 central Africa (1910-58), comprising what are now GABON, CHAD, the
 CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC, and the People's Republic of the CONGO. It was
 dissolved (1958) when the members became constituent republics within the
 FRENCH COMMUNITY.

   French Guiana

 French Guiana, Fr. La Guyane francaise, French overseas department (1987
 est. pop. 89,000), 35,135 sq mi (91,000 sq km), NE South America,
 bordered by the Atlantic Ocean (N), Suriname (E), and Brazil (S and E).
 CAYENNE is the capital. The population, largely Creole, is concentrated
 along the coast. The economy rests on the export of shrimp, timber, and
 rum; there are deposits of gold and bauxite. A rocket-launching base for
 communications satellites is located at Kourou, on the coast. French
 settlement dates from 1604; following periods of Dutch and British rule,
 French authority was restored in 1815. Guiana was made an overseas
 department in 1947. French Guiana was used as a penal colony during the
 French Revolution, and permanent penal camps were established under
 Napoleon III; DEVILS ISLAND, off the coast, was especially notorious.

   French horn

 French horn: see WIND INSTRUMENT.

   French language

 French language, member of the Romance group of the Italic subfamily of
 the Indo-European family of languages. See LANGUAGE.

   French Polynesia

 French Polynesia, overseas territory of France (1987 est. pop. 184,600),
 105 islands in the South Pacific. The capital is Papeete, on TAHITI. It
 comprises the Society Islands; Marquesas Islands; Austral Islands;
 Tuamotu Islands; and Gambier Islands. Tropical fruits are grown, vanilla
 and copra exported. There is a governor, council, and elected assembly.

   French Revolution

 French Revolution, political upheaval that began in France in 1789 and
 eventually affected the whole world. Historians differ widely as to its
 causes. Some see it as an intellectual movement, born from the liberal
 ENLIGHTENMENT of the 18th cent.; some, as a rebellion of the
 underprivileged classes against feudal oppression; others, as the
 assertion of the new capitalist bourgeoisie against an outdated and
 restricted social and economic system-in the fixed order of the ancien
 regime, France was still ruled by two privileged classes, the nobility
 and the clergy, who refused to give up any of their privileges and
 supplemented their dwindling funds by exacting dues from the more
 productive bourgeoisie. The immediate cause of the revolution was without
 doubt the bankrupt state of the public treasury. The wars of the 17th and
 18th cent., an iniquitous and inefficient system of taxation,
 intervention in the AMERICAN REVOLUTION, and waste had resulted in a
 gigantic public debt, which neither NECKER, nor CALONNE, nor Lomenie de
 Brienne was able to reduce. As a last resort, LOUIS XVI called the
 STATES-GENERAL, which, it was hoped, would pass the necessary fiscal
 reforms. It convened at VERSAILLES on May 5, 1789, for the first time
 since 1614. From the start, the deputies of the third estate-the
 commons-joined by many members of the lower clergy and by a few nobles,
 pressed for sweeping political and social reforms that far exceeded the
 assembly's powers. Defying the king, they proclaimed themselves the
 National Assembly (June 17), and, on an indoor tennis court, took an oath
 not to separate until a constitution had been drawn up. The king yielded
 and legalized the Assembly, but his dismissal of Necker led to the
 storming of the BASTILLE by an excited Paris mob (July 14). Louis XVI,
 ever anxious to avoid bloodshed, gave in once more; Necker was recalled;
 the commune was established as the city government of Paris; and the
 National Guard was organized. On Aug. 4, 1789, the Assembly abolished all
 feudal privileges. Meanwhile, rumors of counterrevolutionary court
 intrigues were exploited by extremist demagogues, and on Oct. 5 a mob
 marched to Versailles and forcibly moved the royal family and the
 Assembly to Paris. There the Assembly drafted a constitution (1791) that
 created a limited monarchy with a unicameral legislature (the Legislative
 Assembly) elected by voters who had the requisite property
 qualifications; the preamble was the famous DECLARATION OF THE RIGHTS OF
 MAN AND CITIZEN. Earlier, anticlerical legislation had been capped when
 the clergy was required to take oaths to civil authority (1790), a
 measure that alienated many pious rural districts from the Revolution.
 The king decided to join those nobles who had already fled abroad
 (emigres), but his flight (June 20-21, 1791) was arrested at Varennes.
 Brought back in humiliation to Paris, Louis accepted the new
 constitution. In the Legislative Assembly, the republican GIRONDISTS and
 the extreme JACOBINS and CORDELIERS gained the upper hand. "Liberty,
 Equality, Fraternity" became a catch phrase. Elsewhere, the emigres were
 inciting other European courts to intervene. The Declaration of Pillnitz
 played into the hands of the Girondists, who hoped that a foreign war
 would rally the nation to the republican cause. With the declaration of
 war on Austria (April 20, 1792), the FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS began.
 Early reverses and rumors of treason by the king and Queen MARIE
 ANTOINETTE brought the lower classes, especially those in Paris, into
 action. In Aug. 1792 a mob stormed the TUILERIES palace and an
 insurrectionary commune replaced the legally elected one (see COMMUNE OF
 PARIS); all police power was seized by the Paris commune (dominated by
 DANTON and MARAT); the Assembly suspended the king and ordered elections
 for a National Convention to draw up yet another constitution; and
 hundreds of royal prisoners were killed by "spontaneous" mobs in the
 September massacres (Sept. 2-7, 1792). On Sept. 21 the Convention
 abolished the monarchy, set up the First Republic, and proceeded to try
 the king for treason. Louis's conviction and execution (Jan. 1793) led to
 royalist uprisings, notably in the vendee, and was followed by the REIGN
 OF TERROR, in which ROBESPIERRE and his associates triumphed in turn over
 the more moderate Girondists and over his rivals Danton and J.R. HEBERT.
 The republican constitution never became active; the Committee of Public
 Safety and the Revolutionary Tribunal reigned supreme. Robespierre's
 final excesses frightened the Convention into the coup d'etat of 9
 Thermidor (July 27, 1794), which resulted in his execution and a period
 of relative reaction. Under the new constitution of 1795, the DIRECTORY
 came into existence. Its rule was marked by corruption, intrigues,
 runaway inflation, bankruptcy, and a fatal dependence on the army; it was
 ended by Napoleon Bonaparte's coup d'etat of 18 Brumaire (see NAPOLEON
 I). With the establishment of the Consulate (followed in 1804 by
 Napoleon's empire), the victory of the bourgeoisie became final. With the
 French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars, the French Revolution
 tore down the medieval structures of Europe, opened the paths of
 19th-cent. liberalism, and hastened the advent of nationalism. See also
 FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY CALENDAR.

   French Revolutionary calendar

 French Revolutionary calendar, the official CALENDAR of France, Nov. 24,
 1793-Dec. 31, 1805. Supposedly philosophical in its basis, it was divided
 into 12 months of 30 days: Vendemiaire (vintage month); Brumaire (fog);
 Frimaire (sleet); Nivose (snow); Pluviose (rain); Ventose (wind);
 Germinal (seed); Floreal (blossom); Prairial (pasture); Messidor
 (harvest); Thermidor or Fervidor (heat); Fructidor (fruit). The remaining
 five days, called sans-culottides, were feast days named for Virtue,
 Genius, Labor, Reason, and Rewards, respectively. In leap years the extra
 day, the last of the year, was Revolution Day. There was no week; the
 months were divided into three decades, with every 10th day (decadi) a
 day of rest.

   French Revolutionary Wars

 French Revolutionary Wars, 1792-1802, general European war precipitated
 by the FRENCH REVOLUTION, which had aroused in foreign lands the
 hostility of monarchs, nobles, and clergy, all of whom feared the spread
 of republican ideas to the lower classes. They looked upon war as the
 only way to restore LOUIS XVI (still nominally king of France) to his
 full powers. For their part, the revolutionaries in France looked upon
 war as a way of insuring permanence to their revolution by spreading it
 abroad. Thus, with both sides wanting it, war seemed inevitable. In
 August 1791 Austria and Prussia called for the restoration of Louis, an
 act that angered French public opinion. The radical GIRONDISTS assumed
 power in March 1792, and on Apr. 20, 1792, France declared war on
 Austria. Meeting little resistance at first, allied Austrian and Prussian
 armies invaded France, but the cannonade at Valmay (Sept. 20) revealed
 the superiority of French artillery and proved a turning point. The
 French overran the Austrian Netherlands, invaded Germany, and seized
 Savoy and Nice from Sardinia. Louis XVI was executed (Jan. 21, 1793), an
 act that led to the formation of the First Coalition (Austria, Prussia,
 Great Britain, Holland, Spain). The French, led by Lazare CARNOT, raised
 new armies and by the end of 1793 had driven the allies from France.
 Holland, Prussia, and Spain all made peace in 1795. Napoleon Bonaparte
 contributed stunning French victories in Italy, and by 1797 only Britain
 remained in the war. Bonaparte's strike against Britain in Egypt was
 disastrous, and the English destroyed (1798) the French fleet at Aboukir.
 In 1798 a Second Coalition was formed, consisting of Britain, Russia,
 Austria, Turkey, Portugal, and Naples. The French victory over the
 Russians at Zurich took Russia out of the war. Napoleon Bonaparte, back
 in France, declared himself First Consul (November 1799). In 1800
 Bonaparte inflicted a heavy defeat on the Austrians at Marengo, and the
 Second Coalition collapsed (1801) when Austria consented to the Peace of
 Luneville. Once more, only the British persevered. They expelled the
 French from Egypt and destroyed the Danish fleet. (The Danes had refused
 to abide by British rules of neutrality.) But the British public was
 weary of fighting, and in 1802 the Treaty of AMIENS concluded the war.
 The French Revolutionary Wars had transformed the political landscape of
 Europe. With their victories the French had created a whole series of new
 political entities: the Batavian Republic (Holland), the Helvetic
 Republic (Switzerland), the Parthenopian Republic (Naples), the Cisalpine
 Republic (various Italian states), and the Roman Republic (the Papal
 States). Peace was short-lived, however; in 1803 the Napoleonic Wars
 began (see NAPOLEON I).

   French Southern and Antarctic Lands

 French Southern and Antarctic Lands, overseas territory of France,
 including Adelie Land, which covers c.200,000 sq mi (520,000 sq km) in
 ANTARCTICA, and a number of islands in the S Indian Ocean. The largest of
 these is Kerguelen (1,318 sq mi/3,414 sq km). One of 300 islands in the
 Kerguelen Archipelago, it is a base for research, seal-hunting, and
 whaling. The Crozet Islands, to the west, and Saint Paul and Amsterdam
 islands, to the northeast, are also part of the territory.

   French Union

 French Union, former political entity (1946-58) that comprised
 metropolitan France (France proper and Corsica) and its overseas
 territories. It replaced the colonial system and was superseded by the
 FRENCH COMMUNITY.

   French West Africa

 French West Africa, former federation of French territories in W Africa
 (1895-1959) that comprised Dahomey, French Guinea, French Sudan, Ivory
 Coast, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal, and Burkina Faso. It was dissolved in
 1959 as the territories moved toward independence.

   Freneau, Philip

 Freneau, Philip, 1752-1832, American writer; b. N.Y.C. America's first
 professional journalist, he was a propagandist for the AMERICAN
 REVOLUTION and Jeffersonian democracy. His fame rests on such lyrical
 poems as "The Wild Honeysuckle," "The Indian Burial Ground," and "Eutaw
 Springs." His poem The British Prison Ship (1781) recorded his captivity
 on a British brig.

   Freon

 Freon, trade name for any of a special class of chemical compounds used
 as refrigerants, aerosol propellants, and solvents. Freons are
 HYDROCARBON derivatives that contain fluorine and often chlorine and
 bromine as well. They are generally colorless, odorless, nontoxic,
 noncorrosive, and nonflammable. Though usually unreactive, freons are now
 suspected to undergo reactions in the upper atmosphere that may damage
 the earth's OZONE layer. The most commonly used is Freon-12, or
 dichlorodifluoromethane (CCl2F2).

   frequency

 frequency: see HARMONIC MOTION; WAVE.

   frequency modulation

 frequency modulation: see MODULATION.

   fresco

 fresco, the art of painting on plaster. Pure fresco is painted on damp,
 fresh lime plaster. The binder is in the lime, which, in drying, forms a
 calcium carbonate that incorporates the pigment with the material of the
 wall. Fresco does not permit a large palette or delicate transitional
 tones, as does oil, but its clear, luminous color and permanence make it
 ideal for monumental murals. An ancient technique, fresco was employed in
 the Minoan palace at Cnossos and used by the Romans for decoration,
 notably at POMPEII. It was perfected by the masters of the Italian
 RENAISSANCE, who customarily prepared a CARTOON and transferred the
 design to wet plaster. For large frescoes the plaster was applied to
 small sections daily, each painted in a day. Fresco was revived in
 20th-cent. Mexico with the work of Jose Clemente OROZCO, Diego RIVERA,
 and other artists.

   Frescobaldi, Girolamo

 Frescobaldi, Girolamo, 1583-1643, Italian composer. He became organist at
 St. Peter's Church, Rome, in 1608, and at the Medici Court, Florence
 (1628-34). His style traveled to Germany and influenced organists through
 J.S. BACH. He wrote many ORGAN works and some instrumental and vocal
 music.

   Fresnel, Augustin Jean

 Fresnel, Augustin Jean, 1788-1827, French physicist and engineer. His
 investigations of light, especially interference phenomena in POLARIZED
 LIGHT and double refraction, supported the wave theory of light and the
 concept of transverse vibrations in light waves. He also devised a way of
 producing circularly polarized light.

   Fresno

 Fresno, city (1986 est. pop. 284,660), seat of Fresno co., S central
 Calif.; founded 1872, inc. 1885. It is the financial hub of the SAN
 JOAQUIN Valley. Grapes, figs, cotton, and vegetables are grown in the
 area, and Fresno co. leads all U.S. counties in the value of agricultural
 products sold. The city is also a railroad, marketing, and processing
 center.

   Freud, Sigmund

 Freud, Sigmund, 1856-1939, Austrian psychiatrist, founder of
 PSYCHOANALYSIS; b. Vienna. M.D., 1881, Univ. of Vienna. Early in his
 career Freud collaborated with Josef BREUER on the use of HYPNOSIS in the
 treatment of HYSTERIA. The therapy was based on the hypothesis that the
 symptoms of hysterical patients-directly traceable to apparently
 forgotten psychic traumas in early life-represented undischarged
 emotional energy. The two men separated over Freud's growing conviction
 that this energy was sexual in nature. Rejecting hypnosis, Freud devised
 the technique of free association, which allowed material repressed in
 the UNCONSCIOUS to emerge to conscious recognition. Although his early
 work was poorly received, after 1906 he was joined by other
 psychiatrists, including C.G. JUNG and Alfred ADLER. However, both
 resigned, between 1911 and 1913, from the International Psychoanalytic
 Association (founded 1910) in protest against Freud's emphasis on
 infantile sexuality and the Oedipus complex (see COMPLEX). Although they
 and others who broke away later objected to aspects of Freudian theory,
 the basic structure of their analysis remained Freudian. With the Nazi
 occupation of Austria, Freud fled (1938) to England, where he died. His
 theory has had enormous impact, influencing anthropology, education, art,
 and literature. His writings include The Interpretation of Dreams (1900),
 Beyond the Pleasure Principle (1920), and Moses and Monotheism (1934-38).

   Freud, Anna

 Freud, Anna, 1895-1982, Austrian-British psychoanalyst. She continued the
 work of her father, Sigmund FREUD, and was a pioneer in the
 psychoanalysis of children. She received her training in Vienna before
 emigrating (1938) with her father to England, where she founded and
 directed a clinic for child therapy. Her writings include The
 Psychoanalytical Treatment of Children (1946), Normality and Pathology in
 Childhood (1965), and The Writings of Anna Freud (7 vol., 1973).

   Freyja

 Freyja, Freya, Norse goddess of love, marriage and fertility. She was
 also a deity of the dead and was the sister of the god Frey.

   Frick, Henry Clay

 Frick, Henry Clay, 1849-1919, American industrialist; b. Westmoreland
 co., Pa. In 1871 he organized Frick & Co. to operate coke ovens and soon
 held a key place in the coal industry. Andrew CARNEGIE acquired heavy
 interests in Frick's company, and Frick in turn played a key role in
 organizing (1892) the Carnegie Steel Co.; he expanded that company and
 acquired railroads and iron-ore lands. His strong anti-union policies
 resulted in the Homestead strike. After a struggle with Carnegie for
 control, Frick resigned and became a director of U.S. Steel Corp. He
 willed his mansion in New York City, housing his art collection, to the
 public as a museum.

   friction

 friction, resistance offered to the movement of one body past another
 body with which it is in contact. The amount of friction depends on the
 nature of the contact surfaces and on the magnitude of the force pressing
 the two bodies together, but not on the surface area of the contact
 surface. The coefficient of friction is the ratio of the force necessary
 to move one body horizontally over another at a constant speed to the
 weight of the body. Fluid friction, observed in the flow of liquids and
 gases, is minimized in airplanes by a modern, streamlined design (see
 AERODYNAMICS).

   Friday

 Friday: see WEEK.

   Friedan, Betty Naomi

 Friedan, Betty Naomi, 1921-, American social reformer and feminist; b.
 Peoria, Ill. In 1963 she galvanized the women's movement by publishing
 The Feminine Mystique, an attack on the traditional notion that women
 find fulfillment only through childbearing and homemaking. Founder of the
 NATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR WOMEN (1966), she also helped organize the
 National Women's Political Caucus (1970) and campaigned against sexual
 discrimination. In The Second Stage (1981) she evaluated the progress of
 FEMINISM, remaining a moderate and criticizing its earlier radicalism.

   Friedman, Milton

 Friedman, Milton, 1912-, American economist and a leading spokesman for
 the monetarist school of economics; b. Brooklyn, N.Y. A staunch
 conservative and opponent of the beliefs of J.M. KEYNES, Friedman
 developed the theory that changes in monetary supply precede, rather than
 follow, changes in overall economic activity. A professor at the Univ. of
 Chicago (1946-77), he received the 1976 Nobel Prize in economics. His
 writings include Capitalism and Freedom (1962). See ECONOMICS.

   Friends, Religious Society of

 Friends, Religious Society of, religious body originating in England in
 the 17th cent. under George FOX. He believed that a person needed no
 spiritual intermediary, but could find understanding and guidance through
 "inward light," supplied by the Holy Spirit. Commonly called Quakers,
 members refused to participate in Church of England services, take oaths,
 or bear arms, and were often subject to persecution. They spread to Asia,
 Africa, and America, where they found refuge in Rhode Island and a colony
 established (1682) in Pennsylvania by William PENN. In the 19th cent.
 American Friends split into Orthodox, Hicksite, and Conservative groups,
 but the old lines of division have since grown considerably less. Their
 meetings are periods of silent meditation, in which those urged by the
 spirit can offer prayer or exhortation. Friends are active in education
 and social welfare and believe in complete equality.

   Frigg

 Frigg or Frigga,Norse mother goddess and the wife of WODEN. Of great
 importance in GERMANIC RELIGION, she was queen of the heavens, a deity of
 love and the household.

   Frisch, Karl von

 Frisch, Karl von, 1886-1982, Austrian zoologist. For his pioneering work
 in comparative behaviorial psychology, particularly his studies of the
 complex communication between insects, he shared the 1973 Nobel Prize in
 physiology or medicine with Konrad LORENZ and Nikolaas TINBERGEN. An
 important implication of his work is that behavioral continuity exists
 between animal communication and human language.

   Frisch, Max

 Frisch, Max, 1911-, Swiss writer. His novels I'm Not Stiller (1954), Homo
 faber (1957), A Wilderness of Mirrors (1964), and Man in the Holocene
 (tr. 1980) deal with the individual's search for personal identity. The
 Firebugs (1953) and Andorra (1961) are his best-known plays. His Journal
 1966-1971 was published in English in 1974.

   Frisch, Ragnar

 Frisch, Ragnar, 1895-1973, Norwegian economist who, with Jan TINBERGEN,
 won the first Nobel Prize in economics (1969) for pioneering work in the
 development of ECONOMETRICS.

   Frisian language

 Frisian language, member of the West Germanic group of the Germanic
 subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See LANGUAGE.

   Frobisher, Sir Martin

 Frobisher, Sir Martin, 1535?-1594, English mariner. He was licensed by
 ELIZABETH I for three expeditions to search for the NORTHWEST PASSAGE
 (1576, 1577, 1578). He reached Frobisher Bay and S BAFFIN ISLAND but
 erroneously believed that he had found Cathay. He commanded a ship in Sir
 Francis DRAKE'S WEST INDIES expedition (1585) and was knighted for his
 services in the defeat of the Spanish ARMADA (1588).

   Froebel, Friedrich Wilhelm August

 Froebel, Friedrich Wilhelm August, 1782-1852, German educator and founder
 of the KINDERGARTEN system. Having little formal schooling himself, he
 stressed pleasant surroundings, self-activity, and physical training for
 children. Influenced by SCHELLING, he also insisted upon spiritual
 training as a fundamental principle. He founded (1816) the Universal
 German Educational Institute to train teachers, and opened the first
 kindergarten in 1837. The most important of his several books on
 education is The Education of Man (1826).

   frog

 frog, tailless, freshwater AMPHIBIAN (order Anura) found worldwide. Some
 frogs require moisture and are highly aquatic; others, such as TOADS, are
 more terrestrial. Frogs have bulging eyes, short, neckless bodies, long,
 muscular hind legs for jumping, webbed feet for swimming, and smooth
 skin, usually green or brown. They capture insects and other food with a
 sticky, forked tongue. Most frogs lay eggs in early spring, and by the
 end of summer METAMORPHOSIS to a four-legged adult is complete. The true
 frog belongs to the Ranidae family, which includes the bullfrog (Rana
 catesbeiana) and other North American frogs.

   Froissart, Jean

 Froissart, Jean, c.1337-1410?, French chronicler, poet, and courtier. He
 traveled widely and knew many important people. His famous chronicle
 covers the history of Western Europe from the early 1300s to 1400,
 roughly the first half of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. In it he describes
 events with brilliance and gusto. His disregard for accuracy and highly
 partisan spirit limit the chronicle as pure history, but it brings an era
 to life.

   Fromm, Erich

 Fromm, Erich, 1900-1980, American psychoanalyst and author; b. Germany.
 He emigrated (1934) to the U.S., where he practiced psychoanalysis and
 lectured at various institutions, including Bennington College and New
 York University. Fromm held that the individual is a product of society
 and that in industrial society human beings have become estranged from
 themselves. His many works include Escape from Freedom (1941), The Sane
 Society (1955), and Beyond the Chains of Illusion (1962).

   Fronde

 Fronde, 1648-53, series of outbreaks in France during the minority of
 LOUIS XIV. They were caused by the efforts of the PARLEMENT of Paris (the
 chief judicial body) to limit royal authority (as championed by Cardinal
 MAZARIN), by the ambitions of discontented nobles, and by the excessive
 fiscal burden on the people. The Fronde of the Parlement, 1648-49, began
 with Parlement's refusal to register a fiscal edict that would have
 required the magistrates of high courts to give up four years' salary.
 Parlement then drew up a reform document limiting royal authority. The
 royal court secretly fled Paris, and government forces under Louis II,
 prince de CONDE, blockaded the city until a compromise peace between
 Parlement and the monarchy was arranged. The arrest of the overbearing
 Conde by the order of Mazarin, his former ally, precipitated the much
 more serious Fronde of the Princes, 1650-53. Although Conde was released
 and Mazarin fled into exile (1651), Conde, with the support of several
 powerful nobles and the provincial parlements of S France, waged open
 warfare on the government and even concluded an alliance with Spain, then
 at war with France. Defeated at Faubourg Saint-Antoine (1652), Conde was
 given shelter in Paris. His arrogance soon alienated the Parisians, and
 the Fronde disintegrated. In 1652 the king returned to Paris, followed by
 Mazarin in 1653. The last attempt of the nobility to resist the king by
 arms, the Fronde resulted in the strengthening of the monarchy and the
 further disruption of the French economy.

   Frondizi, Arturo

 Frondizi, Arturo, 1908-, president of Argentina (1958-62). A liberal and
 anti-Peronist, he supported a policy of economic austerity. Because he
 allowed Peronists to participate in the elections of 1962, outraged
 anti-Peronist elements in the army arrested him and annulled the
 elections.

   front

 front, in meteorology, the boundary between adjacent air masses. If a
 cold air mass pushes a warm air mass ahead of it, a cold front exists; a
 warm front is the reverse situation. A stationary front is one in which
 neither air mass pushes against the other. An occluded front exists when
 a cold front catches up to a warm front; the warm air mass lying between
 the two cold air masses is thus forced to rise.

   Frontenac, Louis de Buade, comte de Palluau et de

 Frontenac, Louis de Buade, comte de Palluau et de, 1620-98, French
 governor of New France (1672-82, 1696-98). Although his independent
 policy displeased King LOUIS XIV and his powers as governor were reduced,
 he advanced French exploration in Canada, established new forts and
 posts, subdued (1696) the IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY, and held QUEBEC against
 the British in the first FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR.

   Frost, Robert

 Frost, Robert, 1874-1963, one of the most popular American poets of the
 20th cent.; b. San Francisco; moved to Lawrence, Mass., 1885. He went to
 England in 1912 and won his first acclaim there. After publishing A Boy's
 Will (1913) and North of Boston (1914), he returned to the U.S. and
 settled in New Hampshire. While Frost wrote movingly of the people and
 landscape of New England, his lyrical, dramatic, and often deeply
 symbolic verse goes far beyond regional poetry. His volumes of poetry
 include New Hampshire (1923), A Witness Tree (1942), Steeple Bush (1947),
 and In the Clearing (1962). Frost was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for
 poetry in 1924, 1931, 1937, and 1943. His complete poems were published
 in 1967.

   frost

 frost or hoarfrost,ice formed by the condensation of atmospheric water
 vapor on a surface whose temperature is below 32 degF (0 degC). In the
 formation of frost, water vapor is changed directly to a solid (see DEW).
 Frost appears as a light, feathery deposit of ice, often in a delicate
 pattern.

   frostbite

 frostbite or chilblains,tissue injury caused by exposure to cold, usually
 affecting the hands, feet, ears, or nose. Extreme cold causes the small
 blood vessels in the extremities to constrict, resulting in slowed blood
 circulation and stagnation, which deprive tissues of nutrients. The
 condition is aggravated by inactivity and dampness. Severe, untreated
 frostbite may result in GANGRENE.

   frozen foods

 frozen foods: see FOOD PRESERVATION.

   Fructidor

 Fructidor: see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY CALENDAR.

   fructose, levulose

 fructose, levulose, or fruit sugar,simple SUGAR found in honey and fruit.
 Sweeter than SUCROSE, fructose is a carbohydrate with the same formula as
 GLUCOSE, but with a different structure (see ISOMER). An equimolar
 mixture of fructose and glucose, called invert sugar, is obtained by the
 breakdown of sucrose and is the major component of honey.

   fruit

 fruit, matured ovary of a FLOWER, containing the seed. After
 FERTILIZATION takes place and the embryo plantlet has begun to develop,
 the surrounding ovule becomes a seed, and the ovary wall around the ovule
 (pericarp) becomes the fruit. Fruits are classified into four types:
 simple, aggregate, multiple, and accessory. Simple fruits are either
 fleshy or dry. Fleshy fruits are either berries (the entire pericarp is
 fleshy, e.g., the blueberry, tomato, and banana) or drupes (the inner
 layer of the pericarp becomes a pit or stone around the seed, e.g., the
 peach and walnut). Dry fruits are divided into those whose hard, papery
 shells either split to release the mature seeds (dehiscent), e.g., the
 PEA, or do not split (indehiscent), e.g., the NUT or GRAIN. Aggregate
 fruits (e.g., the raspberry) are masses of small drupes (drupelets), each
 developed from separate ovaries of a single flower. Multiple fruits
 (e.g., the pineapple) develop from ovaries of many flowers in a cluster.
 Accessory fruits contain tissue derived from parts other than the ovary,
 e.g., the apple, the edible portion of which is actually a swollen stem.

   fruit fly

 fruit fly, very small, winged INSECT (families Tephritidae and
 Drosophilidae) in the order Diptera (see FLY). Fruit flies lay their eggs
 in plant tissue. In some species the larvae feed directly on the fruit
 pulp; in others they feed on yeasts growing in the fruit. Some species
 cause damage to important crops; e.g., the Mediterranean fruit fly
 (Ceratitis capitata), a serious pest of citrus fruits. The vinegar fly
 (Drosophila melanogaster), is often used in the laboratory study of
 GENETICS because of its ten-day life cycle and large chromosomes.

   Fry, Christopher

 Fry, Christopher, 1907-, English dramatist and film writer, one of the
 few 20th-cent. playwrights to employ verse successfully. His plays
 include The Lady's Not for Burning (1949), and A Sleep of Prisoners
 (1951). His screenplays include Ben Hur (1959; Academy Award), and The
 Bible (1966).

   Fry, Elizabeth (Gurney)

 Fry, Elizabeth (Gurney), 1780-1845, English prison reformer and
 philanthropist. A Quaker, she worked from 1813 to improve the conditions
 of women in Newgate prison. Such innovations as segregation of the sexes
 and education and employment programs in British prisons were largely due
 to her efforts. She also founded soup kitchens in London.

   Fuchs, Klaus Emil

 Fuchs, Klaus Emil, 1911-88, British physicist and Communist spy; b.
 Germany. An acknowledged Communist, he passed information to the USSR
 while working on the atomic bomb in the U.S. (1944-45) and in the atomic
 research center at Harwell as head of the physics division. He was
 arrested in 1950 and imprisoned until 1959, when he went to East Germany.
 He was director of the Institute for Nuclear Physics from 1959 to 1979.

   fuchsia

 fuchsia, shrub or herb (genus Fuchsia) of the EVENING PRIMROSE family, a
 tropical American plant cultivated for its pendulous, brilliant,
 red-to-purple and white flowers. Most garden fuchsias are hybrids.

   fuel cell

 fuel cell, electric CELL in which the chemical energy from the oxidation
 of a gas fuel is converted directly to electrical energy in a continuous
 process. In the hydrogen and oxygen fuel cell, hydrogen and oxygen gas
 are bubbled into separate compartments connected by a porous disk through
 which an ELECTROLYTE, such as aqueous potassium hydroxide (KOH), can
 pass. Inert graphite electrodes, mixed with a catalyst such as platinum,
 are dipped into each compartment. When the two electrodes are
 electrically connected, an OXIDATION AND REDUCTION reaction takes place
 in the cell: hydrogen gas is oxidized to form water at the anode;
 electrons are liberated in this process and flow through the external
 circuit to the cathode, where the electrons combine with the oxygen gas
 and reduce it. Fuel cells have been used to generate electricity in
 spacecraft.

   Fuentes, Carlos

 Fuentes, Carlos, 1928-, Mexican novelist and short-story writer. He
 synthesizes reality and fantasy in such experimental novels as Where the
 Air is Clear (1958), A Change of Skin (1967), Terra Nostra (1975), and
 Distant Relations (1980).

   Fuessli, Johann Heinrich

 Fuessli, Johann Heinrich: see FUSELI, HENRY.

   Fugard, Athol

 Fugard, Athol, 1932-, South African playwright. An Afrikaner strongly
 opposed to APARTHEID, Fugard has written of the suffering and common
 humanity of blacks, Coloureds, and poor whites in his country in such
 powerful plays as The Blood Knot (1961), Boesman and Lena (1969), A
 Lesson from Aloes (1980), Master Harold  . . .  and the Boys (1981), and
 The Road to Mecca (1985).

   fugitive slave laws

 fugitive slave laws, in U.S. history, the federal acts of 1793 and 1850
 providing for the return between states of escaped black slaves. Northern
 states relaxed enforcement of the 1793 law as they abolished SLAVERY,
 greatly angering the South, and the law was circumvented by the
 UNDERGROUND RAILROAD. Many Northern states also passed personal-liberty
 laws allowing fugitives jury trial; others forbade state officials to aid
 in capturing or jailing fugitives. As a concession to the South, the
 COMPROMISE OF 1850 strengthened the fugitive slave law. "All good
 citizens" were required to obey it on pain of heavy penalty; jury trial
 and the right to testify were prohibited to fugitives. The ABOLITIONISTS
 and new personal-liberty laws defied these provisions. Notable fugitive
 slave trials stirred up public opinion in both the North and South.
 Northern NULLIFICATION of the fugitive slave laws was cited in 1860 by
 South Carolina as a cause of secession. Congress repealed both laws in
 1864, during the CIVIL WAR.

   fugue

 fugue [from Ital.,=flight], in music, a form of composition, originally
 choral, in which the basic principle is imitative COUNTERPOINT of several
 voices. Its main elements are: a theme or subject, stated first in one
 and then in all voices; continuation of a voice after the subject,
 accompanying the subject statements in other voices; and passages built
 on a motif, a short phrase derived from the subject or countersubject.
 First established by Flemish composers in the 15th cent., the fugue was
 highly developed by J.S. BACH. The CANON is a short form of fugue.

   Fuji, Mount

 Fuji, Mount, or Fujiyama,volcano 12,389 ft (3,776 m) high, highest point
 on HONSHU, Japan. The mountain, which last erupted in 1707, is considered
 sacred to many Japanese and is a traditional goal of pilgrimage. In 1982
 a wall was erected to halt erosion of the perfectly formed, snow-capped
 cone, long a source of inspiration to Japanese artists.

   Fukuoka

 Fukuoka, city (1985 est. pop. 1,160,000), capital of Fukuoka prefecture,
 N Kyushu, Japan. Containing the area of Hakata, one of Japan's most
 important ports since medieval times, the modern city is also a vital
 commercial and textile producing center as well as the seat of several
 universities. The city has three noted shrines, including a 16th-cent.
 Shinto shrine.

   Fulani

 Fulani, people of W Africa, numbering approximately 7 million. They are
 of mixed African and Berber origin. First recorded as living in the
 Senegambia region, they are now scattered throughout the area of the
 Sudan from Senegal to Cameroon. The Fulani became zealous Muslims (11th
 cent.) and from 1750 to 1900 engaged in many holy wars in the name of
 Islam. In the first part of the 19th cent. the Fulani carved out two
 important empires. One, based on Massina, for a time controlled TIMBUKTU;
 the other, centered at Sokoto, included the HAUSA States and parts of
 Bornu and W Cameroon. The Fulani emir of Sokoto continued to rule over
 part of N Nigeria until the British conquest in 1903.

   Fulbright, J(ames) William

 Fulbright, J(ames) William, 1905-, U.S. senator from Arkansas (1945-75);
 b. Sumner, Mo. A Democrat, he was elected to the House of Representatives
 (1942) and then to the Senate (1944). He became known internationally for
 the Fulbright Act (1946), which provided for the exchange of students and
 teachers between the U.S. and other countries. As chairman (1959-74) of
 the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, he opposed the VIETNAM WAR.

   Fuller, Margaret

 Fuller, Margaret, 1810-50, American writer and lecturer; b. Cambridge,
 Mass. One of the most influential literary figures of her day, she was a
 leading exponent of TRANSCENDENTALISM and edited (1840-42) its journal,
 The Dial. Woman in the Nineteenth Century (1845) expresses her feminist
 views. Her essays as first literary critic of the New York Tribune are
 collected in Papers on Literature and Art (1846). In 1847 she went to
 Rome, where she married the Marchese Ossoli, a follower of MAZZINI, and
 with him took part in the REVOLUTION OF 1848-49, writing about it for the
 Tribune. Returning to the U.S. (1850), she, her husband, and their baby
 were drowned in a shipwreck.

   Fuller, Melville Weston

 Fuller, Melville Weston, 1833-1910, 8th chief justice of the U.S. SUPREME
 COURT (1888-1910); b. Augusta, Me. He was the first chief justice with
 academic legal training, having attended (1854-55), but received no
 degree from, Harvard law school. On the Court, he tended toward a strict
 construction of the Constitution.

   Fuller, R(ichard) Buckminster

 Fuller, R(ichard) Buckminster, 1895-83, American architect and engineer;
 b. Milton, Mass. He is noted for his revolutionary technological designs
 aimed at deriving maximum output from minimum material and energy-the
 Dymaxion principle. Examples are his self-contained "4-D" house (1928),
 Dymaxion automobile (1933), and designs for geodesic domes.

   Fuller, Thomas

 Fuller, Thomas, 1608-61, English clergyman and author. He is best known
 for Worthies of England (1662), an invaluable source of antiquarian
 information on English personalities.

   Fullerton

 Fullerton, city (1986 est. pop. 108,750), S Calif., SE of Los Angeles;
 inc. 1904. Oil was discovered nearby in 1892, but the city's main growth
 followed the building of the Santa Ana Freeway in the 1950s. Its
 diversified manufactures include aerospace, electrical, and electronic
 components.

   Fulton, Robert

 Fulton, Robert, 1765-1815, American inventor, engineer, and painter; b.
 near Lancaster, Pa. A man of many talents and a mechanical genius, he was
 successively an expert gunsmith, a landscape and portrait painter, and a
 maker of torpedoes and submarines. In 1807 his Clermont, launched on the
 Hudson R. was the first commercially successful steamboat (see STEAMSHIP)
 in America; although Fulton had predecessors, e.g., John FITCH, he is
 popularly considered the steamboat's inventor.

   Funafuti

 Funafuti, town (1988 est. pop. 900), capital of TUVALU.

   function

 function, in mathematics, a relation that assigns to each member x of
 some set X (the domain) a unique member y of some set Y (the range); y is
 said to be a function of x, usually denoted f(x) (read "f of x"). In the
 equation y=f(x), x is called the independent variable and y the dependent
 variable. Although a function f assigns a unique y to each x, several x's
 may yield the same y; e.g., if y=f(x)=x2 (where x is a number), then
 f(2)=f(-2)=4. If this never occurs, then f is called a one-to-one, or
 injective, function.

   functional group

 functional group, in organic chemistry, group of atoms within a molecule
 that is responsible for certain properties of the molecule and reactions
 in which it takes part.

   fundamentalism

 fundamentalism, conservative religious movement that arose among members
 of various Protestant denominations early in the 20th cent. Its aim is to
 maintain traditional interpretations of the Bible and what its adherents
 believe to be the fundamental doctrines of the Christian faith. The
 movement developed (1909) in reaction to the emergence of liberal
 theology, which attempted to recast Christian teachings in light of the
 scientific and historic thought of the time.

   Fundamental Orders

 Fundamental Orders, in U.S. history, the basic law of the Connecticut
 colony, 1639-62. A preamble and 11 orders presented a binding and compact
 frame of government that put the welfare of the community above that of
 individuals.

   Fundy, Bay of

 Fundy, Bay of, large inlet of the Atlantic Ocean, c.170 mi (270 km) long
 and 30-50 mi (50-80 km) wide, NE Canada, between New Brunswick and Nova
 Scotia. It is famous for its tidal bore and for high tides that reach
 40-50 ft (12-15 m), creating the reversing falls of the St. John R.

   Fungi

 Fungi, division of simple plants that lack CHLOROPHYLL, true stems,
 roots, and leaves. Unlike ALGAE, fungi cannot photosynthesize, and live
 as PARASITES or SAPROPHYTES. The division comprises the SLIME MOLDS and
 true fungi. True fungi are multicellular (with the exception of YEASTS);
 the body of most true fungi consists of slender cottony filaments, or
 hyphae. All fungi are capable of asexual REPRODUCTION by cell division,
 budding, fragmentation, or SPORES. Those that reproduce sexually
 alternate a sexual generation (GAMETOPHYTE) with a spore-producing one.
 The four classes of true fungi are the algaelike fungi (e.g., black bread
 MOLD and downy MILDEW), sac fungi (e.g., yeasts, powdery mildews,
 TRUFFLES, and blue and green molds such as Penicillium), basidium fungi
 (e.g., MUSHROOMS and puffballs) and imperfect fungi (e.g., species that
 cause athlete's foot and ringworm). Fungi help decompose organic matter
 (important in soil renewal), are valuable as a source of ANTIBIOTICS,
 vitamins, and various industrial chemicals; and for their role in
 FERMENTATION.

   fungicide

 fungicide, substance used to prevent or destroy FUNGI. Made from sulfur
 or copper compounds, organic salts of iron, zinc, and mercury, and other
 chemicals, fungicides are used on seeds, soil, wood, and fabrics, and for
 human fungus diseases as well as fungus diseases of plants.

   Funk, Casimir

 Funk, Casimir, 1884-1967, American biochemist; b. Warsaw, Poland; came to
 U.S., 1915. Credited with discovering VITAMINS, he stirred public
 interest with his 1912 paper on vitamin-deficiency diseases. He coined
 the term vitamine and later posited the existence of four such materials
 (B1, B2, C, and D). He contributed to knowledge of the hormones of the
 pituitary and sex glands and stressed the importance of balance between
 hormones and vitamins.

   fur

 fur, hairy covering of an animal, especially that with thick, soft,
 close-growing underfur next to the skin and a coarser protective layer of
 guard hair above it. The term includes sheepskins with their hair, and
 curled pelts, e.g., Persian lamb. Used for clothing since prehistoric
 times, furs were traditionally luxury goods in the more populous,
 temperate regions of the world, where wild animals are scarce. The most
 prized furs include sable, mink, and chinchilla, but many others, e.g.,
 beaver, fox, rabbit, and ocelot, are also valued, and breeding and
 hunting industries are important in North America and Asia. Following the
 exploitation (17th-19th cent.) of N American and Asian wilderness areas,
 depleting the sea otter and threatening the fur seal, conservationists
 and humane groups have protested trapping for fur. In 1969 the U.S.
 government passed the ENDANGERED SPECIES act, banning importation or sale
 of pelts of such animals as the polar bear, jaguar, and tiger. Since
 World War II synthetic furs have become increasingly popular because of
 their realistic appearance, their relatively low cost, and public
 awareness of endangered species.

   Furies

 Furiesor Erinyes, in Greek mythology, goddesses of vengeance. Born from
 the blood of URANUS, they punished wrongs committed against blood
 relatives regardless of the motivation, as in the case of ORESTES. Named
 Megaera, Tisiphone, and Alecto, they were usually represented as crones
 with bats' wings, dogs' heads, and snakes for hair.

   furniture

 furniture, such movables as chairs, tables, beds, chests, and cabinets;
 the term may also be used for draperies, rugs, mirrors, and lamps. Since
 ancient times furniture has been made of many materials, with styles and
 techniques showing great variety, but in the past most pieces were
 fashioned of wood and decorated by inlaying, painting or gilding,
 carving, veneering, and marquetry. Ancient Oriental furniture displays
 carving and inlay on ebony and teak. Egyptian pieces 6,000 years old have
 animal carvings and gold and ivory inlay. The Greeks used low couches and
 curved chairs. The Romans adopted Greek and Etruscan forms. Heavily
 carved Gothic furniture reflected architectural styles. Renaissance
 pieces were richly decorated. Peasant furniture was solid, painted or
 carved, and slow to change in style. Provincial pieces were simple and of
 native woods. Period styles, such as the LOUIS PERIOD STYLES, DIRECTOIRE
 STYLE, and EMPIRE STYLE, developed in cultural centers. English period
 styles include Elizabethan, Jacobean, Queen Anne, and Georgian, and were
 represented by such designers as CHIPPENDALE, HEPPLEWHITE, and SHERATON.
 Early American cabinetmakers adapted English styles in utilitarian form,
 using such native woods as pine, maple, and cherry; later, PHYFE and
 others added walnut and mahogany. In the 19th cent. mass production of
 furniture began. Early in the 20th cent. ART NOUVEAU influenced furniture
 design. Later, such architects as RIETVELD, MIES VAN DER ROHE, and Eero
 SAARINEN developed functional pieces using modern materials. After World
 War II, elegant, simple Scandinavian furniture of fine woods became
 popular worldwide. Trends in the late 1970s to 80s included the austere,
 minimal look of built-ins and a return to the opulent, padded look of ART
 DECO.

   Furtwangler, Wilhelm

 Furtwangler, Wilhelm, 1886-1954, German conductor, in Lubeck, Mannheim,
 Berlin, and with the New York Philharmonic (see ORCHESTRA,). He was
 renowned for his interpretations of BRAHMS and Richard WAGNER.

   fuse, electric

 fuse, electric, safety device used to protect an ELECTRIC CIRCUIT against
 an excessive current. A fuse consists of a low-melting-point alloy strip
 enclosed in a suitable housing and connected in series with the circuit
 that it protects. Because of its electrical RESISTANCE, the alloy strip
 is heated by electric current; if the current exceeds the safe value for
 which the fuse was designed, the strip melts, opening the circuit and
 stopping the current. See also CIRCUIT BREAKER.

   Fuseli, Henry

 Fuseli, Henry, 1741-1825, Anglo-Swiss painter and draftsman, also known
 as Johann Heinrich Fuessli or Fussli. His paintings were grotesque and
 visionary, e.g., Nightmare (1782). His drawings reveal his romantic
 fascination with the terrifying and the weird.

   fusel oil

 fusel oil, oily, colorless liquid with a disagreeable odor and taste. A
 mixture of ALCOHOLS and fatty acids formed during the alcoholic
 FERMENTATION of STARCH, fusel oil may occur as an unwholesome impurity in
 imperfectly distilled liquor. It is used as a solvent in making lacquers
 and enamels.

   Fushun

 Fushun, city (1986 est. pop. 1,240,000), NE Liaoning prov., NE China, in
 a highly industrialized area 36 mi (60 km) from SHENYANG. It is the
 coal-mining center of China and has one of the largest opencut coal mines
 in the world. Oil production and refining are also major industries. The
 city was developed by Russia until 1905 and by Japan until 1945.

   fusion

 fusion: see HYDROGEN BOMB; NUCLEAR ENERGY.

   Fussli, Johann Heinrich

 Fussli, Johann Heinrich: see FUSELI, HENRY.

   Fust

 Fust or Faust, Johann,d. 1466?, printer at Mainz, Germany. He loaned
 Johann GUTENBERG money, and took over his press and types on his default,
 carrying on his work. With Peter Schoffer he was the first (1457) to
 print in colors. They also produced the first dated book, a great
 psalter, in 1457.

   futures market

 futures market, a commodity exchange where contracts for the future
 delivery of grain, livestock, and precious metals are bought and sold.
 Speculation in futures serves to protect both the developers and the
 users of the commodities from unfavorable and unpredictable price
 fluctuations. The U.S. futures market now includes Treasury bills and
 government guaranteed mortgages, or Ginnie Maes, thereby allowing
 speculation on changes in future interest rates.

   futurism

 futurism, Italian school of painting, sculpture, and literature that
 flourished from 1909, when Filippo Marinetti's first manifesto of
 futurism appeared, until the end of World War I. It portrayed the dynamic
 character of 20th-cent. life, glorified war and the machine age, and
 favored the growth of FASCISM. The futurists' representation of forms in
 motion influenced many painters, including Marcel DUCHAMP and Robert
 Delauney, and such movements as CUBISM and Russian CONSTRUCTIVISM.

   Fuzhou

 Fuzhouor Foochow, city (1986 est. pop. 1,190,000), capital of Fujian
 prov., E China, a port on the Min R. delta c.25 mi (40 km) from the
 coast. It consists of an old walled city, dating from the T'ang dynasty,
 and a modern riverside town. Its industries include food-processing (tea,
 sugar, and fruit), chemicals, and textiles. The city's lacquerware and
 handicrafts are famous throughout China. Long a center for China's
 foreign commerce and a TREATY PORT following the OPIUM WAR (1839-42), it
 was designated a "special economic zone" in 1979 to spur foreign
 investment.

   Ga

 Ga, chemical symbol of the element GALLIUM.

   Gable, Clark

 Gable, Clark, 1901-60, American film actor; b. Cadiz, Ohio. For years a
 box-office attraction, he made such films as It Happened One Night
 (1934), Gone with the Wind (1939), and The Misfits (1960).

   Gabo, Naum

 Gabo, Naum, 1890-1977, Russian sculptor, architect, and theorist; brother
 of Antoine PEVSNER. He wrote the Realist Manifesto (1920), proposing that
 new concepts of time and space be incorporated into art. His sculptural
 experiments with CONSTRUCTIVISM were often transparent, geometric
 abstracts.

   Gabon

 Gabon, officially Gabonese Republic, republic (1988 est. pop. 1,051,937),
 103,346 sq mi (267,667 sq km), W central Africa, bordered by the Atlantic
 Ocean (W), Equatorial Guinea and Cameroon (N), and the Republic of the
 Congo (E and S). LIBREVILLE (the capital) and Port-Gentil are the only
 large cities. Gabon is situated astride the equator. The coastline is a
 narrow, low-lying strip; the interior is made up of mountain ranges and
 high plateaus. Much of the country is drained by the Ogooue R., which
 flows into the Atlantic. The economy is based on oil production, which
 provides the highest per capita income in sub-Saharan Africa and accounts
 for two thirds of export earnings. Other minerals extracted include
 manganese, uranium, and gold. Forest products are also important.
 Agricultural output is low, and much food needs to be imported. The
 inhabitants of Gabon are black Africans, chiefly Fang (the most numerous
 group), Omiene, Batoka, and Eshira. French is the official language. Most
 of the people follow traditional beliefs, but there are many Christians
 in the cities. Lambarene, on the Ogooue, is the site of the famous
 hospital established by Albert SCHWEITZER in 1913.

 History The region that is now Gabon was inhabited in Paleolithic times.
 The Omiene were living there by the 16th cent., the Fang by the 18th, and
 from the 16th to 18th cent. Gabon was part of the Loango empire, which
 stretched from the Ogooue to the Congo (Zaire) rivers. Portuguese
 navigators arrived in the Ogooue estuary in the 1470s, and Gabon soon
 became an important center of a slave trade that flourished until the
 1880s. By the late 18th cent. the French had gained a dominant position
 in the area, and, despite resistance from the Fang, Gabon became part of
 the French Congo in 1889 and of FRENCH EQUATORIAL AFRICA in 1910. Held by
 the Free French in WORLD WAR II, Gabon became an overseas territory in
 1946 and self-governing in 1958. It achieved full independence in 1960,
 but retained close ties with France. In 1967 the country adopted a
 one-party political system. Independent candidates were permitted to run
 for the first time in the 1980 legislative elections, but all seats were
 won by the ruling party.

   Gaborone

 Gaborone, city (1984 est. pop. 96,000), capital of Botswana. Primarily an
 administrative center, it is located on the country's main rail line and
 has a small international airport. The city was founded c.1890 by a black
 African chief. It became the capital of newly independent BOTSWANA in
 1966.

   Gabriel

 Gabriel, archangel, the divine herald. In the BIBLE he appears to DANIEL
 (Dan. 8-9); to Zacharias, father of JOHN THE BAPTIST; and to the Virgin
 MARY in the Annunciation (Luke 1). Christian tradition makes him the
 trumpeter of the Last Judgment. In Islam, Gabriel reveals the KORAN to
 MUHAMMAD, becoming the angel of truth.

   Gabriel, Jacques Ange

 Gabriel, Jacques Ange, 1689-1782, French architect of the ROCOCO. His
 work is characterized by classical repose, purity of form, and restraint.
 He worked for 30 years for LOUIS XV at VERSAILLES, Compiegne, and other
 royal residences. He also designed Place Louis XV (now Place de la
 Concorde), Paris (1753), and worked on the LOUVRE.

   Gabrieli, Andrea

 Gabrieli, Andrea, c.1510-86, Italian organist and composer. He wrote
 MADRIGALS, MOTETS, MASSES, ricercari, and canzones for organ and was
 important in developing multiple-choir technique, which was further
 refined by his nephew Giovanni Gabrieli, c.1555-1612. Giovanni was most
 important in the development of the CONCERTO style and published (1597)
 the first printed music with dynamic indications.

   Gadda, Carlo Emilio

 Gadda, Carlo Emilio, 1893-1973, Italian novelist. His complex style
 combined literary language, slang, dialects, deliberate misspellings,
 foreign words, and imitations of various prose styles. That Awful Mess on
 Via Merulana (1957) is considered his masterpiece.

   Gaddi

 Gaddi, celebrated family of Florentine artists. Gaddo Gaddi,
 c.1260-c.1333, a painter and mosaicist, is thought to have produced the
 MOSAICS in the portico of Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome. His son, Taddeo
 Gaddi, c.1300-c.1366, was a pupil and assistant to GIOTTO and chief
 Florentine painter after Giotto's death. His works include painting in
 Santa Croce and Santa Felicita, Florence. Taddeo's son, Agnolo Gaddi,
 c.1350-1396, possessed a somewhat rigid, Giottesque style. His frescoes
 include Life of the Virgin (cathedral, Prato).

   gadolinium

 gadolinium (Gd), metallic element, extracted in oxide form by J.C.G. de
 Marignac in 1880. This silver-white, malleable, ductile, lustrous
 RARE-EARTH METAL is found in gadolinite, MONAZITE, and bastnasite. It is
 paramagnetic at room temperature but becomes strongly ferromagnetic when
 cooled. See ELEMENT; PERIODIC TABLE.

   Gadsden, James

 Gadsden, James, 1788-1858, American railroad promoter and diplomat; b.
 Charleston, S.C. He advocated a southern rail system and a railroad to
 the Pacific. Appointed minister to Mexico (1853), he negotiated the
 GADSDEN PURCHASE, but he was recalled (1856) for exceeding his
 instructions.

   Gadsden Purchase

 Gadsden Purchase, strip of land bought (1853) by the U.S. from Mexico.
 Pres. Franklin PIERCE wished to insure U.S. possession of the Mesilla
 Valley near the Rio Grande-the most practicable southern route for a
 railroad to the Pacific. James GADSDEN negotiated the purchase for $10
 million of the area of about 30,000 sq mi (77,700 sq km), which now forms
 extreme S New Mexico and Arizona S of the Gila R.

   Gaea

 Gaea, in Greek mythology, the earth; daughter of CHAOS, mother and wife
 of both URANUS (the sky) and Pontus (the sea). She was mother, by Uranus,
 of the CYCLOPES, the TITANS, and others, and, by Pontus, of five sea
 deities. She helped cause the overthrow of Uranus by the Titans and was
 worshiped as the primal goddess, the mother of all things.

   Gaelic

 Gaelic, or Goidelic, group of languages belonging to the Celtic subfamily
 of the Indo-European family of languages. Gaelic is spoken in highland
 Scotland, in Ireland, and on the Isle of Man. See LANGUAGE.

   Gaelic football

 Gaelic football: see under FOOTBALL.

   Gagarin, Yuri Alekseyevich

 Gagarin, Yuri Alekseyevich, 1934-68, Soviet cosmonaut. He became the
 first person to achieve orbital spaceflight when, on Apr. 12, 1961, he
 circled the earth once in Vostok 1. He died (Mar. 27, 1968) in the crash
 of a jet trainer.

   Gage, Thomas

 Gage, Thomas, 1721-87, British general, commander of the British forces
 in North America (1763-75). As governor of Massachusetts (1774-75) he
 tried to enforce the INTOLERABLE ACTS. His measures brought on the
 battles of LEXINGTON AND CONCORD, which began the AMERICAN REVOLUTION.

   Gaines's Mill

 Gaines's Mill: see SEVEN DAYS BATTLES.

   Gainsborough, Thomas

 Gainsborough, Thomas, 1727-88, English portrait and landscape painter.
 Greatly influenced by VAN DYCK, he was celebrated for the elegance,
 vivacity, and refinement of his portraits. His favorite subject was
 landscape, and he produced some of the first great LANDSCAPE PAINTINGS in
 England. Gainsborough had few English rivals as a colorist. In his last
 years he excelled in fancy pictures, a pastoral genre with idealized
 subjects, e.g., The Mall (1783; Frick Coll., N.Y.C.). Among his
 well-known works are Perdita (Wallace Coll., London), The Blue Boy
 (Huntington Art Gall., San Marino, Calif.), and Lady Innes (Frick Coll.,
 N.Y.C.).

   Gaiseric

 Gaiseric or Genseric, c.390-477, king of the Vandals and Alani (428-77).
 He left Spain for Africa (429), subdued a large territory, and took
 CARTHAGE (439). Recognized as independent of Rome, he persecuted Roman
 landowners and clergy. In 455 he sacked Rome, and he frustrated Roman
 expeditions against him. By the time he made peace with ZENO (476), he
 held N Africa, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and the Balearic Islands.

   Gaitskell, Hugh Todd Naylor

 Gaitskell, Hugh Todd Naylor, 1906-63, British statesman. During WORLD WAR
 II he served in the ministry of economic warfare (1940-42) and on the
 Board of Trade (1942-45). He entered Parliament as a Labour member in
 1945 and later was chancellor of the exchequer (1950-51). In 1955 he
 succeeded ATTLEE as party leader. He favored moderation of party
 policies.

   Gaius

 Gaius, fl. 2d cent., Roman jurist. His textbook Institutes is a major
 source of our knowledge of early ROMAN LAW.

   galactic cluster

 galactic cluster: see CLUSTER, STAR.

   Galanos, James

 Galanos, James: see FASHION.

   Galapagos Islands

 Galapagos Islands or Archiepielago de Colon, archipelago of 13 large and
 several smaller islands in the Pacific Ocean, claimed by Ecuador in 1832.
 They are largely desolate lava piles with little vegetation, but are of
 special interest to naturalists for their large tortoises, flightless
 cormorants, and other wildlife arrested at various evolutionary stages.
 Charles DARWIN, who visited the islands in 1835, gathered evidence there
 that supported his theory of natural selection.

   Galatians

 Galatians, epistle of the NEW TESTAMENT, possibly the earliest written
 (AD c.48), 9th book in the usual order, by St. PAUL to Christians of
 central Asia Minor. Some scholars date it after AD52. In answer to the
 belief that circumcision and the Law of MOSES are essential, Paul argues,
 in a passage central to Christianity, that salvation can be achieved
 through faith alone.

   galaxy

 galaxy, large aggregation of gas, dust, and typically billions of stars.
 It is held together by the gravitational attraction between its parts,
 and its rotational motion prevents it from collapsing on itself. A
 typical spiral galaxy is shaped like a flat disk, about 100,000
 light-years in diameter, with a central bulge, or nucleus, containing old
 stars; winding through the disk are the characteristic spiral arms of
 dust, gas, and young stars. An elliptical galaxy, lacking spiral arms
 entirely and containing little or no gas and dust, resembles the nucleus
 of a spiral galaxy. A small minority of galaxies are classified as
 irregular, i.e., showing no definite symmetry or nucleus. One theory
 suggests that irregulars evolve into spirals or ellipticals depending on
 the initial amount of rotational motion. Some galaxies radiate a large
 fraction of their energy in forms other than visible light, such as radio
 waves, X rays, and infrared and ultraviolet radiation; their optical
 counterparts may be faint or undetectable. Gravitation also holds
 clusters of galaxies together; the Local Group cluster includes the MILKY
 WAY (containing the sun and solar system) and the ANDROMEDA GALAXY, both
 spirals, and the irregular MAGELLANIC CLOUDS. See also HUBBLE'S LAW.

   Galbraith, John Kenneth

 Galbraith, John Kenneth, 1908-, American economist and public official;
 b. Ontario, Canada. He taught economics at Harvard (1934-39, 1949-75,
 except for time in government service). An adviser to Pres. J.F. KENNEDY,
 he was (1961-63) U.S. ambassador to India. A Keynesian economist (see
 KEYNES), he advocated government spending to fight unemployment and using
 more of the nation's wealth for public services and less for private
 consumption. His widely read books include The Affluent Society (1958;
 rev. ed., 1985), The New Industrial State (1967; 3d rev. ed., 1978), and
 The Anatomy of Power (1983).

   Galdos, Benito Perez

 Galdos, Benito Perez: see PEREZ GALDOS, BENITO.

   Galen

 Galen, c.130=+-c.200, physician and writer; b. Pergamum, of Greek
 parents. He resided chiefly in Rome and was personal physician to several
 emperors. Credited with some 500 treatises (at least 83 extant), Galen
 correlated earlier medical knowledge with his own discoveries (based on
 experiments and animal dissections). He showed that arteries carry blood,
 not air, and added greatly to knowledge of the brain, nerves, spinal
 cord, and pulse. His virtually undisputed authority discouraged original
 investigation and hampered medical progress until the 16th cent.

   galena

 galena or lead glance, lustrous, blue-gray lead sulfide mineral (PbS). It
 is the chief ore and principal source of LEAD. Distributed worldwide, it
 frequently contains silver and other accessory metals.

   Galicia

 Galicia, historic region (32,332 sq mi/83,740 sq km), SE Poland and W
 Ukraine. The Polish section covers Rzeszow and the greater part of Krakow
 provinces; the Ukranian section includes Lvov, Ivano-Frankovsk, and
 Tarnopol oblasts. Mainly agricultural, Galicia also has minerals, notably
 oil. Originally the duchy of Galich and Vladimir, the region was annexed
 to Poland in the 14th cent., passed to Austria in 1772, and won limited
 autonomy in 1861. A battleground in WORLD WAR I, after the war Galicia
 was contested (1918-20) by newly independent Poland and the new Ukrainian
 republic with Polish title to the region confirmed by the Polish-Soviet
 Treaty of Riga (1921). In 1939 most of E Galicia was annexed to the
 Ukraine.

   Galicia

 Galicia, region, NW Spain, on the Atlantic Ocean, S of the Bay of Biscay
 and N of Portugal. It includes the provinces of La Coruna, Lugo, Orense,
 and Pontevedra. In this largely mountainous area, fishing and
 stock-raising are the major occupations. Galicia passed from Rome to the
 German Suevi (5th-6th cent.), the MOORS, and ASTURIAS (8th-9th cent.).

   Galilean satellites

 Galilean satellites: see JUPITER, in astronomy.

   Galilee

 Galilee, region, N Israel, roughly the portion north of the plain of
 Esdraelon. Galilee was the chief scene of the ministry of Jesus Christ.
 After the destruction of Jerusalem (AD 70), it became the main center of
 Judaism in PALESTINE. Zionist colonization of the area began at the end
 of the 19th cent. and accelerated after World War II. The chief city is
 NAZARETH. The Sea of Galilee or Lake Tiberias or Lake Kinneret is a lake
 (64 sq mi/166 sq km) in NE Israel. About 700 ft (210 m) below sea level,
 it has a saline character and is fed and drained by the JORDAN R. Some
 fishing is carried on and some of its water is pumped to S Israel for
 irrigation.

   Galileo

 Galileo (Galileo Galilei), 1564-1642, Italian astronomer, mathematician,
 and physicist. At the age of 19 he discovered the principle of
 isochronism-that each oscillation of a pendulum takes the same time
 despite changes in amplitude. Soon thereafter he became known for his
 invention of a hydrostatic balance and his treatise on the center of
 gravity of falling bodies. He found experimentally that bodies do not
 fall with velocities proportional to their weights, a conclusion received
 with hostility because it contradicted the accepted teaching of
 ARISTOTLE. Galileo discovered that the path of a projectile is a
 parabola, and he is credited with anticipating Isaac NEWTON'S laws of
 motion. In 1609 he constructed the first astronomical telescope, which he
 used to discover the four largest satellites of Jupiter and the stellar
 composition of the Milky Way, and in 1632 he published his Dialogue
 Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, a work that upheld the COPERNICAN
 SYSTEM rather than the PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM and marked a turning point in
 scientific and philosophical thought. Brought (1633) before the
 INQUISITION in Rome, he was made to renounce all his beliefs and writings
 supporting the Copernican theory. His last book, Dialogues Concerning Two
 New Sciences (1638), contains most of his contributions to physics.

   Galileo

 Galileo, in space exploration: see SPACE PROBE,.

   Gall

 Gall, c.1840-94, SIOUX INDIAN war chief; b. South Dakota. Chief
 lieutenant of Sitting Bull in the defeat of George CUSTER at LITTLE
 BIGHORN (1876), Gall later surrendered and worked for better relations
 between Indians and whites.

   Galla

 Galla, Hamitic pastoral tribes of W and S Ethiopia and Kenya, numbering
 about 10 million. They are either Muslim, Christian, or pagan. They have
 inhabited the Ethiopian highlands since the 16th cent., having come there
 from Somalia. A warlike people, the Galla have historically maintained
 small-group autonomy from the Ethiopian government.

   Gallant, Mavis

 Gallant, Mavis, 1922-, Canadian writer. An expatriate writer living in
 France, she has contributed to The New Yorker since the 1950s. Her
 publications include short stories, two novels, Green Water, Green Sky
 (1959) and A Fairly Good Time (1970), and one play, What Is to Be Done?
 (1983).

   Gallatin, Albert

 Gallatin, Albert, 1761-1849, U.S. public official and financier; b.
 Switzerland. An innovative secretary of the treasury (1801-14), he
 reshaped U.S. financial policy to Jeffersonian principles. Under Pres.
 MADISON he urged the use of federal money to expand the internal economy.
 A key figure in negotiating the Treaty of GHENT, he was also minister to
 France (1816-23) and to Great Britain (1826-27). In 1842 he founded the
 American Ethnological Society.

   Gallaudet

 Gallaudet, American family of educators of the deaf. Thomas Hopkins
 Gallaudet, 1787-1851, b. Philadelphia, founded (1817) the first free
 school for the deaf in the U.S. His oldest son, Thomas Gallaudet,
 1822-1902, an Episcopal priest, founded St. Ann's Church for Deaf-Mutes,
 N.Y.C., and the Gallaudet Home for aged deaf-mutes, Poughkeepsie, N.Y.
 The youngest son, Edward Miner Gallaudet, 1837-1917, opened a school for
 deaf-mutes (now Gallaudet College) in Washington, D.C.

   Gallaudet College

 Gallaudet College, at Washington, D.C., world-renowned institution of
 higher education for the deaf. It was originally the upper branch of a
 school for deaf-mutes and the blind. It was founded (1864) by Amos
 Kendall and Edward Miner Gallaudet, who pioneered in progressive methods
 of education in this field.

   gall bladder

 gall bladder, small, pear-shaped sac attached to the LIVER by the hepatic
 duct. The gall bladder stores and concentrates BILE, which is produced by
 the liver and functions in fat digestion. Fatty foods stimulate
 intestinal cells to produce a hormone that causes the gall bladder to
 contract, forcing the bile into the common bile duct and the intestine,
 where fats are absorbed. Components of bile sometimes crystallize in the
 gall bladder, forming gallstones.

   Gallic Wars

 Gallic Wars, campaigns in Gaul led by Julius CAESAR as proconsul of Gaul
 (58-51 BC). Caesar's first campaign was to prevent the Helvetii from
 entering SW GAUL. Next, the Aedui asked Caesar's help against the German
 Ariovistus, whom Caesar routed. In 57 BC Caesar pacified Belgica (roughly
 Belgium). In 56 BC he attacked the Veneti, and in the following year he
 went to the Low Countries and repelled a German invasion. He invaded (54
 BC) Britain and the next winter put down a revolt of Belgian tribes led
 by Ambiorix. In 53 BC all central Gaul raised a revolt, organized by
 Vercingetorix. With incredible speed and brilliant tactics, Caesar
 crossed the Alps and suppressed the Gauls. The prime source of the Gallic
 Wars is Caesar's own commentaries, De bello Gallico.

   Gallieni, Joseph Simon

 Gallieni, Joseph Simon, 1849-1916, French general. As governor general of
 Madagascar (1896-1905) he solidly established French rule. The military
 governor of Paris in WORLD WAR I, he contributed greatly to the French
 victory at the Marne (1914) by urging Gen. JOFFRE to counterattack.

   Gallipoli campaign

 Gallipoli campaign, April 1915-January 1916, Allied expedition in Turkey
 in WORLD WAR I. Planned by Winston CHURCHILL, British first lord of the
 admiralty, its purpose was to gain the Dardanelles, capture
 Constantinople, and make contact with Russia. Poor Allied cooperation and
 strong Turkish resistance forced the Allies into an evacuation that was
 the only successful operation in a disastrous campaign.

   Gallitzin

 Gallitzin, Russian princely family. Vasily Vasilyevich Gallitzin, d.
 1619, sent to offer the Russian throne to Prince Ladislaus of Poland, was
 imprisoned by King SIGISMUND III for refusing to help him gain the
 throne; he died in prison. Vasily Vasilyevich Gallitzin, 1643-1714, was
 the lover and chief adviser of Sophia Alekseyevna, regent for PETER I. He
 was exiled to Siberia after her downfall (1689). Boris Alekseyevich
 Gallitzin, 1654-1714, tutor to PETER I, headed the government during
 Peter's first foreign tour. Dmitri Mikhailovich Gallitzin, 1665-1737,
 helped ANNA, daughter of IVAN IV, gain the throne providing she agreed to
 limit her power; she began to rule absolutely and sentenced him to death,
 then exiled him instead. Dmitri Alekseyevich Gallitzin, 1735-1803,
 Russian ambassador at Paris (1765-73), was a friend of DIDEROT and
 VOLTAIRE. Aleksandr Nikolayevich Gallitzin, 1773?-1844, a statesman of
 liberal tendencies, was a counselor to ALEXANDER I. Nikolai Dmitryevich
 Gallitzin, 1856-1925, headed the council of ministers of NICHOLAS II from
 1916 until the RUSSIAN REVOLUTION of 1917.

   gallium

 gallium (Ga), metallic element, discovered spectroscopically by P.E.
 Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1875. Solid gallium is blue-gray; the liquid form
 is silver. It is chemically similar to ALUMINUM. Gallium compounds are
 used in transistors, lasers, and diodes. See ELEMENT; PERIODIC TABLE.

   gallotanic acid

 gallotanic acid: see TANNIN.

   Gallup, George Horace

 Gallup, George Horace, 1901-84, American public-opinion statistician; b.
 Jefferson, Iowa. He founded the American Institute of Public Opinion
 (1935) at Princeton, N.J., and originated the Gallup POLL to measure
 voter sentiment and gauge the national mood on various issues.

   Galois, Evariste

 Galois, Evariste, 1811-32, French mathematician. Although killed at the
 age of 21 in a political duel, he made contributions to NUMBER THEORY and
 function theory and invented Galois theory, a critical area of modern
 algebra.

   Galsworthy, John

 Galsworthy, John, 1867-1933, English novelist and dramatist. He is best
 remembered for his novels of the Forsyte family, grouped in three
 trilogies, The Forsyte Saga (1922), A Modern Comedy (1928), and End of
 the Chapter (1934). Dealing with three generations of a complacent
 upper-middle-class family from the 1880s to the 1920s, the novels focus
 on Soames Forsyte, the "man of property." Galsworthy also wrote highly
 successful dramas on social problems, including The Silver Box (1906),
 Strife (1909), and Justice (1910). He was awarded the 1932 Nobel Prize in
 literature.

   Galt, Sir Alexander Tilloch

 Galt, Sir Alexander Tilloch, 1817-93, Canadian statesman; son of the
 novelist John Galt. After emigrating from Britain in 1835 he served in
 the Canadian Legislative Assembly (1849-50, 1853-67) and House of Commons
 (1867-72). Galt worked for confederation (1867) and an independent
 financial policy, serving as finance minister (1867-68) in the first
 dominion government. He was the first Canadian high commissioner
 (1880-83) in London.

   Galtieri, Leopoldo Fortunato

 Galtieri, Leopoldo Fortunato, 1927-, Argentine general, president of
 Argentina (1981-82). Army commander and a member of the ruling military
 junta, he assumed the presidency in Dec. 1981. He was involved in a
 conflict with Britain over the British-held FALKLAND ISLANDS, which
 Argentina occupied in Apr. 1982. After the British recapture (June 14,
 1982) of the islands, he was forced to resign, was convicted of
 negligence, and was imprisoned (1986).

   Galton, Sir Francis

 Galton, Sir Francis, 1822-1911, English scientist and cousin of Charles
 DARWIN. In his Hereditary Genius (1869), he presented evidence that
 talent is an inherited characteristic; this led him to found the EUGENICS
 movement. His system of classifying fingerprints is basically that still
 in use.

   Galvani, Luigi

 Galvani, Luigi, 1737-98, Italian physician. A noted surgeon and
 researcher in comparative anatomy, he concluded, from his observation
 that a frog's leg contracted when touched by two different metals in a
 moist environment, that animal tissues generate ELECTRICITY. Although he
 was eventually proved wrong by Alessandro VOLTA, the controversy
 stimulated research in electrotherapy and on electric currents. Many
 electrical terms derive from his name.

   galvanizing

 galvanizing, process of coating a metal, usually iron or steel, with a
 protective coating of ZINC. Galvanized iron is usually prepared by
 dipping or electroplating. Pure iron, copper iron, and various steels are
 often galvanized, because the zinc coating resists oxidation and
 moisture.

   galvanometer

 galvanometer, instrument used to determine the presence, direction, and
 strength of electric current in a conductor. Galvanometers are based on
 the discovery (1819) by Hans OERSTED that a magnetic needle is deflected
 by the presence of an electric current in a nearby conductor. When an
 electric current is passing through the conductor, the magnetic needle
 tends to turn at right angles to the conductor, so that its direction is
 parallel to the lines of induction around the conductor and its north
 pole points in the direction in which these lines of induction flow. In
 general, the extent to which the needle turns is dependent upon the
 current strength. In the modern d'Arsonval galvanometer, the magnet is
 fixed and the coil is movable. If a pointer is attached to the moving
 coil so that it passes over a suitably calibrated scale, the galvanometer
 can be used to quantitatively measure the current passing through it. A
 direct current (DC) AMMETER measures direct current by allowing a known
 percentage of the current to pass through a galvanometer. A DC VOLTMETER
 measures direct voltage (see POTENTIAL, ELECTRIC) between two points by
 allowing current to flow through a galvanometer connected in series with
 a high resistance. The current through the galvanometer is then
 proportional to the voltage (see OHM'S LAW).

   Galveston

 Galveston, city (1986 est. pop. 60,210), seat of Galveston co., on
 Galveston Island, SE Tex.; inc. 1839. It has a fine natural harbor at the
 entrance to Galveston Bay; causeways connect it with the mainland and
 Texas City. Oil refining and shipbuilding lead its industries. From its
 deepwater port goods are exported all over the world. Settled from the
 1830s but known to Europeans centuries earlier, it is also a noted resort
 center. The city was devastated by a 1900 hurricane. A massive seawall
 has helped to protect it, but a 1961 storm caused much damage.

   Gama, Vasco da

 Gama, Vasco da, c.1469-1524, Portuguese navigator, the first European to
 travel by sea to INDIA (1497-99). At the order of MANUEL I, he commanded
 four vessels, reached Calicut, and opened up a lucrative spice trade,
 thus beginning the Portuguese empire. He returned with 20 ships in 1502
 and established Portuguese power in India and Africa. His methods were
 harsh, and he was not a good administrator. He was sent back to India as
 viceroy in 1524 but soon died.

   Gamaliel of Jabneh

 Gamaliel of Jabneh, fl. AD 100, Jewish scholar, head of the SANHEDRIN at
 Jabneh. He unified the Jewish people after the destruction of Jerusalem,
 e.g., by regulating the prayer ritual and standardizing the Jewish
 calendar. The Romans also recognized him as a leader of his people.

   Gambetta, Leon

 Gambetta, Leon, 1838-82, French republican leader. He opposed the Second
 Empire of NAPOLEON III and was prominent in the provisional government
 following the empire's fall (1870) in the FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. He
 bitterly fought French capitulation and after 1871 helped to create the
 Third Republic. He pursued a moderate policy between the radicals and the
 monarchists and was premier (1881-82).

   Gambia, The

 Gambia, The, officially Republic of The Gambia, republic (1986 est. pop.
 698,000), 4,361 sq mi (11,295 sq km), W Africa, the continent's smallest
 independent state. It is a narrow strip of land on both banks of the
 Gambia R., bordered by the Atlantic Ocean on the west and surrounded on
 the remaining three sides by Senegal. The capital is BANJUL, on St.
 Mary's Island, near the mouth of the Gambia R. A low-lying country, it
 ranges from sandy beaches along the coast to a swampy river valley in the
 interior. The economy is overwhelmingly dependent on the export of
 peanuts, which provides 90% of earnings. Rice and other grains are
 produced for local consumption. The population is primarily Muslim black
 African, of whom the Mandingo are the most numerous; West Indians are an
 important minority. English is the official language.

 History Prior to the arrival of Portuguese explorers in the mid-15th
 cent., the area that is now Gambia was part of the MALI empire. English
 merchants won trading rights from the Portuguese in 1588, and in the
 early 17th cent. British companies founded settlements along the Gambia
 R. In 1816 the British purchased St. Mary's Island, where they
 established Bathurst (now Banjul), and in 1843 the territory became a
 crown colony. The French, who controlled the neighboring interior (now
 Senegal), failed in negotiations to acquire the Gambia R. settlements,
 which, in 1894, became a British protectorate. Gambia achieved
 self-government in 1963 and independence in 1965, under Dauda Kairaba
 Jawara; it became a republic in the Commonwealth of Nations in 1970.
 Independent Gambia is notable in Africa as a bastion of parliamentary
 democracy and political stability. It has close relations with SENEGAL,
 and in 1981 the two nations joined in a confederation known as
 Senegambia, which, while maintaining individual sovereignty, aimed at
 cooperation in foreign policy, security, communications, and monetary and
 economic affairs.

   games, theory of

 games, theory of, group of mathematical theories applying statistical
 logic to the choice of strategies in a game. A game consists of a set of
 rules governing a competitive situation in which two or more individuals
 or groups attempt to maximize their own winnings or minimize those of
 their opponents. Game theory, first developed by John VON NEUMANN, is
 applied to many fields, e.g., military problems and economics.

   gametophyte

 gametophyte, phase of a plant life cycle in which the egg (see OVUM) and
 SPERM (gametes) are produced. In many lower plants the gametophyte phase
 is the dominant life form; for example, the familiar MOSSES are the
 gametophyte form of the plant. The union of egg and sperm gives rise to
 the sporophyte phase, in which spores are formed; spores, in turn, give
 rise to the gametophyte. In mosses the sporophyte is a capsule atop a
 slender stalk that grows out of the top of the gametophyte. The
 alternation between the gametophyte and sporophyte phase is known as
 alternation of generations.

   gamma globulin

 gamma globulin: see GLOBULIN.

   gamma radiation

 gamma radiation, radiation emitted in one of the three types of natural
 RADIOACTIVITY. It is the most energetic form of ELECTROMAGNETIC
 RADIATION, with a very short wavelength of less than 10-10 m. Gamma rays
 are essentially very energetic X RAYS emitted by excited nuclei. They
 often accompany alpha or beta particles, because a nucleus emitting those
 particles may be left in an excited (higher-energy) state. Gamma-ray
 sources are used in medicine for cancer treatment and for diagnostic
 purposes, and in industry for the inspection of castings and welds.

   Gamow, George

 Gamow, George, 1904-68, Russian-American theoretical physicist and
 author; b. Odessa; came to U.S., 1933. He is best known as an author who
 popularized abstract physical theories. Gamow devised (1928) a theory of
 radioactive decay and applied nuclear physics to problems of stellar
 evolution. He also proposed an important theory on the organization of
 genetic information in the living cell.

   Gandhi, Indira

 Gandhi, Indira, 1917-1984, prime minister of India (1966-77, 1980-84);
 daughter of Jawaharlal NEHRU. After serving as her father's aide and
 rising through the ranks of the Congress party, she became prime minister
 on the death of SHASTRI. India's defeat of Pakistan in 1971 assured
 Indian dominance of the subcontinent. Gandhi's administration,
 increasingly authoritarian, was marked by stress on social programs and
 government planning. Faced with opposition, she declared an "emergency"
 in 1975, jailing opponents and suspending civil liberties. Forced from
 office in 1977, she made a triumphant return in 1980, stressing
 agricultural development and stronger international relations. She was
 assassinated (1984) by SIKH members of her body guard unit following an
 attack on the Golden Temple in Amritsar, the Sikhs' holiest shrine. Her
 son, Rajiv GANDHI, succeeded her as prime minister.

   Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand

 Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand, 1869-1948, Indian political and spiritual
 leader, called the Mahatma [great souled] and regarded as the father of
 independent INDIA. After practicing law in South Africa, where he fought
 for the rights of the Indian population there, he returned (1915) to
 India. Already regarded as a leader in the nationalist movement, he began
 working for Indian Independence from Great Britain. He gave up Western
 ways to lead a life of abstinence and spirituality. He asserted the unity
 of mankind under one God and preached Christian and Muslim ethics along
 with the Hindu. He became a proponent of satyagraha [passive resistance]
 to British rule. His efforts led the British to jail him several times,
 but so great was his following that his threats to fast until death
 usually forced his release. In the INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS, India's
 chief political party, he led the fight to rid the country of the CASTE
 system; he especially defended the rights of the untouchables. In 1942
 the British jailed him after he refused to cooperate in World War II. In
 1944 he was released and became a major figure in the postwar
 negotiations that resulted in Indian independence in 1947. He was deeply
 distressed by the religious partition of the country into India and
 Pakistan. When violence broke out between Hindus and Muslims, he resorted
 to fasts and visits to the troubled areas in efforts to end the violence.
 He was on one such prayer vigil in New Delhi when he was fatally shot by
 a Hindu fanatic who objected to Gandhi's tolerance for the Muslims.

   Gandhi, Rajiv

 Gandhi, Rajiv, 1944-, Indian political leader. He succeeded his mother,
 Indira GANDHI, as prime minister after her assassination (1984). He has
 pursued a policy of reconciliation in an effort to resolve problems in
 the Punjab with the Sikhs and in Assam. He has also proposed increases in
 spending for education, housing, and aid to the poor in an effort to
 counter criticism that his government favored the rich by its policy of
 permitting more free enterprise.

   Ganges

 Ganges or Ganga, chief river in India, c.1,560 mi (2,510 km) long,
 considered sacred by Hindus. It rises in the Himalayas and flows
 generally east-southeast through a wide and densely populated plain to
 join the BRAHMAPUTRA R. in Bangladesh. The combined river then continues
 through a vast and fertile delta on the Bay of BENGAL, which it enters as
 the Padma and other distributaries. Hardwar, Allahabad, and Varanasi
 (Benares) are especially holy bathing sites along its banks. The Ganges
 is a major source of water for irrigation in both India and Bangladesh.

   Gang of Four

 Gang of Four, term of opprobrium given by the Chinese Communist
 authorities to four persons held responsible for the excesses of the
 CULTURAL REVOLUTION (1966-69). They were also accused of trying to seize
 power after the deaths (1976) of MAO TSE-TUNG and CHOU EN-LAI. They were
 imprisoned in 1976, tried in 1980, and sentenced in 1981. Sentences
 ranged from death (to be commuted upon rehabilitation) to 20 years in
 prison. The most notable of the Gang of Four was JIANG QING, Mao's widow.
 The others were Wang Hongwen, Yao Wenyuan, and Zhang Qunqiao.

   gangrene

 gangrene, local death of body tissue. Dry gangrene, the most common form,
 follows a disturbance of blood supply to the tissues, e.g., in DIABETES
 or destruction of tissue from injury. Moist gangrene results from an
 invasion of toxin-producing bacteria that destroy tissue. Treatment
 includes rest and ANTIBIOTICS; excision of the diseased area or, in
 advanced cases, amputation of the affected part may be necessary.

   gannet

 gannet: see BOOBY.

   Gannett, Henry

 Gannett, Henry, 1846-1914, American geographer; b. Bath, Me. Chief
 geographer of the U.S. Geological Survey (from 1882), he fostered
 creation (1890) of the U.S. Board of Geographic Names. He helped to found
 the National Geographic Society.

   Ganymede

 Ganymede, in astronomy, natural satellite of JUPITER.

   Ganymede

 Ganymede, in Greek mythology, a beautiful youth carried off by ZEUS to be
 cupbearer to the gods.

   Gaon of Vilna

 Gaon of Vilna: see ELIJAH BEN SOLOMON.

   gar

 gar, cylindrical, mostly freshwater FISH (family Lepisosteidae) with
 hard, diamond-shaped scales, a long jaw, and long, sharp teeth, found in
 the U.S. and Central America. The largest species is the 9-ft (2.7-m)
 alligator gar (Lepisosteus spatula) of the Mississippi valley.

   Garamond, Claude

 Garamond, Claude, 1480-1561, French designer and maker of printing TYPES.
 The ESTIENNES, Plantin, and BODONI used his types. The ELZEVIR family
 based their types on his. His roman and italic types were innovative in
 being designed as metal types, not as imitations of handwriting. He was a
 chief influence in establishing the roman letter as standard.

   garbanzo

 garbanzo: see CHICK-PEA.

   Garbo, Greta

 Garbo, Greta, 1905-, Swedish-American film actress; b. Sweden as Greta
 Gustafson. She was noted for her beauty and her dramatic intensity. Her
 films include Queen Christina (1933), Anna Karenina (1935), and Camille
 (1936).

   Garcia Lorca, Federico

 Garcia Lorca, Federico, 1898-1936, Spanish lyric poet and dramatist. His
 work reflects the spirit of his native Andalusia and his own passionate
 response to life. Gypsy Ballads (1928) made him the most popular Spanish
 poet of his generation, while Lament for the Death of a Bullfighter
 (1935) and The Poet in New York (1940) evidenced his growing maturity of
 thought. His plays, notably the tragedies Blood Wedding (1933) and The
 House of Bernarda Alba (1936), ensure his continuing international
 reputation. Garcia Lorca was shot by FRANCO'S soldiers at the outbreak of
 the SPANISH CIVIL WAR.

   Garcia Marquez, Gabriel

 Garcia Marquez, Gabriel, 1928-, Colombian writer. His works, generally
 chronicling the physical and moral collapse of Macondo, an imaginary
 town, include Leaf Storm and Other Stories (1955) and the novels The
 Autumn of the Patriarch (1975) and Chronicle of a Death Foretold (tr.
 1982). He was awarded the 1982 Nobel Prize in literature.

   Garcia Moreno, Gabriel

 Garcia Moreno, Gabriel, 1821-75, president of ECUADOR (1861-65, 1869-75).
 A fervent Roman Catholic, he guaranteed (1862) the church's independence
 and granted it control over education. His despotism in crushing liberal
 opposition led to his assassination.

   Garcia y Inigues, Calixto

 Garcia y Inigues, Calixto, 1839-98, Cuban revolutionary. A leader in the
 TEN YEARS WAR (1868-78), he was important in the SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR.

   Garcilaso de la Vega

 Garcilaso de la Vega, 1503?-1536, Spanish lyric poet. He typified the
 courtly poet-soldier of Spain's GOLDEN AGE. His sonnets, elegies, odes,
 and eclogues, published after his death in battle, introduced Italian
 RENAISSANCE poetic forms into Spain.

   Garden Grove

 Garden Grove, city (1986 est. pop. 134,850), S Calif., a residential
 suburb of LONG BEACH and LOS ANGELES, on the Santa Ana R.; founded 1877,
 inc. 1956. The city is in a citrus fruit area. Nearby defense
 installations provide much employment.

   gardenia

 gardenia, evergreen shrub or tree (genus Gardenia) of the MADDER family,
 native to the Old World tropics. Gardenias' heavily fragrant and showy
 blossoms make them popular corsage and greenhouse plants. Most of the
 cultivated types are varieties of G. jasminoides, also called Cape
 jasmine but unrelated to true JASMINE.

   Gardner, Erle Stanley

 Gardner, Erle Stanley, 1889-1970, American writer; b. Malden, Mass. His
 many detective novels are noted for their fast action and clever legal
 devices. His most famous character, Perry Mason, is, like Gardner
 himself, a lawyer.

   Gardner, John Champlin, Jr.

 Gardner, John Champlin, Jr., 1933-82, American novelist; b. Batavia, N.Y.
 A scholar of medieval literature, he drew on his academic knowledge and
 religious concerns to create fiction that is both popular and
 philosophically interesting. His works include Grendel (1971), The
 Sunlight Dialogues (1972), October Light (1976), and Mickelsson's Ghosts
 (1982), novels, and On Moral Fiction (1978), criticism.

   Gardner, Percy

 Gardner, Percy, 1846-1937, English classical archaeologist and professor
 of archaeology (1887-1925) at Oxford, a specialist in Greek art and
 numismatics. His Types of Greek Coins (1883) shows how coinage reflects
 both the history and art of a period. His brother, Ernest Arthur Gardner,
 1862-1939, wrote Handbook of Greek Sculpture (1897, rev. ed. 1915).

   Garfield, James Abram

 Garfield, James Abram, 1831-81, 20th president of the U.S. (March-Sept.,
 1881); b. Cuyahoga co., Ohio. He served in the Union army until 1863,
 when he became a Republican member of the U.S. House of Representatives,
 and followed his party's radical RECONSTRUCTION program. Elected
 president in 1880, he declared war on the leading faction of his party by
 appointing James G. BLAINE secretary of state (passing over the
 "Stalwarts" of the influential Roscoe CONKLING); won a victory with his
 appointment for port collector of New York; and began prosecution of
 frauds in the U.S. postal service. But on July 2, 1881, he was shot by a
 disappointed office seeker, Charles J. Guiteau. Garfield died Sept. 19
 and was succeeded by Vice President Chester A. ARTHUR.

   Garibaldi, Giuseppe

 Garibaldi, Giuseppe, 1807-82, Italian patriot and soldier, a leading
 figure in the RISORGIMENTO; b. France. He fled to South America (1835)
 after a republican plot failed and fought (1842-46) in the Uruguayan
 civil war. Returning to Italy, he fought for Sardinia against Austria
 (1848) and for MAZZINI'S Roman republic (1849), then found asylum in the
 U.S. Returning (1851) to Italy, he renounced his republican views and
 supported a united Italy under VICTOR EMMANUEL II of Sardinia. In 1860,
 with Victor Emmanuel's connivance, Garibaldi led 1,000 volunteer "red
 shirts" in a spectacular conquest of Sicily and Naples. He then
 relinquished his conquests to Sardinia, and Victor Emmanuel was
 proclaimed (1861) king of Italy. In 1862 and 1867 he tried unsuccessfully
 to take Rome, which had remained outside the new kingdom. He was elected
 (1874) to the Italian parliament.

   Garland, Hamlin

 Garland, Hamlin, 1860-1940, American author; b. near West Salem, Wis.
 Raised in the Midwest, he wrote of the difficulties of prairie life in
 tales, e.g., Main-Travelled Roads (1891); novels, e.g., A Little Norsk
 (1892); and autobiographical works, e.g., A Daughter of the Middle Border
 (1921; Pulitzer).

   Garland, Judy

 Garland, Judy, 1922-69, American singer and film actress; b. Grand
 Rapids, Mich., as Frances Gumm. Her films include The Wizard of Oz
 (1939), Meet Me in St. Louis (1944), and A Star Is Born (1954).

   Garland

 Garland, city (1986 est. pop. 176,510), N Tex., a suburb of DALLAS; inc.
 1891. Since World War II it has grown from an agricultural community into
 a center for electronics research and the production of airplane and
 missile equipment.

   garlic

 garlic: see ONION.

   Garneau, Francois Xavier

 Garneau, Francois Xavier, 1809-66, French Canadian historian. His History
 of Canada (3 vol., 1845-48) is a well-written, scholarly work covering
 the period from the exploration and settling of Canada by the French to
 the union of the two Canadas in 1841. Garneau may have written the
 history to disprove Lord Durham's claim that French Canadians were
 "without history and without a literature."

   Garner, Erroll Louis

 Garner, Erroll Louis, 1921-77, American jazz pianist and composer; b.
 Pittsburgh. He wrote about 200 songs, including "Misty," "Dreamy," and
 "Solitaire." he developed a unique style of piano playing and toured
 throughout the world from the 1940s through the 1960s.

   Garner, John Nance

 Garner, John Nance, 1868-1967, vice president of the U.S. (1933-41); b.
 Red River co., Tex. In Congress from 1902, he became Speaker of the House
 (1931) and was vice president for Franklin D. ROOSEVELT'S first two
 terms.

   garnet

 garnet, name applied to a group of silicate minerals (Fe,
 Mg,Ca,Mn)3(Al,Fe,Cr)2(SiO4)3, used chiefly as GEMS and abrasives. The
 most common gem varieties are red, but garnets are also yellow, brown,
 and green. They are found in many types of rock throughout the world.

   Garnett, Richard

 Garnett, Richard, 1835-1906, English author and distinguished librarian
 at the British Museum (1851-99). He wrote essays, novels, and poems, and
 biographies of MILTON, CARLYLE, EMERSON, and COLERIDGE, and discovered
 previously unknown poems by P.B. SHELLEY. His son, Edward Garnett,
 1868-1937, was a critic who corresponded with and encouraged many
 writers. Edward's wife, Constance (Black) Garnett, 1862-1946, made
 important translations from Russian of TOLSTOY, DOSTOYEVSKY, and others.
 Their son, David Garnett, 1892-1981, wrote the imaginative Lady into Fox
 (1923) and other novels.

   Garrick, David

 Garrick, David, 1717-79, English actor, manager, and dramatist, the
 greatest actor of 18th-cent. England. A pupil of Samuel JOHNSON, he
 accompanied Johnson to London in 1737. His formal debut (1741) as Richard
 III made him the idol of London, where his straightforward manner and
 diction revolutionized acting styles. Noted for his versatility, he
 played contemporary drama as well as Shakespearean roles; his King Lear
 was especially praised. As manager (1747-76) of the Drury Lane Theatre
 (see THEATER,), he initiated many reforms in stagecraft.

   Garrison, William Lloyd

 Garrison, William Lloyd, 1805-79, American abolitionist; b. Newburyport,
 Mass. He founded the Liberator in 1831 and for 35 years campaigned for
 immediate and complete abolition of slavery. Favoring moral persuasion
 over violence or political involvement, he helped organize (1833) the
 American Anti-Slavery Society and was its president (1843-65). He
 advocated Northern secession from the Union because the Constitution
 permitted slavery, and he opposed the Civil War until Lincoln issued the
 EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION in 1862. Although he was considered the
 foremost antislavery leader during the 19th cent., evidence indicates
 that less famous ABOLITIONISTS were more effective.

   Garter, Order of the

 Garter, Order of the: see DECORATIONS, CIVIL AND MILITARY.

   Garvey, Marcus

 Garvey, Marcus, 1887-1940, American proponent of black nationalism; b.
 Jamaica. In 1914 he founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association
 to foster worldwide unity among blacks and establish the greatness of the
 African heritage. Rejecting any notion of integration in countries where
 blacks were a minority, he urged a "back to Africa" movement. Garvey's
 brilliant oratory and his newspaper, Negro World, made him the most
 influential black leader of the early 1920s, but his influence declined
 after his misuse of funds intended to establish a Negro steamship company
 resulted in a mail fraud conviction. He was jailed (1925) and deported to
 Jamaica (1927), dying in relative obscurity.

   Gary, Elbert Henry

 Gary, Elbert Henry, 1846-1927, American industrialist; b. near Wheaton,
 Ill. A lawyer (known as Judge Gary), he setup the American Steel and Wire
 Co. before J.P. Morgan (see MORGAN, family) entrusted him with the
 organization of the Federal Steel Co. (1898) and the giant U.S. Steel
 Corp. (1901). Chairman and the dominant personality in U.S. Steel until
 his death, he adopted a policy of management cooperation that fostered
 the American Iron and Steel Institute. Gary, Ind., is named for him.

   Gary

 Gary, city (1986 est. pop. 136,790), NW Ind., on Lake Michigan, near
 Chicago. One of the world's great steel centers, Gary was founded by the
 U.S. Steel Corp., which bought the land in 1905. Its location midway
 between western iron ore sources and eastern and southeastern coal areas
 made it ideal for industry. During the nationwide steel strike of 1919
 federal troops occupied the city for several months.

   gas, in physics

 gas, in physics: see KINETIC-MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES; STATES OF MATTER.

   Gasca, Pedro de la

 Gasca, Pedro de la, c.1485-1567?, Spanish colonial administrator in PERU
 (1547-50). Sent by Holy Roman emperor CHARLES V to restore order, he
 repealed the New Laws of LAS CASAS, which were meant to protect Indians,
 and pardoned their violators. He put down (1548) a revolt by Gonzalo
 PIZARRO and restored the semblance of order in Peru.

   Gascony

 Gascony, region, SW France. The sandy, swampy Landes along the ocean, the
 Pyrenees, and the hilly Armagnac region are the main geographic areas.
 Fishing, stock-raising, wine-making, and tourism are the chief
 industries. Auch is the historic capital. The Vascones, or BASQUES,
 invaded the area and set up a duchy in 601. In 1154 Gascony, along with
 AQUITAINE, came under English rule; and France did not recover it
 completely until the end (1453) of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. It later passed
 to Henry of Navarre (later HENRY IV of France) and was united with the
 royal domain in 1607.

   Gaskell, Elizabeth Cleghorn (Stevenson)

 Gaskell, Elizabeth Cleghorn (Stevenson), 1810-65, English author. In
 addition to her excellent but controversial Life of Charlotte Bronte
 (1857), she is known for her novels about social conditions, e.g., Mary
 Barton (1848), and village life, e.g., Cranford (1853) and Wives and
 Daughters (1866).

   gas laws

 gas laws, physical laws describing the behavior of a gas (see STATES OF
 MATTER) under various conditions of volume (V), pressure (P), and
 absolute, or Kelvin, TEMPERATURE (T). Boyle's, or Mariotte's, gas law
 states that under constant temperature PV=k1. Charles's, or Gay-Lussac's,
 law states that under constant pressure V=k2T. A third law states that
 under constant volume P=k3T. The constants k1, k2, and k3 are dependent
 on the amount of gas present and, respectively, on the temperature,
 pressure, and volume of the gas. These three laws can be combined into a
 single law, or equation of state: PV=kT or Pv=RT, in which v is the
 specific volume equal to V/n, n is the number of moles of the gas, k is a
 proportionality constant, and R is the universal gas constant, equal to
 8.3149 * 103 joules/kg-mole-degree in mks units. These laws are
 formulated for so-called ideal or perfect gases. Real gases are described
 more accurately by the van der Waals equation: (P + a/v2) (v-b)=RT, in
 which a and b are specific constants for each gas.

   gasohol

 gasohol, a gasoline extender made from a mixture of gasoline (90%) and
 ethyl alcohol (10%), often obtained by fermenting agricultural crops or
 crop wastes. Gasohol has higher octane, or "antiknock," properties than
 gasoline.



 gasoline, light, volatile fuel oil; called petrol in Britain. A mixture
 of HYDROCARBONS obtained in the fractional DISTILLATION and "cracking" of
 PETROLEUM, it is used as a fuel for INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES, for
 cooking, and as a solvent. The quality of gasoline used in engines is
 rated by OCTANE NUMBER. To increase octane rating, lead additives were
 once widely used. Because of the possible health hazard of lead as an
 environmental pollutant and the harmful effect it has on
 pollution-control devices, however, a program was begun in the U.S. in
 the 1970s to change AUTOMOBILE design and gasoline composition, so that
 lead additives could be gradually eliminated.

   gasoline engine

 gasoline engine: see INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE.

   Gaspar

 Gaspar: see WISE MEN OF THE EAST.

   Gaspee

 Gaspee, British revenue cutter, burned June 10, 1772, at Gaspee Point,
 Narragansett Bay, R.I. Colonists burned the Gaspee in defiance of the
 enforcement of revenue laws.

   Gaspe Peninsula

 Gaspe Peninsula, or Gaspesie, tongue of land, E Quebec, Canada, 60-90 mi
 (97-145 km) wide, projecting c.150 mi (240 km) E into the Gulf of St.
 Lawrence. The coast is famous for its bold headlands and picturesque
 coastal settlements. The interior is a mountainous wilderness, completely
 forested, that reaches a high point of 4,160 ft (1,268 m) in the
 Shickshock Mts.

   gastropod

 gastropod, MOLLUSK of the class Gastropoda. It usually has a coiled or
 spiraled one-piece shell (univalve), although it may be reduced or
 absent. The head has sensory tentacles and a mouth with a rasplike tongue
 (radula). The ventral surface of the animal is modified into a large,
 flattened foot, which, along with other soft body parts, can be withdrawn
 into the shell; in most cases, the opening is covered by a plate
 (operculum). Most gastropods are marine, but there are forms that live in
 fresh water and on land. The class includes the ABALONE, CONCH, SNAIL,
 SLUG, WHELK, LIMPET, PERIWINKLE, and SEA SLUG.

   Gates, William Henry, III

 Gates, William Henry, III, 1955-, American businessman. At 19 Gates
 founded (1974) the Microsoft Company with Paul Allen. By purchasing the
 rights to convert an existing software package, Gates built Microsoft
 into one of the largest microcomputer software companies in the world.

   Gates, Horatio

 Gates, Horatio, 1727-1806, American Revolutionary general; b. England. A
 colonial hero after his successful SARATOGA CAMPAIGN (1777), he commanded
 Patriot forces in the Carolinas until the disgraceful defeat (1780) at
 Camden, S.C.

   Gates of the Arctic National Park

 Gates of the Arctic National Park: see NATIONAL PARKS.

   Gatling, Richard Jordan

 Gatling, Richard Jordan, 1818-1903, American inventor; b. Winton, N.C. He
 invented and manufactured agricultural implements, but is remembered as
 the creator of a rapid-firing gun, the precursor of the modern machine
 gun (see SMALL ARMS). He offered it to the Union army, but it was not
 accepted for use until 1866, after the Civil War had ended.

   Gatti-Casazza, Giulio

 Gatti-Casazza, Giulio, 1869-1940, Italian operatic manager. He was
 director of La Scala, Milan (1898-1908), and the METROPOLITAN OPERA,
 N.Y.C. (1908-35).

   Gaudier-Brzeska, Henri

 Gaudier-Brzeska, Henri, 1891-1915, French sculptor. The chief exponent of
 vorticism in sculpture, he is known for his draftsmanship, animal
 figures, and abstracts.

   Gaudi i Cornet, Antonio

 Gaudi i Cornet, Antonio, 1852-1926, Spanish architect, working mainly in
 Barcelona. He created startling architectural forms paralleling the
 development of ART NOUVEAU or MODERNISMO. Many of his buildings resemble
 sculptural configurations. His use of color and mixed materials is seen
 in his masterpiece, the Expiatory Church of the Holy Family (1882-1930).
 He also made many technological innovations.

   Gauguin, Paul

 Gauguin, Paul, 1848-1903, French painter and woodcut artist; an
 influential founder of modern art. At 35 he left his career as a
 stockbroker and devoted himself to painting. Allied with the
 impressionists (see IMPRESSIONISM), in 1888 he and Emile Bernard proposed
 a synthetist theory emphasizing flat planes and bright, non-naturalistic
 color with symbolic or primitive subjects. The Yellow Christ
 (Albright-Knox Gall., Buffalo) is characteristic of this period. In 1891
 he went to Tahiti, where he painted some of his finest works and wrote
 Noa Noa (tr. 1947), an autobiographical novel. He returned to France
 briefly, and died in poverty and despair in the South Seas. Gauguin
 rejected the tradition of Western naturalism, using nature as a starting
 point from which to abstract figures and symbols. His color harmonies and
 profound sense of mystery can be seen in such paintings as The Day of the
 God (Art Inst., Chicago), La Orana Maria (1891; Metropolitan Mus.), and
 By the Sea (1892; Nat. Gall., Wash., D.C.). He also revived the art of
 woodcutting and did some fine lithographs and pottery pieces.

   Gaul

 Gaul, Lat. Gallia, ancient name for the land S and W of the Rhine, W of
 the Alps, and N of the Pyrenees. The name was extended by the Romans to
 include N Italy and is derived from its settlers of the 4th and 3d cent.
 BC-invading CELTS, called Gauls by the Romans. Julius CAESAR conquered
 Gaul in the GALLIC WARS (58-51 BC). He is the best ancient source on
 Gaul, and he has immortalized its three ethnic divisions: Aquitania in
 the S, Gaul proper (central France), and Belgica in the N. Gaul was
 rapidly Romanized.

   Gaunt, John of

 Gaunt, John of: see JOHN OF GAUNT.

   Gauss, Carl Friedrich

 Gauss, Carl Friedrich, 1777-1855, German mathematician, physicist, and
 astronomer; b. Johann Friederich Carl Gauss. Considered the greatest
 mathematician of his time and the equal of ARCHIMEDES and Isaac NEWTON,
 Gauss made many discoveries before age twenty. His greatest work was in
 NUMBER THEORY; his Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (completed 1798; pub.
 1801) is a masterpiece. Extremely rigorous in his work, Gauss refused to
 publish any result without a complete proof. Thus, many discoveries were
 not credited to him and were remade by others later, e.g., the work of
 Janos BOLYAI and Nikolai Lobachevsky in NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY, Augustin
 CAUCHY in complex variable analysis, Carl Jacobi in elliptic functions,
 and Sir William Rowan HAMILTON in quaternions. Gauss early discovered,
 independently of Adrien LEGENDRE, the method of least squares. In 1801,
 when the asteroid Ceres was discovered by the Italian astronomer Giuseppe
 Piazzi, Gauss calculated its orbit on the basis of only a few accurate
 observations, and it was found the next year precisely where he had
 predicted. His Theoria motus corporum celestium (1809) treats the
 calculation of the orbits of planets and comets from observational data.
 From 1807 until his death Gauss was director of the astronomical
 observatory at Gottingen. Geodetic survey work done for the governments
 of Hanover and Denmark from 1821 led him to an interest in space curves
 and surfaces, as well as to the invention of the heliotrope, a device to
 measure distances by means of reflected sunlight. Gauss's collaboration
 with the German physicist Wilhelm Weber in research on electric and
 magnetic phenomena led to his invention, in 1833, of the electric
 telegraph.

   Gautier, Theophile

 Gautier, Theophile, 1811-72, French poet, novelist, and critic and
 exponent of art for art's sake. His finely crafted poems, notably Enamels
 and Cameos (1852), foreshadowed the revolt against ROMANTICISM by the
 PARNASSIANS and SYMBOLISTS.

   gavotte

 gavotte, originally a peasant DANCE of the Gavots, in upper Dauphine,
 France. A circle dance with lively, skipping steps, it was used by LULLY
 in court ballets, and by COUPERIN and J.S. BACH in their keyboard suites.

   Gay, John

 Gay, John, 1685-1732, English playwright and poet, best known for The
 Beggar's Opera (1728), about thieves and prostitutes, and satirizing
 society and then-fashionable Italian opera. Its sequel, Polly (1729), was
 suppressed by the government. Gay's verse appeared in Fables (1727,
 1738).

   Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis

 Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis, 1778-1850, French chemist and physicist. He and
 the French chemist Louis Jacques Thenard were the first to isolate BORON.
 Gay-Lussac discovered (1802) independently that at constant pressure the
 volume of an enclosed gas is directly proportional to its temperature, a
 law known as Charles's law or as Gay-Lussac's law (see GAS LAWS). He was
 the first to formulate (c.1808) the law of combining volumes, which
 states that gases combine by volume in simple multiple proportion.

   Gay-Lussac's law

 Gay-Lussac's law: see GAS LAWS.

   gay rights

 gay rights, protection of the CIVIL RIGHTS of homosexuals. The modern
 movement in the U.S. began with the Stonewall riot (June 1969), that
 followed a police raid on a bar in New York City. A number of groups
 formed to work for the repeal of laws prohibiting consensual homosexual
 conduct; for legislation barring discrimination against gays in housing
 and employment; and for greater acceptance of homosexuals among the rest
 of the population. See also HOMOSEXUALITY.

   Gaza Strip

 Gaza Strip, coastal region of the Middle East (1988 est. pop. 493,700),
 c.140 sq mi (370 sq km), on the Mediterranean Sea, adjoining Egypt and
 Israel; largely inhabited by Arab refugees from Israel. It was part of
 the British mandate for PALESTINE from 1917 to 1948, passed to Egyptian
 control in 1949, and was occupied by Israel from the time of the 1967
 ARAB-ISRAELI WAR. Autonomy for the region was promised by the CAMP DAVID
 ACCORDS (1978) and the Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty (1979) but has yet
 to be granted.

   gazelle

 gazelle, delicate, graceful ANTELOPE (genus Gazella) inhabiting arid,
 open country, usually in Africa. Standing 2 to 3 ft (60 to 90 cm) high at
 the shoulder, the fawn-colored gazelle often has heavily ringed horns
 that curve back and inward. Gazelles are powerful jumpers and very swift.
 Closely related is the reddish-brown impala (Aepyceros melampus), the
 most powerful jumper of all antelopes, able to leap 10 ft (3 m) into the
 air and travel 30 ft (9 m) in a single bound.

   Gazira

 Gazira: see GEZIRA.

   Gd

 Gd, chemical symbol of the element GADOLINIUM.

   Gdansk

 Gdansk or Danzig, city (1985 est. pop. 467,000), N Poland, on a branch of
 the Vistula R. and on the Gulf of Gdansk. It is a major port on the
 BALTIC SEA, with some of the world's largest shipyards. Its other
 industries include metallurgy and sawmilling. An old Slavic settlement,
 it was the capital of Pomerelia (see POMERANIA) from the 10th cent. and a
 member of the HANSEATIC LEAGUE from the 13th cent. The city was later
 ruled by Poland and Prussia and in 1919 was made a free city. HITLER'S
 demand (1939) for Danzig's return to Germany and his subsequent invasion
 of Poland began WORLD WAR II. The city was restored to Poland in 1945. In
 both 1970 and 1980 workers' strikes in Gdansk spread to other cities,
 causing major political changes in Poland.

   Ge

 Ge, chemical symbol of the element GERMANIUM.

   gear

 gear, toothed wheel, cylinder, or cone, usually mounted on a shaft, that
 transmits motion from one part of a machine to another. When the teeth of
 two gears are meshed, the turning of one shaft will cause the other shaft
 to rotate. By meshing two gears of different diameters, a variation in
 both speed and torque is obtained.

   Geddes, Norman Bel

 Geddes, Norman Bel, 1893-1958, American designer; b. Adrian, Mich. He was
 known for imaginative designs for the New York City stage, notably The
 Miracle (1924), and for numerous industrial products. His daughter,
 Barbara Bel Geddes, 1922-, b. N.Y.C., is an actress. She has appeared in
 the play Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1955), the film Vertigo (1959), and the
 television series Dallas (1978-).

   Geelong

 Geelong, city (1986 est. pop. 148,300), Victoria, SE Australia, on an
 inlet of Port Phillip Bay, near Melbourne. One of Australia's chief ports
 and industrial centers, its manufactures include refined oil,
 automobiles, aluminum, glass, and carpets.

   gegenschein

 gegenschein, brightening of the night sky in the region of the ECLIPTIC
 directly opposite the sun's position at the time of observation. It is
 caused by reflection of sunlight by small particles that lie in the plane
 of the solar system.

   Gehrig, Lou(is)

 Gehrig, Lou(is), 1903-41, American baseball player; b. N.Y.C. As first
 baseman (1925-39) for the New York Yankees, he had a lifetime batting
 average of .340, hit 493 home runs, and batted .361 in seven World
 Series. Known as the "Iron Horse," he set a record by playing in 2,130
 consecutive league games. His career was ended by a rare disease,
 amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, which took his life at 37.

   Geiger counter

 Geiger counter: see PARTICLE DETECTOR.

   Geisel, Theodor Seuss

 Geisel, Theodor Seuss: see SEUSS, DR.

   gelatin

 gelatin or animal jelly, foodstuff obtained from connective tissue (found
 in hoofs, bones, tendons, ligaments, and cartilage) of vertebrate animals
 by the action of boiling water or dilute acid. It is largely composed of
 the protein collagen. Pure gelatin is brittle, transparent, colorless,
 tasteless, and odorless. It dissolves in hot water and congeals when
 cooled. Gelatin is widely used to give food a proper consistency, in
 photographic emulsions, and as a coating for pills. Vegetable gelatin, or
 AGAR, is made from seaweed.

   Gelee, Claude

 Gelee, Claude: see CLAUDE LORRAIN.

   Gell-Mann, Murray

 Gell-Mann, Murray, 1929-, American theoretical physicist; b. N.Y.C. In
 1953 he and, independently, the Japanese team of T. Nakano and Kazuhiko
 Nishijima proposed the concept of "strangeness" to account for certain
 particle-decay patterns. In 1961 Gell-Mann and Yuval Ne'eman
 independently introduced the "eightfold way," or SU(3) symmetry, a table
 like ordering of all subatomic particles. The 1964 discovery of the
 omega-minus particle, which filled a gap in this ordering, brought the
 theory wide acceptance, and led to Gell-Mann's being awarded the 1969
 Nobel Prize for physics. In 1963 Gell-Mann and George Zweig independently
 postulated the existence of the QUARK, an even more fundamental particle
 with a fractional electric charge.

   gem

 gem, commonly, a mineral or organic substance that is cut and polished
 and used as an ornament. The qualities sought in gems are beauty, rarity,
 and durability. The unit of weight used for gems is the metric carat (200
 mg). Gems are usually cut to bring out their color and brilliance and to
 remove flaws, and gem cutting is a distinct trade. The precious stones
 are DIAMOND, some forms of CORUNDUM (e.g., RUBY and SAPPHIRE), and
 EMERALD. The chief semiprecious stones include AMETHYST, AQUAMARINE,
 GARNET, JADE, MOONSTONE, OPAL, QUARTZ,
 @AU@%TOPAZ, TOURMALINE, and
 PEARL, and jet. Synthetic gems produced using the chemical elements of
 natural stones include diamonds, emeralds, rubies, and sapphires. See
 also AGATE; BERYL; BLOODSTONE; JASPER; LAPIS LAZULI; SERPENTINE
 .

   Gemara

 Gemara: see TALMUD.

   Gemayel, Amin

 Gemayel, Amin, 1942-, president of LEBANON (1982- ). A lawyer and a
 member of the Christian Phalange party, he served in the Lebanese
 parliament from 1970. In 1982, after the assassination of his brother,
 President-elect Bashir Gemayel, Amin Gemayel was elected president and
 pledged to work for a united Lebanon.

   Gemini, Project



   gender

 gender [from Lat. genus=kind], in grammar, subclassification of nouns or
 nounlike words, not usually considered to include the classification of
 number. A two-gender distinction between animate and inanimate is
 widespread, as in the North American Indian languages. A number of
 Indo-European languages, such as German, Russian, and Latin, have three
 genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. The modern Romance languages
 such as French, Italian, and Spanish, have only two. In such languages,
 many nouns referring to males are masculine, e.g., German der Mann, the
 man, and many referring to females are feminine, e.g., German die Frau,
 the woman. This is the classification of natural gender. Other words are
 assigned grammatical gender, a distinction that does not derive from sex
 classes, e.g., German das Madchen, the girl (neuter). By the grammatical
 device of concord or agreement, a word bears a formal signal to show its
 relationship to the word it accompanies or modifies, as in the agreement
 of article with noun, e.g., French la femme, the woman, or of adjective
 with noun, e.g., French la vielle femme, the old woman. Although gender
 is present in many languages, it is far from universal.

   gene

 gene, ultimate unit by which inheritable characteristics are transmitted
 to succeeding generations in all living organisms. Genes are contained
 by, and arranged along the length of, the CHROMOSOME. The gene is
 composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (see DNA). Each chromosome of each
 species has a definite number and arrangement of genes, which govern both
 the structure and metabolic functions of the cells and thus of the entire
 organism. They provide information for the synthesis of enzymes and other
 proteins and specify when these substances are to be made. Alteration of
 either gene number or arrangement can result in MUTATION, a change in the
 inheritable traits. See GENETICS; GENETIC ENGINEERING.

   genealogy

 genealogy, the study of family lineage. Genealogies have existed since
 ancient times. Family lineage was originally transmitted through oral
 tradition and later through written records. Genealogies flourished in
 the Middle Ages because feudalism made status and the transference of
 possessions dependent on family lines. Since the 18th cent. genealogy has
 developed into a subsidiary discipline, serving sociology, genetics,
 history, and the law.

   General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade: see UNITED NATIONS.

   General Assembly

 General Assembly: see UNITED NATIONS.

   generator

 generator, electrical device used to convert mechanical energy to
 electrical energy. It operates on the principle of electromagnetic
 INDUCTION. The generator moves a conductor through a magnetic field and
 directs the current produced by the induced voltage to an external
 circuit. In the simplest generator, the conductor is an open coil of wire
 rotating between the poles of a permanent magnet. During a single
 rotation, one side of the coil passes through the magnetic field first in
 one direction and then in the other, so that the induced current is
 alternating current (AC), moving first in one direction, then in the
 other. Each end of the coil is attached to a separate metal slip ring
 that rotates with the coil. Brushes resting on the slip ring pass the
 current to the external circuit. To obtain direct current (DC), i.e.,
 current that flows in only one direction, a commutator is used in place
 of slip rings. The commutator is a single slip ring split into left and
 right halves that are insulated from each other and attracted to opposite
 ends of the coil. Current leaves the generator through the brushes in
 only one direction and pulsates from no flow to maximum flow and back
 again. In practice, generators have many coils and several magnets. The
 whole assembly carrying the coils is called the armature, or rotor; the
 stationary parts constitute the stator. Except for magnetos, which use
 permanent magnets, AC and DC generators use electromagnets. AC generators
 are often called alternators.

   Genesis

 Genesis, first book of the OLD TESTAMENT and of the PENTATEUCH, ascribed
 by tradition to MOSES. It tells of the origin of the world and of man
 (1-11), including the stories of man's disobedience and fall, CAIN and
 ABEL, and NOAH; the career of God's special servant ABRAHAM (12-24),
 including the story of Hagar and ISHMAEL, the sacrifice of ISAAC, and
 Abraham's journey to CANAAN and God's promises to him; the career of
 Isaac (25-26); and the life of JACOB, called Israel (27-50), with the
 story of his son JOSEPH and the migration of the family to Egypt. Sources
 of Genesis include Babylonian and Egyptian folklore. Controversy over its
 interpretation and literary history has been extensive.

   gene splicing

 gene splicing: see GENETIC ENGINEERING.

   Genet, Edmond Charles Edouard

 Genet, Edmond Charles Edouard, 1763-1834, French Revolutionary minister
 to the U.S. (1793-94), known as Citizen Genet. His plans to raise troops
 against Spanish FLORIDA and to commission privateers against Britain were
 not approved by Pres. WASHINGTON, and the U.S. demanded (1793) his
 recall. Genet remained in the U.S. rather than face a changed political
 situation in France.

   Genet, Jean

 Genet, Jean, 1910-86, French dramatist. While in prison, he attracted
 attention with his autobiographical narratives about homosexuality and
 crime, e.g., Our Lady of the Flowers (1943). He was pardoned (1948) from
 a sentence of life imprisonment through the intervention of French
 literary figures. His plays The Balcony (1956), The Blacks (1958), and
 The Screens (1961) are classic examples of the theater of the absurd.

   genetic engineering

 genetic engineering, group of new research techniques that manipulate the
 DNA (genetic material) of cells. The gene-splicing technique, which
 produces recombinant DNA, is a method of transporting selected genes from
 one species to another. In this technique, the genes, which are actually
 portions of molecules of DNA, are removed from the donor (insect, plant,
 mammal, or other organism) and spliced into the genetic material of a
 virus; then the virus is allowed to infect recipient bacteria. In this
 way the bacteria become recipients of both viral and foreign genetic
 material. When the virus replicates within the bacteria, large quantities
 of the foreign as well as viral material are made. The introduction into
 bacteria of foreign genetic material is an important tool for the study
 of gene structure and regulation, but it also presents risks that some
 genetic material would no longer be under natural control. The recipient
 bacterium in use is a modified form of E. coli, a natural inhabitant of
 human intestines. Other techniques include cell fusion, which has made
 the mapping of human genes possible, and nuclear transplantation,
 valuable to the study of factors controlling embryological development.
 The enzymes used in gene splicing were first studied by microbiologists
 Werner Arber, of the Univ. of Basel, Switzerland, and Daniel Nathan and
 Hamilton O. Smith, both of Johns Hopkins Univ., Baltimore, who shared the
 1978 Nobel Prize in medicine for their work.

   genetics

 genetics, scientific study of heredity. The science arose in 1900, with
 rediscovery of Gregor MENDEL'S work on traits that are inherited as if
 each were a separate, independent unit. Geneticists probing the physical
 basis of the transmission of inherited characteristics have studied the
 unit of inheritance, the GENE; the small chemical differences in genes
 that are expressed as different versions of the same trait (alleles); the
 array of genes along the CHROMOSOME in the cell nucleus; and the set of
 genes characteristic of each species (the genome). Since the discovery
 (1953) of the structure of DNA, work on NUCLEIC ACIDS has explained how
 genes determine all life processes by directing the synthesis of all cell
 proteins. It has also explained MUTATION as alterations in gene or
 chromosome structure. See also GENETIC ENGINEERING.

   Geneva

 Geneva, city (1985 est. pop. 159,900), capital of Geneva canton, SW
 Switzerland, on the Lake of Geneva, divided by the Rhone R. A cultural,
 financial, and administrative center, it manufactures watches, jewelry,
 and precision instruments. The city was settled by the Celts and later
 held by the Romans. In the 16th cent. it was the focal point of the
 Reformation under John CALVIN; by the 18th cent. it had become an
 intellectual center, the residence of J.J. ROUSSEAU and others. Geneva
 joined (1815) the Swiss Confederation. The LEAGUE OF NATIONS and the
 GENEVA CONFERENCES met there. It is the seat of such bodies as the World
 Health Organization and the International Red Cross.

   Geneva Conference

 Geneva Conference. 1 International conference held Apr.-July 1954 to
 bring peace to KOREA and INDOCHINA. The chief participants were the U.S.,
 the USSR, Great Britain, France, China, the two Koreas, and various
 factions from Indochina. No permanent agreement on Korea resulted, but
 three agreements were reached on Indochina (see VIETNAM; VIETNAM WAR). 2
 So-called summit conference, held in July 1955, attended by the leaders
 of the U.S., the USSR, Britain, and France. A wide agenda of issues was
 discussed (e.g., disarmament, unification of Germany, increased cultural
 and economic ties). Although no substantive agreements resulted, the
 conference ended on a note of optimism and is regarded as a major step in
 the ending of the COLD WAR. 3 Conference, beginning Oct. 1958, attended
 by the U.S., the USSR, and Britain; its purpose was to reach an accord on
 the banning of nuclear testing. Since then, most international meetings
 at Geneva have been concerned with the general problem of nuclear arms.
 See DISARMAMENT, NUCLEAR.

   Geneva Conventions

 Geneva Conventions, series of treaties signed (1864-1949) in Geneva,
 Switzerland, providing for humane treatment of combatants and civilians
 in wartime. The first convention, signed by 16 nations, covered the
 protection of sick and wounded soldiers and medical personnel and
 facilities. Later conventions extended (1906) the first to naval warfare
 and covered (1929) the treatment of prisoners of war. As a result of
 World War II, particularly of the conduct of Germany and Japan, four
 conventions were adopted in 1949 to strengthen and codify earlier
 treaties and safeguard civilians.

   Genghis Khan

 Genghis Khan: see JENGHIZ KHAN.

   genie

 genie: see JINNI.

   genitive

 genitive: see CASE.

   Gennesaret

 Gennesaret: see Galilee, Sea of, under GALILEE.

   Genoa

 Genoa, city (1986 pop. 727,427), capital of Liguria, NW Italy, on the
 Italian RIVIERA. Italy's chief port, it handles heavy passenger and
 freight traffic. Iron and steel, chemicals, oil refineries, and shipyards
 lead the economy. It became (10th cent.) a free commune and its maritime
 power grew; rivalry with Pisa ended (1284) in naval victory. In decline,
 it fell to many, including Napoleon (1805-14). The medieval Cathedral of
 San Lorenzo and the doges' palace are noted.

   genocide

 genocide, systematic destruction by a government of a racial, religious,
 or ethnic group. The term was coined in 1944, with particular reference
 to the attempt of Nazi GERMANY in the 1930s and 40s to destroy European
 Jewry (see HOLOCAUST; National SOCIALISM). Other instances of genocide
 exist, however, such as the massacre of Armenians in Ottoman Turkey
 (1894-96). A 1949 UN convention defines the crime of genocide and
 provides for prosecution by national or international courts. The U.S.
 has never ratified the convention, claiming that the provision for
 international tribunals and the principle of personal liability for
 national actions violate the concept of SOVEREIGNTY.

   genre

 genre, type of painting dealing with unidealized subjects from everyday
 life. Genre was not seen as worthy independent subject matter until it
 was popularized by Pieter Bruegel, the Elder (see BRUEGEL, family), in
 16th-cent. Flanders. It flourished in 17th-cent. Holland in the work of
 TER BORCH, de HOOCH, VERMEER, and others, and extended into France and
 England, where, in the 18th and 19th cent., its practitioners included
 WATTEAU, CHARDIN, and Morland. The French impressionists (see
 IMPRESSIONISM) often painted genre scenes, as did members of the EIGHT in
 the U.S.

   Gentile da Fabriano

 Gentile da Fabriano, c.1370-1427, Italian painter, a foremost exponent of
 the international Gothic style. His elegant, lavishly gilt Strozzi
 altarpiece (Uffizi) exhibits his jewellike colors and courtly style. He
 worked throughout Italy. His later paintings reflect Florentine realism,
 e.g., John the Baptist (Lateran Basilica, Rome).

   Gentileschi, Orazio

 Gentileschi, Orazio, c.1562-1647, Tuscan painter. Influenced by
 CARAVAGGIO, he developed a cooler, more lyrical style. In 1626 he settled
 in England, at the invitation of CHARLES I. His principal works include
 The Annunciation (San Siro, Genoa) and Flight into Egypt (Louvre). His
 daughter, Artemisia Gentileschi, c.1597-c.1651, was known for her
 spirited execution, e.g., Judith and Holofernes (Uffizi) and Mary
 Magdalen (Pitti Gall., Florence).

   gentlemen's agreement

 gentlemen's agreement, in U.S. history, an agreement between the U.S. and
 Japan in 1907 that Japan should stop the emigration of its laborers to
 the U.S. and that the U.S. should stop discrimination against the
 Japanese. This agreement was ended in 1924 by the act of Congress
 excluding immigration from Japan, just as immigration from China had been
 previously excluded.

   gentrification

 gentrification, the rehabilitation and settlement of decaying urban areas
 by middle- and high-income people. Increasingly, in the 1970s and 80s,
 higher-income professionals, drawn by low-cost housing and easy
 accessibility to downtown business areas, began to renovate deteriorating
 city buildings. This led to the rebirth of many neighborhoods and a rise
 in property values, but it also caused displacement problems among the
 area's poor residents, many of them elderly and unable to afford higher
 rents and taxes.

   geocentric system

 geocentric system: see PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM.

   geochemistry

 geochemistry, study of the chemistry of the earth, especially the study
 of the absolute and relative abundances of the elements and their
 distribution and movement. Such studies have provided insights into the
 evolution of the oceans and atmosphere, the ages of rocks, the chemical
 evolution of life, and, more recently, the effects of the massive
 introduction of pollutants into the environment.

   geodesy

 geodesy or geodetic surveying, subdivision of GEOPHYSICS that determines
 the earth's size and shape, the position of points on the earth's
 surface, and the dimensions of areas so large that the curvature of the
 earth must be taken into account. In a process called triangulation, a
 base line between two points, many miles apart, is measured, and a third
 point is determined by the angle it makes with each end of the base line.
 In recent years, triangulation has been done increasingly with geodetic
 satellites in space.

   Geoffrey IV

 Geoffrey IV, known as Geoffrey Plantagenet, 1113-51, count of Anjou
 (1129-51). He married (1128) MATILDA, daughter of HENRY I of England. On
 Henry's death (1135), he claimed and conquered (1144) Normandy in his
 wife's name. After 1139, Matilda tried to conquer England from her cousin
 King STEPHEN. Her son by Geoffrey became HENRY II of England. In 1147
 Geoffrey went on a crusade with LOUIS VII of France.

   Geoffrey of Monmouth

 Geoffrey of Monmouth, c.1100-1154, English author. His Historia Regum
 Britanniae (c.1135), a supposed chronicle of the kings of Britain, is a
 major source of ARTHURIAN LEGEND, giving the first coherent account of
 Arthur.

   Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Etienne

 Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Etienne, 1772-1844, French zoologist. He was
 professor (1793-1840) at the Museum of Natural History in Paris and a
 member of Napoleon's scientific staff in Egypt. His theory that all
 animals conform to a single plan of structure was strongly opposed by the
 naturalist Georges CUVIER, and they held a widely publicized debate in
 1830.

   geologic eras

 geologic eras, major units of geologic time. For the purpose of dating
 rock formations and the fossils contained within them, the earth's
 history has been divided into eras, which are further subdivided into
 periods and, in some cases, epochs.

╓┌─────────────────────────────────────────────┌─────────────────────────────
 GEOLOGIC ERAS
 Time                                          Geologic Development
 ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
 Azoic Time. From the formation of the earth.

 4,550--3,800 million years ago                Crust and oceans forming.  Lack
                                               ATMOSPHERE allows meteorite bo

 Precambrian Time. Traditionally divided into
 two eras, Archeozoic and Proterozoic.

 3,800--700 million years ago                  Permanent crust formed, with va
                                               of metallic minerals. Metomorph
                                               inmassive formations, e.g., CAN
                                               Erosion, sedimentation begin.

 Paleozoic Era.  Age of INVERTEBRATES and
 marine forms.  Six periods.
 GEOLOGIC ERAS
 Time                                          Geologic Development
 ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
marine forms.  Six periods.

 Cambrian:  700--500 million years ago         Sedimentary rock (sandstone, sh
                                               limestone, conglomerate) forms
                                               seas over continents. Climate g
                                               but North America tropical.



 Ordovician:  500--435 million years ago       North America, Europe, Africa m
                                               together (see PLATE TECTONICS;
                                               DRIFT).  Seasat greatest exten
                                               America.  Rocks chiefly sedimen

 Silurian:  435--395 million years ago         Shallow flooding deposits sedim
                                               withdrawal of waterleaves oxidi
                                               beds," salt deposits.

 GEOLOGIC ERAS
 Time                                          Geologic Development
 ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────

 Devonian:  395--345 million years ago         Continents drier at beginning.
                                               North America collide, causing
                                               building (orogeny).  South pole
                                               Africa.


 Carboniferous:  345--280 million years ago    Climate warm, moist; COAL-form
                                               laid down in vast swamps.  Seve
                                               continental collisions cause or
                                               in URALS.

 Permian:  280--230 million years ago          Land, e.g., E North America, ri
                                               Atmosphere, oceans cooler.  Gla
                                               southern hemisphere.  General a
                                               Appalachians thrust up at end.

 Mesozoic Era. Age of reptiles.  Three
 GEOLOGIC ERAS
 Time                                          Geologic Development
 ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
Mesozoic Era. Age of reptiles.  Three
 periods.

 Triassic:  230--195 million years ago         Climate warming; semiarid to ar
                                               Continental plates, joined c.20
                                               years ago insupercontinent Pang
                                               break into continents; FAULTS,
                                               widespread.

 Jurassic:  195--140 million years ago         North America, Africa separate;
                                               open.  Erosion reduces Appalach
                                               Plate subduction (Pacific under
                                               American) causes folding, oroge
                                               America.

 Cretaceous:  140--65 million years ago        Extensive submergence of contin
                                               overlapping marine rocks.  Chal
                                               South America,  Africa separate
 GEOLOGIC ERAS
 Time                                          Geologic Development
 ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
                                              South America,  Africa separate
                                               Atlantic widening.  Cycles of o


 Cenozoic Era. Age of mammals, modern seed
 plants. Traditionally divided into two periods,
 Tertiary (Paleocene/Eocene, Oligocene,
 Miocene, and Plioceneepochs) and
 Quaternary (Pleistocene and Holocene epochs).

 Paleocene/Eocene:  65--37 million years ago   Seas withdraw; Europe emergent.
                                               forms Rockies, other ranges.  E
                                               fills basins, laying BAUXITE d
                                               North America.  Greenland, Nort
                                               split.

 Oligocene:  37--23 million years ago          North America largely dry; red
                                               sedimentation; erosion in Rocki
 GEOLOGIC ERAS
 Time                                          Geologic Development
 ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
                                              sedimentation; erosion in Rocki
                                               European plates collide, causin
                                               orogeny.  Arabia, Africa split
                                               Sea rift.  California collides
                                               mid-Pacific ridge.

 Miocene:  23--5 million years ago             Coastal submergence; volcanism
                                               CASCADES, western North Americ
                                               Himalayas, Alps, Andes built up
                                               America, Antarctica separate;
                                               cold transantarctic current iso
                                               continent.

 Pliocene:  5--1.8 million years ago           Volcanism creates isthmus betwe
                                               South America. Outlines of Nort
                                               America roughly modern.  Polar,
                                               caps sizable.  Uplifting, tilti
                                               America continues.
 GEOLOGIC ERAS
 Time                                          Geologic Development
 ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
                                              America continues.

 Pleistocene:  1.8 million-10,000 years ago    Great age of GLACIERS.  Polar,
                                               advances in 4 or 5 separate gla
                                               Glacial DRIFT widespread.  Lan
                                               forms altered; lakes created by


 Holocene or Recent:  10,000 years ago to      Glaciers retreat.  Climate warm
 present                                       form in some areas.  Many scien
                                               that Holocene is only another i
                                               episode of the Pleistocene.






   geology

 geology, science of the EARTH'S history, composition, and structure.
 Branches include mineralogy (see MINERAL), PETROLOGY, geomorphology (the
 origin of landforms and their modification by dynamic processes),
 GEOCHEMISTRY, GEOPHYSICS, sedimentation, structural geology, economic
 geology, and engineering geology. Historical geology includes
 stratigraphy (the interrelationships of layered ROCKS) and paleontology
 (the study of FOSSILS). Geological observations have been made since
 ancient times, but modern geology began in the 18th cent., notably with
 James HUTTON'S doctrine of UNIFORMITARIANISM, which, in its opposition to
 CATASTROPHISM, laid the groundwork for much of modern geological science.
 The systematic survey in the mid-20th cent. of the OCEAN floors brought
 radical changes in concepts of crustal evolution (see PLATE TECTONICS).

   geometric progression

 geometric progression: see PROGRESSION.

   geometry

 geometry, branch of MATHEMATICS concerned with the properties of and
 relationships between points, lines, planes, figures, solids, and
 surfaces. Elementary EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY of two and three dimensions
 (plane and solid geometry) is based largely on EUCLID'S Elements (c.300
 BC), a systematic presentation of the geometry of its time. Although
 Euclid's basic assumptions have been judged insufficiently rigorous by
 David HILBERT and others, his axiomatic method of proof has been adopted
 throughout mathematics and in other fields as well. In the 17th cent.,
 Rene DESCARTES invented CARTESIAN COORDINATES to express geometric
 relations in algebraic form; he thus founded ANALYTIC GEOMETRY, from
 which developed algebraic geometry, concerned with geometrical objects
 defined by algebraic relations between their coordinates. Other branches
 of geometry include descriptive geometry, which is concerned with the
 two-dimensional representation of three-dimensional objects; differential
 geometry, in which the concepts of the CALCULUS are applied to curves,
 surfaces, and other geometrical entities; projective geometry, which is
 concerned with those properties of geometrical figures that remain
 unchanged under projection, e.g., from one plane to another; and
 NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY. TOPOLOGY, perhaps the most general type of
 geometry, is often considered a separate branch of mathematics.

   geomorphology

 geomorphology: see GEOLOGY.

   geophysics

 geophysics, study of the structure, composition, and dynamic changes of
 the EARTH and its ATMOSPHERE, based on the principles of physics. Applied
 geophysics uses seismic, electrical, gravimetric, magnetic, and
 radiometric techniques for geological exploration and prospecting.

   geopolitics

 geopolitics, method of political analysis stressing the importance of
 geographical factors (e.g., natural boundaries and access to waterways)
 in determining national interests and international relations. The term
 received wide attention through the works of the German geographer Karl
 Haushofer, who popularized H.J. MACKINDER'S theory of a Eurasian
 "heartland" central to world dominance. The NAZIS used Haushofer's ideas
 to justify their expansion in central Europe. Geopolitical considerations
 have been used to justify other expansionist policies, such as MANIFEST
 DESTINY.

   George, Saint

 George, Saint, 4th cent.?, patron of England. Possibly a soldier in the
 Roman army who died a martyr in Asia Minor, he was adopted by England in
 the Middle Ages. In legend he is the slayer of a dragon. Feast: Apr. 23.

   George

 George, kings of Great Britain and Ireland. George I (George Louis),
 1660-1727 (r.1714-27), was the great-grandson of JAMES I. He was the
 first British sovereign of the house of HANOVER under the Act of
 SETTLEMENT. His dual role as elector of Hanover and king of England, his
 German manners, and his inability to speak English made him unpopular.
 His indifference to government led to the first real cabinet and the rise
 of the WHIGS to power. In 1718 the QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE guaranteed the
 Hanoverian succession. His son, George II (George Augustus), 1683-1760
 (r.1727-60), was more active in government than his father. In the War of
 the AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, he personally led his troops in battle, the last
 British monarch to do so. His wife, Caroline of Ansbach, furthered the
 dominancy of Robert WALPOLE. During his reign, the Whigs united behind
 the policy of William PITT (the elder) in the SEVEN YEARS WAR. His
 grandson, George III, 1738-1820 (r.1760-1820), ended the long Whig
 control of government by securing Pitt's resignation in 1761. George
 wanted to rule personally, and he found an amenable minister (1770-82) in
 Lord NORTH, whose policy of coercion led to the AMERICAN REVOLUTION. The
 notable TORY ministry of the younger William PITT (1783-1801) saw the end
 of royal attempts to control the ministry. George III's reign witnessed a
 great expansion of empire and trade, the beginning of the INDUSTRIAL
 REVOLUTION, and a flowering of arts and letters. The king's insanity led
 to the regency (1811) of his son George IV, 1762-1830 (r.1820-30). Ruling
 through Tory ministers, he was hated for his extravagance and dissolute
 habits. He aroused particular hostility when he attempted (1820) to
 divorce his long-estranged wife, CAROLINE OF BRUNSWICK. He was succeeded
 by his brother, WILLIAM IV. George V (George Frederick Ernest Albert),
 1865-1936 (r.1910-36), was the second son of EDWARD VII. He was always
 interested in the affairs of the British empire and in 1911 traveled to
 India. During WORLD WAR I (1917) he gave up all his German titles and
 changed the name of the royal house from Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to WINDSOR.
 His second son, George VI (Albert Frederick Arthur George), 1895-1952,

 the abdication of his brother, EDWARD VIII. During WORLD WAR II, he
 worked to keep up British morale by visiting bombed areas, war plants,
 and theaters of war. He and his wife, ELIZABETH, had two daughters:
 ELIZABETH II and Princess MARGARET. Like his father, he was held in deep
 affection by his people.

   George

 George, kings of the Hellenes (Greece). George I, 1845-1913
 (r.1863-1913), was the second son of Christian IX of Denmark and was
 elected king of Greece after the deposition (1862) of OTTO I. He
 introduced (1864) a democratic constitution and expanded the Greek
 domain. He was assassinated. George II, 1890-1947 (r.1922-23, 1935-47),
 did not succeed his father, CONSTANTINE I, but was passed over (1917)
 because of his pro-German sympathies. The crown fell to his younger
 brother ALEXANDER. In 1922 he did become king, but hostility towards the
 dynasty forced him into exile in 1923 and Greece was declared a republic.
 He was restored in 1935 and instituted a dictatorship under John METAXAS.
 George was in exile during World War II, and his return to Greece in 1946
 failed to halt the civil war then raging. He was succeeded by his brother
 PAUL.

   George, David Lloyd

 George, David Lloyd: see LLOYD GEORGE, DAVID.

   George, Henry

 George, Henry, 1839-97, American economist, founder of the single-tax
 movement; b. Philadelphia. His own poverty and his observation of avarice
 as a newspaperman bolstered his reformist ideas. Believing that the great
 contrast between poverty and wealth lay in the fact that the rental of
 land and the unearned increase in land values profited only a few
 individuals, not the community, George proposed a single tax on land to
 meet all costs of government. His theories, published in Progress and
 Poverty (1879), have influenced tax legislation in many countries.

   George, Stefan

 George, Stefan, 1868-1933, German poet. He was influenced poetically by
 Greek classical forms and the French SYMBOLISTS and intellectually by
 NIETZSCHE. His esoteric, pure verse appeared in such volumes as Algabal
 (1892), Book of the Shepherds (1895), The Soul's Year (1897), and The
 Seventh Ring (1907). George's aesthetic ideal called for a controlled
 humanism. He devoted himself to the purifying of German language and
 culture and had great influence on younger poets through his verse and
 through Blatter fur die Kunst (founded 1892), the literary organ of his
 circle.

   Georgetown

 Georgetown, city (1983 est. pop. 188,000), N Guyana, capital of Guyana,
 on the Atlantic Ocean at the mouth of the Demerara R. Guyana's largest
 city, it exports bauxite and other products of the interior. Settled in
 the 1600s by the Dutch, who called it Stabroek, it was taken and renamed
 by the British in 1812. It still has canals and other Dutch features.

   Georgia

 Georgia, state in the SE U.S.; bordered by Florida (S), Alabama (W),
 Tennessee and North Carolina (N), and South Carolina and the Atlantic
 Ocean (E).

 Area, 58,876 sq mi (152,489 sq km). Pop. (1986 est.) 6,104,000, an 11.7%
 increase over 1980 pop. Capital, Atlanta. Statehood, Jan. 2, 1788 (fourth
 of original 13 states to ratify the Constitution). Highest pt., Brasstown
 Bald, 4,784 ft (1,459 m); lowest pt., sea level. Nickname, Empire State
 of the South. Motto, Wisdom, Justice, and Moderation. State bird, brown
 thrasher. State flower, Cherokee rose. State tree, live oak. Abbr., Ga.;
 GA.

 Land and People The mountains of the north, part of the APPALACHIAN
 MOUNTAINS system, give way to the transitional Piedmont Plateau and its
 fertile, gently rolling hills. The southern half of the state is covered
 by the low-lying coastal plain; just offshore are the popular resorts of
 the Georgia SEA ISLANDS. Along the border with Florida is the OKEFENOKEE
 SWAMP, a huge wilderness area with unique flora and fauna. The climate is
 temperate but variable throughout the state. About 57% of the population
 lives in metropolitan areas; ATLANTA, the largest city, is the major
 commercial and financial center of the southeast. Other major cities are
 COLUMBUS, MACON, and SAVANNAH. In 1984, 72% of the population was white
 and the rest predominately black.

 Economy Industry, the most important economic sector, is dominated by the
 manufacturing of cotton textiles, apparel, and carpets. Other major
 manufactures include transportation equipment, processed foods, and
 paper. The heavily wooded state is a leading producer of lumber,
 pulpwood, and resins and turpentine. Georgia also provides 60% of the
 world's kaolin. Principal crops are peanuts, tobacco, corn, and cotton.

 Government The constitution (adopted 1945) provides for a governor
 serving a four-year term. The general assembly consists of a 56-seat
 senate and a 180-seat house, both of whose members serve two-year terms.
 Georgia sends 10 representatives and 2 senators to the U.S. Congress and
 has 12 electoral votes.

 History The region was inhabited by CREEK and CHEROKEE INDIANS when it
 was visited (c.1540) by Hernando DE SOTO. Subsequently, both England and
 Spain claimed control of the area, and British settlers led by James E.
 OGLETHORPE arrived in 1733. The British captured much of Georgia during
 the AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Following the war, cotton cultivation, based on
 the plantation system and slavery, began to dominate the economy. In 1861
 Georgia seceded from the Union and joined the CONFEDERACY. The state
 suffered considerable damage during the CIVIL WAR, with the burning of
 Atlanta (1864) and Gen. W.T. SHERMAN'S destructive march to the sea. By
 the 1880s the textile industry was transforming the state's economy from
 agriculture to manufacturing. In the early 1960s Georgia was the first
 state of the deep South to proceed with integration without a major
 curtailment of its public-school system. In 1976 Jimmy CARTER became the
 state's first native son to be elected U.S. president.

   Georgia

 Georgia or Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic, constituent republic (1987
 est. pop. 5,300,000), c.26,900 sq mi (69,700 sq km), SE European USSR, in
 W Transcaucasia. It borders the Black Sea (W); the Azerbaijan Republic
 (E); Turkey and the Armenian Republic (S); and the Russian Soviet
 Federated Socialist Republic (N). The capital is TBILISI. A mountainous
 region rich in minerals and coal, Georgia grows most of the USSR's tea
 and citrus fruits. Manufactures include iron and steel, machinery, and
 chemicals. The BLACK SEA coast is a popular resort area. In addition to
 the Georgian majority, there are Armenian, Russian, and other minorities.
 The kingdom of Georgia, dating from the 4th cent. BC, reached its height
 in the 12th and 13th cent. AD In 1555 W Georgia fell to Turkey and E
 Georgia to Persia. Under Russian sway after 1783, Georgia was briefly
 independent (1918-21).

   Georgian style

 Georgian style, several trends in English architecture during the reigns
 (1714-1820) of George I, George II, and George III. The first half of the
 period (c.1710-c.1760) was dominated by Neo-Palladianism (see PALLADIO).
 Colin Campbell's Vitruvius Brittanicus (1715) inspired a return to
 CLASSICISM, based on the works of Inigo JONES and Palladio. His Mereworth
 Castle, Kent, epitomizes the style. A second generation of architects
 carried the Palladian tradition through the Georgian period. In the first
 half of the 18th cent., a BAROQUE countercurrent, stemming from
 Christopher WREN'S designs, was carried on by Sir John VANBRUGH, Nicholas
 HAWKSMOOR, and James GIBBS. In the second half, the CLASSIC REVIVAL was
 led by Sir William CHAMBERS, Robert ADAM, and Sir John Soane. A standard
 type of house construction, red brick with white stone courses and
 cornices and white painted trim, came to be known as Georgian. Notable
 buildings of the period include Soane's Bank of England and Gibbs's St.
 Martin's-in-the-Fields. American builders of the period followed British
 models closely.

   geothermal energy

 geothermal energy: see ENERGY, SOURCES OF.

   Gepidae

 Gepidae: see GERMANS.

   geranium

 geranium, herb or shrub of the family Geraniaceae. More specifically, the
 name refers to the popular garden and greenhouse geranium (genus
 Pelargonium), grown for its colorful flowers and ornamental, sometimes
 scented foliage. Its long, beak-shaped fruits give it the name
 stork's-bill. The family also includes the true geraniums (genus
 Geranium) and the heron's-bills (genus Erodium). Geraniums are also
 cultivated for the aromatic oils extracted from their foliage and
 flowers.

   Gerbert

 Gerbert: see SYLVESTER II.

   gerbil

 gerbil, desert RODENT (subfamily Gerbillinae) found in the hot, arid
 regions of Africa and Asia. Gerbils have large eyes and powerful,
 elongated limbs upon which they can spring. Sandy, gray, or red-brown,
 gerbils are 3 to 5 in. (7.6 to 12.7 cm) long, excluding the long tail,
 and are popular pets.

   geriatrics

 geriatrics, study of the medical problems of the aged. Aging cells are
 more susceptible to the accumulation of CALCIUM, CHOLESTEROL, and other
 substances that may cause tissue deterioration, and thus the elderly are
 more prone to disease and decreased physiological functioning. Many
 disabilities of aging are related to CIRCULATORY SYSTEM deterioration,
 but studies have shown that proper nutrition and exercise contribute to
 prolonging good health and circulation. The study of old age is known as
 GERONTOLOGY.

   Gericault, Jean Louis Andre Theodore

 Gericault, Jean Louis Andre Theodore, 1791-1824, French painter. After
 studying in Rome he exhibited in Paris his famous Raft of the Medusa
 (Louvre), a turbulent painting of shipwrecked men at sea that ushered in
 French ROMANTICISM. He later went to England, where he did such fine
 horse paintings as The Village Forge (Louvre). He also modeled small
 figures and made excellent lithographs.

   German Confederation

 German Confederation, 1815-66, union of 39 German states created by the
 Congress of VIENNA to replace the old HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE. It comprised 35
 monarchies and 4 free cities. It was little more than a loose union for
 the purpose of mutual defense, with its main organ a central diet under
 the presidency of Austria. The confederation was dominated by the strong
 influence of Austria and Prussia. The Austro-Prussian War (1866)
 destroyed the confederation, and the North German Confederation that
 replaced it was under the sole leadership of Prussia.

   Germanic languages

 Germanic languages, subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages,
 of which English, Dutch, and German, are members. See LANGUAGE.

   Germanic law

 Germanic law, customary laws of the ancient Germans, codified (5th-9th
 cent.) after the Germanic tribes invaded the Roman Empire. Enacted
 cooperatively by ruler and people, they deal chiefly with penal law and
 legal procedure, although there are many laws pertaining to landholding.
 The Germans regarded law as personal, not territorial, and therefore
 continued to govern the Romans under their rule by ROMAN LAW.

   Germanic religion

 Germanic religion, pre-Christian religious practices among the tribes of
 W Europe, Germany, and Scandinavia. There was no one religion common to
 all the Scandinavian and Teutonic peoples, but descriptions from TACITUS
 and the EDDAS point to certain basic polytheistic features. In early
 times two groups of gods were worshiped, the Aesir and the Vanir; later
 they coalesced to form a single pantheon of 12 principal deities, headed
 by WODEN (Odin) and including Tiw (Tyr), Thor (Donar), Balder, Frey,
 FREYJA, and FRIGG. Their home was Asgard. There, in the palace Valhalla,
 Woden and his warrior maidens (the Valkyries) gave banquets to dead
 heroes. Unlike the gods of most religions, the ancient Nordic deities
 were subject to Fate (the Norns) and tradition held that they were doomed
 to eventual destruction by the forces of evil in the form of giants and
 demons, led by Loki. After a ferocious battle at Ragnarok, the universe
 would end in a blaze of fire; but a new cosmos was to rise from the ashes
 of the old, and a new generation of gods and men would dwell in harmony.
 The Germanic temples were attended by priests, who oversaw magic rites
 (e.g., divination) and prayer. Conversion of the Germans to Christianity
 began as early as the 4th cent. AD, but it took many centuries for the
 new religion to spread throughout N Europe.

   germanium

 germanium (Ge), semimetallic element, isolated from argyrodite by Clemens
 Winkler in 1886. Gray-white, lustrous, and brittle, it is chemically and
 physically similar to SILICON. It is used as a SEMICONDUCTOR in
 TRANSISTORS and integrated circuits. The oxide, transparent to infrared
 radiation, is used in optical instruments. See ELEMENT; PERIODIC TABLE.

   German language

 German language, member of the West Germanic group of the Germanic
 subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See LANGUAGE.

   German measles

 German measles: see RUBELLA.

   Germans

 Germans, a large ethnic complex of ancient Europe, a basic stock in the
 composition of the modern peoples of Scandinavia, Germany, Austria,
 Switzerland, the Low Countries, and England. They lived in N Germany and
 along the Baltic Sea, expanding south, southeast, and west in the early
 Christian era. CAESAR and TACITUS wrote of their warlike attributes,
 culture, and distribution. The Teutons and Cimbri, whom the Roman general
 Marius defeated (102-101 BC), may have been Germans. German tribes
 increasingly troubled the Roman Empire, with Vandal attacks in the west
 and OSTROGOTH attacks in the east. Among the tribes were the Alemanni,
 the FRANKS, the Angles, the Burgundii, the LOMBARDS, the SAXONS, and the
 VISIGOTHS. The Scandinavians included the Icelanders, who produced the
 first Germanic literature.

   German shepherd

 German shepherd, large, muscular WORKING DOG; shoulder height, c.25 in.
 (64 cm); weight, 60-85 lb (27.2-38.5 kg). It has a dense undercoat and a
 harsh outercoat that is usually black, gray, or black and tan. Developed
 as a sheepherder and perfected in Germany c.1900, it has been used in
 war, in police work, and as a GUIDE DOG for the blind.

   German wirehaired pointer

 German wirehaired pointer, large SPORTING DOG; shoulder height, c.24 in.
 (61 cm); weight, c.60 lb (27 kg). It has a woolly undercoat and a harsh,
 wiry, flat-lying outercoat of liver and white. An all-purpose retrieving
 pointer, it was developed in Germany in the mid-19th cent.

   Germany

 Germany, country of central Europe, divided since 1949 into two
 independent republics, West and East Germany. In antiquity, Rome
 conquered (1st cent. BC-1st cent. AD) SW Germany but was stopped from
 further conquest by Germanic tribes who lived to the northeast. Germanic
 tribes later (4th-5th cent.) overran most of the Roman Empire, and by the
 6th cent. one of these tribes, the FRANKS, had created a vast empire in
 Germany and Gaul (see MEROVINGIANS; CAROLINGIANS; CHARLEMAGNE). In the
 8th cent. Christianity was spread among the Germans by St. BONIFACE. A
 successor state, the HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE, was founded in the 10th cent.,
 but Germany remained a loose federation of small principalities and
 cities. The Holy Roman Empire, weakened by the Protestant REFORMATION
 (16th cent.) and the THIRTY YEARS WAR (1618-48), was finally swept aside
 (1806) by NAPOLEON I. The Congress of VIENNA (1814-15) created the GERMAN
 CONFEDERATION, another loose federation of German states, in which
 PRUSSIA and Austria emerged as rivals. Prussia, under Otto von BISMARCK,
 finally achieved the unification of Germany after victories in the
 AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR (1866) and the FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR (1870-71). In 1871
 King WILLIAM I of Prussia was proclaimed emperor of Germany, and the new
 German empire rapidly became the chief economic and military power on the
 Continent. Its industrial, colonial, and naval expansion threatened
 British and French interests and helped bring about WORLD WAR I

 established the Weimar Republic. This was beset from the beginning by
 extremist agitation, mass unemployment, and severe inflation. In 1933
 Adolf HITLER was appointed chancellor, and within a year he had
 established an absolute dictatorship. WORLD WAR II began with Germany's
 invasion of Poland (1939) and ended, in Europe, with the German surrender
 in 1945. The defeated country was divided into four Allied occupation
 zones, but dissension between the USSR and the West led to the formation
 (1949) of the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) in the U.S.,
 French, and British zones, and of the German Democratic Republic (East
 Germany) in the Soviet zone. The precise legal status of West BERLIN has
 remained in dispute.

 West Germany, republic (1986 est. pop. 61,140,000), 95,742 sq mi (247,973
 sq km); bordered by Austria and Switzerland (S), France, Luxembourg,
 Belgium, and the Netherlands (W), the North Sea and Denmark (N), the
 Baltic Sea (NE), and East Germany and Czechoslovakia (E). BONN is the
 seat of government; other important cities include FRANKFURT, HAMBURG,
 and MUNICH. Geographically, West Germany is made up of parts of the N
 German plain, the central German uplands, and, in the south, the ranges
 of the Bavarian ALPS, which rise to the Zugspitze (9,721 ft/2,963 m).
 There are many important rivers, including the RHINE, Weser, ELBE,
 DANUBE, and Main. Virtually all the people speak German, and the country
 is fairly evenly divided between Protestants (in the north) and Roman
 Catholics (in the west and south). Aided by the MARSHALL PLAN, West
 Germany recovered quickly from World War II, and by 1970 was one of the
 world's primary industrial powers. In the late 1970s it maintained the
 highest growth rate among the major industrial nations, as well as a
 comparatively low rate of inflation. Leading industrial products include
 iron and steel, cement, chemicals, motor vehicles, electric and
 electronic equipment, precision instruments, textiles, refined petroleum,
 and foodstuffs. Natural resources are limited, with hard coal, potash,
 and lignite the chief minerals. West Germany carries on a very large
 foreign trade and usually enjoys a trade surplus. The Federal Republic of
 Germany was established in 1949, with Konrad ADENAUER as its first
 chancellor. The country gained most of the attributes of national
 sovereignty in 1952 and full independence in 1955. Politics in the early
 years were dominated by insistence on reunification, to be achieved
 through democratic elections, and nonrecognition of East Germany. The
 government (1969-74) of Willy BRANDT, while upholding the goal of a
 united Germany, made significant steps toward improving relations with
 Eastern Europe, including the signing of a nonaggression pact with the
 USSR (1970) and a treaty with East Germany (1973). Brandt was succeeded
 (1974) by Helmut SCHMIDT (reelected 1976 and 1980). Over a decade of
 political dominance by the Social Democrats ended when the Christian
 Democrat Helmut Kohl became chancellor in 1982.

 East Germany, republic (1987 est. pop. 16,641,000), 41,610 sq mi (107,771
 sq km); bordered by Czechoslovakia (S), West Germany (S and W), the
 Baltic Sea (N), and Poland (E). East Berlin is the capital; other major
 cities are LEIPZIG, DRESDEN, and MAGDEBURG. East Germany is made up
 largely of a low-lying plain, but there are mountains in the west and
 south. The chief rivers are the Elbe and the Oder, which, with its
 tributary, the Neisse, forms most of the eastern boundary. Virtually all
 the people speak German, and the majority are Protestant.
 Industrialization has been rapid in the postwar era, and East Germany is
 now the largest producer of industrial goods, after the USSR, in Eastern
 Europe. Principal manufactures include steel, chemicals, machinery, and
 electric and electronic equipment. Lignite and potash are the only
 important mineral resources. The German Democratic Republic was
 established in 1949, with Otto Grotewohl as its first prime minister.
 Economic hardships led (1953) to a workers' uprising that was suppressed
 by Soviet forces. Under Walter ULBRICHT, who emerged as leader in the
 1950s, the Berlin wall was erected (1961) to halt the flow of millions of
 East Germans to the West. Beginning in the late 1960s and early 1970s,
 significant steps were taken toward improving relations with the rest of
 the world; a treaty with West Germany was signed in 1973, and East
 Germany was accorded diplomatic recognition by a number of non-Communist
 countries, including the U.S. (1974).

   germination

 germination, process by which the plant embryo within the SEED resumes
 growth after a period of dormancy and the seedling emerges. Food stored
 in the endosperm or in the cotyledons (see ANGIOSPERM) provides energy in
 the early stages of growth until the seedling can make its own.

   germ warfare

 germ warfare: see BIOLOGICAL WARFARE.

   Geronimo

 Geronimo, c.1829-1909, leader of the Chiricahua APACHE INDIANS; b.
 Arizona. After the Chiricahua Reservation was abolished (1876) he
 repeatedly led raids, was captured, and escaped. Finally surrendering in
 1886, he and his followers were deported as prisoners of war to Florida.
 Geronimo was removed to Fort Sill, Okla.; became a Christian and a
 prosperous farmer; and appeared in Pres. Theodore Roosevelt's inaugural
 procession.

   gerontology

 gerontology, study of old age and the aging process, concerned with the
 physical aspects of aging as well as with the special economic and social
 problems of the elderly. Gerontology emerged as a major field of study in
 the 20th cent. as the steady increase in average life expectancy swelled
 the numbers of older people in the population, especially in developed
 countries. The medical specialty that focuses on the health and diseases
 of the elderly is called GERIATRICS.

   Gerry, Elbridge

 Gerry, Elbridge, 1744-1814, vice president of the U.S. (1813-14); b.
 Marblehead, Mass. He supported patriotic activities before and during the
 AMERICAN REVOLUTION, and sat in the CONTINENTAL CONGRESS (1766-85) and
 the FEDERAL CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION (1787), where he opposed a strong
 central government. Elected governor of Massachusetts in 1810, he won
 again in 1811. His second term was marked by the grotesque rearrangement
 of election districts, called a GERRYMANDER after him. He was elected
 vice president on the ticket with James MADISON. His grandson Elbridge
 Thomas Gerry, 1837-1927, b. N.Y.C., was a reformer. A position as legal
 advisor to the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
 led to his founding (1875), with the help of Henry Bergh, the New York
 Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (sometimes called the
 Gerry Society). He devoted most of his life to this cause, which became
 national in scope.

   gerrymander

 gerrymander, in U.S. politics, rearrangement of lines and boundaries of
 voting districts to favor the party in power. The term, which described
 this political art as practiced by Massachusetts Jeffersonians,
 originated while Elbridge GERRY was governor. Gerrymandering was limited
 somewhat by the Supreme Court in 1964.

   Gershwin, George

 Gershwin, George, 1898-1937, American composer; b. Brooklyn, N.Y. His
 scores to MUSICALS, including Lady, Be Good! (1924) and Of Thee I Sing
 (1931; Pulitzer), made him famous. In his extended compositions, e.g.,
 Rhapsody in Blue (1923) and An American in Paris (1928), he blended
 traditional with folk and JAZZ elements. Gershwin wrote the music for the
 folk opera Porgy and Bess (1935). His brother, Ira Gershwin, 1896-1983,
 wrote lyrics to many of his compositions. After George's death, he
 collaborated with Harold Arlen on the film A Star is Born (1954).

   Gesner, Konrad von

 Gesner, Konrad von, 1516-65, Swiss scientist and bibliographer. He was an
 important reviver of the classical school of zoological description that
 culminated in the work of Carolus LINNAEUS. His illustrated Historia
 animalium (5 vol., 1551-58, 1587), influenced biology and the arts and is
 considered the foundation of zoology as a science.

   gesneria

 gesneria, herb or shrub, chiefly tropical and subtropical, of the family
 Gesneriaceae, cultivated for its showy, often tubular blossoms. The
 family includes the AFRICAN VIOLETS; the African Cape primrose (genus
 Streptocarpus); and the gloxinia (Sinningia speciosa) of Brazil, not to
 be confused with the genus Gloxinia, which is not cultivated.

   Gestalt

 Gestalt, school of psychology that interprets phenomena as organized
 wholes, rather than as aggregates of distinct parts. It maintains that
 the significance of a structured whole (e.g., in visual perception) does
 not depend on its specific constituent elements; thus a drawn figure
 still has meaning when there are gaps in the drawing. Gestalt, which has
 made substantial contributions to the study of learning, memory,
 thinking, and human personality and motivation, was brought to the U.S.
 in the 1930s by refugee psychologists from Germany. There the movement
 had received impetus from psychologists Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler,
 and Kurt Koffka, in protest against the prevailing scientific approach to
 analysis, with its detachment from human values. Gestalt therapy draws in
 part on PSYCHOANALYSIS and existential philosophy, although it focuses on
 present experience rather than exploration of the past. By emphasizing
 newly emerging patterns (gestalten) that could become central to
 attention as part of a new whole of experience, it aims at changing the
 patient's habitual ways of perceiving and responding to needs. Much
 attention is given to nonverbal aspects of behavior.

   Gesta Romanorum

 Gesta Romanorum, medieval collection of Latin stories, each with a moral,
 probably older than the extant 14th-cent. manuscript. CHAUCER and others
 used it as a source.

   Gethsemane

 Gethsemane, olive grove or garden, E of Jerusalem, near the foot of the
 Mount of OLIVES. It was the scene of the agony and betrayal of JESUS.

   Getty, J(ean) Paul

 Getty, J(ean) Paul, 1892-1976, American business executive, one of the
 richest men in the world; b. Minneapolis, Minn. After inheriting his
 father's oil business he became (1956) director and principal owner. His
 personal worth was estimated at $3 billion. An ardent art collector, he
 founded (1954) the J. Paul Getty Museum in Malibu, Calif., and bequeathed
 it an endowment of $750 million, making it the richest museum in the
 world. Getty lived in Britain from the early 1950s until his death.

   Gettysburg Address

 Gettysburg Address, Nov. 19, 1863, famous speech by Abraham LINCOLN at
 the dedication of the CIVIL WAR cemetery at Gettysburg, Pa. Lincoln
 eloquently stated his grief for the fallen soldiers and the principles
 for which they had given their lives. The brief address is perhaps the
 most quoted speech of all time, including among many memorable phrases:
 "and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall
 not perish from the earth."

   Gettysburg campaign

 Gettysburg campaign, June-July 1863, a series of battles that marked the
 turning point of the U.S. CIVIL WAR. After his victory at
 CHANCELLORSVILLE, Confederate Gen. Robert E. LEE undertook a second
 invasion of the North, crossing the Potomac into Pennsylvania and
 fighting at Harrisburg and Chambersburg. Union forces under George G.
 MEADE were massing N of the Potomac. The two forces met just W of
 Gettysburg in the greatest battle of the war (July 1-3, 1863). On July 1
 the Union was driven to Cemetery Hill, south of the town. On July 2 the
 Confederates took the Peach Orchard but were repulsed in assaults on
 Cemetery Ridge and Cemetery Hill; they briefly held Culp's Hill. On July
 3 Lee ordered George E. PICKETT'S division forward in its famous but
 disastrous charge against the Union center. Tremendous losses resulted
 and on July 4 Lee withdrew. Union losses totaled 23,000 killed or
 wounded; Confederate, 25,000.

   geyser

 geyser, HOT SPRING from which water and steam are ejected periodically to
 heights ranging from a few to several hundred feet. The generally
 accepted explanation is that rainwater, collected under pressure in hot
 rocks below ground, turns partly to steam and causes the water above it
 to overflow, thereby reducing the pressure and forcing an eruption.
 Notable geysers are found in Iceland; North Island, New Zealand; and
 Yellowstone National Park, U.S. (see NATIONAL PARKS,).

   Gezira, Gazira

 Gezira, Gazira, or Al Jazirah, region in the Sudan, NE Africa, between
 the White Nile and the Blue Nile, just south of their convergence, at
 Khartoum. A massive irrigation scheme, begun in 1925, includes two dams
 and a series of canals that have put nearly 2.5 million acres (1 million
 hectares) into cultivation. Cotton and wheat are the chief crops.

   Ghana

 Ghana, officially Republic of Ghana, republic (1984 pop. 12,205,574),
 92,099 sq mi (238,536 sq km), W Africa, bordered by the Gulf of Guinea
 (S), the Ivory Coast (W), Burkina Faso (N), and Togo (E). Major cities
 include ACCRA (the capital) and KUMASI. The coastal region and the far
 north are savanna areas; in between is a forest zone. Lake Volta, in
 central Ghana, is one of the world's largest man-made lakes. Cocoa is the
 principal crop in Ghana's predominantly agricultural economy; other
 exports include minerals (gold, diamonds, and bauxite) and timber.
 Aluminum smelting, food-processing, and lumber production are the
 principal industries, and coffee and tobacco are widely grown. The
 population includes various tribal groups, chiefly the Akan (Ashanti and
 Fanti), Mole-Dagbani, Ewe, and Ga-Adangme. English is the official
 language. About 40% of the people are Christians, 10% are Muslims (mainly
 in the north), and the rest follow traditional religions.

 History In precolonial times the region comprised a number of independent
 kingdoms, including the ASHANTI confederation in the interior and the
 Fanti states along the coast. The first European fort was established by
 the Portuguese at Elmina in 1482, and for more than three centuries
 European nations engaged in a brisk but highly competitive trade in gold
 and slaves. The expanding Ashanti kingdom forced the withdrawal of the
 Danes (1850) and the Dutch (1872), but the British allied themselves with
 the Fanti, defeated the Ashanti in 1874, and organized the coastal region
 as the Gold Coast colony. After renewed fighting between the British and
 the Ashanti, Britain made the kingdom a colony in 1901, at the same time
 declaring a protectorate over the Northern Territories, a region north of
 Ashanti. After World War I part of the German colony of TOGOLAND,
 mandated to Britain, was administered with the Gold Coast. In 1951, in
 the face of rising nationalist activity, Britain granted a new
 constitution and held general elections, from which Kwame NKRUMAH, the
 colony's leading nationalist figure, emerged as premier. The state of
 Ghana, named after a medieval African empire (see separate article) and
 including British Togoland, which had voted to join it, became an
 independent country within the Commonwealth of Nations in 1956. In 1969
 Nkrumah transformed Ghana into a republic and named himself president for
 life. Increasingly repressive and beset by a deteriorating economy,
 Nkrumah was overthrown by a coup in 1966. The ensuing years have seen a
 succession of coups. By the late 1970s the economy had slid into chaos,
 and corruption was rife at all levels of society. Elections in 1979
 marked a return to civilian government, but conditions failed to improve,
 and in 1981 the military led by Jerry RAWLINGS again seized power.

   Ghats

 Ghats, two mountain ranges, S India, forming the eastern and western
 edges of the DECCAN plateau. Anai Mudi (8,841 ft/ 2,695 m) is the highest
 point. The Western Ghats, c.1,000 mi (1,600 km) long, extend southeast
 from near Bombay to the southern tip of India. Their densely forested
 western slopes receive abundant rainfall from onshore monsoon winds and
 are the source of many easterly-flowing rivers, including the Godavari,
 Kistna, and Caudery. The Eastern Ghats, facing the Bay of Bengal, form a
 series of hills extending c.900 mi (1,450 km) southwest from the Mahanadi
 valley.

   Ghazali, al-

 Ghazali, al-, 1058-1111, Islamic philosopher, considered the greatest
 theologian in ISLAM, well known in medieval Europe as Algazel. Of Persian
 origin, he abandoned teaching to wander for 10 years as a Sufi mystic
 (see SUFISM), attempting to reconcile MYSTICISM with orthodox Islam. His
 great compendium of Muslim thought, Restoration of the Sciences of
 Religion, outlines an orthodox system for the attainment of unity with
 God.

   ghee

 ghee: see BUTTER.

   Ghelderode, Michel de

 Ghelderode, Michel de, 1898-1962, Belgian dramatist. A satirist and
 exquisite poet, he is considered one the most original French-language
 playwrights of modern times. A wide variety of influences-MAETERLINCK,
 medieval morality plays, Flemish painting, puppet theater, COMMEDIA
 DELL'ARTE, the Elizabethans, and Edgar Allan POE-reveal themselves in
 such masterpieces as Chronicles of Hell (1929), Pantagleize (1929), and
 Hop Signore! (1935).

   Ghent

 Ghent, city (1987 est. pop. 233,856), W Belgium, at the confluence of the
 Scheldt and Leie rivers. It is a major port and a textile- and
 steel-manufacturing center. One of Belgium's oldest cities, founded in
 the 7th cent., it was the capital of FLANDERS. It was a medieval
 wool-producing city and was virtually independent until 1584. Thereafter
 it was ruled by the HAPSBURGS, until the French Revolution. It is noted
 for its many medieval and Renaissance buildings.

   Ghent, Treaty of

 Ghent, Treaty of, 1814, agreement ending the WAR OF 1812 between the U.S.
 and Great Britain. Stipulating the restoration of territory taken by
 either party during hostilities, it was a diplomatic victory for the U.S.

   ghetto

 ghetto, section of a city where members of a racial group are segregated.
 The term is also used to describe any physically segregated minority
 group. Compulsory Jewish ghettos originated in 14th-cent. Spain and
 Portugal. Within the ghetto Jews generally had autonomy in all but
 economic matters, but outside it they were severely restricted. Abolished
 in W Europe by the 19th cent., ghettos were reinstituted by the Nazis in
 World War II (see ANTI-SEMITISM). In the U.S., social and economic
 factors, rather than laws, have segregated minorities into ghettos, e.g.,
 New York's HARLEM.

   Ghibellines

 Ghibellines: see GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES.

   Ghiberti, Lorenzo

 Ghiberti, Lorenzo, c.1378-1455, Florentine sculptor. In 1401 he won the
 competition to produce a bronze portal for the BAPTISTERY in Florence,
 defeating BRUNELLESCHI. He designed the north portal to match Andrea
 PISANO'S earlier Gothic portal and was constrained by its rigid
 quatrefoil framework. The reliefs, executed between 1403 and 1424, depict
 the life of Christ, the Evangelists, and the Church Fathers. Ghiberti
 also produced sculptural figures for the Church of Or San Michele before
 he began work on the baptistery's east portal, a task that took him 23
 years. These later reliefs were more modern in form and structure. His
 Comentarii is the earliest known autobiography of an artist.

   Ghirlandaio

 Ghirlandaioor Ghirlandajo, Domenico , 1449-94, Florentine painter whose
 family name was Bigordi. His religious narrative paintings, e.g., Madonna
 with the Vespucci Family (Church of the Ognissanti, Florence), reveal
 superlative technique and a keen eye for contemporary detail. With
 BOTTICELLI in Rome he decorated parts of the SISTINE CHAPEL. Among his
 pupils was MICHELANGELO, who probably assisted with Ghirlandaio's great
 FRESCO cycle of the life of Mary and St. John the Baptist in Santa Maria
 Novella, Florence. His famous realistic portrait Grandfather and Grandson
 is in the Louvre.

   Ghose, Aurobindo

 Ghose, Aurobindo, 1872-1950, Indian mystic philosopher, known as Sri
 Aurobind. He spent his early years as an agitator for Indian
 independence. He experienced mystic visions, retired from political
 activism, and formulated what became Purna, or Integral, Yoga. In 1926 he
 retired into seclusion in his ashram at Pondicherry.

   ghost dance

 ghost dance, ritual central to the messianic religion instituted c.1870
 among the PAIUTE INDIANS by their prophet WOVOKA. The religion, which
 prophesied the end of white expansion westward and the return of land to
 the Indians, spread to most of the western Indians. The ritual was danced
 for five successive days and was accompanied by hypnotic trances. The
 SIOUX performed the ritual prior to their massacre at WOUNDED KNEE in
 1890-wearing "ghost shirts" that they thought would protect them from
 bullets.

   Giacometti, Alberto

 Giacometti, Alberto, 1901-66, Swiss sculptor and painter. Associated with
 SURREALISM, he is known for his bronze sculptures of elongated human
 figures, e.g., Man Walking (Albright-Knox Gall., Buffalo).

   Giambologna

 Giambologna: see BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI.

   giant

 giant, in mythology, manlike being of great size and strength; a brutish
 power of nature, lacking the stature of gods and the civilization of
 humanity. In many cultures, e.g., Greek, Scandinavian, and American
 Indian, giants were believed to be the first race of people that
 inhabited the earth.

   giant schnauzer

 giant schnauzer: see SCHNAUZER.

   giant sequoia

 giant sequoia: see SEQUOIA.

   Gibbon, Edward

 Gibbon, Edward, 1734-94, English historian. He is the author of The
 History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (6 vol., 1776-88),
 one of the most influential historical works of modern times. Gibbon also
 wrote a subtle and interesting autobiography, Memoirs of His Life and
 Writings (1796). He served in Parliament from 1774 to 1783.

   gibbon

 gibbon, small APE (genus Hyloblates) found in the forests of SE Asia.
 Gibbons are highly adapted to arboreal life. Their arms are extremely
 long, and they swing through the trees with great speed and agility.
 Gibbons live in permanent families consisting of a male, a female, and
 their young; they are very territorial.

   Gibbons v. Ogden

 Gibbons v. Ogden, case decided in 1824 by the U.S. SUPREME COURT, which
 ruled that New York's grant of a steamboat monopoly on the Hudson R.
 interfered with congressional power over interstate commerce under
 Article I of the U.S. CONSTITUTION. Chief Justice MARSHALL, rejecting the
 idea that the states and the federal government are equal sovereignties,
 held that although federal power is limited, within its sphere Congress
 is supreme. The decision was highly influential in explicating the
 federal structure.

   Gibbs, James

 Gibbs, James, 1682-1754, English architect. An exponent of the GEORGIAN
 STYLE, he is noted for London churches, e.g., St. Mary-le-Strand
 (1714-17) and St. Martin's-in-the-Fields (1721-26); the latter inspired
 steepled churches in the American colonies. He also designed the circular
 Radcliffe Camera, Oxford.

   Gibbs, Josiah Willard

 Gibbs, Josiah Willard, 1839-1903, American mathematical physicist; b. New
 Haven, Conn. A professor of mathematical physics at Yale, his studies in
 physical chemistry and thermodynamics have profoundly affected industry,
 notably in the production of ammonia. He formulated the concept of
 chemical potential, was influential in developing vector analysis, and
 did work in statistical mechanics.

   Gibraltar

 Gibraltar, British dependency (1986 est. pop. 29,166), 2.25 sq mi (5.8 sq
 km), on a narrow, rocky peninsula extending into the Mediterranean Sea
 from SW Spain. The town of Gibraltar lies at the northwest end of the
 Rock of Gibraltar. Although Gibraltar is a free port with some transit
 trade, its major importance is strategic, and its status has long been a
 subject of dispute between Great Britain (which has maintained possession
 since 1704) and Spain.

   Gibran, Kahlil

 Gibran, Kahlil, 1883-1931, Lebanese poet and novelist. He wrote in both
 English and Arabic. Fusing elements of Eastern and Western mysticism, he
 achieved lasting fame with such aphoristic, poetic works as The Prophet
 (1923) and The Garden of the Prophet (1934).

   Gibson, Althea

 Gibson, Althea, 1927-, American tennis player; b. Silver, S.C. In 1948
 she won the first of 10 straight national Negro women's singles titles.
 The first black to play in the U.S. nationals (1950) and at Wimbledon
 (1951), she captured both of those championships in 1957 and 1958.

   Gibson, Charles Dana

 Gibson, Charles Dana, 1867-1944, American illustrator; b. Roxbury, Mass.
 As an illustrator of various contemporary magazines, he delineated
 aristocratic social ideals and created an ideal woman, the famous "Gibson
 Girl."

   Gide, Andre

 Gide, Andre, 1869-1951, French author. A leader of French liberal
 thought, he was one of the founders (1909) of the influential Nouvelle
 revue francaise. He was controversial for his frank defense of
 homosexuality and for his espousal (and later disavowal) of communism. In
 his major novels-The Immoralist (1902), Lafcadio's Adventures (1914), and
 The Counterfeiters (1926)-he shows individuals seeking out their own
 natures, which may be at odds with prevailing ethical concepts. He was
 also known for his journals (1889-1949). Gide received the Nobel Prize in
 literature in 1947.

   Gideon, Gedeon, Jerubbaal

 Gideon, Gedeon, Jerubbaal, or Jerubbesheth, in the BIBLE, one of the
 greater judges of Israel, a strong opponent of the BAAL cult. He refused
 the kingship because of his belief that God was the king of Israel. He
 also defeated the Midianite (see MIDIAN) oppressors and appeased the
 rival Emphramites (see ISRAEL, TRIBES OF). Judges 6-8.

   Gideon v. Wainwright

 Gideon v. Wainwright, case decided in 1963 by the U.S. SUPREME COURT.
 Florida had denied Clarence Gideon free counsel in a criminal trial, and
 he had defended himself. The Court held that the right to counsel,
 guaranteed in federal trials by the 6th amendment to the U.S.
 CONSTITUTION, is fundamental to a fair trial, and that the state's
 failure to provide counsel for a FELONY defendant violated due process
 under the 14th amendment.

   Gielgud, Sir John

 Gielgud, Sir John, 1904-, English actor. He excelled in plays by
 SHAKESPEARE (notably Hamlet), WILDE, and PINTER, and won praise for film
 and television roles, e.g., Arthur (1981; Academy Award) and Brideshead
 Revisited (1981).

   Gierek, Edward

 Gierek, Edward, 1913-, Polish Communist leader. He replaced Wladyslaw
 GOMULKA as first secretary of the party in 1970, after food riots had
 broken out. A failing economy and labor unrest led to his ouster in 1980
 (see SOLIDARITY). In 1981 he was expelled from the Communist party and
 interned after martial law was declared.

   gift tax

 gift tax: see under INHERITANCE TAX.

   gila monster

 gila monster, venomous LIZARD (Heloderma suspectum) found in the deserts
 of the SW U.S. and NW Mexico. It averages 18 in. (45 cm) in length, with
 a large head, stout body, and thick tail that acts as a food reservoir;
 its skin is covered with beadlike scales. It and the beaded lizard (H.
 horridum) are the only known venomous lizards.

   Gilbert, Cass

 Gilbert, Cass, 1859-1934, American architect; b. Zanesville, Ohio. His
 60-story Woolworth Building (1913) in New York City exerted great
 influence on the growth of the SKYSCRAPER. Among his other conspicuous
 works are the Federal Courts Building (N.Y.C.) and the Supreme Court
 building (Wash., D.C.).

   Gilbert, Sir Humphrey

 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 1537?-1583, English soldier, navigator, and
 explorer; half brother of Sir Walter RALEIGH. He was knighted (1570) for
 services in Ireland. His Discourse (1576), arguing the existence of the
 NORTHWEST PASSAGE, long motivated English exploration. In 1583 he reached
 NEWFOUNDLAND and claimed it for England. He disappeared at sea near the
 AZORES.

   Gilbert, William

 Gilbert, William, 1544-1603, English scientist and physician. Noted for
 his studies of ELECTRICITY and MAGNETISM, he coined the word electricity
 and was the first to distinguish between electric and magnetic phenomena.
 In his De Magnete (1600) he described methods for strengthening natural
 magnets (lodestones) and for using them to magnetize steel rods by
 stroking, and he concluded that the earth acts like a giant magnet with
 its poles near the geographic poles. From 1600 he was president of the
 College of Physicians and court physician to Elizabeth I and James I.

   Gilbert, Sir William Schwenck

 Gilbert, Sir William Schwenck, 1836-1911, English playwright and poet.
 With the composer Sir Arthur SULLIVAN he wrote a series of popular,
 satiric operettas, including Trial by Jury (1875), H.M.S. Pinafore
 (1878), The Pirates of Penzance (1879), Patience (1881), Iolanthe (1882),
 Princess Ida (1884), The Mikado (1885), Ruddigore (1887), The Yeomen of
 the Guard (1888), and The Gondoliers (1889). Gilbert was a metrical
 craftsman, and his lyrics are often scintillatingly funny.

   Gilbert Islands

 Gilbert Islands, group of islands in the Pacific Ocean; now part of
 KIRIBATI.

   Gildersleeve, Virginia Crocheron

 Gildersleeve, Virginia Crocheron, 1877-1965, American educator; b. N.Y.C.
 Dean of Barnard College (1911-47), she was an early supporter of the
 LEAGUE OF NATIONS, founder of the International Federation of University
 Women, and chairman of the American Council on Education. Her works
 include Many a Good Crusade (1954).

   gilds

 gilds: see GUILDS.

   gill

 gill, external respiratory organ of most aquatic animals, the basic
 function of which is oxygen-carbon-dioxide exchange. Gill structure and
 location vary among animals of different groups. In fishes, gills are
 located at the rear of the mouth and contain capillaries; in higher
 aquatic invertebrates, they protrude from the body surface and contain
 extensions of the vascular system; in mollusks, they are inside the
 mantle cavity; in aquatic insects, they occur as projections from the
 walls of the air tubes. In amphibians, gills are usually present only in
 the larval stage; in higher vertebrates, they occur merely as
 rudimentary, nonfunctional gill slits, which disappear during embryonic
 development.

   Gillespie, Dizzy

 Gillespie, Dizzy (John Birks Gillespie), 1917-, black American musician;
 b. Cheraw, S.C. With Charlie PARKER he led the bop movement in JAZZ in
 the 1940s. His trumpet style blends spectacular facility with taste and
 intelligence.

   Gilman, Charlotte Perkins

 Gilman, Charlotte Perkins, 1860-1935, American feminist and writer; b.
 Hartford, Conn. She lectured on social reform and edited The Forerunner
 (1909-16), which consisted almost entirely of her own writing. Her works
 include Women and Economics (1898), an attack on women's economic
 dependence on man, and the semiautobiographical The Yellow Wallpaper
 (1890). See also FEMINISM.

   Gilman, Daniel Coit

 Gilman, Daniel Coit, 1831-1908, American educator; b. Norwich, Conn.
 President (1872) of the newly organized Univ. of California, in 1875 he
 accepted an offer to establish and become first president of Johns
 Hopkins Univ., in Baltimore. His primary interest was advanced
 instruction and research, and he developed the first great American
 graduate university in the German tradition. He founded Johns Hopkins
 hospital (1889) and medical school (1893).

   Gilson, Etienne

 Gilson, Etienne, 1894-1978, French philosopher and historian. After
 teaching in Paris, Gilson founded (1929) the Institute of Medieval
 Studies at the Univ. of Toronto and was long a member of its faculty. He
 was also one of the leaders of the neo-Thomist movement in Catholic
 philosophy. His works include The Philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas (1919)
 and The Spirit of Medieval Philosophy (2 vol., 1932).

   ginger

 ginger, common name for perennial herbs of the tropical and subtropical
 family Zingiberaceae. Many are important for their aromatic oils. Ginger
 (Zingiber officinale) is cultivated for its root, which is candied or
 dried for medicines and spice. Turmeric (Curcuma longa) and the seeds of
 cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) are similarly used, and often combined
 with ginger to make a curry.

   gingivitis

 gingivitis, inflammation of the gums, characterized by red, swollen,
 spongy gums that bleed easily. It may be acute, chronic, or recurrent.
 Chronic gingivitis usually results from bacteria, although other factors,
 such as poor dentition, prolonged use of the drug phenytoin, vitamin C
 deficiency, or DIABETES, may also contribute to it. If left untreated,
 gingivitis can lead to PERIODONTITIS.

   ginkgo

 ginkgo or maidenhair tree, deciduous tree (Ginkgo biloba) with fan-shaped
 leaves. A sacred plant in its native China and Japan, ginkgo is a "living
 fossil," the only remaining species of a large order (Ginkgoales) of
 GYMNOSPERMS that existed in the Triassic period. Today the ginkgo is
 valued in the U.S. and Europe as an avenue tree because of its
 exceptional tolerance for smoke, low temperatures, and minimal water
 supply (although the female plant, with its malodorous fruit, is not as
 desirable an ornamental as the male). Ginkgo seeds are esteemed as a food
 in the Orient.

   Ginsberg, Allen

 Ginsberg, Allen, 1926-, American poet of the beat generation; b.
 Paterson, N.J. He is best known for Howl (1956), a long poem attacking
 American values. Other volumes include Kaddish and Other Poems (1961),
 Collected Poems, 1947-1980 (1984), and White Shroud: Poems 1980-1985
 (1986).

   ginseng

 ginseng, plant (genus Panax) of the family Araliaceae. True ginseng (P.
 schinseng) is prized by the Chinese for its curative properties. It and a
 North American ginseng (P. quinquefolius), used as a substitute for true
 ginseng, have been nearly exterminated by commercial exploitation.

   Giono, Jean

 Giono, Jean, 1895-1970, French novelist. His works-particularly the
 pastoral trilogy Hill of Destiny (1920), Lovers Are Never Losers (1929),
 and Harvest (1930)-describe Provencal life, emphasizing closeness to
 nature.

   Giordano, Luca

 Giordano, Luca, 1632-1705, Italian decorative painter. A pupil of Pietro
 da CORTONA, he is known for his airy, luminous frescoes in the ESCORIAL
 (Madrid) and The Story of Judith (San Martino, Naples), also a FRESCO.

   Giorgione

 Giorgione, c.1478-1510, Venetian painter. With TITIAN he was a student of
 Giovanni Bellini (see BELLINI, family). Few details remain of his life.
 He undertook important commissions in oil and FRESCO and died of the
 plague in his 30s. He was a major innovator, greatly influencing the
 principal painters of his time. His frescoes are virtually destroyed, and
 only a few oils are ascribed to him with certainty. Luminous colors, a
 liberated, self-expressive style, and the poetic rendition of a bucolic
 fantasy world are the chief hallmarks of his works, which include The
 Three Philosophers (Vienna), Tempesta (Acad., Venice), and Concert
 Champetre (Louvre).

   Giotto (Giotto di Bondone)

 Giotto (Giotto di Bondone), c.1266-c.1337, Florentine painter and
 architect. More than any other artist he may be said to have determined
 the course of painting in Europe. Giotto turned from the formulas of
 Byzantine painting to the study of nature, achieving lifelike, expressive
 faces and the illusion of movement. He designed a great number of works,
 many of which have disappeared. In Rome in 1300 he executed the MOSAIC of
 the Navicella (now in St. Peter's, Rome), and in 1304 began the 38
 FRESCOES in the Scrovegni (Arena) Chapel (Padua). Among the greatest
 works in Italian art, these scenes from the Life of the Virgin, the Life
 of Christ, the Last Judgment, and Virtues and Vices illustrate Giotto's
 dramatic sense and power of narration. Returning to Florence, he did the
 frescoes of St. John the Baptist and St. John the Evangelist (Peruzzi
 Chapel, Church of Santa Croce) and the Life of St. Francis (Bardi
 Chapel). He achieved a remarkable representation of space, allying
 figures and background harmoniously, without using a system of
 perspective, e.g., in Madonna in Glory (Uffizi) and Death of the Virgin
 and Crucifixion (both: Berlin). Chief architect of the cathedral in
 Florence, in his last years he designed the CAMPANILE called "Giotto's
 Tower." His reforms in painting were carried throughout Italy by his many
 pupils and followers, and his popularity is attested in literature by
 DANTE, PETRARCH, BOCCACCIO, and others. His well-known Wedding of St.
 Catherine (Uffizi) was badly damaged in the flood of 1966.

   Giotto

 Giotto, in space exploration: see SPACE PROBE,.

   Giovanni Bologna

 Giovanni Bologna: see BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI.

   Giovanni da Fiesole

 Giovanni da Fiesole: see ANGELICO, FRA.

   Giovanni di Paolo

 Giovanni di Paolo, c.1403-1483, major Italian painter of the Sienese
 school. Like other Sienese painters of his era, he paid scant attention
 to the artistic innovations made in Florence. He had an inclination
 toward fantasy and a disregard for perspective. Paradise and Creation of
 the World (both: Metropolitan Mus.) and six expressive scenes from the
 life of St. John the Baptist (Art Inst., Chicago) are typical of his
 work.

   Giovanni Gondola

 Giovanni Gondola: see GUNDULIC, IVAN.

   giraffe

 giraffe, African ruminant MAMMAL (Giraffa camelopardalis) living in open
 SAVANNA S of the SAHARA. The tallest animal (up to 18 ft/5.5 m), the
 giraffe browses in the tops of ACACIA and MIMOSA trees. The legs and neck
 are elongated; the skin is patterned in large, sandy-to-chestnut spots on
 a lighter background. Giraffes travel in small herds.

   Giraudoux, Jean

 Giraudoux, Jean, 1882-1944, French dramatist and novelist. Mostly
 imaginative interpretations of Greek myths, his plays include Tiger at
 the Gates (1935) and Electra (1937). The Madwoman of Chaillot (1945) is a
 bitter satire on 20th-cent. materialism. Among his novels are Les
 Provinciales (1909) and My Friend from Limousin (1922).

   Girl Scouts

 Girl Scouts, recreational and service organization est. 1912 in Savannah,
 Ga., by Juliette Gordon Low, originally modeled on the BOY SCOUTS and
 Girl Guides of Sir Robert BADEN-POWELL. The membership is divided into
 four age groups between 6 and 17. Activities stress good citizenship,
 service to others, health, international friendship, and the arts. There
 are nearly 3 million members in 68 countries.

   Girondists

 Girondists or Girondins, group of moderate republicans in the FRENCH
 REVOLUTION, so called because their early leaders were mostly from the
 Gironde dept. Notable members were Jacques Brissot de Warville, Charles
 DUMOURIEZ, and Jean Marie Roland de la Platiere. Representing the
 educated, provincial middle class, they favored a constitutional
 government and a continental war, splitting with the JACOBINS on the
 second issue. They were unable to prevent the execution of the king, and
 their position was weakened after the treason of Dumouriez. In June 1793
 many Girondists were arrested and executed; the leftist MOUNTAIN was thus
 assured of complete control.

   Giscard d'Estaing, Valery

 Giscard d'Estaing, Valery, 1926-, president of France (1974-81). A member
 of the national assembly from 1955, he was finance minister (1962-66,
 1969-74) under DE GAULLE and POMPIDOU. As president, he was unsuccessful
 in dealing with inflation and rising unemployment. He lost the 1981
 election to Francois MITTERRAND, but was later reelected to the National
 Assembly (1984).

   Gish, Lillian

 Gish, Lillian, 1896-, American actress; b. Springfield, Ohio. She is best
 known for such silent films as The Birth of a Nation (1915), Broken
 Blossoms (1919), and, with her sister, Dorothy Gish (1898-1968), Orphans
 of the Storm (1921).

   Gissing, George

 Gissing, George, 1857-1903, English novelist. Influenced by Charles
 DICKENS, he wrote grim treatments of social issues that reflect his own
 unhappy life, as in The Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft (1903). His
 best-known work is New Grub Street (1891), depicting the plight of the
 poor, alienated artist.

   Giulini, Carlo Maria

 Giulini, Carlo Maria, 1914-, Italian conductor. A disciple of TOSCANINI,
 he was first known as a conductor of opera, chiefly in Milan and Rome. In
 1968 he made his orchestral debut, with the New York Philharmonic. After
 holding posts with the Chicago Symphony and Vienna Symphony he became
 (1978) musical director of the Los Angeles Philharmonic (see ORCHESTRA,).

   Giulio Romano

 Giulio Romano, c.1492-1546, Italian painter, architect, and decorator, a
 founder of MANNERISM; b. Giulio Pippi. A favorite pupil of RAPHAEL,
 Giulio painted many FRESCOES from Raphael's designs. In the service of
 the duke of Mantua, he designed the Church of San Benedetto and rebuilt
 the Palazzo del Te, decorating it with illusionistic and somewhat
 melodramatic frescoes. His well-known oils include The Stoning of St.
 Stephen (Church of Santo Stefano, Genoa).

   Givenchy, Hubert de

 Givenchy, Hubert de: see FASHION.

   Giza

 Giza or Jizah, Al , city (1976 pop. 1,230,446 N Egypt, a suburb of CAIRO.
 It is a manufacturing and agricultural trade center, the seat of Egypt's
 motion-picture industry, and a resort. Nearby are the Great SPHINX and
 the PYRAMID of KHUFU (Cheops).

   glacier

 glacier, mass of ice formed in high mountains and polar regions by the
 compacting of snow and kept in constant movement by the pressure of the
 accumulated mass. The four main types are valley, or mountain, glaciers,
 tongues of ice moving from mountain snowfields into stream valleys;
 piedmont glaciers, formed by the spread of one or the convergence of
 several valley glaciers; ice caps, flattened, somewhat dome-shaped
 glaciers covering mountains and valleys alike; and continental glaciers,
 huge ice sheets that give rise to ICEBERGS. Glaciers alter topography
 greatly by their erosive action, by their transport of various debris,
 and by the various forms of DRIFT they leave behind.

   Glacier Bay National Park

 Glacier Bay National Park: see NATIONAL PARKS.

   Glacier National Park

 Glacier National Park: see NATIONAL PARKS.

   Glackens, William James

 Glackens, William James, 1870-1938, American painter; b. Philadelphia. An
 illustrator for various periodicals, Glackens first showed his paintings
 with the EIGHT and is known for his portrayals of the contemporary scene.
 His dark early style yielded to a brighter palette influenced by French
 IMPRESSIONISM, e.g., Parade, Washington Square (Whitney Mus., N.Y.C.).

   Gladden, Washington

 Gladden, Washington, 1836-1918, American clergyman, writer, and lecturer;
 b. Pottsgrove, Pa. Pastor (1882-1918) of the First Congregational Church,
 in Columbus, Ohio, he helped to popularize modernist views through his
 writings. He was an early proponent of the SOCIAL GOSPEL.

   gladiators

 gladiators [Lat.,=swordsmen], in ancient Rome, class of professional
 fighters, who performed for exhibition. There were various types of
 gladiators, armed and armored differently. Gladiators fought each other
 and also wild beasts. They were slaves or prisoners, including
 Christians, or impoverished freedmen. Forbidden by CONSTANTINE I,
 gladiatorial games continued nonetheless until AD 405.

   gladiolus

 gladiolus: see IRIS.

   Gladstone, William Ewart

 Gladstone, William Ewart, 1809-98, British statesman, the dominant
 personality of the LIBERAL PARTY from 1868 to 1894. As chancellor of the
 exchequer (1852-55, 1859-66), he secured measures for economic
 retrenchment and free trade. He was prime minister four times (1868-74,
 1880-85, 1886, 1892-94) and achieved notable reforms: passage of the
 Irish land act; establishment of competitive examinations for the civil
 service, and of vote by secret ballot; abolition of the sale of army
 commissions; parliamentary reform; and educational expansion. His
 advocacy of HOME RULE for Ireland wrecked his third ministry. A great
 orator and master of finance, he was deeply religious and brought a high
 moral tone to politics; nonetheless, he was passionately disliked by
 Queen VICTORIA.

   gland

 gland, organ that manufactures chemical substances. A gland may vary from
 a single cell to a complex system. The glands of the ENDOCRINE SYSTEM,
 e.g., the thyroid, adrenals, and pituitary, secrete hormones directly
 into the bloodstream. Sweat, salivary, and other so-called exocrine
 glands secrete substances onto external or internal body surfaces,
 usually through ducts. Mixed glands such as the LIVER and PANCREAS have
 both endocrine and exocrine functions.

   glanders

 glanders, highly contagious, fatal bacterial disease of horses, mules,
 and donkeys that can be transmitted to humans. The bacterium,
 Actinobacillus mallei, primarily infects the skin, lungs, and nasal
 membranes, causing lumps, or nodules, to form in the infected area. These
 nodules enlarge, form ulcers, and release bacteria-laden pus to other
 parts of the body. Infected animals must be destroyed to prevent the
 spread of the disease.

   Glaser, Milton

 Glaser, Milton, 1929-, American graphic designer; b. N.Y.C. His
 constantly changing style, which draws widely on art history, has had
 enormous international influence. Glaser's work includes the design of
 posters, e.g., Bob Dylan (1966); book and record covers; periodicals;
 type; and interiors.

   Glasgow

 Glasgow, city (1985 est. pop. 733,794), Strathclyde, S central Scotland,
 on the River Clyde. It is Scotland's leading seaport and largest city,
 and the center of the Clydeside industrial belt. Manufactures include
 ships, metals, machinery, and textiles. Economically depressed in the
 early 1980s, by the late 1980s it had become a lively cultural center.
 Founded in the late 6th cent. by St. Mungo (St. Kentigern), Glasgow began
 its modern commercial growth with the tobacco trade in the 18th cent.
 Nearby coal fields and its location on the Clyde contributed to its
 industrial growth in the early 19th cent.

   Glaspell, Susan

 Glaspell, Susan, 1882-1948, American author; b. Davenport, Iowa. She and
 her husband, George Cram Cook, organized (1915) the Provincetown Players.
 Glaspell wrote novels, short stories, and plays, e.g., Alison's House
 (1930; Pulitzer).

   Glass, Carter

 Glass, Carter, 1858-1946, U.S. secretary of the treasury (1918-20), U.S.
 senator (1920-46); b. Lynchburg, Va. He was active in framing the FEDERAL
 RESERVE SYSTEM.

   Glass, Philip

 Glass, Philip, 1937-, American composer; b. Baltimore. He was influenced
 by Eastern music, and in 1968 he formed the Philip Glass Ensemble. His
 music, blending standard notation and tonality with electronics, is
 repetitive and of great duration. His best-known works are the operas
 Einstein on the Beach (1976; with Robert Wilson) and Satyagraha (1980).

   glass

 glass, hard substance, usually brittle and transparent, composed chiefly
 of silicates and an alkali fused at high temperatures. Metallic oxides
 impart color. In prehistoric times objects were fashioned from natural
 glass such as obsidian (a volcanic substance) and rock crystal (a
 transparent quartz). The oldest extant manufactured glass is from Egypt,
 c.2000 BC Many types were made in Roman times, but little is known of
 European glassmaking from the fall of Rome until the 10th cent., when
 STAINED GLASS appeared. Methods have changed little since ancient times.
 The materials are fused at high temperatures in seasoned fireclay
 containers, boiled down, skimmed, and cooled several degrees; then the
 molten glass is ladled or poured into molds and pressed, or it is blown
 or drawn. The shaped glass is annealed to relieve stresses caused by
 manipulation, then slowly cooled. Until the 17th cent. the finest glass
 was made in Venice; later France and England became centers of
 glassmaking. In the 20th cent. many new types have been developed,
 including fiberglass and safety glass, but in some uses glass has been
 superseded by PLASTIC. Despite mass production, glassmaking by hand
 remains a valued art.

   glaucoma

 glaucoma, disease of the EYE characterized by an excess of fluid within
 the eyeball, causing increased pressure on the retina and impairment of
 vision ranging from slight abnormalities to BLINDNESS. It most commonly
 develops gradually after the age of 40 but can sometimes occur abruptly.
 It is treated with drugs (such as pilocarpine) that decrease intraocular
 pressure.

   Glazunov, Aleksandr Konstantinovich

 Glazunov, Aleksandr Konstantinovich, 1865-1936, Russian composer. With
 RIMSKY-KORSAKOV he completed BORODIN'S Prince Igor. His own early works
 reflected nationalism, but Western influences became more prominent
 later.

   Gleizes, Albert Leon

 Gleizes, Albert Leon, 1881-1953, French cubist painter, illustrator, and
 writer. A leading cubist, he used a rich palette and wrote the first
 tract on the principles of CUBISM, Du Cubisme (1912), with Jean
 METZINGER.

   Glen Canyon Dam

 Glen Canyon Dam, 710 ft (216 m) high, 1,560 ft (475 m) long, N Arizona,
 on the COLORADO R. Completed in 1964, it is one of the world's largest
 concrete dams and impounds Lake Powell.

   Glendale

 Glendale, city (1986 est. pop. 153,660), Los Angeles co., S Calif., a
 suburb of Los Angeles; inc. 1906. It has an aerospace industry and other
 defense-oriented manufactures, as well as a film industry. Forest Lawn
 Memorial Park, a large cemetery containing numerous art reproductions, is
 located in Glendale.

   Glendower

 Glendower: see OWEN GLENDOWER.

   Glenn, John Herschel, Jr.

 Glenn, John Herschel, Jr., 1921-, American astronaut; b. Cambridge, Ohio.
 He was the first American and the third person to be put into orbital
 spaceflight when, on Feb. 20, 1962, he circled the earth three times in
 Friendship 7 (Mercury-Atlas 6). After retiring (1964) from NASA and the
 U.S. marine corps, he was elected (1974, 1980, 1986) to the U.S. Senate
 as a Democrat from Ohio. He made unsuccessful bids to be the Democratic
 presidential candidate in 1984 and 1988.

   glider

 glider, type of aircraft resembling an airplane but having at most a
 small auxiliary propulsion plant and often no means of propulsion at all.
 Modern gliders have very slender wings and streamlined bodies. The
 unpowered glider is usually launched by an elastic shock cord, a rope, or
 a cable attached to its front and pulled by a launching crew, a tow car,
 or a tow plane; its relative low weight and large wing area permit it to
 keep flying for long periods and updrafts of air are used to gain
 altitude. The type of craft built especially for soaring and sustained
 flight is called a sailplane. See HANG GLIDING; Lilienthal, Otto.

   Glinka, Mikhail Ivanovich

 Glinka, Mikhail Ivanovich, 1804-57, first of the nationalistic school of
 Russian composers. His operas A Life for the Czar (1836) and Russlan and
 Ludmilla (1842) introduced a characteristically Russian style.

   Globe Theatre

 Globe Theatre, London playhouse, built 1598, where most of SHAKESPEARE'S
 plays were presented. It burned down in 1613, was rebuilt, and was
 destroyed by the Puritans in 1644.

   globular cluster

 globular cluster: see CLUSTER, STAR.

   globulin

 globulin, any of a very large family of PROTEINS widely distributed in
 animals and plants. The gamma globulins, isolated from mammalian blood
 serum, are the antibodies of the immune system (see IMMUNITY). Gamma
 globulin injections are given to people exposed to a disease (e.g.,
 infectious hepatitis) to create a temporary immunity to the disease or
 reduce its severity.

   glockenspiel

 glockenspiel: see PERCUSSION INSTRUMENT.

   Glorious Revolution

 Glorious Revolution, in English history, the events of 1688-89 leading to
 the deposition of JAMES II and the accession of WILLIAM III and MARY II.
 James's overt Catholicism and the birth of a Catholic heir united Whigs
 and Tories against him. Seven Whig and Tory leaders sent an invitation to
 the Dutch prince, William of Orange, and his consort, Mary, the
 Protestant daughter of James, to come to England. When William and Mary
 landed, James's army deserted him and he fled to France (Dec. 1688).
 William and Mary accepted the BILL OF RIGHTS (1689), which assured the
 ascendancy of Parliamentary power over royal power.

   Gloucester

 Gloucester, city (1986 est. pop. 28,230), NE Mass., on Cape Ann; settled
 1623, inc. as a city 1873. Its fine harbor has been used by fishing ships
 for over three centuries, and it is still a great fishing port with many
 related industries. The picturesque city is a resort center and artists'
 colony. Points of interest include the bronze Fisherman, a memorial to
 Gloucester men lost at sea, and Hammond Castle Museum.

   gloxinia

 gloxinia: see GESNERIA.

   glucagon

 glucagon, polypeptide HORMONE secreted by the islets of Langerhans in the
 PANCREAS. It tends to counteract the action of INSULIN, i.e., it raises
 the concentration of glucose in the blood, essentially by promoting
 GLYCOLYSIS.

   Gluck, Christoph Willibald von

 Gluck, Christoph Willibald von, 1714-87, German-born operatic composer.
 With Orfeo ed Euridice (1762) he revolutionized OPERA, establishing
 lyrical tragedy as a vital form that unified dramatic, emotional, and
 musical elements. Alceste (1767) followed. In Paris he produced (1774)
 Iphigenie en Aulide, his first serious opera with a French LIBRETTO. His
 last important work, Iphigenie en Tauride (1779), is often considered his
 masterpiece. Gluck's emphasis on dramatic impact and musical simplicity
 became incorporated into French operatic tradition.

   glucose, dextrose

 glucose, dextrose, or grape sugar (empirical formula: C6H12O6), white
 crystalline SUGAR; somewhat less sweet-tasting than SUCROSE (table
 sugar), it is found in fruits and honey. Glucose is the major source of
 energy in animal metabolism. It requires no digestion prior to absorption
 into the bloodstream. A monosaccharide (see CARBOHYDRATE), glucose can be
 obtained by HYDROLYSIS of a variety of more complex carbohydrates, e.g.,
 MALTOSE, CELLULOSE, or GLYCOGEN. It is commercially made from cornstarch
 (see STARCH) and is used in sweetening candy, chewing gum, jellies, and
 various foods. Glucose present in urine may be a symptom of DIABETES.

   glutton

 glutton: see WOLVERINE.

   glycogen

 glycogen, highly branched POLYMER of GLUCOSE that is made and stored in
 the LIVER and MUSCLE cells of humans and the higher animals and in the
 cells of lower animals. During short periods of strenuous activity,
 energy is released in the muscles by direct conversion of glycogen to
 lactic acid. See also CARBOHYDRATE.

   glycolysis

 glycolysis, process in all higher animals and most microorganisms for the
 degradation of glucose. Beginning with a single molecule of glucose,
 glycolysis is a series of chemical reactions requiring eleven different
 ENZYMES and eventually yielding two molecules of lactic acid, which then
 enter the CITRIC ACID CYCLE. The reactions of glycolysis also generate
 the high-energy substance ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP).

   Glyndebourne Festivals

 Glyndebourne Festivals: see MUSIC FESTIVAL.

   gnat

 gnat, small, two-winged INSECT (suborder Nematocera) of the order Diptera
 (see FLY). Gnats include crane flies, midges, black flies, MOSQUITOES,
 and others. Gnats often assemble in large mating swarms. Some gnats are
 suspected carriers of pinkeye and yaws.

   gneiss

 gneiss, coarse-grained, imperfectly layered metamorphic ROCK,
 characterized by alternating dark and light bands that differ in mineral
 content. Gneisses result from the metamorphism of many igneous or
 sedimentary rocks and are the most common types of rocks found in
 Precambrian regions.

   Gnosticism

 Gnosticism, dualistic religious and philosophical movement of the late
 Hellenistic and early Christian eras. The term designates a variety of
 sects, all promising salvation through an occult knowledge Gr. gnosis
 that they claimed was revealed to them alone. Christian ideas were
 quickly incorporated into these syncretistic systems, and by the 2d cent.
 AD several posed a serious threat to Christianity; much of early
 Christian doctrine was formulated in reaction to this danger. Gnosticism
 taught that the spirit was held captive by evil archons, but that through
 the use of secret formulas it could be freed at death and restored to the
 heavenly abode. Gnosticism eventually merged with MANICHAEISM, which
 adopted many of its ideas. The Mandaeans, in modern Iran and Iraq, are
 the only Gnostic sect extant.

   GNP

 GNP: see GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT.

   gnu

 gnu or wildebeest, large ANTELOPE (genus Connochaetes) living in herds on
 African grasslands. A swift runner, it has hindquarters like those of a
 horse and a head and humped shoulders like those of a buffalo. A beard,
 mane, long tail, and large curving horns are characteristic of both
 sexes. The brindled gnu, or blue wildebeest (C. taurinus), weighs c.500
 lb (225 kg) and stands 41/2 ft (135 cm) at the shoulder.

   goat

 goat, ruminant MAMMAL (genus Capra) of the CATTLE family, with hollow
 horns, coarse hair, and a characteristic "beard," closely related to the
 SHEEP. Found in mountainous terrain and arid climates worldwide, goats
 live in herds and feed on grass and shrubs. They have been bred for
 centuries for their highly nutritious milk and valuable hair and wool,
 the source of mohair and cashmere. Wild goats include the IBEX.

   goatsucker

 goatsucker, medium-sized primarily nocturnal BIRD (order
 Caprimulgiformes) found in temperate and tropical regions, including the
 whippoorwill. Goatsuckers have long, pointed wings, weak feet, and small,
 gaping bills fringed with bristles. Most are brown, gray, or black and
 have monotonous songs. They feed mainly on insects. All fly at night
 except the nighthawk, which is active at dawn and dusk. The whippoorwill,
 common in the E U.S., hibernates during the winter instead of migrating.

   Gobelins, Manufacture nationale des

 Gobelins, Manufacture nationale des, state-con trolled TAPESTRY workshop
 in Paris. Begun as a dye works in the 15th. cent., then merged with a
 tapestry works, it was bought in 1662 by Louis XIV. The firm is still in
 operation.

   Gobi

 Gobi, one of the world's great deserts, c.500,000 sq mi (1,295,000 sq
 km), extending c.1,000 mi (1,610 km) east to west across Central Asia, in
 SE Mongolia and N China. It is from 3,000 to 5,000 ft (910 to 1,520 m)
 high, with cold winters, short hot summers, and fierce sand and wind
 storms. Grassy fringe areas support a small population of nomadic Mongol
 herders, and there are important deposits of oil at Yumen (China) and
 Saynshand (Mongolia) and coal at Tawan-Tolgoi (Mongolia). The Kerulen R.
 is the largest permanent stream.

   God

 God, divinity of the three great monotheistic religions, JUDAISM,
 CHRISTIANITY, and ISLAM. In the Old Testament various names for God are
 used, Elohim most commonly. The four-letter form Yhwh is the most
 celebrated; the Hebrews considered it ineffable and in reading
 substituted the name Adonai [my Lord]. The reconstruction Jehovah was
 based on a mistake, and the form Yahweh is not now regarded as reliable.
 The general conception of God is that of an infinite being (often a
 personality but not necessarily anthropomorphic) who is supremely good,
 who created the world, who knows all and can do all, who is transcendent
 over and immanent in the world, and who loves all human beings. (The Old
 Testament concept of God is less unified and consistent.) The majority of
 Christians believe God lived on earth in the flesh as Jesus Christ (see
 TRINITY). The several famous arguments for the existence of God are based
 on causality, design and purpose in the universe, and the nature of
 divine being; many have held, however, that God's existence must be
 accepted on faith. Some philosophers have extended the name God to such
 concepts as world soul, cosmic energy, and mind.

   Godard, Jean-Luc

 Godard, Jean-Luc, 1930-, French film director. His highly personal films
 are marked by a free-wheeling approach to content and style. Breathless
 (1959), noted for its elliptical editing, was followed by films like My
 Life to Live (1962), Weekend (1967), and Every Man for Himself (1980).

   Goddard, Robert Hutchings

 Goddard, Robert Hutchings, 1882-1945, American physicist and rocket
 expert; b. Worcester, Mass. In 1926 he completed and successfully fired
 the world's first liquid-fuel rocket. Goddard designed and built early
 high-altitude rockets, the first practical automatic steering device for
 rockets, and many other rocket devices. He was one of the first persons
 to develop a general theory of rocket action and to prove experimentally
 the efficiency of rocket propulsion in a vacuum.

   Godden, Rumer

 Godden, Rumer, 1907-, English novelist. Subtle characterization marks her
 novels, which include Black Narcissus (1939), The River (1946), In This
 House of Brede (1969), and The Dark Horse (1982). Her sister Jon Godden,
 1908-, is a novelist whose works include In the Sun (1965).

   Godel, Kurt

 Godel, Kurt, 1906-78, Czech-American mathematician and logician. He came
 to the U.S. in 1940. Godel is best known for his work in mathematical
 logic, particularly his proof (1931) of a theorem stating that the
 various branches of mathematics are based in part on propositions that
 are not provable within mathematics itself, although they maybe proved by
 means of logical systems external to mathematics.

   Godfrey of Bouillon

 Godfrey of Bouillon, c.1058-1100, crusader, duke of Lower Lorraine. He
 was prominent in the First CRUSADE at the siege of Jerusalem (1099) and
 was elected ruler of the city after its capture. Known for piety and
 simplicity, he was the subject of many legends and CHANSONS DE GESTE. He
 was succeeded by his brother BALDWIN I.

   Godfrey of Strasbourg

 Godfrey of Strasbourg: see GOTTFRIED VON STRASSBURG.

   Godiva, Lady

 Godiva, Lady, fl. c.1040-c.1080, wife of Leofric, earl of Mercia.
 According to legend, she rode naked through the town of Coventry to
 persuade her husband to lower the heavy taxes. The only person who looked
 at her as she rode became known as Peeping Tom.

   Godolphin, Sidney Godolphin, 1st earl of

 Godolphin, Sidney Godolphin, 1st earl of, 1645-1712, English statesman.
 Possessed of considerable financial knowledge, he early established a
 friendship with the duke of MARLBOROUGH, and their political fortunes
 were closely linked. He was first lord of the treasury under CHARLES II,
 JAMES II, WILLIAM III (1689-96, 1700-1701), and Queen ANNE (1702-10).

   Godoy, Manuel de

 Godoy, Manuel de, 1767-1851, Spanish statesman. As chief minister
 (1792-97, 1801-8) of CHARLES IV, he made peace with France (1795) and led
 the Spanish army to victory over Portugal (1801). His alliance with
 NAPOLEON I against England resulted in the Franco-Spanish naval defeat at
 TRAFALGAR (1805). An unscrupulous, corrupt politician, he was overthrown
 (1808) when France invaded Spain in the PENINSULAR WAR and went into
 exile in France.

   Godunov, Boris

 Godunov, Boris, c.1551-1605, czar of Russia (1598-1605). A favorite of
 IVAN IV, Boris was regent for Feodor I, Ivan's son, and probably had
 Ivan's younger son, DMITRI, murdered. On Feodor's death an assembly of
 the ruling class made Boris czar. He ruled capably, but popular distrust
 and famine (1602-4) undermined his reign. In 1604 a pretender claiming to
 be Dmitri invaded Russia; Boris died, and his son, Feodor II, could not
 defend the throne.

   Godwin, William

 Godwin, William, 1756-1836, English author and political philosopher.
 Rationalism, materialism, and anarchism mark his Enquiry Concerning
 Political Justice (1793) and his novels, including The Adventures of
 Caleb Williams (1794) and Fleetwood (1805). In 1797 he married the
 feminist Mary WOLLSTONECRAFT. Their daughter, Mary SHELLEY, married the
 poet P.B. SHELLEY, who was influenced by Godwin's works.

   Godwin-Austen, Mount

 Godwin-Austen, Mount, or K-2, one of the world's highest peaks, 29,064 ft
 (8,859 m) high, in the Karakorum range, N Kashmir, at the China-India
 border. It was discovered in 1856 and first climbed in 1954 by an Italian
 team led by Ardito Desio. A 1983 measurement, using signals from a
 navigation satellite, suggest that K-2 may be taller than Everest.

   Goebbels, Paul Joseph

 Goebbels, Paul Joseph, 1897-1945, German NAZI propagandist. One of
 HITLER'S original followers, he became propaganda minister in 1933, which
 gave him complete control over the German radio, press, cinema, and
 theater; later he also regimented all German culture. A master of the
 "big lie," he directed his most virulent propaganda against the JEWS. He
 killed himself and his family after Germany's defeat in World War II.

   Goering

 Goeringor Goring, Hermann Wilhelm, 1893-1946, German NAZI leader. One of
 HITLER'S earliest followers, Goering founded and headed (1933-36) the
 Gestapo (secret police) after Hitler came to power. He was air minister
 after 1937, and he directed the German economy as a virtual dictator.
 Hitler designated him as his successor in 1939. In WORLD WAR II he was
 responsible for the total air war. He was severely criticized for not
 being able to counter the Allies' bombing raids, and in 1943 Hitler
 relieved him of all duties and offices. He was sentenced to death for his
 WAR CRIMES at the Nuremberg trials, but he killed himself two hours
 before he was to be hanged.

   Goes, Hugo van der

 Goes, Hugo van der, d.1482, Flemish painter. His Monforte Altarpiece
 (c.1472; Berlin) reveals a classic sonority in color and serenity. Later
 works, e.g., the great Portinari Altarpiece (c.1476; Uffizi), show
 tension and dissonance in color and spatial arrangement. His Death of the
 Virgin (c.1480; Bruges) is remarkable for its staring, melancholy
 apostles.

   Goethals, George Washington

 Goethals, George Washington, 1858-1928, American army engineer; b.
 Brooklyn, N.Y. After serving on inland water projects, he became (1907)
 chief engineer of the PANAMA CANAL. After overcoming geological,
 climatic, and labor problems, he completed (1919) the canal ahead of
 schedule. For the next two years he was governor of the Canal Zone.

   Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von

 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 1749-1832, German poet, dramatist, novelist,
 and scientist whose genius embraced most fields of human endeavor. His
 autobiography, Poetry and Truth (1811-13), describes his happy childhood.
 He studied law at Leipzig (1765) and at Strasbourg (1770-71), where he
 met HERDER and began his lifelong study of plants and animals. Lasting
 influences from this period were J.J. ROUSSEAU and SPINOZA, who appealed
 to his mystic feeling for nature. Goethe first won attention with the
 drama Gotz von Berlichingen, a product of STURM UND DRANG, and The
 Sorrows of Young Werther (1774), an epistolary novel of morbid
 sensibility written after his unrequited love for Charlotte Buff. In
 1775, Goethe was invited to visit Charles Augustus, duke of Saxe-Weimar,
 at whose court he was to spend the rest of his life. For 10 years Goethe
 was chief minister of state at Weimar. A trip to Italy (1786-88) fired
 his enthusiasm for the classical ideal. Written under this impact were
 Egmont (1788), Roman Elegies (1788), Torquato Tasso (1789), Hermann and
 Dorothea (1797), and the final version of the drama Iphigenia in Tauris
 (1787). A major work, The Apprenticeship of Wilhelm Meister (1796),
 became the prototype of the German novel of character development; also
 acclaimed is Goethe's psychological novel Elective Affinities (1809). The
 first part of his dramatic poem Faust, one of the great works of world
 literature, was published in 1808; the second, after his death. The
 friendship of SCHILLER made a deep impression on Goethe. His many
 relationships with women inspired some of his finest lyrics. The
 collection West-Eastern Divan (1819) also reflects his readings of the
 Persian poet HAFIZ. Increasingly aloof in his later years from national
 or literary partisanship, Goethe became more and more the Olympian
 divinity to whose shrine at Weimar all Europe flocked. His approach to
 science combined sensuous experience with poetic intuition; well known is
 his stubborn attack on Newton's theory of light (1810). Most of his works
 have been translated into English, notably by Thomas CARLYLE.

   Goffman, Erving

 Goffman, Erving, 1922-88, American sociologist; b. Manville, Alba. He
 developed a performance-oriented theory of behavior in The Presentation
 of Self in Everyday Life (1959). Asylums (1961), which dealt with
 personality changes among inmates of a mental asylum, led to his study of
 other institutions. He taught at the universities of California and
 Pennsylvania.

   Gogh, Vincent Van

 Gogh, Vincent Van: see VAN GOGH, VINCENT.

   Gogol, Nikolai Vasilyevich

 Gogol, Nikolai Vasilyevich, 1809-52, Russian writer. His first success
 was Evenings on a Farm Near Dikanka (1831-32), a collection of fanciful
 tales set in his native Ukraine. Mirgorod (1835) included "Taras Bulba,"
 a novella of 17th cent. COSSACK life. He next wrote several tales of St.
 Petersburg; the most famous is "The Overcoat." His fame as a dramatist
 rests on The Inspector-General (1836), a satire on provincial folly. The
 culmination of his inventive gift was Dead Souls (1842), a picaresque
 novel about a rogue who buys the names of dead serfs in order to mortgage
 them.

   Goidelic

 Goidelic: see GAELIC.

   Golan Heights

 Golan Heights, strategic upland region, c.500 sq mi (1,250 sq km),
 between S Lebanon and S Syria, formally annexed by Israel in 1981.
 Elevations range from c.6,500 ft (2,000 m) in the north to below sea
 level along the Sea of Galilee (Lake Tiberias) and the Yarmuk R. in the
 south. Formerly part of Syria, the Golan Heights were fortified and used
 for artillery attacks on Israeli settlements after the creation of Israel
 (1948) and were captured and placed under military rule by Israel during
 the 1967 ARAB-ISRAELI WAR.

   gold

 gold (Au), metallic element, known since prehistoric times. Chemically
 inactive, this very ductile and most malleable METAL can be beaten into
 thin sheets of gold leaf. Only silver and copper conduct electricity
 better. Gold is usually hardened by alloying with other metals; it also
 often occurs in nature as an alloy. The gold content of an alloy is
 stated in carats; by definition, pure gold is 24 carats, and thus a 75%
 gold alloy is 18 carats. Gold is found widely distributed, mostly in
 metallic form as dust, grains, flakes, or nuggets. It occurs in quartz
 veins or lodes, usually in association with silver or other metals, and
 in alluvial placer deposits. Possibly the first metal used by humans,
 gold was valued for ornaments, and magical powers were attributed to it.
 Alchemists of the Middle Ages tried to transmute baser metals into gold
 (see ALCHEMY). The search for gold stimulated European exploration of the
 Western Hemisphere. For discussion of its monetary function, see
 BIMETALLISM; COIN; MONEY. See also ELEMENT; PERIODIC TABLE.

   Goldberg, Rube

 Goldberg, Rube (Reuben Lucius Goldberg), 1883-1970, American cartoonist;
 b. San Francisco. A humorous and political cartoonist, he is known for
 drawings of wildly intricate machines that perform simple tasks. He was
 also a sculptor.

   Golden Age

 Golden Age, [Span. Siglo de Oro], in Spanish literature, the period
 between c.1500 and c.1680 when many of the masterpieces of Spanish
 literature were produced. During the 16th cent. Spain became a dominant
 European power, and the spirit of the RENAISSANCE invaded its life and
 letters. Spanish writers assimilated the foreign influences to produce a
 distinctive literature characterized by patriotism, realism, and,
 occasionally, mysticism. The greatest single work of the period was Don
 Quixote de la Mancha (1605, 1615), by CERVANTES. Other important writers
 of the Golden Age were ALARCON Y MENDOZA, CALDERON, ERCILLA, ESPINEL,
 GARCILASO DE LA VEGA, GONGORA, Gracian, St. JOHN OF THE CROSS, LOPE DE
 VEGA, Moreto, QUEVEDO, ROJAS ZORILLA, ST. THERESA of Avila, and TIRSO DE
 MOLINA.

   Golden Ass, The

 Golden Ass, The: see APULEIUS, LUCIUS.

   golden calf

 golden calf, in the BIBLE, an idol erected by the Israelites on several
 occasions. AARON made one while MOSES was on Mt. Sinai. Ex. 32. JEROBOAM
 I made two, and HOSEA denounced a calf in Samaria. 1 Kings 12; Hosea 8. A
 bull cult was widespread in CANAAN at the time of the Israelite invasion.

   Golden Fleece

 Golden Fleece, in Greek mythology, magic fleece of the ram that carried
 Phrixus and Helle from Boeotia. Helle fell into the sea (which became the
 Hellespont), but Phrixus arrived safely in Colchis. He then sacrificed
 the ram, which became the constellation Aries. Its fleece, hung in a wood


   Golden Gate Bridge

 Golden Gate Bridge, one of the world's longest suspension bridges, built
 (1933-37) across the entrance (Golden Gate) of San Francisco Bay, Calif.
 It has a main span of 4,200 ft (1,280 m) and a total length of 9,266 ft
 (2,824 m).

   Golden Horde, Empire of the

 Golden Horde, Empire of the, Mongol state comprising most of Russia,
 founded in the mid-13th cent. by the Mongol leader Batu Khan (see
 TATARS). The name derives from the magnificence of the Mongol camp on the
 Volga, where the empire had its capital. The Russian principalities were
 tributaries of the khan, who confirmed princely succession and exacted
 taxes. In the early 14th cent. Islam became the official religion of the
 empire. Warfare among its leaders, and attempts by the Russian princes to
 end tributary payments, weakened the empire. TAMERLANE conquered it in
 the late 14th cent.

   golden parachute

 golden parachute, a contract given to top executives to provide benefits
 in case of job loss because of a takeover by another firm or a merger.
 The unusually generous benefits may include substantial severance pay, a
 one-time bonus payment when employment ends, or stock options.

   golden retriever

 golden retriever, large SPORTING DOG; shoulder height, c.23 in. (58 cm);
 weight, 60-75 lb (27.2-34.1 kg). Its water-repellent double coat is
 golden-brown. Developed in Scotland in the 19th cent. mainly to hunt
 waterfowl, this hardy breed is also used as a GUIDE DOG.

   goldenrod

 goldenrod, any species of the genus Solidago of the COMPOSITE family,
 chiefly North American weedy herbs with small, mostly yellow flowers
 growing along a slender stem. Once incorrectly thought to cause hay
 fever, it grows wild in many parts of the U.S. and is the state flower of
 Kentucky and Nebraska. Goldenrod has been used in dyes and teas.

   Golden Rule

 Golden Rule, saying of JESUS, "As ye would that men should do to you, do
 ye also to them likewise." Mat. 7.12; Luke 6.31.

   goldfish

 goldfish, freshwater FISH (genus Carassius) popular in home aquariums.
 Native to China, it was domesticated centuries ago from its wild form, an
 olive-colored carplike fish up to 16 in. (40 cm) long. Marketed goldfish
 are 1 to 4 in. (2.5 to 10 cm) long and most commonly orange in color;
 breeders have developed bizarre varieties with unusual tails, double or
 triple fins, bulging eyes, and a range of colors.

   Golding, William

 Golding, William, 1911-, English novelist. His novels, concerned
 especially with the dark side of human nature, include the nightmarish
 Lord of the Flies (1954), The Spire (1964), and Rites of Passage (1980).
 He was awarded the 1983 Nobel Prize for literature.

   Goldman, Emma

 Goldman, Emma, 1869-1940, American anarchist; b. Russia; emigrated to the
 U.S. in 1886. With the anarchist Alexander BERKMAN she published the
 paper Mother Earth. Between 1893 and 1917 she was imprisoned several
 times on such charges as inciting to riot, publicly advocating birth
 control, and obstructing the draft. She and Berkman were deported (1919)
 to the USSR; disagreeing with the Soviet government, she left in 1921.

   Goldoni, Carlo

 Goldoni, Carlo, 1707-93, Italian dramatist, author of over 260 works,
 including opera. He created a new Italian COMEDY of character, an advance
 on the COMMEDIA DELL'ARTE. Among his most notable plays are The Mistress
 of the Inn (1753), The Accomplished Maid (1756), and The Fan (1763).

   gold rush

 gold rush, influx of prospectors, merchants, and adventurers to newly
 discovered gold fields. One of the most famous was the California Gold
 Rush in 1848, when the discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill brought more
 than 40,000 prospectors to California within two years. Although few of
 them struck it rich, their presence stimulated economic growth. Other
 large gold rushes took place in Australia (1851-53); WITWATERSRAND, South
 Africa (1884); and the KLONDIKE, Canada (1897-98).

   Goldsmith, Oliver

 Goldsmith, Oliver, 1730?-74, Anglo-Irish author. One of Samuel JOHNSON'S
 circle, he made his name with Citizen of the World (1762), a series of
 whimsical essays; the philosophical poem The Traveler (1764); and the
 nostalgic pastorale The Deserted Village (1770). His reputation, however,
 rests on two comedies, The Good-natur'd Man (1768) and She Stoops to
 Conquer (1773), and on his novel The Vicar of Wakefield (1766). The
 comedies injected realism into the dull, sentimental theater of the day
 and, like the novel, are imbued with humor and warm humanity.

   gold standard

 gold standard: see BIMETALLISM; INTERNATIONAL MONETARY SYSTEM; MONEY.

   Goldwater, Barry Morris

 Goldwater, Barry Morris, 1909-, U.S. senator (1953-65, 1969-); b.
 Phoenix, Ariz. He was the leader of the extreme conservative wing of the
 Republican party during the 1950s and 1960s. He ran for president in
 1964, but was decisively defeated by Lyndon B. JOHNSON. His son Barry
 Morris Goldwater, Jr., 1938-, b. Los Angeles, was a U.S. congressman from
 California (1968-83).

   Goldwyn, Samuel

 Goldwyn, Samuel, 1882-1974, American film producer; b. Poland as Samuel
 Goldfish. In 1916 he formed Goldwyn Pictures, which merged with L.B.
 Mayer's company to become Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in 1924. Goldwyn also
 produced films independently, e.g., The Best Years of Our Lives (1946).

   golem

 golem [Heb.,=something shapeless], in medieval Jewish legend, a robotlike
 servant made of clay and given life by means of a charm, particularly the
 name of God.

   golf

 golf, game in which players hit a small, hard ball with specially
 designed clubs over an outdoor course (links). The object is to deposit
 the ball in a cup, or hole, using as few strokes as possible. The
 standard course, usually more than 6,000 yd (about 5,500 m) in length, is
 divided into 18 holes, each consisting of a tee, from which the ball is
 initially driven; the fairway, bounded by tall grass (the rough) and
 containing natural or artificial obstacles (hazards) such as water and
 sand traps; and the green, a smooth surface on which the cup (4.5
 in/11.43 cm in diameter) is located. A set of golf clubs includes 3 or 4
 woods, 9 or 10 irons, and a putter for use on the green. Although its
 origin is unknown, golf is identified with Scotland, where it was played
 as early as 1457. The British Open Tournament was established in 1860.
 The game may have been played in America in the 17th cent., but the first
 permanent club, at Yonkers, N.Y., was not organized until 1888. In the
 20th cent. golf experienced a tremendous increase in popularity. The
 professional tour, led by such stars as Arnold PALMER and Jack NICKLAUS,
 emerged as a major attraction after World War II.

   Golgi, Camillo

 Golgi, Camillo, 1844-1926, Italian physician. For his work on the
 structure of the nervous system he shared with Santiago Ramon y Cajal the
 1906 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine. Golgi stained nerve tissue
 with silver nitrate to delineate (1883) certain nerve cells (Golgi cells)
 in the central nervous system; observed (1909) the Golgi apparatus, a
 part of the cytoplasm distinguishable by staining; and recognized that
 the three types of malaria are caused by different protozoan organisms.

   Golgotha

 Golgotha: see CALVARY.

   Goliad

 Goliad, city (1980 pop. 1,990), seat of Goliad co., S Tex., on the San
 Antonio R., a market town in a farm area. During the Texas Revolution
 (1836) it was the scene of the infamous "Goliad massacre" of Texan
 prisoners by Mexican troops. A Spanish mission (est. 1749) and presidio
 are tourist attractions.

   Goliardic songs

 Goliardic songs, Late Latin poetry (11th-13th cent.) of the "wandering
 scholars," or Goliards, who included university students, poor scholars,
 unfrocked priests, runaway monks, and clerks who begged and sang their
 way from place to place. Their existence is seen as a reaction against
 the medieval ascetic ideal and the strictures of the church. Their songs,
 in lilting bastard Latin verse with stressed rhymes, mimic the form of
 medieval hymns and include lusty paeans to love, wine, and the vagabond
 life as well as skillful attacks on the immorality of church life.

   Goliath

 Goliath, in the BIBLE, gigantic Philistine who challenged the Israelites.
 The young DAVID accepted the challenge and killed him with a stone from a
 sling. 1 Sam. 17.

   Gombrowicz, Witold

 Gombrowicz, Witold, 1904-69, Polish writer. He lived in Argentina
 (1939-63) and France (1964-69). His reputation as a satirist and
 existential innovator with a highly personal vision rests on such novels
 as Ferdydurke (1937), Trans-Atlantyk (1953), and Cosmos (1965).

   Gomez, Juan Vicente

 Gomez, Juan Vicente, 1857-1935, dictator of VENEZUELA (1908-35). A
 guerrilla leader, he seized power (1908) as president and ruled the
 country as an absolute tyrant until his death. His secret police crushed
 opponents by means of imprisonment and torture. Gomez brought economic
 stability to Venezuela and attracted foreign investment in order to build
 a modern country of railroads, highways, and other public works. He
 enriched himself as well as the nation, which he tried to make a personal
 fief.

   Gomorrah

 Gomorrah: see SODOM AND GOMORRAH.

   Gompers, Samuel

 Gompers, Samuel, 1850-1924, American labor leader; b. England. After
 emigrating to the U.S. in 1863, he worked as a cigar maker and joined the
 local union. In 1881 he helped found the labor organization that became
 the American Federation of Labor in 1886. From 1886 until his death
 (except during 1895) he was president of the AFL. He directed the
 successful battle with the KNIGHTS OF LABOR and kept the AFL free of
 radical and socialistic elements; he also won higher wages, shorter
 hours, and more freedom for workers. A man of great personal integrity
 and the leading spokesman of the labor movement, he did much to make
 organized labor respected. See AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR AND CONGRESS
 OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATIONS.

   Gomulka, Wladyslaw

 Gomulka, Wladyslaw, 1905-82, Polish Communist leader. As first secretary
 of the Communist party (1956-70) he liberalized Poland while retaining
 close ties to the USSR. He resigned as the result of food riots.

   Goncharov, Ivan Aleksandrovich

 Goncharov, Ivan Aleksandrovich, 1812-91, Russian novelist. A government
 official, he wrote the satirical novel Oblomov (1859), a classic study of
 indolence. Other novels are A Common Story (1847) and The Precipice
 (1869).

   Goncourt, Edmond Louis Antoine Huot de

 Goncourt, Edmond Louis Antoine Huot de, 1822-96, and Jules Alfred Huot de
 Goncourt, 1830-70, French authors, brothers. Together they wrote social
 history, art criticism, and influential naturalistic novels, e.g., Renee
 Mauperin (1864) and Mme Gervaisais (1869). From 1851 they published the
 highly successful Journal des Goncourt, for 40 years providing an
 intimate account of Parisian society. Their work paved the way for both
 NATURALISM and IMPRESSIONISM. In his will, Edmond provided for the
 founding of the Goncourt Academy and its annual prize for fiction.

   Gondwanaland

 Gondwanaland: see CONTINENTAL DRIFT.

   gong

 gong: see PERCUSSION INSTRUMENT.

   Gongora y Argote, Luis de

 Gongora y Argote, Luis de, 1561-1627, Spanish poet. A major figure of
 Spain's GOLDEN AGE, he wrote sonnets, ballads, and the long pastoral
 Solitudes (1613), his masterpiece. His complex, artificial style,
 characterized by innovative use of metaphor, latinate vocabulary, and
 classical and mythological allusions, exemplifies the baroque tendencies
 that came to be known as Gongorism.

   gonorrhea

 gonorrhea, infectious disease involving chiefly the mucous membranes of
 the genitourinary tract, caused by the gonococcus Neisseria gonorrheae. A
 VENEREAL DISEASE, gonorrhea causes inflammation of the genital organs and
 urethra, and, if untreated, sterility. The disease is treated with
 ANTIBIOTICS, especially PENICILLIN.

   Gonzaga

 Gonzaga, Italian princely house that ruled Mantua (1328-1708), Montferrat
 (1536-1708), and Guastalla (1539-1746). Francesco Gonzaga, 1466-1519,
 marquis of Mantua, married Isabella d'ESTE and made numerous alliances in
 the ITALIAN WARS. His son, Federico Gonzaga, 1500-40, was made (1530)
 duke of Mantua and acquired Montferrat. In 1627 this senior branch became
 extinct, and the succession was disputed by a cadet line that had
 acquired the French duchies of Nivernais and Rethel, and by another
 junior branch that ruled Guastalla. War broke out between France and
 Spain over the issue, and the Nivernais branch won (1631). It in turn
 became extinct in 1708.

   Gonzales, Pancho

 Gonzales, Pancho (Richard Alonzo Gonzales), 1928-, American tennis
 player; b. Los Angeles. Known for his powerful service, he won (1948-49)
 two U.S. national singles titles. His early professional career was
 unsuccessful, but he rose to prominence in 1954, remaining the
 professional champion (except for 1960) until 1961.

   Gonzalez Marquez, Felipe

 Gonzalez Marquez, Felipe, 1942-, prime minister of Spain (1982-). A
 lawyer and first secretary (1974-79, 1979-) of the Spanish Socialist
 party, Gonzalez led the Socialists to a landslide victory in the 1982
 parliamentary elections to become head of Spain's first leftist
 government since the SPANISH CIVIL WAR. In 1986, he led Spain into the
 European Common Market.

   Good Friday

 Good Friday, anniversary of JESUS' death on the cross, the Friday before
 Easter. Among Christians it is a day of mourning and penitence. In the
 Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Anglican churches, the saying of Mass is
 suspended.

   Goodman, Benny

 Goodman, Benny (Benjamin David Goodman), 1909-86, American clarinetist
 and bandleader; b. Chicago. He formed (1934) a big band and went on to
 become the King of Swing, performing for radio, motion pictures, and
 records. He also led small ensembles, e.g., with Teddy Wilson (piano),
 Gene Krupa (drums), and Lionel Hampton (vibraphone). He was also
 successful as a classical clarinetist. See also JAZZ.

   Goodyear, Charles

 Goodyear, Charles, 1800-60, American inventor and originator of
 vulcanized RUBBER; b. New Haven, Conn. He experimented for years to find
 a way to keep rubber from sticking and melting in hot weather; in 1839 he
 discovered vulcanization, patenting it in 1844. Goodyear worked and died
 in poverty.

   goose

 goose, large, wild or domesticated swimming BIRD related to the DUCK and
 SWAN. Strictly speaking, the term goose applies to the female and gander
 to the male. In North America the wild, or Canada, goose (Branta
 canadensis) is known by its honking call and V-shaped, migrating flocks
 in spring and fall. Geese have been domesticated since ancient times; the
 popular Toulouse, or gray, goose is descended from the European graylag
 (Anser anser).

   gooseberry

 gooseberry: see CURRANT.

   gopher

 gopher or pocket gopher,burrowing RODENT (family Geomyidae) found in
 North and Central America. The gopher is gray, buff, or dark brown; its
 combined head and body length is 5 to 12 in. (13 to 30 cm). It has
 extremely long teeth and large claws. The name pocket gopher refers to
 the fur-lined pouches that open on the outsides of its cheeks, used to
 carry food and nesting material.

   Gorbachev, Mikhail Sergeyevich

 Gorbachev, Mikhail Sergeyevich, 1931-, Soviet political leader. He moved
 up in the Stavropol local leadership of the Communist party during the
 1950s and 1960s. In 1970, he was elected to the Supreme Soviet of the
 USSR. After moving (1978) to Moscow, he became (1980) a full member of
 the POLITBURO, and served as General Secretary of the Central Committee,
 Chairman of the Council of Defense, and a member of the Presidium. He
 initiated a policy of restructuring (perestroika) and a climate of
 openness (glasnost). In Dec. 1987, he visited the U.S., where he and
 Pres. REAGAN signed the inf treaty. See DISARMAMENT, NUCLEAR.

   Gorboduc

 Gorboduc, legendary early British king mentioned by GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH.
 He divided his kingdom between his sons Ferrex and Porrex, causing great
 strife. Gorboduc, or Ferrex and Porrex (1561), was the first English
 blank-verse tragedy.

   Gordian

 Gordian, name of three Roman emperors. Gordian I (Marcus Antonius
 Gordianus Africanus), d. 238, was made coemperor (238) with his son.
 After a reign of only 22 days, he committed suicide after learning that
 his son and colleague, Gordian II, 192-238, had been killed in battle.
 The latter's son, Gordian III, c.223-244, became emperor in 238. Philip
 the Arabian had him murdered in 244.

   Gordian knot

 Gordian knot: see GORDIUS.

   Gordimer, Nadine

 Gordimer, Nadine, 1923-, South African writer. Her novels, often bleak
 studies of South African life, include The Voice of the Serpent (1953), A
 Guest of Honour (1970), Burger's Daughter (1979), and July's People
 (1981).

   Gordin, Jacob

 Gordin, Jacob, 1853-1909, American Yiddish playwright; b. Russia. In
 Russia he founded (1880) the Bible Brotherhood, a reform movement of
 Judaism; when it broke up (1891) he moved to New York City, where he
 wrote plays for the Yiddish theater, including The Jewish King Lear.

   Gordius

 Gordius, in Greek mythology, king of Phrygia. The pole of his wagon was
 fastened to the yoke with a knot that defied efforts to untie it. An
 oracle stated that he who untied this Gordian knot would rule Asia.
 According to legend, ALEXANDER THE GREAT simply cut the knot with his
 sword.

   Gordon, Charles George

 Gordon, Charles George, 1833-85, British soldier and administrator. After
 serving in the CRIMEAN WAR, he commanded the Chinese army that suppressed
 the TAIPING REBELLION; afterwards he was popularly known as "Chinese
 Gordon." He was governor of the Egyptian Sudan (1877-80). Later (1885),
 while trying to crush the power of the MAHDI, he was killed in the siege
 of KHARTOUM.

   Gordon setter

 Gordon setter, large SPORTING DOG; shoulder height, 23-27 in. (58.4-68.6
 cm); weight, 45-75 lb (20.4-34.1 kg). Its long, shiny coat is black, with
 tan markings. Developed in Scotland and popularized there by the fourth
 duke of Gordon in the early 1800s, it was brought to the U.S. in 1842.

   Goren, Charles Henry

 Goren, Charles Henry, 1901-, American expert on contract BRIDGE; b.
 Philadelphia. He wrote the first of his books on the game, Winning Bridge
 Made Easy, in 1936, later giving up his law practice to concentrate on
 bridge. He won 2 world championships (1950, 1957) and 26 U.S. titles, and
 his point-count bidding system became standard.

   Gorgon

 Gorgon, in Greek myth, one of three hideous sisters, Stheno, Euryale, and
 Medusa (the only mortal one, killed by PERSEUS). Winged and snake-haired,
 they turned all who looked at them to stone. They were much represented
 in Greek art.

   gorilla

 gorilla, largest APE (Gorilla gorilla), native to the forests of
 equatorial W Africa. Males range from 5 to 6 ft (150 to 190 cm) in height
 and weigh c.450 lb (200 kg) in the wild; they have prominent sagittal
 crests and brow ridges and enormous canine teeth. Females are about half
 the size of males and their features are less developed. Their shaggy
 coats are brown or black. Though extremely muscular and powerful,
 gorillas are quiet and retiring; they are chiefly vegetarian.

   Goring, Hermann Wilhelm

 Goring, Hermann Wilhelm: see GOERING, HERMANN WILHELM.

   Gorky, Arshile

 Gorky, Arshile, 1904-48, American painter; b. Armenia. His early work is
 figurative and refined. Later he was influenced by SURREALISM and began
 (c.1940) to create abstractions of mysterious organic forms. His work was
 influential in the development of ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM.

   Gorky, Maxim

 Gorky, Maximor Maksim [Rus.,=bitter], pseud. of Aleksey Maximovich
 Pyeshkov, 1868-1936, Russian writer. Born in poverty, he wandered the
 Volga region, educating and supporting himself, from the age of eight. My
 Childhood (1913), In the World (1916), and My Universities (1923)
 describe his early years. His first story appeared in 1892. In Sketches
 and Stories (1898) he wrote of the vigor and nobility of peasants,
 workers, and vagabonds. In 1902 The Lower Depths, the first and greatest
 of his 15 plays, was performed by the Moscow Art Theater. Gorky's
 friendships with the writers ANDREYEV, CHEKHOV, and TOLSTOY date from
 this time; he later published memoirs of all three. When the 1905
 Revolution failed he was forced into exile. Mother (1906), which became
 the prototype of the revolutionary novel, was written in the U.S. After
 living in Capri (1907-13) Gorky returned to Russia in 1914. In the period
 of turmoil after the RUSSIAN REVOLUTION (1917) he used his friendship
 with LENIN and his post as head of the state publishing house to aid
 writers and artists. In 1921 he went abroad again, returning in 1928. The
 Life of Klim Samgin (1927-36), a four-part novel often considered his
 masterpiece, was unfinished at his death. Gorky's work, vital and
 optimistic, combines realism with a strong poetic strain. He is
 considered the father of Soviet literature and the founder of the
 doctrine of SOCIALIST REALISM.

   Gorky

 Gorky, formerly Nizhny Novgorod, city (1987 est. pop. 1,425,000), E
 European USSR, on the Volga and Oka rivers. A major river port, it has
 the largest automobile plant in the USSR, as well as steel-making and
 other industries. Founded in 1221, it was a center of trade with the
 East. In 1932 it was renamed for Maxim GORKY, who was born there.

   Gospel

 Gospel [M.E.,=good news; cf. evangel from Gr.,=good news], one of the
 four biographies of JESUS in the NEW TESTAMENT: MATTHEW, MARK, LUKE, and
 JOHN. The first three are called Synoptic Gospels because they present a
 comprehensive view, agreeing in subject matter and order. Many church
 liturgies include a solemn reading of the Gospel for the day. The honor
 paid to the Gospels resulted in some of the glories of book ILLUMINATION,
 e.g., the Book of Kells.

   gospel music

 gospel music, American musical form that developed in Protestant churches
 of the South. It is performed today by blacks and whites, but black
 gospel music is much more important. Rooted in field and work songs, and
 owing less to the Protestant hymns than do American Negro SPIRITUALS,
 gospel is an intense, joyful music. Its form derives from the
 call-and-response singing of preacher and congregation in black churches;
 the message is conveyed with tight control, at other times with abandon.
 Gospel and JAZZ were considered antithetical in black society until both
 forms gained general acceptance by the mid-20th cent.; together they
 influence "soul" and ROCK MUSIC. Major gospel performers include Mahalia
 JACKSON, Sister Rosetta Tharpe, the Clouds of Joy, and the Dixie
 Hummingbirds. Popular artists influenced by gospel music include Ray
 CHARLES and Aretha FRANKLIN.

   Goteborg

 Goteborg, city (1986 pop. 429,339), capital of Goteborg och Bohus co., SW
 Sweden, on the KATTEGAT. Sweden's most important seaport, it has
 shipyards and fisheries as well as such manufactures as iron and steel,
 and ball bearings. Founded in 1604 by CHARLES IX, it was a major
 commercial center from the 17th cent. Early in the 20th cent. it became
 the terminus of an important transatlantic shipping service.

   Gothic architecture and art

 Gothic architecture and art. The character of the Gothic visual aesthetic
 was one of immense vitality; it was spikily linear and restlessly active.
 Informed by the scholasticism and mysticism of the Middle Ages, it
 reflected the exalted religious hysteria, the pathos, and the
 self-intoxication with logical formalism that were the essence of the
 medieval. The Gothic style was the dominant structural and aesthetic mode
 in Europe for 400 years. Making its appearance (c.1140) in the I
 le-de-France, the style owes much to prior experimentation in Normandy
 (see NORMAN ARCHITECTURE). Ribbed vaulting (see VAULT) and pointed ARCHES
 had been used in Romanesque construction but without such purposeful and
 constant application. The important Gothic rib delineated the vaults and
 clarified the entire structure. Unlike the Romanesque, Gothic
 construction emphasized light and soaring spaces. The introduction
 (c.1180) of flying BUTTRESSES reduced wall surfaces by relieving them of
 part of their structural function, making possible the huge stained glass
 windows that gave High Gothic church walls the appearance of curtains.
 The High Gothic cathedral was based on the traditional basilican plan,
 but single units were integrated into a unified spatial scheme. The
 exterior view was dominated by twin towers crowning a facade decorated
 with sculptures. Additional towers, a profusion of flying buttresses, and
 pinnacles rose around the upper part of the edifice. The first landmark
 Gothic structure is the ambulatory of the abbey of Saint-Denis (1140-44).
 The influence of its large areas of glass and use of space was imitated
 in such cathedrals as those of Sens, Noyon, Laon, and Paris. The High
 Gothic phase is marked by the Cathedral of Chartres (begun after 1194).
 In the mid-13th cent., the Rayonnant style further reduced opaque wall
 surfaces for windows and stone tracery, e.g., Sainte-Chapelle, Paris.
 Interesting variations on Gothic style appeared in Western Europe. The
 early English style (late 12th-early 13th cent.) retained much of the
 ponderous mural style of Norman architecture, e.g., Salisbury Cathedral.
 Romanesque proportions were dominant in Italy, but the French style
 inspired German churches, e.g., in Cologne, as well as Spanish Gothic
 architecture. The latter was also influenced by Moorish tradition, e.g.,
 in Toledo. In the 14th and 15th cent. these trends culminated in the
 flamboyant style, e.g., The Church of Saint-Maclou, Rouen; the decorated
 style in England, e.g., Ely Cathedral; and the even more flamboyant
 perpendicular style, e.g., the choir of the cathedral at Gloucester.
 After the 14th-cent. economic crises and the Black Death, building
 slowed, but the Gothic tradition never completely died. It was revived in
 the 19th cent. (see GOTHIC REVIVAL). All the other arts of the Gothic
 period were dominated by architecture. Sculpture and stained glass were
 integrated into the churches. By the 13th cent., sculpture became more
 important, more humanized, and less united with architecture. The
 tendency toward mannerisms in gesture and greater realism reached
 monumental form in the Well of Moses (1395-1403; Dijon) by Claus Sluter.
 Monumental fresco painting was rare in the Gothic period, though STAINED
 GLASS and TAPESTRY assumed great importance and showed a stylistic
 development parallel to that of sculpture. The Paris school was the
 center of Gothic painting and manuscript ILLUMINATION. The Pieta of the
 Avignon school (Louvre; c.1460) is noted for its originality of
 expression. The elegant International Style was developed at this time,
 and panel painting dominated all other forms of painting. The culmination
 of Gothic art in the 15th cent. was marked by SCHONGAUER, LOCHNER,
 FOUQUET, and the van EYCKS.

   Gothic language

 Gothic language, dead language belonging to the Germanic subfamily of the
 Indo-European family of languages. One of the earliest literary remains
 in any Germanic tongue is the Gothic Bible of Ulfilas. See LANGUAGE.

   Gothic revival

 Gothic revival, term designating a return to building styles of the
 Middle Ages, most important in the U.S. and England. Early works were in
 the late ROCOCO manner of Horace WALPOLE'S "gothick" house, Strawberry
 Hill (1770). By 1830, architects were copying the originals more
 literally. A.W.N. Pugin's Contrasts (1836) and True Principles of Pointed
 or Christian Architecture (1841) were basic texts. Pugin advocated
 adherence to the methods of medieval builders to achieve structural
 clarity. John RUSKIN elaborated on these ideas. The movement came into
 conflict with the CLASSIC REVIVAL. The Church of England, supporting the
 Gothic style, provided for the restoration of many medieval religious
 buildings. In 1840 Pugin and Sir Charles Barry won a competition with
 Gothic designs for the houses of parliament. VIOLLET-LE-DUC led the
 exponents of Gothic design in France. In the U.S. the picturesque aspect
 of the style dominated. Gothic works include James Renwick's ST.
 PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL (N.Y.C.). The revival foundered because of the
 impossibility of reproducing Gothic buildings without a medieval economy
 or technology.

   Gothic romance

 Gothic romance, type of novel that flourished in
 late-18th-early-19th-cent. England. Horror-tinged mysteries often
 involving the supernatural, they were set among ruins and haunted
 castles. Horace WALPOLE'S Castle of Otranto (1765) established the type,
 which included the works of Ann RADCLIFFE, M.L. "Monk" LEWIS, and Mary
 SHELLEY. Since the 1960s romantic "Gothic novels," seemingly based on
 Charlotte BRONTE'S Jane Eyre (1847) and Daphne du Maurier's Rebecca
 (1938), have become popular.

   Goths

 Goths: see OSTROGOTHS; VISIGOTHS.

   Gottfried von Strassburg

 Gottfried von Strassburg(Godfrey of Strasbourg) , fl. 13th cent., German
 poet. His unfinished Middle High German epic Tristan (c.1210) ranks him
 among the great medieval poets. See TRISTRAM AND ISOLDE.

   Gotthelf, Jeremias

 Gotthelf, Jeremias, 1797-1854, Swiss writer and clergyman; b. Albert
 Bitzius. His pen name was that of the hero of his autobiographical novel
 Bauernspiegel (1837). Christian fervor, humor, sincerity, and vigor
 characterize his many prose works.

   Gottschalk, Louis Moreau

 Gottschalk, Louis Moreau, 1829-69, American pianist and composer; b. New
 Orleans. He achieved extraordinary international success as a performer.
 His compositions often use black and Creole rhythms and Spanish subjects.
 They include the piano pieces The Last Hope and The Dying Poet.

   Gottwald, Klement

 Gottwald, Klement, 1896-1953, Czechoslovakian Communist leader and
 president (1948-53). He became president after the Communist coup of 1948
 and dominated the party and government through brutal purges and trials.
 He made Czechoslovakia a satellite of the Soviet Union.

   gouache

 gouache: see WATERCOLOR PAINTING.

   Gould, George Jay

 Gould, George Jay: see under GOULD, JAY.

   Gould, Glenn

 Gould, Glenn, 1932-82, Canadian pianist and composer. A prodigy, he was
 noted for his interpretations of J.S. BACH and the romantic composers.
 After 1964 he concentrated on recording rather than performing.

   Gould, Jay

 Gould, Jay, 1836-92, American speculator; b. Delaware co., N.Y. From
 country-store clerk he rose to control half the railroad mileage in the
 Southwest, New York City's elevated lines, and the Western Union
 Telegraph Co. Aided by James FISK, he defeated Cornelius VANDERBILT for
 control of the Erie RR, but public protest over Gould's stock
 manipulations resulted in his expulsion in 1872. He then bought into the
 Union Pacific and other Western roads, and by sharp practice gained
 control of four lines that made up the Gould system. His scheming with
 Fisk to corner the gold market in 1869 caused the BLACK FRIDAY panic, and
 Gould's name became synonymous with autocratic business practice. His
 son, George Jay Gould, 1864-1923, b. N.Y.C., inherited his holdings. To
 compete with E.H. HARRIMAN he bought or built railroads from coast to
 coast, but his unsound financing collapsed in the panic of 1907.

   Gould, Stephen Jay

 Gould, Stephen Jay, 1941-, American paleontologist and popularizer of
 science; b. N.Y.C. With Niles Eldredge, Gould proposed (1972) an
 evolutionary theory of "punctured equilibrium" stating that many species
 may evolve relatively quickly, rather than through a continuous slow
 accretion of tiny species variations (see EVOLUTION; NATURAL SELECTION),
 and then persist virtually unchanged for perhaps millions of years. The
 "missing links" in evolutionary development sought since the time of
 Charles DARWIN may thus not exist. Elaboration of these concepts has led
 to extensive scientific debate. Gould has taught at Harvard Univ. since
 1967.

   Gounod, Charles Francois

 Gounod, Charles Francois, 1818-93, French composer of the romantic operas
 Faust (1859) and Romeo and Juliet (1867). He also wrote ORATORIOS and
 CANTATAS.

   gourd

 gourd, common name for some members of the Cucurbitaceae family, of
 tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions. The family is known for its
 many edible and otherwise useful plants, almost all annual herbs that
 grow as vines. Among these are Cucurbita species, including the PUMPKIN
 and summer squashes (varieties of C. pepo) and the winter squashes (C.
 maxima); and Cucumis species, including the CUCUMBERS, gherkins (C.
 anguria), and all MELONS except the WATERMELON. The edible fruit of the
 loofah, or California okra (Luffa cylindrica), is dried for the inner
 fibrous network, which is used as a scrubbing sponge. The term gourd is
 applied to those members of the family whose fruits have hard, durable
 shells used for ornament and as utensils, e.g., cups, dippers, and bowls.
 The Old World genus Lagenaria includes the calabash, dipper, and bottle
 gourds.

   Gourlay, Robert Fleming

 Gourlay, Robert Fleming, 1778-1863, Scottish writer and agitator in
 Canada. After emigrating to ONTARIO in 1817, he opposed the control of
 land grants by the FAMILY COMPACT clique, and was imprisoned and banished
 (1819) by it. His conviction was nullified (1842), and he returned
 briefly (1856-60) to Canada.

   gout

 gout, condition that manifests itself as recurrent attacks of acute
 ARTHRITIS, distinguished from other forms of arthritis by the presence of
 increased uric acid in the body. It may become chronic and deforming.
 Gout usually begins with an acute attack of pain, inflammation, extreme
 tenderness, and redness in the affected joint. Treatment includes high
 liquid intake and medication that increases uric acid excretion by the
 kidneys.

   Gower, John

 Gower, John, 1330?-1408, English poet, a friend of CHAUCER. His three
 major works are Speculum meditantis or Miroir de l'omme, an allegorical
 manual in French; Vox clamantis, in Latin; and Confessio amantis
 (c.1390), in English, a collection of stories illustrating the Seven
 Deadly Sins.

   Gowon, Yakubu

 Gowon, Yakubu, 1934-, Nigerian head of state (1966-75). In 1966 he was
 appointed commander in chief of the armed forces and head of the military
 government. He led (1967-70) the fight against secessionist BIAFRA, and
 after the Nigerian victory he attempted a policy of reconciliation. He
 was deposed in a bloodless coup in 1975 and went to England.

   Goya y Lucientes, Francisco Jose de

 Goya y Lucientes, Francisco Jose de, 1746-1828, Spanish painter and
 graphic artist, the greatest painter of his age. After studying in
 Zaragoza, Madrid, and Rome, Goya designed a series of ROCOCO tapestries
 full of gaiety and charm, enhanced by earthy realism. The candor of
 observation revealed in these early works was later to make him the most
 graphic and savage of satirists. He became court painter to CHARLES III
 and CHARLES IV, and his royal portraits, painted with extraordinary
 realism, show his contempt for his subjects. In 1793 a severe illness
 left him deaf, and thereafter his works were cheerless. Two of his most
 celebrated paintings, Maja Nude and Maja Clothed (both: Prado) are from
 this period, as was his chief religious work, FRESCOES for the Church of
 San Antonio de la Florida, Madrid. It is in his ETCHINGS and AQUATINTS
 that his disillusionment is clearly seen. His Caprichos are a grotesque
 social satire; his Disasters of War, a series of etchings suggested by
 the Napoleonic invasions of Spain, are an indictment of human evil and
 corruption. Also inspired by the Napoleonic invasions is his compelling
 painting, The Third of May 1808 (1814-15; Prado). At 70 Goya retired to
 his villa, decorating it with "Black Paintings" of macabre subjects,
 e.g., Satan Devouring His Children, Witches' Sabbath, and The Three Fates
 (all: Prado).

   Goytisolo, Juan

 Goytisolo, Juan, 1931-, Spanish writer. His novels, often realistic
 portrayals of post-civil war Spanish society, include The Young Assassins
 (1954), The Party's Over (1962), and Makbara (tr. 1981).

   Gozzoli, Benozzo

 Gozzoli, Benozzo, 1420-97, Florentine painter; b. Benozzo di Lese. He was
 apprenticed to Fra ANGELICO. His famous Journey of the Magi (Medici
 Palace) depicts a magnificent cavalcade, with Lorenzo de' Medici as one
 of the Magi.

   Gracchi

 Gracchi, two Roman statesmen and social reformers, brothers. Tiberius
 Sempronius Gracchus, d. 133 BC, the elder brother, became alarmed at the
 growth of wealth of the few. He stood for the tribunate of the people in
 133 BC as an avowed reformer and was the author of the Sempronian Law to
 redistribute the public lands. At the next election Tiberius renominated
 himself, but the senate had the election postponed. In a great riot on
 the following day Tiberius was killed. His brother, Caius Sempronius
 Gracchus, d. 121 BC, became the organizer of the reform movement begun by
 Tiberius. Elected (123) tribune of the people, he initiated a series of
 remarkable social reforms. Caius was reelected (122) tribune, but the
 following year was defeated for reelection. Repeal of his measures was
 proposed, and in the ensuing riots Caius was killed.

   Grace

 Grace, 1929-82, princess consort of Monaco; b. Philadelphia as Grace
 Patricia Kelly. She was a major film star until 1956, when she married
 RAINIER III, the ruling prince of Monaco. She won the 1954 Academy Award
 for her performance in The Country Girl.

   grace

 grace, in Christian theology, the free favor of God toward people,
 necessary for their salvation. Differing conceptions of grace led to
 challenges by the 5th-cent. heresy Pelagianism and by 16th-cent.
 CALVINISM. There is also cleavage in Christianity about the role of
 sacraments. Roman Catholics and Orthodox hold that sacraments confer
 grace; Protestants, that they are merely signs, not sources, of grace.

   Graces

 Graces, in Greek mythology, personifications of beauty and charm;
 daughters of ZEUS and the oceanid NYMPH Eurynome. Also known as the
 Charites, they were named Aglaia, Thalia, and Euphrosyne. The Romans
 called them the Gratiae.

   grackle

 grackle, New World BIRD of the family Icteridae, which includes the
 BLACKBIRD and BOBOLINK. The common grackle of the Atlantic coast is black
 with metallic hues. It eats grains and insects but is also a
 cannibalistic nest robber.

   graffito

 graffito, or sgraffito, decorative medium in which a plaster surface is
 scratched to uncover a darker, contrasting color. The technique was known
 to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks. During the Renaissance, Italian
 architects used graffito to decorate the surfaces of buildings. A
 graffito (pl. graffiti) also refers to an irreverent inscription on a
 wall in a public space. Archaeologists used the term to designate
 informal writings on ancient monuments. In the second half of the 20th
 cent. the term has been applied to many acts of property defacement
 involving paint and other graphic media.

   grafting

 grafting, horticultural practice of uniting the cambial layers, or
 CAMBIUM, of two closely related plants so that they grow as one. The
 scion (the piece grafted onto the stock or rooted part) may be a single
 bud or a cutting with several buds; the stock may be a whole plant or a
 root. The primary reason for grafting is to propagate HYBRIDS that do not
 bear seed or do not grow true from seed. It is also used to increase
 fruit tree productivity by adding to the numbers of buds, to grow a plant
 in an unfamiliar environment by using a stock adapted to that
 environment, and to combat diseases and pests by using resistant stock.

   Graham, Billy (William Franklin Graham)

 Graham, Billy (William Franklin Graham), 1918-, American evangelist; b.
 Charlotte, N.C. Ordained (1939) a minister in the Southern Baptist
 Church, he began his career as an evangelist in 1944. A fiery and
 persuasive preacher, he has had highly successful evangelistic campaigns
 that have brought him international attention. The Billy Graham
 Evangelical Association publishes Decision magazine and produces material
 for radio, television, and films.

   Graham, Martha

 Graham, Martha, 1894-, American dancer, teacher, and choreographer; b.
 Pittsburgh, Pa. She studied and made her debut (1920) with the Denishawn
 companies, and then formed (1929) her own troupe. She is a leading figure
 in MODERN DANCE; her works include Appalachian Spring (1944) and The
 Archaic Hours (1969).

   Graham, Thomas

 Graham, Thomas, 1805-69, Scottish chemist. His research in diffusion in
 both gases and liquids led to his formulation of Graham's law. The first
 to work in colloidal chemistry, he observed that some substances pass
 through a membrane more slowly than others, thus discovering DIALYSIS.
 His studies of phosphoric acid led to the present chemical concept of
 polybasic acids.

   Grahame, Kenneth

 Grahame, Kenneth, 1859-1931, English author. His humorous works include
 The Golden Age (1895) and, his children's classic, The Wind in the
 Willows (1908).

   grain

 grain, in agriculture, the caryopsis, or dry FRUIT, of a cereal GRASS,
 the seedlike fruits of BUCKWHEAT and other plants, and the plants bearing
 such fruits. Grains, whole or ground into meal or flour, are the main
 food of humans and domestic animals. The food content is mostly
 carbohydrate, but some protein, oil, and vitamins are present. Low in
 water content, grains can be stored for long periods. The primary grain
 crops-including WHEAT, RICE, and CORN-together occupy about half of total
 world cropland.

   Grainger, Percy Aldridge

 Grainger, Percy Aldridge, 1882-1961, Australian-American pianist and
 composer. He settled in the U.S. in 1914. A friend of GRIEG, he is noted
 for settings of folk melodies.

   gram

 gram: see METRIC SYSTEM; WEIGHTS AND MEASURES,.

   grammar

 grammar, description of the structure of a language, consisting of the
 sounds (see PHONETICS); the meaningful combination of these sounds into
 words or parts of words, called morphemes; and the arrangement of the
 morphemes into phrases and sentences, called syntax. The list of
 morphemes and their meanings (see SEMANTICS) in a language is usually not
 part of a grammar but is isolated in a DICTIONARY. Syntax is also
 concerned with agreement in a phrase or sentence between concomitant
 entries, e.g., agreement of subject and verb in number and GENDER. Also
 studied are sentence transformations such as negativization,
 interrogation, and passivization. The earliest study of grammar began
 about the 5th cent. BC in India with Panini's descriptive grammar of
 Sanskrit and in Greece with PLATO'S dialogue Cratylus. Early traditional
 grammars were devoted primarily to defining the parts of speech
 semantically. The scientific analysis of language began in the 19th cent.
 with the genealogical classification of languages by comparative
 linguists. Grammatical analysis was advanced greatly in the 20th cent. by
 the theories of structural linguistics and of TRANSFORMATIONAL-GENERATIVE
 GRAMMAR. School grammar books are prescriptive, that is, they provide
 rules of what is considered correct and do not take into account common
 usage and differences, such as those of DIALECT or those in styles and
 levels of language (such as formal and informal; standard, substandard,
 and nonstandard).

   Gramme, Zenobe-Theophile

 Gramme, Zenobe-Theophile, 1826-1901, Belgian electrical engineer.
 Model-maker for a Parisian manufacturer of electrical devices, he
 developed (1869), with little knowledge of electrical theory, an
 improved, practical direct-current dynamo. By reversing its principle, he
 invented the electric engine. In 1872, working with others, he
 transmitted direct-current electricity over a long distance.

   Gramm-Rudman Act

 Gramm-Rudman Act, U.S. budget deficit reduction measure of 1985. The law
 provides for automatic spending cuts to take effect if Congress fails to
 reach established targets. It aims to reduce the deficit in installments,
 approaching zero by 1991; the cuts are divided equally between defense
 and domestic programs.

   Gramsci, Antonio

 Gramsci, Antonio, 1891-1937, Italian political theorist. After rejecting
 Socialism, Gramsci helped found (1921) the Italian Communist Party. As
 party chief (1924), he was elected to the chamber of deputies (1924-26).
 When MUSSOLINI outlawed the party, Gramsci was arrested (1926) and spent
 his remaining years in prison (1926-37), where his writings, Letters from
 Prison (1947), The Modern Prince (1949), and Prison Notebooks (1971)
 proved him to be one of the leading Marxist thinkers of the century.

   Gram's stain

 Gram's stain, laboratory staining technique that distinguishes between
 two groups of bacteria, gram-negative and gram-positive, by identifying
 differences in their cell-wall structure. Pinpointing the type of
 bacterial pathogens involved in disease (see BACTERIA) can be valuable in
 determining treatment.

   Granada

 Granada, city (1981 est. pop. 262,182), capital of Granada prov., S
 Spain, in Andalusia, at the confluence of the Darro and Genil rivers and
 at the foot of the Sierra Nevada. Now the center of a mineral-rich
 agricultural region, Granada flourished as the seat (1238-1492) of the
 kingdom of Granada, the last refuge of the MOORS, driven south by the
 Christian reconquest of Spain. The city is dominated by the Alhambra, a
 Moorish citadel and palace, and also contains a cathedral and the palace
 of Holy Roman Emperor CHARLES V.

   Granados, Enrique

 Granados, Enrique, 1867-1916, Spanish composer and pianist; b. Cuba. He
 created the Spanish piano manner later used by FALLA. Goyescas (1912-14),
 a set of piano pieces, is his outstanding work.

   Gran Chaco

 Gran Chaco, lowland plain, c.250,000 sq mi (647,500 sq km), in Paraguay
 and adjacent parts of Bolivia and Argentina. It is sparsely populated and
 one of the hottest places in South America, with alternating flood and
 drought seasons. Resources include oil (in the east) and quebracho, a
 source of tannin.

   Grand Alliance, War of the

 Grand Alliance, War of the, 1688-97, war between France and members of
 the League of Augsburg (known as the Grand Alliance after 1689). League
 members included the Holy Roman emperor, the German states, Spain,
 Sweden, the Dutch Netherlands, Savoy, and England (after WILLIAM III
 ascended the throne). They attempted to thwart the territorial incursions
 of LOUIS XIV. Despite some English victories, France was generally
 successful. But as the war dragged on, both sides wearied of it. The
 Treaty of Ryswick, which ended the war, forced France to give up most of
 its conquests. See FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS.

   Grand Army of the Republic

 Grand Army of the Republic (GAR), organization established by Union
 veterans of the U.S. CIVIL WAR in 1866. At its peak in 1890 it had more
 than 400,000 members. Its principal goals were to aid fellow veterans and
 their families, obtain pension increases, and preserve the memory of
 fallen comrades (they secured the adoption of MEMORIAL DAY in 1868). They
 exerted a strong influence on the REPUBLICAN PARTY until 1900. The last
 member died in 1956.

   Grand Banks

 Grand Banks, submarine plateau off SE Newfoundland, Canada. Shallow and
 frequently fog-bound, the waters in the area are rich in cod, halibut,
 haddock, and other marine life, making it one of the most important
 fishing grounds in the world.

   Grand Canal

 Grand Canal, world's longest and oldest man-made waterway, extending
 c.1,000 mi (1,600 km) from Tianjin (the port for Peking) in N China to
 Hangzhou and the YANGTZE R. valley in the south. The canal, which was
 started in the 6th cent. BC, was lengthened AD c.610 and again extended
 in the 13th cent. Long in decline, it was dredged, widened, and renovated
 after 1958.

   Grand Canary

 Grand Canary: see CANARY ISLANDS.

   Grand Canyon

 Grand Canyon, world-famous gorge cut by the COLORADO R., NW Arizona. It
 is up to 1 mi (1.6 km) deep, 4-18 mi (6-29 km) wide, and more than 200 mi
 (320 km) long. Multicolored layers of rock in the canyon wall record more
 than 2 million years of geologic time. Trails wind from the rim of the
 gorge to its floor. The most spectacular section of the canyon is part of
 Grand Canyon National Park (see NATIONAL PARKS,) and is one of the
 principal tourist attractions in the U.S., visited each year by more than
 2 million people.

   Grand Canyon National Park

 Grand Canyon National Park: see NATIONAL PARKS.

   Grand Coulee Dam

 Grand Coulee Dam, concrete dam, 550 ft (168 m) high and 4,173 ft (1,272
 m) long, on the COLUMBIA R., Washington. Built 1933-42, it impounds
 Franklin D. Roosevelt Lake (130 sq mi/337 sq km), one of the largest
 reservoirs in the U.S., and supports a hydroelectric installation that
 was being expanded during the early 1980s into one of the largest in the
 world (more than 9.7 Mw capacity).

   grandfather clause

 grandfather clause, provision in constitutions of seven Southern states
 (adopted 1895-1910) exempting from rigid economic and literacy
 requirements those persons eligible to vote on Jan. 1, 1867, and their
 descendants. Since blacks had not yet been enfranchised on that date, the
 provision effectively barred them from the polls while granting voting
 rights to poor and illiterate whites. The clause was ruled
 unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 1915. The term grandfather
 clause is now applied to any kind of legal exemption based on prior
 status.

   grand jury

 grand jury: see under JURY.

   Grand Rapids

 Grand Rapids, city (1986 est. pop. 186,530), seat of Kent co., W central
 Mich., on the Grand R.; inc. 1850. The commercial center for a farm and
 orchard area, the city is famous for furniture manufacturing (begun
 1859), which is still one of its leading industries. Gravel, gypsum, and
 appliances are among other products. Grand Rapids is the gateway to a
 large recreational area of Michigan.

   Grand Teton National Park

 Grand Teton National Park: see NATIONAL PARKS.

   Grange, Red

 Grange, Red (Harold Edward Grange), 1903-, American football player; b.
 Forksville, Pa. As an All-American halfback (1923-25) at the Univ. of
 Illinois, he scored 31 touchdowns and gained 3,367 yards. In his
 professional career with the Chicago Bears (1925-35) he scored 1,058
 points. Later he became a radio and television sportscaster.

   Granger movement

 Granger movement, American agrarian movement named for the National
 Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry, founded in 1867. Its local units were
 called granges and its members grangers. Originally established for
 social and educational purposes, the granges became political forums
 seeking to correct economic abuses through cooperative enterprise. The
 "Granger laws," regulating railroads and grain storage facilities,
 established the constitutional principle of public regulation of private
 utilities. After 1876 other groups adopted the agrarian protest, and the
 granges reverted to their social role.

   granite

 granite, coarse-grained ROCK composed chiefly of QUARTZ and FELDSPARS, of
 varying color. It is commonly believed to be igneous (having solidified
 from a molten state), but some granites show evidence of being
 metamorphic in origin (see METAMORPHISM). Formed at depth, granite masses
 are exposed at the earth's surface by crustal movements or erosion of
 overlying rocks. Very coarse-grained granite, called pegmatite, may
 contain minerals and gems of economic value.

   Grant, Cary

 Grant, Cary, 1904-86, American film actor; b. England as Archibald Leach.
 Debonair and charming, he appeared in such films as Bringing Up Baby
 (1938), The Philadelphia Story (1940), and North by Northwest (1959). In
 1970, he received the Academy Award for general excellence.

   Grant, Ulysses Simpson

 Grant, Ulysses Simpson, 1822-85, commander in chief of the Union army in
 the U.S. Civil War, 18th president of the U.S. (1869-77); b. Point
 Pleasant, Ohio, as Hiram Ulysses Grant. He graduated from West Point in
 1843. Upon the outbreak of the CIVIL WAR, he was commissioned colonel,
 then brigadier general, of a regiment of volunteers, and fought his first
 battle at Belmont, Mo., on Nov. 9, 1861. In Feb. 1862 he captured Fort
 Henry and Fort Donelson in Tennessee, providing the first major Union
 victory, and he was at once promoted to major general. In Apr. 1862 he
 barely escaped defeat at the Battle of SHILOH. The VICKSBURG CAMPAIGN
 (1862-63), which ended Confederate control of the Mississippi, was one of
 his greatest successes. Called to the supreme command in the West (Oct.
 1863), he thoroughly defeated the Confederate forces under Braxton BRAGG
 at CHATTANOOGA. Pres. LINCOLN made him commander in chief, with the rank
 of lieutenant general in Mar. 1864. He directed the Union army in the
 WILDERNESS CAMPAIGN (May-June 1864), wearing out the Confederates by
 sheer attrition; he received Robert E. LEE'S surrender at APPOMATTOX on
 Apr. 9, 1865. He was made full general in 1866, the first U.S. citizen
 after Washington to hold that rank. Grant was elected president in 1868,
 defeating Horatio Seymour, and reelected in 1872, defeating Horace
 GREELEY. His administration was characterized by corruption,
 special-interest legislation, and vigorous pursuit of a punitive
 RECONSTRUCTION program; in foreign affairs, however, much was
 accomplished by his able secretary of state, Hamilton FISH. Grant's
 Personal Memoirs (2 vol., 1885-86) rank among the great military
 narratives of history.

   Granville-Barker, Harley Granville

 Granville-Barker, Harley Granville, 1877-1946, English dramatist and
 critic. A major avant-garde producer of plays in the early 1900s, he also
 wrote realistic plays, e.g., Waste (1907), and The Madras House (1910),
 and the monumental Prefaces to Shakespeare (6 vol., 1927-74).

   grape

 grape, common name for the family Vitaceae, mostly climbing shrubs of
 tropical, subtropical, and temperate zones. The WINE grape (Vitis
 vinifera), known since ancient times, probably originated around the
 Mediterranean and in W Asia; it is now grown in temperate regions of the
 Americas. Grapes grown east of the Rockies are usually hybrids of this
 species and disease-resistant American grapes, or varieties of native
 species. Raisins are dried grapes. The genus Parthenocissus, native to
 the U.S., includes the VIRGINIA CREEPER (P. quinquefolia) and Boston IVY
 (P. tricuspidata).

   grapefruit

 grapefruit, evergreen tree (Citrus paradisi) of the RUE family, and its
 globular CITRUS FRUIT, which grows in grapelike bunches and weighs from
 one to five pounds (0.45 to 2.27 kg). It is believed that the pomelo (C.
 maxima), long a popular fruit in parts of Asia, was introduced into the
 West Indies, where a mutation produced the grapefruit.

   graph

 graph, figure that shows relationships between quantities. In a bar graph
 the lengths of bars indicate the quantities to be compared. In a line
 graph the relationship to be studied is treated as a FUNCTION and is
 plotted on a coordinate system (for an example, see CARTESIAN
 COORDINATES). The graph of a function y=f(x), where x and y are numbers,
 is the set of points in the xy-plane with coordinates x, f(x). Statistics
 makes use of both bar graphs and line graphs.

   graphics

 graphics: see COMPUTER GRAPHICS; ENGRAVING; ETCHING; PRINTING
 ; WOODCUT AND WOOD ENGRAVING.

   graphite, plumbago

 graphite, plumbago, or black lead,mineral, one of two crystalline forms
 of the element CARBON, occurring in various parts of the world. Dark gray
 or black, greasy, and soft, with a metallic luster, it is a good
 conductor of electricity. It is used to make crucibles and electrodes;
 mixed with clay, it is the so-called lead of pencils.

   Grass, Gunter

 Grass, Gunter, 1927-, German writer and artist; b. Danzig (Gdansk,
 Poland). Antimilitarism and social criticism are expressed in his novels
 The Tin Drum (1959) and Dog Years (1963). His early works are symbolic;
 later writings, such as From the Diary of a Snail (1973), reflect his
 political activism. The Flounder (1977) is a highly acclaimed novel
 treating politics, feminism, and the art of cooking.

   grass

 grass, any plant of the family Gramineae, a widely distributed group of
 mostly annual and perennial herbs. The grass family is of far greater
 economic importance than any other. It includes the cereal grasses, e.g.,
 WHEAT, RICE, CORN, OATS, BARLEY, and RYE,
 hich provide the GRAIN that is the staple food in most countries and the
 major type of feed; most hay and pasture plants, e.g., SORGHUM and
 bluegrass; SUGARCANE; and species of REED and BAMBOO used for thatching
 and construction. In addition, plants of the grass family provide raw
 material for the production of many liquors and PAPER items, form climax
 vegetation (see ECOLOGY) in areas of low rainfall (see PAMPAS; PRAIRIE;
 SAVANNA; STEPPE; VELDT), and help to prevent EROSION.

   Grasse, Francois Joseph Paul, comte de

 Grasse, Francois Joseph Paul, comte de, 1722-88, French admiral. His
 blockade of the York and James rivers during the AMERICAN REVOLUTION
 effectively bottled up Gen. CORNWALLIS at Yorktown and led to the great
 American victory of the YORKTOWN CAMPAIGN.

   grasshopper

 grasshopper, slender, winged, singing INSECT of two families in the order
 Orthoptera, having powerful hind legs, adapted for jumping and initiating
 flight, and chewing mouthparts. Usually only the males produce a song,
 but both sexes possess auditory organs. They range from 1/2 to 4 in.
 (1-10 cm) in length. The long-horned grasshopper family includes the
 KATYDID; the smaller, short-horned family includes the LOCUST.

   Grassmann, Hermann Gunther

 Grassmann, Hermann Gunther, 1809-77, German mathematician and scholar. He
 translated the Rig-Veda (1876-77) and reformulated the linguistic law
 (named for him) stating that in Indo-European bases, successive syllables
 may not begin with aspirates.

   Grasso, Ella Tambussi

 Grasso, Ella Tambussi, 1919-81, American politician, governor of
 Connecticut (1975-81); b. Windsor Locks, Conn. She served Connecticut in
 the legislature (1952-56) and as secretary of state (1958-70). She was
 elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1970. Elected governor in
 1974, she was the first American woman to achieve the office of governor
 in her own right.

   Gratiae

 Gratiae: see GRACES.

   Grattan, Henry

 Grattan, Henry, 1746-1820, Irish statesman. Entering the Irish Parliament
 in 1775, he became known as a brilliant orator. He helped achieve nominal
 legislative independence for the Irish Parliament, and he helped gain
 Catholics the right to vote in Ireland. When hopes that Catholics could
 sit in Parliament were dashed, he retired (1797). He sat in the British
 Parliament from 1805, but took little part.

   Graves, Robert

 Graves, Robert, 1895-1985, English poet, novelist, and critic. He was
 first successful with his war memoir Good-bye to All That (1929). Best
 known for his poetry and for novels on Roman history, I, Claudius (1934)
 and Claudius the God (1934), he has also written studies of myth, e.g.,
 Greek Myths (2 vol., 1955), criticism, and translations of APULEIUS and
 HOMER.

   gravitation

 gravitation, the attractive FORCE existing between any two particles of
 matter. Because this force acts throughout the universe, it is often
 called universal gravitation. Isaac NEWTON was the first to recognize
 that the force holding any object to the earth is the same as the force
 holding the moon and planets in their orbits. According to Newton's law
 of universal gravitation, the force between any two bodies is directly
 proportional to the product of their MASSES and inversely proportional to
 the square of the distance between them. The constant of proportionality
 is known as the gravitational constant (symbol G) and equals 6.670 *
 10-11 newton-M2/kg2 in the mks system of units. The measure of the force
 of gravitation on a given body on earth is the WEIGHT of that body. In
 the general theory of RELATIVITY, gravitation is explained geometrically:
 matter in its immediate neighborhood causes the curvature of the
 four-dimensional SPACE-TIME continuum. See also CELESTIAL MECHANICS.

   gravitational collapse

 gravitational collapse, in astronomy, theoretically predicted final stage
 in the life history of a star (see STELLAR EVOLUTION). Gravitational
 collapse may begin when a star has depleted its steady sources of nuclear
 energy and can no longer produce the expansive force, which is a result
 of normal gas pressure, that supports the star against the compressive
 force of its own GRAVITATION. As the star shrinks in size (and increases
 in density), it may assume one of several forms depending upon its mass.
 A low-mass star may become a WHITE DWARF; an intermediate-mass star may
 explode as a SUPERNOVA and become a NEUTRON STAR. If a star is too
 massive, however, its evolution will not stop at one of these stable
 configurations. According to present knowledge, nothing remains to
 prevent the star from collapsing without limit to an indefinitely small
 size. According to the general theory of RELATIVITY, space becomes curved
 in the vicinity of matter; the greater the concentration of matter, the
 greater the curvature. When the radius of a star decreases below a
 certain limit (the Schwarzschild radius, or event horizon) determined by
 its mass, the extreme curvature of space seals off contact with the
 outside world. The former star is now a black hole. Because light and
 other forms of energy and matter are permanently trapped inside a black
 hole by the enormous pull of gravitation, a black hole can be observed
 only indirectly. For example, in some BINARY-STAR systems, such as the
 X-ray source Cygnus X-1, the smaller and invisible companions are strong
 emitters of X-rays and are suspected of being black holes. Gas flows from
 the larger component of the binary and forms an accretion disk around the
 black hole. As the gas from this disk spirals into the black hole, it is
 accelerated by the collapsed star's enormous gravitational pull; as this
 happens, the matter becomes compressed and heated to the extreme
 temperatures at which X rays are emitted.

   Gray, Asa

 Gray, Asa, 1810-88, leading American botanist and taxonomist; b. Oneida,
 N.Y. Professor of natural history at Harvard and a prolific author, he
 (with the botanist John Torrey) helped to revise LINNAEUS'S taxonomy,
 basing his version mainly on fruit anatomy rather than gross morphology.
 His writings include the Manual of Botany (8th centennial ed. 1950), the
 standard reference for E U.S. flora; Structural Botany (6th ed. 1879);
 and The Elements of Botany (1887).

   Gray, Elisha

 Gray, Elisha, 1835-1901, American inventor; b. Barnesville, Ohio. He
 patented many electrical devices, most having to do with the telegraph.
 In 1875, experimenting with transmitting musical notes, he hit on the
 idea of transmitting the human voice. In early 1876 he filed for a patent
 caveat, just hours after the registration of Alexander Graham BELL'S
 final telephone patent.

   Gray, Hanna Holborn

 Gray, Hanna Holborn, 1930-, American historian, president of the Univ. of
 Chicago (1978-); b. Germany. Her father, the eminent historian Hajo
 Holborn, fled the Nazis in 1934 and settled in the U.S. A Renaissance and
 Reformation scholar, Gray became provost of Yale in 1974 and acting
 president in 1977. Her appointment to Chicago made her the first woman to
 head a major American university.

   Gray, Thomas

 Gray, Thomas, 1716-71, English poet. A scholar of Greek and history, he
 spent a secluded life at Cambridge. His first important poems, written in
 1742, include "Ode on a Distant Prospect of Eton College." The meditative
 "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard" (1751) is probably the most
 quoted poem in English. Horace WALPOLE published Gray's Pindaric odes in
 1757. Gray's verse illustrates the evolution of 18th-cent. English poetry
 from CLASSICISM to early ROMANTICISM.

   Graz

 Graz, city (1981 pop. 243,405), capital of Styria prov., SE Austria, on
 the Mur R. Probably founded in the 12th cent., it was built around the
 Schlossberg, a mountain peak, on which stand the famous Uhrturm clock
 tower and the ruins of a 15th-cent. fortress. The second largest city in
 Austria, Graz has iron and steel, paper, and machinery works. Noteworthy
 are its Gothic structures and the Johanneum museum. The astronomer
 Johannes KEPLER taught at the university.

   Great Awakening

 Great Awakening, series of religious revivals that swept over the
 American colonies about the middle of the 18th cent. Beginning in the
 1720s, Theodorus Frelinghuysen and Gilbert TENNENT made local stirrings
 in New Jersey. In New England the movement was started (1734) by Jonathan
 EDWARDS. It was spread by a tour (1739-41) of George WHITEFIELD and
 reached the South with the preaching (1748-59) of Samuel Davies. The
 Great Awakening led to bitter doctrinal disputes, but it also resulted in
 missionary work among the Indians and in the founding of new educational
 institutions. It encouraged a democratic spirit in religion.

   Great Barrier Reef

 Great Barrier Reef, largest coral reef in the world, in the CORAL SEA,
 off the coast of Queensland, NE Australia. It is c.1,250 mi (2,000 km)
 long and is separated from the mainland by a shallow lagoon up to 100 mi
 (161 km) wide. The reef is composed of hundreds of individual reefs and
 has many islets, coral gardens, and unusual marine life. In some places
 it is more than 400 ft (122 m) thick.

   Great Basin

 Great Basin, desert region, in Nevada, Utah, and parts of adjoining
 states, forming the northern half of the Basin and Range physiographic
 province. It was explored (1843-45) and named by J.C. FREMONT, who
 recognized it as a basin of interior drainage (i.e., without outlet to
 the sea). GREAT SALT LAKE, Sevier, and Utah are the chief lakes. The
 basin is sparsely populated. Industries include mining (copper, silver,
 gold) and ranching.

   Great Bear Lake

 Great Bear Lake, largest lake of Canada and fourth largest of North
 America, c.12,275 sq mi (31,800 sq km), on the Arctic Circle in the
 Mackenzie district of the Northwest Territories. The lake, which is
 ice-bound for eight months of the year, is 190 mi (310 km) long, 25-110
 mi (40-177 km) wide, and drains west through the Great Bear R. to the
 MACKENZIE R. Port Radium, in the east, was a radium-mining boom town in
 the 1930s.

   Great Britain

 Great Britain, officially the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
 Northern Ireland, constitutional monarchy (1988 est. pop. 57,142,000),
 94,226 sq mi (244,044 sq km), on the British Isles, off the W European
 continent. It comprises England, Wales, and Scotland on the island of
 Great Britain, and Northern Ireland on the island of Ireland. The capital
 is LONDON. Great Britain is one of the world's leading industrial
 nations. However, it lacks most of the raw materials needed for industry
 and must also import about half of its food supplies. Thus its prosperity
 is heavily dependent on the export of manufactured goods in exchange for
 raw materials and foodstuffs, and it is the third most active trading
 nation in the world. Manufacturing is the largest sector of the economy
 and employs more than one third of the total work force. Major industries
 include food processing, iron and steel, engineering, motor vehicles,
 chemicals, textiles, and aircraft. Production of oil from NORTH SEA wells
 began in 1975, and by 1979 the country was self-sufficient in petroleum.
 Coal is also mined in large quantities. Almost 75% of the land is devoted
 to agriculture, with dairy products and beef cattle the chief
 commodities. Large numbers of sheep are raised for meat and wool. The
 coal, gas, electricity, railroad, shipbuilding, nuclear energy, and, in
 part, aerospace industries are publicly owned. Great Britain is the fifth
 most densely populated nation in Europe, and the greatest population
 concentration is in England. English is the universal language, but Welsh
 is widely spoken in Wales and some Gaelic in Scotland. The Church of
 England is the established church in England; the Presbyterian Church is
 legally established in Scotland. There are large numbers of Roman
 Catholics and Methodists. Immigration has made Great Britain a
 multiracial society; immigrants from India, Pakistan, the West Indies,
 and other Commonwealth countries number at least 1,500,000. The
 hereditary monarch plays a largely ceremonial role in the government.
 Sovereignty rests in Parliament, which consists of a 650-member House of
 Commons and a House of Lords. Effective power resides in the Commons,
 where the leading party usually provides the executive-the cabinet,
 headed by the prime minister. For physical geography, see ENGLAND;
 IRELAND, NORTHERN; SCOTLAND; WALES; for the early history of Scotland (to
 1707) and Wales (to 1536), prior to incorporation in Great Britain, see
 separate articles.

 Early English History Little is known of the earliest inhabitants of
 Britain, but the great structure at STONEHENGE is evidence of their
 advanced BRONZE AGE culture. The first Celtic invaders arrived in Britain
 in the early 5th cent. BC In AD 43 the emperor CLAUDIUS I began the Roman
 conquest of Britain, which prospered and grew under four centuries of
 Roman rule. With the disintegration of the empire by the early 5th cent.,
 Germanic peoples-the ANGLO-SAXONS and the Jutes-initiated waves of
 invasion and settlement that gradually coalesced into a group of small
 kingdoms. Raids by VIKINGS (Danes), begun in the late 8th cent., turned
 into full-scale invasion in 865, and by 1016 the Dane CANUTE ruled all of
 England. The conquest of England in 1066 by the Norman WILLIAM I (see
 NORMAN CONQUEST) ushered in a new era in English history with the
 introduction of FEUDALISM. Conflict between the kings and the nobles over
 abuse of royal power came to a head under King JOHN, whose unprecedented
 financial demands and unpopular church and foreign policies resulted in
 the MAGNA CARTA (1215), a landmark in English constitutional history. The
 HUNDRED YEARS WAR with France, which began in 1337, and the Black Death
 (see PLAGUE), which first arrived in Britain in 1348, hastened the
 breakdown of the feudal system. Dynastic wars (see ROSES, WARS OF THE
 weakened both the nobility and the monarchy and ended with the accession
 (1485) of the TUDOR family. Under the Tudors, England flourished and was
 introduced to RENAISSANCE learning. HENRY VIII (r.1509-47) began the
 English Reformation by breaking with the papacy and establishing the
 Church of England. He also brought about the union (1536) of England and
 Wales. The English Renaissance reached its peak during the reign of
 ELIZABETH I, a time of great artistic achievement and overseas expansion.
 At her death (1603) the crowns of England and Scotland were united by the
 accession to the English throne of the Stuart JAMES I (James VI of
 Scotland). Under the STUARTS a bitter power struggle between the monarchy
 and Parliament culminated in the ENGLISH CIVIL WAR (1642-48). The victory
 of the parliamentarians led to the execution (1649) of CHARLES I,
 abolition of the monarchy, and establishment of the Commonwealth and the
 Protectorate under Oliver CROMWELL. Following Cromwell's death, CHARLES
 II was invited (1660) to become king (see RESTORATION). The old issues of
 religion, money, and royal prerogative were not laid to rest, however,
 until the GLORIOUS REVOLUTION (1688) ousted JAMES II and placed (1689)
 WILLIAM III and MARY II on the throne. The BILL OF RIGHTS confirmed that



 The Empire In the 18th cent. Britain began to play a more active role in
 world affairs, emerging from the SEVEN YEARS WAR (1756-63) as possessor
 of the world's greatest empire (see BRITISH EMPIRE). It suffered a
 serious loss in the AMERICAN REVOLUTION (1775-83), but it was preeminent
 in INDIA, settled AUSTRALIA, and acquired still more territories in the
 wars against NAPOLEON I. A vain attempt to solve the longstanding Irish
 problem (see IRELAND) brought about the union (1801) of Great Britain and
 Ireland. The INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, in the late 18th and early 19th
 cent., transformed social and economic life. Under Queen VICTORIA
 (r.1837-1901) Britain reached the height of its commercial, political,
 and economic leadership. The country's aggressive diplomacy in Europe
 culminated in the CRIMEAN WAR, and social and political reforms were also
 begun. The dominant figures on the political scene were the prime
 ministers Benjamin DISRAELI and William GLADSTONE.

 The 20th Century In the early 20th cent., growing military and economic
 rivalry with Germany led Britain to ally itself with France and Russia
 (see TRIPLE ALLIANCE AND TRIPLE ENTENTE) and in 1914 Britain entered
 WORLD WAR I. Despite British victory, the war drained the nation of


 Northern Ireland was created in 1920 and the Irish Free State in 1921-22.
 Prime Min. Neville CHAMBERLAIN pursued a policy of appeasement toward the
 rising tide of German and Italian aggression, but this failed. In 1939
 the Germans invaded Poland, and Britain entered WORLD WAR II by declaring
 war on Germany. The nation sustained intensive bombardment in the Battle
 of Britain, but the British people, inspired by Prime Min. Winston
 CHURCHILL, rose to a supreme war effort. Following the defeat (1945) of
 Germany, the Labour party, led by Clement ATTLEE, gained power and
 launched a program, including nationalization of industry, to revive the
 war-damaged economy. The postwar years brought independence to many
 former colonies, and Britain's status as a world military and economic
 power gradually declined. In the early 1970s the country underwent its
 worst economic crisis since World War II, and although the situation
 eased somewhat with the discovery of oil in the North Sea, the 1980s saw
 a continuation of the problems of inflation and unemployment accompanied
 by a weakening currency. Conservative Margaret THATCHER became (1979)
 Britain's first woman prime minister. In 1982 she led the nation in a
 successful undeclared war with Argentina over the disputed FALKLAND
 ISLANDS.


 RULERS OF ENGLAND AND GREAT BRITAIN (including dates of reign)

 Saxons and Danes
 Egbert, 802--39
 AEthelwulf, son of Egbert, 839--58
 AEthelbald, son of AEthelwulf, 858--60
 AEthelbert, 2d son of AEthelwulf, 860--65
 AEthelred, 3d son of AEthelwulf, 865--71
 Alfred, 4th son of AEthelwulf, 871--99
 Edward (the Elder), son of Alfred, 899--924
 Athelstan, son of Edward, 924--39
 Edmund, 3d son of Edward, 939--46
 Edred, 4th son of Edward, 946--55
 Edwy, son of Edmund, 955--59
 Edgar, younger son of Edmund, 959--75
 Edward (the Martyr), son of Edgar, 975--78
 AEthelred (the Unready), younger son of Edgar, 978--1016
 Edmund (Ironside), son of AEthelred, 1016
 Canute, by conquest, 1016--35
 Harold I (Harefoot), illegitimate son of Canute, 1037--40
 Harthacanute, son of Canute, 1040--42
 Edward (the Confessor), younger son of AEthelred, 1042--66
 Harold II, brother-in-law of Edward the Confessor, 1066


 House of Normandy
 William I (the Conqueror), by conquest, 1066--87
 William II (Rufus), 3d son of William I,1087--1100
 Henry I, youngest son of William I,1100--1135


 House of Blois
 Stephen, grandson of William I,1135--54


 House of Plantagenet
 Henry II, grandson of Henry I,1154--89
 Richard I (Coeur de Lion), 3d son of Henry II,1189--99
 John, youngest son of Henry II,1199--1216
 Henry III, son of John, 1216--72
 Edward I, son of Henry III,1272--1307
 Edward II, son of Edward I,1307--27
 Edward III, son of Edward II,1327--77
 Richard II, grandson of Edward III,1377--99


 House of Lancaster
 Henry IV, grandson of Edward III,1399--1413
 Henry V, son of Henry IV, 1413--22
 Henry VI, son of Henry V, 1422--61,1470--71


 House of York
 Edward IV, great-grandson of Edward III,1461--70,1471--83
 Edward V, son of Edward IV, 1483
 Richard III, brother of Edward IV, 1483--85


 House of Tudor
 Henry VII, descendant of Edward III,1485--1509
 Henry VIII, son of Henry VII, 1509--47
 Edward VI, son of Henry VIII, 1547--53
 Mary I, daughter of Henry VIII, 1553--58
 Elizabeth I, younger daughter of Henry VIII, 1558--1603


 House of Stuart
 James I (James VI of Scotland), descendant of Henry VII, 1603--25
 Charles I, son of James I,1625--49


 Commonwealth and Protectorate
 Council of State, 1649--53
 Oliver Cromwell, lord protector, 1653--58
 Richard Cromwell, lord protector, 1658--59


 House of Stuart (restored)
 Charles II, son of Charles I,1660--85
 James II, younger son of Charles I,1685--88
 William III, grandson of Charles I; ruled jointly with Mary II, 1689--94;
 ruled alone, 1694--1702
 Mary II, daughter of James II; ruled jointly with William III,1689--94
 Anne, younger daughter of James II,1702--14


 House of Hanover
 George I, great-grandson of James I,1714--27
 George II, son of George I,1727--60
 George III, grandson of George II,1760--1820
 George IV, son of George III,1820--30
 William IV, 3d son of George III,1830--37
 Victoria, granddaughter of George III, 1837--1901


 House of Saxe--Coburg
 Edward VII, son of Victoria, 1901--10


 House of Windsor (family name changed during World War I)
 George V, son of Edward VII, 1910--36
 Edward VIII, son of George V, 1936
 George VI, 2d son of George V, 1936--52
 Elizabeth II, daughter of George VI, 1952--






   Great Dane

 Great Dane, very large, powerful WORKING DOG; shoulder height, up to 36
 in. (91.4 cm); weight, up to 150 lb (68.1 kg). Its short coat may be
 brindle, fawn, black, or white with black patches. Developed in Germany
 over 400 years ago, it was used as a boarhound.

   Great Depression

 Great Depression, the severe U.S. economic crisis of the 1930s,
 supposedly precipitated by the 1929 stock market crash. Certain causative
 factors are generally accepted: overproduction of goods; a tariff and
 war-debt policy that curtailed foreign markets for American goods; and
 easy money policies that led to overexpansion of credit and fantastic
 speculation on the stock market. At the depth (1933) of the Depression,
 16 million people-one third of the labor force-were unemployed. The
 effects were felt in Europe, and contributed to Adolph HITLER'S rise in
 Germany. The policies of the NEW DEAL relieved the situation, but
 complete recovery came only with the heavy defense spending of the 1940s.
 See also DEPRESSION.

   Great Dividing Range

 Great Dividing Range, crest line of the Eastern Highlands of Australia,
 forming most of that continent's drainage or continental divide. It is
 also widely used as an alternate name for the EASTERN HIGHLANDS.

   Great Elector, the

 Great Elector, the: see FREDERICK WILLIAM.

   Greater Antilles

 Greater Antilles: see WEST INDIES.

   Great Falls

 Great Falls, city (1986 est. pop. 57,310), seat of Cascade co., N central
 Mont., at the confluence of the Missouri and Sun rivers, near the falls
 that gave the city its name; inc. 1888. A hydroelectric power center and
 farm market, it produces oil, copper, zinc, and flour, as well as solar
 panels and other manufactures. Malmstrom Air Force Base is nearby.

   Great Lakes

 Great Lakes, group of five connected freshwater lakes, E central North
 America, together covering c.95,000 sq mi (246,000 sq km). The
 lakes-SUPERIOR, MICHIGAN, HURON, ERIE, and ONTARIO-and their connecting
 waterways extend 1,160 mi (1,876 km) along the U.S.-Canadian border. With
 the SAINT LAWRENCE SEAWAY they form the St. Lawrence & Great Lakes
 Waterway, a major shipping artery that is navigable (except from December
 to April, when blocked by ice) for 2,342 mi (3,770 km) by ocean-going
 vessels of 27-ft (8.2-m) draft. The lakes range in elevation from 602 ft
 (183 m) in the west to 246 ft (75 m) in the east, the greatest drop (167
 ft/51 m) occurring between lakes Erie and Ontario at NIAGARA FALLS.

   Great Mother of the Gods

 Great Mother of the Gods, in ancient Middle Eastern religion (and later
 in Greece, Rome, and W Asia), mother goddess, the great symbol of the
 earth's fertility. As the creative force in nature she was worshiped
 under many names, including ASTARTE (Syria), CERES (Rome), CYBELE
 (Phrygia), DEMETER (Greece), ISHTAR (Babylon), and ISIS (Egypt). The
 later forms of her cult involved the worship of a male deity (her son or
 lover, e.g., ADONIS, OSIRIS), whose death and resurrection symbolized the
 regenerative power of the earth.

   Great Plains

 Great Plains, semiarid region of level and rolling terrain, located E of
 the Rocky Mts. and extending more than 1,500 mi (2,415 km) from Texas N
 into Canada. Elevations range from c.6,000 ft (1,829 m) in the west to
 c.1,500 ft (457 m) at the eastern boundary, which coincides roughly with
 the 100th meridian of longitude (running from E Oklahoma through the
 central Dakotas). Ranching and wheat farming, begun in the late 1800s,
 ended centuries of habitation by Indians and buffalo. Coal, oil, and
 natural gas deposits underlie the Plains.

   Great Rift Valley

 Great Rift Valley, huge depression, currently thought to be the product
 of PLATE TECTONICS, extending c.3,000 mi (4,830 km) across most of E
 Africa and into SW Asia. In Africa it consists of an eastern arm,
 occupied in part by Lakes Rudolf and NYASA (Malawi), and a western arm,
 occupied in part by Lakes TANGANYIKA, Kivu, Edward, and Mobuto Sese Seko
 (Albert). In SW Asia it forms the RED SEA, the Gulf of AQABA, the DEAD
 SEA, and the JORDAN and Al BIQA valleys. Flanked in places by high cliffs
 and volcanoes (Mts. KENYA and KILIMANJARO), the floor of the rift ranges
 in elevation from c.1,300 ft (395 m) below sea level, in the Dead Sea, to
 c.6,000 ft (1,830 m) above sea level, in S Kenya.

   Great Salt Lake

 Great Salt Lake, largest salt lake in North America, c.1,000 sq mi (2,590
 sq km), in NW Utah. The shallow lake (c.13 ft/4 m deep) is generally
 decreasing in size and depth as the Weber, Jordan, and Bear rivers, which
 feed it, are diverted for use farther east. The lake's waters have a salt
 content of c.276 parts per thousand (greater than sea water) and support
 no life except brine shrimp and colonial algae.

   Great Slave Lake

 Great Slave Lake, second largest lake of Canada, c.10,980 sq mi (28,400
 sq km), in the Mackenzie district of the Northwest Territories. The
 deepest lake (2,015 ft/614 m) in North America, it is c.300 mi (480 km)
 long, 12-68 mi (19-109 km) wide, and drains W through the MACKENZIE R.
 Gold is mined at YELLOWKNIFE, in the north, and some lead and zinc on the
 southern shore.

   Great Smoky Mountains

 Great Smoky Mountains (or Great Smokies), range of the APPALACHIAN MTS.,
 on the North Carolina-Tennessee border, named for a smokelike haze that
 frequently envelops them. They rise to a high point of 6,642 ft (2,024 m)
 at Clingmans Dome and are partly within Great Smoky Mountains National
 Park (see NATIONAL PARKS,).

   Great Smoky Mountains National Park

 Great Smoky Mountains National Park: see NATIONAL PARKS.

   Great Wall of China

 Great Wall of China, fortifications, winding c.1,500 mi (2,400 km) across
 N China from Gansu prov. to the Yellow Sea. It is an amalgamation of many
 walls, first united (3d cent. BC) by the Ch'in dynasty. The present form
 dates substantially from the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) and averages 25 ft
 (7.6 m) in height. Successive invasions of China by northern nomads
 proved the wall to be of little military utility.

   grebe

 grebe, swimming BIRD found on or near quiet waters in much of the world.
 Resembling both the related LOON and unrelated DUCK, it has short wings,
 a vestigial tail, and long, individually webbed toes on feet that are set
 far back on a short, stubby body. Grebes are poor fliers and clumsy on
 land. They have complex courtship rituals, including dancing in pairs on
 the water.

   Greco, El

 Greco, El, c.1541-1614, Greek painter in Spain; b. Candia, Crete, as
 Domenicos Theotocopoulos. By 1577, he was established in Toledo after
 having painted in Rome and studied in Venice under TITIAN. He left
 portraits of Toledo's proud nobility; their ascetic faces are seen in the
 foreground of the Burial of the Count Orgaz (Church of San Tome, Toledo).
 El Greco's flamelike lines, accentuated by vivid highlights, elongated
 and distorted figures, and full, vibrant color produced dynamic
 representations of religious ecstasy. Among his great works are Baptism,
 Crucifixion, and Resurrection (all: Prado) and a long series of paintings
 of St. FRANCIS. To his last period belong such works as the Adoration and
 View of Toledo (both: Metropolitan Mus.). El Greco undoubtedly influenced
 VELAZQUEZ and is ranked among the great inspired, visionary artists.

   Greece

 Greece, Gr. Hellas or Ellas, officially the Hellenic Republic, republic
 (1985 pop. 9,970,000), 50,944 sq. mi (131,945 sq km), SE Europe.
 Occupying the S Balkan Peninsula, it is bordered by the Ionian Sea (W),
 the Mediterranean Sea (S), the Aegean Sea (E), Turkey and Bulgaria (NE),
 Yugoslavia (N), and Albania (NW). ATHENS is the capital and largest city;
 other major cities include THESSALONIKI and PIRAIEVS. About 75% of the
 country is mountainous, the major range being the Pindus Mts., in the
 north. Central Greece includes the low-lying plains of Thessaly, Attica,
 and Boeotia, as well as Greece's highest point, Mt. OLYMPUS (9,570
 ft/2,917 m). The southern portion of the country is the PELOPONNESUS. Of
 the total land area, almost 20% is in islands, notably CRETE, the
 DODECANESE (including RHODES), and the CYCLADES. Industry has replaced
 agriculture as the leading source of income. Principal manufactures
 include construction materials, textiles, food products, chemicals, and
 ships. The chief farm products are wheat, fruits, olives and olive oil,
 grapes, tobacco, sugar beets, and tomatoes; large numbers of sheep and
 goats are raised. Tourism is important. Modern Greek is the official
 language, and the established religion is Greek Orthodox. Government is
 by a unicameral parliament of 200 to 300 members, who elect a president
 for a 5-year term. Greece became a full member of the COMMON MARKET in
 1981. The country left the military wing of NATO in 1974, but rejoined it
 in 1980.

 Ancient Greece The region had seen the rise and fall of splendid
 cultures, e.g., the MINOAN CIVILIZATION and the MYCENAEAN CIVILIZATION,
 before the arrival of Greek-speaking peoples. By 1000 BC Achaeans,
 Aeolians, Ionians, and Dorians had settled in the region that is modern
 Greece, where they developed many independent, often warring,
 CITY-STATES. Taking to the sea, by the 8th cent. BC they had created a
 network of colonies from Asia Minor to Spain (see MAGNA GRAECIA). The 5th
 cent. BC began with attempted invasions of Greece by the Persians. Greek
 success in the PERSIAN WARS (500-449 BC) ushered in the golden age of
 Greek history. Athens, in particular, grew dramatically and, in the age
 of PERICLES (c.495-429 BC), experienced a surge of cultural development
 rarely equaled in world history. Although Athens succumbed to SPARTA in
 the PELOPONNESIAN WAR (431-404 BC), Athenian thought prevailed, and the
 culture that was to be the fountainhead of Western civilization lived on.
 When PHILIP II of Macedon conquered Greece (338 BC) at Chaeronea, he
 paved the way for his son, ALEXANDER THE GREAT, who spread Greek
 civilization across the known world. By 146 BC the remnants of the Greek
 states had fallen to Rome, but when the Roman Empire was split (AD 395),
 the BYZANTINE EMPIRE, formed from the eastern portion, was thoroughly
 Greek in tradition. HELLENISTIC CIVILIZATION, centered at Alexandria and
 other cities, also preserved the Greek heritage.

 Modern Greece Turkish incursions and Norman attacks began in the 11th
 cent., and Greece was absorbed into the OTTOMAN EMPIRE in 1456. Under
 Ottoman rule, Greece languished in obscurity and poverty until the
 successful Greek War of Independence (1821-32) and the establishment of a
 constitutional monarchy. Greece acquired the Ionian Islands (1864),
 Thessaly and part of Epirus (1881), and Crete (1913); in the BALKAN WARS
 (1912-13) it obtained SE MACEDONIA and W THRACE. Pressured by the Allies,
 Greece entered WORLD WAR I in 1917 and after the war was awarded most of
 European Turkey and the Bulgarian coast. The period between the world
 wars was marked by political turmoil: monarchs were enthroned and
 dethroned; a republic proclaimed in 1924 collapsed in 1935; and in 1936 a
 right-wing dictatorship was established under George METAXAS. During
 WORLD WAR II Greece was occupied (1941-44) by the German army. Civil war
 erupted in 1946, but massive U.S. military and economic aid ensured the
 victory of royalist forces over Communist rebels. A coup d'etat by
 rightist army officers in 1967 resulted in the rise to power of George
 PAPADOPOULOS, who abolished (1973) the monarchy and who was, in turn,
 overthrown by another military coup. Civilian government was restored in
 1974 and a new constitution adopted in 1975. In 1981 the electoral
 victory of Andreas Papandreou (see under PAPANDREOU, GEORGE) and the
 Pan-hellenic Socialist Movement (Pasok) ended 35 years of pro-Western,
 conservative rule and gave Greece its first socialist government.

   Greek Anthology

 Greek Anthology, collection of epigrammatic poems representing Greek
 literature from the 7th cent. BC to the 10th cent. AD It began with
 Meleager's Garland (c.90-80 BC) and was added to by others. A 10th-cent.
 version, the Palatine Anthology, is the chief modern source.

   Greek architecture

 Greek architecture arose on the shores of the Aegean Sea. When the
 Dorians migrated into Greece (c.1000 BC) true Hellenic culture began; by
 the 6th cent. BC, a definite Dorian system of construction existed. All
 the great works were produced between 700 BC and the Roman occupation
 (146 BC). The major masterpieces were erected between 480 BC and 323 BC,
 including the reign of PERICLES, when CALLICRATES, MNESICLES, and ICTINUS
 flourished. Of the three great styles or ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE, the
 Doric was earliest and the one in which most of the monuments were
 erected. Early examples (6th cent. BC) are found in Sicily and Paestum in
 Italy; after 500 BC the Doric was perfected at Athens in the Hephaesteum
 (465 BC), the PARTHENON (c.447-432 BC), and the Propylaea (437-432 BC).
 The Greek colonies of Asia Minor evolved the second great order, the
 Ionic order, stamped with oriental influences. After 500 BC it appeared
 in Greece proper, challenging with its slender columns and carved
 enrichments the sturdy, simple Doric. The most important Ionic buildings
 were at Miletus. In Greece, the ERECHTHEUM was the one major Ionic
 structure. The third, or Corinthian order, appeared in this period. Even
 more ornate, it was little used. Examples are the Choragic monument
 (c.335 BC) and the Tower of the Winds (100 BC-35 BC), both at Athens. The
 Greeks used finely cut stone joints rather than mortar. Marble was used
 after the 5th cent. BC Earlier, rough stone was covered with a marble
 dust and lime coating. Although Greek buildings were long thought to have
 been left white, traces of decorative coloring have been found. Cities
 often had an acropolis, a citadel and temple site built on a steep hill.
 The standard Greek temple had a simple rectangular chamber with an
 entrance porch flanked by columns. The sides and ends would then be
 surrounded with a colonnade, sometimes doubled. A body of traditional
 mathematical formulas was developed to ensure harmony of proportions. The
 Greeks built temples; monumental tombs; agoras, or public meeting places;
 stoas, or colonnaded shelters; stadiums; palaestrae, or gymnasiums;
 propylaeas, or city gates; and amphitheaters. After Athens and Sparta
 declined, the more opulent and florid Hellenistic architecture arose
 (4th-3d cent. BC), from which the Romans doubtless acquired their
 concepts of monumental architecture.

   Greek art

 Greek art. The Aegean basin was a center of artistic activity from early
 times (see AEGEAN CIVILIZATION). Two great cultures-the MINOAN
 CIVILIZATION and the MYCENAEAN CIVILIZATION-had developed complex and
 delicate art forms. After the invasion of the Dorians and other
 barbarians (before 1000 BC), the curvilinear designs and naturalistic
 representations of the Mycenean age were replaced by geometric schemes
 with linear patterns. The transformation is seen in late geometric
 (c.900-700 BC) pottery. Between 700 and 600 BC Oriental influence led to
 the use of floral and arabesque patterns and monster and animal themes.
 Then, during the archaic period (c.660-480 BC), sculpture became the
 principle form of artistic expression. The statues of nude walking
 youths, kouroi, suggesting Egyptian prototypes but distinct in
 stylization and tension of movement, e.g., Kouros (Metropolitan Mus.),
 date from this period. Draped female figures show Near Eastern influence,
 e.g., Hera of Samos (Louvre). The outstanding Athenian school of
 black-figure vase painting led by Execias depicted mythological and
 contemporary scenes. A greater concern with three-dimensional space and
 naturalistic detail emerged with red-figure vase painting (c.525).
 Euthymides and Euphronius were early masters. The early classical period
 revealed new insight into the structure of the human form (c.480-450 BC).
 e.g., the sculptures from the temple of Zeus at Olympia, the bronze
 Charioteer (museum; Delphi), and the Zeus or Poseidon (Athens, National
 Mus.). During the Golden Age, the height of the classical period (450-400
 BC), Polykleitos arrived at a rational norm for the ideal figure. The
 magnificent sculptures from the ACROPOLIS and its PARTHENON, thought to
 have been designed by PHIDIAS, exemplify this ideal. In the late
 classical period (400-300 BC) there was more emphasis on emotion in art.
 The works attributed to PRAXITELES are elegant and graceful; to SCOPAS,
 strongly emotional; and to LYSIPPOS, individualized, though all are
 largely adduced through fragments or Roman copies. The works of the
 painters of the period, e.g., Apollodorus and APELLES, are known only
 through description. The Hellenistic period began with the conquests of
 Alexander the Great. Masterpieces of the period include the Nike
 (Victory) of Samothrace and Aphrodite of Melos (both: Louvre); the
 Pergamum Frieze (Berlin Mus.); the Roman copies of the Odyssey Landscape
 (Vatican), a painting with great spatial illusionism; and the Laocoon and
 his Sons (Vatican). Despite its decline, Greek culture and art inspired
 Western art throughout history.

   Greek language

 Greek language, member of the Indo-European family of languages. Modern
 Greek is derived from the standard Greek or koine of the Hellenistic
 world. See LANGUAGE.

   Greek music

 Greek music. The music of ancient Greece was inseparable from poetry and
 dancing. It was monodic (without HARMONY in the modern sense). The
 musical culture of the Homeric period was looked upon as a golden age. In
 the 6th cent. BC choral music was used in the drama (see TRAGEDY). The
 phorminx, a lyre, and later (6th cent. BC) the oboelike aulos and the
 kithara, a large lyre, were the main instruments. Few fragments of
 ancient Greek music survive. The physical relationships of tones, the
 basis of harmony, was a Greek discovery, usually attributed to
 PYTHAGORAS.

   Greek religion

 Greek religion. Although its exact origins are lost in time, Greek
 religion is thought to date from about the 2d millennium BC, when the
 culture of Aryan invaders fused with those of the Aegean and Minoan
 peoples who had inhabited the region of Greece from Neolithic times. As
 portrayed in Homer's Iliad, the classical Greek pantheon, also called
 Homeric or Olympian (for Mt. Olympus, home of the gods), was a blend of
 Minoan, Egyptian, Asian, and other elements. The Greek deities had
 supernatural powers, particularly over human life, but were severely
 limited by the relentless force of fate (Moira). The gods were most
 important in their role as guardians of the city-states and as those who
 could provide information, through divination rites, about one's future
 on earth. Often the favorable response or reward expected did not
 materialize, and the civil strife that followed the classical period
 (from c.500 BC) placed the old gods on trial. The popular religion of the
 Greek countryside rose, emphasizing the promise of afterlife and
 elaborate rites offered by such cults as the Eleusinian and ORPHIC
 MYSTERIES. The Dionysian excesses of these mystery rites were offset by
 the virtues of moderation ascribed to Apollo. Later Greek philosophical
 inquiry sought a more logical connection between nature and mankind,
 leading to the rationalization of the early myths and the final
 destruction of the Homeric pantheon. The vacuum was eventually filled by
 Christianity.

   Greeley, Horace

 Greeley, Horace, 1811-72, American newspaper editor; b. Amherst, N.H. He
 founded the New York Tribune in 1841. As editor for over 30 years, he
 advocated a protective tariff, the organization of labor, temperance, a
 homestead law, and women's rights, and opposed monopoly, land grants to
 railroads, and SLAVERY. His editorials were widely quoted, and thousands
 acted on his advice, "Go West, young man, go West." He was one of the
 first members of the new REPUBLICAN PARTY, although he denounced Pres.
 LINCOLN'S border-state policy and embarrassed the administration by his
 antiwar sentiments. Following the Civil War, he favored black suffrage
 and amnesty for all Southerners; he defied public opinion by signing the
 bail bond to release Jefferson DAVIS from prison. He ran for president in
 1872 as the candidate of the LIBERAL REPUBLICAN PARTY, but was soundly
 defeated by the incumbent, U.S. GRANT.

   Greely, Adolphus Washington

 Greely, Adolphus Washington, 1844-1935, American army officer and
 explorer; b. Newburyport, Mass. Between 1881 and 1884 he commanded the
 Lady Franklin Bay Expedition to establish one of a chain of arctic
 meteorological stations. He and his party mapped a stretch of Greenland's
 coast, crossed Ellesmere Island, and achieved a northern record of 83
 deg24'. After two relief efforts failed, a ship found only Greely and six
 others alive. Later, as the army's chief signal officer, he built
 telegraph communications in U.S. possessions. He directed relief
 operations after the San Francisco earthquake in 1906.

   Green, Henry

 Green, Henry, 1905-74, English novelist; b. Henry Vincent Yorke. His
 enigmatic, comic novels include Living (1929), Caught (1943), Loving
 (1945), and Concluding (1948).

   Green, Julian

 Green, Julian, 1900-, French novelist, of American parentage. Such novels
 as The Closed Garden (1927) and The Dark Journey (1929) concern vice and
 madness. Others are Moira (1950) and Each in His Darkness (1960). In
 1971, he was elected to the Academie Francaise.

   Green, William

 Green, William, 1872-1952, American labor leader; b. Coshocton, Ohio. He
 rose through the ranks of the United Mine Workers of America (UMW),
 serving (1912-24) as secretary-treasurer. In 1924 he was elected
 president of the AFL (see AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR AND CONGRESS OF
 INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATIONS), a post he held until his death. He organized
 skilled labor into craft unions, and he led the AFL in the struggle with
 the CIO after the groups split in 1935. Green wrote Labor and Democracy
 (1939).

   Greenaway, Kate

 Greenaway, Kate, 1846-1901, English illustrator. Her fanciful colored
 drawings of child life influenced children's clothing and illustrated
 books. She provided text and pictures for many books, e.g., Under the
 Window (1879).

   greenback

 greenback, popular name for legal tender notes, unsecured by specie,
 first issued in 1861 by the U.S. government during the CIVIL WAR. By
 1865, greenbacks in circulation totaled more than $450 million.
 Originally issued as temporary, the notes were to be recalled following
 the war, but the hard times of 1867 led to demands, particularly by
 Western farmers, for an inflated currency through the creation of more
 greenbacks. A compromise was finally reached in 1869, whereby greenbacks
 to the amount of $356 million were left in circulation; the law creating
 them was made constitutional in the Legal Tender Cases (1868, 1870,
 1871). The issue reappeared during the Panic of 1873, with hard-hit
 agrarians, intensely opposed by conservatives, once again demanding
 creation of more greenbacks. The conservatives triumphed, and the
 Resumption Act of 1875 fixed Jan. 1, 1879, as the date for redeeming
 greenbacks. With returning prosperity, however, confidence in the
 government began to soar, and few greenbacks were surrendered. In 1879
 Congress provided that greenbacks then outstanding ($346,681,000) remain
 a permanent part of the nation's currency.

   Greenback party

 Greenback party, a U.S. political organization founded (1874-76) to
 promote currency expansion. Its principal members were Southern and
 Western farmers stricken by the Panic of 1873. They nominated Peter
 COOPER for president in 1876, but he received only 81,737 votes. Uniting
 with labor in the Greenback-Labor party (1878), they polled over 1
 million votes and elected 14 representatives to Congress. Thus
 encouraged, and with a broadened program that included woman suffrage,
 federal regulation of interstate commerce, and a graduated income tax,
 they nominated James B. WEAVER for president (1880). But the return of
 prosperity had allayed discontent, and their vote declined to a little
 over 300,000. Following the 1884 election the party dissolved. Many
 members later joined the Populists.

   Green Bay

 Green Bay, city (1986 est. pop. 93,470), seat of Brown co., NE Wis., at
 the mouth of the Fox R., on Green Bay; inc. 1854. A major GREAT LAKES
 port and rail center, it is on the site of a French trading post and
 mission (1634); permanent settlement, the state's oldest, dates from
 1701. It was a fur-trading center and gateway to the upper Midwest
 occupied by the French (1717), British (1761), and Americans (1816).
 Today it produces paper, food products, and machinery. It is home to the
 Packers professional football team.

   Greene, Charles Sumner

 Greene, Charles Sumner, 1868-57, and Henry Mather Greene,1870-1954,
 American architects; b. Brighton, Ohio. The Greene brothers modified
 aspects of the ARTS AND CRAFTS movement, the shingle style, and Oriental
 architecture to fit the relaxed climate and lifestyle of California. They
 were pioneers in the development of the bungalow style residence in
 southern California, e.g., the Gamble House (1908) in Pasadena.

   Greene, Graham

 Greene, Graham, 1904-, English novelist. A Catholic convert with intense
 moral concerns, he writes novels that are essentially parables of the
 damned. Those that are thrillers, e.g., Orient Express (1932), he calls
 "entertainments." His major works are Brighton Rock (1938) and The Heart
 of the Matter (1948). A superb journalist, he has set novels in sites of
 topical interest, e.g. The Quiet American (1955), in Indochina. He is
 also known for his short stories, plays, film criticism, and film
 scripts, including The Third Man (1950).

   greenhouse effect

 greenhouse effect, process whereby heat is trapped at the surface of the
 earth by the atmosphere. Energy from the sun passes through the
 atmosphere, warming the earth and providing the wavelengths used in
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS. Much of the incoming energy is reradiated in the form of
 heat, some directly and some as a result of either the METABOLISM of
 living things or human industrial activities. This heat (infrared
 radiation) is prevented from leaving the earth by atmospheric carbon
 dioxide, water vapor, and ozone (acting like the glass in a greenhouse),
 and much of it goes back into the ground. An increase in atmospheric
 carbon dioxide of 10% over the past century has led some authorities to
 predict a long-term warming of the earth's climate.

   Greenland

 Greenland, officially Kalatdlit Nunat (1988 pop. 54,790), largest island
 in the world, c.840,000 sq mi (2,175,600 sq km), semi-autonomous overseas
 state of Denmark, lying largely within the Arctic Circle off NE Canada.
 The capital is Nuuk (formerly Godthaz.angstb). An ice sheet c.14,000 ft
 (4,300 m) deep in places covers more than four fifths of the land area.
 Most people live along the coast in the SW where the climate is warmed by
 the North Atlantic Drift. About 10% are Europeans; the others are of
 mixed Eskimo and Danish ancestry. Fishing, shrimping, and sealing are the
 principal economic activities. Greenland was named and settled (c.982) as
 a self-governing colony by ERIC THE RED, a Norseman. The colony was
 neglected by Norway in the 14th and 15th cent., and the colonists had
 either died out or had been assimilated with the Eskimos when Greenland
 was rediscovered, with no trace of the Norsemen, in the 16th cent. by the
 British explorers Martin FROBISHER and John Davis. It was recolonized,
 beginning in 1721, by Norway and became a Danish colony in 1815.
 Greenland became an integral part of Denmark in 1953 with representatives
 in the Folketing (Parliament), and was granted home rule in 1979.
 Greenlandic names came into common use in 1979, and the island
 independently withdrew from the Common Market in 1982.

   greenmail

 greenmail, payment by a corporation that is a takeover target to stop the
 takeover by purchasing at a premium shares acquired by the potential
 buyer. In exchange, the potential acquirer stops the takeover bid.

   Green Mountain Boys

 Green Mountain Boys, popular name of armed bands led by Ethan ALLEN that,
 by threats, intimidation, and violence, prevented the New Hampshire
 Grants (land that is now Vermont) from becoming part of New York state.
 In the AMERICAN REVOLUTION, under Allen, they captured Fort TICONDEROGA
 (1775) and won an important victory at Bennington (1777).

   Greenough, Horatio

 Greenough, Horatio, 1805-52, American sculptor and writer; b. Boston. As
 a writer, he heralded modern concepts of functionalism in architecture.
 As a sculptor, he is famous for a colossal statue of George Washington
 (Smithsonian Inst.).

   Green Revolution

 Green Revolution, popular term referring mainly to the large increases
 achieved in GRAIN production in certain underdeveloped areas-especially
 India, Pakistan, and the Philippines in the late 1960s. It was
 accomplished through the use of high-yielding HYBRIDS, chemical
 FERTILIZERS, and new crop strategies and harvesting methods.

   Greensboro

 Greensboro, city (1986 est. pop. 176,650), seat of Guilford co., N
 central N.C.; settled 1749, inc. 1808. The state's second-largest city,
 it has an important textile industry, produces tobacco and machinery, and
 is a regional financial, insurance, and distribution center. The
 Revolutionary War battle of Guilford Courthouse was fought nearby. The
 city has several colleges. It is the birthplace of Dolley MADISON and O.
 HENRY.

   Greenville

 Greenville, city (1986 est. pop. 58,370), seat of Greenville co., NW
 S.C., on the Reedy R., in the Piedmont; laid out 1797, inc. as a city
 1907. A major industrial and commercial center of the SE U.S., in the
 heart of a region of mill towns, it has huge textile mills and diverse
 manufactures, and processes farm products. Textile Hall is the scene of
 the biennial Southern Textile Exposition. Furman Univ. and Bob Jones
 Univ. are in the city.

   Greenwich

 Greenwich, borough (1986 est. pop. 217,800) of Greater London, SE
 England, on the Thames R. The system of geographic longitude and
 time-keeping worked out at its old Royal Observatory (1675-1958) have
 become standard in most of the world; the prime meridian (zero longitude)
 passes through the observatory. Other points of interest are the Royal
 Naval College (begun 17th cent.) and the National Maritime Museum.

   Greenwich Mean Time

 Greenwich Mean Time (GMT): see SOLAR TIME.

   Greenwich meridian

 Greenwich meridian: see PRIME MERIDIAN.

   Greenwich Village

 Greenwich Village, district of lower Manhattan, N.Y.C. An influx of
 artists and freethinkers in the early 1900s established the area's
 reputation for bohemianism.

   Greer, Germaine

 Greer, Germaine, 1939-, Australian feminist and writer. She moved to
 England (1964), earned a Ph.D. from Cambridge, and taught at the Univ. of
 Warwick (1967-73). Her book The Female Eunich (1970), an analysis of
 attitudes toward women and a call for an end to sexual repression, made
 her a leading spokeswoman for FEMINISM.

   Gregorian chant

 Gregorian chant: see PLAINSONG.

   Gregory I, Saint

 Gregory I, Saint (Saint Gregory the Great), c.540-604, pope (590-604),
 Doctor of the Church. A Roman prefect, he became a monk and, although he
 resisted promotion, eventually pope. His rule was notable for the
 enforcement of papal supremacy and the establishment of the temporal
 position of the pope. He attacked Donatism in Africa, refused to
 recognize the title ecumenical of the patriarch of Constantinople (an act
 that helped split East and West), and treated (592) with the invading
 LOMBARDS after the Byzantine exarch failed to defend Rome. Gregory
 encouraged monasticism, made laws for the lives of the clergy, and sent
 missionaries to England. His writings include letters, commentaries on
 the Book of Job, saints' lives, and Pastoral Care. He also contributed to
 the development of Gregorian chant or PLAINSONG. Feast: Sept. 3.

   Gregory VII, Saint

 Gregory VII, Saint, d. 1085, pope (1073-85), an Italian named Hildebrand.
 A Benedictine, he became notable under Pope Gregory VI and under LEO IX
 launched his reform program, aimed at correcting corruption and laxity in
 the church. As chief figure in the curia under Leo's successors, he
 transferred the papal election from the Romans to the college of
 cardinals and formed an alliance with the Normans of S Italy. As pope he
 pressed his reforms by condemning clerical marriage, simony, and lay
 INVESTITURE, and he sent papal legates throughout Europe to enforce his
 actions. Opposition was widespread, and a powerful antireform party grew
 among laymen who feared church domination. In Germany, HENRY IV joined
 the antireform party and was excommunicated (1076) by Gregory. Losing
 support, Henry humbled himself before Gregory at Canossa, but in 1080 the
 two again fell out. Henry, again excommunicated, set up Guibert of
 Ravenna (Clement III) as antipope, and Gregory's appeal to the Christian
 world failed. When the German civil war ended, Henry marched into Italy
 and took Rome (1083). Gregory retired into the Castel Sant' Angelo until
 the Normans under ROBERT GUISCARD rescued him, then followed the Norman
 withdrawal and died in Salerno after a year of exile. His reform was a
 turning point in church history. It elevated the moral level of the
 church and began the successful struggle against lay investiture. Feast:
 May 25.

   Gregory IX

 Gregory IX, 1143?-1241, pope (1227-41), an Italian named Ugolino di
 Segni. Elected at age 84, he excommunicated (1227) Holy Roman Emperor
 FREDERICK II for not undertaking a crusade. Imperialists in Rome revolted
 and forced Gregory into exile until 1230. In a dispute over Italian
 liberties, he again excommunicated (1239) Frederick and ordered him
 dethroned. Frederick blocked Gregory's call for a general council and was
 preparing to attack Rome when Gregory died at age 98.

   Gregory XI

 Gregory XI, 1330-78, pope (1370-78), a Frenchman named Pierre Roger de
 Beaufort. After receiving prophetic admonitions from St. Bridget of
 Sweden and St. CATHERINE OF SIENA, he determined to move the papacy from
 Avignon back to Rome. But the Avignon court was opposed, and the papal
 states were in chaos. After sanctioning a foray into Italy by Robert of
 Geneva, Gregory returned to Rome (Jan. 1377), thus ending the Babylonian
 Captivity of the popes. The elections after his death began the Great
 SCHISM.

   Gregory XII

 Gregory XII, c.1327-1417, pope (1406-15), a Venetian named Angelo Correr.
 Gregory negotiated with the Avignon antipope, Benedict XIII (see LUNA,
 PEDRO DE), to end the Great SCHISM, but failed, whereupon the Council of
 Pisa elected a second antipope. The Council of Constance accepted
 Gregory's resignation (1415), deposed the two antipopes, and elected
 MARTIN V pope (1417).

   Gregory XIII

 Gregory XIII, 1502-85, pope (1572-85), an Italian named Ugo Buoncompagni,
 best known for the reformed or Gregorian CALENDAR. He was prominent at
 the Council of TRENT (1545, 1559-63). As pope he proposed the deposition
 of Queen Elizabeth I of England and took an interest in the education of
 the clergy and the conversion of Protestants. He issued a new edition of
 the canon law and patronized the Jesuits.

   Gregory, Lady Augusta (Persse)

 Gregory, Lady Augusta (Persse), 1859-1932, Irish dramatist, a founder and
 director of the Abbey Theatre, Dublin. Her plays include Spreading the
 News (1904), The Gaol Gate (1906), The Rising of the Moon (1907), and The
 Workhouse Ward (1908). Her Our Irish Theater (1913) is a key document of
 the IRISH LITERARY RENAISSANCE.

   Gregory, Horace

 Gregory, Horace, 1898-1982, American author; b. Milwaukee. His dramatic
 poetry, noted for its insights into contemporary life, include Rooming
 House (1930) and Medusa in Gramercy Park (1961). Gregory also wrote many
 works of literary criticism and published translations of Latin poetry.

   Gregory Nazianzen, Saint

 Gregory Nazianzen, Saint, c.330-390, Cappadocian theologian, Doctor of
 the Church, one of the Four Fathers of the Greek Church. Active in the
 struggle against ARIANISM, he was chosen bishop of Constantinople (379),
 but he retired after the First Council of CONSTANTINOPLE. Feast: Jan. 2.

   Gregory of Nyssa, Saint

 Gregory of Nyssa, Saint, c. 330-95, Christian theologian. Influenced by
 his brother Saint Basel and friend Saint Gregory of Nazianzus, he entered
 monastic life and became Bishop of Cappadocia in E central Turkey.
 Against Arian opponents, he championed the Nicene doctrine of the single
 substance (ousia) of the members of the Trinity at the First Council of
 CONSTANTINOPLE (381). His writings include many anti-Arian tracts and
 apologies for rigorous Christian asceticism.

   Gregory of Tours, Saint

 Gregory of Tours, Saint, 538-94, French historian, bishop of Tours (from
 573). His masterpiece, History of the Franks, is a universal history with
 an important account of contemporary events. Feast: Nov. 17.

   Grenada

 Grenada, island nation (1987 est. pop. 92,000), in the West Indies,
 consisting of the main island of Grenada (120 sq mi/311 sq km), the
 southernmost of the Windward Islands; and the southern group of the
 sparsely settled archipelago known as the Grenadines. The capital and
 main port, Saint George's, is on Grenada, which is a volcanic,
 mountainous island on which bananas, sugar, coconuts, cotton, and limes
 are grown for export. The people, mainly blacks or mulattos, mostly speak
 English (the official language). Settlement of Grenada, delayed by
 hostile Carib Indians, was begun by the French in 1650, but the island
 was taken over in 1783 by the British, who established sugar plantations
 and imported African slaves. Grenada became self-governing in 1967 and an
 independent state within the Commonwealth in 1974. A coup in 1979
 installed a Marxist government, which allied the nation with Cuba. A 1983
 invasion by the U.S., with token forces from other Caribbean nations,
 restored democratic rule.

   grenade

 grenade, small bomb designed to be thrown by hand or shot from a modified
 rifle or a grenade launcher. It may be filled with gas or chemicals but
 more often holds an explosive charge that fractures the casing into
 lethal fragments. First used in the 15th cent. (by "grenadiers"), the
 grenade later fell into disuse until the 20th cent., when it became a
 standard INFANTRY weapon.

   Grenfell, Sir Wilfred Thomason

 Grenfell, Sir Wilfred Thomason, 1865-1940, English physician and
 missionary. After serving as missionary to North Sea fishermen, he spent
 over 40 years in Labrador and Newfoundland, building hospitals and
 nursing stations and establishing cooperative stores, agricultural
 centers, schools, libraries, and orphanages. He also opened (1912) a
 seamen's institute in Newfoundland.

   Grenoble

 Grenoble, city (1982 pop. 159,503), capital of Isere dept., SE France. A
 leading resort at the foot of the Alps and site of the 1968 winter
 Olympics, it is important for its nuclear-research center, hydroelectric
 power, and science-based industries and research institutes, linked to
 the noted University of Grenoble (est. 1339). It passed from the dauphins
 of Viennois to the crown in 1349.

   Grenville, George

 Grenville, George, 1712-70, British statesman. While prime minister
 (1763-65), he provoked reformers by persecuting John WILKES and aroused
 opposition by attempting to tax the American colonies through the STAMP
 ACT. His son George Nugent Temple Grenville, 1st marquess of Buckingham,
 1753-1813, was lord lieutenant of Ireland (1782-83, 1787-89). His brother
 William Wyndham Grenville, Baron Grenville, 1759-1834, was foreign
 secretary to William PITT (1791-1801). In 1806 he formed the "ministry of
 all talents," which abolished the slave trade (1807).

   Grenville, Sir Richard

 Grenville, Sir Richard, 1542?-1591, English naval hero. In 1585 he
 commanded the fleet carrying the first colonists to Roanoke Island. On an
 expedition to capture Spanish treasure ships off the Azores in 1591, his
 ship, the Revenge, became separated from the rest of the fleet. He tried
 to break through the Spanish line, but he was mortally wounded and died
 in Spanish captivity.

   Gresham, Sir Thomas

 Gresham, Sir Thomas, 1519?-1579, English merchant and financier. Founder
 of the Royal Exchange, he accumulated a private fortune while serving as
 an adviser to ELIZABETH I. His name was given to Gresham's law, the
 economic principle (formulated long before his time) that "bad money
 drives out good." When depreciated, mutilated, or debased coinage (or
 currency) circulates concurrently with money of high value in terms of
 precious metals, the good money automatically disappears because of
 hoarding.

   Gresham's law

 Gresham's law: see under GRESHAM, SIR THOMAS.

   Gretzky, Wayne

 Gretzky, Wayne, 1961-, Canadian ice hockey player. Gretzky joined the
 Edmonton (Alta.) Oilers in 1978 and first set National Hockey League
 (NHL) scoring records in 1979. In 1981-82, he set single-season NHL marks
 for goals scored (92), assists (120), and points (212), becoming the
 first player to achieve more than 200 points. In 1984-85 he set the
 record for most assists in one season (135). He was traded to the Los
 Angeles Kings in 1988.

   Greuze, Jean-Baptiste

 Greuze, Jean-Baptiste, 1725-1805, French genre and portrait painter. He
 is best known for his moralizing pictures, e.g., The Broken Pitcher
 (Louvre). His portraits, e.g., that of his wife, (The Milkmaid), and that
 of Napoleon I (both: Versailles), are more interesting.

   Grevy, Jules

 Grevy, Jules, 1807-91, president of France (1879-87). He opposed the
 Second Empire of NAPOLEON III. A moderate republican, he resigned as
 president because of a scandal over his son-in-law's traffic in
 decorations of honor.

   Grey, Charles Grey, 2d Earl

 Grey, Charles Grey, 2d Earl, 1764-1835, British statesman. In 1796 he
 became foreign secretary in the "ministry of all talents" and WHIG leader
 of the House of Commons, putting through the measure to abolish the slave
 trade (1807). As prime minister (1830-34), he secured passage of the
 REFORM BILL of 1832 by threatening to force WILLIAM IV to create enough
 Whig peers to carry it in the House of Lords. His grandson, Albert Henry
 George Grey, 4th Earl Grey, 1851-1917, was a Liberal member of the House
 of Commons (1880-86). Later he was a successful governor general of
 Canada (1904-11).

   Grey, Sir George

 Grey, Sir George, 1812-98, British colonial administrator. He was
 governor of South Australia (1841-45), New Zealand (1845-53), and the
 Cape Colony (1854-60). Recalled to New Zealand as governor (1861-68), he
 failed to halt warfare between English settlers and MAORI natives. He was
 later premier (1877-79) of New Zealand.

   Grey, Lady Jane

 Grey, Lady Jane, 1537-54, queen of England for nine days; grandniece of
 HENRY VIII. She was married to the son of the duke of Northumberland, who
 persuaded EDWARD VII to make her his successor. She was proclaimed queen
 in 1553, but the English people rallied behind MARY I and Jane was
 imprisoned. Her life might have been spared, but her father, the duke of
 Suffolk, joined Thomas Wyatt's rebellion, and she was beheaded.

   Grey, Zane

 Grey, Zane, 1875-1939, American writer; b. Zanesville, Ohio. He is known
 for his enormously popular melodramatic tales of the West, especially
 Riders of the Purple Sage (1912).

   greyhound

 greyhound, tall, swift sight HOUND; shoulder height, c.26 in. (66 cm);
 weight, c.65 lb (29.5 kg). Its short, smooth coat maybe any of various
 colors. Developed in Egypt c.5,000 years ago, the breed was known before
 the 9th cent. in England, where it was bred by aristocrats to hunt such
 small game as hares. Today it is widely used in racing.

   Grieg, Edvard Hagerup

 Grieg, Edvard Hagerup, 1843-1907, Norwegian composer who developed a
 strongly nationalistic style. He founded (1867) the Norwegian Academy of
 Music. His best-known works are the Concerto in A Minor for piano and
 orchestra (1869); the CANTATA Olav Trygvason (1873); the SUITE of
 incidental dramatic music, Peer Gynt (1876); and settings of Norwegian
 FOLK SONGS.

   Grien, Hans Baldung

 Grien, Hans Baldung: see BALDUNG, HANS.

   Griffenfeld, Peder Schumacher, Count

 Griffenfeld, Peder Schumacher, Count, 1635-99, Danish politician. As
 secretary to FREDERICK III he drew up (1665) a law making the monarchy
 absolute. His power under CHRISTIAN V was resented by the army and
 nobles, who had him sentenced to death for treason, a sentence changed to
 life imprisonment by the king.

   Griffes, Charles Tomlinson

 Griffes, Charles Tomlinson, 1884-1920, American composer; b. Elmira, N.Y.
 His impressionistic compositions include The Pleasure-Dome of Kubla Khan
 (1920) and Roman Sketches (1915-16), including The White Peacock.

   griffin

 griffin, in ancient and medieval legend, creature with an eagle's head
 and wings and a lion's body. Originating in Middle Eastern legend, it is
 often found in Persian art. It is thought to have symbolized strength and
 vigilance.

   Griffith, Arthur

 Griffith, Arthur, 1872-1922, Irish statesman, founder of SINN FEIN.
 Through his newspaper, the United Irishmen, he advocated the creation of
 an Irish assembly. He was the first president (1922) of the Irish Free
 State.

   Griffith, D(avid) W(ark)

 Griffith, D(avid) W(ark), 1875-1948, American film director. A cinematic
 genius, he innovated cross-cutting, close-ups, long shots, moving-camera
 shots, and flashbacks in such films as The Birth of a Nation (1915) and
 Intolerance (1916).

   Grillparzer, Franz

 Grillparzer, Franz, 1791-1872, Austrian dramatist. His works, combining
 German classicism and exuberant lyricism, include the plays A Dream Is
 Life (1817-34), Hero and Leander (1831), and The Jewess of Toledo (1855)
 and the partly autobiographical novella The Poor Minstrel (1844).

   Grimke, Angelina Emily

 Grimke, Angelina Emily, 1805-79, and Grimke, Sarah Moore, 1792-1873,
 American abolitionists and feminists; b. Charleston, S.C. Sisters from an
 aristocratic slaveholding family, they were converted to the Quaker
 faith, moved north, and became the first women to speak publicly on the
 issues of slavery and women's rights. Angelina became a persuasive
 orator, and Sarah published influential works on abolition (1836) and the
 equality of the sexes (1838).

   Grimm, Jakob

 Grimm, Jakob, 1785-1863, German philologist and folklorist, a founder of
 comparative philology. Aside from his study of Germanic languages (see
 GRIMM'S LAW) and his writings on German grammar and mythology, he is best
 known for the collection of folk tales known as Grimm's Fairy Tales
 (1812-15), compiled with his brother, Wilhelm Grimm, 1786-1859.

   Grimmelshausen, Hans Jakob Christoffel von

 Grimmelshausen, Hans Jakob Christoffel von , 1625-76, German novelist.
 His satirical Adventuresome Simplicius Simplicissimus (1669) is a
 picaresque romance, noted for its vigor, humor, and realism.

   Grimm's law

 Grimm's law, principle of relationships in Indo-European languages, first
 formulated by Jakob GRIMM in 1822. It demonstrates that the regular
 shifting of consonants in groups took place once in the development of
 English and the other Low German languages, and twice in German and the
 other High German languages. Thus the unaspirated voiceless stops (k, t,
 p) of the ancient, or classical, Indo-European languages (Sanskrit,
 Greek, Latin) became voiceless aspirates (h, th, f) in English and mediae
 (h, d, f) in German; unaspirated voiced stops (g, d, b) became voiceless
 stops (k, t, p) in English and voiceless aspirates (kh, ts, f) in German;
 and aspirated voiced stops (gh, dh, bh) became unaspirated voiced stops
 (g, d, b) in English and voiceless stops (k, t, p) in German.

   Gris, Juan

 Gris, Juan, 1887-1927, Spanish cubist painter; b. Jose Victoriano
 Gonzalez. A developer of synthetic CUBISM, he painted simple forms that
 reflect an architectonic design. His later works were more sumptuous and
 decorative. Most of his works are STILL LIFE oils and COLLAGES.

   Griswold v. Connecticut

 Griswold v. Connecticut, case decided in 1965 by the U.S. SUPREME COURT,
 establishing a right to privacy in striking down a Connecticut ban on the
 sale of contraceptives. The Court, through Justice DOUGLAS, found a "zone
 of privacy" created by several amendments to the U.S. CONSTITUTION
 guaranteeing against governmental intrusion into the homes and lives of
 citizens. The Griswold decision was important in later cases, such as ROE
 V. WADE.

   Grolier de Servieres, Jean, vicomte d'Aguisy

 Grolier de Servieres, Jean, vicomte d'Aguisy, 1479-1565, French
 bibliophile. Of his collection of some 3,000 finely bound books, about
 350 are known to be in existence, many in the Bibliotheque nationale (see
 LIBRARY,).

   Gromyko, Andrei Andreyevich

 Gromyko, Andrei Andreyevich, 1909-89, Soviet diplomat. After holding such
 posts as ambassador to the U.S. (1943-46) he became foreign minister
 (1957-85). In the 1970s he helped arrange U.S.-Soviet summit talks. He
 became (1973) a member of the ruling politburo, taking the position of
 first deputy premier (1983-85) and president (from 1985).

   Gronchi, Giovanni

 Gronchi, Giovanni, 1887-1978, Italian politician. He broke (1922) with
 MUSSOLINI. A founder of the Christian Democratic party, he was minister
 for commerce, industry, and labor (1944-46); speaker of the chamber of
 deputies (1948-55); and president of Italy (1955-62).

   Grooms, Red

 Grooms, Red, 1937-, American artist; b. Nashville. A painter and
 filmmaker, he pioneered in the theatrical art form known as the
 happening. He is best known for his witty environmental constructions,
 e.g., Ruckus Manhattan (1975).

   Gropius, Walter

 Gropius, Walter, 1883-1969, German-American architect, a leader of modern
 functional architecture. In Germany his glass-wall Fagus factory
 buildings (1910-11) at Alfeld were among the most advanced works in
 Europe. In 1918 he became director of the Weimar School of Art and
 reorganized it as the BAUHAUS. He designed (1926) a complete new set of
 buildings for it in Dessau, as well as the Staattheater in Jena (1923),
 residences, and industrial buildings. In the U.S. after 1937, he taught
 at Harvard until 1952.

   Grosseteste, Robert

 Grosseteste, Robert, c.1175-1253, English prelate. A founder of the
 Oxford Franciscan school, he made Oxford a center of learning. As bishop
 (1235) of Lincoln, he resisted the efforts of HENRY III to control church
 appointments and supported the reforms of Simon de MONTFORT. He also
 censured Pope INNOCENT IV for excessive exactions and for appointing
 foreigners to English sees. His writings include treatises on the
 sciences, pastoral works, and poems. His studies of ARISTOTLE were the
 basis for the SCHOLASTICISM of THOMAS AQUINAS and ALBERTUS MAGNUS.

   gross national product (GNP)

 gross national product (GNP), a nation's total output of goods and
 services in a given period, usually one year. The GNP, a closely watched
 barometer of the national economy, is reported quarterly in the U.S. In
 estimating the GNP, only the final value of a product is counted (e.g.,
 automobiles, but not the steel that they contain). The three major
 components of GNP are consumer purchases, private investment, and
 government spending.

   Gros Ventre Indians

 Gros Ventre Indians, name used by the French for two distinct bands of
 NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS of the Plains. The nomadic Atsina band of ARAPAHO
 INDIANS spoke an Algonquian language of the Algonquian-Wakashan stock;
 the settled Hidatsa Indians, speaking a Siouan branch of Hokan-Siouan,
 were closely allied with the MANDAN INDIANS, an agricultural people with
 whom they live on a reservation in North Dakota.

   Grosz, George

 Grosz, George, 1893-1959, German-American painter; b. Germany. Early
 associated with DADA, he was famous for savage post-World War I
 caricatures of bourgeois society. He became a U.S. citizen in 1938 and
 painted traditional landscapes and figures. Deeply affected by the
 horrors of World War II, he created a symbolic series of ravaged figures,
 e.g., Street Scene (Philadelphia Mus. Art).

   Grotefend, Georg Friedrich

 Grotefend, Georg Friedrich, 1775-1853, German archaeologist and
 philologist. His greatest achievement was deciphering inscriptions of
 Persian CUNEIFORM.

   Grotius, Hugo

 Grotius, Hugo, 1583-1645, Dutch jurist and humanist. His Concerning the
 Law of War and Peace (1625) is considered the first definitive text on
 INTERNATIONAL LAW. Drawing on the Bible and classical history, he argued
 that natural law prescribes rules of conduct for nations, as for
 individuals. While not condemning all war, he maintained that only
 certain causes justified it, and he devoted much attention to the concept
 of more humane warfare.

   Groton

 Groton, town (1980 pop. 41,062), SE Conn., on the Thames R., opposite New
 London; settled c.1650, inc. 1705. Shipbuilding and pharmaceuticals are
 its major industries; it is famous for the construction of submarines.
 The Nautilus, the first nuclear submarine, was launched there in 1954.

   ground-effect machine

 ground-effect machine: see AIR-CUSHION VEHICLE.

   groundhog

 groundhog: see WOODCHUCK.

   ground laurel

 ground laurel: see TRAILING ARBUTUS.

   grouper

 grouper, large, carnivorous FISH of the sea BASS family, abundant in
 tropical and subtropical seas and highly valued as food. Most have bright
 markings that change in color and pattern to match the background. The
 largest is the spotted jewfish (up to 600 lb/270 kg). The red grouper and
 black grouper form the bulk of the commercial catch.

   group psychotherapy

 group psychotherapy, a means of altering behavior and emotions that is
 based on the use of group interactions. The technique was developed in
 the 1930s and received further impetus during World War II, when there
 was a great need for a prompt method of treating many patients
 simultaneously. The therapy can take many forms, depending upon the
 predisposition and training of the therapist, but is generally carried
 out in formal groups of 5 to 12 people; the members may be heterogeneous
 or homogeneous. The group becomes a "sample" social setting, reproducing
 conditions of interpersonal relationships in general; its members jointly
 participate in observing personal motivation and styles of interaction.
 Members can also try new behaviors and learn to deal with the
 consequences of these within the group. Group therapy may be combined
 with individual treatment.

   grouse

 grouse, henlike terrestrial BIRD of the family Tetraonidae, found in the
 colder parts of the Northern Hemisphere. It is protectively plumaged in
 reds, browns, and grays. The American ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus),
 often miscalled PARTRIDGE or PHEASANT, is a forest bird noted for the
 drumming sound made by the courting male. The ptarmigan (Lagopus lagopus)
 is an arctic species that migrates to the NW U.S. in winter, when its
 rusty brown plumage changes to white.

   Grove, Sir George

 Grove, Sir George, 1820-1900, English musicologist. His Dictionary of
 Music and Musicians (1879-89; 6th ed. 1980) became a standard reference
 work.

   Grove, Lefty

 Grove, Lefty (Robert Moses Grove), 1900-1975, American baseball player;
 b. Lonaconing, Md. He won 300 games and struck out over 2,200 batters as
 a right-handed pitcher for the Philadelphia Athletics (1925-33) and
 Boston Red Sox (1934-41). In 1931 he won 31 games and lost 4 for a
 winning percentage of .866, a record that stood for many years.

   growth hormone

 growth hormone, glycoprotein hormone released by the anterior PITUITARY
 GLAND that is necessary for normal skeletal growth in humans (see
 PROTEIN). Evidence suggests that the secretion of growth hormone is
 regulated by the release of certain peptides by the HYPOTHALAMUS of the
 brain. One such substance, called somatostatin, has been shown to inhibit
 the secretion of growth hormone. Somatotropin is known to act on many
 aspects of cellular metabolism, but its most obvious effect is the
 stimulation of the growth of cartilage and bone in children. A deficiency
 of growth hormone before puberty results in pituitary dwarfism; an excess
 results in gigantism. Excess growth hormone after puberty has little
 effect on skeletal growth, but results in a disease known as acromegaly.

   Grun, Hans Baldung

 Grun, Hans Baldung: see BALDUNG, HANS.

   Grundtvig, Nikolai Frederik Severin

 Grundtvig, Nikolai Frederik Severin, 1783-1872, Danish writer, churchman,
 and educator. He founded the folk high school, a form of adult education
 designed to foster patriotism and religious conviction in young adults.
 His many literary works include the epoch-making Northern Mythology
 (1808), a loose retelling of the Old Norse myths. In his poems, songs,
 and hymns, he treated historical, mythological, and religious subjects.

   Grunewald, Mathias

 Grunewald, Mathias, c.1475-1528, German religious painter; b. Mathis
 Gothart Neithart. Possessed of unique expressive power, he used stylistic
 components such as silhouette and unusual color, the striking contrast of
 light and shadow, and the exaggeration of the human form to convey
 anguish and terror. His most frequent subject was the crucifixion of
 Christ, and his masterpiece is the Isenheim Altarpiece (1515; Colmar,
 France).

   grunion

 grunion: see SILVERSIDES.

   Guadalajara

 Guadalajara, city (1980 est. pop. 2,000,000), SW Mexico, capital of
 Jalisco state. A spacious, beautiful city (called the "Pearl of the
 West"), it is Mexico's second-largest city. Although it is a modern
 metropolis with varied manufactures, it retains many old colonial
 structures, notably a cathedral and a governor's palace. Its location on
 a plain more than 5,000 ft (1,524 m) high and its mild, dry climate have
 made it a popular health resort. Founded c.1530, Guadalajara was a center
 of the movement for independence from Spain. It has suffered several
 earthquakes.

   Guadalcanal

 Guadalcanal, island c.2,510 sq mi (6,500 sq km), in the SW Pacific Ocean,
 largest of the SOLOMON ISLANDS and site of the national capital, Honiara.
 The largely mountainous and forested island is of volcanic origin.
 Coconuts are grown, and some gold is mined. In bitter fighting during
 WORLD WAR II, U.S. forces seized (1942-43) the island and its airstrip,
 Henderson Field, from Japanese troops.

   Guadalupe Hidalgo, Treaty of

 Guadalupe Hidalgo, Treaty of, 1848, peace treaty between the U.S. and
 Mexico that ended the MEXICAN WAR. It confirmed U.S. claims to TEXAS.
 Mexico ceded most of the present SW U.S. for $15 million and the
 assumption by the U.S. government of claims against Mexico by U.S.
 citizens.

   Guadalupe Mountains National Park

 Guadalupe Mountains National Park: see NATIONAL PARKS.

   Guadalupe Victoria

 Guadalupe Victoria, 1786?-1843, first president of MEXICO (1824-29); b.
 Manuel Felix Fernandez. A general, he fought against Spanish rule, and
 after Mexican independence (1821) he and SANTA ANNA overthrew the
 ITURBIDE regime. His administration was marred by factional strife.

   Guadeloupe

 Guadeloupe, overseas department of France (1987 est. pop. 335,200), 687
 sq mi (1,779 sq km), in the Leeward Islands; comprising Basse-Terre,
 Grande-Terre, and smaller islands. Discovered (1493) by Columbus, it was
 settled (17th cent.) by the French, who eliminated the native Caribs,
 imported African slaves, and made it a major sugar producer. Tourism,
 bananas, and sugar are important.

   Guam

 Guam, island (1987 est. pop. 130,400), 209 sq mi (541 sq km), W Pacific,
 southernmost of the Marianas islands; an unincorporated U.S. territory.
 Agana is the seat of government. Guam is tropical and partly mountainous.
 Discovered (1521) by MAGELLAN, it belonged to Spain until it was
 surrendered to the U.S. in 1898. A major military base, Guam was occupied
 by the Japanese from 1941 to 1944. Military installations provide much
 employment, and subsistence agriculture is practiced. There is enormous
 tourism (largely from Japan) and some light industry. Guamanians, who are
 chiefly of Chamorros (mixed Spanish, Filipino, and Micronesian) stock,
 are U.S. citizens but cannot vote in U.S. elections. Administered by the
 U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Guam has an appointed governor and an elected
 legislature.

   Guangzhou

 Guangzhou: see CANTON.

   Guantanamo

 Guantanamo, city (1986 pop. 174,400), SE Cuba, in Oriente prov. Founded
 in the 19th cent. by Frenchmen from Haiti, it is now a sugar-processing
 center. It is c.20 mi (32 km) inland from its port, Caimanera, on
 well-protected Guantanamo Bay, which is also the site of a large U.S.
 naval station established in 1903. Since the revolution of 1959, Cuba has
 refused to accept the token annual U.S. rent for the naval base and has
 pressed for its surrender.

   Guarani Indians

 Guarani Indians, people in N and E South America (see SOUTH AMERICAN
 INDIANS) of the Tupi-Guarani linguistic stock (see AMERICAN INDIAN
 LANGUAGES). Those who live in S Brazil and Paraguay are called Guarani;
 those in the Amazon region are called Tupi or Tupinamba. At the time of
 the Spanish conquest (16th cent.) communities of both groups had a chief
 and a powerful SHAMAN. The Guarani grew maize and manioc. In ancient
 times they practiced ritual CANNIBALISM. Although their material culture
 was not advanced, they had a rich body of folklore. Early Jesuit
 missionaries founded among them the agricultural settlements called
 reductions, using Indian labor under the absolute, but usually
 benevolent, rule of priests. Guarani is widely spoken in Paraguay; most
 Tupi have been assimilated into European culture.

   Guardi, Francesco

 Guardi, Francesco, 1712-93, Venetian painter of landscapes and
 architectural scenes. A follower of CANALETTO, he developed a freer
 style. His work ranges from architectural scenes to delightful,
 spontaneous capricci.

   Guardia, Tomas

 Guardia, Tomas, 1832-82, president of COSTA RICA. He led an army revolt
 and largely ruled the country from 1870 to 1882. Although basically a
 military strong man, he laid the foundation for the country's stability.

   Guatemala

 Guatemala, officially Republic of Guatemala, republic (1987 est. pop.
 8,439,000), 42,042 sq mi (108,889 sq km), Central America; bordered by
 Mexico (N and W), Belize and the Caribbean Sea (E), Honduras and El
 Salvador (SE), and the Pacific Ocean (SW). The capital is GUATEMALA CITY.
 A highland region occupies the southern half of the country and is the
 most densely populated area. Much of northern Guatemala is covered by a
 vast tropical forest, the Peten. Coffee accounts for more than half of
 the nation's revenue. Sugar, cotton, tobacco, vegetables, fruit, and beef
 are also exported, and industry is being expanded. The mainly Roman
 Catholic population is about evenly divided between Maya Indians and
 mestizos. The language is Spanish, although many Indians speak only
 Indian dialects. The literacy rate and per capita income are extremely
 low.

 History After defeat of the Quiche (MAYA) Indians in 1523-24, Spain
 established a prosperous colony in the area, with its capital (from 1542)
 at ANTIGUA. After independence (1821), Guatemala became the nucleus of
 the CENTRAL AMERICAN FEDERATION and, after dissolution of the federation
 in 1839, a separate republic. Ruled through the 19th cent. by a series of
 usually repressive dictators, Guatemala alternated in the 20th cent.
 between economic reform and reaction. A conservative coup in 1954 owed
 its success to U.S. military intervention. From 1970 into the early 1980s
 the country was dominated by conservative military elements.

   Guatemala

 Guatemala, city (1983 est. pop. 1,300,000), S central Guatemala, capital
 of Guatemala. The largest city in Central America, it is the nation's
 commercial and industrial center, with a cosmopolitan atmosphere and many
 modern public buildings, as well as Spanish colonial structures and large
 Indian markets. It was constructed in a highland valley in 1779, after
 the former capital, ANTIGUA, was destroyed by earthquakes. Guatemala City
 itself suffered that fate in 1917-18 and has since been completely
 rebuilt.

   guava

 guava, small evergreen tree or shrub (genus Psidium) of the MYRTLE
 family, native to tropical America and grown for its ornamental flowers
 and edible fruit. Species include the common tropical guava (P. guajava)
 and the strawberry guava (P. cattleyanum). The guava is grown
 commercially in Florida and California and is made into jellies and
 beverages.

   Guayaquil

 Guayaquil, city (1982 pop. 1,300,868), capital of Guayas prov., W
 Ecuador, on the Guayas R. near its mouth on the Gulf of Guayaquil, an
 inlet of the Pacific Ocean. It is Ecuador's largest city and its chief
 port and manufacturing center. Founded by Sebastian de Benalcazar in
 1535, it was liberated from Spain by Antonio Jose de SUCRE in 1821, and
 in 1822 was the site of a meeting between Simon BOLIVAR and Jose de SAN
 MARTIN that determined the course of South American independence. The
 climate is hot and humid, and yellow fever was a problem until the early
 20th cent.

   Guemundsson, Kristmann

 Guemundsson, Kristmann, 1902-, Icelandic novelist who wrote in
 both Norwegian and Icelandic. His psychologically insightful works
 include The Bridal Gown (1927) and The Square (1965).

   Gudrun

 Gudrun or Kudrun , in Germanic literature. 1+Heroine of the VOLSUNGASAGA.
 2+Heroine of a Middle High German epic influenced by the Nibelungenlied
 (see NIBELUNGEN). 3+Principal character of the Icelandic Laxdaelasaga.

   Guelphs

 Guelphs, German dynasty of the Middle Ages. It traced its descent from
 the Swabian count Guelph, or Welf, in the 9th cent. Eventually the
 Guelphs became the dukes of Bavaria and Saxony, and were the rivals of
 the house of HOHENSTAUFEN. In Italy, the dynasty was represented by the
 ESTE family. The Guelphs came to represent the papal faction in the
 longtime struggle between the GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES.

   Guelphs and Ghibellines

 Guelphs and Ghibellines, opposing political factions in Germany and Italy
 in the later Middle Ages. The names designated the papal (Guelph) party
 and the imperial (Ghibelline) party during the long struggle between the
 papacy and the Holy Roman emperors; they also designated two rival German
 families, the Welfs or GUELPHS, and the HOHENSTAUFEN. In Germany the
 rivalry began under Emperor HENRY IV and last flared at the election of
 Emperor OTTO IV. In Italy the terms were used from the 13th to the 15th
 cent., and the rival factions plunged the country into internal warfare.
 Among the Ghibellines were Ezzelino da Romano and the VISCONTI family of
 Milan. Milan itself was Guelph, as were, generally, Florence and Genoa.
 Cremona, Pisa, and Arezzo were usually Ghibelline. Venice remained
 neutral.

   Guernica

 Guernica, town (1981 pop. 17,836), in the Basque prov. of Vizcaya, N
 Spain. The Guernica oak, under which the diet of Vizcaya met, symbolizes
 the Basques' lost liberty. One of PICASSO'S greatest paintings
 commemorates the 1937 destruction of Guernica by German bombers aiding
 FRANCO during the SPANISH CIVIL WAR.

   Guernsey

 Guernsey: see CHANNEL ISLANDS.

   Guerrero, Vicente

 Guerrero, Vicente, 1782-1831, Mexican revolutionary leader. He won
 guerrilla victories over Spanish forces but accepted ITURBIDE'S
 conservative leadership of the Mexican independence movement. He and
 SANTA ANNA led (1828) a successful revolt against Iturbide, and Guerrero
 served briefly (1829) as president, but he was forced to retreat and was
 finally captured and shot.

   guerrilla warfare

 guerrilla warfare, fighting by groups of irregular troops (guerrillas),
 usually in enemy-held territory. Tactics stress sabotage, unpredictable
 hit-and-run attacks, and ambush rather than mass confrontation. Guerrilla
 strategy often relies on a sympathetic population, sometimes won over by
 propaganda. Such tactics were developed during the American Revolution,
 but the term guerrilla was first applied to Spanish partisans in the
 PENINSULAR WAR (1808-14). Guerrilla warfare has played an important part
 in almost every major conflict since that time (e.g., resistance
 movements in Nazi-occupied Europe in WORLD WAR II, such as the maquis, in
 France), and has increasingly been used in peacetime by nationalist
 groups to challenge governments in power-e.g., Al Fatah, in the Middle
 East (see PALESTINE LIBERATION ORGANIZATION); the South-West African
 People's Organization (SWAPO), in NAMIBIA; and the IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY
 provisionals. Notable guerrilla leaders have included Fidel CASTRO;
 Ernesto ("Che") GUEVARA; Thomas Edward LAWRENCE; and MAO TSE-TUNG, often
 called the leading guerrilla theorist in the 20th cent. Such modern
 "urban guerrilla" activities as hijacking and KIDNAPPING are frequently
 inspired by ideology rather than patriotism and are often tinged with
 elements of TERRORISM.

   Gueux

 Gueux [Fr.,=beggars], 16th-cent. Dutch revolutionary party. In 1566 over
 2,000 nobles and burghers vowed to resist Spanish repression in the
 NETHERLANDS. Called "these beggars" at the court of the Spanish regent,
 MARGARET OF PARMA, they adopted the sobriquet. The "Beggars of the Sea,"
 crews of Dutch privateers chartered in 1569 by WILLIAM THE SILENT to
 harass Spanish shipping, raised the siege of LEIDEN in 1574.

   Guevara, Ernesto

 Guevara, Ernesto, 1928-67, Cuban revolutionary leader; b. Argentina. A
 physician and political activist, "Che" Guevara became (1956) Fidel
 CASTRO'S chief lieutenant and a guerrilla leader in the Cuban revolution
 (1959). He served as minister of industry (1961-65), then left Cuba to
 foster revolutions in other countries. Captured in Bolivia (1967), he was
 executed.

   Guggenheim

 Guggenheim, family of American industrialists and philanthropists. Meyer
 Guggenheim, 1828-1905; b. Aargau canton, Switzerland, emigrated (1847) to
 the U.S. and prospered as a merchant in Philadelphia. His real fortune
 came from metal smelting and refining, beginning when he was nearly 60.
 Seven sons-Isaac, Daniel, Murry, Solomon, Benjamin, Simon, and
 William-contributed to the expansion of the family enterprises. Daniel
 Guggenheim, 1856-1930, b. Philadelphia, combined (1901) the Guggenheim
 interests with the American Smelting and Refining Co. The Daniel and
 Florence Guggenheim Foundation for aeronautical research represented his
 main philanthropy. Simon Guggenheim, 1867-1941, established (1925), with
 his wife, the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation to assist
 scholars, writers, and artists. Solomon Robert Guggenheim, 1861-1949,
 created a foundation that established (1937) the SOLOMON R. GUGGENHEIM
 MUSEUM.

   Guggenheim Museum

 Guggenheim Museum: see SOLOMON R. GUGGENHEIM MUSEUM.

   Guicciardini, Francesco

 Guicciardini, Francesco, 1483-1540, Italian historian and statesman. He
 served in the Florentine government and under Pope LEO X before taking up
 writing. Breaking with medieval tradition, he removed history from the
 realm of literature and related it to the development of states. His
 history of Italy (1492-1534) is the masterwork of Italian historical
 literature of the RENAISSANCE.

   guidance and counseling

 guidance and counseling, in education, service provided in schools,
 usually by a specially trained counselor, to assist students in making
 intelligent and realistic personal, social, educational, and vocational
 decisions. It sometimes includes counseling in such areas as drug abuse
 and teenage pregnancy, and referrals to other professionals (e.g.,
 psychologists, social workers, and learning-disability specialists) when
 necessary. Although the need for attention to the whole individual was
 long recognized by educators, it was not until the early 20th cent. that
 researchers began to study and accumulate information about guidance.
 Fostered by the popularity of the educational philosophy of John DEWEY,
 with its emphasis on development of the individual's potential, the
 concept of guidance as the responsibility of the school began to take
 hold in the U.S. By the 1950s guidance had come to be regarded as a
 continuous process to be conducted throughout school life, and guidance
 and counseling had become a specialized field of study at colleges and
 universities. The U.S. Dept. of Labor has been active in establishing
 standards and methods of vocational guidance.

   guide dog

 guide dog, dog trained to lead a blind person. Guide dogs were first
 trained to lead blinded veterans in post-World War I Germany. Schools to
 train such dogs now exist in several European countries and the U.S.
 Although the GERMAN SHEPHERD is the most widely used breed, other breeds,
 e.g., BOXER and GOLDEN RETRIEVER, are also employed.

   Guidi, Tommaso

 Guidi, Tommaso: see MASACCIO.

   Guido Reni

 Guido Reni: see RENI, GUIDO.

   guilds

 guilds or gilds, economic and social associations of persons engaged in
 the same business or craft, typical of Western Europe in the Middle Ages.
 Membership was never by class but by profession or trade. The primary
 function of guilds was to establish local control over a profession or
 craft by setting standards of workmanship and price, by protecting the
 business from competition, and by gaining status in society for guild
 members. Merchant guilds in some cases developed into intercity leagues
 for the promotion of trade, such as the medieval HANSEATIC LEAGUE. By the
 17th cent. the power of the guilds had withered in England. They were
 abolished in France in 1791 and elsewhere in Western Europe during the
 19th cent.

   guild socialism

 guild socialism, form of socialism in Great Britain that advocated
 industrial self-government through national worker-controlled guilds. The
 theory began (1906) with Arthur J. Penty, who sought to revive the spirit
 of medieval craft guilds and argued that workers should strive for
 control of industry rather than for political reform. Several guilds were
 started, but the movement ended after the collapse (1922) of the National
 Building Guild, its most powerful component.

   Guillen, Jorge

 Guillen, Jorge, 1893-1984, Spanish poet. He settled in the U.S. in 1939.
 His difficult, classic verse appears in Cantico (1928), Clamor (1957),
 and Affirmation: A Bilingual Anthology (1968). He also wrote the essays
 in Language and Poetry (1961).

   Guinea

 Guinea, Fr. Guinee, officially People's Revolutionary Republic of Guinea,
 republic (1987 est. pop. 6,339,000), 94,925 sq mi (245,856 sq km), W
 Africa, bordered by Guinea-Bissau, Senegal, and Mali (N), the Ivory Coast
 (E), Sierra Leone and Liberia (S), and the Atlantic Ocean (W). CONAKRY is
 the capital. A humid and tropical country, Guinea comprises an alluvial
 coastal plain; the mountainous Fouta Jallon region; a savanna interior;
 and the forested Guinea Highlands, which rise to c.5,800 ft (1,770 m) in
 the Nimba Mts. Guinea is predominantly agricultural. Coffee, bananas,
 palm kernels, and pineapples are the leading cash crops; the main
 subsistence crop is rice. Some of the world's largest bauxite deposits
 lie in Guinea, the world's third largest producer; iron ore, gold, and
 diamonds are also mined. Poor transportation has hampered
 industrialization. Most sectors of the economy are under state control.
 The main ethnic groups are the pastoral Fulani and the agrarian Malinke
 and Susu. Islam is the chief religion, but there are animist and Roman
 Catholic minorities. French is the principal language.

 History Part of present-day Guinea belonged to medieval GHANA and later
 to the MALI empire. As in other W African states, Portuguese exploration
 of the Guinea coast in the mid-15th cent. led to the development of a
 slave trade involving also the French and British. France proclaimed a
 protectorate over the Boke area of Guinea in 1849 and, after extending
 its control over much of the rest of Guinea, annexed it under the name
 Rivieres du Sud (rivers of the south). In 1895, as French Guinea, it
 became part of French West Africa. Exploitation of Guinea's rich bauxite
 deposits began just before World War II, accompanied by the growth of a
 radical labor movement led by Sekou TOURE. Under his leadership, Guinea
 was the only French colony to reject (1958) self-government within the
 FRENCH COMMUNITY and voted instead for full independence. Toure created a
 one-party socialist state in which he, as head of the government and the
 ruling party, had ultimate authority. Having demonstrated its
 determination to pursue a nonaligned stance, in the 1980s Guinea enjoyed
 good relations with most Western, Arab, and African states. When Toure
 died (1984), a military clique seized power.

   Guinea-Bissau

 Guinea-Bissau, officially Republic of Guinea-Bissau, formerly Portuguese
 Guinea, republic (1988 est. pop. 950,742), 13,948 sq mi (36,125 sq km), W
 Africa, bordered by the Atlantic Ocean (W), Senegal (N), and Guinea (E
 and S), and including the Bijagos Archipelago and several islands in the
 Atlantic. The capital is BISSAU. Guinea-Bissau is largely a low-lying
 coastal plain, with many rivers and swampy estuaries. Farming is the
 leading occupation, producing rice, palm oil, coconuts, and peanuts.
 Fishing is an increasingly important industry. Most of the people hold
 animist beliefs, but about one third are Muslim.

 History First visited by the Portuguese in 1446-47, the area that is now
 Guinea-Bissau developed in the 16th cent. as a slave-trading center. It
 was administered as part of the CAPE VERDE islands until 1879, when it
 became the separate colony of Portuguese Guinea. In 1951 it was
 constituted an overseas province. A nationalist movement was organized in
 1956, and a war for independence began in the early 1960s. After more
 than 10 years of fighting, independence was proclaimed in 1973 and
 recognized by Portugal in 1974. The following year, some 100,000 refugees
 of the war returned. Ties with Cape Verde had been close, with eventual
 union a goal. However, a coup in 1980, which killed Pres. Luis de Almeida
 Cabral and brought to power Joao Bernardo Vieira led to a breakdown of
 relations.

   guinea pig

 guinea pig, domesticated form of the cavy (Cavia porcellus), a South
 American RODENT unrelated to the pig. Guinea pigs have rounded bodies and
 large heads, are 6 to 10 in. (15 to 25 cm) long, and weigh 1 to 2 lb (450
 to 900 grams). There are short- and long-haired varieties and many color
 combinations.

   Guinevere

 Guinevere: see ARTHURIAN LEGEND.

   Guinness, Sir Alec

 Guinness, Sir Alec, 1914-, English actor. Noted for his versatility, he
 has appeared in such films as Kind Hearts and Coronets (1949; he
 performed eight parts); The Bridge on the River Kwai (1957; Academy
 Award); and, for television, Tinker, Tailor, Soldier, Spy (1980) and
 Smiley's People (1982), dramatizations of novels by John le Carre.

   Guiraldes, Ricardo

 Guiraldes, Ricardo, 1886-1927, Argentine novelist and short-story writer.
 His major work, the novel Shadows on the Pampas (1926), celebrates the
 life of the gaucho (Argentine cowboy).

   Guise

 Guise, French ducal family, founded as a cadet branch of the house of
 Lorraine by Claude de Lorraine, 1st duc de Guise, 1496-1550. His
 daughter, MARY OF GUISE, married JAMES V of Scotland and was the mother
 of MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS. His sons Francois de Lorraine, 2d duc de Guise,
 1519-63, and Charles de Guise, Cardinal de Lorraine, c.1525-74,
 controlled French politics in the reign of FRANCIS II, the first husband
 of Mary Queen of Scots. They championed the Roman Catholic cause against
 the Protestant HUGUENOTS and harshly suppressed the Huguenot conspiracy
 of Amboise (1560). After Francis's death, they opposed the tolerant
 policies of the regent, CATHERINE DE' MEDICI, and provoked the Wars of
 Religion (see RELIGION, WARS OF). Francois's son Henri de Lorraine, 3d
 duc de Guise, 1550-88, helped Catherine de' Medici plan the massacre of
 Huguenots on SAINT BARTHOLOMEW'S DAY (1572). He formed the Catholic
 League to oppose Protestantism and revived the League in 1585 to block
 the accession of the Protestant Henry of Navarre (later HENRY IV).
 Because of Guise's designs on the throne, King HENRY III brought about
 the assassinations of Guise and his brother Louis de Lorraine, Cardinal
 de Guise, 1555-88. Henri was succeeded by his son, Charles de Lorraine,
 4th duc de Guise, 1571-1640. Charles's son Henri de Lorraine, 5th duc de
 Guise, 1614-64, was the archbishop of Rheims. He conspired against
 Cardinal RICHELIEU (1641) and fought in Naples against Spain (1647-48;
 1654). He was grand chamberlain at the court of LOUIS XIV.

   guitar

 guitar: see STRINGED INSTRUMENT.

   Guitry, Lucien Germain

 Guitry, Lucien Germain, 1860-1925, the most versatile French actor of his
 day. His son, Sacha Guitry, 1885-1957, was an actor; popular playwright,
 e.g., Nono (1905); and film director.

   Guiyang

 Guiyangor Kweiyang, city (1986 est. pop. 1,380,000), capital of Guizhou
 prov., SW China. A major transport and industrial center, it produces
 textiles, fertilizers, machine tools, and petroleum products. The city's
 population includes numerous minority nationalities.

   Guizot, Francois

 Guizot, Francois, 1787-1874, French statesman and historian. A university
 professor, he served LOUIS PHILIPPE as minister of public instruction
 (1832-37). Becoming the chief power in the ministry (1840), he was named
 premier in 1847, but his acceptance of the established order led to his
 overthrow in the FEBRUARY REVOLUTION of 1848. He devoted the rest of his
 life to writing. His History of the Revolution in England (6 vol.,
 1826-56) illustrates his critical approach and his admiration for the
 British experience.

   GULAG

 GULAG, system of forced-labor prison camps in the USSR, from the Russian
 acronym for Chief Administration of Corrective Labor Camps, a department
 of the KGB (Soviet SECRET POLICE). Established in 1918, the vast penal
 network reached its peak under STALIN, when deaths of political prisoners
 from starvation and other forms of maltreatment were estimated in the
 millions. The system, which continues on a much-reduced scale today, has
 been publicized in the writings of SOLZHENITSYN.

   Gulf Stream

 Gulf Stream, warm ocean current of the N Atlantic Ocean off E North
 America, originating in the Gulf of Mexico, passing through the Straits
 of Florida, and moving northeastward until it merges with the NORTH
 ATLANTIC DRIFT at lat. 40 degN and long. 60 degW. The Gulf Stream has an
 average speed of 4 mi (6.4 km) per hour. At its beginning the water
 temperature is 80 degF (27 degC), but it decreases as it moves north.

   gull

 gull, aquatic BIRD of the family Laridae, which also includes the TERN,
 found near all oceans and many inland waters. White with gray or black
 plumage, gulls are larger and bulkier than terns, and their tails are
 squared rather than forked. They have long, narrow wings adapted for
 soaring, webbed feet for swimming, and hooked bills.

   Gullah

 Gullah, a creole language spoken by the Gullah blacks of the Carolina Sea
 Islands and the Middle Atlantic coast of the U.S. It is a mixture of
 17th- and 18th-cent. English and a number of West African languages.

   gum tree

 gum tree, name for the EUCALYPTUS and for other trees, e.g., sweet gum
 (WITCH-HAZEL family) and BLACK GUM.

   gun

 gun, a device that discharges shot, shells, or bullets from a straight
 tube. A gun using the explosion of GUNPOWDER or some other explosive
 substance to propel the projectile is called a firearm; types include
 ARTILLERY (large firearms), MORTAR, and SMALL ARMS. Certain other guns
 use compressed air produced by a spring-operated plunger (e.g., BB gun)
 or a lever-and-pump system (e.g., air rifle) to propel the projectile.

   Gundulic, Ivan

 Gundulic, Ivanor Giovanni Gondola , 1588-1638, Croatian poet. His finest
 work, Osman (1626), an epic of the Polish wars against the Turks, shows
 early Slavic nationalism and the influence of ancient song.

   gunmetal

 gunmetal, a BRONZE, an ALLOY of COPPER, TIN, and a small
 amount of ZINC. Originally used to make guns, it is now employed in
 casting machine parts. The percentages of the three elements are varied,
 depending on the intended use.

   Gunnarsson, Gunnar

 Gunnarsson, Gunnar, 1889-1975, Icelandic novelist. His early works, in
 Danish, helped interest Europeans in Icelandic culture. His masterpiece,
 The Church on the Mountain (5 vol., 1923-28), about rural life in
 Iceland, demonstrates his rich imagination and poetic skill.

   gunpowder

 gunpowder, explosive mixture of saltpeter (75%), sulfur (10%), and
 charcoal (15%). It is believed to have originated as early as the 9th
 cent. in China, where it was used for making fireworks, and to have been
 introduced into Europe in the 14th cent. Its use revolutionized warfare.
 Gunpowder was the only explosive in wide use until the mid-19th cent.,
 when it was superseded by NITROGLYCERIN-based EXPLOSIVES.

   Gunpowder Plot

 Gunpowder Plot, conspiracy to blow up the English Parliament and JAMES I
 on Nov. 5, 1605, the opening day of Parliament. An uprising of English
 Catholics was to follow. In preparation, gunpowder was stored in the
 cellar of the House of Lords. The plot was exposed when a conspirator
 warned a relative not to attend Parliament that day. One of the plotters,
 Guy Fawkes, was arrested as he entered the cellar. The others were either
 seized and killed outright or imprisoned and executed. The plot only
 worsened the plight of English Catholics. Guy Fawkes Day is celebrated
 today in England on Nov. 5.

   Gupta

 Gupta (gop'ta, Indian dynasty (c.320-c.550) founded by CHANDRAGUPTA I
 (r.c.320-c.330). At its height, the dynasty ruled much of what is modern
 India.

   Gurkha

 Gurkha, ethnic group of NEPAL. Predominantly Tibeto-Mongolians, they
 speak Khas, a Rajasthani dialect of Sanskritic origin; practice Hinduism;
 and claim descent from the RAJPUTS of N India. By the 18th cent. they had
 expanded east from their small state of Gurkha throughout Nepal. Many
 Gurkha soldiers have served in Indian and British armies.

   Gustavus

 Gustavus, kings of Sweden. Gustavus I, 1496-1560 (r.1523-60), was the
 founder of the modern Swedish state and the VASA dynasty. After his
 father, a Swedish senator, was killed (1520) in a massacre ordered by the
 Danish king, CHRISTIAN II, Gustavus escaped from prison and defeated the
 Danes. His election as king by the Riksdag (1523) ended the KALMAR UNION
 of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. In 1527 he founded a national Protestant
 Church. With a newly strengthened navy he defeated LUBECK (1537), freeing
 Swedish commerce from the power of the HANSEATIC LEAGUE. In 1544 he made
 the throne hereditary in the Vasa family, ending the election of Swedish
 kings. His son Eric XIV succeeded him. Gustavus II (Gustavus Adolphus),
 1594-1632 (r.1611-32), was the son of CHARLES IX. Aided by his
 chancellor, OXENSTIERNA, he ended the Kalmar War with Denmark (1613) and
 forced Russia to cede Ingermanland (1617). In the THIRTY YEARS WAR he
 obtained much of Polish Livonia and several Baltic ports (1629), then
 invaded German Pomerania, defeating TILLY near Leipzig (1631). At Lutzen
 (1632) the Swedes defeated WALLENSTEIN, but Gustavus was killed. His
 daughter, CHRISTINA, succeeded him. Gustavus III, 1746-92 (r.1771-92),
 was the son of Adolphus Frederick. To quell civil strife, he imposed
 (1772) a new constitution restoring the royal prerogatives lost by his
 successors. In a war with Russia and Denmark (1788-90) he was victorious.
 He planned a coalition to aid the French royalists but was assassinated
 by an agent of the nobles. His son, Gustavus IV, 1778-1837 (r.1792-1809),
 succeeded him under the regency of his uncle, later CHARLES XIII. After
 he joined (1805) the Third Coalition against NAPOLEON I he lost Swedish
 Pomerania to France and Finland to Russia (1808). His despotism, mental
 imbalance, and disastrous policies led to his forced abdication when the
 Russians threatened Stockholm (1809). Charles XIII became king and made
 peace with Russia. Gustavus was exiled and his descendants barred from
 succession. Gustavus V, 1858-1950 (r.1907-50), was the son of Oscar II.
 During his reign Sweden prospered and avoided involvement in two world
 wars. He was succeeded by his son, Gustavus VI (Gustaf Adolf), 1882-1973
 (r.1950-73). He participated in archaeological expeditions in Sweden,
 Greece, and China, and his work as a botanist earned him admission (1958)
 to the British Royal Academy. His grandson, Carl Gustaf, succeeded him as
 CHARLES XVI GUSTAVUS.

   Gustavus Adolphus

 Gustavus Adolphus (Gustavus II): see GUSTAVUS, kings of Sweden.

   Gutenberg, Johann

 Gutenberg, Johann, c.1397-1468, German printer, believed to have been the
 first European to print with movable TYPE. Laurens Janszoon Koster of
 Holland and Pamfilo Castaldi of Italy are thought by some to have
 preceded him. Gutenberg's name did not appear on any of his work, and
 details of his life are scant. He is thought to have trained as a
 goldsmith. He may have invented PRINTING in Strasbourg in 1436 or 1437,
 but the work attributed to him, including the MAZARIN BIBLE (1455), was
 done in Mainz. He had to give up his press and types to Johann FUST for
 debt.

   Guthrie, Sir Tyrone

 Guthrie, Sir Tyrone, 1900-1971, English director and producer. Noted for
 his experimental Shakespearean productions, he headed the Old Vic (see
 THEATER,) and Canada's Shakespeare Festival before founding (1963) the
 Guthrie Theater in Minneapolis.

   Guthrie, Woody

 Guthrie, Woody (Woodrow Wilson Guthrie), 1912-67, American folk singer,
 guitarist, and composer; b. Okemah, Okla. He wrote over 1,000 songs,
 chiefly on social and political themes, and strongly influenced younger
 performers like Bob DYLAN. His son, Arlo Guthrie, 1947-, b. N.Y.C., is
 also a folk singer and composer.

   Guyana

 Guyana, officially Cooperative Republic of Guyana, formerly British
 Guiana, republic (1987 est. pop. 812,000), 83,000 sq mi (214,969 sq km),
 NE South America, bordered by the Atlantic Ocean (N), Surinam (E), Brazil
 (S and W), and Venezuela (W). GEORGETOWN is the capital. The climate is
 hot and humid, and rainfall is heavy. There is a cultivated coastal plain
 and a forested, hilly interior. Agriculture and mining are the principal
 economic activities, with the processing of bauxite (nationalized in the
 1970s) and sugarcane the largest industries. The population, primarily
 East Indian and black, with about 4% native Indian, is concentrated along
 the coast. English is the official language, and Christianity, Hinduism,
 and Islam are the main religions. Originally settled by the Dutch in the
 17th cent., the region was awarded to the British in 1815 and united as
 British Guiana in 1831. Full independence was gained in 1966, and Guyana
 became a republic in 1970. In 1979 the Guyana jungle was the site of a
 mass suicide involving over 900 American exiles who were members of Rev.
 Jim Jones's People's Temple.

   Guzman Blanco, Antonio

 Guzman Blanco, Antonio, 1829-99, Venezuelan dictator (1870-88).
 Instrumental in deposing (1863) PAEZ as dictator, he served (1863-68) as
 Liberal vice president, and led a counterrevolution (1870) that made him
 president. A benevolent despot, he reformed government administration and
 brought about material progress. His regime was overthrown in 1888.

   Gwyn

 Gwyn or Gwynn, Nell(Eleanor), 1650-87, English actress, notable for her
 charm in comic roles. From 1669 she was the mistress of CHARLES II, and
 bore him two sons.

   gymnastics

 gymnastics, exercises for the balanced development of the body, usually
 practiced in a gymnasium, so named for the training place for the OLYMPIC
 GAMES of ancient Greece. Modern gymnastics date from the early 19th
 cent., when several Turnplatze were established in Berlin, then spread on
 the Continent, to England, and to the U.S. Now part of the school
 curriculum, gymnastics include free calisthenics, the horse, bars, rings,
 tumbling, and trampoline.

   gymnosperm

 gymnosperm, plant in which the SEEDS are exposed to the air during all
 stages of development, in contrast to ANGIOSPERMS. Gymnosperms, which
 include the PINES, are woody plants with STEMS, ROOTS and LEAVES, and
 vascular, or conducting, tissue (xylem and phloem). Gymnosperms are
 always pollinated by wind, and many have their seed-bearing structures
 organized into cones. Constituting the plant division Pinophyta, they
 comprise the CYCADS (subdivision Cycadicae); the CONIFERS, YEWS, and
 GINKGOS (subdivision Pini cae); and the subdivision Gneticae, which
 contains three families in separate orders, all of evolutionary interest.

   gynecology

 gynecology, branch of medicine specializing in disorders of the female
 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM. Modern gynecology deals with disorders of
 MENSTRUATION, menopause, disease and maldevelopment of reproductive
 organs, hormonal and fertility problems, and BIRTH CONTROL devices. A
 related branch of medicine is obstetrics, which specializes in the
 treatment of women during PREGNANCY and childbirth.

   gypsies

 gypsies or gipsies,nomadic people found on every continent, but prominent
 in Spain and the Balkans. Despite much wandering they still cling to
 their identity and customs. They travel in small caravans, earning a
 living as metalworkers, musicians, horse-dealers, auto mechanics, and
 fortune-tellers. Most are Roman Catholic or Eastern Orthodox Christian.
 Their Indo-Iranian language, Romany, and their blood groupings are
 related to those found in India, where they are probably originated. They
 went to Persia in the 1st millennium AD and divided into the Gitanos,
 Kalderash, and Manush. They had spread throughout Europe by the 16th
 cent. and appeared in North America in the late 1800s. Gypsies today are
 estimated at 5 million; half a million died in Nazi CONCENTRATION CAMPS
 during World War II.

   gypsum

 gypsum42H2O, the most common sulfate mineral, occurring in many places
 and forms. It is very soft; the massive variety ALABASTER and the
 lustrous variety satin spar are easily worked into decorative objects.
 Plaster of Paris, used to make casts, molds, and wallboard, is made from
 gypsum.

   Gypsy language

 Gypsy language: see ROMANY.

   gyroscope

 gyroscope, symmetrical mass, usually a wheel, mounted so that it can spin
 about an axis in any direction. A spinning gyroscope will resist changes
 in the orientation of its spin axis. Gyroscopes are used in ship
 stabilizers to counteract rolling, and a gyroscope is the nucleus of most
 automatic steering systems, such as those used in airplanes, missiles,
 and torpedoes. See also COMPASS.

   H

 H, chemical symbol of the element HYDROGEN.

   Haakon

 Haakon, kings of Norway. Haakon I (ha'kan, Nor. ho'kon (the Good),
 c.915-61 (r. c.935-61), was the son of HAROLD I. Raised as a Christian in
 England, he tried unsuccessfully to introduce Christianity into Norway
 after seizing power from his brother Eric Bloodyaxe. Eric's sons
 succeeded him. Haakon IV (Haakon Haakonsson), 1204-63 (r.1217-63), was
 the illegitimate son of Haakon III. Under him medieval Norway reached its
 zenith. Iceland and Greenland were acquired, legal reforms were carried
 out, and Old Norse literature flowered (see SNORRI STURLUSON). His son,
 MAGNUS VI, succeeded him. Haakon VII, 1872-1957 (r.1905-57), was born
 Prince Charles, second son of FREDERICK VIII of Denmark. He was chosen
 king when Norway separated from Sweden. During the German occupation of
 Norway (1940-45) he headed a government in exile in London. He was
 succeeded by his son OLAF V.

   Haarlem

 Haarlem, city (1987 pop. 149,009), capital of N Holland prov., W
 Netherlands. It has heavy industry but is best known as a flower-growing
 center and exporter of bulbs, chiefly tulips. Leading masters, e.g.,
 HALS, van OSTADE, and van RUISDAEL, painted there. Among its many
 historic buildings are the 15th-cent Groote Kerk (church) and the city
 hall (begun 1250).

   Habacuc

 Habacuc, variant of HABAKKUK.

   Habakkuk, Habacuc

 Habakkuk, Habacuc,or Habbacuc, book of the OLD TESTAMENT, 35th in the
 Authorized Version, 8th of the Minor PROPHETS. It is a set of poems on
 the punishment of the wicked by God, using the Chaldaeans (Babylonians)
 as His instrument, and on the triumph of divine justice and mercy.

   habeas corpus

 habeas corpus [Lat.,=you should have the body], in law, a writ issued by
 a court commanding that a person held in custody be brought before a
 court so that it may determine whether the detention is lawful. Meant to
 ensure that a prisoner is accorded due process of law, it does not
 determine guilt or innocence. Habeas corpus originated in medieval
 England and was regarded highly by the British colonists in America as a
 safeguard against illegal imprisonment. It is guaranteed by the U.S.
 CONSTITUTION and may be suspended only in time of rebellion or invasion.

   Haber, Fritz

 Haber, Fritz, 1868-1934, German chemist. During World War I he directed
 Germany's chemical warfare activities, which included the introduction of
 poison gas. After the Nazi rise to power (1933), he went into exile in
 England. For his discovery of the Haber process for synthesizing ammonia
 from its elements he won the 1918 Nobel Prize in chemistry.

   Habib, Philip C.

 Habib, Philip C., 1920-, American diplomat; b. N.Y.C. A career foreign
 service officer (1949-80), he was a special envoy to the Middle East,
 where he negotiated a highly praised cease-fire in Lebanon (1982). He
 later served in the Philippines (1986) and Central America (1986-87).

   Habsburg

 Habsburg, family: see HAPSBURG.

   haddock

 haddock: see COD.

   Hades

 Hades, in Greek mythology.1The ruler of the underworld, commonly called
 PLUTO.2The world of the dead, ruled by Pluto and PERSEPHONE. Guarded by
 CERBERUS, it was either underground or in the far west, and was separated
 from the land of the living by five rivers. One of these was the STYX,
 across which the dead were ferried. Three judges decided the fate of
 souls; heroes went to the ELYSIAN FIELDS, evildoers to TARTARUS.

   Hadewijch

 Hadewijch, fl. early 13th cent., Dutch mystical poet, a nun. Her works
 are a monument both to early Dutch literature and to Roman Catholic
 mysticism.

   Hadrian

 Hadrian. For popes of that name, see ADRIAN.

   Hadrian

 Hadrian or Adrian,AD 76-138, Roman emperor (117-138); b. Spain. His name
 in full was Publius Aelius Hadrianus. A ward of TRAJAN, Hadrian
 distinguished himself as a commander and as an administrator. He was
 chosen as Trajan's successor. Hadrian's reign was vigorous and judicious.
 Abandoning the aggressive policy of Trajan in Asia, he withdrew to the
 boundary of the Euphrates in Palestine. In 132 he put down the
 insurrection of the Hebrew leader BAR KOKBA with great severity. Hadrian
 traveled extensively in the empire, stabilizing government and adorning
 the cities. In Germany he built great protective walls, and in Britain he
 had Hadrian's Wall built. He also patronized the arts; his regard for the
 youth Antinous was recorded by sculptors and architects. As his successor
 he chose Antoninus Pius.

   Hadrian's Wall

 Hadrian's Wall, ancient Roman wall, 73.5 mi (118.3 km) long, across Great
 Britain from Wallsend to Bowness. Built (AD c.122-26) by Emperor HADRIAN
 and extended by Emperor SEVERUS a century later, the wall demarcated the
 northern boundary and defense line of Roman Britain. Fragments of it
 remain.

   Haeckel, Ernst von

 Haeckel, Ernst von, 1834-1919, German biologist and philosopher. He was
 an early exponent in Germany of Charles DARWIN'S theory of EVOLUTION.
 Based on his interpretations of Darwin's theory, he evolved a mechanistic
 form of MONISM. His theory of recapitulation postulated a hypothetical
 ancestral form represented by the gastrula stage of individual
 development. Although many were later proved incorrect, his theories
 attracted a following and stimulated research.

   haemo-

 haemo-. For words beginning thus, see hemo-.

   Hafiz

 Hafiz, d. 1389?, Persian poet; b. Shams ad-Din Muhammad. Traditionally
 interpreted allegorically by Muslims, his poems are passionate lyrics,
 usually ghazals (groups of rhyming couplets), on such themes as love and
 drink.

   hafnium

 hafnium (Hf), metallic element, discovered by X-ray spectroscopy in 1923
 by Dirk Coster and Georg von Hevesy. Lustrous, silvery, and ductile, it
 is chemically similar to ZIRCONIUM; the two elements are among the most
 difficult to separate. Hafnium is used for nuclear-reactor control rods.
 See ELEMENT ; PERIODIC TABLE.

   Hagar

 Hagar: see ISHMAEL.

   Hagen, Walter

 Hagen, Walter, 1892-1969, American golfer; b. Rochester, N.Y. He won 11
 major championships: the U.S. Open twice (1914, 1919) and, during the
 1920s, the British Open four times and the Professional Golfers'
 Association five times. He played on five Ryder Cup teams.

   Haggai

 Haggai or Aggeus , book of the OLD TESTAMENT, 37th in the Authorized
 Version, 10th of the Minor Prophets. Dated 520-519 BC, it calls on the
 JEWS, newly returned from the Babylonian exile, to renew work on
 restoring the Temple.

   Haggard, Sir Henry Rider

 Haggard, Sir Henry Rider, 1856-1925, English novelist. He is known for
 his highly popular romantic adventure stories, particularly King
 Solomon's Mines (1885) and She (1887).

   Hagia Sophia

 Hagia Sophia [Gr.,=Holy Wisdom] or Santa Sophia, Turkish Aya Sofia,
 originally a Christian church at Constantinople (now Istanbul), later a
 MOSQUE, now a museum of Byzantine art. The supreme masterpiece of
 Byzantine architecture, the present structure was built (AD 532-37) by
 Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus for the emperor JUSTINIAN I.
 After the Turkish conquest of Constantinople (1453) it became a mosque.
 The interior mosaics were obscured under layers of plaster and painted
 ornament, and Christian symbols were obliterated. Four MINARETS were
 added at the outer corners. The nave is covered by a lofty DOME carried
 on pendentives; its weight thus rests on four huge arches and their
 piers. The east and west arches are extended by half-domes and domed
 exedrae. A vast oblong interior is thus created. The dome is 102 ft (31
 m) in diameter and 184 ft (56 m) high, with a corona of 40 arched windows
 flooding the interior with light. The original decorations and gold
 mosaics have been largely restored.

   Hague, The

 Hague, The, city ( 1986 est. pop. 440,000), capital of S Holland; seat of
 the Dutch government, the Dutch supreme court, and the International
 Court of Justice (see UNITED NATIONS). It grew around a palace begun
 c.1250 by William, count of Holland. Seat (from 1586) of the States
 General of the United Provinces of the Netherlands and residence
 (17th-18th cent.) of their stadtholders, it became a major diplomatic and
 intellectual center. It was the Dutch royal residence from 1815 to 1948.
 Site of the HAGUE CONFERENCES, the city is known as a center for the
 promotion of peace. Landmarks include the 14th-cent. Gevangenenpoort
 prison, the 17th-cent. Mauritshuis, and the Peace Palace (1913).

   Hague Conferences

 Hague Conferences, two international conferences (1899, 1907), held at
 The Hague, the Netherlands, on the problems of armaments and the rules of
 modern warfare. They adopted various conventions that were later ratified
 by many nations. Although they failed to prevent WORLD WAR I, they were
 an example for both the LEAGUE OF NATIONS and the UN. The first
 conference created the HAGUE TRIBUNAL.

   Hague Tribunal

 Hague Tribunal, popular name for the Permanent Court of Arbitration,
 established by the first HAGUE CONFERENCE (1899). Headquartered in The
 HAGUE, it consists of a permanent group of jurists from which a panel is
 selected whenever contending nations agree to submit a dispute to
 arbitration. It has ruled in more than 20 international disputes,
 including the VENEZUELA CLAIMS (1904). After World War I it was largely
 eclipsed in importance by the WORLD COURT.

   Hahn, Otto

 Hahn, Otto, 1879-1968, German chemist and physicist. Noted for important
 work on radioactivity, he received the 1944 Nobel Prize in chemistry for
 splitting (1939) the uranium atom and discovering the possibility of
 chain reactions. The development of the atomic bomb was based on this
 work.

   hahnium

 hahnium: see UNNILPENTIUM.

   Haida Indians

 Haida Indians, NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS of the Northwest Coast who live on
 islands off British Columbia and speak a language of the Nadene stock
 (see AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES). Before the arrival (early 19th cent.) of
 white fur traders, their clan society practiced the POTLATCH. The Haida
 are noted for their artwork and dugout canoes. By 1880 disease had
 reduced 8,000 Haida to 2,000. Today many have left their islands for
 mainland life.

   Haidar Ali

 Haidar Ali or Hyder Ali,1722-82, Indian Muslim ruler. A peasant by birth,
 he rose through army ranks and by 1761 was the virtual ruler of the state
 of Mysore. His efforts to expand his domain met with British opposition.
 He defeated the British in 1769, but in 1781 he was defeated near Madras.

   Haifa

 Haifa, city (1986 est. pop. 223,400), NW Israel, on the Mediterranean
 Sea. It is a major industrial center, a railroad hub, and one of the main
 ports of Israel. Haifa is known to have existed by the 3d cent. AD and
 was destroyed (1191) by SALADIN. The city's revival began in the late
 18th cent., development of its port in the 20th cent. led to its main
 growth. It is the world center of BAHA'ISM.

   Haig, Alexander Meigs, Jr.

 Haig, Alexander Meigs, Jr., 1924-, U.S. general and public official, U.S.
 secretary of state (1981-82); b. Philadelphia. A career military officer,
 he served as Pres. NIXON'S civilian chief of staff during the WATERGATE
 AFFAIR. Later he was (1974-79) NATO commander and in 1981 became Pres.
 REAGAN'S secretary of state. His sudden resignation (1982) was attributed
 to disagreements over foreign policy. In 1988, he ran unsuccessfully for
 the Republican party's nomination for president of the U.S.

   Haig, Douglas Haig, 1st earl

 Haig, Douglas Haig, 1st earl, 1861-1928, British field marshal. In WORLD
 WAR I he became (1915) commander in chief of the British expeditionary
 force in France, but received little support from LLOYD GEORGE. He was
 much criticized for the staggering losses suffered in the battle of the
 Somme and the Passchendaele campaign (see YPRES, BATTLES OF).

   haikai no renga

 haikai no renga: see BASHO.

   haiku

 haiku, unrhymed Japanese poem recording the essence of a keenly perceived
 moment linking nature and human nature. Usually consisting of 17
 symbol-sounds, it was adapted by the IMAGISTS and other Western writers
 as a three-line poem of five, seven, and five syllables.

   hail

 hail, solid form of precipitation that can occur at any time of year,
 usually in a cumulonimbus cloud and often during a THUNDERSTORM. Large
 hailstones are spherical or irregularly spherical in shape and are
 composed of alternate hard and soft layers of ice. Hail usually forms
 when raindrops are blown up to high (cold) areas in a cloud and freeze.
 As they fall, they become coated with more water drops; they are then
 blown back up and refrozen, adding an additional layer. This process is
 repeated until the wind currents can no longer support the weight of the
 hailstone. Hailstones are generally less than 0.5 in. (1.3 cm) in
 diameter, although larger ones are occasionally observed.

   Haile Selassie

 Haile Selassie, 1891-1975, emperor of ETHIOPIA (1930-74). The grandnephew
 of Emperor MENELIK II, and a Coptic Christian, he forced (1916) the
 abdication of Lij Yasu, a Muslim convert, and placed Menelik's daughter,
 Zauditu, on the throne. In 1928 he was crowned king, and after Zauditu's
 mysterious death in 1930 he became emperor. During the Italian invasion
 (1935-36) he personally led the troops against the enemy. He lived in
 exile in England until 1941, when he returned and claimed the throne.
 After World War II he instituted social and political reforms, such as
 establishing a national assembly in 1955. In 1974, however, he was
 deposed by an army coup, and he died in captivity.

   Hail, Mary

 Hail, Mary, prayer to the Virgin Mary, universal among Roman Catholics.
 Its first lines are from Luke 1.28, 42. The prayer is much used in
 private and public devotions, e.g., in the rosary. Known in Latin as the
 Ave Maria, it has many musical settings.

   Hainan

 Hainan, island in the SOUTH CHINA SEA, administratively part of Guangdong
 prov., China, 30 mi (50 km) off S China. Hainan is the second largest
 island (after TAIWAN) off the China coast. Haikou is its largest city.
 The island is the home of the Li and Miao nationalities. Rubber
 production and fishing are major industries, and rice, sugar, tobacco,
 coffee, and fruit are cultivated during a year-round tropical growing
 season. Incorporated into China in the 13th cent., Hainan was occupied by
 Japan during World War II.

   Haiphong

 Haiphong, city (1979 pop. 1,279,067) NE Vietnam, on a large branch of the
 Red R. delta c.10 mi (16 km) from the Gulf of Tonkin. One of the largest
 ports in Southeast Asia, it was developed (1874) by the French and became
 their chief naval base in INDOCHINA. During the VIETNAM WAR Haiphong was
 severely bombed (1965-68, 1972) and its harbor mined. Its shipyards,
 textile mills, cement factories, and other industrial installations have
 since been rebuilt.

   hair

 hair, slender, threadlike outgrowth from the skin of mammals. Some
 animals grow a dense profusion of hair known as FUR or WOOL. Insulation
 from cold, protection against dust and sand, and camouflage are among the
 functions of hair. Each hair originates in a deep, pouchlike hair
 follicle, which contains the bulb-shaped root of the hair. The papilla, a
 net of nerves and capillaries that supplies the hair, extends into an
 indentation at the base of the root. Here newly dividing cells force
 older cells upward, where they die and harden into the hair shaft. The
 shaft has two layers, the colorless cuticle and the cortex, which
 contains pigment and the protein keratin. Hair is lubricated by sebaceous
 glands in the follicle.

   Haiti

 Haiti, Fr. Haiti, officially Republic of Haiti, republic (1987 est. pop.
 5,438,000), 10,700 sq mi (27,713 sq km), West Indies, on the western
 third of the island of HISPANIOLA, which it shares with the DOMINICAN
 REPUBLIC. The capital and main seaport is PORT-AU-PRINCE. The densely
 populated, mostly mountainous country has the lowest per-capita income in
 Latin America. It has few manufacturing industries and a high rate of
 emigration. Subsistence farming (cassava, rice, yams) is the principal
 occupation; coffee is the main export. About 95% of the population is
 black, and French and Creole (a French dialect) are spoken. Haiti is a
 Roman Catholic nation in which some vodun (voodoo) rites are still
 practiced.

 History Nominally part of the Spanish colony of SANTO DOMINGO from the
 early 1500s, eastern Hispaniola remained virtually unsettled until the
 mid-17th cent., when French colonists, importing African slaves,
 developed sugar plantations in the north. Under French rule from 1697,
 Haiti (then called Saint-Domingue) became one of the world's richest
 sugar and coffee producers. However, after the 1780s, rebellion; class
 war among black, mulatto, and white Haitians; and invasions by French and
 British forces shredded the nation's social and economic fabric. In 1801
 a former slave, TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE, conquered the whole island and
 abolished slavery; in 1804 Haiti became the second independent nation in
 the Americas. Ruled until 1859 by self-styled emperors, it lost control
 of western Hispaniola in 1844. Haiti's subsequent history is one of
 economic poverty, dictatorship, and occasional anarchy, with a period of
 U.S. military occupation (1915-34). In 1957 Francois "Papa Doc" DUVALIER
 was elected president. Supported by a personal police force (tontons
 macoutes), he imposed an especially repressive rule, relaxed to some
 degree only after his death (1971), when he was succeeded by his son,
 Jean-Claude Duvalier, who fled the country in 1986. Free elections
 followed.

   Hakluyt, Richard

 Hakluyt, Richard, 1552?-1616, English geographer. He promoted English
 discovery and colonization, especially in North America, and published
 many accounts of exploration and travel. His chief work is The Principal
 Navigations, Voyages, Traffics, and Discoveries of the English Nation (3
 vol., 1598-1600). The Hakluyt Society (founded 1846) continues to publish
 narratives of early exploration.

   halakah

 halakah or halacha,legal portion of the TALMUD and of post-Talmudic
 literature concerned with personal, communal, and international
 activities, as well as with religious observance. The term usually refers
 to the Oral Law, as codified in the MISHNA.

   Haldimand, Sir Frederick

 Haldimand, Sir Frederick, 1718-91, British general and colonial governor
 of QUEBEC (1778-84). From 1756 he served as an officer in British North
 America and commanded (1773-74) all British forces there. As governor
 during the AMERICAN REVOLUTION he kept the loyalty of French Canadians
 and provided for Loyalist refugees.

   Hale, Edward Everett

 Hale, Edward Everett, 1822-1909, American author; b. Boston. A Unitarian
 minister, he was a social reformer and chaplain of the U.S. Senate
 (1903-9). His best known work is the short novel The Man without a
 Country (1863).

   Hale, George Ellery

 Hale, George Ellery, 1868-1938, American astronomer; b. Chicago. He was
 the founder of the Yerkes, Mt. Wilson, and PALOMAR OBSERVATORIES (and
 director of the first two), each in its time housing the largest
 telescope in the world. His observatories also employed the latest in
 photographic and spectrographic techniques. He invented (1890) the
 spectroheliograph, which led to the discovery of magnetic fields and
 vortices in sunspots, and founded (1895) the Astrophysical Journal, still
 the leading publication in its field.

   Hale, Nathan

 Hale, Nathan, 1755-76, American Revolutionary soldier; b. Coventry, Conn.
 Sent to Long Island to get information on the British, he was captured
 and hanged without trial. On the gallows he is said to have declared, "I
 only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country."

   Hale, Sarah Josepha (Buell)

 Hale, Sarah Josepha (Buell), 1788-1879, American author, editor, and
 feminist; b. near Newport, N.H. Editor of Godey's Lady's Book for over 40
 years, she is best known as the author of the poem "Mary Had a Little
 Lamb" (1830).

   Haleakala National Park

 Haleakala National Park: see NATIONAL PARKS .

   half-life

 half-life: see RADIOACTIVITY.

   Haliburton, Thomas Chandler

 Haliburton, Thomas Chandler, pseud. Sam Slick, 1796-1865, Canadian
 author. A judge and historian, he is known for his series about Sam
 Slick, Yankee peddler, collected in The Clockmaker (1836) and later
 volumes.

   halibut

 halibut: see FLATFISH.

   Halicarnassus

 Halicarnassus, ancient city of Caria, SW Asia Minor (modern Bodrum,
 Turkey). In the 4th cent. BC the widow of King Mausolus built him a tomb
 there that was one of the SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD. The historians
 HERODOTUS and Dionysius of Halicarnassus were born there.

   Halifax

 Halifax, city (1986 pop. 113,577), capital of Nova Scotia, E Canada,
 overlooking one of the world's great natural harbors. It is the largest
 city in the Atlantic provinces and Canada's principal ice-free port and
 naval base on the eastern seaboard. Much of E Canada's trade passes
 through the port when the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Seaway is closed by
 ice in winter. Founded in 1749 by the British as a rival to France's
 naval stronghold at LOUISBURG, Halifax played a major role in the
 AMERICAN REVOLUTION and the WAR OF 1812. It continued to be used by the
 British fleet until 1906 and was a naval base during both world wars. In
 1917 a munitions ship was rammed in the harbor and exploded, killing
 1,800 and destroying the northern part of the city. Major landmarks in
 Halifax include the Citadel, a massive fortress (built 1794-97), and St.
 Paul's Church (1750), the oldest Anglican church in Canada.

   Hall, G(ranville) Stanley

 Hall, G(ranville) Stanley, 1844-1924, American psychologist and educator;
 b. Ashfield, Mass. He organized (1882) at Johns Hopkins Univ. a leading
 psychological laboratory and founded the American Journal of Psychology
 (1887). As first president (1889-1920) of Clark Univ. he developed its
 education courses. His most important work is Adolescence (2 vol., 1904).

   Haller, Albrecht von

 Haller, Albrecht von, 1708-77, Swiss scientist and poet. Haller's
 research at the Univ. of Gottingen in experimental physiology, on which
 he based his theory of irritability, or contractility, of muscle tissue,
 is set forth in A Dissertation on the Sensible and Irritable Parts of
 Animals (1732). Back in his native Bern, he wrote extensively, notably
 Elementa physiologiae corporis humani (8 vol., 1757-66).

   Halley, Edmund

 Halley, Edmund, 1656-1742, English astronomer. He was the first to
 predict the return of a comet, using Isaac NEWTON'S gravitational theory
 to calculate the orbit of the great comet of 1682 (now known as HALLEY'S
 COMET). He was also the first to point out the use of a transit of Venus
 in determining the sun's parallax. Halley financed the publication (1687)
 of Newton's Principia. In 1720 he became astronomer royal.

   Halley's comet

 Halley's comet, periodic COMET named for Edmund HALLEY, who observed it
 in 1682 and identified it with those seen in 1531 and 1607. It returned
 in 1759, close to the time Halley predicted, as well as in 1835 and 1910.
 It was sighted again in late 1982 and returned to its closest approach to
 the sun early in 1986.

   Halloween

 Halloween: see ALL SAINTS' DAY.

   hallucinogenic drug

 hallucinogenic drug, ALKALOID substance that alters consciousness; also
 called psychotomimetic, or, popularly, psychedelic or mind-expanding
 drug. Hallucinogens include mescaline, or PEYOTE; psilocin and
 psilocybin, from the mushrooms Psilocybe mexicana and Stropharia
 cubensis; LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide); BELLADONNA; and MANDRAKE.
 MARIJUANA has hallucinogenic properties but is pharmacologically
 distinct. Hallucinogens have been used by primitive societies in both the
 Old and New Worlds to facilitate meditation, cure illness, placate evil
 spirits, and enhance mystical and magical powers. They produce a wide
 range of effects, from pleasant to very disturbing, depending on dosage,
 potency, and the personality and environment of the drug taker. Effects
 include altered perception of time and space and of the color, detail,
 and size of objects; also the experience of imaginary conversations,
 music, odors, tastes, and other sensations. Hallucinogens are not
 physically habit-forming, but tolerance, i.e., the need to take increased
 quantities to induce the original effect, may develop.

   halo

 halo, in art: see NIMBUS.

   halo

 halo, in meteorology, circle of light surrounding the moon or sun. A halo
 occurs when sunlight or moonlight is refracted or reflected by ice
 crystals in the atmosphere, usually in a thin layer of high cirrostratus
 clouds. In general, a white halo results when the light is reflected, and
 colored rings (showing the colors of the spectrum, with red on the
 inside) result when the light is refracted.

   halogen

 halogen, any of the five chemical elements in group VIIa of the PERIODIC
 TABLE. FLUORINE, CHLORINE, BROMINE, IODINE, and the radioactive ASTATINE
  are nonmetallic, monovalent negative ions and exist in pure form as
 diatomic molecules. The first four elements exhibit an almost perfect
 gradation of physical properties. Fluorine is the least dense and
 chemically the most active, displacing other halogens from their
 compounds and oxygen from water. Iodine is the least active. The halogens
 form numerous compounds with each other, and with other elements, such as
 hydrogen halides, metal halides (SALTS), and halocarbons.

   Hals, Frans

 Hals, Frans, c.1580-1666, Dutch painter of portraits and GENRE scenes; b.
 Belgium. Although his reputation was established early, Hals spent most
 of his life in poverty. His scenes from everyday life were painted in the
 first half of his career. In the 1620s and 30s he painted group
 portraits, e.g., Banquet of the Officers of the St. George Militia (1616;
 Haarlem) with vivacity and informality, and some important single
 portraits, e.g., Lucas de Clercq (Rijks Mus., Amsterdam). He worked
 rapidly, employing Caravaggesque lighting to capture momentary effects
 (see CARAVAGGIO). At 84 he painted two masterpieces, The Governors of the
 Almshouse and Lady Regents of the Almshouse (both: Haarlem), which have
 the same brilliant lighting and cool clarity as his gayer canvases. His
 notable paintings include The Merry Drinker (Rijks Mus.) and The Smoker
 (Metropolitan Mus.). Five of his sons were painters, the foremost being
 Frans Hals, c.1618-c.1669, a painter of STILL LIFES and rustic scenes.
 Dirk Hals, c.1591-1656, brother of the elder Frans Hals, specialized in
 festivals and drinking scenes, e.g., his Merry Party (National Gall.,
 London).

   Halston

 Halston: see FASHION .

   Ham

 Ham: see NOAH.

   hamadryads

 hamadryads: see NYMPH.

   Hamah

 Hamah or Hama,city (1981 est. pop. 176,640), W central Syria, on the
 Orontes R. It is the market center for an irrigated farm region where
 cotton, wheat, and barley are grown. Manufactures include textiles,
 carpets, and dairy products. As Hamath, it is often mentioned in the
 Bible as the northernmost location of the Israelites. Points of interest
 include a Roman aqueduct and the Great Mosque of al-Nuri (until 638 a
 Christian basilica).

   Haman

 Haman: see ESTHER.

   Hamasa

 Hamasa, anthology of ARABIC LITERATURE, compiled in the 9th cent. by ABU
 TAMMAM. Consisting of 10 books of poems grouped by subject, it is one of
 the treasures of early Arabic poetry. The poems are of exceptional
 beauty.

   Hamburg

 Hamburg, city (1986 est. pop. 1,575,700), coextensive with, and capital
 of, Hamburg state, N West Germany, on the Elbe and Alster rivers. It is
 West Germany's largest city and busiest port. Manufactures include ships
 and machinery. Founded in the 9th cent., it formed (13th cent.) an
 alliance with LUBECK that became the basis of the HANSEATIC LEAGUE. The
 city was largely destroyed by fire in 1842. Severely damaged during WORLD
 WAR II, it has been rebuilt and is now a modern cultural center. Felix
 MENDELSSOHN and Johannes BRAHMS were born in Hamburg.

   Hamilcar Barca

 Hamilcar Barca, d. 229 or 228 BC, Carthaginian general, father of
 HANNIBAL. In the First PUNIC WAR, he gave a good account of himself in
 Sicily. He ruthlessly put down (238) a revolt of mercenaries and became
 virtual dictator of CARTHAGE. In 237 he set out to conquer Spain but fell
 in battle.

   Hamilton, Alexander

 Hamilton, Alexander, 1755-1804, U.S. statesman; b. West Indies. In the
 AMERICAN REVOLUTION he was Gen. WASHINGTON'S secretary and aide-de-camp,
 and served brilliantly in the YORKTOWN CAMPAIGN. As a delegate (1782-83)
 to the CONTINENTAL CONGRESS, he pressed for a strong national government.
 After serving as a New York delegate to the FEDERAL CONSTITUTIONAL
 CONVENTION (1787) he did much to get the Constitution ratified,
 particularly by his contributions to The Federalist. As secretary of the
 treasury (1789-95) under Pres. Washington, Hamilton sponsored legislation
 to pay off the debt of the Continental Congress and to charter the BANK
 OF THE UNITED STATES. To raise revenue he advocated a tariff on imported
 manufactures and excise taxes. By these measures he hoped to strengthen
 the federal government and tie it to men of wealth. In foreign affairs,
 Hamilton sought close ties with Britain and opposed the FRENCH
 REVOLUTION. Opposition to Hamilton and his supporters, who were known as
 Federalists, gathered around Thomas JEFFERSON, and the FEDERALIST PARTY
 was swept under in the election of 1800. Hamilton was killed in a duel by
 Aaron BURR, whose bids for the presidency (1800) and for New York
 governor (1804) Hamilton had thwarted.

   Hamilton, Alice

 Hamilton, Alice, 1869-1970, American toxicologist; b. N.Y.C. On the
 faculty of Harvard Medical School (1919-35) and a pioneer in the study of
 industrial diseases and hygiene, she was sought out as an authority by
 political and governmental groups, including the state of Illinois, the
 U.S. Dept. of Commerce, and the League of Nations health committee.

   Hamilton, Emma, Lady

 Hamilton, Emma, Lady, c.1765-1815, English beauty. She was the mistress
 and, later, wife of Sir William Hamilton, the English ambassador to
 Naples. After 1798 she was the mistress of Horatio NELSON, whose daughter
 she bore in 1801. George ROMNEY painted many portraits of her.

   Hamilton, Sir William Rowan

 Hamilton, Sir William Rowan, 1805-65, Irish mathematician. A child
 prodigy, he had mastered 13 languages by the age of 13. Hamilton was one
 of the most creative mathematicians of his time. In Theory of Systems of
 Rays (1828) he unified the field of optics under the principle of varying
 action, which he later extended to dynamics and which is of fundamental
 importance in modern physics, particularly quantum theory. His later
 years were devoted to the development of his theory of quaternions.

   Hamilton

 Hamilton, city (1985 est. pop. 307,690), S Ontario, Canada, on Lake
 Ontario, part of Hamilton-Wentworth municipality (1979 est. pop.
 407,758). A major GREAT LAKES shipping port, it is Canada's chief iron
 and steel center, and manufactures automobiles and heavy machinery. The
 city, hemmed into the narrow coastal plain by the Niagara escarpment, was
 founded in 1778 by United Empire Loyalists.

   Hamites

 Hamites, African people of Caucasoid descent, inhabiting the Horn of
 Africa (chiefly Somalia and Ethiopia), the W Sahara, and parts of Algeria
 and Tunisia. They are believed to have been the original settlers of N
 Africa, having come from S Arabia and farther east. Eastern Hamites
 include the ancient and modern Egyptians, the GALLA, the Somali, and most
 Ethiopians. Northern Hamites include the BERBERS, the Tuareg of the
 Sahara, and other groups.

   Hamitic languages

 Hamitic languages, subfamily of the Hamito-Semitic family of languages.
 See AFRICAN LANGUAGES .

   Hamito-Semitic languages

 Hamito-Semitic languages, family of languages, spoken by people in N
 Africa, much of the Sahara, parts of E central and W Africa, and W Asia
 (especially the Arabian peninsula). See AFRICAN LANGUAGES ; LANGUAGE .

   Hammarskjold, Dag

 Hammarskjold, Dag, 1905-61, Swedish statesman, secretary general
 (1953-61) of the UNITED NATIONS. He was chairman of the board of the Bank
 of Sweden (1941-48) and deputy foreign minister (1951) before joining
 Sweden's UN delegation. As secretary general he greatly extended the
 influence of the UN with his peacekeeping efforts, particularly in the
 Middle East and Africa. He was on a mission to the Congo (now ZAIRE) when
 his plane crashed in northern Rhodesia (now Zambia) in 1961.

   Hammer, Armand

 Hammer, Armand, 1898-, American business executive; b. N.Y.C. He worked
 for his father's pharmaceutical business in the U.S. and in the USSR. On
 his return (1930), he invested in whiskey, cattle, and broadcasting. He
 expanded the Occidental Petroleum Corporation into a multibillion dollar
 business. In the 1980s, he agreed to build the world's largest open-pit
 coal mine in China. His distinguished art collection is to be housed in
 Los Angeles.

   Hammerstein, Oscar, 2d

 Hammerstein, Oscar, 2d, 1895-1960, American lyricist and librettist; b.
 N.Y.C. He collaborated on many MUSICALS with Vincent Youmans; Rudolf
 Friml; Sigmund Romberg; Jerome KERN; and Richard RODGERS. His grandfather
 Oscar Hammerstein, 1846-1919, was a German-American operatic impresario.
 He built the Harlem Opera House (1888) and the Manhattan Opera House
 (1906), in New York City, and introduced many singers to the U.S.

   Hammett, Dashiell

 Hammett, Dashiell, 1894-1961, American writer; b. St. Mary's co., Md. He
 originated the "hard-boiled" detective novel-realistic, fast-paced,
 sophisticated. His novels include The Maltese Falcon (1930) and The Thin
 Man (1932).

   Hammurabi

 Hammurabi, fl. 1792-1750 BC, king of BABYLONIA. He founded an empire that
 was eventually destroyed by raids from Asia Minor. His code of laws found
 on a column at Susa, is one of the greatest of the ancient codes.

   Hampton

 Hampton, part of the Greater London borough of Richmond upon Thames, SE
 England, on the Thames R. It is the site of Hampton Court Palace, begun
 by Cardinal WOLSEY in 1514. After his fall it was taken by HENRY VIII,
 and it remained a royal residence until the time of GEORGE II. Much of it
 is open to the public. Although the palace was partially destroyed by
 fire in 1986, restoration is underway. The Hampton Court Conference, held
 in 1604 in the reign of JAMES I, considered reforms of the Established
 Church for which its Puritan clergy had petitioned, but few concessions
 were made. The conference authorized the King James version of the BIBLE.

   Hampton

 Hampton, city (1986 est. pop. 126,000), SE Va., a port of HAMPTON ROADS
 at the mouth of the James R.; settled 1610 by colonists from JAMESTOWN,
 inc. 1849. Seafood packing and shipping, light industry, and nearby
 military installations contribute to the economy. On the site of an
 Indian village, Hampton is one of the oldest English settlements in the
 U.S.

   Hampton Institute

 Hampton Institute, at Hampton, Va.; founded 1868. Chartered as a normal
 and agricultural school, it was among the first colleges for blacks; it
 also pioneered in Indian education. Its library is noted for its George
 Foster Peabody Collection of materials on black history.

   Hampton Roads

 Hampton Roads, channel, 4 mi (6.4 km) long, SE Va., through which the
 James, Nansemond, and Elizabeth rivers pass into CHESAPEAKE BAY. A superb
 natural harbor, it houses the largest naval complex in the world. NEWPORT
 NEWS and HAMPTON are on its north shore, NORFOLK and PORTSMOUTH on the
 south.

   hamster

 hamster, nocturnal RODENT with external cheek pouches for holding food.
 The common, or European, hamster (Cricetus cricetus), about 12 in. (30
 cm) long, is reddish brown with white patches on the nose, cheeks,
 throat, and flanks. The Syrian, or golden, hamster (Mesocricetus auratus)
 of E Europe and W Asia is familiar as a laboratory animal and pet.
 Hamsters are serious agricultural pests in much of their range.

   Hamsun, Knut

 Hamsun, Knut, 1859-1952, Norwegian novelist. His youthful wanderings,
 including two visits to the U.S., provided the theme for many of his
 novels, especially Hunger (1890), which established him. He is best known
 for the lyrically beautiful Pan (1894), expressing his interest in
 irrational forces, and for his masterpiece, The Growth of the Soil
 (1917), reflecting his love of nature and concern for the effect of
 material conditions on the individual spirit. He was awarded the 1920
 Nobel Prize in literature, but lost popularity during World War II
 because of his NAZI sympathies.

   Han

 Han, dynasty: see CHINA.

   Hancock, John

 Hancock, John, 1737-93, political leader of the AMERICAN REVOLUTION; b.
 Braintree, Mass. He opposed the STAMP ACT (1765) and advocated resistance
 to the British. Hancock was a member (1775-80) and president (1775-77) of
 the CONTINENTAL CONGRESS, and he was the first to sign the DECLARATION OF
 INDEPENDENCE. He was later governor of Massachusetts (1780-85, 1787-93).

   Hancock, Winfield Scott

 Hancock, Winfield Scott, 1824-86, Union general in the U.S. CIVIL WAR; b.
 near Norristown, Pa. He fought in the GETTYSBURG CAMPAIGN and repulsed
 Gen. PICKETT'S Confederate charge. In 1880 he was the Democratic
 presidential candidate.

   Hand, Learned

 Hand, Learned, 1872-1961, American jurist; b. Albany, N.Y. A federal
 judge from 1909 to 1951, Hand, a noted defender of free speech, was often
 known as the "tenth justice of the Supreme Court." He published The
 Spirit of Liberty (1952) and Bill of Rights (1958).

   Handel, George Frideric

 Handel, George Frideric, 1685-1759, English composer; master of the
 BAROQUE, celebrated for his ORATORIO The Messiah; b. Germany as Georg
 Friedrich Handel. By 1705 he had produced two OPERAS in Hamburg; he spent
 the next four years in Italy, where he absorbed Italian style. Moving to
 England in 1712, he wrote music, including the celebrated Water Music
 (1717), for GEORGE I. He presented operas in London until 1741. Among his
 46 operas are Julius Caesar (1724), Atalanta (1736), and Serse (1738),
 with its tenor ARIA now known as Largo. The Messiah was presented in
 Dublin in 1742. Its contemplative character sets it apart from the rest
 of his 32 oratorios, which include Acis and Galatea (1720), Esther
 (1732), Saul (1739), and Judas Maccabeus (1747). He also composed about
 100 Italian solo CANTATAS; numerous orchestral works, among them the
 Twelve Grand Concertos (1739); harpsichord SUITES; organ CONCERTOS; and
 the ANTHEM "Zadok, the Priest" (1727), used at all British coronations
 since that of George II.

   Handke, Peter

 Handke, Peter, 1942-, Austrian novelist and playwright. His
 controversial, avant-garde works often reflect his ironical sense of the
 constricting limitations of language and of reason. They include the
 plays Kaspar (1968) and They Are Dying Out (1973) and the novels The
 Goalie's Anxiety at the Penalty Kick (1972), A Sorrow Beyond Dreams
 (1974), and The Left-Handed Woman (1976).

   Handy, W(illiam) C(hristopher)

 Handy, W(illiam) C(hristopher), 1873-1958, black American songwriter and
 bandleader; b. Florence, Ala. He was among the first to set down the
 blues (see JAZZ), and became famous with "Memphis Blues" and "St. Louis
 Blues."

   Hangchow

 Hangchow: see HANGZHOU.

   hang gliding

 hang gliding, form of gliding in which a pilot jumps off an elevated
 point while suspended from a kitelike wing. The hang glider consists of a
 Rogallo wing about 18 ft (5.5 m) across and weighing about 35 lb (15.9
 kg). Also called sky surfing, the sport began in California in the late
 1960s.

   Hangzhou

 Hangzhouor Hangchow, city (1986 est. pop. 1,250,000), capital of Zhejiang
 prov., E China. Long a famous silk-and tea-producing center, Hangzhou has
 become an important regional industrial complex. Manufactures include
 textiles, iron and steel products, and motor vehicles. The city is also
 one of China's most popular tourist centers. The scenic West Lake, wooded
 hills, and shrines and monasteries dating from the 10th cent. AD are all
 located in the city. As the capital (1132-1276) of the Southern Sung
 dynasty, it was a famous cosmopolitan center of commerce and culture.
 Almost destroyed (1861) in the TAIPING REBELLION, it was rebuilt as a
 modern city.

   Hanna, Marcus Alonzo

 Hanna, Marcus Alonzo (Mark Hanna), 1837-1904, American capitalist and
 politician; b. Lisbon, Ohio. He managed in 1896 presidential campaign of
 William MCKINLEY and was a Republican senator from Ohio (1897-1904).

   Hannibal

 Hannibal, b. 247 BC, d. 183 or 182 BC, Carthaginian general, one of the
 great military geniuses of all time; son of HAMILCAR BARCA, of the great
 Barca family. In 221 BC he succeeded his brother-in-law, HASDRUBAL, as
 commander in Spain. During the second PUNIC WAR, he set out to invade
 Italy with a small force of picked troops, crossed the Alps with a full
 baggage train and elephants, and with his cavalry overran the Po valley.
 He wiped out a Roman force and in 217 set out toward Rome. After
 defeating the Romans again at Lake Trasimeno, he went to S Italy and
 gained many allies. At Cannae (216 BC), he won one of the most brilliant
 victories in history, but he failed to get proper support from CARTHAGE
 and could not take Rome. In 207 BC his brother Hasdrubal was defeated on
 the Metaurus R., and Hannibal had to draw back. Recalled (203) to defend
 Carthage against Scipio Africanus Major (see SCIPIO, family), he was
 decisively beaten at the battle of ZAMA (202). After peace was concluded
 (201 BC), he was chief ruler in Carthage, governing well, but Rome
 demanded him as a prisoner, and he went into exile, finally poisoning
 himself to avoid being given to the Romans.

   Hanoi

 Hanoi, city (1979 pop. 2,570,905), capital of Vietnam, N Vietnam, on the
 Red R. A major transportation and industrial center, it produces such
 manufactures as locomotives, machine tools, and chemicals. It became the
 seat of the Chinese rulers of Vietnam in the 7th cent. and the capital of
 French INDOCHINA in 1887. When the French withdrew in 1954 Hanoi became
 the capital of North Vietnam. It was heavily bombed during the VIETNAM
 WAR, after which it became the capital of united Vietnam. A cultural
 center with several universities and institutes, it is noted for its
 European-style buildings and tree-lined avenues.

   Hanover

 Hanover, city (1986 est. pop. 506,400), capital of Lower Saxony, N West
 Germany, on the Leine R. and the Midland Canal. A transshipment and
 industrial center with such manufactures as iron and steel, it is noted
 for its annual industrial fair. It was chartered in 1241 and became a
 member (1386) of the HANSEATIC LEAGUE and the capital (1692) of the
 electorate of HANOVER. Badly damaged during WORLD WAR II, the city has
 been rebuilt since 1945. Historic buildings include the 14th-cent.
 Marktkirche and the 17th-cent. Leineschloss, which now houses the
 parliament of LOWER SAXONY.

   Hanover, house of

 Hanover, house of, ruling dynasty of Hanover, which descended from the
 GUELPHS and in 1714 acceded to the British throne in the person of GEORGE
 I, elector of Hanover, through a claim based on descent from JAMES I.
 George I's succession was based on the Act of SETTLEMENT. There were five
 Hanoverian British kings. With VICTORIA the crowns of Hanover and Britain
 were separated.

   Hansa towns

 Hansa towns: see HANSEATIC LEAGUE.

   Hansberry, Lorraine

 Hansberry, Lorraine, 1930-65, American playwright; b. Chicago. Her famous
 play A Raisin in the Sun (1959) deals with the problems of a black family
 in modern America. Many of her writings were collected in To Be Young,
 Gifted, and Black (1969).

   Hanseatic League

 Hanseatic League, mercantile league of medieval N German towns. It came
 into existence gradually as the Hansas-companies of merchants dealing
 with foreign lands-and the cities from which they operated drew closer
 together as a way of protecting themselves from foreign competition and
 piracy. In the 13th cent. more than 70 German cities joined in treaties
 of mutual protection. The Hanseatic League was formally organized in
 1358, and in 1370 it won a trade monopoly in all of Scandinavia. The
 league prospered in the following centuries but went out of existence in
 the 17th cent. BREMEN, HAMBURG, and LUBECK are still known as Hanseatic
 cities.

   Hansen's disease

 Hansen's disease: see LEPROSY.

   Hanson, Howard

 Hanson, Howard, 1896-1981, American composer, teacher, and conductor; b.
 Wahoo, Nebr. He directed the Eastman School of Music, Rochester, N.Y.
 (1924-64). His romantic works include symphonies and the opera Merry
 Mount (1934).

   Hanukkah

 Hanukkah: see under JEWISH HOLIDAYS.

   Hapsburg

 Hapsburgor Habsburg, ruling house of AUSTRIA (1282-1918). The family
 originally held lands in Alsace and NW Switzerland, and Otto (d. 1111)
 took the name Hapsburg when he was made count. In 1273 Count Rudolf IV
 became king of the Germans as RUDOLF I; his war with Ottocar II of
 Bohemia resulted in Ottocar's defeat (1278) and confirmation of Hapsburg
 possession of Austria, Carniola, and Styria. These lands and the Austrian
 ducal title were declared hereditary in 1282, and in 1335 Carinthia too
 was claimed. The possessions were divided (1365) between the Albertine
 and the Leopoldine lines but were reunited under Holy Roman Emperor
 MAXIMILIAN I in the late 15th cent. Tyrol (1363), NE Istria (1374), and
 Trieste (1382) were added to the Hapsburg domain. From the election
 (1438) of Albert II as German king, the head of the Hapsburgs, with one
 exception, was chosen German king and Holy Roman emperor. Through
 marriage the Hapsburgs gained most of the Low Countries, and Hapsburg
 power reached its zenith under Emperor CHARLES V, who had inherited
 (1516) the crown of Spain. Charles was succeeded in Spain by his son,
 PHILIP II, and in Austria by his brother, Emperor FERDINAND I. The
 Spanish Hapsburgs died out in 1700. In Austria the PRAGMATIC SANCTION
 (1713) guaranteed the indivisibility of the Hapsburg domains and the
 succession of MARIA THERESA. Her son, Emperor JOSEPH II, began the line
 of Hapsburg-Lorraine. In 1806 Holy Roman Emperor FRANCIS II abdicated and
 assumed the title emperor of Austria. In 1867 the Hapsburg empire was
 reorganized into the AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY, which was dissolved at
 the end of WORLD WAR I.

   hara-kiri

 hara-kiri, [Jap.,=belly-cutting], traditional Japanese form of suicide,
 performed in cases of disloyalty to the emperor. Obligatory hara-kiri was
 abolished in 1868, but voluntary forms have persisted.

   Harald

 Harald: see HAROLD.

   Harare

 Harare, formerly Salisbury, largest city (1982 est. pop. 656,100) and
 capital of Zimbabwe. One of Africa's most modern cities, it is the
 country's commercial and communications center and the market for an
 agricultural region. Industries include textiles, steel, chemicals, and
 consumer goods. The city is connected by rail with BULAWAYO and the
 Mozambique port of Beira. Founded by the British in 1890, it was the
 capital of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (1953-63). In 1982 it
 was renamed Harare (after a 19th-cent. tribal chief).

   Harbin

 Harbin, city (1986 est. pop. 2,630,000), capital of Heilongjiang prov, NE
 China, on the Sungari R. It is the main trade, industrial, and
 transportation center of NE China and the main port on the Sungari.
 Harbin is part of the great Manchurian complex of metallurgical,
 machinery, chemical, oil, and coal industries. It is also an important
 producer of tractors, paper, and aircraft. Harbin's strong resemblance to
 Russian cities is due to settlers who came to the city after Russia was
 granted (1896) a concession there and after the RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
 (1917). Most of its European population, once one of the largest in the
 Far East, left the city following the rise to power of the Chinese
 Communists.

   Hardenberg, Friedrich von

 Hardenberg, Friedrich von: see NOVALIS.

   Hardenberg, Karl August, Furst von

 Hardenberg, Karl August, Furst von, 1750-1822, Prussian minister of
 foreign affairs (1804-06) and chancellor (1810-22). Continuing the reform
 programs begun by Karl vom und zum STEIN, he abolished trade monopolies,
 turned feudal land into freeholds, and emancipated the JEWS. Hardenberg
 persuaded King William Frederick III to join (1813) the anti-NAPOLEON
 coalition. He became increasingly reactionary in his later years.

   Harding, Warren Gamaliel

 Harding, Warren Gamaliel, 1865-1923, 29th president of the U.S.
 (1921-23); b. Blooming Grove (now Corsica), Ohio. An Ohio Republican,
 Harding was elected (1914) to the U.S. Senate and was a compromise choice
 as Republican presidential candidate in 1920. His administration had one
 achievement-the calling (1921) of the Washington NAVAL CONFERENCE. He had
 promised to appoint a cabinet of the "best minds," but in 1923 came
 rumors of government scandals. Harding died suddenly (Aug. 1923) in San
 Francisco on his way back from Alaska. He thus was spared the public
 exposure of the TEAPOT DOME scandal and the humiliation of seeing his
 cabinet appointees, Albert B. Fall and Harry M. Daugherty, brought to the
 bar of justice. Harding's administration has been called one of the most
 corrupt in U.S. history. He was succeeded by Calvin COOLIDGE.

   Hardouin, Jules

 Hardouin, Jules: see under MANSART, FRAN[CCEDIL]OIS HARDOUIN.

   hardware

 hardware: see COMPUTER.

   Hardwick, Elizabeth

 Hardwick, Elizabeth, 1916-, American writer; b. Lexington, Ky. A founder
 and editor of the New York Review of Books, she has published two
 autobiographical novels; A View of My Own: Essays in Literature and
 Society (1962); and Seduction and Betrayal: Women and Literature (1974).

   Hardy, Thomas

 Hardy, Thomas, 1840-1928, English novelist and poet, one of the great
 English writers of the 19th cent. He won success with Far from the
 Madding Crowd (1874). His other major novels are The Return of the Native
 (1878), The Mayor of Casterbridge (1886), Tess of the d'Urbervilles
 (1891), and Jude the Obscure (1896), the last two his masterpieces. Set
 in the harsh landscape of Hardy's native Dorsetshire ("Wessex" in the
 books), they are generally gloomy, naturalistic studies of character and
 environment. Adverse criticism led Hardy to turn to poetry after 1896,
 and he expressed his pessimism in books such as Wessex Poems (1898);
 Moments of Vision (1917); and The Dynasts (written 1903-8), an epic
 historical drama in verse.

   hare

 hare, herbivorous MAMMAL of the family Leporidae, which also includes the
 RABBIT, native to Eurasia, Africa, and North and Central America. The
 term hare is especially applied to the genus Lepus, sometimes called true
 hares. Hares generally have longer ears and hind legs than rabbits and
 move by jumping rather than running. They are usually brown or grayish in
 color, but northern species acquire a white coat in winter. Most North
 American hares are very large and are called jackrabbits.

   Hare Krishna

 Hare Krishna, popular name for a Hindu sect, the International Society
 for Krishna Consciousness, that gained prominence in the U.S. and Canada
 after its founding (1966) by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada
 (1896-1977). Claiming thousands of followers, the movement teaches
 devotion to Krishna (see HINDUISM) as a means of attaining spiritual
 enlightenment, particularly through the practice of chanting the MANTRA
 Hare Krishna [O Lord Krishna]. See also CULT.

   Hargreaves, James

 Hargreaves, James, 1720?-78, English engineer. His 1764 invention of the
 spinning jenny doubled production in carding, a process preparatory to
 SPINNING.

   Hari, Mata

 Hari, Mata: see MATA HARI.

   Hariri, Abu Muhammad al-Kasim al-

 Hariri, Abu Muhammad al-Kasim al-, 1054-1122, Arab writer. Assemblies of
 al-Hariri, his principal work and one of the most popular Arabic books,
 is an eposidic tale of an old rogue, Abu Zaid, who earns his living by
 his wits.

   Harlem

 Harlem, section of the New York City. Established (1658) as Nieuw Haarlem
 by the Dutch, Harlem remained rural until the 19th cent., when it became
 a fashionable residental district. A rapid influx of blacks beginning
 c.1910 made it one of the largest black communities in the U.S., and in
 the 1920s it became a center of art and literature (see HARLEM
 RENAISSANCE). Harlem deteriorated after World War II into an area
 economically depressed and with a high rate of unemployment.

   Harlem Renaissance

 Harlem Renaissance, term used to describe a flowering of black American
 literature in the 1920s. During the great migration of blacks from the
 rural South to the industrial North (1914-18), some settled in the HARLEM
 district of New York City, as did the musicians who brought JAZZ from the
 South, and Harlem became a sophisticated artistic and literary center. In
 his magazine Crisis, W.E.B. DUBOIS urged racial pride among blacks, and
 writers, many living in Harlem, began producing fine original works about
 black life. Their work constituted a fresh, new subject that attracted
 white readers and publishers. Writers associated with the Harlem
 Renaissance include Arna BONTEMPS, Langston HUGHES, Claude MCKAY, Countee
 CULLEN, James Weldon JOHNSON, Zora Neale HURSTON, and Jean TOOMER. The
 Renaissance faded with the onset of the Great Depression of the 1930s.

   Harmodius and Aristogiton

 Harmodius and AristogitonATHENS and were given public recognition after
 the expulsion (510 BC) of Hippias.

   harmonic motion

 harmonic motion, regular vibration, or back-and-forth motion, in which
 the acceleration of the vibrating object is directly proportional to the
 displacement of the object from its equilibrium position, but oppositely
 directed. A single object vibrating in this manner is said to exhibit
 simple harmonic motion; examples are a PENDULUM swinging in a small arc,
 a mass bouncing at the end of a spring, and the motion of air molecules
 when a sound wave passes. Simple harmonic motion is periodic, i.e., it
 repeats itself at regular intervals. The time required for one complete
 vibration of the object is the period of the motion. The inverse of the
 period is the frequency, or the number of vibrations per unit of time.
 The maximum displacement of the object from its central position of
 equilibrium is the amplitude of the motion. See WAVE.

   harmony

 harmony, in music, simultaneous sounding of two or more tones and,
 especially, the study of chords and their relations. POLYPHONY, or the
 interweaving of several independent melodic lines, prevailed in
 composition until the 16th cent., when interest centered on harmonic
 chord construction, or the relationship between one tone and the tone or
 tones being played at the same time. In 1722 Jean Philippe RAMEAU
 presented the idea that different groupings of the same notes were
 inversions of the same chord. In the 18th cent. the concept of TONALITY
 became firmly established. Using the principle of MODULATION, later
 composers developed freer concepts of tonality, until some in the 20th
 cent. discarded traditional tonality altogether. See also ATONALITY;
 SERIAL MUSIC.

   Harmsworth, Alfred Charles William

 Harmsworth, Alfred Charles William: see NORTHCLIFFE, ALFRED CHARLES
 WILLIAM HARMSWORTH, VISCOUNT.

   Harmsworth, Harold Sidney

 Harmsworth, Harold Sidney: see ROTHERMERE, HAROLD SIDNEY HARMSWORTH, 1ST
 VISCOUNT.

   Harnett, William Michael

 Harnett, William Michael, 1848-1892, American painter; b. Ireland. He is
 known for the spectacular trompe l'oeil (eye-deceiving) realistic effects
 he achieved in his still lifes, e.g., After the Hunt (Calif. Palace of
 the Legion of Honor, San Francisco).

   Harold

 Harold, 1022?-1066, king of England (1066). The son of Godwin, earl of
 Wessex, he belonged to the most powerful noble family in the reign of
 EDWARD THE CONFESSOR. After Harold's succession in 1053 to the earldom of
 Wessex, he aspired to the throne. In c.1064 he was shipwrecked on the
 French coast and was forced to take an oath (which he later renounced)
 supporting WILLIAM I'S claim to the English throne. In 1065 he sided with
 the Northumbrians against his brother Tostig. The family was thus divided
 at the death of the king, who named Harold his heir. William at once
 invaded England from the south and Tostig, with HAROLD III of Norway,
 invaded from the north. Harold defeated them in a battle in which both
 Harold III and Tostig were killed. The king then met William in the
 battle of HASTINGS, fought valiantly, and was killed.

   Harold

 Harold, kings of Norway. Harold I or Harold Fairhair, c.850-c.933
 (r.872-c.933), was the son of Halfdan the Black, king of Vestfold (SE
 Norway). He became Norway's first king by defeating other petty kings.
 During his reign, raids on Europe and migration to Iceland reached their
 peak. His son HAAKON I succeeded him by defeating another son. Harold III
 or Harold Hardrada [stern council], d. 1066 (r.1046-66), half brother of
 OLAF II. He joined (1042) the revolt against MAGNUS I and was made joint
 king (1046), becoming sole king at Magnus's death (1047). After invading
 N England, he died in battle with HAROLD of England.

   harp

 harp, STRINGED INSTRUMENT of ancient origin, the strings of which are
 plucked with the fingers. During the 15th cent. the harp came to be made
 in three parts, as it is today: sound box, neck, and pillar. The strings
 are stretched between the sound box and the neck, into which are fastened
 the tuning pegs. The diatonic harp was perfected c.1810 with the
 invention of double-action pedals, which can raise pitch by a semitone or
 a tone.

   Harper, William Rainey

 Harper, William Rainey, 1856-1906, American educator and Hebrew scholar;
 b. New Concord, Ohio. A professor of Hebrew and author of many texts on
 Hebrew language and literature, he became (1891) the first president of
 the Univ. of Chicago. There he recruited an outstanding faculty, fostered
 advanced instruction and research, and maintained a policy of promotion
 for scholarly research.

   Harpers Ferry

 Harpers Ferry, town (1980 pop. 361), Jefferson co., easternmost W. Va.,
 at the confluence of the Shenandoah and Potomac rivers; inc. 1763. The
 U.S. Arsenal (est. 1796) was seized in the famous raid by John BROWN on
 Oct. 16, 1859. Because of its strategic SHENANDOAH VALLEY location and
 its arms production, its industry was repeatedly destroyed by both sides
 during the CIVIL WAR; the town never recovered. The Harpers Ferry
 National Historical park preserves Civil War historical sites.

   harpsichord

 harpsichord: see PIANO.

   Harpy

 Harpy, in Greek mythology, a predatory monster with the head of a woman
 and the body, wings, and claws of a bird.

   Harriman, Edward Henry

 Harriman, Edward Henry, 1848-1909, American railroad executive; b.
 Hempstead, N.Y. A stockbroker, he gained positions of power in the
 Illinois Central RR (1883) and Union Pacific (1898). After securing
 control of the Southern Pacific and the Central Pacific, he tried to
 seize the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy but was blocked by J.J. HILL in a
 famous financial struggle. He later joined with Hill and J.P. Morgan (see
 MORGAN, family) to organize the Northern Securities Co., a holding
 company formed to prevent railroad competition; in 1904 the trust was
 ordered dissolved by the U.S. Supreme Court. His son was W. Averell
 Harriman.

   Harriman, W(illiam) Averell

 Harriman, W(illiam) Averell, 1891-1986, U.S. businessman and public
 official; b. N.Y.C. A Democrat, he was ambassador to the USSR (1943-46),
 secretary of commerce (1946-48), governor of New York state (1955-59),
 undersecretary of state (1963-65), and ambassador-at-large (1965-68). He
 was also (1968) chief U.S. negotiator at the Paris peace talks on
 Vietnam.

   Harrington, James

 Harrington, James, 1611-77, English political philosopher. His
 Commonwealth of Oceana (1656) described a utopian society in which
 political power rested with the landed gentry. He advocated a written
 constitution and limitations on the amount of land one individual could
 hold. His ideas foreshadowed doctrines of the American and French
 revolutions.

   Harris, Frank

 Harris, Frank, 1856-1931, British-American author; b. Galway, Ireland. He
 is best known for his scandalously frank, highly unreliable
 autobiography, My Life and Loves (3 vol., 1923-27). He also wrote novels,
 a series of biographical sketches of literary figures (1915-27), and a
 biography of Oscar WILDE (1916).

   Harris, Joel Chandler

 Harris, Joel Chandler, 1848-1908, American regionalist writer; b.
 Eatonton, Ga. His popular tales, narrated by the former slave Uncle
 Remus, drew upon black folklore, dialect, and humor to capture the
 authentic life of Southern blacks. Volumes include Uncle Remus: His Songs
 and His Sayings (1881), The Tar Baby (1904), and Uncle Remus and Br'er
 Rabbit (1906).

   Harris, Patricia Roberts

 Harris, Patricia Roberts, 1924-, black U.S. public official; b. Mattoon,
 Ill. Named secretary of housing and urban development (1977) by Pres.
 CARTER, she was the first black woman to serve in the cabinet. From 1979
 to 1981 she was secretary of health, education, and welfare (since 1980
 health and human services).

   Harris, Roy

 Harris, Roy, 1898-1979, American composer; b. Lincoln co., Okla. Vital,
 melodic, and personal expression is characteristic of his works,
 including his First Symphony (1934); When Johnny Comes Marching Home
 (1934), a choral work; Cumberland Concerto (1951); and his Piano Quintet
 (1936).

   Harris, William Torrey

 Harris, William Torrey, 1835-1909, American educator and philosopher; b.
 Windham co., Conn. Founder and editor (1867-93) of the Journal of
 Speculative Philosophy, he wrote several books on the psychology of
 education. He opened (1873) the first permanent public-school
 KINDERGARTEN in the U.S. and served as U.S. commissioner of education
 (1889-1906).

   Harrisburg

 Harrisburg, city (1986 est. pop. 51,530), state capital and seat of
 Dauphin co., SE Pa., on the Susquehanna R.; settled c.1710 as a trading
 post; inc. 1791. A commercial and transportation center, it produces
 steel and processed foods. Iron and coal mines are nearby. Harrisburg
 became the state capital in 1812; its capitol building (1906) is
 noteworthy. A 1979 nuclear accident at nearby THREE MILE ISLAND focused
 national attention on the area.

   Harrison, Benjamin

 Harrison, Benjamin, 1833-1901, 23d president of the U.S. (1889-93); b.
 North Bend, Ohio. A grandson of William Henry HARRISON, he commanded an
 Indiana volunteer regiment in the CIVIL WAR, became a corporate lawyer,
 and served (1881-87) as U.S. senator from Indiana. The Republicans chose
 him (1888) as presidential candidate against Grover CLEVELAND. After what
 has been called the most corrupt campaign in U.S. history, he was elected
 by the electoral college, though Cleveland had won the popular vote. He
 approved all regular Republican measures, including the highly protective
 McKinley Tariff Act. The first Pan-American Conference was held (1889)
 during his administration. Defeated (1892) for reelection by Cleveland,
 he later represented Venezuela in the VENEZUELA BOUNDARY DISPUTE.

   Harrison, William Henry

 Harrison, William Henry, 1773-1841, 9th president of the U.S. (Mar.
 4-Apr. 4, 1841); b. Charles co., Va. Following service against the
 Indians in the Old Northwest, Harrison was governor (1800-1812) of the
 Indiana Territory and engaged the Indians under TECUMSEH in the battle of
 Tippecanoe (1811). In the WAR OF 1812 he recaptured Detroit from the
 British and defeated a combined force of British and Indians in the
 battle of the Thames (1813). He was a U.S. congressman (1816-19) and
 senator (1825-28) from Ohio. Gaining the WHIG PARTY presidential
 nomination in 1840, he and his running mate, John TYLER, ran a
 "rip-roaring" campaign with the slogan "Tippecanoe and Tyler too." On
 becoming president he selected a brilliant Whig cabinet, but he died
 after only a month in office. He was the grandfather of Benjamin
 HARRISON.

   Hart, Basil Henry Liddell

 Hart, Basil Henry Liddell: see LIDDELL HART, BASIL HENRY.

   Hart, Lorenz Milton

 Hart, Lorenz Milton, 1895-1943, American lyricist; b. N.Y.C. His lyrics
 were witty, literate, and expressive. He collaborated with Richard
 RODGERS on such MUSICALS as Connecticut Yankee (1927) and Pal Joey
 (1940).

   Hart, Moss

 Hart, Moss, 1904-61, American dramatist; b. N.Y.C. He collaborated with
 George S. KAUFMAN on such comedies as You Can't Take It with You (1936;
 Pulitzer) and The Man Who Came to Dinner (1939), and with Kurt WEILL and
 Ira GERSHWIN on the musical Lady in the Dark (1941).

   Harte, (Francis) Bret(t)

 Harte, (Francis) Bret(t), 1836-1902, American author; b. Albany, N.Y. At
 19 he went to California, where he helped establish the Overland Monthly,
 in which his short stories and poems first appeared. Harte is best known
 for his picturesque stories of Western local color, e.g., "The Luck of
 Roaring Camp" and "The Outcasts of Poker Flat." He was U.S. consul in
 Germany and Scotland (1878-85) and spent his last years in England.

   hartebeest

 hartebeest: see ANTELOPE.

   Hartford

 Hartford, city (1986 est. pop. 137,980), state capital, central Conn., on
 the Connecticut R.; settled as Newtown 1635-36 on the site of a Dutch
 trading post (1633), inc. 1784. It is a world-famous insurance center,
 and a commercial, industrial, and cultural hub. Manufactures include
 firearms, typewriters, and computers. Part of the Connecticut colony
 (1639), Hartford was an important depot in the AMERICAN REVOLUTION and
 was the scene of the 1814-15 HARTFORD CONVENTION. The old statehouse
 (1796), the capitol (1878), and the Wadsworth Atheneum are noteworthy.
 Harriet Beecher STOWE, Mark TWAIN, and Wallace STEVENS were among its
 notable residents.

   Hartford Convention

 Hartford Convention, Dec. 15, 1814-Jan. 4, 1815, meeting held in
 Hartford, Conn., to consider the problems of New England in the WAR OF
 1812. It was an outgrowth of the disaffection of New England Federalists
 with government policy and with the expenses of the war. The sessions
 were held in secret, and the moderates prevailed. The proposal to secede
 from the Union was discussed and rejected, and New England's grievances
 were aired, but the war's successful conclusion made any recommendation a
 dead letter. The convention continued the view of STATES' RIGHTS as the
 refuge of sectional groups and sealed the destruction of the FEDERALIST
 PARTY, which never regained its lost prestige.

   Hartford Wits

 Hartford Wits: see CONNECTICUT WITS.

   Hartmann von Aue

 Hartmann von Aue, c.1170-c.1220, German poet whose name is also spelled
 von Ouwe. Among his works are the chivalric romances Erec and Iwain, the
 religious legend Gregorius, and the idyl Poor Henry, used by LONGFELLOW
 for his Golden Legend.

   Harun ar-Rashid

 Harun ar-Rashid, c.764-809, 5th and most famous ABBASID caliph (786-809).
 His empire included all of SW Asia and the northern part of Africa. He
 was a patron of the arts, and during his reign Baghdad was at its apogee.
 He figures prominently in the Thousand and One Nights.

   Harunobu

 Harunobu (Suzuki Harunobu), 1725-70, Japanese color-print artist of the
 ukiyo-e school (see JAPANESE ART). He was the first to use a wide range
 of colors effectively in printing, and in 1765 he developed multicolored
 calendar prints from wood blocks. His subjects include actors,
 courtesans, and domestic life.

   Harvard University

 Harvard University, mainly at Cambridge, Mass. The oldest American
 college, Harvard College was founded (1636) with a grant from the
 Massachusetts Bay Colony and named (1638) for its first benefactor, John
 Harvard. Intended as a training ground for Puritan ministers, it evolved
 a more generalized program of education. Supported largely by private
 gifts, Harvard's expansion into one of the world's great universities
 occurred mainly during the administration (1869-1910) of Charles W.
 ELIOT, when the elective system was introduced and graduate education was
 developed. Besides Harvard College, the university has many graduate
 schools. The Harvard University Library is among the nation's largest and
 finest (see LIBRARY, ). Affiliated with the university is Radcliffe
 College for women (est. 1879), whose students are instructed by the
 Harvard faculty.

   Harvard University Library

 Harvard University Library: see LIBRARY .

   harvestman

 harvestman: see DADDY LONGLEGS.

   Harvey, William

 Harvey, William, 1578-1657, English physician, considered by many to have
 laid the foundation for modern medicine. A physician at St. Bartholomew's
 Hospital in London and at the court, he was the first to demonstrate the
 function of the heart and the complete circulation of the blood. His
 renowned On the Movement of the Heart and Blood in Animals (1628)
 describes his theories, which were not fully substantiated until 1827.
 Harvey also contributed greatly to comparative anatomy and embryology.

   Hasdrubal

 Hasdrubal, d. 221 BC, Carthaginian general. He succeeded his
 father-in-law, HAMILCAR BARCA, as commander in Spain, increased the
 Carthaginian empire, and founded Cartagena. He was succeeded by his
 brother-in-law HANNIBAL.

   Hasidim

 Hasidim [Heb.,=the pious], term used by the rabbis to describe those Jews
 who maintained the highest standard of religious observance and moral
 action. The term has been applied to three distinct movements. 1 The
 first Hasidim, also called the Assideans or Hasideans, were members of a
 sect that developed between 300 BC and 175 BC Rigid adherents of Judaism,
 they led the resistance to the Hellenizing campaign of Antiochus IV of
 Syria and were important in the revolt of the MACCABEES. 2 In 12th- and
 13th-cent. Germany there arose the Hasidei Ashkenaz, a group with
 messianic and mystical elements, influenced by SAADIA BEN JOSEPH. 3 The
 third movement of Hasidim was that founded in the 18th cent. by
 BAAL-SHEM-TOV and known as HASIDISM.

   Hasidism

 Hasidism, Jewish movement founded in Poland in the 18th cent. by
 BAAL-SHEM-TOV. Its name derives from HASIDIM. The movement arose in
 reaction to persecutions and to the academic formalism of rabbinical
 Judaism. It encouraged joyous religious expression through music and
 dance, and taught that purity of heart was more pleasing to God than
 learning. Although the Talmudists pronounced Hasidism heretical in 1781,
 it continues to be a strong force in Jewish life. In the U.S. today,
 Hasidic communities live in the manner of the early Hasidim.

   Hasmoneans

 Hasmoneans: see MACCABEES.

   Hassam, Childe

 Hassam, Childe, 1859-1935, American painter and etcher; b. Boston.
 Hassam, who studied in Paris, produced sprightly landscapes and interiors
 that show the strong influence of IMPRESSIONISM, e.g., Isles of Shoals
 (Metropolitan Mus.).

   Hassan II

 Hassan II, 1929-, king of Morocco (1961-). He succeeded his father,
 MUHAMMAD V. An abortive coup (1971) led him to yield some of his powers
 to parliament. After 1976 his country fought for control of WESTERN
 SAHARA; in 1982, bolstered by U.S. military support, Morocco began the
 economic development of Western Sahara.

   Hastings, Warren

 Hastings, Warren, 1732-1818, first governor general of British India
 (1774-1784). His aggressive policy of judicial and economic reform
 rebuilt British prestige in India but created powerful enemies at home,
 including Edmund BURKE and Charles James FOX. He was impeached (1787) on
 charges of extortion and other crimes. After a long and costly trial he
 was acquitted (1795).

   Hastings

 Hastings, borough (1986 est. pop. 81,100), E Sussex, SE England. Today a
 seaside resort and residential city, it was occupied in Roman times and
 probably earlier. The battle of Hastings (1066) between the Norman
 invaders of England and the Anglo-Saxon defenders, the first and most
 decisive victory of the NORMAN CONQUEST, took place nearby.

   Hatteras, Cape

 Hatteras, Cape, promontory on Hatteras Island, N.C. The site of frequent
 storms and shipwrecks, it is known as the "Graveyard of the Atlantic."
 The cape is part of Cape Hatteras National Seashore, one of the longest
 stretches of undeveloped shoreline on the U.S. Atlantic coast.

   Haughey, Charles James

 Haughey, Charles James, 1925-, Irish political leader and prime minister
 (1979-81, Mar.-Dec. 1982). In 1970 Haughey, a member of the FIANNA FAIL
 party and finance minister, was charged with smuggling arms to Northern
 Ireland, but he was later acquitted. After the resignation (1979) of
 Prime Min. John LYNCH, Haughey was named as his successor. Considered a
 strong nationalist, he resigned after Fianna Fail's defeat in the 1981
 elections, but was briefly returned to office in 1982. He was succeeded
 as prime minister by Garret FitzGerald of the Fine Gael party.

   Hauptmann, Gerhart

 Hauptmann, Gerhart, 1862-1946, German dramatist, novelist, and poet. He
 inaugurated the naturalist movement in German theater with his plays
 Before Dawn (1889) and The Weavers (1892), then turned to the romantic
 with Hannele (1893) and The Sunken Bell (1897). His prose works include
 the novels The Fool in Christ, Emanuel Quint (1910) and The Heretic of
 Soana (1918). A leading figure in German literature for three
 generations, he was awarded the 1912 Nobel Prize in literature.

   Hausa

 Hausa, black African ethnic group numbering about 9 million, chiefly in N
 Nigeria and S Niger. The Hausa, who are almost exclusively Muslim,
 practice agriculture and carry on a widespread trade. Their language is a
 lingua franca of W Africa. Formerly organized as the Hausa States, they
 were long vassals of the Muslim state of Bornu and were conquered by
 SONGHAI (1513) and by the FULANI (early 19th cent.). The Hausa are a
 major force in Nigerian politics.

   Hausa language

 Hausa language, member of the Chad group of languages, frequently
 assigned to the Hamitic subfamily of the Hamito-Semitic family of
 languages. See AFRICAN LANGUAGES .

   Haussmann, Georges Eugene, Baron

 Haussmann, Georges Eugene, Baron, 1809-91, French civic official and city
 planner. Noted for his bold plan for PARIS under NAPOLEON III, he is
 largely responsible for the city's appearance, its wide streets, broad
 vistas, parks, and avenues radiating from focal points.

   Havana

 Havana, Span. La Habana, city (1986 est. pop. 2,014,800), W Cuba, capital
 of Cuba and La Habana prov. The largest city and chief port of the WEST
 INDIES, it is Cuba's political and industrial center, with oil and sugar
 refineries, rum distilleries, tobacco factories, and some heavy
 manufacturing. It is a popular winter resort, although tourism from the
 U.S. ended after the Cuban revolution of 1959. One of the oldest cities
 in the Americas, Havana was founded by the Spanish before 1520. It has
 often been invaded and held by foreign forces. The sinking of the U.S.
 battleship Maine in its harbor sparked (1898) the SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR.
 The modern part of Havana has wide avenues and impressive public
 buildings. Much of the old colonial city has been preserved. A major
 landmark is Morro Castle.

   Hawaii

 Hawaii, 50th state of the U.S., a group of eight major islands and
 numerous islets in the central Pacific Ocean, c.2,100 mi (3,380 km) SW of
 San Francisco.

 Area, 6,450 sq mi (16,706 sq km). Pop. (1986 est.) 1,062,000, a 10.1%
 increase over 1980 pop. Capital, Honolulu. Statehood, Aug. 21, 1959 (50th
 state). Highest pt., Mauna Kea, 13,796 ft (4,208 m); lowest pt., sea
 level. Nickname, Aloha State. Motto, Ua Mau Ke Ea O Ka Aina I Ka Pono The
 Life of the Land Is Perpetuated in Righteousness. State bird, Hawaiian
 goose. State flower, hibiscus. State tree, candlenut. Abbr., HI.

 Land and People The islands, of volcanic origin, are ringed with coral
 reefs. Oahu, site of HONOLULU, the capital and only large city, is the
 most populous and economically important island. On Hawaii Island are
 located MAUNA KEA, a huge extinct volcano, and MAUNA LOA, a large active
 volcano in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. Haleakala, one of the world's
 largest volcanic craters, on Maui Island, is part of Haleakala National
 Park. (See NATIONAL PARKS, .) Other principal islands are Kahoolawe,
 Kauai, Lanai, Molokai, and Nihau. The islands are generally fertile, are
 largely covered in luxuriant vegetation, and enjoy a mild climate. About
 60% of Hawaii's ethnically diverse population is of Asian descent,
 including people of Japanese, Chinese, and Filipino origin; there is a
 small minority of indigenous Hawaiians; nearly 33% of the population is
 white; and 7% is of other races.

 Economy Service industries, especially tourism and military
 installations, dominate the economy of Hawaii. The leading agricultural
 products are sugarcane and pineapples-both cultivated on large corporate
 plantations-and cattle and dairy products. Sugar refining and pineapple
 canning are the basis of the leading industry, food processing, which is
 supplemented by petroleum refining and printing and publishing.

 Government The constitution (adopted 1950) provides for a governor
 serving a four-year term. The legislature consists of a senate with 25
 members elected to four-year terms and a house with 51 members serving
 two-year terms. Hawaii sends two representatives and two senators to the
 U.S. Congress and has four electoral votes.

 History It is believed that the Polynesians who first settled the islands
 had arrived by c.750 AD The first European to discover (1778) the islands
 was Capt. James COOK. In 1810 King KAMEHAMEHA I united the islands under
 his sovereignty, ushering in a prosperous period of agriculture and
 trade. However, American and European traders introduced devastating
 infectious diseases that greatly reduced the native population.
 Missionaries and American planters who arrived in 1820 established sugar
 plantations and increasingly dominated the islands' economy and
 government. The monarchy was overthrown in 1893, and Hawaii became a U.S
 territory in 1900. On Dec. 7, 1941, Japanese aircraft made a surprise
 attack on the naval base at PEARL HARBOR, plunging the U.S. into WORLD
 WAR II. Since the war's end and statehood (1959) Hawaii has enjoyed
 sustained economic and population growth.

   Hawaii Volcanoes National Park

 Hawaii Volcanoes National Park: see NATIONAL PARKS .

   hawk

 hawk, name for smaller members of the Accipitridae family, diurnal BIRDS
 of prey, distinguished from the related FALCONS by their broader, rounded
 wings. Hawks have keen sight, sharply hooked bills, and powerful feet
 with curved talons. The hunting hawks, or accipiters, include the
 goshawk, which feeds on small MAMMALS and birds, and the destructive
 chicken hawk. Buteos, or BUZZARDS, are a diverse group of larger hawks;
 they feed on RODENTS and REPTILES. The term hawk is also applied to many
 falcons and a number of unrelated birds, e.g., the nighthawk (a
 GOATSUCKER), and certain GULLS and jaegers.

   Hawke, Robert (Bob) James Lee

 Hawke, Robert (Bob) James Lee, 1929-, Australian prime minister. A former
 president of the Australian Council of Trade Unions (1970-80), a leader
 of the Australian Labor Party, and a member of Parliament, he has won
 three successive terms as prime minister. He pledged to decrease
 Australia's dependence on the export of raw materials and make the nation
 internationally competitive in exporting manufactured goods.

   Hawkes, John

 Hawkes, John, 1925-, American writer; b. Stamford, Conn. His novels often
 mix everyday reality with menacing hallucinations. They include The Lime
 Twig (1951), Blood Oranges (1971), and The Passion Artist (1979).

   Hawking, Stephen William

 Hawking, Stephen William, 1942-, British theoretical physicist. His key
 area is astronomical bodies known as black holes (see GRAVITATIONAL
 COLLAPSE). Hawking worked on the formation, size, and radiation of black
 holes as well as research supporting the big bang theory (see COSMOLOGY).
 He wrote A Brief History of Time (1988).

   Hawkins, Coleman

 Hawkins, Coleman, 1904-69, black American musician; b. St. Joseph, Mo. He
 established the tenor saxophone as a major JAZZ instrument. His huge
 tone, vigorous attack, and evolving improvisatory style made his
 influence pervasive, even among avant-garde musicians.

   Hawkins

 Hawkins or Hawkyns, Sir John,1532-95, English admiral. As a slave-trader,
 he sold native Africans at a profit in Spanish ports. As treasurer and
 comptroller of the navy, he improved ship construction. In the great
 defeat of the Spanish ARMADA, he commanded the Victory and was knighted
 for his services. His son, Sir Richard Hawkins, 1562-1622, served under
 his father and Sir Francis DRAKE. While on a raiding expedition in South
 America, he was captured and sent to a Spanish prison (1597-1602). He
 later served in Parliament.

   Hawks, Howard Winchester

 Hawks, Howard Winchester, 1896-1977, American film director; b. Goshen,
 Ind. He directed his first film in 1926 and is noted for crisp dialogue
 and visual clarity. His credits include Scarface (1932), Bringing Up Baby
 (1938), To Have and Have Not (1944), The Big Sleep (1946), Red River
 (1948), and Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1953).

   Hawksmoor

 Hawksmoor or Hawksmore, Nicholas,1661-1736, English architect involved in
 the development of most of the great English BAROQUE buildings. He
 assisted Christopher WREN at Chelsea Hospital and St. Paul's, and Sir
 John VANBRUGH at Castle Howard and Blenheim Palace. His London churches
 (1714-30) include St. George's, Bloomsbury, and Christ Church,
 Spitalfields.

   Hawley-Smoot Tariff Act

 Hawley-Smoot Tariff Act, enacted 1930 by the U.S. Congress. It brought
 the U.S. tariff to its highest point in history. The retaliatory tariffs
 of foreign nations caused a sharp decline in U.S. foreign trade. The act
 was sponsored by Rep. Willis C. Hawley (Oreg.) and Sen. Reed Smoot
 (Utah).

   Hawthorne, Nathaniel

 Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 1804-64, a master of American fiction; b. Salem,
 Mass. Hawthorne created highly symbolic fiction that penetratingly
 explored complex moral and spiritual conflicts. In early life he wrote
 the unsuccessful novel Fanshawe (1829) and the acclaimed short-story
 collection Twice-Told Tales (1837; 2d series, 1842). He lived briefly
 (1841) at BROOK FARM, basing his later novel The Blithedale Romance
 (1852) on the experience. After his marriage (1842) to Sophia Peabody he
 settled in Concord, where he wrote the tales collected in Mosses from an
 Old Manse (1846). In the novels The Scarlet Letter (1850), his
 masterpiece, and The House of the Seven Gables (1851) he examined the
 gloomy, brooding spirit of Puritanism. His last novel, The Marble Faun
 (1860), is set in Italy. His works include two juvenile books, A Wonder
 Book (1852) and Tanglewood Tales (1853). He also helped establish the
 American short story as an art form.

   Hay, John (Milton)

 Hay, John (Milton), 1838-1905, American author and statesman; b. Salem,
 Ind. After serving as assistant private secretary to Pres. LINCOLN, Hay
 wrote Pike County Ballads (1871) and, with John G. Nicolay, Abraham
 Lincoln: A History (10 vol., 1890). As secretary of state (1898-1905)
 under presidents MCKINLEY and Theodore ROOSEVELT, he was responsible for
 the OPEN DOOR policy in China and for the HAY-PAUNCEFOTE TREATIES.

   Haya de la Torre, Victor Raul

 Haya de la Torre, Victor Raul, Peruvian politician. He founded (1924) the
 reformist APRA party to champion social and economic reforms, especially
 for Indians, and spent much of his life in exile or in prison. He was
 elected president of PERU (1962) but was prevented from taking office by
 a military coup. APRA won the 1978 elections shortly before his death.

   Haydn, Franz Joseph

 Haydn, Franz Joseph, 1732-1809, Austrian composer, one of the great
 masters of classical music. After early struggles, he worked 29 years for
 the princes Esterhazy, received commissions, traveled, and formed a close
 friendship with MOZART, a bond that influenced the music of both. Haydn
 wrote over 100 SYMPHONIES, establishing the basic form. Many are called
 by names, e.g., The Clock Symphony (1794). His string quartets and
 symphonies expanded C.P.E. BACH'S three-part form, affecting the
 development of classical SONATA form. Two great ORATORIOS, The Creation
 (1798) and The Seasons (1801), were written in old age. He wrote over 80
 string quartets, over 50 sonatas, and many other pieces.

   Hayek, Friedrich August von

 Hayek, Friedrich August von, 1899-, British economist; b. Austria. He
 taught at the universities of London (1931-50), Chicago (1950-62), and
 Freiburg (1962-70). He shared the 1974 Nobel Prize in economics with
 Gunnar MYRDAL for his work in the theory of money and economic
 fluctuations. Hayek became a British subject in 1938.

   Hayes, Helen

 Hayes, Helen, 1900-, American actress; b. Washington, D.C., as Helen
 Hayes Brown. Called the First Lady of the American Theater, she starred
 in Dear Brutus (1918), Victoria Regina (1936), and A Touch of the Poet
 (1958).

   Hayes, Rutherford Birchard

 Hayes, Rutherford Birchard, 1822-93, 19th president of the U.S.
 (1877-81); b. Delaware, Ohio. A lawyer, he became (1858) city solicitor
 of Cincinnati. In the CIVIL WAR he took part in some 50 engagements and
 rose in rank to a major general of volunteers (1865). Hayes served
 (1865-67) as a Republican in Congress and was three times elected (1867,
 1869, 1875) governor of Ohio. In 1876, chosen as the Republican candidate
 for president, he ran against Democrat Samuel J. TILDEN. In the election
 the returns of South Carolina, Louisiana, Florida, and Oregon were
 disputed, and Congress created an electoral commission to decide the
 result. The commission awarded all the disputed returns to Hayes, thus
 giving him a majority of one in the electoral college. Indignation over
 this partisan decision affected Hayes's administration, which was
 generally conservative and efficient and no more. He withdrew federal
 troops from Louisiana and South Carolina, ending the RECONSTRUCTION era.
 An advocate of hard money, he vetoed the BLAND-ALLISON ACT, which was
 passed nonetheless.

   Hay-Herran Treaty

 Hay-Herran Treaty, 1903, aborted agreement between the U.S. and Colombia
 that concerned the prospective PANAMA CANAL. Signed by U.S. Secy. of
 State John HAY and Colombian foreign minister Tomas Herran, the treaty
 stipulated that the New Panama Canal Co. might sell its properties to the
 U.S.; that Colombia lease to the U.S. a strip of land across the Isthmus
 of Panama; and that the U.S. pay Colombia $10 million and, after nine
 years, an annuity of $250,000. The U.S. Senate ratified the treaty, but
 the Colombian congress rejected it.

   Haymarket Square riot

 Haymarket Square riot, outbreak of violence in Chicago on May 4, 1886.
 Amid American labor's drive for an eight-hour working day, a
 demonstration was staged by anarchists in Haymarket Square. A crowd of
 some 1,500 people gathered; when police attempted to disperse them, a
 bomb exploded and rioting ensued. Eleven people were killed and more than
 100 others wounded. Eight anarchists were tried, but no evidence was
 found to link them to the bomb. They were, however, convicted of inciting
 violence. Four were hanged, one committed suicide, and three-after having
 served seven years in prison-were pardoned (1893) by Gov. John P.
 ALTGELD.

   Hay-Pauncefote Treaties

 Hay-Pauncefote Treaties, negotiated in 1899 and 1901 by U.S. Secy. of
 State John HAY and Lord Pauncefote of Preston, British ambassador to the
 U.S. The first treaty was amended (1900) by the U.S. Senate and was
 rejected by the British. The second treaty, superseding the
 CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY, gave the U.S. the right to construct and fully
 control an Isthmian canal in CENTRAL AMERICA. It retained nominally the
 principle of neutrality under the sole guarantee of the U.S. and provided
 that the canal be open to ships of all nations on equal terms, but it
 omitted a clause contained in the first draft forbidding fortifications.

   Haywood, William Dudley

 Haywood, William Dudley, 1869-1928, American labor leader, known as Big
 Bill Haywood; b. Salt Lake City, Utah. At age 15 he began work as a
 miner, and in 1900 he became secretary-treasurer of the Western
 Federation of Miners. In 1905 he helped organize the INDUSTRIAL WORKERS
 OF THE WORLD. Forced out of the Socialist party because of his militancy,
 he preached the doctrines of class struggle and mass action. Haywood was
 convicted of sedition during World War I, but escaped to the Soviet
 Union. He wrote an autobiography, Bill Haywood's Book (1929).

   hazel

 hazel, shrub or small tree (genus Corylus) of the BIRCH family, grown as
 an ornamental and for its edible nuts. Species include the American hazel
 (C. americana) and European hazels (C. maxima and C. avellena);
 hazelnuts, usually known as filberts, are chiefly from the European
 trees. WITCH HAZEL is not related to hazel.

   Hazlitt, William

 Hazlitt, William, 1778-1830, English essayist and critic. His penetrating
 literary criticism is collected in Characters of Shakespeare's Plays
 (1817), Lectures on the English Poets (1818), Lectures on the English
 Comic Writers (1819), Table Talk (1821-22), and The Spirit of the Age
 (1825). His Dramatic Literature of the Age of Elizabeth (1820) renewed
 interest in SHAKESPEARE and Elizabethan drama. Among his masterful essays
 are "On Going a Journey" and "On the Feeling of Immortality in Youth."

   Hazzard, Shirley

 Hazzard, Shirley, 1931-, Australian novelist. She has lived in the U.S.
 since 1951. Noted for her insight, sensitivity, and poetic style, she has
 published two collections of short stories and three novels, The Evening
 of the Holiday (1966), The Bay of Noon (1970), and The Transit of Venus
 (1980).

   H.D.

 H.D.: see DOOLITTLE, HILDA.

   He

 He, chemical symbol of the element HELIUM.

   Head, Edith

 Head, Edith: see FASHION.

   Head, Sir Francis Bond

 Head, Sir Francis Bond, 1793-1875, British lieutenant governor of Upper
 Canada (1835-37). He allied himself with the FAMILY COMPACT clique and
 drove radical reformers to revolt (1837). He quelled the revolt but was
 forced to leave (1838) Canada.

   head-hunting

 head-hunting, widespread practice of taking and preserving the head of a
 slain enemy, occurring from ancient times into the 20th cent. It may have
 evolved from CANNIBALISM. Taking a head was believed to strengthen one's
 own tribe and weaken the enemy's. Heads were also secured as tokens of
 courage and manhood. North American Indians took only the scalp; the
 JIVARO of South America preserve the skin to make so-called shrunken
 heads.

   Head Start

 Head Start, U.S. educational program for disadvantaged preschool
 children, established under the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964. The
 program was initially aimed at preparing poor children for elementary
 school, but it was later extended to children above the poverty level,
 whose parents paid according to their income.

   healers

 healers, people who treat illness or suffering by calling forth divine
 help or by attempting to control the body with the mind and spirit. Since
 prehistoric times healers have used such techniques as anointing with
 oil, the laying on of hands, and prayer. The term also refers to
 CHRISTIAN SCIENCE practitioners.

   Health and Human Services, United States Department of

 Health and Human Services, United States Department of, federal executive
 department that administers government health and SOCIAL SECURITY
 programs. It is the reorganized successor (1979) to the Dept. of Health,
 Education, and Welfare. It includes the Public Health Service, the Office
 of Child Support Enforcement, the Social Security Administration, and the
 Health Care Financing Administration, which administers the Medicare and
 Medicaid programs.

   Health, Education, and Welfare, United States Department of

 Health, Education, and Welfare, United States Department of: see
 EDUCATION, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF; HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES, UNITED
 STATES DEPARTMENT OF.

   health insurance

 health insurance, prepayment plan providing medical services or cash
 indemnities for medical care; it may be voluntary or compulsory.
 Compulsory accident and sickness insurance was initiated (1883-84) in
 Germany by Bismarck and adopted by Britain, France, Chile, the USSR, and
 other nations after World War I. In 1948 Britain instituted the most
 comprehensive compulsory health plan to date, including free medical care
 from any doctor participating in the system; a small charge for some
 services has been instituted since then. Canada has provided nearly free
 hospital service since 1958 and more comprehensive coverage since 1967.
 National health insurance has been widely adopted in Europe and parts of
 Asia. In the U.S., where the medical profession opposed government health
 insurance, voluntary cooperative or commercial programs developed,
 offering limited benefits to group or individual subscribers. Blue Cross
 and Blue Shield, the largest such insurers, covering hospital care and
 doctors' fees respectively, are community-sponsored, nonprofit agencies.
 In 1965 the federal government established two plans: Medicare, for
 persons age 65 and over, providing basic hospital insurance and
 supplementary insurance for doctors' and other health-care bills; and
 Medicaid, for low-income persons, operated by the states and covering
 hospital, physician, and other services. The U.S. is the only Western
 industrial nation without some form of comprehensive national health
 insurance.

   Health Maintenance Organization

 Health Maintenance Organization (HMO), type of prepaid medical service in
 which members pay a monthly or yearly fee for all health care, including
 hospitalization. Most HMOs involve physicians engaged in group practice.
 Because costs to patients are fixed in advance, preventive medicine is
 stressed to avoid costly hospitalization. At the end of 1986, there were
 595 HMOs in the U.S. serving 23.5 million subscribers.

   Heaney, Seamus

 Heaney, Seamus, 1939-, Northern Irish poet. Rooted in his own life and in
 that of Ireland, balanced between the personal and the topical, Heaney's
 carefully crafted poems are extremely evocative, yet clear and direct.
 His volumes of verse include North (1975), Field Work (1979), and Station
 Island (1985). Many of his critical and autobiographical pieces in prose
 were collected in Preoccupations (1980).

   hearing

 hearing: see EAR.

   Hearn, Lafcadio

 Hearn, Lafcadio, 1850-1904, American author; b. Ionian Islands; came to
 U.S., 1869. Partially blind and discontented, he wrote about the macabre
 and exotic, e.g., Stray Leaves from Strange Literature (1884). In 1890 he
 went to Japan, where he became a citizen and wrote 12 books.

   Hearne, Samuel

 Hearne, Samuel, 1745-92, British fur trader and explorer of N Canada.
 Working for the HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY, he explored the Coppermine River
 area in 1770. He opened up unknown territory and proved that there was no
 short NORTHWEST PASSAGE.

   Hearst, William Randolph

 Hearst, William Randolph, 1863-1951, American journalist and publisher;
 b. San Francisco. During his lifetime Hearst established a vast
 publishing empire that included 18 newspapers in 12 cities and 9
 successful magazines (including Good Housekeeping and Harper's Bazaar).
 His use of flamboyant pictures, shrieking typography, and mass-appeal
 news coverage, together with a policy of buying distinctive talent from
 other papers and selling papers at a penny, made him the leader in "penny
 journalism" by 1900. His papers' wild reports of Cuba's struggle for
 independence from Spain helped bring about the SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. A
 flamboyant figure, he later in life became stridently conservative. His
 huge castle at San Simeon, Calif., is now a state museum.

   heart

 heart, muscular organ that pumps blood to all parts of the body. The
 pear-shaped human heart is about the size of a fist and lies just left of
 center within the chest cavity. The contractions of heart muscle, or
 myocardium, are entirely self-stimulated. The heart is divided into two
 cavities by a wall of muscle; each cavity is divided in turn into two
 chambers, the upper ones called atria, the lower ones ventricles. Blood
 from the veins, high in carbon dioxide but low in oxygen, returns to the
 right atrium. It enters the right ventricle, which contracts, pumping the
 blood through the pulmonary artery to the LUNGS. Blood rich in oxygen and
 poor in carbon dioxide returns from the lungs to the left atrium and
 enters the left ventricle, which contracts, forcing the blood into the
 aorta, from which it is distributed throughout the body. The blood is
 prevented from backing up by a series of valves. See CIRCULATORY SYSTEM;
 see also CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; TRANSPLANTATION, MEDICAL.

   heart, artificial

 heart, artificial, an external or surgically implanted mechanical device
 designed to replace a patient's diseased heart. The first one used on a
 human being, the Jarvik-7, was implanted (1972) in Dr. Barney Clark, who
 lived for 112 days. Another patient, William Schroeder, lived 620 days.
 By 1989, the device had become a bridge to human heart transplants and
 major funding for a possible long-term artificial heart had stopped. See
 also TRANSPLANTATION, MEDICAL.

   heart disease

 heart disease, any of several abnormalities of the HEART and its function
 in maintaining blood circulation. Among the most common causes of heart
 disease are BIRTH DEFECTS of the heart; infectious diseases, such as
 RHEUMATIC FEVER; degenerative changes due to CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; and
 HYPERTENSION. These and other forms of cardiovascular disease, alone or
 in combination, can lead to congestive heart failure, a condition in
 which the heart cannot pump sufficient blood to meet the demands of the
 body. The various forms of heart disease may also cause disturbances in
 normal heartbeat, called arrhythmias.

   heart-lung machine

 heart-lung machine, device that maintains the circulation and oxygen
 content of the BLOOD when connected with the arteriovenous system. Used
 in open-heart surgery to bypass the CIRCULATORY SYSTEM of the HEART and
 LUNGS, the oxygenator repeatedly draws off blood from the veins,
 reoxygenates it, and pumps it into the arterial system.

   heat

 heat, internal ENERGY of a substance, associated with the positions and
 motions of its component molecules, atoms, and ions. The average kinetic
 energy of the molecules or atoms, which is due to their motions, is
 measured by the TEMPERATURE of the substance; the potential energy is
 associated with the state, or phase, of the substance (see STATES OF
 MATTER). Heat energy is commonly expressed in CALORIES, BRITISH THERMAL
 UNITS (Btu), or joules (see WORK). Heat maybe transferred from one
 substance to another by three means: CONDUCTION, CONVECTION, and
 RADIATION. See also HEAT CAPACITY; SPECIFIC HEAT; THERMODYNAMICS.

   heat capacity

 heat capacity or thermal capacity,ratio of the change in HEAT energy of a
 unit mass of a substance to the change in TEMPERATURE of the substance.
 The heat capacity is a characteristic of a substance; it is often
 expressed in CALORIES per gram per degree Celsius or BRITISH THERMAL
 UNITS per pound per degree Fahrenheit. See also SPECIFIC HEAT.

   Heath, Edward Richard George

 Heath, Edward Richard George, 1916-, British statesman. A Conservative,
 he was prime minister from 1970 to 1974. His attempts to reduce soaring
 inflation by enforcing wage controls led to bad relations with the trade
 unions and a confrontation with the miners' union (Nov. 1973-Feb. 1974)
 that forced the nation into a three-day workweek. In 1975 Heath
 relinquished party leadership to Margaret THATCHER.

   heath

 heath, common name for some plants of the family Ericaceae, composed
 chiefly of evergreen shrubs native to the Old World. Heaths form the
 characteristic vegetation of many regions with acid soils, particularly
 moors, swamps, and mountain slopes. They are valued for their edible
 fruit, e.g., BLUEBERRY, CRANBERRY, and HUCKLEBERRY; as a source of
 flavoring, e.g., WINTERGREEN; and for their showy blossoms, e.g.,
 RHODODENDRON, AZALEA, and TRAILING ARBUTUS. The names heath and heather
 are often used interchangeably, although true heaths (genus Erica) have
 needlelike foliage and white, rose, or yellow flowers, and heathers, such
 as the common heather of Scotland (Calluna vulgaris), have scalelike
 foliage and rose-colored flowers.

   heather

 heather: see HEATH.

   heaven

 heaven, in Judaeo-Christian belief, the state of bliss in which the just
 see God face to face. Many Christians believe that after the RESURRECTION
 the glorified human body will be reunited forever with the soul in
 heaven, a realm popularly thought to contain material delights. Islam is
 accused of teaching of a heaven filled with delights of the flesh, but
 the passages in the Koran describing it may be allegorical.

   heavy spar

 heavy spar: see BARITE.

   heavy water

 heavy water: see HYDROGEN.

   Hebbel, Christian Friedrich

 Hebbel, Christian Friedrich, 1813-63, German tragic dramatist. Linking
 romantic and realist drama, his plays often portray the struggle between
 old and new values. They include Judith (1840), Maria Magdalena (1844),
 Agnes Bernauer (1852), and the trilogy The Nibelungs (1862).

   Hebe

 Hebe, in Greek religion, goddess of youth; daughter of ZEUS and HERA and
 wife of HERCULES.

   Hebert, Jacques Rene

 Hebert, Jacques Rene, 1757-94, French revolutionary. The editor of a
 virulent paper, Le Pere Duchesne, he led the CORDELIERS after MARAT'S
 death. He was largely responsible for the price ceilings during the REIGN
 OF TERROR. His power over the Paris commune threatened ROBESPIERRE, who
 had him and his followers guillotined on a concocted charge of
 conspiracy. His fall marked the triumph of the propertied middle class.

   Hebert, Louis

 Hebert, Louis, 1575-1627, French Canadian pioneer. In 1623 he became the
 first permanent settler and farmer in Canada, settling at the site of
 Upper Town, QUEBEC.

   Hebrew language

 Hebrew language, member of the Canaanite group of the Semitic subdivision
 of the Hamito-Semitic family of languages. In 1948 it became the official
 language of Israel. See LANGUAGE.

   Hebrews

 Hebrews. For history, see JEWS; for religion, see JUDAISM.

   Hebrews

 Hebrews, epistle of the NEW TESTAMENT, 19th book in the usual order,
 traditionally ascribed to St. PAUL; few modern scholars accept his
 authorship. It was written before AD 96. Most modern scholars feel it is
 addressed to Christians lapsing into indifference. The first part
 (1.1-4.13) argues Christ's superiority to the angels and to MOSES; the
 second (4.14-10.18) treats Christ's ministry and sacrifice, which
 supersedes all other sacrifices and serves to expiate sin.

   Hebrides, the

 Hebrides, the, group of more than 500 islands, W and NW Scotland. Less
 than a fifth of the islands are inhabited. They form two groups: the
 Outer Hebrides (known administratively as the Western Isles) and the
 Inner Hebrides, including SKYE and IONA. The main economic activities are
 fishing, farming, sheep-grazing, and the manufacture of tweeds and other
 woolens. The islands were ruled by the Norwegians (8th-13th cent.) and by
 Scottish chiefs (13th-16th cent.) until they were acquired by the
 Scottish crown.

   Hebron

 Hebron, city (1971 est. pop. 43,000, Jordan, on the WEST BANK, near
 Jerusalem. Grapes, grains, and vegetables are grown in the area, and the
 main industries include tanning, food processing, and glass blowing.
 According to the Bible, the cave of Machpelah in Hebron is the burial
 place of ABRAHAM and his family, and the city was King DAVID'S capital
 for seven years. Hebron has been occupied by Israel since the 1967
 ARAB-ISRAELI WAR.

   Hecate

 Hecate, in Greek mythology, goddess of ghosts and witchcraft. An
 attendant of PERSEPHONE, she was a spirit of black magic, able to conjure
 up dreams and the spirits of the dead. She haunted graveyards and
 crossroads.

   Hecht, Ben

 Hecht, Ben, 1894-1964, American writer; b. N.Y.C. A controversial figure,
 he worked on Chicago newspapers and in the film industry in Hollywood. He
 wrote novels, stories, and plays. His best-known work, written with
 Charles MacArthur, is The Front Page (1928), an irreverent drama of
 newspaper life.

   Hecker, Isaac Thomas

 Hecker, Isaac Thomas, 1819-88, American Roman Catholic priest, founder of
 the Paulist Fathers; b. N.Y.C. He was converted (1844) to Roman
 Catholicism and ordained (1849) a Redemptorist priest. A successful
 missionary, he worked among immigrants in the U.S. In 1858 he founded the
 Paulist Fathers, a society of missionary priests, and their magazine,
 Catholic World.

   Hector

 Hector, in Greek mythology, greatest Trojan hero of the TROJAN WAR,
 eldest son of Priam and HECUBA, and husband of Andromache. In HOMER'S
 Iliad he was killed by ACHILLES in revenge for the death of Patroclus.

   Hecuba

 Hecuba, in Greek mythology, queen of TROY; wife of Priam, to whom she
 bore 19 children including HECTOR, PARIS, Troilus, and CASSANDRA. After
 the TROJAN WAR she was taken as a slave by ODYSSEUS. She is an important
 character in EURIPIDES' plays Hecuba and The Trojan Women.

   hedgehog

 hedgehog, usually brown or yellow Old World MAMMAL of the family
 Erinaceidae, related to MOLES and SHREWS. Spiny hedgehogs, of Africa and
 Eurasia, are covered with stiff spines; they can roll into a ball when
 attacked, becoming invulnerable to predators. The European hedgehog
 (Erinaceus eropaeus) is nocturnal, living in a burrow (often in
 hedgerows) and hibernating in winter. It is about 9 in. (23 cm) in
 length. Like a hog, it roots in the ground for food; it eats worms,
 insects, mice, frogs, and poisonous snakes.



 hedonism, in philosophy, the doctrine that pleasure is the highest good.
 Ancient hedonism equated pleasure variously with the gratification of
 sensual desire (as in the teaching of Aristippus and the Cyreniacs,
 c.435-360 BC) and with the intellectual serenity brought on by the
 rational control of desire (as in the teaching of EPICURUS). Modern
 British hedonism, expressed first in UTILITARIANISM, represents a social
 universalism, stressing that the aim of life is the greatest happiness
 for the greatest number.

   Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich

 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 1770-1831, German philosopher. His
 all-embracing philosophical system, set forth in such works as
 Phenomenology of Mind (1807), Science of Logic (1812-16), and
 Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences (1817), includes theories of
 ethics, aesthetics, history, politics, and religion. At the center of the
 universe Hegel posited an enveloping absolute spirit that guides all
 reality, including human reason. His absolute IDEALISM envisages a
 world-soul, evident throughout history, that develops from, and is known
 through, a process of change and progress now known universally as the
 Hegelian dialectic. According to its laws, one concept (thesis)
 inevitably generates its opposite (antithesis); their interaction leads
 to a new concept (synthesis), which in turn becomes the thesis of a new
 triad. Thus philosophy enables human beings to comprehend the historical
 unfolding of the absolute. Hegel's application of the dialectic to the
 concept of conflict of cultures stimulated historical analysis and, in
 the political arena, made him a hero to those working for a unified
 Germany. He was a major influence on subsequent idealist thinkers and on
 such philosophers as KIERKEGAARD and SARTRE; perhaps his most
 far-reaching effect was his influence on Karl MARX, who substituted
 materialism for idealism in his formulation of DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM.

   hegira

 hegira or hejira [Arab. hijra,=breaking off of relations], flight of the
 Prophet MUHAMMAD in Sept. 622 from his native city, MECCA (because of its
 hostility), to Yathrib (later renamed MEDINA). The Muslim era is dated
 from the first day of the lunar year in which the hegira took place. The
 abbreviation AH is used before years of the hegira, as AD is in
 Christendom.

   Heiberg, Johan Ludvig

 Heiberg, Johan Ludvig, 1791-1860, Danish dramatist, critic, and director
 of the National Theater. He composed many musical comedies, and his play
 The Hill of the Elves (1829) is still often performed.

   Heidegger, Martin

 Heidegger, Martin, 1889-1976, German philosopher. A student of HUSSERL,
 whom Heidegger succeeded as professor of philosophy at Freiburg, he was
 also influenced by KIERKEGAARD, Dilthey, and NIETZSCHE. Heidegger's
 analysis in his major work, Being and Time (1927), of the concepts of
 "care," "mood," and the individual's relationship to death, relates
 authenticity of being as well as the anguish of modern society to the
 individual's confrontation with his own temporality. Although he rejected
 the title, Heidegger is regarded as one of the founders of 20th-cent.
 EXISTENTIALISM, and he influenced the work of SARTRE. His later work
 included studies of poetry and of dehumanization in modern society.

   Heidelberg

 Heidelberg, city (1986 est. pop. 135,800), Baden-Wurttemberg, SW West
 Germany, on the Neckar R. Its manufactures include printing presses and
 precision instruments. First mentioned in the 12th cent., it was the
 residence of the electors and capital of the PALATINATE until the 18th
 cent. Its famous university (est. 1386) is the oldest in Germany. Since
 1952 the city has been the headquarters of the U.S. army in Europe.

   Heidenstam, Verner von

 Heidenstam, Verner von, 1859-1940, Swedish lyric poet. An opponent of
 NATURALISM, he was noted for his personal and subjective style, e.g.,
 Pilgrimage and Wander years (1888) and Poems (1895). Other works include
 historical novels, e.g., The Tree of the Folkungs (1905-17), and essays,
 e.g., "Renascence" (1889). He received the 1916 Nobel Prize in
 literature.

   Heifetz, Jascha

 Heifetz, Jascha, 1901-87, Russian-American violinist; b. Lithuania. A
 child prodigy in Europe, he emigrated (1917) to the U.S., becoming a
 greater artist in maturity. He combined reasoned interpretation with
 virtuoso technique.

   Heilbroner, Robert L.

 Heilbroner, Robert L., 1929-, American economist; b. N.Y.C. He has
 successfully popularized economics and explained economic theory to the
 layreader. His works include The Worldly Philosophers (1953), The Limits
 of American Capitalism (1966), and The Nature and Logic of Capitalism
 (1985).

   Heimlich maneuver

 Heimlich maneuver, emergency procedure used to treat choking victims
 whose airway is obstructed by food or another substance. It forces air
 from the lungs through the windpipe, pushing the obstruction out. If the
 victim is standing, the rescuer wraps his (or her) arms around the
 victim's waist; making a fist with one hand and placing the thumb side of
 the fist against the abdomen just above the navel, the rescuer grasps his
 fist with the other hand and presses in with firm, quick, upward thrusts.

   Heine, Heinrich

 Heine, Heinrich, 1797-1856, German poet. His early poems, e.g., Book of
 Songs (1827), established him as a romantic, and his travel sketches,
 beginning with Harz Journey (1826), reveal a mixture of poignant emotion
 and barbed wit. A supporter of the social ideals of the FRENCH
 REVOLUTION, he left Germany for Paris in 1831. From there he continued to
 disseminate French revolutionary ideas in Germany and was the leading
 figure in the literary movement Young Germany. Heine worked in Paris as a
 correspondent for German newspapers and died there after years of severe
 illness. His lyrics have been used in some 3,000 compositions by
 SCHUMANN, SCHUBERT, and many others; his best-known song is "Die
 Lorelei." His later verse satires Atta Troll (1843) and Deutschland
 (1844) reflect his reaction, as a German of Jewish descent, to German
 anti-Semitism. Virtually all his work has been translated into English.

   Heisenberg, Werner

 Heisenberg, Werner, 1901-76, German physicist. A founder of the QUANTUM
 THEORY, he is famous for his uncertainty principle, which states that it
 is impossible to determine both the position and momentum of a subatomic
 particle (such as the electron) with arbitrarily high accuracy. The
 effect of this principle is to convert the laws of physics into
 statements about relative, instead of absolute, certainties. Heisenberg's
 matrix mechanics, a form of the quantum theory, was shown to be
 equivalent to Erwin SCHRODINGER'S wave mechanics. Heisenberg received the
 1932 Nobel Prize in physics for his work in nuclear physics and quantum
 theory.

   Hekla

 Hekla, active volcano, c.4,900 ft (1,490 m) high, SW Iceland, on the
 Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Hekla regularly emits steam and has several craters.
 The most destructive known eruption occurred in 1766; a recent one
 happened in 1947.

   Helen

 Helen, in Greek mythology, the most beautiful of women; daughter of ZEUS
 and LEDA, sister of CLYTEMNESTRA and of CASTOR AND POLLUX. Courted by
 many suitors, she married MENELAUS. When PARIS awarded the apple of
 discord to APHRODITE, the goddess gave him Helen; he carried her off to
 Troy, precipitating the TROJAN WAR. After the war she returned to Sparta
 with Menelaus, by whom she bore Hermione.

   Helena, Saint

 Helena, Saint, c.248-328?, mother of CONSTANTINE I. Converted to
 Christianity in 313, she is said to have discovered the True Cross and
 the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem. Feast: Aug. 18.

   Helena

 Helena, city (1986 est. pop. 24,670), state capital and seat of Lewis and
 Clark co., W central Mont., on the eastern slope of the CONTINENTAL
 DIVIDE; inc. 1870. A commercial center in a ranching and mining area, its
 manufactures include machine parts and paints. Helena's main street is
 the site of Last Chance Gulch, where gold was discovered in 1864.

   helicopter

 helicopter, type of aircraft in which the lift is obtained by means of
 one or more power-driven horizontal propellers called rotors. In a
 single-rotor helicopter the reaction torque from the spinning rotor is
 compensated by a small vertical rotor near the tail. On twin-rotor craft
 the rotors spin in opposite directions so that their reaction torques
 cancel each other. The helicopter is steered in any direction by
 inclining the axis of the main rotor in that direction. Because of its
 maneuverability and ability to land and take off in small areas, the
 helicopter is used in warfare and in a wide range of services, e.g.,
 air-sea rescue, fire fighting, crop sowing, and traffic control. See
 SIKORSKY, Igor.

   heliocentric system

 heliocentric system: see COPERNICAN SYSTEM.

   Heliopolis

 Heliopolis [Gr.,=city of the sun], ancient city, N EGYPT, in the Nile
 delta, 6 mi (10 km) below Cairo. It was the center of sun worship, and
 its god RA or Re was the state deity until THEBES became the capital
 (c.2100 BC), when the gods AMON and Ra were combined as Amon-Ra. Its
 famous schools declined after the founding of Alexandria (332 BC)

   Helios

 Helios, in Greek mythology, the sun god; son of the TITANS Hyperion and
 Theia; father of PHAETHON. Each morning he left a palace in the east and
 crossed the sky in a golden chariot, then returned along the river
 Oceanus. He was a national god in Rhodes, where a COLOSSUS represented
 him. In Rome, he was known as Sol and was an important god.

   Helios

 Helios, in space exploration: see SPACE PROBE,.

   heliotrope

 heliotrope, in mineralogy: see BLOODSTONE.

   helium

 helium (He), gaseous element, first observed spectroscopically in the SUN
 during a solar eclipse in 1868. Its noncombustibility and buoyancy make
 this extremely unreactive, INERT GAS the most suitable of gases for
 BALLOONS and AIRSHIPS. Deep-sea divers often breathe a helium-and-oxygen
 mixture; because helium is less soluble in human blood than nitrogen, its
 use reduces the risk of the bends (see DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS; DIVING,
 DEEP-SEA). Liquid helium is essential for low-temperature work (see
 LOW-TEMPERATURE PHYSICS; SUPERFLUIDITY). Helium is also used in arc
 welding and gas-discharge lasers. Abundant in outer space, helium is the
 end product of fusion processes in STARS. See ELEMENT; PERIODIC TABLE.

   hell

 hell, in Christian theology, eternal abode of those damned by God. Souls
 in hell are led by SATAN and deprived forever of the sight of God. In
 legend it is a place of fire and brimstone, where the damned undergo
 physical torment. Islam has a similar hell. In the ancient Jewish Sheol
 or Tophet, souls wander about unhappily, but Sheol later became much like
 the Christian hell. The ancient Greeks believed souls went to an
 underworld called Hades.

   Helladic culture

 Helladic culture: see MYCENAEAN CIVILIZATION.

   Hellen

 Hellen, in Greek mythology, ancestor of the Hellenes, or Greeks; son of
 DEUCALION and Pyrrha. His sons Dorus, Xuthus, and Aeolus were the
 progenitors of the principal Greek nations-the DORIANS, Ionians, Achaeans
 (see under ACHAEA), and Aeolians.

   Hellenism

 Hellenism, the culture, ideals and pattern of life of classical Greece,
 especially of Athens during the age of PERICLES; also, later thought and
 writing drawing on these ideals. It is often contrasted with austere,
 monotheistic Hebraism. The Hellenic period ended in the 4th cent. BC and
 was followed by HELLENISTIC CIVILIZATION.

   Hellenistic civilization

 Hellenistic civilization, spread of HELLENISM through the Mediterranean
 and Near East and into Asia after ALEXANDER THE GREAT'S conquests. While
 the Greek city-states stagnated, their culture flourished elsewhere,
 notably at ALEXANDRIA. The city's influence on art, letters, and commerce
 was so great that the era is sometimes called the Alexandrian age.
 PERGAMUM and other cities were also important. Navigators extended the
 known world and commercial wealth was reflected in ornate, grandiose
 architecture. Social divisions were extreme, but education was more
 widespread than ever before, with Greek the language of culture. A
 division between popular and learned writing appeared. The libraries of
 Alexandria and Pergamum were great learning centers, and writers like
 CALLIMACHUS, LUCIAN, and THEOCRITUS flourished. Philosophical disputation
 abounded, with STOICISM and Epicureanism (see EPICURUS) especially
 important. The highest achievement of the age may have been the
 preservation of Greek culture for the Romans. As Rome overshadowed the
 Mediterranean world, Hellenistic civilization was absorbed rather than
 extinguished.

   Heller, Joseph

 Heller, Joseph, 1923-, American writer; b. Brooklyn, N.Y. He is best
 known for the novel Catch-22 (1961), a wildly comic tale of military
 absurdities. He has also written a play and the novels Something Happened
 (1974) and God Knows (1984).

   Heller, Walter

 Heller, Walter, 1915-87, American economist; b. Buffalo, N.Y. Professor
 at the Univ. of Minnesota since 1946, he was chairman (1961-64) of the
 Council of Economic Advisers under Pres. J.F. KENNEDY and consultant to
 Pres. L.B. JOHNSON until 1969. He advocated deficit spending to spur
 economic growth, and federal revenue sharing with the states. His
 writings include Monetary vs. Fiscal Policy (1969; with Milton FRIEDMAN)
 and The Economy (1976).

   Hellman, Lillian

 Hellman, Lillian, 1905-84, American dramatist; b. New Orleans. Her finely
 crafted plays include The Children's Hour (1934), The Little Foxes
 (1939), and Watch on the Rhine (1941). She is also noted for her
 autobiographical works, e.g., An Unfinished Woman (1969), Pentimento
 (1973), Scoundrel Time (1976).

   Helmholtz, Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von

 Helmholtz, Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von, 1821-94, German scientist. An
 investigator of thermodynamics, electrodynamics, and vortex motion in
 fluids, he extended the application of the law of conservation of energy
 and in 1847 formulated it mathematically. A pioneer in physiological
 optics, Helmholtz invented (1851) the ophthalmoscope. He was professor of
 physics at the Univ. of Berlin.

   Helmont, Jan Baptista van

 Helmont, Jan Baptista van, 1577-1644, Flemish physician, chemist, and
 physicist. He attributed physiological changes to chemical causes, but
 his work was colored by his belief in mysticism. He introduced the term
 gas in its present scientific sense and discovered carbon dioxide.

   Helms, Richard McGarrah

 Helms, Richard McGarrah, 1913-, U.S. government official; b. St. David's,
 Pa. Helms was a chief architect of the legislation creating (1947) the
 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and served (1966-73) as the agency's
 director. He was (1973-77) ambassador to Iran. In 1977 Helms pleaded no
 contest to charges of failing to testify fully and accurately to a Senate
 committee about covert CIA activities in Chile.

   helots

 helots: see SPARTA.

   Helpmann, Robert

 Helpmann, Robert, 1909-, Australian dancer and choreographer. He danced
 (from 1933) with Sadler's Wells Ballet (now the Royal Ballet), often with
 Margot FONTEYN. His works include Comus (1942) and Miracle in the Gorbals
 (1944).

   Helsingoor

 Helsingoor or Elsinore,city (1987 est. pop. 56,618), E Denmark, on the
 Oresund. It is an industrial center, fishing port, and summer resort.
 Known since the 13th cent., it served as a toll port from the 15th to the
 18th cent. Kronborg castle (now a maritime museum), the setting of
 Shakespeare's Hamlet, is used to stage performances of the play.

   Helsinki

 Helsinki, city (1986 pop. 487,581), capital of Finland, S Finland, on the
 Gulf of Finland. Though blocked by ice from January to May, it is a
 natural seaport and the nation's administrative, cultural, and commercial
 center, with machine shops, shipyards, and textile mills. Founded in 1550
 by GUSTAVUS I of Sweden, it was devastated by fire in 1808 but was
 rebuilt and became the capital in 1812. Its university became (19th
 cent.) a center for Finnish nationalist activity against Russian rule.
 Landmarks include the railway station (designed by Eliel SAARINEN) and
 the sports stadium, site of the 1952 OLYMPIC GAMES.

   Hemingway, Ernest

 Hemingway, Ernest, 1899-1961, one of the great American writers of the
 20th cent.; b. Oak Park, Ill. With the publication of his novel The Sun
 Also Rises (1926), he was recognized as a leading spokesman of the "lost
 generation" of American expatriates in post-World War I Paris. Writing in
 a direct, terse style, Hemingway focused on courageous people living
 essential, dangerous lives. His other major novels include A Farewell to
 Arms (1929), a tragic wartime love story, and For Whom the Bell Tolls
 (1940), based on an incident in the SPANISH CIVIL WAR, in which he was a
 correspondent. He is also famous for his vigorous short stories, e.g.,
 "The Killers" and "The Snows of Kilimanjaro." In 1945 he settled in Cuba,
 where he wrote the novella The Old Man and the Sea (1952; Pulitzer). His
 other writings include the nonfiction works Death in the Afternoon (1932)
 and Green Hills of Africa (1935). In 1954 he was awarded the Nobel Prize
 in literature. He later moved to Idaho, where, plagued by illness, he
 committed suicide.

   hemlock

 hemlock, coniferous evergreen tree (genus Tsuga) of the PINE family,
 native to North America and Asia. The common hemlock of E North America
 (T. canadensis) has small cones and short, dark-green leaves that give
 the branchlets a flat appearance. It is grown as an ornamental and has
 been valued as a source of tanbark. The wood of a Western hemlock (T.
 heterophylla) is used for construction. POISON HEMLOCK is an herb of the
 CARROT family.

   hemoglobin

 hemoglobin, respiratory pigment found in the red blood cells of all
 vertebrates and some invertebrates (see BLOOD). It is produced in the
 bone marrow and carries oxygen to the body from the LUNGS. An inadequate
 amount of circulating hemoglobin results in a condition called ANEMIA.

   hemophilia

 hemophilia, hereditary disorder in which the clotting ability of the
 BLOOD is impaired and excessive bleeding results. The hemophiliac bleeds
 uncontrollably after a small cut or bruise, after rigorous exertion, or
 even spontaneously, unable to form or maintain a sufficient blood clot
 and occasionally needing a BLOOD TRANSFUSION containing the missing
 clotting factor. The disease is genetically transmitted through females
 but usually affects only males.

   hemorrhoids

 hemorrhoids or piles,dilation of the veins in or about the anus, often
 producing itching, bleeding, and pain. A common disorder associated with
 conditions such as constipation, pregnancy, and diarrhea, hemorrhoids can
 be treated with warm baths and suppositories; in severe cases, surgery
 may be necessary.

   hemp

 hemp, annual herb (Cannabis sativa) native to Asia and widely cultivated
 in Europe. It is often grown for the fiber made from its stems and for
 the narcotic drugs hashish and MARIJUANA, made primarily from the female
 flowers. Of major importance in many kinds of cord, hemp fiber is used in
 making paper, cloth, and other products. Hemp seed is used as bird food,
 and oil from the seeds is used in the manufacture of paints, varnishes,
 and soap.

   Heng Samrin

 Heng Samrin, 1934-, Cambodian Communist leader. In 1979, after the
 Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia ousted the regime of POL POT and the
 KHMER ROUGE, Heng became head of the new Vietnamese-backed government in
 Phnom Penh. His government has faced continued armed resistance from the
 Khmer Rouge and other forces, and has failed to gain widespread
 diplomatic recognition.

   Henie, Sonja

 Henie, Sonja, 1912-69, Norwegian-American figure skater; b. Norway. Ten
 times the world's figure-skating champion, she won Olympic championships
 in 1928, 1932, and 1936. She later became a popular professional skater
 and movie actress.

   Henley, William Ernest

 Henley, William Ernest, 1849-1903, English poet, critic, and editor, best
 known as the author of the poems "Invictus" and "England, My England." He
 also wrote plays with R.L. STEVENSON and edited literary reviews.

   Henri, Robert

 Henri, Robert, 1865-1929, American painter; b. Cincinnati. A member of
 the EIGHT, he rebelled against academic art and excelled in dramatic
 portraits, e.g., Spanish Gypsy (Metropolitan Mus.) and Young Woman in
 Black (Art Inst., Chicago). One of the foremost American art teachers, he
 imbued such students as George BELLOWS, Rockwell KENT, and Edward HOPPER
 with his dynamic concepts.

   Henrietta Maria

 Henrietta Maria, 1609-69, queen consort of CHARLES I of England, daughter
 of HENRY IV of France. Her dealings with the pope, foreign powers, and
 army officers increased the suspicion of Charles and fear of a Catholic
 uprising that helped to precipitate (1642) the ENGLISH CIVIL WAR.

   Henry

 Henry, rulers of the HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE. Henry I or Henry the Fowler,
 876?-936, German king (919-36), was the first of the Saxon line,
 precursors to the Holy Roman emperors. After succeeding CONRAD I as
 German king, he won LOTHARINGIA from its allegiance to France (925),
 defeated the MAGYARS (933), and fortified his frontiers. St. Matilda, his
 queen, founded many monasteries. Henry II, 973-1024, emperor (1014-24)
 and German king (1002-24), was the last of the Saxon line. He was duke of
 Bavaria and succeeded his third cousin, OTTO III. In 1004 he entered
 Italy and was crowned king of Lombardy. He carried on a long warfare with
 BOLESLAUS I of Poland. After being crowned (1014) emperor, Henry was
 forced to assert his control over Italy. Both he and his empress,
 Kunigonde, are saints of the Roman Catholic Church. Henry III, 1017-56,
 emperor (1046-56) and German king (1039-56), served jointly as king with
 his father, CONRAD II, and acceeded after his father's death. Under Henry
 the medieval Holy Roman Empire probably attained its greatest power and
 solidity. He defeated (1041) the Bohemians and maintained control over
 SAXONY and Lotharingia. The four Germans he named to the papal throne
 greatly increased the power of the papacy. His son, Henry IV, 1050-1106,
 emperor (1084-1105) and German king (1056-1105), was the central figure
 in the long struggle between the Holy Roman Empire and the papacy, which
 had been greatly strengthened by his father. His appointment of bishops
 in 1075 was condemned by Pope GREGORY VII. Henry declared Gregory
 deposed, and Gregory in turn excommunicated Henry. Even though Henry
 recanted, an antiking, Rudolf of Swabia, was named by a faction of German
 nobles, and civil war broke out. Henry was again excommunicated, but he
 invaded Italy, defeated the pope's forces, and was crowned emperor (1084)
 by the antipope, Guibert of Ravenna. His continuing battles with the pope
 endangered the monarchy, however, and in 1105 he was deposed by his
 rebellious son, Henry V. Henry V, 1081-1125, emperor (1111-25) and German
 king (1105-25), forced his father to abdicate with the blessing of Pope
 PASCHAL II, but he soon fell out with the pope and in 1111 took Paschal
 and his cardinals prisoner. To secure his release, the pope crowned Henry
 emperor and made other concessions. The conflict continued, but was
 finally resolved by the Concordat of Worms (1122). Henry VI, 1165-97,
 emperor (1191-97) and German king (1190-97), was the son and successor of
 FREDERICK I. As the husband of Constance, heiress of Sicily, he gained
 control (1194) of that kingdom. He also took RICHARD I of England
 prisoner and forced him to swear fealty. He died while preparing to lead
 a Crusade. Henry VII, c.1275-1313, emperor (1312-13) and German king
 (1308-13), was a count of Luxembourg when he was named king. As emperor
 he tried vainly to end the strife between the GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES. He
 died while on a futile campaign to secure imperial authority in S Italy.

   Henry

 Henry, kings of England. Henry I, 1068-1135 (r.1100-1135), was the
 youngest son of WILLIAM I. On the death of his brother WILLIAM II, he had
 himself elected and crowned king while his older brother, ROBERT II, duke
 of Normandy, was on crusade. In 1101 Robert invaded England, but Henry
 bought him off. Henry invaded Normandy in 1105, defeated his brother, and
 became duke of Normandy. In the meantime, he had been involved in a
 struggle with ANSELM overlay investiture. His later years were marked by
 his attempts to obtain the succession for his daughter MATILDA. Under
 Henry's reign of order and progress, royal justice was strengthened.
 Henry II, 1133-89 (r.1154-89), was the son of Matilda and GEOFFREY IV,
 count of Anjou. Founder of the Angevin, or Plantagenet, line, he became
 duke of Normandy in 1150 and in 1152 married ELEANOR OF AQUITAINE, thus
 gaining vast territories in France. In 1153 he invaded England and forced
 STEPHEN to acknowledge him as his heir. As king he restored order to
 war-ravaged England, subdued the barons, centralized the power of
 government in royalty, and strengthened royal courts. Henry's desire to
 increase royal authority brought him into conflict with THOMAS A BECKET,
 whom he had made (1162) archbishop of Canterbury. The quarrel, which
 focused largely on the jurisdiction of the church courts, came to a head
 when Henry issued (1163) the Constitutions of CLARENDON, defining the
 relationship between church and state, and ended (1170) with Becket's
 murder, for which Henry was forced by public indignation to do penance.
 During his reign he gained northern counties from Scotland and increased
 his French holdings. He was also involved in family struggles. Encouraged
 by their mother and LOUIS VI of France, his three oldest sons, Henry,
 RICHARD I, and Geoffrey, rebelled (1173-74) against him. The rebellion
 collapsed, but at the time of Henry's death, Richard and the youngest
 son, JOHN, were in the course of another rebellion. Henry III, 1207-72
 (r.1216-72), was the son of John. He became king under a regency and was
 granted full powers of kingship in 1227. In 1230, against the advice of
 the chief justiciar, Hubert de Burgh, he led an unsuccessful expedition
 to Gascony and Brittany. He dismissed Hubert in 1232 and began a reign of
 extravagance and general incapacity, spending vast sums on futile wars in
 France. Henry's absolutism, his reliance on French favorites, and his
 subservience to the papacy aroused the hostility of the barons. His
 attempt to put his son, Edmund, earl of Lancaster, on the throne of
 Sicily (given to Henry by the pope) eventually led to the BARONS' WAR.
 Simon de MONT FORT, the barons' leader, won at Lewes and summoned (1265)
 a famous PARLIAMENT, but Henry's son EDWARD I led royal troops to victory
 at Evesham (1265), where de Mont fort was killed. By 1267 the barons had
 capitulated, Prince Edward ruled the realm, and Henry was king in name
 only. Henry IV, 1367-1413, (r.1399-1413), was the son of JOHN OF GAUNT.
 In 1387 he joined the opposition to RICHARD II and was one of the five
 "lords appellant" who ruled England from 1388 to 1389. In 1398 Richard
 banished Henry and, after John's death in 1399, seized his vast
 Lancastrian holdings. Counting on the king's unpopularity and his absence
 in Ireland, Henry invaded England and successfully claimed the throne,
 thus establishing the Lancastrian dynasty. His reign was spent
 suppressing rebellions, notably by Richard's followers; by the Scots; by
 the Welsh under OWEN GLENDOWER; and by Sir Henry PERCY. He left the
 kingdom militarily secure but in debt. His son, Henry V, 1387-1422
 (r.1413-22), presided over the privy council during his father's illness.
 As prince of Wales (Shakespeare's "Prince Hal"), he led armies against
 Owen Glendower and figured largely in the victory over the Percys. The
 early years of his reign were troubled by the rebellion of the Lollards
 (see LOLLARDRY). Determined to regain lands he believed to be his, he
 invaded France in 1415, thus reopening the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. After
 announcing his claim to the French throne, he met and defeated a superior
 French force at the famous battle of AGINCOURT. By 1420 he had conquered
 Normandy, married CATHERINE OF VALOIS, and persuaded her father, CHARLES
 VI of France, to name him his successor. He fell ill and died in 1422. As
 king he ruled with justice and industry, restoring civil order and the
 national spirit. Though his wars left the crown in debt, his charm,
 military genius, and care for his less fortunate subjects made him a
 popular hero. His son, Henry VI, 1421-71 (r.1422-61, 1470-71), became
 king when he was not yet nine months old. During his early years England
 was under the protectorate of two of his uncles. After their defeat at
 Orleans by JOAN OF ARC, the English attempted to protect their French
 interests by crowning Henry king of France at Paris in 1431, but their
 cause was hopeless. Henry's rule was dominated by factions, and there
 were many riots and uprisings indicating public dissatisfaction with the
 government. The struggle between the faction headed by Henry's wife,
 MARGARET OF ANJOU, and Edmund Beaufort, duke of Somerset, and that headed
 by Richard, duke of York, developed into the dynastic battle between the
 LANCASTERS and YORKS known as the Wars of the ROSES. Henry went insane in
 1453. In 1455 Somerset was killed in the battle of St. Albans, and the
 Yorkists gained control of the government. Margaret had control from 1456
 to 1460, when the Yorkists won a victory at Northampton, and Henry was
 taken prisoner. York, who had been named Henry's successor, was killed at
 Wakefield in 1460, but his son EDWARD IV defeated the Lancastrians and
 was proclaimed king. Later he fled to Holland, and Henry was briefly
 (1470-71) restored. In 1471 Edward retook the throne, and Henry was
 murdered in the Tower. Henry was a mild, honest, pious man, a patron of
 literature and the arts, and the founder (1440) of Eton College. He was
 also unstable, weak-willed, and politically naive. Henry VII, 1457-1509
 (r.1485-1509), became head of the house of Lancaster at Henry VI's death.
 In 1485 he invaded England from France and defeated the forces of RICHARD
 III at the battle of Bosworth Field. The next year he married Edward IV's
 daughter, Elizabeth, thus uniting the houses of York and Lancaster and
 founding the TUDOR dynasty. Although his accession marked the end of the
 Wars of the Roses, the early years of his reign were disturbed by Yorkist
 attempts to regain the throne, e.g., the impersonations of Lambert SIMNEL
 and Perkin WARBECK. He consolidated English rule in Ireland (1494) and
 effected a peace treaty with Scotland (1499), which was followed by the
 marriage of his daughter Margaret to JAMES IV of Scotland. He established
 the Tudor tradition of autocratic rule tempered by justice and increased
 the powers of the STAR CHAMBER court. His son Henry VIII, 1491-1547
 (r.1509-47), married his brother Arthur's widow, KATHARINE OF ARAGON, who
 bore him a daughter, MARY I. His chief minister, Thomas WOLSEY, concluded
 an alliance with FRANCIS I of France but Henry (despite the FIELD OF THE
 CLOTH OF GOLD), joined (1522) Emperor CHARLES V in a war against France.
 England prospered internally under Wolsey, who had almost complete
 control. The court became a center of learning and the pope gave Henry
 the title "Defender of the Faith" for a treatise he wrote against Martin
 LUTHER. By 1527 Henry, desiring a male heir, wished to marry Anne BOLEYN,
 but Pope CLEMENT VII, under the control of Katharine's nephew, Charles V,
 resisted his demands for a divorce. Wolsey's failure in this affair
 caused his downfall, and Thomas Cromwell became chief minister. An
 anti-ecclesiastical policy was adopted, and the subservient Thomas
 CRANMER became archbishop of Canterbury. He immediately pronounced
 Henry's marriage to Katharine invalid. Papal powers were transferred to
 the king, who became the supreme head of the English church. The break
 with Rome was now complete, and the Church of ENGLAND was established.

 marriage ended in 1536 when Anne was convicted of adultery and beheaded.
 Ten days later Henry married Jane SEYMOUR, who died in 1537 giving birth
 to EDWARD VI. The king dealt harshly with rebellions against the
 abolition of papal supremacy and the dissolution of the monasteries. In
 1537 he licensed the publication of the Bible in English. His marriage
 (1540) to ANNE OF CLEVES (whom he disliked and soon divorced) led to the
 execution of Cromwell. He then married Catherine HOWARD, who suffered
 (1542) Anne Boleyn's fate. In 1543 Catherine PARR became his sixth queen.
 In 1542 war with Scotland began again, and Henry made unsuccessful
 attempts to unite the two kingdoms. Wales was officially incorporated
 into England (1536), but the conquest of Ireland proved too expensive.
 The end of Henry's reign saw a gradual move toward Protestantism. Henry
 remained immensely popular despite his advancement of personal desires
 under the guise of public policy or moral right. His political insight,
 however, grew steadily better, and the power of Parliament increased. He
 gave England a comparatively peaceful reign.

   Henry

 Henry, kings of France. Henry I, c.1008-1060 (r.1031-60), was the son and
 successor of ROBERT II. He unwisely invested his brother Robert with the
 duchy of Burgundy, setting up a powerful rival to the French kingdom.
 Henry also fought with William, duke of Normandy (later WILLIAM I of
 England). Henry II, 1519-59 (r.1547-59), succeeded his father, FRANCIS I.
 Weak and pliant, he was dominated by Anne de Montmorency, by his mistress
 DIANE DE POITIERS, and by Francois and Charles de GUISE. Henry resumed
 his father's wars against Holy Roman Emperor CHARLES V and continued them
 against Charles's son PHILIP II of Spain. He was killed accidentally in a
 tournament and was succeeded by FRANCIS II. Henry III, 1551-89
 (r.1574-89), was the son of Henry II and CATHERINE DE' MEDICI. He helped
 his mother plan the SAINT BARTHOLOMEW'S DAY massacre (1572) and was
 elected (1573) king of Poland. Assuming the French crown on the death of
 his brother CHARLES IX, Henry was faced with an ongoing civil war between
 Roman Catholics and Protestants, who were called HUGUENOTS (see RELIGION,
 WARS OF). In 1576 he made concessions to the Protestants that caused
 Henri, 3d duc de GUISE, to form the Catholic League. When the Protestant
 Henry of Navarre (later HENRY IV of France) became (1584) legal heir to
 the throne, Guise forced Henry III to suppress Protestantism and to
 exclude Navarre from the succession. In the ensuing War of the Three
 Henrys, Navarre defeated a royal army at Coutras (1587). Guise then


 forces with Navarre, and attempted to retake Paris. During the siege he
 was assassinated by a fanatical monk, Jacques Clement. Henry was the last
 male member of the house of VALOIS. Henry IV, 1553-1610, king of France
 (1589-1610) and, as Henry III, king of Navarre (1572-1610), was the first
 BOURBON monarch of France. Raised as a Protestant, he became (1569) the
 nominal head of the Huguenots. To save himself from the Saint
 Bartholomew's Day massacre (1572), Henry renounced his faith. He returned
 to Protestantism in 1576, however, and led a combined force of
 Protestants and moderate Catholics against Henry III and the Catholic
 League (for the resulting conflict see under Henry III, above). Henry
 became heir to the throne in 1584 and became king after Henry III was
 assassinated (1589). He defeated the Catholic League at Arques (1589) and
 Ivry (1590), but abandoned the siege of Paris when the League received
 aid from Spain. In 1593 Henry again abjured Protestantism, allegedly with
 the remark "Paris is well worth a Mass." He entered the city in 1594 and
 his conciliatory policy soon won him general support. He waged a
 successful war (1595-98) against Spain, and by the Edict of NANTES (1598)
 established political rights and a measure of religious freedom for the
 Huguenots. The rest of his reign was spent restoring order, industry, and
 trade. He was assassinated by a fanatic, Francois Ravaillac. In 1600
 Henry had married MARIE DE' MEDICI, and he was succeeded by their son
 LOUIS XIII. Henry IV's gallantry, wit, and concern for the common people
 have become legendary.

   Henry

 Henry, German kings: see HENRY, rulers of the Holy Roman Empire.

   Henry, Joseph

 Henry, Joseph, 1797-1878, American physicist; b. Albany, N.Y. A professor
 of philosophy at Princeton (then the College of New Jersey), he was later
 (from 1846) the first secretary and director of the Smithsonian
 Institution. Henry improved the electromagnet, invented and operated the
 first electromagnetic telegraph, and discovered self-inductance. The unit
 of inductance is often called the henry in his honor. Independently of
 Michael FARADAY he discovered the principle of the induced current.

   Henry, O.

 Henry, O.: see O. HENRY.

   Henry, Patrick

 Henry, Patrick, 1736-99, political leader in the AMERICAN REVOLUTION; b.
 Hanover co., Va. A brilliant orator, he served in the Virginia house of
 burgesses (1765-74) and the CONTINENTAL CONGRESS (1774-76), and was
 governor of Virginia (1776-79). The phrases "If this be treason, make the
 most of it" and "Give me liberty or give me death" are attributed to him.
 He later worked to add the Bill of Rights to the Constitution.

   Henry E. Huntington Library and Art Gallery

 Henry E. Huntington Library and Art Gallery: see under  HUNTINGTON,
 COLLIS POTTER.

   Henry of Flanders

 Henry of Flanders, c.1174-1216, Latin emperor of CONSTANTINOPLE (1206-16)
 after his brother, BALDWIN I. Ablest of the Latin emperors, he fought off
 the Bulgarians.

   Henry of Navarre (Henry IV)

 Henry of Navarre (Henry IV): HENRY, kings of France.

   Henryson, Robert

 Henryson, Robert, c.1425-c.1506, Scottish poet. His Testament of Cresseid
 is a harshly moral epilogue to CHAUCER'S Troilus and Criseyde. His Moral
 Fables of Aesop, on the other hand, are macabre and drily humorous.

   Henry the Fowler

 Henry the Fowler: see Henry I under HENRY, rulers of the Holy Roman
 Empire.

   Henry the Lion

 Henry the Lion, 1129-95, Guelphic duke of SAXONY (1142-80) and of BAVARIA
 (1156-80). Bavaria and Saxony were restored to him by Holy Roman Emperor
 FREDERICK I in an effort to end the strife between the GUELPHS AND
 GHIBELLINES. He supported Frederick in Italy and Christianized the
 Wendish lands. By 1180 the growth of his power had alarmed the emperor,
 who seized his two duchies and subdivided them into small principalities.
 Henry later regained Brunswick and Luneburg in Saxony. His son became
 emperor as OTTO IV.

   Henry the Navigator

 Henry the Navigator, 1394-1460, prince of Portugal, patron of
 exploration. The son of Portuguese King JOHN I, he established (1416) at
 Sagres a base for sea exploration, an observatory, and a school for
 geographers and navigators. Henry's sea captains explored the W African
 coast, rounding Cape Verde (1444) and reaching as far as present-day
 Sierra Leone. Their return with gold and slaves made for a lucrative and
 popular business although he forbade (1455) the kidnapping of Negroes.
 His promotion of navigation and exploration provided the groundwork for
 the development of Portugal's sea power and colonial empire.

   Henslowe, Philip

 Henslowe, Philip, d. 1616, English theatrical manager. His fame rests on
 his association with the company the Admiral's Men and its principal
 actor, Edward ALLEYN.

   Henze, Hans Werner

 Henze, Hans Werner, 1926-, German composer. He was influenced early by
 STRAVINSKY, HINDEMITH, and BARTOK and experimented with TWELVE-TONE
 MUSIC. His leftist politics are manifested in such works as Essay on Pigs
 (1969). He has written SYMPHONIES and OPERAS, e.g., The Young Lord (1964)
 and La Cubana (1973).

   hepatitis

 hepatitis, viral inflammation of the liver that causes nausea, fever,
 weakness, loss of appetite, and, usually, JAUNDICE. Two forms are most
 common: hepatitis A (infectious), spread through contaminated food or
 water; and hepatitis B (serum), usually transmitted by transfusions of
 infected blood or use of poorly sterilized medical instruments. Hepatitis
 can also occur as a complication of other diseases or as a toxic reaction
 to alcohol, drugs, or other chemicals. A vaccination against hepatitis B
 was approved for use in the U.S. in 1982.

   Hepburn, Katharine

 Hepburn, Katharine, 1909-, American actress; b. Hartford, Conn. She has
 enhanced the screen with her individual and commanding presence since
 1932. Her films include Morning Glory (1933; Academy Award), The
 Philadelphia Story (1940), The African Queen (1951), The Lion in Winter
 (1968; Academy Award), and On Golden Pond (1981; Academy Award).

   Hephaestus

 Hephaestus, in Greek mythology, OLYMPIAN god; son of HERA and ZEUS;
 husband of APHRODITE. Originally an Oriental fire god, in Greece he was
 the divine smith and god of craftsmen, worshiped in centers such as
 Athens. Usually a comic figure, he was represented as bearded, with
 mighty shoulders, but lame. He worked at huge furnaces, aided by
 CYCLOPES. The Romans identified him with VULCAN.

   Hepplewhite, George

 Hepplewhite, George, d. 1786, English cabinetmaker. His work is noted for
 light, curvilinear forms; painted or inlaid decoration with ribbon and
 rosette motifs; slender, tapering legs; chair backs in shield and oval
 forms; and the use of satinwood, painted beechwood, and mahogany. His
 small pieces, e.g., inlaid work tables, are especially prized.

   Hepworth, Dame Barbara

 Hepworth, Dame Barbara, 1903-75, English sculptor. Working primarily in
 stone or bronze, she sought perfection of form and surface technique. Her
 smooth, usually nonfigurative sculptures are reminiscent of those of Jean
 ARP.

   Hera

 Hera, in Greek mythology, queen of OLYMPIAN gods; daughters of CRONUS and
 RHEA; wife and sister of ZEUS; mother of ARES and HEPHAESTUS. A jealous
 wife, she plagued Zeus, his mistresses, and his progeny, e.g., HERCULES.
 Hera was powerful and widely worshiped as the protectress of women,
 marriage, and childbirth. The Romans identified her with JUNO.

   Heracles

 Heracles: see HERCULES.

   Heraclitus

 Heraclitus, c.535-c.475 BC, Greek philosopher. He taught that there is no
 permanent reality except the reality of change, a position illustrated by
 his famous maxim "You cannot step twice in the same river." Thus the only
 possible real state is the transitional one of becoming. He believed fire
 to be the underlying substance of the universe and all other elements to
 be transformations of it.

   Heraclius

 Heraclius, c.575-641, Byzantine emperor (610-41). He recovered provinces
 from Persia (622-28) but lost them (629-42) to the Arabs. MONOTHELETISM
 resulted from his efforts to reconcile MONOPHYSITISM with the Orthodox
 Church. He began the reorganization of the empire into military
 provinces.

   Herakles

 Herakles: see HERCULES.

   heraldry

 heraldry, system in which inherited symbols, or devices, called charges
 are displayed on a shield, or escutcheon, for the purpose of identifying
 individuals or families. In the Middle Ages the herald, often a
 tournament official, had to recognize men by their shields. As earlier
 functions of the herald grew obsolete, his chief duties became the
 devising, inscribing, and granting of armorial bearings. Heraldry proper,
 developed by noblemen using personal insignia on seals and shields, was a
 feudal institution. It is thought to have originated in Germany in the
 late 12th cent. and to have been imported into England by the Normans
 (see NORMAN CONQUEST). The CRUSADES and the tournaments that drew
 together knights from many countries caused heraldry to flourish in
 Europe. The embroidering of family emblems on the surcoat worn over chain
 mail in the 13th cent. accounts for the term "coat of arms." The use of
 armorial bearings spread rapidly thereafter. In England the regulation of
 heraldry was assigned to the HERALDS' COLLEGE (chartered 1483). Arms were
 borne by families, corporations, guilds, colleges, cities, and kingdoms,
 and the tradition still persists. See also BLAZONRY.

   Heralds' College

 Heralds' College, body chartered (1483) by RICHARD III of England that
 assigns new coats of arms and traces lineages to determine heraldic
 rights and privileges (see HERALDRY). It has collected and combined the
 rules of BLAZONRY into a system. The college includes the Garter king of
 arms and the kings of arms of Norroy and of Clarenceux.

   Herat

 Herat, city (1984 pop. 159,804, capital of Herat prov., NW Afghanistan,
 on the Hari Rud. Located in a fertile valley, the city is renowned for
 its fruits, textiles, and carpets. Its strategic location on ancient
 trade routes made it an object of conquest. Long part of the Persian
 empire, Herat fell to Jenghiz Khan (1221), Tamerlane (1383), and the
 Uzbeks (early 16th cent.). In 1881 it was confirmed as part of a united
 Afghanistan. Soviet troops occupied (1979-89) the city. Herat is the site
 of the 12th-cent. Great Mosque.

   herb

 herb, name for any plant that is used medicinally or as a SPICE, and for
 the useful product of such a plant. The term is also applied to all
 herbaceous plants as distinguished from woody plants.

   Herbart, Johann Friedrich

 Herbart, Johann Friedrich, 1776-1841, German philosopher and educator. He
 developed the mathematical and empirical, as well as the metaphysical,
 aspects of psychology. In education he stressed relating new concepts to
 the experience of the learner. Many of his works have been translated
 into English, e.g., Application of Psychology to the Science of Education
 (tr. 1892).

   Herbert, George

 Herbert, George, 1593-1633, English METAPHYSICAL POET and Anglican
 priest. His devotional poems, combining reverence with a homely
 familiarity with religious experience, were published after his death
 (1633) as The Temple.

   Herbert, Victor

 Herbert, Victor, 1859-1924, Irish-American cellist, composer, and
 conductor. After coming to the U.S. (1886), he conducted the Pittsburgh
 Symphony Orchestra (1898-1904). His major successes were melodious
 OPERETTAS, including Babes in Toyland (1903), The Red Mill (1906), and
 Eileen (1917).

   herbicide

 herbicide, substance that kills plants or inhibits their growth.
 Selective herbicides attack weeds without permanently harming crops;
 nonselective ones, generally toxic, are used to clear all plants from a
 broad area. Inorganic compounds such as common salts have long been used
 as herbicides; c.1900 certain sulfates, ammonium and potassium salts, and
 other compounds began to be used as selective herbicides. The 1940s saw
 the development of 2,4-D (2,4-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid), an organic
 compound that is a highly selective systemic herbicide. Such herbicides
 are now widely used. One such compound, 2,4,5-T (2,4,5-trichlorophenoxy
 acetic acid), was partially banned (1979) by the Environmental Protection
 Agency as potentially dangerous. 2,4,5-T was used in Agent Orange (a
 defoliant employed by U.S. forces in Vietnam) and is regarded by some as
 a cause of illnesses suffered by veterans and their children.

   herbivore

 herbivore: see CARNIVORE.

   Herblock

 Herblock (Herbert Lawrence Block), 1909-, American cartoonist; b.
 Chicago. Widely syndicated, his work has appeared in the Washington Post
 since 1946 and has been collected in numerous volumes. Known for his
 witty political drawings, he won the Pulitzer Prize in 1942 and 1954.

   Herculaneum

 Herculaneum, ancient city at the foot of Mt. Vesuvius, S Italy, buried
 along with POMPEII when Vesuvius erupted in AD 79. Since the first ruins
 of the popular Roman resort were found in 1709, the most important
 excavations have been the Villa of the Papyri, a basilica, and a theater.

   Hercules, Heracles

 Hercules, Heracles, or Herakles,most popular Greek hero, famous for
 strength and courage. The son of Alcmene and ZEUS, he was hated by HERA,
 who sent serpents to his cradle; he strangled them. Later Hera drove
 Hercules mad and he slew his wife and children. He sought purification at
 the court of King Eurystheus, who set him 12 mighty labors: killing the
 Nemean lion and HYDRA; driving off the Stymphalian birds; cleaning the
 Augean stables; capturing the Cerynean hind, Cretan bull, mares of
 Diomed, Erymanthian boar, cattle of Geryon, and CERBERUS; and procuring
 the girdle of Hippolyte and the golden apples of the Hesperides. He was
 later involved in the Calydonian hunt (see MELEAGER) and the Argonaut
 expedition (see JASON). At his death he rose to OLYMPUS, where he was
 reconciled with Hera and married HEBE. Represented as a powerful man with
 lion's skin and club, he was widely worshiped. He is the hero of plays by
 SOPHOCLES, EURIPIDES, and SENECA.

   Herder, Johann Gottfried von

 Herder, Johann Gottfried von, 1744-1803, German philosopher, critic, and
 clergyman. He was an influential critic and a leader of the STURM UND
 DRANG movement. While studying at Konigsberg, he was influenced by
 Immanuel KANT, and later he gained notice with Fragments Concerning
 Current German Literature (1767). He became court preacher at Weimar
 through the influence of GOETHE, whose work was greatly influenced by
 Herder's On the Origin of Language (1772). At Weimar, Herder became the
 chief theorist of German ROMANTICISM and produced his anthology of
 foreign folk songs, Voices of the People (1778-79). His vast work
 Outlines of the Philosophy of Man (1784-91) developed a major
 evolutionary approach to history, propounding the uniqueness of each
 historical age.

   Heredia, Jose Maria

 Heredia, Jose Maria, 1803-39, Cuban lyric poet and prose writer. Such
 poems as "Niagara" (1825) typify his romantic melancholy and joy in
 nature. Exiled (1823) as a revolutionary, he spent two years in New York
 City before settling in Mexico. He also wrote stories, essays, and plays.

   hermandad

 hermandad Span.,=brotherhood, federation of Spanish towns in the medieval
 era that protected the populace against bandits and the lawless nobility
 by arresting and summarily trying suspects. In the late 15th cent. the
 crown's Holy Hermandad was effective in ensuring security and order in
 rural Spain. Hermandades survived as modest local constabularies until
 1835.

   hermaphrodite

 hermaphrodite, animal or plant with both female and male reproductive
 systems, producing both eggs and sperm. Some hermaphrodites undergo
 self-FERTILIZATION, in which egg and sperm of the same individual fuse,
 as in self-pollinating plants; others may undergo cross-fertilization, in
 which egg and sperm of different individuals fuse, as in the earthworm.
 Protandric hermaphrodites (e.g., oyster and sage plant) produce both eggs
 and sperm but at different times.

   hermeneutics

 hermeneutics, branch of philosophy dealing with the theory of
 understanding and interpretation. "Understanding" is viewed as a circular
 process, whereby one can understand the whole only in terms of the parts
 but the parts only from the whole. First used to interpret biblical texts
 in the early 19th cent., the theory was extended by SCHLEIERMACHER beyond
 scriptural interpretation, and by the end of the century Dilthey
 construed it as the general methodology for all the social sciences and
 humanities. Both held that a universal human capacity for empathy-the
 personal experience of that which has been expressed by someone else-was
 the bridge between past and present. In the 20th cent. HEIDEGGER and his
 student Hans-Georg Gadamer rejected this psychological foundation,
 instead basing their hermeneutics on the study of linguistic phenomena
 such as translation and etymology.

   Hermes

 Hermes, in Greek mythology, son of ZEUS and Maia; messenger of the gods
 and conductor of souls to HADES. He was also the god of travelers, of
 luck, music, eloquence, commerce, young men, cheats, and thieves. He was
 said to have invented the lyre and flute. The riotous Hermaea festival
 was celebrated in his honor. Hermes was represented with winged hat and
 sandals, carrying the CADUCEUS. He is equated with the Roman MERCURY.

   Hermitage

 Hermitage, museum in Leningrad, one of the world's foremost houses of
 art. It was reconstructed in the neoclassical style in the 19th cent.
 from the original palace built by CATHERINE II. Although opened to the
 public in 1852, it contained only the imperial collections until 1917. It
 now has over 40,000 drawings; 500,000 engravings; and 8,000 paintings of
 the Flemish, French, Dutch, Spanish, and Italian schools. The most
 popular section, "The Heroic Past of the Russian People," includes the
 War Museum and a tribute to PETER I. The collections include the art of
 many civilizations. Russian art is exhibited separately in Mikhailovsky
 Palace.

   hermit crab

 hermit crab, primarily marine animal (a CRUSTACEAN) distinguished from
 the true CRAB by its long, soft, spirally coiled abdomen terminating in
 an asymetrically hooked tail. Most occupy the empty shells of GASTROPODS
 and are marine scavengers. The largest species reaches 1 ft (30 cm) in
 length.

   Herndon, William Henry

 Herndon, William Henry, 1818-91, friend, law partner, and biographer of
 Abraham LINCOLN; b. Greensburg, Ky. He wrote, with Jesse Weik, Herndon's
 Lincoln: The True Story of a Great Life (3 vol., 1899), an attempt to
 counteract the heroic legend.

   hernia

 hernia, protrusion of an internal organ or part of an organ through the
 wall of a body cavity. It may be present at birth or acquired after heavy
 strain on the musculature in such areas as the lower abdomen (inguinal
 hernia), diaphragm (hiatus hernia), or region around the navel. Surgery
 is sometimes recommended to alleviate symptoms and prevent the hernia
 from becoming caught and strangulated (cut off from the blood supply).

   hero

 hero, in Greek mythology, famous person worshiped after death as
 quasi-divine. Heroes might be actual great people, real or imaginary
 ancestors, or "faded" deities (ancient gods demoted to human status).
 Most hero worship, performed at night with blood sacrifices, was
 celebrated at the supposed place of the hero's tomb.

   Herod

 Herod, dynasty reigning in Palestine at the time of Christ. Antipater,
 fl. c.65 BC, founded the family fortune. He was an Idumaean, who gained a
 stronghold in Palestine. His son Antipater, d. 43 BC, was favored by
 Julius CAESAR, who made him (c.55 BC) virtual ruler of all of Palestine.
 The son of the second Antipater was Herod the Great, d. 4 BC, who gave
 the family its name. He was friendly with Marc ANTONY, and secured (37
 BC-4 BC) the title king of Judaea; after the battle of Actium he made
 peace with Octavian (later AUGUSTUS), who thereafter showed him great
 favor. Herod made great efforts to mollify the Jews by publicly observing
 Hebrew laws and by building a temple, but also promoted hellenization. In
 his last years Herod became bloodthirsty, and around the time of Jesus'
 birth, he ordered the massacre of the innocents. His son Herod Antipas,
 d. after AD 39, tetrarch of Galilee and Peraea, was the Herod who
 executed JOHN THE BAPTIST and who was ruling at Jesus' death. He
 repudiated his wife to marry his niece Herodias, wife of his half brother
 Herod Philip. He was eventually banished by CALIGULA in AD 39. Herod
 Agrippa I, d. AD 44, was the nephew of Herod Antipas and a man of some
 ability. His son, Herod Agrippa II, d. c.AD 100, was a poor ruler who
 alienated his subjects. The Herods are usually blamed for the state of
 virtual anarchy in Palestine at the beginning of the Christian era. The
 prime source is the history by JOSEPHUS.

   Herodotus

 Herodotus, 484?-425? BC, Greek historian, called the Father of History;
 b. Halicarnassus, Asia Minor. His history of the PERSIAN WARS, the first
 comprehensive attempt at secular narrative history, marks the start of
 Western historical writing. The work is written in an anecdotal style of
 great charm and offers a rich diversity of information about the ancient
 world.

   heroic couplet

 heroic couplet: see PENTAMETER.

   heroin

 heroin, NARCOTIC drug synthesized from MORPHINE. In many parts of the
 world it is accepted as an analgesic (for relief of pain), particularly
 for the terminally ill. In the U.S., its manufacture and importation are
 restricted, and its use in medicine remains under investigation. Heroin
 predominates in illicit narcotics traffic. See DRUG ADDICTION AND DRUG
 ABUSE.

   Heron

 Heron, mathematician: see HERO OF ALEXANDRIA.

   heron

 heron, BIRD of the family Ardeidae, large wading birds including the
 BITTERN and EGRET, found in many temperate regions but most numerous in
 tropical and subtropical areas. Herons have sharp, serrated bills, broad
 wings, and long legs. Their plumage is soft and drooping, and (especially
 at breeding time) they may have long, showy plumes on their heads,
 breasts, and backs.

   Hero of Alexandria

 Hero of Alexandriaor Heron, fl. AD 62, mathematician and inventor. His
 origin is uncertain, although he wrote in Greek on the measurement of
 geometric figures and invented many contrivances operated by water,
 steam, or compressed air, including a fountain and a fire engine.

   herpes simplex

 herpes simplex, virus causing infection of the skin characterized by one
 or more blisters filled with clear fluid which usually appear around the
 lips (cold sores) or on the genitals. The initial infection, probably
 occurring during infancy or childhood, subsequently becomes dormant. The
 reappearance of blisters may be triggered by such factors as fever,
 exposure to sunlight, menstruation, or pregnancy. Genital herpes, a type
 of VENEREAL DISEASE, can be treated with the drug acyclovir.

   Herrera, Francisco de

 Herrera, Francisco de , c.1576-1656, Spanish painter, engraver, and
 miniaturist. He usually painted religious and GENRE subjects. His broad,
 dynamic style, expressive distortions, and light-and-dark accents can be
 seen in the Triumph of St. Hermengild (Seville). His son, Francisco de
 Herrera, the younger, 1622-85, used a loose technique and bright colors,
 e.g., Triumph of St. Francis (Seville Cathedral). He was CHARLES II'S
 court painter.

   Herrera Campins, Luis

 Herrera Campins, Luis, 1925-, Venezuelan politician and president
 (1979-83). A founder of the moderate Social Christian party, he was
 exiled (1952) by dictator M.P. Jimenez, but he returned (1958) after
 Jimenez's fall and entered the Venezuelan congress. Elected president in
 1978, Herrera lost much popularity because of a poor economy.

   Herrera y Reissig, Julio

 Herrera y Reissig, Julio,  1875-1910, Uruguayan poet. The leader of
 Uruguayan MODERNISMO, he was influenced by GONGORA and the French
 SYMBOLISTS. His Complete Works (1911-13) were published posthumously.

   Herrick, Robert

 Herrick, Robert, 1591-1674, considered the greatest of the English
 Cavalier poets. A country clergyman, he never married, and the many women
 in his poems are probably fictitious. Most of his work appeared in
 Hesperides (1648), which included the sacred songs called Noble Numbers.
 A disciple of JONSON, Herrick shows classical influence, but his
 greatness rests on simplicity and sensuousness. Among his best-known
 lyrics are "Upon Julia's Clothes" and "Corinna's Going a-Maying."

   herring

 herring, important marine or freshwater food FISH of the family Clupidae,
 including the sardine, menhaden, and SHAD. Herrings are relatively small
 but very abundant; they swim in large schools. The adult common herring
 (Clupea harengus) of the N Atlantic is about 1 ft (30 cm) long, with
 silvery sides and blue back. The menhaden, of the Atlantic coast of North
 America, is a commercially important source of oil and fish meal. Of the
 smaller herrings and related species, the anchovies and sardines are the
 most important.

   Herriot, Edouard

 Herriot, Edouard, 1872-1957, French statesman. As a leader of the Radical
 Socialist party, he was three times premier (notably 1924-25 and 1932).
 In 1932 he sought a conciliatory foreign policy and favored payment of
 France's war debt to the U.S.-a stand that caused his cabinet's downfall.
 Imprisoned by the Germans in WORLD WAR II, he later was president of the
 French national assembly (1947-54).

   Herschel

 Herschel, family of distinguished English astronomers. Sir William
 Herschel, 1738-1822, originally Friedrich Wilhelm Herschel, b. Germany,
 discovered (1781) the planet Uranus, which led (1782) to his position as
 private astronomer to the king. The large reflecting telescopes that he
 constructed, including one with a 40-ft (12.2-m) focal length, far
 surpassed in size those of his contemporaries. He concluded from the
 motion of double stars that they are held together by gravitation and
 that they revolve around a common center, thus confirming the universal
 nature of Isaac NEWTON'S gravitational theory. He discovered the
 Saturnian satellites Mimas and Enceladus (1789) and the Uranian
 satellites Titania and Oberon (1787). His research on nebulae suggested a
 possible origin of new worlds from gaseous matter, and his catalog of
 nebulae (including some objects that are now known to be galaxies or star
 clusters) increased those known from about 100 to 2,500. His sister,
 Caroline Lucretia Herschel, 1750-1848, discovered eight comets and three
 nebulae. For her arrangement of her brother's catalog of star clusters
 and nebulae, she received (1828) the Royal Astronomical Society's gold
 medal. Sir William's son, Sir John Frederick William Herschel, 1792-1871,
 spent four years (1834-38) at the Cape of Good Hope, cataloging 1,707
 nebulae and clusters and 2,102 pairs of double stars. He published (1864)
 a consolidated catalog of 5,079 nebulae and clusters; revised by Johann
 Dreyer as A New General Catalogue of Nebulae and Star Clusters (NGC;
 1888), it is still a standard reference. In photography, he was the first
 to use sodium thiosulfate as a fixing agent, and he introduced the terms
 positive image and negative image.

   Hersey, John

 Hersey, John, 1914-, American writer; b. China. A former war
 correspondent, he examined WORLD WAR II events in Hiroshima (1946) and
 the novels A Bell for Adano (1944; Pulitzer) and The Wall (1950). His
 later novels include The Walnut Door (1977).

   Herskovits, Melville Jean

 Herskovits, Melville Jean, 1895-1963, American anthropologist; b.
 Bellefontaine, Ohio. A professor at Northwestern Univ. (from 1927), he
 did his fieldwork in Africa and pioneered in applying principles of
 modern cultural anthropology to black ethnology. His works include The
 Myth of the Negro Past (1941) and The Human Factor in a Changing Africa
 (1962).

   Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf

 Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf, 1857-94, German physicist. He confirmed James
 Clerk MAXWELL'S electromagnetic theory and produced and studied
 electromagnetic waves (radio waves), which he showed are long transverse
 waves that travel at the speed of light and can be reflected, refracted,
 and polarized like light. The unit of frequency, the hertz, is named for
 him.

   Hertzog, James Barry Munnik

 Hertzog, James Barry Munnik, 1866-1942, South African political leader. A
 Boer, he served (1910-12) in BOTHA'S cabinet in the newly created Union
 of SOUTH AFRICA, but opposition to Botha's cooperation with the British
 led him to form the Nationalist party. As prime minister (1924-39) he
 instituted various methods of racial segregation, or APARTHEID.

   Hertzsprung-Russell diagram

 Hertzsprung-Russell diagram for astronomers Ejnar Hertz sprung and Henry
 Norris RUSSELL, graph showing the LUMINOSITIES, or absolute MAGNITUDES,
 of the STARS of a cluster or galaxy plotted against their surface
 temperatures (or some temperature-dependent characteristic such as
 SPECTRAL CLASS or color). The majority of stars lie on a diagonal
 band-the main sequence-that extends from hot stars of high luminosity in
 the upper left corner to cool stars of low luminosity in the lower right
 corner. The concentration of stars in certain distinct regions of the H-R
 diagram indicates that definite laws govern stellar structure and STELLAR
 EVOLUTION.

   Herzen, Aleksandr Ivanovich

 Herzen, Aleksandr Ivanovich, 1812-70, Russian revolutionary leader and
 writer. A civil servant, he was sent to the provinces (1834) for
 participating in a socialist group. He left Russia permanently in 1847.
 In England he set up the first free Russian press abroad; his weekly
 journal Kolokol (1857-62) was banned in Russia but widely read. His books
 include My Past and Thoughts (1855).

   Herzl, Theodor

 Herzl, Theodor, 1860-1904, Hungarian Jew, founder of modern ZIONISM. As a
 newspaper correspondent covering the DREYFUS AFFAIR, he became convinced
 that the only solution to European ANTI-SEMITISM was the establishment of
 a Jewish national state. He organized the first Zionist World Congress
 (1897) and was its president until his death.

   Herzog, Werner

 Herzog, Werner, 1942-, German film director. His visionary, ironic films,
 often treating bizarre historical incidents, include Kaspar Hauser
 (1974), Stroszek (1977), Heart of Glass (1977), Nosferatu (1979), and
 Fitzcarraldo (1982).

   Hesiod

 Hesiod, fl. 8th cent.? BC, Greek poet, self-described as a Boeotian
 farmer. His Works and Days is filled with maxims for farmers, to
 inculcate righteousness and efficiency. Also ascribed to him is the
 Theogony, a genealogy of the gods. Hesiod and HOMER codified much of
 Greek myth.

   Hess, Moses

 Hess, Moses, 1812-75, German socialist. He converted ENGELS to SOCIALISM
 and introduced MARX to the study of social and economic problems. By
 viewing humanity as initiating history rather than just observing it, he
 transformed Hegelian theory. In Rome and Jerusalem (1862) he urged the
 founding of a Jewish state in Palestine.

   Hesse, Hermann

 Hesse, Hermann, 1877-1962, German novelist and poet. An ardent pacifist,
 he became a Swiss citizen after the outbreak of World War I. The
 spiritual loneliness of the artist is a major theme in Hesse's symbolic
 novels, which include Peter Camenzind (1904), Demian (1919), Steppenwolf
 (1927), and Narziss und Goldmund (1930). The Glass Bead Game (1943) and
 Siddhartha (1922) reflect his interest in Oriental mysticism. In 1946 he
 was awarded the Nobel Prize in literature.

   Hesse, Philip of

 Hesse, Philip of: see PHILIP OF HESSE.

   Hesse

 Hesse, state (1987 pop. 5,547,912), 8,150 sq mi (24,064 sq km), central
 West Germany. Weisbaden is the capital. Hesse is largely agricultural,
 with heavily forested areas. Fine wines are produced along the Rhine
 valley. Industries include metallurgy and mining. Hesse emerged (1247) as
 a landgraviate under the Holy Roman emperor and was divided (1567) among
 several lines; Hesse-Kassel and Hesse-Darmstadt were the most important.
 In the 18th cent. the rulers of Hesse raised revenue by letting
 mercenaries, called Hessians, for hire. Hesse-Kassel was made (1803) an
 electorate and was annexed (1866) to PRUSSIA. Hesse-Darmstadt joined
 (1871) the German Empire and was ruled by its own dynasty until 1918.

   Hestia

 Hestia, in Greek mythology, goddess of the hearth; daughter of CRONUS and
 RHEA. Widely worshiped, she was a kind deity who represented personal and
 communal security and happiness. The Romans identified her with VESTA.

   Heyerdahl, Thor

 Heyerdahl, Thor, 1914-, Norwegian explorer and anthropologist. Seeking
 evidence that ancient cultures could have been diffused by transoceanic
 travelers, he sailed across the Pacific (1947), the Atlantic (1970), and
 the Persian Gulf (1977) in replicas of primitive crafts. He described
 these voyages in Kon Tiki (tr. 1950), The Ra Expeditions (tr. 1971), and
 The Tigris Expedition (tr. 1981). His work is controversial.

   Heyse, Paul

 Heyse, Paul, 1830-1914, German realistic writer. Author of 120 novellas,
 some 50 plays, and 6 novels, he received the Nobel Prize in literature in
 1910. Best known of his works is the story The Fury (1855); his novels
 include Children of the World (1873).

   Heyward, DuBose

 Heyward, DuBose, 1885-1940, American author; b. Charleston, S.C. His
 story of black life on the Charleston waterfront, Porgy (1925), was
 dramatized (1927) by Heyward and his wife, Dorothy, and made into the
 folk opera Porgy and Bess (1935), with music by George GERSHWIN.

   Heywood, John

 Heywood, John, 1497?-1580?, English dramatist, most famous writer of the
 interlude, a short comic dialogue. Best known are Play of the Weather
 (1533) and The Four P's (c.1543).

   Heywood, Thomas

 Heywood, Thomas, 1574?-1641, English dramatist, best known for A Woman
 Killed with Kindness (1603), one of the finest domestic tragedies. A
 prolific playwright, he also wrote Apology for Actors (1612), a response
 to Puritan attacks.

   Hezekiah

 Hezekiah, d. c.686 BC, king of Judah (c.715-c.686 BC). The successor to
 AHAZ, he resisted two invasions by SENNACHERIB of Assyria. He was one of
 the best of Judah's kings, abolishing idolatry and listening to ISAIAH
 and MICAH. 2 Kings 18-20; 2 Chron. 29-32; Isa. 36-39.

   Hf

 Hf, chemical symbol of the element HAFNIUM.

   Hg

 Hg, chemical symbol of the element MERCURY.

   Hialeah

 Hialeah, city (1986 est. pop. 161,760), SE Fla., NW of Miami; inc. 1925.
 It has printing and diversified manufacturing industries. Nearby Miami
 International Airport is a major employer. Hialeah Park Race Track is in
 the city.

   hiatus hernia

 hiatus hernia: see HERNIA.

   Hiawatha

 Hiawatha, fl. c.1550, legendary chief of the Onandaga Indians, credited
 with founding the IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY. He is the hero of a well-known
 poem by Henry Wadsworth LONGFELLOW.

   hibernation

 hibernation, protective practice, among certain animals, of spending part
 of the cold season (when normal body temperatures cannot be maintained
 and food is scarce) in a state of relative dormancy. Hibernating animals
 can store enough food in their bodies to survive this period, during
 which no growth occurs and body activities are at a minimum. Cold-blooded
 animals (poikilotherms) assume the temperature of the environment and
 must hibernate when temperatures fall below freezing; frogs and fishes,
 for example, bury themselves in ponds below the frost line. Most
 warm-blooded animals (homoiotherms) can survive freezing environments by
 metabolic control of their body temperatures, although many seek
 insulation in sheltered places, e.g., bears and bats in caves.

   hibiscus

 hibiscus: see MALLOW.

   Hickok, Wild Bill

 Hickok, Wild Bill (James Butler Hickok), 1837-76, American frontier
 marshal; b. near Ottawa, Ill. Becoming marshal of Hays (1869) and Abilene
 (1871), in Kansas, he gained repute as a marksman from his encounters
 with outlaws. After his murder in Deadwood (now in South Dakota) by Jack
 McCall, he became a legend.

   hickory

 hickory, deciduous, nut-bearing tree (genus Carya) of the WALNUT family,
 native to E North America and Southeast Asia. The shagbark hickory (C.
 ovata) is valued for its edible hickory nuts and strong, resilient wood,
 often used for golf clubs, tool handles, and furniture. The pecan tree
 (C. illinoensis) and the paper-shelled pecans, the cultivated varieties
 with unusually thin-shelled nuts, yield pecans, among the most popular
 and commercially important nuts in the U.S.

   Hicks, Edward

 Hicks, Edward, 1780-1849, American painter and preacher; b. Bucks co.,
 Pa. Untrained in art, he painted primitive works of great charm and
 appeal. Hicks's fame rests on the nearly 100 versions of his painting The
 Peaceable Kingdom.

   Hidalgo y Costilla, Miguel

 Hidalgo y Costilla, Miguel, 1753-1811 Mexican priest and revolutionary
 hero. In 1810 he rebelled against Spanish rule and with a huge army of
 Indians won the initial battles. But he was defeated (1817) by a royalist
 army at Calderon Bridge and was captured, defrocked, and executed.

   Hidatsa Indians

 Hidatsa Indians: see MANDAN INDIANS; GROS VENTRE INDIANS.

   Hideyoshi

 Hideyoshi(Hideyoshi Toyotomi) , 1536-98, Japanese warrior and dictator.
 He was a general in the dictator Nobunga's service, and after Nobunga's
 death (1582) he set out to unify Japan. In 1580 he came to terms with
 IEYASU, and by 1590, with the defeat of the Hojo clan, he was the ruler
 of a unified Japan. Hideyoshi fostered foreign trade and beautified his
 capital, Osaka. In 1592 his campaign against China subdued only Korea.

   hieratic

 hieratic: see HIEROGLYPHIC.

   hieroglyphic

 hieroglyphic [Gr.,=priestly carving], type of WRITING used in ancient
 EGYPT. Similar pictographic styles of Crete, Asia Minor, and Central
 America and Mexico are also called hieroglyphics. Interpretation of
 Egyptian hieroglyphics, begun by J.F. CHAMPOLLION, is virtually complete;
 the other hieroglyphics are still imperfectly understood. Hieroglyphics
 are conventionalized pictures used chiefly to represent meanings that
 seem arbitrary and are seldom obvious. Egyptian hieroglyphics were
 already perfected in the first dynasty (3110-2884 BC), but they began to
 go out of use in the Middle Kingdom and after 500 BC were virtually
 unused. There were basically 604 symbols that might be put to three uses
 (although few were used for all three purposes): as an ideogram, as when
 a sign resembling a man meant "man"; as a phonogram, as when an owl
 represented the sign m, because the word for owl had m as its principal
 consonant; or as a determinative, an unpronounced symbol placed after an
 ambiguous sign to indicate its classification (e.g., an eye to indicate
 that the preceding word has to do with looking or seeing). The phonograms
 provided a basis for the development of the ALPHABET.

   Higginson, Thomas Wentworth

 Higginson, Thomas Wentworth, 1823-1911, American author; b. Cambridge,
 Mass. A minister and abolitionist, he was also a versatile writer whose
 books include an account of his CIVIL WAR experiences, a novel, and
 literary biographies. With M.L. Todd he was the editor of Emily
 DICKINSON'S Poems (1890-91).

   Highlands

 Highlands, mountainous region, N Scotland. Famous for its rugged beauty,
 it consists roughly of that part of Scotland north of the imaginary line
 from Dumbarton to Stonehaven, excluding the Orkneys, the Shetlands, and
 lower coastal areas. Crofting, fishing, and distilling are the main
 occupations. Early history is not well known, but by the 11th cent. the
 Scottish monarchy was centered in the Lowlands, and the Highland lairds
 were left to run their own affairs. In the early 18th cent. Highlanders
 strongly supported the JACOBITE uprisings. Until the 19th cent. the
 Scottish Gaelic language was the core of a Highland culture marked by the
 clan system and distinctive dress (kilt, tartan, etc.). In 1975 the
 former counties of the region were reorganized into Highland, one of
 Scotland's nine administrative units.

   Hilbert, David

 Hilbert, David 1862-1943, German mathematician. After work on the theory
 of invariants, he developed a new approach that foreshadowed 20th-cent.
 abstract algebra. Hilbert also made important contributions to algebraic
 number theory and to functional analysis, particularly in the area of
 integral equations. His presentation in a 1900 speech of a list of 23
 unsolved problems of mathematics stimulated much investigation by
 20th-cent. mathematicians. Hilbert taught (1895-1930) at Gottingen Univ.,
 where his breadth of mind and personality attracted to him many students
 who became important mathematicians.

   Hildebrand

 Hildebrand: see GREGORY VII, SAINT.

   Hill, James Jerome

 Hill, James Jerome, 1838-1916, American railroad builder, b. Ontario,
 Canada. Envisioning U.S. economic expansion to the Rockies and beyond,
 Hill carried the St. Paul and Pacific RR westward, without federal
 assistance, in what was probably the greatest feat of railroad building
 in U.S. history. It reached the Pacific at Seattle in 1893. After Hill
 consolidated (1890) his properties into the Great Northern Railway Co.,
 he and J.P. MORGAN (see MORGAN, family) defeated E.H. HARRIMAN in a
 struggle for the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy that precipitated the stock
 market panic of 1901. As a compromise the three later set up Northern
 Securities Co. as a holding company for their railroads, but it was
 dissolved as a violation of the SHERMAN ANTI-TRUST ACT.

   Hill, Joe

 Hill, Joe, 1879-1915, Swedish-American union organizer; b. Sweden, as
 Joseph Hillstrom. He came to the U.S. in 1902 and, as a maritime worker,
 joined the INDUSTRIAL WORKERS OF THE WORLD in 1910. He wrote many labor
 songs, including "Casey Jones" and "The Union Scab." Found guilty in 1915
 of murdering a prominent Salt Lake City man, Hill was executed. He has
 become a legendary hero of radical labor.

   Hillary, Sir Edmund Percival

 Hillary, Sir Edmund Percival, 1919-, New Zealand mountain climber and
 explorer. In 1953 he and Tenzing Norkay of Nepal became the first men to
 reach the summit of Mt. EVEREST. He led (1958) a party in the first
 successful overland trek to the South Pole since 1912.

   Hillel

 Hillel, fl. 30 BC-AD 10, Jewish scholar; b. Babylonia. President of the
 SANHEDRIN, he fostered a systematic, liberal interpretation of Hebrew
 Scripture and was the spiritual and ethical leader of his generation.
 SHAMMAI opposed his teachings.

   Hillel

 Hillel (organization): see B'NAI B'RITH.

   Hilliard, Nicholas

 Hilliard, Nicholas, 1537-1619, English miniature painter. The first true
 miniaturist in England, he was court painter to ELIZABETH I and JAMES I.
 His meticulous portraits on card, vellum, and the backs of playing cards
 are elegant and subtle.

   Hillman, Sidney

 Hillman, Sidney, 1887-1946, American labor leader; b. Lithuania. He
 emigrated to the U.S. in 1907 and became a garment worker. As president
 (1914-46) of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers, he introduced such union
 practices as cooperative housing and banking. One of the founders of the
 Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), he was its vice president
 (1935-40). Through the CIO Political Action Committee, which he headed
 (1943-46), he sought support for political programs favored by unions.
 Hillman was a strong backer of Pres. F.D. Roosevelt and a power in the
 Democratic party.

   Himalayan cat

 Himalayan cat: see under CAT.

   Himalayas

 Himalayas, great mountain system of Asia, extending c.1,500 mi (2,410 km)
 through Pakistan, India, Tibet, Nepal, Sikkim, and Bhutan. For most of
 its length it comprises two nearly parallel ranges separated by a wide
 valley in which the INDUS R. flows west and the BRAHMAPUTRA (Yarlung
 Zangbo) flows east. The northern range is called the Trans-Himalayas. The
 southern range has three parallel zones: the perpetually snow-covered
 Great Himalayas, where Mt. EVEREST, believed to be the highest mountain
 in the world, rises to 29,028 ft (8,848 m); the Lesser Himalayas, with
 elevations of 7,000 to 15,000 ft (2,130 to 4,570 m); and the southernmost
 Outer Himalayas, 2,000 to 5,000 ft (610 to 1,520 m) high. The Himalayas
 are associated with many legends in Indian mythology. Simla, Naini Tal,
 Mussoorie, and Darjeeling are popular summer retreats from the heat of
 the Indian plains to the south.

   Himmler, Heinrich

 Himmler, Heinrich, 1900-1945, German NAZI leader. He was a Nazi from the
 founding (1920) of the party, and after HITLER came to power he headed
 (1936-45) the secret police, or Gestapo. The most ruthless of the Nazi
 leaders, Himmler was responsible for the death of millions in
 forced-labor and CONCENTRATION CAMPS. He was also held in fear by members
 of the Nazi party. In the last years of WORLD WAR II, he was the virtual
 dictator of German domestic affairs. He was captured by the British in
 1945 but committed suicide by taking poison.

   Hims

 Hims or Homs,city (1981 pop. 354,508), W central Syria. It is a
 commercial center located in a fertile plain where wheat, grapes, and
 other crops are grown. The city's manufactures include refined petroleum
 and fertilizer. In ancient times, called Emesa, it was the site of a
 temple to BAAL and gained prominence when a temple priest, Heliogabalus,
 became (AD 218) Roman emperor. The Arabs took the town in 636 and renamed
 it. From the 16th cent. to 1918 the Ottoman Turks ruled it. The French
 then held it as part of a League of Nations mandate until Syria gained
 independence (1941).

   Hindemith, Paul

 Hindemith, Paul, 1895-1963, German-American composer and violist; b.
 Germany. He combined traditional and experimental techniques in a
 distinctive style. The NAZIS banned his compositions (1937) because of
 their dissonance and modernity, and he emigrated to the U.S. Hindemith's
 early compositions are contrapuntal and often atonal (see COUNTERPOINT;
 ATONALITY). Later he returned to a tonality some have called
 neoclassical. His best-known work is a symphony (1934) drawn from his
 opera Mathis the Painter (1938). In addition to other operas, sonatas,
 and chamber works, he wrote Ludus Tonalis (1943) for piano and the
 song-cycle The Life of Mary (1923, 1948).

   Hindenburg, Paul von

 Hindenburg, Paul von, 1847-1934, German field marshal and president
 (1925-34). In WORLD WAR I he won victories on the eastern front,
 especially the battle of Tannenberg (1914), making him the greatest
 German hero of the war. Although a monarchist, he supported the new
 republican government in 1918 and was elected president in 1925. In the
 election of 1932 he defeated HITLER and was reelected, but he was
 persuaded to appoint (1933) Hitler chancellor. He was figurehead
 president until his death.

   Hindenburg

 Hindenburg: see AIRSHIP.

   Hindi

 Hindi, language belonging to the Indic group of the Indo-European family
 of languages. It is the official language of India. See LANGUAGE.

   Hinduism

 Hinduism, Western term for the religious beliefs and practices of
 innumerable sects to which the vast majority of the people of India
 belong. Arising initially as a synthesis of indigenous religion and the
 religion brought to India c.1500 BC by the ARYANS, Hinduism developed
 over a period of 4,000 years in syncretism with the religious and
 cultural movements of the Indian subcontinent. Hindu belief is generally
 characterized by the CASTE system and the acceptance of the VEDA as the
 most sacred scripture. The Veda, which comprises the liturgy and
 interpretation of sacrificial ritual, culminates in the UPANISHADS,
 mystical and speculative works that state the doctrine of BRAHMAN, the
 absolute reality or Self, and its identity with the individual soul, or
 atman. The goal of Hinduism, like that of other Eastern religions, is
 liberation from the cycle of rebirth and the suffering brought about by
 one's own actions (see KARMA); this can be effected by following
 spiritual YOGA, practices leading to knowledge of reality and union with
 God. Early Brahmanism, the religion of the priests, or Brahmans (who
 through Vedic ritual sacrifice established a proper relation to the
 gods), was challenged in the first millennium BC by non-Vedic systems
 such as BUDDHISM and JAINISM. To meet the challenge, the Brahmans
 recognized popular devotional movements and showed greater concern for
 the people. Writings like the laws of MANU regulated DHARMA (duty)
 according to one's class (priest, warrior, farmer or merchant, laborer)
 and stage in life (celibate student, householder, forest recluse, one who
 completely renounces societal ties). The post-Vedic Puranas deal with
 this structure of individual and social life and also describe the
 repeating cycle of birth and dissolution of the universe, represented by
 the divine trinity of Brahma, the creator; Vishnu, the preserver; and
 Shiva, the destroyer. In medieval times, TANTRA and devotional sects
 flourished, producing poet-saints all over India who wrote religious
 songs and epics. This literature still plays an essential part in
 Hinduism, as does the practice of puja, or worship of enshrined deities,
 such as Vishnu and his incarnations Rama and Krishna, Shiva, Ganesha, and
 Devi (also called Kali, Sarasvati, or Lakshmi). Modern Hindu leaders,
 e.g., Swami Vivekananda, Mohandas GANDHI, and Aurobindo GHOSE, have
 stressed the necessity of uniting spiritual life with social concerns.

   Hindu Kush

 Hindu Kush, one of the highest mountain systems in the world, extending
 c.500 mi (800 km) west from Pamir Knot, N Pakistan, into NE Afghanistan.
 Tirich Mir (25,236 ft/7,692 m) is the highest point. Meltwater from the
 permanently snow-covered peaks feeds the headstreams of the AMU DARYA and
 INDUS rivers. Several high-altitude passes, followed by trade routes,
 cross the mountains, once called the Caucasus Indicus.

   Hindu music

 Hindu music: see INDIAN MUSIC.

   Hindustani

 Hindustani, subdivision of the Indic group of the Indo-Iranian subfamily
 of the Indo-European family of languages. See LANGUAGE.

   Hines, Earl "Fatha"

 Hines, Earl "Fatha", 1905-83, black American jazz pianist and composer;
 b. Duquesne, Pa. In the 1920s while working for Louis ARMSTRONG, Hines
 transformed the role of the piano in JAZZ by making it a solo instrument.
 His nickname came from a radio announcer's acknowledgment of his role as
 "the father of modern jazz piano."

   Hipparchus

 Hipparchus, fl. 2d cent. BC, Greek astronomer; b. Bithynia (present-day
 Turkey). Ptolemy's geocentric theory of the universe (see PTOLEMAIC
 SYSTEM) was based largely on the conclusions of Hipparchus. In Ptolemy's
 Almagest, Hipparchus is credited with discovering the PRECESSION OF THE
 EQUINOXES, the eccentricity of the sun's apparent orbit, and certain
 inequalities of the moon's motions. He also made the first known
 comprehensive chart of the heavens.

   Hippocrates

 Hippocrates, c.460-c.370 BC, Greek physician, recognized as the father of
 medicine. He is believed to have been born on the island of Cos, where he
 later practiced and taught. Hippocrates based medicine on objective
 observation and deductive reasoning. Although he accepted the belief that
 disease results from an imbalance of the four bodily humors, he
 maintained that the humors were glandular secretions and that outside
 forces influenced the disturbance. He taught that medicine should build
 the patient's strength through diet and hygiene, resorting to more
 drastic treatment only when necessary. The Hippocratic Oath, an ethical
 code formulated in ancient Greece and still administered to medical
 graduates in many modern universities, cannot be directly credited to
 him, but it does represent his ideals and principles.

   Hippolytus

 Hippolytus: see PHAEDRA.

   hippopotamus

 hippopotamus, river-dwelling MAMMAL (Hippopotamus amphibius) of tropical
 Africa, related to the pig (see SWINE). The male stands about 5 ft (160
 cm) at the shoulder and weighs about 5 tons (4,500 kg). The broad,
 short-legged body has a thick brown or gray hide, and the eyes are near
 the top of the head so the animal can see when submerged. Hippopotamuses
 live in small herds, feeding on aquatic plants. Hunted for meat and
 hides, they are endangered.

   Hirohito

 Hirohito, 1901-89, emperor of Japan. Made regent in 1921, he succeeded
 his father, Taisho, as emperor in 1926. Hirohito helped persuade the
 Japanese government to accept unconditional surrender at the end of WORLD
 WAR II. In 1946 he renounced the idea of imperial divinity and was
 stripped of all but ceremonial powers by a new constitution. His son,
 Prince AKIHITO, became emperor designate upon his death.

   Hiroshige

 Hiroshige(Ando Hiroshige) , 1797-1858, Japanese painter and color-print
 artist of the ukiyo-e school (see JAPANESE ART). Among his works is a
 landscape series, Fifty-three Stages of the Tokaido Highway (1833), and
 rain, mist, and moonlight scenes that influenced WHISTLER.

   Hiroshima

 Hiroshima, city (1985 est. pop. 1,044,000), capital of Hiroshima
 prefecture, SW Honshu, Japan. Founded c.1594, the city is divided by the
 Ota R. into six islands connected by 81 bridges. A commercial and
 industrial center, it manufactures textiles, ship components, cars, and
 furniture. Hiroshima was the target (Aug. 6, 1945) of the first ATOMIC
 BOMB ever dropped on a city: casualties numbered nearly 130,000 and 90%
 of the city was leveled. Most of Hiroshima has been rebuilt, but a gutted
 area, the "Peace City," has been set aside as a memorial.

   Hirsch, Samson Raphael

 Hirsch, Samson Raphael, 1808-88, German rabbi and chief exponent of
 Neo-Orthodoxy. He sought to combine traditional Jewish studies with
 secular learning (Nineteen Letters, 1836) and condemned the Reform
 movement (see JUDAISM) for breaking with tradition.

   Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden

 Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington, D.C., opened 1974.
 Part of the SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, it was designed by Gordon BUNSHAFT
 to house 6,000 pieces of the huge art collection of the industrialist
 Joseph H. Hirshhorn, who gave them to the nation in 1966; the remainder
 of his collection was bequeathed to the museum upon his death in 1981. It
 is Washington's first museum devoted exclusively to modern art and it is
 very rich in sculpture, POP ART, OP ART, COLOR FIELD PAINTING, and
 PHOTOREALISM.

   Hishikawa Moronobu

 Hishikawa Moronobu: see MORONOBU.

   Hispanic Americans

 Hispanic Americans, Spanish-speaking residents of the U.S. The three
 largest groups (in order of size) are Mexican-Americans, or CHICANOS,
 concentrated in Texas and S California; Puerto Ricans, living mainly in
 the Northeast, especially the New York City area; and Cubans, many of
 them refugees from the Castro regime who live in Miami, Fla. Dominicans
 and others from the Caribbean region, as well as Central and South
 American groups, also have sizable representations. The number of
 Hispanic Americans, who together constitute the nation's fastest-growing
 ethnic minority, rose sharply during the 1970s and 80s. Millions of them,
 however, are believed to lack legal residency status.

   Hispaniola

 Hispaniola, 29,530 sq mi (76,483 sq km), subtropical island with abundant
 rainfall, in the WEST INDIES. It is divided between HAITI (W) and the
 DOMINICAN REPUBLIC. The island was discovered in 1492 by Columbus and has
 at times been known as Espanola and Saint-Domingue. Coffee, cacao,
 sugarcane, and bauxite are the principal products.

   Hiss, Alger

 Hiss, Alger, 1904-, U.S. public official; b. Baltimore. He served
 (1936-47) in the Dept. of State, becoming a foreign policy coordinator.
 In 1948 Whittaker Chambers, an editor who was a confessed Communist
 courier, accused Hiss of helping to transmit confidential government
 documents to the Russians. Hiss denied the charges and was indicted for
 perjury by a grand jury. His first trial ended in a hung jury, but in a
 second trial (1950) he was found guilty. He was sentenced to five years
 in prison but was released in 1954.

   Hissarlik

 Hissarlik: see TROY.

   histamine

 histamine, organic compound derived from the amino acid histidine.
 Histamine is released from certain cells upon tissue injury or during the
 activity of certain ANTIBODIES (see IMMUNITY). It then tends to dilate
 capillaries and to make them more permeable, which leads to edema (tissue
 swelling) and hives, accompanied by severe itching. This reaction, common
 to many allergies, can often be controlled with ANTIHISTAMINES.

   histology

 histology, study of the groups of specialized cells called TISSUES, found
 in most multicellular plants and animals. Histologists study tissue
 organization at all levels, from the whole organ to the molecular
 components of cells. Histological techniques include tissue culture,
 fixing and staining, light and electron microscopy, and X-ray
 diffraction.

   historical linguistics

 historical linguistics: see LINGUISTICS.

   Hitchcock, Alfred

 Hitchcock, Alfred, 1899-1980, Anglo-American film director; b. London. A
 master of suspense, he made such films as The Lady Vanishes (1938),
 Notorious (1946), Strangers on a Train (1951), Psycho (1960) and Frenzy
 (1972).

   Hitchcock, Lambert

 Hitchcock, Lambert, 1795-1852, American chairmaker. In 1818 he opened a
 factory in Connecticut to make chair parts; later he manufactured
 complete chairs. The Hitchcock chair, sturdily built of good wood, is
 painted black over red, often with stenciled designs. The seat is of
 wood, cane, or rush.

   Hitler, Adolf

 Hitler, Adolf, 1889-1945, German dictator, founder and leader of NATIONAL
 SOCIALISM or Nazism; b. Braunau, Upper Austria. In World War I he served
 in the Bavarian army, was gassed and wounded, and received the Iron Cross
 (first class) for bravery. The war embittered him, and he blamed
 Germany's defeat on the Jews and Marxists. Settling in Munich, he joined
 with other nationalists to found (1920) the Nazi party. In the famous
 "beer-hall putsch" (1923) Hitler attempted to overthrow BAVARIA'S
 republican government, but the army put down the revolt and Hitler was
 imprisoned. He thus became known throughout Germany and used his nine
 months in prison to write Mein Kampf [my struggle], filled with
 anti-Semitism, power worship, disdain for morality, and his strategy for
 world domination. It became the bible of the Nazi party. The Nazi
 movement grew slowly until 1929, when the economic depression brought it
 mass support. Hitler made prime use of his frenzied but magnetic oratory
 of hate and power, his insight into mass psychology, and his mastery of
 deceitful strategy, or the "big lie." He used his virulent ANTI-SEMITISM
 and anti-Communism to win the support both of the workers and of the
 bankers and industrialists. Although he was defeated when he ran for
 president in 1932, Pres. Paul von HINDENBURG was persuaded to name him
 chancellor (1933), and the REICHSTAG gave him dictatorial powers. With
 other Nazi leaders, among them GOERING, HIMMLER, and GOEBBELS, he crushed
 the opposition and took control of all facets of German life.
 Anti-Semitism was enacted into law, and CONCENTRATION CAMPS were set up
 to take care of enemies of the state. In 1934, 88% of the voters favored
 the union of the presidency and chancellorship in Hitler's person. His
 aggressive foreign policy, abetted by English and French appeasement,
 culminated in the triumph of the MUNICH PACT (1938). As he prepared
 Germany for war, he bullied smaller nations into making territorial
 concessions. He became allied with MUSSOLINI in Italy, and he helped
 FRANCO come to power in Spain. Austria was absorbed into the "Third
 Reich," and Czechoslovakia was dismembered. In 1939 he signed a
 non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union that gave him a free hand to
 invade Poland. With that act WORLD WAR II began, and Hitler took complete
 control of Germany's war efforts. At first Germany was triumphant, but
 the tide turned and by July 1944 the German military situation was
 desperate. Despite a well-planned assassination attempt against him, in
 which he was injured, Hitler remained in charge and insisted that Germany
 fight to the death. As the Third Reich collapsed, Hitler remained in an
 underground bunker in Berlin as the Russians approached the city. On
 April 29, 1945, he married his longtime mistress, Eva BRAUN, and on April
 30 they committed suicide. He left Germany a devastated nation. Hitler's
 legacy is the memory of the most dreadful tyranny of modern centuries.

   Hittite

 Hittite, language belonging to the Anatolian subfamily of the
 Indo-European family of languages. See LANGUAGE.

   Hittites

 Hittites, ancient people of Asia Minor and Syria, who flourished from
 1600 to 1200 BC The Hittites, a people of Indo-European connection, were
 supposed to have entered Cappadocia around 1800 BC The Hittite empire,
 with its capital at BOgAZKOY (also called Hattusas), was the chief power
 and cultural force in W Asia from 1400 to 1200 BC It was a loose
 confederation that broke up under the invasions (c.1200 BC) of the
 Thracians, Phrygians, and Assyrians. The neo-Hittite kingdom
 (c.1050-c.700 BC) that followed was conquered by the Assyrians. The
 Hittites were one of the first peoples to smelt iron successfully. Their
 language is Indo-European in relationship.

   HIV

 HIV or human immunodeficiency virus:see AIDS.

   Ho

 Ho, chemical symbol of the element HOLMIUM.

   Hoban, James

 Hoban, James, c.1762-1831, American architect; b. Ireland. He designed
 and built (1792-99) the WHITE HOUSE, which he rebuilt after the British
 burned it in 1814. He was also a supervising architect at the CAPITOL.

   Hobart

 Hobart, city (1986 est. pop. 180,300), capital and chief port of
 Tasmania, SE Australia. Its harbor is one of the world's finest.
 Manufactures include textiles, chemicals, and glass. Founded in 1804, it
 is the site of the Hobart Theatre Royal (1836), Australia's oldest major
 theater.

   Hobbema, Meindert

 Hobbema, Meindert, 1638-1709, Dutch painter, considered the last of the
 great 17th-cent. Dutch landscape painters (see LANDSCAPE PAINTING). His
 paintings of woodland scenes, country villages, water mills, and other
 rustic subjects are full of life and luminosity, with bold execution and
 color. His best-known works include The Mill (Louvre) and Entrance to a
 Village (Metropolitan Mus.).

   Hobbes, Thomas

 Hobbes, Thomas, 1588-1679, English philosopher. Hobbes developed a
 materialist and highly pessimistic philosophy that was denounced in his
 own day and later, but has had a continuing influence on Western
 political thought. His Leviathan (1651) presents a bleak picture of human
 beings in the state of nature, where life is "nasty, brutish, and short."
 Fear of violent death is the principal motive that causes people to
 create a state by contracting to surrender their natural rights and to
 submit to the absolute authority of a sovereign. Although the power of
 the sovereign derived originally from the people, Hobbes said-challenging
 the doctrine of the divine right of kings-the sovereign's power is
 absolute and not subject to review by either subjects or ecclesiastical
 powers. Hobbes's concept of the SOCIAL CONTRACT led to investigations by
 other political theorists, notably LOCKE, SPINOZA, and J.J. ROUSSEAU, who
 formulated their own radically different theories of the social contract.

   Hobby, Oveta Culp

 Hobby, Oveta Culp, 1905-, U.S. public official; b. Killeen, Tex. She was
 (1943-45) the first director of the Women's Army Corps and served
 (1953-55) as the first secretary of the newly created Dept. of Health,
 Education, and Welfare. She became (1965) chairman of the board of the
 Houston Post.

   Ho Chi Minh

 Ho Chi Minh, 1890-1969, Vietnamese nationalist leader, president of North
 VIETNAM (1954-69). In 1911 he left Vietnam and lived in London, the U.S.,
 and France, where he became (1920) a founding member of the French
 Communist party. He later lived in Moscow, but he returned to Vietnam in
 World War II and organized a Vietnamese independence movement, the Viet
 Minh. He raised an army to fight the Japanese, and in the French
 Indochina war (1946-54) he defeated the French colonial regime. After the
 Geneva Conference (1954), which divided Vietnam, Ho became the first
 president of North Vietnam. In his last years he led the North's struggle
 to defeat the U.S.-supported government of South Vietnam (see VIETNAM
 WAR).

   Ho Chi Minh City

 Ho Chi Minh City, formerly Saigon, city (1986 est. pop. 4,000,000), S
 Vietnam, on the Saigon R. It is a large river port and industrial center
 producing textiles, ships, processed foods, and other goods. An ancient
 settlement in the KHMER EMPIRE, Saigon grew into a city under French rule
 in the 19th cent. It became the capital of South Vietnam in 1954.
 Military headquarters for U.S. and South Vietnamese forces during the
 VIETNAM WAR, it was heavily damaged and faced the overcrowding created by
 the influx of over 1 million refugees. It was renamed at the end of the
 war. Built in the European style, it is the seat of several universities.

   hockey, field

 hockey, field, outdoor stick and ball game similar to SOCCER. It is